t ay phase weit ban Ye any We Ate (Oe 4 vt 1 eae & iy ers uta aha ny RW ‘ ry UR, a) » oe ‘ q ier uN My ROY oo SANS ty 9 Ay ae ma Ny ha Lat ’ Nt j b Mae Cah) * hs a ‘ ay i ee ey aka LATS i) NEARS OARS : Hao an ey HA nM Ti 4 Ah i iyi Bas RRR SUN ah Ny! aad Nate nn » Maly , OWN 4A FMT A OTK y OM SOUR AUICN RU 4 eh hy AAs ae echo ai ae ay as Y NY WiLe Sy ” i Ph * ee ii , sant Avy ee POON vie Wait a 19h EM AL ie ie oye va Ca att iw ' oN We " 4 sy a mh i ia yen vi Ra it i " aie ea at Vay Lig ti ‘ e, é SOP EEE EW NNNe! Ga ENON Inv 3 Pea day bea a ald + ‘ “a vase hae 4 4 he icy) thy: HAD: tH es DARREN su Ch as Tatung ‘x ah Di Astiteat aay A a ee clatic erates Craprr se ‘ ns ; “ A WAM S IE a Wha Lhot 7 ie. ,, ou ato h ig ‘ yi eta eit anal i Aci } ‘ Ea + rigs Sonne Ah vata t pare Nihaed h ‘ i De) a as wee eet 4K NOCN COR i NRO wth Vida fa be he ate ‘ Y 4 cs \ ihe b ‘a at euh) AY aay ri ee ane X. a SANG : ee ae DaOne +e * ety! on ‘i nae +) Shien oy ie OOS ( Ny eNO ad “ay PAY Pal dette Bae Ray a WP ot t r v i e ns axe Tait on Re =e ; i Gene 2 PRR a eee : n i ' A ae ‘ ‘ ; ’ i Mun Mia CE Yule as ey pee) hae in a a fee ; re Pia | nth’ 7 ee JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 46, 1956 NIAN INSTITUTION SS NgTON 28. D.C. PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mount Royat & GUILFORD AVEs. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND ACTUAL DATES OF PUBLICATION, VOLUME 46 No. 1, pp. 1-82, February 7, 1956 No. 2, pp. 33-68, March 8, 1956 No. 3, pp. 69-100, March 24, 1956 No. 4, pp. 101-136, May 7, 1956 No. 5, pp. 187-168, June 5, 1956 No. 6, pp. 169-200, July 24, 1956 No. 7, pp. 201-232, August 8, 1956 8, No. pp. 233-268, September 12, 1956 No. 9, pp. 269-304, October 11, 1956 No. 10, pp. 305-336, November 6, 1956 No. 11, pp. 837-3872, December 10, 1956 No. 12, pp. 373-409, February 13, 1957 VOLUME 46 January 1956 NUMBER 1 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Dae Ar AWIHSON; as Ga\8* “Ws 2) ¢y (ere Or ere ae ms \\ FEB 2 2 AN ane ; ; Sr ceeecere eccercetr —————————— uc Published Monthly by the meso tN Get OVNS A CA DIEM Y, OF SCIENCES MOUNT ROYAL & GUILFORD AVES., BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences Editor: CHesteR H. Pacu, National Bureau of Standards Associate Editors: RoNALD Bamrorp, University of Maryland Howarp W. 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Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences’? and addressed to the Treasurer, H. 8. Rappieye#, 6712 Fourth Street, NW., Washington 12, D.C. Changes of Address.—Members are requested to report changes of address promptly to the Secretary. Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. Authorized February 17, 1949. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 46 January 1956 No. 1 EDITORIAL THE woRK of an editor is not only to read papers, accepting some and tactfully reject- ing others, but also to improve the service rendered to both readers and authors. My previous editorial (June 1955) was addressed primarily to readers. These remarks are directed to authors. The cost of publication, especially of scientific material, has increased tremen- dously in recent years. The Academy has been spending a large part of its income to subsidize publication of the results of scien- tifie research, by paying direct printing ex- penses and supplying reprints at less than actual manufacturing cost. Early this year a cost accounting resulted in raising the price of reprints to approximately their cost. A strong protest was raised, but our Ways and Means Committee was already in action and had made some progress. An arrange- ment has now been completed whereby papers can be reprinted at less cost, by starting each paper on a new page. This will sometimes threaten large blank spaces; but your editor will endeavor to avoid this by inserting quotations or other material. Such extraneous matter will not appear in re- prints. The new price schedule for reprints is given on the inside front cover of this issue. Unfortunately, no rearrangement of lay- out will reduce the printing cost of the papers themselves. Many scientific journals offer authors’ institutions the opportunity to partially defray this cost by honoring page charges. Publication of results is a vital part of any research project, and publication cost should be considered part of the research cost. Organizations financing research should not depend on private charity for dissemina- tion of results. The Board of Managers of the Academy has therefore established a voluntary publication charge; it is hoped that our local scientific institutions, both private and governmental, will be able to honor this charge and thereby further the interchange of information among the various fields represented by the Academy. SIXTEEN YEARS AGO The following item appeared in the July 1939 issue of this JOURNAL: The 1148th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, March 11, 1939, President Brickwedde presiding. Program: RicHarp B. Roserrs, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie In- stitution: The splitting of uranium and thorium nuclei by neutrons.—Several years ago Fermi and collaborators observed that artificial radioactivity is induced when uranium is bombarded by neutrons. Recently Hahn and Strassman have shown by chemical methods that among the radioactive elements produced are barium, cerium, and lanthanum. This observation was explained by Meitner and Frisch as a fission of the uranium nucleus into two roughly equal parts with approximately 200 million electron- volts of energy released in the process. This theory was soon confirmed by observing the ionization produced by these heavy and highly energetic particles. Neutrons were also found to be emitted in this fission process and these neutrons might conceivably lead to an exothermic chain-reaction. However, it appears very prob- able that separated isotopes of uranium in large quantities would be necessary to sustain such a chain-reaction. FEB > {) 1956 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 46, No. 1 PHYSICS.—E ffect of defects on lattice vibrations, II: Localized vibration modes in a linear diatomic chain.’ P. Mazur, E. W. Monrrouu, and R. B. Ports,? Uni- versity of Maryland. INTRODUCTION The influence of defects or local dis- turbances in otherwise regular media is a subject of great current interest in physics. The electrical properties of semiconductors are mainly due to impurity levels from which electrons can easily be excited into a con- ducting state. The interaction of elementary particles is the result of the manner in which their existence disturbs the field of the vacuum or ‘‘ether.”’ In a_ previous publication,’ hereafter referred to as I, a discussion was given of the effect of defects on the vibrations of monatomic crystal lattices. Generally all motions of a lattice can be expressed as linear combinations of normal modes of vibration. In a regular lattice these normal or collective modes are plane waves. Gen- erally normal modes of all frequencies in a certain continuum band or range exist. The lattice propagates driven oscillations whose frequencies he in this band. But frequencies which are outside of it are damped out in a short distance. The higher the frequency of such an oscillation the shorter the distance required for a given degree of damping. The motion of various atoms contributes equally to the component of a thermodynamic quantity (say free energy or heat capacity) derived from a particular mode. It was shown that certain types of defects in a crystal lattice give rise to localized normal modes whose associated atomic motions are concentrated in those atoms that are near the defects. The corresponding vibrational frequencies form a discrete set, which is displaced out of the continuum of frequencies of the perfect crystal. The atoms that participate in localized modes are responsible for more than their share of the 1This research was supported by the United States Air Force through the Office of Scientific Research of the Air Research and Development Command. 2On leave from the University of Adelaide, South Australia. 3 Monrrouu, E. W., and Ports, R. B., Phys. Rev. 100: 525. 1955. internal energy of the crystal. Hence the region around the defect is equivalent to a “hot spot” in the lattice. A localized mode (either in the interior or on the surface of a crystal) might catalyze physical and chemi- cal processes which would not normally occur at the existing temperature of the crystal. Local surface defect modes might also excite molecules adsorbed on the surface by having a frequency almost equal to a vibrational frequency of the adsorbed molecule. It was also pointed out in I that attrac- tions or repulsions occur between defects. These are due to both the localized modes and to the slight displacements which occur in all the lattice frequencies. We shall show in another paper that the pair theory of nu- clear forces is essentially equivalent to the continuum limit of the interaction between two holes in a erystal lattice. It is the purpose of the present paper to discuss the effect of defects in a linear alternating diatomic lattice. Although the general method developed in I is used, the diatomic lattice introduces several new features such as the well-known splitting of the frequency band into two bands, the acoustical and the optical, separated by a gap of forbidden frequency levels. It is necessary to cover a wide range of masses since in the alkali halides, for example, the mass difference may vary from as little as 1 or 2 per cent to as great as a factor of 20. Our results are analogous to those of Saxon and Hutner* and Koster and Slater® for localized wave functions and impurity levels in semiconductors. PERFECT LATTICE Consider a chain of 4N + 1 particles of masses either m or M arranged alternately such that those at the ends are of mass m. Let each particle be connected to its nearest neighbor by a spring of stiffness y. The equations giving the 4N — 1 normal modes of longitudinal vibrations of the chain are ‘Saxon, D. S., and Hurner, R. A., Philips Research Reports 4: 81. 1949. > Koster, G. F., and Siatrer, J. C., Phys. Rev. 95: 1167. 1954. JANUARY 1956 mea u(n) + y[u(n + 1) — 2u(n) + u(n — 1)] = 0 m= 0, +2, ---, QN — 2) Mou(n) + yfu(n + 1) — 2u(n) + u(n — 1)| = 0 (2.1) al, +3, ---, QN — 1) u(2N) = u(—2N) = 0 i = where w is the normal frequency and u(n) the displacement of the nth particle from its equilibrium position. We have postulated the end particles to be fixed. The solutions of these equations are u;(n) = A sin (2N + n)e; n even 22) uj(n) = Bsin (2QN + n)o; n odd with ~; = jr/4N janinteger (2.3) and A is Qy — Mw _ 2 cos Pi (2.4) B 27 COS 9; 2y — mo There are 2N symmetric (1.e., u(—n) = u(n)) modes with frequencies given by MAZUR, MONTROLL, AND POTTS: LATTICE VIBRATIONS. II 3 i wow. =m+M +(m? + M’? + 2mM cos 29;)° ; i (PG) = [m + M + 2(mM)’ sin ¢;]’ (2.6) +[m + M — 2(mM)* sin ol where i jn /A4N, fe I,gose DN = 1, (Om) Also there are 2N — 1 antisymmetric (i.e. u(—n) = —u(n)) modes, with fre- quencies given by (2.5) and (2.6) with go; = jn/AN, and in addition the frequency given by REO 650 IV HD OR) 2) j 2 1 ee ) w= 2(m) for mM (2.10) In the unusual terminology, the frequencies gree J I Ses Sa ey AS ———--———-2 AS 2 OPTICAL BAND S 2W-/ S Nex Ses a ee AS 2N GAP AS @N ee enera-=-- ACOUSTICAL (7) m™M Fra. 1.—Normal frequency levels for the vibrations of a perfect alternating lattice, S = symmetric modes; AS = antisymmetric modes. + JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES w? w 2g(m-+M) 2g(m+m) mM nm OPTICAL BAND 245/m 2y/m GAP 24/mM 2y5/m ACOUSTICAL BANO 3) Oo (a) mM the central particle. Hence the only altera- tion is to the symmetric modes. This ob- servation enables one to predict the effect of the isotope on the frequency levels; for noting that reduction of the mass increases the frequencies and vice versa one can predict that for m’ < m < M the top S level will rise out of the optical band but for the acoustical band the top S level cannot rise above the AS level above it; for m < M and m’ > m the S levels are lowered and the bottom S level of the optical band falls into the gap. For m > M and m’ < m one level raises out of the optical band and another from the acoustical band and for m’ > m > M no levels come out of the bands (see Fig. 2). These pre- dictions are confirmed from the following detailed analysis. Since we are concerned only with the symmetric modes we try for the solution of (3.1) u(n) = A, sin (2N ¥ n)e Dy 604, Oy B) 2, u(n) = B, sin (2N ¥ n)g Ce) ey cs | LOR = i) JANUARY 1956 Apart from the connecting equations we get, as before, (mwa _ 27) (Ma — 2y) ee (3.3) — 4y cos ¢ = 0 and the connecting equation with n = 0 is (1 — e)mw’A, sin 2N¢ + 7[2B, sin (2N — le — 2A, sin 2N¢] = 0 (3.4) or using (2.4) [1 — e)mw — 2y\[Ma — 2y] —4y’ sin (2N — 1)e cose = 0. Use of (3.3) then gives the characteristic equation cot 2N¢e — « cosec 2¢ Ki (6) = 0 (3.5) with K.i(¢) = [M + m cos 2¢ (3.6) + (m’ + M’ + 2mM cos 2¢)'|/m the solutions of which are to be inserted into (3.3) to give the required frequencies. It can be easily verified that for the special MAZUR, MONTROLL, AND POTTS: LATTICE VIBRATIONS. II D to that considered in I (see eq. A.8). The solution of (3.5) can be investigated from the graphs of cot 2N¢ and of file, €) = € cosec 2g K,(¢). (3.7) For the case m < M these graphs are sketched in Fig. 3. For m’ < m or € > O one intersection of the f, curve with the cot 2N¢ curve is “Jost”’ or is given by ¢ = ip and this corre- sponds to the discrete frequency rising from the top of the optical band. For m’ > m or € < 0 the “intersection” ¢ = 7/2 + w corresponds to the discrete frequency falling into the gap from the optical band. This is as illustrated in Fig. 2. For the case m > WM the graphs are sketched in Fig. 4. For m’ < m or € > 0 the intersection on f, at ¢ = 1 corresponds to the discrete level emerging from the top of the optical band and that of f_ at g = a/2 + ip to the level emerging from the top of the acoustical band. For m’ > m or e < 0 there are no discrete levels; this is as illustrated in Fig. 2. (b) Evaluation of the discrete frequencies The discrete frequencies can be calculated for the limiting case N — o. For the inter- case M = m the equation (3.5) reduces section ¢ = zy equation (3.5) becomes with f+, E>0 th # na 5 TT/4N T 2 ~ eae f+, €0 a ee fe) ea ee Hata ae f+, €0 Fia. 4.—The graph of the function f+(¢,€) with m > M given by (3.7) and cot 2N¢. The intersections given the solutions of (3.5). coth 2NYy — lasN > ~ m — e€ cosech 2¥[M + m cosh 2y + (m’ + M* + 2Mm cosh 2y)*| = 0 oe) or (1 + &*) sinh 2y — 2¢e cosh 2y =2eM/m (3.9) For the level emerging from the top band (1.e., for the cases m’ < m with m < M orm > M) eS) 2 ——— W = OY; + (m + M* + 2mM cosh 2y)? = m+ m(e” sinh 2y — cosh 2p) m+ M (3.10) which gives, on using (3.9), =) oem Os aye v -{2M + [m1 + «’) + 42 (MW — m)}?}. The special case IZ = m gives (m/y)o = 4(1 — &) (3.12) as obtained in I, (A.10). Also, for small ¢, (3.11) gives (3.11) w = wi[l + (M/m)e + O(c] (3.13) where w, is the top of the optical band (see 2.11). This equation shows that as € — 0 or m’ — m, the discrete level returns to the top of the band. For the intersection ¢ = 7/2 + wa similar analysis leads to the result (2 2 (62) — y Te (en ie ; {2M — [m°(1 ae e) (3.14) + 4e2 (M? — m’)}*}. This formula gives the frequency level which falls into the gap from the top band when m’ > m and m < M and the level which rises into the gap from the bottom band when m’ < m and m > M. For small e, (3.14) gives ico 2 ee ays -(m — M) & + O(e’) so that as e > 0, (mM/y)w — 2M from below if m < M and from above if m > M: in the first case w = (2y/m)? is the bottom of the optical band and in the second case it is the top of the acoustical band. A special case of some interest is when 2M + 2(M/m) (3.15) JANUARY 1956 e€—1 orm’ — 0. Then (8.11) and (3.14) give (mM /y)o = (2M + 2M)(1 — &)* im += M + 00 — e). The top signs (corresponding to the fre- quency emerging from the top of the optical band) give w — ~ as ¢— 1 and the bottom signs (for the frequencies in the gap) = wo = M+ ™m. ay This value of w: is half that of w:, and also the average of w for the bottom of the top band and the top of the bottom band. This result has an interesting interpretation for the case m’ < m and m > M. As m’ > 0 one frequency — ~ (accounting for the loss of one degree of freedom) and the frequency given by (3.17) is a so-called surface frequency. The effect of m’ — 0 is to reduce the lattice to two chains each with one end fixed and the other free. This problem is being considered in detail by Wallis.” In the case m < M and m’ > m the limiting case ¢e = 1 — m’/m > —~& corre- sponds to the central mass being infinite and hence fixed, the lattice dividing into (3.16) (3.17) ® Wats, R. F., private communication. “O53 ‘05 ZAE A (2 4/my? 04 03 MAZUR, MONTROLL, AND POTTS: LATTICE VIBRATIONS. II if two separate lattices with fixed ends. From (3.14), as €e — —«, w — (2y/M) which corresponds to the top frequency of the bottom band. Hence the level in the gap falls from the bottom of the top band to the top of the bottom band. The bottom S level of the bottom band has meanwhile — w = O accounting for the lost mode. The frequency levels given by (3.11) and (3.14) are plotted in Fig. 2. ZERO-POINT ENERGIES (a) Perfect lattice The zero-point energy of the perfect lat- tice with m < Mis Ey = Sotho (4.1) with w given by (2.6) and (2.9). Hence ui = (m+ M)?{m + (m + M’) ahr 2N—J > fh = 4¢nmyd + my? 42) Fai . sin’(jr/8N)}’} and in the limit as N — , Ey can be ex- pressed in terms of an elliptic integral of the second kind: 2 3 4 M/m Fie. 5.—Self energy of an isotope plotted as a function of I/m for fixed m 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ep 2 nn 8 INA(Qy/m)! = [1 aE (m/M)") — a/4 [ (1 — 4(mM)?(m?+ M?)? (4.3) 0 -sin’ 6} dé. (b) Self energy of an isotope The change in zero point energy when the central particle of mass m is replaced by an ‘Gsotope” of mass m’ can be calculated using the method of contour integration as discussed in I. The starting point is the formula AE _ 1 fy @d thor Qn c o+ Wr dz -In &,(z, €) dz (4.4) where from (3.6), &,(z, €) = 1 — e tan 2Nz cosec 2z K(z) = 1-4 ¢ tan 2Nz (4.5) —(e/y) tan 2Nz cosec 22 wi. (z) and C is the contour which is a rectangle with corners -ia, 7/2 + ia. Since this integral cannot be evaluated in closed form, two extreme cases will be considered, firstly when m M and secondly when m > M. Gi) my M In this case we assume M = m(1 + yn), n small. For the contour C we can let a> « so that the only contribution to the intergral comes from the integration along the imagi- nary axis, using w_(z) and ¢_(z, ©) giving for large N. NE —] Tho, m(2m + 2M)! a {[m> + M? + 2Mm cosh 2t]' (4.6) s— where ,(t) = 1 — « tanh/ + ¢ cosech 2¢[(m? + M’ + 2Mm cosh 2)? — (M + m)]/m. (4.7) VOL. 46, No. 1 Using M = m(1 + 7), we obtain [((m? + M? + 2Mm cosh 2t)? — (M+ m)}? (2m + 2M)? (4.8) = sinh 3¢ + O(n’) and In @,(¢) = In (1 — eé tanh 3?) +en tanh 3 sech t(1 — e tanh 3f)~ + O(n’). (4.9) When these are inserted in (4.6) the term without 7 gives precisely the result obtained in I(4.15) for the monatomic lattice while the term in 7 gives, after integration by parts, the contribution en [ ss tanh 2¢ dt 4n Jo cosh t — € sinh t™ This integration can be reduced to standard integrals by writing tanh 2¢ cosh t — € sinh t (4.10) 2, sinh t — € cosh ¢ 1+ = cosh 2¢ eu) € ze cosh t — € sinh | and the final result is Ce Ey = 2 shay ‘(m+ 2sin™ ©) + (8x) (1+ &)* (4.12) - en[2v/2 In (1 + V2) — V2 ex SL = Sy 26 Oa e)| + O(n’) (i) m > M In this case we let M = &m, & small. In the contour C we now eannot let a > « but rather a — 0. In (4.4) we have to insert w/o, = 1 — 3€ sin’ 2 + O(€/) (4.13) w/o, = &sin 2[l — 11 + cos 2)] + 0) (4.14) $.(z,€) = 1— e(1 + #) tan 2Nz cotz + O(€') (4.15) JANUARY 1956 @_(z,e) = 1+ <(1 — &) tan 2Nztanz -_ (2), Ga6) For small a only the integration along the horizontal sides of the rectangle C contribute to the integral giving ABE 1 [*’ > ose — 1a) Yo, 2ni Jo zr Wr . Gin &,(x — ia, e) — w(t + 1a) (4.17) qx Or d aE In &,(x + 2a, €) dz. In the limit of large NV tan 2NiG@ == 7a) — 327 (4.18) with considerable simplification of formulae (4.15) and (4.16). In evaluating (4.17) for the limiting case a — 0 two features are important. Firstly to get the correct value for AF the cases e > 0 and e < 0 have to é MAZUR, MONTROLL, AND POTTS: LATTICE VIBRATIONS. II 9) be distinguished because in the first case the discrete levels above both bands (corre- sponding to 2; = a and z. = (1/2) + te) have to be added while in the second case there are no discrete levels which have to be allowed for (c.f. Fig. 2b). The formulae (3.11) and (3.14) give for the levels coming out of the top and bottom bands respectively w aes 4 ee 1 T 34 = 2) ap WO) f= - ey - 30-28] OL (4.20) + O(€). The second important feature is that in some of the integrals which arise, the integration has to be performed before the limit a — 0 is taken. A useful check on the integrations is afforded by putting w = w, so that the contour integral counts (the number of levels in the band for the im- perfect lattice) minus (the number of levels ala @ 8 .4 5G 8 = /{ — (msm) Fra. 6.—Self energy of an isotope plotted as a function of © 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in the band for the perfect lattice). For each band this is 0 or —1 according to € < QO ore > O. The final expression for the self energy is = e[-t+ta —@y" 2 L oe He (1/2 + sin | + TL = &) 3| 1 € 2)\-1 5 +e[t-£a-2 (4.21) en a Qs 8) “Gy gia «| 2a + 0(€') Two equations, (4.11) and (4.21), have been derived giving the self energy of an isotope, the first valid for m ~ M and the second for m > M. With these two expres- sions the complete range of values of MW can be covered for ¢ as large as 0.7, the connection between the two results im- proving the smaller the value of e¢. For example, for « = 0.2, (4.11) gives AF = (const.) 0.980 for 7 = —0.64 or M = 0.36m, whereas (4.21) gives, for the value — = 0.6 or the same value of WM = 0.36m, AH = (const.) 0.980. As WM — «, AH — (const.) {(m/m’)? — 1} which is merely the difference in zero point energy between two oscillators because the lattice degenerates into a series of uncoupled oscillators. In Fig. 5 the self energy is plotted as a function of (J//m) for constant m, and in Fig. 6 as a function of ¢ for various values of M. TWO ISOTOPIC DEFECTS If two isotopes of mass m’ replace the two particles of mass m at the positions numbered +2/ then the characteristic equa- tions are cos 2Ne¢ cosec (2N — 2l)e — 2¢ cos 2le cosec 2¢ Ki(y) = 0 (5.1) sin 2N¢ cosee (2N — 2l)e — 2e sin 2ly cosec 2g Ki(v) = 0. (G2) As in the analysis given in I and in 4(b) above, the energy of interaction V between VOL. 46, No. 1 two isotopes 1s given by the contour integral V bie 1 w(z) d Sher, Write = wy, az In Pi (z, €) dz (5.3) with viz) = 1 — &Ki() sm’ ON = Qe [2 sin 4Nz sin’ z — e€ sin (2N — 2l)z - sin (2N + 2))z Ki(z)f. (6.4) As in (4.6) the contour integral reduces to the single integral Vinge =I m(2m + 2M)! . | (On? + M? + 2Mm cosh 28)? (5.5) Jo thoy, — (m+ M)} = In y(t) dt where w@ =1— 2 {M + m cosh 2t — (m? + M? + 2Mm cosh 2t)*} exp. (—4lt) m sinh 2t — {M + mcosh 2t — (m? + M* + 2Mm cosh 2t)*} (5.6) We can obtain an expansion for V valid for large distances by expanding the inte- grand as a power series in ¢ and exp (—/f). This yields Vi _ —2(e’m’)(M m)? 1 a(M +m)? (8i)8 3em il il [i+ ea to(s)| In the case m = Vo —-2e 1 3¢€ ,) tho, «© (16/1)? E tap G | (8) in agreement with I (5.3b). An important consequence of the result (5.7) is that it proves that V is negative or the interaction between the isotopes attractive regardless of the relative magni- tudes of m and J. In the more general case tha, ©) M this expression becomes JANUARY 1956 of isotopes of masses (1 — €:)m and (1 — e2)m the energy of interaction is proportional to €€. and hence is repulsive if ¢; and & are of opposite sign. Also if one isotope is of mass (1 — «)M replacing a particle of mass MW then in the equation (5.7) the factor em becomes ¢V/. Thus for the interaction be- tween two “M”’ isotopes, em’ is replaced by (e:eM) and for the interaction between an ““m” and an ‘“‘7”’ isotope, the factor becomes (eeomM). CONCLUSION In a perfect alternating lattice the normal frequencies fall into two bands separated by a gap. It has been shown in the present work that, as for the monatomic lattice, localized modes can occur with discrete frequency levels out of the bands when the lattice contains defects such as isotopes. For the alternating lattice, four interesting eases arise. When one of the lighter masses “m”’ is replaced by an isotope ‘“‘m’’’, then if m’ < m one level jumps out of the optical band into the region above, whereas if m’ > m one level jumps from the bottom of the optical band into the gap between the two bands. When one of the heavy masses is replaced by a lighter isotope one frequency jumps out of the top of the acoustical band into the gap while at the same time a second level jumps out of the top of the optical band into the region above. Finally, when one of the heavy MAZUR, MONTROLL, AND POTTS: LATTICE VIBRATIONS. II 11 masses is replaced by a heavier isotope then no frequencies emerge from the bands. The defect level which rises out of the top of the acoustical band into the gap is of special interest. As the defect mass ap- proaches zero the level approaches the level at the center of the gap. This level could be interpreted as due to a surface mode. The self energy of an isotope has been computed, and the series solutions obtained, one valid for m M and the other for m >> M, together cover the whole range of variation of the masses. The interaction energy between two isotopes is proportional to the inverse cube of the distance of separa- tion and is attractive for two light or two heavy isotopes and repulsive for a light and a heavy isotope. Although this paper has been concerned with only the one-dimensional lattice, the general features will be similar for the more realistic three-dimensional lattice. Thus one will expect surface modes, a phenomenon not arising in monatomic lattices. Also the attractive and repulsive character of the forces between isotopes will be of special interest in the two and three-dimensional lattices; a particle of mass intermediate between m and M will “appear” as a light isotope to one set of masses but as a heavy isotope to the others, depending on its position. The detailed analysis of the two and three-dimensional lattices will be given in a following publication. Citius emergit veritas ex errore quam ex confusione.—FRancis Bacon, Novwm Organwm. 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 1 MATHEMATICS.—Numerical experiments in potential theory using orthonormal functions. P. Davis and P. RasrnowitTz,! National Bureau of Standards. EDITORIAL NOTE In potential theory and vibration theory much use is made of a complete set of orthonormal solutions appropriate to the domain of the problem. The solution of the particular boundary value problem at hand is represented as a linear combination (generally an infinite series) of these orthonormal functions. One property of ortho- normal expansions is that if the infinite series is approximated by its first n terms, the least square error fit is always obtained. This approach is related to much work that has been carried out in the last generation but which has so far been limited to theoretical dis- cussions and applications to geometrically simple domains such as circles and rectangles. In practical problems, different methods have been preferred, e.g., relaxation techniques. The numerical experiments described in the following paper show that the advent of high-speed auto- matic digital computing machines makes the method of orthogonal functions feasible. INTRODUCTION We describe in this paper three computa- tions that were carried out on the National Bureau of Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) and which made use of a multiple purpose orthonormalizing code recently developed for this machine [ef. Davis and Rabinowitz (/)]. These com- putations can be described briefly as fol- lows: (a) Computation of the system of orthonormal polynomials for a ‘‘bean shaped”? domain (Fig. 1). (6) Solution of a Dirichlet Problem for this “bean shaped’’ domain. (c) Computation of the system of orthonormal polynomials for the square. For the theory of orthonormal functions as applied to problems in conformal map- ping, boundary value problems, etc, the reader is referred to Bergman [2], Szeg6 [3]. The orthonormalization code employed possesses the following features and limita- tions: (1) Inner products of the type [ fg ds (of are replaced by an integration rule 1 Now at the Weitzmann Institute, Rehovot, Israel. [fos D wis (Pog Po) (2) The orthonormalization itself is car- ried out by the Gram-Schmidt process. (3) The code is of single precision type. That is, the computation is carried out with 44 binary digits (11+ decimal digits). It will be useful to specify the ortho- normalization process more precisely. Let n vectors, f;, of dimension N, have com- ponents Yi, Y2, °°: , Yin, ¥ — 1,2, --- ,n, TABLE 1.—LEAST SQUARES SOLUTION FOR DrirIicHLET PROBLEM FOR BEAN-SHAPED REGION | eS Po| A 38 | ee 3 a> | 2a Ay < fo) 5 fQ a 1 -000} .110}.01414) .76089|/—.0030 || Boundary Value = 2 |—.050) .108).01427) .72025|—.0031 e™cos y + log 3 |—.100) .115).01963) .66721|—.0032 {Ql — y)2+ 22] 4 |—.160) .150).02300| .55236)—.0034 5 |—.220) .205).03897| .40068|—.0032 || Least Square Har- 6 |—.320) .300|.02792) .17014/—.09006|| monic Polynomial 7 |—.400) .358).03324) .06949| .0044 1.0017261087 8 |—.500) .420).01483) .02006| .0069 || +-.997339446 Re (z) 8 |—.550) .436).01423) .04590) .0023 \|—1.991187716 Im (z) 10 |—.600) .430).01505) .12037|—.0042 ||+1. 48065453 Re (z2) 11 |—.644! .400).01483) .22850|—.0069 || —.00949996 Im (z?) 12 |—.660| .350).01420) .33248)—.0026 || +. 1889575 Re (Zz) 13 |—.655| .300).02881) .41180) .0014 || +.6236775 Im (23) 14 |—.635| .200/.03043) .56168) .0038 || —.355600 Re (z4) 15 |—.595|} .100/.03076) .70060) .0009 || +.024526 Im (2) 16 |—.552| .000).03311) .84177/—.0019 || —.11960 Re (25) 17 |—.500;—.105|.03175| .98915|—.0023 || —.28034 Im (z5) 18 |—.440|—.200|.01809/1.12198} .0001 19 |—.400)—.250).01998)1.19326) .0018 20 |—.350)—.300).01882|1.26792| .0029 21 |—.300|—.344|.03140)1.33734) .0027 22 |—.204|—.400|.03450/1.44504; .0000 || Discrepanciesat Points 23 |—.100|—. 436|.02846/1.54875/—.0025 Interior to Bean 24 -000|— . 448) .02831)1.64168|— .0017 x Discrepancy 25 - 100|— . 442).03860/1.73582) .0015 4 +.0009 26 230) — . 400} .02431/1.85882) .0037 56) —.0001 27 - 300} — . 350} .02059/1.91643) .0014 32, —.0007 28 | .353|—.300].03566)1.95563|— .0013 oil —.0013 29 - 430|— . 200) .03122)1.99206| — .0030 0.0 —.0017 30 -477|—.100}.02975/1.96611| .0004 —.1 —.0017 31 -510} .000).02846)1.89648) .0041 —.2 —.0015 32 -522| .100).01696/1.75623} .0030 =} —.0011 33 -520) . 160).02330)1. 63625) — . 0006 —.4 —.0010 34 -500) .240).02102/1. 41224) — 0057 oH) —.0014 35 -456) .300).01795)1. 14765] —.0038 36 | .400) .330/.01147) .91523) .0028 37 | .360) .337!.01762| .78912) .0058 38 | .300} .320).01648| .68785| .0054 39 | .250) .290).01901) .66231) .0027 40 | .200) .245).01901| .69067|—.0001 41 - 150) .200).01809) .72694|—.0017 42 | .100) .160).01677) .75642'—.0025 43 -050) .128/.01501) .77202|—.0028 JANUARY 1956 and let one additional vector f have com- ponents yi, °°: , Yn. Let gd: = anfi go = Anfi + Anfe $3 = Gufi + Ayvfo + Assfs where the vectors ¢; have components 21,22, °°° , 2in and are orthonormal in the sense that N (¢:, ¢;) = ee Wr ik Zin = Oi. The least square approximation to f is given by po Dy, (f, dudo: = > dk fx k=1 k=1 where d; = yee Gi Pi) Ax; 5 J a IL, 2, 2925. 4s a.; = 0, k < j. The discrepancy in this ap- proximation is defined by 5=f- LU, dnlde =f-Ddihe. The input and output of the code may be indicated diagramatically as follows: Vector Input Vector Output weights fi ja tp f og gt ohn 6 Wr Yu Ya Yni Yi ie 221 Zn 1 ONY Wn Yin Y2n Ynn YN \(21n 22N Znn On Q it @ O- —@ Qy1 21 Oni —dy 0 0 1 0 0 0 a22 An2 —do 0 O 0 0 0 0 O An3 —d3 nr . . . . n . . . 0 O 0 1 0 0 O Qnn —dn The high-speed capacity of the code is given by the inequality (n + N) < 150. COMPLEX ORTHOGONAL POLYNOMIALS Let B designate a simply connected region lying in the complex z-plane whose boundary C is rectifiable. Let w(z) designate a positive and continuous weight function defined on C (or on B + C). In the space of analytic DAVIS AND RABINOWITZ: ORTHONORMAL FUNCTIONS 13 functions which are regular in B + C, we may introduce the inner product, 2) (fa) = | feq@wl) as C and orthonormalize the powers 1, 2, 2, z, -+: with respect to this inner product. Designate the polynomials which arise in this fashion by (3) ONO) = Ne” ae 9° 83 Designate by ¢(z) the function which maps the exterior of C conformally onto the exterior of | w| = 1,¢(2) = 0, ¢/(0) = 1. If z is exterior to C, we shall have ce 0: (nA Bel) — 4G (5) ue e2 ee = Ie where c is the transfinite diameter of C. These results are independent of the weight function w(z). Let (z) map the interior of C conformally onto the interior of | w| = 1. Let the weight w(z) = 1, then 6) Lapa = Wevor where LZ is the length of C. For details on these matters and for some information as to the rapidity of convergence see Szegd [3], pp. 355-366. ORTHOGONAL HARMONIC POLYNOMIALS If the set of harmonic polynomials 1; Re(z), Im(z); Re(z*), Im(z’) --- are ortho- normalized with respect to the inner product (f,.0) = | He, Dale, ») as; (7) : ; : ds = dx + dy, there is obtained a system of orthonormal harmonic polynomials p,(v, y) Which is intimately related to the harmonic kernel function, the Greens’ function, and other potential theoretic domain functions for B. See Bergman [2]. To determine a harmonic function in B with boundary data f(x, y) on C (the Dirichlet problem) we may write, 14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES h(a, y) _ Ss lf flu, v)pr(u, v) as| Dace y) n=0 Cc and each finite segment of (8) provides a harmonic polynomial which fits the bound- ary data best in the sense of least squares. (8) DIRICHLET PROBLEM FOR A BEAN- SHAPED REGION A bean shaped region (see Fig. 1) was obtained from a free-hand drawing on co- ordinate paper. The region itself is “‘defined”’ by means of 48 points on the contour (see Table 1). These points are not distributed equally on the boundary, but somewhat more points were placed where the curvature is greatest. Although there are certain theoretical difficulties which occur when non-convex regions are employed, we were interested in testing the process for a fairly intricate region. Since the region was not specified analytically no attempt was made to incorporate into the weights w, (see eq. (1)) a very exact line element ds or a very exact rule of numerical integration. For this region, weights w, were taken proportional to the distance between the successive points given on the contour. These are listed in column 4 of Table 1. As boundary value data, we used the VoL. 46, No. 1 values of the harmonic function (9) u(x, y) = Re(e? + log (2 — 2)) at the 43 points on the boundary. These are listed in column 5 of Table 1. This boundary data was approximated by linear combinations of the 11 harmonic functions 1, Re(z), --- , Re(z’), Im(2’). The input data for this problem was ac- cordingly, w; = the weights of column 4, Table 1, yx, = {22 (a + ty:)?, (10) fr = Re(e™***” + log(a, + iy — 2)). Column 6, Table 1 lists the discrepancy between the specified values and computed (least square) values along the contour. It will be seen that the highest deviation is 0.0069. If one knew that this were the greatest deviation over the whole contour then the maximum principle for harmonic functions would tell us that this is also the greatest deviation in the interior. Un- fortunately, it is impossible theoretically to make such a conclusion, but one feels that in the interior these deviations are also of the same order of magnitude. We have computed the deviations at ten points along the real axis in the interior of the region and have listed them in Table 1. These results bear out this feeling. ? For a theoretical discussion of this point see, ci KK. Payne and H. F. Weinberger [4] and Nehari [5], [6]. Fic. 1.—Bean-shaped region used in computation JANUARY 1956 ORTHOGONAL POLYNOMIALS FOR A BEAN- SHAPED REGION The input data here was as follows, w; = the weights of Column 4, Table 1, Yjr = (t + tyr)’, y = arbitrary. As part of the output data we obtained the co- efficients of the orthonormal polynomials, and the values of each orthonormal poly- nomial at each of the 43 points on the contour. We obtained the orthonormal polynomials up to and including those of degree 21. For reasons which will be explained presently, it is not felt. that the polynomials of degree greater than 11 are of great significance numerically. TABLE 2.—DETERMINATION OF TRANSFINITE DIAMETER OF BEAN-SHAPED REGION n Rn/Rpxr 485511 913294 503448 .903615 506216 006834 . 908043 -507085 .907510 -505941 508073 SCO ONOMOMPWNrH © ps pu(z) Pro(Z) ON THE BOUNDARY OF THE BEAN TaBLE 3.—THE QUANTITY EVALUATED Pt. No. | pu/pro | Pt. No, | pu/ Pio | 1 .882 23 .937 2 . 906 24 1.018 3 944 25 1.016 4 987 26 .968 5 .999 27 1.069 6 .983 28 .985 7 .992 29 .996 8 1.017 30 1.056 9 .993 3l .940 10 .980 32 1.050 11 1.019 33 1.026 12 .989 34 .976 13 .974 35 1.034 14 1.004 36 984 15 1.082 37 981 16 .994 38 1.029 17 943 39 1.057 18 1.089 40 1.083 19 1.040 41 981 20 .930 42 .928 21 . 962 43 .890 2, 1.067 DAVIS AND RABINOWITZ: ORTHONORMAL FUNCTIONS 15 Table 2 presents the ratios kn/kni1 for Tie — Oe eel) ec cording tom)! these ratios approach the transfinite diameter of the region. The convergence of this sequence is not too rapid, but the table suggests that we have determined this constant to two decimal places. We have computed these ratios also for n = 11, --- , 20, but have not tabulated them here. Their behavior is steady for a while and then as n > 11, they begin to increase rapidly towards one. This is the result of two things. In the first place, there is a considerable loss of sig- nificance in the coefficients of high order due to the fact that these values have to be scaled down sufficiently so as to fit on the machine. Secondly, since only crude integra- tion rules were employed in computing i 2"2" ds, the orthonormal polynomials Cc themselves tend more to those corresponding to finite sum inner product as n approaches the number of points on the contour. According to (4), the ratio Pnsil2) tends Prlé to the exterior mapping function. We have tested this out for = 10. The worst agree- ment can be expected on the boundary of the region, where a theoretical value of |¢(z)| = 1, z€C, should be obtained. Table 3 lists the values of | pu(z)/pro(z) | on the contour C. A maximum error of 10% from the theoretical value of 1 was obtained. The average error appears to be about 5%. From the values of pio(z) on the contour it was a fairly simple matter to trace the variation in arg pio(z), 2 € C, and to verify that all the zeros of pio(z) lie in B. Thus, pu/pi is regular outside of B. As might have been foreseen from the behavior of the ratios ky41/k, for n > 11. no improvement in the quantities | Pn+t (2)/Dn (z) | was observed for n > 11. We shall discuss in a later paragraph how these shortcomings ‘an, In certain instances, be overcome. We have not yet developed a code for the rapid evaluation of the interior mapping function through the use of (6) and so an estimate of the quality of the convergence of this formula cannot be given at the present time. 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 1 TaBLE 4.—ORTHONORMAL POLYNOMIALS FOR A SQUARE; SIDE = 1.4; Sum or GaussIAN WEIGHTS = 1.0 10000000000 1.2371791483 Z 1.4937246015 Z? 1.7603713248 Z% 2.2025044571 Z4 +0. 4230570561 2.6608221383 2° +0.7301295947 Z 3.220657584 Z® +1.1572896252 Z? 3.905515952 Z7 +1.7238789614 Z% 4.737815070 2% +2.4298575834 Z4 5.737742726 Z9 +3.3915415979 75 6.949286858 71° +4.645751758 Z° 8.416037589 Zl +6.274558086 Z? 10.19384526 Z +8 .381528538 2% 1234288234 Z +11.102777658 Z? 14.94442510 74 +14.597987726 Z1° 18.09361812 715 +19.073026420 711 .0188295964 0646244543 Z . 2286090195 Z? .§137415655 78 .9916706683 Z4 .7111406242 2% 2.782242918 Z® +4 .339843064 Z7 + .0261223727 + .0433444223 Z + .0869122976 Z? + .1803740299 Z? 1G Eek | ORTHOGONAL POLYNOMIALS FOR A SQUARE For machine purposes, it is convenient to have all distances from the boundary to the origm <1, and so the side of the square was taken to be a = 1.4. Since the boundary of the square consists of ele- mentary curves, it is not too difficult to employ high accuracy integration formulas in (1). In computing with the square, we selected along each of the sides a 16 point Gaussian integration formula. At the time of computation, this was the highest Gaussian formula available, though subsequently Gaussian formulas of higher order were computed. (See Davis and Rabinowitz [7]). Inasmuch as the function z* = (a + iy)* is, along either x = const. or y = const., a polynomial in y or in x of degree k, this Gaussian integration formula will produce inner products which are completely ac- curate, neglecting machine roundoff, up to TABLE 5.—DETERMINATION OF TRANSFINITE DIAMETER OF SQUARE; SIDE = 1.4 n Rn/Rn+ 0 .808290377 1 828251169 2 848528137 3 .799258916 4 .827753357 5 .826173559 6 .824643305 Ul 824328492 8 .825728043 9 .825659214 10 .825719560 11 .825599896 12 825888555 13 .825918846 14 .825950067 the terms i 22" ds. No particular use of (oj the symmetries of the square was made and the cyclic occurrence of many zero coefficients in the orthonormal polynomials served as a running check on the accuracy of the process at the machine end of the job. The orthonormal polynomials are listed in Table 4. Table 5 lists the ratios k,/kn+1 which approach the transfinite diameter of the square. The theoretical value for this quantity [see Polya, Szegé (8), p. 252] is 1 2 ~ 14 PQ _ 9 gogo38 Aq? Thus, using orthonormal polynomials of degree 15, we have secured this quantity to three significant figures. CONCLUDING REMARKS The method of orthonormal functions for the solution of problems in potential theory is an attractive one from the point of high- speed computing inasmuch as a single all purpose code can, with suitable small modifications, be made to cover a variety of problems. The inputs for these problems are especially easy to handle. The accuracy that has been obtained in a moderate amount (about 2 hours) of com- puting time on SEAC is not great; about 2 decimal places. To obtain this, one would make use of about 15 approximating func- tions each of which is defined by its values at about 50 points. In order to increase this accuracy, we would need to increase simul- taneously the number of orthonormal func- tions employed and the number of points at which each function is defined. From the JANUARY 1956 machine point of view, this means that we must employ double precision coding in order to retain significance in the higher harmonies. Accordingly, four place ac- curacy might require about 24 hours of computing time on SEAC. The authors wish to thank the computa- tion Laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards for carrying out certain (hand) computations necessary for the final prepara- tion of this report. BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) Davis, P.,and Rasinowitz, P. A multiple pur- pose orthonormalizing code and its uses. Journ. DAVIS AND RABINOWITZ: ORTHONORMAL FUNCTIONS 17 Assoc. Computing Machinery, 1: 183-191. 1954. (2) Beremans. The kernel function and conformal mapping, New York, 1950. (3) SzEGé, G., Orthogonal Polynomials, New York, 1938. (4) Payne, L. E., and Wrinspercer, H. F. New bounds in harmonic and biharmonic problems, Jour. Math. and Physics 33: 291-307. 1955. (5) Newari, Z., On the numerical computation of mapping functions by orthogonalization, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 37: 369-372. 1951. (6) Newari, Z. On the numerical solution of the Dirichlet problem. (To appear.) (7) Davis, P., and RapinowitTz, P. Abscissas and weights for Gaussian quadratures of high order. (To appear.) (8) Pézya, G.,and SzuaG6, G. Isoperimetric inequali- tues in mathematical physics, Princeton, 1951 NOTES AND NEWS FELLOWS OF IRE ELECTED The Washington Section of the Institute of Radio Engineers announces the election of nine members to the grade of Fellow. Presentation of certificates will be made at the Washington Sec- tion Annual Banquet by the President of IRE to: ALEXANDER, S. N., National Bureau of Standards. For contributions to the development and appli- cation of digital computers. Beutz, W. H., Carpr., USN (Ret.) For leadership in improving the reliability of military elec- tronic systems. Cuark, A. B. (Deceased 14 Nov. 1955.) For early development and leadership in the field of telephonic transmission systems. Corcoran, G. F., University of Maryland. For contributions to electrical engineering educa- tion and to the associated literature. Davis, T. M., Naval Research Laboratory. For contributions in the field of military radio communication. Dinetry, E. N., Jr., National Security Agency. For contributions in the fields of electronic guidance and detection systems. Kaumus, H. P., Diamond Ordnance Fuze Labora- tory. For contributions in the fields of electro- mechanical devices and electronic measurement instruments. Paag, C. H., National Bureau of Standards. For contributions to military electronic research and development. Rasinow, Jacos, Rabinow Engineering Co. For contributions in the fields of electronic ordnance and automatic control. Special recognition will be given to Wilbur 8. Hinman, Jr., Technical Director of the Diamond Ordnance Fuze Laboratory, who is this year’s re- cipient of the Harry Diamond Memorial Award NEW MEMBER OF NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL Ray P. Trrte, a member of the Photometry and Colorimetry Section of the National Bureau of Standards, has been appointed a member of the National Research Council. He will represent the Illuminating Engineering Society in the Divi- sion of Engineering and Industrial Research for a period of three years ending June 30, 1958. Mr. Teele has gained international recognition as a member of photometric fields. His work covers the maintenance of the national photo- metric units of luminous intensity (candlepower) and luminous flux; developing and maintaining standards of illumination and photometric bright- ness; participating in the national and inter- national standard comparisons; and evaluating candlepowers of different colored lights by study- ing the luminosity factors of the human eye. Born in Washington, D. C., in 1903, Mr. Teele came to the Bureau in 1923. He received his bachelor of science degree in electrical engineering from the University of Michigan in 1927, and his master of science degree in physics from George Washington University in 1929. Author or coauthor of some 15 articles pub- lished in his field of research, Mr. Teele also holds a patent for a blackout automobile head- light mask and another patent for a headlamp for motor vehicles. He is a member of the Optical Society of America, the Philosophical Society of Washington, the Illuminating Engineering So- ciety, the Washington Academy of Sciences, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 1 ZOOLOGY —The ticks (Acarina: Ixodoidea) of the J. Klapperich Afghanistan Expedition, 1952 and 1953. GEORGE ANASTOS, University of Maryland. This report brings together the available information on the ticks of Afghanistan and extends to 14 the number of known species from this country. None of the ticks recorded from Afghanistan are endemic but also occur in Iran, in India, and in the southern part of the U.S.S.R. The records and collections studied so far are too small and often lacking in essential data to allow any far-reaching conclusions to be drawn. Un- doubtedly future collections will extend the current list considerably since scarcely any tick records are available for the extensive wild fauna known from this country. The earlier records of ticks in Afghanistan were included only as incidental ones in studies on the tick fauna of the surrounding countries. Yakimov (1922) reported on the Ixodidae in Russia and included one record of Hyalomma aegyptium (Linné), 1758, from Koscha on the Russo-Afghan frontier. In a revision of the Indian Ixodidae Sharif (1928) recorded males of Hyalomma aegyptium dromedarii Koch, 1844 (probably H. drome- darit Koch, 1844), on Hrinaceus megalotis Blyth from Afghanistan and males of Hyalomma_ syriacum Koch, 1844 (=H. aegyptium (Linné), 1758), from Jugdulluk on Testudo horsfieldi Gray. An undetermined species of Ornithodoros was noted by Avanesov (1938) in native dwellings in North Afghanistan and Pavlovsky (1944) later reported the occurrence of Ornithodoros papillipes \irula, 1895 (=O. tholozani (Laboulbéne and Mégnin, 1882). Pomerant- zev (1946, 1950) recognized the occurrence of H. dromedari and of H. aegyptiwm in Afghanistan but was apparently citing the records of Sharif. In 1954 the author reported the results of a collection from Afghanistan made by the Third Danish Expedition to Central Asia. In addition to Hyalomma aegyptium which had been recorded previously the following species were found to be new to Afghanistan: Hyalomma excavatum (Koch, 1844, H. schulzer Oleney, 1931, H. rufipes glabrum Delpy, 1949, Dermacentor niveus Neumann, 1897, Ixodes redikorzevi emberizae Pomerant- zev, 1950, Rhipicephalus sanguineus (La- treille), 1806, and Haemaphysalis numidiana Neumann, 1897 (=H. erinacei Pavesi, 1884). In 1955 the author was fortunate to receive another collection from Afghanistan made by J. Klapperich, Bonn, Germany, in 1952 and 1953. This collection, though small, contained four species new to Afghan- istan: Argas persicus (Oken), 1818, Derma- centor marginatus (Sulzer), 1776, Haemaphy- salis sulcata (Can. and Fanz.), 1877/1878, and Ixodes redikorzevi redikorzevi Olenev, 1927. It also expanded the range of four species previously recorded from this area: Dermacentor niveus Neumann, 1897, Hya- lomma dromedari Koch, 1844, H. excavatum Koch, 1844 and Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille), 1806. No host information was given for the ticks in this collection. REFERENCES Anastos, G. The 3rd Danish Expedition to Central Asia. Zoological Results 12. Ticks (Chelicerata) from Afghanistan. Vid. Medd. Dansk Naturh. Foren. 116: 169-174. 1954. Avanesoy, G. A. Tick transmitted spirochetosis in Afghanistan. Med. Paraz. Parazitar. Bolezni 7: 88-94. 1938. Hooastraat, H. Notes on African Haemaphysalis ticks. I. The Mediterranean-littoral hedgehog parasite H. erinacei Pavesi, 1884 (Ixodoidea, Ixodidae). Journ. Parasit. 41: 221-223. 1955. Pavuovsky, E. N. Tick recurrent fever. Medgiz: 1-79. 1944. PoMERANTZEV, B. I. Ticks, family Ixodidae. The U.S.S.R. and adjoining countries. Opred. Fauna §.8.8.R. Zool. Muz. Akad. Nauk. Leningrad (26): 1-28. 1946. ———. Fauna of U.S.S.R. Arachnida. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R. 4: 1-224. 1950. Suarir, M. A revision of the Indian Ixodidae with special reference to the collection in the Indian Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 30: 217-344. 1928. Yaximov, V. L. Contribution a Vétude des Ixodidés de Russie. Bull. Soc. Path. Exot. 15: 41-46. 1922. JANUARY 1956 ANASTOS: TICKS FROM AFGHANISTAN COLLECTION DATA 19 Acc. No. Species Locality Date No. EP-6 Argas persicus Kandahar 18-II-53 1 adult DM-2 Dermacentor marginatus Do-Shak, Khinjan Valley, Hindu | 1-X-52 1 female ; Kush DM-3 Dermacentor marginatus Larki, Sarekanda Valley, Badak- | 3-VIII-53 | 1 male shan DM-4 Dermacentor marginatus Walang, Salang Valley, Hindu | 29-IX-52 1 female Kush DM-5 Dermacentor marginatus Walang, Salang Valley, Hindu | 29-IX-52 1 male Kush DM-6 Dermacentor marginatus Sarekanda Mountain, Badakshan | 31-VII-53 | 3 females DM-7 Dermacentor marginatus Sarekanda Mountain, Badakshan | 28-VII-53 | 1 male, 1 female DM-8 Dermacentor marginatus Sarekanda Mountain, Badakshan | 29-VII-53 | 1 female DN-2 Dermacentor niveus Sanglish Pass, Minjan Mountain, | 2-VIII-52 | 1 female Badakshan HSU-2 | Haemaphysalis sulcata Bashgul Valley, Nuristan 9-IV -53 1 female HSU-3 | Haemaphysalis sulcata Bashgul Valley, Nuristan 8-IV -53 1 male HSU-4 | Haemaphysalis sulcata Bashgul Valley, Nuristan 24-1V -53 1 male HSU-5 | Haemaphysalis sulcata Pagman Mountain, 30 km. north- | 14-VI-53 1 female west of Kabul JD-1 Hyalomma dromedarii Bashgul Valley, Nuristan 11-IV-53 1 female JD-2 Hyalomma dromedarii Kandahar-Kuna 22-1-53 2 females JD-3 Hyalomma dromedarii Kandahar-Kuna 28-1-53 1 female JD-4 Hyalomma dromedarii Kandahar 13-11-53 1 female JD-5 Hyalomma dromedarii Vicinity of Kabul 20-III-53 | 1 female JE-3 Hyalomma excavatum Kutiau, Nuristan 5-V-53 1 male JE-4 Hyalomma excavatum Vicinity of Kabul 16-V-52 1 male JE-5 Hyalomma excavatum Bashgul Valley, Nuristan 8-IV-53 1 male JE-6 Hyalomma excavatum Bashgul Valley, Nuristan 24-IV-53 1 male JE-7 Hyalomma excavatum Bashgul Valley, Nuristan 17-IV-53 1 male IRR-1 | Ixodes redikorzevi redikor- | Pagman Mountain 6-VII-52 1 female Zevt RS-22 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Bashgul Valley, Nuristan 12-V-53 1 male, 2 females RS-23 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Bashgul Valley, Nuristan 6-IV-53 1 male RS-24 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Jalabad, Nuristan 30-III-53 | 3 females RS-25 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Kandahar 22-11-53 1 female RS-26 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Kandahar 11-11-53 2 males, 3 females RS-27 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Kandahar 19-I1-53 1 male RS-28 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Kandahar 19-11-53 3 males, 6 females RS-29 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Kandahar 13-11-58 1 female RS-30 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Kandahar-Kuna 22-I-53 1 male RS-31 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Kandahar-Kuna 1-ITI-53 1 female RS-32 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Vicinity of Kabul 16-V -52 1 female RS-33 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Vicinity of Kabul 16-V I-52 1 male RS-34 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Kutiau 5-V-53 1 male, | female RS-35 Rhipicephalus sanguineus | Tchakaran, Wardush Valley | 1 female 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 1 BIOCHEMISTRY .—Effect of cortisone acetate on production of liver and muscle gly- cogen from C-14 labeled glycine and DL-alanine.! W. C. Hess and I. P. SHar- FRAN, Georgetown University School of Medicine. It is generally considered that the glycogen formed in the liver of fasting rats, following administration of adrenal cortical hormones, is derived from protein (/—4). It has been shown that cortisone acetate does not increase the production of liver glycogen after feeding glycine above the additive effect of the individual actions of the two compounds (5). However, cortisone acetate does produce higher liver glycogen values when DL-alanine is fed (6). The maximum amounts of liver glycogen formed from glycine and DIL-alanine, 2.6 percent in 16 hours and 3.3 percent in 6 hours, represent conversions of 30 and 25 percent, re- spectively, of the theoretical amounts of the carbons of the 2 amino acids into glycogen. Using glycine and DL-alanine containing tagged carbon, several investigators have reported that only 1 to 5 percent of the isotope was present in the liver glycogen (7-9). It would appear, therefore, that the carbons of the formed glycogen do not necessarily come from the amino acid fed, at least as far as the particular tagged carbons are concerned. In a further study on the effect of cortisone acetate on liver glycogen formation DL- alanine and glycine tagged with C-14 in carbons 1 or 2 have been employed to determine whether there are differences in the degree of glycogen incorporation of the 2 carbons before and after the administra- tion of cortisone acetate. Procedure for the administration of the amino acid and estimation of liver glycogen is the same as previously employed (5). Rats, weighing 100 to 150 g, were fasted for 24 hours and then given either 500 mg of tagged glycine or DL-alanine and sacrificed at the end of 16 and 6 hours, respectively, the periods of maximum glycogen pro- duction for the 2 amino acids. The activity of the labeled amino acids fed ranged from 1.0 to 1.5 X 10® counts per minute. Activity 1This work was supported, in part, by a con- tract with the Atomic Energy Commission and also by a grant from the Council on Chemistry and Pharmacy of the American Medical Associa- tion. of aliquots of the isolated glycogen was de- termined using a gas flow counter. In the experiments with cortisone acetate 5 mg of the hormone were given intramuscularly at the end of the fasting period, and the glycine or DL-alanine were fed 8 or 18 hours later, so that, when the animals were sacrificed at the expiration of 24 hours, the maximum effects of the amino acid and the cortisone acetate would be obtained. Muscle glycogen was also determined on aliquots of the gluteus maximus at the same time as liver glycogen. Results —Each experiment was conducted upon 4 to 6 rats and average values and standard deviations for each series are given in Table 1. The percent of the administered counts of the C-14 in the amino acids found in the isolated liver glycogen is given in column 2. The glycogen formed from glycine 1-C-14 accounted for 2 percent of the ad- ministered counts, while 6.1 percent were found when glycine 2-C-14 was fed. Barnet and Wick (9) found 1.2 and 2.6 percent, respectively, of the administered counts from glycine 1-C-14 and 2-C-14 in the liver glycogen. However, they found only 1.7 percent glycogen in the liver after 17 hours, whereas our value at the end of 16 hours was 2.6 percent. It might be noted that Mackaye, Wick, and Carne (10) had previously found 2.4 percent glycogen at the end of 17 hours. The lower degree of incorporation of the isotope reported by Barnet and Wick (9) probably reflects the smaller amount of glycogen formed. The second carbon in DL-alanine yielded a higher amount of the labeled carbon in the glycogen than did the first carbon. Since the glycogen formed accounts for 30 percent of the carbons of the glycine fed, then if all the carbon in the glycogen comes from glycine 30 percent of the counts should have been present. The amount of labeled carbon found in the glycogen accounts for only 7 and 20 percent of the theoretical amounts of the 1-C-14 and 2-C-14 glycines, respectively. Similarly with DL-alanine where the liver glycogen formed accounted JANUARY 1956 HESS AND SHAFFRAN: TasLe 1.—LIvER GLycoGEN FoLLowina INGEs- TION OF CaRBON LABELED GLYCINE AND DL-AL- ANINE WITH AND WITHOUT CORTISONE ACETATE 1 2 3 4* 5 Glycogen ee Liver| Counts in} Total formed ree 100 wt | glycogen | glycogen| , 3 glycogen acid ercent & Eee mg mg i KO Glycine 1-C- 1 ae 4.2 | 2.0 + 0.4/105 + 10 1.9 + 0.4+ Glycine plus CAR eo. 4.3 | 2.8 + 0.3/172 + 15) 90 + 15/1.6 + 0.5 Glycine 2-C- TY eaten eerie 4.0 | 6.1+0.5) 99 +7 6.1 + 0.7 Glycine plus CAG ses 4.4 | 8.8 + 0.7/170 + 15] 86 + 14/5.2 + 0.8 DL - Alanine 1-C-14...... 4.6 | 1.7 + 0.2/144 + 14 1.2 + 0.2 DL - Alanine plus CA....} 5.1 | 3.3 + 0.4/270 + 19/173 + 8 /1.2 + 0.3 DL - Alanine 2-C-14......| 5.0 |10.7 + 1.1/160 + 14 6.6 + 0.9 DL - Alanine plus CA....} 4.6 |19.7 + 1.8/266 + 20/179 + 10/7.4 + 1.3 * Column 4 is obtained by subtracting glycogen formed by cortisone acetate alone in 24 hours, 1.9 percent, from column 3. ¢ Calculation of the t value of the difference for each pair showed no significance. tCA = Cortisone acetate. TABLE 2.—MuscLE GuLycoGEN FOLLOWING INGES- TION OF CARBON LABELED GLYCINE AND DL-AL- ANINE WITH AND WITHOUT CoRTISONE ACETATE Percent Compound Rat we| CWC | Total | of count amino acid g percent mg Wasting seen secieteetsrs asi 133 0.60 327 Fasting plus CA.......... 154 0.70 467 Glycine 1-C-14............| 187 0.62 341 0.5 Glycine plus CA......... 131 0.80 430 0.4 Glycine 2-C-14............ 135 0.59 330 0.6 Glycine plus CA......... 134 0.90 490 0.4 DL-Alanine 1-C-14....... 136 0.58 286 0.4 DL-Alanine plus CA..... 120 0.74 355 0.6 DL-Alanine 2-C-14....... 154 0.55 359 0.6 DL-Alanine plus CA..... 159 0.86 575 0.6 *CA = Cortisone acetate. for 25 percent of the carbon in the amino acid fed the counts in the liver glycogen explained 7 and 43 percent of the theoretical amounts for the 1-C-14 and 2-C-14 positions, respectively. When cortisone acetate was administered prior to the amino acid the liver glycogen formed represents the combined effects of the two compounds. If the amount formed by cortisone acetate alone in 24 hours, 1.9 LIVER AND MUSCLE GLYCOGEN 21 percent (4), is subtracted from the total amount produced the remainder may be attributed to the amino acid. These values are given in column 4. As previously noted cortisone acetate depresses slightly the amount of glycogen formed from glycine while there is an increased glycogen pro- duction from DL-alanine (5). The present results are in accord with the previous ones. The increase in glycogen formation from DL-alanine induced by cortisone acetate may result from the inhibition of glucose utilization by cortisone suggested by Bout- well and Chiang (//). Boutwell? has also found that the administration of tagged alanine together with cortisone acetate produced an increase in the concentration of the tagged carbon in blood glucose over that produced by tagged alanine alone. If the percent of the administered counts from the C-14 incorporated into 100 mg of glycogen is determined, column 5, to provide a uniform basis for comparison, no signifi- cant differences were found between the ‘results for each labeled amino acid with and without cortisone acetate. In the experi- ments with DL-alanine the cortisone was in the animal for 18 hours prior to the ad- ministration of the alanine, during which period the liver formed glycogen (5) and the period for the joint action was 6 hours; never the less the results indicate an equal dispersion of the labeled carbon in_ the glycogen. It is conceivable that the amino acids are converted into glucose that enters the metabolic pool from which the liver glycogen is synthesized. The glycogen formed through the action of the cortisone would come from the same pool as the extra glycogen from the amino acid and conse- quently contain the same percent of the labeled carbon. Apparently cortisone acetate does not influence the incorporation of the carbons of the exogenous amino acids into elycogen. The glycogen formed by cortisone in the livers of fasting rats could come from body protein (72) or as suggested by Kinsell et al. (13) from body fat. The results of the muscle elycogen are given in Table 2. The total glycogen is calculated from the relationship of muscle mass to body weight determinations of 2 Personal communication, 22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (14). While cortisone acetate did produce an increase in muscle glycogen, as noted by others (15), neither of the amino acids was effective. On the average about 0.5 percent of the administered counts were found in the muscle glycogen and the administration of cortisone acetate did not affect the value. Summary.—Liver glycogen formed follow- ing the feeding of glycine 1-C-14 or 2-C-14 to fasting white rats contained 2.0 and 6.1 percent of administered counts, respectively. Similar experiments with DL-alanine 1-C-14 and 2-C-14 produced 1.8 and 10.7 percent incorporation of the administered counts respectively. When cortisone acetate was injected prior to the amino acids the percent incorporation of the labeled carbon in 100 mg of the glycogen was the same as in the absence of the cortisone acetate. Cortisone acetate produced an increase in muscle elycogen; neither glycine nor DL-alanine produced any change in glycogen content either alone or in the presence of cortisone acetate; less than 0.5 percent of the ad- ministered isotopes were found in the muscle elycogen. vou. 46, No. 1 LITERATURE CITED (1) Brirron, 8S. W., and Sitverre, H. Amer. Journ. Physiol. 185: 657. 1954. (2) Lone, C. N. H., Karzin, B., and Fry, E. Endocrin. 26: 309. 1951. (3) Lewis, R. A., Kunuman, D., DELBu, C., Koepr, G. F., and Tuorn, C. W. Endocrin. 27: 97. 1940. (4) Locxrert, M. F., and Evans, M. M. Journ. Endocrin. 7: 357. 1951. (5) Hess, W. C., and SHAFFRAN, I. P. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 88: 804. 1953. —., Ibid. 86: 287. 1954. (7) OusEN, N. S., Hemineway, A., and NieEr, A. O. Journ. Biol. Chem. 148: 611. 1943. (8) Gurin, S., Dettuva, A. M., and Witson, D. W. Journ. Biol. Chem. 171: 101. 1947. (9) Barnett, H. N., and Wick, A. N. Journ. Biol. Chem. 185: 657. 1950. (10) Macxaye, BE. M., Wick, A. N., and Carne, H. O. Journ. Biol. Chem. 132: 613. 1940. (11) Bourweui, R. K., and Curane, R. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 50: 461. 1954. (12) Encen, F. L., Scurturr, S., and Pen7z, E. I. Endocrin. 44: 458. 1949. (13) Kinsey, L. W., Micnagts, G. D., Marcen, S., Parrrivce, J. W., Bouine, L., and Baucu, H. E. Journ. Clin. End. Metab. 14: 161. 1954. (14) Donaupson, H. H. The rat. Mem. Wistar Inst. no. 6. Philadelphia, 1924. (15) Lronarp, S. L. Endocrin. 53: 226. 1953. NOTES AND NEWS NEW PUBLICATION ON COLORS Publication of The ISCC-NBS method of desig- nating colors and a dictionary of color names, by Kenneth L. Kelly and Deane B. Judd, National Bureau of Standards Circular 558, 158 pages, has recently been announced by the Bureau. The circular is designed to assist the scientist, businessman, and layman to understand the dif- ferent color vocabularies used in the many fields of art, science, and industry. The dictionary serves not only as a record of the meanings of the 7,500 individual color names listed but also enables anyone to translate from one color vocab- ulary to another. For example, the dictionary shows that griseo-viridis (biology) = serpentine (fashion) = mint green (mass market), or in ordinary language, a light green. The terms by which this dictionary defines color names are those of a refinement of the method of designating colors outlined by the Inter-Society Color Council (ISCC) and de- veloped at the National Bureau of Standards. The system applies not only to the colors of drugs and chemicals, for which it was originally developed, but to the colors of all opaque, clear, cloudy, or fluorescent samples, whether viewed by reflected or transmitted light, and to micro- scopic structures. The circular may be obtained from the United States Government Printing Office at $2 a copy. FORAMINIFERA CATALOG REISSUED The Smithsonian Institution has recently issued an offset reprint of Charles Davies Sher- born’s An Index to the Genera and Species of the Foraminifera. This monumental reference work, long out of print, was originally published by the Smithsonian in 1893 and 1896 in two parts. It includes all species and genera of Foraminifera published to 1889, giving both the original names and any new combinations used by later authors, as well as literature citations. Systematic work on Foraminifera during the past 40 years has received a tremendous impetus from their economic value, especially that con- cerned with the search for petroleum and more recently with ecologic and paleoecologic studies. Because of the daily increasing volume of pub- lished material, it is difficult to keep abreast of nomenclatural changes in current work. Recently, Dr. Hans E. Thalmann of Stanford University completed for publication an index of the Foram- inifera from 1890 to 1950. This work continues the earlier work by Sherborn, bringing it up to date, but does not repeat the material of Sher- born’s book. With the forthcoming publication of Thalmann’s index and with the present reprint- ing of Sherborn’s classic index, modern students will have now available an invaluable tool in their systematic work on the Foraminifera. JANUARY 1956 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 23 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 1379TH MEETING, MAY 8, 1953 The Society was addressed by L. Marron, of the National Bureau of Standards, on the sub- ject Electron interferometry. The early optics of electrons was geometrical optics, the dynamic trajectories being analogous to light rays. DeBroglie introduced the wave con- cept of electron behavior in his famous disserta- tion. The contrast between photon waves and electron waves is due primarily to the fact that the electron has a rest mass, hence a rest energy, whereas the photon has mass only by virtue of moving with the speed of light. Experimental evidence of the wave-nature of electrons was first given by the classical Davisson- Germer electron diffraction experiment. In more recent years, Fresnel diffraction has been ob- served at the edges of objects in the electron microscope. Interference of light waves can be accidental, as in oil-film effects, or Newton’s rings, or inten- tional as in various interferometers. Inter- ferometers may produce equivalent virtual sources by wave-front splitting, as with two slits or two mirrors, or amplitude splitting, as in the half-silvered mirror of Michelson’s inter- ferometer. Similarly, accidental interference of electron waves has been observed in thin crystal flakes, and in blisters on iodine crystals. For an electron interferometer, both wave-front and amplitude splitting have been considered. A double slit system turns out to have unreasonable dimen- sions, so we turn to two mirror schemes. Un- fortunately, electron mirrors are not available, but we obtain a similar effect by the prismatic action of diffraction gratings. The use of three parallel gratings and suitable stops for the unwanted beams will suffice. A fraction of the incident beam goes straight through the first grating, is deflected by the second and restored to its original direction by the third grating. Another fraction of the beam is deflected by the first grating, restored in direction by the second, and passed straight through by the third. These two beams enter and emerge in the same direc- tion, but jointly delineate a rhombus between the gratings. The optical version of the arrange- ment was studied by Carl Barus and lost in the literature; it was set up and demonstrated to the audience. The electronic version has been built and operated at the National Bureau of Standards. The gratings were 100 angstrom thick gold erys- tals, made by the epitaxial deposit of gold vapor on the cleavage face of rocksalt crystals. The interferometer can be used for measuring the wavelengths of electrons, hence for determining Planck’s constant. Interference has been obtained with path differences of as much as 6000 wavelengths, despite the 200 wavelength limit predicted on the basis of diffraction experiments. This raises an interesting question as to the meaning of phase velocity, a quantum mechanical unobservable. It was also pointed out that free space is a dis- persive medium for electron waves, since the wavelength is related to the energy, hence to the velocity. 1380TH MEETING, MAY 22, 1953 President Manan announced that there had been a last-minute change of program, due to the sudden illness of the scheduled speaker, that two speakers were obtained on short notice from the Naval Research Laboratory, and that the Society was grateful for such fine cooperation. The first speaker was RicHarp Tousry. His subject was Rocket spectrographs for the sun in short untraviolet and X-ray. Rockets are needed for this work, because of the opacity of the earth’s atmosphere. The lower wavelength limit of balloon and mountain observations is 2860 angstroms. Some interesting problems in the use and recovery of rocket-borne equipment were explained. Spectrograms taken at various altitudes were shown, and the ozone density as a function of altitude deduced from the changes of absorption. Measurements down to 1900 A were made spec- troscopically. At shorter wavelengths, the ther- moluminescence properties of calcium sulfate and manganous sulfate were employed. These phos- phors are heated after recovery, and luminesce in proportion to the amount of short-wave energy they have absorbed. Narrow wavelength bands were explored with photon counters. Halogen filling reduces their long wavelength response, and absorption win dows reduce their short wavelength response, 24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON leaving a band-pass characteristic. Soft X-rays in the 5-10 A region were measured, and the observed intensities were compatible with a cor- onal temperature of one million degrees Kelvin. The second speaker was JoHn P. HaGen, Radio Observations of the Sun. He discussed radio frequency measurements of the tenuous solar atmosphere lying outside the photosphere. The photosphere is transparent to visible radiation, but not to radio frequencies. Such data yield the temperature and pressure in the solar atmos- phere. Motion pictures of the 1952 Eclipse expedition were shown. Eclipses are useful in this field be- cause radio telescopes have poor angular resolu- tion, hence the radial brightness distribution is hard to measure. Effective resolution is obtained during an eclipse by observing the radio fre- quency intensity as a function of moon coverage of the sun. Theory calls for limb brightening at radio frequencies. The 1952 expedition made measurements at wavelengths of 8 mm, 3 cm, and 10 cm. In all cases, limb brightening was observed, i.e., the sun appears to be encircled by a bright ring. From this it 1s deduced that the temperature rises steeply in the chromosphere, has a plateau in the corona, and then falls off. (Secretary’s ab- stract.) 1381ST MEETING, OCTOBER 23, 1953 Ricuarp L. Perrirz, of the Naval Ordnance Laboratory and Catholic University, was intro- duced by the President and spoke on Random processes and noise in semiconductors. The subject of the lecture was divided into two parts: (a) Discussion of the relationships between random processes in different fields of study, such as physics, biology, and economics; (b) application of random process theories to noise in semiconductors. Some of the basic definitions of interesting random processes were given. Reference was made to average values, probability functions, correlation coefficients, and power spectra. The Markoff process was discussed, and the relation between branching processes in biology and atomic bomb problems indicated. In a semiconductor the number of electrons contained in a conduction band is random. When a current is going through the semicon- ductor a noise is produced due to the fluctuation of the number of electrons. Noise studies permit the measure of certain parameters of the semi- ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vob. 46, No. 1 conductors. The speaker described some experi- mental methods used to determine the noise spectrum. He discussed how the shape of the noise spectrum is being related to the fluctuations of lattice temperature and to the electron mobil- ity in semiconductors. 1382D MEETING, NOVEMBER 6, 1953 James W. Davisson, of the Naval Research Laboratory, was introduced by the Chairman and spoke on Electrical breakdown wn crystals. Most phenomena in crystal physics add sym- metry to the crystal symmetry itself. In the X-ray determination, the most important prob- lem is to find out what is the symmetry of the crystal. It turns out that electrical breakdown phenomena, apart from crystal growth, are the only ones which show symmetry of crystals under all conditions. Electrical breakdown in crystals generally leads to the formation of well-defined paths. These lie in crystallographic directions which depend upon the symmetry of the crystal, the temperature, and the applied field. Both negative and positive patterns vary with the temperature. When one changes the polarity in crystals which lack a center of symmetry, the patterns are distinct and at no temperature come together. Present theory, based upon anisotropic electron scattering at the Brillouin zone borders, explains some of the qualitative features of phe- nomena. In metals, diamond, germanium, and silicon, there is no polarization scattering but a ‘nonpolar’ scattering. Sulfur scattering does not vary with temperature but presents still some orienting influence. It looks as if, in sulfur, there is a new type of asymmetrical scattering not de- pending upon the Brillouin zone border. There is, therefore, evidence that in addition to the Brillouin zone effects there must be some other source of asymmetrical scattering. After a discussion on the subject of the lecture, the meeting was adjourned for a social hour. Twenty-one members attended the meeting un- mindful of the snowstorm which fell on Wash- ington with complete disrespect to the Weather Bureau predictions. 1383D MEETING, NOVEMBER 20, 1953 SHIRLEIGH SILVERMAN, of the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory was in- troduced and assumed the chair for the technical portion of the meeting. The first speaker was JoHN Srronec, Johns JANUARY 1956 Hopkins University. His subject was Interim re- port on studies of infrared radiation from the moon and the planets. Slides of the 8-14 micron infrared spectra of Venus, Mars, and the moon were shown, and surface temperatures deduced from these data were given. The ingenious experi- mental arrangement for comparing planetary radiation with sky background and cancelling effects of apparatus radiation, was explained. One of the experimental results was that the visually dark side of Venus is as warm as the visually bright side, hence the day-night relation being observed was sunset, rather than sunrise. No carbon dioxide was observed on Venus, im- plying that the observed stratosphere is above the carbon dioxide layer. The atmospheric circu- lation of Venus appears to be opposite to that of Earth, for the poles of Venus were found to be 6° cooler than the equator, whereas an opposite relationship is true on Earth (at high altitudes). The earth’s atmospheric absorption was corrected for by an ingenious scheme. The infrared radia- tion from the moon can be computed in terms of the moon’s temperature, in turn computed from known solar constants. Comparison with the observed lunar radiation yields the absorption in the earth’s atmosphere. The second talk was Line width and shape in the Infrared, given by W.S. Benenict, of Johns Hopkins University. This talk was centered on the Lorentz law of collision broadening of spectral lines. The predictions of this theory for line peaks, troughs between lines, and extreme wings of bands were discussed and compared with ex- periment. The Lorentz law is good for CO, except in the extreme wings, fair for CO except in the wings and troughs, and no good at all for HCl. The inadequacy for HCl is attributed to polar intermolecular forces. The final talk was Photo-ionization absorption spectra of negatwe ions, by Lewis BRANSCOMB, National Bureau of Standards. Negative ions have a low binding energy of only 1 or 2 volts, hence the photodetachment of the excess electron involves infrared absorption. Most atoms do not form negative ions; those that do such as hydro- gen, usually have only one such state, hence do not yield a line spectrum of absorption but only a convergence limit of a continuous spectrum. These ions are of interest as a possible mechanism for storing electrons in the ionosphere. Experi- mentally, the weak continuous absorption is al- most impossible to observe. The speaker’s pro- PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 25 cedure was to observe by electrical means the detachment of electrons from a beam of known ion current. The experiments on negative hydro- gen ions check with theory; negative oxygen ions are still being studied. 1384TH MEETING, DECEMBER 4, 1953 The Society was addressed by K. K. Darrow, of the Bell Telephone Laboratories, on The Hall effect. He quoted a statement by Maxwell that the current distribution is Not affected by a magnetic field. Mr. Hall did not believe this statement, and devoted his doctoral thesis to an experimental proof of its falsity. An electric current flowing through a ribbon, whose plane is perpendicular to a magnetic field, tends to be deflected against one edge of the ribbon, in the direction of the resulting mechanical force on the conductor. This trans- verse virtual displacement of the streamlines of the current produces a compensating transverse electric field to compensate the displacement force. The vector resultant of the applied longi- tudinal electric field that motivates the current and the transverse electric field of the Hall effect, makes an angle @ with the direction of the ribbon. The transverse equipotential lines are therefore also rotated through an angle 6. This angle @ is expressible as a function of the magnetic field and the charge mobility, or as a function of the field, the current, and the number of free charge carriers per unit volume. Hence the Hall effect offers a means of measuring either mobility or free charge carrier density. If a trace of arsenic, atomic number 33, is present in germanium, 32, there are excess elec- trons available for conduction, even at low tem- peratures. As the temperature is raised, more and more of the arsenic atoms release their excess electrons, and the conductivity is increased. These effects are demonstrated by the sign and magnitude of the Hall effect. Conversely, if the impurity is gallium, 31, there is a deficiency of electrons, and the Hall effect yields the density of apparent positive charge carriers, and shows the increase with tempera- ture; these two types of semiconductor material are known as n-type and p-type respectively. At sufficiently high temperatures, pure germa- nium becomes a so-called intrinsie semiconductor. The thermal agitation releases valence electrons, and supposedly equal numbers of negative charge carriers and apparent positive charge carriers are 26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES present. Hall effect measurements yield the ratio of the two mobilities. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1385TH MEETING, DECEMBER 18, 1953 The Society was addressed by GkorGrE GAMOW on The arithmetic of life. Living cells are composed of two types of material: the body of the cell is made of proteins, the small nucleus of various nucleic acids, generally abbreviated DNA. The chromosomes in the nucleus are decomposable into six building blocks; sugars, phosphates, and four complex bases. The chromosomes somehow carry the information for the synthesis of the cell proteins. DNA comprises long chains of sugars cemented together by phosphates. To each sugar is attached one of the four bases. The bases can hook to each other in certain pairings by hydrogen bonding, thus allowing two suitable long sugar chains to be adjoined. The resulting dual chain chromo- some has a helical structure, with a pitch of one turn to ten sugar molecules. Chromosome division takes place by splitting of the string of hydrogen bonds. After the splitting, each of the bases can attach a replacement from solution, and even- tually restore the whole chromosome. In an ex- cited state, some of the otherwise forbidden hydrogen bond pairings can occur. Under these conditions, the newly grown half of a chromo- some may contain a few errors. Under subsequent division, this error is propagated and becomes permanent. This may be the explanation of mutations. The proteins of the cell are decomposable into twenty different amino acids, as building blocks. It is interesting to note that although amino acids have both laevo- and dextro- forms, only the laevo-acids have been found in living organ- isms. Protein molecules are made of long chains of amino acid groups. The problem is to explain how the long chromosome chains of four bases control the manufacture of the long protein chains of twenty blocks. Analysis of the allowable combinations of four adjacent bases in the chro- mosome chains, in light of the hydrogen bonding rules, shows that exactly twenty different ‘‘dia- monds” can oecur. The twenty amino acids fit into these diamonds, pointing in toward the axis of the spiral, and approaching sufficiently close to each other to join and make protein. These protein molecules can then be stripped from the mold, so to speak. Further combinatorial analysis shows that the twenty diamonds cannot follow vou. 46, No. 1 each other in arbitrary order, but still represent essentially a radix four system. The diamonds can be segregated into six classes: the first class contains four diamonds, each of which can be followed by any of fourteen, including themselves. The second class is similar. The third and fourth classes are similar, but the combining number is seven, rather than fourteen. The last two classes can each combine with only seven, and in each case this seven does not include the members of the class itself. If we represent each of the twenty diamonds by a letter we have 196 allowable pairs of letters, and each of these pairs allows only four choices of the succeeding pair. Trying to identify the various letters with the twenty amino acids is a complicated problem in cryptography. The structure of insulin is a known chain of 29 amino acids, hence represents an allowable message in our code. So far, the code has not been broken. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1386TH MEETING, JANUARY 15, 1954 This meeting of the Society was the occasion of the retiring Presidential Address on Some newly solved and some unsolved problems in optics, by Arcute I. Manan, of the U. 8. Naval Ordnance Laboratory. The address has been published in this JouRNAL 44: 165-194. 1954. 1387TH MEBTING, JANUARY 29, 1954 The Society was addressed by JEROME WoLKEN, director of the Biophysics Research Laboratory of the Eye and Ear Hospital, Pitts- burgh, Pa., on Cellular growth, structure, and func- tion. The structure of cells was described, in idealized form. A relatively new technique of electron microscopy of cells was described. The cell is first ‘fixed’? with Osmium Tetroxide; the excess salt is then washed out with water, and a plastic allowed to diffuse in. The cell can then be sliced with a glass knife into slices of 0.03-0.05 microns thickness. One of the organisms illus- trated by use of this technique was an interesting protozoon known as Euglena gracilis. This organ- ism contains both chlorophyll and a purely animal pigment, hence can be considered as either ani- mal or vegetable, or both. The fact that the chloroplasts can grow within the Euglena cell is shown by the fact that under suitable growth con- ditions, the amount of chlorophyll per cell in- creases with time. On the other hand, treating the cells with streptomycin or holding them at 40° Celsius will knock out the chloroplasts, but the cells will grow and divide at their normal rate. JANUARY 1956 There are about five chloroplasts per cell, on the average, and these plastids have a layer struc- ture, about 20 ‘dark’ layers separated by “light” layers. The light layers are mainly water and protein, the dark layers contain fat protein, and pigment, the pigment beimg chlorophyll in this particular case. There are about 10° chloro- phyll molecules per plastid. These molecules are assumed to “‘sit’’ on the surface of a layer. In a purely animal structure, the eye of the perch, the cones and rods show a similar layered or banded structure. The thickness of the bands is about the same as those found in Euglena and also in higher plants. The rod cells and cone cells also show about the same number of pigment molecules as did the plastids, even though these animal structures are much larger than those of Euglena. The apparent paradox is resolved by the observation that the visual pigments, of less molecular weight than chlorophyll, are attached to very large protein molecules in about a one-to- one ratio, whereas the chlorophyll molecules are attached to small protein molecules, still in about a one-to-one ratio. The larger animal proteins lead to the larger banded structures. Thus it is found that the dark bands in a wide range of cell types contain approximately the same number of proteim molecules, or rather, of protein-pigment complexes. There is chemical evidence for the existence of a protein-pigment macromolecule; the pigments in isolated form exhibit different chemical properties than do those in cells. (Secre- tary’s abstract.) 1388TH MEBTING, FEBRUARY 12, 1954 The Society was addressed by Herman Branson, of Howard University, on the topic Information theory and the structure of protein molecules. Shannon’s definition of imformation was reviewed, with attention to its additive properties. A table was displayed, giving the channel capacities, in bits per second, of various sensory organs, and the much slower information accepting capacity of the human brain. Informa- tion theory can be formally applied to the struc- ture of proteins, considering the 20-odd amino acid residues as alphabetic characters, and the protein chains as words. Each possible orienta- tion or other “complexion” of an amino residue is considered to be a different letter. The amount of information “stored”? in the molecule can be taken as the difference in the Shannon entropy, or uncertainty, of the particular amino chain in PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 27 question, and the maximum uncertainty that a chain of the same number of residues could have. The uncertainty is the logarithm of the number of possible “complexions”. In natural proteins, the uncertainty is greater than 85 percent of its maximum possible value, in most cases. This im- plies little information storage. As the total num- ber of residues, N, in the chain increases, the ratio of the uncertainty to its mimimum possible value appears to be a linear, increasing function of N. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1389TH MEETING, FEBRUARY 26, 1954 The Society was addressed by E. O. Hutgurt, of the Naval Research Laboratory, on the topic Magnetic storms, aurora, ionosphere and zodiacal light. Magnetic measurements have indicated that the earth’s magnetic field behaves as if there were a magnetic dipole at its center and a ring current of about 10° amperes encircling the earth in an east-west direction near the Equator. Dis- turbances in the earth’s magnetic field may be local or world wide, the latter being referred to as magnetic storms. During a magnetic storm, the earth’s field first increases, then it decreases below its normal value, and finally after a recovery period returns to its initial value. These disturb- ances arise from outside the earth’s atmosphere and are usually associated with sun spots. A so-called “ultraviolet light theory” has been proposed by Hulburt for explaining these mag- netic storms. The theory suggests that the sun bathes the earth in a sudden flare of ultraviolet light. This ight increases the ionization in the ionosphere with the result that the current in the east-west direction increases also increasing the earth’s magnetic field. The ionosphere however is also heated so that an outward expansion fol- lows. Because of the earth’s magnetic field at the equator, these ions are forced into a west-east current which brings about a decrease in the earth’s magnetic field. This theory has had con- siderable success in explaining many of these phenomena. Abnormal ionospheric activity is also closely associated with magnetic storms, but due to a lack of sufficient data and a complete evaluation of existing data on a world wide basis, ionospheric activity has not led to a better understanding of magnetic storms. Statistical studies have been started, but the work is unfinished. Several corpuscular theories have also been advocated for explaining magnetic storms. These 28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY theories assume that the sun projects streams of particles of like or unlike signs toward the earth, some of which enter the polar regions and produce aurora while others are trapped by the earth’s magnetic field and give rise to an increased east- west current at the Equator and hence an increase in the magnetic field. These theories then make plausible the first increase in magnetic field dur- ing a magnetic storm, but the explanations of the other phases are admitted as purely speculative. The zodiacal light and the ‘‘Gegenschein”’ were also discussed briefly. According to the older theories, both were explained in terms of the dust theory. Recently, however, the zodiacal light has been found to vary in brightness during a mag- netic storm and this cannot be understood in terms of the dust theory. To explain these mag- netic variations of the zodiacal light, Hulburt has extended his ultraviolet light theory by as- suming that the atoms which reach the outer regions of the ionosphere accumulate in an oblong ring in the plane of the ecliptic which absorbs the ultraviolet light and reemits part as visible light. This light is the zodiacal light. The portion of the ring away from the sun streams away due to light pressure and when viewed on end becomes the “Gegenschein.”’ Experiments to check these ideas are not in agreement. 1390TH MEETING, MARCH 12, 1954 The Society was addressed by Herpert FRIEDMAN, of the Naval Research Laboratory, on Solar X-rays, extreme ultraviolet radiation, and the ionosphere. Experimental data on the penetration of solar radiation into the atmosphere have been obtained primarily from rocket-borne equipment. Rocket flights reach the D, E, and F layers of the iono- sphere. In the ultraviolet range, 1300 to 1700 A, the main absorber is molecular oxygen, which is dissociated by the radiation. The atmospheric absorption possesses a deep window which passes the Lyman alpha line of hydrogen at 1216 A. The 2000 to 2800 A range penetrates to about 30 kil- ometer altitude, where it is strongly absorbed by ozone. The Lyman alpha radiation penetrates to about 70 kilometers, which is the deepest pene- tration of any radiation below 1800 A. Between 1000 and 2000 A, the spectrum is too weak for diffraction grating observations in the time available in a rocket flight. Intensity meas- urements in this range are therefore made at spot wavelengths with suitable photon counters. OF SCIENCES VoL. 46, No. 1 These are essentially Geiger counters with photo- sensitive cathodes, and special windows for fil- ters. Such an ultraviolet counter was demon- strated. A flashlight produced absolutely no response, but the flame of a match yielded a strong signal. It was also demonstrated that glass is opaque to the ultraviolet to which this counter responded. Various photoelectron thresholds down to 1900 A are obtainable by the use of a suitable cathode. Filling the counter with the proper gas will suppress emission from the cath- ode, and require photoionization of the gas for response. Appropriate combinations of cathode, gas, and window material make possible counters responding to only a relatively narrow band of wavelengths. A counter was demonstrated, having a 1300 A threshold. Sapphire and lithium fluoride windows were used. Sapphire gives a pass band from 1050 to 1300 A, and allows measure- ment of the Lyman alpha line intensity. Ninety percent of the solar radiation in this wavelength range, below 100 kilometers altitude, is Lyman alpha. The D layer of the ionosphere is explain- able by Lyman alpha absorptioe producing ionization of Nitric Oxide. For measurement of X-rays of approximately 10 to 20 Angstroms, beryllium and aluminium windows are suitable. The major absorption of 10 to 100 A radiation is found to be in the region from 100 to 120 kilometers altitude. The resultant ionization is a reasonable source for the E layer. Measured X-ray intensities fit the known ioniza- tion density of the E layer. The sun’s corona contains highly ionized atoms, with as many as fourteen electrons re- moved. Recombination of these atoms with free electrons yields a continuous spectrum that is characteristic of a temperature of 1,000,000° Celsius. This supplies the 20 to 50 Angstrom energy for producing the E layer. Helium II radia- tion is strong at about 200 A and may contribute to the F layer. The coronal green line is attributed to Fe XIV, and is apparently a good indicator of the solar X-ray output. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1391sT MEETING, MARCH 26, 1954 The twenty-third Joseph Henry Lecture was delivered by Henry Marcenav, of Yale Uni- versity. His paper Advantages and disadvantages of a causal interpretation of quantum mechanics was published in full in this JourNaL 44: 265-276. 1954. JANUARY 1956 PROCEEDINGS: 1392p MEETING, APRIL 9, 1954 The Society was addressed by A. MrcHE.s, of the University of Maryland and the University of Amsterdam, on the subject Some aspects of high-pressure molecular physics. The classical Van der Waals picture of molecu- lar interaction was reviewed, and its quantum mechanical explanation in terms of the inter- actions of electric charges. According to this model, the electronic orbits must be distorted as a substance is compressed, i.e., as the molecules are forced to be closer together. For example, if pv is strongly increased in an isothermal com- pression, both the total energy and the kinetic energy increase. Since the temperature is un- changed, the additional kinetic energy must be in the electronic orbits. An interesting rough theory of high pressure effects has been worked out assuming close packed hydrogen atoms. Each electron is assumed to be confined to a geometrical cell centered on its proton. A computation of the electron kinetic energy increase of 5000 cal/mole for a pressure of 3000 atmospheres. This result is in approxi- mate agreement with experimental values for a number of gases. For sufficiently high pressure, several hundred thousand atmospheres, the electron energy would exceed the ionization po- tential. Does this imply that hydrogen would then behave like a metal? A similar orbit distortion verification was per- formed on germanium. A pressure of 3000 atmos., increases the gap between the full energy bands and the conduction bands by 3 percent, as indi- cated by conductivity measurements. These re- sults are also shown by the shift in the edge of the infrared absorption spectrum. Electron orbit distortion also shows up directly in polarizability. Measurements on carbon dioxide show a peak at about the same density for which the isothermal kinetic energy is a minimum. Another interesting property is shown by the behavior of the vibrational absorption of mole- cules as the pressure is increased. The nitrogen molecule, for example, has no polar moment and its vibration is not optically active. Under 100 atmospheres pressure, the distortion produces a polar moment, and a wavelength of 4.2 microns is absorbed. In the case of hydrogen, the absorp- tion coefficient varies as the square of the density. If, however, the compression is produced by add- ing argon instead of more hydrogen, the variation is linear. These results are interpreted as a linear PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 29 increase due to pressure distortion, and an addi- tional density factor arising from the increased collision rate when hydrogen alone is_ used. (Secretary’s abstract.) 13938D MEETING, APRIL 23, 1954 The program was entitled “An Evening of Crystal Growth” and consisted of a set of three related lectures. Pau Eat, of the Naval Re- search Laboratory, acted as organizer and chair- man. The first topic was The role of impurities in crystal growth, discussed by SAMUEL ZERFOSS, of NRL. Large single crystals are grown from solu- tion, from a melt, or by a flame melting process. Samples of these types were demonstrated. A particularly large solution grown crystal of ADP (ammonium dihydrophosphate) was exhibited and discussed. A flat seed plate was used to start the growth of a square bar, by extension of the faces, but not the edges, of the seed. The first step is to grow end-caps on the plate. This yields foggy material, but develops the equilibrium end shape, by growth along preferred planes, starting from the corners of the seed. After the endcap is developed, growth of clear crystal proceeds. The addition of impurities to the solution modifies the growth habit of crystals, changing the preferred faces. Sometimes the modification is beneficial, as in the case of sodium chloride. This substance, in pure solution, grows too vigor- ously, and makes a large cubical assembly of many relatively small crystals having approxi- mately the same orientation. The addition of lead chloride inhibits the growth on certain regions of the crystal’s surface, with the end re- sult of a large, perfect, single crystal. The lead chloride action is transient, for the resulting crys- tal is free of lead chloride. The flame fusion process, familiar as the source of synthetic rubies ete., requires very pure raw materials. The residual impurities gather on the surface of the boule as a scum. This technique has been modified at NRL to allow processing in vacuo. The flame is replaced by a section of carbon pipe, heated as an induction furnace. The second topic was The role of dislocations in crystal growth, presented by F. Hussarp Horn, of the General Electric Co. The growth rate of a crystal depends upon the degree of supersaturation of the solution. The relation is essentially linear in the supersaturation range of 25-40 percent, and in this range seems 30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY adequately explained by theory. At lower con- centrations, crystals still grow well, but the theory breaks down. It has been proposed that crystals grow readily only on edges or other discontinuities, and not on extensive perfectly flat faces. A screw dislocation would give rise to a fault line upon which growth could proceed. Analysis shows that growth on the face of such a “cliff? would propagate the cliff in a self-maintaining fashion, quasi-macro- scopic feature of growth. Such spirals could also be initiated by impurity specks, or other local perturbations. Some fascinating color slides of spiral growth patterns on calcium carbide crys- tals were shown. (One of these could have been suitable for a necktie design.) Time lapse motion pictures, with a speed up factor of 64, convine- ingly demonstrated this phenomenon in other substances. It was concluded that the growth of a single crystal to appreciable size requires the presence of some type of imperfection. The final speaker was Mr. Eerr, who used the remaining few minutes to refute the arguments of the previous speakers. His title was The role of theories in crystal growth. Mr. Egli showed slides of crystals that “obviously” did not grow by spirals. Their growth was not controlled by im- purities but by the lattice in keeping with class- ical theory. The dislocation theory cannot be of major importance, because these spirals occur on the slowly growing faces, not on the fast ones. The spiral growth phenomenon may explain the existence of growth on faces that really shouldn’t grow. In the case of ADP, the pyramid faces grow rapidly, while the prism faces don’t grow. No theory has yet been proposed that will ex- plain this basic fact. The state of aggregation of the molecules in solution may be involved. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1394TH MEETING, MAY 7, 1954 The program for the meeting was entitled “History and Traditions of the Philosophical Society of Washington.” Four Past Presidents were presented to the Society with a formal bow both by the speaker and President ForBusH as was the custom in earlier years. The first speaker was L. H. Apams, who served as President of the Society during 1929. Mr. Adams spoke of the early history of the Society, quoting quite frequently from W. J. Humphrey’s paper The Philosophical Society of Washington through a thousand meetings. The Society was OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. | founded on March 13, 1871. Joseph Henry was its first president and continued to serve in this office until his death in 1878. In the beginning, the Society included all branches of science. With the years, various groups split off and formed independent societies. The first official publica- tion of the Society was the Bulletin which was published up to 1911. After that it was discon- tinued and the present method adopted of pub- lishing the Proceedings in the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences. Some of the early papers presented before the Society were: Anomalies in sound signals, A. B. JOHNSON Experiments on the photophone, A. G. BELL Skin friction, A. F. Zaum Solar radiation, C. G. Abbot Mr. Adams’s membership in the Society dates from 1910, at which time he presented a paper before the Society. Mr. Adams told a few stories and then gave some personal reminiscences con- cerning various members whom he had known over the years. The second speaker was L. B. TuckERMAN, who served as President during 1932. At the be- ginning, Mr. Tuckerman stressed the importance of the tradition of starting the meetings on time, stating that the meeting had not started until 8:52 p.m. He also mentioned that over the years the meetings could be described as reasonably dignified. Examples of meetings were cited which were not so dignified and yet which proved to be equally interesting. Mr. Tuckerman then re- called in chronological order all the past presi- dents he had known, giving in each case the par- ticular things which stood out in his memory about each one. The first was Lyman Briggs who was president in 1916. He mentioned what an inspiration Mr. Briggs had been to all who knew him. A few stories were also told about W. J. Humphreys, the most interesting of which centered about a pig which survived being struck by a ball of ightning. Mr. Tuckerman also men- tioned another tradition of the Society which is falling by the wayside. This was described as the “pinning back of the ears of the retiring presi- dent’’, and of course refers to the frolic which is staged at the expense of the retiring president during the dinner staged in his honor. An example of these procedings cited was that of the making of a LiCl cocktail in honor of the retiring president in 1940, R. E. Gibson. The making of this cock- tail was first credited to Mr. Gibson. It was later JANUARY 1956 learned that this cocktail had somewhat toxic properties. Mr. Tuckerman stated, however, that no serious complications developed, for none of the members who attended that dinner are now dead. At the close of Mr. Tuckerman’s remarks, Mr. MeNish asked permission from the chair to cross examine the speaker on his statement of the time of starting on the meeting. After consulting the acting recording secretary, it was finally agreed that Mr. Tuckerman had meant 8:22 p.m. instead of 8:52 p.m. The third speaker of the evening was H. L. CurtTIs, who was president of the Society in 1931. Mr. Curtis appeared in the formal attire of his period in office, tails and all, and presented a pre- pared address on The development of a subspecies of the genus Homo, sapiens scientifica, who no longer adorn themselves by wearing tails”. This address has been published in full in this JourNaL 45: 131-132. 1955, and will not be discussed here. The last speaker of the evening was F. G. BRICKWEDDE, who served as President during 1939. Mr. Brickwedde discussed the subject The History and development of the Joseph Henry and Christmas lecture committees. During the presi- dency of H. L. Curtis in 1931, the income of the Society began exceeding the expenses, so a com- mittee was appointed to determine how the Society might further serve the interests of its members. This committee made the recommenda- tion that a lecture be given each year in some field of research by scientists outside the Wash- ington area. These lectures were not started with the idea of honoring Joseph Henry, but it was natural that this should follow, for 1931 was the centenial of the discovery of induction with which Joseph Henry was so closely associated. The first Joseph Henry Lecture Committee was composed of L. H. Adams, C. G. Abbot, and R. E. Gibson. The first Joseph Henry Lecturer was Joseph Ames, president of the Johns Hopkins Univer- sity, and the lecture itself was devoted to the life work of Joseph Henry. Mr. Brickwedde then re- viewed for the membership some of the outstand- ing contributions of Joseph Henry. The names of several of the following lecturers and their sub- jects were also mentioned. Again in 1952, the Society found its income still increasing in spite of the fact that its dues per member were still fixed at $3. At this time Mr. MeNish, the President, appointed another committee to determine how these funds might PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 31 best be placed in the service of the Society. This committee consisting of A. Stone, L. Marton, and M. L. Henderson recommended the establishing of two demonstration lectures to be given for young people in the age range fourteen to twenty one. The first Christmas Lecture committee con- sisted of L. Marton, A. Stone, L. A. Wood, and A. I. Mahan. The first Christmas Lecturer was Edwin H. Land, of the Polaroid Corporation, who gave a demonstration lecture on T'wo- and three-dimensional color photographs. Last year these lectures were given by R. M. Sutton, of Haverford College, who spoke on The world we see and The world we don’t see. Several other Past Presidents and members of the Society made additional remarks. Some of these were Lyman Briggs, E. C. Crittenden, and W. G. Brombacher. At the close of the meeting, 15 past presidents assembled in front of the membership. 1395TH MEETING, MAY 21, 1954 The Society was addressed on Quantum limita- tion to vision by ALBERT Rose, of the David Sarnoff Research Center, RCA. The well-known decrease in spatial and tonal resolution of the eye with decrease of light intensity is due pri- marily not to physiological factors but to effects of quantum physics. At low levels of illumina- tion, there are just not enough photons reaching the eye to convey the desired detailed informa- tion. This quantum effect is not obvious, for there is no noticeable “granularity” to the perceived light. Classical vision theory utilizes the bleaching of visual purple to generate nerve impulses. Quan- titative studies have been made using flicker effect and dark adaptation. Adaptation to the dark results in an apparent sensitivity imcrease of about 10,000 to 1. This has been interpreted to mean that under the conditions of high illumi- nation, 99.99 percent of the visual purple is bleached. This would imply that only 0.01 per- cent (or possibly 0.1 percent) of the incoming photons can be utilized, but it can be demon- strated that practically 100 percent must be utilized for use to see as much as we do! A slide was shown illustrating a test pattern of various size gray and black dots photographed in such a manner that each individual photon re- corded as a white spot. The smaller the spot, or the less its contrast with the background, the more photons are needed to show its presence. 32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In the case of a regular lattice array of spots and incident photons, a single photon is sufficient to show a dot (by being absent from the pattern of reflected photons). If the spot has a reflection co- efficient of 949, at least 10 photons are needed to make the minimum detectable difference of one photon between the dot and the background. For 1 percent contrast, 100 photons are needed, etc. This illustrates the quantum limitation to tonal discrimination. If the array of incident photons is random, many more are needed to detect a dot—.e., to make it obvious that a group is missing in the reflected illumination. It is found experimentally that a set of about 25 close neighbors must be missing from a random pattern to make it ap- parent that there is a “hole” in the pattern. For the 10 percent contrast gray dot to be detected, then, it would require an illumination density such that some 2500 photons were incident upon the dot; the 1 percent contrast dot would require 250,000 incident photons. This ‘‘square law”’ in- crease follows from statistical reasoning. Under room illumination of 10 foot-candles, about 4 x 10!® photons are incident on each square foot each second. Allowing for the area of the iris, and the tenth-second integrating time of the eye leaves about 10” photons available to the entire retina for one observation. This boils down to 10,000 per receptor, which from above is too few to detect an image of 1 percent contrast. Hence for this contrast, the quantum effect would limit resolution before receptor size would. This argument is independent of the mechanism of vision. For a 10 percent contrast image of 1 to 2 minutes of are extension, there are just enough photons available if 1 percent of them are used. For weak light, 145 of the incident photons must be used to account for what we actually see. That is, in weak light, the utilization efficiency is about ten times what it is in good light. This allows only 90 percent of the visual purple to be bleached under good illumination, leaving a factor of a thousand in apparent sensitivity still to be ex- plained. The speaker suggested that there may be a built-in amplifying system between the retina and the nerve fibers. This is needed because the nerve impulses are more energetic than the re- ceived light. On this basis, dark adaptation is due mainly to an Automatic Gain Control in the VOL. 46, No. 1 amplifying system. The lag in adaptation can be explained by the time constant of the AGC system. The lecture was concluded with some slides showing the image of a girl under illuminations ranging from 10~° foot-lamberts to 107? foot lamberts. The granularity was quite evident at the lower levels of illumination, and the dis tinguishability of the image varied with level in a startling manner. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1396TH MEBTING, JUNE 4, 1954 The Society was addressed by Raymonp J. SEEGER, of the National Science Foundation. His subject was On natural Philosophy. The meaning of ‘natural philosophy” has changed considerably in recent generations, as has indeed the meaning of plain “philosophy.” The speaker traced three eras of relationship between science and philosophy. The first period, the age of speculative science, was typified by Plato and Aristotle. Quoting liberally from the Greek and Latin classics, Mr. Seeger illustrated his point that during this period philosophy and science were intermingled and indistinguishable. The second period, the age of national science, saw the lives of St. Thomas Aquinas and Immanuel Kant. It was Aquinas who first dis- tinguished between philosophy and _ science. Earlier writers had treated science as a part of their philosophy, not as a study ini itself. Kant attempted to divorce science completely from philosophy, rather than to have it as a special branch of philosophy. The third period is characterized as the age of experiential science, with philosophy completely missing from the picture. Physical principles are accepted on the basis of logical compatibility and experimental verification, rather than an appeal to being understandable. ‘““Meaning”’ is ignored. Science absorbed metaphysics, whereas Descartes had science subordinate to metaphysics. The speaker went on to present scattered aspects of his own viewpoint, or his philosophy about philosophy. He commented briefly on Margenau’s work, and asked rhetorical questions, about “‘real”’ mass in relativity. He summed up some of the problems by quoting “The common sense of today is the uncommon science of yesterday.” (Secretary’s abstract.) Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences PPEESUACTU ae oxox. dete sis eis sive oes caer Maraaret Pittman, National Institutes of Health AP OSUETILAELECEam ciara dials: sre ee aiets isieiaisy Sees RaupH E. Gipson, Applied Physics Laboratory SOPRA Us poate UDO DOG GH GOD ECT Coenen Hetnz Specut, National Institutes of Health PUT EUSUTEN To. 6 62 5 <6 Howarp S. Rappuirye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) JA RRTATOS 6G aleic a COTES Gee acre crear Joun A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Harrap A. Renper, U.S. National Museum Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: Philosophical Society of Washington..:.......-......-+------ Lawrence A. Woop Anthropological Society of Washington....................... FRANK M. SETzLER Biolorical) Society, of Washington... .4---.054-76>- 5-05 44- HERBERT G. DIEGNAN Chemical Society of Washington.................... Pee Nee Wiuui1am W. Watton Pntomological Society of Washington. .).5.¢-2--ss-++seesss 40650506" F. W. Poos NationallGeographicisociety-s---n cee eee eee eee ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington....................-.-005. Epwin T. 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C. Hzss Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............ Tuomas G. DiaeEs Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research Rosert M. STEPHAN Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences.......F. N. FRENKIEL District of Columbia Branch, American Meteorological Society Francis W. REICHELDERFER Elected Members of the Board of Managers: PROM AIUAT Yel QOGi tel) ike ac ais yee slecere audit 4 scpesnete M. A. Mason, R. J. SEEGER SRG MUA UAT VL O5 75 ors oe Success sicineedeberre ce eed, lois oe A. T. McPuerson, A. B. GuRNEY PROM AN UAT Vel OOSie 6 ac. gach as oer e am se ays ets Hee W. W. Rusey, J. R. SWALLEN SOOT OLOMVMGNAGENSs cach. js ssa4- 42h ase: All the above officers plus the Senior Editor LECCIRG GY LUCID = mera coxa oe OOO cee ee out Re ENE oo AOE [See front cover] Harecutiwe Committee... 2... 5...csencnceceeuee: M. Pitrman (chairman), R. E. Gipson, H. Specut, H. S. Rappierye, J. R. SwALLeN Committee on Membership.... Roger W. Curtis (chairman), Joon W. ALDRICH, GEORGE Anastos, Haroun T. Cook, Josep J. Fanny, Francois N, FRENKIEL, PETER KING, Gorpvon M. Kunz, Louris R. Maxwe.u, Ftorence M. Mrars, Curtis W. SaBRosky, BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ, Bancrort W. SITTERLY, WILLIE W. SmitH, HarRY WEXLER Committee on Meetings...... ArNoLp H. Scort (chairman), Harry 8. Berntron, Harry Bortuwick, Herspert G. Detagnan, Wayne C. Haut, Apert M. STONE COTE OF. WIGROGPRGHOS..000000669255000000385000000 G. ArtHUR CoopErR (chairman) FRomanianyelOoOmeee ence eins eee G. ArrHurR Cooprr, James I. HorrmMan PROM ANU Arye VOD Ta coco ccerties fee hase oe es Haratp A. Reaper, Wiuui1AmM A. DayToN RoOpanuanyol G58). somes aces eee sees os Dean B. Cowiz, JosepH P. HE. Morrisoyr Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement. .. FREDERICK W. Poos (general chairman) For Biological Sciences..... Sara EK. Branuam (chairman), JoHN 8. ANDREWS, James M. Hunptey, R. A. St. Grores, Bernice G. Scuusert, W. R. WepEL For Engineering Sciences...... Horace M. Trent (chairman), JosepH M. CALDWELL, . Ditu, T. J. Hickey, T. J. Kintran, Gorpon W. McBrips, EH. R. Priore For Physical Sciences...... Bensamin L. SNAVELY (chairman), Howarp W. Bonn, Scorr E. Forsusu, Marearet D. Foster, M. E. Freeman, J. K. Taytor For Teaching of Science....Monroz H. Martin (chairman), Krrta C. JoHNSOoN, Louse H. MarsHatt, Martin A. Mason, Howarp B. Owrns Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.............. FRANCIS O. Rice (chairman), HERMAN Branson, CHarues K. TRUBBLOOD Committee on Policy and Planning.. Ba é _E. C. Ortrrenpen (chairman) MowanuanyslOSGeae tere een ae: lB, (Ol CRITTENDEN, ALEXANDER WETMORE PR OVD ANUATY 9D (ects nen evoccd od sme sega aeons JOHN E. Grar, Rayrmonp J. SEEGER Io) dinar Is, cose vapsoboeouease Francis M. DEFANDORF, Frank M. SErzLer Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent..ARcHIBALD T. McPuerson (chairman) Moranuamyal 956i cracsiacertensen.-ra sets che crea a es Harotp EB. Finury, J. H. McMILtLten Iho) dimen IG disco sonnasoouaenaaane neers L. Epwin Yocum, Wruitram J. YOUDEN PLOW anu anys Cosy eases ree wate id eriseacieeria ears: A. T. McPuerson, W. T. Reap Committee on Science Education.... RAYMOND J. SrEGER (chairman), RONALD BAMFORD, R. Percy Barnes, Wauuace R. Bropn, Leonarp CarmicuagnL, Hueu L. Drypen, Reaina FLANNERY, Rauew EF. Grsson, Froyp W. Hover, Martin A. Mason, Grorce D. Rock, Wiiu1am W. Rusey, Wriuram H. Seprety, Watpo L. Scumirr, . Van Evera, Wiuiram E. WRATHER, Francis E. JoHNsTon Representative on Council of PAN AWTAL SS seas ain eicas (olay ctcie avers ean SIM os Ry eres Watson Davis Committee of Auditors...FRaNcts E. Jounsron, (chairman), S. D. Cottins, W. C. Hess Committee of Tellers.. Ratpn P. Trrrsuer (chairman), E. G. Hamper, J. G. THompson CONTENTS Editorials. & e406) 2o6- Pk bee ee ee ee 1 Puysics.—Effect of defects on lattice vibrations, II: Localized vibra- tion modes in a linear diatomic chain. P. Mazur, E. W. MontTrRo.1, and Ri. B. Ports «2.4.0.4 25228 be6 ooh ck nee Se eee 2 MatTuematics.—Numerical experiments in potential theory using ortho- normal functions. P. Davis and P. RABINOWITZ......-..--9emee 12 Zootocy.—The ticks (Acarina: Ixodoidea) of the J. Klapperich Afghan- istan Expedition, 1952 and 1953. GrorcGE ANASTOS............. 18 BIocHEMISTRY.—FEffect of cortisone acetate on production of liver and muscle glycogen from C-14 labeled glycine and DL-alanine. W. C. Huss and I. P. SHAFFRAN ......0..0:..05+ ee 08 oe 20 ProceeEpiNGs: Philosophical Society of Washington................... 23 Notes: and. Newsi.c:...<.#: 25 oaaess sh eee ae a ee eee oe ee Le ae 22 VOLUME 46 February 1956 NUMBER 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Published Monthly by the meres HiNGTON ACADEMY OF So: GC oL Be N © Bes MOUNT ROYAL & GUILFORD AVES., BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences Editor: Cuester H. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 46 February 1956 No. 2 GEOPHYSICS.—Possibilities and significance of high-speed computing in meteor- ology.~FraNGcotis N. FRENKIEL, Applied Physics Laboratory, The Johns Hopkins University. These comments refer to the impressions from a conference on the significance and possibili- ties of high-speed computing in meteorology and oceanography that was organized under the sponsorship of the National Science Foun- dation and which met in May 1954 al the Uni- versity of California in Los Angeles.? Meteorological research is or at least should be of great interest not only to mete- orologists but also to physicists, applied mathematicians, astrophysicists, and other scientists. Many important developments in meteorology were brought about through active cooperation between various disci- plines. Modern research is often done by applying to a problem theoretical and ex- perimental methods developed by various branches of science. Recognizing these facts, the main purpose of the Los Angeles confer- ence was therefore to bring together mete- orologists, oceanographers, mathematicians, and physicists in a round-table discussion on the possibilities as well as the limitations of high-speed computing in meteorology and oceanography. Several participants prepared 1 Presented at the Tenth General Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophys- ics. Reprinted, by permission from the Scventific Proceedings of the International Association of Meteorology, Rome, 1954. London (Butterworths), 1955. Some references to the discussions included in the Proceedings are omitted in the present paper. 2The participants included F. L. Alt, J. Bjerknes, L. M. K. Boelter, J. Charney, C. Eckart, R. Fjgrtoft, G. Forsythe, F. N. Frenkiel, M. R. Hestenes, E. W. Hewson, J. Holmboe, J. Kampé de Fériet, J. Kaplan, W. W. Kellogg, V. O. Knudsen, G. P. Kuiper, J. W. Mauchly, W. H. Munk, J. Namias, M. Neiburger, i. Palmén, H. A. Panofsky, E. R. Piore, G. W. Platzman, R. R. Revelle, R. J. Seeger, Z. Sekera, J. Smagorinsky, H. K. Stephenson, H. J. Stewart, J. J. Stoker, O. G. Sutton, S. Syono, P. D. Thompson, J. von Neumann, and H. Wexler. in advance some comments on various mete- orological problems which already are or may be investigated using high-speed computing techniques. These comments helped in lead- ing to an extensive discussion of the applica- tions of numerical methods in meteorology and to an exchange of ideas between the forty or so scientists representing the various dis- ciplines. Most of the discussion of meteorological problems was concerned with the motions of the atmosphere. The fundamental laws of air motions are based on theoretical and ex- perimental information available from fluid dynamics studies and are applied with much success whenever the flow conditions are relatively simple, as is often the case in physics and engineering. However, in most meteorological problems, the fluid motions are extremely complex and the application of even relatively simplified laws of hydro- dynamics would require long computations. The meteorologists have, therefore, of neces- sity, been forced to build a discipline, based partly on existing physical laws and partly on insight into atmospheric phenomena gained from long experience. While the art of meteorology was thus being continually improved, important advances were being made in fluid dynamics and in pertinent mathematical techniques. High-speed com- puting techniques came into being and their development opened new possibilities. With this newly acquired knowledge and facilities, a more scientific approach to problems of atmospheric motions could again be at- tempted. Electronic computing machines can now, within a reasonable time and without requiring thousands of human operators, 34 JOURNAL OF THE apply such laws to many complicated mete- orological problems. Numerical weather forecast, using high- speed computing equipment, is already an object of extensive studies, particularly in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Sweden. From known meteorological condi- tions over the United States, for example, the general flow pattern can already be de- termined, one or two days ahead, for a large part of the country. Comparisons between the numerically determined charts and those observed one or two days later appear to be encouraging. With further scientific develop- ment, predictions of large scale flow patterns, located correctly to within, say, 200 miles, will be made soon on a routine basis. The use of electronic computers has al- ready made great contributions to many fields of science and technology. However, their importance to meteorology is particu- larly significant. In such problems as weather prediction, the meteorologist does not have the time or the means to apply all those laws of fluid motion which are well known. He therefore makes a general diagnosis of the meteorological situation and determines on its basis his forecast. There is, in such a pre- diction, some guessing in which experience is necessary and where some luck is helpful. No two human forecasters will reach absolutely the same conclusions. Unlike the human fore- caster, the electronic computing machine is completely objective; it will not guess, but it will give results corresponding to the physi- cal laws used as a basis for the numerical forecast. An incorrect forecast will indicate to the meteorologist that his instructions or data to the machine should be improved. Thus a quantitative comparison between the effects of various possible improvements on the numerical weather predictions will be of great value. One should, however, not lose sight of the fact that an electronic comput- ing machine does not have its own intelli- gence. Its lack of intelligence is responsible for its objectivity which in turn limits the ability of the machine to making relatively simple operations according to a program prepared by human operators. It is only the speed with which the machine performs these computations and the volume of the numeri- cal information it can memorize which make WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 2 it valuable to a meteorologist. Each numert- cal weather forecast must be followed by a critical interpretation of the results by a synoptic meteorologist who using it as a basis, and taking into account the humidity and temperature distributions, will prepare the physical weather forecast. The final weather prediction will largely depend on the experience and ability of the synoptic mete- orologist. A part of his work will, however, be done using methods developed in exact sciences. One can see a certain similarity be- tween meteorology and medicine; the elec- tronic computing machine playing the role of such modern medical methods as, say, the determination of sedimentation rates. The diagnosis of a physician, like the diagnosis of a synoptic meteorologist will greatly improve if he uses all the available scientific tools. The contribution of high-speed com- puting techniques to weather forecasting consists primarily in making possible the nu- merical solution of some fundamental equa- tions of fluid dynamics which have been known for many years. However, the theo- retical foundations of numerical forecasting also depend on recent contributions to the mathematical representation of atmospheric motions and to numerical analysis. There are, also, some recent advances in fluid dy- namics which may, with the help of high- speed computing techniques, contribute to a better understanding of atmospheric mo- tions. I am referring to the statistical theory of turbulence and to the related applications of probability theory. Theoretical and exper- imental studies of turbulence may be useful in showing where such an approach to mete- orology will be of practical value. The recent development of the statistical theory of turbulence has been influenced by the possibility of comparing the theoretical results to experimental measurements in wind tunnels. Most of these measurements were made with hot-wire anemometers with which velocity fluctuations reaching fre- quencies of ten thousand cycles per second can be observed. The nature of the turbulent fluctuations is determined by eliminating, with appropriate electronic equipment, the mean wind velocity and expressing the tur- bulence characteristics by such statistical quantities as correlation coefficients, spectra FEBRUARY 1956 FRENKIEL: HIGH-SPEED COMPUTING IN METEOROLOGY 35 of turbulence and turbulence intensities. This electronic equipment operates, in fact, like a specialized analog computing machine determining statistical characteristics of the fluctuating wind velocity. The mean wind- tunnel velocity is well defined, and the fluc- tuations of the instantaneous velocity corre- spond to a scale of eddy sizes of the order of one centimeter or smaller. When the mean wind velocity is of at least 1 meter per sec- ond, the frequency of turbulent fluctuations is of 100 cycles per second or more. In an analog computing operation, a several second sample record is used which is sufficiently large compared to the magnitude of the fluc- tuation periods to give meaningful statistical results. The turbulent energy of the atmosphere includes a certain amount of energy corre- sponding to eddies of the same range of mag- nitudes as those of wind-tunnel turbulence. It also includes eddies of several centimeters or meters observed with micrometeorological instruments as well as larger size fluctuations recorded in most meteorological stations on manographs. Eddies of a magnitude of many kilometers and cyclonic motions observed on synoptic charts may be included in the defi- nition of the turbulent energy of the atmos- phere. The spectrum of atmospheric turbu- lence will therefore cover a very large range of eddies. One must have, therefore, a suff- cient amount of data on fluctuating wind velocities to be able to compute statistically meaningful averages. Electronic computing machines make such computations possible and enable us to apply some of the methods of the statistical theory of turbulence to atmospheric problems. The main importance of the modern theory of turbulence is, however, its contribution to the understanding of such physical processes as the transfer of turbulent energy from large scale motion to smaller scale fluctuations and the decay of turbulence. The equations describing these physical processes are based on the laws of fluid dynamics and are known at least in some simple cases of turbulent fields. The use of the statistical description of the turbulent fluctuations is justified here by the fact that it brings these physical processes into focus and is not a means for concealing our ignorance of these processes. The study of the relation between large- scale flow patterns and the smaller-scale phenomena, which are our local weather, must be based on a better knowledge of at- mospheric turbulence. This knowledge can be acquired from extensive atmospheric data obtained under various meteorological and geographic conditions. However, the enormous amount of available data and their extreme complexity make it practically impossible for a meteorologist to digest them and to grasp fully their significance. A large number of already available measurements, therefore, remain unexploited; other signifi- cant meteorological data are not even col- lected because of the labor and time which would be required to analyze them. High- speed computing techniques now make possible the analysis of these data in a reasonable time. As we have mentioned before, in a wind tunnel it is rather easy to define a constant mean wind velocity and the turbulent veloc- ity fluctuations which depart from this mean. The averaging process 1s much more difficult in the case of atmospheric turbulence. The definition of a “mean” wind velocity will essentially depend on the scale at which we wish to observe the meteorological motions. There will also be some mathematical diffi- culties in defining appropriate averages using the experimental data but in this regard one can obtain valuable results from studies of atmospheric spectra of turbulence. The largest scale at which one can study the atmosphere is the planetary scale. Here the main difficulty is that we cannot observe the Earth’s atmosphere as a whole. One may hope that in the future meteorological ob- servations from rockets and artificial satel- lites may be practicable but at present we have a general view of the atmospheric mo- tions only for our sun and for such planets as Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, and Venus, where some cloud motions or dust storms can be seen. The view from this great brings out the large scale motions and aver- ages out the smaller scale spatial fluetua- tions. To have an even more complete under- standing of the planetary circulation one must also bring out the large-scale time trends of the flow patterns by averaging out distance 36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the smaller time scale fluctuations. This can be attempted for our own atmosphere by determining an average chart from a large number of synoptic charts. The knowledge and understanding of the planetary circula- tion are of importance to long-range weather forecasting. In such forecasting the problem is indeed not to determine the location of individual fronts and cyclones but to predict the general trends of atmospheric behaviors over an entire hemisphere. High-speed com- puting techniques will be of essential impor- tance to such studies of long-range weather forecasting. We may, however, emphasize again the need for understanding the energy transfer from large scale motions to smaller scale fluctuations to which we have referred when discussing the spectrum of atmospheric turbulence. The relation between the general planetary circulation and the large scale “turbulent motions’? represented on the individual synoptic charts must also be a subject of a study based on modern fluid dynamic concepts. Let me at this place digress to quote from the writings of one of the first meteorologists, Aristotle. In his book Meteorologica, he writes: “‘Some people, wishing to be clever, say that all the winds are one, on the ground that the air which moves is in fact one and the same whole, and only seems to differ, without differing in reality, because of the various places from which the current comes on different occasions; which is like suppos- ing that all rivers are but one river. The unscientific views of ordinary people are preferable to scientific theories of this sort” (froman English translation by H. D. P. Lee). As you see, already 23 centuries ago there was some disagreement about the way one should look on the atmosphere. Aristotle’s comments projected to our times may have some relation to the statistical considerations of atmospheric motions. It is in fact easy to disagree about the importance of a statistical approach since under the same heading many quite different viewpoints are often included. The use of statistical methods is no doubt of particular importance in meteorological studies. To bring out the planetary circu- lation, a statistical analysis of the data can be used to eliminate all small spatial or temporal weather fluctuations. Statistical analysis can again be used to study these fluc- voL. 46, No. 2 tuations and determine a spectrum of atmos- pheric turbulence or a correlation curve. The significance of the shape of a spectrum of turbulence or a correlation curve would be based on the physical processes which they appear to represent. In many statistical problems, correlation coefficients are meas- ured and in some of them their value does not add much to the understanding of the physical processes. One can compute a correlation coefficient expressing quantita- tively the correctness of a weather forecast. Information theory is providing other meth- ods for such a quantitative study which will also be of value. In many micrometeorologi- cal studies one is often concerned with an- other aspect of a statistical approach in which a correlation curve is significant when it has a connection with the underlying physical process. Atmospheric pollution of an industrial area has now become a major problem in many communities. Such areas face the problem of reducing the degree of contami- nation without detriment to many of those human activities that produce it and that are necessary to the well-being of the popu- lation. Here again high-speed computing techniques will make possible the application of the laws of physics to the solution of a large part of the problem. The same tech- niques appear to be of interest to other problems related to turbulent diffusion. Serious consideration is also being given to research on evaporation as well as some problems of sand storms which are of such a great interest to the arid zones studies. The development and _ trajectories of tropical cyclones are the object of several studies to which high-speed computing will be very valuable. In this problem one has to solve a system of non-linear equations with certain initial and boundary conditions which involve so many complicated nu- merical calculations that only electronic computing machines will be able to give prac- tical results. Numerical forecast of the mete- orological conditions leading to disastrous floods has been proven to be possible. These and other meteorological problems are of major importance in certain areas and their further study awaits the scientific develop- ments now made possible with the assistance of high-speed computing techniques. FEBRUARY 1956 FRENKIEL: HIGH-SPEED COMPUTING IN METEOROLOGY 37 Since there are so many applications for high-speed computing in meteorology, one may ask the question of what is the status of electronic computing machines at present. A large number of electronic digital com- puters are now in operation and are used to solve meteorological problems. In the Wash- ington area there is now a numerical com- puting center especially devoted to numerical weather forecast. This center located in Suit- land, Md., is jointly sponsored by the Air Force, the Navy, and the Weather Bureau. Most of the meteorological problems and particularly numerical weather forecasting require digital computers of a rather large capacity with a large number of vacuum tubes and complicated electrical circuits. The size and cost of such computers with their relatively large power supplies and cooling systems often limits their avail- ability to many meteorological organiza- tions. There are, however, smaller com- puting machines which may be of great value to the study of several meteorological problems. I should also like to call attention to the possibility of using transistors in place of vacuum tubes in digital computers. A transistor is of about one tenth of the size of a vacuum tube and requires about one twentieth of its power supply. Although the use of transistors in digital computers is at present at an experimental stage one can expect that it will soon become practical. The installation of the electrical circuitry can also be considerably simplified by using printed circuits. Digital computers with transistors and printed circuits will require smaller power supplies, little or no cooling, and much less space. As a result they will no doubt become less expensive and more accessible to a larger number of meteorologi- cal organizations. One cannot talk about the status of high- speed computing machines without thinking about the processing of data and of the instructions to the machine. I have referred before to the large amount of numerical data which can be analyzed by a digital computing machine. However, the speed with which it performs its operations is often limited by the speed with which the data can be put into the machine. Numerical weather forecasting is particularly concerned with devising techniques for an efficient process- ing of data to the machine and of the result- ing numerical forecast back to the mete- orologist. In conclusion, let me summarize my main impressions from the discussions at the Los Angeles conference. I feel that a closer con- tact between meteorologists, physicists, mathematicians, and other scientists will be very profitable to the development of Mete- orology as a science. High-speed computing techniques have an important role in such a development; their impact will no doubt be felt in several fields of meteorological re- search. I have the impression that numerical forecasting will influence synoptic mete- orology in a very special way, for I believe that what is coming forward is a great devel- opment of a modern synoptic meteorology which will connect the synoptic studies to the numerical weather forecast methods. I have already referred to the fact that follow- ing a numerical forecast a synoptic mete- orologist will have to prepare a physical weather forecast. But of main importance to synoptic meteorology seems to be that, in the future, numerical forecast will be used to construct general weather patterns from which one will be able to determine a weather forecast located correctly within, say, a space scale of 200 miles. These pat- terns will form a framework which modern synoptic meteorologists, each in his own local area, will complete at an even smaller scale taking into account the atmospheric processes particular to his area. More cor- rect predictions of local weather conditions can be expected to follow such methods. To reach such results it is not necessary to have in each meteorological organization an electronic digital computer nor is it sufficient to have such computers in some meteorologi- ‘al organizations. What is more important is a proper net of data processing equipment and above all a sufficiently large number of modern synoptic meteorologists whose un- derstanding of atmospheric processes will make possible correct predictions of local weather conditions for each area of the size of a county or a city. 38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 2 MATHEMATICS.—Commutators of A and A*.1 T. Karo, American University, and O. Taussky, National Bureau of Standards. EDITORIAL NOTE The commutator (A, B) = AB — BA where A and B represent matrices or other not neces- sarily commuting operators has played an important role in quantum mechanics. The non- vanishing of the commutator of canonically con- jugate operators is the root of the Heisenberg un- certainty principle. One infers that commutability is not “purely mathematical,’ but of metamathematical inter- est. Developments in the theory of higher order commutators may some day find application in physics. A normal n X n matrix A is one which commutes with A*, the transposed com- plex conjugate of A. Four proofs are given here for the fact (Theorems 1 and 2) shown previously by C. R. Putnam [1] that the relation A(AA* — A*A) — (AA* — A*A)A = 0 already implies that A is normal. Two of these proofs do not use the characteristic roots of the matrix and can therefore be used for more general cases. Another of these proofs is generalized for bounded operators in Hilbert space. For unbounded operators the fact ceases to be true as is shown by the matrix 0 0 be OQ. OQ “2 0 OR OMENS Denoting AB — BA by (A, B) it is shown that the above theorem when combined with another result of C. R. Putnam, (see [2]), imphes the following more general theorem: for a non normal matrix A the commutators (A, A*) and (A, (A, A*)) do not commute. Finally, the case n = 2 is examined. It is shown that the commutator (EG G2) 1 This work has been supported (in part) by the Office of Naval Research. is proportional to (A, A*). If (A, (4, (A, A*) ---)) is called the nth order com- mutator if 2 — 1 brackets ( ) are used, it is shown that the fourth order commuta- tor vanishes if A has a double characteris- tic root, otherwise no commutator of order >4 vanishes for a not normal 2 X 2 matrix. Theorem 1. Let A be a finite matrix with elements in a formally real field or in a field with an involution a — a, for which >> aid: = Oimplies a; = 0. Let (A, (A, A*)) = 0. Then (ALA) = OF First proof. This theorem follows from the following more general one. Theorem 1’. Let A and C be finite matrices satisfy Te the conditions of Theorem F Then GrA= O) = O0impies GO Proof vo; Uheorem ha kuteoe— ule. @) and assume (A, B) = 0. Consider trace B*B. We obtam trace B*B = traces (GA — AG*)B) = trace C*AB —stracewAlGebn— trace C*4B — trace C*BA = 0. Hence trace B*B = 0 which implies that all ele- ments of B are 0. Theorem 1’ further implies that for non normal matrices A all “alternating”? com- mutators AAs 4, 2) CE (Ch (ZL Zt )))))) © < Z0 Second proof. From Lemma 2 of Jacobson [4], it follows that AA* — A*A is nilpotent. Since this commutator is hermitian it is actually the zero matrix. For, let By = 0 for B hermitian. If r = 2 the vanishing of the elements of the principal diagonal of B? implies already that B = O for the type of field considered. If r > 2 use the relation Br+s = 0 where s > 0 andr + s is a power of 2. It follows again that B = 0. Theorem 2. Let A be a finite matrix with » This theorem can be applied to matrices whose elements are polynomials with real coefficients of several indeterminates, e.g., group matrices (see [3]). This note arose in connection with the study of such matrices. In [3] groups with normal group matrices were characterized. Theorem 1 shows that they coincide with groups of which the 3rd order commutator of the group matrix vanishes. This can also be shown directly by group theoret- ical methods. FeBRuary 1956 complex numbers as elements. Then (4, Gy a) S O mipiues (CA, A*) = 0. First proof. The following two results are used: 1. Two matrices A quasi-commutative if? and B are called (A, (A, B)) = (B, (A, B)) = 0. Such a pair of matrices have property P, i.e., they can be transformed to upper tri- angular form simultaneously by a unitary similarity transformation. 2. If A and A* have property P then A is normal (see [7]). It is clear that (A, (A, A*)) = 0 implies quasi-commutativity for A and A*. Hence Theorem 2 follows.‘ Second proof. Since B = (A, A*) is her- mitian it can be transformed to diagonal form by a unitary similarity transformation. Since the relations B = (A, A*) and (A, B) = O are unchanged under a simul- taneous transformation of A, A* and B by the same unitary matrix, we may assume that B is already in diagonal form. Suppose now that B # 0. Then we may assume that there is an integer m (0 < m < n) such that the first m diagonal ele- ments of B are equal to some X # 0 while the other diagonal elements are different from X. Then (A, B) = O implies that A has only zeros for all (2, k) elements with 7 S m 0. Then (A, B) = O implies that reduces both A and A*.6 Let A, and A* be the parts of A and A* on Nt respectively. It is easily seen that Ax is equal to (A,)*. We have (A, , Ax) = By, where B, is the part of Bon I, . Hence A,AX — AXA, => ATH>O by construction where J, 1s the identity operator in Nt. Let x be any vector. It follows that || Ay x ||? S || Axa |? — A || x < (|| Ax |2 — X) || a ||? where || Ax || is the bound of Ax . This would lead to the con- tradiction || A, ||? S || Ax |? — » < |] Ax || Ay |]? unless 9 is zero-dimensional. Thus we have proved that J — FE, = 0 or FE, = I for \ > 0. Similarly we can show that #, = 0 for \ < 0. This completes the proof of 1B = Theorem 2 and Theorem 4 can be general- ized by using the following theorem of C. R. Putnam (see [2]): Let A be a bounded matrix and B be a bounded normal matrix. If (A, B) = C and U3, OC) = Owoea C= ©. Using this theorem for B = (A, A*) and Theorems 2 and 4, we obtain: Theorem 5. For a bounded matrix A in Hilbert space the commutators (A, A*) and (A, (A, A*)) commute cf and only if A ts nor- mal. D) 2 5K. Goldberg assisted us in this proof. See also [11]. 6 See [12], pp. 25 and 33. 40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 46, No. 2 REFERENCES 1] Purnam, C. R. On the spectra of commutators. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 5: 929-931. 1954. [2] Purnam, C. R. On normal operators in Hilbert space. Amer. Journ. Math. 73: 357-362. 1951. [3] Taussxy, O. A note on group matrices. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 6: 984-986. 1955. 4] Jacospson, N. Rational methods in the theory of Lie algebras. Ann. Math. 36: 875-881. 1935. [5] McCoy, N. H. On quasi-commutative matrices. Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 36: 327-380. 1934. 6] Drazin, M. P., Duncry, J. W., and GRUEN- BERG, K. W. Some theorems on commutative matrices. Journ. London Math. Soc. 26: 221-228. 1951. (7) Horrman, A. J. and Taussky, O. A charac- terization of normal matrices. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 52: 17-19. 1954. [8] Hatmos, P. Commutators of operators II. Amer. Journ. Math. 76: 191-198. 1954. (9] Vipav, I. Uber eine Vermutung von Kaplansky. Math. Zeitschr. 62: 330. 1955. [10] Kapnansxky, I. Review of [9]. Math. Rev. 16: 1125. 1955. [11] Rory, W. E. On k-commutative matrices. Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 39: 483-495. 1936. [12] Naey, B. v.Sz. Spektraldarstellung linearer Transformationen des Hilbertschen Rawmes. Berlin, 1942. — EE MISCELLANY Your Editor’s mail included the following letter on a problem of general interest. The appended news items on the subject indicate encouraging progress. A SOLUTION TO THE ‘SCIENTIST PROBLEM” Since so much alarmed attention is being given to the present and future shortage of really good science teachers and, ergo, of trained scientists, this solution might be presented: a rotating supply of teachers recruited from competent scientists now working in government, industry, and the Armed Forces. This might be organized on a one- or two-year “sabbatical leave” basis with the present em- ployer and/or Federal Government and/or foundations continuing that part of the scientist’s normal salary and expenses which the public- school system or college is unable to pay. If a man qualified to teach some phase of science is in- ducted into the Armed Forces, he could serve as a teacher under this plan in lieu of military service. Since every scientist, however competent, would not necessarily be equipped to teach his or her subject, probably a brief period of orienta- tion in planning, psychology, and course require- ments would be necessary before entering the school system. This could be given in the form of short seminars at colleges or at central cities, by teachers “borrowed” from colleges. Figures might be cited on the number of scientists in various fields who could contribute to such a plan. It would be intersting if state- ments could be quoted from leaders in govern- ment, industry, and the Armed Forces on the practical possibilities of the idea; also from educa- tional leaders on the plan’s apparent advantages (such as the value of instruction from expert “practicing” scientists and the drawing power science courses would have under such teachers), and from scientists on their willingness to partici- pate in such a plan, their recognition of the seriousness and immediacy of the problem, and their present inability or reluctance to teach because of the financial (and, possibly, profes- sional status) sacrifice now involved. Opinions might be gathered concerning under what agency this could best be organized (govern- ment? one of the foundations?) and where such teaching influence is most important (high school, college, or combination of both?). SHIRLEY Moore 810 Langley Drive Silver Spring, Md. TRAINING PROGRAM FOR SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS TEACHERS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS The National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council in cooperation with the Ameri- can Association for the Advancement of Science and with the encouragement of major groups in business and industry is setting up a supple- mentary training program for science and mathe- matics teachers in secondary schools. This group Fepruary 1956 is considered the most important segment of the American educational system, because largely upon them depends the interest and preparation of today’s students who may be tomorrow’s scientists, engineers, and technicians. : Arlington County, Va., is being used as a model for a pilot study on ways and means of improving the caliber of science and mathematics teaching in public schools. Other school systems in the Washington area have been invited to participate. School boards, parent-teachers associations, and civic groups are cooperating to raise a scholarship fund which will enable teachers to take graduate- level courses and familiarize themselves with both the fundamentals and recent developments in Sciences. Another aspect of the plan provides qualified teachers with opportunities for summer employ- ment in local scientific and engineering organiza- tions in both industry and government. On October 27, representatives of The George Washington University, University of Maryland, University of Virginia, American University, Georgetown University, Catholic University, Howard University, and District of Columbia Teachers’ College met at the Academy-Research Council to develop a joint program of special KNIGHT: NEW FAMILIES OF GASTROPODA 4] courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology for the summer of 1956. A committee on the improvement of science and mathematics teaching, composed of representatives of the participating universities, is being formed to help coordinate the plans for this cooperative effort. Responsibility for the general supervision of the entire program will be assigned by the Academy-Research Council to a special board representing all areas of science, mathematics and engineering. Shell Companies Foundation, Inc., has initi- ated a program of Shell Merit Fellowships for High School Science and Mathematics Teachers. Under the program, Shell will underwrite seminars for 60 teachers each summer. The study program will include graduate-level classes, lectures by outstanding scientists, and visits to research laboratories industrial facilities. Cornell and Stanford Universities will operate the seminars. Recipients of these fellowships will receive travel allowance, living expenses, tuition and fees, plus $500 to compensate other potential and summer earnings. ee PALEONTOLOGY .—WNew families of Gastropoda. J. BRookrs Kniaut, Smith- sonian Institution. The writer is senior author of a manu- script for those portions of Parts I and J of the Treatise on invertebrate paleontology that deal with the Monoplacophora and with the Paleozoic Gastropoda. The junior authors are Dr. Roger L. Batten and Dr. Ellis L. Yochelson. It was found that a not incon- siderable number of new taxa in the familial group were needed. Although exceptions have been made, it is thought that the 7’rea- tise is not an appropriate place for the pub- hieation of the names of new taxa. Likewise the authors feel that names published with more than two authors place an unnecessary burden on posterity and should be avoided if possible. If new names were published in the Treatise it would have been necessary to cite Knight, Batten, and Yochelson as au- thors, unless recourse was had to the always clumsy and often confusing expedient of cit- ing authorship for individual names of new taxa different from that of the paper as a whole. These considerations have led the joint authors to agree that the senior author, Knight, publish the new taxa of most of the familial group in advance of the appearance of the Treatise. Since the full systematic treatment and full diagnoses of these taxa will appear within the year and since diag- noses are not requisite for validity of familial names, though recommended (Follett, 1955, p. 5 [88, 42]), they are omitted here. Certain other names for new families, new genera, and new species will also be pub- lished separately in advance of the T'reatis« by the junior authors and by two others, Dr. Stephen S. Winters and Dr. Arthur J. Bou- 42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON cot, both of whom have papers in preparation containing taxa important to the Treatise. In the following list names ending in -acea apply to superfamilies, in -idae to families, in -inae to subfamilies, and in -ides to tribes. Familial name Type genus Agnesia IKKoninck, 1883. Archinacella Ulrich and Sco- field, 1897. Agnesiinae Archinacellidae Coelozoninae | Coelozonides { Elasmonematidae Euphemitinae Gyronematinae Hypseloconidae Coelozone Perner, 1907. Elasmonena Fischer, 1885. Euphemites Warthin, 1930. Gyronema Ulrich, 1897. Hypseloconus Berkey, 1898. Liospirinae Liospira Ulrich and Scofield, 1897. Luciellidae Luciella Woninck, 1883. Meekospiridae Meekospira Ulrich, 1897. Knightitinae Knightites Moore, 1941. Neilsoniinae Neilsonia Thomas, 1940. Ophiletinae Ophileta Vanuxem, 1842. D . « Palaeotrochacea | Palaeotrochus Hall, 1879. Palaeotrochidae ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 2 Familial name Pelagiellacea Pelagiellidae Phanerotremati- dae Plagiothyridae Planitrochidae Planozonides Platyschismatinae Progalerinae Rhaphischismati- dae Ruedemanniinae Tropidodiscinae Type genus Pelagiella Matthew, 1895. Phanerotrema Fischer, 1885. Plagiothyra Whidborne, 1892. Planitrochus Perner, 1903. Planozone Perner, 1907. Platyschisma M’Coy, 1844. Progalerus Holzapfel, 1895. Rhaphischisma Knight, 1936. Ruwedemannia Foerste, 1914. Tropidodiscus Meek and Wor- then, 1866. Tubina Owen, 1859. Turbonellina Konineck, 1881. Tubinidae Turbonellininae REFERENCE Fouuterr, W. Ll. An wnofficial interpretation of the International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature as amended by the X IIT International Congress of Zoology. Paris 1948 and by the XIV Inter- national Congress of Zoology Copenhagen, 1953. Society of Systematic Zoology, 1955. PALEONTOLOGY .—Some new pleurotomarian gastropods from the Permian of west Texas. Roger L. Barren, University of Wisconsin. (Communicated by John B. Reeside, Jr.) Five new genera and two new families of upper Paleozoic gastropods have thus far been recognized by the writer during a study of Permian pleurotomarians from west Texas and New Mexico. The purpose of this pres- ent paper is to make available the resulting new names for the forthcoming Treatise on invertebrate paleontology, since no new names can be included in that work. The new genera and families will be treated and illustrated in greater detail in a paper to appear shortly. PORTLOCKIELLIDAE Batten, n. fam. Description.—Characterized by dominant, usu- ally rather coarse spiral ornament and a sele- nizone low on the whorls; shell shape ranging from globose to turreted; ornament on parietal surface resorbed or covered by a very thin inductura. Tapinotomaria Batten, n. gen. Type species —Tapinotomaria rugosa Batten, n. sp. Description.—Turbiniform — pleurotomarians with rounded to steplike whorls and dominant spiral ornament separated by concave interspaces; collabral ornament forms rounded to elongated nodes at intersections with spiral ornament; selenizone defined by a thread with a spiral cord above this thread and commonly with a gap be- tween the cord and the next cord above it; slit shallow. Tapinotomaria rugosa Batten, n. sp. Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 125281, U.S.N.M. Locality 702d, Leonard formation, Glass Moun- tains, Texas. Description.—Whorl profile even and convex to selenizone; spiral and collabral ornament form nodes varying in degree of emphasis; 4 to 6 spiral cords above the selenizone and 4 to 14 spiral cords on the base. PHYMATOPLEURIDAEB Batten, n. fam. Description.—Discoid to moderately high spired, highly ornamented pleurotomarians with a selenizone located at or slightly above the periphery; the outer whorl face vertical or sloping and may be narrow compared to upper whorl surface; selenizone convex to concave and usually strongly bordered; there may be basal sinuses; ornament in the parietal lip resorbed. Fepruary 1956 BATTEN: NEW Callitomaria Batten, n. gen. Type species —Callitomaria stanislavi Batten, n. sp. Description.—Turreted pleurotomarians with dominant spiral ornament and step-like whorls, moderately wide selenizone situated about mid- way on an almost vertical outer whorl face; outer whorl face generally narrower than upper whorl surface; a spiral thread or cord present between suture and upper selenizone margin and one just above selenizone margin; collabral ornament variable in development from suture to base; shal- low slit; thin shell. Callitomaria stanislavi Batten, n. sp. Holotype —A.M.N.H. no. 27953, A.M.N.H. Locality 512, Getaway formation, Guadalupe Mountains, Texas. Description.—Collabral ornament coarse and variable, may be very strong forming nodes above selenizone or on base only or both; spiral elements equally well developed above and below selenizone. Discotomaria Batten, n. gen. Type species —Discotomaria basisulcata Batten, n. sp. Description.—Discoid to low spired_ pleuro- tomarians with a concave selenizone depressed beneath the surface of an almost vertical outer whorl face; upper whorl surface concave with dominant collabral cords; upper edge of outer whorl face unornamented or with nodes and threads; outer whorl face concave, ornamented by collabral elements except for selenizone and a narrow trough just beneath the selenizone; labral sinus complex and moderately deep and slit nar- row; trough on outer edge of base with sinus; columellar lip with sinus at upper end. Discotomaria basisulcata Batten, n. sp. Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 125280, U.S.N.M. locality 702, Leonard formation, Glass Moun- tains, Texas. Description.—Early whorls are flat and unorna- mented; upper whorl surface with very strong collabral cords that form strong nodes at upper edge of outer whorl face; a flat collabrally orna- mented shelf forms upper surface of the large, rounded and reticulate lower edge of outer whorl face. PLEUROTOMARIAN GASTROPODS 43 Family EoroMarripaE Wenz, 1938 Subfamily Eoromariinak Wenz, 1938 Tribe PrycHoMPHALIDES Wenz, 1938 Description.—Turbiniform to trochiform pleu- rotomarians with dominant collabral ornament and the selenizone situated on the periphery or slightly above it; pronounced cords restricted to a few species only; depth of the slit is variable; selenizone margin complex consisting of several components in some species closely or widely spaced, the lower selenizone margin tending to be wider and more complex. Shwedagonia Batten, n. gen. Type species.—Shwedagonia elegans Batten, n. sp. Description.—Characterized by a very deep, narrow slit extending about eight-tenths of a whorl in depth; selenizone located just above a shallow trough above the periphery; shell shape varies from straight-sided to concave-sided; dominant collabral ornament, usually more pro- nounced above the selenizone; a flat area just under selenizone bordered below by a turned up margin similar to the upper margin of selenizone; base is smooth to coarsely ornamented; umbilicus wide and with deep sutures. Shwedagonia elegans Batten, n. sp. Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 125279, U.S.N.M. Locality 703b, Leonard formation, Glass Moun- tains, Texas. Description.—Well developed collabral orna- ment usually more strongly developed above selenizone; spiral ornament consists of fine threads both above and below selenizone; shell shape extremely variable, ranging from very low spired concave sided to moderately high spired straight sided. Eirlysia Batten, n. gen. Type species—EKirlysia exquisita Batten, n. sp. Description.—Globose trochiform to moder- ately spired pleurotomarians with a relatively wide selenizone just above periphery; whorls in- flated and smooth to selenizone; collabral orna- ment may be dominant above selenizone but spiral ornament frequently present and weakly developed; slit shallow, selenizone defined by two sharp cords, which may be composed of multiple 44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES elements; a trough is usually developed just below selenizone, lower edge of outer whorl face a cord separating it from flat to flatly rounded base; parietal inductura thin; narrowly to widely phaneromphalus; reflexed columellar lip. Eirylsia exquisita Batten, n. sp. Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 125282, Princeton vou. 46, No. 2 University locality 3, Bone Spring formation, Sierra Diablo, Texas. Description.—Relatively low spired forms with globose whorls; dominant collabral cords from suture to selenizone; selenizone relatively wide and selenizone margins sharply defined; spiral threads are visible both above and below sele- nizone; lower edge of outer whorl face is sharply defined; narrowly phaneromphalus. PALEONTOLOGY .—New Permian gastropod genera from eastern Arizona. STEVEN S. Winters, Florida State University. (Communicated by J. Brookes Knight.) The following generic names and diagnoses are published so that they might be available for the Treatise on invertebrate paleontology, part I. Full discussion with illustrations will be forthcoming at some later date as part of a stratigraphic-paleontological study of the Permian in eastern Arizona. The three new genera, Apachella, Cibecuia, and Kinishbia, are based on silicified material collected from the Fort Apache limestone (Permian) in eastern Arizona on the Fort Apache In- dian Reservation. Family PLEUROTOMARIIDAE Swainson, 1840 Apachella Winters, n. gen. Type species —Apachella transhirata Winters, n. sp. Description —Small, moderately high spired turbiniform, less commonly pupiform gastropods with wide, steeply sloping selenizone and flatly rounded, anomphalous, or narrowly phanerom- phalous base; initial whorl planospirally coiled; selenizone above peripheral carina flat to concave, generated by a wide slit of moderate depth; aperature ovate to circular; outer lip trending obliquely backward to slit, then with slight forward convexity to nearly vertical columellar lip; parietal inductura thin; parietal tooth in some species extends down from top of aperture; upper whorl profile in some species modified by sub- sutural shoulder, various revolving carinae and lirae common to all species; transverse orna- mentation, when present, limited to upper whorl surface. Apachella translirata Winters, n. sp. Holotype —A.M.N.H. no. 27999/1: 1. Description.—Turbiniform gastropods with well-developed subsutural shoulder; initial whorl planospirally coiled; whorl profile below sub- sutural shoulder sloping outward to steeply sloping selenizone carine, then turning to vertical, concave flank, which rounds smoothly into flatly rounded, minutely phaneromphalous base; shal- low sinus; columellar lip slightly reflexed; orna- ment 9 to 10 strong, revolving carinae on base bordering selenizone and well-developed trans- verse, rounded and closely spaced lirae on sub- sutural shoulder; first three whorls without ornamentation. Family Murcuisonirpar Koken, 1896? Cibecuia Winters, n. gen. Type species. n. sp. Description —Small, high-spired, many-whorled conical gastropods with wide, flat selenizone located about midway between upper suture and peripheral keel marking basal angulation; first four whorls smooth; base flatly rounded, anomphalous; outer lip thin, with sinus culmi- nating in notch of unknown depth at midwhorl face; outer lip curves backward with forward convexity above selenizone; below selenizone curves gently forward with forward convexity to keel and across base to thick inner lip, smoothly concave outward; parietal inductura thin or absent; ornament parallel grooves bordering selenizone, with peripheral keel and revolving lirae on base; transverse nodes when present on upper whorl face only. Cibecuia cedarensis Winters, Cibecuia cedarensis Winters, n. sp. Holotype.—A.M.N.H. no. 28007 /2: 1. Description—Small, high-spired, many-whorled, conical gastropods with straight, gently ta- pered silhouette; sutures incised and impressed below peripheral, keeled angulation separates FEBRUARY 1956 YOCHELSON: NEW whorl face from flatly rounded, slightly extended, anomphalous base; outer lip thin, with sinus culminating in notch of unknown depth at mid- whorl face generating a wide, flat selenizone; re- volving ornament of a pair of grooves delimiting selenizone, a faintly noded peripheral keel and 3 or 4 lirae on base; transverse ornament rounded nodes on upper part of whorl face beyond fourth whorl extending downward with slight backward obliquity. Family LoxoNEMATIDAE Koken, 1889 Kinishbia Winters, n. gen. Type species.—K inishbia nodosa Winters, n. sp. Description —Small to medium, high-spired, many-whorled conical gastropods with smooth extended base and narrow umbilicus; outer lip thin, columellar lip thick and nearly vertical, PERMIAN GASTROPOD 45 parietal lip nearly horizontal; shallow anterior notch; earlier whorls developing concave profile of tapered spire; strongly developed, rounded transverse costae on upper whorl face of all but first four smooth whorls. Kinishbia nodosa Winters, n. sp. Holotype —A.M.N.H. no. 28011/1: 1. Description.—Gastropods with whorl profile convex or gently shouldered in upper half, flat and sloping slightly inward in lower half to slight keel separating whorl face from smoothly rounded, somewhat flattened base; outer lip thin with broad, very gentle sinus on flank, crossing base with slight forward convexity to shallow anterior notch; inductura absent; pleural angle varying from 22° to 31°; ornament of transverse costae on upper whor!l face and at keel. PALEONTOLOGY .—Labridens, a new Permian gastropod.' Exuis L. YOCHELSON U.S. Geological Survey. (Communicated by James 8. Williams.) Examination of the large collections of fossils from the Permian of western Texas in the U. S. National Museum has revealed a new genus of gastropods. The gastropod, here named Labridens, has one unusual char- acter that distinguishes the genus and sug- gests some interesting implications as to phylogeny. Labridens is similar to genera placed in the Subulitacea in possessing a siphonal notch and folds on the inner lip and is referred to that superfamily. Labridens differs from other subulitaceans and from other Paleozoic gastropods in possessing a lira on the inner surface of the outer lip. As the shell grew, this lira moved forward and formed a spiral ridge inside of the shell. Lirae and elaborate thickening on the in- ner surface of the outer lip and throughout the shell are important characteristics of the Nerinacea. This group is common in the Jurassic and Cretaceous, but is unknown elsewhere in the geologic record. Although the shell form of many nerinacean genera 1s different from that of Labridens, a few gen- era, for example Brouzetia Cossmann, ap- proach it. Most nerinaceans have a short canal and at least one columellar fold. 1 Publication authorized by the Director, U.S. Geological Survey. The available evidence does not necessar- ily indicate relationship of the Nerinacea with the Subulitacea, but it is suggestive. Should further evidence of relationships be- tween the Subulitacea and Nerinacea be found, certain major changes in phyletic interpretation will be required, as the Neri- nacea are presently classed in the order Mes- ogastropoda (subclass Prosobranchia) by Wenz (1938, p. 46), and the Subulitacea are classed in the order Archaeogastropoda by Wenz, (1938, p. 44) and in the order Neo- gastropoda by Knight (1944, p. 477). Class GASTROPODA Order N®oGasTROPoDA Superfamily SuBULITACEA Family SUBULITIDAE Labridens Yochelson, n. gen. Type species—Labridens shupei, Yochelson, n. sp. Diagnosis —Turbinate with a strong lira on inner surface of outer lip and one or more columellar plications; whorl profile simple, with gently inflated whorls; without ornament; a strong, sharp lira developed on the inner surface of outer lip; inner lip with basal notch, probably gastropods functional as a siphon, and one or more folds above. 46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Labridens shupei Yochelson, n. sp. Description Moderately high-spired, turbi- nate, anomphalous gastropods with two folds on inner lip and a lira on ner surface of the outer lip; earliest whorls not certainly known, but probably simple and smooth; suture shallow, but distinct; outer whorl surface flattened, very gently inflated between sutures; surface smooth, ornamented only by exceedingly obscure growth lines; base of columella with a siphonal notch; inner lip with a distinct groove for a short distance above siphonal fold, limited above by a fold ex- tending outward as a flange, the lip above this flange with a wide, shallow groove in turn limited by a second, less distinct, plication, the inner lip above this plication being gently convex above to juncture with outer lip; ner surface of outer lip bearing a low, strong lira approximately across from higher plication on imner lip. A B Fic. 1.—Labridens shupet, n. sp.: a, Apertural view showing folds of inner lip and lirae on inner surface of outer lip; b, adapertural view. The tip of the siphonal fold has been broken so that it appears as a notch. X3. VoL. 46, No. 2 Discussion.—The outer lip is broken back on all specimens examined but the revolving ridge is fully developed at a point probably no more than one-eighth of a whorl behind the unbroken aperture. The upper plication on the inner lip is obscure near the aperture, but is somewhat more distinct one-half whorl back. Examination of broken specimens indicates that the ridge on the outer lip is not resorbed; similar observation could not be made on the columellar plications. Labridens shupei is known from a dozen speci- mens found at three localities in the upper part of the Leonard and lower part of the Word forma- tions of the Glass Mountains. The holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 119556) and an unfigured paratype (U.S.N.M. no. 119557) were collected at U. 8. National Museum locality 703. This locality is in a platy limestone in the first limestone member of the Word formation, near the top of a slope half a mile southwest of road forks just northeast of the old Word Ranch House, Hess Canyon quadrangle, Brewster County, Tex. The species is named for Nelson W. Shupe, U. 38. Geological Survey, Paleontology and Stratigraphy Branch, who for many years has contributed superb photographs of fossils to the reports of Geological Survey paleontologists. REFERENCES Knteut, J. Brookes. Paleozoic gastropods, revised by J. Brookes Knight, with the cooperation of Josiah Bridge. In ‘Index Fossils of North America,’? pp. 437-479, pls. 174-196. New York, 1944. Wenz, WitHetm. Handbuch der Paldozoologie (Herausgegeben v. Schindewolf), Bd. 6, rastropoda, Teil 1, Allgemeiner Teil und Prosobranchia (pars). Berlin, 1988. PALEONTOLOGY .—Gyrospira, a new genus of bellerophontid (Gastropoda) from Bolwia.! A. J. Boucor, U. 8. Geological Survey. (Communicated by G. Arthur Cooper.) Class GASTROPODA Order ARCHAEOGASTROPODA Family BELLEROPHONTIDAE Subfamily CARINAROPSINAE Gyrospira Boucot, n. gen. Type species—Gyrospira tourteloti Boucot, n. gen. and n. sp. Diagnosis —Widely disjunct bellerophontid Gastropoda; aperture flaring widely both pos- 1 Publication authorized by the Director, U. 8. Geological Survey. teriorly and laterally, lacking apertural plate, but bearing median carina internally on posterior face; revolving ornament lacking; possessing median carina, the locus of deep slit. Comparison.—Genus has flaring aperture, phaneromphalous spire, and posterior, internal carina that characterize members of the Carinaropsinae. Carinaropsis is most closely related to Gy- rospira, but the former is more closely coiled. Gyrospira is more openly coiled and lacks the re- volving ornament that characterizes both Bu- canopsis and Phragmosphaera. Gyrospira has less | Fesruary 1956 BOUCOT: NEW GENUS lateral flarmg of the aperture and it lacks the apertural plate of Phragmosphaera. Phragmo- sphaera lacks the internal carina characteristic of Gyrospira. Sphaenosphaera possesses an in- cipient apertural plate and is also more closely coiled than Gyrospira. Gyrospira tourteloti Boucot, n. sp. Figs. 1-5 Description —Medium-sized, openly coiled, widely phaneromphalous, spiral gastropod with wide flaring of posterior and anterior portions of aperture, deep slit in anterior lip culminating in carina; slit about one-third of whorl in depth. Whorl profile on either side of median carina steep, convex over lateral slopes and rounded in open umbilicus; surface with obscure collabral un- dulations; nucleus and first whorl barely in con- tact; apertural margin with no anterior flaring but flaring widely posteriorly and moderately on lateral portions of the aperture; posterior median carina on interior of shell (this carina not caused by impression of earlier whorl as whorl is free); ornamentation of undulating concentric growth lines which interrupt otherwise smooth surface of shell; shell moderately thick, its structure un- known. Occurrence.—The following locality description was provided by H. A. Tourtelot: Measured stratigraphic section (bed 8) beginning at Cha- corillo farm and extending nearly a kilometer to the west. Chacorillo farm is about 6 kilometers north of Kilometer 65 of the Potosi-Sucre road; Kilometer 65 is about 15 kilometers east by road from the village of Betanzos, which is 50 kilo- meters from Potosi, Province of General de Saavedra, Department of Potosi, Bolivia. This locality is U.S.G.S. Silurian and Devonian catalog % 3137. Addition material was collected from nearby float (U.S.G.S. Silurian and Devonian catalog no. 3139). The specimens are preserved as casts and molds in rusty weathering, brown sandstone. Geologic range.—Carinaropsids have a known range of Middle Ordovician to Devonian. Prof. Harry Whittington, of Harvard University, who kindly examined the associated trilobites, reports (comm. 1955) the presence of Leiostegina inex- pectons, which suggests to him a correlation with beds of Caradoe age (Black River and Trenton). Dr. David Nicol, of the U.S. National Museum (written communication, 1955), considers that the associated pelecypod material indicates a Middle Devonian age based on the presence of Parallelodon, Modiomorpha, Ctenodonta, and Grammysia. The one fragmentary brachiopod present in the material indicates a post Early Ordovician age. Inasmuch as the trilobites of early Paleozoic age are better known than the pelecypods it OF BELLEROPHONTID 47 Fries. 1-5.—Gyrospira tourteloti Boucot, n. gen. and n. sp. 1, Latex impression of exterior (holotype) (X1). Note the widely disjunct coiling and the posteriorly flaring aperture, and the obscure col- labral undulations. U.S.N.M. no. 125457. 2, Latex impression of interior (X1). Note the prominent ridge on the posterior portion of the aperture. U.S.N.M. no. 125458A. 3, Latex impression of exterior (X2). Note the nucleus in contact with the first whorl. U.S.N.M. no. 125458C. 4, Latex impression of exterior (holotype) (X1) (dorsal view). Note the prominent median carina on the anterior margin. U.S.N.M. no. 125457. 5, Latex impression of anterior margin and slit (<2). Note the deep slit and raised selenizone. U.S.N.M. no. 125458B. seems to the writer that a Middle Ordovician age is the most reliable assignment that can be made under the circumstances. Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 125457. Figured paratypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 125458 A-C. Unjfigured paratypes.—U.S.N.M._ nos. 125459, 125460 (U.S.G.S. Silurian and Devonian catalog no. 3139). 48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 46, No. 2 ENTOMOLOGY .—Gall midges associated with cones of western forest trees (Diptera: Itonididae). Ricuarp H. Foorr, Entomology Research Branch, United States Department of Agriculture. For a number of years, personnel of the former Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, now of the U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, have been studying all phases of the biology and control of forest insects. An extensive col- lection of gall midges, together with as- sociated biological data, has accumuluated during this investigation and has recently been made available to me. The present paper provides names and descriptions for a number of species occurring in cones and seeds of western conifers; their biological characteristics will be published in a forth- coming manual of the insects associated with these trees in western United States. Throughout the work I have omitted morphological descriptions of immature stages. Almost without exception, larvae in this collection were so poorly mounted that detailed examination under a compound microscope was not possible. Even in those few cases in which most larval characters were visible, I have preferred to postpone publication of descriptions until concepts of species differences in the larval stage have been clarified. Associations of larva and adults have been made largely on the basis of the available biological information, aided in a few cases by incomplete morphological details. I wish to thank F. P. Keen, California Forest and Range Experiment Station, for making this collection of gall midges avail- able to me and for encouraging my efforts. IT am also grateful to Dr. A. Earl Pritchard, University of California, for making pre- liminary identifications of a number of the species included herein. Specimens deposited in the U.S. National Museum are indicated below by the initials USNM,; those in the California Insect Sur- vey at Berkeley by CIS. Genus Riibsaamenia Kieffer Riibsaamenia Kieffer, 1894, Ann. Soc. Ent. France 63: 333 (type, Asynapta pectoralis Winnertz; by original designation) ; 1913, Gen. Ins., fase. 152: 278; Felt, 1911, Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 19: 40; 1916, New York State Mus. Bull. 180: 129; 1925, New York State Mus. Bull. 257: 140. To my knowledge no previous mention of the occurrence of this genus in North America has been made. The species assigned to it may be recognized by the presence of the base of vein Cu, (this vein obsolete basally in the closely related North American genus Holoneurus) and by the long slender recurved abdomen, which separates it from the North American genera Asynapta and Clinorhytis. Riibsaamenia runs to Porricondyla in Pritchard’s (1953) key to California genera of Porricondylini; it may be separated from that genus by the recurved abdomen and by the fact that vein Cu; is present to the base of the wing. It is represented in the United States by the single species described below. Riibsaamenia keeni, n. sp. Fig. 1, a-g Male—Head as wide as high from anterior view, eye bridge about 12 facets wide. Scape of antenna subtriangular, length about 2.5 times width at apex; pedicel roughly rectangular, 0.7 as wide as apex of scape, not narrowed apically; flagellum with 12 to 24 segments, those of the smallest individuals with the fewest segments, segments decreasing in length from base to tip, apical segment 1.5 times as long as subapical and narrowed to a blunt point at apex; fifth flagellar segment (fig. 1g) 2.0 times as long as wide; stem with subapical expansion, equal in length to node, which is as wide as long, slightly narrower at base than at tip; circumfilum a simple, tightly fitting ring encircling node at proximal third. Palpus (Fig. lc) of four segments, proportions 1:1.2:2.1:3 (average of type series); second segment widest, third and fourth successively narrower; setae longer than width of third. Wing (Fig. 16) 2.3 times as long as wide; membrane with fine microtrichia; R; ending in costa at basal 0.4; Rs nearly parallel with costa; R; bending posteriorly to meet and terminate costa at or very slightly before wing tip; M3,4 visible from wing base to margin; Cu, terminating at middle of posterior margin of wing. Hind femur slightly longer than tibia; first tarsal segment with a short, blunt apicolateral projection on all legs; proportions of FEBRUARY 1956 hind tarsal segments 1:8.3:4.6:2.6:1.4 (average of type series) ; fore, mid, and hind claws (Fig. 1d) each with a long basal tooth; each pulvillus very slightly shorter, equal to, or slightly longer than claw. Terminalia (Fig. la) longer than wide (viewed dorsally); length of basistyle about 2.3 times its greatest width, with an inner apical lobe obscured in some mounts by the dististyle; inner surface of lobe covered by a patch of short, slender spines; dististyle 2.0 times as long as wide at base, bluntly rounded distally, with an even, dense row of blunt, stout spines along distal third or fourth of inner margin, this comb terminated by two heavy, blunt teeth at apex. Tenth sternite and tenth tergite bilobed, the former distinctly shorter than the latter and less deeply incised at center line; aedeagus truncate, with a shallow central notch and a small projection on distal margin midway between central incisure and lateral margin; proximally, aedeagus with a curved arm on each side connecting with the basistyle, and a slender median arm tapering to a sharp point, on each side of which there is con- nected an irregular, sac-shaped structure. Female —Head, eye bridge, scape, and pedicel as in male. Flagellum with 10 to 26 segments, the smallest mdividuals with the fewest segments; first flagellar segment longest, remaining segments decreasing in length from base to tip, apical seg- ment somewhat elongated and narrowed to blunt apical point. Fifth flagellar segment (Fig. If) with node 1.3 times as long as wide; stem short, 0.25 as long as node; circumfilum a simple, tightly fitting ring as in male, encircling middle of node. Palpus of four segments, proportions 1:1.3: 2.6:3.3 (average of type series), similar in general appearance to that of male. Wing and legs as in male. Terminal abdominal segment (Fig. le) with paired, elongate appendages, each about 2.5 to 3.0 times as long as wide; in addition, a flat, bilobed plate nearly covering basal half of each appendage and attached thereto, similar in shape to tenth sternite of male; a sclerotized internal spermatheca with paired lateral arms also present. Holotype— &%, Butte County, Calif, 29-IX to 7-X, 1953, Calif. Div. Forestry, reared from cones of Abtes magnifica, Hopkins no. 32738e. U.S.N.M. no. 63027. Paratypes.—7 0%, 14992, same data as holotype, Hopkins nos. 32737, 32737e and 32737h. 397 %,32 2 (CIS); remainder (USNM). Additional material examined.—CaLirorNia: 247, 449 9, 38 larvae; Crescent City, Gas- FOOTE: GALL MIDGES 49 quets, General Grant National Park, Kyburz, McKinney Creek, Mono National Forest, Sequoia National Park, Mount Shasta City, Six Rivers National Forest, Yosemite National Park. CoLtorapo: 2 @ @, 18 larvae; Cheyenne Mountain, N. Cheyenne Canyon, Manitou, Wil- hams Canyon. New Muxico: 3 @%; Pecos Mountains. OREGON: 65 7%, 61 2 2, 50 larvae; Ashland, near Lamb’s Mine (Ashland), Clover Creek, Colestin, Jenny Creek, La Pine, Netart’s Beach, Palmerlee’s Ranch, Waldo. Taken from cones of Abies concolor, A. grandis, A. magnifica shastensis, Picea englemanni, P. contorta var. latifolia, Pinus jeffreyt, P. lambertiana, P. pon- derosa, P. ponderosa var. scopulorum, Pseudotsuga menziestt, and P. sp. from February 17 to No- vember 26, 1913-1954. Discussion.—This species may be distinguished from all other members of the Porricondylini by the generic characters given above, and by the characteristic features of the male terminalia (Fig. 1a). Holoneurus strobilophilus, n. sp. Fig. 2, a-d, g Male.—Head as wide as high from anterior view, eye bridge 8 to 10 facets wide. Scape of antenna subtriangular, length about equal to width at apex; pedicel subglobular, as wide as long and about 0.7 as wide as apex of scape; flagellum of 21 or 22 segments, which decrease only very slightly in length and width from base to apex; terminal segment longer than subtermi- nal, with the apical nipple; fifth flagellar segment (Fig. 29) with a proximal node 1.2 times as long as greatest width and a distal stem 0.7 as long as node; circumfilum a simple, closely fitting ring encircling node at proximal third. Palpus (Fig. 2c) of four segments, proportions 1:1.4:2.4:3.38 (holotype only), second segment widest, third and fourth progressively narrower, setae short and scattered. Wing (Fig. 2b) 2.3 times as long as wide, R; ending in costa at basal 0.4; Ry nearly parallel with costa and appearing to be a con- tinuation of R;; R; bending posteriorly to meet and terminate costa slightly before wing tip; WWsy. straight except at extreme apex, visible to base of wing; Cuz curved to meet posterior wing margin at basal 0.45 of wing. Hind femur slightly longer than tibia; proportions of hind tarsal segments 1:8.0:5.0:2.5:1.2 (one leg of holotype only); fore, mid and hind claws each with a long basal tooth; each pulvillus about 0.5 as long as claw. Terminalia (Fig. 2a) slightly longer than wide 50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 2 10s Jot ih ee Figs. 1-5.—1, Rubsaamenia keent, n.sp.; 2, Holoneurus strobilophilus, n. sp.; 3, Dasyneura abiesemia, n. sp.; 4, Phytophaga car poghaga, Tripp, male terminalia; 5, Janetiella siskiyou Felt, male terminalia. (a, male terminalia; b, wing; c, male palpus; d, hind claw, ‘male: e, terminal segments of female ovipositor; f, fifth flagellar segment, female; g, fifth flagellar segment, "male. Abbreviations: 10t = tenth tergite; 10s = tenth tergite; ae = aedeagus; st = style.) Fepruary 1956 FOOTE: GALL MIDGES 51 7 Fies. 6-9.—6, Contarinia oregonensis, n. sp.; 7, Mycodiplosis conicola, n. sp.; 8, Mycodiplosis coryloides: n. sp. 9, Lestodiplosis taxiconis, n. sp.; (a, male terminalia; b, wing; c, male palpus; d, hind claw, male; e, terminal segments of female ovipositor; f, fifth flagellar segment, female; g, fifth flagellar segment, male. Abbreviations: 10t = tenth tergite; 10s = tenth sternite; st = style.) OZ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (viewed dorsally); length of basistyle about 2.0 times its greatest width, with a rounded inner apical lobe and a truncate apical lobe ventral to it, both lobes noticeably more densely haired than basistyle itself; length of dististyle 2.1 times its greatest width, outer margin with a heavy sub- terminal seta, inner margin straight, an apical comb of many even, short spines and two or three longer stouter spines more widely spaced; style short, slender, rodlike; an irregularly shaped structure lying beneath and to one side of style, as if turned on its side as a result of slide mounting; tenth sternite bilobed, each lobe about as wide at base as high; tenth tergite bilobed, each lobe about 1.5 times as long as wide at base. Female —Unknown. Holotype-—¢&%, Butte County, Calif., 29-IX to 7-X, 1953, Calif. Div. Forestry, reared from cones of Abies magnifica, Hopkins no. 32737. U.S.N.M. no. 63028. Paratypes—4%%, same data as holotype. 2% paratypes (CIS), remainder (USNM). Additional material examined.—CaAtIFOoRNIA: 67%, Sequoia National Park. OrnGon: 10, Colestin. From cones of Abies concolor, August 22 to September 24, 1914. Discussion.—Felt (1915) keys the North American species of Holoneurus principally by the use of color characters. The comparatively long distal narrowed portion of the fifth flagellar seg- ment will separate H. strobilophilus from the only two species, multinodus Felt and photophilus Felt, possessing over 20 flagellar segments. The terminal armature of the dististyle (Fig. 2a) will further distinguish this species from others in the genus. The genus is not included in Pritchard’s (1953) key; it runs to Porricondyla there, from which it may readily be distinguished by its simple vein Cup. Dasyneura abiesemia, n. sp. Fig. 3, a-g Male.—Head suboval (viewed anteriorly), widest slightly below the center; eye bridge about eight facets wide. Scape of antenna nearly square in outline, very slightly longer than wide; pedicel similar in shape and very shghtly smaller than scape; flagellum of undetermined number of seg- ments, some of the distal ones lost, but those that are present not decreasing noticeably in length or width from base to apex of flagellum; first two flagellar segments completely fused; fifth flagellar segment (Fig. 3g) with proximal node 1.2 times vou. 46, No. 2 as long as wide; distal stem 0.9 as long as node; circumfilum consisting of one irregular ring en- circling node on basal third and another nearly at apex, these two rings connected on opposite sides of node by short extensions of the rings; the seg- ment rather lopsided, with stem emerging more or less from one side of node apex, the circumfilum on the opposite side loosely applied to the seg- ment and extending some distance away from its surface. Palpus (Fig. 3c) of four segments, propor- tions 1.0:1.5:1.9:2.2 (one palp only), proximal segment widest, other segments progressively narrower. Wing (Fig. 3b) 2.5 times as long as wide; Ri close to costa and joining it at basal third, the entire area between costa and R: some- what darker than remainder of wing; Rs nearly straight, bending posteriorly only very slightly at outer fourth to meet and terminate costa dis- tinctly proximad of wing tip, Ms;4 not visible in slide mounts; Cu straight, branched distinctly apicad of juncture of Ri with costa; Cu; as long as Cu, nearly straight; Cus curved posteriorly and ending at middle of posterior margin of wing. Legs thickly set with narrow, pointed scales; hind tarsal segments shrunken in all slide mounts so that proportions are not measurable; claws (Fig. 3d) not bent at right angles; fore, mid and hind claws each with a long, narrow ventral tooth which is 1.5 to 1.75 times as long as claw. Termi- nalia (Fig. 3a) wider than long (viewed dorsally); basistyle 2.0 times as long as wide, with a promi- nent inner apical, broadly rounded prominence and a more proximal shoulder in which a dark- ened, ringlke structure appears; length of disti- style 4.0 times greatest width, narrowing gradu- ally distally and tipped with a narrow, sclerotized plate which appears as spur in slide mounts; style widest at middle, narrowing slightly to a rounded- truncate tip distally and narrowing more strongly toward the base, which is provided with a foot- shaped expansion; style surrounded ventrally and laterally by a deeply incised plate with three short terminal appendages on each side; tenth sternite consisting of two extremely narrow, widely separated lobes, only one of which is shown in the figure; tenth tergite completely filling the space between inner borders of basi- style and about as long as these, the incision deeper than one-half the length of plate, each lobe gently, then more abruptly tapered on inner margin to a narrow, rounded point. Female.—Head, eye bridge, scape, pedicel and first two flagellar segments as in male. Flagellum Fespruary 1956 of 14 segments, the second segment the longest, the more distal segments becoming slightly nar- rower; fifth flagellar segment (Fig. 3f) 1.4 times as long as wide, with inconspicuous stem, circum- filum as in male. Wing, legs, claws, and pulvilli as in male, proportions of hind tarsal segments 1.0:8.0:4.2:2.4:1.3 (average of type series). Ovi- positor (Fig. 3e) retractile, at least twice as long as abdomen when fully extended, termimated by a single lobe of variable shape about 6.0 times as long as wide. Holotype—c&, Palmerlee’s Ranch, Oreg., 8-IX-1915, P. D. Sergent and J. E. Patterson, bred from cones of Abies magnifica shastensis, Hopkins no. 14200c. U.S.N.M. no. 63029. Paratypes—3 07%, 42 2, same data as holo- type. One &, 22 @ (CIS), remainder (USNM). Additional material examined.—CaiFoRNIA: 50, 392, 56 larvae; Butte County, Crescent City, General Grant National Park, McKinney Creek, Sequoia National Park. OREGON: 300, 119° 2, 7 larvae; Applegate River, Ashland, Colestin. Taken from cones of Abies concolor, A. grandis, A. magnifica, and A. magnifica shastensis, July 18 to October 7, 1914-1953. Discussion.—Pritchard (1953) states that three species of Dasyneura occur in California; D. abiesemia, the fourth, is the only one forming gall pockets in seeds and cone scales of Abzes in Cali- fornia forests. In Felt’s (1915) key to United States species, it falls within the series having a nearly straight vein R; and 14 flagellar segments; within this group it is the only species in which the female has a nearly sessile, subglobular fifth flagellar segment, and in which the proportions of the palpal segments are as shown in Fig. 3c. Phytophaga carpophaga Tripp Fig. 4 Phytophaga carpophaga Tripp, 1955, Can. Ent. 87: 261. A comparison of males collected as shown in the “Material examined” section below with a male paratype of carpophaga sent to the National Museum by the Canadian Department of Agri- culture leaves no doubt that carpophaga is repre- sented on the west coast. Most of Tripp’s ma- terial is from Ontario and was collected from white spruce, Picea glauca. I am including an illustration (Fig. 4) of the male terminalia of this species drawn from a Colorado specimen, since Tripp’s photograph FOOTE: GALL MIDGES 53 omits certain details which may eventually be- come important for the separation of carpophaga from other members of the genus. Material examined.—Cauirornia: 90%, 22 2, Crescent City. CoLorapo: 770,22 9,3 larvae, Glenwood Springs, Manitou, Mountain View. Taken from cones of Picea englemanni and P. sitchensis, August 17 to October 25, 1913- 1916. Janetiella siskiyou Felt Fig. 5 Janetiella siskiyou Felt, 1917, Journ. New York Ent. Soe. 25: 194; Pritchard, 1953, Bull. Cali- fornia Ins. Survey 2(2): 139. Felt originally described larvae and females from the Siskiyou National Forest in California; his description of the females is based primarily on color characters, but since this midge appears to be quite host-specific for seeds of Chaemo- cyparis, there appears to be no need to repeat Felt’s information or to add to it here. A description of the terminalia is given below. Unfortunately, the single male available to me had been hardened in alcohol for such a long period of time that the regular mounting method obscured much of the detail; remaining parts of this specimen were nearly destroyed in the mount. No recently collected material was avail- able for this study. Male.—Terminalia (Fig. 5) stout, slightly longer than wide (dorsal view). Basistyle with overall width equal to overall length, entire proximal margin and almost entire inner margin with broad sclerotized bands, a lobe at inner apex with a band of sclerotization at its own inner edge, and a narrowly pointed lobe attached to inner margin at widest portion of basistyle; length of dististyle about 2.1 times greatest width, both inner and outer margins gently curved from base to join each other at apex, here provided with a single sharp, stout tooth; style bluntly rounded distally and proximally, its center portion obscured in the mount, proximal portion with a subtriangular plate ending proximally in a broadened expansion resembling an arrow-head; tenth sternite bilobed, a deep in- cisure separating the broadly pointed lobes; tenth tergite with two medially expanded lobes which are lightly sclerotized on their inner margins and separated by a cleft, the bottom of which is not visible in the mount. Material examined.—Oregon: 54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Siskiyou National Forest, Waldo. Taken from cones of Chaemocyparis lawsoniana March 28, 1919, and August 15, 1914. Contarinia oregonensis, n. sp. TER, (hy lO, Gly art, (S Male.—Head 1.2 times as high as wide from anterior view; eye bridge 12 to 14 facets wide. Scape of antenna subtriangular, length equal to distal width; pedicel subglobular, length equal to greatest width, 0.6 to 0.7 as wide as apex of scape; flagellum of 12 segments, the first two fused, their point of junction indicated by a narrow hyaline area, remaining segments approxi- mately equal in size, terminal segment with distal stem reduced to a short nipple; fifth flagellar segment (Fig. 6g) with two nodes, the proximal one 0.8 as long as the distal; length of proximal stem 1.1 times proximal node; length of distal stem equal to that of distal node; two series of circumfila, one on each node, the loops of that on proximal node attaining middle of distal node, those of distal node attaining middle of proximal node of succeeding segment. Palpus of four segments, proportions 1.0:1.5:2.5:2.8 (holotype only), the second segment widest, third and fourth successively narrower; with sparse, scattered setae longer than width of second segment. Wing (Fig. 6b) 2.5 times as long as wide; R, entering costa at basal 0.4; R; curving posteriorly at distal third to meet and terminate costa only very slightly before wing tip, with a cross vein at basal 0.12 extending halfway to Ri and ending midway between the two veins; Cu straight; Cui gently curved throughout its entire length; Cus terminating in posterior border of wing just apicad of point of origin. Legs long; hind femur 1.1 times as long as tibia; proportions of hind tarsal segments not recognizable because of damage to specimens; fore, mid, and hind claws (Fig. 6d) simple, each shorter than the pulvillus. Terminalia (Fig. 6a) wider than long (viewed dorsally); length of basistyle 1.4 times its greatest width! with a dark, thickened sclerotized area at center of inner margin, no inner lobe present; length of dististyle 3.5 times its greatest width, with an inner, subterminal notch. Style 3.5 times as long as wide, bluntly poimted apically, with two ill-defined membranes nearly attaining tip of style and lying in a different position in each mount; tenth tergite bilobed, width of each lobe 1 Tn flattened-out holotype; other males in type series have shriveled basistyles. VoL. 46, No. 2 at base about equal to length; tenth sternite bilobed, with central incisure slightly deeper than that of tenth tergite, length of each lobe about 1.2 times proximal width; style and tergites ter- minating at approximately the same level. Female.—Head, eye bridge, scape, pedicel and palpus similar to those of male. Flagellum of 12 subequal segments; first two segments fused, with a narrow hyaline area in some specimens indi- cating the juncture; fifth flagellar segment (Fig. 6f) with proximal node 2.0 times as long as wide; distal stem 0.5 as long as node; two irregular circumfila encircling node and connected at opposite sides of node as shown. Wing and legs as in male. Ovipositor (Fig. 6e) retractile, about 0.6 as long as abdomen, terminating in a lightly sclerotized lobe which is the side view of the scissorslike terminus of ovipositors usually found in this genus. Holotype —o&%, Mistletoe, Oreg., 25-VIII-1916, P. D. Sergent and J. E. Patterson, reared from cones of Pseudotsuga menziesii, Hopkins no. 14280e. U.S.N.M. no. 63030. Paratypes.—8 ¢ #, 102 2, same data as holo- type. Three #0, 59 2 paratypes (CIS), re- mainder (USNM). Additional material examined —47%, 42 2, same data as holotype. (USNM). These badly damaged specimens have little value for com- parative purposes. Discussion.—Felt (1917) employs the color of live specimens and antennal characters for the separation of males but does not attempt to key females. This is the only species of Contarima known to occur in the Western United States, and the only United States species associated with conifers. Antennal and palpal characters of Contarinia oregonensis closely resemble those of C. perfoliata Felt and C. agrimoniae Felt; char- acters of the male terminalia (Fig. 6a) will dis- tinguish oregonensis from the other two. The genus, although previously recorded from Cal- fornia, will run in Pritchard’s (1953) key to Thecodiplosis, but may be distinguished by the invagination of the wing margin at the termina- tion of vein R;. Mycodiplosis conicola, n. sp. Fig. 7, a-g Male.—Head suboval from anterior view, widest slightly below center; eye bridge 8 to 10 facets wide. Scape of antenna subtriangular, length equal to greatest width; pedicel subglobu- lar, as long as wide, the same width as scape; FEBRUARY 1956 flagellum of 12 segments, the first two completely fused with only a narrow subhyaline area indi- cating the junction, the remaining segments about the same length as the fifth but with narrower stems, twelfth segment with a long terminal nipple; fifth flagellar segment (Fig. 7g) with two nodes, the proximal one 1.1 times as wide as long, the distal one 1.7 times as long as wide and 1.7 times as long as proximal node; proximal stem equal in length to proximal node; distal stem 0.9 as long as distal node; three circumfila, the proximal on proximal node, its loops attaining basal half of proximal stem, middle at base of distal node, its loops attaining basal 0.6 of its node, the distal on distal portion of node, its loops attaining basal two-thirds of distal stem. Palpus (Fig. 7c) of four segments; proportions of segments 1.0:1.5:2.1:2.5 (one palp of holo- type), first segment 1.5 times as long as wide, remaining segments successively narrower. Wing (Fig. 7b) 2.6 times as long as wide; Ri ending in costa at basal 0.4; two sensory pores very close to the juncture as in figure; R; nearly straight but bent gently at distal fourth to meet and terminate costa at wing tip; Ms,, obsolete basally but visible to posterior margin of wing; Cu branching at level of junction of Ri with costa; Cu; slightly curved, shorter than Cu; Cus curved sharply at base and bent at nearly right angles to horizontal axis of wing. Each leg covered by very narrow scales which are longer and darker at ends of tibiae and tarsal seg- ments 1 to 4; proportions of hind tarsal segments 1.0:6.5:4.0:3.0:1.8 (average of two legs on one paratype); four, mid, and hind claws (Fig. 7d) each bent sharply near base, nearly straight beyond, with a long delicate ventral tooth before the bend; each pulvillus 0.5 as long as claw. Terminalia (Fig. 7a) wider than long (viewed dorsally); basistyle stout, length 1.7 times greatest width; dististyle rather stout, length 3.0 times greatest width, basal third of outer margin bulging with a darker area as shown, apical third somewhat darkened and with a single tooth; style triangular, connected at base with inner surface of basistyle by a triangular extension, this continuous with a lateral footlike piece without a distinct termination in the mounts; style terminating proximally in two narrow Tenth sternite and tenth tergite about equal in length, both only very slightly shorter than style; tenth sternite truncate with rounded extensions. corners and very shallowly FOOTE: GALL MIDGES 5d emarginate; tenth tergite deeply emarginate, the resulting lobes about 1.7 times as long as width at base. Female —Head, eye bridge, palpus, scape and pedicel as in male. Flagellum of 12 segments, the first two fused as in male, the distal segments becoming successively shorter with shorter stems, apical segment 2.0 times as long as wide, narrow- ing from distal half outward to rounded point; fifth flagellar segment (Fig. 7f) with proximal lobe 2.1 times as long as wide; distal stem 0.2 as long as proximal node; circumfila of two closely adhering rings, the basal encircling the node at basal 0.4, the distal at the extreme tip of node, the two rings connected on opposite sides of the segment. Wing and legs as in male. Ovipositor (Fig. 7e) about 1.5 times as long as abdomen, retractile, terminated by simple paired lobes. Holotype — #, Butte County, Calif., 29-IX to 7-X, 1953, coll. Calif. Div. Forestry, reared from cones of Abies magnifica, Hopkins no. 32737. U.S.N.M. no. 63031. Paratypes—l10%%, 292 92, same data as holotype. 507%, 522 (CIS), remainder (USNM). Additional material excamined.—Oregon: 22 2; Ashland, Colestin. Reared from cones of Abies concolor, August 22 to October 23, 1914. Discussion.—M ycodiplosis conicola is closely related by morphological characters to M. al- ternata Felt and M. hudsoni Felt, both of which have been recorded only from eastern United States, the former on Podophyllwm and the latter on Acer. M. conicola and M. coryloides are the only species associated with the cones of western forest trees; conicola may be distinguished from coryloides by the shape of the proximal portion of the style and by the longer narrowed portions of the flagellar segments. See also discussion of coryloides, p. 56. Mycodiplosis coryloides, n. sp. Fig. 8, a-e, g Male.—Shape of head from anterior view and width of eye bridge not visible in mounts avail- able. Scape of antenna only very slightly longer than wide, widest slightly beyond the middle; pedicel subglobular, greatest width about 0.7 ereatest width of scape; flagellum with terminal segments missing in all specimens, the segments not appreciably narrowed or shortened toward distal end of flagellum, first two flagellar segments 56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY fused, without a trace of a division between; fifth flagellar segment (Fig. 8g) with two nodes, the proximal one 0.8 as long as greatest width, which is at about middle; proximal stem 0.4 as long as proximal node; distal node 1.1 times as long as wide and 1.4 times as long as proximal node; distal stem 0.6 as long as distal node; three circumfila, one on proximal node and two on distal, the proximal one with loops attaining basal half of proximal stem, middle one with loops at- taining apical two-thirds of distal node, distal one with loops barely exceeding apex of distal stem. Palpus (Fig. 8c) of four segments, propor- tions 1.0:2.2:3.0:3.8 (average of type series), first segment about as long as wide, second widest, third and fourth successively narrower. Wing (Fig. 8b) 2.2 times as long as wide; R; ending in costa at basal 0.4 with a single sensory pore just before the junction; R; nearly straight, bending slightly at distal fourth to meet and terminate costa at wing tip or just beyond; M314 obsolete basally, visible only from branching of Cu to near posterior margin of wing; Cu straight, branching at about the level of Ri-costa junction; Cu, slightly curved, shorter than Cu; Cu. curved and ending in posterior margin slightly beyond point of origin. Leg scales so narrow as to be almost hairlike; hind femur slightly longer than tibia; proportions of hind tarsal segments 1.0:7.3:4.2:3.0:1.8 (average of type series); claw (Fig. 8d) on each leg bent sharply near the base, nearly straight beyond; fore, mid and hind claws each with an incon- spicuous ventral basal tooth; pulvillus 0.6 as long as claw. Terminalia (Fig. 8a) wider than long (viewed dorsally); basistyle stout, length -2.0 times greatest width, with a diagonal strip of sclerotization at base; dististyle 0.6 as long as basistyle, length 4.0 times greatest width, curved and somewhat tapered to tip, with a distal tooth as in illustration; style stout, narrow at extreme base but widening rapidly on basal fourth or third, where it forms lateral triangular arms at- taching to inner margin of basistyle, gradually narrowing on distal fourth to a blunt, rounded tip; tenth sternite rounded-truncate distally with the mere suggestion of a median invagination; tenth tergite bilobed, the incisure attaining the base of the lateral arms of the style, each lobe rounded apically. Female.—Head, palpus, scape and pedicel as in male. Flagellum of 12 segments, the first two fused without any indication of a division, seg- OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 2 ments becoming slightly shorter toward apex of flagellum, the terminal segment 2.0 times as long as wide, narrowed to a point from distal half out- ward; fifth flagellar segment with proximal node 2.1 times as long as wide; distal stem 0.1 as long as node; two closely adhering circumfila in the form of irregular rings which are connected to each other at opposite sides of the segment. Wings and legs as in male. Ovipositor (Fig. 8e) fleshy, retractile, length not measurable in available specimens, terminated by simple paired lobes. Holotype—o&, Butte County, Calif., 29-IX to 7-X, 1958, Calif. Div. Forestry, reared from cones of Abies concolor, Hopkins no. 32738f. U.S.N.M. no. 63082. Paratypes—3 0 #, 52 2 same data as holo- type. One &*, 22 2 paratypes (CIS), remainder (USNM). Additional material examined.—Ca.iFoRNIA ; 1%, 22 9; Plumas National Forest (Quincy). OREGON: 1%; Jenny Creek. From cones of Abies magnifica and Pseudotsuga menziesii, Octo- ber to November 26, 1930-1938. Discussion.—The two new M ycodiplosis species discussed here, conicola and coryloides, are very closely related and are the only species of the genus associated with cones of Western forest trees. M. coryloides may be distinguished from conicola by the narrower style and the more slender dististyle, and from Mycodiplosis coryli Felt, to which it is also closely related, by the longer claws and wider style flanges. Adults of several species of this genus have been reared from mycophagous larvae, but it is not known whether the mycophagous habit is common to the genus as a whole. Lestodiplosis taxiconis, n. sp. Fig. 9, a-d, f, g Male.—Head nearly round from anterior view; eye bridge 9 to 10 facets wide. Scape of antenna 1.25 times as long as wide, slightly narrower at base than at apex; pedicel subglobular, slightly wider than long, rounded at apex; flagellum of unknown number of segments, the first two com- pletely fused, appearing as a single segment with four nodes; remaining segments progressively shorter, apical segment narrowed and rounded at apex; fifth flagellar segment (Fig. 9g) with two nodes, the proximal 0.55 as long as wide and separated from distal node by a stem 1.5 times as long as proximal node; distal node as long as wide at greatest width, also somewhat Fepruary 1956 flask-shaped; distal stem equal in length to distal node; proximal node with a single circum- filum, loops of which nearly attain base of distal node; distal node with two circumfila, the proxi- mal one very close to base of node and with loops nearly attaining greatest width of node; distal one situated very close to distal margin of node and with loops nearly attaining apex of distal stem. Palpus (Fig. 9c) of four segments propor- tious 1.0:2.6:2.6:3.1 (average of type series); first segment subsquare in outline, second and third slightly wider, fourth suboval and only very slightly wider than second and third. Wing (Fig. 9b) without markings, about two times as long as wide; R; ending in costa at basal 0.4; the suggestion of a crossvein, not distinctly connected with Ri, present near base of R;; R; nearly straight for most of its length, meeting and terminating costa at wing tip; Cu_ straight, forked at outer 0.4; Cu; gently curved; Cup like- wise gently curved and terminating in posterior margin of wing just apicad of termination of Ri. Legs densely covered by very narrow scales; hind femur slightly longer than tibia; proportions of hind tarsal segments 1.0:5.6:2.4:1.3:1.0 (aver- age of type series); fore, mid and hind claws (Fig. 9d) simple, not sharply curved; each pul- villus 0.8 as long as claw. Terminalia (Fig. 9a) longer than wide (viewed dorsally); basistyle slender, length nearly three times greatest width, with a distinct shoulder on inner dorsal margin at the middle; dististyle 0.5 as long as basistyle, 4.5 times as long as greatest width, swollen on basal fourth, remainder slender, slightly curved inwardly, only very slightly enlarged distally and with a distal slit; style nearly as long as basistyle, narrow proximally and expanding to its greatest width at proximal fourth where it is provided with inconspicuous lateral projections, thence gradually narrowing to tip which is very slightly expanded and truncate; tenth tergite bilobed, the bottom of the incision almost square, each lobe 1.5 times as long as wide and evenly rounded at tip; tenth sternite slightly shorter than tergite and considerably shorter than style, rounded at tip (not divided into lobes). Female.—Head, eye bridge, palpus, scape, and pedicel as in male. Flagellar segments with single nodes, the first two completely fused; fifth flagel- FOOTE: GALL MIDGES 57 lar segment with length of node 1.6 times the greatest width; distal stem 0.9 as long as node; circumfila not distinguishable in the poorly mounted specimen. Wing as in male. Hind tarsal segments missing; terminal abdominal segments fleshy; ovipositor not retractile. Holotype—%, Colestin, Oreg., 30-VI-1914, J. E. Patterson, reared from cones of Pseudotsuga taxifolia, Hopkins no. 12535g. U.S.N.M. no. 63033. Paratypes._4% 3%, same data as holotype; 2 (CIS), remainder (USNM). Eleven #27, 399, near Lamb’s Mine, Ashland, Oreg., 17-11-1915, F. P. Keen and P. D. Sergent, reared from cones of Pseudotsuga menziesii, Hopkins no. 13209e-3 through e-8; 64 #, 1 2 (CIS) remainder (USNM). Additional material examined.—1 3%, 1 2, same data as Hopkins nos. 13209e-3 through e-8 (CIS). These specimens are badly damaged and have little value for comparative purposes. Discussion —Males of Lestodiplosis taxiconis may be distinguished at once from all other North American species of Lestodiplosis by the relatively short, narrowed portions (length 2.5 times width vs. length 3.5 times width) of the fifth flagellar segment, and by the fact that this species is associated with cones of Western forest trees. Felt’s (1921) key to the North American species of Lestodiplosis, based almost entirely on color and characters of the male antennae, is almost impossible to use for alcoholic or slide- mounted material. The genus needs extensive revision. Pritchard (1953) does not list the genus as occurring in California. In his key, Lestodiplosis runs to Retinodiplosis or to Itonida, from which it may be separated by the presence of a lobe on the inner surface of the basistyle (Fig. 9a). REFERENCES Fer, lo. P. A study of gall midges IIT. New York State Mus. Bull. 180: 127-288. 1915. A study of gall midges VI. New York State Mus. Bull. 202: 76-205. 1917. . A study of gall midges VII. New York State Mus. Bull. 281-232: 81-240. 1921. PrircuarD, A. EH. The gall midges of California. Bull. California Ins. Survey 2(2): [125]-150. 1953. 58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 2 HERPETOLOGY —The herpetofauna of Harford County, Maryland. CuyprE F. Reep, Baltimore, Md. (Communicated by Doris M. Cochran.) One of the most varied geographical areas in Maryland is Harford County. It is bounded on the east by Susquehanna River, on the southeast by Chesapeake Bay, and on the west and south by Little Gunpowder River. To the north there is no definite geo- graphic boundary with Pennsylvania. The largest inland streams are Deer Creek, Broad Creek, Rock Run, and Bynum Run. The lower southeast eighth of the county is below the Fall Line, thus providing coastal situations along lower Susquehanna River, Chesapeake Bay, and Bush River. The Little Gunpowder runs along the western and southern boundary of Harford County, sep- arating it from Baltimore County. Many deep rocky ravines are exposed along its course, down to the Fall Line, where the river flattens out into a tidal river, like Bush River and the lower Susquehanna River. Deer Creek also exposes extensive rock formations in the northern and central portions of the county, especially near The Rocks, near Kal- mia, and below Darlington, where Deer Creek enters the Susquehanna River just below Conowingo Dam. Most of the rock formations in Harford County are acidic in nature, there being a few calcareous regions in the southwest portion of the county. These areas afford a variety of habitats for amphib- ians and reptiles, thus accounting for the large number of species found in the county. Some of the areas in Harford County have been quite extensively studied. The most frequented area is the Broad Creek area where there is a Boy Scout Camp. Other areas well studied are the regions of The Rocks, Conowingo, Lapidum along the Sus- quehanna from Conowingo to Havre de Grace along the rocky slopes, the region about Aberdeen, and the regions about Bel Air, Churchville, Kalmia, Webster, Hickory, Fallston, Whiteford, Jarrettsville, Shaws- ville, Norrisville, Edgewood, and Magnolia. The distribution of the species of plants and animals to be found in Harford County follows the geographical boundaries very closely. Species that are typically of Pied- mont distribution are: Diadophis punctatus edwardsu, Lampropeltis triangulum triangu- lum, Natrix septemvittata, Clemmys insculpta, and Clemmys muhlenbergii; species that are typically coastal reaching up into Harford County are: Humeces fasciatus, Humeces lati- ceps (2), Carphophis amoena amoena, Opheo- drys aestivus, Lampropeltis getulus getulus, Storeria dekayi, and Sternotherus odoratus; the other species are found in both regions. Many of the following records are addi- tions or new records to the herpetofauna of Harford County. Since several of these rec- ords are additions to McCauley’s The rep- tiles of Maryland, 1945, the following anno- tated list of species is presented. All records and annotated specimens have been collected by the author unless otherwise noted. The collection numbers refer to specimens in the herpetological collections of the author. A total of 43 species are listed from Harford County, 18 of these species are either new records or extend the known range of the species in this county. 1. Diemictylus viridescens viridescens (Rafin- esque): Newr or Rep Err. The Rocks (in meadow pools, May 1954); Broad Creek (in swamp 2 miles north of Broad Creek Camp); Rock Run (in swamp and edge of stream, spring 1953); Churchville (eft stage). 2. Desmognathus fuscus fuscus (Green): Dusky SALAMANDER. The Rocks, Rock Ridge Road (April 10, 1954, *789-791); Broad Creek (com- mon under rocks along streams, May 12, 1953, #127); Lapidum (April 25, 1953, 129-130; April 9, 1953, * 146-154); Shures Landing below Conowingo Dam (September 20, 1953, * 18-24; March 20, 1954, *569-572); Susquehanna River at Schweers Landing (April 9, 1953, ¥* 186-192); Deer Creek near Darlington (April 9, 1953, #273); Kalmia (in a spring, May 1955). 3. Plethodon cinereus cinereus (Green): Woop SALAMANDER; RED-BACK SALAMANDER (red and black phases). Broad Creek (common under rocks and logs); Deer Creek at Route 1, north of Bel Air (Oct. 15, 1954, *995-1007); Deer Creek near Darlington (September 20, 1953, 28-35, 85; April 19, 1954, *144; April 9, 1953, *267- 272); along Rock Run near Susquehanna River at Schweers Landing (April 9, 1953, * 166-185, 193- 202); Lapidum (April 9, 1953, 647-650; April 25, 1953, *99-102); Deer Creek at Susquehanna River (April 25, 1953, ¥155-165; summer 1953, FEBRUARY 1956 ¥ 131-139); Shures Landing below Conowingo Dam (March 20, 1954, *524-527). 4. Plethodon glutinosus glutinosus (Green): Stimy SALAMANDER. Deer Creek near Darlington under rocks on hillsides (April 9, 1953, * 103-108; 274-275; September 20, 1953, 26; April 25, 1953, ¥ 114-125, including Deer Creek at Susque- hanna River); Deer Creek at Route 1, north of Bel Ai (October 15, 1954, 977-978); Broad Creek. Many of the specimens from the Deer Creek and Susquehanna River areas have no spots; they are solid black. 5. Pseudotriton ruber ruber (Sonnini): Rep SALAMANDER. Rock Run near Schweers Landing (April 25, 1953, #112-113); Broad Creek (in old spring house near swamp; under logs); Dublin; Deer Creek near Darlington (April 19, 1953, 145); Shures Landing below Conowingo Dam; The Rocks (in spring house, April 1954); Edge- wood; Churchville (in old well). 6. Hurycea bislineata bislineata (Green): Two- LINED SALAMANDER. Broad Creek (May 12, 1953, #128, edge of streams); Shures Landing below Conowingo Dam (April 9, 1953, * 126; Septem- ber 20, 1953, #17); Susquehanna River near Schweers Landing (common); Rock Run. 7. Eurycea longicauda longicauda (Green): LONG-TAILED SALAMANDER. Shures Landing be- low Conowingo in seepage (September 20, 1953, ¥ 14-16); Broad Creek (in spring house). 8. Bufo terrestris americanus Holbrook: AMER- 1cAN Toap. Broad Creek; Bush River; Church- ville; Havre de Grace (common in all localities) ; Lapidum. 9. Bufo woodhousii fowleri Hinckley: FowLEr’s Toap. Churchville; Broad Creek; Lapidum. 10. Acris gryllus crepitans Baird: CrickrrT Frog. Rock Run; Broad Creek; Churchville (fre- quent); along Susquehanna River in canal, Conowingo to Havre de Grace. 11. Hyla crucifer crucifer Wied: Sprine Peeper. Havre de Grace; Churchville; Broad Creek; woods, 2 miles north of Havre de Grace (October 6, 1955, * 1024). 12. Hyla versicolor versicolor LeConte: Common Tree Froc. Broad Creek. 13. Rana catesbeiana Shaw: Butt Frog. Bush River (in swamps); Havre de Grace; Aberdeen; Broad Creek (in swamps near camp); Hickory north of Bel Air. 14. Rana clamitans Latreille: Gremn Froa. Churchville (April 25, 1953, *501); Broad Creek; Bel Air; Hickory; Susquehanna River near Glen Cove (May 12, 1953, *284). REED: HERPETOFAUNA OF HARFORD COUNTY 59 15. Rana sylvatica LeConte: Woop Froa. Deer Creek at Darlington (September 20, 1953, ¥ 25); Shures Landing below Conowingo Dam (March 20, 1954, *567); Broad Creek (in nearby swampy areas); Deer Creek at Susquehanna River; Schweers Landing along Susquehanna River (October 6, 1955, #1025). 16. Rana pipiens Schreber: Lroparp Frog. Chruchville (April 25, 1953, 502-503); Broad Creek; Bel Air. 17. Rana palustris LeConte: PickmrREL FrRoG. Broad Creek; woods along Route 1 at Deer Creek (October 6, 1955, #1023); Lapidum (October 6, 1955, * 1027). 18. Chelydra serpentina serpentina (Linnaeus): SNAPPING TurrLe. Havre de Grace; Webster; Edgewood; Deer Creek near Kalmia (April 30, 1955, 980); Broad Creek, in Broad Creek Lake (seen up to 30 pounds; many juveniles caught in streams leading to lake); The Rocks; Church- ville (frequent in ponds and swamps). 19. Clemmys guttata (Schneider): Sporrep TurtLe. Broad Creek (behind dam, in swamp next to creek, 5 collected); Bush River; Darling- ton; along Susquehanna River near Conowingo Dam. 20. Clemmys muhlenbergi (Schoepff): MuHLEN- BERG’s TurTLE. Broad Creek, in swampy area near pipe drain at Broad Creek Scout Camp (4 collected in three years). New to Harford County. 21. Clemmys insculpta (LeConte): Woop Tutte. Roberts Island; Broad Creek (below dam, 2 collected along creek); Havre de Grace (USNM 14582). 22. Terrapene carolina carolina (Linnaeus): Box Turrir. Havre de Grace; Webster; Aber- deen; Emmorton; Bel Air; The Rocks; Broad Creek; Rock Run. 23. Sternotherus orodatus Latreille: Musk Turtie. Along Little Gunpowder River, in Harford County, near Fork. 24. Chrysemys picta picta (Schneider): PAINTED Turtie. Havre de Grace; along Susquehanna River near Darlington; Conowingo Dam; Broad Creek (around lake and in streams); Aberdeen; Churchville. New to Harford County. 25. Graptemys geographica (LeSueur): Map Turrue. Havre de Grace (USNM 17833); Sus- quehanna River at Darlington (Roger Conant). 26. Kinosternon subrubrum subrubrwm (lacé- péde): Mup Turtie. Bush River (CMP 8035). 27. Sceloporus undulatus hyacinthinus (Green): NorrHern Fence Swirr. The Rocks (RHM); Broad Creek (collected near nature lodge). Ex- 60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tending the range north and east in Harford County in Maryland. 28. Humeces fasciatus (Linnaeus): FIvE-LINED Skink. Bush River (CMP 8379); Broad Creek (seen near rocks where copperheads stay; col- lected by nature lodge). Extending range north- ward about 20 miles to Pennsylvania line. 29. Natrix septemvittata (Say): QUEEN SNAKE. Along Susquehanna River above Havre de Grace; near Edgewood; Broad Creek (frequent along streams on overhanging branches); Schweers Landing along Susquehanna River (ZSP 385); Van Bibber (USNM 36087). Extend- ing range northward along Susquehanna River to Pennsylvania Line. 30. Natrix sipedon sipedon (Linnaeus): Com- MON WarTpR Snaké. The Rocks, along Deer Creek; Havre de Grace; Dublin; Carsens Run; Churchville; Broad Creek (common along streams and on overhanging branches). 31. Thamnophis sauritus sawritus (Linnaeus): Rippon Snake. Near Aberdeen; Broad Creek (some observed with part of tail missing); The Rocks (2 specimens observed and let go, July 1954); Bush River (CMP 8374); Edgewood Arsenal (MNHS); The Rocks (RHM). Extending range north and east to Susquehanna River near Pennsylvania line. 32. Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis (Linnaeus): GarTER SNAKE. Shures Landing below Cono- wingo Dam (March 20, 1954, 565); Broad Creek; Havre de Grace; The Rocks; Churchville. Extending range north and east to Pennsylvania line. 33. Haldea valeriae valeriae Baird and Girard: Eastern Grounp Snake. Broad Creek (under old plant stalk, embedded in ground); Prospect; north of Bradshaw, along Little Gunpowder. New to Harford County. 34. Heterodon platyrhinos platyrhinos Latreille: HoG-NosED SNAKE. Broad Creek (5 collected in year, near fence posts and in dead logs); near Magnolia (DOR, May 1952); Aberdeen (Robert Duppstatt). Extending range north and east to Pennsylvania line. 35. Diadophis punctatus edwardsi (Merrem): RING-NECKED SNAKE. Deer Creek at Susque- hanna near Darlington (September 20, 1953, % 27); Broad Creek (under rotted logs and flat rocks). New to Harford County. 36. Storeria dekayi (Holbrook): DrKay’s Snake. Churchville. New to Harford County. 37. Opheodrys aestivus (Linnaeus): RouGH GREEN Snake. Aberdeen (climbing over shrubs). New to Harford County. 38. Carphophis amoenus amoenus (Say): WoRM SNAKE. Conowingo; Broad Creek. New to Har- ford County. 39. Coluber constrictor constrictor (Linnaeus): Brack Snake, Buack Racer. Broad Creek; Deer Creek at Susquehanna River (Spring 1953, in woods). New to Harford County. 40. Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta (Say): PrLor Buack Snake. Broad Creek; Churchville; along Little Gunpowder River; Bel Air; The Rocks. New to Harford County. 41. Lampropeltis doliata triangulum (Lacé- pede): Mink Snake. Havre de Grace (USNM 9284); Broad Creek (collected in ruins of old building). Extending range northward to Penn- sylvania line. 42. Lampropeltis getulus getulus (Linnaeus): Eastern Kine Snake. Along Little Gunpowder River, northwest of Fallston; near Aberdeen (Robert Duppstatt). Extending range well into Harford County. 43. Ancistrodon contortrix mokeson (Daudin): CopprpreRHEAD. The Rocks (on boulders sunning, 1946); Kalmia (1954); Broad Creek (on rocky ledges below dam; some killed at camp site above lake); Deer Creek (Fowler, 1925); near Darling- ton; on rocky ledges along Susquehanna River just above Havre de Grace. Widens the range in Harford County. Although the following species of amphib- ians have not been collected in Harford County, to the best of my knowledge, they do occur just below the Conowingo Dam on the Cecil County side of the Susquehanna River. Since they all show aquatic or semi- aquatic tendencies, there is no reason why they might not be found in Harford County. Ambystoma maculatus (Shaw): Low ground be- tween the Octoraro River and Port Deposit, # 38-41, March 18, 1953; just below Conowingo Dam, *48, September 20, 1953. Ambystoma opacum (Gravenhorst): Under logs just below Conowingo Dam, #47, September 20, 1953; low woods between Octoraro River and Port Deposit, *37 and 37a, March 18, 1953. Hemidactylium scutatum (Schlegel): Under logs just below Conowingo Dam, *46, September 20, 1953. Cryptobranchus alleganiensis (Daudin): Col- lected in the Octoraro River many years ago; common farther north in the Susquehanna River and its tributaries in Pennsylvania. vou. 46, No. 2 FEBRUARY 1956 SHOEMAKER: AMPHIPODS FROM DRY TORTUGAS 61 ZOOLOGY —A new genus and two new species of amphipods from Dry Tortugas, Florida. CLARENCE R. SHormMaker, U.S. National Museum. While collecting in the shallow water around Loggerhead Key, Dry Tortugas, in 1926, I discovered some small amphipods living among the coral sand and rocks. These proved to be a new genus, herein named Hoplopheonoides. A number of amphipods found clinging to the exterior of a large spider crab taken by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt south of Tortugas in August 1931, have been found to be a new symbiotic species of Stenothoe. Family AMPHILOCHIDAE Hoplopheonoides, n. gen. Antennae short, subequal in length, flagella much shorter than their peduncles, accessory flagellum absent. Eye rather small. Mandible, molar well developed, cutting edge well toothed, spine row of several spines, palp absent. Maxilla 1, inner plate narrow and rather long, outer plate with 9-11 spines, palp 1-jomted. Maxilla 2 both plates narrow, inner the shorter. Maxillipeds normal. Coxal plates 1 and 2 rudimentary, 3 and 4 very large. Gnathopods 1 and 2 subchelate. Peraeopods 1 and 2 slender; peraeopods 3 and 4, slender with second joint linear; peraeopod 5, slender with second joint slightly expanded. Metasome segments normal. Urosome segment 1 long, with a high dorsal crest or lamella; urosome segments 2 and 3 very short and not coalesced. Uropods normal. Telson horizontal and entire. Hoplopheonoides obesa, n. sp. Fig. 1 Male.—Head as long as the first two body seg- ments combined. The specimens examined having been in alcohol for a considerable time, the eyes were distorted so that thei correct outline could not be determined. Antenna 1, peduncle rather stout, the joints decreasing consecutively in length; flagellum, a little longer than the last peduncular joint, the first joint being as long as the succeeding four joints combined. Antenna 2 a little shorter than 1 and comparatively slender; fourth joint a little longer than the fifth; flagellum as long as the fifth peduncular joint and com- posed of one long joint and four short joints. Upper lip bilobed. Mandible without palp; molar well developed; cutting edge rather broad and well toothed; spine row of six or seven spines, as well as could be determined. Maxilla 1, inner plate narrow and rather long and apparently without setae; outer plate with nine or eleven spines; palp 1 jomted and bearing distal spines. Maxilla 2, both plates narrow and slightly curved, inner plate the shorter, and each bearing one apical seta. Maxilliped, inner plate longer than the outer and reaching forward nearly as far; outer plate reaching nearly to the end of the first joint of palp; second joint of palp short and widened distally; third joint with a narrow distal lobe reaching nearly to the middle of the fourth joint. Gnathopods 1 and 2 slender. Gnathopod 1 shorter than 2; second joint not quite as long as the fifth and sixth combined; fifth joint with lower lobe produced forward beneath the sixth; sixth joint over twice as long as wide, palm trans- verse and rather deeply incised; seventh joint slender, curved, much longer than the palm and bearing minute spinules on inner margin. Gnatho- pod 2 second joint longer than the fifth and sixth combined; fifth joint a little longer than the sixth; sixth jomt expanding slightly distally, palm transverse, concave, having a small tooth near the seventh joint, and defined by a tooth bearing two spines; seventh joint slender, strongly curved, ex- tending a little beyond the palm and armed on the inner margin with five spinules and a small forward-pointing tooth. Peraeopods 1 and 2 slender, alike, and about equal in length. Peraeo- pods 3 and 4 alike, but 3 the shorter (Fig. 1a). Peraeopod 5 about as long as 3, second joint slightly expanded but not produced below. The fourth joint of all peraeopods slightly expanded and very little produced below. The seventh joint of all peraeopods slender and little curved. Coxal plates 1 and 2 rudimentary and nearly hidden by the greatly expanded coxal plate 3. Coxal plate 4 greatly expanded and reaching back to the end of coxal plate 5. The body of the animal viewed from above widens rather abruptly toward the fourth seg- ment which is the widest and which bulges out laterally over the central coxal plates. The body then tapers off to the posterior end which is very narrow. Metasome segments evenly rounding below and without angles. Urosome segment 1 about 62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES three times longer than segments 2 and 3 com- bined, and expanded dorsally into a thin vertical crest or lamella which is produced behind over segments 2 and 3. Urosome segments 2 and 3 very short, and apparently not coalesced. Uropods de- creasing in length consecutively, all biramous, the outer ramus being the shorter. The upper margins VOL. 46, No. 2 of all rami bearing very fine, closely set spinules. Telson entire, with lateral margins converging to a narrow apex, and reaching nearly to the end of the peduncle of uropod 3. Length 2.5 mm. Female.—Those specimens which are believed to be females are like the males, and are of the same size. Fic. 1.—Hoplopheonoides obesa, n. gen. and n. sp., male: a, Front part of animal; b, antenna 1; c, antenna 2; d, left maxilliped; e, end of gnathopod 1; f, end of gnathopod 2; g, hind part of animal. Fespruary 1956 SHOEMAKER: AMPHIPODS FROM DRY TORTUGAS 63 Fie. 2.—Stenothoe symbiotica, n. sp., male: a, Front part of animal; 0, left maxilla 2; ¢, left maxilla 2 of another specimen; d, end of gnathopod 2; e, peraeopod 3; f, end of| peraeopod 3 enlarged; g, peraeopod 4; h, peraeopod 5; 7, metasome; j, telson. 64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Type.—A male, U. 8S. Nat. Mus. no. 96465, taken off the northern end of Loggerhead Key, Tortugas, Fla., in 15 feet of water, among sand, rocks, and marine growths, August 4, 1926, by Clarence R. Shoemaker. Remarks.—This amphipod possesses characters belonging to several of the genera of the Am- philochidae, but the combination of these charac- ters does not agree with that of any of the estab- lished genera of the family; it, therefore, appears necessary to create a new genus to receive it. In life the animal is heavily mottled with greenish brown, yellowish green, and white, which give it an effective protective colormg for its native habitat amongst the coralline sands and rocks. Specimens of this species were taken at a number of localities in the shallow water around Loggerhead Key. Stenothoe symbiotica, n. sp. Fig. 2 Male.—Head with lateral lobe angular, but not acutely so. Eye rather large, nearly round, and light straw color in alcohol. Antenna 1 a little longer than 2, penduncular joints decreasing in length consecutively; flagellum nearly twice as long as the peduncle, and composed of about 19 or 20 joints. Antenna 2, fourth and fifth joints equal in length; flagellum longer than the peduncle, and composed of about 16 joints. Right mandible, cutting edge broad, with five coarse teeth; accessory plate broad with very finely toothed edge, spine row of about 12 spines; palp absent, but indicated by a small, pointed, conical protuberance. Left mandible, cutting edge broad with more and much finer teethn in tha right mandible; accessory plate broad with coarser teeth than in right plate. Maxilla 1, inner lobe small with one seta; outer lobe with six spine teeth; palp 2-jointed, the rounding distal margin and inner margin with spines. Maxilla 2, mner lobe absent; outer lobe bearing seven spines. Mazxilliped, inner lobes very small, but separate; outer lobes entirely absent. Inner distal end of the third joint of the palp and the inner margin of the fourth joint bearing a brush of fine setae. Gnathopods 1 and 2 very much alike, but 2 much the larger. Gnathopod 2, second joint not much expanded and as long as the fifth and sixth joints combined; fifth jomt a little over half the vou. 46, No. 2 length of the sixth, and with prominent lower lobe; sixth jomt about one-third longer than wide, widest in the middle; palm very oblique, slightly concave, provided throughout with very short spinules, without defining angle, and merging into the joint by a broadly rounding curve which bears a row of seven stout spines; seventh joint stout, curved and bearing a row of fine spinules on inner margin. Peraeopods 1 and 2 slender and alike, fourth joint little expanded; sixth joint longer than fifth, expanded distally, and provided on the oblique distal end with two rows of stout spines, thus, with the opposing seventh joint, forming a subchelate clasping organ. Peraeopods 4 and 5, second joint moderately expanded, and the third to seventh joints like those of peraeopod 3. Coxal plates 2 and 4 broadly expanded and much deeper than their body segments. Metasome segment 1 evenly rounding below. Metasome segments 2 and 3 slightly produced below, but not sharply so. Uropod 1 extending a little farther back than 2. Uropod 3 extending a little farther than 2 and about as far as 1. All uropods with very few small spines. Uropod 3, peduncle not quite as long as first jomt of ramus, which is longer than the second joint and bears one or two central and several distal spines on upper margin. Telson not reaching the end of the peduncle of uropod 3, lateral margins each bearing one spinule and converging to the narrow rounding apex. Length about 7 mm. Female.—The female is very much like the male. The antennae are a little shorter. The coxal plates are not so deep. The gnathopods are smaller and weaker, but structurally the same as those of the male. The female is a little smaller than the male. Type-—A male, U. S. Nat. Mus. no. 96464, taken from the exterior of a large spider crab caught in 50 fathoms south of Loggerhead Key, Tortugas, Fla., August 7, 1931, by Waldo L. Schmitt. A considerable number of these amphi- pods were taken from the crab, where they were apparently living symbiotically. Several speci- mens were taken in an otter trawl at Tortugas. A single specimen was taken by the steamer Albatross December 12, 1919, in an otter trawl, in 62-110 fathoms, at station 20037 cff South Carolina. Fespruary 1956 NOTES AND NEWS 65 NOTES AND NEWS SIX DISTRICT AREA SCIENTISTS RECEIVE ACADEMY AWARDS The Board of Managers of the Washington Academy of Sciences announce the 1955 winners of the awards given annually to scientists under 40 years of age in recognition of distinguished scientific achievements in the Biological, Engi- neering, and Physical Sciences, and to a sec- ondary-school teacher for excellency in Teaching of Science. The selections were made by a com- mittee of 25 leading scientists in the various fields represented. The President of the Academy, Dr. MarcGarnr Pittman, of the National Institutes of Health, presented the awards at the Annual Dinner Meeting of the Academy, held on January 19, 1956, at the Kennedy-Warren. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Dr. Cuirrorp Evans and Dr. Barry J. Mereerrs, of the Smithsonian Institution, a husband-wife team, were selected to receive jointly an award in the Biological Sciences in recognition of their outstanding contributions to the prehistory and human ecology of Lowland South America. They were pioneers in archeology in the Amazon area. They lived and worked in the rain forests where no one previously had been willing to work, and there uncovered evi- dence that has necessitated drastic revision of previously held views of native culture in north- eastern South America. Their field work has been in Peru, Lower Amazon, British Guiana among the Wai Wai Indians, and in coastal Heuador. Dr. Evans was born in Dallas, Tex., and received his Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1950. He joined the staff of the Smithsonian Institution in 1951 as associate curator, Division of Archeology, U. 8S. National Museum. Dr. Meggers was born in Washington, D. C., and received her Ph.D. from Columbia Uni- versity in 1952. Since 1954 she has been an honorary research associate at the Smithsonian Institution. Lt. Col. Ropprr Travs, formerly chief of the Department of Entomology of the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research and now command- ing officer of the U. S. Army Medical Research Unit in Malaya, was selected for a Biological Science Award in recognition of his outstanding work on ectoparasites, fleas and mites. He made outstanding contributions during World War II to the control of mite-borne scrub typhus in the Malaya area and during the Korean War to the control of hemorrhagic fever. Hemorrhagic fever, the greatest scourge of that area, is now almost a medical curiosity. Dr. Traub was born in New York, N. Y., and received his Ph.D. from the University of Illinois in 1947. He has been with the United States Army since 1948. ENGINEERING SCIENCES EK. Artaur Bonney, of the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., was selected for the Engineering Science Award for his outstanding contributions in the field of supersonic aerodynamics. He has played a leading role in elucidating the problems of interactions among the wings, body, and tails of a supersonic missile. Specifically, his analysis and wind-tunnel tests have led to a fairly com- plete understanding of the aerodynamic and aeroelastic effects of a structure in regions of flow ranging from subsonic to high Mach num- bers. His work has fundamental application in the design of air-borne missiles and rockets. Mr. Bonney was born in Waltham, Mass. He received his master of science degree from New York University in 1942. He has been at the Applied Physics Laboratory since 1945. PHYSICAL SCIENCES Dr. TrrrevtL Lesuir Hitu, of the Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, Md., was selected for the Physical Science Award in recognition of his outstanding contributions to physical and biological chemistry. He has made significant advancements in the statistical mechanics of the behavior of assemblies of particles, molecules, and atoms and in the applications of statistical mechanics to problems of general chemistry, for example; the behavior of molecules at interfaces (gas bubbles in liquids, gases adsorbed on charcoal, ete.). His study of electrical properties of molecules has contributed to the understanding of the chemical behavior of cells, one example of which is muscle contraction. Dr. Hill received his Ph.D. from the Uni- versity of California m 1942. He has been on the 66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES staff of the Naval Medical Research Institute since 1948. TEACHING OF SCIENCE Heten Nate Coopmr (Mrs. C. L.), of Be- thesda, Md., was selected for the Teaching of Science Award for her distinction in fostering ability and enriching the perspective in mathe- matics. She has been an effective teacher for a number of years. Mathematics is presented so skillfully that even the slower learners are not scared away from mathematics while the faster learners are challenged to do extra work. Her students have won science fair prizes. She has helped many students decide on an engineering or mathematical career by constantly stressing the need for mathematicians and engineers. She is also active in teacher association projects. Mrs. Cooper received her A.B. from West Virginia University. She has taught in the Montgomery County Schools since 1946 and in North Bethesda Junior High School since September 1955. NEW DIRECTOR OF NAVAL RESEARCH Dr. Oscar THroporr Marzke, associate director of research for materials at the Naval Research Laboratory, has been appointed di- rector of research at NRL. He succeeds Dr. Epwarp O. Hutsurt, who has retired from Civil Service to become the senior scientist for the United States National Committee for the International Geophysical Year of the National Academy of Sciences. A native of Lansing, Mich., Dr. Marzke re- ceived his B.Sc. degree in 1929 from Michigan State College and his Sc.D. degree in Metallurgy in 1932 from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; he was a Swett scholar. During part of the time he was taking his postgraduate work he served at NRL as a laboratory tech- nician. From 1933 to 1946, Dr. Marzke was a metal- lurgist with the American Steel and Wire Co., domg both research and plant metallurgical work, his last position with the company being that of works metallurgist at the Waukegan, Ill., plant beginning in 1942. He joined the Naval Research Laboratory in 1946 as superintendent of the Metallurgy Division and became the first associate director of research for materials in 1954. During the period 1951-53, he was also head of the Metallurgy Branch of the Office of Naval Research and was Development Co- ordinator for ONR from January to August 1955. Dr. Marzke is a member of the American Society for Metals, the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, the Ameri- can Welding Society, Tau Beta Pi, the Research Society of America, the British Institute of Metals, the British Iron and Steel Institute, and the Washington Academy of Sciences. ELECTRON TUBE INFORMATION SERVICE The National Bureau of Standards has established a tube information service for ac- cumulating and disseminating technical data on both domestic and foreign radio tubes. At the present time nearly 10,000 cards, filed by tube type number, are appropriately referenced to manufacturers’ source material. In addition, about 10 percent of these cards, selected mainly from the high-use miniature and subminiature types, have been coded on punched cards for mechanical sorting. With this unique service, it is possible to find (1) information about any particular tube, (2) all tube types whose electrical characteristics, bulb sizes, or base configurations fall within particular ranges, and (3) domestic tubes that can be substituted for unavailable foreign tubes. Recently, junction diodes and transistors have been added to the Bureau’s program. The pro- gram began about seven years ago as a service to NBS personnel. It has since been extended to all scientists and engineers in Government and in- dustry who have legitimate requests. This con- tinuing service is being carried out by C. P. Marsden and J. M. Moffitt of the Bureau’s electron tube laboratory. The NBS tube information service was established to meet the ever-increasing number of requests for information that was not readily available on little-known tubes or tubes of foreign manufacture. As the service grew, it in- cluded more and more detailed information on larger numbers of tubes. Recently the Bureau has begun punched-card coding for automatic selection in order to process requests more rapidly. The goals of the service are to include the latest technical data on all domestic and foreign tube types and to have all such information coded. The service includes all such data on electron tubes and semiconductor devices as electrical vou. 46, No. 2 Fespruary 1956 characteristics, bulb size and base configurations, ambient operating conditions, and where possible, construction details. The main source of this in- formation is the manufacturer’s brochure or handbook. While the major companies auto- matically furnish the information through their distribution lists, numerous new and _ small companies must be queried directly whenever preliminary information on their products is gathered from advertisements, articles, and brochures. Special attention to these scattered sources has been required to maintain current the file on crystal diodes and transistors. The NBS files include products of about 80 domestic and 15 foreign manufacturers. In general, foreign data have been limited to Western European sources. So far the Bureau has received requests for tube information mainly from other Government agencies, the military services, foreign govern- ments, and local private industries. Most of the inquiries have been for information about the electrical characteristics of a particular tube type or the selection of a domestic tube for replace- ment in foreign equipment. Although this sort of request is easily met, questions on cathode operating temperature or contact potentials must be answered in general terms because these quantities vary with the manufacturer. Queries on tube types with specified electrical, mechan- ical, or geometric characteristics are usually answered by a combination of machine card sorting and reference research. Clearly, only general information can be coded on punched cards; after machine selection of several tubes that meet the specifications of the inquiry, reference research is required to supply the more specific information. In general, coding is on the basis of operating voltages, transconductance, etc.; and the tube types machine-selected are those within the ranges specified by the inquiry. While the coding on punched cards has been completed only for the miniature and miniature tubes with bulb sizes up to T61%, the Bureau plans to proceed as rapidly as possible with the coding of all other tube types. The semiconductor devices are being coded as soon as the information becomes available. The Bureau’s service is open to all who have legitimate requests. Inquiries may be made by telephone if desired. However, they should con- tain as much factual information as possible to expedite the reference research and should in- sub- NOTES AND NEWS 67 clude background information where appro- priate. The service cannot undertake to answer queries on tube applications in circuits; complex or highly detailed questions that may require laboratory research can be answered only on the basis of data available. Address inquiries to C. P. Marsden, chief, Electron Tubes Section, National Bureau of Standards, Washington 25, D.C. DR. CURTIS CELEBRATES 80TH BIRTHDAY Dr. Harvey L. Curtis, one-time member of the staff of the National Bureau of Standards and still an active physicist, was honored by his junior NBS colleagues on the occasion of his 80th birthday on December 14. Dr. Curtis, who is internationally known for his work in absolute electrical measurements, was presented with a bound volume of letters from many of his former scientific associates con- gratulating him on his birthday. Until his retirement in 1946, Dr. Curtis was chief of the Bureau’s Inductance and Capacitance Section, a part of the Electricity Division. In this capacity Dr. Curtis supervised the maintenance and continued development of the national standards of reference for determining the two basic electrical quantities, inductance and capacitance. His work on the measurement of current and resistance in absolute units brought him into contact with renowned scientists in other national laboratories and made him an appropriate NBS representative at the Inter- national Electrical Congress at Paris in 1932. In addition to the basic work on absolute electrical measurements, he inaugurated funda- mental researches on the properties of dielec- trics, particularly rubber and petroleum. During World Wars I and II, he directed extensive programs in ballistic research for the Navy. Since his retirement Dr. Curtis has maintained an active association with the Bureau, coming to his desk almost daily. His continued interest in ballistics is shown by the publication in 1948 of a paper entitled ‘An Instrument for the Rapid Production of a Decimal Series of Po- tentials and its Application to Ballistics Measure- ments,” of which he was coauthor with Howard S. Roberts. He also published a paper in 1950 on the “Determination of Curvature by an Osculom- eter.’ His continued interest in absolute trical measurements led to publication in 1949 of a paper on that subject in the Scientific Monthly. elec- 68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF He has long been concerned with science education, and his retirement permitted him to prepare, after a lapse of over 40 years, a_his- torical paper on the establishment of accredited graduate courses at the National Bureau of Standards. This paper was published in this JouRNAL in 1949. In 1906, the year before Dr. Curtis joined its staff, the Bureau had established a system of courses at the graduate level—the first such courses in government. Dr. Curtis was soon asked to serve as chairman of the com- mittee which arranged this curriculum. His studies as a postgraduate student at NBS helped qualify him for his own doctorate. Since retiring, Dr. Curtis founded a unique organization, ‘‘The Fossils.” These retired Government workers hold weekly meetings for fellowship and for discussions of subjects of mutual interest. They also make trips to places of historical and National interest around Washington. Dr. Curtis was born December 14, 1875, on a farm near Lansing, Mich. He received his bachelor of philosophy degree from the Uni- versity of Michigan in 1900 and his master of arts degree in 1903. He became a physics in- structor at the Michigan Agriculatural College in 1903 and held the post of assistant professor there until he jomed the National Bureau of Standards in 1907. He took his doctorate at the University of Michigan in 1910. In 1915, after demonstrating his ability for making electrical measurements with high precision, Dr. Curtis was appointed a section chief to direct part of the Bureau’s electrical work. He continued to serve as a section chief until his retirement. During his active career he gave generously of his spare time to scientific societies. He has served as president of the Philsophical Society of Washington and of the Washington Academy of Sciences and was chairman of the Washington section of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. He is an honorary member of the American Society for Testing Materials, having served as chairman of Committee D-9 on Elec- trical Insulating Materials and as chairman of American Standards Association Technical Committee C-59 which is sponsored by ASTM. As a Fellow of the American Institute of Elec- trical Engineers, he was active in the National Affairs of that organization and also the American Physical Society. Dr. Curtis was made an SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 2 honorary Phi Beta Kappa when the chapter was established at the University of Michigan in 1930. He is at present hard at work on his memoirs. Dr. Herseert FRrispMANN, curator of the Division of Birds, U. $8. National Museum, Smithsonian Institution, has been awarded the 1955 Leidy medal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. The medal is awarded every three years for the best publication, exploration, discovery, or research in the natural sciences in such particular branches thereof as may be designated. Dr. Friedmann is being honored for his re- search in ornithology, his study of the biology of parasitic birds, the monographic works he has published dealing with them, and the discovery of wax digestion by honey guides. His study of these small birds, which lead men and animals to nests of bees, may provide a new means of attacking the tubercle bacillus. It may be noted that Dr. Friedmann is the author of the first number in the Academy’s monograph series, The Parasitic Cuckoos of Africa. Ouiver H Gis has been appointed visiting professor of physics at Southern Illinois Uni- versity for the academic year 1955-56. From 1922 until his retirement in 1948, Gish was on the staff of the department of terrestrial magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, first as physicist and later as chief of the section of terrestrial electricity and as assistant director of the department. Since his retirement, he has been part-time consulting physicist to the U. 8. Air Force and the U. S. Navy Mine De- fense Laboratory. R. N. Dorrscu, associate professor of bac- teriology at the University of Maryland, has been appointed a 1956 fellow of the John Simon Guggenheim Foundation at the Rowett Re- search Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. He will work with A. E. Oxford on some aspects of rumen microbiology. SHIRLEIGH SILVPRMAN, of the Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, has taken a year’s leave, effective November 1, to serve as director of the Physical Sciences Di- vision, Office of Naval Research. F 4 By i iG n i i tis 0 ” ‘ i Lim ) i ee, wy ; fiat 1 1‘ / CONTENTS Gropuysics.— Possibilities and significance of high-speed computing in meteorology. /HRANGOIS=N).. PRENKTED.......).)-. 22 eee MatTHematics.—Commutators of A and A*. T. Kato and O. Taussky. PaLEONTOLOGY.—New families of Gastropoda. J. BRookrs KNIGHT... . PALEONTOLOGY.—Some new pleurotomarian gastropods from the Permian of west Texas. RoGrr I). BATTEN... 02......... 22 sae PaLEOoNTOLOGY.—New Permian gastropod genera from eastern Arizona. STEVENS. WINTERS: 2: 0.0.05.-. 00000-00853 35 rr PALEONTOLOGY.—Labridens, a new Permian gastropod. Eiuis L. YocHEL- PALEONTOLOGY.—Gyrospira, a new genus of bellerophontid (Gastropoda) from. Bolivia: A.J: Boucot. .2). 2 4.0.2<.4..).) >) eee ENnToMoLoGy.—Gall midges associated with cones of western forest trees (Diptera: Itonididae). RicuArp He Foorn,.- 2... -..) eee Herpretotogy.—The herpetofauna of Harford County, Maryland. ChyDE EF. RBED: «.. 2.00 Jen eae 6 ee ee os be eee Zootocy.—A new genus and two new species of amphipods from Dry Tortugas, Florida. CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER Page Miscellany; Notesrand News: 2-29..90008— eee er ose. 40, 65 Db, 13 DuUwWwZs VOLUME 46 March 1956 NUMBER 3 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Published Monthly by the oe S H/INGTON AC A D-E M\Y OF SCIENCES MOUNT ROYAL & GUILFORD AVES., BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences Editor: Curster H. Paces, National Bureau of Standards Associate Editors: RoNaLD Bamrorp, University of Maryland Howarp W. 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Authorized February 17, 1949. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 46 Marcu 1956 No. 3 PHYSICS.—The basis for standards for radiation protection.! LAURISTON S. TAYLOR, National Bureau of Standards. In the broad sense, radiation protection is a problem that will touch the lives of most of us more and more as time goes on, whether it be in connection with nondestructive testing, with radiology, or with the pro- duction of nuclear power. The uses of radi- ation-producing machines and the use of radioactive materials will undoubtedly in- crease as time goes on, and radiation as such will become an increasingly important part of our national economy. It will also become a part of our political economy because, with the widespread uses of radiation, there is an increasing tendency to endeavor to control its hazards through legislative means. Legislation can be good or bad; whether it is one or the other will depend to a consid- erable extent upon the action and interest of our scientific and technical organizations. Today, radiation rules, laws, and regula- tions are being developed rapidly. With any law or regulation, restriction is apt to follow. This can be harmful if such restric- tions are allowed to interfere materially with the normal progress of science and industry. These problems will undoubtedly come to your attention more and more. I want to emphasize the importance of keeping a close watch on these developments, and when necessary, being willing to devote some of your time and energy to assure that regula- tions are sensible, useful, and yet at the same time nonrestrictive. The term “radiation-protection stand- ards” is used somewhat loosely, and yet at the same time there is probably very little 1This paper is the substance of the Lester Honor Lecture, delivered before the Society for Non-Destructive Testing and published in full in the journal of that Society. Their permission to Reprint this part is acknowledged with apprecia- 10n. 69 real uncertainty as to the broad meaning of the term. One normally thinks of a stand- ard as being something rather firm, rather well understood, inflexible, accurately known, and reproducible. When a standard is mentioned one immediately thinks of something like the standard meter-bar, carefully locked away in a vault and re- sistant to the changes of time; or of some accurately measurable quantity, such as the ohm or volt. However, in the field of radiation pro- tection standards, there are many unknowns and many uncertainties. They involve a great many assumptions that may have to be changed from time to time. In fact, it would not be oversimplifying the case to state that our protection standards are essentially protection goals or objectives. Where it is possible to develop numbers to assign to some of the standards, these num- bers are really more in the nature of a means to achieve some goal than the goal itself. Even the goal itself is difficult of definition. It is primarily to determine the limits of radiation exposure to which the individual, or whole population, can be exposed without encountering risks incommensurate with the benefits to be expected from its use. Stand- ards of safety go back directly to the indi- vidual who will be exposed to radiation. For this it is necessary to determine how much radiation he can absorb without injury to himself or to his progeny. Knowing the complication of the human being as an or- ganic structure, and the great difference in sensitivity between individuals, it is very easy to see why such a determination im- mediately becomes an extremely difficult problem. To point up the difficulties, it may be helpful to review rather briefly some of AUG 1 4 1085 70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the early background and philosophy leading to the development of standards of radiation protection. Much has been written on this subject and therefore only the high spots will be touched upon (/, 2, 3, 4). Radiation was recognized as a potential hazard to health soon after its discovery. Serious efforts to understand and curtail radiation exposure to individuals were not begun seriously until the 1920’s. One should bear in mind that it was not until 1928 that the world had a uniform and acceptable unit of radiation dose, namely the roentgen. Con- sequently, radiation-protection efforts and protection standards were, of necessity, on a purely qualitative basis. Until 1928, most radiation treatments were expressed in terms of fractions of erythema dose—the amount of radiation that would cause a defined red- dening of the skin. This in itself was a very uncertain factor, since it depended upon the energy of the radiation, the time over which it was delivered, the size of the irradiated field, and the amount of backscattering, not to mention the individual’s idiosynerasy with regard to radiation sensitivity. It was not until the mid-thirties that stray radiation exposure was measured quantitatively, mak- ing it possible to put radiation-protection standards on a reasonably firm quantitative basis. Interestingly enough, later efforts proved that these early standards were not grossly wrong. The first protection standards, if such they could be called, were in terms of thicknesses of lead that were required to be interposed between a radiation source and an individual to assure his safety (5). Graded thicknesses of lead were recommended on the basis of the voltage applied across the X-ray tube. No account was taken of the hardness of the radiation, distance factors, origin and history of the scattered radiation, time of exposure, etc. The standard barriers were based on supposedly “average” conditions. The fol- lowing of this principle of protection, while a substantial achievement, nevertheless re- sulted at times either in underprotection or costly overprotection. One could venture the suggestion that if there is any basic standard of radiation pro- tection it would be what is now referred to as the maximum permissible dose, or maxi- mum permissible exposure of an individual. VOL. 46, NO. 3 ° By maximum permissible exposure is meant the amount of radiation to which the whole body of an individual can be subjected over the period of his adult lifetime, without pro- ducing in that individual any detectable harmful effects (6). For the occupational exposure of an individual to radiation, such a standard might be adequate, but as ex- plained below in more detail, there should be an additional basic standard relating to the average exposure of the entire popula- tion; for genetic reasons. Parenthetically, it should be remarked that the old term ‘“‘tolerance dose’ that prevailed for many years is a complete mis- nomer. There is no such thing as a ‘‘tolerable dose of radiation.’”” No radiation effects, other than for the treatment of disease, are known to be beneficial to man. Any radiation exposure received by man must be accepted as harmful. Therefore, the objective should be to keep man’s exposure as low as possible and yet at the same time, not discontinue the use of radiation altogether. The big problem is to obtain some quanti- tative idea as to the amounts of radiation that can harm the human being. As already mentioned, early permissible exposures were expressed in terms of the erythema. This followed as a result of a very few observations on a very few people who had been overexposed to radiation, under conditions where there was some crude idea as to the amount of radiation involved (7). As a result of this, numerous proposals were made, and for a time served a useful pur- pose. For example, Mutscheller proposed as a ‘tolerance dose,” 14 99 of an erythema dose in 30 days (8). Others reduced this to 4090 of an erythema dose in 3 days. Sievert inde- pendently proposed 149 of an erythema dose per year (9), which was not appreciably different from Mutscheller’s value. Various attempts were made to place the erythema dose on a sound physical basis. Glocker and Kaupp (1/0) described a toler- ance dose as that radiation level which would give just barely visible fluorescence observable in a completely darkened room by dark-adapted eyes. They also described it as barely visible blackening of a “‘dupli- tized” X-ray film after an exposure to radi- ation of one hour. Mutscheller’s formula, a simple but very inaccurate one for com- Marcu 1956 puting erythema doses, was developed for a given distance from the X-ray tube for the direct beam. The number of erythema doses was given by the number of milhampere minutes, divided by 25 times the square of the distance. Knowing as much as we do now about radiation, these standards look pathetic indeed and yet they marked important mile- stones leading to our more accurate under- standing of the problem. When one realizes that, on the basis of today’s knowledge, an erythema dose under given conditions may vary from 270 to 1,000 roentgens over a range of 100 to 1,000 kilovolts, some visuali- zation of the vast uncertainties in the early work might be had (//). By the early 30’s such works as just men- tioned were correlated and reconciled by the free use of safety factors—or just factors. Germany proposed the first quantitative expression of a permissible dose measured in roentgens, arriving at a figure of 10~° roentgen per second as their so-called toler- ance level of radiation. In 1934 it was possi- ble, for the first time, for the International Commission on Radiological Protection to express permissible exposure in terms of roentgens (1/2). The value then chosen was 249 roentgen per day. In the United States in 1936 a somewhat lower level, namely, 149 roentgen per day was adopted (1/3). This lower value was in part a result of the belief that there was not an adequate safety factor in the international recommendations. It will be noted that the permissible ex- posures mentioned above were integrated over varying lengths of time, ranging over a period of 1 second to one year. Although precise information on radiation recovery is lacking, it is undoubtedly true that a given dose of some roentgens received in a period of a few minutes is probably more harmful to the individual than the same dose distrib- uted evenly over a year’s period of time. Therefore, while the various proposals for permissible exposure appear to reduce nu- merically to the same quantity, they were not, in fact, biologically equivalent. Additionally, there is a serious adminis- trative problem involved, when one com- pares the integration of a dose given over a few seconds or over a year. For example, according to the early German proposals, od TAYLOR: RADIATION PROTECTION 71 if at any time an individual is exposed to more than 10~° roentgens in any one second, he would have exceeded his permissible dose rate even though this might only occur once in a year. This, of course, 1s nonsense. On the other hand, the problem of integrating a dose over a year’s time could also present serious difficulties, depending upon the par- ticular technique used. A person might be heavily overexposed during an early period in a year, yet this might not be detected until it was too late. It was through consid- eration of such reasons as these, that inte- gration over a period of one day was adopted in the mid-thirties. In 1946 the National Committee on Radia- tion undertook an intensive review of the whole problem of permissible dose. This review was instigated by the fact that, dur- ing the Manhattan District days, a tremen- dous amount of experimental and biological research had been carried out for the pur- pose of assuring safety to radiation workers; new biological data had become available. It was quickly realized that the value of 149 roentgen per day, as used in this coun- try, provided only marginal protection. There was increasing evidence leading the committee to believe that the value should be lowered. At the same time it was decided to review the question of the period over which the dose would be integrated. For technical, as well as administrative reasons, it appeared that integration over one day was unnecessarily restrictive. Integration over about 1 month appeared to be more reasonable and a compromise was finally reached at one week. The committee arrived at the recommendation of 349 roentgen per week as the permissible whole-body exposure to gamma rays and moderate and medium energy X-rays. This value has since been adopted internationally (/6). It might be pointed out that integration over a week still presents an occasional source of administrative difficulties, par- ticularly in large nuclear industry operations. In such operations the situation occasionally arises Where a person may be exposed to more than his weekly allowance, and yet would not receive any serious additional exposure for many weeks thereafter. It seemed im- proper to penalize either the worker or the work because of such occasional over- 72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES exposure. Therefore, a modified standard was recommended to take care of such situations. According to this, under special circum- stances, a person’s exposure may be inte- grated over a period of 13 weeks (or 14 of year) during which period he may be allowed a total exposure equal to that which might have been received at the normal maximum rate for 10 weeks. Thus the 13-week inte- gration carries with it a penalty of about 23 percent. In other words, if a person re- ceives his total dose for the longer period all at once, his permissible dose for that period is only 193 of what it would otherwise be. There is little quantitative foundation for this concept, other than the general belief, as already mentioned, that a dose distributed over some appreciable time is less harmful than the same dose taken all at once. Thus far the problem of radiation exposure to the individual has been considered only under essentially occupational conditions. There are a number of other conditions that have to be considered. These will be enu- merated briefly and some of them will be taken up in more detail later. Radiation effects on human beings may be more or less significant depending upon many factors. For example, there is increasing evidence that irreversible genetic damage may result from exposure of the gonads to any amount of radiation. All such exposure is cumulative. This implies that an exposure that may not produce any harm to the individual him- self, may be passed on through the genetic chain to the descendants of this individual. It is impossible to neglect the possibility that such damage may occur. It also appears that individuals are more susceptible to radiation damage during their embryonic stage. For this reason it is con- sidered advisable to restrict as far as possible the exposure of pregnant women, especially during the first few months of pregnancy. Exposure of children under 18 years of age should also be held to a minimum, although there is no positive evidence that they are more susceptible to radiation damage than an adult. On the other hand, the permissible exposure for adults takes into consideration the possible genetic damage during their lifetime prior to the conception of their children. To allow children under 18 to re- vou. 46, No. 3 ceive the same exposure would start them at a disadvantage were they later to go into radiation work and then to receive the maxi- mum permissible exposure. As far as a potential parent is concerned, the important period of his life with regard to radiation exposure is that time up to the conception of his last child. On the average this would not be higher than the age of 45 years. For this reason the permissible ex- posure to persons over 45 years of age may be doubled. This might provide some degree of flexibility in certain industrial operations, but some say that the differentiation of people under 45 and over 45 years of age is an administrative headache. An additional problem, and one that will be dwelt upon in more detail later, concerns the exposure of large population groups. Take for example, a large city supplied by a single source of water. If this water becomes contaminated by radioactive waste, a very large number of people might receive a small but continuing dose of radiation. De- pending upon the nature of this contamina- tion, the radiation might reach the gonads. In this situation a small genetic damage might result to a large number of people where the possibility of crossbreeding is large. This could be deleterious to the well- being of a considerable number of people. Hence standards for the protection of a large population group may have to be substan- tially different from these for a relatively small number of radiation workers, each receiving individually higher doses of radia- tion. Thus far the discussion has dealt, in the main, with the standards of protection from sources outside of the body. When the radia- tion sources get into the body the problem is vastly more complicated and the overall difficulty of reaching our standards is much greater. Here again the basic protection standard relates back to the maximum per- missible dose of 349 roentgen per day. How- ever, in the case of internal emitters, one must consider the particular organ, or organs, that may be sensitive to the radiation. This involves an intimate knowledge of what happens to every chemical element, once it is inside the body. For example, certain elements such as radium, plutonium, and strontium are what is known as bone seekers. Marce# -1956 By one means or another a fraction of the material entering the body eventually ends up firmly fixed in the bone where it can create damage. Another material, such as iodine, will tend to concentrate in the thyroid. Gen- erally speaking, there are definite organs in the body which are more susceptible than others to radiation damage, both because of the nature of the organ and the tendency for that organ to concentrate radioactive material. Depending upon the nature of the mate- rial, and its means of entry into the body, varying fractions will be eliminated by nor- mal processes, while the remainder is taken up by the body organs. It is necessary to determine these relative proportions. The degree of damage to an organ by a given quantity of radioactive material also de- pends upon the biological half-life which in turn includes the physical half-life of the material. By biological half-life is meant the time that it takes to reduce the quantity of the material in the body to one-half of its initial value through the process of body elimination and radioactive decay. Thus an isotope that has a short half-life, and is also quickly eliminated from the body, is rela- tively non-hazardous. Such an isotope is sodium-24. On the other hand radium and plutonium are both elements having ex- tremely long half-lives, and at the same time a low elimination rate, together with a tendency to concentrate in the bone. The former (sodium-24) is relatively non-hazard- ous, whereas the latter are very hazardous. In arriving at permissible exposure levels for radioactive elements within the body, the following factors, among others, have to be taken into consideration. 1. Quantity of radioactive material taken into the body. 2. Initial body retention. 3. Fraction of material going from blood to critical body tissues. 4. Radiosensitivity of tissue. 5. Size of the critical organ. 6. Essentiality of the critical organ to proper function of the body. 7. Biological half-life. 8. Physical half-life. 9. Energy of the radiation produced by the isotope. 10. Specific ionization and the attenuation of that energy in tissue. TAYLOR: RADIATION PROTECTION 73 Once all the biological and physical factors are known, it is then possible to work back- wards to determine the concentrations of radioactive material in air or in water that may be taken into the body without resulting in damage to the critical organ or tissue. By this means it has been possible to develop a series of values for the maximum permissible concentrations for radioactive isotopes in air and in water, which can be described as standards of radioactivity level. Such levels for about 100 radioactive isotopes have been worked out and agreed upon by the National Committee on Radiation Protection and have since been adopted internationally (14). A shghtly different problem, resulting in a different series of standards, develops when one considers the possibility of a single or occasional intake of radioactive material during a lifetime, and where little or no other exposure to radiation has been received. For these circumstances, very much _ larger quantities of radioactive material may be taken into the body without serious harm. For situations of this nature, it is possible to group the radioactive elements into four categories that are representative of their single-dose hazard. The elements may be placed in these categories depending on the amount of safe single dose of say 1, 10, 100, or 1,000 microcuries (15). This has also been found to be a conven- ient grouping for legislative purposes. Since there is obviously little point in trying to control and regulate a quantity of radio- active material that is not harmful if taken in its entirety, there is no reason why it should not be exempted from control. Un- restricted use of the established quantities should be allowed in accordance with the groupings just mentioned. Standards necessary for the control of the disposal of radioactive wastes, present still a different problem. Having once decided what would be a safe permissible concen- tration in air and water, the next problem is to determine the conditions under which such concentrations may occur, in situations where the air or water may be taken into the human system. An additional complication arises, because of the possibility that radioactive wastes may by some means or another enter into our 74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES food chain. For example, radioactive wastes discharged into the air or river may be taken up and concentrated by animal or plant life and eventually get back into the human system by way of the food supply. In spite of the extensive studies made of this prob- lem, it is still necessary to provide very sub- stantial safety factors with regard to the permissible amounts of radioactive material that may be discharged into the public do- main. It must also be borne in mind that once radioactive material has been dumped outside of a controlled area, its future from there on is largely beyond the control of man. To allow for such uncertainties, permissible concentrations of radioactive wastes are not allowed to exceed 149 of those allowed for continuous occupational exposure (/5, 16). This probably represents a very conserva- tive standard of protection, except under the most exceptional circumstances. It is, of course, the single exceptional circumstance that dictates caution. Additionally, for regulatory purposes it is necessary to establish standards of con- tamination that will apply under conditions that can be subject both to the control of the user and to inspection by an_ enforcing agency. This may at times lead to seemingly harsh requirements but from a legal or regu- latory point of view, one does not see any easy way of avoiding the situation. For example, in one early proposed regula- tion it was specified that the radiation level at any point outside of an installation could not exceed 30 milliroentgens per week, or lo of the level that is allowed for continous occupational exposure for 25 years of a per- son’s hfetime. The argument here is reason- able to the extent that the point of discharge is the last point at which the installation can control its discharge. Once the material is outside the installation, it is beyond their control and probably even beyond the ability of an inspection agency to evaluate. The possibility exists, however remotely, that by some quirk the material may become dangerously concentrated at some point in the chain of events leading to human con- sumption. It is for such reasons that standards for radioactive contamination in uncontrolled areas, namely the public domain, must not be allowed to exceed 149 the maximum per- vou. 46, No. 3° missible amounts for continuous exposure. This applies particularly to situations where large population groups may be exposed to radioactive contamination under conditions which are completely and totally beyond their control (or for that matter any control). The situation is somewhat ameliorated in the recommendations of the National Com- mittee on Radiation Protection by allowing such population exposures to be integrated over a year instead of a week (6, 74). Thus far the discussion has covered a whole series of standards for radiation pro- tection, namely, protection of the whole body or parts of the body from external radiation sources, protection for occupational workers, continuing exposure to radiation either in- ternally or externally, protection of individ- uals against large single interna! doses of radiation, protection of large populations, standards for animal and vegetable life, for persons over 45 and under 45 years of age, for persons under 18 years of age, and for pregnant women. It is very clear from this sketchy outline that the problem is not a simple one and it is further clear that the standards discussed here must be subject to change—and probably frequent change. Ra- diation is unquestionably here to stay with us, and it is important that we learn how to use it under conditions which are both safe and economical. The price for unnecessary safety is high, but this is the price that will have to be paid until the problem is better understood. There is however, one large outstanding problem in standards of radiation protection. that has only been touched upon, namely, the genetic problem and the exposure of large population groups. This problem di- rectly influences our whole philosophy with regard to radiation protection, in that the genetic effects of low-level exposures of a large fraction of the population may be the prime determining factor in deciding upon the permissible dose for all persons. As al- ready indicated, the chief consideration up to this point has been in deciding upon the maximum permissible dose of radiation to the individual. The current maximum level of permissible exposure for the individual rests on the philosophy that exposure at this level throughout his adult lifetime is believed un- Marcy 1956 likely to cause him detectable bodily injury at any time during his lifetime. Based on this major premise, the present permissible exposure levels are acceptable both from the plant and the individual’s viewpoint. They do not appear to involve an unreasonable working risk. Such levels are, however, also based on the additional premise that only a small portion of the world population will be so exposed up to the close of the reproductive lifetime of any individual. On the other hand, where large population groups may be exposed, the preservation of the genetic balance of the population may require that the exposure per individual, averaged over the whole population, be lim- ited to only a very small fraction of the indi- vidual occupational exposure. Up to the pres- ent, most of the pertinent data is from animal rather than human experiment, yet we are forced to tentatively accept the animal data and apply it to man. For purposes of discussion, consider Mul- ler’s statement that an exposure of 80 roent- gens to the gonads would double the natural mutation rate and that such exposure re- peated generation after generation might seriously upset the genetic equilibrium (7). Presumably this would be genetically un- acceptable in view of the doubly-heavy genetic load thrust upon the unexposed population, and in view of the present trends in reproductive practices. Muller suggests a maxilum exposure per individual per repro- ductive lifetime of 20 roentgens, again aver- aged over the whole population. This would result in an increase in the mutation rate of only 25 percent. Other authorities have arrived at figures as low as 3 roentgens as a permissible average ‘‘lifetime’’ exposure. Either figure is much lower than the pres- ently accepted individual occupational ex- posure limit which may be as high as about 400 roentgens in a lifetime. If we are to adhere to the 20 roentgens averaged for the whole population, not more than 5 percent of the people could be per- mitted to receive a full occupational exposure of 400 roentgens to the gonads. For the United States this would be some eight mil- lion persons—a figure unlikely to be attained for many years to come. One should also consider that most radiation workers do not receive exposures over periods as long as 25 TAYLOR: RADIATION PROTECTION 75 years, and that in fact only a very small num- ber receive more than about one-third of the permissible exposure. On the other hand, there must be added to this, the medical and diagnostic exposures wherein radiation may reach the gonads. Before facing the problem of determining how much additional radiation may be re- ceived by nonoccupational population groups, it is essential to make a careful evalu- ation of existing exposure patterns. Since the prime consideration will be genetic effects, such exposure evaluation should be limited to the gonads of persons before the close of their reproductive lifetime. Concurrent with such a study should be certain sociological investigations. Repro- duction habits will play an important role, and these will vary markedly depending upon such factors as race, education, inbreed- ing within certain geographic limits, etc. In averaging the exposure of population groups, erroneous results might be obtained by equal weighting of, say, the population of New York City and the population of the rest of the state, of which a considerable portion is rural. Since the size, distribution, and nature of a population group may influence the pat- tern of crossbreeding, it may be worthwhile, even within a single country such as the United States, to consider very different average expcsures for different parts of the country. Such differentiation might present almost impossible administrative problems because of population movements, yet there are relatively large and different population groups between which crossbreeding is neg- ligible. This same consideration, however, will be likely to necessitate lowering of av- erage exposures 1n some areas where inbreed- ing is high within a population group that remains somewhat static in location. There will undoubtedly be special problems of this sort in certain areas and it might be worth- while to treat them specially, rather than inflict unnecessarily low permissible expo- sures over the country as a whole. Analysis of individual situations, while costly to per- form, may nevertheless be sound economy in the end. We have to face the high probability of an enormous growth im the uses of nuclear energy. It is doubtful whether anyone can 76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES accurately predict this for the next 20 or 100 years. Looking backward, the enormous changes in our civilization brought about by technological advances in the past four or five generations, indicate the futility of planning ahead in detail for a similar range of time. This does not imply, however, that we should stand passively by and let nature take its course. There is much that can be done in preparation for the future. As the invention of the internal combus- tion engine revolutionized the world’s econ- omy, so may we expect controlled nuclear energy’ to do so again. The engine has brought vast improvements into our material way of life. One wonders, had it been antici- pated in 1910 that the engine would be re- sponsible in less than half a century for the deaths of over a million people on United States highways alone, if there would have been a hue and ery to curtail its further use. In spite of the fact that we somehow accept this carnage, we might have been able to hold it down had the problem been attacked while automobiles were in their infancy. But who in 1910 could have predicted today’s auto- mobile industry? With nuclear energy the situation is even more complicated—and vastly different. We know a great deal about its potential hazards and to some extent how to cope with them. In addition, we have some time in which to solve the special problems. However rapid the growth in the use of nuclear energy, there is still some leeway that will allow us to pro- ceed with technological developments before we outrun our practical limits in the methods of protection. The greatest and most serious limitation is that imposed upon us by genetic considerations. Our most substantial advan- ces in knowledge of genetics have been with- in the past two or three decades—a very short time. The results of this knowledge have been a major consideration in the discussions lead- ing to our present concepts of permissible dose, yet we have avoided any attempts to rigorously define the genetic limitations. (It is presumed that, to be safe, the geneticists, from whom we get our information, assume the most pessimistic conditions.) At some time, but probably not within the immediate future, man will be faced with making an inescapable decision. At what point may the advantages of atomic energy VoL. 46, No. 3 " be offset by the disadvantages to the future man? And who will have the abundant wis- dom to recognize that pomt and do some- thing about it? Will it be known, in time for such a decision, just what radiation may do to man’s future? I believe that at some point a decision involving an educated gamble with man’s future will have to be made, and history of the past indicates that such a de- cision may be made on the less—rather than the more—conservative side. That decision does not need to be made tomorrow or prob- ably for some years. In the meantime, our present pace can be continued with relatively: little risk. But in that same meantime, wei should start to condition our thinking for a change in philosophy with regard to radia- tion exposure. On the basis of today’s knowl-' edge of ourselves, we may be expected to show a willingness to accept more rather than less radiation exposure insofar as its effects 10 or 20 generations hence may be felt. In this same time, we should also devote our every energy to keeping radiation expo- sure of persons to the minimum compatible with reasonable progress and good sense. Through education and the dissemination of wisely chosen information, much can be done to improve the present situation in matters of radiation protection, without at the same time fettering a source of great benefit to mankind. The better the ordinary job of pro- tection is done today, the longer is the fate- ful decision on man’s future postponed. REFERENCES (1) Stonn, R. 8. The concept of a maximum per- missible exposure. Radiology 58: 639-661. 1952. (2) Stonrn, R. 8S. Paper No. 89, Proceedings of the International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. 1955. (3) Kays, G. W. C. Roentgenology. New York, 1928. (4) Taytor, Lauriston 8. Education in radiation protection. Amer. Journ. Roentgenology, Radium Therapy and Nuclear Med. 73 (2). Feb. 1955. (5) Recommendations of International Commission on X-ray and Radium Protection. 1928. (6) Permissible dose from external sources of ionizing radiation. NBS Handbook 59. (7) Barcuay, A. E., and Cox, 8. Radiation risks of the roentgenologist; attempt to measure quantity of roentgen rays used in diagnosis and to assess dangers. Amer. Journ. Roent- genol. and Rad. Therapy 19: 551-561. 1928. MARCH 1956 (8) MurscHEetier, A. Physical standards of pro- tection against roentgen-ray dangers. Amer. Journ. Roentgenol. and Rad. Therapy 13: 65-70. 1925. (9) Srevert, R. M. Hinig Untersuchungen viber Vorrichtungen zum schutz gegen Réntgen- strahlen. Acta Radiol. 4: 51-75, 1925. (10) Guockrer, R., and Kaupp, E. Uber den Strahlenschultz und die Toleranzdoses. Strahlentherapie 20: 144-152. 1925. (11) GuasseR, Quimspy, TaYLor, and WEATHER- wax. Physical foundations of radiology, ed. 2, table 44, p. 407. New York, 1952. (12) International recommendations for X-ray and radium protection. Radiology 23: 682. 1934. PANORAMIC X-RAY MACHINE 17 (13) X-Ray protection. NBS Handbook 20. (14) Maximum permissible amounts of radio- isotopes in the human body and maximum permissible concentrations in air and water. NBS Handbook 52. (15) The regulation of radiation exposure by legisla- tive means. NBS Handbook 61. (16) Recommendations of the International Com- mission on Radiation Protection, 1953. Supplement No. 6, British Journ. Radi- ology. 1955. (17) Muuumr, H. J. The manner of dependence of the “nermissible dose’’ of radiation on the amount of genetic damage. Acta Radiol. 41: 6-20. 1954. a NBS-AF PANORAMIC X-RAY MACHINE Research at the National Bureau of Standards has produced an X-ray machine that rapidly takes a single panoramic X-ray picture of the entire dental arch. Developed by the Bureau in cooperation with the U. S. Air Force Dental Service and the USAF School of Aviation Medi- cine, the panoramic X-ray machine should be particularly useful to the armed forces in making full-mouth dental X-ray surveys of inductees on entering and leaving the service. It will save much of the time required by present techniques, in which up to 14 small films are exposed separately for a full-mouth survey. The device should find application wherever large numbers of people are examined for dental defects, and its principles can be applied to radiography of other parts of the body. In the NBS-AF panoramic machine, the film is placed outside the patient’s mouth and is exposed by passing a narrow beam of X-rays through his head from the rear. A panoramic X-ray picture of all the teeth and associated struc- tures is obtained on a single 5 x 10-inch film in about 40 seconds. Thus the problem of handling many small film packets during exposure and processing is eliminated. At the same time more comprehensive radiographs are produced, giving more general diagnostic information than do conventional full-mouth X-ray surveys. For several years investigators in both the United States! and Finland? have been seeking to develop a rapid, practicable method for making 1U.S8. Patent 2476776, issued to H. Smathers. 2 Panographic radiography, by R. J. NELSEN and J. W. Kumputa, Journ. Dent. Res. 31: 158. April 1952. 3 Pantomography in theory and use, by Y. V. PaaTEerRO, Acta Radiologica 41: 321. 1954. panoramic X-rays of the entire dental arch. However, the procedures that have been tried have been rather cumbersome—they required rotation of the patient or fitting films inside the mouth. Because of the large number of full- mouth surveys that must be made of: military personnel, particularly at induction stations, a rapid, dependable method was needed to replace conventional radiographic techniques. Funds for research in this field were therefore provided by the Air Force. As a result, a more flexible and simple panoramic machine was developed by Col. D. C. Hudson, NBS guest worker from the U. S. Air Force Dental Service, and J. W. Kumpula of the Bureau staff, with the. coopera- tion of members of the NBS electronic instru- mentation laboratory. In this machine, an X-ray source and film holding device follow semicircular paths on op- posite sides of the patient’s head. The film holder travels in front of the patient, the X-ray: source behind him. Movement of source and film is so coordinated that only those structures of the dental arch desired in the finished film are sharply projected while other overlying structures are not. The X-ray source and film holder are sus- pended from opposite ends of a horizontal arm that rotates about a central vertical axis. A narrow beam of X-rays emerges from a slit in the exit cone of the X-ray source, passes through the subject’s head, and enters a corresponding slit in the film holder just beyond his teeth. Meanwhile, the film, in a carrier within the holder, travels horizontally in a direction opposite to that of the holder and at such a rate that an X-ray shadow of each successive tooth falls on successive areas of the film. 78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES re VOL. 46, NO. 3 Fig. 1.—Typical X-ray photograph of the human dental arch produced by the NBS-AF panoramic X-ray machine. Parts of the nasal sinuses and other bony structures of the head can also be observed. This radiograph was made on a wax phantom head. The strip in the center normally carries the patient’s name and date. To avoid unwanted X-ray shadows from overlying bony structures, the X-ray beam is made to enter the patient’s head largely through the soft tissue between the vertebral column and the bone of the jaw—frst from one side, the from the other. As the system rotates, the axis of rotation of the X-ray beam is in this soft tissue, which is much more transparent to X-rays than are the harder structures. Thus, since the X-ray beam is in constant motion, shadows cast by intervening bone and other tissue between the point of entry and the dental arch move across the film too rapidly to obscure detail in the ex- posure. Asa result, clearer lateral jaw radiographs can be obtained than with conventional techniques. A simple mechanical system automatically varies the rate of film travel to conform to the size and shape of the human dental arch. This device consists of a cable wound about a cam which is curved in the shape of an average dental arch. The free ends of the cable are connected through pulleys to the film carrier. As the hori- zontal arm rotates at constant speed, the film moves at a rate determined by the curvature of the cam surface at the point where the cable is leaving the cam. The cam is fixed at the axis of rotation, while an electric motor rotates the arm supporting the X-ray source and film holder. A central panel controls the motor as well as X-ray voltage and current. The first model of the panoramic X-ray ma- chine is now undergoing performance studies. In this model the patient sits in a dental chair beneath the rotating arm and is positioned by means of a chin support pivoted from a stationary point on the machine. The chin support serves to steady the head and to place the dental struc- tures in the proper position for best projection onto the moving film. Future models may be so constructed that the subject need not sit but may be radiographed in a standing position. This will further reduce the time needed for a dental survey. With the cooperation of the Naval Medical Research Institute, a study’ was made of the radiation levels produced by the panoramic X-ray machine at points in and about a phantom head constructed of tissue-equivalent wax molded upon an adult human skull. By the use of small ionization chambers—about 30 mm®* in volume— it was found that the panoramic device produces lower radiation levels than the conventional 14- film intraoral technique sponding points. The reduction in radiation received by the patient is due to the small area produces at corre- covered by the beam of X-rays during panoramic exposure and the fact that no overlapping occurs. 4 Ionization chambers for radiation data during dental x-ray exposure, by D.C. Hupson and J. W. Kumputa, Armed Forces Med. Journ. 6: 11381. August 1955. Marcu 1956 ROSEN: SPACE FLIGHT 79 ENGINEERING.—The influence of space flight on engineering and science.! MILTON W. Rosen, Naval Research Laboratory. (Communicated by C. H. Page.) Within the past few years many scientists have predicted seriously and confidently that human beings from the earth would, in the foreseeable future, travel to the moon and the nearer planets. The ranks of those who would dispute this prospect are diminishing rapidly. Although much of the progress is still guarded by military necessity, space flight is emerging as an activity in its own right—one that can command the efforts of many engineers and scientists. Tn the United States the exploration of the upper atmosphere, the frontier to space, is a vigorous and continuing activity. Pilots of rocket aircraft have experienced conditions approximating those in free space, if only for afew minutes. The effect of space flight upon the human organism is being investigated— the U.S. Air Force maintains a Department of Space Medicine. There is an international organization de- voted to the promotion of space travel and there are space flight societies in 23 countries. Numerous journals exist wholly or in part for the publication of papers on astronautics and its allied fields—notable among these for the quality of its articles is the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. I shall try here to explain how the present state of affairs came about and also to fore- cast what might be the future influence of man’s effort to travel in outer space. The ancients, except for a few rare indi- viduals with greater insight, conceived of the world as an enclosure; they stood upon the earth at the bottom and gazed upward at a blue ceiling upon which a multitude of lights, a few great and many small, seemed to move under the influence of an unseen hand. The atmosphere filled this enclosure and it was believed that if man had wings he could fly to the ceiling and determine the source of the lights. If a few philosophers guessed more nearly at the truth, certainly the average man had no better conception of the universe than the fanciful picture just described. There could be no valid idea of 1A lecture delivered before the Washington Society of Engineers, November 16, 1955. space flight until Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo placed the earth in its true relation to the universe and at the same time gave dimensions to space. When at last the moon and the planets were found to be material bodies not unlike our earth, it was possible to ponder whether the immense separating distances could be traversed by man or any man-made device. The situation was made even more discour- aging when, in 1686, Newton (7) defined the nature and the magnitude of gravita- tional attraction. If previously there had been some fanciful hope of visiting celestial bodies, now surely it appeared that man was destined to remain forever a prisoner of his own planet. In view of the great dis- tances, it seemed unlikely that the atmos- phere could extend through interplanetary space, and any suspicion that it might was laid to rest when Torricelli’s barometer was carried to a mountaintop and taken aloft by the early balloonists. Although Newton brought man face-to- face with one formidable aspect of the prob- lem, namely gravity, he also provided, in his three laws of motion, the key that would unlock the door to space. The fundamental equation of rocket action in free space and hence of space flight: M Va = Cs om, 5 4 Bie where V = velocity of rocket at end of burning C = velocity of exhaust jet M, = initial mass of rocket M, = mass of rocket at end of burn- ing is derived by integrating Newton’s third law of motion. Nevertheless, more than two centuries would pass before anyone per- formed the integration or realized that the simplest embodiment of Newton's third law, a rocket, is the only machine capable of propelling itself im a vacuum. While science gave no solution, and, in- deed, many scientists despaired of finding one, the dream of travel to celestial bodies 80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES was kept alive in fiction. One of the earlier references to rockets for propelling a space ship is found in the writings of Cyrano de Bergerac (2), but it is doubtful that Cyrano understood the rocket’s essential role. Per- haps the most famous novel about space travel is Jules Verne’s From the Earth to the Moon (3). Although Verne had expert sci- entific advice, he chose an impossible means of projecting his space ship—it was fired from a long cannon sunk in the ground. Probably Verne knew that no human could survive the acceleration of his projectile and that the projectile itself would disintegrate under the tremendous forces imparted to it. Yet, millions of readers believed his story; many thought it had actually been accom- plished—so great was his art—and he created a myth that had to be destroyed before any scientific progress could be achieved. In his novel The first men in the moon H. G. Wells (4) felt no necessity for scientific rigor, and he conjured up a grav- ity-defying substance which he called “‘cayv- Ona By the beginning of the twentieth century the physical sciences had advanced to the point where it was inevitable that someone would develop a valid theory of rocket ac- tion and would apply the theory to the problem of escape from the earth. The task was accomplished by three men working independently in three different countries. The three had much in common—they were teachers, one at a small university, the other two in secondary schools.? Hach one pon- dered the problem for many years before committing his findings to publication. But what is most important, all three were mo- tivated by the desire to explore interplane- tary space and presented their findings with conviction, even though they were regarded by most of their contemporaries as prophetic dreamers. The men and their works are now well known. They are: ZIoLKOVSKY—The exploration of cosmic space by reaction machines, 1903. Gopparp—A method of reaching extreme alti- tudes, 1919. OxsEertH—The rocket into interplanetary space, 1923. 2One, Oberth, became a teacher after his fundamental work had been completed. VOL. 46, No. 3 Any one of these three publications, had it been widely read and accepted, would have sufficed to lay the groundwork for space travel, because each man clearly understood and asserted the following fundamental concepts: 1. That escape from the earth is possible by the application of a moderate accelera- tion over a substantial period of time—at least several minutes. 2. That such acceleration can be pro- duced in a vacuum by a rocket. 3. That the rocket must (a) have high thermal efficiency (i.e., high velocity of the ejected matter) and (b) consist mainly of propellant material (i.e. have a high ratio of fuel weight to total weight). 4. That high thermal efficiency would be obtained most readily from the chemical combustion of liquid fuels. Ziolkovsky (5) started by examining Jules Verne’s cannon and also the balloon as a means of reaching very high altitudes. Both approaches died quickly under mathemati- cal analysis. He proceeded next to the rocket and developed the fundamental equation previously noted. Realizing that energetic fuels were required, he determined from thermochemical] calculations the heat release of various liquid combinations. When he computed the velocity that could be at- tained, in theory at least, he realized it was sufficient for escape from the earth. Goddard (6), alone of the three, pro- ceeded from experiment to theory. Using smokeless powder in a heavy-walled steel combustion chamber he produced a_ jeu velocity of almost 8,000 feet per second, a sevenfold improvement over ordinary rockets and the highest velocity of matter attained up to that time outside of electrical discharge tubes. Also, he proved by tests in a vacuum that a rocket does not produce its force by pushing on the air behind it, a fact he knew from basic physics, but that he felt had to be demonstrated. He observed correctly that the jet velocity was greater in a vacuum, but he attributed it errone- ously to more efficient ignition. Although Goddard did not turn to liquid fuels until after his basic paper was published, he achieved the first flight of a liquid rocket, an event that took place on March 16 Marcu 1956 ROSEN: 1926. Goddard (7) continued his experi- ments for more than two decades during which time he developed, in rudimentary form, almost every component of modern rocketry. Not one of his components would be considered reliable by present-day stand- ards; realizing the prodigious task he had set out to accomplish, he would repeatedly add a new component before perfecting the previous one. In retrospect, it appears that Goddard was attempting, single-handed, to encompass the entire field of liquid-rocket development, a task that would eventually tax the abilities of thousands of engineers and scientists. Oberth (8), in his treatise, gave the most complete theoretical analysis and carried it farther into the realm of space travel than either of the others. He stated at the outset the four propositions he would attempt to prove: 1. Considering the present state of science and technology, it is possible to build ma- chines that could rise beyond the atmos- phere. 2. After further development these ma- chines will be able to attain such velocities that, left undisturbed in the depths of outer space, they will not fall back to the earth and will even be able to leave the zone of terrestrial attraction. 3. These machines could be constructed so as to transport human beings, probably without damage to their health. 4. Under certain economic conditions the construction of such machines might be profitable. Oberth began by developing the theory of the liquid-rocket and describing its con- struction. He proceeded to discuss applica- tions of the rocket, first as a high-altitude sounding vehicle, then as an earth satellite, and finally as a space-ship for interplane- tary travel. He developed the concept. of synergic (minimum energy) ascent trajec- tories. Without doubt, almost every later book on space flight owes much to Oberth’s encompassing study. Whereas the first quarter of this century provided the theoretical background for space flight, the second 25 years may be viewed as the period of experimental prepa- ration. It saw the liquid-fueled rocket de- SPACE FLIGHT 81 velop as a practical engine for the propulsion of aircraft and guided missiles. Many fuels and oxidizers were explored—a few saw widespread use. An assortment of auxiliary hardware—pumps, turbines, valves, and regulators—was developed to feed and con- trol the rocket motor. The steering of a large rocket vehicle was mastered by means of gyroscopes and jet controls. Great prog- ress was made in the aerodynamics of supersonic flight, in structural design, and in the use of high temperature materials. Of the early experimenters three groups were most noteworthy. The work of God- dard as an individual has been referred to previously. In Germany the Verein fiir Raumschiffahrt, fired by Oberth’s monu- mental work, undertook to develop a small workable rocket called, appropriately, mini- mum-rakete (Mirak—for short) (9). In the course of several years they made hundreds of static firings and numerous brief flights. The American Interplanetary Society drew its inspiration largely from abroad, so se- cretive was Goddard about his experiments. Indeed, when in May 1933, the Society fi- nally achieved a first liquid-rocket flight, they were unaware that Goddard had pro- gressed far beyond his first flight seven years before. It is unfortunate that the British Interplanetary Society was pre- vented from experimenting with rockets, a situation frequently lamented by its founder, Philip Cleator (10). The V-2, whose development started in the middle of this period, was the largest single engineering advance in the field of rocketry. By applying thousands of engi- neers and scientists in a concerted effort, the German government was able in six years to transform the liquid-fueled rocket from a small, sputtering vehicle, capable of ascending a few hundred feet, into a giant projectile with a range of 200 miles and a velocity of one mile per second. The V-2 was a material embodiment of Oberth’s ideas and, although he conceived the liquid rocket as a vehicle for space travel, he also foresaw its possible use as a bombardment weapon. Actually, he hoped that the rocket missile would be a deterrent to rather than a tool of war. After the war the major activity leading 82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES to space flight took place in the United States in the form of upper-air research with instruments carried in rockets. In a con- tinuing program, scientists from govern- ment laboratories and universities explored the upper atmosphere using at first captured V-2 rockets and later, as they became avail- able, Aerobees and Vikings. Both Viking and Aerobee were designed specifically for probing the atmosphere in the region be- tween 50 and 150 miles above the earth. A few of the more important accomplishments of this program are noted. Knowledge of the pressure, temperature, density, and ionic content of the atmosphere has been extended up to 135 miles by direct measurements. The solar spectrum has been recorded in the far ultraviolet. X-rays have been de- tected in solar radiation and their role in the formation of the ionosphere has been postulated. The number and the mass dis- tribution of primary cosmic rays have been recorded in emulsions carried aloft in rock- ets. Small animals, monkeys and mice, were sent aloft and their physiological reactions observed during a period of weightlessness. For nine years man had been exploring the frontier of space as a prelude to flight be- yond the atmosphere. It is always tempting to draw parallels and it might appear, at first glance, that the advance toward space flight parallels the progress of aviation, with the latter pre- ceding in time. The same elements of prog- ress are evident in both fields, but one can not fail to note the differences and contrasts. Although much theoretical work had been done on fluid mechanics and experiments performed in wind tunnels and with gliders, there was at the time of the first mechanical flight no adequate theory to explain the lift of a winged vehicle (/7). We knew that the Wright brothers’ plane flew, but we could not explain why or how it flew. By con- trast, the motion of a rocket, as we have seen before, was well understood before Goddard’s first flight attempt. This is no paradox—it is apparent that the mathe- matical treatment of flight within the at- mosphere is much more difficult than the analysis of flight in free space. In both fields there was a period when development was nourished mainly by ama- VOL. 46, No. 3 teurs; In aviation it was the first decade of this century, for rocketry the late twenties and early thirties. In both cases the advance was given great impetus by a war; the first World War for aviation, the second for rocketry. But I doubt if there is in the his- tory of aviation any single step forward comparable in magnitude to the creation of the V-2. Aviation has been characterized by gradual, steady development, fostered to a large extent by its economic returns as well as its military advantages. There have been several significant milestones; one of the most noteworthy was the development by Major Whittle and others of the turbojet engine, which in the short space of a dozen years has completely displaced the piston- driven propeller in high speed military air- craft and may soon dominate the field of commercial aviation. In pursuing this rather loose parallelism I have tried to estimate what period in the history of aviation corresponds to the pres- ent status of space flight. It seems to me that we are now at a point roughly corre- sponding to the period before Lindbergh’s historic flight across the Atlantic. The sig- nificant event we are awaiting is the first orbital fight of a manned earth satellite. In both cases, at the time being considered, the vehicle had been developed to a reason- able degree of reliability and many flights of shorter range and duration had been made. But again, there is a significant dif- ference. Aviation has always implied manned flight—in rocketry most of the progress thus far has been made in unmanned, auto- matically-controlled vehicles. Our technol- ogy has advanced to the point where we need not risk human life in experimental rocket-flights—on the road to space, instru- ments will always go first and will point the way for men to follow. Prior to establishing the first manned satellite two important techniques will have to be mastered. First, there will be a period of experimentation with unmanned, instru- mented satellites during which time prob- lems of propulsion, staging, and navigational control will be worked out. The environ- mental hazards—cosmic radiation, meteors, solar heat (and the absence of it), and possibly weightlessness—can be evaluated. Marcu 1956 ROSEN: Worldwide realization that this first prob- lem is being attacked vigorously came when, on July 29, 1955, President Eisen- hower announced that the United States would launch small instrumented satellites during the International Geophysical Year (1957-1958). By their statements in sup- port of the President’s announcement, many noted scientists attested to the feasibility SPACE FLIGHT 83 technology necessary to achieve manned flight in space and those required to exploit it can be readily delineated. But a more important result will, I believe, be the im- pact of space flight upon scientific thought and education. In America today we are faced with a serious shortage of engineers and scientists even though the demand is great and the , 0 3 49 ; ‘ and usefulness of the instrumented satellite..S\‘temuneration 1s ample, Almost every pro- It is significant, also, that the United States spective technical graduate of our univer- invited international cooperation and offered to make its scientific findings available to all nations. The second problem is the one of safe return to the earth’s surface. The relative speed of roughly five miles per second be- tween the orbiting vehicle and the earth’s surface must be brought to zero. Obviously, this will be done by allowing the satellite to transfer its energy to the atmosphere. But this process must be controlled with great precision, lest the satellite absorb too much of the energy in the form of heat. Much will be learned by observing the return of instrumented satellites, but the final pre- paratory steps will probably involve manned flights at gradually increasing re-entry speeds. I have placed Lindbergh’s flight and the first manned satellite in juxtaposition be- cause one has and the other will, I believe, so excite the world’s imagination that fu- ture progress will be greatly accelerated. One can not say when the desired event will take place—much hard work remains to be done—but it is not uncommon for scientific sities is showered with offers of employ- ment and our newspapers and magazines are filled with advertisements for men with technical training. The most appalling as- pect of this situation is that it is likely to continue for many years. A recent survey shows that the study of physics in our pub- lic high schools has been declining for more than half a century. Whereas in 1895 more than 95 percent of high-school graduates had taken a course in physies, by 1952 only 21 percent of graduates had ever studied it (72). For many years the increase in high- school enrollment more than offset the de- crease of specialization in physics, but now the waning interest 1s taking its toll. Today only about half of the public schools offer a course in physics, and a quarter of these have no laboratory facilities. There is a critical shortage of science teachers, due in part to the attractions of industry, but more so to the lower status and wages accorded the teaching profession. But these factors can be remedied with sufficient effort—a deeper and more serious cause is the lack of interest on the part of our youth. Why do achievements to precede their predicted ar- they turn away from a career in science? rival. The mechanical components, engines’ of sufficient power and controls of requisite precision, are within sight. If it is argued that the human hazards are great and, at present, poorly understood, let it be remem- bered that the first orbital flight need only be brief—a matter of several hours. In this respect the ordeal may be less prolonged than Lindbergh’s flight, but certainly no less demanding upon the pilot’s judgment and courage. We have seen that although space flight is yet to be achieved, its prospect has had, in the last fifty years, an appreciable influ- ence upon science. The greater influence by far hes in the future. The advances in our We can only grope for the answer. Perhaps they sense, better than their elders, that too much of our scientific talent is engaged in the unproductive task of developing weapons for war. Is there much inspiration to devote one’s life to this end, especially when we are rapidly approaching the bor- derline of total destruction? I believe that space flight might serve in no small measure to turn men’s minds to- ward a more appealing scientific goal. As the exploits of Cabot, Drake, and Davis inspired many generations of Englishmen to turn to the sea, so may the first astronauts reawaken our youth to the romance of sci- entific exploration. 84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 46, No. 3 REFERENCES (1) Newton, Issac. Philosophiae .naturalis (7) Gopparp, R. H. Rocket development. New principia mathematica. 1687. York, 1948. (2) Cyrano DE Berrcerac. Voyage dans la (8) OBpertTH, H. Wege 2ztir Ramuschiffahrt. lune. 1649. 1929. (3) VeRNE, JuLEs. De la terre a la lune. 1865. (4) Wetus, H. G. The first men in the moon. 1901. (5) ZiouKovsky, K. E. Collected Works. 1938. (6) Gopparp, R. H. A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. Smithsonian Miscel- laneous Collections. 1919. (9) Ley, W. Rockets, missiles, and space travel. New York, 1951. (10) Curator, P. E. Into space. (11) von KArmdn, T. Aerodynamics. University, 1954. (12) Ketuy, W. C. Physics in the public high schools. Physics Today, March 1955. London, 1953. Cornell a NATIONAL ACADEMY MEDAL AWARDED TO DR. WATTS The James Craig Watson Medal of the Na- tional Academy of Sciences has been awarded to Dr. Chester B. Watts (WAS), of the United States Naval Observatory, in recognition of his outstanding contributions to astronomical re- search. The Medal will be presented to Dr. Watts during the Annual Meeting of the Academy to be held in Washington, April 23-25, 1956. Dr. Watts, who is director of the Six-Inch Transit Circle Division of the Naval Observatory, has been engaged during the greater part of his 45 years at the Observatory in determining po- sitions of the sun, moon, planets, and stars. Such measurements provide the basic data for the study of the motions of celestial bodies both within the outside the solar system. Since 1934 Dr. Watts has been chiefly responsible for the Six-Inch Transit Circle. With a judicious com- bination of mechanical, optical, photographic and electronic techniques, he has brought the instru- ment to a higher state of perfection than any other of its kind. He recently designed and super- vised the construction of a new Nine-Inch Transit Circle at the Observatory. In spite of his skill in perfecting his instruments, Dr. Watts re- mained dissatisfied with the precision of his measurements, which are based on observations of the edge of the moon’s disk. The edge that we see is always irregular because of the high moun- tains and low valleys on the moon’s surface. Also, a slightly different aspect of the edge of the moon is seen from time to time. These factors have limited the precision with which measurements could be made. About 11 years ago, Dr. Watts undertook to survey that part of the moon’s surface (comprising some 18 percent) that pre- sents itself on the edge of the moon, and to make this survey of a surface some quarter of a million miles away accurate to within about 50 feet. His survey is now virtually complete. The work re- quired some thousands photographs of the moon, the invention and construction of an automatic photoelectric machine for tracing the profile of each photograph and drawing it on a strip of paper 30 feet long, the design and construction of analogue computers for analyzing the profiles and translating them into numerical form, the devising of means for integrating the profiles into a representation of the surface of the moon in the vicinity of the edge, and finally the development of the most readily usable form for publication of the results. The completed work will be published shortly. The Watson Medal was established in 1874 by the bequest of James Craig Watson, a member of the Academy and Director of the Washburn Observatory of the University of Wisconsin. He provided in his will that the medal should be awarded “‘to any person in any country who shall make any astronomical discovery or produce any astronomical work worthy of special reward as contributing to our science.” Sa eeREe Ts there any thing whereof it may be said, See, this is new? tt hath been already of old time, which was before us.—Ecclesiastes 1:10 Marcu 1956 MACOMBER: PUFFERFISH TOXIN 85 BIOCHEMISTRY .—An observation on pufferfish toxin.! RopertT D. MAcomBER, School of Tropical and Preventive Medicine, College of Medical Evangelists, Loma Linda, Calif. (Communicated by Bruce W. Halstead.) Many workers have observed that the skin of pufferfish contains a considerable amount of toxin. Tani (Teikoku Tosho Ka- bushiki Kaisha 2 (3): 1-103. 1945) reported that some skin samples extracted and as- sayed contained as much as 20 percent of the total toxicity of the fish. Routine screen- ing tests in our laboratory have also demon- strated puffer skin extracts to be strongly positive. MATERIALS AND METHODS With the foregoing facts in mind, it was suggested that the water used in thawing frozen puffer specimens for preservation be assayed. A mouse was injected intraperi- toneally with 1 cc of the water used to thaw a frozen Japanese puffer, Fugu par- dalis (Temminck and Schlegel). It was found that the water contained sufficient toxin to kill a mouse in about 5 minutes. After this chance observation, the experi- ment was set up as follows: From another frozen pufferfish of the same species, samples of flesh, liver, gonad, and skin weighing 7 grams each were assayed to determine the toxicity of various parts of the fish. For the assay, the samples were homogenized in a Waring blender with 2 ce distilled water being added per gram of samples; the skin sample being tough and leathery, was cut in small pieces with the shears prior to ho- mogenizing. Samples were then centrifuged 20 minutes at 2,000 rpm and the superna- tant liquid decanted for injection of mice, following the procedure routinely used by Halstead (Copeia (1): 1-11. 1954.) The skin extract assayed 3.4 mouse units of toxin per gram of sample. (A mouse unit, as recommended by H. Sommer and K. F. Meyer, Arch. Path. 24 (5): 568-570, 1987, in their work on paralytic shellfish poison has been adopted for fish bioassays. The mouse unit is defined as the amount of toxin 1 This investigation was supported in part by a research grant awarded to Dr. Bruce W. Halstead from the Division of Research grants, National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service, grant No. RG-(2366)C5. required to kill a 20-gram mouse in 15 min- utes.) From data on the other samples, it was estimated that the skin contained roughly 14 percent of the total toxicity of the fish. For the second part of the experiment another sample of skin weighing 7 grams was then removed from the fish from an area adjacent to that of the first sample. This second sample was washed thoroughly on the exterior surface with methyl alcohol. A cotton swab wet with the solvent was used to remove all traces of mucus and the skin was scraped lightly with a razor blade. The alcohol wash and scrapings were com- bined and evaporated to dryness under vacuum. The residue was made up to a volume of 14 ce with distilled water for assay and the residue insoluble in water was not removed. The skin, free from all signs of mucus on the exterior surface, was ex- tracted with water and assayed. RESULTS The skin extract showed toxic symptoms in the mice but they all recovered. The water suspension of the residue from the alcohol wash assayed 3.05 mouse units of toxin per gram of skin sample. The alcohol wash solution, then, contained approxi- mately 90 percent of the amount of toxin that had been present in the homogenized sample of skin extracted with water. The results are tabulated as follows: Water extract of skin......3.4 MU/gm of sample Alcohol wash of exterior skin surface.............3.05 MU/gm of sample Water extract of skin sample pre- viously washed with alcohol to remove mucus....................Weakly toxic SUMMARY The major portion of the toxin present in the skin of the Japanese puffer, Fugu par- dalis (Temminck and Schlegel), appears to be in the superficial layers of the skin or sufficiently near the surface to be removed with solvent wash. 86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES EF VOL. 46, No. 3 BOTANY.—An evaluation of Benjaminia Martius ex Benjamin. LyMANn B. Suir, U.S. National Museum, and J. Murg¢a Pirss, Instituto Agronémico do Norte, Belém do Para, Brazil. Among the aquatic plants that float on the still waters of the lakes in the campo regions, there is a small species of the family Serophulariaceae which is rather common, especially in the campos of Braganga in northeastern Par&é and in the Brazilian territory of Amapa. Its roots are buried in the soil, while its stems spread over the water and bear pale rose corollas, the whole plant being entangled in a mat of other aquaties like Pontederta, Salvinia, and Cabomba. In the process of identifying this species as Bacopa reflera (Benth.) Edwall, we were struck by its close resemblance to the genera Benjaminia and Naiadothriz, which supposedly belong to different families. To clear the title of this species it was necessary to evaluate both genera, and the situation was so confused that it seems worth while to record our findings here. The genus Benjaminia Martius ex Ben- jamin was validly published in the Flora Brasiliensis (10: 255. 1847) with a single species, B. utriculariiformis Martius ex Benjamin, based on a single collection, Gardner 4847. Under it as a synonym was listed ““Quinquelobus Benj. Mss.” In the same year Benjamin published Quinquelobus (Linnaea 20: 316. 1847) with this note immediately after the name: “(Benjam. in Mart. et Endl. Fl. Bras. Fam. Utric. adhuc ined.).’’ The note would indicate that Quinquelobus was the earlier name and subsequent authors, notably Beck (Engler & Prantl, Die Nat. Pflanzen- fam. IV. 3b: 123. 1895) and Dalla Torre and Harms (Genera Siphonogamarum 586. 1906), evidently have jumped to this conclusion without further investigation. The evidence of priority is just as strong for Benjaminia, but the whole question of priority is irrelevant because the first publication of Quinquelobus is invalid. There is no description of the genus itself as re- quired by Article 48 of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature of 1952, nor can it be considered valid as a monotype according to Article 50 because it is based on four species. The four species are also invalid according to Article 51 because they were published in an invalid genus, al- though all but the first have descriptions. A year after the publication of Benjaminia and Quinquelobus, Bentham (London Journ. Bot. 7: 567. 1848) pointed out that Ben- jaminia not only did not belong to the Utriculariae (Lentibulariaceae) but was identical with his Herpestes reflera of the Scrophulariaceae. Furthermore, it was based on the same collection, Gardner 4347. He also indicated that the four species under Quinquelobus belonged to three different genera of Scrophulariaceae. Bentham’s identification of Benjaminia has been reenforced recently by Prof. G. Erdtman, who informs us that there is no apparent similarity between its pollen and those in the Lentibulariaceae, but that there is a resemblance to certain types in the Scrophulariaceae. Owing to the later misconceptions of Beck and Dalla Torre and Harms, the clarification of Bentham was overlooked by recent authors. Thus Pennell in making Naiadothrix as a segregate from Bacopa (Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 16: 105. 1920) transferred Herpestis refleca Bentham to it without realizing that Benjaminia was already available. Consequently, anyone who believes that this taxon is a distinct genus must make the appropriate combina- tions under Benjaminia. We are not taking this action because we agree with Pennell’s final stand in reducing all segregates to Bacopa in the broadest sense (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Philadelphia 98: 83-98. 1946). Our findings may be summarized briefly thus: le deded Bacopa Aubl. (1775) Section Chaetodiscus Sub- section Naiadothrix (Pennell) Pennell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 98: 98. 1946. Benjamimia Mart. ex Benj. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 10: 255. 1847. Quinquelobus Benjamin, Linnaea 20: 316. 1847, nomen invalidum. Naiadothrix Pennell, Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 16: 105. 1920. Marca 1956 ANDERSON: SAONE GROUP OF TETON SIOUX 87 ETHNOLOGY .—An investigation of the early bands of the Saone group of Teton Sioux. Although little, if any, investigation has been made into the condition of the Saone bands of the Teton Sioux during the years shortly before and after the beginning of the 19th century, two sources are available, which provide an excellent foundation for such a study. These are the statistical tables prepared by Lewis and Clark and printed in the American State Papers, Indian A ffairs, volume 1,! and Tabeaw’s Narrative of Liosel’s Expedition to the Upper Missouri, edited by Anne H. Abel.2 The term Saone was used extensively on the Upper Missouri during the period 1800-1850, when referring to the five tribes of northern Tetons, the Minne- conjous, Sans Ares, Two Kettles, Hunk- papas, and Blackfeet Sioux. Lewis and Clark and Tabeau were on the Upper Missouri in 1803 and 1804, recording data on the Saones at a time when these tribes were beginning the process of their development into distinct political struc- tures. Some, like the Minneconjous, had already assumed the stature of a separate tribe containing three subbands, while others like the Two Kettles and Blackfeet can not be recognized as such, and only conjectures can be made regarding their stage of devel- opment at that time. The products of such an investigation are many. In some cases, enough facts are available to permit definite conclusions to be formed, while other situa- tions merely invite strong suppositions, and still others result in unanswerable and frus- trating puzzles. Yet, the positive products greatly outweigh the negative, for in pro- viding a clearer understanding of the begin- nings, customs, and structures of these Teton tribes, we are far better able to evaluate many of their actions in later periods of their history. The origin and meaning of the name Saone is not definitely known, for during the 1880’s when the missionaries were making their in- quiries concerning the Teton bands, the name had then gone out of common usage, 1 Pp. 712-715. This information can also be found in the Original journals of the Lewis and Clark expedition, 1804-1806, edited by Reuben G. Thwaites, 6: 97-99. New York, 1905. * Norman, Okla., 1939, pp. 108, 104. Harry AnpERSON, St. Albans, N. Y. (Communicated by John C. Ewers.) and little reliable information could be ob- tained from the Sioux regarding its mean- ing.’ The first known use of the name was by Truteau, who recorded in his journal that a Sioux band called ‘‘Chahony”’ was expected to arrive at the Arikara village late in the summer of 1795 for the purpose of trade.t The best study to date on Saone origins, based upon the available sources, can be found in Hyde’s history of the Og- lalas. It is his conclusion that the name was given originally to the northern Teton group by the southern Tetons, the Oglalas and Brules, and in some manner referred ‘‘shoot- ing in the trees’’, or living and hunting in wooded areas.° Both Lewis and Clark and Tabeau list the bands of the Minneconjous separately rather than including them under the gen- eral heading of Saones. This is significant in view of the fact that other material on Teton bands prepared during the 1800— 1850 period classified the Minneconjous as Saones. The earliest of these, the reports and treaties submitted by the Atkinson- O’Fallon Commission of 1825, lumped the Minneconjous together with the tribes now commonly known as the Sans Arcs and Two Kettles, and had the chiefs of these three groups sign a single treaty.® In 1840S. R. Riggs, the Sioux missionary, visited Fort Pierre and recorded much valuable infor- mation regarding the Tetons obtained from the fur traders. Riggs also classified the Minneconjous as ‘‘Sanoni.”? From this and other information, it clearly appears that the Minneconjous were a part of the Saone group, but at the time of the writings of 3See the History of the expedition wnder the command of Lewis and Clark, edited by Elliott Coues, 1: 101. New York, 1893. 4 Journal of Jean Baptiste Truteau among the Arikara Indians in 1795, South Dakota Hist. Coll. 7: 473. > Hyps, Grorae fl. Norman, Okla., 1937. 6 The Atkinson-O’Fallon report can be found in House Document no. 117, 19th Congress, Ist Session; the signers of the Saone treaty in the Statutes at Large, 7: 254. 7Riegs, STerHan R. Jowrnal of a tour from Lac-Qui-parle to the Missouri River. South Dakota Hist. Coll. 18: 340. Red Cloud’s Folk: 12-13. 88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Lewis and Clark and Tabeau, they were so numerically superior to the other Saone bodies that they were given a separate listing.® A second significant factor appears after a careful examination of the Minneconjou material; of the three bands which made up the tribe around 1800, none can be recog- nized in the Minneconjou tribal circle ob- tained by J. Owen Dorsey some 80 years later.° THE MINNECONJOUS Lewis and Clark Tabeau Min-na-kine-az-zo Minican-hojou Wan-nee-wack-a-ta-o-ne-lar Tacohiropapais Tar-co-eh-parh Waniwacteonilla The first group, the Min-na-kine-az-zo of Lewis and Clark, or the Minican-hojou of Tabeau, is undoubtedly the parent body of this tribe, the Original or True Minnecon- jou band. According to the explorer’s list, the chief of this band was Wock-ke-a-chauk- in-dish-kah or Thunder Ring (wakinyan, thunder and cangleshka, a hoop or wheel, something round). An explanation to an entry in the High Hawk winter count!® con- firms that the Minneconjous had a promi- nent head man named Thunder Ring shortly before the end of the 18th century. Because of his leadership over the parent band, he is named by Lewis and Clark as being the head chief of the Minneconjous. Unfortunately, no detailed list of Sioux bands is available for the period between Lewis and Clark’s and that of Thaddeus Culbertson’s, dated 1850.'! By the author’s own admission, the Culbertson list is not complete, and no mention is made on it of the True Minneconjous. However, the ma- terial collected by F. V. Hayden in 1859- 60” reveals that this band was still very SLewis and Clark gave the Minneconjous 100 lodges, 250 warriors, and 750 people, and the com- bined Saone groups, 120 lodges, 300 warriors, and 900 inhabitants. ° Dorsey, J. Owen. Siouan sociology, 15th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.: 220. 1897. 10 Curtis, E. 8. The North American Indian 3: 168. New York, 1907-1930. 1 CULBERTSON, THADDEUS, Journal of an ex- pedition to the Mauvaises Terres and the Upper Missouri in 1850, Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 147: 135, 136. 1952. 2 Haypen, F. V. Contributions to the ethnog- raphy and philology of the Indian tribes of the Missouri Valley: 375, 376. Philadelphia, 1862. VOL. 46, NO. 3 active, and also supplies a valuable clue as to the reason it was not found on the Dorsey list of 1880. The Hayden information states that the True Minneconjou chief was ‘“The Elk That Whistles Running,” another name for the powerful old Minneconjou chief, Lame Deer. One of the most hostile of the Sioux leaders during the Sioux War of 1876, Lame Deer’s band took part in all the fighting against the United States troops during that conflict. A report from the hos- tile Sioux camp near Slim Buttes in Sep- tember, 1876, identifies portions of the Min- neconjous in the camp as those of the “Grandmother” band led by Fast Bull.“ The use of the term ‘“‘grandmother”’ is diffi- cult to explain, unless it referred to the parent group of the Minneconjous. There would be little basis for a contention that this “Grandmother” band and the True Minneconjous were one and the same were it not known that the “Grandmother’s” chief, Fast Bull, was Lame Deer’s son. Actually Lame Deer was still the bands’ chief, but during the hostilities, the war leaders, or head soldiers such as Fast Bull, were afforded more notoriety than the older council chiefs. During the winter of 1876-77 the Sioux were hard pressed by the Army, and nearly all of the hostiles surrendered or fled to Canada with Sitting Bull. Lame Deer’s band was the only group that attempted to continue to roam freely in the Powder river country of Montana. On May 7, 1877, troops under Colonel Nelson A. Miles at- tacked and destroyed the True Minnecon- jou camp on the upper reaches of the Rose- bud. Lame Deer was among those who were killed.!° Survivors of the camp, led by Fast Bull, straggled into Red Cloud Ageney in September and surrendered. During the fol- lowing year many of the surrendered hos- tiles became dissatisfied with their existence at the Sioux agencies and sought refuge in Canada. Large numbers fled from the Red 13 Other places it is written ‘‘The Elk That Bellows Walking,’’ but the meaning intended is probably Noisy Walking Elk. 4 Lt. Col. George P. Buell to the Assistant Adjutant General, General Terry’s Column in the field, September 9, 1876, Record Copy of Letters Sent, Post at Cheyenne River Agency, Records of the War Department, National Archives. 15 Report of the Secretary of War for 1877: 498. Marca 1956 Cloud and Spotted Tail groups during the relocation of those agencies on the Missouri during the late fall of 1877.!° Numerous small groups left at other times. The defi- nitely hostile attitude of the True Minne- conjous would make it almost a certainty that the survivors of that band were among those who joined Sitting Bull north of the border. When the Sioux returned from their Canadian exile in 1881 and were sent back to their respective agencies a year later, the True Minneconjous had ceased to exist as a distinct band. Apparently lacking the strong leadership of the Lame Deer type, the re- mainder of the camp had either become ab- sorbed by the other Minneconjou bands, or had followed relatives and friends into the camps of the Oglalas and Hunkpapas while in Canada. Examination of the material available dealing with the second band on the Lewis and Clark list, the Wan-nee-wack-a-ta-o-ne- lar (Tabeau lists it third, as Waniwacteo- nilla) reveals that by 1880 it was no longer a Minneconjou band, and as a group was nearly extinct because of its wild and hostile activities. Although the name is difficult to translate because of the differences in the Sioux words of 1800 and those of more recent vintage,!” this band is the one men- tioned intermittently throughout Sioux his- tory as the Broken Arrows. It had its origins among the Minneconjous, later became part of the Brules, and finally is last mentioned as living with the Oglalas on the Pine Ridge reservation. The Broken Arrows remained with the Minneconjous until at least the mid 1830’s. The Atkinson-O’Fallon expedition met the camp near the Missouri in 1825. One mem- ber of the party recorded in his journal that this band was “‘not well looked upon by the other bands of Sioux, being considered rather refractory and ungovernable.’ On the treaty negotiated by the Atkinson- O’Fallon party with the Saone group, which 16 HypE, op. cit.: 299-301. 17 The Dorsey material (1884) calls the band Wan-nawega, Broken Arrows. This is phonetically very different from the band’s early identity. See also footnote 22. 8 Journal of the Atkindon-O’Fallon Expedition, edited by Russell Reid and Clell Gannon, North Dakota Hist. Quart. 4(1): 21. Oct. 1929. ANDERSON: SAONE GROUP OF TETON SIOUX 89 included the Minneconjous, one of the signers was a leading warrior of the Broken Arrow camp, Chante Wahneecha, or No Heart. This was the name given to the chief of the Broken Arrows by Lewis and Clark, but since the warriors leaders were invari- ably younger men, Atkinson and O’Fallon’s No Heart was probably the son of the Lewis and Clark chief. Several years later, George Catlin was on the Upper Missouri and painted a number of portraits of prominent Sioux around Fort Pierre, including two Broken Arrow leaders, Shonka, the Dog, and No Heart.!° It was not long after Catlin’s visit that Broken Arrows appear to have migrated, perhaps forcibly, from the Missouri to join the Brules living between the White river and the Platte. Actually the evidence points to a split in the band, with the majority joining the Brules and only a small number staying with the Minneconjous. The No Heart family, definitely identified as Broken Arrows, remained on the Missouri and were known as leaders of the Minneconjous up through the reservation period.?? Culbert- son’s band list of 1850 does not refer to the Broken Arrows among the Minneconjous, 19 CaTLIn, GEorGE. Illustrations on the manners, customs, and conditions of the North American Indian, 1: 223; 2: 190, 192. Catlin’s description of Shonka fits into the general pattern of remarks we have concerning the whole Broken Arrow band: “an ill-natured and surley man—despised by the chiefs of every other band .. .’’? While Catlin was at Fort Pierre, Shonka shot and killed a noted warrior of the Hunkpapa tribe, Little Bear, and had to flee to the Black Hills to escape the venge- ance of the dead man’s relatives. Although Catlin distinguishes between Shonka’s band, the Caz-a- zhee-ta (Bad Arrow Points), and No Heart’s Wah-nee-watch-to-nee-nah (Broken Arrows), we know from later evidence that both men were leaders in the same camp. This is only another instance of the artist’s careless distortion of the Teton band names, a situation which makes his material difficult to work with. 20 The Black Hills treaty of 1876 was signed for the Minneconjous by a No Heart and an ‘‘Old Man No Heart.’? The latter could have been Catlin’s chief, for his son was born in 1844. The younger No Heart was often referred to as Little No Heart to distinguish him from his father. Little in this case alluded to age rather than size. High Hawk, who was a Brule, recorded in his winter count that in 1888 there was a fight among the members of the Broken Arrow band. This may have been the date of the separation between the Shonka and No Heart portions of the camp, or perhaps refers only to an incident among Shonka’s people after they had joined the Brules. 90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES but does list a “Bad Arms” band among the Brules. Rufas B. Sage located the Broken Arrows on the Platte prior to the date of Culbertson’s information,?! and the name “Bad Arms” (referring to weapons-arrows, rather than body extremities) cannot be associated with any group belonging to the Brules proper. Hayden’s list of 1859, im some ways more complete than Culberton’s, alters the Brule’s Broken Arrows to the “Band with Poor Guns or Bows.” This source also places a group among the Min- neconjous translated very vaguely as ‘‘The Band That Kills No People.” At first glance this does not appear to be the old No Heart portion of the Broken Arrows, but exami- nation of the Sioux word, Waktonila, from which Hayden gets the name reveals that it is an incomplete form of the name re- corded by Lewis and Clark and Tabeau, Wan-nee-wack-a-ta-o-ne-lar or Waniwacteo- nilla.”? After the date of Hayden’s information there is little mention made of the Broken Arrows.” They were known to have been in the hostile camp in the Powder river country in 1866 which supplied the warriors for the siege of Fort Phil Kearney, the Fetterman fight, and the other actions comprising the Red Cloud War.** When J. Owen Dorsey made his inquiries for his study of the Teton bands, none of his informants mentioned the Broken Arrows as being a Brule group. In fact, even his early information on the 21 Sacre, Ruras B. Wild scenes in Kansas and Nebraska: 68. Philadelphia, 1855. *2 Catlin’s phonetic vocabulary (1832) has arrow as wonhee. The exact translation of waktonila is not known, but at one time it apparently referred to something broken. By coincidence there is a more modern Teton word sounding somewhat similar; wa-cin-ko-ke-la, meaning easily made angry. From what we know of the Broken Arrows this could be one general description of them. _. * During the early 1850’s the Oglala and Brule Sioux on the Platte were involved in several brushes with troops stationed at Fort Laramie. These events, which led to Gen. W. 8. Harney’s campaign against the Sioux in 1855 and 1856, included the firing upon a military skiff crossing the Platte in 1853 and the so-called Grattan ‘‘mas- sacre’’ a year later. In both instances, official reports state that a wild band of Minneconjou troublemakers, otherwise unidentified, were in some way responsible for the hostilities. There is every reason to assume that these troublemakers were the Broken Arrow camp. 24 See the Col. Henry B. Carrington papers in Senate Document no. 32, 50th Congress, Ist Session, p. 29. VoL. 46, No. 3 Minneconjou groups omitted the Broken Arrows. However, Dorsey made subsequent inquiries among the Minneconjous and was told by a member of the No Heart family that the Broken Arrows belonged in the Minneconjou tribal circle, but at that time (1884) they were nearly extinct.?? From this it appears that there was a camp of Broken Arrows still in existence, but 1t was not liv- ing with the other Minneconjou bands at- tached to the Cheyenne River Agency. No Heart knew of the camp while the other Minneconjou informants did not, probably because of the old ties his family had with it. Fortunately, Phillip Wells, a long-time Army scout, interpreter, and Indian service employee, recorded before his death, a num- ber of his experiences among the Sioux.?® One of these supplies us with enough infor- mation to locate the remnants of the Broken Arrow camp. In 1892, when Wells was an agency farmer on the Pine Ridge reserva- tion, the so-called Two Sticks Raid took place which culminated in the killing of several cowboys in the Pine Ridge beef camp. Wells wrote that the Two Sticks camp was the last of the old Broken Arrow band. He said the Broken Arrows had al- ways been a renegade group, containing many a Sioux who had been disgraced in his own band and was invited by the Broken Arrows to join them. They ignored tribal law, custom, and religious beliefs. According to the Wells manuscript, the people in the Two Sticks camp claimed the earliest Broken Arrow chief which they could remember was Shonka, the Dog. This was the headman whose portrait Catlin painted at Fort Pierre in 1832. It was shortly after Catlin’s visit that the Broken Arrows split up, with one portion leaving the Missouri. The Two Sticks camp was the remains of this group. Their memory of Shonka as their chief strongly suggests that it was his following in the band that left, or was driven out by the Minneconjou 25 DorRsEY, op. cit.: 220. 26 The Wells material is owned by his daughter, Miss Flora Wells, of Pine Ridge, S. Dak., who recently lent it to George E. Hyde. My informa- tion on the Broken Arrow references comes from correspondence with Hyde. Some Wells accounts were published in 1948 in North Dakota Hist. 15(2-4), but these omitted some of the more im- portant Broken Arrow material. Marcu 1956 leaders, and migrated to the White river country of the Brules. No Heart, the other Broken Arrow leader identified by Catlin, remained near the Missouri, and he and his small following were absorbed by the other Minneconjou camps. The remaining band on the Minneconjou lists, the Tar-co-eh-parh or Tacohiropapais is not mentioned in any of the available sources written after the date of the Lewis and Clark report. They either ceased to exist as a distinct band, or were known down through later chapters of Sioux his- tory under another name. While the scat- tered and inconclusive evidence affords no concrete proof for such a contention, it is believed that the Tacoropas did not dissolve as a tribal band, but became more familiarly known as the Oohenompa or Two Kettle Tetons. The earliest mention of the Tacoropas was recorded by Jean Baptiste Truteau in a portion of his journal kept while residing in the Arikara village during the summer of 1795. In June of that year two men from the Tacoropa camp brought a warning that three ‘‘villages” of Sioux were assembling a force of 500 warriors for an attack upon the Arikara village. Later on, in July of the same summer, the entire Tacoropa camp, said by Truteau to number ‘80 huts’’, came on a trading trip to the Arikaras.”” Truteau’s evi- dence shows that these Tacoropas were friendly with the Arikaras at a time when very few of the other Teton bands were on good terms with that tribe. This fact is im- portant in attempting to connect them with the later-day Two Kettles, for it is known that the Two Kettles were the friendliest of the Teton tribes, often managing to maintain amicable relations with other tribes, and the whites as well, with whom the Tetons were then at war. In addition, the Two Kettles also undertook several attempts at farming on their own prior to the reservation days. Their agricultural knowledge and training could easily have come from their association with the Arikaras, who depended upon the raising of crops for a good part of their food supply. Truteau’s statement that the Tacoropa village numbered 80 lodges seems to be an 27 TRUTBAU, op. cit.: 454, 473. ANDERSON: SAONE GROUP OF TETON SIOUX 91 error, for ten years later, Lewis and Clark gave the entire Minneconjou tribe only 100 lodges. Whether the latter figure includes the Tacoropa camp is not clear. The explorers failed to record the name of this band’s chief (they had such information for every other Sioux band), and this gives rise to a suspicion that their information regarding these people was very vague. The figures of Truteau and Lewis and Clark can perhaps be reconciled by the suggestion that it was the entire Min- neconjou tribe, and not just the Tacoropas that visited the Arikara village on July 20, 1795. The name Minneconjou, meaning “those who plant by the water’ indicates that this tribe was at one time agriculturally inclined. Some tribal traditions say that the water near which they planted was the Mis- souri, perhaps under the guidance of the Ari- kara. But, why then didn’t Truteau write Minneconjous instead of Tacoropas? In the midst of all these suppositions and conjectures regarding the Minneconjous, Ta- coropas, and Two Kettles, one known fact stands out which clearly links them together. Four Bears, a Two Kettle leader of the reser- vation period, related to EK. S. Curtis, when the latter was collecting material for his work on the Sioux, a tribal tradition which Curtis used as an explanation for one of the entrys in the High Hawk winter count.?> High Hawk, and the Baptiste Good winter counts as well,” recorded that in 1791 ‘“‘The White Men Came and Carried the Flag Around the Nation’. The Four Bears account related that when the Sioux were living ‘“‘in the eastern forest”’, a party of whites came to a large camp of Minneconjous, Two Kettles and Sans Ares, and pursuaded four of the chiefs to return with them to the white set- tlements. Four Bears was born in 1834, and_ his grandfather, Two Lance, was among the chiefs who were selected to make the trip. Thunder Ring, listed by Lewis and Clark as chief of the True Minneconjou band, also went with the white party. The fact that this event took place in the spring (‘the time of greening grass’’), plus the reference to the “eastern forest’? indicates that the Minne- conjou-T'wo Kettle-Sans Are camp was at- * CuRTIS, op. cit.: 168. 210th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. 1893. Ethnol.: 310, 92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tending one of the annual trading fairs held on the upper reaches of the St. Peter or Minnesota river.*° In addition to the various groups of Sioux, the Tetons from the Mis- souri, the Minnesota bands, and the Yank- tons from the Des Moines River, these fairs were regularly attended by British fur trad- ers from Canada. The traders, in taking the chiefs to their posts and presenting them with medals and other gifts, were trying to retain the allegiance of the western Indians after the close of the Revolutionary War. The trip was evidently a long one, for the Teton chiefs did not return to their people until the following winter. Combining the evidence contained in the Four Bears account with the known condi- tions of the time regarding the Sioux trading fairs and the activities of the British among the western Indians, it certainly appears that the tradition could be dated anytime between 1785 and 1795. The year of the win- ter count entry, 1791, is as good a selection as any. The important fact to be noted here is that Two Kettle tradition, handed down to the time of Four Bears, discloses that in 1791 elements of that band roamed together with the future Minneconjou and Sans Ares groups in one large Saone camp. By 1803 the Minneconjous had emerged into a distinct tribe, containing three subbands, while the Sans Ares as well were a recognizable group on the Tabeau and Lewis and Clark lists. It does not seem too unreasonable to suggest that the Two Kettle portion of the old Saone camp was still with the Minneconjous as the mysterious sub-band of that tribe called the Tacoropas. We are able to follow the prog- ress of the other two Minneconjou bands, the true Minneconjous and the Broken Ar- rows, through subsequent pages of Sioux history, but after 1803 the Tacoropas disap- peared, and almost corresponding with their disappearance came the advent of this new group, the Two Kettles. THE SAONES Lewis and Clark Sah-one Tack-chan-de-see-char Sah-o-ne-Hont-a-par-par Tabeau Tatchindi-chidja Hitasiptchone Hont-papas 30 Hyp, op. cit.: 21. For this period, Hyde has located the Sioux trading fairs on the headwaters of the Minnesota river. VoL. 46, No. 3’ The group easiest to identify are the Hont- papas or Sah-o-ne-Hont-a-par-par, which clearly were the later-day Hunkpapa Sioux, the wild and warlike people made famous by the leadership of Sitting Bull. Lewis and Clark reveal that their chief was Long Dog (Shark-ka-has-car—Shunka, dog, hanska, long), a name borne by one of the more hos- tile Hunkpapa chiefs during the 1870’s.*! At the time of the explorers’ visit, the Hunkpa- pas are said to have roamed on both sides of the Missouri to the north of the Minnecon- jous located on the Cheyenne river.® On the west side of the Missouri this would place them in the region of the Moreau, Cannon- ball, and Heart rivers, which at that time was claimed by the Arikaras. It is suspected that the Hunkpapas spent most of their time east of the Missouri, crossing the river only to hunt buffalo and to trade with (and steal from) the Arikaras. It was not until some 20 years later, when the power of the Arikaras was broken by a combination of disease, Sioux hostility, and their own stupidity, that the Hunkpapas could move across the Mis- souri and lay any sort of substantial claim to the lands west of the river. Tabeau’s second Saone band, Hitasipt- chone (Itazipcho to modern ethnologists), is far better known by its French translation, Sans Ares. It is a combination of the Sioux words ztazipa, meaning bow and cho, an ab- breviation of chodan, or without. For some unknown reason this name did not appear on the Lewis and Clark list. Perhaps it was not commonly used and the band was known by another name. After examining Tabeau’s first band, Tatchindi-chidja, and Lewis and Clark’s Tack-chan-se-see-char, it would seem that these names also refer to the group even- tually to become known as the Sans Arcs. Lewis and Clark received much of their orig- inal information regarding the Sioux from Tabeau, and were able to check and rear- range it on the basis of material obtained from Hugh Heney, a Sioux trader, and from other informants at the Mandan village. It is very possible that Heney told them that the Sans Arcs were better known as the Tack-chan-de-see-char band, thus account- 31 Report of the Secretary of War for 1876: 481, 483. 82 THWAITES, op. cit.:97, 98. 33 TABEAU, op. cit.: 101, 102. Marcu 1956 ANDERSON: ing for the omission of Tabeau’s Hitasipt- chone from their list. While the meaning of the name Tatchindi- chidje (Tack-chan-de-see-char) is not per- fectly clear, it is fairly obvious that it refers in some manner to the weapon, the bow. This, however, is not the only reason for be- lieving that this band was the fore-runner of the later-day Sans Arcs. Again the name of the band’s chief as supplied by Lewis and Clark aids in its identification. They write it as War-mun-de-o-pe-in-do-tar, the best translation of which may be Red Tailed War Eagle. There was a leading chief of the Sans Ares by this name during the 1850’s and ’60’s. He signed the Sans Ares treaty of 1865 and his name was then written almost ex- actly the same phonetically as was Lewis and Clark’s chief.*4 There are three possible translations of the band name, Tack-chan-de-see-char or Tat- chindi-chidja. The first, and not necessarily the best, would be ‘“‘bows from the heart- wood of the willow’’: tack (tat) from 77'AZ- ipa or bow, chan-de (chandi) from chante or heart, and see-char (chidja) from the ending of choh-wan-zhi-cha meaning willow. A sec- ond choice, somewhat similar to the first, can be obtained by substituting the word schicha meaning bad, for see-char or chidja. This would result in something like “bad bows from the heartwood”’. The third possi- bility would be ‘‘a bow, the back of which is overlaid with sinew”’. Here the work takan, meaning the sinews taken from the backs of deer and buffalo and used extensively in making bows, would be combined with ztaz- ipa (bow) to form Ta-kan-i-ta-zi-pa. Regardless of what the true translation may be, one thing is evident from the inclu- sion of this name on both the Saone band lists; that the name Itazipcho (without bows) signifying the Sans Are Sioux had its origin not too many years before the first Teton contact with the whites on the Mis- sourl. It certainly appears that Tack-chan- de-see-char (Tatchindi-chidja), whatever its exact meaning, was the earliest of the names 31 The first signer for the Sans Ares at Fort Sully on October 20, 1865, was Wah-mun-dee-o- pee-doo-tah, or The War Eagle with the Red Tail. Wahmundee or Wambili, eagle or war eagle, and duta or luta, red. Actually luta means scarlet, but it was commonly translated as red. SAONE GROUP OF TETON SIOUX 93 applied to what we know today as the Sans Ares. Of the five tribes making up the Saone faction, the Sans Arcs grew to be the third largest (after the Minneconjous and Hunk- papas) and were certainly living among the Tetons on the Missouri at the time of the visits by Tabeau and Lewis and Clark. Un- less perhaps they were recognized by the sub-heading Sah-one by Lewis and Clark, the Tack-chan-de-see-char group can be the only name on their list which refers to the Sans Ares. As has been mentioned, perhaps the Hitasiptchone included on Tabeau’s list along with the Tatchindi-chidja was another, newer name for the band and was imitted from the Lewis and Clark list upon consulta- tion with Heney or someone else. It also may be that the Hitasiptchone was an offshoot of the parent Tatchindichidja group, for al- ready the Tetons or Bois Brules had four subbands and the Minneconjous three. The fact that this offshoot grew and prospered while the parent group, the Tatchindi-chidja, disappeared from any later references is not unusual. Examination of the Muinneconjou band lists obtained in the 1880’s fails to dis- close the parent group of that tribe, the True Minneconjous, which was listed by both Ta- beau and Lewis and Clark. There remains then only one name on the two lists which thus far has not been identi- fied, the Sah-one sub-group of Lewis and Clark. It is impossible to even guess with any degree of accuracy what this name made ref- erence to. There are two Teton tribes, the Two Kettles and the Blackfeet Sioux, that are not mentioned in any recognizable way by Lewis and Clark, and it may be that one of these is the Sah-one band. It is felt, how- ever, that the Two Kettles were more closely associated with the Minneconjous and pos- sibly, at that date, were the mysterious Ta- coropa band. It also does not seem likely that the Blackfeet were the group referred to by Lewis and Clark, for Tabeau provides a clue which strongly suggests that the Blackfeet were then part of the Yankton tribe. On his list, under the heading of ‘The Yinctons of the South” living on the James river, is a band called Seascapé, a name almost identi- eal to Sihasapa or Blackfoot (stha, foot and sapa, black). It is known that the Blackfeet were the last of the Teton tribes to cross the 94 JOURNAL OF Missouri, for even as late as 1825, the Atkin- son-O’Fallon treaty commission met them on the east bank of the river, while the other Teton groups, including the Hunkpapas, were all treated with on the west bank.*® The 35 The Commission’s report states that the Saones were divided into two groups which roamed on both sides of the Missouri. One group, the Minneconjous, Sans Arcs, and Two Kettles, signed a treaty at the mouth of the Teton (Bad) river on July 12, 1825, and were the Saones who generally inhabited the country west of the Mis- souri. On July 12, the Commission concluded a THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 3 delayed arrival of the Blackfeet in the re- gions west of the Missouri could very well have been caused by the time-consuming break with their old ties among the Yank- tons and a gradual movement northward up the Missouri to where they contacted the Hunkpapas and crossed westward. treaty with the Saones of ‘‘Fire Heart’s band”’ at Camp Hidden creek. This was on the east bank. Fire Heart’s band were the Blackfeet-Sioux. The Fire Heart family were long-time leaders of that tribe. OO NEW BOOK ON AQUARIUM FISHES YIELDS DISTRIBUTION DATA There are 40,000 kinds of fishes—species and subspecies—in the world. This is the most recent estimate of Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, Smithsonian Institution curator of fishes. The fishes can be divided roughly into inhabitants of eight world zones, by far the richest of which is the tropical Indo-Pacific area. This is the region extending from the head of the Red Sea to Easter Island. Within this region are found approximately 9,000 species. The number of kinds in other regions, as esti- mated by Dr. Schultz, is as follows: Australia, 1,500; North America, 4,500; South America, 6,500; Africa, 6,500; deep seas all over the world which have their own characteristic forms of fish life, 2,500; Europe, Asia, and India, 6,500; various island groups, 3,000. These estimates are contained in a Handbook of Tropical Aquarium Fishes suitable for the home aquarium written by Dr. Schultz in co- operation with Herbert R. Axelrod. However, among all these fishes fewer than 500 kinds are common in aquaria. All over the world, Dr. Schultz points out, fishes have evolved into a remarkably diverse group to fit various habitats and to follow various ways of life. Some fly, but not like birds; others leap, walk, and burrow as well as swim. Some swim as fast as a locomotive—60 miles an hour for the swordfish, 50 for the bonito, 44 for the tuna. Some, like the bass, hardly can speed up beyond about 12 miles an hour. Some of their varied ways of life are shown by the bettas and the paradisefish, both of which blow bubble nests at the water surface where they cradle their eggs and babies. Others, like the male of the black-chinned mouthbreeder, incubate the eggs and young in the mouth. More remark- able is the seahorse, the male of which has a pouch, much like that of a kangaroo, where the eges are placed by the female and where they are incubated for a few weeks before birth occurs. Dr. Schultz has carried on special studies of fish flight on South Pacific marine flyingfishes. “Anatomically,” he says, “flyingfishes do not possess muscles that could possibly help the fins to flap like the wings of birds. Instead the fins are used as glider wings. Although some of the oceanic flyingfishes can sail for over 30 seconds at about 35 miles an hour, the freshwater flying- fishes of South America can sail only a few yards. These little aquarium fishes are thin as a wafer and shaped like a hatchet.” Walking, Dr. Schultz points out, is well de- veloped among some fishes. The lower rays of one of the fins are separated from one another and are controlled by special muscles so that they propel the fish along the bottom in a fashion very similar to the walking of a mammal on land. The fish that can “walk’’ best on land is a com- mon aquarium fish, the walking or climbing perch, but it does not have the separate fin rays. It does have an extra air chamber above the gills that aids it in staying alive for several hours out of water. This walking perch has been known to travel at least 300 feet over dry land, in a space of 30 minutes in going from one pool to another. Nearly all fishes, Dr. Schultz says, are well equipped with special sense organs to acquaint them with their immediate environment. Con- nected with a highly developed sense of touch is the so-called “lateral line,’’ which enables a fish to detect low frequency vibrations in the water, such as would be set up by the movements of another fish. In sharks, for example, this is so highly developed that they can tell whether the movements are made by a healthy or an injured fish. CONTENTS Page Puysics.—The basis for standards for radiation protection. LAURISTON S. TAYLOR} 2. gio hs sop isiierea pee Cate ee aan 69 ENGINEERING.—The influence of space flight on engineering and science. Miron WROSEN : oc. oc .0 0 8. Ongena 2. oe 79 BIOCHEMISTRY—An observation on pufferfish toxin. RosBertr OD. MEACOMBER eis c.58 felis + bi was 1 bE akin neaeee eee eee 85 Botany—An evaluation of Benjaminia Martius ex Benjamin. Lyman Bo Smirn and! J. MurcA PIRES. .--2.5:.+-45.-¢->--+ 4) 0ee 86 ErHnoLtoGy.—An investigation of the early bands of the Saone group of Teton Sioux. HARRY ANDERSON. ..°22.-4...----...2 2 eee 87 ENTOMOLOGY.—Studies in Panama Culicoides (Diptera: Heleidae), VI: The hylas group of the subgenus Hoffmania. Wiiuis W. WirtH and PRANKLIN S. BLANTON:.;. ©... (0080.00 2-4 one a). 0200 95 Notes and News o> -rcsj 5 a mete cee Seat ein no ee eect 77, 84, 94, 99 eS rT sn ¥ 73 SB O26. 7 2 = - . - — ~~ . oe, — VOLUME 46 April 1956 NUMBER 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Published Monthly by the iV ASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MOUNT ROYAL & GUILFORD AVES., BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences Hditor: CaesteR H. Pace, National Bureau of Standards Associate Editors: RoNALD BamMrorD, University of Maryland Howarp W. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 46 Aprit 1956 No. 4 PALEONTOLOGY .—A late Triassic terebratellacean from Peru Francis G. STEHLI, California Institute of Technology. (Communicated by D. H. Dunkle.) The brachiopod fauna of the present oceans consists predominantly of representa- tives of the Terebratuloidea. In this group the relation of the soft parts to the skeleton is relatively well known. For this reason they offer the most promising group within the Brachiopoda for purposes of evolutionary study. An excellent study (Cloud, 1942) of the basal terebratuloid stocks and _ their initial radiation during the late Silurian and Devonian furnishes a foundation for further work. In connection with studies undertaken for the Treatise on invertebrate paleontology the writer has completed a revision of Mississippian, Pennsylvanian, and Permian terebratuloids (unpublished). In combina- tion these two studies reveal with reasonable clarity the major course of terebratuloid evolution during the Paleozoic. Studies of recent forms have been carried back through the Tertiary (Thompson, 1927, and others), and many living genera are known to extend into the Cretaceous and some perhaps into the Jurassic as well. The main gap in our knowledge of terebratuloid phylogeny may be seen therefore to fall in the Triassic-Jurassic interval. As it happens it is during this interval, particularly the Triassic portion, that great innovations appear. Chief among these is the origin of the dominant modern superfamily, the Terebratellacea. The recognition of Mesozoic terebratel- laceans 1s frequently difficult. This difficulty arises principally in distinguishing them from other groups having long adult loops. The basic feature permitting separation of the terebratellaceans from these other ' California Institute of Technology, Division of the Geological Sciences, Contribution No. 768. 101 groups is the metamorphosis of the loop during ontogeny and its intimate relation to the median septum. More or less complete ontogenetic series are therefore necessary for confident recognition. The earliest definitely known terebratel- lacean reported in the literature appears to be Hamptonina of the Middle Jurassic. Particular importance therefore attaches to an undoubted terebratellacean species re- cently recognized in a collection of silicified material from the late Triassic of Peru. The importance of this form as the earliest known member of the superfamily and its evolu- tionary significance has prompted the description which is presented below. PRESENT MATERIAL The species here in question is represented by at least twenty fragmentary silicified specimens. They have been freed of the matrix by acid etching. The fragments present abundant internal detail, but the external form of the shell is incompletely known. All specimens are believed to represent juvenile individuals because of the immature beak characters displayed and the presumably incompletely metamorphosed loop. All individuals are of about the same size and suggest that a high degree of sorting was effected during their transportation to the burial site. Because it appears undesirable to me to propose a name for immature specimens which cannot now be identified with any adult, the await naming when more complete material becomes species is merely described and may available. All specimens were obtained from lot 7+ of the Jenks collection of Peruvian Triassic from the Cerro de Pasco region. They are housed in the American Museum of Natural History in New WAY 7 A 1956 102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 46, No. 4 Fries. 1-6.—An unnamed late Triassic terebratulloid brachiopod: 1, Interior of a fragmentary bra- chial valve showing the heavy median septum and the medially sessile cardinal plate with which it is connected; 2, interior of a fragmentary pedicle valve showing the open delthyrium and the dental plates; 3, interior of fragmentary pedicle valve showing the open, perhaps juvenile nature of the del- thyrium; 4, more or less complete specimen showing the loop in place; 5, lateral view of the same speci- men; 6, brachial interior of the same specimen. York City. The strata from which lot 74 was collected have been dated on the basis of other fossils as late Triassic (Haas, 1953) and are part of the Pucara group. DESCRIPTION Shells small, the most complete specimen is 7.5 mm long, 7 mm wide, and appears to have been about 4 mm in thickness. The outline is slightly ovate; the pedicle valve is longitudinally and transversely convex; no fold or sulcus appears to be present, pedicle beak nearly straight; pedicle foramen unrestricted by deltidial plates, so that the delthyrium is open, and not trans- gressing on the apex of the beak. Brachial valve longitudinally and in general transversely convex but seemingly developing a shallow sulcus ante- riorly. Pedicle interior with short strong dental plates and a low myophragm dividing the muscle field and extending from the anterior Fic. 7.—Profile of reconstructed partly individual. Fie. 8.—Diagrammatie reconstruction of the loop. margin of the rostral cavity to about midlength, muscle scars poorly impressed. Brachial interior with the cardinal plate medially concave and supported by a low, broad septum which extends anteriorly past midlength to a union with the loop; crura arising from the inner margins of the socket plates; crural points small; main bands extend forward in an essentially centronelliform fashion and unite with the median septum and the remainder of the loop; recurving band con- sisting of two more or less vertically disposed plates which are concave inward and united at the apex of each concave surface; each plate arises from the median septum with which it is broadly joined by becoming gradually free at the lower margin; above their union with each other the two plates diverge only to be united posteri- orly by a narrow transverse band which is not, Aprint 1956 unfortunately, preserved in any specimen; the anterior extremities of the recurved band extend much farther forward than the main bands and bear spines as does the lateral margin of the main band; the positions of the muscle insertions cannot be determined. DISCUSSION The stage of loop development seen in this form does not closely resemble any stage in the development of the three major types distin- guished by Elhott (1953) among modern forms. It most nearly approaches, however, the early stages of dallinid loop development. It seems probable that this form, if it can truly be referred to any modern family, should be placed in the Dallinidae. The principal basis for this conclusion is the general resemblance of the loop to that of the adult loop of the Cretaceous genus Aingena. If these specimens are, as they seem to be, juveniles, this may account for the difficulty STEHLI: A LATE TRIASSIC TEREBRATELLACEAN 103 encountered in relating them to preexisting forms. Should they actually represent adults, the prob- lem is even more difficult, for they do not closely resemble any known Paleozoic or Triassic genus. One possibility is that neoteny, an important feature in terebratuloid evolution, has intervened, obscuring relationships. Probably little more can be determined of the true relationships of this form until a comprehensive study of Triassic forms is carried out. REFERENCES Croup, P. E. Terebratuloid Brachiopoda of the Silurian and Devonian. Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 38. 1942. Exuurort, G. F. Brachial development and evolution in terebratelloid brachiopods. Biol. Reviews 28: 261-279. 1953. Haas, O. Mesozoic invertebrate faunas of Peru. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 101: 1953. Tuompson, J. A. Brachiopod morphology and genera. New Zealand Board Sci. and Art, Manual 7. 1927. ———— SE BIOLOGICAL STUDIES AT POINT BARROW The Eskimo birth rate is increased as much as threefold when the Arctic people eat “white man’s food”’ instead of their traditional pure-animal diet of whale, fish, and seal. This is the observa- tion of Prof. G. E. MacGinitie, of the California Institute of Technology, in a report recently pub- lished by the Smithsonian Institution on his biological investigations at the Navy’s Arctic Research Laboratory at Point Barrow, on Alaska’s Arctic coast. “When hunting was the only means of sub- sistence,”’ he writes, ‘Eskimo women became pregnant only once in several years, but with the new diet they bear a baby about every year. What will happen when outside support is shut off is an important and serious problem. Some few fathers are training their boys in hunting and other Eskimo skills, but most of them are content to let the future take care of itself. The situation is fast becoming a problem difficult of solution.”’ Of primary importance in the old Eskimo cul- ture, Professor MacGinitie points out, is the bow- head whale. ‘Several,’ he says, ‘‘are taken in the spring of each year and the flesh is stored under- ground in cellars where it remains edible for three or four years. The whales feed on euphasiids, mysids, pteropods, and copepods, which are so abundant that the great blue whale can attain a weight of 60 tons in two years. Baleen whales probably lead the easiest life of any mammal. These enormous creatures have only to swim slowly through water, which has about the same specific gravity as themselves, opening and clos- ing their mouths and swallowing food. To an Eskimo the most delectable food is whale muktuk, which consists of whale skin with about an inch of underlying blubber. After freezing, the muktuk is cut into small pieces and eaten raw. It has a nutty flavor and is really quite good. “Perhaps next in importance in the native economy is the bearded seal. This marine animal, which reaches a weight of 500 to 600 pounds, feeds almost entirely on amphipods, using its whiskers for sweeping them from the underside of the ice. The teeth are very small and are of little use for holding or masticating food. “In winter these seals are hunted in offshore leads. They float when shot, and so can be taken easily. In summer they are hunted in boats. Then they sink when shot and, if not immediately harpooned, are lost. On one summer hunt on which I accompanied my two boatmen, eleven seals were shot and seven were lost.” 104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 46, No. 4 PALEOBOTANY .—New items in Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of the western United States. RoLanp W. Brown, U.S. Geological Survey. The fossil plant collections in the United States National Museum continue to enlarge as deposits are made by U. 38. Geological Survey expeditions and by gifts from private individuals and_ institutions. Some of these increments come from localities and formations already known and exploited; but others are from strata not yet named and, therefore, contribute toward the dating of the strata as well as to a clearer concept of the species the plants represent. Rather than postpone their description to an uncertain time when monographic studies might be published they are presented now for such significance as they may have. GLEICHENIACEAE Gleichenites repenningi Brown, n. sp. Fig. 14 Frond forked three times, but no arrested buds at the forks as in normal species of Gleichenia. Ultimate pinnules narrow, entire, rounded at the tips and separate almost to the rachis. Venation relatively simple, usually once but sometimes twice forked. No fruiting specimens found. Although the general appearance of the frond and the venation of the pinnules suggest that the affinity of this fern is with the Gleicheniaceae, the assignment must be considered tentative. The species is named for Charles A. Repenning, of the U. S. Geological Survey, who discovered the locality. Occurrence—In the Mesaverde group (Upper Cretaceous) at Black Mountain, about 40 miles southeast of Kayenta, Ariz. Collected by R. W. Brown et al., 1955. ScHIZAEACEAE Schizaeopsis dentata Brown, n. sp. Fig. 13 Frond deeply incised, almost digitate, showing a kind of repeated dichotomy, the ultimate divisions narrow, but the tips not seen. Margin inconspicuously and remotely dentate. Venation forked, with a vein running into each marginal tooth. No fruiting structures found. The reference of this fern to the Schizaeaceae must be regarded as tentative. In some features it may be compared with the living Schizaea elegans (Vahl) Swartz, of the American Tropics, and the epiphytic Platyceriwm alcicorne Desvaux, of East Africa. Neither of these, however, has marginal teeth. In the latter respect Dzpteris conjugata Reinwardt of the East Indies, is somewhat comparable, but the main venation is more open and has numerous prominent cross- connections, which are absent in the fossil. Perhaps the most striking resemblance of this fern is to specimens called Pseudogingko bohemica Velenovsky and Viniklar (1926, p. 8, pl. 5, figs. 1-15) from the Upper Cretaceous of Bohemia. The latter, however, lacks marginal teeth. That the present specimen and P. bohemica represent gymnosperms may well be questioned. Such uncertainty about even the higher rank allocation of fossils illustrates the frustration to which paleontologists are sometimes subject when definite clues are lacking. Occurrence.—In the Mesaverde group (Upper Cretaceous) at Black Mountain, about 40 miles southeast of Kayenta, Ariz. Collected by R. W. Brown et al., 1955. LEGUMINOSAE Bauhinia wyomingana Brown, n. sp. Fig. 1 Upper half of a leaf, evidently originally at least 10 cm long, deeply incised making a rounded sinus and two lobes. Only the top of the midrib present. Secondary veins strong, curving upward in the direction of the margin, the uppermost pair entering the apical lobes. No pods were found with this leaf, but large pods, not yet identified, have been found at about the same stratigraphic level at neigh- boring localities in Wyoming, where, however, no leaves recognizable as those of Bauhinia occur. The deep sinus and bilobed feature of this leaf, together with the venational details, leave no doubt about its identification. It is the first species of Bauhinia to be reported from the Paleocene strata of the western States. One doubtful species, B. pseudocotyledon Cockerell, was described from the Oligocene lake beds at Florissant, Colorado. Several species have been identified in the Cretaceous and Eocene deposits of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. This leaf resembles those of several living spe- cies, of which there are about 150. They include Aprit 1956 BROWN: CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY FLORAS 105 LENORE nll aves SS S < BIXIwTs EMEA 4 A. x Wi y) 14 Wa, Fie. 1.— Bauhinia wyomingana Brown, n. sp. Fia. 2.—Antholithes wellsi Brown, n.sp. Koelreuteria annosa Brown, n. sp. Fras. 4, 5, 6.—Caesalpinia pacifica (Knowlton) Brown, n. comb. Fires. 7, 8, 9.— Caesalpinia pecorae Brown, n. sp. Fras. 10, 11.—Counterparts of Atlanthus eureka Brown, n. sp. Fre. 12. —Ailanthus lesquereuxi Cockerell. Fra. 13.—Schizaeopsis dentata Brown, n.sp. Fig. 14—Gletchenites repenning’ Brown, n. sp. All figures natural size. 106 trees, shrubs, and vines, closely allied to the redbuds, Cercis, and are found in the tropics and subtropics around the world. Some species have been introduced successfully as showy orna- mentals in southern Florida and southern Cali- fornia. Bauhinia wyomingana, therefore, adds a bit of further evidence to that of palms, bread- fruit, figs, and others, indicating warm climatic conditions in early Paleocene time in parts of the Rocky Mountain region. Occurrence.—In lower lignitic strata of the Fort Union formation (Paleocene), sec. 14, T. 57 N., R. 85 W., 214 miles northwest of Monarch, Wyo. Collected by T. E. Wilhard, 1907. Caesalpinia pacifica (Knowlton) Brown, n. comb. Figs. 4, 5, 6 Quercus pacifica Knowlton, U. 8. Geological Survey 20th Ann. Rept., pt. 3, p. 48, pl. 1, figs. 9, 10, 1900. Asymmetric leaflets, 4 to 8 cm long with short, glandular, cross-wrinkled petioles. Apex in general rounded, only exceptionally emarginate. Base rounded. Secondary veins numerous, regular, with short intersecondaries and some reticulation. The lowermost basal secondary noticeably thickened. This species differs from Caesalpinia pecorae chiefly in having leaflets with rounded rather than emarginate apexes. Otherwise, the resem- blance is so striking as to suggest very close affinity or even identity. It is significant that both species are from formations regarded reliably as being not older than middle Eocene in age. I have also collected this species from an Eocene sequence exposed in cuts along the Southern Pacific Railroad one to two miles north of Comstock, Oreg. Sanborn (1937), al- though reporting two species of Lonchocarpus from large collections at the same locality, has no other legumes and especially nothing def- initely comparable to Caesalpinia pacifica. Occurrence.—Knowlton’s specimens from yel- lowish sandstone, NE 14 sec. 16, T. 388., R. 1 E., about 5 miles north of Ashland, Oreg. Collected by J.S. Diller, 1898. Figs. 4, 5, 6, from an Eocene lignitic sequence near the Hansen coal mine, SW 14 sec. 3, T. 37 S., R. 1 W., about 4 miles northeast of Medford, Oreg. Collected by R. W. Brown et al., 1940. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 4 Caesalpinia pecorae Brown, n. sp. Figs. 7, 8, 9 Asymmetric leaflets, 3 to 4 em. long, with short, glandular, cross-wrinkled petioles. Apex in general emarginate, only exceptionally rounded. Base rounded. Secondary veins numerous, regular, with short intersecondaries and some reticulation. Emarginate leaflets, such as these, occur in many species of living and fossil legumes, notably in Acacia, Cassia, Eysenhardtia, Mimosa, Pithecellobium, Robinia, and Sophora. Assignment of them to a given genus must, therefore, be considered tentative until confirmatory evidence like pods and seeds is found at the same localities. In the meantime Caesalpinia is perhaps as good a label as any. The genus has about 30 living species distributed in the tropics and subtropics around the world. The species is named for William T. Pecora, of the U. S. Geological Survey, to honor his leadership, friendliness, and cooperation in solving the stratigraphic and _ paleontologic problems of the Bearpaw Mountains, Montana. Occurrence.—Figs. 7, 9. In the upper strata of the Green River formation (middle Eocene) on the east side of the Bonanza to Watson road, 2.2 miles north of Watson, Utah. Collected by R. W. Brown, 1941. Fig. 8. In tuffaceous middle Kocene strata, SE 144 NW 14 sec. 11, T. 28 N. R. 14 E., in the western foothills of Centennial Mountain, Bearpaw Mountains, Mont. Collected by R. W. Brown et al., 1954. SIMARUBACEAE Ailanthus eureka Brown, n. sp. Figs. 10, 11 Leaflet notably asymmetric, lanceolate, 4 cm long and 8 mm wide. Apex long attenuate. Lower half of rounded base with one prominent glandu- lar tooth, the margin otherwise entire. Secondary veins more or less straight to the area near the margin where they curve upward to join the the secondary above. Few short intersecondaries present. Petiole 2 mm long. This leaflet, so far as I am aware from perusal of the literature, is the first unequivocal fossil foliage of Azlanthus to be reported. Its finding marks the end of a long search. Hitherto, the assignment of leaflets to the same species as well recognized seeds from the same localities has left much to be desired in that none of the leaflets so assigned has clearly shown the characteristic Aprit 1956 basal, glandular teeth (Brown, 1940, p. 351; 1946, p. 350). All the features of this leaflet, however, but particularly the glandular tooth, are con- sonant with those seen in most species of living Ailanthus, the one exception being A. excelsa Roxburgh, which has toothed leaflets without glands. No samaras were found with this leaflet. Its associates, however, are species of leaves and fish like those found in the middle Eocene Green River formation in Colorado, Utah, and Wyo- ming, thereby attesting its Eocene age. On the other hand, the beautiful samaras of Azilanthus lesquereuxt Cockereil (Fig. 12) from the Green River formation at Fossil, Wyoming, although found with many other species of leaves, fruits, and seeds, are not accompanied by leaflets clearly assignable to Azlanthus. As the samaras of Ailanthus found in many western Tertiary deposits from the Eocene to the Miocene epochs are very similar in features, they cannot well be distinguished as separate species; but a number of such species have been described. The question now arises: Should the present leaflet be called A. lesquereuxi or should it be a new species? I choose the latter alternative, pending the finding of samaras at the same locality, or the finding of similar leaflets in the Green River formation, that may show its true relationship to A. lesquereuat. The leaflet is relatively small as compared with those of living species. Perhaps it is abnormal and not typical of its species. The finding of recog- nizable Ailanthus leaflets in the Green River and other Tertiary floras is, therefore, an eventuality earnestly hoped for. Why are these leaflets rare in the fossil record? I can suggest in reply only the implications hinted at in my observation of the leaves of Ailanthus altissima (Miller) Swingle, the common Asiatic tree-of-heaven, planted or escaped in many parts of the north temperate zone. When the large compound leaves fall they disintegrate quickly, the leaflets remaining intact for only a few days. On the ground they become fragile and crumble easily. Unless, therefore, such leaflets fortunately fall into water and are speedily buried in bottom sands and muds, there is little chance that they will be preserved as fossil specimens. Species of Atlanthus in the Tertiary record of the western States, like those of Cercidiphyllum, Ginkgo, Keteleeria, Koelreuteria, Metasequoia, Pseudolarix, and many others, indicate a former BROWN: CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY FLORAS 107 widespread distribution in the North Temperate zone of entities whose remaining relatives are now restricted to indigenous Asiatic floras. The presence of any one of these in a fossil flora from the American west prompts an inspection of the living Asiatic flora for possible matches to other specimens seemingly unidentifiable in terms of local or neighboring species. Occurrence.—In_ tuffaceous middle Eocene strata, SE 144 NW 14 sec. 11, T. 28 N., R14 E., in the western foothills of Centennial Mountain, Bearpaw Mountains, Mont. Collected by R. W. Brown et al., 1954. SAPINDACEAE Koelreuteria annosa Brown, n. sp. Fig. 3 Capsular valve, 2.7 cm long and 1.8 em wide. Elliptic in outline, with apex missing. Peduncle 5 mm long. Venation relatively simple, with a few forks and anastomoses. No foliage assignable to Koelreuteria was found with this characteristic capsule. In size it is somewhat smaller than that of K. nigricans (Lesquereux) Brown (Brown, 1946, p. 350) from the middle Eocene Green River formation, to which, on account of its geographic contiguity, it might have been closely related. K. annosa, however, is from lignitic strata near the top of the Fort Union formation (Paleocene) northeast of Point of Rocks, Wyo. Several species of Koelreuteria have been recorded from the Tertiary rocks of the western States, but this is the first from the Paleocene series. It belongs with a group of species of other genera whose living descendants or relatives are now restricted to Asiatic habitats. One species, K. paniculata Laxmann, the so-called goldrain- tree, an exotic to the parks of the United States, makes a showy display with its mass of golden flowers and its Chinese lanternlike seed pods. Occurrence.—In the upper lignitic strata of the Fort Union formation (Paleocene), NW 14 SW 14 sec. 36, T. 21 N., R. 100 W., about 7 miles northeast of Point of Rocks, Wyo. Collected by William P. Severn, 1954. UNCERTAIN Antholithes wellsi Brown, n. sp. Fig. 2 AFFINITY Five-parted calyx or corolla, the parts united at the base. Diameter 2 em. Central area de- pressed to form a shallow cup. No evidence of stamens or pistils. 108 Although numerous leaves were found asso- ciated with these flowers, no definite suggestion of relationship or identity has developed from their study. The species is named for Francis G. Wells, of the U. 8S. Geological Survey, to honor his long labors in elucidating the geology of Oregon. Occurrence.—In an Eocene lgnitic sequence near the Hansen coal mine, SW !4 sec. 3, T. 37 S., R. 1 W., about 4 miles northeast of Med- ford, Oreg. Collected by R. W. Brown, 1954. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 4 REFERENCES Brown, Rotanp W. New species and changes of name in some American fossil floras. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 30: 344-356. 1940. . Alterations in some fossil and living floras. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 36: 344-355. 1946. Sanporn, Eruent I. The Comstock flora of west central Oregon. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 465: 1-28. 1937. VELENOVSKY, J., and VINIKLAR, L. Flora Cretacea Bohemiae. Rozpr. Geol. Ustavu Ceskosl. Repub. no. 1. 1926. oS DR. JOHN G. THOMPSON RETIRES Dr. John G. Thompson, chief of the Metallurgy Division of the National Bureau of Standards, has retired after more than 35 years of Govern- ment service. Born in Eau Claire, Wis., in 1894, Dr. Thomp- son attended Cornell University, receiving his bachelor of chemistry degree in 1915 and his doctor of philosophy in 1921. His association with the National Bureau of Standards began in 1921 when he became a member of the Chemistry Division. From 1924 to 1929 he was employed as a chemist and metallurgist at the Fixed Nitrogen Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture on problems in connection with the synthesis of ammonia. He returned to the National Bureau of Standards in 1929 as a research associate for the Cerro de Pasco Copper Corporation and the following year was appointed chief of the Chem- ical Metallurgy Section. He was appointed chief of the Metallurgy Division in 1946. Dr. Thompson has made outstanding contri- butions in fields of research pertaining to the preparation of pure metals, the evaluation of their properties, gases in metals, special refrac- tories, corrosion, and powder metallurgy, and is the author of more than 35 technical publications. The results of his studies of bismuth and bismuth alloys paved the way for industrial development of fusible alloys containing bismuth. Dr. Thomp- son was instrumental in developing a process that involved chemical purification of an iron salt and its subsequent conversion into oxide, sponge, and melted ingots. By the use of this process, he was successful in 19388 in producing an iron of 99.99 percent purity, the highest established purity to that time in this country or abroad. His book The Metal—Iron (co-authored with H. E. Cleaves) is an exceptionally valuable reference and was the basic volume of the series of monographs on alloys of iron sponsored by the Engineering Foundation. He was successful in extending the slip-casting process to the prepara- tion of thin-wall crucibles of alumina, beryllia, and other special refractories that lacked the property of plasticity. Slip-cast beryllia crucibles were used in preparing the ‘“‘super-pure”’ ingots of iron. The results of his work served as the basis for the production of slip-cast crucibles of special refractories by other laboratories. Dr. Thompson was the leader of an inter- national cooperative study that established the accuracy of the vacuum-fusion method for deter- mining oxygen in the plain carbon steels, either as aluminum-killed, silicon-killed, or rimmed. He recommended procedures for obtaining opti- mum results by this method and subsequently extended its usefulness for determining oxygen in alloy steels. The vacuum-fusion method is now extensively used, not only as a tool for research but commercially, as the ‘‘standard” for deter- mining the oxygen content of steels and other metals. During World War II he conducted re- searches on beryllium-aluminum alloys under the auspices of the War Metallurgy Committee; this work received an award from the Office of Scien- tific Research and Development. His study of the metallurgy of beryllium and uranium for the Manhattan Project was also recognized by an award from the War Department. Since World War II Dr. Thompson has been honored by service as a Presidential appointment member of Annual Assay Commission for 1950, U.S. Mint, Philadelphia; member of the Ma- terials Advisory Board of the National Research Council; member of Advisory Committee on Re- vision of New York State Industrial Code No. 21; chairman, Washington Chapter, American So- ciety for Metals; and conferee, First World Metallurgical Congress, 1951. He has served on many technical committees of various engineering societies. He is an active member of the American Society for Metals, American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, American Society for Testing Materials, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, British Iron and Steel Institute, British Institute of Metals, wasHING- TON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Sigma Xi, and the Cosmos Club. Aprit 1956 SOHNS: CALAMOCHLOA;: A MEXICAN GRASS 109 BOTANY —Calamochloa: A Mexican grass. ERNest R. Souns, U. 8. National Museum. (Communicated by Agnes Chase.) The genus Calamochloa was described by Fournier (1877). His brief description was based on the single collection by the French mineralogist Pierre Virlet d’Aoust, no. 1461, from San Luis Potosi, Mexico, without pre- cise locality. Other than the type specimen in the Paris Museum and a fragment and photograph brought to the U. S. National Herbarium in 1922 by Mrs. Chase, the genus remained unknown from 1877 to 1954, when I collected it at three stations in the Sierra de Guadaledzar, between Charco Blanco, Aguaje de Garcia and the Minas de San Ra- fael (Figs. 18, 19), on Cretaceous limestone outcrops. The original description of the genus by Fournier (1877) was very brief, as follows [translated]: Glumes subequal, the lower shorter; flowers 3, of which 2 are pilose around the base, the summit less so; lemma 5-lobed, lateral and intermediate lobes subulate, palea 2-toothed, panicle ovate, influorescence 4-5 spicate. The glumes of this genus have the same struc- ture as several of those in the Chlorideae, notably those of the section Heterostega of the genus Atheropogon, but the location of the lemma with respect to the rachis removes the genus from the Chlorideae. The hairs of the rachis and its ap- pearance, suggests Calamagrostis, among [the species of] which one would, at first view, try to place Calamochloa filifolia. The short description of the genus, quoted in the second and third paragraph, was used again by Fournier (1886). In this work he described C. filifolia as follows [translated]: Culms strict, sheaths striate, glabrous; ligule pilose; blades linear, glaucous, convolute; panicle ovate and terminal; glumes subequal, the upper broadly mucronate, median nerve prominent; lemma 5-lobed [as in] Polyschistidis, palea trun- cate, plicate, obscurely 2-dentate, 14 shorter, base and margin villous. The rather inadequate description and the fact that the species was represented only by the type specimen, consisting of the upper portions of two or three culms and _ their pistillate inflorescences, led to uncertainty about the genus and its tribal affiliation. Hackel (1887, 1890) put the genus in the tribe Festuceae, subtribe Pappophoreae. Bews (1929) keys the genus in the Festu- ceae, lists the author and the single species in Mexico. Rozhevits (1937) included the genus in the tribe Pappophoreae along with Scleropogon, Cathestecum, Enneapogon and other genera. Conzatti (1946) put the genus in the tribe Chlorideae between the genera Tripogon and Levtochloa. The origin of the generic name is given in addition to the known information about the genus. Pilger (1954) placed the genus in the tribe Festu- ceae, subtribe Festucinae with the notation, “Doubtful genus,” and in the tribe Aveneae, subtribe Aveninae with the statement: “Genus of doubtful position.” After a study of the type material and the specimens collected in the Sierra de Guadal- cazar, it is concluded that the genus belongs in the tribe Pappophoreae (Rozhevits (1937) and Hubbard (1934)). Calamochloa Fournier—Emended. Plants di- oecious. Staminate spikelets 3-5 flowered, the rachilla glabrous and not disarticulating between the florets; glumes about equal in length, 2.8-4.1 mm long, 3-awned, the awns short; palea as long as the lemma or slightly shorter; stamens 3, large, well-developed; pistil rudimentary; lodicules 2, membranaceous. Pistillate spikelets mostly 3-flowered; rachilla disarticulating tardily, the florets usually falling together; glumes about equal, 3.5-7 mm long, 1-nerved, glabrous except slightly scaberulous on the keel toward the tip and over the back; lemma (first floret) to 7 mm long, pilose on the margins and on each side of the median nerve from about 1 mm above the base to the base of the central awn, 3-awned, the awns prominent, subulate and diverging at maturity; callus pilose; palea as long as the lemma or very slightly shorter; pistil well-de- veloped; stamens 3, rudimentary; lodicules 2, membranaceous. Tufted perennials forming tough clumps in dry soil, with long, flat blades which become flexuous and involute on drying. Inflorescences spreading in anthesis, later be- coming narrow and compact. Name presumably from kalamos, cane and chloa, grass. Calamochloa filifolia -Emended. Staminate plants: Perennial, densely tufted, the old bases persistent, 80-100 em tall; culms from Fournier Le iz ita — LEA of the anterior border of the last three odstegites P. flavidus. The abdomen bears five pairs of and the peduncular member of the lateral pleural lamellae (Fig. 1A, B); the first pair protuberance of the thorax; of these the latter much larger than the remaining pairs and with a is most conspicuous and corresponds to the highly crispate margin; the rest become pro- Fig. 2.—Portunion conformis, n. sp.: A, & peraeopod IV; B-E, epicaridium (B, paraeopod I; C, peraeo- pod VI; D, antenna; E, antennule); F-J, cryptoniscium (F, antenna; G, antennule; H, pleopod; I, peraeopod I; J, peraeopod VII). Aprin 1956 gressively smaller from front to back and the complexity of the marginal folds lessens; the fifth is a simple triangular lamella. The pleopoda uniramous and overlap their members on opposite sides. The pygidium small, bifurcated and curved slightly ventrally. The third abdomi- nal segment often bulges on its dorsal surface, indicating the position of the heart. Male (Fig. 1C, D): 1.1 mm long and at fourth thoracic segment 0.3 mm wide with scattered brown to dark brown pigment patches. Cephalon fused with first thoracic segment but distinguish- able ventrally and laterally. Antennules rounded bosses bearing many small setae. Antennae absent. Oral cone bears styliform mandibles. Latera] parts of thoracic segments slightly attenuated except last segment which has a truncate margin. Coxal plates well developed and projecting laterally. Peraeopoda 5-jointed; carpo- propodus and dactylus clad with rows of spinules; distal margin of carpopropodus bears blunt processes (Fig. 2A). Ventral spines on first three abdominal segments hooklike with pointed tip (Fig. 1C); that of fourth reduced; other segments lacking spines. Bifid ends of last segment straight, inclined ventrally at tips and more or less smooth (Fig. 1C, D). Epicaridium (Fig. 2B—E): 0.26 mm long and 0.11 mm wide. First five peraeopoda 6-jointed with propodus bearing a short process at lateral end of distal margin and merus with small seta on its external margin (Fig. 2B). Sixth peraeopoda with dactylus straight and sur- mounted by a crown of long setae; propodus ends in a short pointed process (Fig. 2C). Cryptoniscium (Fig. 2F—J): 0.5 mm long and 0.16 mm wide. Body wider anteriorly than posteriorly. General pigmentation brown in scattered patches; eye pigments darker than other pigments and well defined. Antenna 6-jointed, basal three parts larger than distal three; third bears three short hairs and sixth ends in a bundle of long hairs (Fig. 2F). Antennule 4-jomted; second joint with short setae on anterior margin; third narrower and_ bearing three bundles of short hairs, the outer two bundles arising from jointed tubercles; fourth still narrower, surmounted by two rami, each of which ends in long hairs (Fig. 2G). Peraeopoda 6-jointed (Fig. 21); last peraeopod more slender than others, merus with long spine continuous with its distal margin (Fig. 2J). Exopodite of MUSCATINE: A NEW ENTONISCID 125 pleopod bears four long setae and one short seta (Fig. 2H). Distribution and habitat: Taken from Berkeley Yacht Harbor and Bay Farm Island on San Francisco Bay, Calif., and Drake’s Lagoon, Marin County, Calif., where they are parasitic on Hemigrapsus oregonensis. Type locality: Berkeley Yacht Harbor, Berk- eley, Calif. Types: The following specimens have been deposited in the United States National Museum: (1) Holotype, 1 adult female, U.S.N.M. no. 99177; (2) allotype, 1 adult male, U.S.N.M. no. 99178; (8) paratypes, 6 females, U.S.N.M. no. 99179. Discussion: 372 crabs were examined from which 85 female entoniscids were obtained. These apparently included all stages of develop- ment. The frequency of infection is shown in the accompanying table. 3g z BS 25 t 2| a 2 3 52 Locality ° Ss ‘a Saal eet |) | | er | August 16 fof 50 4 54 7.4 | Berkeley Yacht 1955 ©) 8} 0 8} 0 Harbor August 23 fol 61 | 12 | 73 | 16.4 | Berkeley Yacht 1955 g 3 al 4 | 25.0 Harbor August 31 On 50.| 5 | 55] 9.1] Berkeley Yacht 1955 2 8 1 9 | 11.1 Harbor September 6 | 22 6 | 28 | 21.4 | Drake’s Lagoon 1955 9 LP e2 7 190 LORS, November 3 | @ 12) 12) 24 | 50.0 | Berkeley Yacht 1955 Q 1} 16) 17 | 94.1 Harbor December 8 fof 41 | 12 | 53 | 22.6 |} Bay Farm Island 1955 2 10 8 18 | 44.1 TOTALS o | 236 | 51 | 287 | 17.7 2 57 | 28 | 85 | 32 fof and OP 5293) 19 est" | p21e 2 Simultaneous infection of a single host by more than one parasite occurred often. Where four were found in one host, they were all of the “asticot”’ stage. In cases where two parasites infected a single host, they were both mature and often gravid. Of the six male entoniscids ex- amined, all were found on the females, either on the pleural lamellae, in the dorsal groove of the thorax, or on the abdomen in the mid- ventral line. In no cases were females accompanied by more than one male. Cryptoniscan larvae occurred frequently on females of all stages. Unlike such cases as the infection of Pinnotheres 126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 4 — P. maenadis P. kossmanni P. flavidus P. conformis Female Ventral pro- | Both processes | Anterior di- |Anterior verti- | Anterior vertical cesses directed rected for- caltothorax,| to thorax, pos- backward wards, the posterior di- terior directed posterior rected back- backward backward ward Male Cephalon Distinct from | Distinct from | Fused with Ist | Fused with Ist thorax thorax thoracic seg- thoracic —seg- ment ment Antenna Present ? Absent Absent Abdominal In segments | In segments | In’ segments | In segments I-IlV hooks LIV LIV LIl Epicaridium | Dactylus of | Setose ? Not setose Setose peraeopod pisum by the entoniscid Pinnotherion vermiforme Giard and Bonnier as reported by Atkins (1933), where the thinness of the host’s carapace reveals the presence of the parasite, the new species cannot be detected by external signs. The infected hosts appear perfectly normal and the presence of a parasite can only be determined by dissection. The adult parasite is usually found on its side in the visceral cavity of the host. The body is V-shaped, head and thorax pointing anteriorly forming one arm, and the abdomen the other. The hepatic tissues of the host surround the head and abdomen of the parasite while the junction of thorax and abdomen lies under the alimentary canal. Of the five species of Portuwnion previously described, P. moniezii Giard and P. salvatoris Kossman are poorly defined. However, P. conformis, the new species, has short, straight, ventral ovarian processes which distinguishes it from P. salvatoris. The greatly developed first pair of odstegites of the new species distin- guishes it from P.moniezii. It differs from the three remaining species as shown in the table above. The species P. flavidus is commonly found infecting Pachygrapsus crassipes in Japan. This crab is a prominent member of the American west coast intertidal fauna and one might expect to find P. flavidus here. However, ex- amination of 22 specimens of P. crassipes has failed to disclose any entoniscids. LITERATURE CITED AtTKINS, D. Pinnotherion vermiforme Giard and Bonnier, an entoniscid infecting Pinnotheres pisum. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1933: 319-63. 1933. Giarp, A., and Bonnizr, J. Sur le genre Entione Kossmann. C. R. Acad. Sci. 103: 645-47. 1886. Menazins, R. J., and Miuuer, M. A., in Lienr et al. Intertidal invertebrates of the central California coast: 141. University of California Press, 1954. Suno, 8. M. On the parasitic isopods of the family Entoniscidae, especially those found in the vicinity of Seto. Mem. Coll. Sci. Kyoto Im- perial Univ. ser. B, 17: 37-76. 1942. ere ee Experiment is the interpreter of nature. Expervments never deceive. It 1s our judgment which sometimes deceives itself because it expects results which expert- ment refuses. We must consult experiment, varying the circumstances, until we have deduced general rules, for experiment alone can furnish reliable rules— LEONARDO DA VINCI. ApriIL 1956 JONES: A NEW ANNELID FROM SAN FRANCISCO BAY 127 ZOOLOGY .—Cossura pygodactylata, a new annelid from San Francisco Bay (Polychaeta: Cirratulidae). MeérepirH L. Jones, University of California, Berkeley. (Communicated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.) In the course of sampling the benthic fauna off Point Richmond, San Francisco Bay. Calif. (Jones, 1954), numerous speci- mens of a polychaete worm of the family Cirratulidae were found. At the outset they were tentatively identified as Cossura longocirrata Webster and Benedict, but subsequent examination revealed characters differing sufficiently from the _ original description to justify setting up a new species for these worms. Webster and Benedict (1887) erected the genus Cossura for the single species C. longocirrata from Eastport, Maine. Of their specimens only one was complete, the remainder apparently being anterior por- tions. Eliason (1920) found specimens which he tentatively identified as C. longocirrata in the Wresund, Denmark. He noted minor differences in the shape of the prostomium and the dimensions of the unpaired cirrus. In the following year, Thulin (1921) confirmed Eliason’s identifica- tion and gave a detailed description of the species, based on well-preserved specimens from the Mresund. Mrs. E. Wesenburg-Lund (personal communication) has identified C. longocirrata in collections from the North Atlantic and from the coast of Chile. Cossura has been reported from the Pacific coast of North America several times. Hartman (1952) identified C. longocirrata in collections from the Los Angeles—Long Beach area, and Reish and Winter (1954) recorded the same species from Alamitos Bay, California. Hartman (1954) in a checklist of the annelids of San Francisco Bay, listed ‘“‘Cosswra nr. longicirrata’”’ and credited the author (M. J.) with its col- lection. In the preliminary results of her study of the benthos of the San Pedro Basin, Hartman (1955) reported specimens of Cossura sp. and has recently described this as a new species, Cossura candida (Hartman, 1955a). It should be noted that in the description of C. candida, Hartman has included the ‘‘Cossura nr. longicirrata (sic) .. .”’ of her San Francisco Bay checklist in the synonymy and distribution record of C. candida. Actually “C. nr. longicirrata”’ is the species to be described here and C. candida is not known to occur in San Francisco Bay. Family CrrraATuLIDAE Cossura Webster Benedict, Cossura pygodactylata, n. sp. Fig. 1, A-F Cossura longocirrata Jones, 1954, pp. 36, 37, 48, 83, et al. Cossura nr. longicirrata Hartman, 1954, pp. 11, 15. Cossura nr. longicirrata (sic) Hartman, 1955a, pp. 44 and 45 (in synonymy and distribution record of Cossura candida). The specimens under consideration were collected from mud off Point Richmond, San Francisco Bay, Calif., at depths of 3, 5, and 30 feet below mean lower low water, and were most numerous at the lowest depth. Approxi- mately 100 specimens were obtained; of these, 15 were entire, the remainder having fragmented when preserved with 10 percent formalin. Several observations of living, intact animals were also made. Preserved, whole, mature specimens of Cossura pygodactylata are 6 to 7 mm in length and about 0.3 mm wide at the 14th (widest) setiger. The number of segments varies from 43 to 56. Contrary to the observations of Eliason (1920) and Thulin (1921) on C. longocirrata, C. pygodactylata appears to secrete no well-defined tube. The living animal secretes mucus along the body, to which material (fecal pellets, debris) may adhere, giving the impression of a very loosely constructed tube. The body is composed of three general regions. The anterior region extends to the 17th-19th setiger and the segmental length is 80-100 micra; the setae occur in bundles at the anterior edge of each segment. The midregion extends back to about 12-20 segments from the pygidium and segmental length is 280-840 micra; the setae are centrally located on each segment. The posterior region consists of 12-20 segments and_ the segmental length is 100-120 micra; the setae are centrally placed on each segment. Character- Genus and 1887 istically, fragmentation occurs just posterior to the beginning of the midregion. There are no defined parapodia. The setae appear to arise from depressed areas on the body surface, and the bulging of the body surface anterior and posterior to these areas may give the impression of parapodia, with pre- and postsetal lobes (Figs. 1b, 1d, le). A ring of thickened tissue surrounds each area of setal insertion (Fig. 1c, TR). Setae are all simple and vary from capillary to narrowly limbate. They are inserted in two vertical series; the anterior series are composed of coarser setae which are directed from per- pendicular to the body axis to slightly posterior of perpendicular; the posterior series consist of slightly finer setae which are swept posteriorly. The prostomium is conical and devoid of appendages (Fig. 1a), and no sense organs such as eyespots or Thulin’s (1921, p. 4) “‘knopfen- formiges Organ’ (button-shaped organ) have been observed. Near its base the prostomium bears a transverse furrow (Fig. la, PF), which, as both Eliason and Thulin have observed in C. longocirrata, gives a misleading impression that the basal portion is an achaetous segment. In both cleared whole mounts and frontal sections it is seen that the longitudinal muscle bundles are inserted at this point. It seems probable that the furrow is produced as these muscles contract at fixation. The peristomial segment has neither setae nor appendages. The next segment, the Ist setiger, bears a bundle of about six setae on either side. These are nearly perpendicular to the body axis, and their tips are slightly curved posteriorly. The 2d setiger bears a single dorsal median cirrus at its posterior border. The cirrus remains attached throughout preservation and subsequent washing, but the tip is easily broken off. In one case, a preserved fragmented specimen of 21 segments (3 mm) possessed a cirrus 14 mm in length. Near its point of attachment the cirrus is constricted slightly; it then enlarges to its maximum diameter at the level of the 9th setiger and tapers gradually to its free end. In preserved specimens the cirrus shows a central core of muscle fibers running throughout its length, and the surface epithelium is circularly wrinkled as if it were sapable of extreme extension when living. In life the cirrus trails close to the dorsal surface of the body. The 2d to 6th setigers carry approximately 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 4 setae on either side (Fig. 1b), and all setae, to the 6th setiger, appear to arise with no indication of noto- and neurosetal bundles. The dorsal setae of these anterior setigers project laterally (most of them are in the anterior series), while the more ventral ones tend to be inclined posteriorly (the posterior series). Further along the body, the dorsal setae become recurved and the ventral setae become more recurved until they are almost parallel to the body surface (Fig. 1c). At about the 7th to 8th setiger, it is possible to differentiate noto- and neurosetal bundles and the number of setae increases to 16-18 per side (Fig. 1d). This number and disposition continue through the remainder of the anterior region to about the 17th to 19th setiger. The midregion is characterized by longer segments and, in the case of ovigerous females, by the presence of many large eggs. The setae in this region arise in the middle of each segment and are slightly recurved. There are from 4 to 6 notosetae and a like number of neurosetae in this region (Fig. le). In the posterior region the number of setae is gradually reduced from 4-6 in each bundle to 2 notosetae and 2 neurosetae on each side in the segments just preceding the pygidium. In the posterior region, the setae are directed more and more anteriorly as the anal segment is approached. In preserved material, the segments of the ovigerous and following region take on a moniliform appearence, which has not been observed in living material. The eggs are oval and up to 140 micra long by 100 micra wide. A single segment may contain as many as forty eggs. All specimens large enough to be considered mature and which had not fragmented anterior to the ovigerous region, contained eggs. Unequivocal males have not been observed. The pygidium or anal segment (Fig. 1f) is cleft in the dorso-ventral plane to form two lateral lobes (AL). It has three long cirri (PC) up to 0.7 mm in length (approximately as long as the last 10 segments). Two of these are inserted dorsolaterally on the outer surface of the anal lobes; the 8rd is inserted ventrally, where the lobes join. Along the margin of each anal lobe are 6-10 fingerlike processes approxi- mately 0.1 mm long (PP). No mention of these is made by either Webster and Benedict (1887) or Thulin (1921) in their descriptions of C. longo- cirrata, or by Hartman (1955a) in her description ApRIL 1956 JONES: A NEW ANNELID FROM SAN FRANCISCO BAY 129 Fie. 1.—Cossura pygodactylata, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view of the anterior end of the animal; b, 5th right setiger in anterior view (setae appear bent or hooked in the figures to indicate their curving posteriorly) ; c, 5th right setiger in dorsolateral view, dotted areas show the position of the setal bundles of the 4th and 6th setigers; d, 9th left setiger in anterior view; e, 25th right setiger in anterior view; /, lateral view of the pygidium. Figures lc, 1d, le, and If are to the same scale as Ib. (Abbreviations are as follows; AL—anal lobe; DC—dorsal cirrus; PC—pygidial cirrus; PF—prostomial furrow; PP—pygidial proc- esses; and TR—thickened ring of tissue.) 130 of C. candida. These processes are the most obvious character separating the new species from the other species of Cossura, and the new specific name is based on their presence. In living animals it has been observed that these JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON pygidial processes are not retractile. Unfortunately, only 2 specimens were observed with the apparently proboscis has 4-8 everted. finger-shaped The proboscis processes directed anteriorly, and they appear to be similar to those shown by Thulin (1921, Fig. 2) for C. longocirrata. A table comparing the described species of Cossura is presented. It is based on the work of Webster and Benedict (1887), Eliason (1920), Thulin (1921), Hartman (1955a), and the present description. ‘ (es C. longocirrata pygodactylata candida Taosertion of 2d setiger 2d setiger 3d setiger cirrus Pygidial pro- Absent 6-10 on each | Absent cesses anal lobe Length 6-12 mm 6-7 mm 7-10 mm Width 0.35-0.8 mm 0.3 mm 0.5-0.7 mm Number of seg- | 50-70 43-56 50-75 ments Sense organs Present | Absent Nuchal organs on prosto- present at mium sides of pro- stomium.! Number of 8-18 8-18 12-16 setae per seg- ment Character of Thin, rather None Present on tube long, mem- some.! branous Depth where 6-120 feet 3-30 feet 36-2640 feet found Distribution Eastport, San Fran- Southern Cali- Maine; Mre- cisco Bay, fornia. sund, Den- Calif. mark; North At- lantic; coast of Chile. 1 According to personal communication from Dr. Olga Hart- man. The (U.S.N.M. holotype no. 27609) and of Cossura pygodactylata the paratypes ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 4 (U.S.N.M. no. 27610) have been deposited with the U.S. National Museum. The author is indebted to Dr. Cadet Hand, of the Department of Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, to Dr. Olga Hartman, of the Allan Hancock Foundation, University of Southern California, and to Mrs. Elise Wesenburg- Lund, of the Zoological Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark, for their kind advice and criticism. LITERATURE CITED Euiason, Anp. Biologisch-faunistische Unter- suchungen aus dem Oresund. V. Polychaeta. Lunds Univ. Arsskr., nN. F., Avd. 2, 16(6): 1-103. 18 figs., 1 map. 1920. Hartman, OuGa. Appendix IV in ‘‘Los Angeles- Long Beach Harbor Pollution Survey.” Los Angeles Regional Water Pollution Control Board (No. 4), Los Angeles, Calif., p. 41. 1952. ——. The marine annelids of San Francisco Bay and its environs, California. Allan Hancock Found. Occ. Pap. 15: 1-20. 1954. . Quantitative survey of the benthos of San Pedro Basin, southern California. Part I. Preliminary results. Allan Hancock Pacific Exped. 19(1): 1-185, 2 charts, 7 pls. 1955. . Endemism in the North Pacific Ocean, with emphasis on the distribution of marine annelids, and description of new or little known species. In “‘Essays in the Natural Sciences in Honor of Captain Allan Hancock,” pp. 39-60, 4 pls. 1955a. Jones, Merepitra L. The Richmond shoreline sur- vey. State of California, Department of Public Health. Report of the Department of Fish and Game, Project No. 54-2-3, pp. 1-84, 5 figs. 1954. Retsu, D. J., and WintER, H. A. The ecology of Alamitos Bay, California, with special reference to pollution. California Fish and Game. 40(2): 105-121, 1 fig. 1954. Tuuuin, Gustav. Biologisch-faunistische Unter- suchungen aus dem Oresund. Uber Cossura longocirrata Webster and Benedict und riber die Rohren von Disoma multisetosum Oersted. Lunds Univ. Arsskr., n.F., Avd. 2, 17(10): 1-14, 17 figs. 1921. Wesster, H. E., and Benepicr, J. KE. The Anne- lida Chaetopoda from Eastport, Maine. Rept. U. 8. Comm. Fish. for 1885, pp. 707-755, 8 pls. 1887. Aprit 1956 COCKRUM—TWO NEW LONG-TAILED POCKET MICE 131 MAMMALOGY.—Two new long-tailed pocket mice (Perognathus formosus) from Arizona. E. LeENDELL Cockrum, University of Arizona. (Communicated by Charles O. Handley, Jr.) In the summer of 1953 I spent some time in Washington, D. C., studying the mammals from Arizona in the collections of the United States National Museum (including the Biological Surveys collection). Long- tailed pocket mice occur, in Arizona, only in the Arizona ‘‘strip,” that is, the area north and west of the Colorado River. Attempts to determine the subspecific status of the specimens in the Biological Surveys collection revealed the presence of two heretofore unnamed subspecies. The following descriptions were, in part, prepared at that time. In December 1953 I visited the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, at the University of California, Berkeley, California. In this collection are a number of long-tailed pocket mice from Arizona. Discussion with Dr. Seth B. Benson revealed that, on the basis of the specimens in that collection, he had recognized the presence of the two unnamed subspecies. Dr. Benson has kindly given me permission to publish the descriptions, incorporating the data available from the specimens in his care. Grateful acknowledgement is made to the National Science Foundation for a research grant (G-333, Investigations of the Mam- mals of Arizona) for financial assistance; to Drs. Remington Kellogg, David Johnson, and Henry Setzer, of the U. 8. National Museum; to Dr. John W. Aldrich and Miss Viola Schantz, of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; and to Drs. Alden Miller and Seth Benson, of the Museum of Zoology at Berkeley for permission to examine the material in the collections under their care as well as for their personal kindnesses. Perognathus formosus domisaxensis,! n. subsp. Type.—Adult female, skin and skull, U.S.N.M. no. 249006, Biological Surveys collection; from ~ Houserock Valley, 15 miles west of [the Navajo] ' bridge, Coconino County, Ariz., collected August 6, 1929, by Vernon Bailey, original number 10758. 1 From domus, house, and saxwm, rock, as this subspecies is known from Houserock Valley. Distribution.—Insofar as is now known, this subspecies occurs in Arizona west of the Colorado River, north of the Kaibab Plateau, south of the Paria Plateau, and east of the Kanab Plateau. Diagnostic characters and comparisons.—A small-sized race of Perognathus formosus. Similar to P. f. formosus in general color but much smaller in size (see measurements). The occipito- nasal length, the frontonasal length, the length of the bullae, and the basilar length are all less than in P. f. formosus or P. f. mohavensis. The auditory bullae are least inflated in P. f. domisaxensis, but the inflation of the brain case is, proportionally, about as in P. f. formosus. Color—Basal portions of hair near Gray (Gull Gray)?; subterminal band close to Light Buff; terminal portion of hairs tipped with dusky. The color of subterminal portion dominates the color of the dorsal surface. Measurements—Type: Total length, 185; tail vertebrae, 111; hind foot, 24; ear, 11. Two topotypes, 1 male and 1 female, respectively, 184, 175; 105, 100; 23, 23; 11, 11. Skull (type, followed by measurements of 1 male and 1 female topotype): Occipitonasal length, 25.3 (00.0, 24.9); frontonasal length, 16.9 (00.0, 16.8); mastoidal breadth, 13.6 (13.6, 13.5); length of bulla, 8.7 (8.6, 8.2); interorbital constriction, 6.6 (6.4, 6.5); alveolar length upper tooth row, 3.8 (3.6, 3.7); length of interparietal, 3.7 (3.4, 3.4); width of interparietal, 6.4 (6.1, 6.0); basilar length, 18.1 (17.9, 17.5). Remarks.—Two of the three specimens from the type locality show considerable rosaceous staining. This strain is evident on the usually white hairs of the venter as well as on the dorsal surface. As a result these appear to be much lighter and brighter. Specimens examined.—Total, 32, distributed as follows: 6 mi. se. of Fredonia, 1, BS; Houserock Valley, 15 mi. w. of Bridge, 3 (BS); Soap Creek, 15 mi. sw. Lees Ferry, 1 (BS); 2 mi. w. of Lees Ferry (BS); 3,250 ft., 11 (MVZ); 6 mi. w. of Grand Canyon Bridge, Marble Canyon, 3,800 ft., 18 (MVZ). 2 Capitalized color terms after Ridgway, Color standards and color nomenclature, 1912. 132 Perognathus formosus melanocaudus, n. subsp. Type.—Adult female, skin and skull, U.S.N.M. no. 262918, Biological Surveys collection; from the lower end of Toroweap Valley (Rim of Grand Canyon), Mohave County, Ariz.; collected July 30, 1937, by Luther C. Goldman, original number 341. Distribution —In so far as is now known, this subspecies is restricted to the region of the type locality. Diagnostic characters and comparisons.—A dark-colored race of Perognathus formosus (similar to P. f. formosus in general size (see measurements) but auditory bullae and brain case more inflated and interorbital region more constricted; distinctly darker in general dorsal coloration including dorsal part of tail. These same conditions are evident when comparisons are made with P. f. mohavensis and P. f. domisaxensis. Color—Basal portions of hairs near Gray (Dark Dull Gray), Gray (Gull Gray) in P. formosus formosus and P. f. domisaxensis; subterminal band close to Pinkish Buff is quite narrow; terminal portion of hairs tipped with black. The basal and terminal colors dominate the color of the dorsal surface. Measurements.—Type: Total length, 190; tail vertebrae, 111; hind foot, 25. Two adult female topotypes, as follows: 198, 188; 104, 108; 24, 24. Skull (type and two adult female topotypes) Occipitonasal length, 26.7 (26.5, 26.2); fronto- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 4 nasal length, 18.3 (18.1, 17.7); mastoidal breadth, 14.4 (13.9, 14.4); length of bulla, 9.0 (8.9, 8.8); interorbital constriction, 6.4 (6.3, 6.7); alveolar length upper cheek teeth, 3.8 (3.9, 3.8); length of interparietal, 3.7 (3.9, 3.8); width of interparietal, 6.0 (6.1, 6.3); basilar length, 18.2 (18.5, 17.8). Remarks.—The series of animals in the Biological Survey collection from the Toroweap Valley all show signs of molting. Further, most of the animals were young when taken. However, the young are much darker than those of similar age and pelage condition from all other localities represented. Specimens from four miles north of Wolf Hole and 12 miles north of Wolf Hole, here referred to P. f. formosus, are intergrades between P. f. melanocaudus and P. f. formosus. This is demon- strated by the intermediate nature of the inflation of the auditory bullae, inflation of the braincase, interorbital width, and pelage color. Specimens examined.—Total, 52, as follows: Lower end of Toroweap Valley, 16, BS; Lower end of Toroweap Valley, 4200 ft., 36, MVZ. Comparative material—Perognathus formosus formosus: Urau: St. George, 17 (BS). Arizona: 4 mi. n. of Wolfe Hole, 1 (BS); 6 mi. n. of Wolfe Hole, 4,900 ft., 4 (MVZ); 10 mi. n. of Wolf Hole, 3,800 ft., 10 (MVZ); 12 mi. n. of Wolf Hole, 3,500 ft., on road to St. George, Utah, 17 (BS). Perog- mathus formosus mohavensis: Arizona: Near mouth Beaverdam Creek, 1,500 ft., just above Little field, 1 (BS); Grand Wash, 1,800 ft., 8 mi. s. of Pakoon Spring, 1 (BS). CaLrrornia: Oro Grande, 37 (BS). PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 1397TH MEETING, OCTOBER 8, 1954 WILLIAM SHocKLEY, of the Bell Telephone Laboratories, spoke on Transistor physics. Transistor physics is the modern name for that branch of solid-state physics that treats semi- conductors. The particular material discussed was germanium; its four valence electrons cause it to crystallize in the same structure as diamond. The perfect lattice of pure germanium is analo- gous to a vacuum; various defects act like free particles in a vacuum. The six known imper- fections that contribute to the semiconductor behavior are: (1) An excess electron. (2) A “‘hole,’’ or missing electron. (8) Deathnium, which may be an atom of copper or nickel, or simply a structure defect. Deathnium is a generic name for centers which catalyze hole- electron pair generation and recombinations. (4) A donor atom, which acts like a bound or anchored ‘“‘hole.’’ (5) An acceptor atom, which is a bound negative charge, creating a freely moving ‘‘hole.”’ (6) A trap, which is a bound charge in a low dielectric constant crystal, and therefore tends to attract and hold free charges. The apparent motion of a hole in an applied electric field is produced by the motion of an electron that fills the hole, and leaves a new one Aprit 1956 elsewhere. Surprisingly, the mobility of holes is almost as great as the mobility of electrons. Semiconductors exhibit photoconductivity. Incoming photons release valence electrons, making the crystal conducting until the elec- trons recombine with holes. The density of deathnium recombination centers in such that this induced conductivity decays with a half-life in the range of 1 microsecond to 1 milli- second. If an impurity having 5 valence electrons is present, it donates a free electron, and the donor atom becomes positively charged but held in position in the lattice. The donor atom is therefore a bound hole. Since the conductivity is due to free electrons, or negative charges, such impure germanium is called n-type. Conversely, an impurity such as Gallium, with three valence electrons, in an acceptor. The gallium atom becomes a bound negative charge and contributes a free hole, making p-type germanium. In the case of a relatively low dielectric con- stant crystal such as silicon, the bound negative acceptor atom acts as a trap for holes. Under photon bombardment hole-electron pairs are created, and the holes are trapped, leaving free electrons for conductivity. With the photon source removed, this conductivity persists until the holes escape the traps and recombine with the electrons at deathnium centers. The time constant of this conductivity decay ranges from several seconds to a minute. The melt-grown process for making P-N junctions was described. The internal potential field that maintains equilibrium was explained graphically. Application of an external field to increase to very small current or large current respectively, yielding a rectifier action. [llumina- tion of the n-type region generates hole-electron pairs; the holes slide down the potential hill to the p-type region, making this more positive. Such a system acts like a battery, and in fact has been made as a solar battery with a conversion effi- ciency of greater than 5 percent. This junction discussion was extended to the case of the n-p-n ‘‘sandwich”’ transistor. The potential curve in this case resembles a dam, and illustrates vividly how gain is obtained. In the water analog, raising the reservoir bottom slightly yields a large increase in the water-wheel power available. Such n-p-n transistors can operate say as audio oscillators, at the fantastically low PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 133, power input of one microwatt. This is approx- imately the average power expended by a com- mon dog flea jumping up 50 cm, once every 10 seconds! (Secretary’s abstract.) 1398TH MEETING, OCTOBER 22, 1954 The Society was addressed by 8. A. ScHaar, of the University of California, on the subject Aerodynamics at very high altitudes. At sufficiently high altitudes, the air is a rarefied gas. For aerodynamic purposes, a gas is definitely rarefied when the mean free path of its molecules is greater than 1 percent of some significant parameter of the flow field, such as the boundary layer thickness, the shock wave thickness, or the missile size. Under such condi- tions, aerodynamics becomes a problem in molecular dynamics. The design of a supersonic wind tunnel operating at a pressure of 104 atmospheres was described, and the experimental techniques and results discussed. Such a low air density makes Schlieren photos impossible, and so a new technique was used to make the flow pattern visible. Air or nitrogen ions are introduced upstream; a variable intensity after- glow develops in the flow and provides a self- luminous pattern. Simple theory indicates that the maximum temperature reached by the nose of a missile should be the adiabatic molecule stopping tem- perature, the temperature corresponding to the impact velocities of the molecules. It was ob- served, however, that for sufficiently thin air, higher temperatures were reached. This molec- ular impact heating makes possible an interest- ing new probe. The probe is a very fine wire, much less than a mean free path in diameter, so that it cannot affect the flow. The impact heat- ing increases the resistance of the wire. This is the converse of the cooling of a hot wire used in ordinary wind tunnels. Such a wire was used to probe the internal structure of a shock wave. Navier-Stokes theory says that a shock wave should be three or four mean free paths thick. The behavior is different for monatomic and diatomic gases. Diatomic gases possess rotational degrees of freedom, that may or may not come into equilibrium with the translational kinetic energy during the time the molecules are in the shock wave. If the equilibrium is slow in being established, a gas behaves as though it is mona- tomic. Expansion of a monatomic gas is friction- 134 less; if the rotational states get into equilibrium, there is a frictional effect which is quantitatively introduced by a bulk viscosity constant. Experi- ments up to speeds of Mach 4 show shock waves that fit almost too well with the Navier-Stokes theory including bulk viscosity. It is concluded that this theory is adequate, and that rotational equilibrium is established quickly, in air. (Secre- tary’s abstract.) 1399TH MEETING, NOVEMBER 5, 1954 The Society was addressed by 8. F. Srneer, of the University of Maryland, on the topic The age of meteorites. One hundred and fifty years ago, it was not generally believed that meteorites existed. It was in 1803 that a proof was presented to the French Academy that meteorites are of extra-terrestrial origin. Meteorites are of two types, with some mixed samples, METAL meteorites consist primarily of iron, with up to 20 percent of nickel. SToNnrE meteorites are primarily silicates, and appear to be the slag that collected on the surface when the large mass of molten material solidified—the mass that later broke up into meteorites. About one ton per day is the earth’s total accretion rate. Most meteorites are small, but there is a 60 ton metal one.in South Africa. Meteorites are probably parts of asteroids, or small planets. The first evidence of this comes from their low impact velocities, characteristic of nearly circular orbits around the sun. On the other hand, meteors have very high velocities, approximating solar escape velocity, so are probably parts of comets. Indeed, meteor showers often coincide with comet approaches. Con- versely, if meteorites were from outside the solar system, their impact speeds would probably burn them up in the earth’s atmosphere. Cutting, polishing, and etching meteorites reveals beautiful crystalline structure patterns, known as Widmanstaetten figures. These patterns can be reproduced in the laboratory by slow cooling of an iron-nickel melt; the patterns thus produced, however, show smaller crystals. It is concluded that meteorites were once liquid, and cooled very slowly under high pressure. Such conditions would be found in the interiors of small planets, of say 500 miles diameter. The structure of iron meteorites also shows definite evidence of shock wave passage, suggesting the break-up of such a planet. The silicate meteorites JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 4 would then be pieces of the slag that became the crust of the planet. Attempts have been made to date the solidifi- cation of meteorites by measuring the concen- trations of U-238 and helium. U-288 has a decay half-life of 414 billion years; a typical meteoritic concentration in a 1-gram sample is 10-8 grams of uranium, and 107-° ce of helium, referred to normal temperature and pressure. This method, with its attendant delicate helium determination, was developed by Paneth. As to the possibility that most of the helium had leaked out, Paneth eliminated this by heating meteorites to 1,000°, and finding that although helium leaked badly from stone, only 5 percent was driven out from iron meteorites. One thoroughly tested meteorite had an apparent age of 8 billion years by this method, about twice the age of the universe! And a cor- rection for assumed helium leakage would 1n- CREASE this figure! A suggestion made some years ago that cosmic ray bombardment had produced the apparent excess helium had been discarded, because the estimated yield was too low. This thought was revived by Singer in view of the modern knowledge of pi-mesons, etc. Both primary photons and secondary mesons knock alpha particles out of the iron nucleus, thereby producing helium. Theoretical calculations yield a curve for helium yield vs. depth from the sur- face, with a broad peak some 2-15 cm in. Even more useful is the prediction of one atom of He-3 for every two of He-4 produced, an isotope ratio over a million times larger than in the earth’s atmosphere. The ‘‘8-billion year” meteorite has 31 per cent of its helium in the He-3 form, hence practically all its helium is of cosmic-ray origin, and the age data are meaningless. Meteorites exhibiting a lower percentage of He-3 can be evaluated by subtracting the 2-to-1 correction, and dating by the remaining radiogenic helium. On the other hand, if we assume that the average cosmic ray intensity seen by a meteorite in its flight has been sensibly constant, we can consider the meteorite as an integrating cosmic ray exposure meter and compute the duration of its exposure. Unfortunately, the corrected radiogenic age estimate runs around 100 million years for a number of specimens but their apparent exposure time has been 300 million years, hence a new paradox has replaced the old one. : A new hypothesis has been put forward. It Apri 1956 states that the radiogenic helium: leaks out badly, because the Uranium is concentrated on grain boundaries, and the cosmic helium does not leak out. This is compatible with Paneth’s experiment, for his helium leakage test was on a specimen that later was found to contain only cosmic helium, judging from the 31 per cent He-3 content. A crucial test would be to find a specimen having about half cosmic and_ half radiogenic helium, and heat it. If the hypoth- esis is correct, the He-3 to He-4 ratio should increase. It now appears feasible to measure the radio- genic Pb-206 and ordinary Pb-204 contents, and date by this means. This should yield the time of solidification, whereas the cosmic helium measurements should yield the time of break-up. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1400TH MEETING, NOVEMBER 19, 1954 Lesuin 8. G. Kovasznay, of Johns Hopkins University, spoke on Image processing by electro- optical techniques. A picture can be regarded as the representation in the plane of a function of two independent variables. A transformation of the independent variables corresponds to a distortion. Operators on the function correspond to a process. By the application of electro-optical scanning techniques to a picture the elements are converted into electrical quantities and can be subjected to various operator functions. The speaker’s work in this field was not induced by any considera- tions of television but rather by a desire to understand more about the mechanism of vision. The corresponding study of the mechanism of hearing has been greatly aided by the application of electronic circuits which suppress certain frequencies or make other distortions of the original sound. In the visual case electro-optical scanning was chosen because it is much more flexible than photography. A still more sophisti- cated approach would be to make use of a com- puter, which could then perform any desired set of operations on the elements of a picture. The system devised by Mr. Kovasznay has been brought to experimental realization under his direction at the National Bureau of Standards. One requirement called homogeneity limits the operator functions which may be used. A second requirement called isotropy prevents the tele- vision-type of scanning from being used. To overcome this difficulty a special system of saw- PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 135 tooth waves of slightly different frequencies is used in scanning. The result is that a given point is scanned first along a line making a 45° angle with the frame, then along a line at right angles to the first, then along the first line in the opposite sense and finally along the second line in the opposite sense. Electric circuits produce first and second derivatives of the function represented by the picture. The difference between the function and its second derivative is a deblurring operator which can be used to sharpen the contrast in photographs. Examples were shown where this has been accomplished, including an X-ray photograph of the heart. Outline drawings can be produced from photographs by using the first derivative alone. The derivative is rectified and applied to a trigger circuit to obtain lines to constant intensity. The system can also be used in the study of operators and filters in 2-dimensional arrange- ments. A considerable number of possible applications were outlined. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1401sT MEETING, DECEMBER 3, 1954 Francois N. Frenkiezt, of the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, addressed the Society on Atmospheric pollution. The five basic factors are: (1) Production of pollutants. (2) Emission. (3) Transfer by atmosphere. (4) Chemical changes en route. (5) Deposition from atmosphere. The paper discussed some details of the third factor: the fluid dynamics and meteorology of pollution. The complicated fluid motion of the atmosphere requires so many iterative applica- tions of complicated equations that more artistic means are needed, partly science and_ partly intuition or art. Electronic computers, however, allow a brute force attack. Atmospheric pollution can be responsible for much suffering. One week of London smog in 1952 increased the weekly death rate from 1,000 to 2,500, mostly in circulatory and respiratory diseases. The recent Los Angeles and Pasadena smog fortunately had no such result, but might at another time. The pattern of smoke from chimneys can be averaged over a long time to obtain its mean concentration distribution and is generally ellip- 136 JOURNAL OF THE tical. Each smog puff from each chimney moves with the wind and_ disperses. Eventually an equilibrium condition is reached at some distance from the sources. The wind at Los Angeles reverses direction between 5:30 a.m., and 9:30 a.m., and thereafter shifts gradually with a fairly consistent pattern. Considerable numerical integration of wind velocity data yields the effects produced by an assumed distribution of sources. The Los Angeles area is a half bowl, bounded by mountains. The sea breeze blows into the open side of the bowl. A temperature inversion stops upward diffusion and currents, thereby putting an effective lid on the bowl, trapping and concentrating pollutants. Computations have been made, using what wind velocity and smog diffusion data were available, and assuming various sources, such as a point source at Long Beach or automobiles in Los Angeles. The resulting concentration con- tours were shown, and agreed roughly with observed smog conditions. The effect of oxidiza- tion of hydrocarbons by solar radiation was added, and the resulting distribution also shown. The rough agreement of these computations with reality indicate that a calculation with much more data would be valid and _ useful. Such computations can be made in a reasonable time by using electronic computing machines. Fast computation should be useful for predicting an approach to the danger level, and indicate which sources should be shut down until condi- tions change. Computation should also be useful in planning the development of a region, as to which parts are safest for industrial zoning, for example. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1402D MEETING, DECEMBER 17, 1954 Joun P. Haaan, of the Naval Research Lab- oratory, spoke on Radio sources and the structure of the galaxy. The material presented was based on studies of the radio spectrum of the heavens carried out at the Naval Research Laboratory with the 50- foot ‘‘Radio-telescope.”” Such studies depend largely upon the known properties of the hydro- gen atom in radiation and absorption. Radio reception has supplemented ordinary telescopic observation, as for example in the neighborhood of Cassiopiea, where Mt. Wilson found diffuse WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — VOL. 46, No. 4 luminous clouds of hydrogen after their existence had been detected by radio waves. As is well known, our galaxy is pervaded with hydrogen atoms in various degrees of dispersal, varying from one atom per ce in the more diffuse parts of the galaxy arms to 100 atoms per cc in the hydrogen clouds and to very much higher figures in the stars themselves. The neutral hydrogen atom in this diffuse state absorbs and emits a radiation of about 21 cm wavelength (1,420.405 Mc). Both emission and absorption, of course, show appropriate doppler shifts with respect to an observer on earth. Studies were also made of the continuous spectrum at 21, 9.4, and 3.15 cm. In addition to the line radiation there is a con- tinuous background radiation, often called “white noise”’ (essentially independent of frequency, for not too wide bands), and also a number of ‘“‘ob- jects” that are much brighter than the diffuse hydrogen and that are at a temperature of tens of thousands of degrees. These sources seem to lie with few exceptions on the galactic equator. The diffuse hydrogen of the cold clouds has an effective temperature of about 100° K. By analysing the radio spectrum in the neigh- borhood of the radio line as a function of both frequency and direction (i.e., Right Ascension and Declination), it is possible to win much infor- mation on the distribution of the hydrogen in the absorbing clouds that lie between a discrete radio source and the observer. In the case of Cassiopeia, absorption lines are seen corresponding to at least three clouds: one of which lies in the second arm of our galaxy and the other two in the first arm. The radio source itself lies at least in the second arm and probably beyond it. By using this technique the galaxy can be mapped in terms of such measurement, showing the hydrogen clouds and their relative velocities. Such mapping shows that the hydrogen is not loosely and un- relatedly distributed in the arms of the galaxy, but has many denser ‘‘cells” of 5-6 parsecs in diameter. The center of the galaxy, 8,000 parsecs away, displays a complicated absorption spec- trum which was exhibited and discussed. Further increases in resolving power depend upon larger diameter radio-mirrors, and it is hoped that when and if such mirrors are built it will prove possible to extend this type of spec- trum analysis to lines from other elements, notably deuterium. (Secretary’s abstract.) CONTENTS Page PaLEONTOLoGY.—A late Triassic terebratellacean from Peru. FRANCcIS Ges STAI oy 5%. 6 ES Ses es ode eo oe CO 101 PALEOBOTANY.—New items in Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of the western United States. RoLanp W. BRowN.................... 104 Botany.—Calamochloa: A Mexican grass. ERNEST R. SOHNS......... 109 Borany.—Studies in South American plants, XVI. A. C. SMITH..... 113 Zoo.tocy.—A new crayfish of the genus Procambarus from South Carolina (Decapoda: Astacidae). Horton H. Hopss, Jr................. 117 ZooLocy.—A new entoniscid (Crustacea: Isopoda) from the Pacific coast. LEONARD) MUSCATINE)... .2-o..¢ei00 54 ol Ts bs. 122 ZooLoacy.—Cossura pygodactylata, a new annelid from San Francisco Bay (Polychaeta: Cirratulidae). Merepita L. Jonus................ 127 Mammatocy.—Two new long-tailed pocket mice (Perognathus formosus) from Arizona. E. Lenprnn CockRUM................)...)2 eee 131 PROcEEDINGS: Philosophical Society of Washington.................. 132 INotesand! N@wsi.): Sie Sikgee eee sana cee en 103, 108, 115 ui hse ¥ 4% VOLUME 46 May 1956 NUMBER 5 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ceereeeeecrercere SS Published Monthly by the mae ft ENG TON A CAD EM Y..OF SCIENCES MOUNT ROYAL & GUILFORD AVES., BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences Editor: CursterR H. Pace, National Bureau of Standards Associate Editors: RoNaALD BAMForD, University of Maryland Howarp W. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 46 May 1956 No. 5 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING.—Joule-Thomson coefficients for Freon-12.! RICHARD A. SCHMIDTKE. (Communicated by C. H. Page.) The increasing demand in recent years for mechanical refrigeration because of its application to domestic refrigerators, air conditioning, and food and _ industrial processing has led to the development of new refrigerants. In order to make proper engineering use of these new compounds an accurate knowledge of their thermodynamic behavior is necessary. The purpose of the present investigation of the Joule-Thomson effect in Freon-12 is to add to the experi- mental data regarding its thermodynamic behavior. Freon-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane) was selected for study because of its importance in engineering application. Buffington, Gil- key, and their coworkers (/, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) have prepared tables of thermodynamic properties for Freon-12 by the use of pres- sure-volume-temperature data together with specific heat determinations. The Joule- Thomson coefficients reported here are use- ful in the superheated region for verification of the previously published properties and as additional data relating to the behavior of Freon-12. The experimental work was done in the Thermodynamics Laboratory of the Me- chanical Engineering Department, Illinois Institute of Technology. The range of the data is: pressure, 15 psia to 50 psia; tem- perature, 100°F. to 300°F. The Joule-Thomson experiment has been discussed in the literature many times since 1852, when Joule and Thomson (7) first reported their work. Although the thermo- dynamic theory is well known, the basis for the experimental work will be given. The definition of the Joule-Thomson coef- ficient, 4, 1s 1 Received March 138, 1956. le ) ») uw = (dt/dp)n (1) where the subscript h refers to partial dif- ferentiation at constant enthalpy. The par- ticular experimental method employed, called the radial flow porous plug method, has been used by other investigators such as Budenholzer and his coworkers (8, 9, 10, 11, 12). It is based on the assumption that uF (AT /Ap)n (2) is sufficiently accurate provided the finite increments are kept small enough. The requirement that the enthalpy remain con- stant is best achieved by a steady flow proc- ess. If the First Law of Thermodynamics is applied to the steady flow process of a unit mass of substance between cross sections | and 2 along the flow path, the following equation results: Zi/J + V2/2gJ + Qe = Zo/ J + hi» + V2/LgJ + W 2/ J Now a process which occurs with no change of elevation, no change of velocity, no ex- ternal work, and no heat exchange with the surroundings would be one of constant en- thalpy. The experimental apparatus was designed to meet these conditions and to permit measurement of the pressure and temperature increments as well as the pres- sure and temperature level of the process. The general arrangement of the apparatus is shown schematically in Fig. 1. The com- pressor is a 4-cylinder reciprocating ma- chine of about 2.7 cubie feet per minute capacity. The volume chambers served to damp out pressure fluctuations. The heating coils were each of '4-inch diameter copper tubing about 7 feet long immersed in a 7 JUN 2 7 1956 MOTOR AND COMPRESSOR OIL SEPARATOR VOLUME CHAMBER DEHYDRATOR HEAT EXCHANGER CONTROL VALVES CONSTANT TEMPERATURE BATH HEATING COIL PLUG CHAMBER HEATING COIL Fie. 1.—General layout corn oil, controlled temperature bath to bring the gas to the proper temperature. The heat exchanger, a small water-cooled shell-and-tube type, is used for protecting the compressor from too high operating temperature. The valves shown are for flow control and for controlling the pressure drops in the plug chamber. The plug chamber shown in cross section in Fig. 2 is the most important part of the apparatus as all the measurements are made there. A steel chamber with highly polished inner surfaces and aluminum foil radiation shields at E, F, and I prevent radiant heat exchange. The porous plug through which the gas flows is a modified microporous porcelain filter candle such as used for biological filtering. This thimble shaped plug is 1 inch in diameter and has an effective flow length of 3 inches. In order to satisfy the conditions stated in connection with equation 3, the chamber was placed horizontally to have constant elevation, the large flow area assures very small velocities, and no external work is done from one side of the plug to the other. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. & The heat exchange is kept very small by the controlled bath (held to 0.1°F), the radia- tion shielding, and asbestos insulation within the plug chamber. The pressure drop was measured by a mercury-in-steel manometer, which was read electrically and calibrated so that the pressure difference (measured at points C and D of plug chamber) could be de- termined to 0.05 psi. At the usual pressure drop of 17.9 psi used in the experiments, this amounted to an uncertainty of 0.3 per- cent. The copper-constantan three junction thermopile used to measure the temperature drop was calibrated at the ice point, steam point, and sodium-bromide transition point. This permitted the determination of the temperature drop to 0.01°F, which at the worst experimental case of a 1° drop amounts to 1 percent. The upstream pressure and temperature were measured to establish the state of conditions. The pressure was a Gl) VA \ \ iN . . . TTR ye LA AYZZZ2 Fie. 2.—Plug chamber May 1956 TaBLe 1—JouLEe-THOMSON COEFFICIENTS FOR FREON-12 | JouLE-THOMSON COEFFICIENT, u (F/psi) TEMPERATURE (°F) | p 15 psia | p 25 psia | p 35 psia | p 50 psia 100 | 0.144 | 0.194 | 0.213 | 0.229 120 | 0.125 | 0.173 | 0.193 0.211 140 | 0.112 | 0.158 0.181 0.198 160 0.100 0.146 0.169 | 0.188 | | | 180 0.092 | 0.138 | 0.162 | 0.183 200 0.088 | 0.133 | 0.157 0.177 220 | 0.086 | 0.128 | 0.152 0.173 240 ' 0.084 | 0.124 0.147 0.170 260 | 0.082 | 0.120 | 0.143 0.168 280 | 0.080 | 0.117 | 0.139 | 0.164 300 0.077 | 0.112 0.135 0. 160 TaBLE 2.—SpectFic VOLUME OF FREON-12 at 15 Psta os SPECIFIC VOLUME SPECIFIC VOLUME Haar (ft?/Ib) (ft/lb) Author Buffington and Gilkey 100 3.266 3.266 120 3.387 3.388 140 3.507 3.510 160 3.627 3.632 180 3.745 3.755 200 3.866 3.877 220 3.985 3.998 240 4.106 4.120 260 4.225 280 4.344 300 4.464 measured, depending upon its magnitude, with either a 0-60 psi or a 0-300 psi Bour- don tube gage. These gages were of excellent quality and were carefully calibrated against a dead-weight gage tester. The pressure could be determined to 0.1 psi, which at the worst conditions of 15 psia, amounts to 0.7 percent. The upstream temperature was measured with a carefully calibrated (ice, steam, sodium-bromide points) copper- constantan thermocouple. Therefore the upstream temperature was determined to 0.01°F, which at 100°F results in an uncer- tainty of 0.01 percent. Emf measurements were made with a Leeds and Northrop type K-2 potentiometer, Eppley Standard cell, and a Leeds and Northrop type E galvanometer. The calculated uncertainty in the values of u is 0.0006 F/psi, or less than 1 percent. SCHMIDTKE: JOULE-THOMSON COEFFICIENTS FOR FREON-12 139 However, owing to the slow drifts in the pressure and temperature levels reported by most other investigators of Joule-Thom- son coefficients—see, for example, Roebuck (13, 14)—and also the possibility of heat leakage, it is estimated that the over-all accuracy of the values of uw is about 4 per- cent. The results are shown graphically in Fig. 3, which was plotted from the original data. Fig. 4 was obtained by cross-plotting from the smoothed curves of Fig. 3. To check the values of » found in this work, the specific volume and the compres- sibility factor were computed and com- pared with the directly measured quantities of Buffington and Gilkey (6). The specific volume was determined from the equation vf T = w/To + [[ (WOE) i © where vo and 7 represent at an arbitrary state on the isobar of integration. The isobar was chosen at 15 psia and the refer- ence temperature at 100°F. The isobaric heat capacity was compiled from the equa- tion of Buffington and Fleisher (4) and the tables of Buffington and Gilkey (6) give vo = 3.266 ft?/lb. Table 2 shows the com- parison of computed and directly measured values of specific volume. The compressibility factor is defined by the equation — / 1) [x CG = sry IRell (5) TABLE 3.—COMPRESSIBILITY FACTORS FOR Frron-12 av 15 Pstra COMPRESSIBILITY COMPRESSIBILITY a ea Factor _ Factor 7 Author Buffington and Gilkey 100 0.987 | 0.987 120 0.988 0.989 140 0.989 0.990 160 0.990 0.991 180 0.991 0.993 200 0.991 | 0.994 220 0.992 | 0.995 240 0.992 0.996 260 0.993 280 0.993 300 0.994 140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — VOL. 46, No. 5 (F/psia) ZA 0.000 0,000 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 TEMPERATURE (F) Fic. 3.—Joule-Thomson coefficient vs. temperature ees ee | o 2 a a i a a ee eee oe ~ 0.160 L a ceases. - ee ae aan aes ia 300 F 0.050 Bae fo) 25 3 10 15 2 PRESSURE (psia) Fia. 4.—Joule-Thomson coefficient vs. pressure May 1956 SCHMIDTKE: JOULE-THOMSON It is related to the Joule-Thomson coeffi- cient in the following: T Ca | [puC,/R,T'] aT, (6) To where Cy and 7’) represent the compressi- bility factor and temperature at an ar- bitrary base state on the isobar of integra- tion. The comparative results are given in Table 3. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. R. G. Owens and Dr. R. A. Buden- holzer for their aid and encouragement in this work. NOMENCLATURE Symbol Definition Units C Compressibility factor Cy Isobaric heat capacity Btu/lb F g Acceleration of gravity ft/sec? h Enthalpy Btu/Ib J Mechanical equivalent of ft lb/Btu heat Dp Pressure lb/ft? or psi Rg Gas constant ft lb/lb R T Temperature R V Velocity ft/sec v Specific volume ft®/Ib W Work ft lb/Ib Z Elevation ft mm Joule-Thomson coefficient F ft?/lb or F/psi A Finite difference REFERENCES (1) Burrineton, R. M., and Giikry, W. K. Thermodynamic properties of dichlorodi- fluworomethane, a new refrigerant: I, The equation of state of superheated vapor. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 23: 1931. GILKEY, W. K., GrRAND, F. W., and Brxter, M. E. Thermodynamic properties of dichloro- difluoromethane, a new refrigerant: IT, Vapor pressure. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 23: 1931. (2) COEFFICIENTS FOR FREON-12Z 141 (3) Dicuowsky, F. R., and Gruxry, W. K. Ther- modynamic properties of dichlorodifluoro- methane, a new refrigerant: III, Critical constants and orthoboric densities. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 23: 1931. Burrinaton, R. M., and Fiersumr, J. Ther- modynamic properties of dichlorodifluoro- methane, a new refrigerant: IV, Specific heat of liquid and vapor, and latent heat of vapor- ization. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 23: 1931. Burrineron, R. M., and Grikny, W. K. Thermodynamic properties of dishlorodi- fluoromethane, a new refrigerant: V, Corre- lation, checks, and derived quantities. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 23: 1931. Burrineton, R. M., and Griukny, W. K. Thermodynamic properties of dichlorodi- fluoromethane (F-12). Amer. Soc. Refrig. Eng. Cire. no. 12. 1931. Jounn, J. P., and THomson, W. On the thermal effects of fluids in motion. Mathematical and Physical Papers (Thomson) 1. BupENHOLZER, R. A. Joule-Thomson coeffi- cient of methane. Doctoral Thesis, Cali- fornia Institute of Technology. 1939. Bupennouzer, R. A., Sace, B. H., and Lacny, W. N. Phase equilibria in hydro- carbon systems. Joule-Thomson coefficient of methane. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 31: 1939. BupENHOLZER, R. A., Sacn, B. H., and Lacry, W. N. Phase equilibria in hydro- carbon systems. Joule-Thomson coefficient of gaseous maxtures of methane and ethane. Ind. and Engl Chem. 31: 1939. BupENHOLZER, R. A., Sace, B. H., and Lacny, W. N. Phase equilibria in hydro- carbon systems. Joule-Thomson coefficients for gaseous mixtures of methane and n-butane. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 32: 1940. BuDENHOLZER, R. A., Botkin, D. G., SaGeE, B. F., and Lacry, W. N. Phase equilibria in hydrocarbon systems. Joule-Thomson co- efficients in the methane-propane system. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 34: 1942. Roersuck, J. R. The Joule-Thomson effect in air. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. 60: 1925. Rorsuck, J. R. The Joule-Thomson effect in air. Second paper. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. 64: 1930. (4) (6) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) The progress of science is as orderly and determinate as the movement of the planets, the solar systems, and the celestial firmaments. It is regulated by laws as exact and irresistible as those of astronomy, optics, and chemistry. S. Brown (1843). 142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 5 ENTOMOLOGY .—Three new Neotropical flea beetles. Doris H. Buakn, Arling- ton, Va. Three Neotropical flea beetles of similar color pattern and representing three different genera are herewith described. All belong to obscure and little-known genera and had not been definitely placed in the U. 8. National Museum collection. Two of them were with Diabrotica pulchella (Jacq. DuVal), a drawing of which is included (Fig. 3). Jacquelin DuVal originally described this as a Phyllobrotica (it is still listed as such in Blackwelder’s Checklist), possibly because its color pattern resembled that of the well-known European beetle Phyllobrotica quadrimaculata (Linnaeus). Pseudogona subcostata, n. sp. Fig. 4 About 6 mm in length, elongate oval, shining, very finely and obsoletely punctate, pale yellow, with the head and breast black, and on the elytra a wide basal and a preapical black band, the basal band having two elongate yellow spots near the suture. Antennae pale with joints 7 and 8 deeper brown and joints 9 to 11 paler yellow. Head entirely dark, the interocular space one-half width of head, eyes prominent and large, occiput rounded, polished, and with a few fine punctures and two larger punctures on each side near the eye connected by a faint groove; frontal tubercles well marked, interantennal area narrowly produced into a carina extending down to labrum. Antennae not half the length of the beetle, third joint a little shorter than fourth, and fourth a little shorter than fifth, remainder subequal and gradually becoming a very little shorter. The basal six joints yellow, 7 and 8 brown, 9 to 11 paler yellow. Prothorax entirely pale, minutely punctate, about one-third wider than long, smoothly convex, without depressions, with a rounded margin, the frontal angles not wide as in Disonycha, or obliquely cut as in Systena, but small; the basal angles with a small tooth. Scutellum small and entirely dark. Elytra broader in apical half, not very convex, without depressions, shining, and with numerous fine costae, not extending the entire length and between these, rows of fine confused punctures; pale yellow with a piceous black wide basal band not extending to the middle of the elytra or to the margins, and having on each elytron an elongate pale spot near the scutellum, a piceous band also behind the middle, the apex pale. Body beneath pale except the black breast, legs pale. Anterior coxal cavities closed, posterior femora enlarged, tibiae on hind feet spurred, claws appendiculate. Length 6.4 mm; width 3 mm. Type, female, U.S.N.M. no. 63136, collected by Schild and Burgdorf at Tucurrique, Costa Rica. Remarks——H. S$. Barber has labeled this “Not a Diabrotica [which it strikingly resembles and with which it was placed] but a female Halticid, ?Pseudogona panamensis var. Jac.” Jacoby’s description of P. panamensis, however, differs in that there are three dark elytral fasciae instead of two, as well as different punctation. In P. militaris Jacoby from Panama, the basal joints of the antennae are all black and the elytra have a shallow transverse depression below the base and are opaque and not shiny. In Jacoby’s description of P. pallida (also from Tucurrique, Costa Rica, the type locality of the present species) the color pattern is quite different, and the tibiae and tarsi are more or less black. In none of the species is there any mention of the faint elytral costation so apparent in the present species. It is curious that although these species are all listed in the Zoological Record, Heikertinger in the Junk Catalogue omits four species of Pseudogona, and Blackwelder in his Checklist omits two species of this same genus. Jacoby described all six species that have comprised the genus up to the present, namely: P. panamensis, chiriquensis, argentinensis, discoidalis, militaris, and pallida. He characterized the genus as being similar to Systena but with differently shaped antennae and with the thorax having no groove. He stated that it differs from Oxygona in having a narrower, subquadrate thorax. Nephrica macrops, n. sp. Fig. 2 About 6 mm in length, ovate, moderately shiny, pale yellow with the upper half of head and mouthparts, the antennae, tibiae and tarsi dark, the elytra pale with a broad basal band and another below the middle not quite extending May 1956 BLAKE: THREE NEW NEOTROPICAL FLEA BEETLES 14 Bm 1Pseudodisonycha Turquinensis 3 Diabrotica pulchella JaceDvVal [Cuba] 2. Nephrica macrops 4. Pseudogona subcostata Frias. 1-4.—Neotropical flea beetles 144 JOURNAL OF THE to the apex, these bands dark witha metallic blue lustre. Eves elongate and emarginate. Head with large elongate eyes, somewhat emarginate on the inner side but not so markedly as in N. tinornata Jacoby, and on the vertex separated by one-third the width of the head; on either side near the eye a large puncture or fovea, and from this a line of fine punctures extending down to the clearly marked frontal tubercles, the upper part of the head otherwise polished and piceous in color; cara produced and extending down the front, the lower front pale with the mouthparts brownish. Antennae not half the length of the beetle, deep brown except the two basal joints which are paler, third joint not as long as fourth, joints 4, 5, and 6 broad, the following joints becoming gradually thinner. Prothorax twice as wide as long with wide explanate margin and broadly rounded anterior angles, not very convex, shining, impunctate, pale yellow. Scutellum dark. Elytra broad, with wide explanate margin, shining, impunctate, pale yellow with a wide dark basal band and an equally wide band below the middle not reaching the apex, these bands having a dark blue metallic lustre, the margin being always pale. Body beneath entirely pale, the femora pale reddish brown, tibiae and tarsi deepening to piceous; the hind tibiae grooved, the anterior and middle tibiae with a sharp ridge in the middle of a shallow channel. Hind tibiae with a spur. Claws appendiculate. Length 6.2 mm; width 3.2 mm. Type, male, U.S.N.M. no. 63137, collected ‘fn banana trash from Panama.” Remarks.—Jacoby’s description of N. boliviana agrees with this except that in his beetle the undersurface is entirely dark and the elytral markings are metallic green. This is the second species of the genus to be described from north of South America, the other, NV. inornata Jacoby, also from Panama, being entirely pale with kidney shaped eyes. Pseudodisonycha turquinensis, n. sp. Fig. 1 About 6 mm in length, oblong oval, shining, nearly impunctate, pale yellow, the head, WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 5 antennae, legs, except the basal half of femora, black, a deep blue wide transverse band at base of elytra and another equally wide below the middle, not reaching the apex. Head with interocular space more than half its width, a large fovea on each side of vertex near eye with a few finer punctures about it; frontal tubercles bulging; a somewhat produced carina between antennal sockets extending down the short lower front; head entirely dark except for the pale labrum and the pale neck beneath the mouthparts. Antennae black, stout, third joint shorter than fourth, which is longest, remainder subequal and a little shorter than fourth. Prothorax not twice as broad as long with rounded sides and narrow margin; a small tooth at apical and basal angles; disk moderately convex with a slight median basal depression; entirely pale yellow. Scutellum pale yellow. Elytra with prominent humeri and deep intra- humeral sulcus, shining, very finely and not densely punctate; a wide deep blue band at base and also one below the middle, the latter not reaching the apex. Body beneath pale with the basal half of all femora pale, shining, a few pale hairs on the abdomen, coxal cavities open. Hind femora not as much thickened as in Oedionychus; a spur on hind tibiae; claws appendiculate. Length 6.4 mm; width 3 mm. Type, female, U.S.N.M. no. 63188, collected by 8. C. Bruner and C. H. Ballou on Pico Turquino, altitude 4,000-5,000 feet, Oriente Province, Cuba, July 20, 1922. Remarks.—Because the markings resemble so much those of Diabrotica pulchella (Jacq. Du Val), this beetle was long concealed in the collection with that species. It is difficult to place in a genus. The hind femora while not greatly enlarged nevertheless are those of an alticid. The tibiae with the ridge on the upper side and the spur at the end, and the head with the fovea near the eye so characteristic of Disonycha, place it near that genus. The thorax, however, is not so broad as in Disonycha and does not have the wide anterior angles. There is unfortunately no genus Pseudodisonycha Blake. May 1956 SOMMERMAN: NEW SPECIES OF RHYOPSOCUS 145 ENTOMOLOGY .—Two new species of Rhyopsocus (Psocoptera) from the U.S. A.., with notes on the bionomics of one household species. KATHRYN M. SOMMERMAN, Arctic Health Research Center, Public Health Service, Anchorage, Alaska. (Communicated by A. B. Gurney.) The genus Rhyopsocus is currently placed in the family Psoquillidae according to Pearman’s classification, 1936, or in Tro- giidae following the classification of Roesler, 1944. If we assume that Rhyopsocus, Deip- nopsocus, and Rhyopsocopsis are subgeneric categories in the genus Rhyopsocus, only one species of this genus is known to occur in the United States, R. (Deipnopsocus) tecanus (Banks 1930) described from Brownsville, Tex. A second species, R. eclipticus Hagen, 1876, questionably from this country, was collected on Kerguelen Island in October 1874. The following com- ment is quoted from the original descrip- tion: ‘The only specimen noticed during the stay of the Transit Party at Kerguelen was captured October 17, in-doors, and was mounted in balsam on a slide. Shortly before its capture some instrument boxes, brought from Washington and containing a quantity of packing straw, had been un- packed in the same room; a circumstance rendering the habitat of the insect very doubtful at the time. J. H. K.”’ Hagen states that the antennae of this specimen were broken, one having eight basal seg- ments and the other twelve, while an apical section of fourteen segments lay near by on the slide. It seems quite probable that the apical part was broken off the 8-segmented base instead of the 12-segmented one as he assumed. The characteristics possessed by the spe- cies of this genus are: head short and ob- lique, labial palps 2-segmented, antennae 22-segmented, peg like sense organ on inner side of second segment of maxillary palp, Wig. 1, lacinia bifid, Fig. 2, ocelli usually completely developed in macropterous forms; wings variable in length, forewings rounded apically and possessing stout setae on veins and margin, usually a closed discal cell bounded by R and M and their deriva- tives (cell sometimes absent, especially in brachypterous forms), Cu usually shorter than Cue, in hind wing M not branched; tarsi 3-segmented, claws without preapical tooth, Fig. 3; paraprocts each with a mesad anal spine. Two species of this genus came to my attention while collecting in the Southeast- ern States, one of which was taken indoors in small numbers in my house at Orlando, Fla. The latter was living year-round on the bedroom walls, the only walls covered with a water-base paint, in association with a species of the Liposcelis bostrychophilus complex and L. entomophilus (Enderlein, 1907). This species is of no apparent eco- nomic importance but because a study of some of the household psocids was being made at that time, preliminary observa- tions were made on this one too. Unfor- tunately it was necessary to move before a detailed study of the bionomics could be made so the information is incomplete. I am indebted to Mr. J. V. Pearman for comparisons and comments regarding these two species and Fhyopsocopsis peregrinus Pearman, 1929, and Detpnopsocus disparilis Pearman, 1931. Dr. P. J. Darlington ex- amined the types of eclipticus and texanus and supplied information in answer to my questions. On learning that this paper was in preparation, Dr. A. B. Gurney kindly contributed for study the specimen he had collected in Texas. To each I extend my sincere thanks. I have not seen specimens of the other species in this genus, and so my comments are based on the original descriptions and on observations made by others. These two new species apparently most closely resemble R. eclipticus, but the sex of the type of the latter is not known to me. Brachypterous individuals of these two new species are usually smaller than the macropterous forms and lighter in color. If such is gener- ally true of the species in this genus, then these two species are smaller than eel? pticus, the brachypterous form of which is larger than the macropterous forms of these two new species. Regardless of the sex of the 146 type of D. spheciophilus Enderlein, 1903, a Peruvian species, available information indicates that it differs from these two in several ways, the most noticeable being: color pattern, absence of setae along the margin of the anal lobe, and presence of rows of scales along the wing margin. Al- though there is some question concerning the presence of scales on the wings of texanus it is likely that the presence of the white hair on the head and legs of this species distinguishes it from these two. Rhyopsocus bentonae, n. sp. Figs. 1-12 Length of alcoholic specimens 1.15 to 1.6 mm including wings. Head and thorax of macrop- terous forms dark brown, antennae, legs and dorsal parts of terminalia light brown, abdomen pale yellow. Corresponding parts of brachyp- terous forms light golden brown to buff, with abdomen likewise pale yellow. Wing membrane almost hyaline, with a slight fumose tinge. There is considerable variation in wing venation, some veins having extra branches which may anas- tomose, but in general venation is as shown in Fig. 8. Dorsal, posterolateral margin of male termi- nalia with two stout, curved, bluntly pointed and sparsely setose prongs; ventral surface of terminalia with a broad, thin, tail-fin-like flap (hypandrium?) which is a bit asymmetrical, Figs. 6, 11, 12. Dorsal, anterior margin of female terminalia medianly expanded to form a quadrangular plate bearing a non-pigmented spot; anterior lateral limits of terminalia densely pigmented, much darker than lateral and apical margins of egg-guide; anterior margin of faintly pigmented subgenital plate convex, Figs. 4, 9, 10. Holotype, macropterous male, Orlando, Fla., October 1953, ex culture, K. M. Sommerman. Allotype, same data. These are deposited in my collection. Paratypes, four specimens, a macropterous and brachypterous male and female, all same data as above, deposited in each of the collections of the following institutions or individuals: USNM, INHS, MCZ, P. J. Chap- man, E. L. Mockford, and J. V. Pearman, and ten of each of the four kinds of individuals in my collection. The following additional distribution records are available, all from Florida: Daytona Beach, Nov. 2, 1941, ex dry palm leaves, A. H. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 5 Sommerman, o&, 2; Englewood, May 22, 1952, ex Flame vine, A. H. 8S. &@; same, but March 13, 1953, #, 3 2; Orlando, Oct. 1953, ex cultures (original specimens from bedroom walls), many specimens, both sexes, nymphs of all instars, eges on cotton; same, but July 7, 1954, 67, 2°, 4N; Orlando, Feb. 15, 1954, ex bedroom walls, KE IMES Soh oro ANE I take pleasure in naming this species after Jimmie Benton, who kindly furnished the mate- rials for construction of the rearmg racks. Her active interest in the rearing project concerning the household species was, indeed, stimulating and encouraging. Rhyopsocus phillipsae, n. sp. Figs. 13-17 Length of alcoholic specimens 1.1 to 1.6 mm including wings. Overall color similar to ben- tonae. Wings of macropterous forms, Fig. 13, with a more sharply defined, angulated anal lobe, much like that of peregrinus. Dorsal, posterolateral margin of male termi- nalia with two thin, broad, rounded lobes; ventral surface of terminalia with exposed, median hooklike projection on anterior margin, Figs. GML Dorsal, anterior margin of female terminalia medianly with slight expansion cephalad, or if pronounced, more rounded than bentonae; ante- rior lateral limits of terminalia faintly pigmented, much lghter than lateral and apical margins of egg-guide; anterior margin of lightly pigmented subgenital plate concave, Figs. 14, 15. Holotype, brachypterous male, Valdosta, Ga., State College Campus, Apr. 23, 1955, ex bamboo sheaths, Sommerman and Phillips. Allotype, macropterous, same data. These are deposited in my collection. Paratypes, a brachypterous male and female, same data, deposited in USNM, brachypterous female, same data but ex ground cover, deposited in my collection. The following additional distribution records are available: Myakka §. Pk., Fla., June 7, 1952, ex Spanish moss, K. M. Sommerman, 37, 2; Hayesville, N. C., Aug. 25, 1954, ex Boxwood, W. E. Snow, 2, 2N; same, but Oct. 26, 4o, 109, 5N; 90 miles west of Orange, Tex., Oct. 8, 1951, beating trees, A. B. Gurney, &. It is a privilege to name this species after Grace R. Phillips, who helped collect the type material and who has contributed other interest- ing specimens and records to my collection. May 1956 BIONOMIC NOTES The following preliminary notes on the bio- nomics of R. bentcnae were obtained from speci- mens reared under somewhat unnatural condi- tions. This rearing technique was used with good results for R. bentonae and these other household species: Psoquilla marginepunctata Hagen, 1865, Psocatropos lachlani Ribaga, 1899, HEctcpsccus sp., and several species of Liposcelis. Some difh- culty was encountered with the first instars of P. lachlani. The equipment consisted of small glass tubes 30 mm long by 9 mm in diameter, which had been cut from dental tubes. These were placed in half-inch wire mesh (hardware cloth) racks with screen bottoms, which were stacked in a quadrangular aquarium containing a little water below the racks. The aquarium was covered by a plastic tray with rounded corners which allowed an interchange of air and moisture, and the whole was kept at uncon- trolled room temperature which fluctuated daily during September to mid-October when these preliminary observations on development were made, the extremes being 71° and 85°F. The food was composed of the following in- 2 DORSAL FIGS. 4-8 AND I3 TO SCALE, DORSAL 15 oN Q TERMINALIA K I3 WINGS M SOMMERMAN: NEW SPECIES OF RHYOPSOCUS 10 KEP SS Q TERMINALIA VENTRAL FIGS. 1-12 RHYOPSOCUS BENTONAE, N. SP. VENTRAL FIGS. 13-17 RAHYOPSOCUS PHILLIPSAE, N.SP. 147 gredients (the recipe furnished enough medium to coat the ends of 200-300 corks): One teaspoon of dry solids, consisting of equal parts by volume of dried yeast, dehydrated mashed potato, starch and dehydrated skim milk, was added to one teaspoon of water and mixed well. Some of this mixture was smeared on the small end of each cork. The corks were put in a covered pan on a hot plate and heated until the medium was a pale brown. They were then stored in jars in the refrigerator. A cork containing the food was inserted in one end of a rearing tube, the psocids introduced and a thin cotton plug put in the other end. The tubes were then placed in the rearing racks. The medium softened in the moist atmosphere and the psocids ate it as well as the mold that grew on it. Eventually some tubes became infested with mites and the psocids retreated to the cotton plugs. Consequently food consumption was re- duced and often either the psocids or the mites injured the psocid eggs. If a dead psocid were left in a vial containing more than one psocid, it was eaten by the others. R. bentcnae was an extremely active species, ' DORSAL do TERMINALIA SSE VENTRAL FIGS. 9-12 AND 14-17 ENLARGED TO SCALE, ALL SETAE OMITTED Se Yo . 16 ——— DORSAL & TERMINALIA ANSE Re VENTRAL 148 often darting rapidly and making unexpected starts and stops. The courtship approaches were usually made by the male while rapidly vibrat- ing his wings, which were held in a vertical position. If the female were in a receptive mood she would sometimes flit her wings in a vertical position for a fraction of a second, several times before mating. Occasionally the two psocids approached each other and rubbed palps but such antics were kept to a minimum or dis- pensed with entirely. Then the male approached the female head-on with his wings held verti- cally, quickly turned around and backed under the female as she raised her body to allow him to slip under her from the front. He curled the tip of his abdomen up and behind hers and when the genitalia were joined the male sidestepped 180° with the ventral side of the body twisted on the longitudinal axis at about 40° so that usually some of his tarsi were not on the sub- strate. Copulation lasted an hour on the average (eight timed matings varying from 41 to 73 minutes), and during this time there were pro- longed rhythmic contractions of the abdomen of the male. Apparently a considerable amount of fluid was forced into the female abdomen because the dorsal prongs of the male terminalia and the ventral tail-fin-like flap eventually took a viselike grip on the female terminalia as her abdomen became considerably swollen. Toward the end of the copulation period the female sometimes walked around dragging the male behind. Al- most immediately after separation the male deposited on the substrate a transparent, slightly curved (upward) carrot-shaped sac, which was drawn to a fine tip at the posterior end. The sac usually contained only a small amount of a transparent fluid at the anterior end. To my knowledge this is the first recording of the de- position of a copulatory sac by the male psocids after mating. Apparently it is not uncommon, in one group of psocids at least, becavse I have observed the same procedure immediately after each mating of Pscquilla marginepunctata and Psocatropos lachlani. Often the males turned around and ate part or all of the sac, or some- times the females ate it. The approximate measurements of the sacs were 0.39 by 0.09 mm,; these measurements were made through the glass tubes. Fig. 7 was sketched from memory according to averaged measurements. Appar- ently the psocids have preferences as the female sometimes resisted the approaches of the male JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 5 and butted him with her antennae, and usually by the next day the antennae of the male were broken off to stubs if he were still alive. Occa- sionally on the following day the male was dead and partly consumed, but these ‘“fights-to-the- finish’? were not observed. However, one such resistant female was placed with another male and mating occurred shortly thereafter. Mating occurred more than once. Two pairs were observed mating again 31 days after the first tume. In one instance a male and female of bentonae were kept isolated from each other, but in the company of a P. marginepunctata individual of the opposite sex. Both sexes of marginepunc- tata made courting advances upon the opposite sexes of bentonae but their efforts were ignored. The two sexes of bentonae were put in the same tube for a short time on the 5th, 7th, 11th, and 20th days and each time mating occurred and a sac was deposited by the male. Limited data suggest that fertilized eggs may be deposited for a period of about two weeks at the most, after mating. Information regarding length of the preoviposi- tion period is lacking, but 9 pairs ranging in adult age from 3 to 6 days mated immediately when paired off. Seven of the 9 females deposited eggs the following day while the other two did not oviposit until 7 days later. The eggs were deposited singly with little or no pre- or post-ceremonial activity. They were bare, not covered with excrement or silk, and there seemed to be a tendency to place them in depressions. They were most often laid on the cotton plug or on the food, but only rarely on the surface of the glass tubes. If mating had not occurred a reduced number of non-fertile eggs was deposited but they turned yellow and shriveled. The egg totals were recorded for 9 females from mid-October to late December when the temperatures fluctuated between 60° and 80° F. The average number laid was 74, with a maximum of 101. Under the more favorable conditions 5-7 eggs were laid each day, which suggests that perhaps as many as 400 eggs could be deposited by one female under optimum conditions. The eggs, Fig. 5, are somewhat boat-shaped with a wrinkled chorion which has a distinct center ridge dorsally with an indication of two lateral ridges at the anterior end, each bearing four or more little tubercles. About four days after oviposition the eggs darkened. As they May 1956 approached maturity the eyes and also the egg burster, which was stretched across the front of the head could be seen through the shell. At hatching the nymph was ventral side up, with the head at the anterior end of the egg. Hatching occurred 8-10 days after oviposition. Air was swallowed at both eclosion and molting, a prac- tice common among psocids. The following information on development was obtained from group rearings since the eggs laid each day were allowed to hatch in the vial where oviposition occurred. Only the parents and, later, the newly emerged adults were trans- ferred to a fresh vial each day; consequently the young from each daily ‘“‘brood” grew up to- gether. Although molts and instars could be re- corded, one had to assume that the molting sequence was always the same as development progressed, but such is probably not the case. Most of the eggs hatched without any trouble and it was only after the continued absence of a male that non-fertile eggs were deposited. The various observations on the nymphal stadia were based on a minimum of 17 and a maximum of 78 individuals. The average dura- tion of the nymphal stage was 19.5 days, the first stadium being 2-5 days, usually 3. The duration of each of the second, third, fourth and fifth stadia ranged from 2-3 days and the sixth stadium was a little longer, 3-5 days, with an average of 4. Based on observations from early October to January of nine mated pairs, the duration of the adult stage averaged 64 days for the females and 69 for the males with maximum periods of 86 and 89 days respectively. The sex ratio was 1:1. If males were present oviposition continued until SOMMERMAN: NEW SPECIES OF RHYOPSOCUS 149 a few days before death of the female, assuming that the few females under observation died of natural causes. SUMMARY Two new species of Rhyopsocus are described, and salient features illustrated for both R. ben- tenae and phillipsae. A rearing technique for household species is explained and notes on the bionomics of bentonae are given as determined from individuals reared under these somewhat unnatural conditions. Courting and mating are described, and the deposition on the substrate of an almost empty transparent sac by the male immediately after mating is noted. The life cycle is completed in a little more than a month, the duration of the egg stage being about 9 days and the nymphal period 20 days. The females laid an average of 74 eggs and adult life lasted approximately two months. LITERATURE CITED Banks, N. New neuropteroid insects from the United States. Psyche 37(38) : 223, figs. 1-2. 1930. ENDERLEIN, G. Zur Kenntniss amerikanischer Psociden. Zool. Jahrb. Syst. 18: 358-860, figs. 4-8. 1903. Hacen, H. A. Contributions to the natural history of Kerguelen Island. Pseudoneuroptera. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 3: 52-57. 1876. PrEARMAN, J. V. New species of Psocoptera from warehouses. Ent. Monthly Mag. 65: 107-109, figs. 8a & b. 1929. More Psocoptera from warehouses. Ent. Monthly Mag. 67: 96-97, fig. 2. 1931. The taxonomy of the Psocoptera: Prelimi- nary sketch. Proc. Roy. Ent. Soc. London (B) 5(3): 58-62. 1936. Roresuter, R. Die Gattungen der Copeognathen. Stett. Ent. Zeit. 105: 117-156. 1944. Even 2f we resolve all matter into one kind, that kind will need explaining, and so on for ever and ever deeper and deeper into the pit at whose bottom truth lies, without ever reaching it, for the pit is boltomless.—O. H®avisipn. 150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 5 MALACOLOGY — Mollusca dredged by the Orea off the Santa Barbara Islands, California, in 1951. S. StmuuMAN Berry, Redlands, Calif. (Communicated by Harald A. Rehder.) Through the kindness of Dr. Carl L. Hubbs, of the Scripps Institution of Ocea- nography, there was recently placed in my hands a collection of mollusks taken by himself, J. W. Sefton, and others, working from Mr. Sefton’s research vessel, the Orca, off the Santa Barbara Islands, Calif., in the summer of 1951. Mollusca were not the items principally sought by this expedition, and since the collections were obtained in one of the more important areas in the Californian province where few precise studies in this field have been made it is most fortunate that in the press of the other important pursuits so many of them were eventually salvaged. By reason of our in- adequate knowledge of the area the result- ing list gains a significance quite out of proportion to the size of the collection. It is of further interest in that it includes a number of infrequently reported or little- known species, several of which constitute important extensions of range. In the first part of the paper each station from which mollusks have been submitted is cited in turn, and an annotated list of the species obtained is appended. These include dredge hauls from seven stations having recorded depths from 11 to 58 fathoms. The richest of these was H51-254, in 46 to 58 fathoms, north of Anacapa Island, whence no less than 59 species are here recorded. The second part of the report covers the formal descriptions of the three species obtained which are recognized as new. The author is happy to express his appre- ciation of the kindness of both Mr. Sefton and Dr. Hubbs in supplying the material studied. The assistance of Ellis Rich, of the College of Medical Evangelists, Loma Linda, Calif., who made the photographs used in the accompanying illustrations, is likewise gratefully acknowledged. ANNOTATED LIST Stations H51 240 and 241 (pipe-dredge), 11 to 20 fathoms, lat. 34°01’45” to 34°02’20-35” N., long. 119°41'40” to 119°42’07-22” W., off Pelican Bay, Santa Cruz Island, June 29, 1951. Lima hemphilli Hertlein and Strong: 3 adoles- cents. Cardium (Trachycardium) Conrad: 1 juvenile. Calliostoma gloriosum Dall: 4 adolescents. Callicstoma supragranosum Carpenter: 1. Pteropurpura carpenter’ (Dall): 1 adult, 2 juveniles. It appears not impossible that the oldest name for this species is Murex macropteron Deshayes (1839:360; 1841:pl. 38; 1843:606). This was originally described without citation of locality. Its subsequent history has been a checkered one. Poirier (1883:93) attributed it to Japan, but I have found no confirmation of an Oriental habitat in the writings of any recent worker in that field. Dall (1889:201) thus identi- fied two specimens dredged off Cape Hatteras, N. C. This western Atlantic species has since quadragenarium been separately recognized as M. (P.) bequaerti Clench and Farfante (1945:40). Unhappily I have only once seen the original figure of M. ma- cropteron, and the holotype has never been re- figured unless, perchance, it be the shell figured under this name by Reeve (1845: Murex pl. 27, sp. 123) and Sowerby (1880: Murex pl. 11, fig. 111). These figures, both drawn by Sowerby, are so nearly alike as almost certainly to have been made from the same shell, that in Reeve being by all odds the better executed and more de- tailed. That these are excellent representations of the Californian shell subsequently named carpentert by Dall is at once apparent when shell and drawing are placed side by side. Should they then have been correctly affiliated by the icon- ographers with Deshayes’ species, there would seem little doubt where that century-old enigma will finally come to rest. As I intend dealing with this situation much more fully in a forthcoming contribution, no further elaboration of the case history seems necessary here. May 1956 BERRY: Station H51-243 (pipe dredge), 43 to 45 fathoms, lat. 34°02’37” N., long. 119°41’, 35 to 05” W,. northeast of Pelican Bay, Santa Cruz Island; mud bottom; June 29, 1951. Nucula (Nucula) tenuis (Montagu): 23, nearly all mature. Nucula (Acila) castrensis Hinds: 114 of various ages, and 2 valves. Nuculana taphria (Dall): 1 valve. Nemocardium centifilosum (Carpenter): 5 im- mature. Compsomyax subdiaphana (Carpenter): 319. Tellina (Mcerella) carpentert Dall: 1. Dentalium nechexagonum Pilsbry and Sharp: 2. Turritella orthosymmetra Berry: 1 (plus a frag- ment). Bittium sp. (nov. ?): 1. This can be referred to no described species known to me, but in so difficult a genus as Bittiwm a new species should be distinct indeed to justify its foundation upon a single specimen. Crepidula adunca (Sowerby): 1 bleached shell. Megasurcula carpenteriana (Gabb): 1 juvenile. Probably referable to the form tryoniana (Gabb). Turbonilla (Mormula) regina Dall and Bartsch: 2. These can presently be identified in no other way, although the larger has three brown bands on the body whorl not specified in the original description or in Bartsch’s key. Acteocina intermedia Willett: 2. This and eximia (Baird) seem not too happy in Acteocina. I fail to see why either of them ever need be con- fused in any way with A. culcitella (Gould). Station H51-251 (pipe dredge), 162-150 feet (26-27 fathoms), lat.34°00’38” to 20” N., long. 119 °30’35-— 13” W., Anacapa Passage; gravel bottom, with some stones; July 2, 1951. Vegetation: Callo- phyllis, Drouetia, Reticulobotrys, Lithotham- nia, predominant. Pecten (Pecten) dicgensis Dall: 2 not quite mature. Both carried Capulus, q.v. infra. Oldroydia percrassa (Dall): 1 juvenile. Dendrochiton (2) sp.: 1 juvenile. Capulus californicus Dall: 3 immature. Two of these in situ on Pecten diegensis, the third loose in jar. Trivia (Pusula) ritteri Raymond: 1. Surface of shell somewhat altered by preservative used. Bursa californica (Hinds): 3. Very small for the species, but of mature aspect. Odostomia (Evalea) santarosana Dall and Bartsch: 1. The specimen seems best referable to this little-known species. The color, however, is MOLLUSCA DREDGED BY THE ORCA 151 much paler than would be inferred from its original description as “light olive.” Station H51-252 (pipe dredge), 174-19) feet (29- 31.5 fathoms), lat. 34°00’10” N., long. 119 °27’35— 05” W., Anacapa Passage; gravel bottom, with stones; July 2, 1951. Vegetation: Drouetia, Reticulobotrys, Lithothamnia, etc. Terebratulina unguicula (Carpenter): 11. The specimens were taken adhering to a small piece of coral. Not a mollusk, but included for the sake of the record. Chlamys hastatus (Sowerby): 1. Diplodonta cf. subquadrata Carpenter: 2 adoles- cents. Californian shells are more acutely beaked and possess a much more strongly developed dentition than any of the west Mexican mainland specimens examined by me. The question of their identity might well be reinvestigated by someone having access to more complete series than I have seen. Semele aff. imcongrua Sowerby: 1, probably immature. Acmaea funiculata Carpenter: 1 juvenile shell, remarkable in that a sharply ribbed initial stage is abruptly succeeded by a stage in which the ribs become in large degree obsolescent. For a finely detailed discussion of this still somewhat enigmatic species see Hanna and Smith, 1931:21. Astraea (Pachypoma) inaequalis rutila (C. B. Adams): 2. The specimens are small for the species. I am unable to detect any material difference between this form and A. 7. mon- tereyensis Oldroyd. Carpenter’s suggestion that rutila belongs under A. undosa (Wood) I believe to be erroneous. Calliostoma annulatum (Martyn): 2 juveniles. Those who reject Martyn’s names can save this one by quoting it as of Humphrey (1786:101). Vermicularia fewkesw (Yates): 1. Trivia (Pusula) ritteri Raymond: 1. A perfect example of this lovely chaste species. Nassarius insculptus (Carpenter): 1. Fusinus sp.: 1 adolescent. Pseudomelatoma sticta, n.sp.: 1 adult; 1 imma- ture. Described in the concluding portion of this paper (p. 156). Conus califernicus Hinds: 7 immature. Station H51-254, 46-58 fathoms, lat. 34°03'C5” to 45” N., long. 119°26'02” to 25’28” W., ca. 215 miles N. of W. end of Anacapa Island; July 2, 1951. This was the richest in Mollusca of any haul 152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 5 Figs. 1-6.—1, Epitoniwm cf. lowet (Dall), mature shell taken in 46-58 fathoms, north of west end of Anacapa Island, Calif., X 2.6; 2, Admete seftoni, n.sp., holotype, taken in 46-58 fathoms, north of west end of Anacapa Island, Calif., X 4.25; 3, Pseudomelatoma sticta, n.sp., ventral aspect of holotype, taken in 26-27 fathoms, Anacapa Passage, Calif., X 3.5; 4, P. sticta, n.sp., lateral aspect of holotype, same scale; 5, P. sticta, n.sp., ventral aspect of theimmature paratype, X 3.5; 6, P. sticta, n.sp., lateral aspect of same specimen; same scale. May 1956 BERRY: made, both as to species and as to number of individuals. Nucula (Acila) castrensis Hinds: 1051s. Nuculana hamata (Carpenter): 11. Modiolus pallidulus (Dall): 1. Cardita (Cyclocardia) longini Baily: 131. For this name and the reasons impelling rejection of two prior names for the species see Baily, 1945. Pseudechama granti Strong: 1 juvenile valve. The specimen shows the larval shell with excep- tional distinctness. Nemocardium centifiloswm juveniles and adolescents. Tellina (Moerella) carpentert Dall: 6. Spisula cf. planulata (Conrad): 1 right valve. Hiatella arctica (Linné): 2 juveniles. Cuspidaria (Cardiomya) californica Dall: 1. Leptcchiton oldroydi (Dall): 1. A distinctive species, although one of the smallest of west American chitons. Puncturella coopert Carpenter: 1. This example clearly displays the curious punctations which characterize the shells of a number of species in this genus. Margarites (Lirularia) penter): 2 shells. Margarites (Lirularia) pedroanus (Arnold): 3. The Californian species of Lirularia are exceed- ingly difficult of satisfactory disposition. The determinations here suggested are believed to be about as close as is possible in the absence of a thoroughgoing revision. Solariella peramalilis (Carpenter): 4, plus 3 empty shells. Cidarina cidaris (Carpenter): 1 half-grown shell. Calliostoma annulatum (Martyn): 1 juvenile bleached shell. Calliostoma turbinum Dall: 1. Lictia farallonensis A. G. Smith: 1. This rare species has hitherto been known only from the vicinity of the Farallon Islands (see Smith, 1952:385). A fine mature example now provides an important extension of range. Homalopoma sp.: 1. A thoroughly puzzling specimen, the closer determination of which is postponed pending the aquisition of additional material. Turritella coopert Carpenter: 10 shells, repre- senting a form in which the spiral keels are quite strongly developed. Turritella orthosymmetra Berry: 6 shells. These (Carpenter): 14 (Car- acuticostatus MOLLUSCA DREDGED BY THE ORCA 153 are badly bleached but are apparently referable here. Bittium sp. indet.: 7 (plus 15 shells). This is a form rather close to B. subplanatum but with flatter whorls and more regular tuberculation. It is possibly undescribed, but for the time being I refrain from adding another name to this genus of many and difficult species. Bitttum sp. indet.: 1 bleached shell. Similar to the preceding but much more sparsely and coarsely tuberculate. Bitteum ct. rugatum Carpenter: 5 bleached shells. Seila montereyensis Bartsch: 1. Altitude of shell exclusive of missing apex, 14.2 mm. Epitonium (Nitidiscala) indianerum penter): 1. Epitonium (A speriscala) ef. lewei Dall (Fig. 1): 1. This superb example is remarkable for its very numerous and crowded, strongly reflexed, coronate costae, a few of which become much thickened and with their exaggerated reflexed portions also much wider than the ordinary costae, thus taking on the character of true varices and to this extent casting doubt on current interpretations of simple repetitive costae as varices. The costae number 30-31 on each of the last two whorls and 28-29 on whorls higher up the spire. The inadequately known FE. lowei is stated to have 26-27 costae, none of which is described as varically thickened, but the re- corded specimens are much smaller with an alti- tude of only 7 mm. (see Dall, 1906:44; 1921:214, pl. 6, fig. 11), and Iam unable to find any really trenchant characters whereby they might be distinguished from the apical whorls of this shell. The Orca specimen measures: altitude 21.6; maximum diameter 10.6; altitude of aper- ture 6.4 mm.; extreme apex decollated. Balcis (Balcis) micans (Carpenter): 1. Balcis (Vitreolina) titubans, n.sp.: 1. Described in the concluding section of this paper (p. 154). Calyptraea contorta (Carpenter): 1 juvenile shell. Crepidula cf. onyx Sowerby: 1 bleached shell. An example of a small narrow form such as one sometimes sees on a T'urritella or Olivella shell. Natica (?) sp. indet.: 3 small shells. These have much the aspect of Cryptonatica, but as there is at least one species in the area with a tight um- bilical callus of this type, yet having a horny operculum, they must for the time being be left unplaced. (Car- 154 Polinices (Euspira) draconis Dall: 1. Trivia (Pusula) ritteri Raymond: 1 immature. Neosimnia catalinensis (Berry): 1. A perfect although not quite typical adult example of this rarely taken species. Ocenebra clathrata (Dall): 5 shells. Ocenebra (?) sp.: 1 shell. Boreotrophon triangulatus (Carpenter): 1 shell. Boreotrephon aff. bentleyi Dall: 2 (plus 1 shell). These seem quite similar to B. bentleyz and may represent a form of it, but the shell is smaller, more compact, and obscurely spirally striate. Mitrella tuberosa (Carpenter): 5 shells. Amphissa reticulata Dall: 2 shells. Amphissa undata Carpenter: 198 (plus 70 shells). By far the most abundant species in the haul. Nassarius aft. perpinguis (Hinds): 1 shell. A puzzling shell, similar in general aspect to N. perpinguis, but much higher and with a different and peculiar sculpture, especially on the spire. More material will be needed for its satisfactory disposition. Nassarius insculptus 6 shells). Olivella baetica Carpenter: 1 bleached shell. Mitra (Atrimitra) idae Melville: 1 shell. A hermit-crab shell of fair size. Admete cf. gracilior Carpenter: 2. These represent a form close to typical gracilior, differ- ing chiefly in the more acute shoulder tubercula- tion and in the possession of but 8 axial ribs on the body whorl. It may eventually prove name- able as a further-evolved living race of the earlier species. Admete, n.sp.?: 2. These appear quite close to a fossil form which the author has in MS. Admete seftoni, n.sp.: 2. Described in the con- cluding section of this report (p. 155). Elaeocyma empyrosia (Dall): 4 (plus 1 doubt- ful bleached shell). Antiplanes perversus (Gabb): 5. These are of medium size only. Antiplanes (Rectiplanes) sp.: 2. Surface corro- sion is here too great to permit certain determina- tion without additional material. Lioglyphostoma crystallina (Gabb): 1 (plus 3 shells): Although there are obvious discrepancies with Dall’s figure (1921:214, pl. 6, fig. 4), there is reasonable agreement with the original de- scription of Gabb. Relative age may conceivably explain the differences. Mangelia (Kurtzia) ropert Dall: 1 shell. Turbonilla (Pyrgolampres) sp. indet.: 1. A (Carpenter): 2 (plus JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 5 Jong slender species which can not at present be affliated with any of the described forms. Turbonilla (Mormula) regina Dall and Bartsch: 5. Of various ages and sizes, several showing spiral bands on the body whorl. Altitude of largest shell, 21.0 mm. Acteocina intermedia Willett: 1 (plus 7 shells). “Retusa” harpa (Dall): 1. Cylichna diegensis Dall: 2. Station H51-260 (pipe dredge), 86-94 feet (ca. 14— 16 fathoms), west of Ford Point, Santa Rosa Island. Vegetation: abundant red and brown algae; July, 4, 1951. Glycimeris corteziana Dall: 1. Cardita (Cyclocardia) lengini Baily: 133. Chama pellucida Conrad: 1 damaged imma- ture. Dentalium sp.: 1. Callicstoma splendens Carpenter: 3. Bittium attenuatum Carpenter: 1. Balcis (Vitreolina) thersites (Carpenter): 1 im- mature. Ocenebra clathrata (Dall): 1. Ocenebra (?) ef. munda Carpenter: 1 imperfect shell. Mitrella carinata (Hinds): 98. Small for the species, but nearly all mature. Nassarius cocpert (Forbes): 4 shells. Conus californicus Hinds: 7, mostly immature. DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES Balcis (Vitreolina) titubans, n. sp. Figs. 7, 8 Shell of fair size for a Californian member of the genus, solid, smooth, polished, basally ro- bust, with an acute, rapidly tapering, doubly flexed spire; apex moderately tipped dorsad, with the body of the shell strongly diverted to the right. Whorls 10 to 11, the first translucent, the second less so, and those succeeding opaque milky white, very slightly swollen above the tightly appressed and barely indented suture; Jast whorl rounding smoothly into the full and moderately produced base. Sculpture wanting except for the distinct varical grooves, which, beginning dorsally on the sixth whorl, descend the shell in narrowly stepped obliquely protrac- tive alignment, each groove producing an angular downward dip in the suture as it leaves it, the series terminating Just back of the lip; final whorl without a varix and without a sutural indentation. Aperture a trifle over one-quarter the altitude of the shell, narrowly pyriform, its posterior angle acute, rounded and slightly pro- May 1956 BERRY: duced in front; parietal wall barely convex, form- ing a widely obtuse angle where it adjoins the nearly straight, narrow, and somewhat oblique columella, the whole covered by a moderately thick, sharply bounded callus which is slightly expanded in front and appressed against the base of the shell; output lip entire, gently sinuate below the suture, thence rather weakly produced peripherally; from the periphery the lip rounds smoothly back and inward to its narrow expan- sion into the columellar thickening. 4mm, Fie. 7.—Balcis (Vitreolina) titwbans, n. sp., camera-lucida outline of holotype; much enlarged. Measurements (of holotype): Altitude 7.4; maximum diameter (est.) 2.7; altitude of aper- ture (to suture) 1.87; diameter of aperture (edge of columellar lip to outer lip) 0.9 mm. Holotype: Berry Collection no. 23624. Type locality: 46-58 fathoms, ca. 219 miles north of Anacapa Island, Calif.; one example, Orca, July 2, 1951. Commentary: The distortion of symmetry in B. titubans is one of the most extreme seen in any of our species. It is much larger than the more or less similar B. grippi (Bartsch) of the same region, and it is both more robust and more eccentric in form than either that species or the more northern and likewise similar B. colwmbiana (Bartsch). The specific name is the present participle of the Latin titubo, I stagger. Admete seftoni, n. sp. Figs. 2, 9 Shell small, robust, with 5 to 544 whorls; spire short, acutely conic, with sunken channeled sutures; nuclear whorls rounded, more or less MOLLUSCA DREDGED BY THE ORCA 155 corroded in examples studied, but apparently smooth, subcarinate above, and at the beginning partially immersed; subsequent whorls strongly convex, slopingly subtabulate above, with 8 to 9 strong, moderately retractive, axial ribs, and with a strong spiral cord on the angle as well as another below it a little more than halfway to the suture; between these two primary spirals a third cord shortly arises, followed sometimes on the penultimate whorl by a fourth more slender cord below these and a fifth above the shoulder cord; body whorl more narrowly and less dis- tinctly tabulate than the preceding whorls, bearing about 9 axial ribs, the last of which back of the aperture is somewhat obsolescent, and the above-mentioned 4 or 5 spiral cords, the most emphatic of these being the strong cord on the periphery separated by quite a wide space from a similar cord farther down the whorl, while below on the base are 4 lesser spirals of diminish- ing strength, the subperipheral and two posterior basal threads penetrating the aperture parietally; entire surface including the cords delicately spirally striate and more crudely axially threaded ; axial ribs subtuberculate where crossed by the spiral cords, the nodules being best developed on the earlier whorls Aperture ovate, rounded pos- teriorly, more pointed, though very obtusely so, in front; outer lip thin, smooth within, although the external cords shine through to give some- what the effect of a liration; lip margin ascend- ing a little from the suture, then roundly de- scending into the very short, widely open canal; inner lip covered by a wash of callus which is thin, well expanded, and closely applied parie- Fre. 8—Balcis (Vitreolina) ttubans, n. sp., camera-lucida outline of holotype as seen from right side; same seale as Fig. 7. 156 tally, but heavier and lip-like at the columella where it becomes appressed over the very narrow and impermeable umbilical chink; columella sloping very slightly inward and furnished with two fairly strong oblique plications. Measurements (of holotype): Altitude 9.4; maximum diameter 5.8; altitude of aperture 5.4; maximum diameter of aperture (edge of columellar flare to margin of outer lip) 3.5 mm. Holotype: Berry Collection no. 23679. Para- type: Berry Collection no. 23629. Type locality: 46-58 fathoms, ca. 214 miles North of Anacapa Island, Calif.; 2 examples, Orca, July 2, 1951. Commentary: This very attractive little species is closely similar to no described form known to me. Its large body whorl, low-conic spire, deep suture, and strong axial plication afford a com- bination of characters which sets it well apart. In general form it somewhat resembles the con- siderably larger Alaskan species which currently passes for A. couthouyi (Jay), but it differs sharply in nearly every detail. The species is dedicated to Joseph W. Sefton, of San Diego, master of the Orca. Pseudomelatoma sticta, n. sp. Figs. 3-6 Shell of moderate size, elongate-fusiform, with tall, sharply conic spire; whorls 9+, slightly constricted in front of the suture, the anteriorly thrust periphery smoothly convex; suture sharply defined; first nepionic whorl and a quarter smooth, mammillate; succeeding whorl rather abruptly showing about 6 fairly sharp spiral grooves and about 10 strong protractive axial ribs which do not cross the fasciole; although remaining strong for yet another whorl or so, all this sculpture gradually tends thereafter to obsolescence except at the periphery where the ribs persist as low rounded knobs, the number of which to a whorl remains about the same until the body whorl is reached, when the entire later portion becomes practically smooth; spiral grooving particularly strong on the base of adolescent shells, but even in this region repre- sented only by traces on such a fully mature shell as the holotype. Aperture elongate-pyri- form, about 38 percent of the height of the shell, widest posteriorly, its posterior angle acute; outer lip moderately thick, sharp-edged, un- armored, produced anteriorly into the short, open, very slightly recurved canal; inner lip and JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 5 columella smooth, weakly sigmoid, covered by a rather thick callus the outer boundary of which is a rather sharp groove in the adolescent shell and a low ridge in the adult. Anal notch distinct, shallow, subjoiing the suture; fasciole rather wide, marked principally by the inbowed lines of growth. Color generally a light golden brown, everywhere speckled with small, rounded, dis- crete, dark brown spots, in some areas showing a tendency to a certain regularity of arrangement; the holotype also shows a large, conspicuous, blackish brown spot over and immediately in front of the inner lip and there is considerable dark staining or a suggestion of banding in the outer wall of the chamber. Fic. 9.—Admete seftoni, n. sp., camera-lucida sketch of apex of paratype; greatly enlarged. Measurements: Holotype—altitude 29.5; maxi- mum diameter 9.2; altitude of aperture 11.2; diameter of aperture 4.4 mm. Paratype—altitude 17.3; maximum diameter 6.5; altitude of aperture 7.3, diameter of aperture 2.8 mm. Holotype: Berry Collection no. 23785. Para- type: Berry Collection no. 23584. Type locality: 26-27 fathoms, Anacapa Passage, Calif.; 2 specimens, Orca, July 2, 1951. Commentary: Even amid the graceful family of the turrids this is a trimly elegant species, characterized by the down-sagging (or anteriorly thrust) noded convexity of the whorls comprising the spire, by the eventual obsolescence of the originally sharp axial and spiral sculpture, and by the neatly speckled color pattern. These features separate it from all other members of the genus Pseudomelatoma, with which its present affiliation can be only tentative in the absence of any knowledge of the animal and particularly of its radula. The shells of both holotype and para- type were almost completely covered by a heavy whitish bloom, apparently limy and perhaps algal, May 1956 BERRY: which proved exceedingly difficult of even in- complete removal. The specific name is the Latin stictus, dotted, and has reference to the speckled color pattern of the shell. REFERENCES Batty, J. L., Jr. Cardita (Cyclocardia) longini, new name for Venericardia (Cyclocardia) nodulosa Dall, 1919. Nautilus 58 (4): 118-120. Apr. (June 20) 1945. Ciencu, W. J., and Farrants, I. P. The genus Murex in the western Atlantic. Johnsonia 1 (17): 1-58, ‘“‘pls.”’ 1-29. May 29, 1945. Dati, W. H. Reports on the results of dredging, ... by the U. S. Coast Survey Steamer Blake, etc. XX IX —Report on the Mollusca. Part. IT. —Gastropoda and Scaphopoda. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 18: 1-492, pls. 10-40. June 1889. . A new Scala from California. Nautilus 20(4): 44. Aug. 1906. Summary of the marine shellbearing mol- lusks of the northwest coast of America.... U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 112: (iv), 1-217, pls. 1-22. 1921. MOLLUSCA DREDGED BY THE ORCA 157 DersHayeEs, G. P. Rev. Zool. Soc. Cuvierienne 1839: 360. 1839. Mag. Zool. ser. 2, 3: pl. 38. 1841. In Lamarck, J.B.P.A.—Histoire natu- relle des animaux sans vertébres, etc., 2d ed., 9: 1-728. Paris, 1848. Hanna, G. D., and Smitru, A. G. Notes on Acmaea funiculata (Carpenter). Nautilus 45 (1): 21-25, pl. 2. July 1981. [HumpHrey, G.] Anon. A catalogue of the Port- land Museum, lately the property of the Duchess Dowager of Portland, deceased: etc.: p. i-viii, 3-194. London, 1786. Porrter, J. Revision des Murex du Muséum. Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. [Paris], ser. 2, 5: 13-128, pls. 4-6. 1883. Reeve, L. Monograph of the genus Murex. Con- chologia Iconica 3 (Murex): pls. 1-386. Apr. 1845-Apr. 1846. SmitH, A. G. Shells from the bird guano of south- east Farallon Island, California, with descrip- tion of a new species of Liotia. Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 4, 27 (13) : 383-887, 396, pl. 20, figs. 2-4. July 11, 1952. Sowersy, G. B., Jr. Murex. Jn Thesaurus Con- chyliorum, pls. 380-403 [1-24]. 1880. SE LOW-TEMPERATURE ALIGNMENT OF RADIOACTIVE NUCLEI PROVIDES DATA ON NUCLEAR DISINTEGRATION Low-temperature research at the National Bu- reau of Standards has succeeded in aligning the nuclei of three radioactive elements—cerium-139, cerium-141, and neodymium-147. These results were achieved by cooling samples of the three materials to within a few thousandths of a degree of absolute zero. At such temperatures the effects of thermal agitation become so small that atomic nuclei can line up in a given direction within the crystal lattice. A corresponding directional effect can then be observed in the emitted radiation. The nuclear alignment experiments! were car- ried out by Drs. E. Ambler and R. P. Hudson, of the Bureau staff, in cooperation with Dr. G. M. Temmer, of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton. Initial phases of the work were sponsored by the Office of Naval Research. Low-temperature alignment of nuclei promises to provide a new tool for studying the processes of nuclear disintegration. The nucleus may be regarded as a magnetic top spinning about an 1 For further details, see Alignment of ceriwm- 141 and neodymium-147 nuclei, by i. AMBLER, R. P. Hupson, and G. M. Tremmmr, Phys. Rev. 97: 1212. 1955; and Alignment of three odd-A rare earth nuclei, by the same authors, ibid. 101: 1096. 1956. axis. If this spinning magnet is radioactive, the orientation of the spin axis will determine the directions in which the nucleus emits radiation. Normally, when nuclei are randomly oriented, a radioactive specimen emits gamma rays with equal intensity in all directions. However, when the nuclei are aligned, the intensity of gamma radiation varies with angle of emission. By meas- uring the degree of this directional effect, valu- able information can be obtained concerning the decay scheme of the nuclei, and an insight can be gained into the mechanisms controlling such processes. For example, the magnetic moment of the nucleus can be determined as well as the changes in angular momentum accompanying the emission. In the Bureau’s experiments, radioactive nuclei were incorporated into certain organic crystals formed by the elements studied, which were then cooled to temperatures as low as 0.003°K. Nuclear alignment was observed by measuring the angu- lar distribution of the intensity of the gamma radiation emitted by the crystals. Inasmuch as the crystals used were paramag- netic, the necessary low temperatures could be conveniently produced by the method of adia- 158 batic demagnetization. In this method a para- magnetic crystal is first magnetized by a power- ful magnet. The resultant heat of magnetization produced in the crystal is removed from the sys- tem. Then when the magnetic field is turned off, the reverse effect occurs, and the temperature of the crystal falls to a very low value. The specimen soon begins to reheat, of course, but if due care has been taken to reduce heat leaks, the rate of heating is sufficiently slow to allow enough time for measurements. In the Bureau’s experiments a magnetic field of about 23,000 oersteds was used. A radioactive crystal containing the element under study was mounted on a thermally insulating support within a glass tube containing a small amount of ‘“‘ex- change gas” (helium at low pressure). The ex- change gas provided thermal contact between the crystal and a surrounding bath of liquid helium boiling at about 1°K under reduced pressure. The liquid helium bath was protected against heat in- fluxes by a Dewar vessel, which was in turn sur- rounded by liquid nitrogen. When the magnet was switched on, the heat of magnetization was conducted from the crystal through the exchange gas to the liquid helium. This kept the temperature of the crystal from rising. The crystal was then isolated thermally by pumping the exchange gas away. Thus, when the magnet was turned off, the temperature of the crystal fell appreciably. To observe nuclear alignment, the apparatus was then quickly moved into position between two scintillation counters, and the intensity of gamma radiation was measured along two differ- ent directions. As the crystal warmed up, a grad- ual decrease in the degree of alignment was ob- served. Finally, when the temperature reached 1°K, the nuclei were again found to be randomly oriented. This process was repeated a number of times in order to provide sufficient data to reduce the effects of random variation. From the data, basic information was obtained on the nucleus and its radioactive decay. During each run the temperature of the crystal was monitored. This was done by measuring its JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 5 magnetic susceptibility, which had previously been determined as a function of temperature by other investigators.? The physical processes which give rise to nuclear alignment may be described as follows. Interaction with the electric fields within the crystal causes the electronic magnetic moment of certain atoms to line up either parallel or anti- parallel to a certain crystallographic direction. Then at very low temperatures, where thermal agitation is much less, the coupling between the atomic magnetic moment and the nuclear mag- netic moment is strong enough to allow the nuclei also to be pulled into alignment. This coupling cannot begin to overcome the forces due to thermal motion, however, until the tem- perature falls well below 1°K. The anisotropic angular distribution of gamma rays from the aligned nuclei can be explained by considering angular momenta. Since the angular momenta of the parent and daughter nuclei as well as that carried away by the gamma ray are fixed by nature, it follows from the principle of conservation of angular momentum and from radiation theory that definite restric- tions are placed upon the pattern of gamma-ray emission. The phenomenon is analogous to the radiation from a radio antenna, where aniso- tropic emission patterns are also observed. This close relationship between gamma radiation and angular momentum makes it possible to utilize gamma-ray intensity data as a basis for deduc- tions concerning the angular momentum of the parent nucleus and the changes occurring during radioactive decay. Work in this general field is continuing at the Bureau. Attention is now being directed to low- temperature methods of polarizing, rather than aligning, nuclei. Stable nuclei can be employed in experiments of this kind, and a larger number of different nuclei can be studied. The Bureau hopes to obtain additional data of value both to cryogenics and nuclear physics. 2 Dantes, J. M., and Ropinson, F. N. H. Phil. Mag. 44: 630, 1953. The man who makes no mistakes does not usually make anything. —Epwarp J. PHELPS May 1956 DEXTER: NEW FAIRY SHRIMP 159 ZOOLOGY.—A new fairy shrimp from western United States, with notes on other North American species. RALPH W . Dexter, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio. (Communicated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.). Recent studies on the fairy shrimps (Crustacea; Anostraca) of North America have brought to light some new and in- teresting records worthy of publication. One new species collected from Nevada, Washington, and California is described. The known geographic range of nine species is extended considerably by the acquisition of some new locality records. Additional records of two species of fairy shrimps living in the same pond are given and the seasonal occurrences of Hubranchipus serratus and E. vernalis in certain ponds studied in east central Illinois during the spring seasons of 1951-1955 inclusive are outlined in detail. This report continues the studies published in an earlier paper (Dexter, 1953). Specimens of Anostraca collected by Rob- ert S. Bray which are mentioned in this paper were sent to the writer by Dr. Folke Linder of Sweden. Specimens sent from the U. 8. National Museum were obtained through the courtesy of Dr. Fenner A. Chace, Jr., curator of the Division of Mar- ine Invertebrates. To these men and to the others named below who contributed speci- mens for this work my heartiest thanks are given. Family BRANCHINECTIDAE Branchinecta mackini, n. sp. Maun (Figs. 1-4): Total body length, includ- ing cercopods, 16-25 mm. First antennae 4.5 mm. Second antennae 8.0 mm, consisting of two articles of equal length. Proximal article con- tains at its base a spur 0.4 mm long with minute spinules on it. Near the lower end of the same article are 3 or 4 inconspicuous spines well spaced along the lower medial surface. The distal article is gently curved, somewhat flattened, and the end is not recurved. There is no antennal append- age and no frontal appendage. Eye stalk 0.8 mm in total length. Penes 1.0 mm in length with a process 0.2 mm long and two swollen, spinous areas near the tip. There are seven postgenital segments. Cercopods are 2.0 mm in total length, gradually taper to a sharp point, and are fringed with setae 0.2-0.4 mm long. Swimming append- ages are 2.5-4.0 mm long, with one proepipodite and one epipodite. FrmMate (Figs. 5, 6): Total length, including cercopods, 16-25 mm. First antennae 3.2 mm. Second antennae 1.3 mm in length, swollen with a short, sharp point at the end. Eye stalk 0.8 mm in total length. Ovisac 6.5 mm in total length; 1.8 mm in greatest diameter. There are seven postgenital segments. Cercopods and thoracic swimming appendages are like the male. This species resembles most closely Branchi- necta shantzt Mackin, 1952. However, B. mackini has a pointed spur at the base of the second antennae of the male instead of a rounded knob, the spines along the medial margin are not con- centrated and are not on a swollen prominence, and the tips of the male antennae are not re- curved as they are in B. shantzv. Specimens were collected by Dr. Iva La Rivers from a playa pond 15 miles north of Reno in Washoe County, Nev., on February 16 and June 9, 1940 (eight males and two females, seven males and one female, respectively), and again from a playa pond south-southeast of East MeNett Place, Fish Lake Valley in Esmeralda County, Nev., on March 26, 1951. Seven males and 14 females were collected at that time from which the holotype and allotype have been selected. Dr. R. H. Whittaker and his student C. W. Fairbanks collected many specimens from a large shallow pond some 40-50 hectares in area at Alkali Lake, Grand Coulee, Wash., on May 15, 1949. Dr. Arthur 8. Lockley collected some from Bicycle Dry Lake near Barstow, Calif., in November 1955. This new species has been named for Dr. J. G. Mackin, who first called its attention to the writer and who has made the most thorough study and revision of the genus Branchinecta in North America. The male holotype and the female allotype have been deposited in the U.S. National Museum (nos. 99216 and 99217). Para- types have been divided among that institution (no. 99218), Dr. J. G. Mackin, Dr. Tra La Rivers, Dr. N. T. Mattox, Dr. R. H. Whittaker, and the writer. 160 NEW RECORDS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANOSTRACA Since the publication of my previous paper outlining the known geographical distribution of certain species of fairy shrimps in North America, some new field records have come to hand which extend the known range of nine species and give additional locality data on some uncommon species. The distribution of Polyartemiella hazeni (Murdock) has usually been given in the litera- ture in very general terms as ‘“‘the coastal plains of Alaska and Yukon Territory.”’ Few specific records on those plains have ever been published. For that reason two which have come to hand recently are given here. Dr. N. T. Mattox sent some specimens of this species that had been collected by Roy Robinson near the Meade River at Point Barrow, Alaska, on August 15, 1952. Lawrence C. Bliss collected for the writer about 50 specimens of this species from depressed JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 5 polygons on the coastal plain of Alaska at lat. 70° 25’N., long. 150° 40”W., on August 6, 1953. This locality is about 18 miles south of the Arctic Ocean and about one-quarter of a mile east of the Colville River. The polygons, formed by ice action, were about 2-4 feet deep, for the most part, and had an average diameter of 10-20 feet. Specimens were collected from six of them, and many of the animals observed were in copulation at the time. The polygons do not dry out as do tem- porary ponds in the temperate belt, but they do freeze to the bottom. Thus, the eggs of fairy shrimps are just as effectively removed from free water, a condition which usually seems to be necessary before they will hatch in any quaptity. The name ot this species was misspelled as P. hanseni by Daday, in 1910, and copied by most North American writers ever since. The correct spelling is P. hazent. Recently, specimens of another arctic species seldom collected have come to hand. Ten speci- mens of Artemiopsis stefanssont Johansen were Fies. 1-§6.—Branchinecta mackini, n.sp.: 1, Head of male; 2, swimming appendage of male; 3, cerco- pods of male; 4, penis; 5, head of female; 6, egg sac. May 1956 collected from a lake 3 miles north of Mound Bay Weather Station, Prince Patrick Island, in Northwest Territory, Canada. Thamnocephalus platyurus Packard is now known from Utah, Nebraska, and Missouri. Specimens of the former two were sent from the U. 8. National Museum. Two males and four females were collected from an impoundment of fresh-water at Monument Valley, Utah, by Marvin Walter on August 10, 1952. A single female specimen was collected by Dr. H. W. Manter from the western part of Nebraska. Date and locality were not recorded. Also, from the National Museum were sent specimens which are the second State record from Nevada, the first having been published in my previous paper. Two females were collected from near Dry Lake, 6 miles west of Boulder City, on October 29, 1952, by Mrs. V. B. Vehling. One specimen measured 28 mm in total length. Dr. Tra La Rivers sent another lot of two females collected from the same region. One of his stu- dents, E. A. Carl, found them at “Dry Lake, 4 miles south of the railroad pass between Las Vegas and Boulder City, Clark County, on September 17, 1953.” The first records from Missouri were sent by Dr. Peter W. Frank, of the University of Missouri. He and one of his students, Robert W. Kelly, collected 7. platyurus in July 1954 and from June to September 1955. They were collected from more than 15 temporary pools on the north bank of the Missouri River flood plain between Jefferson City and Boone- ville, and they were much more abundant during the latter year. Hubranchipus vernalis (Verrill) has been found in Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia for the first time. R. 8. Bray collected this species in Newcastle County, Del., on December 29, 1940. He also found it in a barnyard at Yellow Springs, Md., on December 14, 1940, and in Loudoun County, Va., on March 2, 1942. The occurrence of this species from Kentucky, inadvertently omitted from my earlier report, seems to rest solely upon an early record (1874) from near Covington. Additional records have recently come to the attention of the writer. Dr. Gerald A. Cole, of the University of Kentucky, collected HE. vernalis between 1950 and 1954 from seven temporary pools and one permanent pond, which has dry margins annually, in various parts of Jefferson County. For the most part these pools were formed by flood waters of the Ohio River. DEXTER: NEW FAIRY SHRIMP 161 In 1955 the water level was so high that these pools were washed over by the flood waters of the river, which carried away any pond fauna that had developed by early spring. Eubranchipus neglectus Garman was described from Kentucky. The U. 8. National Museum has eight specimens of H. neglectus collected from a clay pit near New Philadelphia, Ohio, by Dr. Victor Sterki. No date was recorded. Identification was made by Dr. E. P. Creaser and Dr. Folke Linder. This record extends the known range to eastern Ohio. Eubranchipus serratus Forbes is now reported from Virginia and Maryland for the first time, and the second record from Indiana and Montana are listed. R. 8. Bray collected this species on December 15, 1940, at Daday’s Pond in Loudoun County, Va. A second lot was collected on April 5, 1941, from a cornfield pond near Seneca, Md. Dr. R. B. Brunson obtained the second record of this species from Montana with speci- mens he collected from Union Creek on April 17, 1951, and from a pond near Kicking Horse Reservoir on April 23, 1951. Identifications were made by Dr. N. T. Mattox, who sent the records to the writer. The first record from Indiana was recently published (Dexter, 1953). The second one from this State was made by Dr. Clarence Goodnight, who found this species in a gravel pit near West Lafayette in April 1953. Although most of the specimens received from him were mature, they were smaller than usual in size, averaging only 12 mm in total length. Dr. Mattox noted that the specimens from Montana were also smaller than average. It has been the ex- perience of the writer to find that fairy shrimps vary greatly in size, not only in different geo- graphic localities and during different years, but also in the same general locality at the same time. Eubranchipus holmant (Ryder) has been col- lected in Maryland for the first time by R. 8. Bray. Two males and two females were found at Martinsburg on April 16, 1940. A single male was taken from a barnyard pond at Yellow Springs on December 14, the same year, and two males and four females were collected in the Sunday Swamps at Bear Island on March 22, 28, and May 14, 1941. In my previous paper I overlooked an old published record of this species from Pennsylvania and from Minnesota. These States should now be added to the list. Artemia salina (Linnaeus) is usually found in saline lakes and evaporating basins. Only rarely 162 is it found in temporary pools. However, Ernest J. Roscoe collected specimens from a temporary pool northwest of Granite Mountain in Tooele County, Utah, on October 6, 1953. Recently this species was reported from Saskatchewan for the first time (Moore, J. E. 1952). It was found in abundance in Little Manitou, a saline lake. Branchinecta shantzi Mackin is now reported for the first time from Nevada. Dr. Iva La Rivers collected 10 females and 8 males from railroad playa northwest of White Mountain in Washoe County on May 16, 1940. Branchinecta colcradensis Packard, formerly known quite generally as B. lindahli until the genus was revised by Mackin (1952), is now known from Washington, California, and Utah. Dr. R. M. Bond obtained a large number of specimens, not quite mature, from a pool on the east side of the Columbia River, 249 miles northeast of Vantage Bridge in Washington, on March 26, 1937. Dr. Ira La Rivers collected B. coloradnsis on July 23, 1953, at upper Convict Creek basin in Mono Co., Calif., some 35 miles north of Bishop. Abundant specimens were found in several temporary meadow pools, formed from melting snow. The water temperature at the time of collecting, however, was 24°C. These pools are on the eastern slope drainage near the crest of the southern Sierras at an elevation of 10,300 feet. By August 13 all but the largest one had dried out. Records of this species collected by Dr. La Rivers and T. J. Trelease from Marble Butte in Nevada published in my previous paper did not include the dates. The dates of collecting were March 31 and April 23, 1949. The first Utah collection of B. colcradensis was made by Nyvin Marchette on April 19, 1954, from a temporary pond in Government Creek Valley, Tooele County. These were sent to me through the courtesy of Ernest J. Roscoe. Dr. Elizabeth McClintock obtained the second record of this species from Arizona by collecting specimens from temporary pools in red sandstone rocks in Toroweap Valley of Mohave County about 1 mile from the rim of the Grand Canyon, on May 6, 1952. Two errors that have appeared in recent litera- ture concerning Branchinecta lindahli should be corrected. First, W. G. Moore (1950) published a record of B. coloradensis from Texas that should have been designated as B. lindahli through an error on the part of the writer. Specimens sent by Dr. Moore were identified JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 5 before the revision of the genus by Mackin (1952), and a misinterpretation led to an incor- rect diagnosis. Secondly, in Mackin’s revision (ibid.) of Branchinecta, the species B. lindahli Daday, 1910, is cited as a synonym of B. lindahli Packard 1883, whereas it should be listed in the “non” group. It is unfortunate that so much confusion has developed in the published litera- ture on this genus in North America to con- tinually plague students of the group since the genus was first found here. Streptccephalus texanus Packard is now re- ported from Montana and Missouri. It was col- lected for the first time in Montana by H. E. Nelson, who found specimens at Glasgow in May 1952. This represents the most northerly locality from which the species has been recorded to date. This record, and the one of S. seali from Montana mentioned below, were brought to my attention by Dr. Mattox, who had _ received specimens for study from Dr. R. B. Brunson. Dr. Peter Frank and his student Robert Kelly have collected iS. teranus from temporary pools along the north bank of the Missouri River near Booneville, Mo., in recent years. Specimens without field data were examined by the writer. Streptocephalus seali Ryder is now recorded from North Carolina, Maryland, Missouri, Montana, and California for the first time. The U. S. National Museum contains specimens of S. seali collected by 8. F. Hildebrand on June 3, 1926, from Thomas Pond No. 3 at Beaufort, N. C. R. 8. Bray collected specimens from Bear Island, Md., on November 16, 21, and 28, and December 5, 1937, and again on August 6 and September 2, 1938. Dr. James Kezer, formerly at the University of Missouri, sent numerous mature specimens, 28-30 mm in length, which he collected in the fall of 1952 from a mud hole not far from the Missouri River near Booneville, Mo. They were still living in the pool on Novem- ber 10. The water was clouded with mud and as a consequence the fairy shrimps were colorless. This relationship has been observed by the writer for several species of Anostraca. Late in October 1953 and in the latter part of March 1954, Dr. Kezer again found S. seali in the same mud hole. Dr. Peter Frank and Robert Kelly subsequently found the same species in many ponds of various types in the area. Dr. N. T. Mattox sent a record of S. seali collected from Glasgow, Mont., in May 1952 by H. E. Nelson. In the collections of the U. 8. National Museum May 1956 DEXTER: there are specimens of this species collected in September 1930 from a pond in the Sierra Ne- vada at an elevation of about 9,000 feet. The locality was in Tuolumne County, Calif., and the collector was R. Innis Bromley. Dr. Mattox has sent a record of S. sealt collected by Dr. R. E. Smith from Eldorado County, Calif., on July 11, 1936. Dr. Douglas M. Whitaker has collected this species from the same county. On September 4, 1952, he found many specimens in a temporary pool filled from melted snow at an elevation of 6,600 feet in the Sierra Nevada of Eldorado County. The pond is located approxi- mately half a mile east of Fallen Leaf Lake and about 4 miles south of the southeastern end of Lake Tahoe. Usually this pond dries out late in summer or early in fall, but heavy snows of the preceding winter caused it to persist through the season of 1952. Four male specimens ranged in size from 30 to 36 mm, with an average of 34 mm. In my previous paper I overlooked an early published record of this species from the State of New York, which should now be added to the list of known State records. ADDITIONAL RECORDS OF COLLECTING TWO SPECIES OF ANOSTRACA TOGETHER More records of finding two species of fairy shrimps in the same pond have come to hand. The 12 specimens of Hubranchipus vernalis and the single one of H. holmani collected at Yellow Springs, Md., as mentioned earlier in this paper, were found together. The specimens of Strepteo- cephalus seali and S. texranus mentioned earlier from Glasgow, Mont., were together in the same vial and had a common label so that presumably they were found together. Likewise, specimens of these same two species reported above from Booneville, Mo., have been collected together. The writer collected Hubranchipus vernalis and Chirocephalopsis bundyi together in another locality of northeastern Ohio. They were found in a button-bush swamp pond near Mogadore in Portage County on April 27, 1952. The following year this pond did not fill with water, but in 1954 enough water accumulated to hatch out a few of each species. In the spring of 1955 there was an abundance of both species living together. The ratio, as determined by a count of 251 males, was 1 H#. vernalis:1.5 C. bundyt. In a collection of fairy shrimps made by Walter Hintz near Pokagon State Park some 5 miles from Angola, Ind., there were 23 males of EH. ver- NEW FAIRY SHRIMP 165 nalis and 8 males of C. bundyi. They were found together on April 16, 1954, in a pasture pond. On March 17, 1952, a single specimen of HL’. serra- tus, 26 mm_ in length, was collected by the writer with 11 specimens of H#. vernalis in a pool on the flood plain of the Salt Fork River near Homer, Ill. EH. vernalis is the only species previously collected in this pond and in two others nearby, but all other ponds sampled in this section of Illinois have contained EF. serratus as the common species (Dexter, 1953). Lawrence C. Bliss col- lected Branchinecta shantzi and Chirocephalopsis bundyt together from a small morainal pond at an elevation of 9,900 feet in the Medicine Bow Mountains of Wyoming on June 23, 1955. These species were found separately in three other ponds in this area (two with the former and one with the latter). Dr. Peter Frank and his asso- ciates have collected S. seali and Thamnocephalus platyurus together in pools near Booneville, Mo. Dr. A. 8. Lockley at the Los Angeles State Col- lege collected 7. platyurus along with specimens that proved to be the new species Branchinecta mackina described in this paper. They were taken from Bicycle Dry Lake, near Barstow, Calif., in November 1955. FAIRY-SHRIMP POPULATIONS STUDIED IN ILLINOIS, 1951-1955 After my previous report on observations of fairy-shrimp populations in east-central Illinois was published, this field study was limited to six of the ponds which had been studied earlier. One new station was added in 1953. Table 1 gives a résumé of observations made in the third week of March for the years 1951-55, inclusive. No visits were made in 1954, but residents in the area reported a very dry spring during which time the temporary pools contained no water. It can be assumed that fairy shrimps did not hatch in these stations during 1954 for lack of water. The following year conditions for fairy shrimps were only slightly better. In addition to the five temporary pools and one permanent pond (no. 8, near Urbana) sampled in 1951, Miss Sarah A. Joyner found three ponds 6 miles northeast of Urbana which were inhabited that spring by fairy shrimps. One was a permanent woodland pond in Trelease Woods, another pond, and the third a temporary pool, the latter two situated in nearby Trelease Grassland. The two permanent ponds have a dry margin during was a permanent grassland 164 the summer season, which is always found in such bodies of water which contain fairy shrimps. Samples of fairy shrimps were collected by Miss Joyner in all three during the spring of 1951. She collected mature specimens of Hubranchipus serratus, identified by the writer, on March 8, 1951, from the permanent grassland pond. In 1951 the collections were made on March 21 from five selected stations chosen from those formerly studied. Specimens were obtained from under a cover of ice. Two days later another collection was made after the ponds had thawed. The populations sampled that year were small. However, during the next two years they in- creased in number each year for the most part. Those records showing a wide range of sizes un- doubtedly represent more than one hatching brood as the result of rising water levels with each new rain. The collections of 1952 were taken from under a skim of ice which coated most of the ponds. That year, one pool on the flood plain of the Salt Fork River near Homer yielded one specimen of H. serratus as well as its usual population of H. vernalis. In spite of the fact that pond no. 8 near Urbana was bulldozed to a depth of 11 feet during the summer of 1951, fairy shrimps hatched in abundance the followimg spring. Apparently many eggs were left still exposed at the surface although great quantities of eggs must have been buried deeply by the earth-moving operations. By the next year, however, game fish had been introduced into this pond, and fairy shrimps were not found there again. The season of 1953 was a favorable one for fairy shrimps. A new pond adjacent to the one at Oakwood was sampled for the first time. In the spring of 1954 water was not known to collect in any of the temporary pools under observation because of a severe drought in the area. (The same situation was reported by Dr. James Kezer JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 46, No. 5 for the region of Columbia, Mo. Ralph W. Stark found a similar situation in Boone County, Ind., until March 19, when rain broke the drought. On March 28 a heavy rainstorm there filled the pools bringing out a hatch of EH. vernaiis. In Portage County, Ohio, the writer was not able to collect fairy shrimps in some of the stations under observation until the middle of April, when rain filled many of the depressions for the first time that year. Studies on fairy shrimps in Ohio will be reported in a separate paper.) In 1955 dry conditions still prevailed in Illinois. One pool (no. 2 near Oakwood) had 4 inches of water when examined, but no metanauplii were found in the plankton sample taken. Pond 7 near Urbana, however, had sufficient water to bring out a good-sized population of H. serratus. In 1951 the sex ratio of H. serratus determined by a sample of 204 individuals was 1 male:1.2 females. The following year a reverse ratio of 1 male:0.6 female was found in a sample of 162 individuals. Dexter and Kuehnle (1951) found males of H. vernalis to predominate (1:0.8) in two of the counties in Ohio sampled, while females predominated in two other counties (1:1.5). Coopey (1950) found the sex ratio of E. oregonus to change markedly during the season as the males died off at a much greater rate. W. G. Moore (1955), on the other hand, found a balanced ratio of approximately 1:1 throughout the season in populations of Strep- tacephalus seali he studied in Louisiana. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1. Branchinecta mackini, n.sp., is described from specimens collected in Nevada, Washington, and California. 2. The known geographic range of the follow- ing species is extended by recent collections: Thamnocephalus platyurus, Hubranchipus verna- lis, FE. neglectus, E. serratus, E. holmani, Branchi- TaBLE 1.—Co.uEectTInGa Recorps or ANOSTRACA IN EAST-CENTRAL ILLINOIS Location of ponds Pond No. | 1951 1952 1953 1955 Near Oakwood-Field ditch....................... 1 8, 9-30.5 C, 13-23 A, 2-20 Dry Near Oakwood-Field ditch...................... 2 — — N, 13-22 0, nearly dry Near Homer-Flood plain pool.................... 2 S*, 9-24.5 R, 26; S#, 22-27 Nx, 4.5-9.5 Dry Near Homer-Flood plain pool.................... 3 0 0 0 Dry Near Urbana-Pasture pool. ......... 7 S, 5-16.5 C, 9-29.5 N, 9-21 N, 8.5-12 Near Urbana-Pasture pool........................ 8 N, 16-30 A, 17-27 0 (fish intro.) = Near, Urbana-Pasture)pool-n)....--.06 eens 9 S, 4.5-23 Destroyed — = Relative abundance is indicated as follows: A—abundant; C—common; N—numerous; S—searce; R—rare; *—Eubranchipus vernalis. All other records are for HZ. serratus. Beside the symbol for abundance is given the range in size expressed in millimeters on date of collection. May 1956 necta shantzi, B. coloradensis, Streptocephalus texanus, S. sealt. 3. New localities with notes on habitats are given for Polyartemiella hazeni, Artemiopsis stefanssoni, Artemia salina. 4+. New records are cited for finding the follow- Ing species living together in the same pond: Hubranchipus vernalis with E. holmani; Strepto- cephalus seali with S. texanus; EH. vernalis with Chirccephalopsis bundyi; E. vernalis with E. serra- tus; Branchinecta shantzi with C. bundyi; S. seali with Thamnocephalus platyurus; T. platyurus with B. mackint. 5. Fairy-shrimp populations studied in seven pools in east-central Illinois during March 1951- 55 are reviewed. Two species were collected: E. serratus which was common in most cases and E. vernalis which was uncommon and found in a single pool. Insufficient rainfall in the spring of 1954 prevented a hatch that season, and in the following spring only one pool had enough water to support a population. The years 1952 and 1953 were favorable ones for the fairy shrimps. Sex NOTES AND NEWS 165 ratio of H. serratus was 1 male:1.2 females in 1951 and 1 male:0.6 female in 1952. LITERATURE CITED Coorry, R.W. The life history of the fairy shrimp Eubranchipus oregonus. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc. 69: 125-132. 1950. Dexter, R. W. Studies on North American fairy shrimps with the description of two new species. Amer. Midl. Nat. 49(3): 751-771. 1953. ——— and Kueunuz, C. H. Further studies on the fairy shrimp populations of northeastern Ohio. Ohio Journ. Sei. 51(2) : 73-86. 1951. Mackin, J. G. On the correct specific names of several North American species of the phyllopod genus Branchinecta Verrill. Amer. Midl. Nat. 47: 61-65. 1952. Moors, J. E. The Entomostraca of southern Sas- katchewan. Can. Journ. Zool. 30: 410-450. 1952. Moors, W. G. A new locality record for Branch- inecta coloradensis, with habitat notes on two species of farcry shrimp in central Texas. Ecology 31 (4) : 655-657. 1950. The life history of the spiny-tailed fairy shrimp in Louisiana. Ecology 36(2): 176-184. 1955. ———————S NOTES AND NEWS A SONIC TECHNIQUE FOR TESTING LEATHER A nondestructive method for testing leather, based on the transmission of sound waves, has recently been developed by the National Bureau of Standards. The chief instrument employed is a pulse propagation meter which measures and records the speed of a generated sound pulse through the leather. As a result, the specimen under test is left unharmed, in contrast to the tearing or other destructive effects of existing test procedures. The experiments! carried out at the Bureau have shown that the velocity of sound transmis- sion in leather varies substantially with changes in chemical and physical structure and, particu- larly, mm fiber orientation. Velocity measurements, accordingly, are indicative of modifications of the fibrous order produced by strain, aging, and im- pregnating material. The study that supports these conclusions was sponsored by the Office of the Quartermaster General, Department of the ‘For further technical details see Studies on leather by means of a sonic technique, by J. R. Kanaay and M. Rosinson, Journ. Amer. Leather Chem. Assoc. (in press). Army, and was conducted by Joseph R. Kanagy and Myron Robinson, of the NBS staff. In recent years the use of sonic techniques to determine certain mechanical properties of high polymers has become widespread. Such methods have employed frequencies ranging from less than 1 cps up to several megacycles. The use of a single frequency throughout a series of tests readily per- mits mathematical analysis of the data and de- termination of the physical constants character- istic of the viscoelastic behavior of the material. Besides furnishing a means for securing funda- mental information, sonic methods have been successfully utilized in nondestructive testing. These applications relate mainly to the location of flaws in a variety of manufactured products. The investigations of the NBS leather labo- ratory are part of a larger program of fundamen- tal and applied research on natural and synthetic polymers—rubber, plastics, textiles, leathers, and papers. This program seeks not only to improve present basic knowledge of high polymers but also to make possible their more effective utiliza- tion in commercial products. The present study of the potentialities of sound-transmission meas- urements is expected to provide the basis for im- 166 proved methods of testing finished products like military footwear as well as the unworked hide. The Bureau’s sonic experiments were based on the relationship between sound velocity and the elasticity of the medium as given by Young’s modulus. If a sound wave is propagated along a medium whose transverse dimensions are small compared to the wavelengths utilized, then the following well-known relation holds: EH = vp (1) where v is the velocity of sound, p is the density of the medium, and # is Young’s modulus, the latter being defined as the force per unit cross- section area required to produce unit elastic strain. However, if the material produces appre- ciable acoustic attenuation, as shown by a nota- ble decrease in the amplitude of the sound wave as it travels through the medium, the single rela- tion given above no longer suffices for an accu- rate determination of the modulus. An additional factor based on a viscosity coefficient must then be applied to the right-hand side of the equation. In the current investigation, estimates of sound attenuation in leather were obtained by observing on an oscilloscope the decreasing amplitude of a particular section of a 3,000-cps wave train as the transmitter and receiver crystals of the propaga- tion meter were separated. On the basis of these rough measurements, the attenuation for shoe- upper leather was estimated at 0.1 to 0.2 nepers per cm. For purposes of comparison, the attenua- tion constants were also obtained, under the same conditions of frequency and temperature, for other polymeric materials, with these results: polyethylener cease eee 0.012 nepers per cm nylon (undrawn filament)... 0.003 neoprene GN at 6 percent ENCED U dae incerta mms iy he ear a ote It may be seen that the acoustic attenuation in leather lies midway between that of materials with highly crystalline fibers and that of rubber- like materials. In developing leather test methods, attenua- tion and frequency are of secondary importance since only relative velocity measurements are re- quired to establish the deviation of a sample from its control. The data of this investigation were therefore studied in terms of the more directly measurable quantity, velocity. Now, the defining equation, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 5 stress load K= _ = : strain elongation’ makes clear the direct relation holding between E and the resistance to elongation. In the light of this relation, equation (1) may be interpreted as saying that the speed of sound through a medium such as leather is greatest in the direction that offers the greatest resistance to elongation—that is, along the individual fibers. In experiments with leather from cattlehide, the speed of propagation of sound varied with the lateral dimension of the specimen, increasing with width up to a certain maximum dependent on the wavelength of the sound. In cattlehide the fibers are oriented at random; consequently, there is no sound path directly along the specimen. That the speed of sound through a material like leather is related to fiber orientation was shown with vege- table-tanned sharkskin. In sharkskin the fibers occur naturally in a highly oriented basket-weave pattern, the two fiber axes being mutually per- pendicular in the plane of the hide. Specimens were cut so that sound could be transmitted ei- ther in the direction of a fiber axis or at a 45° angle with the axes. The specimens cut at an angle of 45° with the fiber axes should have sound paths roughly comparable with those existing in cattlehide, and a similar velocity-width relation would be expected. On the other hand, specimens with one set of fibers oriented in the direction of sound propagation should show no velocity de- crease when width is decreased, since there is a sound path that goes directly through the speci- men. For both types of specimen, experiment con- formed to expectation. The 45° cuts showed the same sort of velocity-width relation as did leather, and in parallel cuts the velocity was independent of the width within experimental error. The veloc- ity of parallel propagation was also observed to be greater than the maximum velocity in the oblique direction. Additional evidence that sound propagation follows fiber orientation was obtained from experi- ments with kangaroo tail tendons. These tendons are composed of collagen fibers highly oriented along a single direction. The speed of propagation through the tendons was approximately 2,000 meters per second, or about three times greater than the speed in cattlehide. Another study showed that the speed of sound through leather increases with period of aging at May 1956 100°C until it reaches a maximum. Therefore, an indication of the quality of a sample of leather may be obtained by comparing the speed of sound through the sample with the maximum speed in a control specimen that has been subjected to aging. It is thus possible, without harming the speci- men, to detect changes in fiber orientation caused by strain, aging, and filling by comparing sound- velocity measurements. Moreover, there is good correlation between sonic measurements and the results of tensile and breaking elongation tests. The effects of tannage, grease, and moisture can also be demonstrated. Finally, for an inhomoge- neous material such as leather, the sonic tech- nique has the distinct advantage of providing a means of following the effects of aging, chemical treatments, and the like on a single specimen. ARCTIC MARINE INVERTEBRATES STUDIED Abundant and often fantastic are the animals of the shallow Arctic sea bottom. All are inverte- brates—worms, sea anemones, and a host of others—many of which spend their lives buried in the bottom mud. They are described in a report recently published by the Smithsonian Institution by Prof. G. E. MacGinitie on his collections while principal investigator at the Navy’s Arctic Research Laboratory at Point Barrow, Alaska. Some of the creatures and their curious ways of life, as related in the report, follow. A delicately peach-colored sea anemone, a bottom-dwelling animal remotely related to the coral polyps, which displayed what Professor MacGinitie calls an ‘amazing phenomenon.” “When it was subjected to unfavorable condi- tions, such as overcrowding in a pan or jar of sea water,” he says, “it cast out through the mouth a translucent white inner lining, with translucent, stubby tentacles. This offspring was somewhat suggestive of a pickled onion. If conditions remained adverse more offspring were cast off, each one becoming smaller than its predecessor.”’ In other words, when in trouble the animal spits out babies—presumably an emergency measure for preservation of the species. Apparently the same thing happens in the sea. Partly grown specimens of these off- spring dredged from the bottom at first were mistaken for a new species. Some quite colorful types of these animals were found—one purplish- NOTES AND NEWS 167 red, one lavender, one lemon-yellow, and one with translucent, peach-colored tentacles. Among the more abundant animals found on the shallow bottom were nemerteans, or ribbon- worms, notable for their ability to stretch the body to twice or more its normal length. Two specimens of one species that washed ashore had, as a means of self preservation, Professor Mac- Ginitie says, “literally tied themselves in knots, curled up into balls, and then secreted bags of mucous around themselves.”’ Very abundant mud-dwelling animals off the Arctic coast are the echiuroids, otherwise known as “‘spoonworms,” or “‘sausage-worms.” They burrow very deeply in the mud and are seldom seen unless washed ashore in storms. One species was bright green in color and about 3 inches long; these worms, Professor MacGinitie found, were eaten raw by Eskimos. Among the most abundant animals in the sea are the small, transparent Sagitta, or arrow- worms. Thousands were obtained in tows for plankton. One species, about half an inch long, apparently is among the kangaroos of the in- vertebrate world. ‘Two specimens,” the report says, ‘were carrying young in a marsupium (pouch) formed by folding the posterior lateral fins together. In the laboratory some of the young about 3 millimeters long began escaping from this marsupium.”’ An extremely important part of the bottom fauna at Point Barrow, Professor MacGinitie found, were the bryozoans. They are colonial animals, somewhat like corals but of a higher order, which cover stones with growths that sometimes look like patches of moss, sometimes like weavings of delicate lace. Hardly a stone was found which did not have at least one ‘“‘moss patch.’ Sometimes the entire surface would be covered. These miniature moss forests provide refuge for numerous other minute animals. Some of the lacelike colonies are quite beautiful. Some form peach-colored, some deep red, and some yellow lacework. Marine annelid worms, or polychaetes, com- prise an important group in the Point Darrow fauna. Among them was one species, of the type known as syllids—a_ flesh-colored worm with brownish-red eyes which emitted a bluish- white light. It lived ordinarily hidden among the bryozoan growth on stones, but its lumi- nescence betrayed it. 168 Numerically the most abundant animals are amphipods, members of the sand-flea family, which form an important food source for fishes and seals. Great numbers live on the underside of ice cakes from which the bearded seal can sweep them with its whiskers. If seals can live on them, why not men? “It would seem,” says Professor MacGinitie, “that they should form a source of food for military personnel forced to abandon ship or make a forced landing. A pherusa glacialis (the species found in such numbers on the bottoms of ice cakes) could be gathered with nets from the swarms that dart away when an ice cake is disturbed.” This species is circum- polar in distribution. €. C. Crittenden Dr. Eugene Casson Crittenden, 75, interna- tionally known scientist and expert on standards of physical measurement, died of cancer on Wednesday, March 28, 1956, at Garfield Hos- pital, Washington, D. C., after an illness of several months. He had retired as associate director of the National Bureau of Standards in December 1950 but had continued to serve the Bureau as a consultant to the director up to the time of his illness. Dr. Crittenden is perhaps best known for his achievements in the development and adoption of electrical and photometric standards. As vice president of the International Commission on Illumination, from 1939 to 1948, and president of its U.S. National Committee from 1928 to 1935, he played a major role in the establishment. of modern photometric units, standards, and meth- ods of measurement which culminated in the international adoption of the “candela” in 1948. As the United States representative on the Inter- national Committee on Weights and Measures from 1946 to 1954, its vice chairman from 1950 to 1954, and as chief of the Bureau’s Electrical Division for many years, he was a leading scien- tific figure in replacing the obsolescent interna- tional system of electrical units by the so-called absolute electrical units. These new units provide a basis for all electrical measurements now made in this country and throughout the world; they were given legal substance by Public Law 617 passed by the 81st Congress. Crittenden was born at Oswayo, Pa., on De- cember 19, 1880. He attended Cornell University and received his B.A. degree in 1905. He re- mained there as an instructor and graduate stu- dent until he came to the National Bureau of Standards as an assistant physicist in July 1909. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 46, No. 5 He was first assigned to the Photometric Labora- tory, where he subsequently made so many im- portant contributions. He was named chief of the Bureau’s Electrical Division in 1921 and con- tinued in this position until 1946. Under his leadership, the program of the Division ex- panded substantially, keeping pace with the rapid developments in radio and _ electronics. Major organizational units of the Bureau came from nuclei assembled under his leadership. These include the former Ordnance Development Division, now the Diamond Ordnance Fuze Laboratories of the Department of the Army, and the Bureau’s Central Radio Propagation Laboratories at Boulder, Colo. In 1933 Dr. Crittenden was made assistant director of the Bureau and placed in charge of the over-all research and testing activities of the organization. In 1946 the title was changed to associate director, and he assumed the responsi- bilities of this office on a full-time basis and con- tinued in this role until his retirement. He was awarded the Department of Commerce Gold Medal for Exceptional Service in 1949, the first year in which these awards were established. In 1946 he was honored with the Gold Medal of the Illuminating Engineering Society for “meritori- ous achievement conspicuously furthering the profession, art, or knowledge of illuminating engi- neering.” Also in 1946 the Case Institute of Tech- nology awarded him an honorary D.Se. as ‘“‘a de- voted servant of the public, exponent of precise measurement, and international authority on the standards of science and industry.”’ He was extremely active in many scientific and professional organizations. He served on the Standards Council of the American Standards Association from 1925 to 1948 and as its chairman from 1945 to 1948. He was president of the II- luminating Engineering Society in 1925; president of the U.S. National Committee of the Interna- tional Electrochemical Commission from 1939 to 1946; president of the Optical Society of America, 1932 to 1933; associate editor of the Review of Scientific Instruments, 1934 to 1936; and chairman of the Interdepartmental Screw Thread Committee in 1952. He also participated in the work of the American Society for Testing Materials, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Institute of Physics, the National Research Council, the International Organization for Standardization, and the Inter- national Committee on Legal Metrology. Locally, he was president of the Philosophical Society of Washington in 1922, of the Washington Academy of Sciences in 1940, and of the Cosmos Club in 1946. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences PROTA ONG © Bi RES ORO eee OE R. E. Gipson, Applied Physics Laboratory PERE SEOCME-ELECE SIN to oy aime oe erste ot aS ha Wiuiram W. Rusey, Geological Survey SERA 3 pS OR Ger DE Raa CS ne Ene OnE err: Heinz Sprecut, National Institutes of Health ee +46 Bee eee Howarp 8. Rappueye, Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) ACTER IA slot: C1 PCN ee RSI ue Reece Cieieh Ten ahem rete Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Haraup A. Renper, U. 8. National Museum Elected Members of the Board of Managers: Tho diame BY ieee omnis imc nmeir es amen re rthe aes A. T. McPuerson, A. B. GURNEY Roast ye LOSS eee oe pen teenies eee eae ice W. W. Rosny, J. R. SWALLEN PROM IAMUAT 959) Yh 6 oe eceao sale eee salon sieve a Francois N. FRENKIEL, F. L. CAMPBELL LO OHORO /MIVLANIGGETS). Wai teris co sass Secon eee All the above officers plus the Editor [SERGD? aE Cuester H. Pacer, National Bureau of Standards (EM 2-4040) Associate Hditors....... RONALD BamForp, Howarp W. Bonp, ImManuEL EsTERMANN IE CELULTVEY COMMIULEE: «0255 sobs cae aes ees R. E. Gipson (chairman), W. W. Rusey, Heinz Specut, H. S. Rappieye, A. B. GuRNEY Committee on Membership.......... Louis R. Maxwetu (chairman), Naval Ordnance Laboratory (HE 4-7100), Grorar Anastos, W. H. Avery, Roger W. Curtis, CHURCHILL EISENHART, GEOFFREY Epsatu, J. H. McMILLen Committee on Meetings.......... A.M. Stone (chairman), Applied Physics Laboratory (JU 9-7700), Partie H. ABrELsoN, Kennertu 8. Cots, Leon F. Curtis, J. WALLACE Joyce, THomas J. Krii1an, Constantin C. Nixirororr, T. D. Stewart Committee on Monographs: pRopsanuany L951 5 cm vi. olgusiedie sss eae Haraup A. Reaper, Witt1am A. Dayton Monamuarys T9G8. «cect test neecede sees Dean B. Cows, Josepu P. H. Morrison ita diammnancse TRG Bee pe aoe eb Pree i cin een Te eee Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement Tru C. ScHooNOVER (general chairman), National Bureau of Standards (EM 2-4040) For Biological Sciences...... MicHaru J. PELCZAR (chairman), University of Mary- land (WA 7-3800), James M. HunpiEey, WILLIE W. Surtn, JoEL WARREN, R. B. Wrrnrow For Engineering Sciences...... ARNOLD Scorr (chairman), National Bureau of Standards (EM 2-4040), Frank A. Brsperstern, J. M. Catpweii, Micwarn GoupBeEre, T. J. Hickury, Pauu A. Surra For Physical Sciences...... C. R. Narser (chairman), George Washington Univer- sity (ST 3-0250), Howarp W. Bonn, IMMANUEL EstERMANN, Peter Kina, JU, Ie Marton, Extiorr MonTrRo.t, "E. H. Vestine For Teaching of Science...... B. D. Van Evera (chairman), George Washington University (ST 3-0250), RonaLp BamrorpD, HERMAN BRANSON, KertH JOHNSON, Howarp OWENS, MARGARET PATTERSON, B. W. Srrrer.y Committee on Grants-in-Aid for Research W.J. Hamer (chairman), National Bureau of Standards (HM 2-4040), W. R. WepDEL, H. W. WELts Commiitee on policy and Planning Frank M. Serzuer (chairman), v S. National Museum (NA 8-1810) "ADC LEDS ETT UC 1597 AAR a ee Joun E. Grar, RayMonp J. SEEGER MRNowamuanyyO58). fabio. 56 dercoeiew sees Francis M. DEFANDORF, F. M. Serzter ANG) darian ay OS ec glee Sec OO eee MARGARET PITTMAN, Watvo L. Scamrrr Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent ARCHIBALD T. McPHERSON (chairman), National Bureau of Standards (EM 2-4040) PRO MN VINT DTV LOS he Pere es: oasis Wee s tise arte als Tra B. Hansen, Witiram J. YOUDEN MorsvanianyelO58) acu) ee sees see ARCHIBALD T. McPuHeErson, W. T. Reap ROR AUUATM ISO cee er cry Meet Mc acc Mon at Pau R. Mriuer, Leo ScHuUBERT Committee on Science Education (Academy representation on Joint Board for Improve- ment of Science Education)...... Raymonp J. SEEGER (chairman), National Science Foundation (ST 3-2140), ArNotp H. Scort, Kerra Jonnson, WapE H. MarsHatu, JouHNn K. Taytor NUETESENLALIVCHONNOCOUNCUNOLAvALPA aS santa aac cee ene A. NELSON SAYRE Committee of Auditors...... Epwarp WICHERS chet) National Bureau of Stand- ards (EM 2-4040), M. C. Henprrson, P. H. Hernzp CORTOEIEO Of WEGICTS god acc. coce Geritcs Ian enna cn nen te one Committee on Ways and Means...... Francois N. FRENKIEL (chairman), peplied Physics Laboratory (JU 9-7100),S. F. BEE, Paar A. Oxruser, W. T. Reap, B. F. ScriBpNER Committee on Public Relations......! _ 1. Mawnan (chairman), Applied Phy sies Labora- tory (JU 9-7700), Ht. Sprcut, Howarp Bonp CONTENTS Page CHEMICAL ENGINEERING.—Joule-Thomson coefficients for Freon-12. RicHARD A. ScHMIDTKE:.. 5. ..2.0.+0.6 sce e056 eee 137 Entomo.tocy.—Three new Neotropical flea beetles. Doris H. Buaxe. 142 ENntTomMoLocy.—Two new species of Rhyopsocus (Psocoptera) from the U. S. A., with notes on the bionomics of one household species. KATHRYN M.SOMMERMAN/...: 2... 65 .55.-02. 0002-5 00 ore 145 Matacotocy.—Mollusca dredged by the Orca off the Santa Barbara, Islands, California, in 1951. S. StinLMAN Berry...... ES. 150 Zootocy.—A new fairy shrimp from western United States, with notes on other North American species. RALPH W. DEXTER.......... 159 Notes and New8? $56 6.0 0bsdeltis wis oiecne Boe ole ees rr 157, 165 i ee =f) S * {/ xs ~ C/o. \ = — i Ake, 9 ’ D pp A/ ie =) VOLUME 46 June 1956 NUMBER 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES } Published Monthly by the meASHINGTON AUGEAGD AD Mey 20 F S°C TEN © Bes MOUNT ROYAL & GUILFORD AVES., BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences Editor: Cuester H. Paau, National Bureau of Standards Associate Editors: RoNALD BAaMForD, University of Maryland Howarp W. Bonn, National Institutes of Health IMMANUEL EsTERMANN, Office of Naval Research This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: (1) Original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceed- ings and programs of meetings of the Academy and afhliated societies; (3) correspond- ence of interest to Academy members; and (4) notes of events connected with the scien- tific life of Washington. The JouRNAL is issued monthly. 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Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. ‘ Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. Authorized February 17, 1949. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 46 June 1956 No. 6 GENERAL SCIENCE.— Man and science’. Raymond J. SEEGER, National Science Foundation. (Received May 7, 1956) One of the great issues today is the rela- tion of man to science. I have deliberately used the phrase man and science, rather than science and man, to suggest that man himself is the key to the problem. I shall stress only the scientific aspect of this rela- tionship today although I am quite sensi- tive to the human significance. One phase of the issue may be stated thus: Is science inherently individualistic? If so, personal freedom is a primary requi- site for each scientist. Or, is science essen- tially social? Then government planning is a fundamental necessity for all science. The present emphasis all over the world seems to be on the social importance of science, arising probably from the promi- nent place it occupies in the economic struc- ture of modern society (cf. the medieval social interest in astrology and alchemy). First of all, man is searching intensively for all kinds of materials and for cheap sources of energy, owing partly to catastrophic World War II losses, partly to normal population growth, and partly to an ever increasing demand for commodities. Sec- ondly, the dramatic use of atomic energy within six years after its identification has encouraged a belief that the usual time lag between discovery and application can be greatly decreased by a sufficient expenditure of simultaneous efforts. (A more recent, but less well-known example from solid-state science is the invention of the transistor.) It is conceivable that the mastery of nature ' Vice-Presidential Address for Section L, ‘‘His- tory and Philosophy of Science, 1956 Atlanta Meeting of the AAAS. Based upon talks given at Purdue University, the Virginia Theological Semi- nary, Industrial College of the Armed Forces, and the State Department Foreign Service Institute. through science will make possible the mas- tery of the world. The uppermost question, therefore, in everyone’s mind is this: if science is to rule the world, who is to rule science? Accordingly, we find governments generally sensitive to the basic research studies of technology. Sometimes, indeed, there is a deliberate attempt to make basic research captive, often indirectly through the support of education. For example, in recent years more than 60 per cent of educa- tion in Great Britain has been supported by the national government; in Germany about 90 per cent of all research at educa- tional institutions has government funds for its source; in Russia technological develop- ment is being exploited in an all-out effort. Even in the United States it is estimated that the Federal Government supports about 70 per cent of the research performed at educational institutions. Hence it is not surprising to find President J. D. Millet, of the University of Miami, chairman of the Commission on Financing Higher Educa- tion of the Association of American Univer- sities, saying, ‘“Many of America’s greatest universities are on the verge of becoming purely scientific, if not technological insti- tutions.” In any case the spectrum of the distribution of national funds for the sup- port of science is anxiously watched as an index to technological progress. Let us, therefore, consider in more detail the question: is science essentially social? Some years ago Julian Huxley concluded his book Science and social needs with the statement: “Science is not the disembodied sort of activity that some would make out, engaged in the abstract task of pursuing universal truth, but a social funetion, inti- 169 GL 3 0 tang 170 mately linked with human history and hu- man destiny.” In the same spirit Hyman Levy in The universe of science has em- phasized that science creates social needs, whereas Lancelot Hogben has boasted con- tinually that science fulfills social needs. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics notes in the Soviet encyclopedia that “The ultimate aim of all science is the satis- fying of the needs of society.’’ The Soviet Union itself is a good example of this thesis. In the official Marxist doctrine of 1930 we are informed that science is identical with technology; that science advances practical needs; that science, therefore, must be or- ganized for practical needs; and that central direction is necessarily part of economic planning. A dramatic illustration of this doctrine in practice was the recent develop- ment of biological science in the Soviet Union. In 1948 Lysenko expressed opposi- tion to genetics because of its hereditary emphasis in contrast to the envoronmental factor, proper for Soviet thought. He was opposed also to Darwinian theories with their emphasis upon individual species com- batting one another in contrast to the Lamarckian influence of environment. Within two years Michurin of Russia an- nounced that through Lysenko’s methods actual changes had been effected in plants, such as the transformations of wheat into rye, of elm into hazelwood, of pine into fir, et al. Two years later an announcement foretold animal changes soon to come (to date, the speaker has no knowledge of the fulfillment of this prophecy). In practice the Soviet doctrine resulted early in a nationalization of science quite contrary to the international character that has been generally accepted in western cul- ture. For example, in 1935 Soviet scientists were not permitted to publish in scientific journals outside Russia; later the Soviet journals themselves were published only in the Russian language; still later, references were confined mostly to Russian literature. To say the least, history may become greatly distorted through such a procedure. (The new look of the USSR is quite encour- aging for an international outlook in the area of scientific publication (e. g., permis- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 6 sion for external publication, and English abstracts of internal journals).) If we would see ourselves as others see us, we might well read the somewhat preju- diced book of S. F. Mason, Main currents of scientific thought (1953). He argues that in the nineteenth century the main current of Soviet thought was essentially of a theoretical nature (cf. Lobachewsky’s non- Euclidean geometry, Mendeléef’s periodic ta- ble, Pavlov’s conditioned reflexes), whereas in the United States it had more of a technological character (e.g., anaesthetics, the telephone, the airplane, et al., culminat- ing in the twentieth century production of the atomic bomb). Perhaps, we should look critically in our own historical mirror. We see Benjamin Franklin promoting in 1773 the founding of the American Philosophical Society ‘“‘For Promoting Useful Knowledge.” In 1836 Joseph Henry, before his appoint- ment as first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, said, ‘“Though many excel in the application of science to practical arts of life, few devote themselves to the con- tinued labor and patient discovery and de- velopment of new truths.’”’ With respect to Thomas Edison, Henry Ford remarked, “Today we think of scientific discoveries in connection with their possible or future application to the needs of man.” In his Science, the endless frontier Vannevar Bush warned in 1945, ‘“‘Our national preeminence in the fields of applied research and devel- opment should not blind us to the truth that with respect to pure research—the dis- covery of fundamental new knowledge and basic scientific principles—America has oc- cupied a second place.”’ Thus, we see from the beginning of American history to mod- ern times a utilitarian tradition. Nowadays there appears to be a world- wide phenomenon of such technological emphasis. On the one hand, those countries without industries are urgently striving to encourage industrial research; while, on the other hand, those countries with well- developed industries are busily engaged in fostering military research. In Great Brit- ain, for example, during the period 1936-37 to 1950-51 the government support of basic research in the universities increased only sixfold, while government expenditures in- JUNE 1956 SEEGER: MAN creased 8 times in agricultural research, 9 times in medical research, 10 times in indus- trial research, and 67 times in military re- search and development. In all this social emphasis upon science, to be sure, there always lurks the potential danger of undesirable control. Physicists are ever mindful of the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1847 at which James Joule’s ex- perimental conclusion of the conservation of energy would have been dismissed ex cathedra by the chairman, had it not been for the alert and sensitive intervention of a young man by the name of William Thom- son, later Lord Kelvin. A tragic series of events took place in Germany partly be- cause of Hermann von Helmholtz’s failure to recognize the theoretical work of Robert Mayer on the mechanical equivalent of heat in 1842, even though he admitted its value at the Innsbruck meeting in 1869. We are all aware of the German decision not to develop atomic energy during World War II. An ‘‘expert”’ here once informed a class that supersonic flight of aircraft would never be a possibility—at the very time that the Germans had privately completed their basic aerodynamic research for the V-2. I myself still recall certain individuals who advised against sponsoring basic research on the long-range application of interferom- etry to jets because of a supposed urgency of a short-range duration. Then, too, I recollect the scoffiing attitude of some per- sons who questioned certain theoretical work in favor of practical improvements amounting, say, to an increased efficiency of a tenth of one per cent. It turned out later, however, that the theoretical ideas became embodied in the air-burst principle used in the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki with its untold percentage in- crease in effectiveness. Men of affairs un- fortunately are not alone in being adept in making wrong choices. In his outstanding work on Hydrodynamics (6th edition) the scholar Horace Lamb mentions the basic Rankine-Hugoniot law of shock waves only vasually (in a footnote), viz, ‘““No evidence has yet been adduced in support of this law.” Yet since that year of 1933 shock waves have assumed a major role of practi- AND SCIENCE 171 cal importance and of theoretical signifi- cance. It is evident that the high stakes involved in wrong choices make the man- agement problem of judging social signifi- cance a matter of utmost importance. Even though control of science by scientists 1s not without serious problems and handi- caps, there would appear to be an even greater danger if the development of science should be controlled by nonscientists—for motives other than scientific progress. What is more, there is always also a lim- iting manpower problem in any social en- deavor. Some time ago a representative of a foreign oil company pointed out from an analysis he had made, that research output has apparently doubled every seven years in recent times. He estimates that just one more effective doubling is possible owing to the limitation of sufficiently intelligent per- sons available for guiding basic research in a balanced economy. Regardless of the correctness of the prophecy, evidently the availability of scientific personnel at any particular place and time does impose an upper limit so that efficient utilization of people may be of primary significance. In our own country we note the rapid deplet- ing of scientific personnel in colleges and universities owing to the increasing compe- tition among industries for technical talent at the very time when schools are beginning to bulge. It may well be that in this process we are all robbing the academic goose who lays the intellectual eggs. France long ago pointed to a more likely road to scientific achievement in the establishment of the Ecole Polytechnique with its utilization of research-minded individuals as teachers. Is science, perhaps, inherently individ- ualistic? There is no doubt that much sci- entific growth has psychological and socio- logical roots in more or practical requirements. It must always be borne in mind, however, that intellectual curiosity per se also is often a primary incentive. The element of wonder and astonishment is always a pertinent motivating factor. Newton himself, when asked about his own discoveries, stated that he had made them “by always thinking aside about them.” In more recent times, X-rays were dis- covered as a_ serendipity biological by- less 172 product of a physics investigation. In the scientific laboratory, as well as in kinder- garten, the intellectual activity must be fun. Perhaps, here is a clue to the scientific productivity of young people—their atti- tude toward real problems, rather than the condition of their environment. Strangely enough, Einstein as a young man made his brilliant discoveries about special relativity, the Brownian movements, and the photo- electric effect not in a university, not even in a laboratory, but in a government patent office. Not only must we bear in mind so- cially that scientists are people, but indi- vidually that each scientist is a person—a person that sees visions and later dreams dreams. He is not so much a doer—or even a knower—he is truly a seer. Poincaré once noted, “It is not science that is useful be- cause its discoveries make technical prog- ress possible but technical progress is useful because it enables mankind by relieving it of material cares to give more time to science and to art.” Science, indeed, is fundamentally not so much a common-sense residue from the past, but rather a challenge to the common sense of the present. Perhaps, a familiar illustration may be useful. Here is a trailer with a candle in the center. When the candle is lighted, will the rays of light reach the front end or the back end of the trailer first? It is obvious that both will take place at the same time. I forgot to mention, how- ever, that the trailer is moving (unknown and unknowable to the occupants)—or is it the earth that is moving? To persons on the outside it is equally obvious that light will reach the back end of the trailer before light arrives at the forward end, which appears to be moving away from the initial position. In other words, to these observers, the events are not simultaneous. The only knowledge used in making these two con- trary deductions is the experimental fact that the velocity of light is the same for all observers regardless of their own state of motion. Thus the common-sense concept of simultaneity, which seems generally intelli- gible and self-evident to us, is challenged by science. It should be emphasized, how- ever, that the real contribution of Eimstein in this instance was to call attention not to JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 6 the doubtful conclusions relative to differ- ent observers, but rather to the certainty resulting from that which is invariant with respect to all observers. Another challenge to common sense is seen in the very nature of energy. Here we find that by exercising discipline with re- gard to logical consistency we arrive again at greater freedom of thought. Let us take another familiar example, say, a space ship having two radio emitters inside, one at each end. The first station emits a radio beam consisting of electromagnetic radia- tion. It is known that such waves have momentum given by H/c, where FE is the energy of the radiation and ¢ its velocity. The action on this emitted radiation is associated with a reaction on the space ship, which obtains an opposite momentum given by Mv, where M is the mass of the space ship and vy its resultant velocity. Dur- ing the time t that the radiation travels the distance | from the first station to the sec- ond one, where it is received, the ship will have moved a distance x, given by vf. There iS no apparent reason why the two radio stations cannot then be interchanged (in principle), and the whole process repeated over and over again. In this event the space ship would move on indefinitely in the same direction—a violation, of course, of the con- servation of energy. In what respect, then, have we been theoretically inconsistent? We have not associated any mass with the radi- ation. Accordingly, in interchanging the stations we have failed to preserve the location of the center of mass of the whole system. In other words, Ja must equal ml, where m is the mass of the emitted radia- tion. From these few relations we find read- ily that the unknown mass m of the radiation is equal to '/c?. In this simple way we have obtained an expression for the mass equiva- lent of radiation energy; and so we are compelled to think of atomic (mass) energy, in addition to mechanical energy, electrical energy, thermal energy, et al. Perhaps, the greatest danger, however, that exists for the individual scientist who hopes to be free to see such visions, is the polluted atmosphere of materialism. To many people science has become socially just a magic phrase for nature like ‘open JUNE 1956 SEEGER: MAN sesame,’’ which will reveal money for many things close to the heart’s desire. As a grad- uate student, I heard a college preacher remind the students upon the occasion of a great monetary gift for buildings that uni- versities consist not of things, but, in the main, of ideas. How sad it is to see inside many large edifices with magnificient equip- ment the obvious imprint “No men—at work.”’ A more dangerous personal influence is the subtle, often subconscious lure of higher salaries, extra privileges, more power, which might even be called professional pa- tronage in the vulgar sense. We are ever reminded that ‘‘man does not live by bread alone,”’ that The world is too much with us, late and soon, Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers, Little we see in Nature that is ours. Einstein remarked in his introduction to the 1931 reprint of Newton’s Optics, ‘‘Fortu- nate Newton, happy childhood of science, he who has time and tranquillity can by reading this book, live again the wonderful advantages which the great Newton ex- perienced in his young day.” Time and tranquillity, rather than material benefits, these are the prerequisites for the individual scientist who wishes to understand the world about us! Thus I find myself concluding that sci- ence is inherently individualistic in its origin, but essentially social in its develop- ment. Basically, it is man made and hence anthropomorphic. Let us consider, there- fore, what science is. Science, I should say, is strictly the result of the use of the scientific method and the scientific method is simply the instrument used by the scientist. The answer to the question, what is science, is given basically in terms of the scientist. A related question, of course, which we shall not be discussing today, is this one, ‘‘Who is man?” In science we begin existentially with sense impressions, which change with our own impressionistic outlooks and which in their totality constitute observed facts. To many non-scientists science 1s nothing more than a collection of such observed facts—or at most combined with some inductive in- ferences, as in the early positivism of August AND SCIENCE 173 Comte. It was recognized later, however, that a scientist just doesn’t collect facts at random in the tradition of Francis Bacon. Who, for example, would note all the mo- tional aspects of fluttering leaves in order to ascertain the general laws of motion? On the contrary, one carefully selects facts to- gether with their relations, which constitute the later positivism of Ernst Mach. It has become evident that the more popular or general a language the more even simple interpretations of facts require some kind of semantics, or operational rules, as advo- cated by modern logical positivists. For ex- ample, what do we mean scientifically by the length of a body? No more than the answer we get in making a measurement, either thoughtfully or experimentally, in a certain prescribed manner regardless of any preconceived categories of knowledge! We note that in each case it is the scientist who collects, the scientist who selects, the scien- tist who operates. Any person having objects of different sizes, shapes and colors will attempt to separate out those that are alike and, if possible, to relate those that are different into a single pattern. So, too, the scientist looks for related factors amid his collection of observed facts. In this respect, he may be guided by the cogency of logical con- sistency, or by the urgency of simplicity for economic or some other purposeful con- venience. For example, it is well known that a descriptive characteristic of a ma- terial is its specific gravity, that is, the weight of a given sample relative to the weight of an equal volume of water. It is equally true, however, that the square of the specific gravity is also uniquely charac- teristic—not to mention the cube, ete. We prefer to utilize specific gravity because of the simplicity of its form. Here again it is the scientist who chooses the relations. To the traveler who has gone along vari- ous roads and who has seen many places, it is always refreshing to go up on a mountain top from which he can see at a glance the whole surrounding region with its network of roads. So, too, the scientist is not content with the observed facts, or even with the related factors. He looks for an overall view, what the Greeks called a theory (from the 174 same root word as theater); such a theory is necessarily factitious in that it 1s inspired in the scientist by compelling beauty or by ingrained truth (based on analogies with common sense), or merely by the heuristic value of pragmatism. Not everyone could or would or should be an Einstein, a Bohr, et all. Max Born concludes his ‘‘Natural Phi- losophy of Cause and Chance”? with the remark “Faith, imagination, intuition are decisive factors in the progress of science as in any other activity.” The scientist is truly a maker, or to use the Greek word, a poet. In a strict sense the scientist strives to achieve a poetical view; his formal relations are freely creative, as Poincaré has empha- sized. Hence the scientist himself plays a major role in the development of theory. He can never be completely eliminated. The studied attempt to eliminate the subject for greater objectivity finally becomes only in- creasingly more subjective. Every scientist has a question in mind as he looks out upon the world about him. The observed facts are its answers. From them he obtains related factors. From both he makes a factitious theory, which enables him to see farther and wider so that new questions arise in his mind as he again looks out upon the world about him. The new answers are In the form of additional ob- served facts. The cycle will be continually repeated, although its completeness will ever depend upon the controllability of the material. For example, observed facts may be difficult to isolate as in self-involving social phenomena; or a factitious theory may be difficult to achieve as in the omni- present observational earth sciences. In any case the cycle represents a single instru- ment in the hands of an instrument maker. In the use of the scientific method, how- ever, there are two necesary conditions. The first one is conformity to nature. which is based upon the assumption of the uniform- ity of nature. In other words, at all times predicted conclusions must check with ob- served data. The second condition is acceptability by society, which is based upon the assumption of human comprehensibility of nature. Ein- stein once said that to him the most incom- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 6 prehensible feature of nature is its compre- hensibility. The scientist’s understanding, his reasons for accepting certain general principles, depends on his own personality as well as the social class, the political group, the religious faith, et al., to which he adheres. In a strict sense such factors are included in the sociology of science. In the celebrated case of Galileo, we note, the Roman Catholic Church opposed philosophi- cally the favored position of the sun. (One wonders what influence this social problem may have had later in the eighteenth cen- tury, which saw science in a dormant state both for the Catholic Italy of Galileo and for the Protestant Germany of Kepler, which was undoubtedly influenced by the anti- rational attitude of Luther.) In our own day we found Nazi leaders, with the physicist Johannes Stark as their spokesman, voicing similar opposition to the lack of favored observers from the relativistic point of view. They were opposed also to the con- cept of materialistic clocks for time deter- mination, which seemed irreconcilable with their own idealistic position. On the other hand, in the USSR also there has been offi- cial opposition to the relativity theory, but in this instance because of a supposedly idealistic view of material mass as energy. (Can it be altogether accidental that the use of atomic energy was first developed in English-speaking countries?) The social ac- ceptability of science is intrinsically in- volved in the philosophy of science, again impressing us with the fact that in all science there is indelibly imprinted some- thing of the scientist himself. As we look about us, we are aware of phenomena, appearances that play lke Plato’s shadows in his underground den. It is upon the foundation of the totality of these sense impressions, of course, that one constructs the world of science. Here, how- ever, 1S always an element of surprise—the theories are never merely descriptive of what is known; in addition, they are pre- dictive of what is unknown—probably due to the fact that a thing itself is always greater than any experiential impressions and, even more so, than any symbolic ex- pressions of it. That there is a world of nature beyond sense impressions gains cre- JUNE 1956 SEEGER: MAN dence as a philosophy of nature extrascien- tifie (metaphysical) in character. Thus we find Max Planck insisting upon the exist- ence of three worlds: the world of sense impressions, the world of science, and the real world, as he calls it. He says ‘‘Physical science demands that we admit the exist- ence of a real world independent from us” —actually, an assumption. As far as I can see, the data of sense impressions form a contact surface of phenomena, in which I am existentially involved, between two pos- sible worlds, the world of nature and the world of science. What relationship, if any, exists between these two worlds? Is nature possibly non-existent? Is science, perhaps, purely fictional? Is science merely the im- perfect reflection, or imperfect image of nature made in the rational image of man? Are these two worlds possibly identical? Is science a re-construction of the world of nature? There are various views as to how the world of science may be related to the world of nature. P. Duhem urged ‘‘To the extent that physical theory makes progress, it becomes more and more similar to a natu- ral classification which is its ideal end.” Einsten stated, ‘‘Our experience up to date justifies us in feeling sure that in Nature is actualized the ideal of mathematical sim- plicity.”” A. A. Michelson once suggested that ‘What can surpass in beauty the wonderful adaptation of Nature’s means to her ends, and the never-failing rule of law and order which governs even the most apparently irregular and complicated of her manifestations? These laws it is the object of the scientific investigator to discover and apply. In such successful investigation con- sists at once his keenest delight as well as his highest reward.”’ We are reminded here of Keat’s creed that “Truthis beauty.” P. Bridg- man, however, cautions us that ‘The known laws of nature are simple if we consider only a limited range of facts.’’ Hence we must al- ways be aware of limitations of scientific data, which are necessarily incomplete and imperfectly described by man. We must be conscious also that the world of science, in turn, is necessarily incomplete as a descrip- tion even of the sense impressions, not to mention as a description of their matrix; at best it represents only an incomplete and AND SCIENCE 175 imperfect theoretical outlook. Uniqueness, of course, is always wanting. It would seem unlikely, therefore, that a one-to-one corre- spondence would exist at any time between the world of nature, involving the sense- data plane, and the world of science, involv- ing the same plane. One would hardly be justified, I believe, in any extrapolation like that of P. Jordan in his Science and_ the course of history, viz., ‘“The discovery of new laws of atomic physics has shown the old materialistic view to be untenable even in the field of physics.’’ The necessary condi- tions of conformity to nature and of accepta- bility by man, moreover, may be related to the philosophy of nature as a guiding faith. To me the cumulative and integrative de- velopment of scientific theories, leading to more inclusive description and ever sur- prising prediction, points more and more to a probable world of nature, which may be susceptible of metaphysical interpretations, such as the theological premise ‘In the beginning God”! We should never dogmat- ically exclude Einstein’s ‘Faith in the possi- bility that the regulations valid for the world of existence are rational.” Unfortunately there is a widening gap between any philosophy of science ap- proached from the standpoint of science, and any philosophy of nature, approached from the standpoint of philosophy per se. Yet there can be no sharp line of demarcation; for the scientist himself is the link. As man looks at the environment about him from the different points of view of physical, bio- logical, psychological, and sociological sci- ences, it is always he himself who is viewing. Invariably, from any viewpoint he ponders three questions: what is true? what is real? what is value? The attempt to obtain an- swers to these questions in any discipline may properly be called the philosophy of that discipline. To seek common answers to these common questions is general pbiloso- phy. The attitude may be that of an ag- nostic, or of a skeptic, or of a man of faith. No compelling evidence will be agreed upon by all viewers. Because of inevitable incom- pleteness the same set of observed facts may be seen in different ways—as a cube may be visualized on a flat surface, or as a limited outlook of white clouds in a blue sky 176 may be interpreted as white caps on a blue sea. As far as I can see, there is no way of demonstrating just what is precisely true and just what is precisely false; for there are no general criteria for truth. The choice for each of us may be determined by uncon- ditional imperatives like loyalty to a human cause, like love to a human partner, like obedience to a divine Will, et al., or merely by unconditional recognition of other people as individual persons. What must be ad- mitted by all is that civilization is the product not of the pessimism of agnostics and of skeptics, but of the optimism of men of faith. Enthusiastic men have varied as to what they have believed, but they have all believed either in some thing, or in some one, or in Some One. Some have believed that answers to the three questions can be obtained from one’s environment (material- ism); others, from men (humanism); still others, from God (theism). Unfortunately, while a man considers leisurely how to make up his mind, he may already be virtually making up his life. Three practical decisions are open to every man. He may refuse to consider the matter and thereby fix his ignorance; or he may purge his beliefs and thus leave a vacuum for chance filling in; or he may clarify all aspects and then make an intelligent (from the Latin words inter legere meaning to choose among) choice. We note that detachment is itself a choice. What then shall we do about the original question, is science inherently individualis- tic, or essentially social? Dr. Conant, I believe, gives us a clue when he says “‘Science should be relevant to man.” In other words, as men, we can not have science for the sake of science any more than we can have art for JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 6 the sake of art. We must have science and art for the sake of man—man individually or socially. Science is both an end for man and a means for society. The best results will be obtained, of course, if their interrela- tions are understood. Freedom for the indi- vidual, I would urge, should be listed first. Man is truly a social being; but first of all, a man is actually a man. When I think of man and science, I find a parable in the apotheosis of Faust, as set forth in that poetical, philosophical autobi- ography of Goethe. The theme there seems to be that he who strives, strays, yet in that straying finds his salvation. At the beginning Faust flouts science. He tries vainly to make man master of his environment. Mephis- topheles taunts Faust with his demand for everything, his satisfaction with nothing. He wagers that Faust will one day demand nothing, but will be satisfied with whatever chance throws his way. In the last scene we watch expectantly the 100-year old Faust looking upon the sand dunes along a shore marked with engineering feats of dykes and canals—a political enterprise in which people strive daily to make buttresses against the ever-surging sea. Faust muses on future generations living and laboring in this wholesome danger. He mutters, ‘‘Verweile doch, du bist so schén” (Stay, thou art so fair)—almost the very words of the original wager. Yet even here Faust is maintaining his enthusiasm for a difficult, but endless life: The noble spirit now is free And saved from evil scheming! Whoever aspires unweariedly Is not beyond redeeming. JUNE 1956 DEMPSEY: STONE “‘MEDICINE WHEELS” 177 ETHNOLOGY .=Stone “Medicine Wheels’—memorials to Blackfoot war chiefs. Hueu A. Dempsey, Calgary, Alberta. (Communicated by John C. Ewers.) b) Two stone ‘medicine wheels,’ which are still in existence on the Blood Indian Re- serve in southern Alberta, Canada, offer excellent examples that the line between archeological and ethnological work is some- times a fine one. For these two ‘medicine wheels” —and a third recently inundated by backwaters of St. Mary Dam—are not ancient markers whose significance is lost in antiquity. Rather, they have been con- structed within this century, and a sum- mer’s field work has revealed the date and ownership of the rings, the reason for their existence, and has enabled interviews to be made with individuals who actually partici- pated in or witnessed their creation. The Blackfoot ‘medicine wheel’’ consists of a circle of stones, or “tipi ring,” with concentric lines of stones of varying lengths extending away from it in the four cardinal directions. This pattern is similar to those described by Kehoe’s informants (1954, pp. 133-34), although it differs from his Lowry, Mont., site which has ten such lines. The tipi ring itself is common in Black- foot country and has been used within the past two decades by at least two tribes of this nation (Blood and North Peigan) where the owner wished to follow early customs. The tipi rings were aptly described in 1955 by One Gun, an elderly North Black- foot informant: “The circles of stones were normally used to hold down the edges of the lodges. The old tipis were made of buf- falo skins and were much heavier than the canvas ones. They could not be blown away as easily, so stones were able to hold them in place. But when we started to use can- vas, we had to use pegs or our tipis would be blown over. Stones were also used be- tween the pegs.” Although many of these tipi rings have been destroyed in cultivated areas, some are still known to exist on the North Black- foot Reserve in Canada, the Blackfoot Res- ervation in Montana, and on the Blood Reserve, where the writer has observed well over two dozen in casual traveling. The Blackfoot term for the ‘medicine wheel” is atsot-akeeh’ tuksin. The literal translation is: “from all sides’ (atsot), ‘“a small marker of stones” (akeeh’), ‘for pos- terity”’ (tuksin). It will be noted that the word merely designates the radiating lines and makes no reference to the tipi ring it- self. This conforms with Blackfoot tradition that the lines were merely appendages to existing tipi rings, rather than the whole marker being constructed at one time. According to informants, ‘medicine wheels’? were used to mark the residence or grave of a warrior chief. There were ap- parently three such allied uses: for a tipi in which a warrior chief died and was buried; one in which he had been residing at the time of his death but which was not his burial place; and one which was used during his lifetime but not related to his death. Each may be a variation, or they may reveal a change in the use of these markers over the years. The earliest reference to a Blackfoot “medicine wheel”? known to informants is credited to Bull Back Fat, a Blood chief who died in 1842. But, according to Jack Low Horn, a reliable Blood informant who supplied this data, the marker did not origi- nate with this chief but “was started in the days when our people used dogs instead of horses.’’ The informant told the follow- ing story: “The use of this sign saved the life of the first Bull Back Fat.! The Bloods had been on a raiding party to the south and were returning home. In each camp, Bull Back Fat used these signs around his lodge. A party of enemy Crows discovered one of these camps and saw his marks. They had never seen them before and wondered what they meant, so they began to follow the trail of the Bloods. They found two deserted camps and arrived at the third shortly after the Bloods had left. Bull Back Fat and his wife were a few miles from this camp when they discovered that a colt 1 There were at least five Blood chiefs named Bull Back Fat during the period 1830-1900 and each is remembered by some characteristic—i.e., the first Bull Back Fat, the short Bull Back Fat, the Bull Back Fat who was buried by women, ete. 178 JOURNAL had been left behind, so they returned to find it. When they came to a point overlooking the camp, the Crows saw the pair and waved to them. Escape was impossible, so Bull Black Fat rode down to meet them. Speaking in sign language, the Crows asked about the meaning of the stones. Bull Back Fat explained that these were used by a great warrior chief who was leading the party of Bloods; but he did not tell them that he was the chief. They became anxious to visit this man and Bull Back Fat agreed to lead them there under a pact of peace, but asked that his people have time to be prepared. He left the Crows and found the new camp where his lodge was placed in readiness for the visitors. When the party arrived, they were shown to Bull Back Fat’s tipi. When they entered, they were surprised to meet the same man whom they had seen earlier. It was then they learned who he was and realized they had missed the opportunity of killing a great chief... .” OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 6° According to the informant, other tribes soon learned the meaning of the “medicine wheel” and it served a practical purpose, for the enemy was always hesitant about pursuing a camp which was led by a noted warrior. “‘Anyone passing one of these markers would know that a great warrior chief had camped there,’ he commented. If this at one period was the common Blackfoot use of the ‘‘medicine wheel,’’ it evidently underwent a change in the late nomadic period, for most modern inform- ants consider these to be solely memorials or death markers. One Gun stated that “when a chief died, he was left in his tipi. After it had fallen down and rotted, any- one travelling past would know that a chief died there because of the radiating lines.” Alternately, Rides at the Door, a Blood in- formant, said that “any stranger passing such a place would recognize that a chief ° o N (9°) fo} an ° [e) oO ° o 90000 2° 200, 0? 05 oO % oe co} ° ° 9 ° 9 ° 9 ° ° ° yh C20 © OO OO Oo 6a p= O60 OO OO &.o © 000 «—— 30’ 8 (o) — 30’ —___> ; : % © % ° %, °° Larger stones flank 20 90° 3foot entrancew. °0009000°° 1) yy ° fe} c-} ° (e} 0’ o ° 5 to is 20 _ a ——— rel °o Feet ° °o oe °o Fra. 1.—The ‘‘medicine wheel’’ of Steel, a noted Blood warrior, is located on the Blood Indian Reserve, southern Alberta, about 3 miles north of Spring Coulee. It is 27 feet in diameter at the circle with four 30-foot radiating lines. There were 77 stones used in the circle portion, and 14 each in the 3-foot fireplaces. This ‘‘medicine wheel’? was constructed in April 1940, following the death of Steel. JUNE 1956 ie is DEMPSEY: STONE “MEDICINE WHEELS” Es Fic. 2.—The Eagle Child ‘‘medicine wheel,’’ looking northeast. had died there, but the body would not be left there.” It is possible that these two distinct lines of thought are the result of Blackfoot mor- tuary customs. At times, particularly dur- ing plagues or when moving camp, a dead person was left in his sewn-up lodge. On other occasions, he was buried in the trees or on a scaffolding on a high hill. This vari- ation possibly affected the use of the ‘“‘med- icine wheel,” with the radiating lines being left at the death lodge if it was used, or at the tipi ring if the chief was buried else- where. The Bloods and North Blackfoot know of several ‘‘medicine wheels” which were erected for warrior chiefs. Some of these markers are still in existence, but most have been destroyed by the inroads of civiliza- tion. One Gun knew of two wheels which he claimed were intact on the North Black- foot Reserve, east of Calgary. He said that “at Blackfoot Crossing there is one for Little Medicine Pipe, a Blackfoot who died in the smallpox epidemic of 1869-70, and on Arrowwood Creek is one for Bad Head, a Blood chief.’ Another informant said that Many Spotted Horses, a noted Blood war chief who died in 1884, had a ‘‘medicine wheel” on the Blood Reserve near Whoop- Up. A search revealed only this chief’s tipi ring, but the stones of his ‘‘medicine wheel,”’ which were at an inaccessible point on Weasel Fat’s Bottom, had reportedly been scattered. Local Indians had replaced the stones as much as possible, but it was felt that this interference limited the usefulness of this wheel for comparative study. However, two existing ‘‘medicine wheels” belonging to other Blood warriors were closely examined, and data was obtained on a third ring which in 1950 was sub- merged by the backwaters of an irrigation dam project. The two inspected were the ‘‘medicine wheels” of Steel (Ski-mdtszs, literally Fire Steel) and Eagle Child (Péla-poka), while the third belonged to Red Crow (A/éhav- sto). All these wheels were constructed dur- ing the present century and are likely the only ones made by the Blood tribe during that period. A similar ‘“‘medicine wheel” has been credited to Running Wolf, a Blood chief who died in 1921, but conflicting stories tend to dispute the authenticity of the claim. Of the three markers, Red Crow’s is the earliest. It was made immediately following his death on August 28, 1900. Red Crow was head chief of the tribe from 1870 until 180 his death and was one of the most influen- tial men in the nation. An elderly inform- ant, Mrs. Bruised Head, who was present at the event, provided the following de- scription of the making of his “medicine wheel”’: “T was staying at Red Crow’s tipi at the time. He went across the river to round up his horses and, when he didn’t return, his wife, Long Time Singer, went to look for him. She found him lay- ing on the gravel at the edge of the river. I saw her crying and we knew what had happened. We all went across with the Red Crow’s wagon and brought his body over. Both religious de- nominations were at the funeral, together with many white people. When it was finished, we started to move camp. But before we left, we placed the markers on the four sides of his tipi ring. Red Crow had used pegs on his tipi, but also had stones between them. When the lodge was removed, the circle of stones was incomplete, so we took rocks from other tipi rings and com- pleted it. Then we placed the four radiating lines. There was no ceremony; several of us in the family did it because it was the custom as far back as the days when we used dogs; they were just the marks of a warrior chief. ““After this, we left the camp site. That night, Bull Horn, a minor chief, camped in the next bottom. He had not heard about Red Crow’s death. Next morning he went to the camp site and when he saw the marks around Red Crow’s tipi ring he began crying, for he knew that Red Crow was dead.” The second example is the Eagle Child wheel which was constructed in 1931 after this man’s death. It is located about 150 feet west of his house on the Blood Reserve, and 14% miles south-west of St. Paul’s Anglican School. The tipi ring portion is 12 feet in diameter and contains 54 field stones ranging from four to 12 inches in diameter. There are no hearth stones. When examined in the summer of 1955, the north and south lines contained six stones, the east line seven stones and the west line four stones. All extended in lines four to six feet in length and, by the spaces, would appear to have been disturbed by cattle or horses. According to available information, Eagle Child had lived in his house, but moved to JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 6 ' his tipi shortly before his death in 1931. The radiating lines were set in place by Francis Eagle Child following his father’s death. The most interesting ‘medicine wheel,” from all aspects, is the memorial to Steel, a great Blood warrior. It is of the most classic design and the fact that it was con- structed in 1940, probably makes it the most recent and last such stone marker. Born in about 1850, Steel was an out- standing fighter against the Crow and As- sinboin and, although he never gained official chieftain status, he was held in this regard by his people. For his exploits, he became the owner of a 30-buffalo tipi and was permitted to have two fireplaces. Be- cause these two points are reflected in his “medicine wheel” they should be_ briefly explained. The average Blackfoot tipi contained 12 to 14 skins (Ewers, 1955, p. 131), but war- riors who performed certain brave deeds were permitted to have tipis made of 30 buffalo skins. Because of its size and weight, such a lodge was said by informants to have been divided in half for moving, and was carried on two travois. Therefore, besides fulfilling the warrior requirements, the owner of such a tipi had to be fairly wealthy in horses. Some Bloods who owned these tipis were Seen From Afar, brothers Hind Bull and Fish Child, Packs His Tail, and Holy Sleeps. Naturally, a 30 buffalo tipi was far larger at the base than the average tipis, and this size is immediately evident when inspecting certain tipi rings or “medicine wheels.” If a Blackfoot owner of a 30 buffalo tipi carried his bravery and heroism to an even greater degree, he might become one of the select few to possess twin fireplaces. To gain this envied prize, a warrior had to perform some outstanding cowp of a double nature. For example, an early Blood chief, Big White Child, knocked two enemy from the same horse—one from each side. Steel, according to an informant, gained twin fire- places when he killed two Crow Indians in a singularly brave action. The fireplace nearest the doorway was apparently used for everyday purposes, while the one to the west was reserved for JUNE 1956 burning incense associated with a medicine pipe held by twin fireplace owners. Informants knew of only five Bloods who had possessed both 30 buffalo tipis and twin fireplaces. These were the first Bull Back Fat, Tail Feathers Coming Over the Hill, Big White Child, Many Spotted Horses, and Steel. Even Seen From Afar, remembered by the Bloods as their greatest chief, had not performed the “dual” exploits necessary to gain this honor. Therefore, Steel’s final memorial—a 30 buffalo tipi ring, with twin fireplaces, and flanked with four radiating lines—would appear to be the greatest tribute that could be paid a Blackfoot warrior chief. In his later life, Steel was a progressive Indian who lived in a log cabin, built cor- rals, and owned cattle and horses. Karly in 1940, shortly before his death, he pitched his large canvas tipi (of 30 buffalo size) a short distance south of his home, in prepa- ration for a meeting of the Horn Society—a secret organization which guides the reli- gious life of the reserve. Although he used pegs, he also obtained stones to hold the canvas in place. Following the meeting, Steel showed his son, Bob, how to lay out the four directional lines. Steel died at Standoff on April 7, 1940, and was buried on a hill near the Belly Buttes. His son, assisted by his sister, Mrs. Laurie Plume, then completed the ‘medi- cine wheel” in accordance with his father’s last wishes. “The lines signify that he was a brave man, a leader who had been to war,” stated his daughter. “It was Steel’s wish to have this done as a proper tribute to a warrior chief.”” She added that, if he had not been entitled to it, the elders of the tribe would have quickly ordered the stones removed, as they were jealous of undeserved honors. The Steel ‘“‘medicine wheel” is located on the Laurie Plume farm, three miles north of Spring Coulee and about three-quarters of a mile from St. Mary River. The tipi ring portion is 27 feet in diam- eter (compared to Eagle Child’s 12-foot ring) and contains 77 field stones. There is a three-foot entrance to the east which is flanked by two larger stones. The concentric lines are all 30 feet in length, with the stones DEMPSEY: STONE ‘‘MEDICINE WHEELS” 181 evenly spaced. The north and west lines contain 10 stones while the south and east lines contain 12 each. The double fireplaces are both three feet in diameter and each contains 14 stones. The everyday fireplace is nine feet from the east entrance, while the ceremonial fire- place is six feet in either direction from the west edge of the ring and from the other fireplace. There is no doubt that this ‘‘medicine wheel” was carefully prepared and, when it was visited in 1955, it was overgrown with grass but was reverently treasured by Mr. and Mrs. Plume. Because the tall grass could not be cleared away, it was impossible to properly photograph the entire ring. Evidence that Steel did not vary the general size of the circle, fireplaces or en- trance, was obtained when two informants stated that the first twin fireplace tipi ring constructed by Steel was still in existence in the Standoff area. By checking winter counts, the date of this ring was set at 1885. When found after considerable searching, this tipi ring was seen to be almost identical with the ‘‘medicine wheel,’’ with the excep- tion that it did not have the radiating lines. It had the same diameter, the entranceway was the same size, and there was only slight variation in the size of one fireplace. The only major difference was that the fire- places appeared to be closer to the east entrance by some 3 feet. There was no doubt that this ring was older than the “medicine wheel” as all stones were deeply imbedded in the soil, some being level with the surface. There was one point about ‘‘medicine wheels” upon which all informants were in unanimous agreement: the radiating lines had no religious or symbolical significance. The number “four” is a sacred one among the Blackfoot and often occurs in religious ceremonies and traditional tales. But all agreed that no such symbolism applied here or, if it ever had, all knowledge of it is forgotten. The reply of formant Rides at the Door is typical: ‘There is no sym- bolical meaning to the four lines; they just denote his status as a warrior chiet.”’ Upon existing evidence, it would appear that the use of Blackfoot “medicine wheels” 182 JOURNAL OF THE are relatively recent. Informants knew of only two such markers which they could not immediately identify. One was near Red Crow’s wheel and was thought to have been much older, while the other was on Sun Dial Hill (Kehoe, 1954, p. 134) and is recorded only through the Geological Sur- vey of 1882-83-84. However, the title, Onoka-katzi used by surveyor G. M. Daw- son to describe the site, likely means “Elk Shirt” (Ponoka-sokaxsin), which was_ be- lieved by informants to have been the name of a mid-nineteenth century chief of the North Blackfoot. Because it has been possible only to study “medicine wheels” located on the Blood Xeserve and interview informants from the Blackfoot nation, no attempt has been made to carry this study beyond the region of the stated territory. ‘“Medicine wheels,” of a type, have been mentioned at Lowry, Mont., by Kehoe, and in the Big Horn WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 6 Mountains east of Lovell, Wyo., by Mulloy, (1954, pp. 54-55), but further research would be necessary to ascertain if there is any relationship between these, and the relatively recent markers of the Blackfoot. Also field work among the Crow, Assini- boin, Gros Ventre, or other Northern Plains Indians might determine if this custom was familar to tribes other than the Blackfoot. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ewers, Joun C. The horse in Blackfoot Indian culture, with comparative material from other western tribes. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 159. 1955. Kernor, THoomas F. Stone ‘‘medicine wheels’ in southern Alberta and the adjacent portion of Montana: Were they designed as grave markers? Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 44 (5): 133-137. 1954. Muuuoy, WriuraAM. Archaeological investigations in the Shoshone Basin of Wyoming. Univ. Wyoming Publ. 18 (1): 1954. i LARGE TERMITE COLLECTION GOES TO SMITHSONIAN A collection of 230,000 specimens of termites, including 1,286 distinct species of the approx- imately 2,000 known in the world, has been pre- sented to the Smithsonian Institution by the U. 8. Department of Agriculture Forest Insect Research. Probably the second most valuable of its kind in the world, this collection represents the work of more than 46 years during which Dr. Thomas E. Snyder, retired Department of Agriculture entomologist, collected termites in the Western Hemisphere and has also obtained many Old World species by exchange and gift. In- cluded in the collection are 948 type specimens. When Dr. Snyder started his collection in 1915 there were only 12 identified species of termites in the Smithsonian collections. Termites are found over most of the world except the Arctic and Antarctic, Dr. Snyder explains, and probably many kinds still remain unknown. Only those that do damage to human structures have been intensively studied, and extermination of these is now a multimillion- dollar busmess in the United States. There is always the danger, he says, that some foreign has species may invade the country at any time, and therefore means of immediate identification, such as is provided by the Smithsonian collection, may prove invaluable. Although termites are customarily referred to as ‘“‘white ants,’’ Dr. Snyder says, there is little, if any, relationship between ants and termites. These two kinds of insects have developed only roughly similar body forms and ways of life by quite independent routes. Termites, he explains, are more nearly related to the roaches, which were among the earliest forms to appear on earth ap- proximately 250,000,000 years ago. The termites, as indicated in fossil deposits, made their first appearance not much more than 50,000,000 years ago and represent a long road from the primitive roaches. They have Neen termed “social cockroaches.” The first ants did not make their appearance until about 30,000,000 years ago. They took on the environment and habits of the termites and, being more advanced organisms, soon drove the older creatures to a wholly sub- terranean habitat. The ant is much _ better equipped as a predatory animal. JUNE 1956 LLANO: NEW UMBILICARIACEAE 183 BOTANY =WNew Umobilicariaceae from the Western Hemisphere, with a key to gen- era. GEORGE A. LLANO, Research Studies Institute, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala. The taxonomic portion of this paper is the second concerning the Arctic lichen flora (6) and follows the systematic classifi- cation first proposed by Scholander (8) for the Umbilicariaceae, later revised by Llano (5) with the addition of a new genus. Scho- lander’s system, based primarily upon the structure of the apothecia, allows a natural phylogenetic arrangement of species into four well defined genera. A secondary dis- tinction, the presence or absence of a pustu- late thallus, serves to distinguish Lasallia from Agyrophora, as indicated in the follow- ing key: Apothecial disk plane, the whole surface smooth and with a continuous proper margin. Mhallusspustulate.-..-.55....-- Lasallia Mérat Thallus not pustulate.........Agyrophora Nyl. Apothecial disk plane or convex, surface with a central button and/or fissures, or furrows. Apothecial disk plane with sterile central but- ton, or fissure, and/or secondary fissures Omphalodiscus Schol. Apothecial disk convex, furrowed, with or with- out a margin. Furrows of concentric gyri contained within a continuous proper margin. Umbilicaria Hoffm. Furrows of radial gyri without any margin. Actinogyra Schol. 1. Agyrophora scholanderii Llano, sp. nov. Thallus parvus, 1-2 em in diam., crassus, mono- polyphyllus, marginibus tenuibus infrequentibus laceratis, umbonis eminente, leniter pruimosus in rugis rotundis, supra laevis, mollis, papillis minutissimis, leniter reticulatus-venosus, mar- ginibus integris aut subperforatis, marginibus bruneis obscuris vel atris, subtus niger ebeninus, verrucosus, irregulariter rhizinis longis, rotundis vel planis, irregulariter ramosis, attenuatis, superficies scabra; apothecia pauca vel numerosa, adnata, atra 0.5-1 mm in diam., marginibus irregularibus, persistentibus; 40-45 x 17-24 p, octospori; paraphyses simplices, apicibus, incrassatis obscurioribus et usque 1.5-2.5 pw inflatis; sporae hyalinae, ellipsoideae, 11-14 x 5-7.7 wp. ALASKA: lat. 69° N., long. 145° W., Shubelik Mountains, on rocks about 1,300 m alt., near Lake Peters, July-August 1948, P. F. Scholander. leiodiscis, ascl Holotype (in author’s herbarium). Mount Me- Kinley National Park, on a large erratic in thinly wooded muskeg off road from McKinley Park Station, about 700 m alt., September 1952, G. A. Llano. WasHineton Sratr: Mason County, summit of Mount Ellinor about 2,000 m alt., July 29, 1912, A. S. Foster no. 2120, ex herb. G. K. Merrill, Farlow Herbarium. The taxon is named in honor of Dr. Peter F. Scholander, professor of zoophysiology, Oslo University, Norway, who, through his studies and field col- lections, bas contributed greatly to our under- standing of the lichen family Umbilicariaceae. The range of A. scholanderti suggests that. it is, with U. angulata Tuck., a species of the western mountains of North America. However, the former appears to be a plant of the higher in- terior mountains and of a more arctic distribu- tion; while the latter is typically oceanic and occurs on the Pacific coast from southern Cali- fornia north to the Kenai Peninsula and west to Adak Island. These species, which overlap in the Olympic Mountains in Washington, are the only two Umbilicariaceae endemic to North America. 2. Umbilicaria aprina Nyl., in Syn. Lich. 2: 12. 1863. var. halei Llano, var. nov. Thallus minor magnitudine, 1.3 cm in diam., rhizinis minus manifestis vel absentibus. Canapa: N.W.T., Baffin Island, head of Clyde Fiord, on exposed gneiss boulders, August 26, 1950, M. E. Hale, Jr., no. 450. Holotype (in author’s herbarium). Hale’s no. 450 (3), was tentatively referred to U. aprina Nyl. (7), an Abyssinian species later reported from the Ruwenzori Mountains by Frey (2). Hasselrot’s report (4) gave one Nor- wegian and two Swedish localities, the first re- corded occurrences of the species outside of Africa. Comparison of the Scandinavian material with the holotype (Nyl. no. 31742) reveals that Hasselrot’s specimens are less densely hirsute then the holotype. Nevertheless, the over all morphological characteristics, especially the con- forming shape and color of the rhizinae, sub- stantiates Hasselrot’s decision. Hale’s specimens are homogeneous and differ in the following de- tails from the African and European material: 184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No.6 © et a as = cd 2a 4 ~ Mae be) ps) Bod as Divi i€ Fies. 1-12.—1-8, Agyrophora scholanderti Llano, sp. nov., upper (1) and two lower (2, 3) sur- faces of holotype; 4-6, A. sholanderii, upper (4) and two lower (5, 6) surfaces of Mount McKinley sample; 7-10, Umbilicaria aprina Nyl., var. halei Llano, var. nov., upper (7) and three lower (8-10) surfaces of holotype; 11, 12, Ophalodiscus decussatus (Vill.) Schol. var. tortuwosus Llano, var. nov., upper (11) and lower (12) surfaces of holotype. (Photo by R. K. Stockard). JUNE 1956 They are dimunitive, spherical, and slate to gray black; one-third to three-fourths of the inner lower surface is covered by a circular, sooty, rarely mottled patch terminating in black flecks, and contrast sharply with the fuscous, pruina- tinged outer lower rim. Rhizinae are sparse to absent, and are confined to the fuscous zone. Otherwise, they are typical. Strap-shaped, bi- fureate rhizinae extend outward, mainly from the thallus periphery, as tongue-like extensions. Lacking more definitive or fertile material, the original determination for Hale’s no. 450 is main- tained. However, the singular features cited justify a variety designation. The name honors the collector, Dr. Mason Hale, Jr., for the first record of U. aprina Nyl., from the Arctic and New World. 3. Omphalodiscus decussatus (Vill.) Schol.,in Nyt Mag. Naturvid. 75: 23. 1934. var. tortuosus Llano, var. nov. Thallus 2-5 cm in diam., irregularis, rigidus, mono-polyphyllus, densus, umbo obscurus, crasse verrucosus, superficies superior subverrucosa vel laevis, rugi absentes vel molles, marginibus laciniatis; subtus laevis, ater, raro bruneus, raro lacunis. Apothecia non visa. Antarctica: MacRobertson Land, A.N.A.R.E. Base Mawson (lat. 67° 36’ 21” 8., long. 62° 52’ 48” E.). “Uncommon and occurring as a large patch coverig an area 100 x 200 yards on a northwest facing slope.” Leg. R. O. Summers, January 1955. Through the courtesy of the director of the Antarctic Division, Department of External Affairs, Melbourne, Australia, exsiccatae ma- terial was obtained of four Antarctic Umbili- cariaceae. The collections made by two members LLANO: NEW UMBILICARIACEAE 185 of the 1954-1955 A.N.A.R. Expedition, David P. Sweetensen and Dr. R. O. Summers, included the following species: Omphalodiscus spongiosus (Dodge & Baker) Llano, O. decussatus (Vill.) Schol., and O. decussatus (Vill.) Schol. var. cerebri- formis (Dodge & Baker) (1) Llano, and a homo- geneous number of O. decussatus var. tortuosus Llano. The writer gratefully acknowledges the as- sistance of Mrs. Kenneth R. Whiting with the Latin diagnosis; and of Dr. EK. H. Walker, of the Smithsonian Institution, whose valuable criti- cisms in the preparation of this paper are much appreciated. M/Set. J. L. Pearce, NCOIC, and M/Set. R. K. Stockard, special photographer, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, provided the illustrations. BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) Dover, C. W., and Baker, G. E. Lichens and lichen parasites. In, ‘‘The Second Byrd Antarctic Expedition—Botany.”’ Ann. Mis- souri Bot. Garden 25 (2): 515-718, 1938. (2) Frey, E., and Moryxka, J. Les lichens des hautes altitudes au Ruwenzori. Mém. Inst. Royal Colonial Belge 5: 19-20. 1936. (8) Hate, M. E., Jr. Lichens from Baffin Island. Amer. Midl. Nat. 51 (1): 232-264. 1954. (4) Hassetrot, T. E. Lavar frdné Hlsingland och Harjedalen, samlade av M. Ostman. Arkiv Bot. 30 (4): 1-80, 1943. (5) Luano, G. A. A monograph of the lichen family Umbilicariaceae in the Western Hemisphere. Navexos P-831, 281 pp. 1950. A contribution to the lichen flora of Alaska. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 41 (6) : 196-200. 1951. (7) NyLANDER, Wm. Synopsis lichenum 2: 12. 1863. (8) ScHotanpER, P. F. On the apothecia in the lichen family Umbilicariaceae. Nyt. Mag. Naturvid. 75: 1-31. 1934. (6) I often say that cf you can measure that of which you speak, and can express it by a number, you know something of your subject; but zf you cannot measure at, your knowledge ts meagre and unsatisfactory. —LoRD KELVIN. 186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 6 ENTOMOLOGY .—Redescriptions of four species of neotropical Culicoides of the debilipalpis group (Diptera: Heleidae). WituIs W. Wrrrn! and FRANKLIN S. Bianton.2 (Communicated by Alan Stone.) In the course of our taxonomic study of the Panama Culicoides of the very difficult debilipalpis group, we have restudied type material of several non-Panamanian species for purposes of comparison. We feel that the study of certain characters which were not utilized when these species were de- seribed a number of years ago is essential for recognition of species in this group. We therefore take this opportunity to offer redescriptions and figures of four of these species. We are deeply grateful to Paul Freeman and the trustees of the British Museum (Natural History) for the opportunity to study type material (see discussion under germanus) of dasyophrus Macfie and germa- nus Macfie from British Guiana. To Irving Fox of the University of Puerto Rico we are equally appreciative of his kindness in lending us the holotypes of trilineatus Fox and hoffmani Fox from the West Indies. There are several terms the exact defi- nitions of which are essential to the de- seriptions. Wing length is measured from the basal arculus to the wing tip; we use the Tillyard modification of the Comstock- Needham terminology of wing veins, thus the two discal forks emit the branches M, and M, on the anterior fork and Ms,4 and Cu; on the posterior fork. The antennal ratio is the value obtained by dividing the combined lengths of the last five segments by the combined lengths of the preceding eight. The measurement of the length of the spermatheca includes the sclerotized portion of the duct. Our measurements are of single specimens unless followed by values in parentheses in which case the values are “mean (minimum-maximum, n = number of measurements).’ 1 Entomologist, Entomology Research Branch, Agricultural Research Service, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 2 Lieutenant Colonel, MSC, Department of Entomology, Walter Reed Army Institute of Re- search, Washington, D. C. Culicoides dasyophrus Macfie Fig. 1 Culicoides dasyophrus Macfie, 1940, Ent. Monthly Mag. 76: 27 (male, female; British Guiana); Ortiz, 1952, Acta Cient. Venezolana 8: 126 (Amazonas Terr., Venezuela; female rede- scribed; fig. antenna, spermatheca). Characters of female——Length of wing 0.74 (0.69—-0.76, n = 4) mm. Head: Eyes narrowly separated above, with long interfacetal hairs. Antenna with flagellar segments in proportion of 15:10:10:10:10:10: 10:10:15:18:19:20:33, antennal ratio 1.23; dis- tal sensory tufts present on segments IIT, VII-X. Palpal segments in proportion of 5:14:14:6:7, third segment swollen, 1.65 times as long as greatest breadth, with a broad, shallow, sensory pit. Mandible with 14 teeth. Thorax: Mesonotum dark brown with a pair of large, elongated submedian yellowish spots and a pair of obscure, dark-brown vittae laterad of these; scutellum brown in middle, paler on sides. Legs dark brown, fore and mid femur with subapical, all tibiae with subbasal and hind tibia with apical, narrow pale rings; hind tibial comb with 4 spines, the one next to the spur longest. Wing: Pattern as figured, pale spots rather small and not very distinct; poststigmatic pale spots in cell R; more or less fused, the posterior one located slightly proximad of the anterior one; distal pale spot in cell R; small, only one small pale spot in distal part of anal cell and one pale spot in distal part of cell M»; indistinct pale spot in front of mediocubital fork; macrotrichia sparse on distal third of wing; costa extending to 0.61 of distance to wing tip. Halter whitish. Abdomen: Dark brown, cerci yellowish; spermatheca one, pyriform, measuring 0.044 by 0.033 mm, the duct narrow and sclerotized for a considerable distance. Male genitalia.— Ninth sternum without caudo- median excavation, the posterior membrane not spiculate; ninth tergum long and tapering, the apicolateral processes short and blunt. Basistyle with ventral root foot-shaped, the caudal heel not long, dorsal root longer and slender; dististyle JUNE 1956 WIRTH AND BLANTON: NEOTROPICAL CULICOIDES 187 Mkt hii, EMeiegage |. DASYOPHRUS "Np ~~ KH > a Hinton Meunns 4. HOFFMANI Fies. 1-4.—1, Culicoides dasyophrus (paratype from New River, British Guiana); 2, Culicoides ger- manus (presumed tvpe, New River, British Guiana); 3, Culicoides trilineatus (from St. Croix, Virgin Islands) ; 4, Culicoides hoffmant (Puerto Rico; from Carolina, @ from Guyanilla). (a, female wing; b, female palpus; c, apex of hind tibia show ing spur and comb of tibial spines, female; d, female sperma- thecae; e, male penitalins parameres omitted; f, male parameres; g, thoracic color pattern, female. Drawings by Thomas M. Evans.) 188 nearly straight, with slender apex. Aedeagus very short and broad, basal arch more than half as high as total length of aedeagus, the trans- verse anteromesal sclerotized membrane rounded, apex with a short blunt inner sclerotized point enclosed by a short, bluntly conical, hyaline lobe. Parameres each with knobbed base, slender, sinuate stem without apparent ventral lobe and slender, tapering tip with 4 or 5 subapical, lateral barbs. Distribution.—British Guiana, Venezuela. Specimens examined.—As follows: British Guiana: New River, 750 feet, March 20, 1938, C. A. Hudson, 1 male, 7 females (para- types of dasyophrus). VENEZUELA: Amazonas Territory, 1951, P. Anduze, 7 females. Discussion.—The redescription and _ illustra- tion of the paratypes from British Guiana are made possible by the generous cooperation of Paul Freeman and the trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), who kindly lent us the material for study. We are also indebted to I. Ortiz for the gift of Venezuela specimens from the same collection upon which he reported in 1952. We are thus able to confirm Ortiz’s deter- mination of this species by direct comparison with type material. Barbosa’s record (1947, An. Soc. Biol. Pernambuco 7: 14) and figure of the male genitalia of dasyophrus from Panama, how- ever, are erroneous, and specimens from Barro Colorado Island in the U. 8. National Museum labeled dasyophrus by Barbosa are actually castillae Fox. The long distal five antennal segments, the presence of sensoria on segments IIT, VII-X, the short, broad, third palpal segment, the prominent mesonotal pattern, the obscure wing pattern with only one distal spot each in anal cell and cell Ms, and the pale apex of the hind tibia will serve to characterize dasyophrus. Culicoides germanus Macfie Fig. 2 Culicoides germanus Macfie, 1940, Ent. Monthly Mag. 76: 27 (female; British Guiana). Characters of female-—Length of wing 0.79 mm. The head was not dissected from the body and can be seen only in side view. Eye apparently hairy above, bare on lower portion. Antenna with flagellar segments in proportion of 18:15; 15:19:19:19:19:19:19:19:20:19:41, antennal JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 6 ratio 0.80, distal sensory tufts present on seg- ments III, VII-X. Palpal segments in proportion of 6:18:20:6:7, third segment distinctly swollen, about twice as long as greatest breadth, with a broad, shallow sensory pit. Mandible in wrong position to count teeth. Mesonotum dark brown, without apparent pattern (but may be due to being a slide mount); scutellum, postscutellum, and pleuron uniformly dark brown. Legs dark brown, femora entirely dark, tibiae with sub- basal pale rings, hind tibia with apex broadly pale, comb with four spines, the second from the spur longest. Wing with pattern as figured, second radial cell rather long and narrow, costa extending to 0.60 of distance to wing tip. The three pale spots in cell R; arranged in a triangle, the two poststigmatic pale spots in cell R; small and well separated, the posterior one located far proximad of the anterior one, distal spot in cell R; rounded except on distal side. Two pale spots in cell M,, only one pale spot each in apices of anal cell and cell Ms, no pale spot present anterior to medio- cubital fork but an indistinct pale spot present behind base of medial fork. Macrotrichia sparse, in rows, in apices of cells, Rs, Mi, and Mb, Halter pressed against thorax, not visible in profile, its color undetermined. Abdomen dark brown, cerci pale; spermathecae two, slightly unequal, collapsed and impossible to measure, apparently pyriform, with the ducts sclerotized a considerable distance. Specimens examined.—Macfie (1940, Ent. Monthly Mag. 76: 27-28) described this species and debilipalpis var. glabrior each from a single female from New River, British Guiana, col- lected in February and March 1938 by C. A. Hudson. In response to our inquiry regarding the types of germanus and glabrior Paul Freeman of the British Museum (Natural History) stated that the only material of these species which he could find in the Macfie collection in the Museum was one slide on which were mounted two fe- males, without locality data, but bearing only the label in Macfie’s handwriting, “Culicoides/ debilipalpis Lz./v. glabrior / 2 (large speci- men) /C. germanus / 2”. After careful study we can only conclude that these specimens are in fact the types of glabrior and germanus, and the smaller specimen is here redescribed as the presumed type of germanus. The larger specimen will be redescribed elsewhere as the presumed JUNE 1956 WIRTH AND BLANTON: type of glabrior. To our knowledge germanus is still known only from the type specimen. Discussion.—Culicoides germanus is very closely related to debilipalpis Lutz and hoffmani Fox but can be distinguished by the very hairy eyes, the presence of sensoria on the seventh antennal segment, the entirely dark femora, and the greater separation of the two proximal pale spots in cell Rs. The description and figures given under the name of germanus by Wirth (1955, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 57: 111) from Guatemala speci- mens are based on misidentifications of gabaldoni Ortiz. Culicoides insinuatus Ortiz and Leon, 1955, from Ecuador is very similar to germanus, with similar wing pattern and femora without subapical pale rings, but insinuatus differs in having a very deep sensory pit with a small pore on the third palpal segment. Culicoides trilineatus Fox Fig. 3 Culicoides trilineatus Fox, 1946, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 39: 250 (female; St. Thomas, Virgin Is- lands; biting man; fig. mesonotum, wing); Fox, 1949, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 44: 30 (male, female; Puerto Rico; reared, tree hole; fig. pal- pus, spermathecae, male aedeagus, parameres). Characters of female—Length of wing 0.97 (0.92-1.02, n = 7) mm. Head: Eyes broadly separated, bare. Antenna with flagellar segments in proportion of 19:15: 15:17:17:15:15:15:17:18:19:20:33, antennal ratio 0.86 (0.82-0.94, n = 3); distal sensory tufts present on segments III, sometimes on V, always on VI-X. Palpal segments in proportion of 13:24:30:10:12, third segment slightly swollen toward extreme tip, 2.6 (2.3-3.0, n = 7) times as long as greatest breadth, with a shallow, small, sensory pit. Mandible with 18 (17-18, n = 7) teeth. Thorax: Mesonotum grayish brown, with a prominent dark-brown pattern consisting of three longitudinal lines connected posteriorly by a transverse line just in front of prescutellar de- pression, the two lateral lines continued caudad along sides of this depression and extending from humeral pits to sides of scutellum; lateral margins dark brown with mesal extensions anteriorly to humeral pits and posteriorly along mesonotal suture. Scutellum dark brown, ends. slightly paler; postscutellum and pleuron dark brown. Legs brown, fore and mid knees dark, with NEOTROPICAL CULICOIDES 189 narrow pale rings on each side of joint, hind tibia with pale band at base and apex; hind tibial comb with 4 (n = 7) spines, the second from the spur longest. Wing: Pattern as figured, a double poststig- matic pale spot in cell Rs, the posterior portion extending slightly proximad of the anterior part; distal pale spot in cell R; small, transverse; proximal spot in cell M; very small, one small pale spot in apex of anal cell, no pale spot in front of mediocubital fork but a pale line con- necting pale spot behind medial fork to a dis- tinct subapical, second spot in distal portion of cell Mo. Macrotrichia very long and abundant, extending to base of wing in anal and medial cells; costa extending to 0.57 of distance to wing tip. Halter brownish, the flat end paler. Abdomen: Dark brown; spermathecae two, pyriform, subequal, measuring 0.056 by 0.039 mm, the bases of the ducts sclerotized a short distance. Distribution —St. Thomas (type Puerto Rico, Barbados, St. Croix. Specimens examined.—60 females from: Barpapos: 1, no. 861, A. J. Jennings. VirciIn Is~taNnps: St. Croix—38, Diamond School, September 1938; 1, Fountain, valley of jungle and stream 1 mile from seacoast, May 1935; 15, Salt River, September 1938; 11, Tagus Pond, May 1936; all collected by H. A. Beatty. St. Thomas—Red Hook, September 11, 1987, biting in the afternoon (holotype of trilineatus lent from Univ. Puerto Rico collection through the courtesy of Irving Fox). Discussion.—This species is obviously closely related to debilipalpis Lutz but can be readily separated by its prominent mesonotal pattern, its hairier wings, with reduced pale spot at base of cell My, no pale spot before mediocubital fork, the third palpal segment shaped differently, and the greater number of proximal antennal segments with sensoria. locality) ; Culicoides hoffmani Fox Fig. 4 Culicoides hoffmani Fox, 1946, Ann. nt. Soe. Amer. 39: 251 (female; Cumuto Village, Trini- dad; biting; fig. mesonotum, wing); Fox, 1949, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 44: 29 (male, female; Puerto Rico; reared, tree hole; fig. palpus, spermathecae, male aedeagus, parameres). Characters of female——Length of wing 0.76 (0.73-0.86, n = 9) mm. 190 Head: Eyes separated, the line of separation broad above but narrowed below, eye with short interfacetal hairs. Antenna with flagellar seg- ments in proportion of 14:11:13:15:15:14:14: 15:14:14:15:15:25, antennal ratio 0.79 (0.75- 0.84, n = 3); distal sensory tufts present on seg- ments III, VIII-X. Palpal segments in propor- tion of 6:11:19:6:7, third segment very short and swollen, 1.6 (1.5-1.7,n = 9) times as long as greatest breadth, with a moderately large and deep sensory pit. Mandible with 14 (13-15, n = 5) teeth. Thorax: Mesonotum pruinose brown with pattern as figured, consisting essentially of a sublateral pair of darker brown patches, widest at midlength; scutellum, postscutellum and pleuron dark brown. Legs dark brown; fore and mid femora with subapical, all tibiae with sub- basal and hind tibia with apical, narrow pale rings; hind tibial comb with 4 (n= 9) spines, the one nearest the spur longest. Wing: Pattern as figured; two slightly sepa- rated, poststigmatic pale spots in cell R;, the posterior one lying only slightly proximad of the anterior one; distal pale spot in cell R; moderately large, rounded; two pale spots in cell M,; one pale spot each in apices of cells M., M, and anal cell, the one in anal cell failing by its own diameter to meet wing margin; a pale spot lying in front of mediocubital fork and another pale spot lying behind medial fork; macrotrichia sparse on distal third of wing, none in anal cell, cell M, or base of cell M.; costa extending to 0.59 (0.57 — 0.62, n = 9) of dis- tance to wing tip. Second radial cell well de- veloped. Halter brown, the flat end of knob whitish. Abdomen: blackish, cerei pale; spermathecae two, pyriform, slightly unequal, measuring 0.048 by 0.034 and 0.043 by 0.031 mm. Male genitalia—Ninth sternum with very broad and shallow caudomedian excavation, the posterior membrane bare; ninth tergum long with large, triangular, apicolateral processes. Basistyle with ventral root large and foot-shaped, dorsal root slender; dististyle slender and nearly straight with hooked apex. Aedeagus with basal arch rounded caudad, extending to slightly more JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 6 than half of total length, basal arms slender and curved; distal apex broadly expanded with three pointed lobes of subequal lengths. Parameres each with knobbed base, stem abruptly bent near base, very slender, mid-portion sinuate, no trace of ventral lobe, apex pointed with lateral fringe of fine hairs. Distribution.—Trinidad, Puerto Rico. Specimens examined.—As follows: Trinipap: Cumuto Village, June 11, 1941, biting, 1 female (holotype from University of Puerto Rico collection). Cumaca, June 16, 1954, Aitken and Downs, biting man, 2 females. Macqueripe, October 20, 1955, T. Aitken, light trap, 1 female. Melajo Forest, Sangre Grande, October 19, 1955, T. Aitken, biting man, 1 fe- male. Port of Spain, June 1953, U. 8S. Army, 25 Med. Det.; light trap, 2 males, 3 females. St. Pats, Arima, December 31, 1954. W. G. Downs, | female; December 10, 1954, T. Aitken, 4 females. Purrto Rico: Carolina, September 20, 1949, I. Fox, reared from tree hole, 3 males. Guyanilla, March 1949, I. Fox, reared from tree hole, 2 females. Mamayes, November 5, 1948, I. Fox, treehole, 1 male, 1 female. VirGin Isnuanps: St. Croix, H. A. Beatty, 6 females. Discussion.—Culicoides debilipalpis Lutz, which is also common in Trinidad and the An- tilles, can be distinguished by its slightly larger size (wing 0.80 mm long), longer, more slender palpus, the third segment 2.2 times as long as broad, with a small, deep pit, the second segment subequal in length to the third; wing hairier, macrotrichia extending in two lines to base of cell M, and numerous in anal cell, and the two post-stigmatic spots in cell R; more closely approximated and the posterior one located more distinctly proximad of the anterior one. Culicoides equatoriensis Barbosa from Kcuador resembles hoffmani in wing markings, in restric- tion of the macrotrichia to the distal half of the wing, and in the possession of a broad shallow palpal pit but, according to the original descrip- tion, differs in having the third palpal segment slightly longer, the eyes bare and contiguous, and subapical pale rings on all three pairs of femora. August 1935, JUNE 1956 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 191 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 1403p MEETING, JANUARY 14, 1955 The retiring president’s address on Solar influences on cosmic-ray variation was delivered by Scorr E. Forsusu. For almost 22 years, or two full sunspot cycles, the Carnegie Institution has carried on a program of continuous measurement and recording of total cosmic-ray ionization on a world-wide basis and the accumulated results of this program and their extensive statistical analysis was presented. The instruments used are ponderously shielded but delicate and highly sensitive, high-pressure ionization chambers, of 20 liters volume and filled with argon at 50 atmospheres. The measur- ing device is a Lindemann electrometer, photo- graphically recorded, and so connected that most of the ionization current is balanced out against the current produced in a subsidiary chamber by a constant uranium source. These instruments have been installed in, among other places, Cheltenham, Md.; Godhavn, Greenland; Teo- loyucan, Mexico; Christ Church, New Zealand; and Huancayo, Peru. This wide geographic distribution serves to cover as many geomagnetic latitudes as possible. An extensive series of slides illustrating the changes in ionization current and its correlation geographically and with solar phenomena was presented. There seem to be at least four types of varia- tion detected in the ionization currents: (1) Sudden, rare, but quite large, increases, associ- ated probably with low energy heavy particles from the sun; (2) world-wide decreases associated with magnetic storms; (3) a quasiperiodic varia- tion of 27-day period—the period of rotation of the sun—that lasts only for a few periods and disappears, like the sun-spots themselves; and (4) an 11-year variation correlated with the sun- spot numbers. The four variations are all clearly associated with solar phenomena, and the con- clusion reached is that the sun is responsible, directly or indirectly, for them all. Custer H. Pacn, National Bureau of Stand- ards, contributed an informal communication on a widely known puzzle: the so-called “Odd Ball Problem.” “Given 13 coins, or other objects, either identical or with just one of them either light or heavy, how decide with only three weigh- ings on a balance, which one, if any, is bad and in which sense?” It will be noted that each weighing provides one of three possible answers: Pan A heavy, balanced, Pan A light. What is needed is a weigh- ing schedule showing which coins go in which pans at each weighing. To get it, assign the num- ber 1 to “Pan A heavy,” 0 to a “balance,” and —1 to “Pan A light.”” We also assign each coin a number, including zero: the zeroth coin is 000, the first coin is 001, etc. on the base of enumera- tion 3, with the added proviso that we use the digits 1, 0 and —1. Thus the second coin is (3-1), or numerically 011, the third 010, the fifth 111, etc. These numbers are now to be written in a column, omitting zero and 13, and the column of first digits is the required weighing schedule, with 1 meaning the coin goes in Pan A, | in pan B, 0 in neither. To get four coins in each pan, however, evidently the signs of four coins have to be changed, in such fashion that each column shall contain as many plus 1’s as minus 1’s. This change can be made in any of seven ways, and when carried out, the three columns of digits give the three weighing schedules. The result of each then gives a number, and the three weighings together give the three digit number of the coin that is heavy, or if it comes out negative, light. If all weighings balance, 000, all coins are good. To weigh 13 coins the fulerum of the balance must be shifted so that the arms are in the ratio 5:4, and the thirteenth coin put always in the short arm with four others. The same schedule applies as before, and the behaviour of the bal- ance gives the answer, in the same numerical code. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1404TH MEBTING, JANUARY 28, 1955 Mark Kac of Cornell University, spoke on The emergence of statistical thought. There have been two approaches to statistical methods in the past: as a necessary evil on the one hand and as a logical and scientific necessity on the other. The discovery of the Mendelian laws represent one of the rare successes of the first approach; in the other branches of the exact sciences a hypothesized model acts as a guide to the data to be taken. A series of horrible examples will show the dangers of applying statistical methods without 192 due care. Consider the mania for “objective tests.”” Suppose a man answers 60 out of 100 yes-or-no questions correctly. Is the result mean- ingfule A monkey and a coin have a 34-percent chance of doing as well. Consider the apparent cycles in the population of rabbits, or lemmings or other animals. A plot shows that the average time between peaks of population is 315 years, with a 20-percent reliability. But a plot of ac- knowledgedly random numbers also shows a figure of 3.1 years with a 20-percent reliability. (One trouble here is admittedly psychological and semantic: the work random connotes to the statistically untrained a phenomenon of no ob- servable regularity.) The work of Udne Yule showed that the use of a moving average on the “business cycle” curve introduces spurious peri- odic behavior, just as a band pass filter does to a noise spectrum. Intuition is not a safe guide. For example, in the heads-or-tails game, if one throw is made every second, and the game is played for a year, it is not “incredible” that one player was behind all but 1314 hours, but merely a 5 percent chance. The chance of being behind all but 32 minutes is one percent. Again, a false estimate of the effects of a particular procedure may be disastrous, as is the ‘‘optional stopping” used in the ESP experiments at Duke. Dropping out “those who cease to do well’? may change the probabilities, not by a few percent, but by a factor of four or five. The logical difficulties inherent in Quantum Mechanics were, and are, of no mean order. For a most uncomfortably long time logic showed that the theory was untenable, but its agreement with experiment was unshakable. The Ehrenfest model of 2R balls in two boxes, properly handled, resolves the Poincare paradox and others, by showing that although the probability of recur- rence of the initial configuration after an infinite time is unity, the probable time taken to achieve this recurrence is in fact so nearly infinite that the recurrence is practically impossible. Mathe- matically, if P(s) is the probability that after s steps we return to the initial configuration with all the balls in one box, then )>¥ P(s) = 1, but SE sP(s) = 28, Finally, can the statistical approach be of use in pure mathematics? A consideration of the Descartes “Rule of Signs” for determining the number of positive roots of an equation of nth degree shows that it can. Statistically the number JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 6 of positive roots should be about (1/7) log n., a smaller quantity in general than the number of sign changes. Multiplying the entire polynomial by (1+t+0+--- +t") reduces the sign changes tox/n which is much nearer the expected value. ‘We ask a little less, we get a little more.” “To use statistics best, immerse the problem at hand in an ensemble of statistical data and deal with it rigorously.’ Three great discoveries of basic importance to science are Logic by the Greeks, the Experimental Method by Post- Renaissance Western Europe, and Statistical Thought by the Twentiety Century. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1405TH MEETING, FEBRUARY 11, 1955 The 1405th meeting of the Society was called to order at 8:15 p.m., by the Recording Secretary in the absence of all officers senior to him in authority. It was reported by the Chairman of the Communications Committee that the Speaker was snowed in somewhere along Route 1. After announcement of the next speaker, there was a call for informal communications, and the Society took a recess for 15 minutes to await a larger audience. The Society reconvened at 8:30, Mr. Tucker- man spoke briefly on Hexaflexagons, and Mr. Montroll gave a short talk on Cayley trees and their applications (when generalized to include closed figures) to governmental and other execu- tive organizations. Methods for the calculation of the number of trees of a given type, for selection of the type of tree (i.e., organizations best suited to a given job) and for their applications were all indicated. For example, a group doing operations analysis should have many cross-connections, a dictator- ship is a ‘‘classic” branching tree, a system of checks and balances is a triangle. Further discussion of “Tuckerman trees” by their author, a reference to a system of shorthand for use in organic chemistry by the Recording Secretary, and a note on Quaternions from the floor ended proceedings. 1406TH MEETING, FEBRUARY 25, 1955 Rosert G. BRECKENRIDGE, of the National Bureau of Standards, spoke on Gray tin. There are many substances that exist in two or more allotropic forms (familiar examples are carbon, sulfur, and phosphorus), but tin seems to be the JUNE 1956 most puzzling and romantic of them all. All gray tin, of which a specimen was shown, quite possi- bly originates from one original crystallization, a seed from which seems to be needed to initiate the spontaneous change from the ordinary metal that may occur at temperatures below 13.2° C. Gray tin is the so-called alpha phase of tin, with a cubic lattice, of the diamond type, lattice con- stant 6.4912 A, and density of 5.763. The ordi- nary metal, the beta phase, stable above 13.2° C, has a density of 7.281. Gray tin is a semiconduc- tor, a gray amorphous powder of very little strength, and bearing no resemblance to the white metallic phase. It is no wonder that the term tin disease, or tin plague, has been applied to the transformation. The conditions for transformation are not well understood. Temperatures below 13.2° are neces- sary but not sufficient. After much fruitless work, it was necessary to procure a seed crystal from Cornell, which laboratory had obtained theirs from the Dutch worker Ernest Cohen, who had had some from an 1868 chance crystallization of a shipment in St. Petersburg Harbor. The retransi- tion back to metallic tin takes place easily above the transition temperature, but is apparently not complete until the metal is actually melted. Some specimens have evidently retained their seeding power for many decades. The low-temperature transition is accelerated by Al and Meg ions, among others, but is inhibited by Bi, and to some extent by Pb. Contact with electrolytes has no influence on the transformation at the National Bureau of Standards, but is frequently reported to have some elsewhere! Germanium is contradic- torily reported sometimes as favoring the change, sometimes as of no effect. Work using gray and white tin as electrodes in the electrochemical cell lead to anomalous results. Instead of the 14 millivolt at zero degrees predicted from specific heat measurement, falling to zero linearly as the temperatures rises to the transition point, the EMF is approximately constant at 10 millivolts (for divalent ions in solution) falling abruptly to zero at the transition point. This result has thus far remained unpublished, being not understood. Independent measurements of the heat capacity, however, yield a normal value. Measurements of energy change based on a first order reaction equation yield a AH of 180 calories in the white to gray direction, but 2,300 calories in the reverse. Particle size appears to have an important effect here. On successively PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 193 transforming and retransforming many times, the gray form reduces to a micro-fine powder, on which consistent values, less than 2,300, but still much higher than 180 calories are obtained. Determined effects to produce gray tin in a form suitable for electrical measurements finally succeeded, using a technique of depositing an electroplated film on a suitable substrate, trans- forming the film to the alpha modification and then removing the substrate. Another technique, transforming thin single crystals was also success- ful. Measurements of the Hall effect and of conductivity with these specimens show an ab- normally high mobility: about 28,000 while the best Ge is only 3,000-4,000. The material shows photoconductivity well into the infra red. The Hall coefficient is a function of the magnetic field, unlike Ge and other well-behaved materials, and the T3/2 power law does not hold. Other workers have found it to be obeyed. This difficult material is indeed a semi-conductor, but all its properties are very unusual and le in a range where they are most difficult to measure and where the usual approximations and assumptions do not hold. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1407TH MEETING, MARCH 11, 1955 James D. Harpy, of the Naval Air Develop- ment Center, Johnsville, Pa., spoke on Pain and tissue damage. Concerning the phenomenon of pain as a whole there is little agreement among either philosophers or laity. There are moral as- pects, psychological aspects, physical aspects and sociological aspects. In order to isolate an objec- tive element of the problem, the studies presented were strictly limited to the sensation or the “experience” of pain. Some authorities state that even this cannot be done and that meaningful results can be obtained only by treating pain “holistically.” The technique employs a projection light as a source of heat, with a shutter to regulate the time of exposure, shining onto the blackened skin of the subject. The intensity of the light is increased during three second exposures until the threshold of pain is reached: this threshold being judged by the subject. It turns out that this technique is quite a satisfactory one: all subjects of all ages and both sexes responding to the same threshold with only a 4 percent standard deviation. “Every- body is equally sensitive to pain’ is the conclu- sion for this limited type of stimulus. Even though limited, it is a conclusion quite contrary to the 194 usual doctor’s belief. However, the ordinary physician is not measuring a pain threshold, but observing a human being as a whole in a far more complex situation “Are two pains worse than one?” Plotting log of the exposed area against intensity of stimulus it is found that the threshold of feeling falls as the area increases, but the threshold of pain does not. Pain does not exhibit “area summation.’”’ That is a unique phenomenon in sensory psychology. The threshold can be raised by 10 to 50% by reading, hypnosis, distractions like loud bell- ringing, but nothing lowers it. Extensive data show that pain occurs when the skin temperature reaches 45° C through a wide range of initial conditions. The input re- quired to produce pain is greater when the skin is cold initially, but the criterion for pain remains 45°. Other materials beside the cooperative hu- man subject were employed as well, among them a paraplegic case, bats’ tails, guinea pigs’ skin, and non-English-speaking Eskimos. The data were satisfactorily consistent. There are three different sensations here: cold, warmth, and pain, but only one set of nerve end- ings. This is a morphological puzzle for which there seems to be no current explanation. Data taken by Henriquez and Morris were quoted to show that tissue damage was dependent upon the product of time and temperature. In contrast, Dr. Hary’s results show that pain is an indication of the rate of damage. It is well known there is no one-to-one relation between pain and integrated tissue damage, as is shown by severely wounded cases during the last war. The scale of pain, measured in ‘‘dols’’ was explained. There seem to be subjectively 22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 6 perceptible steps from initiation to saturation of the sensation. Two parts are called a dol, and there are thus 11 dols in the scale. The dols go up with the skin temperature. When there has been previous tissue damage, even though fairly mild, as in a case of sunburn, the threshold for pain may be lowered quite markedly, even down to 35°. In the normal skin the rate of tissue repair can keep pace with the damage up to 45°, but if there is previous un- repaired damage, as in the sunburn, then the repair mechanisms are overloaded and _ pain results. 45° is the temperature at which human proteins are inactivated. Some animals, e.g., birds, have higher body temperatures, and it would be interesting to determine if their thresh- old is higher too. A wide-ranging discussion elicited some further points of interest. For example, cold blooded animals suffer irreversible changes at 35° or less, it takes approximately 100,000 calories per mol to inactivate a protein, a sustained pain of neurologic origin is not shut off by cutting the nerves to the part in which the pain is felt. Laboratory pain is different from pain in the sickroom and caution should be used in applying the results of this study, but in general pain and rate of tissue damage are strongly correlated. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1408TH MEETING, MARCH 25, 1955 This meeting of the Society was the occasion of the twenty-fourth Joseph Henry Lecture on Tritium vn nature, by Wittarp F. Lipsy, of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. The lec- ture has been published in this Journau 45: 301-314. 1955. SU aeEEEEREEETee cae NOTES AND NEWS THE SCIENCE TEACHER PROJECT On March 15 and 16, 1956, the Joint Board for Science Education of the Washington Acad- emy of Sciences and the D. C. Council of Engi- neering and Architectural Societies sponsored an unusual teacher replacement program in the junior and senior high schools in the Greater Washington area to free teachers to attend meet- ings of the National Science Teachers Association in Washington and to visit local laboratories. On these days scientists and engineers took over REPLACEMENT classes in the schools so that students, scientists, and teachers would learn something of one another’s interests and problems. In all, 100 schools and 320 teachers from the District of Columbia, Prince Georges and Montgomery Counties in Maryland, and Arlington and Fairfax Counties and Alexandria and Falls Church in Virginia took an active part; and 1,350 scientists volunteered to serve as substitute teachers and many more expressed a willingness to serve if needed. The plans for this program were initiated by JUNE 1956 the Joint Board early in October, when the superintendents of various schools in this area were contacted to establish their willingness to participate in such a program. The schools co- operated directly by supplying the names of teachers desirmg replacements along with their subjects and class schedules. The detailed plans for the recruiting of scientists and engineers were carried out primarily by a lhaison committee composed of scientists in the Washington area. These plans started with a meeting on December 19, at which chairmen were chosen for the various scientific fields such as biology, chemistry, physics, and general science. It was the task of each of these chairmen to choose representatives in each of the universities, and in government and industrial laboratories in his particular field, who would be responsible for enlisting individual scientists and engineers in his laboratory to serve as teacher replacements. The directors of these organizations and laboratories and the presidents of various technical societies were also approached for their cooperation in this project. Many techni- cal societies appointed individual members who were active in publicity and enlisting scientists and engineers from their respective societies. The office of the science supervisor of the D. C. Public Schools at Woodrow Wilson High School served as headquarters for the liaison committee during this period. One full-time secretary and another part-time secretary were provided for this office by Science Service. These secretaries did large amounts of the typing, answered the telephones, and participated in all phases of the work. After February 1, scientists, school supervisors, and teachers converged on the office of the science supervisor to help with the assignment task. The actual assignment task was one of primarily matching scientist cards with teacher cards so that the indicated times at which scientists were available fitted with the subjects and periods of the teacher’s classes. Insofar as possible attempts were made to place scientists in or nearby their indicated schools of preference. Throughout all these proceedings the advice of the science supervisor with regard to schools, teachers, and related subjects was freely drawn upon. When once the assignments were completed, large amounts of correspondence became neces- sary. This was handled by secretaries and teachers in the office of the science supervisor, outside laboratories, schools, the Joint Board, and else- NOTES AND NEWS 195 where. Because of the large number of applica- tions by scientists it was possible to make teach- ing assignments to only 730. Many thank-you letters therefore had to be written and were late in arriving because of the large task of completing the assignments. The liaison committee knows that many very able scientists and engineers were not utilized, for there was not sufficient time to place the best qualified person in each teaching assignment. After all the initial assignments were made and the associated correspondence taken care of, the primary concern became one of supplying replacements for scientists who later found they could not take part. About a hundred cards of unassigned scientists were catalogued with re- spect to possible teaching areas, and each of these groups of cards was placed in the hands of the area chairmen of the Secondary Schools Contact Committee of the Joint Board for Science Education. These scientists had been asked pre- viously by letter to remain in a standby status. If for some reason a scientist or engineer could not meet his scheduled class, the school contact committeeman reported his particular need to his area chairman, who supplied an immediate replacement. Many last-minute assignments, sub- stitutions, and changes were also made by tele- phone in the office of the science supervisor. From the reports received to date, the effort contributed by the scientists and engineers in this Special Substitute Teacher Program was both interesting and worthwhile. One scientist, who was forewarned of a possible discipline problem, found quite unexpected and_ spon- taneous interest in his lecture. Another found that his second scheduled class of some 30 stu- dents was, at the principal’s request, extended to include the complete school of 600 students. Still other scientists have taken the time to sum- marize their experiences and impressions. One of these indicated that it was possible to interest only certain students, and he concluded his re- marks with the observation that superior stu- dents are the ones who should receive more at- tention. Since the advent of these lectures, there have been reports of students asking their teachers and principals about more advanced courses in science. ‘The suggestion has been made by several that these lectures be repeated as an annual project. A survey at one of the scientific institutions indicated that all the scientists who participated im this project would be glad to do 196 so again on the same basis. Other cities have also expressed an interest in this project and are making inquiries about it. Any real measure of success must, however, await future evaluation. It is hoped that those who participated and others who offered their services which were not utilized will again be generous in helping science education when called upon in the future. ZINC OXIDE-EUGENOL DENTAL FILLINGS Deep dental cavities have long been treated with a mixture of zinc oxide and eugenol. This white, puttylike material relieves toothache and acts against bacteria in a tooth cavity. However, quality control of such fillmgs has been largely a matter of experience gathered in practice over the years. Little has been known about the actual reaction taking place between the zinc oxide and eugenol—whether it is, for example, a true chem- ical reaction or a physical process like hydration. Since scientists did not know the precise nature of the reaction, it has been difficult to predict, much less accurately control, such things as set- ting time, hardness, and strength of the hardened product. The National Bureau of Standards’ dental research laboratory therefore began an investiga- tion of zine oxide and eugenol mixtures. The study, sponsored by the armed services’ dental corps and the American Dental Association, has shown that a chelate compound is formed by these materials.1 The compound produced, zine eugenolate, absorbs any unreacted materials to form a hardened mass of remarkable stability. The investigations were made by Maj. H. I. Copeland, Air Force guest worker at the Bureau, Dr. G. M. Brauer and W. T. Sweeney of the Bureau staff, and Dr. A. F. Forziati, research associate, American Dental Association. Chelate compounds are cyclic compounds formed by a coordination process, in this case with a zine atom. Most chelates are remarkably stable. In the case of zine oxide and eugenol, long, thin crystals are formed. The crystals act as a matrix for the set mass and absorb any un- reacted material. The reaction is thus both a chemical and a physical process. The Bureau made use of several modern tech- niques in its study of zine eugenolate. Chemical 1 For further technical details, see Setting reac- tion of zinc oxide and eugenol, by H. I. CopEnanp, G. M. Braver, W. T. Sweeney, and A. F. For- zratr. Journ. Res. NBS 55: 133. 1955. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 6 procedures coupled with X-ray diffraction measurements were employed. The infrared ab- sorption spectra of zinc eugenolate were com- pared to those of another chelate compound, zinc quinolate, since information with respect to the latter’s structure was available from recent studies elsewhere.2, For further comparison, guaiacol and the zine oxide-guaiacol reaction product were employed. Elementary analysis and molecular weight determinations established the empirical formula of zinc eugenolate as being (Cio 1102) oZn. With the information that a chelate com- pound is formed by zine oxide and eugenol, it is possible to predict other materials that will form like compounds for dental use. The Bureau has produced similar chelate compounds for study using guaiacol and methyl guaiacol as chelating agents. Such agents must have a re- placeable hydrogen and a near-by donor group. Mixtures of zinc oxide and liquids such as phenol or veratrole cannot harden (form chelate com- pounds) because they do not have the required molecular structure. Having described the reaction, the Bureau plans to compile further data on various chelate compounds and their ingredients so that the mixtures used in dental fillings may be directly controlled. Present studies in this area include determinations of the required amount of surface activity of the zine oxide employed, optimum amount of water, mixing temperatures, and kind and amount of fillers. CONSTANT-TEMPERATURE OVEN FOR QUARTZ CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR The National Bureau of Standards has de- veloped a simple, compact oven that stabilizes the temperature of a quartz crystal for precise oscillator frequency control. This oven utilizes the heat of fusion of an extremely pure organic compound—p-dibromobenzene—to hold the oven temperature within 0.01° of 87.31°C. Power re- quirements are low: 10 watts for normal opera- tion and 20 watts during the brief warmup period. The instrument was developed for the Army Signal Corps by R. Alvarez and C. P. Saylor of the Bureau’s pure substances labora- tory. Quartz crystals are widely used as frequency standards, as filters in receiver circuits, and as 2Merrit, lL. Journ. Anal. Chem. 25: 718. 1953. JUNE 1956 frequency stabilizing elements in oscillator cir- cuits. Since a temperature change in a crystal will produce a change in its frequency, common practice has been to control the temperature of the crystal in precise frequency applications. Such close temperature control is usually achieved only by relatively large and complex systems. The Bureau’s special-purpose oven eliminates the need for much of the complex and bulky equip- ment ordinarily used. Although the Bureau’s instrument was de- signed specifically as a quartz crystal oscillator oven, it can be applied wherever a simple, com- pact thermostat for close temperature control is required. It can, for example, provide a con- stant temperature for a reference thermojunction for extended temperature measurement and control. The oven uses p-dibromobenzene in its particular application, but other substances with different melting points provide other oper- ating temperatures. Phenoxybenzene, for instance has been employed in maintaining quartz crystals at a constant temperature of 26.88°C. where the ambient temperature is low. When a substance is partially molten, its latent heat of fusion provides thermal ballasting; that is, a heat loss causes crystallization of the material with evolution of the latent heat of fusion. A heat gain, on the other hand, results in absorption of heat as the solid phase melts. The melting temperature at the solid-liquid inter- face remains unchanged, provided that the ma- terial is pure and that the pressure is constant. A substance used for temperature control in this way must possess (1) a melting temperature within the desired operating limits, (2) extreme chemical stability when in contact with the oven components, (8) a high heat of fusion, and (4) a high velocity of crystallization. p-Dibromo- benzene meets these requirements. The oven is contained in a cylinder 32 inches high and 2114 inches in diameter, mounted on an octal base. Inside the oven is a vacuum-tight container into which a quantity of paradibromo- benzene has been sealed. During operation of the oven, the material is about half liquid and half solid, and completely fills the container. At the top of the container is a metal bellows that is linked to a spring-loaded miniature switch. The volume changes occurring during phase transformations are transmitted to the bellows, which turns a heater on or off to keep the chem- ical partially molten. Spring-loading the switch NOTES AND NEWS 197 provides a pressure relief system in case a greater proportion of liquid is formed during the warmup period than would be present at the normal operating point. A second heater provides rapid warmup. It is controlled by a bimetallic element that cuts off the power when the substance is about 7° below the melting point. A copper vane system distributes the heat rapidly throughout the container and reduces any temperature gradients that might exist if solid and liquid be- come separated during operation. The crystal and its holder fit into a well within the container. Temperature stability data on the instrument were obtained by fastening a calibrated ther- mistor to a dummy crystal inside the crystal holder. The total temperature variation during a six-day period of continuous operation did not exceed 0.007°C. NEW CHIEF OF NBS METALLURGY DIVISION Dr. James I. Hoffman has been selected to head the Bureau of Standard’s Metallurgy Divi- sion. He succeeds Dr. John G. Thompson, who recently retired. An outstanding analytical chemist who de- veloped one of the first methods for purifying uranium, Dr. Hoffman had been serving as as- sistant chief of the Bureau’s Chemistry Division and Chief of the Surface Chemistry Section. The Department of Commerce recently honored his work by awarding him the Gold Medal for Exceptional Service. In his new capacity he will direct the Bureau’s diversified program in metal- lurgical research and development. Author of numerous publications in his field, he is well known for his work on the chemistry of the rarer elements and the chemical analysis of iron, steel, refractories, and various minerals, such as phos- phate rock, bauxite, and fluorspar. He has taught analytical and physical chemistry at George Washington University, American Uni- versity, the Department of Agriculture, and in graduate courses given at the National Bureau of Standards. In 1946 Dr. Hoffman was awarded the Hille- brand Prize for significant contributions to chem- ical science. His specific achievements were listed as the determination of the atomic weights of aluminum and gallium, the construction of a pilot plant for the production of alumina from clay, and the development of an ether extraction process for the purification of uranium onide. The purification of uranium oxide by this method 198 JOURNAL OF THE removed the greater part of the difficulties en- countered by the Manhattan District in securing pure materials for the production of uranium metal. The process perfected by Dr. Hoffman for obtaining alumina from clay was the result of an effort to utilize domestic sources of alumina at a time when submarine warfare was seriously interfering with shipments of bauxite to this country. ROCKEFELLER PUBLIC SERVICE DR. FANO AWARD TO Dr. Ugo Fano, chief of the Nuclear Physics Section of the National Bureau of Standards, has been granted a Rockefeller Public Service Award, which will allow him to complete a book on quantum physics for nonphysicists. Dr. Fano is internationally known for his theoretical work in various branches of physics and in related sciences. An authority on the penetration and diffusion of radiation through matter, his theories are widely used in connection with nuclear re- actor shieldmg problems. An important part of his work at NBS is consultation with experi- mental scientists on the theoretical aspects of their work. In this work Dr. Fano has shown a unique ability to explain the fundamental concepts of classical and modern physics in terms and anal- ogies that scientists working in other fields such as biology and medicine can readily understand. Since the number of scientists who have need for this type of information is steadily increasing, Dr. Fano’s book would be an important con- tribution to the literature. The award will also give Dr. Fano the op- portunity to accept an invitation to spend the 1956 academic year teaching at the University of Rome. He has been invited to lecture on sub- jects of his own choice, working in line with the University’s program for developing peaceful applications of atomic energy. Born in Torino, Italy, in 1912, he received his D.S. degree from the University of Torino in 1934. After his graduation he worked in Rome under the direction of Prof. Enrico Fermi, serving as an instructor. During this period he held also a fellowship at the University of Leipzig, under Prof. Werner Heisenberg. He came to the United States in 1939, serving first as a research asso- ciate at the Washington Biophysical Institute. From 1940 to 1946 he worked with Dr. Millislav Demeree in genetics and radiobiology at the WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 6 Carnegie Insitution of Washington, joining the NBS staff in the latter year. A RAPID QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF COLLAGEN A method for measuring the amino-acid con- tent of collagen in a relatively short time and using simple apparatus has been developed by the National Bureau of Standards leather labora- tory.! The procedure, an application of 2-dimen- sional paper chromatography, was worked out by James M. Cassel by modifying and adapting a recently published qualitative method.? The quantitative technique can be applied not only to collagen, the parent substance of leather, but also to the derivatives and degradation products of collagen. In contrast to other methods cur- rently employed, it enables the analyst to follow with a high degree of detail the reactions and changes in which collagen may be involved. It is therefore expected to provide a useful tool in understanding the structure of collagen and the properties of leather. Improvements in technique during the past few decades have made chromatography one of the more important methods available to the analytical chemist. The partition chromato- graphic process brings about separation of com- ponents in a mixture by distributing the solutes between two liquid phases, one of which is mobile and the other essentially fixed by sorption to a support, i.e., to a column of silica gel or to a sheet of cellulose paper. In one form of the method, a small quantity of unknown mixture is applied to one end of a strip of paper and that end placed in an appropriate irrigating solution. The solu- tion rises by capillary action and carries the mixture with it. Mainly because of differences in solubility, however, the various components move up the support medium at different rates. After a period of time, the components are spread out into a series of separate patches. The use of paper as the chromatographic ad- sorbent has broadened the range of application of the method and, at the same time, has made 1 For further technical details see A paper chromatographic analysis for collagen and collagen derivatives, by James M. Casset, Journ. Amer. Leather Chemists’ Assoc. (in press). 2 Two-dimensional paper chromatographic sys- tem with high resolving power for amino acids, by R. Reprieip, Biochim. et Biophys. Acta 10: 344. 1953. The first description of paper chromato- graphic methods for the analysis of protein hy- drolysates was given in 1944 by Consden, Gordon, and Martin. JUNE 1956 it accessible to even the most modestly equipped laboratories. The use of paper also facilitates two-dimensional chromatography. If a drop of unknown mixture is applied to a corner of a paper square and solution is passed through the paper parallel to one of the edges, the unknown will spread out into a line of patches along one edge of the square. Often, however, the separation is not complete, some of the patches being still made up of several components. If now another solvent is passed through the paper perpen- dicularly to the line of patches, each of the latter may be split up into several patches, the final result being a 2-dimensional pattern of patches on the paper. The Bureau’s method produces separation of all eighteen of the amino acids of collagen, with the exception that lysine and hydroxylysine are separated as a single entity, as are also leucine and isoleucine. The procedure is simple and re- quires for accurate analysis as little as 150 micro- grams of protein per chromatogram. If certain precautions are observed, very good repro- ducibility of data is obtained. The first step in the procedure is to apply, by micropipette, a small spot of the solution to be analyzed to the corner of a sheet of Whatman No. 1 paper, 37 cm square. The sheet is then stapled in the form of a cylinder and placed spot downward in a glass cylinder, 6 inches in diameter and 12 inches high, containing the solvent mix- ture. A crystallizing dish is inverted and sealed to the top of the chamber with electrical tape to serve as a tight sealing lid. The paper is irrigated in the first direction with a mixture of methyl alcohol, water, and pyridine. After this, it is removed, dried, restapled, and then irrigated in the second direction with tertiary butanol, water, and diethylamine. Once again the sheet is dried, and the last traces of diethyl- amine are removed by hanging the sheet in a steam hood at 75°C. for approximately seven minutes. An alcohol solution of the coloring agent ninhydrin is sprayed on the sheet, and the color is developed under carefully chosen conditions of temperature and humidity. At this point the chromatographic separation of the amino acid components, with the excep- tions noted, is complete, each component ap- pearing as an irregular, colored patch on the paper. Each of the spots is now cut out and then cut into small strips. The strips, in turn, are placed in test tubes and washed out with fixed NOTES AND NEWS 199 quantities of aqueous n-propanol. Optical densi- ties are then read with a spectrophotometer set at 570 muy for all components except proline and hydroxyproline, which are read at 350 mu. Finally, the amount of each amino acid present is determined by comparing the optical densities with calibration curves obtained from standard solutions run in the same manner. Amino acid values for collagen as determined by this technique agree well with those reported in the literature. If four to eight chromatograms are run per sample, quantitative information concerning all the amino acids in either collagen, a collagen derivative, or a collagen degradation product can be obtained in only four or five days. If conditions are maintained constant throughout the procedure, standards need not be run simul- taneously with the unknowns and hence an im- portant saving in labor and time is achieved. The development of a rapid quantitative analysis for collagen is part of a larger program of research which the Bureau is conducting on the physical constants and structure of leather. Basic information on leather and collagen, the principal constituent of cattle hide, is needed to assure continued advancement in methods of tanning and leather manufacture. Related in- vestigations now in progress deal with the pore structure of the leather matrix, specific heats of collagen and leather, and the effects of high pres- sure. The Bureau’s method for analyzing collagen is being applied to a study of the reaction of col- lagen with nitrous acid. It is also planned to use the new technique to obtain information about the layerwise distribution of amino acids in hides and the effect on the distribution produced by various types of degradation processes. BISON BASIN FOSSILS An isolated Wyoming valley has yielded a considerable collection of fossil remains of archaic mammals of about 60 million years ago, animals only remotely related to those living today. The fossils from this locality, known as the Bison Basin, first discovered by a Geological Survey party four years ago, have just been described by Dr. C. Lewis Gazin, curator of vertebrate paleontology at the Smithsonian Institution, who had a major part in collecting them. The creatures lived during the Tiffanian epoch, next to the last subdivision of Paleocene geologic time—a period that lasted approximately 20 million years but which was just the start of the 200 “Age of Mammals.”’ The Paleocene was the time when mammals were coming up as the dominant animals on earth and the importance of the dinosaurs had just passed. The warm-blooded creatures were becoming markedly diversified, filling many of the habitats left by the disap- pearance of the host of reptilian forms which previously ruled the earth. Notable in the collection are remains of plesia- dapids. These were small, probably tree-climbing animals belonging to the primate order, but only remotely related to the living New or Old World monkeys. They were most like lemurs, and are classified in the same superfamily, but the living lemurs may not have been derived from the plesiadapids but from some closely related con- temporary. Plesiadapids were not only North American in distribution but are known also from the Paleo- cene of France, from beds about the same age as our North American Tiffanian time. The Bison Basin beds in Wyoming produced at least four species and two genera of these creatures, repre- sented by teeth and jaws. Among them is one of the most primitive known of the family, a rather minute creature known as Pronothodectes. In the Bison Basin beds this represents a sur- vival of the group recognized as the precursor of true Plesiadapis. Present also is one of the most advanced of the plesiadapid family, not in JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 6 the same beds but stratigraphically higher than the level which produced the most primitive. They just happened to have died in the same general locality, Dr. Gazin says, but at different times. Among other creatures represented are condy- larths—archaic, subungulate mammals that paleontologists now generally believe gave rise to the modern hoofed or ungulate animals. The condylarths themselves, however, were not truly hoofed but had toes with structures intermediate between claws and hoofs. They show evidence that the claws at this stage were beginning to spread out or flatten. Some of the condylarths were very small; the largest of those in the Bison Basin, however, was Phenacodus, an animal over 4 feet long and about 2 feet high. It may have looked rather like a carnivore, but its teeth dem- onstrated that it was an herbivorous type. At that time the condylarths and the creodonts, the latter including the forerunners of the true carnivores, were not so greatly different in structure. The Bison Basin collection also contains fossil remains of several kinds of creodonts, including the miacids that later gave rise to the more modern carnivores, and such creatures as claeno- donts, animals that probably had somewhat the appearance of small bears but were definitely not ancestral to them. A pupil began to learn geometry with Euclid and asked, when he had learnt ce one proposition, What advantage shall I get by learning these things?” And Euclid called the slave and said, “Give him sixpence, since he must needs gain by what he learns.”’—Sir T. L. Hnatu, A History of Greek Mathematics. Vice-Presidents of the Washington Academy of Sciences Representing the Affiliated Societies Philosophical Society of Washington. -...............:--+-s+eens (Mr.) Bruce L. WiLson Anthropological Society of Washington........................ (Mr.) Frank M. SErzuer iBiologiealisociety of Washington.......-.-...+-4...0:4e+s95 (Mr.) Herpert G. DEIGNAN Chemical Society of Washington....................2...004 (Mr.) Bourpon F. ScriBpNER Entomological Society of Washington.................:...eeeeeeeees (Dr.) Frep W. Poos National Geographic Society..................... See ers (Dr.) ALEXANDER WETMORE GeologicaliSociety, of Washington..........-.....-..2.2.-..... (Mr.) Enwin T. McKnicut Medical Society of the District of Columbia.................... (Dr.) FREDERICK O. Cor ColumbrapHstorical Society; . 1.2. os. ce ccc re oc ce ce eels ie cevee ovancuesociesy, Of Washington... 4.44... -soses0se oes cae dden donee (Dr.) E. H. WALKER Washington Section, Society of American Foresters............ (Dr.) G. Furprpo Gravatr Washington Society of Hmgineers). ........)........-.-5-.-43: (Mr.) Herpert G. 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RetcHELDERFER CONTENTS Page GENERAL ScreNceE——Man and science. RAYMOND J. SEEGER.......... 169 ErHnoLtocy.—Stone “Medicine Wheels”—memorials to Blackfoot war chiefs. Hug A. DEMPSEY... 25 n0c0-00 4 oc cen = 3 2 6 ee Lee Botany—New Umbilicariaceae from the Western Hemisphere, with a key to. genera. (GrorGE AU IANO! 3: .-. 4... -.--) 140 ae 183 Entomo.tocy.—Redescriptions of four species of neotropical Culicoides of the debilipalpis group (Diptera: Heleidae). Wittis W. WirtH and PRANKGIN S..BEANTONG sq acc. co herent 186 ProcrEDINGS: Philosophical Society of Washington................... 191 Notesand \News:.08. i) 5.0.00 v ad) aie sees Sonee iene 182,"194 VOLUME te July 1956 NUMBER 7 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ——————S Published Monthly by the Pesos t NG TO NA C ACD EMMY °.0 F SiG. Be NG oBnes MOUNT ROYAL & GUILFORD AVES., BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences Editor: Cuuster H. 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Authorized February 17, 1949. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 46 Juny 1956 No. 7 PHYSICS—A tomicity and patterns. Sir Grorae P. THomson, Cambridge Uni- versity, England. (Communicated by C. H. Page.) (Received May 3, 1956) Joseph Henry was a man of very versatile mind, as the wide range of his work shows. He lived, moreover, in an age in which science was far less compartmentalized than it is now, and I hope that you will not think it out of place if I speak to you to-day on a subject which covers a wide range, a subject on which indeed I have no new discovery to tell you, except to try to emphasize a point of view which is perhaps somewhat neglect- ed. In the realm of nature there is one characteristic which appears again and again, but which does not seem to have been given in general a name. I mean the existence of large numbers of individuals of a particu- lar kind, nearly or quite indistingiushable from one another. This characteristic ranges through the whole scale of the material world, from electrons to galaxies; each exists in countless numbers. But what makes the effect, Im my opinion, more remarkable, is that it is not limited to dead matter. On the contrary, the most striking manifesta- tions of it are in biology. The individuals of a species, whether from bacteria or human beings, are an obvious (but not the only) example. The same principle pervades the whole of biology. It is the principle of cel- lular structure, and it also applies to many of the organs of individual creatures. The hairs on a dog’s back, the leaves on a beech tree, are alike, examples of the love of pro- duction in large numbers which pervades nature. Henry Ford may have supposed that he was initiating something new when he gave us mass production in its most charac- teristic form, but he was merely a humble imitator of nature, and though his cars were 1 The 25th Joseph Henry Lecture of the Philo- sophical Society of Washington, delivered before the Society on April 20, 1956. OL possibly more similar than the proverbial peas, they could not rival for a moment the identity of atoms or molecules. Nature is the grand mass producer; for individuality you must turn to the works of men: to art. It will be a convenience, I think, to intro- duce the word atomicity in a new sense, to mean a group of individuals which closely resemble one another. Thus the scales of all the herrings in the sea, or the collection of the galaxies, may alike be described as atomicities. It was in physics that the name ‘‘atom”’ was first applied, or rather in the natural philosophy of the Greeks and Romans. Starting from an almost legendary Leucip- pus, the idea was developed by Democrates and Epicurus, but far the best statement of it is by the Roman Lucretius, whose work survived the Middle Ages in a single copy more, I suspect, because of its poetic beauty than for its very great scientific merit. Lucretius was a poet; I believe he took most of the ideas from his Greek predecessors, but they are very remarkable ideas. Not merely is the general statement of atoms as constituents of matter introduced and am- plified, but one can find traces of the most up-to-date discoveries of physics—no doubt this is partly a case of the reader finding what he has himself brought, but it may possibly be a little more. Lucretius antici- pates Prout’s hypothesis that atomic weights are integral multiples of a unit. He does so from an argument which does not hold water, but at least he makes the statement. He has, it is true, no idea of molecules, but he anticipates in an astonishing fashion one of the great advances of the quantum theory—the idea of indeterminacy. His atoms fall through empty space; for him SEP = 1956 202 there is an absolute vertical; he has no idea of universal gravitation; but although his philosophy is, on the whole, deterministic, he introduces the ‘‘clinamen,” an arbitrary motion designed to upset the regularity of the downward motion, and be the cause of the collisions which he rightly regards as the fundamental condition for happenings. Ex- cept for these, he says, nature would create nothing. He realizes that the arbitrary na- ture of these assumed motions prevents a complete causal sequence. “Lest cause should follow cause in endless sequence,’ he says, and ends the passage’: “Hence is this power torn from fate, I say, by which we walk as will points out the way.” It is all strangely reminiscent of Heisenberg and the uncertainty principle! In modern physics, of course, the ideas have been carried further, and what are still called ‘‘atoms”’ are no longer impossible to divide, but are made of electrons and nu- clei. The electrons are identical, not merely in practice but in principle, and have no individuality. The same is true of the par- ticles that make up the nucleus, protons and neutrons. It is difficult to know quite what position to assign to the mesons—the a7 me- sons appear to be the particles responsible for the forces between nucleons (neutrons or protons), but they also by spontaneous decay pass to » mesons, and these in turn to electrons. It is perhaps possible to regard them as in a kind of sense excited electrons, and some of the very heavy mesons recently discovered are apparently excited protons or neutrons. The meaning of these mesons is still very obscure, but at least they exist as a series with discrete masses and do not, I think, differ fundamentally in respect of atomic status from electrons or protons. It is somewhat different with quanta. Here in- deed you have an atomicity, but with a con- tinuous variation in a single property, what one may describe as a partial atomicity. Although quanta of the same frequency are identical, those of a different frequency are not. Yet this difference is, in a sense, artifi- cial, since it is modified by the Doppler effect, while the Doppler effect does not alter the number of quanta in a given region. Chemistry, which is in a sense the physics 2 Lucretius, De rerum naturae. II, line 257. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 7 of the parts of atoms outside the nucleus, is in principle understood. Chemical combina- tions can be explained in terms of wave mechanics, and of the properties of equations whose nature is fundamentally determined by the number of electrons that take part. A single atom, apart from the nucleus, is a pattern of electrons round the nucleus. This business of patterns is, I think, very funda- mental. The charge and mass of the elec- trons, and those of the nucleus do indeed come into the calculations, but the most important thing is the nwmber of electrons. The atom is essentially a pattern of integers. It seems likely that the nucleus may be very much the same. It is true that in these two cases we have to consider different sub- stances, electrons in the case of the outer part of the atom, protons and neutrons in the case of the nucleus. But the stress on integers is the same in both. It reminds one of the famous saying: ‘“‘God made the whole numbers and men made the rest.’”” The same thing occurs when one passes to chemistry. A chemical compound is a special pattern of electrons, a pattern which can in fact be plotted out by the methods of X-ray dif- fraction. Again patterns of integers, elec- trons, and individual nuclei form the molecule. Bind the molecules into a crystal, and you get a pattern on a larger scale but with the same integral properties. It 1s pure speculation, I admit, but I cannot help feeling that the constituent substances that we still have to use—electrons, protons, neutrons, and perhaps mesons, will in the long run themselves turn out to be patterns— patterns of what? It will not be necessary to answer, for where all the substances are the same you do not need a name. They would, so to speak, be patterns of the first order, nuclei and the electrons around them will be patterns of the second order, molecules of the third, crystals of the fourth, and so on, and the world of inanimate nature will become reduced to a series of patterns more or less perfect (since atoms may be ionized and crystals have defects, while gases and liquids lack the highest kind of order), but all patterns and all concerned with integers. It is strange to recall—I do not venture to say that it is significant—that this idea goes back to the time of Pythagoras. He stressed the importance of integers. His discovery of Juty 1956 numerical relations between the lengths of a string that produced musical intervals is possibly the oldest recorded experiment in pure physics, and I cannot help a feeling of satisfaction that it should be so closely in tune with the modern ideas of quantum numbers and Eigenwerte. The Pythagoreans not merely regarded numbers as in some sense divine, but paid particular attention to the types of patterns which can be made by integers, e.g., triangular numbers. Let us turn from the very small to the very large. Though stars resemble one another con- siderably, and especially in mass, they are by no means identical, and there are at least two kinds of galaxies, with again minor variations; but there is a kind of order-of- magnitude agreement. A galaxy contains an order of 10" solar masses, and different galaxies probably do not vary by more than one or two powers of 10. It is, I think, of interest to consider how these and other im- perfect atomicities, as one may call them, in fact arise, to see if one can trace any common factor. Unfortunately the creation of stars and galaxies is still not fully explained. It is generally supposed to be due to an instability occurring in a continuous amount of gravi- tating mass if this is large enough, as was suggested by Jeans. But I am told that Jeans’s original theory is unsatisfactory in certain points and has not been fully re- placed. But at least one can see that a dis- tribution into discrete objects will be more stable in certain circumstances than a uni- form distribution, and it is reasonable to suppose that this has something to do with the origin of these objects. There is another class of imperfect and partial atomicity of which much more is known. I refer to eddies. If a liquid is streaming in a pipe with every particle moving along the axis at more than a certain speed, depending upon the size of pipe and rate of flow, turbulence sets in, as Reynolds showed many years ago. This turbulence consists essentially of sets of eddies. The eddies resemble quanta rather than electrons in that there is a continuous distribution in size. The smallest eddies are near the wall, and they increase in size as they go outwards. This turbulent action is now pretty well understood, and has been closely studied in connection with the bound- THOMSON: ATOMICITY AND PATTERNS 203 ary layer that forms on the wings of aeroplanes and on the hulls of ships. In this case the simple undifferentiated motion is unstable and breaks down into a more com- plicated atomicity. If we turn to biology we find at once the cell as an atomic unit. There are many kinds of cells and their size may vary greatly up to the giant nerve cells of the squid which are about 4% mm diameter and 20 cm long. Ordinary cells are of order 20 ». But the cells of one kind are of roughly comparable size. Physiology is not far enough advanced to say for certain what determines the size of a cell; it must be some question of balance between surface tension, electrical forces and diffusion. However the size is arrived at, it is possible to have not merely unicellular or- ganisms all roughly alike, but to have a part of an organism made up of a vast number of closely similar cells. Cells have the power of reproduction, and after they have divided grow to their original size, or roughly so. In some way the particular size characteristic of a particular cell represents a stable value which is rapidly reached, but never greatly exceeded. In some way too the undifferenti- ated material out of which the organism grows is organized most suitably into units of a certain size. The conditions of stability in this case as in those of turbulence are, of course, quite different from those of static stability. There is no question of searching for the position of minimum energy. In both cases energy is available from outside, and as in the case of some electrical systems the tendency may be toward a state of maximum energy subject to certain constraints. If one takes an extended view of atomicity it affects one’s view of the so-called cosmo- logical principle. This principle in its most complete form asserts that the universe when suitably smoothed out looks the same from all places and at all times. In a less complete form variation with time is allowed but not with space. This principle has been very widely used, but there are substantial objections to it as ordinarily stated. In the first place it apparently not merely throws out the baby with the bath water, but throws out the baby (or babies) and retains the water, and the babies are big, nothing less than galaxies! The striking thing about the night sky is precisely its nonuniformity, 204 the light comes from a discrete set of points which are of varying brightness, and are not distributed at random but grouped round the Milky Way, which itself is a unique feature. Clearly an observer on another star would see a substantially different pattern. Limiting observation to a single galaxy the principle is certainly quite untrue; the smoothing must proceed much further. It is supposed to hold as between galaxies, but even here the distribution is irregular as many galaxies form part of clusters, others do not. It is only on the very largest scale that the principle is not demonstrably false. On that very large scale it states that the distribution of matter and of the velocities this possesses are independent of the ob- server. But even here there is a restriction. At any place there is a privileged or ‘‘funda- mental’’ observer, roughly speaking an ob- server at rest with regard to the average of the galaxies. We are, in fact, in such a position, for observations in different direc- tions in space—as far as they are possible in view of the absorption due to clouds in our own galaxy—show galaxies roughly uni- formly distributed and with apparent ve- locities which do not on balance vary with direction. Clearly an observer moving past the earth with a velocity say a quarter that of light would not see this isotropy because of the well-known relativistic effects on angles and velocities. Indeed such effects would exist even on a nonrelativistic view of aberration and Doppler effect. The need to choose these privileged ob- servers detracts rather from the principle, for some of the regularity observed is manu- factured by the choice. However it appears that observers near the center of galaxies could be representatives of a set which would not be so arbitrary—some theorists specify them. Taking this set of observers it is postulated that each would see a distribu- tion of galaxies with density and velocity each a function of distance only, and these two functions would be the same for all fundamental observers. There is here a point which seems to me to present some difficulty. The principle is concerned with a smoothed out distribution for it is usually assumed that the fundamental observers form a con- tinuous set, yet all that can be observed at the distances at which alone the principle JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 7 applies is the discrete set of galaxies. To apply the theory one has to consider as important just that aspect which the theory neglects. I venture to suggest that what is useful in the principle is best expressed in terms of atomicity. What it really says is that there are a very large number of approximately similar galaxies and that their distribution in space is that of the molecules of a uni- formly expanding gas, with the addition that if there is an edge we are not near it. This is all that the observations justify. The recent work at Cambridge (England) on the so- called radio stars allows observations deeper into space even than the 200-inch telescope. So far this work does not support the idea that galaxies are uniformly distributed in space. Assuming, as one must from the principle of cosmogony, that the proportion of radio stars to galaxies is constant, more radio stars imply an increased density of galaxies, and this is what Ryle* and his workers find at great distance. It is well known! that there are some con- nections between cosmic and electronic data which appear in the form of nondimensional ratios leading to the same very large number about 4 X 10%. Thus: 9 (1) é = ratio of electric to gravitational ype — force of electron and proton = 2.28 < 10% ost : see >\ = ratio of characteristic size of ex- (2) ( 2¢ :) panding universe to diameter of Me C” electron = 6.6 X 10%? or ratio of age of universe to time for light to cross electron. 3713 (3) puedes number of protons in a volume Mp characteristic of the universe = [SiGI>, Sm} a family of sub- sets of R, and aa real number, 0 < a < 1. Denote the number of elements contained in a set T by J’, and the set of elements common to the sets T and U by T Nf U. In this note, we consider the question: does there exist a set CC R such that (1) KCRMESti— eS) | <1 0 = Il 908 5 Hor Note that if aS; is an integer, then (1) re- quires C MN S; = aS; . If aS; is not an in- teger, (1) requires that CM S; be either of the two integers closest to aS; . So our ques- tion concerns the existence of set C which has in common with each S; a set of ele- ments whose number is proportional to the number of elements in S;, the propor- tionality factor being a. Such a set C does not always exist; e.g., let R = {1, 2, 3}, Si = {1, 2}, Se = {2, 3}, S; = {3, 1}, a = \%. We prove below a simple sufficient condition for the existence of a solution of (1). As an application, we derive a well-known theorem of Konig [3]: Let R be a set with gk elements, and two families of subsets, 7 = {71,--- , Ta} and U = {U,,--- , U,}. Assume further ina eOi — UU, LT; i ne = @ (the empty set) if 7 # 7, U; N U; = ¢ if 1 ~ j. (The foregoing conditions state that the family 7’ is a “partition” of R, and so is the family U.) Finally, assume 7; = U , q. Then there exists U;=ki=1,--- pseu Suhusuch) that ©. —) q, CLE, — Cio — 7 — Ig. Mhere-are many proofs of Konig’s theorem in the literature. A demonstration closely related to Konig’s original proof, yet sharing the geometric spirit of the discussion offered below, may be easily deduced from the lemma contained in [2]. This work was supported (in part) by the Office of Naval Research. Our generalization of Konig’s theorem requires consideration of the matrix A repre- senting the incidence of elements of R with sets in S. Let A = (a,;) be the inci- dence matrix defined (2) aii = 1 if pi € S; it = Oif p;¢S; iP G@ = il ooo. Wp = 088 5 he We also require the following definition: a (rectangular) matrix is said to have the unimodular property if every square sub- matrix has determinant 0, 1, or —1. Theorem. If the matrix A has the uni- modular property, then, for any a, 0 < a < 1, there exists a solution to (1). Proof: For x a real number, let [x] denote the greatest integer not exceeding x. Con- sider now the set of points satisfying the linear equation and inequalities (3) > Aig Yi = ad; j= forall — wer) 770 such that aS; is an integer, IA (4) [o8,] < > ay; = 1+ [o8;], for allt = 1,---,m such that aS; is not an integer, (5) O) S eS My GS NS Se This system is consistent, for the point yY = (a, a, -:- , a) clearly satisfies (8), (4) and (5). Hence the set of solutions is a non- empty closed convex set A, which is, by (5), clearly bounded. Therefore, A admits vertices. Since A has the unimodular prop- erty, it follows [/] that every vertex has all of its coordinates integers. Let gy = (J. , °-:: » Ya) be any vertex. By (5), ¥; = Okonal) LeteGs— spins leh ennC) and (4) imply (1). 212 A general theorem describing sufficient conditions for A to have the unimodular property is given in [/]. A special case worth mentioning occurs when the family S can be split into two subfamilies each of which has the property: if two subsets in the same family have a non-empty intersection, one is contained in the other. For example, a subfamily could be a partition of R. If each subfamily is a partition, if S; = k @ = 1, --- , m), and if we set a = 1/k, then (1) becomes K6nig’s theorem. Remark 1. The hypothesis that A have the unimodular property is not necesary for the existence of a solution to (1). Let je = Wil, Bs, 4b &, Oh Se S fl, Bh, Se S {3, 4, 5}, S3 = {5, 6, 1}. Then the submatrix formed by the three rows of A and the first, third and fifth columns of A has deter- minant 2, so A does not have the unimodular property. On the other hand, for0 While the variability of the myzorhynchus militates against its use in classification, it seems to be the best means for this purpose here. Aveust 1956 DeEstonccHamps, E. Encyclopédie méthodique. Histoire naturelle des zoophytes 2. 1824. (Cited by Diesing.) Dresinc, M. Revision der Cephalocotyleen. Para- mecocotuleen. Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien (math.- nat. Kl.) 48 (1): 200-345. 1863. DusarvDin, F. Histoire naturelle des helminthes ou vers intestinaux: xv1, 654 pp. Paris, 1845. Hart, J. F. Cestoda from fishes of Puget Sound, III. Phyllobothroidea. Trans. Amer. Mier. Soc. 55: 488-496. 1936. JoyrEux, C., and Barr, J. G. France 30: 1-613. 1936. Leuckart, F. 8. Das Genus Bothriocephalus Rud. Zoologische Bruchstiticke 1: 70 pp. 1819. (Cited by Southwell.) Linton, E. Notes on Entozoa of marine fishes of New England. U. S. Fish Comm. Rep. for 1886, pt. 14: 4538-511. 1889. Notes on Entozoa of marine fishes of New England with descriptions of several new spe- cies. U. S. Fish Comm. Rep. for 1887, pt. 15: 719-899. 1890. : Notes on cestode parasites of sharks and skates. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. vol. 64 (21), 1-114 pp. 1924. LOnnBERG, E. Bidrag till Kannedomen om 7 Sverige forekammande Cestoder. Bihang Sven- ska Akad. Handl. 14: 1-69. 1889. Monticeiit, F.S. Ebenco degli Elminti studiati a Wimereux nella primavera del 1889. Bull. Sci. France et Belgique 27: 417-444. 1890. Ousson, P. Entozoa, iaktagna hos Skandinaviska hafiscar. Plathelminthes. Acta Univ. Lund., math. nat. Vet., no. 3: 59 pp. 1867. Nova genera parasitantia copepedorum et platyhelminthium. Acta Univ. lund., math. Nat. Vet., 6 (7) 6 pp. 1869. . Bidrag till skandinaviens helminthfauna, II. Kon. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., N.F., 25 (2), art. 12: 41 pp. 1893. Riser, NatHan W. Studies on cestode parasites of sharks and skates. Journ. Tennessee Acad. Sei., 30(4): 265-311. 1955. Rupotrnt, K. A. Entozoorum synopsis cut acce- Cestodes. Faune de YOUNG: CESTODE GENUS ECHENEIBOTHRIUM 265 dunt mantissa duplex et indices locupletissimi: 811 pp. Berlin, 1819. SuipLtey, A. E., and Horne tn, J. Cestode and nematode parasites from the marine fishes of Ceylon. Herdman’s Report on Pearl Fishery of Ceylon, pt. 5: 48-96. 1906. SouTHWELL, T. A description of nine new species of cestode parasites, including two new genera from marine fishes of Ceylon. Ceylon Mar. Biol. Lab. Rep. 1 (5): 216-225. 1911. A description of ten new species of cestode parasites from marine fishes of Ceylon, with notes on other cestodes from the same region. Ceylon Mar. Biol. Rep. 1: 259-278. 1912. A monograph on the Tetraphillidea, with notes on related cestodes. Liverpool School Trop. Med. Mem. 2 (N. s.): 368 pp. 1925. Cestoda, vol. 1. The fauna of British India: 397 pp. London, 1930. Warpie, R. A., and MacLeop, J. A. The zoology of tapeworms. xxiv, 780 pp. University of Minnesota Press, 1952. Weput, K. Helminthologische Notizen. Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien (math.-nat. Kl.) Abth. 1, 16: 371-395. 1855. Woopuann, W. N. F. A revised classification of the tetraphillidean Cestoda, with descriptions of some Phyllobothriidae from Plymouth. Proc. Zool. Soe. London, 1927: 519-548. Yamacuti, 8S. Studies on the helminth fauna of Japan, pt. 4, Cestodes of fishes. Japan Journ. Zool. 6: 1-112. 1934. Ibid, pt. 49. Cestodes of fishes II. Acta Med. Okayama Univ. 8: 1-109. 1952. Youne, R. T. Cestodes of sharks and rays in southern California. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash- ington 21: 106-112. 1954. Two new species of Echeneibothrium from the stingray, Urobatis halleri. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc. 74: 232-234. 1955. ZscHoKkKE, F. Recherches sur la structure ana- tomique et histologique des cestodes des poissons marins. Mém. Inst. Nat. Genevois 17: 1-396. 1889. The practical man is the man who practices the errors of his forefathers.— HUXLEY. 266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 8 GEOLOGY .—A hydrologic budget in relation to the climate and geology of the Beaver- dam Creek basin, Eastern Shore of Maryland.. Gorpon E. ANDREASEN and WiuuiaM C. Rasmussen. (Communicated by A. N. Sayre.) (Received June 27, 1956) The Beaverdam Creek basin on the East- ern Shore of Maryland was selected for a de- tailed quantitative study of the hydrologic cycle. The object was to determine the ap- portionment of precipitation into direct sur- face runoff, ground-water recharge (and, later, ground-water discharge in the form of surface runoff), and evapotranspiration. The land surface, the soils, and the ground-water conditions are representative of much of the sandy portion of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, and the humid mesothermal climate is typi- cal of the eastern United States. The drainage basin, covering an area of 19.5 square miles, is relatively flat, consisting of low marine terraces. The ground-water reservoir that is of significance extends from the land surface to depths of 75 to 175 feet below the surface; it is underlain by a rela- tively impermeable clayey silt which pre- vents appreciable water loss through leakage into deeper aquifers, or gain by leakage from them. Weekly measurements of precipitation, total stream runoff, surface-water storage, ground-water stage, and soil resistivity (the latter as a guide to soil-moisture content) were made during a 2-year period, April 1, 1950, to March 28, 1952. Instrumentation consisted primarily of 25 driven observation wells, 12 rain gages, a stream-gaging station, 5 staff gages on surface streams, and 3 soil- resistivity stations. The hydrologic measurements are sum- marized in two budgets, a total budget and a ground-water budget. The total budget of the hydrologic cycle is represented by the equation P=R-+ ET + ASW + ASM + AGW where P is precipitation, R is runoff in streams, HT is evapotranspiration, ASW is change in surface-water storage, ASM is change in soil-moisture storage, and AGW is 1 Abstract of a paper presented on January 25, 1956, before the Geological Society of Washington. change in ground-water storage. The last term, AGW, is a function of ground-water stage, or ANGWs =e where H is ground-water stage and Y, is the gravity yield, or yield under transient drain- age of the saturated sediments. The quan- tities HT’ and Y, are unmeasured but not entirely unknown. They are arrived at by a method of convergent approximations, pre- sented as one of the contributions of this paper. The ground-water budget is represented by the equation C= DAR yee eenie in which G, is ground-water recharge, D is ground-water runoff, AH is the change in mean ground-water stage, Y, is gravity yield, and #7’, is the ground-water evapo- transpiration. The qualtities G, and D for each were derived from the hydrograph of the mean ground-water stage and from ex- trapolated ground-water recession curves and base-flow rating curves (obtamed by plotting the mean ground-water stage against the base flow of the stream). The weekly difference between the mean ground-water stage, AH, multiplied by the gravity yield, Y,, gives the net change in ground-water storage. The equation was then solved for ET,. This method is presented as a second contribution. The total precipitation during the 2-year period (104 weeks) was 82.83 inches, of which 29.88 inches ran off in the creek, 50.24 inches was evaporated and transpired, and 2.71 inches went into a gain in storage. The change in ground-water storage was 2.66 inches, that in surface-water storage, 0.04 inch, and that in soil-moisture storage, 0.01 inch. Ground-water recharge totaled 42.63 inches disposed of as follows: ground-water runoff into the creek, 21.46 inches; ET; Aveust 1956 1945 imches; and AH-Y, (GW), +1.72 inches (different from figure of 2.71 given above because based on a period of 104.4 weeks instead of exactly 104 weeks). It is concluded that abundant rainfall and high infiltration rates provide this portion of the Atlantic Coastal Plain with large quan- OBITUARY 267 tities of water, which are discharged about equally in the form of runoff and by evapo- transpiration. Recovery of water discharged by nonbeneficial plants, or as unused streamflow, would permit great expansion of water facilities for irrigation, industry, or municipal supply. €. D. Merrill Elmer Drew Merrill was for his time probably the most widely known botanist in the world. At the International Botanical Congress at Amster- dam in 1935 he literally sat in the center of the world’s leaders in plant taxonomy and, through his directorship of important botanical institu- tions, of persons engaged in botany generally. In 1954 he was honorary president of the Eighth International Botanical Congress at Paris. On the occasion of his seventieth birthday he was called the ‘American Linnaeus’ for the breadth and detail of his mastery of the field of plant classification, for his originality and ability in methodological and administrative work, and for his ready desire to assist his fellow workers the world over in what was then described as an “often astonishingly effective way.” What may be Merrill’s place in the history of botany as written a hundred years from now? Will it be his invention of the ‘Merrill case’ (cf. Torreya 26: 50-54. 1926), a highly useful storage carton designed during his Manila years for herbarium filing? Will he be remembered for advocating the naming of periodicals with single word titles? Though he did not originate it he certainly traditionalized the practice in Hilgardia, Brittonia, and Arnoldia. Or will workers using the loose-leaf ledger form of Index Kewensis in our larger botanical libraries recall the man who ini- tiated this clever device? Certainly those who use the offset reprint editions of hard-to-obtain botanical titles, like those of Rafinesque and Gronovius, will owe him a debt of gratitude. Tax- onomists of the Twenty-first Century engaged in tracing types and in writing floras of southeast Asia and Polynesia will be using his commentaries on the works of Blanco, Loureiro, and Rumphius, not forgetting the bibliographies that he, some- times in collaboration with Dr. E. H. Walker assembled. Perhaps by that time there will be such urgent need of these bibliographic tools, from the increment of publication down the years, that their now oft-times reluctant financing will have yielded to ready support. Merrill’s Index Rafinesquanus (1949) will have stood for a cen- tury beside essential tools of the taxonomist, and his labor in bringing together all the vicarious names published by that unhappy and confound- ing naturalist Rafinesque will be appreciated. It will be particularly interesting to learn the Twenty-first Century’s verdict on his most con- troversial innovation: herbarium inserts of taxo- nomic literature. Will its “great utility and eminent practicability’? have been realized? Will his insistence that to incorporate the references into the herbarium adds a card catalog and a library to the herbarium thus making a single working unit for the taxonomist be gainsaid? In 1937 Merrill declared, ‘I am convinced that this innovation is one of the most important advances made in herbarium technique in the last few decades.”” Or will his best known memento be that graceful, feather-leaved, smooth-trunked palm Adonidia merrillii named for him by Beccari? With its spectacular bunches of bright red fruits each resembling a plum, this palm is a native of Palawan, P. I., and now grown on the streets of Manila, but only as a novelty in our southern Gulf Coast cities. Perhaps a hundred years from now it will decorate our gardens as a commonplace. Will ‘Merrill’s palm’ be a part of daily speech tomorrow with as slight awareness of its association as ‘Johnson grass’ is today? Of the numerous tribe of Merrills of Maine, whose roots took hold on this continent in 1635, Elmer Drew Merrill was one of twins born on October 15, 1876, the last of a family of five chil- dren. The four boys milked the cows, planted, weeded, and hoed potatoes, and dragged the fields for rocks, rocks, and more rocks. At Maine State 268 College (later the University of Maine) he came under the influence of Prof. F. L. Harvey. In 1898 he took his B. 8. degree and returned as an assistant in natural sciences the next fall. In July 1899 he accepted the position of assistant agrostologist at Washington under F. Lamson- Scribner. It seems from the frank autobiograph- ical sketch that Merrill has left us (Asa Gray Bull., n. s., 2: 335-370. 1953) that Lamson- Scribner’s confidence in him far exceeded his own. Though he accomplished a good deal at his government job and might well have remained in the service in Washington, the opening of the Bureau of Agriculture in Manila enticed him to take a position as botanist there. Again he was strongly encouraged by Lamson-Scribner. He left New York on February 22, 1902, for Manila to remain, with few respites, for 22 years. During those years he explored all parts of that archi- pelago, as well as parts of Java, Borneo, the Malay Peninsula, and southern and eastern China. Merrill described approximately 4,000 species of plants based principally on this experi- ence. The quintescence of these years went into Plant life of the Pacific world (1945), a book which Fairfield Osborn aptly described as ‘‘an extraor- dinary accomplishment.” Merrill was always alert to weeds. When he arrived in Manila he found very few plant collec- tions at hand for comparison with the specimens he brought back to the laboratory. He set about collecting the weeds of the Bureau of Agriculture grounds, only to discover that in many instances the endemic plants of southeast Asia were much better known taxonomically than these shifting populations of the sidewalks. Years later he carried his study of immigrant plants much fur- ther, checking the collections made on Cook’s voyages in the South Pacific to determine the date of introduction of these weeds. In large part his quest was successful, and his last book, The botany of Cook’s voyages (1954), musters his data in highly readable though somewhat repetitious chapters, and documents the proposition that “pre-Columbian civilizations in America were based absolutely and wholly on a strictly Ameri- can agriculture, which in turn was based wholly on native American plants.”’ Merrill wrote per- suasively, and in this book as in the 23 essays gathered by Dr. Verdoorn and published in 1946 as Merrilliana (Chronica Botanica 10: 127-394) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 8 his skill is attested. The plant geographer and ethnobotanist cannot afford to ignore them. Detailed accounts of his life will appear, but there remains a facet of Dr. Merrill’s life that may slip away as those who knew him personally follow him into history: the warm enthusiasm he lived for our enticing science. This was both an international and a personal quality, as the Dutch botanist Dr. Lanjouw has pointed out, and en- deared him to a wide circle of men. If he believed a project was a worthy one, he spared no time nor effort actively to push for its completion. Writing hundreds of letters of recommendation sponsoring candidates for fellowships, grants-in- aid, and positions far and near, imaginatively ar- ranging funds for a graduate student to make a field trip that he appreciated so well would stim- ulate years of productive botanical work, making introductions for distant workers who but for his interest would have continued to work in isola- tion—these were some of the ways that Dr. Merrill implemented his spirit of service in science. However, it would not be factual to omit he did nettle some of his associates: I remember Professor Jepson’s wrath when, in his bumptious enthusiasm, Merrill broke into a supper party that Jepson had planned for a few select friends at a small pub on Kew Green. His professional colleagues, not a little piqued with envy at Merrill’s tenacious work habits, gave slight sup- port to many of his expansive plans as being un- realistic and too meddlesome in the research pro- grams of others. Anyway, innovators are irksome. ‘To get-the-job-done’ philosophy as often as not forgets the cushion in the chair. The governor-general of the Philippine Islands, Leonard Wood, wrote a judgment of Merrill in 1924 which may well stand: “You have done first class work in everything you have attempted and have gained the confidence, respect and sup- port of those with whom you have come in con- tact.” After a full year of conferences and re- search abroad in 1951 he slowed down appreci- ably. He felt he “really should finish certain projects without too much delay.” “And yet,” he wrote, “I am not ready to agree entirely with the last sentence of Thackeray’s Vanity Fair: ‘Come children, let us shut up the box and the puppets, for our play is played out.’”’ JosEPpH Hwan Vice-Presidents of the Washington Academy of Sciences Representing the Affiliated Societies Philosophical Society of Washington........................005- (Mr.) Brucr L. WiLson Anthropological Society of Washington........................ (Mr.) Frank M. Setzer Biological Society of Washington.........................6- (Mr.) Herspert G. DEIGNAN Chemical Society of Washington....................00eeeeee (Mr.) Bourpon F. ScriBNER Entomological Society of Washington...................--seeeeeeeee (Dr.) FrED W. Poos NationaliGeorraphici Society, ..-..s6- s+-ssssee 0. 42+ ear ese: (Dr.) ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington............................ (Mr.) Epwin T. McKnicut Medical Society of the District of Columbia.................... (Dr.) FREDERICK O. CoE ColumbiageistoricaluSocietiyaari-vmleciersecie cic aeleitteisielale isielele ele Potantealusociety,of Washington. .--s-.5sq0s0 ose ce see oe ae sees (Dr.) E. H. WALKER Washington Section, Society of American Foresters............ (Dr.) G. Fuippo GravatTtT Washington Society of Engineers............................ (Mr.) Hersert G. Dorsry Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers..... (Dr.) ARNoLD ScotrT Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers...... Helminthological Society of Washington..........................4. (Dr.) J. S. ANDREWS Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists............ (Dr.) L. A. BurKry Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...(Lt. Col.) FLoyp W. Hoven Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.................. D. C. Section, American Society of Civil Engineers.......... (Mr.) Doucuas E. Parsons D. C. Section, Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine..(Dr.) Grorcr A; Hottie Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............. (Mr.) THomas G. DiccEs Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research... Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences........ (Dr.) F. N. FRENKIEL D. C. Branch, American Meteorological Society............. (Dr.) F. W. REICHELDERFER CONTENTS Page Editorial: Science; and witchcraft.)). 2.22.0... -. 5.0... oe eee 233 BacrErRIoLocy.—Pertussis and pertussis vaccine control. MARGARET PITT NPAIN SS vlc Rotitaccg agen sade Aakers comes nares yhoo ckei nO: 234 Puysics.—Cosmological theories—ancient and modern...R. M. Pacr 244 PHARMACOLOGY.—Some metabolic patterns observed after morphine ad- ministration im! they rabbit; Louis imyve.. 5... 2 eee 253 HELMINTHOLOGyY.—A review of the cestode genus Echeneibothrium. RAT YOUNG Sos shrgs Sees te excess oa tie reece 2a 256 GroLtoey.—A hydrologic budget in relation to the climate and geology of the Beaverdam Creek basin, Eastern Shore of Maryland. Gor- DON E. ANDREASEN and WiuLiaM C. RASMUSSEN............... 266 Obituary: E; D. Mermll, Josrea HwAn..-).-.2:-..2.... .- eee 267 VOLUME _ September 1956 NUMBER 9 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Published Monthly by the hex SHENG TON ACADEM Y OR SCIENCES MOUNT ROYAL & GUILFORD AVES., BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences Editor: CugestER H. Pace, National Bureau of Standards Associate Editors: RoNALD BamrorpD, University of Maryland Howarp W. 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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 46 September 1956 No. 9 PHYSICS—/ncomplete equilibrium and temperature measurement. C. M. HERzFELD, National Bureau of Standards. (Received August 3, 1956) ABSTRACT The concept of temperature is discussed from the points of view of classical thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. The relation between relaxation phenomena and temperature measure- ment is explained, and several examples discussed qualitatively. Some methods for the measurement of temperature are examined in terms of the re- lation between relaxation and temperature. The methods considered cover several distinct types of situations encountered at high temperatures, and estimates are given of the reliability of the more modern methods. INTRODUCTION Interest in temperature and in its meas- urement is growing rapidly. This in large part is because of two recent trends. First, technology makes growing demands on scientific technique because of the high temperatures obtained in jet and rocket motors, and in nuclear devices. Second, progress in the statistical mechanics of non- equilibrium phenomena is opening new areas to scientific study. This article sum- marizes some aspects of the interplay of these trends. To do this we outline first the thermodynamic definition of temperature. Then we present the viewpoint of statistical mechanics, and last we apply this to a num- ber of recent scientific and technical prob- lems. The detailed statistical mechanical theory requires considerable technical background, but it seems possible and desirable to bring the underlying ideas to a wide audience by discussing a number of recent applications of the theory to temperature measurements. The literature on the subject is very ex- tensive, therefore we give chiefly references 269 to review articles and symposia where the interested reader can find more details. TEMPERATURE IN CLASSICAL THERMODYNAMICS The problem of defining temperature is old and vexing. The usual procedure [/| starts with the notions “hotter” and “colder,” assumes that they are given di- rectly by experience, and does not attempt to define them. (Every logical system has primitive ideas which must be assumed without full definitions.) Two bodies are then said to be in thermal equilibrium if, when brought into close contact, they do not change their hotness or coldness. The so- called zeroth law of thermodynamics asserts that two bodies in thermal equilibrium with a third are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This permits one to choose a ‘‘stand- ard body” and say that all bodies in thermal equilibrium with the standard have a par- ticular property in common with it, namely the temperature. Some empirical tempera- ture scale is then chosen, based, for example, on the thermal expansion of a metal or of a gas. The thermodynamic temperature scale is usually defined using an idealized steam engine running on a Carnot cycle. This steam engine and its cycle are a logical de- vice for showing that the thermodynamic temperature is best considered the re- ciprocal integrating factor which changes the heat absorbed by the working gas in the engine, 6Q (an inexact differential), into the exact differential dS, the entropy increase: dS = 7 dQ. (1) AAT «+ O TES 270 This approach can be generalized to any process and cycle, and makes possible a de- scription of processes which does not depend on the paths taken but only on their end points. The most rigorous discussion of tempera- ture viewed as an integrating factor is due to Caratheodory [2]. His theory sheds much light on classical thermodynamics, but a description of it is out of place here. The logically rigorous arguments estab- lishing thermodynamic temperature apply to no realizable situations whatever because the temperature is defined only for equi- librium states and reversible processes. No actual system can be in perfect equilibrium, and every realizable process is irreversible. Many realizable systems are so close to equilibrium that ordinary thermodynamics can be used to calculate their properties. To find a justification for applying thermo- dynamics to real processes, and at the same time to explain why such application works so often, the viewpoint must be changed slightly, and in particular the notion of rates of processes must be introduced. The notion of rate is foreign to classical thermody- namics, but an examination of the concept of temperature in statistical mechanics will indicate how to use the results of thermo- dynamics. TEMPERATURE Statistical mechanics studies systems which are composed of very many particles and have very many degrees of freedom. One gram of hydrogen gas at O°C. and atmospheric pressure has approximately 18 X 10” classical degrees of freedom. If one takes into account also the quantum degrees of freedom of the nuclear spin the total number is four times the above. Each state of each molecule has a characteristic total energy. Statistical mechanics shows [3] that, at equilibrium, the ratio of the average number NV; of molecules in the 7th state, to the average number N; in the jth state is given by N; = INGE (2) IN STATISTICAL MECHANICS where |W; is the difference in the energy of the states, / is the Boltzmann constant, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 9, and 7 the absolute temperature. The factor e "ii/*? is the Boltzmann factor, a distri- bution function giving the relative popu- lation of all the states of the system. This definition of 7 is fundamentally the same both in classical and quantum systems. In the classical case W; can take on any value in a continuous range of numbers, and in the quantum case it can take only values from a set of discrete numbers. The simple arguments required to establish (2) apply again only to equilibrium systems. Systems whose distribution functions differ from the Boltzmann type are the subject of irreversible statistical mechanics |4|. There it can be shown that systems whose distribution functions differ from the Boltzmann type change in such a way as to approach a Boltzmann distribution, in other words they approach equilibrium. If the initial departure from a Boltzmann distribution is not too great, then the differential equations which govern the changes in population may be fairly simple [5]: dN ; oa = (NG ENE ne ++) (3) where N; is the population of the 7th state. The function f (N;, Nit1, ---) involves each population only to the first power if the system is sufficiently simple. Each N; is multiplied by a characteristic rate con- stant which depends on the mechanism by which equilibrium is reached (such as col- lisions). For very simple systems these rate constants are related, and equation (3) can be rewritten: N . ESS a, (4) Sh] where 7 is the so-called relaxation time, a constant which is characteristic of the system and gives the rate with which the system “relaxes” to the equilibrium dis- tribution. A large 7 means a slow approach to equilibrium. The sets of differential equations resulting from (4) can then be solved and the behavior of the system fol- lowed in time as it approaches equilibrium [6]. SEPTEMBER 1956 These ideas can now be applied to the study of temperatures. As an example consider a gas of atoms in a container, the whole immersed in a cool bath. Two rates will be important: First, the rate at which the gas would relax from a nonequilibrium distribution if the container walls were perfect insulators. The mechanism for this is the collision of the molecules, and 7; is its relaxation time (2 for internal). Second, the rate at which the container wall conducts heat away from the gas. Let this rate be characterized by a relaxation time 7, (e for external). The actual changes in the system are then governed by the ratio 7;/7. as well as by the initia! conditions. If 7;/7. is very small, the gas loses energy slowly through the walls but readjusts its distribu- tion function continuously, which will then be practically of Boltzmann type, and at any one time the temperature of the gas will be a quite definite quantity which changes slowly in time because of the heat leak. This is the type of situation required for calorimetric work. If 7;/7. is large, however, the heat leaks away faster than the gas can readjust. Temperature gradients are then set up in the gas, which start convection. The resulting complicated changes in the gas cannot be treated in detail by present statistical mechanical theory. In small portions of the gas, however, local equili- brium will exist, so that different portions of gas may have well-defined, though different, temperatures. Or consider a solid at a temperature near O°K. This solid consists of atoms which vibrate about their equilibrium positions (system A) and of the nuclear spins of the atoms (system B). Let the time for A to come to equilibrium with itself be 7,4, similarly for B, 7,. Let the interaction of the systems be characterized by 742, and let ts < Tap >> Ts. Now remove some en- ergy from the spin system B, say by 1iso- thermal magnetization followed by adiabatic demagnetization. Then the spins will come to equilibrium with each other very rapidly and their magnetic susceptibility will indi- cate a very low temperature. However, they interact so poorly with the lattice (r4» 1s large, of the order of hours) that the lattice temperature is essentially unaffected, and HERZFELD: TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 271 it makes sense to speak separately of a spin temperature 7's and a lattice temperature T,, which are defined by equation (2) or by an analogous one. Another type of example is afforded by a polyatomic gas in an ideally insulating en- closure. The motions of each molecule can be described to a good approximation by treating each type of degree of freedom separately, i.e., translation of the molecule as a whole, vibrations of the molecule, and its rotations. The total energy is the sum of the translational (W,), the vibrational (W,), and the rotational energy (W,). The distribution functions may then be writ- ten [7]: INF son = Ce—wlhr Ce Wet Wot W,\/kT ( Ce MEP) (GW alk Po) (g—W elk Pr) | I Our ~~ I At equilibrium the same values of 7 will QOGUP Ti CON UECUOP, Gus, Lh = Il, = I It happens, however, in many _ physical processes that one type of motion is affected more than another. For example, an ultra- sonic wave passing through a gas may “heat up” the translations and rotations of the molecules without affecting the vibra- tions. It therefore becomes useful to inquire about relaxation times for distributing energy among the rotational motions, or for ex- changing rotational and vibrational energy, and so on. Many temperature measurement methods determine in effect a distribution function for a particular type of degree of freedom. Thus an important spectroscopic method [8] determines the relative populations of the different rotational states in the OH mole- cule. Only if 7,; for this case is small will the distribution function indicate a unique rotational temperature 7’, , and only if the exchange of rotational energy with the other forms of energy is rapid will this 7’. indicate accurately an overall temperature. To summarize: All temperatures actually measured are partial or effective tempera- tures. The custom of denoting partial tem- peratures with 7*, or “J”, or Tottective 1S therefore really redundant. These special notations serve, however, a very usetul function by stressing the non-equilibrium 272 features of the system under study. Their use is therefore a matter of emphasis and convenience. METHODS OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT We shall now indicate how these ideas have been applied to a variety of recent problems. All examples are from high temperature fields though the same funda- mental considerations apply to all tempera- ture regions. 1. Temperature from the population of atomic levels. It is possible to introduce small amounts of metal vapor into hot gases by adding, for example, Na salts, Cu salts, or Fe carbonyl. The metal atoms interact with the species in the gas and may come to thermal equilibrium with the gas. Excited states of the metal atoms will then become populated in accordance with the Boltzmann factor. The atoms will return to their ground states or other lower states by radiation, and the relative intensities of the lines emitted can be used to estimate the relative populations of the levels involved, and hence the temperature of the atoms. If adequate equilibrium obtains, the method can be very useful. The method requires knowledge of the optical transition proba- bilities of the metal atom. The detailed conditions for a successful application of the method are described by Sobolev [9], who measured flame temperatures of about 3,000°K. with an estimated uncertainty of about 1.3 per cent. In many experimental situations it is unlikely that adequate equilibrium is ob- tained. In fact it may happen that this method measures some 7* of the system reliably because the atomic populations may come to equilibrium with some degrees of freedom of the system but not the others. Gaydon [/0| mentions circumstances where atomic excitation measures 7T;,, of some molecular species in a flame. The method has to be carefully checked, before its results can be accepted, par- ticularly when applied to systems under- going chemical reactions. This is because unstable chemical species which occur as intermediates of chemical reactions often excite some atoms with preference into certain levels, and so produce distributions JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 9 which are far removed from equilibrium [//]. In such cases the method is not reliable at present. 2. Temperature from Doppler line width. The motion of a molecule along the line of observation while it radiates shifts the wave lengths at which the radiation is ob- served relative to the wave lengths observed for a stationary molecule. This effect, known as the Doppler effect, broadens the spectral lines which are observed, and gives the lines a characteristic shape [/2]. This provides a method useful in principle for measuring the velocity distribution (hence the translational energy distribution) of the molecules. The method does not require any knowledge of the molecular or atomic structure of the species beyond knowledge of molecular or atomic weight. With it the translational temperature of CH in a low pressure flame was found to be about 3,500°K + 600°K., an uncertainty of about 20 per cent [13]. The method is not accurate. The main difficulty is that Doppler broadening is a small effect and may be masked by other effects such as collision broadening. To use the method fully, equipment of the highest resolving power should be used. When this is done, the whole contour of the spectral line can be determined. This allows one to infer the actual existing velocity distribution, if other effects on the line shape can either be ignored or taken into account. 3. Temperature from vibrational spectra. In systems in equilibrium the vibrational de- grees of freedom of gas molecules are in equilibrium with each other and with the rest of the system. Therefore the relative populations of the vibrational levels are given by the Boltzmann factor, and a measurement of relative intensities of spectral lines associated with different vibrational levels will allow a determination of the temperature [7/4]. In other cases the vibrational degrees of freedom may be in equilibrium with each other without being in equilibrium with the rest of the system. In such cases a determination of relative populations of vibrational levels allows a determination of Ty in, . Several types of methods are in use. In one method the emission of radiation from a | | SEPTEMBER 1956 HERZFELD: complete unresolved vibration-rotation band is compared with the emission from a standard source [1/5]. The method is said to be good to about 2.5 per cent near 2000°K. Another method consists of measuring the relative intensities of emission lines belong- ing to the same rotational levels of different vibrational levels [/6]. Experimental un- certainties are said to be about 10 per cent of 7,3, near 2,500°K. Both methods require directly the quan- tum mechanical transition probabilities. These are difficult to calculate, though they have been obtained for OH [17], C2 [Zé], and a few other molecules. In general these transition probabilities must be obtained from experiment when the species are known to be in equilibrium at a given temperature. Once they are known, they can be applied to calculations of nonequilibrium or partial equilibrium situations. A thorough discussion of these methods and some variations is given by Smit [79]. 4. Temperature from rotational spectra. Several methods are currently used to determine temperature from rotational spectra. Most of these depend on the com- parison of relative intensities of rotational lines and on the relative populations in- ferred from the intensities [8]. Thorough reviews of methods based on rotational spectra have been given by Dieke and coworkers [20]. The relative transition probabilities are required for this method. They can be calculated with good accuracy for many diatomic molecules and can be determined experimentally for cases where calculations are difficult. Several distinct ways are used to calculate temperatures from intensities. We do not give the details of these methods. The two most common methods are the ‘log in- tensity” method and the ‘“‘iso-intensity”’ method [20]. If the observed lines are absorbed strongly the data may give ficti- tious indications of non-equilibrium popula- tion of levels. A recent method by Kost- kowski and Broida [217] makes possible the determination of reliable temperatures even in the case of large absorption. The experimental uncertainties in the determined temperatures vary greatly from TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 273 one case to another. Uncertainties as small as 1% at 3000°K have been reported, while attempts have been made to apply the method where uncertainties are close to 100 per cent [17]. 5. Temperature from optical pyrometers. This method consists of comparing the brightness of the object whose temperature is to be measured with that of a standard whose brightness is known from calibration as a function of temperature. Two main variations are in use: one-color pyrometry where brightness 1s compared at one wave- length, and 2-color pyrometry where bright- ness 1s compared at two wavelengths. If the system to be studied is in internal equi- hbrium, and if its emissivity is known at the wavelengths of comparison, then either method is reliable and gives good values of 7. In practice neither of these two conditions is likely to be fulfilled. In flames the continuous radiation emitted which is usually used in pyrometer methods comes from small incandescent solid particles of carbon. Recent studies [22] have shown that these carbon particles are in equilibrium with the surrounding gas. The carbon particles, however, are so small (about one wavelength of visible ight in diameter) that their size strongly affects their optical properties. To determine flame tempera- tures accurately using this method, the effect of particle size must be taken into account. In some cases, temperatures ob- tained with pyrometers from carbon parti- cles in flames have been found to agree well with temperatures from line reversal tech- niques [23]. In other cases comparisons have been worked out between such pyro- metrically measured temperatures and black- body temperatures [24]. Pyrometric methods are particularly use- ful as empirical control devices when no explicit correlation can be made between the measurement and an equilibrium tem- perature. If, e.g., the emissivity of the system is unknown, or if no partial equi- librium can be found in the system, then the pyrometer can be used to good advantage as a control device. In many industrial ap- plications of pyrometry this is the exact attitude adopted. 6. Temperatures from thermocouples. Ther- 274 mocouples measure temperature by gen- erating an e.m.f. across their open terminals when the measuring junction is at a different temperature than the reference junction. The generated e.m.f. is a function of the temperature, therefore a calibration must be available covering the whole temperature range to be measured [25]. Two problems of thermocouple construc- tion and use are of particular relevance to our present point of view. One arises in the measurement of the temperatures of hot gases through a container wall, and the problem is to have the thermocouple follow temperature changes in the gas rapidly. For metal walls this does not seem to be too difficult. For plastic or refractory walls a large time lag may be introduced by the poor thermal conductivity of the wall material. However, special methods of design have been found which make possible adequate heat contact between the thermocouple in the wall and the gas [26]. A second application of thermocouples where the approach to equilibrium is a significant problem is the measurement of temperatures of gases having large bulk flow velocities, such as in super- and hyper- sonic wind-tunnels, in exhausts of jets, etc. A problem here is to devise an arrangement of the thermocouple which measures the stagnation temperature of the gas. This means that a sample of the gas must be stopped rapidly enough to be sensibly adi- abatic, yet slowly enough for the gas to come to internal equilibrium. The thermocouple is then exposed to the gas sample just pre- pared. A thorough survey of such devices is given by Eber [26]. Well-designed thermo- couple probes have recovery factors of about 0.95 which are furthermore inde- pendent of Mach number in the range of stream velocity employed. (The recovery factor is the fraction of the theoretical temperature rise on stagnation, which can be accomplished experimentally.) With suitable construction and calibration equilibrium temperatures can be measured. But even in the absence of calibration, and with poor design, thermocouple probes can be used as empirical control devices. 7. Temperature from the velocity of sound. The velocity of sound through any medium JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 9 is a function of temperature. Therefore the velocity of sound may be used to measure the temperature. The method is particularly use- ful in gases and can be used under con- ditions where many other methods fail or are inconvenient [27, 28, 29]. The velocity of sound in a gas is a function not only of the temperature, but also of y = C,/C, and of the molecular weight of the gas. This puts a number of restrictions on the method. At high frequencies of sound y appears to change because the molecules cannot come to equilibrium in the time of one period of the sound wave if the frequency is too high. Furthermore, if the gas is not in equilibrium the value of y may depend on the details of the processes in the system in a complicated way. Therefore the theory of the propagation of sound in a non-equilibrium gas is com- plicated. The measured velocity of sound is an average velocity averaged over all the gas in the path of the sound wave. If strong local temperature variations are to be expected the method loses some of its power. Under circumstances where the gas is not homogeneous and is not in well-de- fined partial equilibria with respect to some of the important processes, the method can at present only be used as a control device. An alternative method involves the measurement of the velocity of shock waves through gases. The shock waves are gen- erated by a spark and their velocity de- termined by a photographic method. This method is subject to the same types of limitations mentioned above, except that a photographic method may enable one to determine local velocities instead of one single average velocity as above. 8. Control devices and further progress. Many systems encountered in technology are so complex that very little can be said about relaxation times and about partial equilibrium. It is then difficult to define temperature, but it is important to realize that even in extremely complex situations measurement gives some information. For example, the transit time of an ultrasonic wave in the exhaust gases of a jet engine does give an indication of the state of the gases. It gives, however, only one “bit of informa- tion,’ while perhaps several hundered bits would be required to describe the system. SEPTEMBER 1956 Thus it is futile to hope that the one ob- served bit will adequately specify all the variables. The most fruitful approach would seem to be the selection of several quite distinct temperature measurement methods which are reasonably easy to use under the circumstances: say, pyrometer, spectral-line reversal, and transit time of ultrasound, giving three independent control parameters. While none of these will, strictly speaking, measure temperatures, they will specify several different properties of the system. In this way a fairly thorough control of the system should be possible, and the de- pendence of the control parameters on experimental conditions would guide further experimentation. At the same time _ ex- perience is gained in the study of really complex systems, and thus the groundwork laid for further advances in the fundamental understanding of nonequilibrium processes. This in turn will make possible the further extension of the concept of temperature. REFERENCES [1] Zemansx1, M. W. Heat and thermodynamics, 3d ed. New York, 1951. [2] CHANDRASEKHAR, S. Introduction to the study of stellar structure, chapter 1. Chicago, 1939. Marcenau, H., and Murpuy, G. M. The mathematics of physics and chemistry, chap- ters 1 and 2. New York, 1943. [3] Touman, R. C. The principles of statistical mechanics. Oxford, 1938. [4] Montrotu, E. W., and Green, M.S. Statis- tical mechanics of transport and non-equi- librium processes. Ann. Rev. Phys. Chem. 5. 1954. [5] Herzretp, K. F. Relaxation of partial tem- peratures. Temperature, its measurement and control in science and industry, 2. New York, 1955. (This volume will be referred to hereafter as ‘“Temperature 2.’’) [6] Rusin, R. J.. and Sauter, K. E. Journ. Chem. Phys. 25: 59. 1956. [7] Souter, K. E. Journ. Chem. 1466. 1950. [8] Brotpa, H. P. Vemperature measurements in flames and hot gases. Temperature 2. Phys. 18: HERZFELD: TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 2795 [9] Sopotev, N. N. Journ. Exp. Theor. Phys. USSR 18: 25-35. 1949. [10] Gaypon, A. G. Energy transfer in hot gases. NBS Circular 523. 1954. [11] THomas, N. Section N, Physical measure- ments in gas dynamics and combustion, Editors: R. W. Ladenburg, B. Lewis, R. N. Pease, H. S. Taylor. High Speed Aero- dynamics and Jet Propulsion 9. Prince- ton, 1954. (Hereafter called “High Speed ©) (12) Wuitr, H. E. Introduction to atomic spectra, chapter 21. New York, 1984. [13] Gaypon, A. G. and WourHarp, H.G. Proce. Roy. Soe. London 199A: 89. 1949. [14] Herzperc, G. Spectra of Diatomic Mole- cules, chapter 3. New York, 1950. [15] SttverMAN,S. Third combustion symposium. 498. Baltimore, 1949. [16] StnvermMan, 8. Energy transfer in hot gases. NBS Circular 523. 1954. [17] Souter, K. E. Journ. Chem. Phys. 18: 1221. 1950. (18) McKerniuar, A. and Buscompr, W. Publ. Domin. Astrophys. Observ. Victoria, B. C., 7: 361. 1948. McKeuuar, A. and Tawpr, N. R. Astro- phys. Journ. 113: 440. 1951. Tawpe, N. R. and PatsEt, J. M. Journ. 112: 210, 1951. Bates, D.R. Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc. 112: 614. 1952. [19] Smrr, J. A. The production and measurement of constant high temperatures, up to 7000°K. Dissertation. Utrecht, Netherlands, 1950. [20] Drexr, G. H. Section M, High Speed 9. Dirks, G. H. and Crosswuire, H. M. En- ergy transfer in hot gases. NBS Circular 523. 1954. 21] KosrKowsk1, H. J. and Brorpa, H. P. Journ. Optical Soc. Amer. 46: 246. 1956. 22] SHuter, K. HK. Mem. Soc. Roy. Sci. Liége, 4th series 15: 360. 1954. 23) Barret, P. Publ. Sci. et Techn. Minist. Air, no. 273: 114. 1952. 24] Narser, G. and Prpprrnorr, W. Hisenhiittenwesen 22: 9. 1951. Rew, W. T. Section J, High Speed 9. [25] Baker, H. D., Ryper, KE. A. and Baker, N.H. Temperature measurement in engi- neering 1. New York, 1953. [26] Eper, G. Section D, High Speed 9. [27] Bunpy, F. P. and Srrone, H. M. 1.7, High Speed 9. [28] Capy, W. M. Section D.8, High Speed 9. [29] Hepricn, A. L. and Parpur, D. R. Tem- perature 2. Astrophys. Arch. Section 276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 9 ENTOMOLOGY .—Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United States National Museum: III, The genera Anopheles and Chagasia (Diptera, Culicidae). ALAN STONE, Entomology Research Branch, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, and KennetH L. Kniaut, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, U. 8S. Depart- ment of the Navy.’ (Received May 8, 1956) The introductory remarks in the first paper of this series, particularly those on early, possibly questionable holotypes, also apply to this one. Following our treatment of nominal taxa requiring special attention we present a list of those in the collection based on unique specimens or for which holotypes were clearly designated. Genus Anopheles Meigen Anopheles apicimacula Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 136. 1906. Of the 26 original specimens of this species, 22 are in the collection. One female only, from Livingston, Guatemala, May 11, bears a type label, and this we consider the holotype. This specimen was designated as lectotype in Russell, Rozeboom, and Stone (1948, p. 31) although we now feel that this lectotype designation was not necessary, as explained in the introduction to this series. Anopheles atropos Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 160. 1906. The syntype series of this species consisted of seven female specimens from the Florida Keys, collected by H. Byrd. All these are in the collec- tion and all are labeled “Type No. 10029 U.S. N.M.” We select as lectotype one of the best of these specimens. Anopheles (Kerteszia) bambusicolus Komp, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 30: 515. 1937. The syntype series of this species consisted of three females with associated larval skins. These 1 Harlier papers in this series are: J, The genera Armigeres, Psorophora, and Haemagogus, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 45: 282-289. 1955; IT, The genus Aedes, ibid. 46: 213-228. 1956. 2 Studies upon which this paper is based were conducted under an exchange of funds from the Office of Naval Research (Biological Science Division) to the Smithsonian Institution. The opinions or assertions contained here are the private ones of the writers and are not to be con- strued as official or reflecting the views of the Navy Department or the Naval Service at large. specimens stand in the collection all bearing the labels “‘La Union, Int. de Meta, Colombia, Sept. 1935. Jorg Boshell / On bamboo / Cotype No. 53075.”’ There are four larval skins on slides, but since the pinned specimens are not numbered these skins cannot be associated with individual specimens. Two of the pinned specimens are Anopheles bambusicolus Komp, and we select the better one as lectotype. The third is a specimen of Culex chryselatus Dyar and Knab and has been transferred to that species in the collection. Anopheles barberi Coquillett, Can. Ent. 35: 310. 1903. This species was described from three females collected on Plummers Island, Md., August 14, 1902, and August 17 and 19, 1908. Only one of these specimens, dated August 17, is in the col- lection, and it bears the type label and Coquil- lett’s determination label. We consider this specimen to be the holotype. Anopheles bellator Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soe. Washington 19: 160. 1906. The original three specimens of this species are in the collection, consisting of one male and two females, all labeled “Type No. 10027 US.N.M.” We select as lectotype the male labeled ‘44.1 / Trinidad, W.I. Jan. / Aug. Busck Collector / See slide No. 314 / Slide «659 / bellator.’’ The terminalia are on slide no. 314, and one front tarsus is on slide no. 659. The pupal skin from which this specimen came has also been mounted on a slide. Anopheles (Dendropaedium) bellator race bromeli- cola Dyar and Knab, Ins. Inse. Mens. 13: Hs NOP), The two female syntypes of this, from Manoa, Orinoca River, Venezuela, are in the collection, each bearing only the labels ‘Manoa Woods Jan 10 / Type No. U.S.N.M.” We select one of these as lectotype. SEPTEMBER 1956 Anopheles (Anopheles) chiriquiensis Komp, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 38: 156. 1936. Both sexes and the larva of this species were originally described, but no type material was mentioned. The collection contains one male and one female labeled ‘‘Anopheles chiriquiensis Komp / Volean de Chiriqui, Panamdé I1.7.35 6500 ft / Cotype No. 51882 U.S.N.M. / W.H.W. Komp.”’ The male is labeled 1, and this has dissected terminalia mounted on a slide. There is a second female of the original material, not labeled as cotype, and one larval skin, not associated by label with any specific adult. We select the male as lectotype. Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) darlingi Root, Amer. Journ. Hyg. 6: 706. 1926. The lectotype male of this species, selected by Stone in Ross and Roberts (1948, p. 30), is in the collection. Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) davist Paterson and Shannon, Terc. Reun. Soc. Arg. Mosq. de Embarcacion: 5. 1927. This species was described from 6 larvae, 50 females, and 2 males from Trez Pozos, Embarca- cién, Salta, Argentina. The collection contains a larval slide and two male terminalia slides bear- ing the original data, and four pinned females collected at the proper time but at Bella Vista, Embareacion, not Trez Pozos. The larva and one of the male slides were labeled ‘“‘Type” by Shannon, but the adults from which the male terminalia came are not in the collection. There is no indication in the original publication as to where the types were to be deposited, and it is quite possible that there are more and better specimens of the syntype series in Argentina. Because of this, it seems advisable to defer selec- tion of a lectotype. Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) dunhami Causey, Journ. Nat. Malaria Soc. 4: 231-234. 1945. The original description of this species states, “The type specimens have been forwarded to the National Museum in Washington, D. C.” There is no statement as to the number of specimens involved, although the species was collected in large numbers on animal bait in Tefé, Amazonas, Brazil, and the female, male, egg, and larva are described. The collection contains a male labeled type and a female labeled paratype, both reared from eggs laid by a female collected in Tefé, STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. III 277 Amazonas, Brazil. We consider this male, with terminalia mounted on a slide, to be the holotype. Anopheles earlei Vargas, Bol. Ofic. Sanit. Pana- mericana 22: 8. 1943. The original description of this species desig- nated a male holotype with the dissected termi- nalia mounted on two-slides and a female allo- type. The type locality was given as being Jefferson County, Wis. The type was collected July 10, the allotype July 13. These specimens are in the collection bearing these data. For this reason the statement in Vargas and Matheson (1948, p. 27) that “El tipo macho fue de Cayuta Lake, Nueva York” is erroneous. Anopheles eisentd Coquillett, Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 10: 192. 1902. This species was described from one female and two males. Two of the original specimens are in the collection, one of the males not being found. The female only bears a type label and it also bears Coquillett’s determination label. This specimen we consider to be the holotype. Cellia flava Ludlow, Can. Ent. 40: 32. 1908. This species was described from four specimens, which are in the collection, bearing unnumbered type labels. These specimens are all females, al- though the original description includes both sexes. We select as lectotype the specimen bear- ing the label ‘‘Cellia flava Ludl. Type” and some indecipherable words. There are other specimens from Tayabas, the type locality, including males, that might have been before Ludlow when she described the species. Myzomyia flavirostris Ludlow, Psyche 21: 30. 1914. It is not clear from the original description that this species was based on more than one specimen, but the collection has four females bearing unnumbered type labels. Only one has an additional label, as follows: ‘MZ. funesta Giles dark flavirostris. Camp Wilhelm, Tayabas, P. I. Type. Nov.” The word ‘‘flavirostris” is written in pencil, and the word “Type” is apparently written with a different pen from the rest of the label. This specimen is the best of the four and we select it as lectotype. Anopheles formosus Ludlow, Can. Ent. 41: 22. 1909. 278 This species was presumably described from a single female, but it is not clearly so stated in the original description. We consider the single female, with the labels “Type No. 27781 U.S. N.M. / Anopheles formosus Ludl. Type C.S.L. Camp John Hay. Benguet, P. I. Mch 20, 1908” as the holotype. Anopheles (Kerteszia) homunculus Komp, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 30: 509. 1937. The syntype series of this species consisted of three females and one male. The collection now has two females and one male labeled as cotypes, associated with three numbered larval skins on one slide and the terminalia of the male on an- other slide. We select as lectotype the male with the associated larval skin no. 3, collected by Komp at Restrepo, Colombia, September 9, 1935. Culex hyemalis Fitch, Amer. Journ. Agr. and Sci. 5: 281. 1847. The original description gives no indication of any type material, stating merely that the species is “met with in the last days of autumn and again for a short time in the first days of spring”’ and ‘‘is a somewhat rare insect.”” The collection contains a single female bearing the labels ‘6850 / Type No. US.N.M. / Fitch Collection / Anopheles Meigen hyemalis Fitch New York.” Not knowing whether any other Fitch specimens of this species are in existence, we select this specimen as lectotype. Myzomyia rossi var. indefinita Ludlow, Can. Ent. 36: 299. 1904. This variety was described from an indefinite number of specimens from a variety of localities in the Philippines, some of them not named. The collection contains the following syntypes, or pre- sumable syntypes: (1) Four females, each bearing the red label “Type No. 27779 U.S.N.M.” (one of these specimens bears the label in Ludlow’s hand “Myzomyia indefinita Ludl. P. I. Type C.S.L.); (2) two females labeled only ‘“M. in- definita Ludlow Cotype’’; and (8) nine specimens labeled only ‘‘Guimaras Isl. P. I. Dr. LeWald.” These latter may not have been of the original Guimaras Island material, but they probably were. Most of the specimens are in very poor condition, particularly those of the first series, and except for the third series mentioned above, none bear any label for a specific locality in the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 9 Philippines. Since one of the best specimens, and one that agrees well with the original description and the current concept of the species, is one of the two of series (2) above, we select this one as lectotype. Anopheles lewisi Ludlow, Psyche 27: 14. 1920. Aitken (1945, p. 308) designated lectotypes from the syntype series on which this name is based. This designation is somewhat obscure, since it appears that Aitken is referring to lewisi in making these selections but he uses two U. S. National Museum numbers. For the lectoholo- type male he refers to U. S. National Museum no. 77812, which presumably refers to U.S.N.M. Type no. 27812, the number for the syntype series of lewist; for the lectoallotype he says, “A. Lewist (U.S. National Museum no. 77813)” which he may have intended to mean U.S.N.M. Type no. 27813, the type number for the two syntype females of Anopheles selengensis Ludlow. The collection contains a male and female of lewisi, labeled by Aitken as lectoholotype and lectoallotype respectively and a female of selengensis labeled lectoholotype, all collected at the same place and date. We accept the male lectotype for lewisi, and here designate as the lectotype of selengensis the female labeled by Aitken. Stethomyia lewist Shannon, Proc. Ent. Soe. Washington 33: 154. 1931. The male holotype, female allotype, and a female paratype were said to have been de- posited in the U.S. National Museum collection. We have found no pinned specimens bearing type data, but there are two slides of fragments of male terminalia from the type locality, Rio Curuptre, Bahia, Brazil. One of these slides has one com- plete set of terminalia and a portion of another, and the other has dissected claspettes. These slides are not labeled as types, and it would be impossible to tell which fragments belong to the holotype male, if any do. We can either assume that the type is lost or that the type is present in part but unlabeled. Anopheles malefactor Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 15: 198. 1907. The seven specimens on which this species was based are all in the collection and each bears the label “Type No. 10877 U.S.N.M.” We select as SEPTEMBER 1956 lectotype a female which also bears the labels “136.1 / Rio Chagres, Panama / Collected by August Buseck / Anopheles malefactor D. & K. Type.” There is a slide of the pupal skin and a portion of the abdomen of the larval skin. The fifth hind tarsomere is entirely white in this speci- men, as given in the original description. Some of the other syntypes have a rather narrow dark ring on this tarsomere. Anopheles newai Howard, Dyar and Knab, Mosquitoes of North and Central America and the West Indies 4: 966. 1917. Although in the original description this species was said to have been found from Panama north- ward to southern Mexico, and localities are given in two places in Panama, two in Costa Rica, and one in Mexico, there are only three specimens in the collection under this name that can be con- sidered to be of the original material. One of these, a female, bears the labels ‘344.1 / Type No. 20440 U.S.N.M. / neivai!’’ The number refers to Jennings’ collection notes which state that the data for this number are “‘Fort San Felipe, Porto Bello Bay [Panama], June 2, 1908.”” The pupal skin and larval head capsule are mounted on a slide. This specimen we select as lectotype. A second female, from Panama, bears the label “Paratype No. 20440 U.S.N.M.,” and a third one, from Hstrella, Costa Rica, bears a determina- tion label but no type label. Anopheles occidentalis Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 159. 1906. Most of the 118 original specimens of this species are in the collection, but only one, from Stanford University, California, May 26, 1903, bears a type label, and so we consider this to be the holotype. This specimen is in excellent con- dition. Aitken (1945, p. 285) has discussed the two species involved in the original series of this species. Anopheles oiketorakras Osorno-Mesa, Caldasia 4: 431-446, 1947. This species was described from a male and a female designated as types, and other adults designated as paratypes. We select as lectotype the male ‘type’ labeled “Bogota, Colombia, S. A. Monserate, 2700-2840 m., III.13.46.” Myzomyia parangensis Ludlow, Psyche 21: 129. 1914. STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. IIL 279 This species was described from more than one specimen, but the exact number was not stated. There are two females in the collection, each bearing the label “Type No. 27778 U.S.N.M.” One is in excellent condition and bears the addi- tional label ‘““Myzomyia parangensis Ludl. Port of Parang, Mindanao, P. I., Oct. Nov. Types.” The second is in poor condition and bears no additional label. Presumably the one label was intended for both. We select the first specimen as lectotype. Anopheles philippinensis Ludlow, Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 10: 129. 1902. The number of specimens on which this species was based was not stated. Two females in the collection each bear the label ‘Type No. 27703 U.S.N.M.” and one of them the label ‘Nysso- rhynchus philippinensis Ludl. San Jose, Abra, P. I. Sept. 1, 1901. Type.” Both of the specimens are in very poor condition, with hind legs missing. The one with palpi shows the terminal pale band on each palpus equal in length to the preapical dark band, and both specimens show a patch of pale scales on the sternopleuron, in both respects differing from the key characters used by Puri (1949). The specimen bearing Ludlow’s original type label is in the worse condition, but the other is not much better. We refrain from selecting a lectotype because the specimens are in such poor condition that such selection would serve little purpose. The wing pattern differs slightly be- tween the two specimens. If a lectotype is to be selected it should be only after a very thorough study of the species or species complex over its whole range. Anopheles pseudobarbirostris Ludlow, Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 10: 129. 1902. The number of specimens on which this species was based was not stated. Two females in the col- lection each bears the label “Type No. 27782 U.S.N.M.”’ and one of them the label ‘‘MWyzo- rhynchus pseudobarbirostris Ludl. Type, Hagonoy, Bulacan, P. I. Oct. 2, 1901. Kellogg. Type.’ We designate this latter specimen as lectotype of the species. Anopheles selengensis Ludlow, Psyche 27: 77. 1920. See remarks under Anopheles lewtst Ludlow. 280 Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) strodec Root, Amer. Journ. Hyg. 6: 711, 1926. A male and a female of this species from the type locality are in the collection. We select as lectotype the male bearing a square of red paper and the labels “Agua Limpa, Braz. Mar. 27, 1925. No. 64 / Anopheles strodei Root types.” The female bears the same data. Myzomyia thorntonii Ludlow, Can. Ent. 36: 69 1904. The collection contains three females of this species marked as types. Two of these each bear the label “Type No. 27780 U.S.N.M.” put on by Dyar and one of these bears the additional label, in Ludlow’s hand, ‘““Myzomyia thorntonii Ludl. Cottabatto, Mindanao, P. I. June. Type C.8.L.” The second specimen bears no data label, but Dyar entered both in the type book as being from the same locality. The third specimens bears an unnumbered type label and the label ‘“M. Thorntoni Ludlow cotype”’ with no further data. Since Ludlow mentioned only two specimens, from two different localities, it is evident that some mislabeling has occurred. None of these specimens are in very good condition but they appear to be conspecific. We select as lectotype the specimen bearing the numbered type label and the collection data. Anopheles vestitipennis Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 136. 1906. The lectotype female designated by Stone in Russell, Rozeboom, and Stone (1948, p. 34) is in the collection. The following taxa are based either on unique specimens or on clearly designated holotypes: Anopheles (Stethomyia) acanthotorynus Komp, 1937 Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) anomalophyllus Komp, 1936 Anopheles (Kerteszia) anoplus Komp, 1937 Anopheles lindesayi var. benguetensis King, 1931 Anopheles crucians var. bradleyi King, 1939 Anopheles (Myzomyia) clowit Rozeboom and Knight, 1946 Anopheles (Myzomyia) cristatus King and Baisas, 1936 Anopheles in yssorhynchus) emilianus Komp, 1941 Anopheles (A.) fluminensis Root, 1927 Anopheles ae var. georgianus King, 1939 Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) goeldii Rozeboom and Gabaldon, 1941 Anopheles gorgasi Dyar and Knab, 1907 Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) guaranit Shannon, 1928 Anopheles koliensis Owen, 1945 Anopheles nimbus var. kompi Edwards, 1930 Anopheles vagus var. limosus King, 1932 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 9 Chagasia lineata Ludlow, 1908 Anopheles litoralis King, 1932 See ee Me yeoruea) lungae Belkin and Schlos- ser, 194 Anopheles (Myzomyia) nataliae Belkin, 1945 Anopheles (Stethomyia) niveopalpis Ludlow, 1919 Stethomyia pallida Ludlow, 1905 Anopheles perplexens Ludlow, 1907 Anopheles punctimacula Dyar and Knab, 1906 Anopheles (Myzomyia) leucosphyrus var. riparis King and Baisas, 1936 Anopheles (A.) ) samarensis Rozeboom, 1951 Anopheles (A.) saperot Bohart and Ingram, 1946 Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) sawyeri Causey, Deane, Deane, and Sampaio, 1943 Anopheles (A.) shannoni Davis, 1931 Anopheles (Myzomyia) solomonis Belkin, Knight, and Rozeboom, 1945 Anopheles strigimacula Dyar and Knab, 1906 Genus Chagasia Cruz Chagasia rozeboomi Causey, Deane and Deane, Amer. Journ. Hyg. 39: 3. 1944; Journ. Nat. Malaria Soc. 4: 341-350. 1945. The first description of this species was of the egg only and there is probably no type specimen in existence. In 1945 the authors described the adults, larva, and pupa, and state that “Type specimens are deposited in the National Museum in Washington, D. C. U.S.A.” A female in the collection bears the labels ‘““Type specimen col- lected in Crato, Ceara, Brazil / Type No. 58039 U.S.N.M. / Chagasia rozeboomi Causey Deane and Deane 1944.” Since the species was originally described from the egg alone, however, we must consider this specimen as a pseudotype. The following species are based on unique holotype specimens: Anopheles (Chagasia) bathanus Dyar, 1928 Chagasia bonneae Root, 1927 LITERATURE CITED ArrKen, T. H. G. plex of western America. Publ. Ent. 7: 273-364. 1945. Purt, I. M. Anopheles of the Oriental Region. In Boyd, Malariology 1: 483-505. 1949. Ross, E. 8., and Roprerts, H. R. Mosquito At- las Part I: 1-44. American Entomological Society, 1943. Russet, P. F., Rozesoom, L. E., and STonz, A. Keys to the anopheline mosquitoes of the world: 1-152. American Entomological Society, 1943. Varaas, L., and Maruerson, R. Estado actual del Anopheles earlei Vargas (1943) y Anopheles occidentalis Dyar & Knab (1906) con claves para larvas, pupas y adultos del llamado com- plejo maculipennis de Norteamerica. Rev. Inst. Salub. y Enferm. Trop. 9: 27-33. 1948. Studies on the anopheline com- Univ. California SEPTEMBER 1956 PETTIBONE: POLYCHAETE WORMS 281 ZOOLOGY .—Some polychaete worms of the families Hesionidae, Syllidae, and Nereidae from the east coast of North America, West Indies, and Gulf of Mexico. Marian H. Perrisone, University of New Hampshire. (Communicated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.) (Received June 14, 1956) In connection with a study in progress on the polychaetes of the New England region, a species of Hesionidae is herein revised, resulting in a new genus and new combina- tion; a new species of each of the Syllidae and Nereidae are described. From the West Indies and Gulf of Mexico region, a new species of Nereidae is described and sup- plementary descriptions are given for two other nereid species. The major part of the work was done at the United States National Museum, where the types are deposited. Family HEsIoNIDAE Parahesione, n. gen. Diagnosis—Prostomium with two lateral antennae, two smooth, unjointed palps, two pairs of eyes. Tentacular segments 3, somewhat fused; tentacular cirri 6 pairs (3 pairs on each side). Parapodia distinctly biramous; notopodia form- ing distinct lobes below the cirrophores of the dorsal cirri, with numerous capillary notosetae; neuropodia with numerous compound setae with blades long and slender. Anal cirri two, long. Proboscis with numerous fine papillae around the opening, without jaws. Type.—Podarke luteola Webster, 1880 (= Hesione agilis Webster and Benedict, 1884). Parahesione resembles Syllidea Quatrefages, Micropodarke Okuda, and Nereimyra Blainville (= Castalia Savigny) in the absence of a median antenna, the presence of 2 palps and 6 pairs of tentacular cirri. It differs from them in that the notopodia are well developed and distinct from the cirrophores of the dorsal cirri, with a distinct bundle of numerous notosetae; the palps are smooth, not biarticulate; also the shape of the neuropodia and probosces differ markedly. Parahesione luteola (Webster, 1880), n. comb. Fig. 1, a-c Podarke luteola Webster, 1880, pp. 107-108 (figures referred to not published); 1886, pp. 135-186, pl. 5, figs. 19-20 (repeat of Webster, 1880, plus figures). 1'This study was aided by a grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF-G2012). Hesione agilis Webster and Benedict, 1884, pp. 707-709, pl. 1, figs. 9-11. The revision of the species is based on the fol- lowing: (1) The description of Podarke luteola Webster, 1880, 1886, based on a single specimen (11 mm long, 45 segments) found on an oyster- shell in Great Egg Harbor, N. J.; the type speci- men is not available; (2) the description and type specimens of Hestone agilis Webster and Benedict, 1884 (U.S.N.M. no. 480), found in sandy mud near the high water mark in Wellfleet, Mass.; the types include several small specimens (up to 2.5 mm long, 18 setigers); (3) several specimens col- lected at Wellfleet Harbor, Mass., on the sandy flats, living commensally in the burrows of Upogebia affinis (Say); they move rapidly and easily escape notice; they were up to 15 mm long, 4 mm wide including setae, 37 setigers. Description.—Length up to 15 mm, width in- cluding setae up to 4 mm, segments 18-45. Body widest in the middle, tapering gradually anteri- orly and posteriorly, flattened dorsoventrally. Prostomium (Fig. 1, a) much wider than long, with 2 pairs dark red eyes, crescentric, closely approximated on each side; two pairs of similar anterior appendages, both pairs delicate, subulate, with very short basal ceratophores; of these anterior appendages, the lateral antennae are slightly more dorsal in position; the palps are smooth, not biarticulate as in many hesionids; a median antenna is lacking (for Podarke luteola, Webster indicated it was lost). Three tentacular segments somewhat fused dorsally, usually only one distinct; the 8 pairs of tentacular cirri on each side with short cylindrical basal cirrophores emerging from a common base, lateral to and somewhat fused with the prostomium; styles variable in length, the upper ones longer than the lower ones (some may reach segment 10), readily lost and renewed. Parapodia, dorsal cirri, and setae all very long (Fig. 1, c). Parapodia distinctly biramous; noto- podium a stout papilla below the base of the dorsal cirrus; notosetae numerous, forming a close-set bundle, long (longer than the neuro- setae), slender, capillary, transversely striated. 282 Neuropodia stout, elongated, terminating above in a conical acicular process, diagonally truncate below; neurosetae form a fan-shaped group, com- pound, stem very long with transverse markings, appendages short and long, entire. Dorsal cirri with short cylindrical basal cirrophores; styles very long (longer than the setae), delicate, taper- ing uniformly, articulate. Ventral cirri delicate, conical, tapering to slender tips, extending slightly beyond the tips of the neuropodial lobes. Anal cirri long, similar to the dorsal cirri (Fig. 1, b). Proboscis eversible, with larger basal portion and narrower distal portion, with numerous fine papillae around the opening, without jaws. Color: Colorless (small specimens) to reddish yellow, parapodia green and yellow, cirri white; greenish (preserved). Family SYLLIDAE Genus Brania Quatrefages, 1866 Brania wellfleetensis, n. sp. Fig. 2, a-c The species is based on a single specimen col- lected at low water, Wellfleet Harbor, on the Cape Cod Bay side, Massachusetts, on sandy bottom among tubes of Diopatra cuprea (Bosc), August 25, 1953 (U.S.N.M. no. 27783); another specimen was collected at Chappaquoit, Buzzards Bay, Mass., in muddy sand (U.S.N.M. no. 27784). Description —Length up to 7 mm, width up to 0.4 mm, segments 38-39. Body tiny, slender, threadlike, cylindrical, widest in the middle, tapering slightly anteriorly and_ posteriorly, colorless. Prostomium oval, wider than long, with 2 pairs of eyes, anterior pair slightly larger and more lateral, with little extra pigment lateral to the posterior pair of eyes; antennae subulate, wider basally, tapering to more slender tips; median antenna attached posteriorly on pros- tomium between posterior pair of eyes, about double the length of the prostomium; lateral antennae attached anteriorly on prostomium, anterior to the anterior pair of eyes, extending about as far distally as the median antenna; palps large, prominent, fused on basal third, free dis- tally; the palps may be elongated (Fig. 2, 6, sketched from life) or somewhat contracted (Fig. 2, a, preserved). Tentacular segment more or less distinct, with 2 pairs of tentacular cirri, subequal, similar in shape and length to the median antenna. Uniramous parapodia with setae JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 9 all compound, except in the last 6 or so posterior segments where there is an upper and lower simple seta (looks like a compound seta that has lost its appendage and become somewhat worn); setae compound falcigerous, with blades short, finely spinous, with tips hooked and entire (Fig. 2, c). First pair dorsal cirri equal in length to tentacu- lar cirri; dorsal cirri lacking on setiger 2; rest of dorsal cirri slightly longer than setal tips. Ventral cirri extend to about the tips of the parapodial lobes. Anal cirri 2, about as long as last 3 seg- ments. Pharynx long, occupying setigers 1-4, may be somewhat coiled when body is contracted; proventriculus occupying setigers 5 to 8. Remarks.—Brania wellfleetensis differs from Brania clavata (Claparéde), which includes Grubea webstert Verrill and is known from the New England region, in the following: B. clavata B. wellfleetensis Parapodialse- Two kinds: single up- Setae all compound tae per simple one; com- (except for some pound setae with simple setae in last blades shorter to 6 or so posterior seg- ments), with tips of blades entire. Without ocular spots. longer, with tips finely bidentate. With a pair of small ocular spots near the lateral antennae, in addition to the 4 larger eyes. Dorsal cirrion Present. setiger 2 Prostomium Absent. Distribution.— Massachusetts (Wellfleet Har- bor, Chappaquoit). In low water. Family NEREIDAE Nereis (Nereis) grayi, n. sp. Fig. 3, a-g The species is based on two specimens collected at Hadley Harbor, Uncatena Island in the Woods Hole area, Massachusetts, August 1952 (U.S.N.M. no. 27781, 27782). They were col- lected by Milton Gray, after whom the species is named. They were found in the thick muddy tubes of the large maldanid, Maldanopsis elongata (Verrill). Whether or not they lived commensally with the maldanid or occupied the tube second- arily is difficult to say. An examination of numer- ous tubes later failed to reveal any of the nereids. Description.—Length up to 60 mm or more, width up to 5 mm, segments up to 150 or more. Body long, slender, tapering very gradually posteriorly, somewhat flattened dorsoventrally, SEPTEMBER 1956 colorless. Prostomium (Fig. 3, a) typical nereid shape, being widest on posterior third, tapering gradually anteriorly to a truncate tip; frontal antennae subulate, at the corners of the truncate tip; palps with basal part large and bulbous, with retractile tip; 4 eyes rather small, subequal, on posterior third of prostomium. Tentacular seg- ment about same length as the following seg- ments; tentacular cirri slender, tapering, the posterior dorsal pair longest, extending to about setiger 8. Anal segment with a pair of short anal cirri. Parapodia (Fig. 3, d, e) biramous, except for the first two uniramous pairs, similar throughout the length of the body; they are long, making up about two-thirds the width of the body. Noto- podium with 2 subequal, elongated, conical, pointed ligules; neuropodium with bluntly coni- cal setigerous lobe, with a slightly shorter, conical, pointed lower ligule. Both dorsal and ventral PETTIBONE: POLYCHAETE WORMS 283 cirri are shorter than the ligules. Notosetae of anterior region homogomph spinigers, rather few in number (about 8 in each notopodium), with rather short blades; beginning on about setiger 27, notopodia with few (1-2), homogomph falci- gers with oval blades (Fig. 3, g). Upper group of neurosetae homogomph spinigers with long slender blades and few heterogomph falcigers (may be lacking on some parapodia) ; lower group of neurosetae heterogomph spinigers with rather short blades and heterogomph falcigers with rather long blades (Fig. 3, f). Acicula dark amber- colored. Proboscis (Fig. 8, a-c) with a pair of brown amber-colored jaws, each with about 12 teeth, with paragnaths few in number and small in size; on the maxillary ring: area II with 2 to 3 very small ones; area IV with triangular group of 10 to 13 slightly larger ones; on the oral ring, area VI with 3 to 4 small ones; paragnaths lacking on the other areas. 0.3mm. Fre. 1.—Parahesione luteola, n. comb.: a, Dorsal view anterior end; b, dorsal view posterior end; c, parapodium. 284 Remarks.—Nereis grayi resembles Nerevs (Eunereis) longissima Johnston rather closely, including the parapodia and the few paragnaths on the proboscis; they differ in the following: N. longissima N. grayi Confined to group on area VI of Small group on areas II and IV of maxil- Paragnaths small oral ring, without lary ring; small paragnaths on max- group on area VI of illary ring. oral ring. Longer, longest reach about setiger 8. Shorter, longest reach about setiger 3. Tentacular cirri Notopodial Begin on about setiger Begin on about setiger homo- 65. 27, gomph falcigers Distribution Massachusetts Hole region). In low water. (Woods Nereis egregicirrata Treadwell, 1924 Fig. 4, a; 5, a-d Nereis (Leptonereis) egregicirrata Treadwell, 1924, pp. 13-14, fig. 24 (part; English Harbor, An- tigua, submarine light, July 1918). Nereis egregicirrata Treadwell, 1939, p. 233, fig. 56 (Santa Barbara, Porto Rico). The following description is based on 5 speci- mens in the original type material (2 male and 3 female heteronereids, U.S.N.M. no. 20324) and a male heteronereid collected by M. Jean Allen at Parguera, Porto Rico, from reef in front of the Laboratory, March 23, 1955. The atokous form is unknown. Description of male and female heteronereids.— Body divided into two distinct regions: anterior unmodified, with the usual type of setae; posterior modified with the usual type of setae replaced by swimming setae and the development of lamellae instead of ligules. Prostomium (Fig. 4, a) with anterior part bent down ventrally, thus the frontal antennae and palps are not visible dorsally; four eyes large, subequal, purple, with distinct lenses, the two on each side closely ap- pressed. Tentacular cirri 4 pairs, 3 of which are rather short, somewhat articulated, fourth pair longer, may extend to setiger 5, distinctly to slightly articulated. Parapodia of anterior un- modified region (Fig. 5, a, c) with dorsal cirri subulate, longer than the ligules; notopodia with upper and lower conical to rounded ligules, with a third, shorter (supraacicular) ligule between them, with homogomph spinigerous setae; neuro- podia with conical setigerous lobe with anterior and posterior lips, with lower conical ligule; upper group of neurosetae homogomph spinigers and heterogomph falcigers; lower group of neurosetae JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 9 heterogomph spinigers and falcigers; hetero- gomph falcigers with short blades, similar to Fig. 6, c; ventral cirri subulate, about same length or slightly shorter than the neuropodial ligule; acicula dark amber-colored. Proboscis with amber-colored jaws each with about 12 teeth; with conical paragnaths on both maxillary and oral rings (exact arrangement?). Color (in alcohol): With faint transverse brownish bands dorsally and with darker glandular areas dorsally at bases of parapodia. The male and female heteronereids differ in the following: Length Width Number of setigers in anterior unmodified region Number of setigers in posterior modified region Total number of setigers Posterior end Dorsal cirri of anterior region Ventral cirri of anterior region Parapodia of modified region, with with swim- ming setae Male heteronereid Up to 13 mm. Up to 1.5 mm in an- terior region; up to 2.5 mm in posterior region 18 About 67 About 85 papil- cirri Anal segment lated (anal broken off) First 7 pairs modified (fig. 4, a): first 5 and seventh pairs elon- gate, cylindrical, with asymmetrical tips; sixth pair enor- mously elongate with bulbous base and long style (up to 4 mm long) First 5 pairs clubbed Fig. 5, 6. Dorsal cirri with slight indication of annula- tions or crenulations Extra lamella above base of dorsal cirrus Unequally bilobed supraacicular noto- podial lamella Unequally bilobed subacicular noto- podial lamella Large postsetal neuro- podial lamella Unequally bilobed lower neuropodial lamella Ventral cirri with bi- lobed lamella above and large lamella be- low Female heteronereid Up to 14 mm Up to 1 mm in anterior region; up to 2 mm in posterior region 26 About 90 About 116 Pair of long articulated anal cirri; anal seg- ment papillated First 7 pairs modified, get gradually longer anterior to posterior Same Fig. 5, d. Dorsal cirri smooth, not crenulate Same, smaller Single digitiform supraacicular lamella Single subacicular notopodial lamella Same, smaller Single lower podial lamella neuro- Ventral cirri with single lamella above and smaller lamella below SEPTEMBER 1956 Remarks.—The types of Nereis (Leptonereis) egregicirrata Treadwell were collected by sub- marine light at English Harbor, Antigua, by the Barbados-Antigua Expedition from the Uni- versity of Iowa. The nine specimens present in the type materia] are a mixture of male and fe- male heteronereids of at least two species. Since the description is confusing, being based on more than one species, I have selected as lectotype for N . egregicirrata one of the two male heteronereids with the enormously elongated dorsal cirri on YY, G PETTIBONE: POLYCHAETE WORMS 285 setiger 6, as figured by Treadwell (1924, fig. 24). The rest of the specimens were separated as follows: Anterior notopodia with 3 ligules (Fig. 5, a, c): Male heteronereids: With enormously elon- gated dorsal cirri on setiger 6 (Fig. 4, a; fig. 24 in Treadwell, 1924); dorsal cirri of modified region crenulate (Fig. 5, b); an- terior unmodified region with 18 setigers.— Lectotype and paratype of N. egregicirrata, 2 specimens. Fic. 2.—Brania wellfleetensis, n.sp.: a, Dorsal view anterior end; b, dorsal view prostomium, sketched C cs . “p a . ’ from life; c, compound falcigerous seta. 286 Female heteronereids: Dorsal cirri of modified region smooth, not crenulate (Fig. 5, d); anterior unmodified region with 26 setigers. —Paratypes of N. egregicirrata, 3 specimens. Anterior notopodia with 2 ligules (Fig. 6, a): Male heteronereids: Dorsal cirri of modified region crenulate (Fig. 6, h); anterior un- modified region with 14 setigers.—Para- types of N. allenae, n. sp., 3 specimens. Female heteronereid: Dorsal cirri of modified region smooth, not ecrenulate (Fig. 6, g); anterior unmodified region with 26 setigers, filled with large yolky eggs (Fig. 4, d).— Paratype of N. allenae, n. sp., 1 specimen. The species was originally placed in the sub- genus Leptonerers because of the supposed absence 0.7mm. Jp = = JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Se vou. 46, No. 9 of paragnaths. Treadwell, 1939, indicated that paragnaths were present and referred it to Nereis. The males and females of the two species are superficially similar and agree in the following: They are all small, less than 15 mm long; they are mostly faintly transversely banded with darker glandular areas at the dorsal bases of some of the parapodia; the anterior part of the prostomium is bent ventrally, so that the palps and frontal antennae are not visible dorsally; the 4 eyes are large, purple, subequal, with prominent lenses. Nerets egregicirrata suggests a resemblance to Nereis articulata Ehlers, 1887, from off Sand Key, Fla., 120 fathoms. The type of the latter in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard, was Fic. 3.—Nereis grayi n.sp.: a, Dorsal view anterior end, with proboscis partially extended; parag- naths of area VI on oral ring are shown; b, frontal view of extended proboscis showing maxillary ring with paragnaths on areas II (upper) and IV (lower) and jaws; c, one of the jaws showing the arrange- ment of teeth; d, parapodium from anterior region of body; e, same, from middle region; f, a lower neuropodial heterogomph falciger from anterior parapodium; g, a notopodial homogomph falciger from middle parapodium. SEPTEMBER 1956 examined for comparison; it is a single small atokous form in very poor condition—1t is brittle, brown, with pharynx and most of the setae miss- ing. The species agree in that the tentacular cirri are articulated, the parapodia seem similar; also they have glands at the bases of the parapodia. A similar type of elongated dorsal cirri for the male heteronereid is reported for Nereis abnormis Horst, 1924, p. 163, from the Netherlands East Indies; in this case, it is the dorsal cirri of the PETTIBONE: POLYCHAETE WORMS 287 seventh setiger that is enlarged instead of the sixth as in N. egregicirrata. Distribution.—West Indies: Antigua, Puerto Rico; in surface waters (March, July). Nereis allenae, n. sp. Figs. 4, b-f; 6, a-h The description is based on the following: Type (U.S.N.M. no. 27778): A single female heteronereid massed with unusually large eggs 0.32mm. Fic. 4.—Nerets egregicirrata: a, Dorsal view anterior end of male heteronereid showing enormously elongated dorsal cirri on setiger 6. Nerezs allenae, n.sp.: b, Dorsal view anterior end of atokous form; c, dorsal view posterior end of same; d, dorsal view anterior end of female heteronereid; e, one of large yolky eggs of same; f, dorsal view posterior end of male heteronereid. 288 from reef between the Laboratory and Caballo Blanco Island, Parguera, Porto Rico, evening, 15 September 1955, collected by M. Jean Allen, after whom the species is named; it is unusual in that the eggs were laid in short alga-like strings; paratypes (U.S.N.M. no. 27779): a single female heteronereid (massed with large eggs) and 3 male heteronereids removed from the type material of Nereis egregicirrata Treadwell (see above), col- lected at submarine light, English Harbor, Antigua, July 1918; paratypes (U.S.N.M. no. 27780): 3 atokous specimens which were mixed with other species, collected from Pelican Island, Barbados, from the Barbados-Antigua Expedi- tion, 1918. Description of the atokous form.—Length up to 27 mm, width up to 1 mm, segments about 80. Body long, slender, slightly flattened dorsoven- trally, tapered gradually posteriorly. Prostomium (Fig. 4, 6) widest basally, narrowed on anterior half; frontal antennae slender, palps bulbous with retractile tips, of about same length as antennae; JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL, 46, No. 9 4 eyes on posterior half of prostomium, violet, rather large, subequal. Tentacular segment of about same length as following segments; ten- tacular cirri short to longer, the longest reach setiger 4. Posterior end (Fig. 4, c) with bulbous anal segment, with pair of long anal cirri. Para- podia (Fig. 6, a, 6) similar throughout the length of the body. Dorsal cirri much longer than the ligules; notopodium with 2 rounded to conical ligules, with small acicular lobe on upper side of lower ligule (no distinct middle ligule), with homogomph spinigerous setae (without homo- gomph falcigers in middle and posterior part of body); neuropodium with conical setigerous lobe with anterior and posterior lips, with conical lower ligule; upper group of neurosetae homo- gomph spinigers and heterogomph falcigers; lower group of neurosetae heterogomph spinigers and falcigers; heterogomph falcigers of anterior region with short blades (Fig. 6, c); in middle and posterior regions, upper group of neurosetae with homogomph spinigers and few (1-3) heterogomph Fig. 5.—Nereis egregicirrata: a, Parapodium from anterior unmodified region of male heteronereid; 5, parapodium from posterior modified region of same; c, parapodium from anterior unmodified region of female heteronereid; d, parapodium from posterior modified region of same. (All parapodia drawn to same scale.) SEPTEMBER 1956 PETTIBONE: POLYCHAETE WORMS 289 falcigers that are stouter than the others (Fig. maxillary and oral rings (exact arrangement?). 6, d); lower group of falcigers more slender with Color (in alcohol): With brownish pigment on short blades (Fig. 6, e); acicula dark amber- anterior part of prostomium including palps, colored. Proboscis with dark amber-colored jaws, with a wide band on the tentacular segment and with conical amber-colored paragnaths on both narrow transverse bands both dorsally and rt 10 ja Fic. 6.—Nerets allenae, n.sp.: a, Parapodium from anterior region of atokous form; b, same, from middle region of body; c, heterogomph falcigerous seta from anterior parapodium of atokous form; d, heterogomph falcigerous seta from upper group of neurosetae from middle parapodium of atokous form; e, same, from lower group of neurosetae; f, parapodium from anterior part of body of female heteronereid; g, same, from posterior modified region; h, parapodium from modified region of male heteronereid. (All parapodia drawn to same scale.) 290 ventrally on most of the segments; also brownish glandular areas laterally within the body—at the bases of the parapodia dorsally and ventrally, at the bases of the dorsal and ventral cirri, and in the ligules (Fig. 4, 6, c). Description of male and female heteronereids.—- Body divided into two distinct regions: anterior unmodified, with the usual type of setae; pos- terior modified, with the usual type of setae re- placed by swimming setae and the development of lamellae instead of ligules; in addition in the male, there is a posterior “tail” region of about 12 segments which lack the modified parapodia; also there are paired dorsal knobs on the last 19 or so segments, giving the ‘tail’ a characteristic aspect (Fig. 4, f). Prostomium (Fig. 4, d) with anterior part bent down ventrally, thus the frontal antennae and palps are not visible dor- sally; four eyes large, bulging, subequal, purple, with distinct lenses, the 2 on each side closely appressed. Tentacular segment of female with lower 2 pairs of tentacular cirri short, upper an- terior pair extending to setiger 2, upper posterior pair extending to setiger 7; in the males, the tentacular cirri were broken off except for one rather short pair. Parapodia of anterior un- modified region (Fig. 6, f) similar to atokous form. In the female, the body wall of the anterior unmodified segments is very thin, transparent; this region is massed with large yolky eggs (about 160 » in diameter); the eggs have an outer finely granular portion and an inner denser portion with the large nucleus and a number of large oil globules (Fig. 4, d, e); these eggs were reported by the collector as being laid in short alga-like strings; the eggs made up a single row of cells, some strings with approximately 30 eggs; within about an hour after laying, the “jelly” holding the eggs together had dissolved. The male and female heteronereids differ in the following: Male heteronereid Female heteronereid JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON Length Width Number of setigers in anterior un- modified region Number of setigers in posterior modified region Total number of setigers Up to 12 mm. Up to 1.5 mm in an- terior region; up to 2.5 mm in posterior region 14 About 46 plus 12 in “tail” About 72 Up to 14 mm Up to 1.5 mm in an- terior region; up to 2 mm in posterior re- gion 26 About 55 About 81 ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 9 Bulbous anal segment (anal cirri missing) Posterior end Pair of dorsal papillae (ventral anal cirri missing); with a pair of dorsal knobs on the last 19 or so seg- ments (Fig. 4, f) Dorsal cirri of First 7 pairs elongated, First 5 pairs slightly anterior clubbed, become modified, clubbed region longer posteriorly First 4 pairs clubbed First 5 pairs slightly modified, clubbed Ventral cirri of anterior region Parapodia of Fig. 6, h Fig. 6, 9 modified Dorsal cirri crenulate Dorsal cirri smooth, region with on lower margin not crenulate swimming Extra lamella above Same setae base of dorsal cirrus Single supraacicular Unequally bilobed notopodial lamella supraacicular noto- podial lamella Single large subacicu- Unequally bilobed lar notopodial la- subacicular notopo- mella dial lamella Large rounded post- Same, smaller setal neuropodial la- mella Unequally bilobed Same lower neuropodial lamella Ventral cirri with bi- Same, smaller lobed lamella above and large lamella be- low Color Not banded; dark Pigmented on anterior part of prostomium and palps, wide band on tentacular seg- ment, with narrow transverse bands on rest of segments dor- sally and ventrally, with darker spots at the bases of the para- podia and bases of the dorsal and ven- tral cirri. glands at bases of parapodia dorsally Distribution—West Indies: Porto Rico, An- tigua, Barbados; heteronereids at surface (July, September). Nereis (Nereis) pelagica Linné, 1758 Nereis largoensis Treadwell, 1931, Behre, 1950, p. 12. Nereis pelagica largoensis Hartman, 1956, pp. 255, 280. p- 3.—not Remarks——The type of Nereis largoensis Treadwell, 1931, from Key Largo, Florida, de- posited in the American Museum of Natural History, was examined. It has been referred to Nereis pelagica largoensis by Hartman, 1956. In comparing it with specimens of the more northern N. pelagica, it seems to be identical; the parag- nath arrangement falls within the variation found in N. pelagica; the posterior notopodial SEPTEMBER 1956 lobes are no more enlarged than is found in the more northern forms. The record of N. largoensis from Grand Isle, La., by Behre, 1950, was based on specimens deposited in the United States National Museum and identified by Treadwell; on examination, they proved to be occidentalis and not largoensis. Distribution —Widely distributed in the Arctic. Also Iceland, Norway to Mediterranean; Hudson Bay to Long Island Sound, Florida (Key Largo) ; Bering Sea to Panamdé; north Japan Sea to Japan; South Atlantic (Tristan da Cunha, Kerguelen, Magellan Straits). In low water to 609 fathoms. Nereis (Nereis) occidentalis Hartman, 1945 Fig. 7, a-d; 8, a-g Nereis pelagica occidentalis Hartman, 1945, p. 20, pl. 4, figs. 1-6; 1951, p. 46.—Behre, 1950, p. 12. Neanthes oligohalina Rioja, 1946, p. 207, pl. 1, figs. 3-6; pl. 2, figs. 13-19. Nereis largoensis Behre, 1950, p. 12.—Hartman, 1951, p. 45, pl. 13, fig. 5 (part; from Grand Isle, La.); not Treadwell, 1931. Heteronereid epitokous forms of this species (including a single female and 7 males) were col- lected by Joseph P. Breuer and sent into the Museum for identification; they were collected in Laguna Madre, 25 miles north of Port Isabel, Tex., at night under light, April 15, 1956. The PETTIBONE: POLYCHAETE WORMS 291 females have not been described previously and the males only partially. They are described herein and compared with the atokous form. The known distribution of the species is extended from collections in the United States National Museum. Description of atokous form.—Length up to 50 mm, width up to 4 mm, segments about 80. Prostomium of the typical nereid form, with the 4 eyes rather large, subequal. Tentacular segment with 4 pairs of tentacular cirri, the longest reach setigers 3 to 8. Parapodia of anterior region (Fig. 8, a) with ligules short and rounded; the ligules become slightly more elongated and conical in the middle and posterior regions (Fig. 8, 6, ¢). Notopodium with 2 ligules, with a very small supraacicular setigerous lobe between them (not a distinct third ligule); neuropodium with a rounded to conical setigerous lobe and a lower ligule. Dorsal cirri longer than the ligules, ventral cirri slightly shorter. Notosetae of anterior region consist of homogomph spinigers; in the middle and posterior regions, the notosetae become fewer in number, with few (1-2) homogomph falcigers in addition to the spinigers; homogomph falcigers with short blades, with recurved tip and spinous edge (spines may be worn; Fig. 7, c, d). Upper group of neurosetae homogomph spinigers and heterogomph falcigers; lower group of neurosetae heterogomph spinigers and falcigers; hetero- 0.7mm. ai Kia. 7.—Nereis occidentalis: a, Dorsal view anterior end of female heteronereid; 6, heterogomph falcigerous neuroseta from anterior region of atokous specimen; c, homogomph falcigerous notoseta from posterior region of atokous specimen; d, same, from slightly different angle. bo Ne} bo JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 9 Fie. 8.—Nereis occidentalis: a, Parapodium from anterior region of atokous specimen; b, same, from middle region; c, same, from posterior region; d, parapodium from anterior region of female heteronereid; e, same, from posterior modified region; f, parapodium from anterior region of male heteronereid; g, same, from posterior modified region. (All parapodia drawn to same scale.) SEPTEMBER 1956 gomph falcigers with rather short blades with recurved tip and spinous edge (Fig. 7, 6). Acicula black. Proboscis with dark amber-colored jaws, each with 7-8 teeth; paragnaths conical, dark, those of maxillary rmg smaller than those of oral ring, arranged as follows: area I, 1-4 (8-12 small ones in var. oligohalina); area II, crescent- shaped area of 2 rows; area III, elliptical group of 4-5 rows; area IV, arched group of 3-4 rows; area V, 0 (rarely 1, in var. oligohalina); area VI, usually 4 (8-6); areas VII-VIII, continuous, 2-3 rows, subequal, do not get smaller basally. Color (in alcohol): Dusky on prostomium, especially on area in front of eyes, and on some of the an- terior body segments. Description of the male and female heteronereids. —Body divided into two regions in the male: anterior region with unmodified segments, pos- terior region with modified parapodia with swimming setae and lamellae instead of ligules; in addition in the female, there is a short posterior or ‘tail’ region of unmodified segments. An- terior part of prostomium (Fig. 7, a) may or may not be bent ventrally, thus the frontal antennae and palps may be only partially visible dorsally; eyes large, bulging (not as much as in some species of nereids). Parapodia of anterior unmodified region similar to atokous form (Fig. 8, d, f). In life, they were described as bright red in color and active swimmers. The PETTIBONE: POLYCHAETE WORMS 293 Color (in Pigmented dusky area Same on prostomium; alcohol) on prostomium an- anterior half of an- terior to eyes; slight terior unmodified re- amount on anterior gion darkly pig- segments. mented (fig. 7, a) Parapodium _ Fig. 8, g Fig. 8, e of modified Dorsal cirri crenulate Dorsal cirri smooth, region with few large crenu- not crenulate. lations. Rounded lamella Elongated lamella above dorsal cirrus. Digitiform notopodial above dorsal cirrus. Same, shorter. male and female heteronereids differ in the following: Male heteronereid Female heteronereid Length Up to 30 mm. Up to 23 mm Width Up to3 mm inanterior Up to2 mm in anterior region; up to 4 mm region; up to 3 mm in modified region. in modified region. Number of 16 25 setigers in anterior unmodified region Number of About 75 About 50, plus 15 in setigers in “tail” posterior region Total number About 90 About 90 of setigers Tentacular Longest reach setigers Longest reach setiger cirri 4-6 10 Anterior dor- First 7-8 pairsclubbed. First 5 pairs clubbed. sal cirri Anterior ven- First 5 pairs clubbed. Same tral cirri Posterior end Anal segment a papil- lated disk, with double row of nu- merous papillae, with or without pair of long anal cirri (may be broken off). Anal segment bulbous, slightly crenulate, with anal cirri miss- ing. lamella below dorsal cirrus. Subacicular digitiform notopodial lamella. Large rounded _post- setal lamella. Elongated digitiform lower neuropodial lamella. Elongated lamella above and rounded lamella below ven- tral cirrus. Same. Same, smaller. Same. Same. Biology.—Nereis occidentalis is found inter- tidally and dredged in shallow depths. It is found on mud flats and sandy shoals, among ascidian and sponge masses, tube masses of maldanids, as Petaloproctus, oyster clusters and between shells of mussels, as Mytilus; it is found on piles, scrapings from floating buoys, and washed from sea weeds. The species evidently has a wide salinity tolerance, as it has been found in estuaries along with Nereis succinea (Frey and Leuckart). Epitokes have been found swarming at the sur- face in April in Texas (Corpus Christi, April 29, 1950, Hartman, 1951; Laguna Madre, April 15, 1956, collected by J. P. Breuer); early epitokes have been found in North Carolina in June (Beaufort, Hartman, 1945). Records.—North Carolina (Beaufort), Florida (Port St. Joe, Gullport), Louisiana (Grand Isle), Texas (Corpus Christi, Laguna Madre), Mexico (Veracruz, Tecolutla), Porto Rico (Arroyo, Ensenada Honda, Culebra). Distribution —West Indies (Porto Rico), North Carolina, Gulf of Mexico (Florida to Mexico). In low water and shallow waters; sexual epitokes at surface. REFERENCES Beare, E. Annotated list of the fauna of the Grand Isle region. Oce. Pap. Mar. Lab. Louisiana State Univ., no. 6: 66 pp. 1950. Enters, E. Report on the annelids of the dredging expedition of the U.S. Coast Survey steamer Blake. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 15: 335 pp., 60 pls. 1887. Hartman, O. The North martne annelids of Carolina. Bull. Duke Univ. Mar. Stat., no. 2:51 pp., 10 pls. 1945. The littoral marine annelids of the Gulf of Mexico. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sei. 2(1): 7-124, 27 pls. 1951. Polychaetous annelids erected by Treadwell, 1891 to 1948, together with a brief chronology. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 109(2): 243-310. 1956. Horst, R. Polychaeta errantia of the Siboga Ex- pedition. Pt. 3: Nereidae and Hesionidae. Siboga-Exped. 99 (Monogr. 24, Ic): 145-198, 7 pls. 1924. Rioga, E. Estudios Anelidologicos. XV. Nereidos de agua salobre de los esteros del litoral del Golfo de Mexico. Anal. Inst. Biol. México 17: 205- 214, 2 pls. 1946. TREADWELL, A. L. Polychaetous annelids, col- lected by the Barbados- Antigua Expedition from JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 9 the University of Iowa in 1918. Univ. Iowa Stud. 10(4): 23 pp., 2 pls. 1924. New species of polychaetous annelids from California, Mexico, Porto Rico, and Jamaica. Amer. Mus. Nov. no. 482: 7 pp., 21 figs. 1931. Polychaetous annelids of Porto Rico and vicinity. Sci. Surv. Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, New York Acad. Sci., 16(2): 151-318, 118 figs. 1989. Wesster, H. E. The Annelida Chaetopoda of New Jersey. Ann. Rep. New York Mus. Nat. Hist., no. 32: 101-128. 1880. The Annelida Chaetopoda of New Jersey. Ann. Rep. New York Mus. Nat. Hist., no. 39: 128-159, pls. 4-10. 1886. Wesster, H. E., and Benepict, J. The Annelida Chaetopoda from Provincetown and Wellfleet, Massachusetts. Rep. Comm. Fish and Fisheries for 1881: 699-747, 8 pls. 1884. LOW TEMPERATURE STORAGE OF FREE RADICALS The National Bureau of Standards has de- veloped a technique for capturing and storing large numbers of highly reactive molecular frag- ments at temperatures near absolute zero. By this method unstable atoms and free radicals, known to exist but momentarily in flames and hot gases, are produced in an electric discharge, frozen into immobility, and trapped in solid form. Because these atoms are frozen in the excited state, they can be conveniently studied by optical spectroscopy. In experiments to date the Bureau has pro- duced solids containing atomic nitrogen and oxygen, and possibly atomic hydrogen and an unstable hydroxy (OH) molecule. These solids have very unusual properties, emitting bright glows, blue ‘flames,’ and colored flashes of light. When warmed 20° or 30°, they combine very actively, relasing large quantities of stored energy, principally as heat. Other possible fields of application include solid state physics and basic chemistry. Here the trapped atoms could be used as powerful probes into the solids containing them. From a study of their properties, informa- tion could be obtained about the arrangement of the atoms and molecules in the solid and about the forces acting on them. Similarly the mecha- nism of diffusion of atoms and of reactions be- tween atoms and molecules could be studied. These experiments were begun at NBS in 1954 by H. P. Broida and J. R. Pellam! and are being continued by H. P. Broida, A. Bass, and O. Lutes? of the Bureau’s temperature measure- ments laboratory. C. M. Herzfeld of NBS is carrying out theoretical investigations’ on the systems. The research is supported chiefly by the Office of Naval Research and the U. S. Air Force through the Office of Scientific Research of the Air Research and Development Command. Within the last five years several methods have been developed in other laboratories for stabilizing free radicals at low temperatures. However, the present technique has the ad- vantage that the free radicals are stored in highly excited states as a result of the electric discharge, making it possible to study and analyze them by spectroscopic techniques. Also, since the radicals are collected at much lower temperatures than in previous methods, they can be stored longer in the uncombined form. In this method gases containing molecules 1 Brora, H. P., and Pruuam, J. R., Phys. Rev. 95: 845, 1954; Brorpa, H. P., and Petia, J. R., Journ. Chem. Phys. 28: 409, 1955. 2 Bass, A. M., and Brorpa, H. P., Phys. Rev. 101: 1740, 1956; Brorpa, H. P., and Lurss, O.S., Journ. Chem. Phys. 24: 484, 1956. 3 Herzrevp, C. M., and Brorpa, H. P., Phys. Rev. 101: 606, 1955. SEPTEMBER 1956 of nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, or water are first passed through a high-frequency electric discharge, then frozen very suddenly at 4.2°K, just a few degrees above absolute zero. The discharge is maintained in a waveguide resonator by a 2450-Mc power supply. From the resonator, a glass tube leads the resulting molecu- lar fragments into an evacuated metal vessel containing a cold surface in contact with a liquid helium bath. To prevent solidification of the discharge products at temperatures above 4.2°K, the gases are carried to the cold surface through a passageway that is kept near room temperature by contact with warm helium gas. When the gases reach the cold surface, they freeze into solid form there. Various techniques can then be used to study the resulting solids. Through windows in the metal vessel, a number of spectrographs of different types can be aimed at the cold surface, and the light given off by the solids frozen on the surface can be analyzed. To study the light absorbed by the solids, the gases are condensed on a transparent cold surface, and light is passed through the windows of the vessel, the condensed material, the cold surface, and finally into the spectroscopes. To determine the heat evolved by recombination of atoms, the gases are con- densed into a small, simple low-temperature calorimeter, and the heat evolved by the ma- terial as it warms up is measured. Because the free radicals produced by this method can be kept unchanged for many hours, a more detailed study of their properties has been possible than in previous work. For example, during the discharge through nitrogen the con- densed solid emits a bright green glow, which tends to become yellow at high flow rates. The spectra obtained from this glow show that the structure of the solid condensed from the dis- charge differs from that of ordinary solid nitro- gen. In fact, each atom of the condensed nitrogen forms a very loosely bound complex with some neighboring molecule, and this complex has NOTES AND NEWS 295 properties that differ from those of the separate atom and molecule. The evidence shows that the complex is a definite unit. By analyzing its spectra, the forces holding it together can be studied. Brilhant blue flashes are also observed from the solid surface during the nitrogen discharge. These flashes are thought to be due to local warming. After the flow of nitrogen is stopped, the discharge goes out and a green afterglow from the cold collected material persists for several minutes, decaying with a half-life of about 15 seconds. When the green afterglow has dis- appeared, sudden warming of the vessel walls (to between 25° and 35°K) causes a blue “‘flame’’ which appears to “burn” through the condensed material. The light and heat thus given off are evidently due to recombination of the atoms into molecules. When the light is analyzed spectro- scopically, it gives information about the struc- ture of the molecule just formed and about the forces acting between two atoms. The reaction of a nitrogen atom with an oxygen atom can also be studied in this way. When oxygen is passed through the discharge, a clear, glassy deposit is obtained which has rather complex absorption spectra. Upon warm- ing this material to about 20°K, the original deposit evaporates and a solid violet material condenses on the surface. This substance has been identified as a mixture of oxygen and ozone. Further warming of the violet substance pro- duces ozone in large quantities. Initiation of chemical reactions in this way, by warming the frozen material, indicates the possibility of open- ing up a new field of very low’ temperature chemistry. Because of the high chemical activity of the free radicals, new chemical compounds might be formed by this process. Low-temperature condensates have also been obtained from hydrogen and water. While the solids formed show complex behavior similar to that of nitrogen and oxygen, the results are still incompletely understood. One science only will one genius fit, So vast vs art, so narrow human wit. —Porr 296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 46, No. 9 » NEMATOLOGY.—Paratylenchus projectus, new species (Nematoda, Criconematt- dae), with a key to the species of Paratylenchus.t W. R. JENKINS, University of Maryland. (Communicated by R. Bamford.) (Received July 11, 1956) In July 1955, root and soil samples were collected from a pasture in Prince Georges County, Md., in an effort to determine the cause of stunted growth and general decline of grasses in this field. Examination re- vealed that a new species of Paratylenchus was present in large numbers. To determine parasitism, specimens of this species were transferred to pots contain- ing plants of tall fescue, Festuca elatior var. Kentucky 31, which were maintained under greenhouse conditions. Since the field under examination was used from time to time for growing tobacco, seedlings of Nicotiana tabacum L. were also inoculated with speci- mens of Paratylenchus n. sp. Both tall fescue and tobacco supported large population in- creases under these conditions. It is probable that decline and failure of this pasture is due, at least in part, to Paratylenchus n. sp. Therefore, investiga- tions are being conducted to determine pathogenic effects of this nematode on grasses and tobacco. Paratylenchus projectus, n. sp. Fig. 1 25 females: 373.0u (289-4754); a = 18.7 (15.6-20.8); b = 4.0 (3.5-4.9); ¢ = 15.4 (11.3- 19.5); V = 84.3 per cent (82.6-86.9 per cent); stylet = 31.84 (24.8-37.1y). Males: Unknown. Female.—The cuticle is marked by rather fine transverse striae about one micron apart. The lateral field occupies about two-fifths of the body diameter and is marked by four evenly-spaced incisures. The slightly-offset lip region is truncate with a median labial extension and is marked by three transverse striations. Neither amphids nor cervical papillae have been observed; however, phasmids are located in the lateral field anterior to the anus. The conspicuous excretory pore varies in its location from just behind the median ' Scientific Article no. A571, Contribution no. 2729, of the University of Maryland Agriculture Experiment Station, Department of Botany. swelling of the esophagus to the anterior end of the basal swelling of the esophagus, always on the ventral surface. There is an average of 50 post- vulval annulations. The buccal cavity is small and there is no sclerotized cephalic framework. The spear aver- ages 31.8 microns and has prominent knobs which are somewhat flattened on the anterior surface. The dorsal esophageal gland opens into the lumen of the esophagus about one-fifth the spear- length behind the base of the spear. There is a typically criconematoid median bulb with a val- vular apparatus behind which the duct of the ventral esophageal glands opens into the lumen of the esophagus. Posterior to the median bulb, there is a long and narrow isthmus about which lies the circumesophageal nerve ring. The ter- minal swelling of the esophagus is somewhat pyri- form in shape. There is no cardia. The intestine, the cells of which are filled with many small, re- fractive inclusions, ends in a short rectum and obscure anus. There is a single outstretched ovary which usu- ally reaches to the anterior end of the intestine but has been observed as far anterior as the me- dian esophageal bulb. The cap cell gives rise to several oogonia which are arranged in a double line. Only one egg, averaging 57.9u by 13.2u, was observed in the uterus at a time. The vulva is an anteriorly sloping, transverse slit flanked by lat- eral vulval membranes. No spermatheca or post- vulval uterine sac has been observed. There is a marked reduction in body diameter immediately behind the vulva. Larvae were observed to have a small and in- distinct esophagus. The median swelling was much reduced in size but did possess a large val- vular apparatus. The normal relaxed position was a ventral curving in both larvae and females. Type host.—Soil about roots of pasture grass. Type locality —Upper Marlboro, Prince Geor- ges County, Md. Diagnosis —The absence of males distinguishes P. projectus from P. goodeyi Oostenbrink, 1953, P. hamatus Thorne and Allen, 1950, P. besoe- kianus Bally and Reydon, 1931, P. elachistus SEPTEMBER 1956 JENKINS: PARATYLENCHUS PROJECTUS 297 projectus can be distinguished by its slightly off- set lip region which is truncated and bears three striations, in its lack of a post-vulval uterine sac, lateral vulval wings, and in the shape of the spear Stemer, 1942, P. minutus Linford, 1949, P. macro- phallus (de Man, 1880) Goodey, 1934, and P. dianthus Jenkins and Taylor, 1956. This species differs in many ways from females of species in which no males have been reported. _ knobs. From P. bukowinensis Micoletzky, 1922, P. P. projectus differs from both P. nanus Cobb, Fie. 1.—Paratylenchus projectus, n. sp.: A, Anterior portion; B, mature female; C, posterior portion. 298 1923 and P. anceps Cobb, 1923 in its offset, stri- ated lip-region, its smaller spear which bears flattened knobs, and in its lack of a spermatheca. It differs further from P. anceps by having four incisures in the lateral field, while the latter has only two incisures. P. curvitata van der Linde, 1938, is smaller than P. projectus (330% as opposed to 373), has a much smaller spear (244 as opposed to 31.8y), and does not bear a median labial extension. Because of the frequent occurrence of Paraty- lenchus species in soil about roots of plants, a key is presented to aid in the identification of de- scribed species. This key was devised from pub- lished descriptions and illustrations, not from per- sonal examination of specimens of each species. It is based for the most part on female charac- teristics, because males are frequently unknown or exist in very small numbers. KEY TO SPECIES OF PARATYLENCHUS MICOLETZKY, 1922 1. Lip region a truncated cone................ 2 Lip region smooth and rounded............ 8 2. Lateral field marked by two incisures anceps Cobb, 1923 Lateral field marked by four incisures......3 3. Postvulval uterine sac present.............. 4 Postvulval uterine sac absent.............. 5 4. Female spear about 194 long; male spear faded and indistinct besoekianus Bally and Reydon, 1931 Female spear about 254 long; males absent bukowinensis Micoletzky, 1922 5. Lateral vulval membranes present.......... 6 Lateral vulval membranes absent........... 7 6. Female lip region striated; males absent projectus, Nn. sp. Female lip region not striated; males present dianthus Jenkins and Taylor, 1956 7. Postvulval reduction in body diameter; males AOAIMNGS oo os o00e curvitata van der Linde, 1938 No postvulval reduction in body diameter; males frequent macrophallus (deMan, 1880) Goodey, 1934 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 9 - 8. Females stout, spear 48-56u goodeyt Oostenbrink, 1953 Females typically slender................... 9 . No marked postvulval reduction in body diameter....hamatus Thorne and Allen, 1950 Marked postvulval reduction in body diameter 10 vo) 10. Females 360-410n long; males absent nanus Cobb, 1923 Females 234-310u long; males frequent..... 11 il. Male with anal sheath surrounding spicula, tail convex-conoid....minutus Linford, 1949 Male without anal sheath, tail short and sub- ACULCR | eee crane ee elachistus Steiner, 1942 LITERATURE CITED Batty, W., and Rreypon, G. A. De tegenwoor- dige stand van het vraagstuk van de wortelaaltjes in de koffiecultuur. Arch. Koffiecult. Nederl. Indie 5: 92-94. 1931. Coss, N. A. Notes on Paratylenchus, a genus of nemas. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 13: 254-257. 1923. Also: Contr. Sci. Nematology 14: 367-370. GoopeEy, T. Observations of Paratylenchus ma- crophallus (de Man, 1800). Journ. Helm. 12: 79-88. 1934. JenxKINS, W. R., and Tayuor, D. P. Paratylen- chus dianthus, new species (Nematoda, Cri- conematidae), a parasite of carnation. Proc. Helm. Soc. Washington 23: 124-127. 1956. Linpr, W. J. VAN DER. A contribution to the study of nematodes. Ent. Mem. Union South Africa 2: 25, 26, 34. 1938. Linrorp, M. B., Ourvertra, J. M. and Mamoru, I. Paratylenchus minutus, n. sp., a nematode parasitic on roots. Pacifie Sei. 3: 111-119. 1949. Micoterzky, H. Die freilebenden Erd-Nemato- den. Arch. Naturg., Abt. A, 87: 605-607. 1922. OosTENBRINK, I. M. A note on Paratylenchus in the Netherlands with the description of P. goodeyi n. sp. (Nematoda, Criconematidae). Tijdsch. Plantenziekten 59: 207-216. 1953. Sremner, G. Plant nematodes the grower should know. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Florida 4B 37-39. 1942. TuHorneE, G., and Auten, M. W. Paratylenchus hamatus n. sp. and Xiphinema index n. sp., two nematodes associated with fig roots, with a note on Paratylenchus anceps Cobb. Proc. Helm. Soc. Washington 17: 27-35. 1950. The generality of men are so accustomed to judge of things by their senses that because air is invisible they ascribe but little to it, and think of it as but one remove from nothing.—R. BoyLeE (1673) SEPTEMBER 1956 INGERSOLL ET AL.: SYMPATHETIC DENERVATION 299 PHYSIOLOGY .—Effect of sympathetic denervation of the urinary bladder in animals and man.' E. H. INGERSOLL, L. L. Jones, and E.S. Heer, Medical College of Virginia. (Communicated by Paul H. Oehser.) The reaction of the urinary bladder to denervation in the laboratory animal has been extensively reported, especially in the older literature, but it has been only in recent years that careful studies have been published in man. In fact, as Heimburger et al. (1) have pointed out, knowledge of the human bladder innervation has been taken largely from comparisons with experimental animals and from human dissections. In this study we will review the response of the vis- cus to division of the sympathetic outflow, first in animals and then in man. Effect in the cat-—There is much difference of opinion as to the effect of section of the sympathetic fibers to the bladder, not only in the cat, but in other animals and in man as well. Neither Beattie (2) nor Nawrocki and Skabitschewsky (3) observed any change in bladder function following section of the hypogastric nerves in the cat. Some workers (4, 5, 6, 7) found that division of the sympa- thetics did not interfere with bladder empty- ing but seemed to increase temporarily the frequency of micturition. Elliott (8), in addition to observing in- creased frequency of bladder emptying, noted that the tone of the viscus was perma- nently increased following section of the sympathetic outflow. He observed that this tone was diminished only slightly by further section of the pelvic nerves. Similarly, Lang- worthy et al. (9, 10, 11) found an immediate decrease in vesical volume when the post ganglionic sympathetic fibers were cut on one side. This defect persisted for several weeks. Removal of the sympathetics on both sides, according to Langworthy, pro- duced a more marked and lasting decrease in volume. These findings have been difficult to cor- relate with what has been observed following electrical stimulation of the hypogastric nerves in the cat. We (72, 13) have shown, as have others, that excitation of the sympa- 1 This investigation was supported in part by research grant B-704 from the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness, National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service. thetic outflow to the bladder regularly evoked contractions of all portions of the detrusor muscle. True, this response was not a sustained one, lasting only a few seconds, and it was invariably followed by relaxation. It may be possible, as Gillilan (74) has sug- gested, that sympathetic fibers play a minor role in micturition, and only come into play in emergencies. However, the observed in- crease in frequency of micturition, together with the decrease in vesical size after sympa- thetic denervation, would tend to support the views of those who believe that the hypogastrics are not only the “‘filling”’ nerves of the bladder but are antagonistic in action to the parasympathic outflow (8, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21). Effect in the dog—Most investigators (2, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26) have found that section of the hypogastric nerves in the dog caused no interference with normal micturition. A few, such as Creevy (7), and Jacobson (27), have noted changes in vesical function after division of sympathetic nerves to the blad- der. Removal of the hypogastrics, according to Creevy, produced a slight, transitory in- crease in frequency of micturition while Jacobson observed a prompt increase in vesical tone and an equally prompt decrease in bladder capacity. The vesical tone in Jacobson’s dogs gradually decreased but never entirely returned to normal; func- tionally, however, he was unable to distin- guish this type of preparation from the normal bladder as the ability to void was in no way impaired by the operation. Effect in man.—Section of the hypogastric nerves in man at first was done on the premise (28) that the internal sphincter of the bladder had its motor innervation through the sympathetic nervous system, and that it became hypertonic owing to the imbalance caused by the removal of the parasympathetic inhibition. One of the dif- ficulties with this theory has been that no conclusive evidence has ever been forthcom- ing to prove that the internal sphincter was innervated any differently than the re- 300 mainder of the detrusor muscle (29). Nevertheless, support was given to the theory of the antagonistic action of the two systems by Learmonth’s investigations in man. In a series of papers (20, 30, 31) he reported that, following presacral neurec- tomy, both the muscles of the trigone and the internal sphincter relaxed. Learmonth concluded from his studies that sympa- thetic influences act as a continuous brake on contractions of the detrusor and, that following lesions of the sacral nerves, pre- sacral neurectomy aided in the restoration of the functioning automatic bladder. Other workers (32, 33, 34, 35, 36), too, have reported beneficial results from sympa- thetic denervation of the bladder in cases of neurogenic vesical dysfunction. In para- plegic patients with cervical or upper thoracic spinal cord injuries, anterior rhizotomy of the lower thoracic through the first sacral roots resulted in an increased bladder capacity (37). Likewise, Kuhn (38) reported that section of the same anterior spinal nerve roots in patients with hyper- tonic bladders reduced detrusor activity sufficiently to reclassify the bladders to that of the reflex type.” Van Duzen (40), on the other hand, be- lieved that presacral neurectomy was definitely harmful to the patient. Within a period of two months after the operation evidence of urinary retention, paralysis of the trigone muscles, and a spastic internal sphincter appeared. Most investigators (1, 2, 10, 14, 28, 41, 42, 438, 44, 45, 46) have concluded that sympathetic denervation of the bladder has no effect in man, either on micturition or on any other bladder activity. They have dis- carded the idea that there is an antagonistic action between the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system and have de- cided that the parasympathetic components are the only ones that have any real influence on bladder function. REFERENCES (1) Hermpuresr, R. F., Freeman, L. W., and Wiipr, N. J. Journ. Neurosurg. 5: 154. 1948. 2 The first sacral nerve contributes few, if any, motor fibers to the urinary bladder (39). JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 9. (2) BeartigE, J. Canad. Med. Assoc. Journ. 23: 71. 1930. (8) Nawrocxr, F., and SkasirscHewsky, B. Arch. Ges. Physiol. 48: 335. 1891. (4) Barrineton, F. J. F. Quart. Journ. Exp. Physiol. 9: 261. 1915. Ibid. 8: 33. 1915. Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. 25: 557. 1931. CreEvy, C.D. Arch. Neurol. and Psychiat. 34: 777. 1935. (8) Exurorr, T. R. Journ. Physiol. 35: 367. 1907. (9) Lanewortuy, O. R., and Kors, L.C. Anat. Rec. 71: 249. 1938. (10) Laneworrny, O. R., and Murpny, E. L. Journ. Comp. Neurol. 71: 487. 1939. (11) Laneworruy, O. R., Reeves, D. L., and Tauser, E.S. Brain 57: 266. 1934. (12) Hearn, E.S8., and Incrersouit, EK. H. Journ. Urol. 61: 1037. 1949. (13) InerrRsout, E. H., Jonus, L. L., and Hecre, E. 8S. Journ. Urol., 72: 178. 1954. (14) Giuurnan, L. A. Clinical aspects of the auto- nomic nervous system. Boston, 1954. (15) Auprrs, B. J. Clinical neurology, 2d ed. Philadelphia, 1950. (16) Courrapn, D., and Guyon, J. F. Comp. Rend. Soc. Biol. 10: 618. 1895. . Arch. Physiol. Norm. et Path. 8: 622. 1896. (18) Fernsipes, E. G. Brain 40: 149. 1917. (19) Lanatry, J. N. Journ. Physiol. 27: 237. 1901. (20) Learmontu, J. R. Brain 54: 147. 1981. (21) Srrone, O. S., and Enwyn, A. Human neuroanatomy, 3d ed. Baltimore, 1953. (22) Lanauey, L. L., and WuiresipE, J. A. Fed. Proc. 9: 74. 1950. Journ. Neurophysiol. 14: 147. 1951. Comp. Rend. Acad. Sci. (5) (6) (7) (17) (23) (24) LaANNEGRAcE, M. 114: 789. 1892. (25) McCauauan, J. M., and Hrrsuny, J. H. Journ. Missouri State Med. Assoc. 31: 417. 1934. (26) Mosso, A., and Preniacant, P. Arch. Ital. Biol. 1: 97. 1882. (27) Jacopson, C. HE. Journ. Urol. 58: 670. 1945. (28) Nespir, R. M., and Gorpon, W. G. Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc. 117: 1935. 1941. (29) McCrea, E. D., and MacDonatp, A. D. Brit. Journ. Urol. 6: 119. 1934. (30) Learmontu, J. R. Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., Pty 1) 25: 552) 19308 (31) LearmontH, J. R., and Braascu, W. F. Surg. Gynec. and Obst. 51: 494. 1930. (32) CurprHam, J.G. Journ. Urol. 37: 148. 1937. (83) Davis, A. A. Brit. Med. Journ. 2: 1, 1934. (84) Hueeins, C., Wautkmr, A. E., and Noonan, W. T. Jour. Urol. 41: 696. 1939. (85) Munro, D. New England Journ. Med. 233: 453. 1945. (36) Peary, F. L., and Straus, B. Journ. Urol. 39: 645. 1938. (87) Freeman, L. W., and Hermpuraer, R. F. Journ. Neurosurg. 4: 435. 1947. SEPTEMBER 1956 (38) Kuun, R.A. Journ. Neurosurg. 6: 320. 1949. (39) INGERSOLL, E. H., Jonss, L. L., and Hearse, E. 8S. Virginia Med. Month. 83: 23. 1956. (40) Van Duzen, R. E. South. Med. Journ. 25: 964. 1932. (41) DENNy-Brown, D. E. New England Journ. Med. 215: 647. 1936. (42) Emmett, J. L. Proc. Staff Meeting Mayo Clin. 21: 102. 1946. (43) Lanewortuy, O. R., Kors, L. C., and NOTES AND NEWS 501 Lewis, L. G. Physiology of micturition. Baltimore, 1940. (44) Marsuaut, S. F., and Kennepy, R. J. Surg. Clin. North America 25: 518. 1945. (45) Mrrrowsky, A. M., ArNoxtp, M., SCHEIBERT, C. D., and Hincury, T. R. Journ. Neuro- surg. 7: 33. 1950. (46) Vorts, H. C., and Lanpes, H. E. Arch. Neurol. and Psychiat. 44: 118. 1940. ACADEMY MEMBERS RECEIVE HONORS Dr. Richard K. Cook, National Bureau of Standards, formerly senior editor of this JoURNAL, has been elected President of the Acoustical Society of America for the term 1957-58. Dr. Cook’s work in the physics of sound is nationally known. He is currently spending a year’s leave of absence from NBS to conduct research at the Bell Telephone Laboratories. * * * * * Dr. Ladislaus L. Marton, of the National Bureau of Standards and WAS, has been elected to the Royal Academy of Belgium in recognition of his contributions to science. Dr. Marton will fill the vacancy left by the Dutch physicist, J. Verschaffelt, who died last year. He will be the only American physicist among the foreign members of the Academy. The Royal Academy of Belgium recognizes outstanding achievement in science, literature, the arts, and other fields. Membership is limited to 90 regular members, 150 foreign members, and 30 correspondents. The Division of Sciences, to which Dr. Marton was elected, has 15 regular members, 5 correspondents, and 25 foreign members. Dr. Marton has received international recog- nition for his work in electron optics, particularly relative to the development of the electron microscope. He is chief of the Electron Physics Section of the Atomic and Radiation Physics Division at the Bureau. This section does re- search on various aspects of the physics of the free electron. The work includes electron scatter- ing in solids, electron interference, electron polari- zation, electron optics, and applications of some of these phenomena to other measuring tech- niques. Dr. Francis B. Silsbee, chief of the Electricity and Electronics Division at the National Bureau of Standards, has been awarded the Department of Commerce Gold Medal for Exceptional Service. The award recognizes his ‘‘outstanding contribu- tions to the fields of electricity, electrical engineer- ing, and electrical measurement.” Since 1946 Dr. Silsbee has directed the Bureau work in electricity, which concerns the develop- ment, improvement, and dissemination of the standards of measurement for electrical quantities and the study of properties of materials that are important in electricity and magnetism. In 1954 the Bureau’s basic electronic research and de- velopment programs were placed under his direction. Dr. Silsbee’s work in his 45 years at NBS has covered a wide range. In 1916, working in the newly discovered phenomenon of superconduc- tivity at very low temperatures, he suggested a theoretical relationship between the values of critical currents and magnetic fields which is widely known today as the ‘Silsbee Hypothesis”’. During World War I, he led NBS work on the development of spark plugs, magnetos and other aircraft ignition parts. In World War II, he was in charge of the later phases of the development of a special bomb director and guided research on the lighting hazards to nonmetallic aircraft. Dr. Silsbee was born in Lawrence, Mass., in 1889 and received his B.S. in Electrical Engineer- ing from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1910, and the following year he was awarded his master’s degree there. In 1915 he received his Ph.D. in Physics from Harvard University. He first joined the NBS staff in 1911 and was made Chief of the Electrical Instruments Section in 1939. In 1946 he was named to his present position. 302 He is a past president of Washington Academy of Sciences and of the Philosophical Society of Washington; a fellow of the American Physical Society, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science; and has written numer- ous technical papers in his field. * * * * * Dr. Galen B. Schubauer, chief of the Fluid Mechanics Section of the Mechanics Division of the National Bureau of Standards, has been awarded the Department of Commerce Gold Medal for Exceptional Service. The award recog- nizes his ‘‘outstanding contributions to basic aerodynamics over the past 20 years.” Dr. Schubauer is known internationally for his contributions to the field of aerodynamics. His work on turbulence and air flow and in the development of instruments for measuring these phenomena has been vital in the development of modern high speed aircraft. Among the recent projects of Dr. Schubauer’s section was a study of the accuracy of the hot-wire anemometer at speeds up to twice the speed of sound. The in- strument has been basic in subsonic air speed research but it was not known whether it could be used at supersonic levels. Born in Sparrows Point, Md., in 1904, Dr. Schubauer received his B.A. degree from Penn- sylvania State College in 1928, M.S. from Cali- fornia Institute of Technology in 1930, and Ph.D. from John Hopkins University in 1934. He joined the NBS staff in 1929 and was made Chief of the Aerodynamics Section in 1946. In 1953 he was appointed to his present position when the Hydraulics and Aerodynamics Sections were combined. He holds Institute of Aeronautical Sciences and Washington Academy of Science awards for his work. In addition to being a member of these two organizations Dr. Schubauer also belongs to the American Physical Society, Sigma Pi Sigma, Phi Kappa Phi, and Sigma Xi. * * * * * Dr. Lewis V. Judson, chief of the Length Sec- tion of the Optics and Metrology Division of the National Bureau of Standards, has been given the Department of Commerce Silver Medal for Meritorious Service. The Award recognizes Dr. Judson’s ‘extremely competent performance for 38 years in the field of length standards and precise length determinations.” JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 9 , Dr. Judson is custodian of the National Standard of Length. In addition he is in charge of calibrations of measuring tapes, graduation and calibration of precision circles, research in thermal expansion of solids and interferometry in length measurements. The development of sieve specifications and calibrations; testing of haemacytometer chambers and accompanying cover glasses and surveyor’s leveling rods: and calibration of many other precise measuring in- struments are also under his supervision. Dr. Judson joined the NBS staff in 1917 and was made Chief of the Length Section the follow- ing year. He is the author of some 60 articles in his field. Born in Plainville, Conn., in 1893, Dr. Judson graduated from Clark University in 1916 and received a M.A. in physics there in the following year. He was awarded his Ph.D. in physics from Johns Hopkins University in 1925. He is a member of the Philosophical Society of Washington, the Washington Academy of Sciences, the American Physical Society, the Optical Society of America, the American Con- gress of Surveying and Mapping, the American Geophysical Union, the American Society for Testing Materials, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the Société Francaise de Physique. * * * * * Dr. Herbert F. Schiefer, a textile physicist in the Organic and Fibrous Materials Division of the National Bureau of Standards, has been awarded the Department of Commerce Gold Medal for Exceptional Service. The award recognizes his “outstanding contributions to textile science and technology.” Dr. Schiefer is an internationally known authority in the textile field. In addition to his contributions at NBS, he served as technical advisor in 1950 to the Economic Cooperation Administration in Europe and in 1955 to the International Cooperation Administration in Asia. He was a delegate to the 1955 International Wool Research Conferences in Australia. In 1945 he served as scientific consultant to the Department of the Army in the first survey of the German textile industry after World War II. He took leave of absence from the Bureau in 1951-52 to serve as director of research and graduate instruction in the School of Textiles of North Carolina State College. SEPTEMBER 1956 Dr. Schiefer has developed and invented many devices for testing the properties of fibers, yarns, and fabrics and a number are widely used by the textile industry today. He received the Harold DeWitt Smith Memorial Medal in 1950 from the American Society for Testing Materials for his pioneering work in textile research. His recent work has been concerned with new techniques for obtaining stress-strain relationships in yarns subjected to rapid impact loading and_ the measurment of a new basic property of textile fibers, the velocity. This property is of practical importance in the design of textiles for safety lines, parachute webbing, limiting breaking tire cord, and flexible body armor. Dr. Schiefer came to the Bureau in 1929 from Des Moines University where he was head of the mathematics and physics department. He was educated at the University of Michigan, re- ceiving his degree in Civil Engineering in 1924, his M.S. in Science in 1925, and a Ph.D. in astrophysics in 1928. During his last four years at Michigan he was instructor of engineering mathematics and astronomy. Dr. Schiefer has written some 100 scientific papers and technical reports and holds three patents. He is a member of Tau Beta Pi, the Fiber Society (former president), Washington Philosophical Society, Washington Academy of Science, American Society for Testing Materials, NOTES AND NEWS 305 and is a fellow of the British Textile Institute and the American Physical Society. * * * * * Herbert C. Vacher, head of the metallographic and X-ray diffraction laboratory, at the National Bureau of Standards, has been awarded the De- partment of Commerce Silver Medal for Meri- torious Service for his contributions to the field of metallurgy. A NBS staff member for 30 years, Mr. Vacher has conducted important research and written a number of articles on the mechanical properties and structures of metals and alloys. He also acts as a consultant in the mechanical metallurgy laboratory on projects which involve correlating the mechanical properties with the structure of metals. Mr. Vacher’s earlier work at NBS in- volved the determination of gases in metals and physical chemistry of gas-metal equilibria. Such information is important in the manufacture of steel. Born in Greensberg, La., in 1901, Mr. Vacher received his H.M. degree from the Texas School of Mines in 1922 and a M.S. in metallurgy in 1926 from the University of Nevada where he studied under a Challoner Fellowship. He is a member of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, the Ameri- can Society for Metals, American Crystallo- graphic Association, and the Washington Acad- emy of Sciences. ee ODDITIES OF NATURE Among the most curious of insects are the which belong to the moth family. ) ““‘bagworms,’ The bagworm is a caterpillar. The female spends her entire life in a cocoonlike silken bag into whose texture she interweaves bits of leaves from the host plant. The bag grows as the worm grows, and in local species late im summer it be- comes as much as 2 inches long. The bags of some tropical species are more than 7 inches long. The female remains wingless, and the bag in which she spends her life is attached to a twig of the host plant. At the end of summer she lays within the silken sack a mass of eggs which hatch late in spring. The males metamorphose into winged insects. Dr. Frank Morton Jones, of Wilmington, Del., has just presented to the Smithsonian Institution one of the world’s outstanding col- lections of these insects. Sixty years were spent in assembling this collection, which consists of 4,400 specimens. Of these 1,174 are adult, winged males, 2,133 are bags showing the many forms resulting from differences in food plants, and 830 are immature forms. There are also 1,000 microscope slides of important structures of these insects. Bagworms are nearly worldwide in distribu- tion. In this country they are chiefly pests of ornamental trees and shrubs, and are especially destructive to arborvitae. They are preyed upon by a number of other insects. The collection includes 273 such insect-parasites. 304 JOURNAL OF THE One of earth’s most fantastic animals—the three-horned chameleon of East Africa—has just been added to the reptile collections of the Smithsonian Institution. It is sometimes de- scribed as a replica, in miniature, of the ancient monster dinosaur T'riceratops, which has been extinct for about 75,000,000 years. The two, of course, are in no direct way related. The three- horned chameleon grows to a length exceeding 12 inches. The curious horns, an inch to an inch and a half long, protrude from the nose and be- tween the eyes of the males. Females are hornless. These chameleons are extremely pugnacious animals and sometimes use their horns in fights to the finish. At times the contests develop into tedious pushing matches, with the horns inter- locked. At other times a really vigorous fighter will dispose of a weaker adversary in a few minutes. Males are brilliantly colored with blues, ereens, and yellows. Uganda natives are terrified by the demoniacal-looking animals, which actually are harmless to man. The popular super- stition is that if one happens to see one of these lizards when it is enraged and hissing the person will die in a few days. The curse of the chameleon may be partly averted, it is believed, by capturing and roasting it, and then wearing part of the burned body as a talisman. Still the unfortunate person is supposedly sure to die quite young. The creature is most abundant in arid areas covered with low shrubs. It is an aerial acrobat and can leap as much as 2 feet from branch to branch. The chameleon has a prehensile tail, like that of various monkeys, and with the tip of this tail alone it can hang from a branch. It sits motionless for hours at a time and feeds almost exclusively on flies, butterflies, beetles, and bees which may come within reach of its WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 9 . darting tongue. The creature is a consummate bluffer. Apparently it never tries to hide or run when confronted with an enemy. Instead it tries to frighten the foe, including man, by in- flating its body so that the otherwise loose skin is drawn taut. * * * * * Birds that hold fencing tournaments are the big-billed toucans of Barro Colorado Island, the Smithsonian Institution’s tropical preserve in Gatun Lake, Panama Canal Zone. They fence with their formidable beaks but seem careful not to hurt one another. One scientist who studied Barro Colorado’s bird life described the birds as follows: “T saw fourteen toucans scattered about in a big leafless tree in the center of the jungle. Two appeared to be fencing. They stood in one spot and fenced with their bills for a half minute or so, rested, and were at it again. Presently they flew off into the forest and then I noticed two others that had now begun to fence. Then one of these flew away, and the remaining one picked a new opponent and fell to fencing again. ... They did not move about much while fencing, although sometimes one climbed above the other as though to gain an advantage. They fenced against each other’s beaks and never seemed to strike at the body. There was a fairly rapid give and take... the bills clattermg loudly against each other.”’ These fencing toucans are among the more conspicuous birds of the island, particularly be- cause of their call—a shrill, froglike ‘cree,’ which is repeated over and over again and can be heard half a mile away. The call is most frequent in the morning and late in the afternoon, but it stops abruptly at sunset. Simplicity is the seal of truth. Nature 1s wonderfully simple, and the char- acteristic mark of a childlike simplicity is stamped upon all that is true and noble in nature.—SENDIvoGIuS (1650) Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences [PRORTATEES BCR CUO Ieee ss R. E. Gipson, Applied Physics Laboratory PER ESTACTUC-CLECE ON ais oars a recetciereisicieTsnes ns sane eres ns Wiiuram W. Rusey, Geological Survey IS ECHELUG Ue occ «winters acaie Gos e ee eatee Heinz Specut, National Institutes of Health FATES UTE: ores ee Howarp S. RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) LNPOTHEO EE oo 8 ES SEI OOH RIG CHOLES Here OCT eee eee Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Harawp A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum Elected Members of the Board of Managers: MoMlanwanyil Gon apa esse cy tyawo oe taeeisieiacveeere cae A. T. McPuHerson, A. B. Gurnny MQHIAT UAT Vel QOSt ie Aare ooyc Sa sl sistie reese W. W. Rusey, J. R. SwaLien PROM PIN ATIV A GO Os ee. eic son's, syauttens siieleiaen sie Frangois N. FRENKIEL, F. L. CamPBELL Board of Managers...... All the above officers plus the Vice Presidents and the Editor [OE DOT As 6 Sey 6 eee CueEsTER H. Paces, National Bureau of Standards (EM 2-4040) Associate Editors....... RonaLp BamrorD, Howarp W. Bonn, ImmMaNnuEL HsTERMANN RGOCUILVEN COMIMIULEE a.<.0 12 cee ei o's « w egece soa Hoven R. E. Gipson (chairman), W. W. Rusey, Hetnz Specut, H.S. Rappieye, A. B. GuRNEY Committee on Membership.......... Louris R. Maxwe.u (chairman), Naval Ordnance Laboratory (HE 4-7100), Gzroraz ANnastos, W. H. Avery, Rocur W. Curtis, CHURCHILL EISENHART, GEOFFREY Epsaut, J. H. McMILuEN Commitiee on Meetings.......... A.M. Stonz (chairman), Applied Physics Laboratory (JU 9-7700), Poitip H. ABetson, Kenneta S. Coxe, Leon F. Curtis, J. WALLACE Joyce, THomas J. Kruyt1an, Constantin C. Nixrrororr, T. D. STEwarT Committee on Monographs: ROMMANUAT LOOT. aecidis ocayscse sig ale's soie seis s Harautp A. Renpper, WiLL1AM A. Dayton PROMOAMUATVALIOS «cr. sche rereeiaeie lee esas Dean B. Cowizn, Josepu P,. HE. Morrison Tha [einer on OR ae aan Norse Oe ec eo cia ace tee Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement Int C. ScHOONOVER (general chairman), National Bureau of Standards (EM 2-4040) For Biological Sciences...... Micuas. J. Petczar (chairman), University of Mary- land (WA 7-3800), James M. Hunpiey, Wituim W. SmitH, JozrL WARREN, R. B. Withrow For Engineering Sciences...... ARNOLD Scorr (chairman), National Bureau of Standards (HM 2-4040), Frank A. Biperstein, J. M. Catpweii, MicuarL GoupseEre, T. J. Hickutny, Paut A. Smrru For Physical Sciences...... C. R. Nauser (chairman), George Washington Univer- sity (ST 3-0250), Howarp W. Bonp, ImManurEL EsteRMaNN, PETER Kina, . Marton, Exxtiott Montro.u, 'E. H. Vestine For Teaching of Sctence...... B. D. Van Evera (chairman), George Washington University (ST 3-0250), RonaLp Bamrorp, HERMAN Branson, KEITH JOHNSON, Howarb OWENS, MARGARET PATTERSON, B. W. SrtreRLy Committee on Grants-in-Aid for Research W.J. Hamer (chairman), National Bureau of Standards (EM 2-4040), W. R. WEDEL, H. W. WELLS Committee on Policy and Planning Frank M. Serzuer (chairman), U. S. National Museum (NA 8-1810) onJanuaryalO5 (ay cotiac meen cierie otec idistne trans Joun E. Grar, RaymMonp J. SEEGER MowanuaryAlG5S. «6. .ccscee ns sce ones ances Francis M. Deranporr, F. M. SETZLER Momanwary: 1959). «cada asa secswis ose ae MarcGaret Pittman, WALDO L. ScumitT Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent ArcHiIBALD T, McPHERSON (chairman), National Bureau of Standards (EM 2-4040) Ite denoieiaie TGV iieee Solos on.deaeadsis SA cmae An Ira B. Hansen, WiLt1am J. YOUDEN powanuaty L958 ce aveise necsh cselene faves « ArRcHIBALD T. McPuHerson, W. T. Reap MOR AnUuaTy LISD ieee ccs soeieie ab rciieeiactn snes cies oe Pau. R. MILuer, Leo ScHUBERT Commiitee on Science Education (Academy representation on Joint Board for Improve- ment of Science Education)...... RayMonp J. SEEGER (chairman), National Science Foundation (ST 3-2140), ArNoLp H. Scorr, Ke1tH JoHNSON, Wann H. MaARrsHALL, Joun K. Taytor MLE DUCBENLALLDeLOTCOMN CLO; MACTALHAGtS anette ieee A. Nguson SAYRE Committee of Auditors...... Epwarp WicHrrs (chairman), National Bureau of Stand- ards (EM 2-4040), M. C. Henprrson, P. H. Hernzp Commutteciofeliellensian vnc spe Neniehin oot ic wi sioesieaiaiovais evad stein Committee on Ways and Means...... Francois N. FRENKIEL Chaiman)s apeed Physics Laboratory (JU 9-7100), S, F. Buaxe, Pauu H. Ornsmr, W. T. Reap, B. F. ScrrsNER Committee on Public Relations da tk A. i Manan (chairman), Applied Ph sics Labora- tory (JU 9-7700), H. PECHT, HowarD Bonp CONTENTS Puysics.—Incomplete equilibrium and temperature measurement. C. M. FHERZFELD Ss 2). acti ele eis ce eon Sse eee eso eee Se cee eee 269 ENnTomMoLoGy.—Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United States National Museum: III, The genera Anopheles and Chagasia (Dip- tera, Culicidae). ALAN STONE and KENNETH L. KNIGHT......... 276 Zootogy.—Some polychaete worms of the families Hesionidae, Syllidae, and Nereidae from the east coast of North America, West Indies, and Gulf of Mexico. Marian H. PETTIBONE................... 281 NematToLocy.—Paratylenchus projectus, new species (Nematoda, Crico- nematidae), with a key to the species of Paratylenchus. W. R. JENKIN 05 6 foi Sots ous Prekede hls cla PERE Ne aeae ote aie 296 PuysioLocy.—Effect of sympathetic denervation of the urinary bladder in animals and man. E. H. InGERsoiu, L. L. Jones, and E. S. ~~) ; i i wf VOLUME 46 ae October 1956 NUMBER 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES cum) a ll ie fl feenecereeccereete Published Monthly by the fast tN GT ON ACADEMY OF SC) Fr BONG Bes MOUNT ROYAL & GUILFORD AVES., BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences Editor: Cuzstar H. Pacn, National Bureau of Standards Associate Editors: RoNALD Bamrorp, University of Maryland Howarp W. 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Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925 Authorized February 17, 1949. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 46 October 1956 No. 10 PHYSICS.— Transients in signal analysis. EpiraH L. R. Coruiss, National Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by C. H. Page.) (Received August 21, 1956) Every signal analyzing system has some limiting inertia in its response; even in the ideal limit a certain amount of inertia is required to produce the needed degree of frequency or power level resolution. The error introduced may be represented by a limiting volume in a space whose Cartesian coordinates are frequency, time, and either power or a function of power. The transient error then becomes a least volume in this space, within which no information about the signal can be found. The experimenter cannot eliminate the transient error, but by choice of experimental conditions the dis- tribution of errors can be controlled. Regardless of whether a frequency or a time-correlation analysis of a signal is un- dertaken, the results are observed as output power levels. Hence the ability to resolve a change in power levels limits the discrimina- tion that can be achieved for changes in frequency or intervals of time. The quanti- tative extent to which power level resolu- tion affects resolution along the coordi- nates of frequency and time can be found from the natural properties of the analyzer. The discussion here is based on the common type of system whose behavior is described by a second-degree differential equation with constant coefficients. In a previous paper (Corliss, 1955) we discussed the relationship between ‘“‘figure of merit,” Q, observation time interval, Az, and power level discrimination, a, when the behavior of a linear series-resonant filter was ‘This work was part of a program of basic instrumentation research and development sup- ported by ONR, AEC, AFOSR, and NBS. 305 adjusted to satisfy the condition that an analyzer should be able to change its indica- tion by a factor of at least e~* during the time interval Ar. From these considerations it followed that 2QrfoA (ue AO (1) a on? and AjA; > =. (2) Qa Given that Az is the brefest duration of any signal component to be observed, Equa- tion (1) shows how the Q of a filter must be adjusted as a function of its tuning in order to distribute the transient error uniformly over the frequency range. Equations (1) and (2) also provide a measure of the largest number of band-pass filters that can be overlapped on adjacent channels to yield meaningful information about a rapidly changing signal. Over a range of frequencies Af = f. — fi surrounding fo, the frequency to which the filter is tuned, the change in filter response does not exceed the smallest detectable power level change. For a set of filters over- lapped at these hmits of power resolution, the limiting number of filters yielding mean- ingful information between f; and f;, the high- and low-frequency range limits, re- spectively, is given by soe Ie 9 a < Fe : to = zt fr — fo). Ay aris Je ot (Oi) =: l (The limits yield mn, — 1 rather than n, be- 306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES cause one-half of a filterextends beyond each end of the frequency range as defined here.) A common practice in using parallel channels of band-pass filters is to overlap adjacent filters at their half-power points, so that their integrated response has a flat characteristic. For this condition, Af = fo/@Q and the number of filters becomes fi me fo 3d 2rAr(f; = fo) P > Ih Ee Af a The ratio of this number to the maximum usable number of filters depends only on the power level resolution, 1.e., cc If we are willing to take a “‘yes-no”’ type of analysis from the filter, then for a set of filters overlapped at their half-power points we can choose as a compatible condition that a = In 2, 1e., the power declines at least to one-half its initial value during the observation interval At and we get as the number of filters for this case 2nAr( fi = i) m—-1l= - In 2 Under these conditions n, invites compari- son with the number of “bits” available in a Q SCANNING FIGURE OF RATE MERIT FOR SELECTIVITY 2 fo Nwe NO SCAN) |< =—3—— UNIFORM SCAN df . aie ; LOGARITHMIC SCAN Ont a In(f,/f att) © (no-1) NUMBER OF FILTERS OVERLAPPED AT HALF-POWER POINTS 2 TAT) (f- fy) a a 2VeTatty 7%) (Vo) VOL. 46, No. 10 given bandwidth during the time interval Ar. By scanning the tuning of a filter, the spectrum of a signal can be studied by means of a single metering channel. When one scans by sweeping the tuning of a filter over the frequency range to be covered, the filter shows a rather complicated response.? One can, however, obtain quantitative results from simple theory by recognizing that an additional multiplicative factor must be used to account for the spreading of the filter’s transient response caused by scan- ning. The spreading occurs because the in- coming signal beats with the ringing of the filter. In the following discussion, the spread- ing factor is omitted. The functioning of a scanning filter can be compared with a parallel channel set of band- pass filters by calculating the effective num- ber of band-pass filters that will provide the same resolution as the scanning filter. Various types of scanning functions can be used depending upon the nature of the selectivity characteristic desired. If one wishes to have a constant Q (constant per- centage bandwidth), the condition that the transient error is to be uniform through- out the range of frequencies swept over can be satisfied by scanning at a rate propor- tional to the square of the instantaneous 2 Lewis, 1932; Hok, 1948; Barber and Ursell, 1948; Marique, 1952; Herrero, 1953; Batten et al., 1954. K At SCANNING OBSERVATION PARAMETER INTERVAL In(fy/ fy) 1) T Vf, ‘27 In(f,/fp) A\ | a ri SV aCI/f,- 174) ert ntee Valt/fp= 17) 4) T I/fp- 1/4, oa yy Me OcTOBER 1956 center tuning of the filter. When one wishes to scan through the frequency range with a filter whose bandwidth is a constant num- ber of cycles per second, this implies a Q directly proportional to the center tuning of the filter and a uniform transient error results from scanning at a constant rate, independent of frequency. A commercial scanning filter, the Panoramic Analyzer, sweeps logarithmically over its frequency range; when it is adjusted to uniform tran- sient response, its instantaneous Q is pro- portional to the square root of its imstan- taneous tuning. This gives a range of Q with frequency which is intermediate be- tween constant frequency bandwidth and constant percentage bandwidth. The accompanying table (p. 306) summa- rizes the results of calculations on the basis of a uniform distribution of transient power level discrimination error, i.e., @ = con- stant. The table gives Q, the figure of merit, k, the scanning rate parameter, and 1, the equivalent number of filters overlapped at their half-power points, in terms of the scanning time 7, the scanning bandwidth limits f, and f,, and the time-attenuation parameter a. To facilitate adjustment of the response time of an analyzer to the least duration of any signal component to be observed, the tabulation also includes Ar, the observation time interval for a single filter. CORLISS: TRANSIENTS IN SIGNAL ANALYSIS 307 Similar considerations apply to the requi- site integration times of correlation analyz- ers. For a synchronous detector equipped with an R-C integrator of time-constant 7, the equivalent Q for a synchronous period T is given by =F This result is due to Selgin (1951). REFERENCES BarBer, N. F., and URsELL, F. The response of a resonant system to a gliding tone. Philos. Mag. 39: 345-361. 1948. Barren, H. W., Jorgensen, R. A., MacNen, A.B.,and Pererson,W.W. The response of a Panoramic Analyzer to CW and pulse signals. Proc. Inst. Radio Eng. 42: 948-956. 1954. Coruss, Epira L. R. Limitations on rapid signal analysis. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 45 (11): 359-360. 1955. Herrero, M. C. Resonance phenomena in time- varying circuits. Electronics Res. Lab. Stan- ford Univ. Techn. Rep. no. 69. 1953. Hox, G. Response of linear resonant systems to excitation of a frequency varying linearly with tame. Journ. Applied Phys. 19: 242-250. 1948. Lewis, F. M. Vibration during acceleration through a critical speed. Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng. 54: 253-261. 1932. MariquE, J. The response of RLC resonant circuits to EMF of sawtooth varying frequency. Proc. Inst. Radio Eng. 40: 945-961. 1952. Sexier, Paun. Harmonic output of the synchro- nous rectifier. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 47: 427-432. 1951. ee NEWS OF MEMBERS Dr. G. Arthur Cooper has been appointed head curator of the Department of Geology of the U.S. National Museum, Smithsonian Institution, succeeding the late Dr. William F. Foshag. Dr. Cooper will continue to serve as curator of in- vertebrate paleontology and paleobotany. He is a former senior editor of this JouRNAL. Dr. Ferdinand G. Brickwedde, former secre- tary of the WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, chief of the Heat and Power Division of the Na- tional Bureau of Standards, is the new dean of the College of Chemistry and Physics at Pennsyl- vania State University. 308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES PALEONTOLOGY .—An acanthodian fish from the lower Permian of Texas. Davin H. Dunx ie, U.S. National Museum, and Smeraius H. Mamay, U. S. Geological Survey. (Received August 16, 1956) While engaged in U. 8. Geological Survey field work during the Spring of 1955 Mamay, accompanied by E. L. Yochelson, collected the complete remains of a small acanthodian fish. The specimen and the details of its occurrence seem of sufficient interest to warrant a published account, particularly since, insofar as we are aware, no other complete specimens have yet been recorded from the Permian of the Western Hemi- sphere. The fossil was found in an outcrop on the Emily Irish land grant, approximately 18 miles south-southeast of Seymour, in Baylor County, Tex. According to the revised geologic map of Baylor County, published in 1937 by the Texas Bureau of Economic Geology, this outcrop lies within the bounda- ries of the Belle Plains formation of the lower Permian Wichita group. The exact position of the fossiliferous horizon within the Belle Plains formation is uncertain. However, it is mapped as lying beneath an unnamed limestone member which itself is overlain by the Beaverburk limestone mem- ber of Garrett, Lloyd, and Laskey (19380) of the Belle Plains formation. From these facts, the bed is presumed to be a correlative of the Valera shale member, which occupies a position at about the middle of the Belle Plains formation in Coleman County, Tex., 120 miles to the south. On a cosmopolitan basis, fossil remains referred to the Acanthodii present a maxi- mum stratigraphic range of from upper Silurian to lower Permian. Nielsen (1932) has reported fragmentary acanthodian fos- sils from the lower Permian of East Green- land. However, the youngest previous record of this group of fishes in the United States known to us is from the Middle Pennsyl- vanian: Acanthodes (Acanthoessus) marshi Eastman (1902) and A. beecheri Eastman 1 Published with the permission of the Secre- tary, Smithsonian Institution, and the Director, U.S. Geological Survey. (loc. cit.). The newly reported discovery thus provides definite evidence that the dis- tribution of this group of placodermatous fishes is much the same in the Western Hemisphere as in the Eastern. The fish (U.S.N.M. no. 21318) is sealeless and impressed as little more than a rusty carbonaceous film on a dark grey and very fine-grained shale. Recovered in part and counterpart, the body outline and fin posi- tions are clearly discernible, nonetheless, and the gross characteristics of the form can be determined. As preserved, probably lacking some small portion of the epichordal lobe of the caudal fin, the specimen possesses an axial length of about 37 mm and a maximum body depth of 4.5 mm. A very slenderly fusiform body habit is thus displayed. Reflecting the general body shape, the head is also slender and long; its length from snout to origin of the pectoral spine apparently contained 414 times in the overall axial length of the specimen. The position of the orbits are exhibited and a trace of either the pre- opercular or opercular sensory canal is pre- served. Unfortunately, no other structures of the skull or branchial apparatus can be determined. Fin positions are denoted by the impres- sion of delicate spines which are extremely narrow relative to their lengths. No tissue of this armament remains but the impres- sions show each to have been marked by one longitudinal groove along the side. Dorsal and anal fin spines are single, situated very far posteriorly with the larger anal one slightly in advance. The heterocercal caudal fin is indicated to be moderately clefted and with the hypochordal lobe appreciably shorter than the dorsal body extension. Neither pectoral nor pelvic spines are pre- served in their entirety. The pectoral one, however, is noticeably more robust and presumably longer than the pelvic. The latter is inserted nearer the pectoral ap- pendage than to the anal. VOL. 46, No. 10 - OcTOBER 1956 DUNKLE AND & fn ee x Fie. 1. Acanthodes sp. ( MAMAY: U.S.N.M. no. 21318): ACANTHODIAN FISH 309 ue Photograph of specimen as exposed in lateral view. X 4. This combination of characteristics is that of the genotypic material of Acanthodes from the Rotliegende of Lebach, Germany. While probably distinct from the Middle Pennsylvanian forms from Illinois mentioned above (Eastman, 1902, and Gregory, 1951), no species assignment 1s made for this speci- men from Texas. Woodward (1891) cus- tomarily grouped all of the Acanthodes from Lebach under A. bronni Agassiz. Watson (1937) called attention to the wide dif- ferences between the numerous series of Lebach specimens. The variants, however, were left unnamed because of either the difficulty or impossibility of locating the Agassiz types. Therefore there seems to be no adequate basis, as yet, of evaluating material falling within such a range of variation, or for making a specific identifica- tion of the presently discussed specimen. The specimen was found in association with an extremely rich and diverse terres- trial floral assemblage, description of which is currently being prepared for publication by Mamay. The flora is dominated in large part by pecopterid ferns of the type that was prevalent in Late Pennsylvanian coal swamps. However, various callipterids, sphenopterids, T7ingia-like foliage and Gigan- topteris americana White also constitute conspicuous elements in the flora, with lycopsids and sphenopsids showing only a minor representation. Although this shale bed contains a great profusion of plant remains, animal fossils are by contrast extremely rare. The most common of these are estherid remains, which occasionally occur in fairly rich local con- centrations. However, the fish specimen under discussion represents the only verte- brate fossil found by the collectors although perhaps as much as three cubic yards of matrix was split and carefully examined; furthermore, a large collection made in 1940 by Charles B. Read of the U. S. Geological Survey at the same locality is completely lacking in vertebrate remains. Both the abundance and condition of the plant material suggest deposition of the enclosing sediments in relatively quiet, un- disturbed, fresh or possibly brackish water. Although the matrix is very friable and must be handled carefully, it has been pos- sible to expose many large and unbroken leaf specimens. The state of preservation of this delicate foliage discourages the possibility that it could have been subjected to trans- portation over considerable distances from its original habitat, or to much agitation in the waters in which it was deposited. It is 310 quite likely, then, that the fossiliferous bed represents the bottom of a quiet pool or an extremely sluggish stream. REFERENCES Some Carboniferous cestraciont sharks. Bull. Mus. Comp. Eastman, C. R. and acanthodian Zool. 39(3). 1902. Garrett, M. M., Luoyp, A. M., and Laskey, G. E. Texas Bureau of Economic Geology, Map of Baylor County. 1930. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 10, Greeory, J. T. A new specimen of Acanthodes marshi. Bull. Southern California Acad. Sci. 50(1). 1951. Nrevsen, E. Permo-Carboniferous fishes from East Greenland. Medd. Grénland 86(3). 1932. Watson, D. M.S. The acanthodian fishes. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soe. London, ser. B., 228(549). 1937. Woopwarp, A. 8S. Catalogue of fossil fishes in the British Museum, pt. 2. 1891. SEE MAUNA LOA OBSERVATORY A unique high-altitude observatory on the slope of the Hawaiian volcano, Mauna Loa, was dedicated on June 28 for joint use by the National Bureau of Standards and the U. 8. Weather Bureau. Located at a height of 11,134 feet in the Tropics, where the upper atmosphere is very clear and usually of low moisture content, the new observatory offers special advantages for many types of astronomical and upper-air studies. It will make possible continuous observa- tion of atmospheric phenomena with manned instruments in place of the unmanned meteoro- logical balloons that have been used for the most part in high-altitude work. The dedication ceremonies were arranged by R. L. Fox of the Weather Bureau, and J. B. Cox, president of the Geophysical Society of Hawaii, acted as master of ceremonies. After introductory remarks by Governor 8. W. King of Hawaii, J. W. Steiner of the Weather Bureau gave some highlights on the new facility. Ralph Stair and C. C. Kiess of NBS then spoke on research po- tentials of the observatory and its use in studying the planet Mars. Prof. W. B. Steiger of the Uni- versity of Hawaii commented on the importance of the observatory to geophysics, and Mr. Fox discussed the past, present, and future of the observatory. The new observatory is expected to provide valuable data in a variety of fields. Its advantages as a high-altitude observatory are due largely to the fact that it is situated well above the bulk of the dust and moisture contained in the earth’s atmosphere. At the latitude of Hawaii a ‘‘trade wind inversion layer” usually traps the dust and moisture below about 8,000 feet. Other important advantages are its ready accessibility and rela- tively warm climate. Most of the other com- parable observatory sites are buried in snow during winter and part of the summer. Also, the Mauna Loa observatory has the required alti- tude without the ruggedness that imparts turbu- lence to the surrounding air, and it is situated at a key point for studying the huge air masses of the tropics. The chief research results to be expected are improved long-range weather forecasting and greater knowledge of solar and atmospheric radiation. Because the air masses of the Pacific are responsible for much of the weather that occurs in other parts of the world, data on these air masses may make it possible to forecast con- ditions in distant places. There is some evidence that the ozone content of the lower atmosphere in the Tropics is associ- ated with the formation of the large low-pressure areas that produce typhoons. Continuous meas- urement of atmospheric ozone may thus be of assistance in forecasting typhoons in advance. The observatory also offers possibilities for study of cosmic rays, total solar radiation, snow crystals, air glows, and possibly radioactive fallout. In July, C. C. Kiess and C. H. Corliss of NBS began a study of the moisture content of the planet Mars under the auspices of the Na- tional Geographic Society. They used spectro- scopic techniques to investigate the light re- flected to the earth from Mars. The advantageous location of the Mauna Loa observatory made it possible to reduce the effect of the earth’s atmos- phere on the planet’s spectrum. During the coming year Ralph Stair of NBS expects to begin a study at Mauna Loa on the distribution of the spectral energy from the sun. Such information will be of value in determining the effect of the sun’s rays in connection with high-altitude equipment, space flights, and man-made satel- lites. This work will also furnish data on the solar constant and information on solar intensities which may be useful in many fields. The observatory is a concrete-block structure costing $25,000, and is situated about 2,500 feet below the summit of the mountain. The building contains five rooms in addition to a tower and a broad open platform for observational use. Present accommodations permit the use of the buildings by a maximum of six observers at any one time. A smaller structure was built at the summit in 1951-52, but the limited observations that were taken there were discontinued in 1954 OcToBER 1956 SOHNS: THE GENUS HILARIA 311 BOTANY—The genus Hilaria (Gramineae). ERNEST R. Souns, U. S. National Museum. (Communicated by Agnes Chase.) (Received July 16, 1956) Hilaria, named in honor of Auguste St. Hilaire, was described by Humboldt, Bon- pland, and Kunth (1816) with one species (H. cenchroides) from Mexico. ‘‘Crescit in planitie montana regni Mexicana, inter Zelaya et Guanaxuato, locis subfrigidis, alt. 980 hexap. [Perennial] Floret Septembri.”’ According to the authors Hilaria_ re- sembled Anthephora, after which it was placed in taxonomic sequence. In the follow- ing 50 years at least three new generic names entered the literature, and all are considered synonyms of Hilaria. Among these is the genus Pleuraphis, established by Torrey (1824), with one species (P. jameszz) in honor of Dr. E. James. Some contemporary agros- tologists recognize this genus as distinct from Hilaria. Presl (1830) described the genus Hevarrhena, with a single species (H. cenchroides), which he placed in the tribe Saccharinae, subtribe Hordeaceae. From his description and plate 45, there is no doubt that the species is H. cenchroides of Hum- boldt, Bonpland and Kunth. In_ 1866, Buckley described a new genus from Texas (Schleropelta) with one species S. stolonifera. The description applies to H. belangeri (Anthephora belangert Steud.). By 1891, five species and two varieties of Hilarza had been described. Taxonomists have differed in the assign- ment of the genus to tribes and subtribes. Steudel (1854) and Fournier (1886) put Hilaria in the tribe Phalarideae. Bentham (1881) divided the tribe Zoysieae into two subtribes (Anthephoreae and Euzoysieae) and placed the genus in the former. Bentham and Hooker (1883) and Hackel (1887) treated the genus as a member of the Zoysieae. Beal (1896), Bews (1929), Conzatti (1946), Hitchcock (1936) and Roshevits (1937) regarded this genus as belonging to the Zoysieae. Pilger (1954) placed Hilarza in the subfamily Eragrostoideae, subtribe Lap- pagineae Link. He also recognized Plewraphis as a distinct genus. I believe the genus is a very old and highly specialized one and that it does not belong in the tribe Zoysieae. It has no close generic relationship with any known North or South American genus. Cytogenetic techniques may help indicate evolutionary tendencies within the genus. For the present it is better to keep the genus in the Zoysieae than to erect a new tribe or subtribe. The accumula- tion of cytogenetic data, together with de- tailed taxonomic, morphological and ana- tomical studies in our known genera will enable us, eventually, to assign the genus Hilaria to its proper tribe. The species of Hilaria are vegetatively remarkably uniform for both subgenera of the genus. They are mostly low, stoloniferous or nonstoloniferous plants with pistillate central spikelets or tall, rhizomatous bunch grasses with perfect central spikelets. The nine species and one variety at present known are endemics restricted to the mountains, dry plains and plateaus of the southwestern United States, Mexico and Guatemala. One species, H. belanger?, has been reported from Venezuela (cultivated in experiment plots). The inflorescence is spicate and composed of two to many fascicles. Each fascicle contains three spikelets, one central and two lateral spikelets. The central spikelet is 1-flowered and perfect in H. jamesii, H. mutica and H. rigida. One-flowered, pistillate central spikelets are characteristic of the other species. The lateral spikelets, appearing somewhat pedicellate, are all staminate and may have from one to five florets. Any one, or all of the lateral florets, may be sterile. The glumes in those species with perfect central spikelets may be papyraceous and scarcely fused at the base, or, in those species with pistillate central spikelets, the glumes are rigid, indurated and fused at the base. The fascicle pattern is the same for all species of the genus. Diagrammatic sketches of various fascicle patterns are presented in fig. 1. Brown (1950) and Brown and Coe (1951) have been the pioneers in cytogenetic in- vestigations in this genus. H. belangert (col- lection no. 3394+) was reported to have a 312 chromosome number of 86, and H. mutica (collection no. 3279) a diploid number of 36 (n = 18). H. belangeri (Ozona Clone) has 36 chromosomes (n = 9), while H. belangeri (Eden no. + and Eden no. 6) has 72 chromo- somes (n = 9). The phenomenon of ovule abortion in H. belangert, H. jamesii and H. mutica is discussed also. Fie. 1.—Fascicle diagrams in Hilaria: a-c, Fascicle types encountered in the subgenus Pleura- pheae: central spikelets 1-flowered and perfect, lateral spikelets 2-3-flowered, all staminate or the lower sometimes sterile. d—f, fascicle types en- countered in the subgenus Eu-Hilarieae: central spikelets 1-flowered and pistillate, lateral spikelets 1-5-flowered, all staminate or staminate and sterile intermixed. Only one glume of each lateral spikelet is represented. The species of Hilarza are among the im- portant forage grasses of the ranges in the southwestern United States and Mexico. The rapid spread of the stoloniferous species also makes them important soil binders. In the genus Hilaria, H. belangeri is probably the most important range species. H. jamesii and H. mutica are regarded as having medium grazing value and low to very low palatability. Hilarta jamesii is often the dominant grass in many parts of northern Arizona and New Mexico and in southern Colorado and Utah. When this species is young it is good forage for sheep. H. mutica is characteristic of level upland and desert valleys in which there are no really perma- nent streams, but these areas are occa- sionally overflowed during heavy storms. According to Goodding (mss.) the in- florescences are often infected with ergot. Hilaria rigida occupies the driest parts of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 10 the desert areas, particularly the Mojave Desert. It is encountered on sand dunes and rocky slopes. This species forms isolated clumps and is therefore an excellent grass for controllmg blowing sand. It is a highly prized grass in southern Nevada and in the region of Kingman, Arizona. This paper is part of a continuing series contributing toward a _ revision of the Grasses of Mexico; therefore, only Mexican specimens are cited, except where the type was collected in the United States. All figures, unless otherwise indicated, were drawn by the author. KEY TO SPECIES OF HILARIA A. Fascicles with thin, papyraceous glumes, these not conspicuously fused and indurated at the base; the central spikelet 1-flowered and perfect [subgenus Pleurapheae]. B. Culms felty-pubescent; glumes of the central spikelet narrow, plumose, deeply cleft into few to several acuminate, ciliate lobes and slender awns; glumes of the lateral spikelets thin, long-ciliate, 2-4-lobed at the summit 3. H. rigida BB. Culms not felty-pubescent. C. Glumes of the lateral spikelets acute, usually with a single awn. ...1. H. jamesii CC. Glumes of the lateral spikelets thin, broadened upwards, the tips finely lacini- Ate. 23 8asdlo. Lee 2. H. mutica AA. Fascicle with thickened asymmetric glumes, conspicuously fused and indurated at the base; the central spikelets 1-flowered and pistillate [subgenus Eu-Hilarieae]. D. Spikes pale and usually slender (if thick, then the glumes papillose-pilose between the nerves); sometimes viola- ceous from the accumulation of antho- eyanin pigmentation; scabrous black glands may be present, but usually not abundant. E. Plants stoloniferous, blades mostly basal. F. Glumes scabrous; awns short, slightly divergent, thick, con- spicuously ciliate on the margins, the cilia often retrorse 6. H. ciliata FF. Glumes variously textured; awns not ciliate on the margins. G. Fascicles 5-6 mm long. H. Glumes usually with one, rarely more, awns, margins conspicuously hyaline; plants wiry, densely tufted 4. H. belangeri HH. First glume of the central spikelet thick, terminating OcToBER 1956 in 2-5 awns, margins not hyaline; glumes of the cen- tral spikelet thick, terminat- ing in 2-4 awns; plants not wiry or densely tufted 7. H. hintoni GG. Fascicles 8-10 mm long; glumes conspicuously papil- lose-pilose between the nerves, the lemmas sparingly pilose on the back toward the tip 8. H. sempler EE. Plants apparently non-stolo- niferous; blades long, flat; ligule 2.5-3 mm long; spikes scarcely ex- ceeding the blades 4a. H. belangeri var. longifolia DD. Spikes mostly gray to black; coloration resulting either from nu- merous scabrous black glands or the accumulation of anthocyanin pigmen- tation, or both. I. Spikes slender; fascicles 6.5-8 mm long; glumes nar- row at the base, as long as the florets, dark gray to almost black, the margins hyaline and conspicuously lighter in color; lateral spikelets 2-flowered 9. H. swallenir II. Spikes usually thick; fas- cicles 4-7.5 mm _ long; glumes broader at the base, shorter than the florets, the margins not conspicu- ously lighter in color nor hyaline; lateral spikelets 2-4-flowered (rarely 5-flow- ered)....5. H. cenchroides 1. Hilaria jamesii (Torr.) Benth., Journ. Linn. Soc., Bot. 19: 62. 1881. Pleuraphis jamesii Torr., York 1: 148. pl. 10. 1824. Ann. Lye. New Perennial, tufted, rhizomatous; culms erect, 20-65 cm tall, nodes pubescent; sheaths glabrous or slightly scabrous, sparsely villous near the collar and behind the ligule; igule 2-3 mm long, membranaceous, often laciniate; blades 2-20 cm long, 2-4 mm wide, involute when dry, scaber- ulous on the lower surface, scabrous on the upper between the nerves; spike thick, 2-6 cm long, rachis joints up to 6 mm long, angular, finely pubescent; fascicles 6-8 mm long, long-villous at the base; lateral spikelets 3-flowered, stam- inate; stamens 3, anthers of the first floret about 5 mm long; lodicules 2, 0.1—0.2 mm long; central spikelet 1-flowered, perfect; lodicules 2, about 0.2 mm long. SOHNS: THE GENUS HILARIA 313 Distribution: Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, Texas, Utah, and Wyoming. 2. Hilaria mutica (Buckl.) Benth., Journ. Linn. Soc., Bot. 19: 62. 1881. Pleuraphis mutica Buckl., Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Philadelphia 1862: 95. 1862. Perennial, tufted, rhizomatous; culms erect, 30-50 cm tall, nodes pubescent; sheaths striate, firm, scabrid, the lower overlapping the upper, shorter than the nodes, scabrous and sometimes sparsely papillose-pilose along the margins; ligule about 1 mm long, lacerate; blades up to 10 cm long, 2-4 mm wide, harshly short-scabrous on both surfaces, sometimes sparsely papillose- pilose on both surfaces; spike 4-8 cm long, joints of the spike slender, fascicles crowded; lateral spikelets 1 or 2-flowered (sometimes 3- or 4- flowered), staminate; lodicules 2, 0.1-0.2 mm long; glumes thin and broadened upward, the tips finely laciniate; central spikelet 1-flowered, perfect; lodicules 2, 0.1-0.2 mm long; glumes with one or more divergent awns from the back, the tips of the glumes lobed and finely laciniate. Distribution: Arizona, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Texas, and northern Mexico. MEXICO: Cutnuanua: 10 km E. of Jiménez, Harvey 1348; Rancho Carretas, Chihuahua- Sonora Border, Harvey 1534; Meoqui, LeSeur 040; south of Chihuahua, LeSeur 0132; plains near Chihuahua, Pringle 485; 19 mi. northwest of Naica, Shreve 8080; 31 miles northeast. of Camargo, Shreve 8895; Sta. Eulalia Plains, Wilkinson 55. Coanurta: Road to Don Martin Dam, Harvey 926; El Berrendo, near Muzquiz, Harvey 1175; 100 km west of Cuatro Ciénegas, Harvey 1254; Johnson, September 12, 1906; Musquiz-Santa Anna, Marsh 497; Del Carmen Mountains, Marsh 853; Torreon, Palmer 506; ... between Hacienda La Rosa and Hacienda Lechuguilla, Wynd and Mueller 61; eastern slope of the Sierra de San Manuel, Wynd and Mueller 481. Duranco: 3 miles northeast of Bermejillo, Johnston 7788; 49 miles north of Bermejillo, Morley 618; 3 miles Northeast of Bermejillo, Shreve 8816. SONORA: 3 miles east of Agua Prieta, 5 Santos 1751: 5 miles north of Fronteras, Santos dedied Gon 3. Hilaria rigida (Thurb.) Bentham, ex Seribn., Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 9: 86. 1882. Pleuraphis rigida Thurber, in 8. Wats., California 2: 293.8 180. Bot. Perennial; culms decumbent or rhizomatous opt LILA 2 HI Figs. 2-11.—Hilaria mutica: 2, Inflorescence and base of plant, X1 (drawn by M. W. Gill from Tou- mey specimen); 3, spikelet (Wright 760-2108, type); 4, floret of central spikelet, ovary and stamen (Le Seur 0132). Hilaria rigida: 5, Inflorescence and vegetative portion of plant, X1 (drawn by M. W. Gill from Palmer (no. 494) specimen); 6, glume of central spikelet (Cooper 2230, type); 7, floret of central spikelet and essential organs (Cooper 2230, type); 8, florets of lateral spikelets (Keck 4232). Hilaria belangeri: 9, fascicle; 10, central spikelet and floret (both drawn by A. Chase from Hitchcock specimen) ; 11, florets of lateral spikelet and one stamen (Nealley 600). All figures, unless otherwise indicated, X8. 314 OcroBerR 1956 at base, up to 2.5 m tall, woody felty-pubescent, upper nodes often pubescent; sheaths over- lapping, glabrous or scabrous, a woolly line across the back at the collar; ligule about 1 mm long, woolly; blades 2-5 cm long or longer, 2-4 mm wide, slightly involute, glabrous or scabrous on the nerves on both surfaces, lower sheaths and blades sometimes tomentose-pubescent; spike 4-7 cm long, fascicles 6-12 mm long, densely bearded at the base; lateral spikelets 2 to 4- flowered, staminate (if 3 or 4-flowered, upper- most usually sterile); lodicules 2, 0.1-0.2 mm long; glumes of the lateral spikelets thin, long- ciliate, about 7-nerved, usually 2—4-lobed at the _ broad summit and with 1-3 nerves excurrent into slender awns, nerves sometimes obscure and —searcely excurrent (variable in the same in- florescence); central spikelet 1-flowered, perfect, distinctly pedicellate, equaling or exceeding the lateral spikelets, its narrow glumes deeply cleft into few to several acuminate ciliate lobes and slender awns; lemma often exceeding the glumes, thin, ciliate, 2-lobed, the midnerve excurrent as a short awn; stamens 3, anthers 4-4.5 mm long; stigmas 2, plumose, terminally exserted; lodicules 2, 0.1 mm long. According to Watson (1880) this species was eaten avidly by pack animals. Distribution: Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah, Lower California, and Sonora. UNITED STATES: Catutrornia: Fort Mojave, Cooper 2230 (Type). MEXICO: Basa Catirornia: Canon Can- tillas, Orcutt 1145. CuHinvanua: Colonia Diaz, Mearns 406. Sonora: 50 miles south of Sonoyta on road to San Luis, Keck 4232. 4. Hilaria belangeri (Steud.) Amer. Fl. 17: 135. 1912. Anthephora belangeri Steud., Syn. Pl. Glum. 1: 111. 1854. Nash, N. Perennial, tufted, stoloniferous; culms 10 to 30 cm tall, erect, nodes villous; sheaths striate, glabrous, overlapping, upper sheaths shorter than the internodes; ligule 1.5 mm long, membra- naceous; blades 3 to 10 cm long, flat or involute when dry, sparsely papillose-pilose on the margins and on the upper surface, tip involute; spike 2-4 cm long, fascicles 5-6 mm long; glumes firm, united below, scabrous, usually pale or sometimes violaceous, but not dark gray or black from glandular spots, rounded or pointed upwards, SOHNS: THE GENUS HILARIA old terminating in one or more antrorsely scabrous awns as long as or longer than the fascicle; lateral spikelets 2-flowered (rarely 3-flowered), stam- inate or sometimes one floret neuter; stamens 3, anthers of the lower floret 3-3.5 mm long; anthers of the upper floret 3.2-3.7 mm long; central spikelet 1-flowered, pistillate, as long or longer than the lateral spikelet. Distribution: Arizona, California, New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico. MEXICO: AcuascalipnteEs: Aguascalientes, Hitchcock 7477. Basa Catirornia: La Cham- pagna, Sierra de las Palmas, Gentry and Fox 11787. CurmuaHua: Rancho Carretos, Harvey 1621. GuprrERO: Coyuca, Hinton 6707. Mr1- cHOACAN: Apatzingan, Leavenworth 1521. Mixico Temascaltepec, Hinton 4733. Morn tos: Lava fields near Yautepec, Pringle 11225; between Xoxocotla and Alpuyec, Sharp 441358. Sonora: near Imuris, Pennell 20278; Hacienda de San Rafael, Santos 1782; 20 miles west of La An- gostura, Santos 1802; Colonia Morelos, Santos 2032 [Sept. 15-Oct. 4, 1941]. TamautLrpas: Chamal, Swallen 1680, 1698. 4a. Hilaria belangeri var. longifolia (Vasey) Hitche., Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 41: 162. 1928. Hilaria cenchroides var. longifolia Vasey, Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci. 24: 80. 1889; Beal, Grasses North America 2: 69. 1896. Perennial, tufted, apparently non-stoloniferous; culms erect, 830 cm or more tall, nodes villous; sheaths striate, scabrous, basal sheaths over- lapping, upper sheaths shorter than the inter- nodes; ligule 2.56-8 mm long, membranaceous; blades 3-15 cm long, up to 3.5 mm wide, flat, scabrous on both surfaces, sparsely papillose- pilose on the margins and upper surface, tip involute; spike 2-4 em long, joints of the axis 3-5 mm long, flat, margins antrorsely short- pilose; fascicles 5-8 mm long, 5-12 per inflores- cence; first glume of lateral spikelet with one long awn, the others half as long, free or fused; lateral spikelets 2-flowered, lower floret usually neuter, upper floret staminate; stamens 3, anthers about 3 mm long; central spikelet 1- flowered, pistillate. Distribution: Arizona, Texas, and north- western Mexico. MEXICO: Sonora: Guaymas, Palmer 347 3558; Colonia (type); Guaymas, /Hitcheock Morelos, Santos 2032 [15 Sept. 1947). 316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 10 Fras. 12-25.—(See opposite page for legend). €Qe+ ere, | ( f | i | | OcToBER 1956 5. Hilaria cenchroides H. B. K., Nov. Gen. & Sp. 1: 117. pl. 37. 1816. Perennial, tufted, stoloniferous; culms erect, 5-60 cm tall, nodes pilose; sheaths striate, over- lapping, margins hyaline, the lower from sparsely to densely papillose-pilose, the upper glabrous and shorter than the internodes; ligule 1.5-2 mm long, laciniate; blades up to 10 cm long, to 4 mm wide, flat, involute on drying, slightly scabrous on the lower surface, very scabrous on the upper surface, sometimes also sparsely papillose-pilose, margins antrorsely scabrous; spikes 2-6 cm long, dark brown to purple in color; rachis joints scabrous-pubescent on the margins; fascicles 4—7.5 mm long; glumes usually shorter than the spikes, indurated and fused at the base; lateral spikelets 2—4-flowered (rarely 5 florets), stam- inate or some of them sterile; stamens 3, anthers 3-3.5 mm long, yellow; central spikelet 1- flowered, pistillate. Distribution: Mexico to Guatemala. MEXICO: Basa Catirornia: 19 miles north- east of Comondu, Shreve 7120. Distrito FEDERAL: Mixcoac, Arséne 8281; Camino de Toluca, Balls 5587; Mexico City, Fisher 70; San Angel, Fisher 113; Xochimileo, Hitchcock 5889; Pedregal, Hitchcock 5950; Olivar, Orcutt 3591. DuRANGo: Durango, Hitchcock 7580; Palmer 379, 541. GuanasuaTo: The Alameda, Dugis, July 1899; Acambaro, Hitchcock 6939; Irapuato, Hitchcock 7430; 6 kms east of Guanajuato, Sohns 318. GUERRERO: Santa Fé, Hitchcock 6687. Hipauco: Jacala, V. H. Chase 7110, 7230; Pachuca, Hitch- cock 6718 14; Guadalupe, Juzepczuk 114; Puerto de la Zorra, Moore and Wood 3776. Jauisco: La Punta, Hitchcock 7000; San Nicolds, Hitch- cock 7188; Guadalajara, Hitchcock 7268; Rio Blanco, Palmer 197; Huejuquilla, Rose 2542; La Punta, Shreve 9289. M&éxico: Toluca, Hitchcock 6905; Molino de la Flor, Matuda 18932; Zum- pango, Matuda 19723; San Gerénimo, Matuda 29247; Atizapan, St. Prerre 205; Tlalpan, St. Pierre 818; Mixcoac, St. Pierre 833, 881; San Angel, St. Pierre 851; San Juan de Teotihuacan, Santos 2197; San Andreas, Sohns 190. Mr- SOHNS: THE GENUS HILARIA 317 cHoacAN: Morelia, Arséne 5587; Zitdcuaro, Hinton 13113. Moreuos: Cuernavaca, Hitchcock 6861; Ross, June 1953. Oaxaca: Cerro del Fortin, Conzattt 3588; Oaxaca, Hitchcock 6096; Valle de Oaxaca, Liebmann 571; Tehuantepec, Matuda 311; Valle de Oaxaca, Nelson 1576; Valley of Cuicatlan, Nelson 1906; El Cerro de San Felipe del Agua, Santos 3208. Puppia: Fort de Loreto, Arséne 35; vicinity of Puebla, Arséne 284, 1019; Atlixco, Nelson 25/7/1893; San Fran- cisco, Nicolas 15/8/1909; Cholula, Nicolas 14/7/1909. QupRHrARO: Querétaro, Arséne 10274, Querétaro, Hitchcock 5865, 5870; Semple, No- vember 1955. San Luis Porosi: Cardenas, Hitchcock 5713; Alvarez, Palmer 165. TAMAULI- PAS: Buena Vista Hacienda, Wooton 21/6/1919. ° TLAXcALA: San Cristébal to Calpulalpan, Sohns 573. Veracruz: Santa Ana Chiautempan, Arséne 11/10/1908; Orizaba, Hitchcock 6353; Mohr; Mueller 2079; Schaffner 199. Zacatecas: Zacate- cas, Hitchcock 7537. GUATEMALA: Guatemala City, Hitchcock 9084; de Koninck 142; Popenoe 667; La Aurora, Morales R. 726. 6. Hilaria ciliata (Scribn.) Sohns, comb. nov. Hilaria cenchroides var. ciliata Scribn., Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1891: 293. Perennial, tufted, sometimes stoloniferous; culms up to 45 cm tall, erect, sometimes finely pubescent below the lower nodes, otherwise glabrous; nodes pilose; sheaths striate, glabrous, the lower sometimes sparsely papillose-pilose, usually shorter than the internodes; ligule about 2.5 mm long, membranaceous; blades 1.5-15 cm long, up to 4 mm wide, scabrous on both sur- faces and margins, occasionally sparsely papillose- pilose on both surfaces, sparsely papillose-pilose at the collar and behind the ligule; spike 3-5 em long, joints of axis 2.5-3.5 mm long, finely ciliate on the margins, sometimes sparsely pilose; fascicles mostly less than 4 mm long (rarely to 5 mm); glumes fused at base, papillate-scabrous; the awns of the glumes of the central spikelets 1 or 2, these usually not exceeding the lobes, Fias. 12-25.—Hilaria cenchroides: 12, Abaxial view of fascicle; 13, adaxial view of fascicle (both drawn from Galeotti 5689); 14, glume of central spikelet (Hinton 13118); 15, first and second glumes of lateral spikelet (Hinton 13113); 16, three florets from lateral spikelet (Hinton 13113) ; 17, two florets from lateral spikelet (Palmer 379). Hilaria ciliata: 18, Abaxial view of fascicle; 19, adaxial view of fascicle; 20, floret of central spikelet and first and second florets of lateral spikelets with stamens (all from Pringle 3128). Hilaria belangert var. longifolia: 21, three florets of a lateral spikelet; 22, central spikelet; 23, lateral spikelet; 24, caryopsis; 25, rachis joint. All from Palmer 347. All figures X8. 318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 10 ov er xh * @O Pp + mutica . rigida - belangeri - belangeri var. longifolia - cenchrotdes - Ciliata - hintonii H. semplei - Swallenii ses LOE Figs. 26-35.—(See opposite page for legend). OcToBER 1956 sometimes reflexed at maturity, short-ciliate on the margins, the cilia often retrorse; awns of the lateral spikelets inconspicuous; lateral spikelets 2-flowered, staminate; stamens 3, anthers of the upper floret 2.8-3 mm long; central spikelet 1-flowered, pistillate. Distribution: Known only from Mexico. MEXICO: Cotmma: Alzada, Hitchcock 7077; Armeria, Hitchcock 7022; Manzanillo, Hitchcock 833; Palmer 197, 1267. GuERRERO: Mina, Hinton 9310. Jauisco: Zapotlan, Hitchcock 7125; Guada- lajara, Hitchcock 7370; Valley of the Rio Grande de Santiago at Atequiza, Palmer 3128 (Type). Mricuoachn: Aguililla, Hinton 12093, 15213; Apatzingan, Hinton 12029; Leavenworth 1521, 1590; near Nueva Italia, Sohns 847. Nayarit: Vicinity of Jalisco, Ferris 5818; Tepic, Palmer 1918; Acaponeta, Rose, Standley and Russell 14304. San Luis Porosi: Valley of the Rio Tampaon, V. H. Chase 7530; Cardenas, Hitch- cock 5774. Sonora: Palmer, s. n. 7. Hilaria hintonii Sohns, sp. nov. Gramen perenne, stoloniferum; culmi 5-20 cm alti, nodi pubescenti; vaginae glabrae vel leviter pilosae; ligula 0.5-1 mm longa, membranacea; laminae 2-6 cm longae, usque ad 4 mm latae, planae, supra papilloso-pilosae, subtus glabrae vel interdum leviter papilloso-pilosae, margines scabrae; spicae 2-4 longae, articuli rachi plani, 1-4.5 mm longi; fasciculi 4-6.5 mm_ longi, glumae induratae, scaberulae; spiculae laterales bi- vel triflores, masculae; spicula intermedia uniflora, feminea. Perennial, tufted, stoloniferous; culms 5-20 cm tall, erect; nodes pubescent; sheaths glabrous or sparingly pilose near the collar; ligule 0.5-1 mm long, membranaceous; blades 2-6 cm long, up to 4 mm wide, flat, thin, papillose-pilose on the upper surface, scabrous on the lower or some- times sparsely papillose-pilose, margins scabrous, the tip acuminate; spikes 2-4 cm long, joints of the axis flat, 1-4.5 mm long, margins short ciliate; fascicles 4-6.5 mm long, the glumes indurated and fused at the base, scaberulous to sparsely glandular-spotted; first glumes of the lateral SOHNS: THE GENUS HILARIA 319 spikelets indurated at the base, the tips terminat- ing in 3 or 4 awns, one of which is as long as the spikelets; second glumes of the lateral spikelets broad, indurated, terminating in 2 to 4 awns of approximately equal length; lateral spikelets 2-3- flowered, staminate, or the lower sometimes sterile, stamens 3, anthers 2.8-3 mm long; glumes of the central spikelet with more or less truncated tips and 2 or 3 prominent awns; central spikelet 1-flowered, pistillate. This species is named in honor of the late Mr. G. B. Hinton, exceptional collector of Mexican grasses. Type: Temascaltepec, Mexico; Luvianos, llano, 9/8/1933; Hinton 4502 (U.S.N.H. no. 1840874). Distribution: Central Mexico. MEXICO: Guerrero: Coyuca, Hinton 6437. México: Temascaltepec, Hinton 4502. QuERE- TARO: South of San Juan del Rio, Semple, No- vember 1955. 8. Hilaria semplei Sohns, sp. nov. Gramen perenne, stoloniferum; culmi erecti, 20-35 cm alti, glabri; nodi papilloso-pilosi; vaginae striatae, internodiis breviores, inferiores papilloso-pilosae, superiores glabrae; ligula mem- branacea, 0.5-1 mm longa; laminae 2.5-15 cm longae, usque ad 2.5 mm latae, plana vel V-forma, utrinque papilloso-pilosae, margines scabrae; spicae 2-4 cm longae, articuli rachi 2.5-4.5 mm longi, plani, margines ciliati; fasciculi 8-10 mm longi; glumae induratae, valde nervosae, inter- nerviis papilloso-pilosae, aristae scabrae; spiculae laterales biflores, masculae; lemmata membra- nacea, summa tenuiter pilosi, leviter 3 vel 4- nervils; spicula intermedia uniflora, feminea; lemma membranaceum, leviter 3-nerviis, 8-10 mm longum. Perennial, tufted, stoloniferous; culms 20-35 cm tall, erect, glabrous; nodes papillose-pilose; sheaths striate, shorter than the internodes, the lower papillose-pilose, the upper glabrous; ligule 0.5-1 mm long, membranaceous; blades 2.5-15 cm long, up to 2.5 mm wide, slightly V-shaped in cross-section or flat, papillose-pilose on both surfaces, margins antrorsely scabrous, the tip Fias. 26-35.—Hilaria swallenii: 26, Abaxial view of fascicle; 27, adaxial view of fascicle (drawn by A. Chase from Young (No. 46) specimen); 28, lemma, glume of central spikelet, first and second glumes of lateral spikelet; 29, two florets of a lateral spikelet (both from Sperry T778). Hilarta hintonit: 30, glume of central spikelet; 31, two pistillate florets from central spikelet; 32, first glume of lateral spikelet; 33, three florets and a stamen from a lateral spikelet; 34, second glume of lateral spikelet and habit sketch of plant (X14). All drawn from Hinton 4502. All figures X8. 35: Map of Mexico showing distribution of species of Hilaria. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 10 320 la Fras. 36-50.—(See opposite page for legend). OctToBER 1956 involute; spike 2-4 cm long, joints of the axis 2.5-4.5 mm long, flat, the margins finely ciliate, rachis flaps prominent, tips finely ciliate; fascicles 8-10 mm long; glumes fused at base, strongly nerved, papillose-pilose between the nerves, awns prominent, antrorsely scabrous; lateral spikelets 2-flowered, the florets staminate, lemmas membranaceous, faintly 3- or 4-nerved, the tips sparingly pilose, paleas membranaceous, as long as the lemmas, 2-nerved; central spikelet 1-flowered, pistillate; lemma membranaceous, faintly 3-nerved, 8-10 mm long. This species is named in honor of Dr. A. T. Semple, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Type: Dense heavy stands on very heavy clay soil; dominant grass over many areas; Llanos de Antufiez, about 12 miles east of Apatzingan, Michoacan, alt. 1,000 feet; November 1955, A. T. Semple (U.S.N.H. no. 2183565). Dry grass- lands between Nueva Italia and Apatzingan, alt. 430 m., dominant grass; November 14, 1955; Moore, Herndndez X. and Porras H. 5753. 9. Hilaria swallenii Cory, Wrightia 1: 215. 1948. Perennial, tufted, stoloniferous; culms erect, 10 to 30 em tall, nodes villous; sheaths shorter than the internodes, slightly scabrous; ligule 2-2.2 mm long, membranaceous; blades mostly short, basal, up to 8 cm long, 1-2 mm wide, flat or involute when dry, scabrous on both surfaces; spike 1-4 cm long, gray to dark-brown in color, sparsely to densely provided with glands; rachis jomts 4-6 mm long, sparsely short-scabrous on the margins and over the back; fascicles 6.5-8 mm long, 2 to 8 per spike, narrow, appressed, not conspicuously flabellate at maturity; glumes connate at base, margins usually hyaline and light gray to whitish; lateral spikelets 2-flowered, the lower floret usually sterile, the upper stam- inate, stamens 3, anthers 3-3.5 mm long; central spikelet 1-flowered, pistillate, the base of the lemma usually elliptic. Distribution: Davis Mountains area of Texas and Mexico. UNITED STATES: Texas: Musquiz Canyon, Sperry T778 (Type). SOHNS: THE GENUS HILARIA 321 MEXICO: Curauanua: 19 km North of Rio San Pedro on Parral-Chihuahua Road, Harvey 1432; 2 km west of Carretas, Harvey 1568; near Chihuahua, Pringle 493. Coanurta: 3 miles southeast of Saltillo, Johnston 7251; 2 miles southeast of Saltillo, Shreve 8509. DurRanco: 516 miles south of Ignacio Allende, Gentry 6915; near Torreén de las Canas, Gentry 8639. Nurvo Lon: Galena, V. H. Chase 7763. San Luts Potosi: Chareas, Lundell 5515; Charcas, Whiting 508, 528. ZacaTEAS: Among cerros 6 miles south- east of Carboneras, Gentry 8504. LITERATURE CITED Brau, W.J. Grasses of North America 2: 65. 1896. Bentuam, G. Notes on Gramineae. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 19: 61-63. 1881. Benruam, G., and Hooxkrer, J. D. Genera plan- tarum 3: 1121. 1883. Brews, J. W. The world’s grasses: 69, 121, 214. London, 1929. Brown, W. V. A cytological study of some Texas Gramineae. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 77: 63-76. 1950. Brown, W. V. and Cor, G. HE. A study of sterility in Hilaria belangeri (Steud.) Nash and Hilaria mutica (Buckl.) Benth. Amer. Journ. Bot. 38: 823-830. 1951. Buckiey, 8. B. Description of new Texas grasses —Schleropelta n. genus. Prel. Rep. Geol. & Agr. Surv. Texas. App. 1: 1. 1866. Conzatti, C. Flora taxonomica Mexicana 1: 172, 176-177. 1946. Fournier, E. Mexicanas plantas. Pars secunda: 70, 72-73. Paris, 1886. Hacket, E. Gramineae (echte Grdser). Die natiirlichlen Pflanzenfamilien 22: 30. 1887. Hitcucockx, A. 8. The genera of the grasses of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr. Techn. Bull. 772: 172-174. 1936. Humpotpt, A., Bonpuanp, A., and Kuntu, C. S. Nova genera et species plantarum 1: 116-118. pl. 37. 1815. PiuerR, R. Das System der Gramineae. Jahrb. 76: 348. 1954. Presu, J. 8. Reliquiae Haenkeanae 1: 326. pl. 46. Prague, 1830. Rosuevits, R. Yu. cow, 1937. STruDEL, H. G. Synopsis plantarum glwmacea- rum, pt. 1: 12. 1854. Torrery, JoHN. Description of some new grasses collected by Dr. E. James, in the expedition of Major Long to the Rocky Mountains, in 1819-1820. Ann. Lyc. New York 1: 148-150. pl. 10. 1824. Bot. Grasses: 168, 522, 530. Mos- Figs. 36-50.—Hilaria semplei Sohns, sp. nov.: 36, Habit sketch of plant, X14; 87, basal sheath and blade; 38, node; 39, junction of blade and sheath; 40, margin of blade; 41, fascicle; 42, glume of central spikelet; 43, floret of central spikelet; 44, palea and caryopsis; 4546, first and second glumes of lateral spikelets; 47-48, lemma. and palea of first floret; 49-50, palea and lemma of second floret. All figures XS and drawn from the type specimen. 322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 46, No. 10 ENTOMOLOGY .—New Neotropical genera and species of apterous aradids (Hemip- tera). Cart J. DRAK®#, Iowa State College. (Received August 15, 1956) The present paper contains the descrip- tions of one new genus, one subgenus, and five species of apterous aradids from the Americas. The types have been deposited as stated in the descriptions. In the structural measurements, 80 units equal 1 mm. Emydocoris montanus, n. sp. Very broad, rather thick, obovate, narrowest across front margin of pronotum, above with a complicated pattern of high elevations and deep cavities, without lateral lobes or projections, dark ferrugineous without color markings, without vestiture. Head broad, subquadrate, width across eyes and median length subequal (2.25 mm). The lateral edges nearly parallel; lateral shelves very wide, long, depressed, with bases almost in contact with front margin of pronotum; eyes moderately large, subovate, about two- thirds as broad as long, each placed at middle of lateral side of lateral shelf, slightly inserted, about three-fifths of its width extending outward beyond the lateral side, the shelf behind the eyes broad; antenniferous tubercles stout, tapering anteriorly, slightly divergent; median longitudinal part of head elevated above lateral shelves, about one-third as wide as interocular space, strongly rugose above, projecting about one-third of its length beyond base of antennae; tylus moderately wide with superior surface smooth and _ longi- tudinally convex; juga surpassing tylus, dilated apically, meeting at midline in front of tylus. Labial sulcus deep, narrow, extending to collar; labium short, brownish, nearly attaining end of sulcus. Neck very short, constricted, rounded. Antennae and head subequal in length; antennal segment I quite stout, bent outward opposite apex of antenniferous tubercle; II shortest, slenderest; III slowly enlarged apically; IV subclavate; measurements—I, 45; II, 30; III, 54: IV, 50. Pronotum a little narrower than mesonotum, narrower in front than behind, sloping obliquely downward anteriorly, approximately 214 times as wide at base as median length (210:80), with outer sides of dorsal surface very strongly widely and rugosely elevated, strongly depressed between lateral elevations, with the large median plate divided at middle by a deep longitudinal furrow, separated behind from mesonotum by a trans- verse suture, the collar short, depressed, strongly constricted, with a small knob on each side. Mesonotum separated from metanotum by a strongly sinuate suture, narrower than pronotum, longest at middle, four times as wide at base as median length (longest at middle), with a very wide, convex and smooth median ridge, with lateral elevation not quite as large as on pronotum, with a deep transverse cavity on each side be- tween median ridge and large lateral elevation. Metanotum not attaining outer margin of body, fused with abdominal tergites I-VI (inclusive) into a solid plate, the plate wider at base than behind, width at base (metanotum) and median length subequal, with transverse suture between tergites II and III faintly indicated, with median ridge widened and elevated posteriorly, abruptly widened on tergites II and III, thence posteriorly gently sloping downward, with glandular eleva- tion at centre of widened hind part plainly visible, with dorsal surface of median ridges and elevations smooth and without complex sculpturing, narrowly depressed on each side of the highly elevated area between the longitu- dinal suture separating tergites from connexival segments, with a deep cavity on each side of median ridge just back of metanotum, with three knoblike structures in cavity just behind meta- notum and five transverse ridges in narrowly depressed strip adjacent to each connexivum. Connexiva slowly narrowed anteriorly, with segments I and II fused, other segments sepa- rated from one another by transverse sutures. Spiracles II to VII (inclusive) ventral, remotely removed from outer edge of their respective segments, spiracle VIII (genital segment) placed on apical end of a short, posteriorly-directed tubercle. Body beneath moderately convex; prosternum with a median longitudinal carina, separated from mesosternum by a_ transverse suture; mesosternum also with a visible suture behind it (probably not functional); metasternum fused with abdominal ventrites I-III (inclusive), other ventrites separated from one another by OcToBER 1956 deep suture. Legs short, dark brownish ferru- gineous with pale tarsi, the femora of all legs slightly flattened beneath and beset with two longitudinal rows (one row near anterior edge and other near posterior) of short, stout, tubercle- like teeth or pegs with rounded tops. Ostiolar canal tubular, extending obliquely upward posteriorly, with an ovate opening slightly above middle of pleura, not visible from dorsal aspect. Scutellum entirely absent, without trace of wings or wing pads. Length, 8.75-9.20 mm; width, 4.75 mm. Holotype (male) and allotype (female), Brasil, November 29, 1890, collected by Dr. Warburg, in collection of Zoologisches Museum, Zoolo- gisches Staatsinstitut, Hamburg, Germany. Paratype: 1 specimen, same locality as type. Separated from Emydocoris testidinatus Usinger (1941) by its larger size, antennal segments, short legs with all femora armed beneath, high elevations and deep cavities of dorsal surface (especially abdomen) and the large tubular ostiolar canal projecting obliquely upward with an ovate opening on outer side. Reeceicus, n. gen. Broadly ovate, unusually thick, beneath transversely convex, dorsally strongly longi- tudinally convex, rugged, humpbacked, adorned on median part of thorax and basal half of abdomen with large craggy protuberances and depressions, with thorax sloping downward anteriorly and abdomen downward posteriorly. Head very wide, subquadrate, not narrowed behind eyes; lateral shelves very wide, thin, with dorsal surfaces on much lower level than that of median longitudinal part of head, tilted upward laterally, with eyes rather small, longer than wide and placed near middle of outer edge of each shelf; tylus fairly wide, rugged; juga narrower, not exceeding tylus in front; neck short. Labial sulcus deep, rather narrow, not extending to neck; labium short, not attaining apex of sulcus. Antennae short, subequal to head in length; segment I short, moderately swollen, bent, not surpassing apices of tylus and juga; other segments also short, with IV a little swollen. Legs rather short, slender. Pronotum much wider than head, about four times as wide as long, rugged, not excavated in front for reception of collar; collar short, con- stricted; mesonotum short, rugged, with trans- verse furrow separating it from pronotum and DRAKE: APTEROUS ARADIDS 320 also from mesonotum (sutures seem to be fused) ; metanotum partly concealed by raised and over- lapping base of abdomen. Thoracic divisions and abdominal tergites I to VI (inclusive) apparently conjointly fused but with a narrow, deep furrow between II and III. Abdomen distinctly broadly cordate, with apex narrow and rounded, with wide basal part a little raised and fused upon base of metanotum, thus together with craggy eleva- tions giving body a distinctly hunchbacked ap- pearance; connexival segments strongly curving inward at base, apparently with segment I represented (seven segments). Spiracle II ventral, remotely removed from outer margin; III to VII (inclusive) lateral, plainly visible from above; VIII (genital seg- ment) posterolateral, placed at apical end of rounded projection, visible from dorsal aspect. Type species, Reeceicus saileri, n. gen. and n. sp. This very curious genus differs greatly in a few respects from all other genera of apterous aradids. The body is very thick, broadly ovate, strongly longitudinally convex and distinctly hunchbacked in appearance; lateral sides deeply furrowed for the reception of legs; abdomen above broadly heart-shaped, narrowly rounded behind, with base wide, slightly elevated; con- nexival segments at base strongly curved inward and fused upon the basal part of metanotum. Connexival segment I appears to be represented as seven segments are visible. Spiracle II is ventral and remotely removed from lateral margin; III to VII (inclusive) placed on low half of the longitudinally divided (by narrow furrow) outer edge of connexiva. The head is rather similar in shape and appearance to Emydocoris Usinger (1944), but the smaller eyes, shape of body, location of spiracles and other striking differences separate at once the two genera. This genus and species are named in honor of Dr. Reece I. Sailer, who is in charge of the Hemiptera, U. 8. National Museum. Reeceicus saileri, n. sp. Fig. 1 Moderately large, very thick, extremely longitudinally convex above, strongly rugged, with a distinctly humped back. Head quadrate, with posteriorly, slightly angulately produced at latero-posterior corner, wider at base (100) than either across (70) or tips of tubercules, each lateral shelf occupying one- sub- sides widening eyes between antenniferous 324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 10 Fic. 1.—Reeceicus saileri, n. gen. and sp. Dorsal aspect of abdomen (X 32). third of space between eyes; juga not surpassing tylus. Antennae short, measurements—I, 20; II, 16; III, 18; IV, 20. Labium short, brownish. Sides of thorax with an oblique, upright channel for reception of anterior femora; with an in- verted V-shaped channel for reception of middle femora and tibiae, and the thorax and base of abdomen also with an inverted V-shaped channel for reception of hind femora and tibiae. Pronotum almost twice as wide as base of head (185:100), nearly four times as wide at base as median length (200:50), not excavated in front for insertion of collar, with a subquadrate protubance at middle; mesonotum not longer than pronotum, with the protuberance of meso- metanotum higher and more deeply furrowed at middle than similar structure on pronotum. Abdomen broadly heart-shaped, widest base, roundly narrowed posteriorly, rounded and narrowest behind, subtruncate at middle of front margin, tilted upward anteriorly, with base fused up on posterior part of metanotum, with connexiva curving inward and extending along anterior part of base of abdomen, with basal near platelike protuberance large, trapezoidal (basal and apical margins parallel and long; sides obliquely widened apically), divided into four equal parts by three longitudinal furrows (median furrow and one on each side of it); tumid area behind furrow between tergites II and III quite large. Connexiva composed of seven seg- ments (I present), curving strongly inward at base so as to occupy two-sevenths of basal margin on each side, thus leaving only three- sevenths of base at middle). Exterior margin of abdomen rather thick, with edge divided by a narrow longitudinal furrow, with stigmata III to VII (inclusive) placed on lower half of lateral edge, all spiracles (save II) visible from dorsal view. Length, 4.50 mm; width, 2.90 mm. Holotype (female), Yurimaguas, Peru, Drake Collection. Glyptocoris verus, n. sp. Large, broadly ovate, widest across middle of abdomen, narrowest across front margin of pronotum and there very little wider than head OcToBER 1956 across eyes, reddish ferrugineous with abdomen darker and a small marginal spot on each side at base of all thoracic divisions and of all con- nexival segments pale or whitish flavous. Head quadrate, as wide across eyes as median length (86:88), strongly rugose above; lateral shelves thick, with dorsal surface on a slightly lower level than that of median longitudinal part of head, extending posteriorly behind eyes nearly the length of an eye before narrowing to neck, with an angulate lateral projection or tubercle behind each eye at postero-lateral end; median longitudinal part of head a little narrower than a lateral shelf, with a small tubercle on each side just in front of neck; tylus moderately stout, rugose, sloping downward at apex; juga surpassing tylus about as far as the distance between their apices. Labial sulcus short, wide, fairly deep, with edges and lateral sides closely coarsely granulate; labium barely attaiming end of sulcus. Antennae longer than head, granulate; segment I stout, a little bent outward; IV subclavate, with short pale hairs on tip; measurements—I, 52, II, 32; III, 42; IV, 34. Legs slender, finely granulate. Pronotum strongly narrowed anteriorly, much wider behind than in front, closely granulate on lateral sides, deeply rectangularly excavated on margin for reception of collar, with margin on each side projected anteriorly as far as anterior face of collar, deeply widely furrowed on median longitudinal line behind the middle, with a transverse furrow separating pronotum and mesonotum, twice as wide in front as median length, three times as wide at base as median length (160:50); mesonotum wider and shorter than pronotum, with a shallow furrow separating it from metanotum; metanotum longer than pronotum, with its hind margin elevated al- though fused with first two abdominal tergites; pro-, meso- and metanotum and abdominal tergites I and II conjointly fused, with a wide, median, longitudinal ridge extending uninter- ruptedly from base of pronotum to end of tergite II, with short lateral ridges on each side of median line of large median ridge. Abdomen above with tergites III to VI (inclusive) con- jointly fused, sculptured on each side of low, wide, pale, median, longitudinal ridge; con- nexival segments I to III fused together, the others distinctly sutured from one another. Body beneath with sternal segments and first three abdominal ventrites conjoined together, other abdominal ventrites separated by sutures. DRAKE: APTEROUS ARADIDS 325 Spiracles V, VI and VII lateral; VIII (genital) placed on end of posteriorly directed tubercle; and II, III and IV ventral, the latter subventral, III considerably removed from outer edge and II remotely removed, all three not visible from dorsal aspect. Male unknown. Length, 6.20 mm; width, 3.10 mm. Holotype (female) and 1 paratype (female), Guadeloupe Island, West Indies. Drake Collec- tion. Although somewhat atypical, this species fits better in the genus Glyptocoris than other genera of American apterous aradids. The thoracic divisions are distinguishable from one another, though fused together and also conjoined with first two abdominal tergites. Aglaocoris comes, n. sp. Small, rectangular in outline, reddish fuscous or reddish ferrugineous, without lateral lobes, coarsely granulate on lateral margins of thorax and abdomen. Head subtriangular, rapidly narrowed behind eyes, with a short neck, width across eyes and median longitudinal length sub- equal; eyes small, reddish, placed up on the outer end of a very short, slightly tilted-up pedicel; juga surpassing tylus, with tips blunt and feebly divergent, with dorsal surface on a much lower level than that of tylus; tylus rugose, fairly thick; lateral shelves and median part of head rather strongly rugulose, with dorsal surfaces on almost same horizontal level, the shelves thick and each about as wide as median part of head, with a small protuberance back of each eye; antennif- ferous tubercles stout, divergent, each terminat- ing in a small fingerlike projection. Labial sulcus moderately wide, not extending to neck; labium not as long as sulcus. Antennae granulate, longer than head, with first segment slightly bent outward, measurements—I, 36; II, 30; III, 24; IV, 24. Legs moderately long, granulate. Body nearly as wide in front as behind (72:75), slightly wider at middle (90), with median length nearly one and one-half times as long as median with (130:90). Pronotum more than four times as wide at base as median length, scarcely excavated in front for reception of collar, suleate on median longutidinal line; collar smooth, short and with an encircling median ridge, marked off from mesonotum by a transverse furrow, fused with mesonotum. Pro-, meso-, and metanotum and abdominal tergites I and IT conjointly fused, with a large median longitudinal ridge extending 326 from base of pronotum almost to posterior margin of tergite II, the ridge strongly rugose, wider and higher on basal half. Abdomen with tergites III to VI (inclusive) fused together, with a tumid glandular elevation near the middle of the low, median, longitudinal ridge, with an intricate pattern of sculpturing on each side of median ridge; VII distinctly defined; connexival seg- ments I, II and III grown together, without separating sutures, other segments sutured from one another and from abdominal tergites. Abdo- men beneath with sternal division and ventrites I-III (inclusive) conjointly fused, other segments sutured from one another. Spiracles II to IV (inclusive), ventral, submarginal, each pro- gressively anteriorly slightly farther removed from outer edge; V sublateral (ventral) and VI and VII lateral and VIII postero-lateral on end of a short rounded process, all four of which are visible from dorsal aspect. Abdominal ventrite VII beneath (one on each side) with a large ovately rounded, smooth, constricted at neck (distinctly bottle-shaped), ventrally-directed pro- tuberance (male structre; not found in female). Holotype (male) and 1 paratype (male), Three Rivers, Guadeloupe. West Indies, in Drake Collection. Separated from A. natalii Drake and Mal- donado by its smaller size, shorter eye-stalks, median longitudinal ridge on pronotum and the much larger and very differently shaped (flask- like) protuberance projected downward on the underside of ventrite VII (one on each side) in the male. Asterocoris (Peggicoris) zeteki, n. subg. and n. sp. Small, oblong (male) or obovate (female), dark reddish fuscous or ferrugineous. Head subtriangular, width across eyes and median longitudinal length subequal, sharply narrowed behind eyes, with the small elevation back of each eye beset with setalike, whitish hairs; tylus moderately stout, feebly narrowed anteriorly, with dorsal surface on a higher level than that of juga; juga scarcely exceeding tylus, each Jugum with one or two, long, stiff, setalike hairs pro- jecting anteriorly from its apex (sometimes hairs are rubbed off); median longitudinal part of head narrower than each lateral shelf, smooth, with a moderately large rounded elevation on median line between bases of lateral shelves; neck short, with a small tubercle on each side; eyes small, reddish, pedicellate, with short stalk slightly JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 10 tilted upward; antenniferous tubercles short, stout, rounded apically. Labial sulcus very wide, short, shallow, not reaching to neck; labium brownish, not reaching to end of sulcus. Antennae long, reaching beyond pronotum; segment I very long, extending three-fourths of its length beyond apices of juga, rather densely clothed with stiff, setalike, whitish hairs which are as long as width of segment at their respective points or origin; other segments with shorter hairs; measure- ments—I, 74; IJ, 26: III, 34; IV, 30. Pro-, meso-, and metanotum and abdominal tergites I and II fused together; median lon- gitudinal ridge large and smooth, without trans- verse sutures, tapering a little anteriorly, ex- tending from base of tergite II anteriorly to collar, with the thoracic divisions on each side of median ridge indicated by transverse furrows. Abdominal tergites III to VI (inclusive) con- jointly fused, with a large, median longitudinal ridge, the sculptured areas on each side of ridge rather shallow; connexival segments (except I and IT fused) separated from one another and from abdominal tergites by sutures. Body be- neath with the three sternal divisions and first three abdominal segments conjointly fused, the other ventrites separated from one another by sutures. Ostiolar channel not extending upward to dorsal surface, thus not visible from above. Lateral margins of body with several small tufts of short, setalike, whitish hairs. Legs fairly long, slender, sparsely clothed with short, coarse, whitish hairs. Spiracles placed up on top of small elevations, the elevations slightly higher in male than in female; spiracles II, III and IV ventral, not visible from dorsal aspect; V sublateral (ventral) and VI, VII and VIII (genital segment) lateral and all visible from above. Length, 3.90-4.40 mm; width, 1.74-2.10 mm. Holotype (male) and allotype (female), Barro Colorado, Canal Zone, Panama, 1948, take by means of Berlese funnel from forest litter, by James Zetek, in U. 8. National Museum. Par- atypes: 5 specimens, same labels as type. Named in honor of Mr. Zetek, who has collected so many rare and interesting insects in Panama. The new subgenus Peggicoris differs from Asterocoris, s. str., by the lack of long lateral lobes on body, position of spiracles, short juga, fusion of thoracic divisions and location of ostiolar channel. OcTOBER 1956 Aglaocoris cubanus, n. sp. Small, oblong (male) or obovate (female), without lateral lobes, depressed above, finely shallowly sculptured. Head subtriangular, width across eyes and median length subequal (82:85); tylus moderately wide, rugose, with dorsal sur- face on a higher level than that of juga; juga thin, feebly surpassing tylus; lateral shelves nearly as wide as and with dorsal surface on same level as that of median longitudinal part of head; eyes small, pedicellate, with short stalk nearly hori- zontal; antenniferous tubercles moderately large, tapering anteriorly, with apices blunt; neck short, constricted, with a small tubercle on each side of outer edge of dorsal surface. Labial sulcus short, very wide, moderately deep, not extending to neck; labium scarcely attaining apex of sulcus. Antennae granulate, longer than head, with segment I extending three-fourths of its length beyond apices of juga, measurements—I, 40; II, 26; III, 30; IV, 24. Pronotum strongly narrowed anteriorly, wider in front than width across eyes, deeply widely triangularly excavated in front for reception of large collar, with front margin beyond collar extending anteriorly as far as anterior margin of collar, with a small tubercle (one on each side) on antero-inner margin of front projection extending inward to collar; collar large, smooth, with a DRAKE: APTEROUS ARADIDS 327 deep, median, encircling sulcus; mesonotum wider than and practically same length as pronotum, separated by furrows from both pro- and metanotum. Three thoracic divisions and abdominal tergites I and II bused together, with a very low, wide, median ridge extending from basal part of pronotum to apex of tergite II, with dorsal surface pretty much covered with many small, longitudinal ridges. Abdomen with ter- gites IIT to VI (inclusive) fused, shallowly sculp- tured, with a small discal elevation on low median ridge; connexival segments (save I and II fused) sutured from one another and also from tergites. Spiracles II, III and IV ventral, not visible from above; V subventral, scarcely visible from above; VI, Vil and VIII (genital segment) all lateral and plainly visible from dorsal aspect. VII ventrite (male) with a small, rounded, bottle-shaped pro- jection (one on each side; directed downward), with constricted neck. Length, 4.75 mm (male) and 5.50 mm (fe- male); width 2.20 mm (male) and 2.75 mm (female). Holotype (male) and allotype (female), Cay- amas, Cuba, in Drake Collection. Distinguished from its congeners by shape of body, deeply broadly excised anterior margin of pronotum for reception of collar and by shape of male protuberances on underside of abdominal ventrite VIT. SESE EE “PINE CONE” FISHES There are fishes in the sea that when alive look like swimming pine cones. When dead and dried they actually could be mistaken at first sight for pine cones. They belong to quite a distinctive genus, Monocentris, which has an isolated niche in ocean life. They do not seem related to anything else. A unique specimen taken off the Robinson Crusoe island, Juan Fernandez, off the coast of Chile, by Dr. Edwyn P. Reed, chief of the bio- logical service of the Chilean Fish and Game De- partment, has just been identified at the U. 8S. National Museum, Smithsonian Institution, by Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes, who has described it as a hitherto unknown species, the first of the entire family known in the American Pacific. The ‘“‘pine cones” are small fishes, the largest slightly more than 3 inches long. They are rare anywhere. The habitat with which they were associated was the tropical western and central Pacific until they were found at considerable depths in the eastern Pacific. One genus ‘‘carries lanterns,’ that is, luminous organs, on each side of the mouth, as do other fishes. many oceanic 328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 10 HERPETOLOGY .—Hyla cinerea in Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia, with notes on the taxonomic status of Hyla cinerea evittata.! Ctypr F. Rep, Balti- more, Md. (Communicated by Doris M. Cochran.) (Received August 13, 1956) The latest checklist of North American amphibians and reptiles, by Karl P. Schmidt (pp. 69-70, 1953), is quite inaccurate in its distribution of Hyla cinerea (Schneider). It states that Hyla cinerea cinerea ranges in the “lowlands of the Atlantic and Gulf States from Virginia to Texas; north in the Mississippi Basin to southern Illinois.’’ The range for Hyla cinerea evittata Miller is given as ‘“The Delmarva Peninsula, eastern Maryland and adjacent Virginia.” From these two statements one would conclude that evittata was a distinct northern sub- species with geographic limitations. Schmidt has indicated such to be the case by calling evittata the northern green tree frog. The purpose of this paper is to show that the taxon evittata should be reduced to the synonymy of Hyla cinerea (Schneider), since none of the characters upon which evittata was originally based hold up as dis- tinguishing it as a biological entity from other populations of Hyla cinerea. The problem developed from the instiga- tion of the new taxon Hyla evittata by G.S. Miller, who separated evzttata from cinerea on the basis of the absence of the lateral bright stripe in the former, as the name evittata implies, together with the charac- ters a broader head and a higher snout. Hyla evittata Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 13: 76. Sept. 28, 1899. Type adult male (in aleohol) U. 8. Nat. Mus., Washington no. 26, 291, collected at “Four Mile Run, Alexandria County, Virginia,” July 15, 1898, by Gerrit 8. Miller, Jr., and Edward A. Preble. There are several matters concerning the type that are misleading. First, the type label reads “Four Mile Run, D. C.”’ The type specimen is accessioned as “Four Mile Run, Virginia.” Four Mile Run is near the city of Alexandria, but I have been unable to find an Alexandria County, even in 1899. There was an Arlington County, in which Alexandria was a city. At the 1 Contribution to the Herpetology of Maryland and Delmarva, no. 4. present Alexandria is an independent city (no county). Second, the date on the type specimen is July 15, 1899, not July 15, 1898, as quoted in Miller’s original publication, and by Wright and Wright (Handbook of frogs and toads, p. 310), which is a quotation of the original description. The type specimen is also accessioned as being collected July 15, 1899. Third, the pagination for the description of the type of Hyla evittata is page 76, not page 75 as cited in Schmidt’s checklist (p. 70), who gives the location of Four Mile Run as Fairfax County, Va. There is nothing to indicate the name of the new species on page 75. Besides, the description is really on page 76. Fourth, the date of publication is September 28, 1899, not August 1899, as indicated on the type label. Fifth, concerning the paratypes, at least those specimens designated as paratypes: There are four specimens in the U.S. National Museum which are designated as paratypes, collected at Four Mile Run, Va., July 15, 1898. U.S.N.M. nos. 66207, 66209, and 66210 have no stripes, while no. 66208 has a long stripe. These four specimens are referred to only by inference in the original article by Miller, and the museum numbers are not cited. However, Miller probably did have these specimens before him while describing the new species, and in the broadest sense of the term could be considered paratypes. However, from the measurements given below he did not include theirs with that of the type. When their measurements are included, the range is well within that of typical Hyla cinerea. Three other specimens are also designated as paratypes, collected at Four Mile Run, Va., July 4, 1901. Since these could not have been seen at the time the new species was described (1899), they are topotypes and not paratypes, U.S.N.M. nos. 29652-29654. Two of these have no stripes, while the third has a white upper lip back to the axial of the jaw. Sixth, Miller states concerning the general characteristics, “Like Hyla cinerea (Daudin), but with broader, deeper muzzle and normally un- OcTOBER 1956 REED: striped body and legs.”’ Hyla cinerea was originally described by Schneider, Hist. Amph. 1: 174. 1799, as Calamita cinereus. Daudin described Hyla lateralis, in Sonnini and Latreille, Hist. Nat. Rep. 2: 180. 1802, from Charleston, 8. C. This is considered a synonym of Hyla cinerea (Schneider). Because of the confusion and uncertainity which accrues when these criteria are used in identifying specimens from Maryland, Delaware, and the main estuaries of the Chesapeake Bay, as the Potomac, Patuxent, Gunpowder (including Bird River and Dundee Creek), Elk, Sassafras, Choptank, Nanticoke, Pocomoke, York, and James Rivers, reviews of these criteria were made by Noble and Hassler (Copeia 1936(1): 63) for southern Maryland species and by Dunn (Proc. Biol. Soe. Washington 50: 9-10. 1937) upon the stratus of H. evittata, based on 126 specimens from Virginia and Maryland. In deseribing Hyla evittata, Miller (1899) had noted that the lateral strips may be reduced in length in some specimens of Hyla cinerea. This phenomenon was considered a rare variation by him. However, the short stripe occurs in nearly all the populations in our region, a situation which has lead to the belief that we are dealing with intermediates or hybrids. These concepts will be discussed later. There is a tendency for the more northern populations of H. cinerea to have some individuals with shorter or even no stripes. According to Miller it was head shape and not the body stripe which distinguished evittata from the typical form. Noble and Hassler (Copeia 1936(1): 63) studied a population of Hyla cinerea (32 speci- mens from Cove Point, Calvert County, Md.) in which some lacked the light stripes along the sides of the body; some had only a tinge of white on the posterior part of the upper jaw; some had stripes which extended beyond the tympanum and faded out on the sides of the body. Specimens from Wilmington, North Carolina, reported by Myers (Copeia 1924, no. 131: 60) and restudied in the American Museum by Noble and Hassler 2 showed a similar situation (14 adults studied without stripes, 4 with partial stripes, 8 with full stripes). Seven statements in the original description of Hyla evittata lead one to think that Miller was not too sure that his was a new species. For example, “Hyla evittata is at once dis- tinguishable from H. cinerea by the absence of HYLA CINEREA 329 the stripes on sides and legs, so conspicuous in the latter’. Yet he cites specimens from Mis- sissippi and Louisiana that have no stripes. “Except for the difference in the shape of the head, the two animals (the type and H. cinerea from Bay St. Louis, Mississippi) agree perfectly in form and dimensions.” Dunn has discounted the value of the head measurements in separating two populations as subspecies. ‘‘Hyla evittata probably averages slightly larger than 4H. cinerea.’ All that are mentioned in the paper are the measurements of the type and the H. cinerea specimen from Mississippi. Head and body lengths are the same—48 mm; hind leg—69 and 68; femur same—20; tibia same—21; tarsus same—l1; hind foot—17 and 15; humerus—8 and 9; forearm—S8 and 9; front foot same—10; greatest width of head—14 and 13. Concerning the eye to nostral measurements the type is 3.5 and H. cinerea 4; and the distance between the nostrils is 3.5 and 2.5. These figures would indicate the distance from the eye to the nostril was shorter in H. evittata than in H. cinerea, and that the distance between the nostrils was wider. However, if we include the same measurements of the seven specimens designated as the “‘para- types” of H. evittata, we get a different ratio. Eye to nostril Nostril to nostril U.S.N.M. no. 66207 4.5 4.0 66208 4.0 3.0 66209 4.0 3.5 66210 4.0 Bi) 29652 4.0 3.0 29653 4.0 3.5 29654 4.0 4.0 These figures indicate that the eye to nostril distance is 4.0 mm, which is the same as that for the Hyla cinerea compared with the type by Miller. The nostril-to-nostril measurement aver- ages 3.5 mm. However, the nostril-to-nostril measurements on 20 specimens collected by Reed or Daffin in Maryland, Virginia, and Delaware average 3.5 mm also. So this variation is within the normal deviation of a population within the species. “The granulation of the skin of belly and hind legs is identical in the two animals.”’ Noble and Hassler, as well as Dunn, concluded from their studies that evittata and cinerea could not be separated by the head width or slope to the snout. The former say that the series of evittata in the American Museum ditfer from the Cove Point specimens of cirerea in having a more vertical, less sloping profile to the snout. Con- 330 JOURNAL OF THE cerning the width of the head, which is said to be broader in evittata, they state that their series of cinerea exhibited a great variation in width and no constant difference could be found. Dunn agreed with this conclusion and added that the type and topotypes of H. evittata could not be separated from Carolina cinerea with any degree of certainty. Dunn also noted that in many species of Hylidae the male has a sloping snout and the female a blunt one: this may be the case in cinerea and evittata. So far as is known to the present author, no one has sexed the museum specimens of evittata and cinerea now available for study, nor has anyone determined whether the sexes are morphologically dimorphic. Having discounted the characteristics of the head as distinguishing evittata from cvnerea. Dunn rested the status of evittata upon the lateral stripes. From his study of 126 specimens from Virginia and Maryland he reported 81 percent of the upper tidewater Potomac populations with no stripes or short ones; 41 percent of the other Maryland and Virginia specimens with no stripes or short ones; 25 per cent of the North Carolina specimens with no stripes or short ones; and all the Gulf coast specimens with long stripes. This population study would indicate that northern colonies have a tendency to de- crease the length of the lateral stripes to the point of obliteration. That this factor alone con- stitutes the basis of a new species or even a new subspecies is not substantiated by the study of the specimens at hand. Miller stated that unstriped specimens from Bay St. Louis, Miss., and from New Orleans, La., had been seen by him. Thus, all (as stated by Dunn) of the Gulf coast populations do not have long stripes. Also, specimens with no stripes have been reported from North Carolina (stated above, 25 per cent) and from Maryland and Virginia other than from the type locality of H. evittata. Thus, throughout most of the range of Hyla cinerea specimens with no stripes or with partial stripes have been found, with a tendency for those populations northward to exhibit a greater percentage of the population to have shortened or obliterated stripes. Contradictory to Schmidt’s distribution, Dunn concluded from his study of evittata and cinerea that ‘“H. cinerea evittata is unknown from Dela- ware and from the eastern side of the Delmarva Peninsula.’’ Dunn’s evittata had no stripes, and WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 10, on this basis his statement is likewise untenable in the light of collections by the author and Ralph Daffin. Daffin has collected H. cinerea with long and short stripes (in a proportion of 50-50) at Ocean Downs just west of Ocean City, which is very near the Atlantic Ocean on the eastern side of the Delmarva Peninsula, and the author has collected specimens with no stripes in Accomac County, Va., on the eastern side of the Delmarva Peninsula also. Selbyville, Sussex County, Del., is near the eastern coast. Because of the occasional short stripe and long stripe in the same population, Conant (Publ. Soc., Nat. Hist. Delaware 1945: 4) concluded that the populations of Hyla cinerea inhabiting the Delmarva Peninsula were intermediate be- tween the two subspecies. Some herpetologists have gone so far as to assume that there are two subspecies or species in our region and to call these populations hybrids, designating them as Hyla cinerea cinerea X evittata. Such conclusions have been based upon phenotypic characteristics and to the best of my knowledge have not been substantiated by experimentation nor even ob- servation. Beside the specimens in the United States National Museum which were carefully studied, including the type and topotypes of Hyla evittata, the author has collected and studied specimens from several new localities in Maryland, Dela- ware, and Virginia. The type locality for H. evittata, Four Mile Run, in Fairfax County, Va., was visited by the author on July 17, 1956. None of the frogs were heard calling at that time. The material collected or studied by the author from Worcester and Wicomico Counties, Md., and from Accomac County, Va., indicates that all three striped types may be found in pure or mixed populations on the Delmarva Peninsula. The specimens from the Accomac County locality have no stripes; those from Ocean’ Downs have about 50-50 short and long stripes; and those from the Nanticoke River at Vienna (Wicomico- Dorchester County) have long stripes. Representative specimens from localities in Maryland, Delaware, and the vicinity of the District of Columbia, including the type locality of H. evittata in Virginia, have been studied and are listed below. The most northern locality on the Delmarva Peninsula for Hyla cinerea is the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal which connects the Delaware River with the Elk River, which in OcToBER 1956 turn leads to the Cheaspeake Bay. West of the Chesapeake Bay the most northern locality is in Baltimore County along the Chesapeake Bay along two estuaries of the Gunpowder River, Dundee Creek and Bird River, just north and east of Chase (Daffin 506-507 and Reed 1191). Maryann: St. Marys County: Hay’s Beach near Ridge (Cooper, l.c., 1953); Charles. County: Nanjemoy Swamp near Riverside, July 1935, Reed. Calvert County: Abundant between Cove Point and Solomons Island (Noble and Hassler, l.c., 1936, 32 specimens typical cinerea, Amer. Mus.); Cove Point (Putens, Bull. Nat. Hist. Maryland 6(9): 57. 1936). Anne Arundel County: Ritchie Highway between Magothy and Severn Rivers, July 1956, Robert Simmons. Baltimore County: Dundee Creek and Bird River, near Chase along Grace’s Quarters Road, June 25-26, 1956, Ralph Daffin 506-507, Reed 1191, Donald Lindsey 1-4. Cecil County: West end of Chesapeake-Dela- ware Canal, M. Joseph Cadbury (see Dunn, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 50: 10. 1937). Cecil-Kent County: Georgetown, on Sassafras River, July 20, 1915, Paul Lorrilliere (as H. evittata) (see Fowler, Copeia 1915, no. 22: 38). (note: Georgetown is in Kent County, which lies to the south of the Sassafras River, but the record states the specimen is from Cecil County). Queen Annes County: Near Centerville, June 23, 1938, R. H. McCauley (U.S.N.M. nos. 104446-50), and July 15, 1938, R. H. McCauley (U.S.N.M. nos. 104457). Talbot County: Easton, H. L. Clark, September 8, 1903 (U.S.N.M. no. 32106). Dorchester County: Cam- bridge, June 1928 (U.S.N.M. nos. 75287-8) ; Lloyds, W. P. Hay, June 1906 (U.S.N.M. nos. 36673-82), July 9, 1906 (U.S.N.M. nos. 100840-6), July 1907 (U.S.N.M. nos. 37833-7); Cambridge, September 1933, R. W. Jackson (U.S.N.M. no. 92598); Black- water Refuge, 10 miles south of Cambridge. July 25, 19388, R. H. McCauley (U.S.N.M. nos. 104463- 77). Dorchester-Wicomico County: Along Nanticoke River on both sides of the river, several large colonies, July 9, 1956, Reed 1150-51. Worcester County: Cedar Hall, June 27, 1938, R. H. McCauley (U.S.N.M. nos. 104451-6); pond 5 miles west of Ocean City at Ocean Downs, June 15, 1956, Ralph Daffin 458 and 545-554; swamp south of Pocomoke City, July 9, 1956, Reed; meadow, Girdletree, July 10, 1956, Reed. VIRGINIA—EASTERN SHORE: Accomac County: 2 miles south of Oak Hall, July 9, 1956, Reed 1107. Accomac-Northampton County: Exmore, June 1938, M. K. Brady (USNM nos. 75277-86). VireintA—along Poromac River: fairfax County: Four Mile Run (type Locauitry for Hyla evittata), July 15, 1899 (not 1898, as stated by Wright and Wright in Handbook of frogs and toads, p. 310. Also there is no Alexandria County in Virginia), Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., and Edward A. Preble (U.S.N.M. no. 26291); paratypes, same locality, July 15, 1898 (U.S.N.M. nos. 66207-10), KE. A. Preble, July 1898 (U.S.N.M. no. 45967); REED: HYLA CINEREA 331 G. S. Miller, July 4, 1901 (U.S.N.M. nos. 29652- 54); P. Bartsch, 1985 (U.S.N.M. no. 101170); Dyke, below Alexandria, September 17, 1898, G.S. Miller. (U.S.N.M. no. 66211); Alexandria, July 3, 1912, J. Hunter (U.S.N.M. nos. 58085-6); New Alex- andria, E. T. Wherry, September 1923 (U.S.N.M. no. 66327); Dogue Creek, near Fort Belvoir, June 4, 1939, H. J. Cole (U.S.N.M. nos. 127467-85); Little Hunting Creek, May 28, 1911, W. D. Appel (U.S.N.M. nos. 55443-4); 1923, M. K. Brady (U.S.N.M. nos 66474-75); Mount Vernon, W. P. Hay, October 15, 1892 (U.S.N.M. nos. 39911-12); June 1893 (U.S.N.M. nos. 20891-33); E. A. Preble, October 28, 1900 (U.S.N.M. nos. 27742). Prince William County: Quantico, October 13, 1901, G.S. Miller (U.S.N.M. nos. 29620-21). Disrricr or CotumBia: Washington, July 1, 1933, I. E. Gray (U.S.N.M. no. 91745, as cinerea); Oxon Run Marsh, August 1935, Perrygo & East (U.S.N.M. nos. 101159-69, as evittata); Oxon Run, July 18, 1936, C. S. East (U.S.N.M. nos. 107690-9, as evittata); August 19385 (U.S.N.M. nos. 101434; 101159-69) (Oxon Run borders Prince Georges County to the south side of the District of Co- lumbia). DELAWARE: Sussex County: Selbyville, July 10-11, 1956, Reed. Meadow near MARYLAND rg | DELAWARE VIRGINIA ( Fie. 1—Distribution of Hyla etnerea (Schneider) in Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia. 332 JOURNAL OF For the Delmarva Peninsula, Roger Conant (Publ. Soc. Nat. Hist. Delaware 1945: 4) listed Cecil, Dorchester, Kent (Md.), Northampton, Sussex, Talbot, and Worcester Counties, without giving any specific records. Hyla cinerea (Schneider), Garman, Bull. Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist. 3: 189. 1891, based on Calamita cinereus Schneider, Hist. Amph. 1: 174. 1799. Syn.: Hyla cinerea cinerea Stejneger and Barbour, Checklist, ed. 2: 30. 1923; Hyla bilineata Shaw, Gen. Zool. 3: 136. 1802; Hyla lateralis Daudin, in Sonnini and Latreille, Hist. Nat. Rept. 2: 180. 1802; Hyla semifasciata Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 8: 307. 1856; Hyla evittata Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 13: 76. 1899; Hyla cinerea evittata Stejneger & Bar- bour, Checklist, ed. 2: 30. 1928. Range: Delaware (Sussex County) and Mary- land (Baltimore County & Cecil County) south- ward along the Potomac River and south to Florida, westward in the Gulf States to Texas; and north in the Mississippi Basin to southern Illinois. Concerning the range of Hyla cinerea in Vir- ginia, there seems to be a gap on the peninsula between the Potomac River and the Rappa- hannock River (Northern Neck) and the penin- sula between the Rappahannock River and the York River. However, at the mouth of the York River, southward around on the James River and up to Surry County, Va., Hyla cinerea and specimens designated as H. cinerea X evittata have been collected. Also, across the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay in Princess Anne County, Hyla cinerea and the putative hybrids have been collected. The author has collected four years on North- ern Neck and has been unable to find Hyla cinerea. Several plants and animals are found on the southern side of the Potomac River but THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES not on the northern side; as Hwmeces inexpectatus, and the plants Galax aphylla, Asarum virginicum, and Oxydendrum arboreum. Several plants are known which range from the York—James Peninsula and Princess Anne County region to the eastern shore of Virginia, most notable being Trillium pusillum var. virginianum, Xanthoxylum clava-herculis, and Baptisia alba. Hyla cinerea also seems to follow this pattern of distribution, with the exception that it has migrated further northward and westward. Cypress went up the inner side of the Delmarva Peninsula into Pungoteague and up the Pocomoke River, as well as up the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay, especially up the Patuxent River. Specimens of Hyla cinerea from the two remaining peninsulas of Virginia are highly desirable to complete our picture for the distribution of Hyla cinerea in the Maryland—Virginia—Delware region. The specimens studied from the lower Chesa- peake Bay region of Virginia are listed below. Virainia: York County: Yorktown, June 22, 1948, R. L. Hoffman (U.S.N.M. nos. 131634-6), near mouth of York River. Elizabeth City County: Hampton, May 1903, G. 8. Miller (U.S.N.M. nos. 31662-5); same, but grouped as H. cinerea X evittata, May 1903, G. S. Miller (U.S.N.M. nos. 31659-61). Warwick County: Menchville, August 2, 1949, R. L. Hoffman (U.S.N.M. nos. 131940-2). Surry County: A. H. Jennings, May 1917 (U.S.N.M. no. 59879), as H. cinerea X evittata. Princess Anne County: Virginia Beach, July 13, 1928, H. E. Ewing & C. S. East (U.S.N.M. nos. 75377-81); Sand Bridge, August 6, 1946, Hoffman & Kleinpeter (U.S.N.M. no. 133696); between Pungo and Sigma, August 1, 1946, Hoffman & Kleinpeter (U.S.N.M. no. 124860), as H. cinerea X evittata. In conclusion, it is fairly well established that there exists no definite set of factors which would distinguish two distinct species or subspecies of Hyla cinerea. Therefore, taxonomically all speci- mens heretofore designated as Hyla cinerea evittata or Hyla evittata should be designated as Hyla cinerea. The substitution of analogy for fact vs the bane of chemical philosophy; the legitimate use of analogy is to connect facts together and to guide to new experi- ments. —H. Davy VOL. 46, No. 10 | OcTOBER 1956 TRESSLER: OSTRACODA FROM BROMELIADS ZOOLOGY —Ostracoda from bromeliads in Jamaica and Florida. Wiis L. TREsS- LER,! U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office. The presence of a distinct fauna existing in the water entrapped in the leaf cups of bromeliads has been known for many years. Miiller (1880) first reported upon this unique fauna from observations made in southern Brazil. An elaborate study of the bromeliad leaf-cup fauna was later made by Picado (1913), and since then reports have been made on the fauna of isolated regions. The present author (Tressler, 1941) summarized the findings of previous writers and reported on two ostracods which were found in leaf cups of bromeliads from Puerto Rico. Of these, one was a species of the little-known genus Metacypris, which was described as a new species (Metacypris maracaoensis); the other, Candonopsis kingsleyw, while known from several areas, was reported for the first time from bromeliads. Other ostracods previ- ously reported from bromeliads include Metacypris bromeliarum (Miller, 1881) and two species imperfectly described by Picado (1913) from Costa Rica. The present paper adds two more species of Ostracoda to the bromeliad fauna and reports on new loca- tions for two species already described from this habitat; Candonopsis anisitsi described from Paraguay by Daday (1905), previously has not been known from bromeliads, while a new species of Metacypris, MW. laesslei is described for the first time. New locations are given for Metacypris bromeliarum and M. maracaoensis. The present report is based upon an ex- tensive collection made from bromeliad leaf cups by Dr. Albert M. Laessle of the De- partment of Biology, University of Florida, during the summer of 1952. Careful sam- plings were made of the outer and inner leaf cups of the same plant and from different plants in a number of widely separated areas on the island of Jamaica and from three areas in southern Florida. Nearly 100 samples were found to contain ostracods. In many instances a chemical analysis was made of the entrapped water. The slides of the dissected specimens have 1 The opinions expressed in this report are the author’s own and do not reflect those of the Hydro- graphic Office or the U. 8. Navy. been deposited in the U. 8. National Museum as type specimens. DISTRIBUTION AND ECOLOGY Collections on the island of Jamaica were made from coastal areas of little or no ele- vation and from five regions located in the main central mountain chain extending east and west along the axis of the island. Here, elevations of 2,000 feet to 4,500 feet are found. Coastal areas include, from east to west, Ecclestown (800 feet) and Portland Parish (less than 1,000 feet), at the southern tip of the island; Union Hill (500 feet) in the north central portion; Hermitage Dam (1,500 feet) just north of Kingston; Lucca (slight elevation) and Negril (shght eleva- tion) at the extreme western tip of the island. The mountainous areas, from east to west include Hardware Gap (4,500 feet), other areas in the Blue Mountains (eleva- tions from 3,200 to 4,000 feet); Juan de Bolas (2,500 feet); Christiana (3,000 feet); and Mocho (2,000 feet). The distribution of ostracod species identi- fied appears to be irregular and conforms to no pattern of altitude or nature of the soil. Ecclestown, Union Hill, Christiana, Mocho, Lucca, and Negril are in limestone regions, while the others, namely, Portland Parish, the Blue Mountains, Hermitage Dam, and Juan de Bolas are in noncalcareous areas. The single new species described, Metacypris laesslet, appears to be restricted to elevations of 2,000 feet and over, being found only at Mocho, Christiana, Hardware Gap, and in St. Andrews Parish at Silver Hill Gap in the Blue Mountains. A detailed report on the analysis of water samples taken from leaf cup reservoirs will be given in a final report on these collections by Dr. Laessle. It is sufficient for the pur- pose of the present taxonomic report to state that the ostracods were collected from water samples displaying a wide range of environmental conditions. Dissolved oxygen readings ranged from practically zero to 8 p.p.m.; carbon dioxide varied from 5 p.p.m. to 40 p.p.m., while pH readings ranged from pH 4.0 to 7.0 and averaged pH 5.0. Most 334 species of ostracods are very tolerant of wide fluctuations in environmental factors and will exist under conditions of oxygen deple- tion, pollution, and other unfavorable en- vironmental conditions after other forms have perished. Some species are known to creep along the under surface of the surface film, apparently to secure oxygen. It is not surprising therefore that such a wide range of environmental factors was found through- out the collection of water samples and that ostracods were almost universally present in the collections. Suborder Popocopa Family Cypriparn: Subfamily CyPrinar Genus Candonopsis Vavra, 1891 Thin shelled forms, laterally compressed. Anterior antennae slender; posterior antennae, with penultimate segment subdivided, poorly developed natatory setae. Terminal segment of mandibular palp greatly produced. Maxillipeds with vibratory plate bearing three, thick, plumose setae; palp in male transformed into a prehensile organ for copulation. Dorsal margin of furca without setae. This genus contains only six species, all but one of which have been reported only from the Southern Hemisphere. Candonopsis anisitsi Daday Fig. 6 Candonopsis anisitst Daday, Zool. 44: 256, pl. 16, figs. 16-19, 20-26. 1905. Specific characters.—Female: From the side elongated, height equal to about half the length; highest about three-fourths of the length from the anterior end. Dorsal margin gently rounded and sloping anteriorly; ventral margin indented. Anterior extremity somewhat less broadly rounded than posterior. From above, narrowly compressed. Terminal setae of third thoracic leg of equal length. Furca sixteen times longer than narrowest width; terminal and dorsal setae absent. Length 0.97-1.08 mm, height 0.48-0.53 mm. Color of preserved specimen, light. Male: Similar to female in shape and structure of appendages. Height of shell somewhat greater in relation to length than female. Length 1.00- 1.20 mm. Remarks.—This species may easily be taken for C. kingsleyi on superficial examination but may be distinguished by the equal length of the terminal setae of the third thoracic leg. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | vou. 46, No. 10. Occurrence—Males and females were found | in all but four of the eleven widely separated | areas which were sampled on the island of | Jamaica. These areas were as follows: Portland | Parish at an altitude of less than 1,000 feet, | largely noncalcareous region on July 18 to July | 24, 1952; the Wagwater River, just above Her- mitage Dam, St. Andrews, at an elevation of 1,500 feet, noncalcareous region on July 31, 1952; Juan de Bolas, elevation 2,500 feet, noncalcareous region on August 1 to 7, 1952; near Christiana in Manchester Parish, elevations 3,000 feet, limestone region, on August 9 to 11 and August 27 to 29, 1952, and September 3, 1952; near Lucca, in the northwest portion of the island, in Westmoorland Parish, at a slight elevation, cal- careous region, on September 1, 1952, near Mocho in the west central portion of the island, lime- stone region, elevation 2,000 feet, on August 15 and 18, 1952; and at the base of the John Crow Mountains near Eccelstown in the northwest corner of the island at 800 feet elevation, a cal- careous region, on September 8, 1952. The species is evidently widely distributed over most of the island. It was not found at the higher elevations in the Blue Mountains nor in the north central portion. Distribution—The species was previously known only from Paraguay, where they were collected from pools formed by inundations of rivers. Family CyTHERIDAE Genus Metacypris Brady and Robertson, 1870 Shells very broad and short; seen from the dorsal view, width about three-fourths the length. First antennae with five or six segments; second antennae 4-segmented; exopodite jointed. Mandi- bles with obscurely segmented palp. Mazxilla with three masticatory processes and a short palp; branchial plate without aberrant or orally directed setae. Furca of female with three setae. Metacypris bromeliarum (F. Miller) Fig. 8 Elpidium bromeliarum F. Miller, Nac. Rio de Janeiro 4: 27. 1881. Metacypris bromeliarum G. W. Miiller, Das Tier- reich 31, Ostracoda: 316. 1912. Specific characters—Female: Seen from the side, ovoid, height five-eighths length, highest in middle; anterior extremity considerably less broadly rounded than posterior; dorsal margin arched, sloping steeply to anterior end; ventral Arch. Mus. OcToBER 1956 TRESSLER: OSTRACODA FROM BROMELIADS 335 margin almost straight. Seen from above, very tumid, width four-fifths length; anterior end slightly more pointed than posterior. Surface of valves smooth with no pits and few hairs. Color brown. First antenna with five segments; dorsal border of first segment terminates in a thickly haired wart; spine on second segment reaches to middle of fourth segment. Second antenna with exopodite reaching to tips of terminal claws. Mandibular teeth, seven, not split. Length 0.84 mm, height 0.52 mm, width 0.74 mm. Male: Unknown. 5 Fras. 1-5.—Metacypris laesslet, n. sp.: 1, Dorsal view, female; 2, outline of left valve, female; 3, mandibular teeth, female; 4, second antenna, female; 5, first antenna, female. Fira. 6.—Candonopsis anisitst Daday. Fra. 7.—Metacypris maracaoensis Tressler. Fia. 8.—Metacypris bromeliarum (F. Miiller). 336 Occurrence.—Females were widely distributed over the island being found in all but two of the eleven areas sampled. These locations were as follows: Portland Parish at an elevation of less than 1,000 feet, a largely noncalcareous region on July 18 to 24, 1952; Wagwater River, just above Hermitage Dam, St. Andrews, elevation 1,500 feet, noncalcareous region on August 1 to 7, 1952; near Christiana in Manchester Parish, elevation 3,000 feet, limestone region on August 9 to 11, 1952, and August 27 to 29, 1952; near Lucca in the northwest portion of the island in Westmoorland Parish, at a slight elevation, cal- careous region, on September 1, 1952; near Nigril in the extreme western portion of the island at a slight elevation, calcareous region on September 2, 1952; and at the base of the John Crow Moun- tains near Ecclestown in the northeast corner of the island, elevation 800 feet, calcareous region on September 8, 1952. Distribution —This species has previously been reported only from leaf cups of bromeliads in southern Brazil. Metacypris maracaoensis Tressler Fig. 7 Metacypris maracaoensis Tressler, Journ. Washing- ton Acad. Sci. 31 (6): 268. 1941. Specific characters—Female: Seen from the side, oval in shape with greatest height about one-half the length and highest in the middle. Dorsal margin arched; ventral margin straight. Posterior extremity more broadly rounded than anterior. From above, very broadly rounded posterior extremity and pointed anterior end. Large eyes, fused. Surface of valves smooth with a few scattered hairs. Color gray with a much darker area in the anterior half of the valve. A mass of polygonal areas in vicinity of the eyes. First antenna with five segments, the spine on the second segment reaching to middle of the fourth segment. Second antenna with exopodite reaching to tips of terminal claws. Mandible with eight teeth which are split. Length 0.72 mm, height 0.37 mm, width 0.65 mm. Male: Unknown. Remarks.—This species is similar to MW. cordata but is larger, the valves are without pits, and the mandibular teeth are different, numbering only four or five in M. cordata. Occurrence.—Numerous females were collected from bromeliad leaf cups near Immokalee, Collier County, Fla., in July 1953. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 10°. Distribution —This species is known only from a similar habitat in the Maracao National Forest, Puerto Rico, where it was collected at an eleva- tion of between 2,800 and 3,000 feet in January and December. Metacypris laesslei, n. sp. Figs. 1-5 Specific characters —Female: Seen from the side, oval in outline, height equal to about five- eighths length, highest in middle. Dorsal margin arched, ventral margin straight. Anterior ex- tremity less broadly rounded than posterior. From above, width equal to six-sevenths length, anterior end somewhat pointed, posterior end broadly rounded. Surface of valves covered with small pits and a few hairs. Color brown with darker brown spots. First antenna with five segments; spine on second segment reaches to terminal fourth of fourth segment. Second an- tenna with exopodite barely reaching to tips of terminal claws. Mandibular teeth split and seven in number. Length 0.78 mm, height 0.49 mm, width 0.66 mm. Male: Unknown. Remarks.—This species is similar in size and shape to M. maracaoensis but differs in the pres- ence of pits on the valves and in the number of mandibular teeth. Occurrence—Numerous females were found in three locations on the island of Jamaica, namely, in the Blue Mountains in St. Andrews Parish at an elevation of 3,200 to 4,000 feet, noncalcareous region, on July 3 to 9, 1952; near Mocho, west-central portion of the island, in a limestone region at an elevation of 2,000 feeton August 15 to 18, 1952; and near Christiana, Manchester Parish, elevation 3,000 feet, lime- stone region, on August 27 to 29, 1952. Female holotype, U. 8. N. M. no. 99387. Type locality, Blue Mountains, St. Andrews Parish, Jamaica. LITERATURE CITED Dapay, E. von. Untersuchungen tiber die Stiss- wasser - Mikrofauna Paraguays. Zoologica (Stuttgart) 44: 1-374. 1905. Miiier, F. Wassertiere in Baumwipfeln. Kos- mos 6: 386-888. 1880. Descripsao do Elpidium bromeliarum. Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio de Janeiro 4: 27-34. 1881. Picapo, M. C. Les bromeliaces epiphytes consi- derees comme milieu biologique. Bull. Se. France Belgique (7) 47: 215-360. 1913. TRESSLER, W. L. Ostracoda from Puerto Rican bromeliads. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 31 (6): 264-269. 1941. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences DEST O rote See Cee ne ee ees R. E. Gipson, Applied Physics Laboratory PP ESECENE-CLECLS «0c 2a 2 iciciis yetee tsa ais eo eee Wiutir1am W. Rugey, Geological Survey SAS TALLIS o5 a Oe Eee He1nz SpEcHT, National Institutes of Health HI COSUTET o.oo 2-22 5 =) 2154- Howarp 8. Rappieye, Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) LAL REI VITO? » 60 GO che ORE ICR OE ORME yt OS IPE TP a Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Haratp A, Reaper, U.S. National Museum Elected Members of the Board of Managers: POM ANUATVRLOD (ee emis eeepc ne ated A. T. McPuerson, A. B, GuRNEY FROMM T yl GOS erecta os eccves. cms coer oecioteeeiousaectueeacleyr fois W. W. Rusey, "J. R. SWALLEN ROMA D UAT yas LODO Bees saacies ccs ae eevee Francois N. FRENKIEL, F. L. CAMPBELL Board of Managers...... All the above officers plus the Vice Presidents and the Editor SO RUTRS 5 aC CRE Ee CuesTER H. Pages, National Bureau of Standards (EM 2-4040) Associate Editors....... RonaLp Bamrorp, Howarp W. Bonn, ImMaNuEL ESTERMANN Haecutive Commitiec...............3.-.08e eee R. E. Gipson (chairman), W. W. Rusey, Hernz Specut, H. S. Rappieye, A. B. GurNEY Commitiee on Membership.......... Louis R. MaxweE.u (chairman), Naval Ordnance Laboratory (HE 4-7100), Gzorcz Anastos, W. H. Avzry, Rocer W. 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ScrrpNER Commitiee on Public Relations...... A. I, Manan (chairman), Applied Physics Labora- tory (JU 9-7700), H. Specnt, Howarp Bono CONTENTS Page Puysics—Transients in signal analysis. Epira L. R. Coruiss........ 305 PsLEONTOLOGY.—An acanthodian fish from the lower Permian of Texas. DAvip H. DuUNKLE and Sercius H. MAmAY...............52 5008 308 Botany.—The genus Hilaria (Gramineae). Ernest R. SouNns........ 311 EntomMoLtocy.—New Neotropical genera and species of apterous aradids (Hemiptera), Cari Jd: DRAKE: ..........°.-.....7) eee 322 HeErPeToLtocy.—Hyla cinerea in Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia, with notes on the taxonomic status of Hyla cinerea evittata. CLYDE BOR BED. scp eae rns eee cua echice celeron Get 328 ZooLtocy.—Ostracoda from bromeliads in Jamaica and Florida. Wuttuis LYTRESSEBRY. . ook bei hols Bee eee 333 Notes: andvNews's *ic eck ees uo ee ara ee 307, 310, 327 VOLUME 46. 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Specut, % National Institutes of Health, Bethesda 14, Md. Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 19265. Authorized February 17, 1949. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 46 NoveMBER 1956 No. 11 MATHEMATICS.—Unimodular matrices of order 2 that commute Karu GouLp- BERG, National Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by C. H. Page.) (Received September 12, 1956) We shall prove the following: Theorem: Let A and B be rational integral unimodular matrices of order 2. Then A and B commute if and only if they are, within sign, powers of the same rational integral unimodular matrix. A consequence of this theorem is: Hvery abelian subgroup of the modular group 1s cyclic. The sufficiency is clear. For the necessity it will be sufficient to find any matrix K such that A e,k™ and B = e.K” with m and n rational in- tegers and e; = +1 for7 = 1,2. Let(m,n) = i aie) So — 1 Sram Kigy—) Kes hen there exist rational integers a and b such that am + bn s so that Ko = Ks Kanrbn = e2e 2 A*B? is a rational integral unimodular matrix with the property that A => @1Kiy”® and B = C.K o"°. If A is scalar then A = +8B°, which satis- fies the theorem trivially. In what follows we shall assume that A is nonscalar. Since A is of order two and not scalar. it is non-derogatory. Thus AB = BA implies, see [1], that B is a polynomial in A, or that there exists numbers o and p such that B = oA + pl, where J is the identity matrix of order 2. If A is diagonal then B is diagonal and the fact that it is unimodular and not scalar implies o +1 and p Q), Jat Al iis not diagonal then we can compare off di- agonal elements, to show that co, and there- 1 This work was supported in part by the Office of Naval Research. fore p, must be rational, see [2]. It follows that there must be integers x, y and z rela- tively prime in pairs with vz # O such that (1) If we denote the characteristic roots of A by a; and a: and those of B by B; and GBs we have ( ) 28; = From this equation we see that if the characteristic roots of A are irrational they lie in the same quadratic field as those of B. We shall treat this case first. Since the characteristic roots of A are irrational they are distinct. Therefore there exists a non-singular matrix U such that ‘ Since A is unimodular a; is a unit in a quadratic field and so is, within sign, a power of » the fundamental unit of that field if it is real or the primitive root of unity of highest period if it is complex. That is, for some rational integers m and e, +1 we have Bley = Gas == ill, 2 COU ate The Re 0 a2 TWANG ge eee UAL e ay ey” and ay = ey” where u denotes the conjugate of u. We can rewrite this in matrix form by letting — ey ~Am or uw O 0 A m UAU A = e(UAU)™. to obtain DEC 2 1 1956 398 Now if UAU™ is diagonal so is UBU™ as can be seen from equation (1). And be- cause the characteristic roots of B are units in the same quadratic field as those of A there must be rational integers n and e: = +1 such that UBU+ = eA” or B= e(U7AU)™, which completes the proof for the case of irrational characteristic roots. If the characteristic roots of A are ra- tional we have either ay = —a = +1 or a=—a=ea =. In the case of distinct rational roots, equation (2) and the fact that B is unimodu- lar yields x? = 22 = landy = OorA = +B which satisfies the theorem trivially. In the case of equal roots there exists a non-singular matrix U such that WA! = & G i pene JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 11 ° From equations (1) and (2) it is clear that A op UBU™ = e fe ) @= +t1Lr= cere Let aa | a U 0: ye Then and B = Co KK 61°27 Since z and eyeov are rational integers, this completes our proof. REFERENCES (1) Mac Durrep, C. C. The theory of matrices: 93- 94. New York, 1946. (2) Taussky-Topp, O. On matrix classes corre- sponding to an ideal and its inverse Lemma 1. To appear in Illinois Journ. Math. oS ee SURGE VOLTAGE BREAKDOWN IN A NONUNIFORM FIELD A knowledge of high-voltage discharge phe- nomena is of primary importance in the design of electrical equipment. For example, an under- standing of electrical breakdown in air makes possible accurate determination of safe and economic insulation requirements for high-voltage transformers and other apparatus. Information on discharge mechanisms is also of considerable value in electrical surge measurements carried out to provide data for the design of power systems. Although several acceptable theories of break- down in a uniform field have been developed,! the much more common problem of nonuniform field breakdown has been relatively unexplored. To provide data on this process, an investigation was recently conducted by J. H. Park and H. N. Cones, of the National Bureau of Standards.” 1 Basic process of gaseous electronics, by L. B. Logs, chapters 8 and 9 (Univ. of California Press, 1955); Theory of gaseous conduction and elec- tronics, by F. A. Maxrietp and R. R. BENEpicr7, page 270 (McGraw-Hill, 1941); and The mecha- nism of the electric spark, by L. B. Lorn and J. M. Meerx (Stanford University Press, 1941). 2For further technical details, see Surge voltage breakdown of air in a nonuniform field, by Their results verify a difference, suggested by the data of earlier experimenters, between break- down mechanisms in uniform and nonuniform fields. Cathode-ray oscilloscope records and photo- graphs of the discharges obtained by the Bureau reveal that in a nonuniform field discharge streamers (corona) are initiated by a sudden current rise (the first discharge pip). This current quickly decreases, remaining near zero unless complete breakdown is to occur. For gap lengths sufficiently short or for voltages sufficiently high, the first discharge pip is followed by a second rise in current which increases until breakdown occurs. Polarity also affects the gap spacing at which breakdown or discharge streamers occur and the speed of formation of these streamers. The tests were conducted under usual labora- tory conditions of pressure and humidity, and the nonuniform field was obtained by using electrodes of dissimilar geometry. The high- voltage electrode consisted of a circular plane, Uy H. Park and H. N. Consgs, Journ. Res. NBS 56: 201. April 1956. NOVEMBER 1956 84 cm in diameter, made of an aluminum alloy. Tt was placed 86.4 cm above and parallel to the faboratory floor, which had a grounded metal grid imbedded in its surface and was used as a ground plane. The ground electrode was a sphere, 1.6 cm in diameter, mounted at the end of a conductor and located an adjustable distance beneath the center of the high-voltage plane electrode. The conductor, centered in a grounded tube, was connected to a coaxial cable, which terminated at a cathode ray oscillograph. This arrangement permitted an accurate measurement of prebreakdown current and computation of the initial electrical field. Discharge phenomena were studied by holding the peak voltage of the applied surge at 145 kv and changing the gap spacing. Data were obtained under four conditions of applied voltage: a steeply rising surge with the sphere positive, a slowly rising surge with the sphere positive, a steeply rising surge with the sphere negative, a slowly rising surge with the sphere negative. For gap spacings less than 28 em when the sphere is positive or 15 cm when the sphere is negative, complete breakdown between sphere and plane usually takes place. The first discharge pip appeared at gap spac- ings up to 56 cm for a positive sphere and 46 cm for a negative sphere, but at these large spacings time delays were erratic. At gap spacings less than 46 cm with the sphere positive and 30 cm with the sphere negative a discharge generally appeared with little time lag—less than 0.1 usec for a steeply rising surge and less than 1 usec for a slowly rising surge. In a case where breakdown would ordinarily occur, chopping the voltage after the first dis- charge rise prevented breakdown. The initial streamer patterns that formed when the voltage was chopped were similar in appearance to those obtained when there was no second discharge rise. In calculating the propagation velocity of the streamers, their length was determined from photographs, and their time of formation was taken as the interval between the start of the first discharge pip and the chopping. The mean streamer propagation velocity is 500 cm/sec for sphere negative and 800 cm/sec for sphere positive. An analysis of streamer formation and channel development provides a more complete explana- tion of the mechanism leading to breakdown. Streamer photographs show where regions of SURGE VOLTAGE BREAKDOWN 339 high charge density have travelled from the sphere to the plane along the lines of force of the applied field. When the sphere is positive, a negative ion situated in the high-field region near the sphere can supply a free electron, which in ionizing neutral molecules forms an electron avalanche. The ionization or recombination process furnishes photons which liberate elec- trons in the nearby field. These electrons are attracted to the sphere, leaving regions of high positive space charge density near the surface of the sphere. The photo electrons liberated in the volume immediately ahead of the charged region are attracted to it so that. the positive region moves from the sphere to the plate, creating a positive streamer. If the initial streamer pattern produces a sufficiently high gradient, a channel starts to develop at the rate of 3 em/ysec. As this channel forms, it serves as a good conductor from its origin at the sphere to its leading end. Break- down takes place along a zigzag channel that has completely spanned the gap. When the sphere is negative, the electron avalanches formed in the region near the sphere travel towards the plate, where they initiate positive streamers from the plate to the sphere. Electrons are then released from the sphere by high-energy photons impinging on it, positive ion bombardment, or field emission. Negative streamers are formed in much the same way as the positive ones, but in this case electrons repelled from the sphere cause a negative region to move toward the plate. A streamer formed when the sphere is positive has a higher velocity of propagation than a negative streamer because electrons move in the direction of the increasing gradient so that the electron avalanches develop faster. The positive streamer can be initiated ever a longer gap than the negative streamer because avalanches can form positive streamers for lower applied gradients near the sphere when the sphere is positive. For the negative sphere, a conducting channel starts out perpendicular to the plane but after a short distance changes its course and makes a zigzag path to the sphere. These channels either contact the sphere or connect with a channel development from the sphere. For shorter gap spacing or considerable overvoltage, breakdown occurs when an initial streamer develops into a conducting channel. The breakdown path is then less zigzag, seeming to follow a line of force. 340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 11 PALEONTOLOGY —Chiloguembelina, a new Tertiary genus of the Heterohelicidae (Foraminifera). ALFRED R. LoEBiicH, Jr., and HeLen Tappan, U. 8S. Na- tional Museum. (Received October 1, 1956) Recent studies of planktonic Foraminifera by the writers have shown that some early Tertiary species previously referred to Guembelina Egger have characters not in keeping with that genus. As these species have both morphological distinctions and a differmg geologic range, they are here considered to be distinctive and made the basis of a new generic name, Chiloguembelina. Family HETEROHELICIDAE Cushman, 1927 Chiloguembelina Loeblich and Tappan, n. gen. Type species—Guembelina midwayensis Cush- man, 1940. Derivation.—Chilo, from cheilos Gr. n. lip, rim + Guembelina, genus of Foraminifera. Gender feminine. Test free, flaring; inflated chambers biserially arranged, with a tendency to become somewhat twisted; sutures distinct, depressed; wall cal- careous, finely perforate, radial in structure, surface smooth to hispid; aperture a broad low arch bordered with a produced necklike extension of the chamber, commonly this forms a more strongly developed flap at one side, so that the aperture appears to be directed toward one of the flat sides of the test. Remarks.—Chiloguembelina differs from Guem- belina Egger in the presence of the apertural necklike extension from the final chamber, in the tendency to develop a twisted test and an asym- metrical aperture, directed toward the flat side instead of the edge of the test. Unlike true Guembelina, it does not have an early coiled portion in the microspheric generation, all specimens being wholly biserial throughout. Chiloguembelina is found only in post-Creta- ceous strata,in the Paleocene and Eocene. In ad- dition to the type species, Guembelina crinita Glaessner, G. cubensis var. heterostoma Bermudez, G. mauriciana Howe and Roberts, G. trinitatensis Cushman and Renz, G. venezuelana Nuttall, and G. goodwint Cushman also should be placed in Chiloguembelina. Chiloguembelina midwayensis (Cushman) Gtimbelina midwayensis Cushman, Contr. Cush- man Lab. Foram. Res. 16: p. 65, pl. 11, fig. 15. 1940. Giimbelina morsei Kline, Mississippi Geol. Survey Bull. 53, p. 44, pl. 7, fig. 12. 1943. Test free, small, flaring; the 4 to 6 pairs of in- flated to subglobular and rapidly enlarging chambers biserially arranged but shghtly twisted; sutures distinct, depressed, nearly straight and slightly oblique; wall calcareous, finely perforate, surface smooth to finely spinose especially in the terminal portion of the test; aperture a broad low arch with a bordering necklike extension of the chamber, commonly forming a more strongly de- veloped flap at one side, so that the aperture appears to be directed toward one of the flat sides of the test instead of toward its edge. Remarks——This species shows considerable variation in the degree of flaring of the test and in the development of the apertural lip. Some specimens may show a nearly symmetrical lip, others show a less well preserved lip so that it appears to consist of lateral flanges and in some slightly twisted tests the aperture may appear to be directed to one side, with a stronger de- velopment of the lip at one side than on the other. All gradations may be found, proving these to be merely individual variations. Types and occurrence-—Holotype (Cushman Coll. no. 35715) from the Midway group, on U.S. Highway 80, south of Sucarnochee Creek, 14 mile southwest of Livingston, Sumter County, Ala. The writers have also observed this species in Midway strata of Texas and Alabama, the Brightseat formation of Maryland, and in the Hornerstown formation of New Jersey. NOVEMBER 1956 ELLIOTT: CALCAREOUS ALGAE d41 PALEONTOLOGY .—Galaxaura (calcareous algae) and similar fossil genera. GraHaM F. Exxiort, Iraq Petroleum Co., Ltd. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.). (Received August 22, 1956) In northern Iraq parts of the Lower Cre- taceous succession are characterized by the occurrence of frequent but fragmentary caleareous algae (Elhott, 1955b). At a level dated as Barremian-Aptian the forami- nifer Orbitolina is accompanied by Munieria baconica Deecke and a second fragmentary alga which during routine studies was known by a code number, for while it was recog- nizable, a reconstruction was not possible. Exceptional material later revealed that these fragments are of a species surprisingly similar to forms from the Permian of the same area and elsewhere. This new species is now described and its significance dis- cussed. I am indebted to the Iraq Petroleum Co., Ltd., London, for permission to publish this note. Genus Permocalculus Elliott, 1955 Permocalculus inopinatus, n. sp. Description.—Thallus fingerlike, somewhat ir- regular, circular in cross section, up to 5 mm long and 1.75 mm in transverse diameter; calcification varying between different individuals from a thin irregular peripheral development to a nearly solid thallus; sporangia ill-defined, subcortical in position; pores with diameter of 0.020 mm at the outer edge of the calcification where they are clearly visible, only occasionally seen extending inwards, when they are fine and twisted, widening at the surface. Syntypes.—The specimens illustrated in Figs. 1A, B, from the Aptian limestone of Ru Kuchuk, Chama, Mosul Liwa, N. Iraq, Geol. Coll. Iraq Petroleum Co., Ltd., London, reg. nos. DM. 1286, 1284. Other material—Numerous random sections, mostly fragmentary, from the Barremian-Aptian limestones of Ru Kuchuk and Jabal Gara, Mosul Liwa; Sarmord, Sulemania Liwa; Koi Sanjak, Erbil Liwa; all in northern Iraq. Also from a similar horizon at Wady Hajar, Hadhramaut, southern Arabia. This species bears a surprising resemblance to species of Permocalculus from the Permian of the same area (Elliott, 1955a) and elsewhere, notably P. solidus (Pia) and P. digitatus Elliott. It is evidently the calcified thallus of a very similar plant, though it can readily be distinguished by the very different associated algal and other species. The Permian Gymnocodiwm, after several changes in classification, was compared by Pia to the Recent Galaxaura and placed with it in the Chaetangiaceae. The writer (Elliott, 1955a) confirmed this resemblance after an examination of the calcareous micro-structure of the Recent Galaxaura fastigiata Decaisne and the Permian Gymnocodium bellerophontis (Rothpletz), in which the calcification is subdermal only, and separated off various Permian species, differing in form and calcification, as Permocalculus. A similar comparison could have been made be- tween the Recent Galaxaura glabriuscula Kjell- mann and Permocalculus solidus (Pia): in the Recent species there is marked calcification, particularly of the stem, which is not well dif- ferentiated from the other portions of the thallus. In view of the close general similarities between Galaxaura and the fossil forms the additional evidence available from the former should be considered in classifying the latter; the recent study of Svedelius (1953) is of particular interest since this writer, unlike many botanists, attaches some degree of taxonomic importance to calci- fication. Galaxaura is represented by sexual and nonsexual generations; the plants of the two are different, and the former is itself represented by male and female plants, with differently sized cavities for reproductive structures. In spite of the frequent association of plants of two gen- erations, and close examination for structural peculiarities held in common, however, Svedelius concludes that only by experimental spore- culture can the plants be conclusively paired as representing different generations of the same species. If this difficulty arises with living plants, it seems impossible with the fossils, where the ecal- cification alone remains, to classify them on other than a strictly morphological basis, as was done by the writer in separating Permocaleulus from Gymnocodium, together in the Gymnocodiaceae as a comparable family to the placed 342 Chaetangiaceae. So long as the former was represented by Permian species only, the dis- tinction was clear-cut and suggested that similar algae had twice independently achieved cal- cification. The known Cretaceous forms are there- fore of especial interest. Corallinites galaxaura Massalongo, from the Italian Lower Cretaceous, is known only from this writer’s early account and figures (1856) which show a small segmented alga, and while possibly a Galaxaura (see also Massalongo, 1859) nothing more can be said of it. Permocalculus inopinatus, described above from the Lower Cretaceous of the Middle East, is extremely similar to certain Permian species. Gymnocodium nummuliticum Pfender was described from the Egyptian Eocene and re- corded also from the Upper Cretaceous of France and Spain (Pfender, 1940). This alga was de- scribed as very similar to the Permian G. bellero- phontis (Rothpletz): the figures of Cuvilher (1930) quoted by Pfender are too small to be useful for a detailed study, and the present writer (1955a), without actual specimens for examination, did not consider them further. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 11 In material from Wady Hajar, Hadhramaut, southern Arabia, however, in a Lower Cretaceous Orbitolina-limestone of probable Barremian age, abundant debris of Permocalculus inopinatus was accompanied by at least one section similar to the Permian Gymnocodium bellerophontis, just as described by Pfender. It would seem, therefore, that algae ancestral to the present-day Chaetangiaceae have existed since the Permian, though represented in varying abundance at different horizons. Their classi- fication, in view of the difficulties attaching to that of the living plants, is best made, in the present state of knowledge, on a strictly mor- phological basis. REFERENCES Cuviturer, J. Revision du Nummulitique Egypt- ien. Mém. Inst. Egypt. 16: ref. pl. 8. 1930. Exuuiorr, G. F. The Permian calcareous alga Gymnocodium. Micropaleontology 1 (1): 83-90. 1955a. . Fossil calcareous algae from the Middle East. Micropaleontology 1 (2): 125-131. 1955b. Massatoneo, A. Studii paleontologict: ref. p. 42. Verona, 1856. ee Fie. 1.—Permocalculus inopinatus, n sp.: A, Longitudinal section; B, transverse section X 30: syntypes. Lower Cretaceous (Aptian); Ru Kuchuk, Chama, Mosul Liwa, Iraq. NOVEMBER 1956 H. M. Massatoneo, A., and ScaRABELLI, G. Studii sulla flera fossile e geologia stratigraphica del Sent- galliese: ref. p. 92 (footnote). Imola, 1859. PFENDER, J. Les algues du nummulitique Egyptien ei des terrains Cretacés-Rocénes de quelques 345 régiones mésogéenes. Bull. Inst. Egypt. 22: 225-250. 1940. Svepeuius, N. Critical studies on some species of Galaxaura from Hawaii. Nov. Act. R. Soc. Sci. Upsala (4) 15 (9): 1-92. 1953. SE Jel. IML, So. “SIUC” The imsigne of England’s Tudor and Stuart kings, the crowned rose, has provided a clue that enabled a Smithsonian historian to reconstruct a two-century-old tragedy of the Spanish Main— the shipwreck of a British man-of-war and the desperate plight of 280 sailors on a desert island beset by hostile savages. Off the central Florida keys, about 35 miles southwest of the town of Marathon, is a sub- merged reef—marked ‘‘Looe reef”? on maritime charts. Near it the sea bottom is strewn with metal objects, long since covered with a sand crust that makes them the same color as the bottom and nearly indistinguishable. They obvi- ously are the remains of some shipwreck. The wreck was first explored by a party consisting of Bill Thompson, of Marathon, Fla.; Dr. and Mrs. George Crile, Jr., of Cleveland, Ohio; Mr. and Mrs. E. A. Link, of Binghamton, N. Y.; Mr. and Mrs. James Rand, of Cleveland, Ohio; Mr. and Mrs. John Shaheen, of New York City; and Arthur McKee, of Homestead, Fla. The party was accompanied by Mendel L. Peterson, Smith- sonian Institution curator of naval history. Largely through Mr. Peterson’s researches the ship now has been identified and its complete story recovered. It was H. M.S. Loo, a frigate of 40 to 44 guns, under Capt. Ashby Utting, lost off the keys after running aground in the mid- winter of 1744. The metal objects recovered went part of the way in reconstructing the story. They were can- nonballs, nails, fragments of rum and brandy bottles, the knob of a walking stick, some frag- ments of table plates decorated with a blue flower design, a 2,000-pound cannon barrel, and various 18th-century European coins. Cast into the barrel was the “crowned rose.” It was an insigne used by both the Stuart and Tudor kings. As its use was discontinued after Queen Anne, the date of the shipwreck must have been before, or shortly after, her death. The normal life of an iron barrel on shipboard, it was ascertained, was probably not more than 40 years. If it is assumed that the cannon had been put in service in the last year of Anne’s reign, 1714, the wreck could not have been later than 1754. Other evidence indicated that it could not have been earlier than the start of her reign. Thus Peterson got the clue by which he was able to search records of the British Admiralty over a specific period, and bit by bit—from orders, letters, payrolls, and other papers—emerged the story of the wreck of the Loo. Looe is a town in Cornwall from which the ship took its name. How the Florida reef happened to have that name nobody knew. Here in brief is the story of the frigate as traced from the clue of the crowned rose, which has recently been published by the Smith- sonian Institution where many of the articles re- covered from the wreck now are being studied: The Loo had sailed from Cuba with a small prize ship. During the night she ran close to the reef, while off her assumed course, and ‘‘three or four severe seas crushed the ship against the reef and she began sinking rapidly. The reef was then above water, a small desert island. Captain Utting, however, was able to land safely all his own crew and that of the captured prize ship. “The desperate situation of the group was evi- dent to all. “Here were 280 men stranded on a small sandy islet just off a hostile coast swarming with the savage Caloosa Indians who murdered Englishmen on sight. To add to the insecurity was the evident fact that in a blow of any force the whole islet would be swept by waves. At night Utting posted watches, each consisting of 25 marines and 25 sailors at the water’s edge as ‘centenells’ to prevent a surprise night attack. Meanwhile the men, frightened and confused, became very rebellious and mutinous, dividing into parties and claiming that the officers no longer had any authority over them. They clam- ored to leave the island immediately. Utting took no notice of them, but, with the few men who would work, continued efforts to recover water and other provisions from the wreck.” Two days later the captain was able to get off all the men in small boats and eventually steered northward toward the harbor of Port Royal, 8S. C. This was a direction in which he did not want to go but proceeded ‘rather than all be drowned.” But everybody came through alive. Once his crew were safe Utting’s first chore was to find a colonial justice of the peace and make depositions in connection with a court martial for loss of his ship, which he knew was inevitable. From the Admiralty records Peterson obtained a full account of this court martial, at which the captain was acquitted of all charges. 344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 11 BACTERIOLOGY —Quantitative studies of differential staining reactions, IIT: A quantitative acid-fast stain’. A. F. Woopuour, Catholic University of Amer- ica. (Communicated by E. R. Kennedy). Bacteria in the genus Mycobacterium are resistant to staining with basic dyes, but once stained the cells are resistant to de- colorization with acid-alecohol. This pro- cedure is known as the acid-fast reaction, and possession of the acid-fast property 1s the chief characteristic that differentiates this genus from other Schizomycetes. Attempts have been made to associate the virulence of mycobacteria with some con- sistent aspect of the organisms. Middle- brooke, Dubos, and Pierce (1947) found that virulent tubercle bacilli form microscopically demonstrable serpentine cords which enable the organisms to spread more readily on the surface of liquid and solid media. Avirulent forms do not form such cords. These investi- gators also reported that the virulent bacilli are strongly acid-fast, whereas the avirulent forms are much less acid-fast. It should be possible, in the light of this information, to associate virulence with a quantitative de- termination of acid-fastness. Until the present time no quantitative method has been described to estimate the degree of acid-fastness among species or strains of Mycobacterium. Wennedy and Barbaro (1953) reported an accurate quanti- tative method for determining the adsorp- tion of crystal violet by bacteria based on micro-Kjeldahl analyses of bacterial cells and stain reagents. The present report describes a modification of this procedure as applied to the acid-fast reaction and presents evidence for the existence of degrees of acid-fastness among the mycobacteria. MATERIALS AND METHODS The crystal violet used throughout the investigation has been described previously (Kennedy and Barbaro, 1953). Basic fuchsin was obtained from the National Aniline & Chemical Co., Inc., New 1This work was supported in part by funds received from the American Association for the Advancement of Science on the recommendation of the Washington Academy of Sciences. York, N. Y. (total dye content, 95 percent, Certification no. NF 57,°@) inom 6nn). Modified Ziehl-Neelsen carbol fuchsin was prepared by dissolving 3.15 g of basic fuchsin in 10 ml of 95 percent ethy! alcohol; a solu- tion composed of 2 ¢ of phenol in 95 ml of deionized water was added to the alcoholic dye solution. The crystal violet solution, decolorizing agent (3 percent hydrochloric acid-alcohol) and M/15 phosphate buffer were stored at 5 C and maintained as close as possible to that temperature throughout the procedure. The modified Ziehl-Neelsen carbo! fuchsin was stored at room temperature to avoid excessive precipitation of carbolie acid. The organisms were obtained from cul- tures maintained in this laboratory and the American Type Culture Collection and maintained at room temperature. The acid- fast organisms used in the study were: Strain No. Mycobacterium tuberculosis var. hominis ATCC no. 9360 H387Rv Mycobacterium tuberculosis var. hominis ATCC no. 9431 H37Ra Mycobacterium tuberculosis var. bovis ATCC no. 9834 549 The non-acid-fast organism was: Corynebacterium xerose 513 The tubercle bacilli were cultivated at 37 C for 3 weeks on Dubos broth base to which ‘‘Dubos medium albumin” and 1.2 percent agar had been added. All other or- ganisms were cultivated at 37 C for 24 to 72 hours on a modified tryptose agar medium. The preparation of cell suspensions and micro-Kjeldahl procedure have been de- scribed previously (Kennedy and Barbaro, 1953). EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS The procedure for a typical quantitative acid-fast reaction was as follows: Organisms NOVEMBER 1956 WOODHOUR: DIFFERENTIAL STAINING REACTIONS 345 TaBLe 1.—QvuaANTITATIVE AcrD-FAST REACTION AS DETERMINED BY Micro-KJELDAHL ANALYSES OF CrystaL VIOLET AND BACTERIA ANALYSES ON SUPERNATANTS ANALYSES ON BACTERIA PER MG BACTERIAL N ? s: Dye N SPECIES *) G Onizinal after Dye n_ | Acid-fast | Unstained) p.. DOIN DEIN | dye N | staining | adsorbed | sttined | Pacterial | serained | adsorbed | retained sorbed) | mg Mg mg mg mg mg Mg mg Myco. tuberculosis var. hominis | IBIS RN.-c o.c's. nie ene eee eee 0.40 | 0.22 0.18 0.73 0.69 0.04 0.26 0.06 Mvyco. tuberculosis var. honunis TEIBVIREY ooo 0 Scohs aie ee Ieee ae eee 0.40 0.10 0.30 lel 1.10 0.02 0.27 0.02 Myco. tuberculosis var. bovis....| 0.87 0.03 0.34 1.46 1.39 0.07 0.25 0.05 WHAQEDs. HUGE 2 < Sd pO ee 0.42 0.04 0.38 173 1.69 0.04 0.23 0.03 Co BOTOSC bcc 6 Gio eee 0.41 0.06 0.35 PPM 22 0.00 0.11 0.00 to be tested were harvested in 0.85 percent saline solution, heat-killed at 99 C for 380 minutes, and washed until the supernatant fluid was nitrogen free as determined by micro-Kjeldahl analyses. The washed cell suspension was diluted to contain the de- sired concentration of bacteria per milli- liter. One ml of the uniformly mixed bacterial suspension was added in triplicate to thick- walled centrifuge tubes and centrifuged in the cold (0-5 C) at approximately 8,000 rpm (ref 6,000) for 30 minutes. The supernatant fluid was discarded, and 2 ml of suitably diluted crystal violet stock solution were added to the packed cells. After thorough mixing, the tubes were stoppered and kept at room temperature overnight (approxi- mately 18 hours). The next day the stoppers were removed and the tubes centrifuged in the cold for 30 minutes. The supernatant crystal violet solution was transferred to a Kjeldahl flask, and the packed cells were washed with 2 ml of buffer solution at pH 7.1 and centrifuged again in the cold. The buffer washings were transferred to the Kjeldahl flask and one ml of 3 percent hydro- chloric acid-alcohol was added to the packed cells. The cells were mixed thoroughly and immediately centrifuged in the cold for 5 minutes. The supernatant acid-alecohol and subsequent buffer wash were placed in a second Kjeldahl flask for analysis. The packed cells were suspended in buffer solu- tion and transferred quantitatively to a third Kjeldahl flask for analysis. Unstained bacterial suspensions and dye solutions were added directly to Kjeldahl flasks in triplicate and analyzed. These values were used as control determinations. Table 1 contains representative data ob- tained when this procedure was applied to acid-fast and non-acid-fast organisms. In all cases each figure indicates the average of triplicate determinations. The method is such that each of the triplicates agrees within 0.02 mg of nitrogen. To simplify the com- parison of results, the values in the last two columns have been calculated on the basis of one mg of bacterial nitrogen. The term adsorption is used to describe the dye origi- nally taken up by the bacterial cells; the term retention means the amount of dye which remains in the cells after decoloriza- tion. The adsorption values are similar among all acid-fast organisms tested but the retention values differ. The difference in retention indicates degrees of acid-fastness. One ml of modified Ziehl-Neelsen carbol fuchsin was employed in place of crystal violet in the above procedure under the same conditions. Table 2 contains representative data obtained with this procedure. One of the most significant differences between this modification and the crystal violet pro- cedure is the generally higher adsorption values obtaied with carbol fuchsin, though the retention values are similar. The indi- vidual retention values are significant: the two supposedly most acid-fast organisms of the group retain the most dye while the least acid-fast organisms retain appreciably less dye. 346 DISCUSSION The application of a quantitative tech- nique to the acid-fast reaction is dependent to a great extent on the preparation of homogeneous bacterial suspensions and adequate control of the decolorization procedure. The difficulty of preparing homogeneous suspensions of mycobacteria can be overcome by the use of Tween 80- albumin medium which has been recom- mended for the cultivation of tubercle bacilli. The formation of cords in virulent species is inhibited on this medium (Middle- brooke, Dubos, Pierce, 1947). Numerous thorough mixings and centrifugations of the cells with subsequent double filtration through cotton results in homogeneous sus- pensions. This is substantiated by analyses of triplicate samples of unstained organisms. The results agree within the limits of error of the micro-Kjeldahl method +0.02 mg nitrogen. The utilization of low temperature centrifugation during the decolorization process is believed to slow the decolorization process sufficiently to allow complete re- moval of measureable dye from non-acid- fast organisms without over decolorization of the weakly acid-fast Myco. phlei. The use of crystal violet in the procedure described here is supported by the work of Benians (1912-1913) who found that, when crystal violet was employed without a mordant in the acid-fast reaction, acid-fast organisms retain dye after acid-alcohol decolorization while non-acid-fast organisms are completely decolorized. In the course of the present work, crystal violet was found much easier to use than carbol fuchsin. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 11 When triplicate samples of the respective dyes were subjected to analyses, crystal violet samples always agreed within the limits of error of the procedure while carbol fuchsin replicates showed marked dis- crepancies on many occasions. In addition, carbol fuchsin takes much longer to digest in Kjeldahl analysis than does crystal violet and therefore lengthens the complete pro- cedure. The results in the tables, however, represent experiments in which triplicate dye samples agreed within the limits of error of the method. There appear to be many variables that influence the values obtained, such as com- position of media, dye concentration, stain- ing time, temperature of staimmg and decolorizing procedures. These factors un- doubtedly influence the acid-fast reaction when performed on glass slides. The values found (tables 1 and 2) are relative rather than absolute but it should be remembered that they are the result of triplicate analyses and agree within 0.02 mg nitrogen. The re- liability of these values is further empha- sized by the fact that analyses were made of the supernatant fluids as well as stained cells and it is possible to account for all dye, adsorbed and unadsorbed, used through- out the procedure. In the interpretation of quantitative acid- fast values consideration must be given to the physiological condition of the cells used. Dubos and Davis (1946) pointed out the heterogeneity of fully grown cultures of tubercle bacilli. The cells in a given culture vary greatly in age and therefore, physi- ological state. In addition, when organisms TaBLE 2.—QUANTITATIVE AcID-FAST REACTION AS DETERMINED BY Micro-KjJELDAHL ANALYSES OF CarBoL FucHsIN AND BACTERIA | ANALYSES ON SUPERNATANTS ANALYSES ON BACTERIA PER MG BACTERIAL N x Dye N SPECIES . . Original after Dre Acid-fast | Unstained Dye N Dye N Dye N eg e NG Guede maeeibed Stained, pacteniall reteined Adenbed retained sorbed) mg mg mg mg mg mg mg mg Myco. tuberculosis var. hominis ELS ARVN oe eo ea ee: 0.58 0.24 0.34 1.04 0.97 0.07 0.35 0.07 Myco. tuberculosis var. hominis SBE Ge Ne aels cob trot meee aoa 0.61 0.27 0.34 0.91 0.90 0.01 0.37 0.01 Myco. tuberculosis var. bovis....| 0.60 0.18 0.47 1.50 1.43 0.07 0.33 0.05 WACO. FAW Bocscccedocccedoeessc 0.61 0.18 0.43 Ne 1.69 0.03 0.25 0.02 NOVEMBER 1956 grow in clumps the environmental conditions of cells at the periphery are different from those of cells at the center. These conditions might well reflect differences in structure and metabolism. Since conditions of cultivation are kept constant for all organisms it seems justifiable to assume that these values are correct when applied to a culture as a whole. Possibly the values would be higher if only young organisms were used or considerably lower if only old organisms were used. Since, however, a mixture of both were employed the values indicate an average acid-fast value. The conditions are the same for all species to which the procedure has been applied. With the classic acid-fast test performed on glass slides, visual observation does not necessitate the presence of abundant amounts of dye within the cells. The quan- titative procedure, however, demands the presence of significant amounts of dye. The micro-Kjeldahl method measures 0.02 mg of nitrogen but when small amounts of or- ganisms were used, even though the cells were visibly stained, the retained dye nitro- gen could not be measured. This can be overcome by increasing the number of or- ganisms so more adsorbed dye can be meas- ured and decreasing the decolorization time to the extent that non-acid-fast organisms give no retention values, though they are visibly staimed. This procedure indicated the minute quantity of dye retained by acid- fast organisms when stained by the classic method on glass slides. The amount of dye retained per mg of bacterial nitrogen is significantly different among species of mycobacteria. The conclu- sion that degrees of acid-fastness exist among the mycobacteria agrees with reports of other investigators (Lamanna and WOODHOUR: DIFFERENTIAL STAINING REACTIONS 347 Mallette, 1953; Bergey et al., 1948). These workers based their conclusions on qualita- tive interpretations utilizing the classic Ziehl-Neelsen technique of staining. The data presented in this report indicate the existence of quantitative degrees of acid- fastness among mycobacteria whether stained with carbol fuchsin or crystal violet when the results are calculated as retained dye per unit of bacterial nitrogen. The method which has been reported offers the first quantitative experimental approach to basic studies on the mechanism of the acid-fast reaction and to studies of the effects of environment, staining time, tem- perature of staining, dye concentration, and decolorizing agents. SUMMARY A quantitative acid-fast reaction based on micro-Kjeldahl analyses of reagents and of cells decolorized at low temperature is described. Quantitative evidence is presented to show that degrees of acid-fastness exist among mycobacteria. REFERENCES Bentans, T. H. C. Observations on the gram positive and acid-fast properties of bacteria. Journ. Path. Bact. 17: 199-211. 1912. Bereey, D. H., et al. Manual of determinative bac- tertology., 6th ed. Baltimore, 1948. Dusos, R. J., and Davis, B. D. Factors affecting the growth of tubercle bacilli in liquid media. Journ. Exp. Med. 83: 409-423, 1946. Kennepy, E. R., and Barparo, J. F. Quantitative adsorption of crystal violet. Journ. Bacteriol. 65: 678-680. 1953. Lamanna, C., and Mauierrr, M. F. Basic bac- teriology. Baltimore, 1953. MippieBrooken, G., Dusos, R. J., and Pierce, Cryntuia. Virulence and morphological charac- teristics of mammalian tubercle bacilli. Journ. Exp. Med. 86: 175-184. 1947. Though the mills of God grind slowly, yet they grind exceedingly small.— LONGFELLOW. 348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 46, No. 11 ZOOLOGY .—North American harpacticoid copepods: 3, Paracamptus reductus, n. sp., from Alaska. MitprED Stratron Wixson, Arctic Health Research Center, U. S. Public Health Service, Anchorage, Alaska. (Received July 30, 1956) The genus Paracamptus is among the few genera of fresh-water Canthocamptidae occurring in Europe and Asia that has not been reported from North America. It is of interest therefore to record its occurrence on this continent, as represented by a new species found in Alaskan collections. The harpacticoid copepods listed as occurring with the new Paracamptus also represent new records for North America. Reference has been made (M. S. Wilson, 1956) to their discovery in Alaska, but these are the first locality records to be published. The genus Maraenobiotus is likewise a Eurasian genus of the Canthocamptidae not before known from North America. IT am indebted to O. A. Mathisen, Fish- eries Research Institute, University of Washington, and to Kenneth Andress, Spenard, Alaska, for the collections con- taining this new species. Paracamptus reductus, n. sp. Figs. 1-16 Specimens examined.—Type lot: 9 2 (2 oviger- ous), 4 #. Margin of Lake Tikchik, Bristol Bay area of southwestern Alaska (about lat. 60°N., long. 159°W.); August 19, 1954; O. A. Mathisen. Oceurring with Moraria duthiei T. and A. Scott and Maraenobiotus insignipes (Lilljeborg). Holo- type 2, U. §8. National Museum no. 99416; allotype @, no. 99417. 1 @ (ovigerous). Margin of Paxson Lake, Richardson Highway, Alaska, (about lat. 63°N., long. 145°W.); June 28, 1951; K. Andress. Occur- ring with Moraria duthiei and M. mrazeki T. Scott. Diagnosis —Caudal rami of female, length more than twice width; shorter in male; both sexes with curved crest of spimules near base of inner dorsal side and longitudinal crest of spinules posterior to insertion of dorsal seta. Leg 1 with three setae on endopod segment 2, both apical setae much longer than endopod and modified like those of exopod. Endopods lacking on legs 2-4 of female and on legs 2 and 4 of male; that of leg 3 normally developed in male, with two apical setae. Leg 5, segment 2 of both sexes, middle seta of similar stoutness and armature to other setae. Description.—Length, dorsal midline, @ Tik- chik Lake, 0.55-0.6 mm, Paxson Lake, 0.7 mm; o, 0.465-0.47 mm. Frmate: Posterior edge of all body segments, except the last, coarsely serrate on dorsal side (Fig. 2); surface covered by broken rows of minute spinules (partially indicated in Fig. 2). Ventrally, urosome segments not serrate but each with single unbroken row of spines (Fig. 1). Last segment with a few spines ventrally at bases of rami and a lateral group. Margin of anal operculum wavy or minutely spinulose. Caudal ramus (Figs. 2, 3) constricted distally, length more than twice its greatest width (2.3- 2.45 times); longer than outer margin of last body segment (about 1.4 times). Lateral setae placed as usual, the proximal on outer margin near base and accompanied by shorter seta; distal seta placed a little distad on ventral surface. Dorsal seta on a twice segmented base, placed just distad to middle of ramus. Entire outer margin including that above proximal seta, armed with row of slender spinules. Are of some- what larger, graduated spinules forming trans- verse crest on inner proximal portion of dorsal surface. Longitudinal row of very short spinules ranging from behind point of insertion of dorsal seta to apex of ramus. Inner margin with medial group of fine hairs and distal group of minute spinules. Caudal setae (Fig. 1) as usual for Paracamptus, outer and inner setae of subequal size, length less than that of ramus; middle seta well developed, base enlarged, unjointed; length less than that of urosome (equaling a little more than segments 4 and 5 plus ramus) and from 2.2 to 2.9 times length of ramus. Antennule (Fig. 7) 8-segmented; without plumose setae; aesthete of segment 4 reaching to end of antennule; outer setae of two apical seg- ments on segmented bases. Exopod of antenna (Fig. 10) 2-segmented; first segment with plumose NOVEMBER 1956 WILSON: HARPACTICOID COPEPODS 349 Wrenner vreeer YY VV VYVy VY VV VV yyyYY Yyvy IS) Fries. 1-16.—Paracamptus reductus, n. sp.: 1, Female, urosome ventral; 2, female, detail distal seg- ments of urosome and caudal ramus, dorsal; 3, female, caudal ramus, ventral; 4, male, detail distal segment of urosome and caudal ramus, dorsal; 5, female, mandible palp; 6, male, antennule; 7, female, antennule and rostrum; 8, female, leg 4, with detail inner distal edge of basipod 2; 9, female, leg 1: 10, female, exopod of antenna; 11, female, leg 5; 12, male, legs 5 and 6; 18, female, detail of genital area: 14, female, leg 2, exopod segment 3; 15, male, leg 4; 16, male, leg 3. 300 seta; second with subapical plumose seta and very stout, unornamented apical spine. Mandible palp (Fig. 5) 1-segmented, with one subapical and three apical setae. Leg 1 (Fig. 9) with 3-segmented exopod and 2-segmented endopod; exopod shorter than endopod, reaching to about proximal third of apical endopod segment. Endopod segment 1 wider and a little longer than segment 2, with short inner seta. Segment 2 narrowed, with short inner seta distally and two long, curved apical setae of the modified type found on apical exopod segment; inner seta longer than outer and both longer than endopod; relative length of outer seta, inner seta and endopod, 22:30:17. Legs 2-4 with 3-segmented exopods. Exopod segment 2 always with inner seta. Exopod seg- ment 3 with two outer and two terminal spines of which the inner is the longer; inner spiniform seta on legs 2 and 3 (Fig. 14), absent on leg 4. Endopods lacking, though usually minute setae present in usual position of endopod (Fig. 8). Leg 5 (Fig. 11). Distal segment 2, length about 2 times its width; all five setae similar to one another, sparsely plumose; seta 4 the longest, seta 5 the shortest; relative length of setae to one another (from outer edge), 19:21:22:25:16. Basal segment, outer portion of inner expansion bearing the first two setae produced beyond the rest of segment, reaching to about middle of segment 2; relative length of setae to one another, 19:27:15:13:10. Mate: Habitus as in female. Caudal ramus (Fig. 4) differmg from female in being shorter than outer margin of last body segment (about 14:20). Armature similar; spinal are on proximal dorsal face accompanied by distinct ridgelike sclerotization. Dorsal seta placed at about distal third; distad to it a short, longitudinal row of 3-4 spines. Antennule (Fig. 6) 8-segmented, third and fourth segments imperfectly separated into addi- tional segments. Fourth segment dilated and bearing short, stout setae. Three segments beyond geniculation, apical segment shorter than two preceding segments, apex constricted and pro- duced beyond insertion of terminal setae; proxi- mal, lateral setae with segmented bases as in female. Leg 1 as in female. Legs 2 and 4 lacking endo- pods (no minute setae found as in female). Leg 3 (Fig. 16) with 3-segmented endopod reaching to end of exopod 2; its basal segment without inner JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 46, No. 11 © seta; apophysis well developed, reaching to end of exopod, its total length greater than that of endopod; third segment with two subequal, apical setae also reaching to near end of exopod, their length subequal to that of endopod. Leg 4 (Fig. 15), exopod with same setation as in female but somewhat modified. Outer distal corner of segment 2 more enlarged and outer spine much more recurved than in female. Exo- pod segment 8 reduced in size, its length subequal to that of exopod 2 rather than longer as in female. Leg 5 (Fig. 12). Distal segment 2 small, length about 1.5 times the width, with five setae; four outer setae of different lengths but of similar stoutness, all plumose; innermost seta reduced, shorter than segment; relative length of setae to one another (from outer to inner), 5:7:11: 16:4. Inner basal portions of leg not divided, with two spiniform setae borne on slight produc- tion of segment, inner seta subequal in length to longest (fourth) seta of segment 2, and a little more than twice length of outer (17:7). Leg 6 (Fig. 12) with three setae, the mnermost stout and spiniform, subequal to slender outer seta; both outer and innermost setae a little longer than longest seta (second basal) of leg 5. Discussion.—Only two species of Paracamptus are known: P. schmeili (Mrazek) from Europe and P. baikalensis Borutzky from Lake Baikal in Asia. Several varieties have been named for schmeili but Lang (1948), on the basis of the extreme variability found in specimens he studied from Sweden, considers that none can be recog- nized as subspecies. P. baikalensis, known only from the female, is separable from schmeili on the basis of the much shorter caudal ramus (wider than long) and the lack of reduction and modification of the middle seta of the second segment of the fifth leg. The setae of the fifth leg of schmeili are reportedly variable, but according to Lang, the third or middle seta of the second segment is always finer than the others, nonplumose, usually shorter than the outer setae, and always shorter than the inner setae. This seta in the new Alaskan species reductus is not modified or reduced, being plumose and of similar stoutness to the other setae in both sexes. The occurrence of this character in 2 species so distinct as reductus gives strength to its importance as a specific differentiation between baikalensis and schmeili, a point which Lang questioned. NOVEMBER 1956 In comparing reductus with the other two known species, the most obvious difference is the lack of the endopods of legs 2-4, an unusual character in free-living copepods and not pre- viously known in the Canthocamptidae. Such a lack has been recorded in the Harpacticoida for two other genera, Paranannopus (family Cleto- didae) and Leptopsyllus (family Parameso- chridae). The endopods of these legs in Paracamptus are reduced in segmentation, size and armature, but the forms that have been described have shown no indication of inter- mediate conditions leading to the complete loss of the endopod. If one were dealing with only a single specimen, a single sex, or a collection from a single lake, it might be suspected that an anomalous condition exists. But all the specimens examined lack the endopods, and the species is known from two widely separated lakes of different drainage systems. Possibly the strongest reason for not regarding this condition as anom- alous is the fact that the endopods are lacking not only in the female, but also on legs 2 and 4 of the male, although the modified copulatory endopod of the third leg is normally and strongly developed. Additional evidence that the complete loss of the endopod is normal for this species, is found in the second basal segment, which is likewise reduced. This is shown clearly in figure 8. The inner portion of the basal segment is slanted abruptly upwards just beyond the spinous point which is present between the exopod and endopod in all Paracamptus. That the minute setae present in the female may be regarded as remnants of the endopod is suggested by their position just WILSON: HARPACTICOID COPEPODS dol beyond this spinous point where the endopod would normally be attached. Even if the endopods were normally developed, P. reductus has other characters which would separate it from batkalensis or from any of the forms of schmeili. The caudal ramus is shaped much like that of typical schmeili, but the arma- ture apparently differs in part. In reductus, there is a basal crest of strong spines instead of hairs. The longitudinal row of spmules running from the base of the dorsal seta to the apex of the ramus in both sexes of reductus has not been shown in any figures of schmeili. The great length of the outer apical seta of the endopod of the first leg may be peculiar to reductus; the reduced inner seta present in reductus is usually absent in schmeili. The fifth legs of both sexes differ from schmeili in that the third seta of the second segment is similar to the other setae. The basal portion of this leg in the female of reductus differs from both schmeili and baikalensis in the prominent production of the outer portion bearing the first two setae. The endopod of leg 3 of the male has a single apical seta in schmetli and the presence of two apical setae in reductus appears to constitute a further distinction of the new species. LITERATURE CITED Lane, Karu. Monographie der Harpacticiden, 2 vols.: 1683 pp. Stockholm, 1948. Wiuson, Mitprep Srrarron. North American harpacticoid copepods 1. Comments on_ the known fresh-water species of the Canthocampti- dae. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc. 75(3): 290-307, illus. 1956. SE GRANTS-IN-AID The Committee on Grants-in-Aid for Research wishes to remind Academy members that the Academy has a few hundred dollars available to aid those engaged in research. The sum is not large but is adequate to supply special equipment or supplies needed in research. The funds are advanced to the Academy by the AAAS and are available to high-school students, college students at the undergraduate or graduate level, and to instructors. Requests should be addressed to either Dr. H. Specht, of the National Institutes of Health, or to the under- signed. Water J. HAMER Chairman, Committee on Grants-in-Aid for Research 352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. in MAMMALOGY —Litile-known reference to name of a harbor seal. Victor B. Scuerrer, U. 8. Fish and Wildlife Service. (Communicated by Herbert | Friedmann.) (Received September 12, 1956) About 1950, we received from its author correctly elsewhere in the paper] var. a reprint of an article in Japanese, as follows: InuKAl, Trersuo. Hair seals (azarashi) in our northern waters [i.e., Japanese waters]. Shokubutsu oyobi Dobutsu [Botany and Zoology|, Yokando, Tokyo, 10 (10): 927— 932, text figs. 1-5 [fig. 1 in 2 parts], 1 Octo- ber; no. 11, p. 1025-1030, text figs. 6-7, 1 November. 1942. [In the reprint, no. 10, is part 1, p. 37-42; no. 11 is part 2, p. 41-46.] Among materials brought back by Ford Wilke, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, from the National Resources Section, General Headquarters, Supreme Commander for Allied Powers, Tokyo, about 1950, is a translation of Inukai’s article, translator’s name not shown. We quote excerpts, as follows: “T think these four species [ribbon seal, bearded seal, rmged seal, and harbor seal| are enough for the hair seal classification [to date]...In addition I tell you that another species ‘zenigata-azarashi’ is recog- nizable besides the above four”’ (p. 928). “This species appears black as a whole and people call it ‘Kuro’—black. It has spots all over the body, white ones about 3 em. long and 1 cm. wide which have coin-shaped black spots inside them. These coin-shaped spots look like the spots of the ‘fuiri-aza- rashi’ [quite certainly the ringed seal, Phoca hispida}, clear on the back and dim on the belly (fig. 4). The body size is almost the same as ‘gomafu-azarashi’ [quite cer- tainly the harbor seal, Phoca vitulina] but many of them are rather small. They live mostly in the southern Kuriles and their distribution is limited to a small area on the Pacific coast. Their western limit is Erimo Zaki [southeastern Hokkaido], the eastern limit is northern Kuriles. Their skulls resem- ble ‘gomafu’ and they live with them except during the breeding season. I think they are a variation of the ‘gomafu’. Their actions are faster than ‘gomafu’; their legs are larger; they run away very quickly. I suggest Phoca uochotensis {read ochotensis; certainly a typesetter’s error, since the name is spelled kurilensis for this species. Occasionally, skins that appear intermediate between those are found in the southern Kuriles (fig. 5). (This paragraph, including figs. 4 and 5, on p. 930.) Fig. 4 represents the flat skin of a male, locality not specified. In our opinion, the pattern is that of a dark harbor seal, P. vitulina. Fig. 5 represents the flat skin of a male, apparently a medium-dark harbor seal. No measurements of body or skull for “zenigata’’ are given. No specimens were reported saved. Farther along in his paper (pp. 930-1026) Inukai gives certain biological data for “zenigata.’’ In a commercial catch of seals from the southern Kuriles from early July to early September, there were 139 harbor seals, 42 ringed seals, and 21 ‘‘zenigata’’. The copulating season for “zenigata”’ is said to be in mid-June, a little later than for the habor seals. This information, if true, would be extremely difficult to obtain. It indicates, however, that ‘“‘zenigata” are adults and that the name is not a collective one for subadults. Pups are born with yellowish- white, long, downy hair—characteristic both of ringed and harbor seals. Mother seals carrying young on their backs are seen around Erimo Zaki in May—an observation which might be made both of rimged and harbor seals. “ ‘Zenigata’...seems to have the same food habits as ‘gomafw’ ” . We take this to mean that “zenigata’’ feeds, like the harbor seal, on fish, squid, octopus, and larger shellfish, rather than like the rmged seal on macroplankton. We call attention to the name P. kurilensis since it does not appear in the Zoological Record or in Ellerman and Morrison-Scott’s “Check List of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946.’ Pending further study, we suggest that P. kurilensis be regarded as one of the approximately ten synonyms of Phoca vitulina largha Pallsa, 1811. NOVEMBER 1956 MOCKFORD AND GURNEY: REVIEW OF PSOCIDS 353 ENTOMOLOGY.—A review of the psocids, or book-lice and bark-lice, of Texas (Psocoptera).! Epwarp L. Mocxrorp, University of Illinois, and AsHiny B. Gurney, U.S. Department of Agriculture. (Received August 8, 1956) The psocids (Psocoptera) are one of the minor orders of insects, with only about 145 species recorded from the United States. Their obscure habits, small size, and limited importance are probably responsible for their nearly complete neglect by all but a very few entomologists, and it is probable that intensive study will double the number of known Nearctic species. This paper is designed to lay a foundation for future work on the psocids of Texas. The principal specimens on which this report is based were secured by the junior author in 1951, when he visited Texas in company with O. L. Cartwright and, between September 18 and October 8, collected insects at about 55 localities in the eastern, central, and southern parts of the State. In addition to reporting on this collection, we have included information on other available Texas material, and pre- vious records in the literature are also summarized. It should be realized that the 1951 trip was only a beginning of a survey of the psocid fauna of the State as a whole, since it covered less than a third of Texas in a very hurried manner at one season of the year, and the beating of foliage was the chief collecting method utilized. The biotic provinces and physiographic regions of Texas are quite varied, and future collecting probably will disclose many additional species. Several publications on ‘Texas natural areas may be helpful to future stu- dents. Blair (1950) described six principal biotic provinces, these representing some modifications of Dice’s (1943) results and a considerable advance over Bailey’s (1905) grouping, which consisted of traditional life zones based largely on temperature. Taylor (1945) and Russell (1945) have con- tributed other general works dealing with 1 Field work by the junior author was sup- ported in part by a grant from the Penrose Fund of the American Philosophical Society. factors that influence the distribution of animals of Texas. The largest number of specimens taken in 1951 were beaten from folage into a black umbrella, picked from the umbrella with a camel-hair brush dipped in alcohol, and placed in 70-percent alcohol. Others were found under bark, and a few were attracted to lights at night. Sifting ground litter and examining the outer surface of tree trunks were methods little utilized, though usually these are helpful and should be used in future psocid collecting. In general, psocids did not appear abundant until the Rio Grande Valley from Mission eastward was reached, and the very dry conditions over most of the State in 1951 may have been partly responsible for their scarcity. From Mission to Brownsville and along the east coast, palm trees, espe- cially Washingtonia filifera Wendl. (intro- duced, probably from California), harbored many psocids. The dead fronds of un- trimmed Washingtonia trees were excellent psocid habitats, especially the lower sur- faces of the more apical portions. Special mention should be made of the stands of the sabal or palmetto, Sabal tecana Becc., near Brownsville. Originally there were extensive groves of the sabal on the delta about the mouth of the Rio Grande. Now, except for scattered remnants throughout the delta and extending as far north of Brownsville as Olmito, and about 80 miles west from the Gulf, native stands are largely restricted to the Southmost and Rabb “bends” of the Rio Grande, located about 6 to 12 miles southeast of downtown Brownsville. Several very profitable visits were made in 1951 to that portion of the Rabb Grove, which is owned by Mlrs. R. M. McCormick, about 7 mules east- southeast of Brownsville. A full account of the sabal, with special reference to the eroves at Southmost, isthat of Davis (1942); an earlier review is by Small (1927), and 304 Bailey (1944) has revised the group. This area south and southeast of Brownsville is the most nearly tropical portion of Texas, though there is a fairly severe frost about every 6 to 10 years, and light frosts are not rare. Although several plants and animals of the area are essentially tropical species, the area can not be con- sidered part of the true Tropical Zone. A valuable summary of the plants and zonal affinities is by Clover (1937). The commer- cial growing of bananas and other tropical fruits is impossible in view of the occasional killing frosts. One of the most severe freezes, with temperatures below 19° F., occurred in early 1951, and is reviewed by Gunter and Hildebrand (1951). Goldman (1951, pp. 259-267) described Matamoros and nearby areas of northern Tamaulipas as Lower Austral, though invaded by some Arid Upper Tropical Subzone elements. Students of broad distributional problems may be assisted by Galtsoff, et al. (1954). The pioneer worker on Texas psocids was Frank Aaron (1862-1947), of Phila- delphia, Pa., whose life was reviewed by Calvert (1947). Aaron made a hunting trip on the plains of southwestern Texas when 16 years old. He collected Texas insects extensively in 1884, and it was probably then that he collected the five psocids he described in 1886. He discussed (1884) collecting insects, evidently mostly Lepi- doptera, in the vicinity of Corpus Christi, visiting “heavy bottom lands,” the coastal area, and “many broad pastures.’’? He also made a wagon trip, for collecting purposes, of over 100 miles along the coast north of Corpus Christi. While we have not seen all the type series of his species, which are preserved in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, several specimens have been examined and found to bear no collecting data except a simple label, ‘““Tex.”’ Many natural habitats visited by Aaron probably have been greatly altered by agri- cultural and industrial developments; Cook (1908) has dealt with such changes in Texas. Nathan Banks (1868-1953), for many years the only American student of psocids, described five psocids from Texas, and JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES others described by him doubtless will be found in the State eventually, in addition to some here recorded for the first time. P. J. Chapman (1930), in what was the first _ thoroughly modern important systematic work on Nearctic psocids, contributed very few Texas records additional to citing the Aaron and Banks types. Neither Chapman himself, nor C. R. Crosby and §S. C. Bishop, who elsewhere in the United States were extensive collectors of material studied by Chapman, are mentioned as the collectors of any Texas psocids. The beginning student of psocids is ad- vised to consult such general works as Badonnel (1943, 1951) and Borrow and DeLong (1954). For identification of mate- rial Chapman’s paper (1930) is quite basic for the genera he treated, and there is a growing list of recent revisionary works. The classification of families and higher groups in this paper follows that used by Badonnel (1951). Faunal affinities: Of the 47 species men- tioned in this paper, 15 are generally dis- tributed throughout the eastern half of the United States. These are as follows: Echmep- teryx hageni, Trogium pulsatorium, Psyllipso- cus ramburi, Lachesilla forcepeta, L. major, L. nubilis, L. pedicularia, Ectopsocopsis pumilis, Pertpsocus madidus, Psocus pollu- tus, P. bisignatus, Trichadenotecnum unum, Cerastipsocus venosus, Metylophorus purus, and Blaste quieta. Of these, three are com- monly spread by commerce and are found on both sides of the Atlantic. Trogium pul- satorrum was with little doubt introduced into Texas by commerce since it is exclu- sively domestic in North America. Lache- silla pedicularia may be native to both Europe and North America, since it occurs commonly in both domestic and outdoor habitats in both continents. Psyllipsocus ramburu was probably introduced from Europe into domestic situations in North America, but it may be native to caves in Texas. It has not been recorded from as far south as Texas in dwellings, and the Texas specimens differ slightly in appearance from northern domestic material. Badonnel (1955) has recorded it from a cave in Angola. Two species were probably introduced into Texas by commerce but are scarce in VOL. 46, No. 11. NOVEMBER 1956 North America generally. These are Ectopso- cus richards: and Lepinotus reticulatus. E. richardsi is not recorded in the North American literature; both the Texas speci- mens and material taken in Florida by the senior author were from domestic habitats. It has also been found in large numbers in a Boston (Mass.) warehouse. L. reticulatus has been recorded from only two other North American localities (Gurney, 1949). Cerobasis guestfalica, taken at one Texas locality, is probably native to North Amer- ica as well as Europe. It is generally dis- tributed throughout the western States (Colorado, Utah, California, Washington, Arizona) and has been found at one Florida locality (unpublished records of senior author). Twelve Texas species show a definite tropical affinity. These include the species of Rhyopsocus, Tapinella, and Archipsocus, Pseudocaecilius citricola, Pseudoseopsis hell- mani Pesocathropos sp., and Psyllipsocus oculatus. The first five genera of this list are largely tropical and reach their northern limit around the Gulf of Mexico and up the southeastern Atlantic Coast. Tapinella has not previously been recorded in the North American literature. Psyllipsocus oculatus was previously of uncertain locality as the holotype was found on plants from Mexico at a quarantine station at Laredo, Tex. The family Amphientomidae, represented in Texas by Pseudoseopsis hellmant, n. sp., has not previously been recorded from the United States. It is well represented in tropical South America, Africa, and India. The genus Pseudoseopsis contains only one other species, P. vilhenat Badonnel from Angola. The generic assignment of the Texas species is tentative, and collection of additional material may show that a new genus is desirable for it. Acknowledgments: The 1951 trip of the junior author was greatly aided by a grant from the Penrose Fund of the American Philosophical Society. He is also grateful for cooperation and courtesies receirved _ during the trip from the following ento- mologists at the places mentioned: O. P. Breland (Austin); L. J. Bottimer, C. L. Smith (Kerrville); J. B. R. Leary (Laredo); MOCKFORD AND GURNEY: REVIEW OF PSOCIDS 309 Paul C. Avery (Mission); F. A. Allen, R. A. Alexander, O. D. Deputy, R. B. Lattimore, C. H. Wallis, A. L. Wiliamson (Browns- ville). Laboratory facilities and/or assist- ance in reaching collecting localities at Kerrville, Laredo, Mission, and Browns- ville were generously provided by workers of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture. Dr. B. C. Tharp, of the University of Texas, and Mrs. L. Irby Davis, of Harlingen, Tex., have since been of much assistance concern- ing the distribution of Sabal texana. Suborder TrocromorPuHa Roesler Group ATROPETAE Pearman Family Leprpopsocipar Enderlein Echmepteryx hageni (Packard) Amphientomum hagent Packard, 1870, p. 405; Echmepteryx agilis Aaron, 1886, p. 17; Kch- mepteryx hagent (Parkard) Enderlein, 1906, p. 320; id., Mockford 1955, p. 438. Bil Ten miles west of Orange, Oct. 8, 1951, beating oaks, 1 9, A. B. Gurney. Family Troaimpar Enderlein Lepinotus reticulatus Enderlein Lepinotus reticulatus HWnderlein, 1905, p. 31; 7d., Gurney, 1949, p. 63. Kerrville, Sept. 21, 1951, in floor litter of chicken house, 1 @, A. B. Gurney. Trogium pulsatorium (Linnaeus) Termes pulsatorius Linnaeus, 1758, p. Synonymy discussed by Gurney, 1939. 610. Corpus Christi, Aug. 1945, from house, 9 ¢, 4 nymphs, F. R. DuChanois. Cerobasis guestfalica (Kolbe) Hyperetes guestfalicus Kolbe, 1880, p. 132 (original description examined). The spelling of guestfalica agrees with the femi- nine gender of Cerobasis, unlike lapidarius as given by Badonnel (1955, p. 32). The combina- tion C. muraria used by Kolbe (1882, p. 212) also agrees. Cerobasis 1s comparable in gender to Goniobasis (shown as feminine by Brown, 1954, p. 124). Generic synonymy has been discussed by Gurney (1949) and given earlier by Roesler (1944, p. 131). Kerrville State Park, Sept. 20, 1951, 7 ¢, 3 nN nymphs; Kerrville: U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 11 Rhyopsocus squamosus Pseudoseopsis’ hellmani Fias. 1-4.—Rhyopsocus squamosus, n. sp., male: 1, Front wing; 2, hind wing; 3, tip of lacinia; 4, parameres. Fras. 5-18.—Pseudoseopsis hellmani, nu. sp., female: 5, Front wing; 6, hind wing; 7, front wing, showing pattern of scales; 8, 9, scales of wing membrane; 10, scale from margin of wing; 11, la- cinia; 12, maxillary palpus; 13, spines of row on front femur; 14, tarsal claw; 15, subgenital plate; 16, gonapophyses; 17, plate of opening of spermathecal duct; 18, sclerotization beside spermatheca. NOVEMBER 1956 Laboratory, Sept. 21, 1951, beating cedars, 5 2, 3 nymphs. Both collections by A. B. Gurney. Family PsoquiLuipAE Pearman Rhyopsocus bentonae Sommerman Rhyopsocus bentonae Sommerman, 1956, p. 146. Corpus Christi, Oct. 6, 1951, beating palms, 1 o,1 9, A.B. Gurney. Rhyopsocus phillipsae Sommerman Rhyopsocus phillipsae Sommerman, 1956, p. 146. Ten miles west of Orange, Oct. 8, 1951, beating oaks, 1 @, A. B. Gurney. Rhyopsocus squamosus, n. sp. Figs. 1-4 Diagnosis.—Differs from R. speciophilus dis- partlis (Pearman), and presumably R. s. specio- philus (Enderlein), in smaller size (body length of that species 1.4 mm) and relatively shorter wings. Differs from R. afer (Badonnel) in paler color of head and thorax, relatively shorter wings, and in details of male genitalia. Differs from R. bentonae Sommerman in microptery and in de- tails of male genitalia. Differs from R. phillipsae Sommerman in lack of abdominal tergal lobes of male, genitalic details, and shorter wings. Holotype o&.—Measurements: Total body length 1.17 mm; forewing length 0.37 mm; hind tibia length 0.20 mm; hind tarsus: T; 0.13 mm, T, 0.04 mm, T3 0.04 mm. Morphology.—Brachypterous; forewings ex- tending to about half length of abdomen and showing very faint venation (Fig. 1). Hindwings (Fig. 2) slightly longer than metathorax. [O/D = 1.62; PO/D? = 0.50. Anteroposterior diameter of eye 0.173 mm. Epicranial and frontal sutures present. Ocelli absent. Lacinia (Fig. 3) of usual type for the genus. Terminal segment of maxillary palpus clavate. Thoracic nota of the short-winged type with no prominent lobes. All tibiae with 2 It is not clear from Badonnel’s explanation of PO (Badonnel, 1955, p. 18) exactly what is meant. As stated, it is a simple linear measure- ment which should be expressed in units and which would not show the prominence of the eye. In the text of Badonnel’s paper, no units accom- pany the figures. Figures of comparable size, and which do express the prominence of the eye fairly satisfactorily are obtained by dividing the trans- verse diameter by the anteroposterior diameter (both measurements taken in dorsal view of the need) Our figures for PO/D were obtained in this manner. MOCKFORD AND GURNEY: REVIEW OF PSOCIDS 307 three terminal spurs. Hypandrium unmodified. Parameres (Fig. 4) long, slender, diverging ante- riorly. Sclerites of the penis canal complex, lack- ing denticles. Paraprocts each with a strong spine near inner margin and several cilia apparently lacking basal rosettes. Color (from paratype in alcohol).—Eyes black; three brown pigment spots in ocellar positions; a few other tiny brown spots in front, otherwise head, body, and appendages pale straw-colored. Type locality—Texas, Olmito Resaca, near Brownsville, holotype &, 1 paratype, <@, 1 nymph, Oct. 4, 1951, on vegetation, A. B. Gurney. Types in U.S. National Museum, no. 62261. Discussion.—This species is considered a bra- chypterous Rhyopsocus because its hind wings and lack of ocelli exclude it from the genera Hosilla Rib. and Hmpheriella Enderlein, and its Rhyop- socus-type lacinia exclude it from Balliella Badon- nel. We consider Detpnopsocus Enderlein and Rhyopsocopsis Pearman (new synonymy) syno- nyms of Rhyopsocus Hagen. Deipnopsocus has already been placed in synonymy by Badonnel (1949, p. 29). Rhyopsocus texanus (Banks) Deipnopsocus tecanus Banks, 1930, p. 223. Type locality, Brownsville. This species can- not be recognized from the original description. It is discussed by Sommerman (1956). The type is in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cam- bridge, Mass. Group PsocaTROPETAE Pearman Family Psyiurpsocrpar Enderlein Psyllipsocus ramburii Selys-Longchamps Psyllipsocus ramburit Selys-Longchamps, 1872, p 146. Synonymy listed by Gurney, 1943. Sonora, Wyatt Cave, July 28, 1926, 1 9; Hayes County: San Marcos, Sept. 15, 1953, under rocks in entrance to Ezel’s Cave, 5 @, 2 nymphs, E. L. Mockford. Psyllipsocus oculatus Gurney Figs. 52-53 Psyllipsocus oculatus Gurney 1948, p. 214. The female of this species, previously unde- scribed, is similar to the male in size and color. The gonapophyses (Fig. 53) differ from those of the other mentary internal valve. American species in possessing a rudi- 308 Mission, Sept. 30, 1951, beating palms, 1 o, 1 9, A. B. Gurney. Psocathropos sp. This species was discussed by Gurney (1949) as P. lachlant Ribaga, but until more information is available it may be best to avoid applying that specific name to our United States popula- tion. We are using Ribaga’s original spelling of the generic name. Houston, in house, July 26, 1941, M. Cockrell, 8 %,2 2,2 nymphs; Brownsville, on loose paper in laboratory, Oct. 3, 1951, A. B. Gurney, 1 9; Brownsville, in house, Oct. 31, 1951, F. A. Allen, 3 4,1 2, 2 nymphs. Suborder TrocromoreHa Roesler Group AMPHIENTOMETAE Pearman Family AMPHIENTOMIDAE Enderlein Pseudoseopsis hellmani, n. sp. Figs. 5-18 Diagnosis.—Differs from the African species P. vilhenat Badonnel in presence of ocelli and in shape of the gonapophyses of segment 9. Holotype @.—Measurements: Total body length 2.83 mm; forewing length 2.73 mm; hind- wing length 2.23 mm; hind tibia length 1.07 mm; hind tarsus: T, 0.67 mm, T, 0.107 mm, T; 0.107 mm. Morphology (from holotype and paratypes).— Eyes bare, their posterior margins coinciding with the straight posterior margin of the vertex viewed from above. Three distinct ocelli located far apart, the laterals immediately beyond and below ends of frontal sutures and near compound eyes. An- tennae of 12 segments, the basal flagellar seg- ments quite long. Numerous indistinct striae on all flagellar segments, very close together toward the tip. Maxillary palpi covered with tiny hairs, interspersed with larger hairs arranged roughly in rows encircling the segments. Second segment showing three papillae (sensillae?) on one palpus of a paratype, only one on the other palpus; third segment somewhat shorter than second and fourth. Lacinia as in Fig. 11, slightly curved near tip. Forewing (Fig. 5) with a slightly extended apex, the extended portion actually rounded. Distal portion of Sc distinct. Scales of membrane mostly short and wide with the apex truncate (Fig. 8), but some quite slender (Fig. 9). Marginal scales slender; some extremely slender with the JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 46, No. IL apex slightly emarginate (Fig. 10). Hind wing with acute apex; vein R,; nearly reaching wing margin; vein Ax strongly curved. Scales mostly slender; some marginal scales extremely long and slender with emarginate apices. Anterior femur with a row of 25 spines (Fig. 18) with wide bases, not articulated. Other spination of legs summarized in Table 1. Twenty-two cte- nidiobothria on T, of hind leg. A small comb run- ning to the claw at apex of T; of each leg. Claw with single preapical tooth and a row of tiny hairs ventrally (Fig. 14). Gemtalia and terminalia.—Subgenital plate (Fig. 15) with a sclerotized process. Gonapophy- ses (Fig. 16): ventral valve long, slender, acumi- nate apically with a sclerotized inner edge; dorsal valve acuminate apically; lobes of external valve rounded apically. Sclerite of spermathecal open- ing (Fig. 17) and sclerite beside spermatheca (Fig. 18) as illustrated. Epiproct and paraprocts covered with long, slender hairs; paraprocts each with a field of hairs with basal rosettes. Scale color pattern (from dry specimens).— Head except eyes covered with slender, curved pale-gray scales. Mesonotum covered with short, wide white scales. Femora covered with dirty- gray and brown scales; fore and middle tibiae TABLE 1.—SPINATION OF LEGS IN PSEUDOSEOPSIS HELLMANI Number of spines on— Resion "<8 |Prothoracic eee Metathoracic leg Femur None 1 lateral 1 lateral apex 1 curved, | 1 curved, external external Body of None 1,14 dis- | External—1, 4 from base tibia tance 1, 28 from base from 2, 34 from base base 2, 48 from base 1 near Lateral 1, &8 from base apex Internal 1, % from base 2, 68 from base 2, 4% from base Tibia apex | 1 5 6 First tarsal) 3 near 3 near 3 near apex, ventral segment apex, apex, 2 apical, ventral ventral ventral 2 apical, 2 apical, ventral ventral Second 1 apical, 2 apical, 1 apical, ventral tarsal ventral ventral segment Third None None None tarsal segment NOvEMBER 1956 MOCKFORD AND GURNEY: REVIEW OF PSOCIDS 359 20 2i Tapinella maculata a 7 | a Wl ce Caecilius palmarum Caecilius caloclypeus 5. 19-24.—Tapinella maculata, n. sp., female; 25-26, same, male: 19, Front wing; 20, hind wing; Fries 19 24 5 I ) ? >] ) d ? =) 21, tips of laciniae; 22, gonapophyses; 23, subgenital plate; 24, epiproct and paraproct; 20, ; sterior margin o h abdominal tergite. Fras. 27-32.—Caectlius palmarum, D. sp. hallic frame; 26, post f 9th abd 1 tergite. Fras. 27-382.—C l pal p., ale: wing; 28, hind wing; tip of mandible; 30, tip of lacinia; 31, gonapophyses; 32. female: 27, Front ; 28, hind g; 29, tip of lible; 30, tip of 1 31, s pophy 2 subgenital plate. Fras. 33-38.—Caecilius caloclypeus, n. sp., female: 33, Front wing; 34, hind wing; 35, tip of lacinia; 36, tip of mandible; 37, gonapophyses; 38, subgenital plate. 360 covered with brown scales except for an apical band of white scales on each. Hind tibia with a basal, medial, and apical band of white scales, the remainder covered with brown scales. Tarsi: each T; with an apical band of dirty white scales, the remainders covered with brown scales. Fore- wings marked with a complex pattern of gray and white scales (Fig. 7); in areas of white scales adjacent to the wing margin, the long marginal scales are white. Hind wings not visible on the dry specimens. Scales very sparse on abdomen. Type locality —Texas, Ezel’s Cave (near San Marcos, Hayes County), holotype 2,4 @ para- types and 2 nymphs, Sept. 15, 1953, on limestone outcrop at mouth of cave, R. E. Hellman and E. L. Mockford. Holotype and one paratype in U.S. National Museum, no. 63276; remaining paratypes in E. L. Mockford Collection. Discussion.—We have chosen the following characters as important for generic diagnosis in the Amphientomidae: (1) Shape of forewing apex, (2) nature of spines in row on femur I (they may be numerous, wide, and unarticulated, or few, slender, and articulated), (3) number of preapical teeth on tarsal claws, (4) curvature of lacinia, (5) shape of scale apices and pattern of striation on scales, and (6) presence or absence, and size and number of sensory cones on second segment of maxillary palpi. The Texas species agrees with the genotype of Pseudoseopsis in four of these characters, whereas it agrees with no other closely related genus in more than three. It is also very similar to P. vilhenai in general shape of the wings. This species is named for Robert E. Hellman, of New York City, a herpetologist and former classmate of the senior author at the University of Florida. His companionship and aid on many field trips, including the one on which the type series of this species was taken, are gratefully acknowledged. Group NaNnopsoceTAr Pearman Family LiposceLrpar Enderlein Genus Liposcelis Motschulsky Dr. Kathryn M. Sommerman has very kindly examined our material in this genus and informs us (in litt.) that it contains five species, three of which are described as new in a paper which she has in press. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 46, No. 11 Family Pacuytrroctipar Enderlein Tapinella maculata, n. sp. Figs. 19-24 Diagnosis.—Ditiers from T. formosana Ender- lein and Psylloneura williamsi Banks (probably a Tapinella) in color, these species being pale yel- low-brown, unmarked. Differs from 7. castanea Pearman, 7’. africana Badonnel, 7. squamosa Badonnel, and 7’. curvata Badonnel also in color, these species being largely dark brown. Holotype °.—Macropterous. Measurements: Total body length 1.60 mm; forewing length 1.40 mm; hindwing length 1.07 mm; hind tibia length 0.53 mm; hind tarsus: T, 0.24 mm, T» 0.05 mm, T; 0.07 mm. Morphology.—Compound eyes not exceeding posterior margin of head. Epicranial and frontal sutures distinct. Ocellar triangle slightly nearer clypeus than posterior margin of head. Suture between clypeus and front straight when viewed from above. Mouthparts of usual type for the group. Lacinia slender, tridentate at apex (Fig. 21). Maxillary palpi lacking specialized sensory spines. Antennae of 15 segments which are sec- ondarily ringed from the distal half of F; outward to the tip. Wings unmarked. Venation of usual form for the genus; closed cell absent in hind wing. Abdomen completely membranous, includ- ing genitalia. Gonapophyses as in Fig. 22, closely associated with an appendage from the paraproct, shown under the external valve in the figure. Sub- genital plate bearing T-shaped sclerite with arms long and curved. Color (in aleohol).— Ground color cream, eyes black. A pale red-brown band from each com- pound eye through base of antenna to about mid- point of clypeus, the two bands meeting there. An irregular dark red-brown band on each side of thorax just above coxal insertions. Abdomen marked with six series of red-brown spots from segments | through 8 (one spot in each series per segment): two dorsal series of rather pale spots wider than long, a paired dorso-lateral series of dark U-shaped spots with open ends of U-s di- rected posteriorly, and a paired ventro-lateral series of spots longer than wide. Allotype #.—Apterous. Measurements: Total body length, 1.13 mm; hind tibia length 0.40 mm; hind tarsus: T, 0.13 mm, T, 0.05 mm, T3 0.07 mm. Differs from holotype in smaller size, aptery and associated characters of absence of ocelli and flat notal lobes, and absence of frontal sutures. Geni- talia as in Fig. 25. NOVEMBER 1956 Variation Some female paratypes are apter- ous, lack ocelli, and lack all trace of subdivisions of the pterothoracic tergites (in macropterous forms each pterothoracic tergite is composed of a trilobed scutum and separate scutellum); these have only a trace of frontal sutures. Among alate females much variation exists in details of vena- tion; it is seldom bilaterally symmetrical. Varia- tions observed are: (1) A closed cell in hind wing at point of first branching of the main vein, (2) radial branch in hindwing disconnected from main vein, (3) a closed cell in forewing formed by presence of two R-M crossveins, (4) Rs in fore- wing 3-branched, (5) Cus in forewing set at angle of Cu stem, (6) R + M in forewing joined at a point. Type locality —Texas, Mission, holotype 9°, allotype #, 2 paratypes, 7 alate 2 paratypes, 20 apterous © paratypes, and 5 nymphs, Sept. 30, 1951, on palm leaves, A. B. Gurney. Other paratypes—Texas, Palm Grove near Brownsville, 5 apterous 2, 1 nymph (not paratype), Oct. 2 and 3, 1951, beating palm leaves; Olmito Resaca, 1 apterous 2, 1 nymph (not paratype), Oct. 4, 1951, beating vegetation; all collected by A. B. Gurney. Types in U.S. National Museum, no. 62264. Tapinella sp. A single female taken at Weslaco on dead palm leaves, Oct. 1, 1951, differs from 7’. maculata in its uniform straw-brown color (slightly darker on head and terminal abdominal segments). It is probably a new species since the arms of the T- shaped sclerite are longer than in 7’. maculata. Suborder PsocomorpHa Weber Group CaEcrILipTtar Pearman Family Carcriiupar Enderlein Caecilius palmarum, n. sp. Figs. 27-32 Diagnosis—A pale yellow species, differing from the other North American species with that coloration (C. aurantiacus (Hagen), C. manteri Sommerman, C. sommermanae Mockford) in be- ing marked with a brown band longitudinally through the vertex, front, and clypeus. Head and wings narrower than in these other species. Holotype @.—Measurements: Total body length 2.67 mm; forewing length 2.57 mm; hind- wing length 1.87 mm; hind tibia length 0.90 mm; hind tarsus: T; 0.267 mm, T, 0.107 mm. MOCKFORD AND GURNEY: REVIEW OF PSOCIDS 361 Morphology —I0/D = 1.28. Lacinia with a slender, blunt tip (Fig. 30). Tip of mandible bear- ing a hooked tooth. Wing venation and ciliation normal fer the genus. A long fusion of Rs and M in both fore and hind wings. Gonapophyses (Fig. 31) straight with slender tips. Subgenital plate (Fig. 32) with sclerotized area in the form of a pair of slender, converging bands visible after staining. Color (in alcohol).—Eyes black. Antennae, anal veins, and veins of apical one-third of fore- wing straw colored. Rest of body pale yellow except for a pale brown band from immediately anterior to occiput on vertex to lower border of clypeus, and pale brown lateral areas on thoracic tergal lobes. Type locality —Texas, Olmito Resaca, 9 miles north of Brownsville, holotype @°, 50 @ para- types, and 57 nymphs, Oct. 4, 1951, beating palms and palmettoes, A. B. Gurney. Other para- types (not including nymphs), Palm Grove near Brownsville, 14 2, numerous nymphs, October 1 and 3, 1951, beating dead leaves, Gurney & Allen; western outskirts of Corpus Christi, 70 2, 24 nymphs, Oct. 6, 1951, beating palm leaves, A. B. Gurney. Types in U. 8. National Museum, no. 63237. Caecilius calocylpeus, n. sp. Figs. 33-38 Diagnosis.—A_ pale-yellow species, differing from the other North American species with that coloration in that the only conspicuous body marks are several pairs of clypeal striations. Holotype @.—Measurements: Total body length 2.93 mm; forewing length 2.87 mm, hind- wing length 2,13 mm; hind tibia length 1.07 mm; hind tarsus: T, 0.267 mm; T, 0.107 mm. Morphology —lO/D = 1.57. Lacinia rounded at tip. Tip of mandible bearing a straight tooth. Wing venation and ciliation normal for the genus. A short fusion of both Rs and M in both fore and hind wings. Gonapophyses (Fig. 37) a pair of curved blades; valve of 9th bearing a stout basal seta. Subgenital plate (Fig. 38) with sclerotized area as a pair of converging bands, wider than in C. palmarum, visible after staming. Color (in alcohol). fore tibiae and tarsi, and veins in apical half of Eyes black. Antennae, forewing straw colored. Rest of body pale yellow except for seven pairs of purplish brown striae on clypeus and a faint purplish brown band on each 362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 11 42 Ectopsocus dimorphus 52 Psyllipsocus oculatus Lachesilla kathrynae a ee Se SS EE = t ii ae . je Ss pe ? N \y 1 48 Lachesilla bottimeri Fies. 39-40.—EKctopsocus dimorphus, n. sp., male; 41-48, same, female: 39, Apex of phallic frame (somewhat distorted) and penis sclerotizations; 40, ninth abdominal tergite with comb; 41, paraproct; 42, gonapophyses; 43, subgenital plate. Fras. 44-45.—Lachesilla kathrynae, n. sp., female; 46-47, same, male: 44, Subgenital plate; 45, gonapophysis; 46, epiproct; 47, hypandrium and parameres. Fries. 48- 49.—Lachesilla bottimeri, n. sp., female; 50-51, same, male: 48, Subgenital plate; 49, gonapophysis; 50, epiproct and paraproct; 51, hypandrium and parameres. Fras. 52-53.—Psyllipsocus oculatus Gurney, female: 52, paraproct and epiproct; 53, gonapophyses. (All drawings by the senior author.) NOVEMBER 1956 side running the length of the lateral prothoracic sclerites. Type locality—Texas, Palm Grove near Brownsville, holotype @ and 2 nymphs, Oct. 1, 1951, beating palms. Paratypes—Mission, 1 9, Sept. 30, 1951, beating palmate palms; Olmito Resaca near Brownsville, 1 ¢, Oct. 4, 1951, beating palms and palmettoes. All collected by A. B. Gurney. Types in U.S. National Museum, no. 63238. Group HomiLopsocipEA Pearman Family Pprrpsocipar Pearman Peripsocus madidus (Hagen) Psocus madidus Hagen, 1861, p. 12. Synonymy presented by Chapman, 1930. Bexar County, May 5, 1938, swept from peach, 4 9,14 9, 1 nymph. Ectopsocus richardsi (Pearman) Chaetopsocus richardsi Pearman, 1929, p. Ectopsocus richardsi Pearman, 1942, p. 290. 105; Houston, April 15, 1948, in stored rice, 3 &, 2 9, R. T. Cotton; Beaumont, July 18, 1936, cracks in floor in rice mill, 1 #,1 9, A. L. Balzer. Ectopsocus dimorphus, n. sp. Figs. 39-43 Diagnosis.—Very similar to EH. pearmani Ball of Belgian Congo, differing chiefly in shape of subgenital plate, the apical lobes being further apart in the present species; also differing slightly in several measurements. Males micropterous (nearly apterous) ; females dimorphic: macropter- ous and micropterous. - Holotype @.—Macropterous. Measurements: Total body length 1.43 mm; forewing length 1.40 mm; hindwing length 1.17 mm; hind tibia length 0.50 mm; hind tarsus: T, 0.187 mm, T, 0.080 mm. Morphology.—Epicranial and frontal sutures distinct. Eyes small but prominent. IO/D = 2.9; PO/D = 0.65; anteroposterior diameter of eye 0.133 mm. Vertex, front, and postclypeus covered with curved setae. Antenna somewhat shorter than forewing. Ratio of f; to Se-+P = 1.8; ratio of f; to fo +f; = 0.76. Eight ctenidiobothria on first segment of hind tarsus; none on that of middle tarsus. Stigma sack of normal length, rounded apically. In forewing R, meets M for a short dis- tance, or the two are connected by a short cross- vein. Hairs on wings restricted to stem of R, stem MOCKFORD AND GURNEY: REVIEW OF PSOCIDS 363 of M + Cu, and Ax in forewing; these hairs few and short. Gonapophyses (Fig. 42): internal valve very minute; ventral valve with spinulose apex; external valve a thumblike flap, mostly sclero- tized, bearing 10 setae distally. Subgenital plate (Fig. 43) bilobed apically, each lobe with several marginal setae. Paraprocts (Fig. 41) bearing four trichobothria and a median row of five setae; duplex spine of inner margin very minute. Color (in alcohol).—Eyes black. Body and ap- pendages generally tawny brown. Membranous portion of abdomen pale, ringed with brown (sub- cuticular pigment). Wings unmarked, slightly tawny. Allotype o&.—Micropterous. Measurements: Total body length 1.27 mm; hind tibia length 0.467 mm; hind tarsus: T; 0.147 mm, T. 0.080 mm. Differs from holotype in much smaller size and microptery; wings represented by two pairs of small fleshy lobes, each bearing a few bristles. IO/D = 2.2. PO/D = 0.6, anteroposterior diame- ter of eye 0.133 mm. Ocelli absent. Thoracic ter- gites of micropterous type, with large prothoracic tergite and pterothoracic tergites not divided into lobes. Similar in color to holotype, but abdominal rings more distinct. Hach abdominal tergite bearing a distinct row of bristles. Tergite 9 adorned with a comb of teeth (Fig. 40). Penis and parameres (Fig. 39) with external parameres rather far apart so that aedeagal arch is wide. Sclerotizations of penis consisting of a pair of rods spinose apically, a hook on each side externally (not symmetrical), and other small sclerites of the canal. Variation—Micropterous females occur with wing pads not reaching the abdomen. These have typical undivided thoracic tergites of the short- winged type, and ocelli represented by three small subcuticular pigment spots. Setae of the vertex, front, and postclypeus are somewhat shorter than in the macropterous forms. Type locality—Texas, Brownwood (Brown County), holotype @ and a large number of macropterous paratype ° 9 May 14, 1939, from peach, L. 8. Jones. Allotype &, Texas, Tyler, Nov. 24, 19389, on cover crop in peach orchard, associated with 4 micropterous @ paratypes and 2 nymphs, L. D. Christensen. Other paratypes Texas, Brownwood (Brown County), 1 macrop- terous ¢, March 26-27, 1939, from peach, L. 8. Jones; Bangs (Brown County), + macropterous 9, June 8, 1938, sweeping peach and cover crops, O64 Christensen et al.; Brown County, | micropterous 9, 2 macropterous ¢?, July 14, 1937, peach orchard, Turner & Anderson; Bexar County, 11 macropterous 2, May 5, 1938, on peach, W. R. Turner; same locality, | macropterous @, 6 mi- cropterous @, Nov. 23, 1938, on soil under grass and leaves in peach orchard, W. F. Turner; Dal- las, 1 macropterous 2°, May 25, 1939, on cane, W.G. Bruce; El Paso County, 7 micropterous @, July 22, 1937, on soil in peach orchard, Turner & Anderson. New Mexico, Albuquerque, 8 microp- terous 2, 1 @, 1 nymph, March 3, 1938, from soil, L. D. Christensen; same locality, 2 microp- terous @, December 9, 1939, from soil, L. D. Christensen. California, Cherry Valley, 3 ma- cropterous 2°, May 7, 1937, on peach and in soil, Christensen & Jones; Hemet, 1 &, 1 micropter- ous 2, Jan. 13, 1938, in soil, Christensen et al.; Los Angeles County, Ranger Station at west fork of San Gabriel River near Mount Wilson, eleva- tion 3,200 feet, 1 #, 1 micropterous 2, Sept. 9, 1953, in ground litter under California Live Oak, E. L. Mockford: Georgia, Decatur County, Woodruff Dam site near Florida line, 1 @, 1 micropterous 2, June 2, 1953, in ground litter on hillside in newly cleared field, E. L. Mockford. Holotype, allotype, and most of paratypes in U.S. National Museum, no. 63239. Ectopsocopsis pumilis (Banks) Peripsocus pumilis Banks, 1920, p. 313; Ectopsocus pumilis (Banks), Chapman, 1930, p. 380. Beaumont, Oct. 8, 1951, beating palms, and in rice straw near rice experiment station, 4 7,9 9; western outskirts of Corpus Christi, Oct. 6, 1951, beating palms, 3 2, 1 nymph; 9 miles north of Brownsville, Oct. 4, 1951, beating palms and palmettoes, 1 9, 2 nymphs. All collected by A. B. Gurney. The genus Ectopsocopsis has recently been de- scribed by Badonnel (1955, pp. 185, 193). Family PspupocarcrLiipaAE Pearman Pseudocaecilius citricola (Ashmead), n. comb. Psocus citricola Ashmead, 1879, p. 228; Caecilius pretiosus Banks, 1920, p. 311 (new synonymy); Pseudocaecilius wolcotti Banks, 1924, p. 423 (new synonymy); Pseudocaecilius pretiosus (Banks), Chapman, 1930, p. 332. San Antonio, 3 @ (holotype and paratypes of C. pretiosus Banks). Four specimens on paper points were found in JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vot. 46, No. 11 the U.S. National Museum which apparently are cotypes of Psocus citricola Ashmead. Each bears a printed label “Jacksonville, Fla.” and a hand- written label ‘“‘“Psocus citricola Ashm.” The writ- ing on the latter labels has been identified as that of Ashmead by A. B. Gahan, long a Hymenoptera specialist at the National Museum. Ashmead lived in Jacksonville when he published the de- scription of this species, and most of his collecting was done locally. From the dry specimens it can be seen that all are the same species, a Pseudo- caecilius. One, here selected as lectotype (U.S.- N.M. type no. 63247), has been soaked from its point in KOH solution and mounted on a slide for critical comparison with paratypes of pre- tiosus and wolcotti borrowed from the M.C.Z. Since no differences of specific magnitude have been noted in wing markings, venation, ciliation, measurements of head, wings, and hind legs, and number of ctenidiobothria on posterior T; (geni- talia can not be compared as none of the citricola specimens have abdomens), we regard the latter two forms as synonyms of citricola. Family LacuEstuuipaAE Badonnel Lachesilla forcepeta Chapman Lachesilla forcepeta Chapman, 1930, p. 348. Kerrville State Park, Sept. 20, 1951, beaten from cedar, 1 @, 2 nymphs, A. B. Gurney. Lachesilla major Chapman Lachesilla forcepeta var. major Chapman, 1930, p. 349; Lachesilla major Chapman, Sommerman, 1946, p. 645. Ten miles west of Orange, Oct. 8, 1951, beating live oak and other oaks, A. B. Gurney. Lachesilla nubilis (Aaron) Caecilius nubilis Aaron, 1886, p. 13; Lachesilla nubilis (Aaron), Chapman, 1930, p. 351. Kerrville, Sept. 21, 1951, at light in laboratory, 1 @, A. B. Gurney; Dilly, Frio State Park, Sept. 24, 1951, 1 o&, A. B. Gurney; Dallas, Apr. 5, 1905, in dry cotton bolls, 2 #7, 3 2, 9 nymphs. Type locality “Southern Texas” (Aaron). See records in Sommerman, 1946, p. 648. Lachesilla pedicularia (Linnaeus) Hemerobius pedicularia Linnaeus, 1758, p. 551. Synonymy presented by Enderlein, 1919, p. 16. Dallas, April 15, 1908, 1 #, 1 @. F. CG. Bishopp. NOVEMBER 1956 MOCKFORD AND Lachesilla penta Sommerman Lachesilla penta Sommerman, 1946, p. 652. Corpus Christi State Park, Oct. 6, 1951, beat- ing mesquite and other vegetation, 2 9, 2 nymphs. Type locality, Brownsville, May 2, 1904, cote OreEh s. Barber. Lachesilla rena Sommerman Lachesilla rena Sommerman, 1946, p. 653. A male paratype was recorded from Brown- wood, Tex., by Sommerman. Lachesilla kathrynae, n. sp. Figs. 44-47 Diagnosis.—A member of the species group in- including Z. anna Sommerman, L. chapmani Sommerman, L. forcepeta Chapman, L. contra- forcepeta Chapman, and L. major Chapman. Very sunilar to L. chapmani, differing in details of the genitalia in both sexes. Holotype o&—Measurements: Total body length 1.33 mm; forewing length 1.53 mm; hind- wing length 1.17 mm; hind tibia length 0.63 mm; hind tarsus: T,; 0.267 mm, T, 0.080 mm. Morphology.—Genitalia (Figs. 46, 47) with several characters typical of the species group— hypandrium of a large basal and small apical sclerite, the apical sclerite with a deep v-shaped cleft in its posterior margin. Parameres fused basally into a rod, but this rod curved rather than straight as in closely related species; parameres diverging apically, the two arms joined to the hy- pandrium along its cleft. Claspers curved out, stouter than in L. chapmani, and bulging near their apices. Paraprocts each with a ridge arising near sense tubercles and running to inner margins. Epiproct bearing a conspicuous apical tubercle as in L. chapmani. Color (in alcohol).—Eyes black; antennae, wing veins, and dotted areas on vertex straw- colored. Body colorless except for red brown pig- ment distributed as follows: on cervical sclerites, on mesepimeral sutures, inner surfaces of coxae; two rows on each side of abdominal tergites 2 through 5, the dorsal rows continuing as weak spots to tergite 7. Allotype 9 .—Measurements: Total body length 1.70 mm; forewing length 1.98 mm; hindwing length 1.87 mm; hind tibia length 0.73 mm; hind tarsus: T; 0.280 mm, T, 0.093 mm. GURNEY: REVIEW OF PSOCIDS 365 Morphology.—Gonapophyses (Fig. 45) a sim- ple pair of flaps, narrowed near baseand expanded preapically. Subgenital plate (Fig. 44) with an extended apical region; a more heavily sclerotized area (detectable by staining with acid fuchsin) outlined in dashed lines on the figure. Lacking a colored ventral interior plate. Color (in alcohol).—Similar to holotype but abdominal red-brown spots present only on tergites 2 through 4. Variation Some & paratypes show the red- brown abdominal marks only on tergites 2 through 4, while some @ paratypes show them only on tergites 2 and 3. Type locality—Texas, Palm Grove near Brownsville, holotype &, allotype 9,5 @, and 17 2 paratypes, Oct. 3, 1951, beating dead palm leaves. Other paratypes: type locality, 5 7,1 2, Oct. 1, 1951, beating palms; Mission, 2 7,3 9, 1 nymph (not paratype), Sept. 30, 1951, beating palm leaves; Olmito Resaca near Brownsville, 1 9, Oct. 4, 1951, beating palms and palmettoes. All collected by A. B. Gurney. Types in U. 8. National Museum, no. 63240. We are glad to dedicate this species to Dr. Kathryn M. Sommerman, in recognition of her many scholarly and highly basic studies of Ne- arctic psocids. Lachesilla bottimeri, n. sp. Figs. 48-51 Diagnosis—A member of the same species group as L. kathrynae, differing from all other members in possession of very long, incurved claspers in the male (Fig. 51) and in other geni- talic details in both sexes. Holotype Measurements: Total body length 1.40 mm, forewing length 1.67 mm; hindwing length 1.27 mm; hind tibia length 0.70 mm; hind tarsus: T, 0.218 mm, T. 0.093 mm. Morphology.— Genitalia with usual characters typical of the species group. Cleft im apical sclerite of hypandrium U-shaped. Rod formed by fused parameres straight; parameres diverging apically and joined to hypandrium along U-shaped cleft. Claspers long (exceeding tip of abdomen) and slender, curving in at their tips; tips sharply pointed. Color (in aleohol).—LEyes black; antennae and thorax above tan; dotted areas of vertex, thorax below, legs, and genitalia pale straw-colored. Wing membranes clear, the veins brown. Remain- 366 der of head and abdomen unpigmented except for dark red-brown marks (also on thorax) distrib- uted as follows: a line over each antennal inser- tion, the two joined by a pale brown line across front; the two lines above antennae each joined to a band starting posterior to antenna and con- tinuing to abdominal segment 7, widest on abdo- men. Allotype 2.—Measurements: Total body length 1.67 mm; forewing length 1.73 mm; hindwing length 1.33 mm; hind tibia length 0.73 mm; hind tarsus: T, 0.200 mm; T, 0.080 mm. Morphology.—Gonapophyses (Fig. 49) a pair of rather elongate flaps, narrow at base and di- rected mesally near base. Subgenital plate (Fig. 48) with a very weakly delineated extended apical region; a more heavily sclerotized area (detect- able by staining with acid fuchsin) outlined proxi- mally in dashed lines and extending distally to the apex. A colored ventral interior plate absent. Color same as in holotype. ¢ Variation.—On one paratype 92 the red-brown lateral bands do not extend beyond the 4th ab- dominal segment. Type locality—Texas, Palm Grove near Brownsville, holotype @, allotype 2,8 @ para- types and 6 nymphs, Oct. 1, 1951, beating palms. Other paratypes (not including nymphs)—type locality, 14 #, 30 ¢, 26 nymphs, Oct. 2 and 38, 1951, beating dead palm leaves; near Browns- ville, 1 9, Oct. 4, 1951. All collected by A. B. Gurney. Types in U. 8. National Museum, no. 63241. It is a pleasure to name this species in honor of L. J. Bottimer, of Kerrville, Tex., a devoted col- lector and a specialist in the Bruchidae, who as- sisted the junior author In many ways while at Kerrville and during a week-end trip to Uvalde and Garner State Park. Family ArcHIPsocIDAE Pearman Archipsocus floridanus Mockford Archipsocus floridanus Mockford, 1953, p. 116. Palm Grove near Brownsville, Oct. 3, 1951, 2 #, 12 macropterous 2, 9 micropterous ¢, 16 nymphs, from webs on tree, A. B. Gurney. Archipsocus nomas Gurney Archipsocus nomas Gurney, 1939, p. 502. Palm Grove near Brownsville, Oct. 2 and 38, 1951, webs on tree, 2 &%, 3 macropterous @, 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 11 micropterous 92, 6 nymphs, A. B. Gurney; Brownsville, Apr. 20, 1953, webs on ebony limb, 32 brachypterous ¢, 5 nymphs (some macrop- terous). Group PsoceTar Pearman Family Myopsocipar Enderlein Lichenomima sp. Brownsville, Feb. 29, 1952, 1 9, D. L. Bauer. Famity Psocidae Stephens Dr. Sommerman is currently preparing a revi- sion of this family for North America and will include distribution records from Texas in her paper. The following species have been recorded from Texas: Psocus pollutus Walsh, P. bisignatus Banks, P. campestris Aaron, P. persimilis Banks, P. submarginatus Aaron, P. tecanus Aaron, Tri- chadenotecnum unum Sommerman, Cerastipsocus venosus (Burmeister), Metylophorus purus (Walsh), and Blaste quieta (Hagen). Map 1.—Outline map of Texas, showing loca- tion of localities mentioned. Squares represent definite localities, triangles county records only. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF COUNTIES IN WHICH LOCALITIES MENTIONED IN THIS PAPER ARE LOCATED Numbers on map correspond to those of the list. 1. Bexar—County record only. 2. Bexar—San Antonio. 3. Brown—Bangs; Brownwood (about 8 miles east of Bangs). NOVEMBER 1956 4. Cameron—Brownsville. 5. Cameron—Olmito Resaca. 6. Cameron—Palm grove. 7. Dallas—Dallas. 8. El] Paso—County record only. 9. Frio—Dilly (Frio State Park). 10. Harris—Houston. 11. Hayes—San Marcos (Ezel’s Cave). 12. Hidalgo—Mission. 13. Hidalgo—Weslaco. 14. Jefferson—Beaumont. 15. Kerr—Kerrville; Kerrville State Park. 16. Nueces—Corpus Christi. 17. Nueces—Corpus Christi State Park. 18. Orange—10 miles west of Orange. 19. Smith—Tyler. 20. Sutton—Sonora (Wyatt Cave). REFERENCES AARON, S. FranK. Collecting on the Gulf coast of Southern Texas. Papilio 4: 159-161. 1884. . On some new Psocidae. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1886: 13-18, pl. 1. AsuMEap, W.H. Ona new Psocus. Can. Ent. 11: 228-229. 1879. BaDONNEL, ANDRE. Psocopteres. Faune de France 42: 1-164, figs. 1-375. 1943. Psocoptéres de la Céte d’Ivoire. Rev. Fr. Ent. 16: 20-46, figs. 1-61. 1949. Ordre des Psocoptéres: 1301-1340, figs. 1135-1170, In Traité de Zoologie 10, fase. 2. Ed. by P. Grassé. Paris, 1951. Psocopteres de l’ Angola. Compahia Dia- mantes Angola Pub. Cult. 26: 1-267, 625 figs., pls. 1-4. 1955. Battey, L. H. Revision of the palmettoes. Gentes Herb. 6, fase. 7: 367-459, figs. 186-251. 1944. Battny, VERNON. Biological survey of Texas. North Amer. Fauna no. 25: 1-222, illus. 1905. Banks, Natuan. New Neotropical insecis. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 64: 299-362, pls. 1-7. 1920. . Descriptions of new neuropteroid insects. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 65: 421-455, pls. 1-4. 1924. . New neuropteroid insects from the United States. Psyche 37: 223-233, 1 pl. 19380. Buarr, W. Frank. The biotic provinces of Texas. Texas Journ. Sci. 2: 93-117, fig. 1 (map). 1950. Borror, Donatp J., and DreLone, Dwicut M. An introduction to the study of insects: 1-1030, illus. (Psocoptera, pp. 169-179). New York, 1954. Brown, R. W. Composition of scientific words: 1-882. Washington, D. C., 1954. CatvertT, Paine P. Samuel Francis Aaron. Ent. News 58: 137-140. 1947. CuHapMAN, Paut J. Corrodentia of the United States of America: I. Suborder Isotecnomera. Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 38: 219-290, 319- 402, pls. 12-21. 1930. Chover, Euizapa U. Vegetational survey of the lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas. Madrono 4: 41-66, 77-100, illus. 1937. MOCKFORD AND GURNEY: 97 REVIEW OF PSOCIDS 367 Coox, O. F. Change of vegetation on the south Texas prairies. U. S. Bur. Plant Indus. Circe. 14: 1-7. 1908. Davis, ANNA M. T. A study of Boscaje de la Palma in Cameron County, Texas, and_ of Sabal texana. Unpublished thesis for M. S., University of Texas (1942): 111 typed pp., 40 pls. of photographs, maps, etc. Diczr, Lez R. The biotic provinces of North America: 1-78, 1 map. Ann Arbor, 1943. ENDERLEIN, GUNTHER. Morphologie, Systematik und Biologie der Atropiden und T'roctiden. Results Swed. Exped. Egypt. White Nile, 1901, 18: 1-58, 11 text-figs, 4 pls. 1905. Einige notizen zur Kenntnis der Copeog- nathen Nordamerikas. Stett. Ent. Zeit. 67: 317-320. 1906. Copeognatha, In Collections Zoologiques du Baron Edm. de Selys Longchamps, fasc. 3, pt. 2: 1-55, 10 text-figs., 5 pls. 1919. (Copies bear the printer’s date of 1915, also a printed notation on the inside title page that distribu- tion date was March 1, 1919. The Smithsonian copy is stamped as received Sept. 138, 1919. Listed as 1915 in the 1918 Zool. Record, which, however, was not published until October 1920.) Gautsorr, Paut S., et al. Gulf of Mexico, its origin, waters, and marine life. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Fishery Bull. 55: 604 pp., 74 figs. 1954. GoLpMAN, Epwarp AtrHonso. Briological in- vestigations in Mexico. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 115: 1-476, 70 pls. 1951. GunTER, Gorpon, and HinpEBRAND, H. H. De- struction of fishes and other organisms of the south Texas coast by the cold wave of January 28-February 3, 1951. Ecology 32: 731-736, illus. 1951. Gurney, AsHtEY B. Nomenclatorial notes on Corrodentia, with descriptions of two new species of Archipsocus. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 29: 501-515, figs. 1-15. 1939. A synopsis of the psocids of the tribe Psyllipsocini, including the description of an unusual new genus from Arizona. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 36: 195-220, 6 pls. 1948. Distributional and synonymic notes on psocids common to Europe and North America, with remarks on the distribution of Holarctic insects. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 39: 56-65. 1949. Hacen, H. A. Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America: With a list of South American species. Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 4: 1-847. 1861. Kousr, H. Monographie der deutschen Psociden mit besonderer Berticksichtigung der Fauna Westfalens. Ber. Westfalischen Provinzial- Vereins fiir Wissens. Kunst. 8: 73-142, 4 pls. 1880. Neue Psociden der paldarktischen Region. Ent. Nachrichten 8: 207-212. 1882. Linnagus, C. Systema naturae, ed. 10: 823 pp. Stoekholm, 1758. 368 Mocxkrorp,E.L. Threenew species of Archipsocus from Florida. Florida Ent. 36: 113-124, 30 figs. 1953. Notes on some eastern North American psocids with descriptions of two new species. Amer. Midl. Nat. 53: 436-441, 2 pls. 1955. Packarp, A. S., Jr. New or rare American Neuroptera, Thysanura, and Myriapoda. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 18: 405-411. 1870. PeaRMAN, J. V. New species of Psocoptera from warehouses. Ent. Monthly Mag. 65: 104-109, figs. 1-3. 1929. PEARMAN, J. V. Third note on Psocoptera from warehouses. Ent. Monthly Mag. 78: 289-292, figs. 1-3. 1942. RoesteR, Rupoir. Die Gatlungen der Copeo- gnathen. Stett. Ent. Zeit. 105: 117-166. 1944. RusseEwu, R. J. Climates of Texas. Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geogr. 35 (2): 37-52. 1945. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 11 SpeLtys-Lonecuamps, E. pre. Notes on two new genera of Psocidae. Ent. Monthly Mag. 9: 145-146, 2 figs. 1872. Smautu, J. K. The palmetto-palm, Sabal texana. Journ. New York Bot. Gard. 28: 132-143. 1927. SoMMERMAN, KaruHryn M. A revision of the genus Lachesilla north of Mexico. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 39: 627-661, 4 pls. 1946. Two new Nearctic psocids of the genus Trichadenotecnum with a nomenclatural note on a third species. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 50: 165-173, figs. 1-19. 1948. Two new species of Rhyopsocus (Psocoptera) from the U.S.A., with notes on the bionomics of one household species. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 46: 145-149, figs. 1-17. 1956. Taytor, W. P. Geographic distribution of Texas wildlife. Texas Geogr. Mag. 9(1): 1-12. 1945. BARRO COLORADO BIRDDOM On Barro Colorado Island, the Smithsonian Institution’s tropical preserve in Gatun Lake, Panama Canal Zone, there is a “bird that roars like a lion.”’ The roar, sometimes mistaken for the call of a howler monkey, is the male courtship song of the turkeylike curassow. The female usually is silent. Weirdest of the feathered creatures of the pre- serve is the fruit-eating hawk known as ‘‘burja,” the witch—a bird about the size of a raven. It has a coal-black back, a white belly, red feet, and a greenish-yellow bill which sometimes is slightly blue at the tip. The name, however, is due less to its weird appearance than to the almost con- tinual ‘‘scolding” at other birds or at any in- truder into its retreat. What may appear like fashions in birddom is illustrated by the curious behavior of another Barro Colorado denizen, the motmot, a lovely grayish-green bird with a chestnut-colored head and neck. These have tails that look like tennis rackets. They are fashioned by the birds them- selves which pluck off about an inch of the feather vane below the ends of the two outermost feathers. The bird swings this tail from side to side like a pendulum. A fierce little fighter is the violet-throated hummingbird, one of the most colorful feathered creatures found on the island. This bird, Anthra- cothorax violaceicollis, sometimes builds its solitary nest in the most exposed part of a tree, with no leaf within 25 feet or more. Then it demands dominion over the whole treeand does not hesitate to attack other birds many times its size. It attacks fearlessly, for example, the giant oriole, or oropendula, which is the size of a North American crow. The oriole is described as ‘helpless as a dirigible before a pursuit plane.’”’? When not fighting, the mother hummingbird sits on the nest nearly all the time, protecting eggs and young from sun and rain. The male seldom is seen. There is some reason to believe that his mate drives him away as soon as the eggs are laid. Although generally resentful of the large orioles in the same tree, sometimes it cooperates with them. A species of cowbird has a habit of laying its eggs in the oropendula nests. The humming- bird does not hesitate to drive it away, although its own nest is entirely safe. NOVEMBER 1956 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 369 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 14147TH MEETING, OCTOBER 7, 1955 THeopore Lirovirz, of the Catholic Uni- versity of America, spoke on Ultrasonics and the liquid state. By ultrasonics is meant mechanical vibrations at frequencies from 20 kilocycles up to the present practical limit of 500 megacycles per second or more. These vibrations can cause changes of three kinds in the matter through which they pass: a volume change caused by pressure, a temperature change caused by adiabatic compression, and a change in shape caused by shear forces. In some or all of these the strain may lag the stress, with a relaxation time characteristic of the particular mechanism in- volved. The velocity of propagation and the ab- sorption are both functions of the frequency that differ from those calculated from classical laws. As the frequency increases, the shear viscosity, for example, may “relax out” and the absorption due to it disappear. In shear the stress from the ultrasonic vibration biases the lattice, and the molecules jump to a new position, at a rate measured by the diffusion time. At high fre- quencies there is not time for them to jump and the lattice appears rigid. At low frequencies, and in all liquids except the monatomic ones, the effective viscosity is higher than the classical amount. In explan- ation, a volume viscosity is postulated which relaxes as the frequency rises. For non-associated liquids, a thermal relaxation is postulated, but it does not do for associated liquids with high dipole moments. In them the volume viscosity has the same temperature dependence as does the shear viscosity. In water the extra energy loss is not caused by thermal relaxation, because it has been shown that in water at 4° (where there is no adiabatic heating on compression because dv/dt = 0) the absorption is the same as at 20°, where dv/dt is not zero. The phenomenon seems to be a ‘‘struc- tural relaxation,” i.e., when the water is com- pressed, flow occurs in the direction of closer packing, and the loss comes directly from the Jagging volume change, not from a temperature change. If there is a lag in the flow, there is ab- sorption. In both shear and volume viscosity in water, bonds are broken with the same activation energy. Hall showed that water is a mixture of two packings: “ice” and “close.’’ Compression upsets the equilibrium between them and one can then calculate the compressional viscosity on this assumption, and the temperature dependence agrees well with calculation. Comparing dielectric relaxation with ultra- sonic, we find there is also relaxation and ab- sorption in dielectrics, but it is traceable here to a rotation as compared to translation under ultrasonic stress. The dielectric relaxation time has the same temperature dependence as the compressional viscosity, hence they have the same activation energy. But the actual times may not be the same. In glycerol, however, the acoustic and dielectric relaxation times are in fact the same, while in nearly all other liquids the rotational jump can take 1,000 times longer than the displacement. The velocity in fluid is, of course, related to the adiabatic compressibility. The compression of a liquid is in two parts: (1) Change the lattice spacing, (2) change in the arrangement. Liquids are more compressible than solids because their structure can change. At high frequencies, there- fore, one might expect a liquid to become solid- like. 25% of the total 8 (compressibility) in liquids comes from the change in structure, and the velocity increases as the frequency rises above the relaxation time of the structural change. On cooling arachlor, this viscous liquid be- haves more and more like a solid as its viscosity rises, but the temperature dependence is still almost big as a liquid. Such behavior is ap- propriate to a glass. In a liquid the number of holes decreases with the temperature, which is not true for crystallme solid. Arachlor and glycerol show a low temperature dependence after they become glassy. 8) approaches Bx as T goes down. The liquid thus becomes a solid without crystallization. My. Shapiro gave, as an informal communi- sation, a report on the Cosmic Ray Conference at Guanajuato in Mexico, at which for the first time im many years Soviet members were in attendance. 370 The tribute was paid at that conference to our past president Mr. Forbush for his extensive and valuable work. Mr. Potter gave an informal communication calling attention to certain heresies in genetics, to the latest biological theories of Mr. Gamow, and to the ‘hope that springs eternal in the mechanistic breast.’ (Secretary’s abstract.) 1415TH MEETING, OCTOBER 21, 1955 Rogpert J. Maurer, of the University of Illinois, spoke on Photoeffects and excitons in alkali halides. The ‘‘exciton” is a lonely concept, or particle if you prefer, in solid state physics; a rare and little understood thing that deserves to be more widely used. Consider the excited atom: after 10-8 seconds, or eight seconds, or even hours, it may descend to the ground state, but if it meantime suffers a collision it can pass on its energy to whatever it strikes. In a condensed system—a solid—this passing on occurs very rapidly and continues until the energy reaches some impurity, or imperfection, or the surface, where it may produce a photoelectron, or release radiation. In the Bloch approximation the energy levels are reduced to a single system, and an electron moves in the total potential field, but this approximation is defective because it pro- vides no excited states. The concept of excitons does so. In diamond, for example, electrons in the valence band are lifted to the conduction band by absorbing a quantum, and the electron and the hole from whence it came then migrate freely—eftectively an infinite distance apart. Now, just at the absorption edge we should have an optical absorption band structure, correspond- ing to electrons lifted up to the conduction band but not fully away from the neighborhood of the hole from whence they came. The hole and the electron then move together through the solid as a neutral particle, possessing energy. One should thus have ‘‘exciton bands,’”’ just below the con- duction band in energy and just below the ab- sorption edge in frequency. Of the possible ways to demonstrate this mechanism, only the photoelectric effect and photoconduction are thus far amenable to experiment, and substances that will be suitable are hard to find. In AgCl for example the exciton bands lie so close to the ionization levels that even the thermal energy kT pushes the excitons on up into full ionization. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 11 The speaker discussed Apker and Taft’s photoelectric experiments in some detail: ex- periments with alkah halides containing a goodly number (101°/cc) of F centers, 1.e., either extra alkali atoms, or missing halogens whose places are filled by electrons. A pure crystal does not show photo current. The yield curves show a plateau (plotting current against electron volts) from 2 to 5 volts and strong peak at 5.6, which comes from the fundamental absorption spec- trum. Apker and Taft suggest that the absorbed quantum becomes an exciton and moves about until it meets an F center from which it expels an electron. In Maurer’s work crystals with known con- centrations of F centers were exposed to quanta in the tail of the absorption spectrum and the photoconductive current was measured. A difficult experiment, since the currents are down in the ratio of the mean free path in the gas to the distance apart of the atoms in the solid. One can determine the lifetime of the exciton as a function of the F center concentration, since the mfp is inversely proportional to the F center con- centration and the velocity of the exciton is about 107 cm/sec. Below 10!° centers per cc impurities compete too heavily, and the current is small because few excitors are produced and the interfering effects are many. Above 2 x 10” the currents fall again because the F’ centers destroy the excitons before they can go very far. The lifetime turns out to be of the order of 10~° seconds. Curves of current against energy, and against concentration were displayed, and a number of yet little understood points were discussed. These experiments are considered, however, to be a direct approach to the problem of the existence of the exciton, and the results are interpreted in terms of them. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1416TH MEETING, NOVEMBER 4, 1955 Rospertr Jastrow, of the Naval Research Laboratory, spoke on The structure of the atomic nucleus. That the nucleus has a structure has been known for fully 25 years, but only in the last 5-8 years have we accumulated enough facts to develop an acceptable theory of its behavior. We are not yet in the state where our knowledge of the internucleon forces is such that a complete structural theory is merely an exercise in mathe- matics, but are rapidly approaching the reverse NoveMBER 1956 state, where we should soon be able to calculate the forces from the facts. A nucleus consists of neutrons and protons, with an excess of neutrons, packed into an ap- proximate sphere at a uniform density of 10% nucleons per cc, or 400,000 tons per cubic milli- meter. The average inter-nucleon distance is 2 Xx 10-¥ em, and attractive forces bind them into a potential well about 40 Mev deep, with kinetic energies up to 30 Mev. Two different models suggest themselves. First, the classical liquid drop, with long range attraction and short range repulsion, and a mean free path of the order of the “‘cell-width.” The mean spacing is about equal to the range of the repulsive force. Second, the electrostatic action between particles; weak compared to the central force. Which fits the nucleus? To find out, the nucleus has been probed with beams of particles of various energies, and the scattering laws have been investigated, remembering that the de Broglie wave length for 350 Mev particles is of the same order as the size of the nucleus and that quantum, not classical, laws apply. At lower energies the cross-section increases rapidly, as 1/E, and the mean free path of the entering particle is much less than 7, the nuclear radius. Consequently the nucleus is opaque, and it displays a cross section of 2a7?. (The 2 comes half from absorption, half from shadow scatter- ing). The approximate expression for the cross- section becomes: ¢ =f(A, H) where R varies as A and as 1/H#/2. The variation of o with A and # should therefore be uniform, monotonic, and slow: in a word, ‘“dull’’. Experimentally, though, there are hills and valleys in a three dimensional plot of sigma against A and H: The most con- spicuous example of which is “Mount Barschall”, appearing at high energies in the intermediate masses. To account for this we must postulate a transparent nucleus, showing diffraction effects and phase changes in the particle wave-functions as they pass through it. If the phase change is 180° the scattering is a maximum. ‘Monte Carlo” Calculations, using this postulate, yield sigma-surfaces that agree reasonably well with experiment. On the other hand, the existence of a shell structure can be demonstrated by showing how the nuclear quadrupole moments vary with A, the atomic weight. Repeated large changes in PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY all the sign and magnitude of the nuclear quad- rupole moment occur at the so-called ‘‘magic numbers”: 2, 8, 28, 50, 82, 126. The largest nuclear quadrupole moment known is shown by Lutecium 128, corresponding to an elliptical eccentricity of 25 per cent. One consequence of a quadrupole moment was shown by comparing the scattering of protons from gold with that from tantalum. Gold has zero moment and shows strong diffraction maxima and minima in a plot of scattering against angle. Tantalum has a large moment and shows only small inflections. In tantalum the random orientation of the ellip- ticity smears out the diffraction structure. The nucleus remains something of a paradox: having a long mean free path for particles en- tering it, but acting on them with very strong forces. (Secretary’s abstract.) 1417TH MEETING, NOVEMBER 18, 1955 Wituarp H. Benner, of the Naval Research Laboratory, spoke on Solar protons and aurorae. The talk outlined recent results in formulating the theory of aurorae, or “northern lights.” Two forms have been observed: the “‘quiet arc,” seen as a general glow, and the other more spectacular form seen as rays and brightly colored draperies. The earliest attempt at a rational theory was Birkeland’s in 1896, who postulated that the sun projected particles that were deflected by the earth’s magnetic field as they entered it. On this basis Carl Stérmer calculated the orbits of the beam. The theory was not generally accepted because it was believed that the charged particles of which the beam was composed would repel each other and not remain concentrated in the narrow beams needed to produce the sharply localized effects. More recently Martyn theo- rized that the protons and electrons are projected from Sun’s surface simultaneously in the form of jets and streams which sweep across the earth’s atmosphere. The electrons are deflected while the protons reach the earth. A particle of 1 BEV may penetrate to 19 kilometers from the surface, while a 100 KEV particle may reach only 100 Km. The difference between the northern and the southern auroral zones is accounted for by the fact that the earth’s magnetic axis does not pass through the center of the earth. The change in the relative of the axis with the seasons accounts for the seasonal nature of the inclination phenomenon. A gas tube, called the ‘“Stérmertron,” has been devised to simulate the aurorae in the laboratory. A stream of electrons from a gun passes through mercury vapor at a very low pressure in a glass envelope. In the center of the tube is a simulated earth, containing a small magnet. The direction of the beam and the orientation of the ‘earth’ are continuously variable, and the luminous beam twists and turns through fantastic convolutions as the initial direction is swung back and forth across the earth. Fluorescent material on the earth shows by bright patches whenever the beam actually strikes it. The phenomena were most strikingly shown by motion pictures of the tube in oper- ation. Sometimes the beams are actually twisted in a tight helix in a captive orbit and produce a bright halo around the earth, which simulates the general glow. The path sometimes takes the form of a series of rose-petal curves stripmg northern and southern hemispheres alternately. This be- havior accounts for aurorae observed in Fair- banks Alaska (for example) followed minutes later by a similar display off South Africa, and still later by one in Norway. In the actual aurorae, the 244 Mev protons produce elec- trons of 10 to 15 volts, which luminesce upon returning to the ground state. In discussion, McNish emphasized the dif- ficulties encountered in formulating an adequate theory and in convincing the skeptics. An- swering Mr. Mohler, the speaker confirmed the observation of maximal phenomena at about 9 p.m. local time. (Secretary’s abstract.) 14187H 1955 Maurice M. SxHaprro, of the Naval Research Laboratory, gave a paper on Megalomorphs, a term invented by J. R. Oppenheimer to describe the larger cosmic ray fragments known variously as Heavy Mesons, Hyperons, and Heavy Frag- ments. The lighter particles found in cosmic rays and produced by the Bevatron were first described and listed, with slides showing their weights, half lives, charges, and relevant genetic relationships. Among them are m™, 7°, 7; wt, w, and the k mesons that seem to be the source of inter- nucleon forces. There are also the 7, 0, and k MEETING, DECEMBER ap JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 11 mesons with lives of the order of 107® seconds, which though short, are much too long to be understood on any simple theoretical basis. As an example of the complexity of the phenomena, a complete event was shown on a slide, consisting of five generations of particles forming an “energetic star’. The steps in the sequence are: primary particle, a burst of 8 to 10 protons, a tau meson, 3 pi mesons, mu mesons, and finally some common or garden-variety electrons. The pi mesons can produce “neutron stars,’’ and one in three do so. The speaker then turned to particles heavier than protons or neutrons; the Y, K, and L classes of Hyperons. Given as examples of these were A®, 2+, 3~, and & particles. These are all “excited nucleons’, and the emission of pi mesons by them is quite analogous to the emission of light by excited atoms. As a specific example, the A° particle weighs 2181 electron masses, has a mean life of 3.7 x 10~” sees, and breaks up into a proton and a pl minus meson with a reaction energy, Q, of 36.9 Mev. The 2 and © are similar. The Hyperfragment is another class of particle with various weights and energies. A tritium fragment, for example, in the right state of ex- citation will break up into a »He® atom and a pi minus meson. In other words, the fragment had part of its structure replaced by a hyperon. These reactions have definite components, products, re- action energies and half lives. The beginning of an understanding of this maze of reactions involving these transient en- tities is coming about through the introduction of a sort of quantum number with unique selection rules. This number is called the “strangeness’’, and is as characteristic of any given particle—at least as presently conceived—as is its charge or half life. “Strangeness” must be conserved in a “strong interaction’; spontaneous decay is a “weak reaction”, and the decay of many of these particles is much slower than would be expected because there is a change in ‘“‘strangeness’’ be- tween components and products. After a discussion, in which Messrs Wood, Page, Maxwell, Tuckerman, Mohler and others took part, the speaker was asked to report on the recent discovery of the ‘‘anti-proton” at Berkley, where he had been visiting. (Secretary’s Abstract.) waa —__ Facts are the body of science, and the idea of those facts 7s its spirit.—S. Brown. Vice-Presidents of the Washington Academy of Sciences Representing the Affiliated Societies Philosophical Society of Washington.......................0008. (Mr.) Bruce L. WILson Anthropological Society of Washington........................ (Mr.) Frank M. Serzter Biological Society of Washington.....................0.005 (Mr.) Hersert G. DrIcnan Chemical Society of Washington....................0.000085 (Mr.) Bourpon F. ScriBNER Entomological Society of Washington....................0.ceeeeeeee (Dr.) FRED W. Poos National Geographic Society..........5.0006..0c20.s8osceeaees (Dr.) ALEXANDER WETMORE Geological Society of Washington......................00.05 (Mr.) Epwin T. McKnicut Medical Society of the District of Columbia.................... (Dr.) FREDERICK O. Coz GolumbialHistorical Society®: oc .cccc0cscecc deve ccccees oceienls Botanical Society of Washington.........................-.++++++,-(Dr.) E. H. WALKER Washington Section, Society of American Foresters............ (Dr.) G. Furppo Gravatt Washington Society of Engineers....................0.-.0005 (Mr.) Hersert G. Dorsey Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers.....(Dr.) ARNoLD Scotr Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers...... Helminthological Society of Washington...................00ee cease (Dr.) J. S. ANDREWS Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists............ (Dr.) L. A. BuRKEY Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...(Lt. Col.) Fuoyp W. Houcu Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.................. D. C. Section, American Society of Civil Engineers.......... (Mr.) Doveuas E. Parsons D. C. Section, Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine..(Dr.) Grorer A, Hottie Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............. (Mr.) Taomas G. Diaaus Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research... Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences........ (Dr.) F. N. FRENKIEL D. C. Branch, American Meteorological Society............. (Dr.) F. W. REIcHELDERFER CONTENTS MaTHEMATICS.—Unimodular matrices of order 2 that commute. Karu GOEDBERG 2 66). book ook bee ee ae a ee 337 PALEONTOLOGY.—Chiloguembelina, a new Tertiary genus of the Hetero- helicidae (Foraminifera). ALFRED R. LoEBLicH, JR., and HELEN PALEONTOLOGY.—Galazaura (calcareous algae) and similar fossil genera. GRAHAM FO BELIOTT.... 25.5... Bac ost bes eo se 341 BacTERIOLOGY.—Quantitative studies of differential staining reaction, III: A quantitative acid-fast stain. A. F.WoopHour............ 344 ZooLocy.—North American harpacticoid copepods: 3, Paracampius re- ductus, n. sp., from Alaska. MILpRED STRATTON WILSON........ 348 MamMMALoGy.—Little-known reference to name of harbor seal. Victor IB. SGRBPFER! boo. iisern nercietutin ocean eee 352 EntomoLoay.—A review of the psocids, or book-lice and bark-lice, of Texas (Psocoptera). Epwarp L. Mocxrorp and ASHLEY B. GuRNEY 353 Procrepines: Philosophical Society of Washington.................. 369 Notes. and: INewsic!:)..00 (i werwebaecpaein cee ce eee 338, 343, 351, 368. VOLUME 46 December 1956 NUMBER 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES _—_—— _—————= Published Monthly by the WASHINGTON@ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MOUNT ROYAL & GUILFORD AVES., BALTIMORE, MD. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences Editor: CoEsTER H. 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Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925 Authorized February 17, 1949. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 46 DECEMBER 1956 No. 12 MATHEMATICS.—Commuting bilinear transformations and matrices... OLGA Taussky and Joun Topp, National Bureau of Standards. (Received October 29, 1956) We present in paragraphs 1-4 an al- ternative approach to a theorem of K. Goldberg [/] and in paragraphs 5 and 6 a generalization of that theorem. The two sections of this paper are essentially in- dependent. 1. Denote by IT the group of bilinear transformations of the form az + b cz +d’ (1) where a, b, c, d are rational integers and ad be We shall establish: Theorem 1. A_ necessary and sufficient condition for two transformations of T to com- mute is that each is an iterate of the same trans- formation of T. Only the necessity of the conditions re- quires detailed proof. 2. We begin with the following well- known result, of which we sketch a proof (see, e.g., Forsyth [2, p. 719]): Lemma 1. In order that two transformations of T should commute, it is necessary and sufficient that their fixed points should coincide. Proof. Let Az+B 2 W: W = — — @) Ne Cz -- D be another transformation of IT. In order that w(W) = W(w) we must have Aa+ Be = aA + 0C Ab + Bd = aB + bD (3) Cb + Dd = bC + dD Ca + De = cA + dC and conversely. These relations are equiv- alent to the fact that the following equations, which give the fixed points of the trans- formations w, W, (4) (5) have the same roots. To see this observe that the upper pair of (3) gives bC = Be and the lower pair gives b(A — D) = B(a— d) and c(A — D) = Cf@ — d), and so, in gen- eral, 0 0, cz? + d — az — b C2 + (D — A)ze — B Cc C _ dG _ ID =A IB Exceptional cases, when b, c, B, C vanish or a = d, A = D can be discussed easily. It is easy to see that the condition presented in the lemma can be expressed in matrix language as follows: The corresponding matrices S Oy (e iB) should have common Ohi? NG ID characteristic vectors. 3. We require the following classical result about the units of quadratic fields: Lemma 2. All units in a real quadratic field are of the form + e™ where m is an integer (positive or negative or zero) and e (+ +1) zs the fundamental unit. All units in complex quadratic fields are roots of unity: +1 in general, + 1, + t inthe field R(./— 1) and + 1, +3 (1 + V— 8) in the case of R(V— 3). Proofs of this are available, e.g., in Hecke [3] or in Reid [4, chapter 13]. The problem ‘The preparation of this paper was supported in part by the Office of Naval Research. BEB 19 1957 3o7v4 of determining the unit in R(/n), where n > 0, is essentially that of solving a Pell’s equation. 4. Proof of Theorem 1. We use the can- onical forms for transformations with fixed points a, B (see, e.g., Forsyth [2, p. 620]). If a, 6 are finite and distinct, then > (a4 = w—a = k w— Bp (6) R | a where the ‘‘multiplier” k is given by _at+td— V{(a = d)? + 4be} k atd+vVJ/{\(a + dy? + 4bc} and w—a jee a — {6 2/6) ee D /{(A = D)? + 4BC} A+D+W/{(4 + D)? + 4BC} It is clear that two transformations of type (6) are compounded by multiplying the multiphers. What we have to show, therefore, is that k, K are integral powers of the same «x and that the transformation with multipher « belongs to I. Consider the quadratic field f generated by the characteristic roots \, mw of the ab ay modular these roots are units, and therefore of the form +e", where n is an integer and eis the fundamental unit in case f is real, or the primitive root of unity in f, if f is com- plex. Hence matrix Since the matrix is uni- and is therefore an integral power of e, with positive sign. Exactly the same holds for K in F, the field generated by the characteristic roots - Bh However, in view of the equiv- alence of (4) and (5), the fields f, F are the same. Hence we have k = x™, K = x™ for certain integers m, MW. Let d be the greatest common divisor of m, M. Consider the transformation of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 Ch > C2 € ° B A — 9 It is clear that wand W are iterates of Z, in fact (10) Z: Z Zinta), W = Zmi 4d) To show that Z e T we use the fact that there are integers mm, ,, such that mm + M M, = d, and this implies that w"W"! = Z and, T being a group, we have ZeT. If @ is finite, 8 infinite the corresponding forms are Y= w-—a = k(z-a), ie = ol Gh, a = b/d — a), W-a = K(z—a), IK = ID Al, a = B/(D — A), and the discussion is similar. In the case when a = £6 the canonical forms for the transformation are (w— a)! = (g —a)!+ 6, (W—a) = ¢@-—a)14+C, and c, C being integers, the necessity of the condition of Theorem 1 is almost obvious. 5. Let A and B be 2 X 2 matrices whose elements are integers in a complex quadratic field F and whose determinants are units in F. Theorem 2. Assume (1) that neither A nor B is similar to a matrix of the form ( ; i ) where ¢ zs a root of unity in F and (2) that the characteristic roots of A and B do not lie in the field of the 8th or 12th root of unity. Under these assumptions A and B com- mute if and only if (apart from a unit in F) they are powers of the same matrix in F. Proof. Only the necessity needs to be proved. It is sufficient to show that a matrix K exists such that A = eK”, B = eK”, where ¢;, €: are units in F and m, n are rational integers. It then follows as in [1] that AK can be chosen in F. The following two cases are possible: (1) A has its characteristic roots not in F, (II) A has its characteristic roots in F. In case (I) the characteristic polynomial DECEMBER 1956 of A is irreducible with respect to F. Hence a nonsingular matrix U exists such that ay 0 (ed) The numbers q, a» lie in a field & which is relatively quadratic with respect to F and ay, a are relative conjugate. The field ® being complex with all its conjugates and biquadratic has one fundamental unit e (see [3]). Hence, unless © is the field of the 8th or 12th root of unity, every unit in & is a power of e, multiplied by a root of unity in F. If we then assume that @ is not one of these cyclotomic fields we have U4 Gi = m Ch = Gi G5 A. = ee” where e, is a root of unity in F and é is the relatively conjugate number of e, hence é is in ®. Hence the coefficients of the matrix U can be chosen in ®. Since U~! BU com- mutes with UAU it must be diagonal too. Hence the characteristic roots of B lie in ® too and are of the form Ai = é. a root of unity in F. Hence Co €”, Bo = €2€", € 0 m UtAU =e 3 O € € (0) n UBU = e . O € and € (0) m Aver) Ui Ui lee 0 € € 0) m B=e}|U OF Ome Put ulG ee = K and case (I) is com- pleted. (II) We may assume the characteristic roots to be different. Let ¢ be the root of unity of highest period in F. Then A or 6 must both be similar to matrices of the form I. 0 UAU = ¢% 0 Ce 0 UBU = TAUSSKY AND TODD: BILINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS 375 Hence K can be taken as G 2. 6. The exceptional cases (1) and (2) in Theorem 2 are genuine. (1) Any two matrices of the form CaeeGs) commute when a,8 are any integers in F. However, a, 8 are in general, not com- mensurable. (2) In the case of the field of the eighth roots of unity we observe that the matrices es) te ce) é@ Oy? 1b g ioe commute. The first has eighth roots of unity as characteristic roots and generates a cyclic group of order 8, while the second has as characteristic roots the units 1 + 1/2 and generates an infinite cyclic group. It follows that there is no matrix of which these are integral powers. Moreover, it can be shown that any pair of commuting matrices in this case is similar to products of powers of these two. Similar results hold in the case of the twelfth root of unity. Corresponding ex- amples are O i dog 9D (, = 3)? yes gy They commute and have as characteristic roots twelfth roots of unity, and the units 2+ V3. 7. Generalizations. There are several pos- sible directions in which the results of this paper can be generalized; some of these have been investigated by E. C. Dade [5]. REFERENCES [1] GotpBerG, K. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 46: 1956. [2] Forsyru, A. R. Theory of functions of a complex variable, 3d ed. Cambridge, England, 1918. The relevant material is also available in more recent books, e.g., C. CARATHEODORY, Conformal Representations. Cambridge, Eng- land, 1982; G. Junia, Exercises d’analyse, II. Paris, 1988; and G. Jura, Princtpes géométriques d’analyse, I. Paris, 1930. [3] Hecke, E. Vorlesungen tiber die Theorte der algebraischen Zahlen. 2. Aufl. Leipzig, 1954. [4] Reip, L. W. The elements of the theory of alge- braic numbers. New York, 1910. [5] Dann, E. C. Abelian groups of unimodular matrices. MS. 316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 - BOTANY —New grasses from Mexico. ERNEST R. Souns, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by Agnes Chase.) (Received July 27, 1956) In the course of routine identification of miscellaneous collections of grasses from Mexico, six new taxa were discovered and the original descriptions of two species re- quired emendation. The new entities and emendations are presented in this paper. Panicum clivum Sohns, sp. nov. Figs. 1-8 Gramen perenne; culmi 20-50 cm alti, decum- bentes, graciles; vaginae internodiis breviores, inferiores striatae, papilloso-pilosae, superiores marginibus papilloso-pilosis; ligula circiter 1 mm longa; laminae 2-8.5 cm longae, 3-12 mm latae, omnes pubescentes, margines papilloso-pilosis; panicula 5-8 em longa, 2-8 cm lata, ramis brevibus, inferiores 4.5 em longi; spiculae 2.3- 2.7 mm longae; gluma prima 0.5-0.9 mm longa, lata, rotundata, enervis; gluma secunda et lemma sterile subaequans; lemma fertile circiter 2- 2.2 mm longum, 7-nervis; lemma sterile vacuum; lemma fertile 2.1-2.4 mm longum, 1.0-1.1 mm latum, glabrum, 5-nervis; palea lemma sterile aequans; staminia 3, antherae 0.4 mm longae; lodiculae 2, membranaceae, 0.2 mm_ longae; caryopsis circiter 1.5 mm longa, 1 mm lata. Perennial; culms decumbent at first and/or second nodes, but not rooting, 20-50 cm tall, glabrous; sheaths shorter than the internodes, the lower loose, striate, papillose-pilose, upper sheaths papillose-pilose on the margin and sparingly pilose between the nerves, a dense ring of hairs on the collar across the back; ligule a fringe of hairs about 1 mm long; blades to 8.5 cm long, 3 to 12 mm or more wide, sometimes cordate-clasping, pubescent on both surfaces, papillose-pilose on the margins, especially near the base; inflorescence a narrow exserted panicle, 5-8 cm long, 2-8 em wide, panicle branches mostly short, the lower sometimes 4.5 cm long, the axes and branches glabrous; spikelets 2.3- 2.7 mm long, averaging 2.47 mm (measurements on 60 spikelets); first glume 0.5-0.9 mm long, broad, rounded, clasping base of spikelet, nerve- less or sometimes with a faint median nerve; second glume and sterile lemma about 0.1 mm shorter than the fertile lemma; both 7-nerved, very sparingly short-pilose with scattered hairs; sterile lemma with a membranous palea about 1 mm long; fertile lemma 2.1-2.4 mm long, about 1-1.1 mm wide, smooth and. shining, 5-nerved, the nerves visible as faint white lines; palea as long as the lemma; stamens 3, anthers 0.4 mm long; lodicules 2, membranous, spatulate, 0.2 mm long; caryopsis about 1.5 mm long and 1 mm wide. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 2041588, collected ‘fon mossy limestone boulder; ravine slopes above Tepeoco, 3.5 miles from Zacualtipan on road to Tianguistengo,” State of Hidalgo, altitude 2,100 meters, March 20, 1947, by H. E. Moore, Jr. (no. 2371). Additional specimens examined: Hipatco: Palo Hueco, Moore 2694. México: Cafiado de Nanchititla, Matuda 30818. This species belongs in the subgenus Dichan- thelium, section Commutata, and is related to P. albomaculatum, P. hintonii, and P. joori. A key to the species of this section follows the discussion of P. albomaculatum. The distribution of the species in this section is shown in Fig. 9. In the course of examining collections of P. albomaculatum Seribn. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Cire. 19: 2. 1900) in the U. S. National Herbarium, including the type and the original description, it became apparent that the original description required emendation. In his description Scribner stated that the spikelets are “2.56 mm long;...” Spikelets on the type specimen measured 2.5 to 3.0 mm in length (the average of 25 spikelets: 2.7 mm). No measurements were given for the length of the panicle which is found to vary from 12 to 18 cm. The branches of the panicle are relatively stiff and somewhat ascending. The blades are described as “scabrous on the nerves below, glabrous above, . . .”’ Seven collections of P. albo- maculatum have sheaths and blades which are papillose-pilose in varying degrees of density. The spikelets of these pubescent specimens are in the same size range as the sparingly pubescent spikelets of the type. The average length of 100 spikelets is 2.66 mm. The new species may be separated from other species in this section by the following key. DECEMBER 1956 SOHNS: NEW GRASSES FROM MEXICO BO ay Sonns Fries. 1-8.—Panicum clivum Sohns, sp. nov.: 1, Plant, X 19; 2, spikelet; 3, sterile lemma; 4, fertile lemma (palea visible); 5, stamen; 6, ovary; 7, junction of blade and sheath; 8, view of ligule. Figs. 2-6 and 8, X 8; fig. 7, X 16. Drawn from the type specimen. Blades asymmetrical and faleate; culms decum- bent; first glume about one-third as long as the Spikeletc., Seger suet a Garner: P. joorti Blades symmetrical, nearly linear. Spikelets glabrous, 2.2-2.4mm. long. . P. hintonii Spikelets pubescent. Spikelets 2.5-3 mm long (averaging 2.7 mm); plants erect; panicles open, many-flowered, Zito Sicmulon gear P. albomaculatum Spikelets 2.3-2.7 mm long (averaging 2.4 mm); plants decumbent-straggling; panicles small, SOS Gane s5hocodnoensedeause P. chivum Panicum crateriferum Sohns, sp. nov. Figs. 10-22 Gramen perenne; culmi basi repentes, e nodis radicantes, dein erecti, usque ad 35 cm alti, graciles, nodi pubescenti; vaginae internodiis breviores, striatae, ad os dense pubescentis; ligula circiter 0.5 mm longa; laminae lanceolatae, 2-5 em longae, 5-12 mm latae, subtus glabrae, supra sparsim hirsutis tuberculatis adspersae; racemi 6, usque ad 2 cm longi; spiculae geminae, inferiores plerumque reductae, superiores 2.3- 3 mm longae. Spicula superna: gluma prima 1.7 mm longa, valide 3-nervis, versus summam papilloso-pilosa, margine hyalina; gluma secunda 2.5 mm longa, 5-nervis, papilloso-pilosa; lemma sterile (interdum cum flore masculo) 2.7 mm longum, parce papillose-pilosum, margines dense papilloso-pilosis, cum glandulis duobus; palea membranacea; lemma fertile oblongo-ovatum, circiter 1.6 mm longum, glabrum; staminia 3, antherae 0.9 mm longae. Perennial, with wiry, creeping culms producing upright culms at the nodes; culms slender, up to 35 cm tall, nodes pubescent, internodes glabrous or sparingly pubescent near the summit; sheaths shorter than the internodes, striate, glandular- spotted, densely pubescent at the summit across the back; ligule a ciliate rim about 0.5 mm long; blades lanceolate, 2 to 5 cm long, 5 to 12 mm wide, asymmetrical at base, junction of blade and sheath scarcely petiolate, lower surface of blade glandular spotted, glabrous, upper surface sparsely papillose-hirsute, midrib prominent; inflorescence usually consisting of six racemes, averaging 2 cm in length, each bearing 4 to 10 paired spikelets, the lower spikelet usually reduced, a few papillose hairs at the base of the raceme, the axis papillose-pilose; rachis term- inated by a single spikelet; upper spikelet of the paired spikelets from 2.3 to 3 mm long (average length of 46 spikelets: 2.68 mm). Reduced lower JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 spikelet of pair: first glume with a pronounced, clasping hyaline margin, 3-nerved, papillose- hirsute over the back; second glume 5-nerved, papillose-hirsute over the back; upper spikelet of the pair (averaging 2.6 mm in length): first glume 1.7 mm long, strongly 3-nerved, papillose- pilose on the back near the tip, margins hyaline: second glume 2.5 mm long, 5-nerved, papillose- pilose over the back; sterile lemma 2.7 mm, 5-nerved (often a faint vascular bundle may be seen on the margin on each side of the lemma), sparingly papillose-pilose over the back, but more densely so along the margins, with two gland-like structures, one on each side of the keel about 1 mm from the tip; palea very thin, enclosing three rudimentary stamens; fertile lemma oblong-oval, about 1.6 mm long, smooth; stamens 3, anthers about 0.9 mm long. OP. albomaculatum @P. clivum ®P, hintonii @P. joorii Fic. 9.—Map of portion of Mexico showing distribution of species of Panicum in the section Commutata, subgenus Dichanthelium. Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1983658, on “‘steep grassy slopes and narrow ravine with open pine woods and scattered oaks on granitic soil at km 339-40 between Acahinzotla and Agua de Obispo, on highway to Acapulco, alt. ca. 3000’ State of Guerrero, October 1, 1949, by H. E. Moore, Jr. (no. 5148). Other specimens examined: GUERRERO: Montes de Oca, Hinton 10801; Galeana, Hinton 14646, 14725. This species belongs in the section Stolonifera, subgenus Hu-Panicum and is related to P. 6i- glandulare and P. pulchellum. Panicum biglandulare Scribner and Smith, emended Figs. 24-31 Perennial, culms prostrate or ascending, pro- ducing branches from the nodes, 40 em to more DECEMBER 1956 SOHNS: NEW GRASSES FROM MEXICO 379 Fries. 10-22.—Panicum crateriferwm Sohns, sp. nov.: 10, plant X '9; 11, node; 12, paired spikelets; 13, sterile lemma and fertile lemma; 14, palea of sterile lemma; 15, first glume of lower spikelet; 16, second glume of lower spikelet; 17, sterile lemma of lower spikelet; 18, fertile lemma of lower spikelet; 19, sterile lemma of upper spikelet; 20, fertile lemma of upper spikelet; 21, pistil and 22, anther. Figs. 11-14, X 8; all others X 16. 380 than 1 meter tall; nodes swollen and glabrous; sheaths shorter than the internodes, striate, sparingly pilose, the overlapping half of the sheath densely papillose-pilose, the pilose margins alternating with each node from base to tip; ligule a membranous rim, finely ciliate at the summit, usually less than 0.5 mm long; blades with a petiole about 1 mm long, a line of hairs across the back at the collar, lanceolate, acumi- nate, 3 to 9 cm long, 0.9 to 22 mm wide, the base asymmetrical, from sparingly to densely papillose-pilose on both surfaces, margins antrorsely scabrous; inflorescence exserted, com- posed of usually six to ten somewhat distant racemes, 0.6—-2.5 cm long; spikelets borne on one side of the rachis, usually paired, the lower sometimes undeveloped, 2.5 to 4 mm _ long (average length of 147 spikelets: 3.33 mm); first glume 1.3-1.8 mm, 3-nerved, ovate, papillose- pilose over the back and near the tip; second glume 1.38-3.2 mm long, 5-nerved, sparingly papillose-pilose over the back and on the margins; sterile lemma 2.5 to 4 mm long, 7-nerved (mar- ginal nerves sometimes scarcely visible), minutely scaberulous and sparsely papillose-pilose over the back and on the margins, provided with two raised, gland-like structures about 1 mm from the tip, one on each side of the median nerve; fertile lemma smooth, shining, 2—2.5 mm long: anthers 3, well developed, 1-1.3 mm long. According to Seribner and Smith’s original description the margins of the sheaths ‘‘are clothed with glands bearing branching hairs; ...”’ The margins of the sheaths are only papil- lose-pilose. The spikelets are also described as P. crateriferum ® QP. vigtandulare O P, pulchellum JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 46, No. 12 “almost sessile, 2 lines long [4 mm];...” The average length of the spikelet in the type speci- men is 3.70 mm (measurements on 24 spikelets). The spikelets varied in length from 3 to 4 mm. The specimen collected by Santos (No. 34387) in Oaxaca has smaller spikelets, on the average, than those specimens collected in Chiapas and Guatemala. The spikelets of this collection range in size from 2.5 to 3 mm, the average length of 21 spikelets, 2.6 mm. The specimen is referred to P. biglandulare; its small stature and small spikelets are probably responses to edaphic conditions. The distribution of P. pulchellum, P. bi- glandulare and P. crateriferum is shown on the map (Fig. 23). Specimens examined: Mpxico: CHIAPAS: near Pinabete, Nelson 3781 (type); Mount Pasitar, Matuda 316; Montecristo, Matuda 2006; Monte Bello, Carlson 2330. Oaxaca: Santa Maria de Lovani, San Juan de Petlapa, Santos 3437. GUATEMALA: Coban, von Tiirckheim 1342, 1956; hills between Cobdin and Tres Cruces, Standley 90263. Species of the section Stolonifera, subgenus Eu-Panicum may be separated by the following key: Nodes glabrous; blades sparingly to densely long papillose-pilose on both surfaces; spikelets Sh semen, MOVs cocovocedbocdso P. biglandulare Nodes pubescent Spikelets not over 2 mm long; blades short, ovate-lanceolate, usually not over 4 cm long P. pulchellum Spikelets 2.3-3.0 mm long; blades lanceolate, pale green, sparsely pilose on both surfaces P. crateriferum Fie. 23.—Map showing distribution of species of Panicum in the section Stolonifera, subgenus Eu-Panicum. DECEMBER 1956 SOHNS: NEW GRASSES FROM MEXICO 381 Fres. 24-31.—Panicum biglandulare: 24, Plant, X 4; 25, junction of blade and sheath; 26, short raceme of spikelets with portion of rachis; 27, pair of spikelets; 28, first glume; 29, second glume; 30, sterile lemma; 31, fertile lemma. All figs. X 8, except 28 and 31, X 16. Drawn from Tiirekheim 1342. 382 Muhlenbergia matudae Sohns, sp. nov. Figs. 32-38 Gramen perenne; culmi erecti, 20-50 cm alti, graciles, ad nodos hispidis, vaginae inferiores papyraceae, superiores internodiis — breviores, glabrae; ligula truncata, circiter 1 mm longa; laminae 4-10 cm longae, 0.8-1.5 mm latae, utrinque scabrae, margine scabrae; panicula exserta, patula, pauciflora; usque ad 15 cm longa; spiculae 3.5-6.3 mm longae; gluma prima 1.5-2.1 mm longa, I-nervis, carina scaberula, arista circiter 0.5 mm longa; lemma 2.6-3.8 mm longum, 3-nervis, callo pilis brevis, ad margines parce pilis, carinis parce scabris versus summam, arista 0.9-2.6 mm longa, scabra; palea lemma aequans, bicarina, glabra; stamimia 3, antherae 1.5 mm longae; lodiculae 0. Perennial; loosely tufted, culms 20-50 cm tall, slender, erect, hispid below the nodes; sheaths of basal blades papery and _ straw-colored, glabrous, upper sheaths shorter than the inter- nodes, glabrous; ligule a truncate membranous rim about 1 mm long; blades mostly basal, 4-10 cm long, 0.8 to 1.5 mm wide, scabrous on both surfaces and on the margins, loosely involute when dry, tips slightly flexuous; inflorescence an exserted, loose, open, few-flowered panicle, up to 15 cm long, the spikelets borne singly at the ends of the slender branches; spikelets 3.5-6.3 mm long (including the awn), the lower- most spikelets about 3.5-3.8 mm _ long, the terminal spikelet of each first-order branch largest, from 3.9-6.3 mm (average length 4.9 mm) long; first glume 1.5-2.1 mm long, 1I-nerved, slightly scaberulous on the keel toward the awn- pointed tip; second glume 1.9-2.8 mm long, 1-nerved, scaberulous on the keel toward the abruptly awn-pointed tip, the awn about 0.5 mm long; lemma 2.6-3.8 mm long, 3-nerved, the lateral nerves sometimes obscure, a few short hairs on the callus and on the margins, sparingly scabrous on the keel toward the tip, awn 0.9— 2.6 mm long, antrorsely scabrous; floret readily deciduous, leaving the glumes at the end of the branchlet; palea as long as the lemma, 2-keeled, glabrous; stamens 3, anthers 1.5 mm long; styles 2, free to top of ovary; stigmata plumose; lodicules 0. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 2079186, collected ‘‘en ladera hiimeda, orilla de bosque mixto de pinos y oyamel, Lago de Zempoala, Edo. de Morelos” altitude 3,000 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 meters, October 7, 1951, by Dr. E. Matuda (no. 25601). This species is named in honor of Dr. Eizi Matuda, good friend and excellent collector of Mexican plants. This species is related to M. arizonica and M. arenicola. It may be separated from these species by the following key: Blades flat or only loosely involute, ligules 1-2 mm long. Glumes subequal, the first 1.5-2.1 mm, the second 1.9-2.8 mm long, awn-pointed, the second glume with an awn about 0.5 mm long; panicle branches long, few-flowered M. matudae Glumes equal, about 1 mm long; panicle branches short, many-flowered............ M. arizonica Blades involute; ligule 2.5-3 mm long, firm; glumes 2.3-2.5 mm long; lemma about 3 mm long, scaberulous at tip; panicle branches short, many-flowered....................M. arenicola Calamagrostis mcvaughei Sohns, sp. nov. Figs. 39-46 Gramen perenne; rhizomate; culmi 50-100 em alti, graciles, glabri; vaginae internodiis longiores, arctae, scaberulae, ad os parce pilosis; ligula rotundata, membranacea, 1-1.2 mm_ longa; laminae 10-30 cm longae, subtus scabrae, supra valide nervis prominulis percursae, in collo parce strigosis; panicula densiflora, laxa, pyramidata, ramis gracilibus, verticillatis, flexuosis: spiculae 4-5 mm longae; gluma prima 3.4-4.2 mm longa, I-nervis, carina scaberula ad summam; gluma secunda 4-5 mm longa, ceteroqui primam similis; lemma 3.4—4.1 mm longum, 5-nervis, scaberulum, 2- (interdum 4-) denticulata, dorso medium aristatum, 6-8 mm longa, geniculata; callo pilis copiosis, lemmam dimidio breviore: palea mem- branacea, lemmam subaequans; staminia 3, antherae circiter 2 mm longae; lodiculae 2; rachilla producta. Perennial, rhizomatous, tufted; culms 50- 100 cm tall, slender, erect, glabrous; sheaths overlapping at base, straw-colored, scaberulous and slightly pilose, especially toward the collar; ligule a rounded membranous rim 1.0-1.2 mm long; blades 10 to 30 cm or more long, convolute when dry, scabrous on the lower surface, strongly ribbed on the upper surface and pilose on the nerves; collar sparsely strigose on the margins at the junction of the blade and sheath; panicle many-flowered, open, pyramidal, the branches slender, flexuous, verticillate, the lower branches oO OO DECEMBER 1956 SOHNS: NEW writes mS) Se ae, 2 em SS Ve ee ee ee GRASSES FROM MEXICO Panicle, natural size; 88, panicle branches; Frias. 32-38.—Muhlenbergia matudae Sohns, sp. nov.: 82, 34, spikelet; 35, lemma; 36, palea; 37, essential organs; 88, ligule. All figures, except 32, X 16. Drawn from type specimen. 384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 - ‘\ VW 4-5 Fries. 39-46.—Calamagrostis mevaughei Sohns, sp. nov.: 39, Plant, X 14; 40, spikelet; 41, floret; 42, anther; 43, lodicule; 44, cross section of blade; 45, external view of collar at junction of sheath and blade; 46, inside view of ligule, one-half of blade, sheath and ligule removed. Figs. 42 and 44, x 16, all others, X 8. Drawn from the type specimen. DECEMBER 1956 bearing spikelets at the tips, the branches an- trorsely scaberulous, glabrous in the axils; spike- lets spreading in anthesis, pale-green to reddish- purple, 4-5 mm long (average length of 15 spikelets: 4.4 mm); first glume 3.4-4.2 mm long, 1-nerved, scaberulous on the keel toward the tip; second glume 4—5 mm long, 1-nerved, scaberulous on the keel toward the tip; lemma with an awn 6-8 mm long, inserted about the middle, one (or indistinctly twice) geniculate, exserted, antrorsely scaberulous, the lemma 3.4-5.1 mm long, 5-nerved, scaberulous on the back and scabrous on the keel toward the tip, apex with 2 (sometimes 5) setaceous teeth, callus hairs abun- dant, about half as long as the lemma; palea membranous, thin, about as long as the lemma; stamens 3, anthers about 2 mm long; lodicules 2, slightly swollen at the base, terminal half thin and flattened; rachilla prolonged, pilose, the hairs extending to the tip of the second glume. Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 2118496, collected in ‘Sierra de Manantlan (15-20 miles southeast of Autlan), near Aserra- dero E] Cuartén, elevation 2500 m; steep slopes near summits, in pine-oak-fir forests,” in the State of Jalisco, November 2, 1952, by Rogers MecVaugh (No. 13853). Additional specimen examined: JALisco: northeastern slopes of the Nevado de Colima, below Cafioa de Leoncito, McVaugh 13468. This taxon is related to C. tolucensis and is named in honor of Dr. Rogers McVaugh, of the University of Michigan. Calamagrostis valida Sohns, sp. nov. Figs. 47-55 Gramen perenne; caespitose, culmi usque ad 65 cm alti; vaginae inferiores efoliatae, superiores internodiis longiores, scaberulis; ligula membra- nacea, 2.5-3 mm longa; laminae 8-20 cm longae, usque ad 8 mm latae, supra pilosis, subtus gla- berrimis; panicula densiflora, 15-25 cm longa, ramis verticillatis; spiculae 5-6 mm longae, in callo pilis copiosis, usque ad 4 mm longis; gluma prima circiter 4 mm longa, 1I-nervis, scaberula, ceteroqui glaberrima; gluma secunda usque ad 5.5 mm longa, 3-nervis, glaberrima; lemma circiter 4.5 mm longum, 5-nervis, 2-denti- culata, arista usque ad 6 mm longa, dorso medium aristatum, columna laxe torta, exserta, leviter geniculata; palea 3.8-5 mm longa, bica- rinata, bifida, membranacea; staminia 8, antherae carina SOHNS: NEW GRASSES FROM MEXICO 385 3.5-4 mm longae; lodiculae 2, 0.5-0.8 mm longae; rachilla producta, 1.8-2 mm longa, longe-pilosi. Perennial; caespitose, culms up to 65 cm tall; basal sheaths bladeless, glabrous, upper sheaths scaberulous, longer than the internodes, pale pinkish-purple, hirtellous across the back at the collar; ligule firm, membranaceous, 2.5-3 mm long, blades 8-20 cm long, up to 8 mm wide, the margins slightly convolute when dry, upper surface pilose, lower surface glabrous, the tip long-attenuate; terminal blades sometimes over- topping the inflorescence; inflorescence 15-25 cm long, dense, branches fascicled, 1.5-2 cm distant in the center of the inflorescence, alternately arranged, branches probably spreading in anthe- sis, slightly purplish, included at the base; spikelets 5-6 mm long; callus hairs copious, up to 2.4 mm long; first glume about 4 mm long, l-nerved, scaberulous on the keel, otherwise glabrous; second glume up to 5.5 mm long, 3-nerved, glabrous; lemma about 4.5 mm long, 5-nerved, with 2 setaceous teeth, awned from the back, the awn up to 6 mm long, loosely twisted, exserted, slightly geniculate; palea 3.8 mm long, 2-keeled, membranaceous; stamens 3, anthers 3.8-4 mm long; lodicules 2, 0.5-0.8 mm long; rachilla joint 1.8-2 mm long, long-pilose. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 2118491, collected on the northeastern slopes of the Nevado de Colima, below Canoa de Leoncito; steep cut-over mountainsides in fir zone at head of Barranca de la Rosa, elevation ca. 2800 m, October 10, 1952, by Rogers McVaugh (no. 13410). Sporobolus viscidus Sohns, sp. nov. Figs. 56-61 Gramen annuum; culmi usque ad 50 em alti, graciles, infra nodos_ crateriformi-tuberculati; vaginae internodiis breviores, glabrae, carinis tuberculatae, nervi culmorum sparse tubercu- latae; ligula ciliolata, 0.5 mm longa; laminae 4-20 em longae, usque ad 6 mm lata, tenuis, plana, supra glabra, subtus scaberula, margines tuberculatis et scaberrimis; panicula 15 em vel tuberculata, ramis brevibus, rigidis, sparse ramosis, viscidis; spiculae 3.5-4+ mm pallido-purpurea ; eluma prima 1.9-8 mm longa, enerve; gluma longior, rachis glabra, viscida; longae, secunda 2.5-4+ mm longa, l-nervis; lemma usque ad 4 mm longum, l-nerve; palea lemma aequans » vel longior, valide biearina; staminia 3, antherae 386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 Fies. 47-55.—Calamagrostis valida Sohns, sp. nov.: 47, Plant, X 14; 48, spikelet; 49, floret; 50, anther; 51, lodicule; 52, node on the axis of the raceme; 53, ligule, median adaxial view; 54, collar at junction of the blade and sheath; 55, cross-section of blade. Figs. 48-50, 52-55, X 8; 51, X 20. Drawn from the type specimen. DECEMBER 1956 SOHNS: NEW GRASSES FROM MEXICO 387 Fras. 56-61.—Sporobolus viscidus Sohns, sp. nov.: 56, Plant, X '9; 57, margin of blade; 58, spikelet; 59, stamens; 60, ovary; 61, caryopsis (pericarp free at tip and base). All figures, except 56, X 8. Drawn from the type specimen. 388 1.8-2.2 mm longae; lodiculae 2, 0.2 mm longae; caryopsis circiter 3 mm longa, 1 mm lata. Annual; culms up to 50 em tall, slender, tuber- culate-crateriform below the nodes; sheaths shorter than the internodes, glabrous, a line of glands on the keel, sparsely glandular on the lateral nerves; ligule a fringe of hairs, 0.6 mm long; blades 4-20 cm long, up to 6 mm wide, thin, flat, glabrous above, scaberulous below, margins near the base glandular, otherwise short- ciliate, the margins of the tip slightly inrolled; panicle 15 cm or more long, rachis tuberculate- glandular, the branches short, stiff, viscid; spike- lets 3.5-4 mm long, pale-purplish; first glume 1.9-3 mm long, nerveless; second glume 2.5—4 mm JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12: long, 1-nerved; lemma up to 4 mm long, 1-nerved; palea firm, as long as or longer than the lemma, strongly 2-keeled, splitting when mature; stamens. 3, anthers 1.8—-2.2 mm long; lodicules 2, 0.2 mm long; caryopsis about 3 mm long and 1 mm wide. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium,. no. 2181966, collected “en matorral seco, 550 m. de altitud, La Junta, cerca de Tingambato, Diciembre 20, 1953,” Estado de Mexico, by Dr. E. Matuda (no. 29813). This taxon is related to S. hintonii Hartley, but it may be distinguished from that species. by the narrow, short-branched, viscid panicle and the larger spikelets. SO LEATHER RESEARCH AT NBS In many respects leather is a unique material, possessing a number of desirable physical prop- erties, such as tearing strength, flexibility, and porosity, that make it particularly well suited to use in shoes, gloves, and other articles of clothing. For specific applications, these properties can be controlled to a considerable extent by proper selection of skins, tanning agents, and finishing processes. A knowledge of the structure of colla- gen, the basic leather forming protein of hides, as well as an understanding of the mechanism of tanning, is thus of direct importance to tanners, shoe manufacturers, and other industrial users of leather. To provide basic information of this kind for Government and industry, the National Bureau of Standards has, over the past 40 years, carried on an extensive program of research and develop- ment in the field of leather.1 This program, now under the direction of Dr. J. R. Kanagy, has in- cluded fundamental studies of collagen, develop- ment of concepts for the mechanism of tanning, and measurement of the physical and chemical properties of collagen and leather. Much of the information thus obtained has been applied to the improvement of leather products and the development of standard methods for their evaluation. 1 For further details and a bibliography of NBS publications in the leather field see, Leather re- search and technology at the National Bureau of Standards, by Everett L. Wallace, NBS Circ. 560. 1955. Available from the Superintendent of Docu- ments, U.S. Government Printing Office, 15 cents. FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICOCHEMICAL STUDIES Because of the complex nature ot collagen, a large proportion of the Bureau’s leather investi- gations have combined both physical and chemi- cal studies. An example is a series of investiga- tions of the interactions of leather and collagen with water in various forms. Leather excels in its ability to transfer water vapor from a region of high humidity to one of lower humidity. Because of the relation of this property to shoe comfort and the removal of perspiration from shoes, water-vapor transfer through leather has been extensively studied at NBS.2 The strong adsorp- tive capacity of leather and collagen for water and water vapor also has an important effect on the properties of leather. This has led to a series of studies on water adsorption and its variation with temperature, tannage, and other factors. These studies are being extended to include heats of wetting of leather and other fibrous polymers. The physical constants of leather fibers are perhaps of less immediate practical importance. Nevertheless, they are of great value in under- standing the complex nature of collagen and the processes involved in converting collagen to leather. In general, studies of fiber constants are made under varying conditions of tannage, mois- ture content, temperature, composition, and other factors, so that extensive data result. 2 Water vapor permeability of leather, NBS Tech- nical News Bull. 34: 163. Nov. 1950. DECEMBER 1956 To learn more about the thermodynamic prop- erties of leather, data have been obtained on its density, compressibility, expansivity, and specific heat. In the course of this work, investigators en- countered interesting phenomena which are being explored further. For example, the expansivity measurements led to studies of shrinkage rates, with resulting data on heats and entropies of activation. Likewise, compressibility measure- ments at the high pressures required for solid materials led to similar studies on synthetic polymers. Data on specific heats are now being accumulated in connection with basic studies on interactions of moisture and leather. BASIC CHEMISTRY OF COLLAGEN Skin collagen, being a natural fibrous protein, is a highly complex polymer that occludes extra- neous materials, such as fats, salts, and other proteins. Thus, fundamental chemical studies of collagen first required investigation of methods for removing extraneous materials so that a chem- ically reproducible purified collagen might be prepared. The chemistry of the purified collagen that was finally obtained has been intensively studied, providing data that should be of great value in determining its structure and the mechanism of tanning. Besides studying relatively simple chemical reactions, such as esterification, deam1- nation, and various tanning procedures, the Bureau has determined the combining weights and the reactive basic groups. It has also studied the amino acid structure and the amide nitrogen content of collagen. Recently, a rapid chromatographic method was developed for determining the amino acid content of collagen.? This quantitative technique can be applied not only to collagen itself but also to its derivatives and degradation products. In contrast to other methods currently employed, it enables the analyst to follow with a high degree of detail the reactions and changes in which col- lagen may be involved. It is thus expected to provide a useful tool that will aid in further understanding the structure of collagen and the properties of leather. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES The behavior of leather in service is largely de- 3A rapid quantitative analysis of collagen, NBS Technical News Bull. 40: 65. May 1956. LEATHER RESEARCH AT NBS 389 termined by the physical properties of the leather matrix. Mechanical properties that have been investigated extensively include tensile strength, stretch, tearing strength, stiffness, bursting strength, rigidity, and flexural resistance. Inves- tigations of thermal properties have involved shrinkage temperature, area stability, and ther- mal conductivity. Other studies have dealt with electrical resistance, dielectric constant, and structural properties such as pore-size distribu- tion in the fibers and leather. Recently, fundamental information regarding the structure of leather and collagen fibers was obtained from studies of pores in leather.* Pres- sure porosimeter and electron microscope studies revealed the presence of large numbers of ex- tremely small pores—less than a millionth of an inch in radius—in both leather and collagen. Quantitative information was obtained on pore- size distribution within the individual collagen fibrils. These data should aid the leather tech- nologist in understanding the swelling and shrinkage accompanying water-leather interac- tions. They are also expected to shed additional light on the ability of leather to transmit or ab- sorb water vapor, tannins, or impregnants. The permeability of leather to water vapor, which makes it so well suited to use in footwear, is un- doubtedly related to the presence of pores. LEATHER TECHNOLOGY In 1924, a survey by the U. 8. Department of Commerce stated that 40 percent of the vegetable tanning materials consumed in the United States in 1922 were imported. It also pointed out that 99 percent of the chrome ore used in the United States at that time came from abroad. In view of the obvious importance of a substitute tanning material to the national economy, the Bureau initiated research on synthetic tanning agents. Representative syntans of various types were prepared and were evaluated by tanning tests. The published results helped lay the foundation for the development of present-day satisfactory syntans by industry. An investigation of the tanning properties of sulfite cellulose, a by- product of the paper industry, demonstrated that this material could be used in conjunction with vegetable tanning extracts. Later, during World 1 Wicropores in leather, NBS Technical News Bull. 39: 68. May 1955. 390 War II, it was shown that iron could be substi- tuted for chromium during an emergency. During World War II military and civilian shoe requirements were so great that the tanning industry had difficulty in expanding operations sufficiently to meet the increased demand. Of chief concern were the acute shortages of hides and tannins. Recognizing the need for conserva- tion, the Army Quartermaster Corps sponsored research at the Bureau to improve the stability and serviceability of leather and to develop test methods for military items. The Bureau investi- gated several oil and wax treatments, which were adopted by the Armed Forces to increase the wear resistance of sole leather. After the war, research directed toward im- proving the serviceability of leather was con- tinued. This work aimed not only to increase the wear resistance of sole leather but to improve low- grade hide areas so that more first-quality soles might be cut from the same hide. Ultimately both these objectives were attained by develop- ment of a method for impregnating leather with polymers.° The tightly woven condition of the natural fibers of leather tends to limit the materials with which it may be impregnated. Thus, the Bureau’s early attempts to use various solutions of com- mercial polymers as impregnants were not suc- cessful, and research was for a time directed toward impregnating the leather with monomers for polymerization in situ. Then, as a result of other research on pore-size distribution in leather and particle-size distribution in rubber latex, it became apparent that leather could be impregnated by soaking the crust leather (tanned, but not finished) in solutions of specially prepared or selected commercial polymers. On the basis of these findings, a method of treatment was de- veloped. Laboratory tests have shown that the treat- ment increases wear by about 80 percent and reduces water absorption by about half. Since crust sole leather containing a minimum amount of uncombined tannins is used, considerable saving in tanning materials is effected. Further- more, 1mpregnation may increase the wear of belly and shoulder leather to equal that of high- quality sole leather. To bridge the gap between laboratory investi- > Improved techniques for impregnating leather, NBS Technical News Bull. 39: 96. July 1955. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 . gation and large-scale industrial application of the process, pilot-plant studies are being con- ducted at NBS under sponsorship of the Navy Bureau ot Supplies and Accounts. These studies have shown that by varying the impregnating process, long wearing leathers can be produced having various degrees of waterproofness, flexi- bility, and water-vapor transmission. Methods have also been developed for imparting a finished appearance to the impregnated leather. STABILITY AND SERVICEABILITY The aging qualities of leather depend princi- pally on its tannage, environment, and use. However, investigations of the mechanism of degradation have shown that highly ionizable acids, either added during manufacture or ad- sorbed from the atmosphere, are a major factor n leather deterioration. Over 20 years ago the Bureau made a thorough study of the effect of acid on leather and pub- lished a series of papers on the subject. Some of the more important results of this investigation were the development of a standard procedure for determining acidity in leather and the determination of the optimum pH to prevent change in the properties of leather during pro- longed storage. Other factors in leather deterio- ration which the Bureau has studied include temperature, oxygen, moisture, and the catalytic effect of traces of copper and iron salts in the leather. Before World War II mildew on leather was not considered very important and little effort was made to prevent its growth. However, mili- tary forces stationed in tropical areas soon found that the growth of mildew on numerous items of equipage was a serious problem. The Army therefore initiated a project at the Bureau for the development of fungicidal treatments and test methods.°® These studies showed that the principal effect of mildew on leather, other than appearance, is the removal of greases, which causes stiffness and loss in strength. As a result of the investigation, a specification for the fungicidal treatment of leather was prepared and quantitative methods were developed for the determination of fungi- cides in leather. This work has been continued with the development of new fungicides and 6 Prevention of mildew on leather, NBS Tech- nical News Bull. 32: 84. July 1948. DECEMBER 1956 establishment of procedures for reliable evalua- tion of all fungicidal materials. TEST METHODS Much of the Bureau’s work on leather has been concerned with the development of new or im- proved methods or equipment for testing leather and leather products. The results have been used both in procurement specifications and in evaluation and development work. For many years the accurate determination of moisture in leather was a serious problem to analysts, as the results for all other chemical constituents are expressed on the oven-dry basis. In 1941 NBS research showed that control of the atmospheric humidity in the drying oven would permit moisture determinations to be made with considerable precision. This method has since been adopted as the ultimate standard in Federal Specifications. Because the properties of leather vary con- siderably over the area of a hide, it is important that a test sample represent as nearly as possible the average for the hide. Bureau scientists devised a sampling procedure’ for shoe upper leather that permits selection of sampling locations so that the fewest specimens are required to give the desired accuracy for a particular property. The sampling procedure is based on a mathematical relationship involving the coefficient of correla- tion between the value obtained for a particular test from a specific location and the average for that test over the corresponding side. The most suitable sampling location on a hide for all tests required in acceptance testing was also de- termined. A number of techniques and devices have been worked out for making performance tests of 7 Sampling of wpper leather for shoes, NBS Tech- nical News Bull. 35: 6. Jan. 1951. LEATHER RESEARCH AT NBS 391 leather products. Much of this work has dealt with water-vapor permeability. Other develop- ments have been concerned with measurement of abrasion resistance, flex life, accelerated aging, and compressibility. Recently, in work sponsored by the Office of the Quartermaster General, the Bureau has developed a nondestructive method for testing leather, based on the transmission of sound waves.® The chief instrument employed is a pulse propagation meter which measures and records the speed of a generated sound pulse through the leather. As a result, the specimen under test is left unharmed, in contrast to the tearing or other destructive effects of other test procedures. Good correlation has been found between sonic measurements and the results of tensile and breaking elongation tests. FUTURE PLANS In the near future the Bureau expects to begin a study of leather degradation by radiation. The newly developed technique for amino acid determination will be used in this work. This method of approach should show the exact point of attack in the collagen molecule and thus give a clearer explanation of the mechanism of breakdown. Recently developed methods for determining particle size of polymers will also be utilized to study the size of particles in tannins and leather impregnants. Comparison of these results with data on leather pore size should not only provide additional information on the mechanism of tanning but should also make possible a better understanding of the nature of the tanned material. 8 A sonic technique for testing leather, NBS Tech- nical News Bull. 40: 35. March 1956. There are agents in nature able to make the particles of bodies stick together by very strong attractions. And it vs the business of experimental philosophy to find them out.—NEWTON 392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, NO. 12 BOTANY — Additional Fijian mosses, IIT. Epwin B. Bartram, Bushkill, Pa. (Received September 25, 1956) The mosses collected by Dr. A. C. Smith on his latest expedition to Fiji, April to December 1953, under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation, are represented by 136 numbers, many of which are in generous quantity for wide distribution. For the most part the collections duplicate previous gatherings but are of interest from the standpoint of local distribution. Three new species, Syrrhopodon vitiensis, Thyri- dium parvifolium, and Chaetomitrium smithii, together with a new variety of Chaeto- mitrium orthorrhynchum, a species new to the local flora, and Thamnium ellipticum, not previously known from Fiji, are the outstanding features of the series. The list of Fijian mosses now numbers about 288 species of which 75, or approximately 25 per cent, are endemic. Further explora- tions may expand the list to some extent, but it seems likely that the flora as now known is reasonably complete. A representative series from this collec- tion is in my herbarium and a complete set in the United States National Herbarium. FISSIDENTACEAE Fissidens vitiensis Dix. Ovalau: Hills east of Lovoni Valley, alt. 300-500 m, dense forest, on rich humus, no. 7361. Fissidens mangarevensis Mont. Viti Levu: Namosi: Valley of Wainambua Creek, south of Mount Naitarandamu, alt. 250-300 m, dense forest, on rocks along stream, no. 8842. Taveuni: Summit of adjacent slopes of Mount Manuka, east of Wairiki, alt. 700-850 m, dense forest, on caudex of tree-fern, no. 8226. Ovalau: Summit and adjacent slopes of Mount Korotolutolu, west of Thawathi, alt. 500-589 m, dense forest, on caudex of tree-fern, no. 8040. Fissidens filicinus Doz. & Molk. Taveuni: Slopes of Mount Manuka, east of Wairiki, alt. 300-600 m, dense forest, on rocks in dry stream bed, no. 8346. DICRANACEAE Trematodon longicollis Mx. Viti Levu: Namosi: Northern base of Korom- basambasanga Range, in drainage of Wainavin- drau Creek, alt. 250-400 m, dense forest, on clay banks along stream, no. 8673b. Campylopodium integrum (C.M.) Par. Viti Levu: Namosi: Northern base of Korom- basambasanga Range, in drainage of Wainavin- drau Creek, alt. 250-400 m, dense forest, on clay banks along stream, no. 8673a. Campylopus samoanus Broth. Viti Levu: Tailevu: Hills east of Wainimbuka River, in vicinity of Ndakuivuna, alt. 100-200 m, dense forest, on wet rocks along stream, no. 7122. Ovalu: Summit of Mount Ndelaiovalu and adjacent ridge, alt. 575-626 m, dense bush and thickets of crest, on wet humus-covered rocks, no. 7573. Leucoloma tenuifolium Mitt. Viti Levu: Namosi: Hills north of Wainavin- drau Creek, between Korombasambasanga Range and Mount Naitarandamu, alt. 250-450 m, dense forest, on tree trunks, no. 8452. LEUCOBRYACEAE Octoblepharum albidum Hedw. Ngau: Hills east of Herald Bay, inland from Sawaieke, alt. 300-450 m, dense forest, in masses of humus on trees, no. 7842. Taveuni: Slopes of Mount Manuka, east of Wairiki, alt. 300-400 m, dense forest, on tree trunks, no. 8204. Leucobryum pentastichum Bry. jav. Viti levu: Namosi: Hills bordering Waina- vindrau Creek, in vicinity of Wainimakutu, alt. 150-250 m, dense forest, in dense mats on de- cayed wood, no. 8857. Ngau: Hills east of Herald Bay, inland from Sawaicke, on slopes of Mount Vonda (Lion Peak) and toward Waikama, alt. 30-200 m, on humus at roots of trees in open forest, no. 7994. Leucobryum sanctum Hpe. Viti Levu: Serua: Hills between Waininggere and Waisese Creeks, between Negaloa and DECEMBER 1956 Wainiyambia, alt. 50-100 m, dry forest, in dense mats on humus-covered logs, no. 9514. Viti Levu: Namosi: Hills north of Wainavindrau Creek, between Korombasambasanga Range and Mount Naitarandamu, alt. 250-450 m, dense forest, in dense masses on humus, no. 8461. Leucobryum scalare C. M. Viti Levu: Tailevu: Hills east of Wainimbuka River, in vicinity of Ndakuivuna, alt. 100-200 m, on wet banks along road, no. 7013. Exodictyon dentatum (Mitt.) Card. ? poor condi- tion. Viti Levu: Tailevu: Hills east of Wainimbuka River, in vicinity of Ndakuivuna, alt. 100-200 m, dense forest, on bark, no. 7148. CALYMPERACEAE Syrrhopodon mamillatus C. M. Twelve collections from Viti Levu, Ngau, and Ovalau showing a broad distribution in the local area. Syrrhopodon smithii Bartr. Viti Levu: Serua: Hills between Waininggere and Waisese Creeks between Ngaloa and Waini- yambia, alt. 50-100 m, dry forest, on tree trunks, mixed with hepatics and lichens, no. 9538. Syrrhopodon (Calymperidium) vitiensis Bartr., sp. nov. Laxe caespitosus, caespitibus fuscescenti- viridibus, opacis. Caulis brevissimus. Folia sicca crispatula, humida erecto-patentia, ad 12 mm longa, e basi ovata sensim anguste lineari- subulata; marginibus remote denticulatis, in parte superior vaginae sat dense serrulatis; costa valida, excurrente; cellulis laminalibus minutis, rotundatis, diam. circa 5u, vix incrassatis, mar- ginibus versus 2-3 seriebus bistratosis, cancel- linis male definitis. Fructus ignotus. Viti Levu: Tailevu: Hills east of Wainimbuka River, in vicinity of Ndakuivuna, alt. 100-200 m, dense forest, on tree trunks, no. 7103. This species evidently has some affinity with S. subulatus Lac., but the much smaller lamina cells and the leaf margins closely and sharply serrate at the shoulders and distantly denticu- late above are good. diagnostic characters. Thyridium parvifolium Bartr., sp. nov. Caespitosum, caespitibus laxis, lutescentibus. Caulis repens, ramis vix 1 em altis. Folia sicea BARTRAM: ADDITIONAL FIJIAN MOSSES 393 erecta, incurva, humida erecto-patentia, valde undulata, ad 2 mm longa, e basi amplexicaule, oblonga, obtusa, limbata. Limbus folii inferne 8-10 seriatus, fere ad apicem folii productus, superne tenuiter denticulatus vel integrus. Cellulis laminalibus rotundatis, diam. 8-—10u, chlorophyllosis, papillosis, cancellina superne rotundata; costa infra apicem folii evanida. Seta 5-6 mm. longa, tenuis, rubra; theca erecta, oblongo-cylindrica, deoperculata 1.8 mm. longa. Ovalau: Hills east of Lovoni Valley, alt. 100- 300 m, dense forest, on tree trunks, no. 7312. Slightly more robust than 7. flavum (C.M.) Fleisch. and obviously distinct in the bluntly obtuse leaves with the hyaline border more pro- nounced and extending nearly to the apex. Thyridium luteum Mitt. Five collections from Viti Levu, Ovalau, and Taveuni. Frequent on most of the larger islands. Calymperes serratum A. Br. Taveuni: Slopes of Mount Manuka, east of Wairiki, alt. 300-600 m, dense forest, on tree trunks, no. 8198. Ovalau: Hills west of Lovoni Valley, on ridge south of Mount Korolevu, alt. 400-500 m, dense forest on decayed wood, no. 7660. Calymperes tahitense (Sull.) Mitt. Viti Levu: Serua: Hills between Navua River and Wainiyavu Creek near Namuamua, alt. 100-200 m, no. 9007. Viti Levu: Serua: Hills east of Navua River, near Nukusere, alt. 100-200 m, dense forest on tree trunks, no. 9142. Calymperes tahitense var. truncatum Ther & Dix. Viti Levu: Serua: Hills between Waininggere and Waisese Creeks, between Ngaloa and Wainiyambia, alt. 50-100 m, dry forest, on boulders, no. 9390. PoTTIACEAE Rhamphidium veitchii Dix. Viti Levu: Namosi: Northern base of Korom- basambasanga Range, in drainage of Waina- vindrau Creek, alt. 250-400 m, dense forest on clay banks along stream, nos. S681, S673. Barbula inflexa (Duby) C. M. Viti Levu: Namosi: Valley of Wainambua Creek, Mount Naitarandamu, alt. 250-350 m, dense forest on rocks along stream, no. SS40a. south of 394 BRYACEAE Brachymenium indicum (D. & M.) Bry. jav. Viti Levu: Serua: Flat coastal strip in vicinity of Ngaloa, alt. near sea level, on humus-covered rocks in village, no. 9502. Ngau: Hills east of Herald Bay, inland from Sawaicke, on slopes of Mount Vonda (Lion Peak) and toward Waikama, in pockets of humus on bare rocks of open hill- side, alt. 30-200 m, no. 7957. Bryum nitens Hook. Viti Levu: Namosi: Valley of Wainambua Creek, south of Mount Naitarandamu, alt. 250-350 m, on rocks along stream, no. 8840. Bryum greenwoodii Dix. Taveuni: Slopes of Mount Manuka, east of Wairiki, alt. 300-600 m, on humus-covered rocks in dry stream bed, no. 8338. RHIZOGONIACEAE Rhizogonium spiniforme (Hedw.) Bruch forma samoana Mitt. Two collections. Frequent throughout the islands. Rhizogonium setosum Mitt. Eight collections from Viti Levu, Ovalau, and Ngau. A common species in the local flora. BARTRAMIACEAE Philonotis pilifer Dix. Viti Levu: Namosi: Northern base of Korom- basambasanga Range, in drainage of Wainavin- drau Creek, alt. 250-400 m, on clay banks along stream, no. 8680. HyPNODENDRACEAE Hypnodendron subspininervium (C. M.) Jaeg. Ovalau: Summit of Mount Tana Lailai and adjacent ridge, alt. 500-550 m, dense bush and thickets of crest, on trees, no. 7722. Ovalau: Summit of Mount Ndelaiovalau and adjacent ridge, alt. 575-626 m, dense bush and thickets of crest, on tree trunks, no. 7612. Taveuni: Hills east of Somosomo, west of old crater occupied by small swamp and lake, alt. 660-900 m, dense forest, on tree trunks, no. 8382. Hypnodendron vitiense Mitt. Taveuni: Hills east of Somosomo, west of old crater occupied by small swamp and lake, alt. 660-900 m, on rocks along stream, no. 8371. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 SPIRIDENTACEAE Spiridens balfourianus Grev. Ngau: Slopes of Mount Ndelaitho, on northern spur, toward Navukailangi, alt. 350-500 m, dense forest, on trees trunks, no. 7884. Spiridens aristifolius Mitt. Ovalau: Summit of Mount Tana Lailai and adjacent ridge, alt. 500-550 m, dense bush and thickets of crest, dependent from tree trunks and branches, no. 7726. Ovalau: Summit of Mount Ndelaiovalau and adjacent ridge, alt. 575-626 m, dense bush and thickets of crest, epiphyte, no. Gale Spiridens flagellosus Schp. Ovalau: Summit of Mount Tana Lailai and adjacent ridge, alt. 500-550 m, dense bush and thickets of crest, on tree trunks, no. 7725. Tave- nuni: Valley between Mount Manuka and Mount Koroturanga (Des Voeux Peak), east of Wairiki, alt. 600-700 m, dense forest, in masses on trees, no. 8278. ORTHOTRICHACEAE Macromitrium subtile Schwaegr. Ovalau: Summit and adjacent slopes of Mount Korotolutolu, west of Thawathi, alt. 500-589 m, dense forest on tree trunks, no. 8052. RHACOPILACEAE Rhacopilum spectabile R. & H. Viti Levu: Namosi: Valley of Wainambua Creek, south of Mount Naitarandamu, alt. 250-350 m, on decayed wood, no. 8841. PTEROBRYACEAE Garovaglia smithii Bartr. Negau: Hills east of Herald Bay, inland from Sawaieke, alt. 300-450 m, dense forest, on tree trunks, nos. 7742, 7827. Endotrichella graeffeana C. M. Viti Levu: Namosi: Hills bordering Waina- vindrau Creek, in vicinity of Wainimakutu, alt. 150-250 m, dense forest, on tree trunks and branches, no. 8884. Euptchium setigerum (Sull.) Broth. Ovalau: Summit of Mount Tana Lailai and adjacent ridge, alt. 500-550 m, dense bush and thickets of crest, on tree trunks, no. 7724. DECEMBER 1956 Symphysodon vitianus (Sull.) Broth. Five collections from Viti Levu, Ngau, and Ovalau. A frequent species on tree trunks and branches on the larger islands. METEORIACEAE Floribundaria seruginosa (Mitt.) Fleisch. Viti Zevu: Tailevu: Hills east of Wainimbuka River, in vicinity of Wailotua, alt. 100-150 m, on damp rocks at mouth of cave in dense forest, no. 7236. NECKERACEAE Calyptothecium urvilleanum (C. M.) Broth. Viti Levu: Namosi: Northern slopes of Korombasambasanga Range, in drainage of Wainavindrau Creek, alt. 450-600 m, dense forest, on decayed wood, no. 8740. Himantocladium implanum (Mitt.) Fleisch. Negau: Hills east of Herald Bay, inland from Sawieke, alt. 300-450 m, dense forest on tree trunks, no. 7753. Homaliodendron flabellatum (Dicks.) Fleisch. Taveuni: Summit and adjacent slopes of Mount Manuka, east of Wairiki, alt. 700-830 m, dense forest, in masses on tree trunks, no. 8233. Thamnium ellipticum (Bry. jav.) Kindb. Ngau: Hills east of Herald Bay, inland from Sawaieke, alt. 300-450 m, dense forest, on wet rocks along stream, no. 7862. New to Fiji. Area: Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Philippines. HOOKERIACEAE Distichophyllum vitianum (Sull.) Besch. Three collections from Ovalau and Taveuni. A frequent local species on dead wood. Cyclodictyon blumeanum (C. M.) Broth. Vitu Levu: Namosi: Hills bordering Wain- avindrau Creek, in vicinity of Wainimakutu, alt. 150-250 m, dense forest, on rocky banks along stream, no. 8889. Callicostella vesiculata C. M. Ovalau: Valley of Mbureta and Lovoni Rivers, alt. 20-50 m, on roots of Inocarpus trees along trail, no. 7673. BARTRAM: ADDITIONAL FIJIAN MOSSES 395 Callicostella papillata (Mont.) Jaeg. Seven collections from Viti Levu, Taveuni, and Ovalau. A common species on decayed wood. Callicostella papillata var. brevifolia Fleisch. Taveuni: Valley between Mount Manuka and Mount Koroturanga (Des Vocux Peak), east of Wairiki, alt. 600-700 m, dense forest, on wet rocks along stream, no. 8256a. Chaetomitrium orthorrhynchum (D. & M.) Bry. jav. var. vitiense Bartr., var. nov. A typo foliorum marginibus superne minute denticulatis differt. Species new to Fiji. Quite distinct from the typical form in the upper leaf margins minutely denticulate instead of sharply serrate. Other- wise, the agreement seems to be complete. Ovalau: Summit and adjacent slopes of Mount Korotolutolu, west of Thawathi, alt. 500-589 m, dense forest, on tree trunks, no. 8048. Chaetomitrium (Leiocarpus) smithii Bartr., sp. nov. Caespitosus, caespitibus laxis, depressis, viri- dibus. Caulis procumbens, irregulariter pinnatim ramosus, ramis late patentibus, 5-8 mm. longis, parce ramulosis, valde complanatis. Folia ramea patentia, ovato-lanceolata, concava, acuminata, 1.5-2 mm. longa; marginibus erectis, fere ad basin serrulatis; costis binis, bene notatis; cellulis anguste linearibus, laevissimis. Seta 12-15 mm. longa, inferne laevis, superne papillosa; calyptra ubique dense hispida, ad basem longe ciliata. Viti Levu: Tailevu: Hills east of Wainimbuka River, in vicinity of Ndakuivuna, alt. 100-200 m, dense forest, on bark, no. 7172. The seta smooth below and weakly papillose above will at once separate this species from either C. depressum Mitt. or C. rugtfoliwm Sull. The habit is more irregular and less dense than in C. densum Dix., the leaves more slenderly pointed and the leaf cells essentially smooth. LEUCOMIACEAE Leucomium aneurodictyon (C. M.) Jaeg. Ovalau: Summit of Mount Ndelaiovalau and adjacent ridge, alt. 575-626 m, dense bush and thickets of crest, on bark, no. 7592; Hills west of Lovoni Valley, on ridge south of Mount NKoro- levu, alt. 400-500 m, dense forest, on decayed wood, no. 7624. 596 THUIDIACEAE Thuidium samoanum Mitt. Ovalau: Summit of Mount Ndelaiovalau and adjacent ridge, alt. 575-626 m, dense bush and thickets of crest, on decayed wood, no. 7598. Thuidium cymbifolium (D. & M.) Bry. jav. Taveuni: Valley between Mount Manuka and Mount Koroturanga (Des Vocux Peak), east of Wairiki, alt. 600-700 m, dense forest, on wet rocks along stream, no. 8258. ENTODONTACEAE Campylodontium flavescens (Hook.) Bry. jav. Viti Levu: Namosi: Valley of Wainavindrau Creek, in vicinity of Wainimakutu, alt. about 150 m, on tree trunks in thickets along stream, no. 8817, SEMATOPHYLLACEAE Trichosteleum hamatum (D. & M.) Jaeg. Eleven collections from Viti Levu and Ngau. Frequent locally and widely distributed in the southwest Pacific. Trichosteleum boschii (D. & M.) Jaeg. Four collections from Viti Levu. Not un- common on decayed wood. Trichosteleum fissum Mitt. Taveuni: Slopes of Mount Manuka, east of Wairiki, alt. 300-600 m, dense forest, on tree trunks, no. 8206. Taxithelium lindbergii (Bry. jav.) R. & C. Viti Levu: Namosi: Hills east of Wasiniko- roiluva River, near Namaumau, alt. 50-200 m, dense forest, on decayed wood, no. 8913a. Ovalau: Hills east of Lovoni Valley, alt. 100-300 m, dense forest, on tree trunks, no. 7311. Taxithelium kerianum (Broth.) Fleisch. Three collections from Viti Levu, Ovalau, and Taveuni. Rather frequent on tree trunks and decayed wood. HYPNACEAE Vesicularia reticulata (D. & M.) Broth. Viti Levu: Namosi: Hills bordering Waina- vindrau Creek, in vicinity of Wainimakutu, alt. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 150-250 m, dense forest, on rocky banks along stream, no. 8889a. Vesicularia calodictyon (C.M.) Broth. Ovalau: Hills east of Lovoni Valley, alt. 100— 300 m, dense forest, on wet rocks along stream, no. 7299. Isopterygium minutirameum (C.M.) Jaeg. Viti Levu: Namosi: Hills east of Wainikor- oiluva, near Namaumau, alt. 50-200 m, dense forest, on bark, no. 9050. Ectropothecium molle Dix. Viti Levu: Namosi: Valley of Wainambua Creek, south of Mount Naitarandamu, alt. 250-3850 m, dense forest, on wet stones along stream, no. 8792. Ectropothecium adnatum Broth. Taveuni: Valley between Mount Manuka and Mount Koroturanga (Des Vocux Peak), east of Wairiki, alt. 600-700 m, dense forest, on wet rocks along stream, no. 8256. Ectropothecium percomplanatum Broth. Viti Levu: Tailevu: Hills east of Wainimbuka River, in vicinity of Wailotua, alt. 100-150 m, on damp rocks at mouth of cave in dense forest, no. 7237. Ectropothecium longicaule Bartr. Taveuni: Slopes of Mount Manuka, east of Wairiki, alt. 300-600 m, dense forest, In masses on tree trunks, no. 8188. Ectropothecium cyathothecium (C.M.) Jaeg. Viti Levu: Namosi: Northern base of Korom- basambasanga Range, in drainage of Wainavin- drau Creek, alt. 250-400 m, dense forest, on tree trunks, no. 8638. Viti Levu: Serua: Hills between Waininggere and Waisese Creeks, between Ngaloa and Wainiyambia, alt. 50-100 m, dry forest, on decayed wood, no. 9639. Ovalau: Slopes of Mount Korotolutolu, west of Thawathi, alt. 300-500 m, dense forest, on decayed wood, no. 8006. POLYTRICHACEAE Pogonatum graeffeanum (C.M.) Jaeg. Four collections from Viti Levu. A frequent local species. DECEMBER 1956 ROSS: NEW SPECIES OF HELICOPSYCHE 397 ENTOMOLOGY —New species of Helicopsyche from the Western Hemisphere! (Trichoptera, Helicopsychidae). H. H. Ross, Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana, Ill. (Received September 4, 1956) Extensive collections of material from Mexico and smaller collections from other parts of Central and South America have brought to light several species of the genus Helicopsyche which prove to be new to science and are herein described. The genus Helicopsyche is of unusual interest because the larva makes a coiled sand-grain case resembling a snail shell, and these queer cases have aroused the interest of many entomologists. A consider- able number of species have been described from various parts of the world, mcluding the West Indies and the Americas, but a moderate number of these descriptions are based only on larvae or females, for which forms we do not yet know adequate specific characters to allow positive identification of material. The American species show a number of phylogenetic trends which are well marked. All these species have a mesobasal lobe or shoulder on the male clasper. In one evolu- tionary line this shoulder has become sepa- rated from the body of the clasper by a wide, arcuate incision (Figs. 5, 6) and has cul- minated in the species incisa and quadrosa. In the other well-marked evolutionary line, the mesobasal lobe first became cushion- like, as in Fig. 8, then developed into a wide process appearing to arise from the extreme base of the clasper, as in Figs. 9 and 10. Accompanying this change of the mesobasal lobe, the apical margin of the clasper became rounded and its posterodorsal portion became expanded to form a curious boomerang-shaped structure (Fig. 10). Suc- cessive stages in this line are illustrated by planata, borealis, and selanderi, and the present known culminating species are vergelana and piroa. It is a curious fact that all the Old World 1This paper is a joint contribution from the Section of Faunistic Surveys and Insect Identifien- tion, Natural History Survey, and the Department of Entomology, University of Illinois. species also have a mesal process arising from the basal edge of the clasper. The initial inference suggests that these Old World species arose from a form such as vergelana. In the Old World species, how- ever, the wing venation is more primitive than in the American forms, and the shape of the body of the claspers suggests that they also arose from a type having claspers more like those found in eatensa or dampfi, as apparently the specialized American forms did also. On this basis there seems no doubt that the New World and Old World forms of the genus represent two separate phylo- genetic groups, and that the common an- cestor of the two combined the more primi- tive venation of the Old World forms with a primitive clasper perhaps much like that found in some of the New World forms. DESCRIPTION OF NEW SPECIES The species described below are virtually identical in size, color, and general structure, as follows: Length from front of head to tip of folded wings, 6-8 mm; color various shades of medium brown except for the antennae and legs which are chiefly straw colored; sixth sternite of the male bearing a fingerlike process; third, fourth, and fifth sternites of both males and females with a fenestrated network of sclerotized thick- enings. Material treated in this paper is in the collection of the Illmois Natural History Survey, unless otherwise indicated. Helicopsyche extensa, n. sp. Male: Genitalia as in Fig. 1. Lateral aspect of ninth segment with moderately wide ventral edge; cercus attached just above lateral apodeme. Tenth tergite moderately long and curved down- ward apex. Clasper with lateral aspect elongated, bearing a truncate dorsal projection toward the base, and with the apical portion truneate; ventral aspect having a wide mesobasal shoulder at base, the mesal edge of the shoulder bearing 398 three straight spines; apical portion beyond shoulder narrow. Holotype male—Santa Isabel, Valley of the Cosnipata, Department of Cusco, Peru, De- cember 1951, Felix Woytkowski. Paratype. Same data, 1 female. Helicopsyche woytkowskii, n. sp. Male: Genitalia as in Fig. 2. Ninth segment with fairly long ventral margin; cercus attached a short distance above lateral apodeme. Tenth tergite moderately short, with a depression at its base. Claspers with lateral aspect short and regular, with relatively sharp anterodorsal and posterodorsal angles; ventral aspect with the fairly large mesobasal shoulder occupying nearly half the length of the clasper and bearing an irregular row of 5 or 6 stout setae along its mesal edge. Holotype male-—Santa Isabel, Valley of the Cosnipata, Department of Cusco, Peru, January 9, 1952, Felix Woytkowski. Paratype——Same data but December 19, 26, 1951, and January 1, 1952, 3 females. The short, regular clasper, combined with the simple mesobasal shoulder will differentiate this species from other described species of the genus. Helicopsyche dampfi, n. sp. Male: Genitalia as in Fig. 3. Ninth segment with fairly long ventral margin; cercus attached slightly above lateral apodeme. Tenth tergite long, fairly straight, and tapering to a point at apex. Clasper with lateral aspect moderately long and somewhat rectangular; the anterodorsal corner is produced into a short truncate process, the posterodorsal corner is produced into a moderately sharp point; in ventral aspect, the mesobasal shoulder is relatively large and wide, with a row of stout bristles; from this view the apical portion of the clasper is fairly long, with the dorsal portion curved mesad. Holotype male—Finca Germania, Chiapas, Mexico, June 20, 1935, A. Dampf. Paratype— Yepocapa, Mun. Yepocapa, Chimaltenango, Guatemala, April 27, 1948. Elev. 4,800 feet. R. L. Wenzel, 1 female (in the collection of the Chicago Natural History Museum). Distinctive features of this species are the shape of the apex of the clasper and the broad mesobasal lobe with its cushion of setae. Helicopsyche truncata, n. sp. Male: Genitalia as in Fig. 4. Ninth segment JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 with moderately long ventral margin, the cercus inserted very close to lateral apodeme. Tenth tergite short and blunt at apex. Lateral aspect of clasper irregular; anterodorsal corner rounded, posterodorsal corner almost quadrate; ventral margin with the mesobasal lobe projecting as a large triangular process. Ventral view of clasper with basal process appearing narrow but sharp, with an irregular mesal cushion of spines. Holotype male.—Finca Vergel, Chiapas, Mexico, May 19, 1935, A. Dampf. Paratypes.—Same data but May 23, 1 male; same data but May 28, 1 male; Huehuetan, Chiapas, November 9, 1932, A. Dampf, 1 male; Mexico, without definite locality, 8 males. This species is distinguished from other mem- bers of the genus by the triangular and shoulder- like mesobasal lobe, as seen in lateral view. Helicopsyche incisa, n. sp. Male: Genitalia as in Fig. 5. Ninth segment with moderately long ventral margin, the cercus situated a considerable distance above the lateral apodeme. Tenth tergite of moderate length and sloping gradually to apex. Clasper deeply incised toward the base in such a way that the mesobasal lobe is a narrow mesal projec- tion separated from the main part of the clasper by a wide, arcuate incision; lateral aspect of clasper narrowed above mesobasal lobe, dorsal portion expanded, its anterodorsal corner large and rounded, its posterodorsal corner narrow, elongate and sharp; mesobasal lobe of clasper with a small cushion of short teeth. Holotype male-——Finca Esperanza, Chiapas, Mexico, May 2, 1988, A. Dampf. Paratypes.— Same data but April 4 and April 12, 2 males, and May 30, 1 male; Finca Vergel, Chiapas, May 19-81, 1935, A. Dampf, 7 males; Finca Victoria, Chiapas, May 15, 1938, A. Dampf, 1 male; Mexico (no definite locality), 1 male. This species forms a small complex with the next (quadrosa), the two differing from other members of the genus in having the arcuate incision between the mesobasal lobe of the clasper and the main body of the clasper. In incisa the apical margin of the clasper has an excavated area between the two corners, whereas in quadrosa the apical margin is evenly rounded. Both incisa and quadrosa are probably most closely related to haitiensis Banks (Fig. 7), which differs from the two Mexican species in having a narrower but sharper incision between the meso- basal lobe and the body of the clasper. There is DECEMBER 1956 ROSS: NEW SPECIES OF HELICOPSYCHE 399 Z EXTENSA WOYTKOWSKII DAMPF! INCISA HAITIENSIS CY i SELANDERI VERGELANA Fras. 1-10.—Male genitalia of Helicopsyche: A, Lateral aspect; B, ventral aspect of left clasper. All but Fig. 7 drawn from the holotypes. 400 every indication that haitiensis represents a form ancestral to the two Mexican species. Helicopsyche quadrosa, n. sp. Male: Genitalia as in Fig. 6. Lateral view of ninth segment with ventral margin moderately short, and with the cercus inserted considerably above the lateral apodeme. Tenth tergite fairly deep. Clasper with mesobasal process long and narrow, separated from body of clasper by an arcuate incision; lateral view of clasper con- stricted above meso-basal lobe, the dorsal portion expanding rapidly, with a rounded anterodorsal corner, a quadrate and relatively massive posterodorsal corner, and an even apical margin. Holotype male—Finca Victoria, Chiapas, Mexico, June 1, 1935, A. Dampf. Paratypes.— Same data but June 2, 1 male; Finca Vergel, Chiapas, May 28, 1935, A. Dampf, 1 male. This species is most closely related to incisa, differing in the shape of the clasper as described under the preceding species. Helicopsyche planata, n. sp. Male: Genitalia as in Fig. 8. Lateral aspect of ninth segment with fairly wide ventral margin and with the cercus situated a short distance above the lateral apodeme. Tenth tergite fairly long and moderately deep. Clasper with lateral aspect somewhat rectangular, its apical portion moderately expanded, the anterodorsal corner rounded, the posterodorsal corner pointed but not greatly produced; in ventral view the meso- basal lobe forms a rounded shoulder bearing a cluster of spines. Holotype male.—San_ Cristébal, Chiapas, Mexico, July 7, 1926, A. Dampf. Paratype— Same data, 1 male. This species is most closely related to borealis (Hagen) on one hand and the mexicana-arizo- nensis-limnella complex on the other. From borealis, planata differs in the sharp posterodorsal corner of the clasper, the less bowed dorsal margin of the clasper, and in the short aedeagus, which in planata is one and a half times the length of the tenth tergite and in borealis about twice the length of the tenth tergite. From mexicana and its allies planata differs in the narrower apex and the regularly rounded anterodorsal corner of the clasper. Helicopsyche selanderi, n. sp. Male: Genitalia as in Fig. 9. Lateral aspect of JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 _ ninth segment with fairly wide ventral margin, and with the cercus attached just above the lateral apodeme. Tenth tergite elongate and relatively shallow. Lateral aspect of main body of clasper fairly narrow and angular at the base, tapering toward apex, the apical portion itself greatly enlarged and forming a large, rounded posteroapical expansion; the anterodorsal corner is evenly rounded; the mesobasal lobe forms a tubular process which in ventral view is about the same width and about half the length of those shown in Fig. 10B, capped with the same cluster of spines. Holotype male.—20 miles west of Morelia, Michoacdin, Mexico, July 19, 1955, R. B. and J. M. Selander. Paratype-—Same data, 1 male. This species forms an interesting annectant step between borealis and the piroa complex. From borealis it differs in the produced postero- dorsal area of the clasper and in the well differ- entiated mesobasal lobe. From the piroa complex, selandert differs in the wider basal portion and shorter posterodorsal area of the clasper. Helicopsyche vergelana, n. sp. Male: Genitalia as in Fig. 10. Lateral aspect of ninth segment with the ventral portion unusually narrow and small, and with the cercus attached a short distance above the lateral apodeme. Tenth tergite moderately long and moderately shallow. Main body of clasper with lateral aspect small and narrow at base, expanding toward apex into a greatly developed posterodorsal lobe; mesobasal lobe forming a long flat process, in ventral view appearing to rise from the extreme mesal corner of the base of the clasper; each lobe is capped with a cluster of spines. In the holotype this process is as long as in Fig. 10; in some of the paratypes it ranges to only two-thirds this length. Holotype male.—Finca Vergel, Chiapas, Mexico, May 30, 1935, A. Dampf. Paratypes.—Huehue- tan, Chiapas, Mexico, November 9, 1932, A. Dampf, 1 male; Chipitlan, Cuernavaca, Mexico, May 3, 1941, A. Dampf, 1 male; Rancho Monter, Oaxaca, Mexico, Dec. 14, 1937, A. Dampf, 1 male; Hacienda Vista Hermosa, Villa Santiago, Nuevo Leén, Mexico, June 16, 1940, Hoogstraal and Knight, 5 males, 3 females; Sabinas Hidalgo, Nuevo Leén, Mexico, June 16, 1939, H. Hoog- straal, 4 males, 2 females. Additional larvae and pupae were collected by Harry Hoogstraal on rocks in a spring at the last locality. DECEMBER 1956 ROSS: This species is most closely related to piroa Ross, from which it differs in the typical narrow process of the sixth sternite, the shallow tenth tergite and the narrower and usually more elongate mesobasal process of the clasper. In piroa the ventral process of the sixth sternite is wide and flat, forming a broad flap; the tenth tergite is deep and bears a ridged hump at the base; and the mesobasal process is only slightly NEW SPECIES OF HELICOPSYCHE 401 longer than that in selanderi, but much wider than in vergelana. The above material from the vicinity of Nuevo Leén was previously considered as belonging to piroa and was included in the original descrip- tion of that species. More critical examination of differences instigated by the discovery of selan- deri has led to a more critical diagnosis of these forms. pe SMALL ARMS AND AMMUNITION The American Revolution might have been fought—on the side of the colonies—with bows and arrows. They still were better weapons, in some respects, than the available muskets of the day—as emphasized by Benjamin Franklin in a 1776 letter to Gen. Charles Lee, who then was engaged in fortifying the port of New York: These were good weapons, not lightly laid aside: Because a man may shoot as truly with a bow as with a common musket. He can discharge four arrows in the time of charging and discharging one bullet. His object is not taken from his view by the smoke of his own side. A flight of arrows, seen coming upon them, terrifies and disturbs the ene- mies’ attention to their business. An arrow strik- ing in any part of a man puts him hors-du-combat till it is extracted. Bows and arrows are more easily provided everywhere than muskets and ammunition. This is cited by Col. Berkeley R. Lewis, of the Frankfort Arsenal, Philadelphia, in a compre- hensive treatise! on small arms and ammunition, especially as used in the United States military service, which has just been published by the Smithsonian Institution. There was a good deal to be said for Franklin’s position for, after more than four centuries, firearms still were in a rather primitive stage and, even such as they were, the colonies were poorly equipped to produce them. Just when firearms first were used in battle is somewhat debatable, Colonel Lewis points out. Artillery was used first. Some cannon were made in Italy around 1312. They were stone-throwing mortars. The first hand firearms were crude iron or copper tubes, fired by applying a live coal to a touchhole. This was a shallow cup at the top of 1Small arms and ammunition in thd United States Service [1776-1865], by Col. BERKELEY R. Lewis, 338 pp., 52 pls. Smithsonian Institution, Washing- ton 25, D. C. $8.00. the breech, whence a small hole led downward into the powder chamber. This device usually— not always—fired the charge. Most of the trouble with firearms during the succeeding 500 years was due to this ignition system. All this time at least one misfire could be expected in ten shots. The first pistols, known as ‘‘bombardelles,”’ appeared in Italy about the middle of the four- teenth century. The barrels were 9 inches long. In 1544 French cavalry were armed with “pistols” whose barrels were 25 inches long. Hand cannon were brought to England in 1471. This weapon, weighing between 60 and 70 pounds, was carried by two men. It was difficult to load and uncertain in range and accuracy— quite inferior to the crossbow or longbow then still in use. Early in the fifteenth century Spaniards in- vented the arquebus with a matchlock trigger mechanism. It was probably inferior to the longbow in battle. About 1521 Spanish inventors produced the “‘mousquet,” musket. It was 6 to 7 feet long, weighed 60 to 70 pounds, and was very slow in loading. The oldest rifles date from the end of the fifteenth century. At first they were considered purely as sporting weapons. When the first settlers came to North America they brought with them the firearms then in use in Europe. There were local gunsmiths, but most of them were engaged in repair of arms, and rebuilding of weapons damaged beyond repair, by combining parts of two or more. At the start of the Revolution the only military arms of any consequence in the hands of the colonists were the European weapons left over from the French and Indian wars. During the war anything that would shoot was pressed into service. Small loeal manufactures were expanded, however, and new ones started under patronage of the various colonies. From this point Colonel Lewis traces the evolution of small arms through the various American wars up through the Civil War. 402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 MAMMALOGY .—A new species of murine opossum (genus Marmosa) from Peru. CHARLES O. Hanpiey, Jr., U. S. National Museum. (Received September 4, 1954) Mammals collected by representatives of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau during investigations of plague in Peru and Ecuador are being studied in the U. 8. National Museum. Among these specimens are two murine opossums (Marmosa) from the western flank of the Andes in central Peru which are strikingly different from other named forms. They are the northernmost representatives of a group that includes the species elegans, janetta, marmota, and pusilla, inhabiting parts of Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. The place of capture is almost a thousand miles northwest of the known range of their nearest relative. For the opportunity to study these speci- ments, which have been deposited in the National Museum, I am indebted to Dr. Fred L. Soper, Director, and Dr. E. C. Chamberlayne, adviser, Communicable Dis- eases Branch, Pan American Sanitary Bureau, Washington, D. C. I am also grateful to Dr. Philip Hershkovitz, Chicago Natural History Museum, for the loan of comparative material of J. janetta and M. marmota. This animal is named in honor of the late George H. H. Tate, whose revision of the genus Marmosa (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 66 (1): 1-250, 1933) went far toward bringing order to an extremely complex group. Marmosa tatei, n. sp. Holotype.—U.S.N.M. no. 302915; adult male, skin and skull (skinned from alcohol); collected December 1955, by José Maria de la Barrera; Chasquitambo (710 m, lat. 10° 18’ 48” S., long. 77° 37’ 20” W.), Ancachs, Peru; original number 53/139. Distribution.—Known locality. Description (of holotype; coloration possibly slightly altered by 3 months immersion in alcohol; capitalized color terms from Ridgway, 1912, Color standards and color nomenclature).— Fur long (12 mm on rump, 8 mm on anterior abdomen) but not woolly or wavy; mass effect of only from the type dorsum between Benzo Brown and Fuscous, rather sharply distinguished from sides, which are Mouse Gray, washed on mid-flanks with Drab; dark dorsal patch extends forward as a thin line to snout; flank color extends on dorsal surfaces of forearms and legs to wrists and ankles; face much paler than dorsum or flanks, about Drab-Gray; black eye-ring prominent, 2 mm wide around eye and extending 4 mm behind and 8 mm in front of eye; longest labial vibrissa 33 mm; ears dark gray, long and broad; antihelix large; spina helicis not lobed; under- parts white, hairs gray-based toward sides; throat gland large; feet and hands small, pure white; claws short (2 mm); external anterior and posterior pads of hind foot separate; pads be- tween second and third and third and fourth hind toes subequal, the latter slightly smaller; tail relatively short, incrassated (about 8 mm thick near base before skinning), basal two-thirds sharply bicolor (Fuscous-Black above, white below), distal third whitish, extreme tip (18 mm) pure white; body-fur extends only 5 mm on base, of tail; scales of tail in annular arrangement, about 32 rows per centimeter at base. The paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 302916, a young adult by Tate’s scale (op. cit.), is similar to the holotype in coloration but is slightly brighter. Its tail is very sharply bicolor proximally, the dorsal portion being almost black; the distal 10 mm are pure white. Skull strong, heavily built, and relatively angular; nasals slightly expanded anterior to frontomaxillary suture, acute posteriorly; inter- orbital region broad anteriorly, tapering to narrowest point at ‘‘postorbital constriction” of Tate (op. cit.); supraorbital ridges indistinct, forming slight triangular postorbital prominences, continuous with temporal ridges which converge to form a low crest on frontals, parietals, and interparietals, where they merge with prominent lambdoidal crests; braincase narrow; zygomata thick and heavy; palate in the younger specimen exceedingly fenestrated, in the adult less so but still with large posteroexternal vacuities; pos- terior margin of palate produced into a thick wall 7 mm high, recurved over palate; ‘palatal DECEMBER 1956 bridge” (alisphenoid-ethmoid portion of basi- cranium) long and very narrow; auditory bullae relatively far apart, and attenuated anterointernally into pointed processes. large, Canine strong (crown of upper canine measur- ing 3.3 mm in height from alveolus); P? without distinet cingulum; P* higher and longer than P?2; molars relatively broad (crown of M® in trans- verse diameter 2.4 mm. Measurements (of holotype, in millimeters, taken according to Tate’s directions (op. cit.)).— Basal length 30.7, greatest length 33.4, zygomatic breadth 17.9, palatal length 17.7, least breadth HANDLEY: NEW SPECIES OF MURINE OPOSSUM 403 across pterygoid wings of alisphenoids 2.0, breadth of auditory bulla 3.5, greatest breadth across auditory bullae 10.5, greatest breadth across styliform processes of petrosals 8.8, great- est length from anterior wall of auditory bulla to posterior border of petrosal 5.8, greatest breadth of palate across outer corners of M 9.6, maxillary tooth row (M*'*) 5.1, greatest length of nasals 14.2+, greatest breadth of single nasal 1.5, breadth of postorbital constriction 5.0, breadth of braincase 12.2. Head and body 123, tail vertebrae 132, hind foot 16, ear from notch 22, greatest breadth of ear 19. Fig. 1.—Skulls of Marmosa tatei and its relatives. Upper row, dorsal aspect; lower row, ventral as- pect; left to right: M. elegans, Guillermo Mann 101; J/. tate?, U.S.N.M. no. 3802919; Mie: ; vr) ane tia, C.N.H.M. no. 50973; 7. marmota, C.N.H.M. no. 26760. 404 Comparisons.—Sharply defined dorsal and flank colors; large ears; small hands and feet; short, thick tail with annular arrangement of scales; slightly expanded nasals; highly fene- strated palate; long, narrow palatal bridge; large auditory bullae; and large P® stamp M. tatei as a member of the Marmosa elegans group. Large size, narrowed postorbital region, narrow braincase, and convergent temporal ridges relate it to the elegans section of that group (Fig. 1). Numerous characters distinguish M. tater from all other members of the elegans section: Dorsal coloration grayer, tail more extensively white tipped, nasals more expanded anterior to fronto- maxillary suture and more acute posteriorly, temporal ridges converging to form a more prominent sagittal crest, palatal bridge narrower, canines longer, and molars relatively broader. It most resembles M. marmota of southern Paraguay (C.N.H.M. no. 26760) but is smaller, and has a narrower skull, less distinct supra- orbital ridges (thus interorbital region smoother JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 and less angular), a more extensive eye-ring, and whiter underparts. M. tatez is similar in size and proportions to M. janetta of southern Bolivia (C.N.H.M. 29169, 29170, 50972, and 50973), but otherwise is distinguished by having underparts whiter, auditory bullae larger; P® larger; in- terorbital region broader anteriorly, narrower posteriorly, not constricted before postorbital process, and lacking prominent supraorbital ridges. M. tatei is more remotely related to M. elegans of Chile (U.S.N.M. nos. 1705 and 269806), from which it differs in having whiter underparts, blacker, more extensive eye-ring; much more heavily ossified skull; and interorbital region much broader anteriorly. Remarks.—Members of the elegans section are widespread, seldom collected opossums. The forms marmota, janetta, tater, and elegans are well differentiated, but collecting in intermediate areas might show some or all of them to be con- specific. Specimens examined.—Two from the type locality. ——————— NEWS OF MEMBERS The International Business Machines Corpora- tion has announced plans for a new research center, employing 1,600 persons, to consolidate all fundamental research aimed at improving the company’s products. The laboratory will be un- der the direction of Dr. EMANuEL R. PIORE. GeorGE GamMow was awarded UNESCO’s Kalinga prize for 1956 in recognition of his out- standing interpretation of science to the general public. He received £1,000 sterling and an invi- tation to spend a month visiting and lecturing in India. Donovan 8S. Corre has joined the staff of the Texas Research Foundation as chief botanist and head of the Botanical Laboratory. SE Man’s work must ever end in failure, Unless it bears the stamp of mand. The head must plan with care and thought, Before the hand can execute.—SCHILLER INDEX TO VOLUME 46 An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Philosophical Society of Washington. 23, 132, 191, 228, 369. AUTHOR INDEX Apvams, L. H., and Tuckerman, L. B. * History and traditions of the Philosophical Society of Washington. 30. Awnastos, GrorGE. The ticks (Acarina: Ixodoidea) of the J. Klapperich Afghanistan Expedition, 1952 and 1953. 18. ANDERSON, Harry. An investigation of the early bands of the Saone group of Teton Sioux. 87. ANDREASEN, Gorpon E., and Rasmussen, WIL- u1AM C. A hydrologic budget in relation to the climate and geology of the Beaverdam Creek basin, Eastern Shore of Maryland. 266. Bartram, Epwin B. Additional Fijian mosses, IIL. 392. Batten, Rocer L. Some new pleurotomarian gastropods from the Permian of west Texas 42. Benepict, W. 8. * Line width and shape in the infrared. 25. BENNETT, WILLARD H. aurorae. 371. Berry, 8. Stinuman. Mollusca dredged by the Orca off the Santa Barbara Islands, Cali- fornia, in 1951. 150. BLAKE, Dorts H. Three new Neotropical flea beetles. 142. BLANTON, FRANKLIN S. See WirtH, Wriiuis W. 95, 186. Boucor, A. J. Gyrospira, a new genus of bellero- phontid (Gastropoda) from Bolivia. 46. BraNnscoms, Lewis. * Photo-ionization absorption spectra of negative ions. 25. Branson, Herman. * Information theory and the structure of protein molecules. 27. BRECKENRIDGE, ROBERT G. * Gray tin. 192. BRICKWEDDE, F. G. * History and development of the Joseph Henry and Christmas lecture com- mittees [of the Philosophical Society of Washington]. 31. Brown, Rouanp W. New items in Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of the western United States. 104. Cockrum, E. Lenpe“ti. Two new long-tailed pocket mice (Perognathus formosus) from Arizona. 131. Coruss, Epirn L. R. Transients in signal anal- ysis. 305. Darrow, K. K. * The Hall effect. 25. Davis, P., and Rasinowrtz, P. Numerical ex- periments in potential theory using ortho- normal functions. 12. Davisson, JAmMEs W. * Electrical breakdown in crystals. 24. Dempsey, Hueu A. Stone ‘‘medicine wheels’’— memorials to Blackfoot war chiefs. 177. Dexter, Ratepn W. A new fairy shrimp from western United States, with notes on other North American species. 159. *Solar protons and Drake, Cart J. New Neotropical genera and species of apterous aradids (Hemiptera). 322. DunxkiE, Davin H., and Mamay, Smrerus H. An acanthodian fish from the lower Permian of Texas. 308. Eau, Paut. * The role of theories in crystal growth. 30. Enuiotr, Grauam F. Galazaura (calcareous algae) and similar fossil genera. 341. EXSTERMANN, IMMANUEL. * Interaction of molecu- lar beams with surfaces. 230. Ewan, Jospen. HE. D. Merrill (obituary). 267. Foorr, Ricnarp H. Gall midges associated with cones of western forest trees (Diptera: Itoni- didae). 48. Forsusu, Scotr E. * Solar influences on cosmic- ray variation. 191. FRENKIEL, Frangors N. * Atmospheric pollution. 135. . Possibilities and significance of high- speed computing in meteorology. 33. . Radioactive pollution and civil defense. 206. FRIEDMAN, Herrpert. * Solar X-rays, extreme ultraviolet radiation, and the ionosphere. 28. Gamow, GEorGE. * The arithmetic of life. 26. GoLpBERG, Karu. Unimodular matrices of order 2 that commute. 337. Gurney, AsutEy B. See Mockrorp, Epwarp L. 353. HaGen, Joun P. * Radio observations of the sun. 24. . * Radio sources and the structure of the galaxy. 136. HANDLEY, Cuar.es O., Jr. A new species of murine opossum (genus Marmosa) from Peru. 402. Harpy, James D. * Pain and tissue damage. 198. Heere, E. 8. See Incrrsoun, E. H. 299. Hewtuier, J. R. *Some observations on cancer research and control. 228. HeErRRING, Conyrrs. * On the surface energy of crystals and its relation to sintering. 229. Herzretp, C. M. Incomplete equilibrium and temperature measurement. 269. Hess, W. C., and Suarrran, I. P. Effect of cor- tisone acetate on production of liver and mus- cle glycogen from C-1l4 labeled glycine and DL-alanine. 20. Hoses, Horron H., Jr. Anew crayfish of the genus Procambarus from South Carolina (Decapoda: Astacidae). 117. Horrman, A. J. Generalization of a theorem of Konig. 211. Horn, F. Hussarp. * The role of dislocations in erystal growth. 29. Hutsurt, E. O. * Magnetic storms, ionosphere and zodiae light. 27. InceRsouy, BE. H., Jones, L. L., and Hears, E. S. Effect of sympathetic denervation of the urinary bladder in animals and man, 299. AULTOra, 405 406 Jastrow, Rogpert. * The structure of the atomic nucleus. 370. JenKINS, W. R. Paratylenchus projectus, new species (Nematoda, Criconematidae), with a key to the species of Paratylenchus. 296. Jones, L. L. See INGERSOLL, E. H. 299. Jones, Merepita L. Cossura pygodactylata, a new annelid from San Francisco Bay (Poly- chaeta: Cirratulidae). 127. Kac, Marx. *The emergence of statistical thought. 191. Karo, T., and Taussky, O. Commutators of A and A*. 38. Knient, J. Brookes. New families of Gastropoda. 41. Kyreut, Kennetu L. See Stone, Anan. 213, 276. Kovaszn ay, Lesuig S. G. * Image processing by electro- optical techniques. 135. Levy, Lours. Some metabolic patterns observed after morphine administration in the rabbit. 253. Lrrovrrz, THeopore. * Ultrasonics and the liquid state. 369. LuaNno, GeorGE A. New Umbilicariaceae from the Western Hemisphere, with a key to genera. 183. Loresiicu, ALFRED R., Jr., and Tappan, HELEN. Chiloguembelina, a new Tertiary genus of the Heterohelicidae (Foraminifera). 340. MacomBer, Rospert D. An observation on puffer- fish toxin. 85. Mamay, Srercius H. See DUNKLE Davin H. 308. Marton, L. * Electron interferometry. 23. Maurer, Ropert J. * Photoeffects and excitons in alkali halides. 370. Mazur, P., Monrrouyi, . W., and Ports, R. B. Effect of defects on lattice vibrations, II: Localized vibration modes in a linear diatomic chain. 2. Micuets, A. *Some aspects of high-pressure molecular physics. 29. Mocxrorp, Epwarp L., and GurRNEy, ASHLEY B. A review of the psocids, or book-lice and bark-lice, of Texas (Psocoptera). 353. Monrro.t, HE. W. * Cayley trees. 192. See also Mazur, P. 2. Moore, SutruEy. A solution to the ‘‘scientist problem.”’ 40. MuscatinE, LEONARD. A new entoniscid (Crusta- cea: Isopoda) from the Pacific coast. 122. Pacer, Cuester H. * The ‘“‘Odd Ball Problem.” 191. Paag, R. M. Cosmological theories—ancient and modern. 244. Prrritz, RicHarp L. * Random processes and noise in semiconductors. 24. PErrrBoNne, Marian H. Some polychaete worms of the families Hesionidae, Syllidae, and Nerei- dae from the east coast of North America, West Indies, and Gulf of Mexico. 281. Pires, J. Murga. See Smitu, Lyman B. 86. Pirrman, Marcaret. Pertussis and pertussis vaccine control. 234. Potts, R. B. See Mazur, P. 2. RaBinowi1Tz, P. See Davis, P. 12. RasmussENn, WILLIAM C. See ANDREASEN, GORDON E. 266. Reep, CuypE F. Hyla cinerea in Maryland, Dela- ware, and Virginia, with notes on the taxo- nomic status of Hyla cinerea evittata. 328. ———. The herpetofauna of Harford County, Maryland. 58. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 Rose, ALBERT. * Quantum limitation to vision. 31. Rosen, Mitton W. The influence of space flight on engineering and science. 79. Ross, H. H. New species of Helicopsyche from the Western Hemisphere (Trichoptera, Heli- copsychidae). 397. Scuaar, 8. A. * Aerodynamics at very high alti- tudes. 133. ScHEFFER, Vicror B. Little-known reference t) name of harbor seal. 352. ScHMIDTKE, Ricuarp A. Joule-Thomson coeffi- cients for Freon-12. 137. SEEGER, RaymMonp J. Man and science. 169. ———. * On natural philosophy. 32. SHAFFRAN, I. P. See Hess, W. C. 20. Sapiro, Maurice M. * Megalomorphs. 372. SHOCKLEY, WILLIAM. * The statistics of individual variation in productivity in research labora- tories. 231. ———. * Transistor physies. 132. SHorm AKER, CLARENCE R. A new genus and two new species of amphipods from Dry Torguas, Florida. 61. SinceER, 8. F. * The age of meteorites. 134. SmirH, A. C. Studies of South American plants, XVI. 118. Suiru, Lyman B., and Pires, J. Murga. An evalu- ation of Benjaminia Martius ex Benjamin. 86. Souns, Ernest R. Calamochloa: A Mexican grass. 109. . New grasses from Mexico. 376. . The genus Hilaria (Gramineae). 311. SoMMERMAN, Katuryn M. Two new species of Rhyopsocus (Psocoptera) from the U.S.A., with notes on the bionomics of one household species. 145. Srenui, Francis G. A late Triassic terebratella- cean from Peru. 101. Stongn, Anan, and Knient, Kpnnetu L. Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United States National Museum: II, The genus Aedes (Diptera, Culicidae). 213. ———. Type specimens of mosquitoes in the marred States National Museum: III, The genera Anopheles and Chagasia (Diptera, Culicidae). 276. Srronac, Jonn. * Interim report on studies of infrared from the moon and the planets. 25. Tappan, HELEN. See Lomsricu, ALFRED R., Jr. 340. Taussky, OuGa. See Karo, T. 38. —— and Topp, Joun. Commuting bilinear transformations and matrices. 373. Taytor, Lauriston S. The basis for standards for radiation protection. 69. THOMSON, Str GeorGE P. Atomicity and patterns. 201. Topp, JoHN. See Taussky, OLGA. 373. Tousry, Ricnarp. * Rocket spectrographs for the sun in short ultraviolet and X-ray. 23. TrReEssLER, Wiuiis L. Ostracoda from bromeliads in Jamaica and Florida. 333. TuckKERMAN, L. B. See Apams, L. H. 30. WEINBLUM, Grora. * Problems in ship theory. 229. Witson, Mitprep Srrarron. North American harpacticoid copepods: 3, Paracamptus reduc- tus, n. sp., from Alaska. 348. WINTERS, STEVEN S. New Permian gastropod genera from eastern Arizona. 44. Wirrn, Wiis W., and BLantTon, FRANKLIN S. Redescriptions of four species of Neotropical DECEMBER 1956 Culicoides of the debilipalpis group (Diptera: Heleidae). 186. I 1 ama Culicoides (Diptera: Heleidac), Ty; Ife The hylas group of the sub- genus Hoffmania. 95. WoLkeEn, JEROME. * Cellular growth, and function. 26. Woopuour, A. F. Quantitative studies of differ- structure, SUBJECT Bacteriology. Pertussis and pertussis vaccine con- trol. MarGaREeT PITTMAN. 234. Quantitative studies of differential staining reaction, III: A quantitative acid-fast stain. A. F, WoopnHour. 344. Biochemistry. An observation on pufferfish toxin. Ropert D. MacomsBer. 85. Effect of cortisone acetate on production of liver and muscle glycogen from C-14 labeled glycine and DL-alanine. W. C. Hess and I. P. SHAFFRAN. 20. Biophysics. *Cellular growth, structure, and func- tion. JEROME WOLKEN. 26. *Information theory and the structure of protein molecules. HERMAN BRANSON. 27. * The arithmetic of life. GEorGE Gamow. 26. Botany. Additional Fijian mosses, III. Epwin B. BaRTRAM. 392. An evaluation of Benjaminia Martius ex Benjamin. Lyman B. Smiru and J. Murga PIRES. 86. Calamochloa: A Mexican grass. Ernest R. Souns. 109. New grasses from Mexico. Ernrest R. Souns. 376. New Umbilicariaceae from the Western Hemi- sphere, with a key to genera. GreorGE A. Luano. 183. Studies of South American plants, XVI. Smiru, A. C. 113. The genus Hilaria (Gramineae). Ernest R. Souns. 311. Chemical engineering. Joule-Thomson coefficients for Freon-12. RicHarp A. ScHMIDTKE. 137. Chemistry. * Gray tin. Ropert G. BREcKEN- RIDGE. 192. Editorvals. 1, 233. Engineering. The influence of space flight on en- gineering and science. Mitton W. ROSEN. 79. Entomology. A review of the psocids, or book-lice and bark-lice, of Texas (Psocoptera). Epwarp lL. Mockrorp and Asuuny B. Gurney. 353. Gall midges associated with cones of western forest trees (Diptera: Itonididae). RicHarp H. Foote. 48. New Neotropical genera and species of apterous aradids (Hemiptera). Cari J. DRAKE. 322. New species of Helicopsyche from the Western Hemisphere (Trichoptera, Helicopsy- chidae). H. H. Ross. 397. Redescriptions of four species of Neotropical Culicoides of the debilipalpis group (Dip- tera: Heleidae). Winuis W. Wirrn and FRANKLIN 8S. Buanron. 186. ’ Studies in Panama Culicoides (Diptera: Heleidae, VI: The hylas group of the sub- genus Hoffmania. Wiutis W. Wirtrn and FRANKLIN S. BuantTon. 95. INDEX 407 ential staining reaction, III: A quantitative acid-fast stain. 344. YOcHELSON, Enuis L. Labridens, a new Permian gastropod. 45. Youne, R. T. A review of the cestode genus Echeneibothrium. 256. Zer¥ross, SamMury. * The role of impurities in erystal growth. 29. INDEX Three new Neotropical flea beetles. Doris H. Buake. 142. Two new species of Rhyopsocus (Psocoptera) from the U.S.A., with notes on the bionomics of one household species. KatHryn M. SommMEerMAN. 145. Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United States National Museum: II, The genus Aedes (Diptera, Culicidae). ALAN STONE and Kennetu L. Kniaut. 213. Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United States National Museum: III, The genera Anopheles and Chagasia (Diptera, Culi- cidae). ALAN Svronge and Kennetu L. Knicur. 276. Ethnology. An investigation of the early bands of the Saone group of Teton Sioux. Harry ANDERSON. 87. Stone ‘‘medicine wheels’’—memorials to Blackfoot war chiefs. Huan A. Dempsey. 177. General science. Man and science. RaymMonp J. SEEGER. 169. Geology. A hydrologic budget in relation to the climate and geology of the Beaverdam Creek basin, Eastern Shore of Maryland. Gorpon EH. ANDREASEN and Wruiram C. RASMUSSEN. 266. Geophysics. Possibilities and significance of high- speed computing in meteorology. FRANGOIS N. FRENKIEL. 33. Radioactive pollution and Franoots N. FRENKIEL. 206. * Atmospheric pollution. Frangors N. FREN- KIEL. 135. Helminthology. A review of the cestode genus Echeneibothrium. R. T. Youne. 256. Herpetology. Hyla cinerea in Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia, with notes on the taxonomic status of Hyla cinerea evittata. CuypE F. ReEEp. 328. The herpetofauna of Harford County, Mary- land. Cuypr F. Reep. 58. History of science. * History and traditions of the Philosophical Society of Washington. L. H. Apams, L. B. TuckerMAN, F. “G. Brick- WEDDE, et al. 30-31. * On natural philosophy. RayMoNpD J. SEEGER. 39. Human engineering. * The statisties of individual variation in productivity in researc *h labora- tories. WILLIAM SHOCKLEY. 231. Malacology. Mollusca dredged by the Orca off the Santa Barbara Islands, California, in 1951. S. StruuMan Berry. 150. Mammalogy. A new species of murine opossum (genus Marmosa) from Peru. CHARLES O. HANDLEY JR. 402. Little-know: n reference to name of harbor seal. Viceror B. Scnuerrer. 352. civil defense. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 46, No. 12 Two new long-tailed pocket mice (Perog- nathus formosus) from Arizona. E. LENDELL Cockrum. 131. Marine architecture. * Problems in ship theory. GrEorG WEINBLUM. 229. Mathematics. Commutators of A and A*. T. Kato and O. Taussky. 38. Commuting bilinear transformations and matrices. Ouca Taussky and JoHN Topp. 373. Generalization of a theorem of Konig. A. J. HorrMan. 211. Numerical experiments in potential theory using orthonormal functions. P. Davis and P. RapinowitTz. 12. *The “Odd Ball Problem.’? Curster H. Paas, 191. Unimodular matrices of order 2 that commute. Karu GOLDBERG. 337. Medicine. * Some observations on cancer research and control. J. R. HpELumr. 228. Mineralogy. * The age of meteorites. 8. F. SINGER. 134. Nematology. Paratylenchus projectus, new species (Nematoda, Criconematidae), with a key to the species of Paratylenchus. W. R. JENKINS. 296. Notes and news. R. B. Roberts’s 1939 paper on splitting of uranium and thorium nuclei by neutrons, 1; Fellows of IRE elected, 17; New member of National Research Council (R. P. Teele), 17; New publication on colors, 22: Foraminifera catalog reissued, 22; A solution to the ‘‘scientist problem, ” 40; Training program for science and mathe- matics teachers in secondary schools, 40; Six District area scientists receive Academy awards, 65; New director of Naval Research (O. T. Marzke), 66; Electron tube informa- tion service, 66; Dr. Curtis celebrated 80th birthday, 67; NBS-AF panoramic X-ray machine, 77; National Academy medal awarded to Dr. Watts, 84; New book on aquarium fishes yields distribution data, 94; Auca Indians described, 99; Biological studies at Point Barrow, 103; Dr. John G. Thompson retires, 108; Roger G. Bates receives Hillebrand award, 115; Further notes on teacher training, 115; Low-tem- perature alignment of radioactive nuclei provides data on nuclear disintegration, 157; A sonic technique for testing leather, . 165; Large termite collection goes to Smith- sonian, 182; Science teacher replacement project, 194; Zine oxide-eugenol dental fillings, 196; Constant-temperature oven for quartz crystal oscillator, 196; New chief of NBS Metallurgy Division (J. I. Hoffman), 197; Rockefeller public service award to Dr. Fano, 198; A rapid quantitative analysis of collagen, 198; Bison Basin fossils, 199; Plastic springs, 232; Low temperature storage of free radicals, 294; Academy members receive honors, 301; Oddities of nature, 303; News of members, 68, 307, 404; Mauna Loa Observatory, 310; ‘‘Pine cone’’ fishes, 327; Surge voltage breakdowns in a nonuniform field, 338; H. M. 8S. Loo, 348; Grants-in-aid, 351; Barro Colorado Bird- dom, 368; Leather research at NBS, 388; Small arms and ammunition, 401. Obituaries. EUGENE CasSsSON CRITTENDEN. 168. Epwarp Drew MERRILL. 267. Paleobotany. New items in Cretaceous and Ter- tiary floras of the western United States. Roxranp W. Brown. 104. Paleontology. A late Triassic terebratellacean from Peru. Francis G. Strestr. 101. An acanthodian fish from the lower Permian of Texas. Davin H. DuNKLE and SErGius H. Mamay. 308. Chiloguembelina, a new Tertiary genus of the Heterohelicidae (Formainifera). ALFRED R. Lorsiicu, Jr., and HELEN Tappan. 340. Galazaura (calcareous algae) and _ similar fossil genera. GRAHAM F. Evitiort. 341. Gyrospira, a new genus of bellerophontid (Gastzopeda) from Bolivia. A. J. Boucor. 4 Labridens, a new Permian gastropod. ELuts L. YocuEtson. 45. New families of Gastropoda. J. BRrooxkEs Knicut. 41. New Permian gastropod genera from eastern Arizona. STEVEN S. WINTERS. 44. Some new pleurotomarian gastropods from the Permian of west Texas. Rocrr L. Batten. 42. Pharmacology. Some metabolic patterns observed after morphine administration in the rabbit. Louris Levy. 253. Physics. * Aerodynamics at high altitudes. 8. A. ScHaar. 133. Atomicity and patterns. Sir GrorcEr P. THomson. 201. Cosmological theories—ancient and modern. R. M. Paes. 244. Effect of defects on lattice vibrations, II: Localized vibration modes in a linear dia- tomic chain. P. Mazur, E. W. MontTrRo.t, and R. B. Ports. 2. * Blectrical breakdown in crystals. JaMEs W. Davisson. 24. * Hlectron interferometry. L. Marron. 23. * Image processing by electro-optical tech- niques. LESLIE S. G. Kovasznay. 135. Incomplete equilibrium and temperature measurement. C. M. HERZFELD. 269. Interaction of molecular beams with surfaces. IMMANUEL ESTERMANN. 230. * Interim report on studies of infrared radia- tion from the moon and the planets. JoHN SrronG. 25. Line width and shape in the infrared. W.S. BENEpIcT. 25. * Magnetic storms, aurora, ionosphere and zodiacal light. E. O. HuLBurT. 27. * Megalomorphs. Maurice M. SuHaprro, 372. On the surface energy of crystals and its relation to sintering. CoNYERS HERRING. 229. Photoeffects and excitons in alkali halides. Ropert J. Maurer. 370. Photo-ionization absorption spectra of negative ions. LEwrs BRANSCOMB. 25. Quantum limitation to vision. ALBERT Rose. 31. * Radio observations of the sun. Joun P. HaGemn. 24. * Radio sources and the structure of the galaxy. JoHN P. HaGan. 136. * Random processes and noise in semicon- ductors. RicHarp L. Perritz. 24. *% *% * DECEMBER 1956 * Rocket spectrographs for the sun in short ultraviolet and X-ray. RicHarpD TouseEy. 23. * Solar influences on cosmic-ray variation. Scotr E. Forsusu. 191. * Solar protons and aurorae. WILLARD H. BENNETT. 371. * Solar X-rays, extreme ultraviolet radiation, and the ionosphere. HERBERT FRIEDMAN. 28. *Some aspects of high-pressure molecular physies. A. MicHeE s. 29. The basis for standards for radiation pro- tection. Lauriston 8. Taytor. 69. * The Hall effect. K. K. Darrow. 25. * The role of dislocations in crystal growth. F. Husparp Horn. 29. * The role of impurities in crystal growth. SAMUEL ZmERFOSS. 29. *The role of theories in crystal growth. Paut Hert. 30. * The structure of the atomic nucleus. RoBERT Jastrow. 370. Transients in signal analysis. Epira L. R. Cortutss. 305. *Transistor physics. WILLIAM SHOCKLEY. 132. * Ultrasonics and the liquid state. THEODORE Lirovitz. 369. Physiology. Effect of sympathetic denervation of the urinary bladder in animals and man. E. H. Incersouu, L. L. Jones, and E. S. HEGRE. 299. INDEX 409 * Pain and tissue damage. James D. Harpy. 193. Statistics. * The emergence of statistical thought. Mark Kac. 191. Zoology. A new crayfish of the genus Procambarus from South Carolina (Decapoda: Asta- cidae). Horton H. Hosss, Jr., 117. A new entoniscid (Crustacea: Isopoda) from the Pacific coast. Leonarp Muscatine. 122. A new fairy shrimp from western United States, with notes on other North American species. Ratepu W. Dexter. 159. A new genus and two new species of amphipods from Dry Tortugas, Florida. CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER. 61. Cossura pygodactylata, a new annelid from San Francisco Bay (Polychaeta: Cirra- tulidae). Merepiru L. Jones. 127. North American harpacticoid copepods: 3, Paracamptus reductus, n. sp., from Alaska. Miuprep StrRatTron WILson. 348. Ostracoda from bromeliads in Jamaica and Florida, Wiuiis L. TRESSLER. 333. Some polychaete worms of the families Hesionidae, Syllidae, and Nereidae from the east coast of North America, West Indies, and Gulf of Mexico. Martan H. PETTIBONE. 281, The ticks (Acarina: Ixodoidea) of the J. Klap- perich Afghanistan Expedition, 1952 and 1953. Grorcr ANnastos. 18. Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences APE SECT LL mem Parsi vat eahesciss aya yhavererieegiee ene wee R. E. Grseson, Applied Physics Laboratory AGE STCLCTUL-CLEC LN pyres) 4 s)osay 2) oy tered octet See ee osha ote Wituiam W. RusBeEy, Geological Survey SAGER LATE ROT 3 Sue eas ee a er tec Hernz Specut, National Institutes of Health ppeceuter Fis Omran Howarp S. RApPpLereE, Coast and Geodetic Survey (Retired) ENLUULS UME Tere cic cit ccaue ae eur aN outs Med toons eins URL es Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications Harawp A. ReupeEr, U.S. National Museum Elected Members of the Board of Managers: PROM ANUAT yp LODE 2s pera a rulelaes eet ctene hese ioies ake takele A. T. McPuerson, A. B. Gurnny Romlanuanyg G58 aoe en tye ee eee tsvekonlene ce abc tae W. W. Rusey, J. R. SwALLEN POV S MUM ATV LIOR He an ere inet Franoors N, FRENKIEL, F. L. CAMPBELL Board of Managers...... All the above officers plus the Vice Presidents and the Editor [BUG o's'aua ce aera CuEstTEeR H. Pacn, National Bureau of Standards (EM 2-4040) Associate Editors....... RONALD BAMmrorp, Howarp W. Bonn, IMmManueL EsteERMANN PRCEGULLUCROOMMULCE. chyna eee eer R. E. Grsson (chairman), W. W. Rusey, Heinz Specut, H. S. RAPPLEYE, A. B. Gurney Committee on Membership.......... Louis R. MAXWELL (chairman), Naval Ordnance Laboratory (HE 4-7100), Gzorez Anastos, W. H. Avery, Rocer W. CuRTIS, CHURCHILL EISENHART, GEOFFREY EpDsALL, J. H. McMrtiEN Committee on Meetings.......... A. M. SToNE (chairman), Applied Physics Laboratory (JU 9-7700), Poitip H. ABELSON, KenneETH S. Cote, Leon F. Curtis, J. WALLACE Joyce, THomas J. Krnu1an, CoNsTANTIN C Nixrrororr, T. "D. STEWART Committee on M onographs: Mowiamuany OST. =. 5.2 coc: hoe dae cohen Haraup A. Rexapar, WiLL1AM A. Dayton MRovganuary 19587 = 55 disece nee men Dean B. Cowie, Josepu P. E. Morrrson Morianuanye QoQ. eerie ER Tee ee eit cen ohne Committee on Awards of Scientific Achievement Int C. ScHooNOoVER (general chairman), National Bureau of Standards (EM 2-4040) For Biological Sciences...... Micwaru J. PELCZAR (chairman), University of Mary- land (WA 7- 3800), James M. Hunpuiey, WILLIE W. SurvH, JoEL WARREN, R. B. Witnrow For Engineering Sciences...... ARNOLD Scorr (chairman), National Bureau of Standards (HM 2-4040), Frank A. Brperstern, J. M. Catpweii, Micnarn GOLDBERG, GW. A HIcCKLEY, Paut A. SMrtH For Physical Sciences...... C. R. NagsErR (chairman), George Washington Univer- sity (ST 3-0250), Howarp W. Bonp, ImmManugeL EsteRMANN, PETER Kina, bj, Jig Marton, Ex.riotr MontrRot.., 'E. H. Vestine For Teaching of Science...... B. D. Van Evera (chairman), George Washington University (ST 3-0250), RonaLp BamrorD, HERMAN BRANSON, KeI1tH JOHNSON, Howarp OWENS, Marcarer PArTeRson, B. W. Srrreruy Committee on Grants-in-Aid for Research W.J. Hamer (chairman), National Bureau of Standards (EM 2-4040), W. R. WEDEL, H. W. WELLs Committee on Policy and Planning Frank M. Setzuer (chairman), Us S. National Museum (NA 8-1810) MNOMVAMUAT yg Ces ei. ieete morse see oe soni rose oHN EH. Grar, Raymonp J. SEEGER PRoamWaTvalObS a2 = aces terse ae ss cee TENE DEFANDORF, F. M. Serzuer Mon ATUMaT yA LOGO «6s acechs ister. alcscole a eherers MARGARET PITTMAN, Watpo L. Scumrrr Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent ARCHIBALD T. McPHERSON (chairman); National Bureau of Standards (EM 2-4040) PORN ANU ATMOS Macuser aeten te eras ea avons Ira B. Hansen, WiLLIAM J. YOUDEN PROMI AMUATV IDB i sci laneie ne weeds We det ARCHIBALD T. McPurrson, W. T. Reap RoR VamMuaTya OOO E Metre vets cre anc ie uereiarclenss ea ga cola + Pauu R. MILuer, Leo ScHUBERT Committee on Science Education (Academy representation on Joint Board for Improve- ment of Science Education)...... RaymonpD J. SEEGER (chairman), National Science Foundation (ST 3-2140), ArNoLp H. Scorr, Kerra JoHNsoN, WapDE H. MarsHatu, Joun K. Taytor LENTESCNIALIVCLONO OUNCLILO ACPA TT ACW S sere erie Bones A. NELSON SAYRE Committee of Audttors...... Epwarp WicuHers (chairman), National Bureau of Stand- ards (HM 2-4040), M. C. Henprrson, P. H. Hninze Committcctofaliellensmrcrcarm trite haters tesclonurhe rere ore oe Committee on Ways and Means...... Francois N. FRENKIEL (chairman), Applied Physics Laboratory (JU 9-7100),S. F. Buaxr, Paut H. Oruser, W. ie Reap, B. F. ScRriBNER Committee on Public Relations...... A. I. Manan (chairman), Applied Physics Labora- tory (JU 9-7700), H. PECHT, HowarpD Bonp CONTENTS Page MAatTHEMATICS.—Commuting bilinear transformations and matrices. OncAWlAUSSKyveand JOHN MLODDAE eee an anne 373 Botany.—New grasses from Mexico. Ernest R. Souns............ 376 Botany.—Additional Fijian mosses, II]. Epwin B. BArTRAM...... 392 ENnToMoLoGcy.—New species of Helicopsyche from the Western Hemi- sphere (Trichoptera, Helicopsychidae). H. H. Ross............ 397 MammMaLocy.—A new species of murine opossum (genus Marmosa) from Peru. Caartes ©. 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