JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME IX, 1919 BOARD OF EDITORvS A. S. Hitchcock J. Franklin Meyer Robert B. Sosman BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STAT^DARDS GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H, V. Harlan Sidney Paige BOTANICAL SOCISTY OSOLOOtCAI, SOCIBTV N= HOLLISTER S. A. ROHWER BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTY BNTOHOLOGICAL SOCIBTV E. C. McKelvy F. B. SilsbeE CBBMICAL SOCIBTV PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTV J. R. SWANTON ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY PUBLISHED SBMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA u ^ ■ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 JANUARY 4, 19 19 No. i PALEONTOLOGY. — On some Tertiary fossils from the Pribilof Islands.'^ Wiluam H. Dall, U. vS. National Museum. In 1899 I enumerated the fossils found at Black Bluff, St. Paul Island, Bering Sea, Alaska.- They occur at this place in frag- ments of sedimentary rock torn from the ocean bed and up- heaved with their enclosing lava above the sea level. Mr. G. Dallas Hanna, of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, who has been stationed on the island for a number of years, reports that the Black Bluff locality is now entirely exhausted of its fossils. However, this loss is more than made up for by the discovery of two new localities, one on St. Paul and one on St. George Island. Curiously enough the locality on each island is locally known as Tolstoi Point, the Russian word Tolstoi meaning "broad" being used geographically in numberless localities in Alaska. The collection is of interest as linking up the age of the strata from which these fragments were derived with the beach deposits at Nome which are referred to the late Pliocene. In Mr. Hanna's collection are 47 species of which 44 are mollusks, 31 gastropods and 13 bivalves. The St. Paul collection has only seven species, all found on both islands and also found at Black Bluff, so they are possibly of the same age as the Black Bluff series. Of the St. George ^ Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 2 The Fur Seals and Fur Seal Islands of the North Pacific Ocean, part III. Pp. 546. Government Printing Office. 1899. TABLE I Fossils Collected by Mr. G. Dallas Hanna from Sedimentary Inclusions IN THE Volcanic Rocks op St. Paul and St. George Islands, Bering Sea. Admete sp. aff . A. middendorffiana Dall Chrysodomus pribiloffensis DaU Chrysodomus satiirus Martyn Chrysodomus saturus tabularis Dall Chrysodomus solutus Hermann Chrysodomus solutus elatior Middendorff Chrysodomus solutus cordatus Dall n. var Chrysodomus borealis Philippi Colus sp. n Colus sp. indet Colus sp. indet Colus sp. indet Colus sp. indet Plicifusus sp. indet Plicif usus arcticus Philippi Volutopsius sp. aff. malleatus Dall Volutopsius sp. aff. regularis Dall Pyrulofusus sp. aff. harpa Morch (dextral) Pyrulofusus sp. aff. deformis Gray (sinistral) Buccinum glaciale parallelum Dall Buccinum tenue Gray Buccinum sp. indet Boreoscala greenlandica Perry Argobuccinum oregonense Redfield Trichotropis n. sp Iphinoe kroyeri Philippi Tachyrhynchus n. sp Natica clausa Broderip & Sowerby Natica aleutica DaU Velutina laevigata Pennant Cingula robusta Dall Pecten (Chlamys) islandicus beringianus Middendorff Thracia curta Conrad Astarte actis Dall Astarte sp. indet Astarte sp. indet Rochef ortia sp. indet Cardiura calif orniense Deshayes Cardium ciliatum Fabricius Serripes gronlandicus Gmelin Spisula alaskana Dall Mya intermedia Dall Saxicava pholadis Linne Panomya ampla ? Dall Polyzoon Tiurbellaria? Balanus fragments G" P P G PG PG G PG G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G PG PG G G G G G G G G " G indicates St. George; P St. Paul. kempton: ancestry of maize 3 specimens seven species appear to be new out of thirty-three which are specifically identifiable, or nearly 20 per cent. The ensemble of the collection points to climatic conditions similar to those prevailing at present in the region, while the earliest Nome bed indicates decidedly warmer water. It is probable that this Pribilof fauna conformed to more rigorous conditions prior to the glacial epoch. The St. George collection as a whole has only seven species identical • with those found at Black Bluff, St. Paul Island, which latter fauna is doubtless Pleistocene. With the Pliocene second elevated beach fauna at Nome one-third of the St. George collection is identical, but in this third the characteristic warmer water species are not represented. So I conclude that the material obtained by Mr. Hanna represents a period later than the Nome second beach and earlier than that of the Black Bluflf fauna. A list of the species is given in table i. The type specimens are preserved in the U. S. National Museum. BOTANY. — The ancestry of maize. J. H. Kkmpton, Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by William R. Maxon.) In a recent article entitled The evohiiion of maize, Weather- wax^ raises again the issue of the origin of the genus Zea. He reviews the literature, summarizes the descriptions, and presents in a new light many of the morphological differences and similarities of Zea mays and the related plants, Euchlaena luxurians and Tripsacum dactyloides. Students of these genera will welcome the bringing together of these descriptions, accom- panied as they are by excellent illustrations. Since the article aims at a comprehensive evaluation of the relationship of these genera, it is perhaps unfortunate that much of the "gross morphology" has been disregarded, with a consequent over- emphasis of the organological features. There are, moreover, a few misstatements, and some of the views of previous workers seem to have been misinterpreted. It is hoped that a discussion of these points will contribute to a better understanding of the subject. ' Weatherwax, Paul. The evolution of maize. Bull. Torrey Club 45: 309-342 1918. 4 kempton: ancestry of maize In the description of Zea, the statement appears that varia- tion in this genus is mostly quantitative in nature, a conclusion hardly justified by the facts. The line of demarcation between quantitative and qualitative variation is, of course, more or less arbitrary, but there can be no question that Zea stands apart from related genera in the number of discontinuous variations. It is unfortunate that Weatherwax has not had the opportunity to become acquainted with the instructive variations isolated by experimental breeders. Another statement that must be challenged is that branches of maize may arise "singly or two or more from one node" (p. 316). It is difficult to understand how this error survived a second reading. Reference is made, however, to a text figure for substantiation. This figure seems to have been drawn from a normal plant and furnishes no evidence of this most unusual type of branching. Equally surprising, from a morphologist, is the confusing of husks or bracts with prophylla. On page 314 we learn, ". . . . and the shortness of its axis enables the leaf sheaths to cover the inflorescence and mature fruit. In some cases the laminae and ligules of these prophylla are present (Fig. 6) but often they are lacking (Fig. 7)." Again, in the legend under Fig. 7, page 315, "the prophylla have lost their laminae and ligules." That prophylla sometimes possess laminae and ligules would be an important observation, if true, but it seems clear that the author has failed to distinguish between these most interesting and highly specialized organs and the relatively unspecialized bracts, or husks. This confusion by a professed morphologist is the more astonishing in view of the unusual structure of prophylla and their consequent interest from a morphological standpoint. In drawing attention to the unsatisfactory treatment accorded the female inflorescence of teosinte by previous investigators, Weatherwax has, inadvertently no doubt, misquoted Collins, and in justice a correction should be noted. We have, quoting from Weatherwax: "Collins' description- (p. 525) of the spike 2 Collins, G. N. The origin of maize. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 2: 520-530. 1912. kempton: ancestry of .maize 5 as 'one rowed' is equally misleading." In looking for this reference I have succeeded in finding only the following, which appears as a footnote on page 525 and not as a part of a de- scription of this genus: "As might be expected theoretically the early generation of the hybrids between single-rowed teosinte and double-rowed maize occasionally result in an odd number of rows. Well formed ears with 3, 5, 7 and 9 rows have already been observed in such hybrids." Without the context the distinction between "single-rowed" and "one-rowed" may seem slight, but when contrasted with the double or paired rows of maize it is difficult to understand how the meaning could have been perv^erted. The major part of the paper is devoted to a discussion of the relative merits of the several theories of the origin of maize, and the conclusion is reached that maize developed by simple evolution from a grass somewhat similar to the Andropogoneae. While this solution is not new, organological evidence is con- tributed which the author beheves affords it additional support. In reaching his conclusions it w^ould seem that Weatherwax has overlooked some important considerations and misinterpreted others, and it may be well, therefore, to examine his evidence somewhat in detail. The author has found organological evidence of the perfect- flowered nature of all spikelets of the genera Zea, Euchlaena, and Tripsacum, a fact which satisfactorily accounts for the true- breeding perfect-flowered races of Zea but does not explain the infrequency with which such flowers are found in Tripsacum and Euchlaena. If well developed perfect flowers are ever found in the pistillate inflorescences of Euchlaena or Tripsacum, they occur very rarely and may not be compared with their relatively normal development in Zea. The importance of this disparity in the frequency of perfect-flowered variations should not be overlooked in determining whether Zea or Euchlaena is the more primitive type. In indicating the evolution of these genera, the author has recorded the changes that have taken place and has constructed a seemingly plausible sequence of events which may prove mis- 6 kempton: ancestry of maize leading. There is and can be no question that Zea, Kuchlaena, and Tripsacum have a common ancestry, but whether the differences between Zea and the other genera can be more satis- factorily explained by ascribing the diversities to simple evolu- tion from a single common ancestor than by assuming a hybrid origin is a question that to the writer's mind has not been fully appreciated by Weatherwax. To answer these questions, differences must be considered, as well as similarities. One of the chief differences between Zea and the other genera lies in the form of the pistillate inflorescence, or ear, the origin of which has been the subject of much discussion. The theory receiving the greatest support is that of fasciation, proposed by HackeP and accepted by Gernert,^ Worsdell,'' and others. This theory is open to the objection that it fails to account for the fact pointed out by Mrs. Kellerman^ and Montgomery,'^ that the ear is the homologue of the central spike of the tassel. Collins^ has called attention to the fact that the central spike is as much in need of explanation as the ear, and has suggested an alter- native theory, which has been adopted by Weatherwax, that the central spike originated by the shortening of some of the branches of the panicle until they were reduced to paired spikelets. On this basis the ear is homologous with the central spike, the re- duction of the branches having occurred before the male and female inflorescences were differentiated. While the latter theory would seem to fulfill the conditions, the case for fasciation cannot be peremptorily dismissed without some explanation of the frequent occurrence of bifurcated ears which breed true. Further support of the fasciation theory is to be found also in a true-breeding race having fasciated and bifurcated central spikes, which we have succeeded in isolating. The full description of this mutation will be published shortly. ^ Hacked, E. Gramineae. Engl. & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 2: 1-97. 1889. * Gernert, W. B. Analysis of characters in corn and their behavior in trans- mission. Champaign, 111. 1912. * WoRSDELL, W. C. The principles of plant teratology, Vol. 2. London. 1916. * Kellerman, Mrs. W. A. Primitive corn. Meehan's Monthly 5: 44. 1895. ^ Montgomery, E. G. What is an ear of corn? Pop. Sci. Mo. 68: 55-62, figs. 1-14. 1906. « Op. cit. kempton: ancestry oe maize 7 Contrary to Weatherwax's assertion, there is in reality no mathematical difficulty involved in developing ears with ten, fourteen, or eighteen rows by the fasciation of 4-rowed branches. Ears having rows in these numbers can be obtained by the abortion of a row of paired spikelets or the abortion of the pedi- celled spikelets of one of the component branches, both of which phenomena are of rather frequent occurrence. Moreover, the writer is inclined to believe that a statistical investigation would probably show varieties with ten, fourteen, and eighteen rows to be less common than those having rows that are multiples of 4. The ver}^ large number of 8-rowed varieties and th- complete absence of 6-rowed varieties have also to be cone sidered. In view of the fact that maize is intermediate in a great many respects between the specialized characteristics of teosinte and the more primitive characteristics found in pod corn, Collins conceived the idea that it probably originated as a hybrid be- tween teosinte and a primitive grass having many of the char- acteristics of pod corn. Weatherwax's contention that pod com can not be accepted as a "primitive type" seems beside the point, since no one but the very early writers has held such a view. The various types of pod corn do, however, afford a series of characters that may properly be called primitive, since they are shared by many species of Andropogoneae. The fact that these characters are not all combined in a single mutation, but have occurred independently in various combinations, would seem to strengthen rather than weaken this evidence that they are ancestral. And since there is no genetic obstacle to uniting the characters of the various types by properly selected matings, there can be no objection to their theoretical combination. Furthermore, since pod corn appears as mutations from highly specialized commercial varieties, there surely need be no surprise that the so-called earless plants have undeveloped ear buds in the axils of their leaves. A confusion of terminology doubtless accounts for the dis- agreement between Collins and Weatherwax on the presence of staminate flowers in the branches of pod corn. There are, of 8 kempton: ancestry of maize course, in pod corn as in the normal maize from which it mutated, two kinds of branches, those with shortened internodes borne on the upper part of the plant, known as ears, and the more or less elongated lower branches known as tillers or suckers. As is well known, the latter are frequently similar in all respects to the main stalk and may terminate in an entirely staminate panicle. In making the statement that staminate flowers had not been found on the branches of pod corn, Collins was refer- ring to the upper branches, while Weatherwax in contradicting this observation is undoubtedly referring to the basal branches, or suckers. The imputation that suckers have been confused with independent plants would hardly occur to one familiar with genetical methods. Another fundamental difference between pod corn and teosinte, which, through an apparent misunderstanding. Weather- wax has attempted to discredit, is the occurrence of branches in the axils of prophylla. Collins' statement that such branches w^ere the rule in teosinte and had not been observed in pod corn meets with the disapproval of Weatherwax, who states that he has frequently observed such branches which can be induced by the destruction or injury of the terminal bud. As has been previously stated, Weatherwax fails to understand the funda- mental distinction between prophylla and bracts, which may be due to the fact that the differences are of such a miagnitude as to be easily detected with the naked eye and as such come under the heading of "gross morphology." That all branches are enclosed in prophylla does not mean that they are borne in the axils of such prophylla, since these leaf -organs are borne on the short basal joints of the branches which they enclose ! In Euchlaena and in some types of maize, branches are developed from buds in the axils of prophylla, as well as from buds in the axils of leaves and husks, but in pod corn we have never found such prophyllary branches. Sec- ondary branches in the axils of husks are easily induced in almost any type of maize by preventing the development of the ear, but we have never succeeded in forcing the development of buds in the axils of prophylla. In view of the evident mis- kempton: ancestry of maize 9 understanding it seems doubtful whether Weatherwax has found branches in the axils of the prophylla enclosing branches of pod corn. It has to be considered also that the significance of such a phenomenon depends in a large measure on the fre- quency of its occurrence. It may be expected that in course of time and by examining a sufficiently large number of plants an industrious morphologist would find an example of pod corn with branches in the axils of prophylla, though as yet none has been observed. There is apparently also a similar misunderstanding with respect to the "mixed inflorescences" in teosinte. Collins states in effect that he has never observed pistillate flowers in the male panicle or staminate flowers in the female inflorescences of Euchlaena. It is not quite clear from Weatherwax 's contradic- tion of this statement whether he refers to the panicle termina- ting the main culm or to the panicles terminating primary, secondary, tertiary, or branches of higher order. In examining several thousand plants of the commercial teosinte of Florida we have never found even an indication of pistillate flowers in the tassels of the main culms, and their occurrence in the tassels of basal primary branches is rare. Pistillate spikelets, however, are common in the terminal inflorescences of secondary branches and branches of a higher order. This point is im- portant, since in both maize and teosinte the branches are less specialized than the main culms. Unless great care is exercised in growing plants, confusion is likely to arise between branches and main stalks. Unfavorable climatic conditions in the early stages of growth will often result in the abortion or only partial development of the main culm. This abortion of the main culm will not be detected at maturity unless the plants have been marked. While it may be that Weatherwax has actually found pistillate spikelets in the main panicle of the central culm, in view of the possibilities of error his statement should be accepted with reservation until more definitely substantiated. With respect to the occurrence of flowers of both sexes in the female inflorescence, it is apparent that Weatherwax is again confusing two separate and distinct phenomena. Investigators lo kempton: ancestry of maize familiar with teosinte are well aware of the fact that the female spikes often terminate in staminate tips. These staminate tips correspond to the same phenomenon on the ears of maize, but the occurrence of entirely male spikelets definitely located at the less specialized tip should not be confused with perfect flowered spikelets located in the alveoli of the highly specialized rachis at the base of the spike. The occurrence of sharply differ- entiated staminate tips on the pistillate spikes of teosinte seems to emphasize, rather than minimize, the greatly specialized nature of the female inflorescences. The transition from single pistillate to paired staminate spikelets is abrupt and is accom- panied by an equally abrupt change in the rachis and glumes. It must be repeated that there is a complete absence of func- tioning stamens in the specialized pistillate portion of the spikes of teosinte, while in maize perfect-flowered spikelets not only have been found throughout the entire ear, but strains breeding true for this condition have been isolated. The fact that all species of the Maydeae are structurally bisexual should not be allowed to obscure the importance of this point. A careful study of teosinte, not only in the large commercial plantings of Mr. Heinisch in Florida, but also in widely diverse environments and under carefully controlled breeding experi- ments, together with a study of hybrids between the Floridian and Mexican types, fails to show a variation at all comparable with that observed in even carefully bred varieties of maize. The chief support of a hybrid origin for maize lies not only in single character differences or similarities but also in the more general features which have been overlooked or lightly dismissed by Weatherwax. The greater frequency of variation in maize compared to almost any other species seems to the writer to offer a very reasonable ground for doubting its simple evolution from the same common ancestor with Euchlaena and Tripsacum. Aside from the extreme variability, it is hard to understand, with Weatherwax's theor}% how, sharing as they did the same habitat, Zea and Euchlaena ever became differentiated. They hybridize readily, the hybrids are perfectly fertile, and they become indistinguishable when grown together. cook: size of MAYA FARMS II With respect to the many true-breeding abnormal forms, Weatherwax admits that a single ancestral type combining all of these cannot be visualized, but with this evidence he is still loath to accept an additional ancestor. The statement "that many of the tetratological conditions that do not fit into the foregoing theory (simple evolution) as reversions are not in- herited" can hardly be passed unchallenged without an enumera- tion. Practically all maize breeders are familiar with many true-breeding tetratological forms which cannot be looked upon as reversions to a single ancestral line. It is difficult to understand why the fundamental differences between Zea and other members of the Maydeae should be overlooked and a theory adopted whose chief support hes in the fact that teosinte and Tripsacum share with maize the rudiments of perfect flowers. It scarcely needs argument to prove that all are descended from perfect-flowered ancestors. The suppression of sex organs is a universal attribute of any unisexual organism and as a basis for proving relationship is equal in ever>" respect to the observation of Weatherwax, "that common to all three genera (Zea, Euchlaena, and Tripsacum) is the jointed vegetative stem." AGRICULTURE.— ^/^p calculated from the canonical form, and by expressing the conditions on the coefficients of 5 which require constancy of length and invariance of angle. * Wilson, Edwin B. Vector Analysis (Gibbs). New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1901. See pp. 334-347- 1 Journ. Ind. Eng. Chem. 9: 233. 19 17. POSNJAK AND MERWIN: BUCHER CYANIDE PROCESS 29 Nitrate Division of the Ordnance Department of the Army, it was found by means of microscopical examinations that the nitrogen-bearing constituent of some of the crude technical products manufactured by this process consisted principally of some other substance than ordinary sodium cyanide. Ordinary sodium cyanide was found to be an essentially iso- tropic substance, crystallizing in cubes, and having a refractive index of 1452 =>= 0.003. After this cyanide had been fused, slight double refraction amounting to about 0.005 was observed. The material found in the technical products above mentioned appeared in weakly doubly refracting colorless grains about 0.03 mm. in diameter. The refractive indices are a = 1-527, /3= 1.532, 7 = 1.537. The optic axial angle observed was so near 90° that the optical character could not be determined. Evidently only chemical tests were made by Bucher. It was therefore necessary to repeat his experiments to establish whether sodium cyanide or this other substance was formed by his reac- tion. The Bucher process, as known, consists in heating a mix- ture of sodium carbonate, charcoal, and iron powder (catalyst) in a stream of nitrogen at a temperature above 900°. The re- action is written as follows: NasCOs + 4C + N2 :^ 2NaCN -f 3CO In our experiments, mixtures containing varying amounts of sodium carbonate, carbon, and iron were prepared. Each was placed in an iron boat within an electric furnace which contained a reaction chamber consisting of a copper tube closely fitting within one of siUca glass. A stream of nitrogen was passed through the tube while a certain temperature between 900° and 1000° was maintained for several hours. The reaction product was rapidly cooled by lifting the tube out of the fur- nace without interrupting the flow of nitrogen and was then examined microscopically. In all experiments sodium cyanide, together with some of the ingredients of the original mixture, proved to be present, which confirms the reaction given by Bucher. As it did not seem feasible to investigate the conditions of formation of the substance in question at the factory, attempts 30 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON : PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF MUSTARD GAS were made to recover it in sufficient purity from the crude product with the view of preparing a sample for analysis. Recovery by distillation was first tried in the following way: The crude product was put in a copper tube which was closed at one end and which fitted inside a similar tube of siUca glass. These tubes were placed in an electric furnace and heated about three hours at 800 ° while the other end of the tube was connected ■vvith a vacuum pump and cooled. When taken apart no change could be observed. The same experiment was repeated at approximately 975°. It was now necessary to run the pump constantly as an evolu- tion of gas was taking place. On taking the apparatus apart metallic sodium was found in the cold portion of the tube. In- asmuch as the crude product usually contains sodium carbonate, the following reaction probably took place: NazCOa + 2C = 2Na + 3CO Microscopical examination of the crude product in the tube showed that the substance in question still remained. Thus distillation appears not to be a suitable method for its separa- tion. According to Bucher,^ sodium cyanide can be easily distilled out of his briquets at a temperature even below 800°. These experiments therefore substantiate the microscopical evidence that the samples of the crude product examined do not contain any appreciable amount of sodium cyanide. The investigation of the chemical nature of the substance in question is being continued. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— 5ow^ physical constants of mustard "gas." Leason H. Adams and Erskine D. Williamson, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Some time ago it was desired, for military purposes, to know the compressibility of so-called mustard gas. Accordingly, the necessary measurements were carried out at this laboratory, ^ IyOC. cit., p. 246. ADAMS AND WILI.IAMSON : PHYSICAL, CONSTANTS OF MUSTARD GAS 3 1 and at the same time certain other properties of this substance were determined from its behavior under hydrostatic pressure. The compound 2,2-dichloroethylsulfide^ — (C2H4C1)2S — is known as mustard gas or mustard oil, and is, when pure, a colorless, oily liquid which boils about 217°. The compressibility was measured by the same method and using the same apparatus as that already described. ^ The procedure, in brief, is as fol- lows: The material to be compressed is surrounded by kero- sene in the interior of a thick-walled steel cylinder, one end of which is closed while the other end is fitted with a piston and leak-proof packing. By means of a hydraulic press the piston is forced into the cylinder, thus subjecting the kerosene and the given material to hydrostatic pressure and thereby decreasing the volume of each. The decrease in volume of the substance for each increment of pressure is determined from a pair of read- ings of pressure and corresponding piston displacement. Pres- sures were measured by an electrical method, the precision be- ing such that one scale division was equal to about one megabar;^ the displacement of the piston was read on a dial micrometer which was graduated to 0.01 mm. Temperature regulation was obtained by an electric heating coil of asbestos-covered "nichrome" wire wrapped around the heavy steel cyHnder and covered with an insulating layer of felt. About 10 g. of the material was contained in a steel capsule closed at the top and terminating below in a capillary which dipped into a cup con- taining mercury. Pressure could thus be transmitted through the mercury seal to the interior of the capsule. Table i shows the results for the decrease in volume (at 3 1 . 5 °) of the liquid under pressure. The second and third columns of the table give for two separate runs the values of — Lv/vo where Au is reckoned from the initial pressure, Po = 392 mega- bars, and Vo is the volume^ of the liquid at 31.5° and atmos- 1 Also called thiodiglycolchloride. Conf. BeiIvSTEIn, Vol. I, p. 358. Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges. 19: 3260. 1886. - Joiirn. Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: January, 19 19. ' I megabar = 10* dynes /cm^. = 1.020 kg. /cm^. = 0.987 atm. * This was calculated from the known density which at 20°, 25°, 30°, and 35°, respectively, is 1.274, 1-269, 1.264, and 1.258. 32 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON : PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF MUSTARD GAS pheric pressure. The values of Av as a function of P may be represented by a power series yielding the equation A^i'o = 4.24 X 10-5 (P - Po) - 6.3 X 10-^ (P - PoY however, the results are expressed equally well by the exponential equation A / or — 0.364.10-' (P — Po)l /■ \ — MyVo = o.ii8[i— £? " j (i) which gives a more reasonable course to the compressibility curve and hence is to be preferred for extrapolating to zero pressure. In the third column of table i are shown the values of —div/vo calculated from equation (i). By differentiation this equation becomes -dv/dP = 49 . 5 e-'-'''''"^' ^ (2) from which we find the compressibility ( —dv/dP) at P = o to be 49.5 X 10 ~^ per megabar, while at 1000 and 2000 megabars, respectively, the compressibility is 34.4 X 10 ~^ and 23.9 X 10 -6 TABLE I Decrease in Volume op Mustard "Gas" under Pressxhie PRESSURE Af/Po (OBS.) MEGABARS (1) (2) At/So (CALC.) 840 1280 I713 0.0000 0.0175 0.0327 0.0447 0.0000 0.0179 0.0331 0.0450 0.0000 0.0177 0.0326 0.0450 After the conclusion of the measurements of compressibility the freezing pressure and resultant change of volume at a few temperatures were determined. This could be done without removing the material from the apparatus. By referring to figure I it may be seen how the desired quantities may be ob- tained from a series of readings, at constant temperature, of pressure P, and piston-displacement R. When freezing or melting of the substance in the capsule takes place, P remains constant while R increases or decreases and the resulting discon- tinuity at once locates the freezing pressure for the given tem- perature.^ Moreover, the change in volume on melting may be ' Conf. Bridgman, Proc. Amer. Acad. 47: 415. 191 1. ADAMS AND WILI^IAMSON : PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF MUSTARD GAS 33 obtained by multiplying the cross-section of the piston by the quantity i?2 — ^i which is obtained graphically (see Fig. i ) . The necessary readings must be taken with decreasing pressure since, on account of the propensity of liquids for under-cooUng to a temperature several degrees below their melting point, they will generally support a pressure far beyond the true freezing pressure before soUdification takes place. ^ Dichloroethylsulfide requires at ordinary temperatures about looo megabars super- pressure to start it freezing. This corresponds to an under- cooling of 14°. ,— p ^^- '^z ^ ' h- z u z u 0 ^ 5 0. ^ -^ (n p V- ^ ^ Q ^1 ^ .y^ u z ^0^ ■^ cc 0 ^^^ if) 1- ^>»^ 05 0) ^X"^ lU 5: ^ 2 UJ 0: U- PRESSURE Fig. I. Diagram to illustrate how the freezing pressure and consequent change of volume may be obtained by plotting pressure against piston-displacement. When the pressure on the liquid is raised, freezing does not take place promptly and the liquid thus passes into the undercooled or metastable region, as shown by the dotted line. The results for the freezing-points at several pressures are shown in figure 2 and in table 2, which also gives the change of volume V — V^ in cm^ per gram. From these results it may ' A corresponding superheating of the solid has been observed only in rare in- stances. 34 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON : PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF MUSTARD GAS be seen that the compressibility measurements of table i were extended by about 500 megabars into the region of undercooled liquid. At ordinary pressures the melting point of the sample used is 13.9°, but although it was a carefully purified and color- less preparation, a slight variation in pressure during melting was observed. This indicates a small amount of impurity re- maining in the material and doubtless the melting point of pure dichloroethylsulfide at P = i is a few tenths of a degree higher than the figure here given. 45 40 35 30 O O US Q UJ q: 25 < q: UJ 20 LU 15 10 • • ^' ^ ^ y y y r- 500 1000 15C0 2000 2500 PRESSURE MEGABARS Fig. 2. The small circles in this figure represent the freezing points at various pressures. The smooth curve drawn through the circles is slightly concave toward the pressiu^e axis. In order to test for the possible existence of other sohd modi- fications of this substance, the pressure on it was increased to 12,000 megabars at 38°; but no new^ forms were discovered. From the data contained in table 2 we may calculate by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation the latent heat of melting. Thus Ai/ = o.o239i7(Fi— F.)dP/d7, where AJf is the latent heat in calories per gram, T is the absolute temperature, Vi — F, is the change of volume on melting in HITCHCOCK: A PECULIAR SPBCIES OF LASIACIS 35 cm'./g., anddP/dr is the slope of the P — T curve expressed in megabars per degree; practically it is the pressure in megabars required to raise the melting point one degree. Over the range of temperature covered by our measurements we find A H = 25 cal. per gram. This is a value which is higher than the latent heat of melting TABLE 2 ResuivTS for Freezing Pressures, and Change op Volume of Freezing TEMP. FREKZINO PRES- SURE MEGABARS Vl-Vs cm»./g. dP/dT MEG ABARS/dEG. AH CALC. 13-9 I (0.054)'' 68 21 .9 570 0.050 71 25 29.6 IIIO — 31-4 I2IO 0.047 74 25 38.9 1800 0.042 77 25 " By extrapolation. of most substances. On the other hand the compressibility and change of volume upon freezing do not differ markedly from the average for organic liquids. BOTANY. — A peculiar species of Lasiacis. A. S. Hitchcock, Bureau of Plant Industry. In 1759 Linnaeus described Panicum divaricatum^ from Jamaica, distinguishing the species as divaricately much- branched. This is the first species to be described of a group having perennial branched, woody clambering or trailing stems, broad, flat blades, and panicles of smooth, roundish spikelets, set obhquely on the pedicels, the indurate fruit with a woolly tip. The aspect of the plants is that of a shrubby climbing bamboo. Several allied species have been described and referred to the genus Panicum. In 1864 Grisebach- recognized the group as a 1 Syst. Nat. ed. 10. 2: 871. 1759. 2 Fl. Brit. W. Ind. 551. 1864. 36 HITCHCOCK: A PECULIAR SPECIES OF LASIACIS section of Panicum and gave to it the name Lasiacis, meaning woolly tip. The aspect of the species is so distinct and the technical spikelet characters so pronounced that the present writer elevated this section to the rank of a genus in 1910.^ Lasiacis includes 13 species ranging from Mexico and the West Indies to Paraguay, one species entering the United States in semitropical Florida. Lasiacis ruscifolia (H. B. K.) Hitchc. & Chase {Panicum com- pactum Swartz), is more variable and has a wider range than the other species. In an account of the genus as represented in the West Indies^ occurs the following note: "In all the Trinidad specimens the spikelets contain a second sterile lemma, a character not found in any other species known to us. This second sterile lemma equals the first, contains a hyaUne palea, and infolds the fruit rather more closely than the sterile lemma commonly does in other species. The fruit borne one joint higher on the rachilla consequently faces in the direc- tion opposite to the one in Paniceae, that is, the palea side of the fruit faces the second instead of the first glume." A reconsideration of the group leads me to the conclusion that we have here a distinct species, for not only is there this unusual character of a second sterile lemma but also a distinct geographical range. Of the group to which it had been referred, all the specimens from Trinidad, the lower Orinoco, and eastern Brazil have a second sterile lemma, while outside of this range, that is, north and west, there is but one sterile lemma in all the specimens examined. In other respects, such as shape of blades and panicle, pubescence, shape and size of spikelets, the new species does not dififer from L. ruscifolia from which it has been separated. The specimens of the new species, Lasiacis anomala, agree closely among themselves in all these characters, but also agree with many specimens referred to the more variable species L. ruscifolia. The peculiarity of the case under consideration consists in the nature of the single diagnostic technical character, the second » Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 15: 16. 1910. * Hitchcock and Chase. Grasses of the West Indies. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 18: 339. 1917, HITCHCOCK: A PECUUAR SPECIES OF LASIACIS 37 Sterile lemma. To those unfamiliar with the morphology of the grass spikelet it may be explained that the spikelets of the tribe Paniceae are characterized by two membranaceous bracts (glumes) at the base or outside, a third bract (sterile lemma) like the glumes in texture, and often enclosing a staminate flower but producing no seed, and finally a fertile lemma, which is indurate or at least thicker than the glumes, and which in- closes a seed. The presence of a second sterile lemma is contrary to our concept of the whole tribe and if found here and there among our specimens would be looked upon as a teratological development. A priori one would be inclined to assign generic rank to a species or group of species possessing this character. In the case before us, however, the specimens possessing this character are indistinguishable in other respects from L. rusci- folia. Even specific rank is granted only because of the distinct range and the uniformity of the specimens. A technical diag- nosis follows: Lasiacis anomala Hitchc. n. sp. Stems woody, branching, clambering over bushes, glabrous, the main culm as much as 5.5 mm. thick, and 5 meters long; sheaths glabrous or more or less pilose, striate, ciliate on the margin, densely villous on the collar; ligule a short ciliate membrane; blades ovate- lanceolate or elliptic lanceolate, as much as 10 cm. long and 3 cm. wide on the main flowering culms, usually 4-6 cm. long and 1-2 cm. wide on the lateral flowering branches, rather thin, narrowed and usually asymmetric at base, sometimes a little cordate-clasping, puberulent, or sometimes glabrate on the upper surface; panicles oblong-ovoid, 7-10 cm. long, 3-5 cm. wide, those on the lateral branches smaller, the lower branches somewhat distant, spreading or somewhat reflexed, all rather compactly flowered, puberulent, the pedicels angled, rather stout, 1-2 mm. long; spikelets ovoid, becoming nearly globose at maturity, 3-4 mm. long; first glume about one-third, second glume about two-thirds, as long as the spikelet; first and second sterile lemma about equal and about as long as the fertile lemma, the glumes and lemmas slightly woolly at the tip, the second sterile lemma in- folding the fruit more closely than usual for the first lemma in other species; fruit ovoid-globose, obtuse, because of the presence of a second sterile lemma the palea side facing the second glume. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 865557, collected along the edge of jungle, Fort George Road, Port of Spain, Trinidad, Novem- ber 27, 1912, by A, S. Hitchcock (Amer. Gr. Nat. Herb. no. 595). 38 schlink: hysteresis of indicating instruments Distribution: Trinidad to eastern Brazil. Specimens Examined. Trinidad: Broadway 2504, 2564, 2627; Bot. Card. Herb. 2303; Hitchcock loooi, 10063, 10117, 10136. Venezuela: Santa, CataMna, Rusby > It •a c c o '-5 y •5 .2 ni rt -^ 1;! O >-i 0) , o O c3 ^ ' o l-c (LI J! c3 -o o in tn "^ "^ ,^ IH CIS w -C « CJ o ■*-' c3 tj •g S3 _ in 0 T3 (n i-i '*-*-> T3 U2 B 3 y 2 L. W rtj b 3 C J3 ft V; -^ .^ .tn .p tn y a y bO — S en ; analysis and the assignment oj crystals to symmetry classes. Alfred E. H. Tutton, Past President of the Mineralogical Society of London. (Communicated by R. B. Sosman.) A memoir on the above subject is contributed by Edgar T. Wherry to a recent issue of this Journal^ which calls especially for some notice, inasmuch as it is largely based on certain mis- conceptions regarding fundamental crystallographic facts, of a type which is becoming increasingly common among the growing number of workers and writers on this new and highly inviting subject of X-rays and crystals. The memoir in question assumes that evidence has been accumulating that the crystals of 1" Becker, G. F., and Day, A. L. Journ. Geol. 24: S'^iSSS- 1916. " HosTETTER, J. C. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 7:79. 1917. Wright, F. E., and HosTETTER, J. C. Op. cit. 7: 405. 191 7. 1 This Journal 8: 480. 1918. Compare also Dr. Wherry's reply, p. 99. TUTTON: x-ray ANAIvYSIS and assignment of CRYSTAIvS 95 certain substances — notably the diamond, sylvine (potassium chloride), pyrites and its analogues hauerite and cobaltite, the nitrates of barium, strontium, and lead, and the rutile group of minerals — are in a sense intermediate in structure between two crystal classes, possessing some of the attributes of each. It is advocated that the difficulty be overcome in each of such cases by assigning the substance to both classes. It is further assumed that they are usually cases of weak hemihedrism. The diamond, although formerly classed as hexakis-tetra- hedrally hemihedral (class 31), has for some time now, largely owing to the very definite proof of the absence of electric polarity by Van der Veen, been considered as holohedral, that is, as belonging to the class 32 of full cubic symmetry. This view has now been shown to be correct by W. H. and W. h. Bragg, as the result of their X-ray structural analysis. The memoir of Dr. Wherry, however, regards the Bragg result as indecisive, and as indicating holohedrism as a whole, but a tetrahedral structure- unit symmetry. Etch-figures are cofisidered to bring out partial symmetries when equilibrium is delayed, and in the case of diamond they are at first hemihedral, but given longer time become eventually holohedral. It is concluded in the memoir, therefore, that while the system of diamond is cubic, and the space-lattice structure is holohedral, the structure-unit is tetra- hedral. In the case of sylvine, also found holohedral by X-ray analysis, the etch-figures indicate gyrohedral (class 29) symmetry, which it is assumed is due to the difference in atomic volume of potas- sium and chlorine; whereas in the case of rock-salt, which is undoubtedly holohedral (qf class 32), although class 29 etch figures are also produced at first, they are subsequently further developed into class 32 figures and this is supposed to be due to the near equality of the atomic volumes of sodium and chlorine. The memoir finally concludes that this family of halides belongs to the cubic system, with a holohedral space-lattice and a gyro- hedral structure-unit. 96 tutton: x-ray anaIvYsis and assignment of crystals With regard to the pyrites family of minerals, it is considered that the Bragg results indicate that the space-lattice and crystal molecules of pyrites, FeSo and hauerite, MnSo, in which the two negative atoms are alike, possess pyritohedral (pentagonal dodeca- hedral) symmetry, and those of cobaltite, CoAsS, in which the two negative atoms are different, "tetartohedral" symmetry. As some specimens of pyrites exhibit tetartohedral traits it is further assumed that the structure of pyrites is Fe = S = S, the two sulphur atoms being of different valency, tetradic and dyadic. The whole group is described as belonging to the cubic system, with a "pyritohedral space-lattice" (sic, particularly definitely stated in the table given), and a tetartohedral structure- unit. Barium nitrate and its strontium and lead analogues are similarly assumed, from the X-ray results of Nishikawa and Hudinuki, to have "pyritohedral space-lattices," with a tetarto- hedral structure-unit in each case. Rutile, TiOo, is assumed to be of holohedral habit, but to exhibit occasionally trapezoidal hemihedrism. The somewhat contradictory X-ray results of Vegard and of Williams are dis- cussed, and the views of Williams adopted as more reasonable. The conclusion is that the system is tetragonal, the space-lattice holohedral, and the structure-unit trapezoidal. The final conclusion in the memoir is that both the symmetry of the space-lattice as a whole, and that of the crystal molecules or unit cells of the space-lattice, may find expression in significant physical features, and that both should be taken into account in the assignment of crystals to symmetry classes, even although it may be necessary at times to state two different classes for the same crystal. With the first portion of this conclusion all can agree, provided (as is not stipulated in the memoir) that it be kept clear as a fundamental fact, that it is the space-lattice that determines the crystal-system and the obedience to the law of rational indices, while it is the structural detail (represented only by a point in the space-lattice) that determines which particular TuTTON: x-ray analysis and assignment of CRYSTAIvS 97 one of the 32 classes of possible crystal- symmetry is developed. But with respect to the last sentence of the conclusion — that a crystal can be allocated to two different classes — it is absolutely, fundamentally, wrong and entirely unacceptable. There is no more accurate science than modern crystallography. The old method of regarding crystal-classes as holohedral, hemi- hedral (half the faces suppressed), and tetartohedral (three- fourths of the possible faces suppressed) is gone forever, and crystal classification is now at length scientifically and very definitely based on the possession of fixed elements (planes and axes) of symmetry, every one of the 32 possible classes of crystals having its own absolutely unique elements of symmetry. A structure either possesses the elements of symmetry of a particular class or it does not; there is no halfway house. The greatest misconception in the memoir, however, and one which probably gave rise to that just alluded to, is that a space- lattice can be anything but holohedral {e. g., the frequent refer- ence in the memoir to the pyritohedron as a space-lattice). Now there are only fourteen space-lattices, those which Bravais verified and immortalized after their original discovery by Frankenheim, and all are essentially and necessarily holohedral (retaining this term as a convenient one to express full systematic symmetry). They are too simple to be anything else. The three belonging to the cubic system (for all the seven systems are represented among the fourteen) are those having for their elementary cells the cube (No. i), the centered cube (No. 2) which is a cube with a point at the center, and the face-centered cube (No. 3), a cube with a point in the center of each face. If each point of these lattices be imagined to represent a poly- hedron of such a nature that when an unlimited number are packed together in contact, space is completely filled, the No. i polyhedron would be a cube, which is obviously a triparallelo- hedron; that of No. 2 space-lattice would be a cubo-octahedron, an octahedron so far modified by faces of the cube that each octahedral face has the shape of a regular hexagon, the solid being a heptaparallelohedron ; and that of No. 3 would be a 98 tuti'on: x-ray anai^ysis and assignment of crystal,s dodecahedron, a hexaparallelohedron. The point-systems cor- responding to the crystal-classes of lower than the full systematic symmetry are not space-lattices at all, but Sohncke regular point-systems, including in many cases those involving enantio- morphism added by Schonflies, Fedorov, and Barlow, and later also accepted by Sohncke. The pyritohedron, the "hemi- hedral" pentagonal dodecahedron, referred to in the memoir and its accompanying table as a space-lattice, is not a space- lattice, but a Sohncke regular point-system; indeed vSohncke allocates three of his point-systems, Nos. 54, 55, and 56 to the pyrites class 30. As the space-lattice is always holohedral, the suggestion made in the memoir, if carried out, would result in every substance belonging to a class other (lower) than the holohedral class of the system to which it conforms being rele- gated not only to that subsidiary ("hemihedral" or "tetarto- hedral") class in question, but also to the holohedral class of the system, that is, to two different classes of the same system, possessing quite different elements of symmetry, which is absurd. For all structures, even "tetartohedral" ones, have a fundamental space-lattice, about the nodes of which their detailed atomic structure may be considered as grouped. Indeed, the point- systems may quite legitimately be, and often are, considered as composed of interpenetrating space-lattices. It cannot, therefore, be made too clear that the space-lattice only determines the crystal system and not the class. It ex- presses the grosser crystal structure, that of the molecules or polymolecular groups, each point or node of the lattice repre- senting a single molecule or the small group of two, three, four, etc., molecules necessary to the complete crystal structure. It is the whole structure, including the detailed arrangement of the atoms in the molecule or group, which determines the class. Pyrites most certainly belongs to the dyakis dodecahedral class 30, of which the pentagonal dodecahedron is a prominent form, the third of the five cubic classes; but its space-lattice is No. 3, the centered-face cube, just as in the case of the alkali chlorides. Hauerite is similar, but there is some evidence from the Braggs' WHURRY: reply to dr. TUTI'ON S DIvSCUSSION 99 results that cobaltite may belong to the tetrahedral pentagonal dodecahedral class 28, like barium nitrate. The Braggs have shown that the alkali chlorides are most probably holohedral. The rutile group requires much more research, there being no satisfaction in building conclusions on contradictory data. The present moment is a dangerous one in the history of the use of X-rays in unravelHng crystal structure. No more specula- tions built on incorrect crystallography are desirable. What is needed is solid, well and carefully carried out, prolonged and thoroughly tested experimental work, and a complete revision of the principles on which results are based, with the view of rendering them both more fully trustworthy and of definite application. Two fundamental problems are especially urgently requiring solution before much further progress can be made, namely, the falling away of reflection intensity with increase of order of spectrum, and the quantitative relationship between reflection-intensity and atomic number or atomic weight (mass). While we cannot hope to get much more information from the Laue radiograms than at present, the Bragg spectrometric method is full of promise, and when these root-problems are satisfactorily settled much more progress may be expected to be made with the finer details of the structure of the more im- portant crystalline substances. Yelverton, S. Devon, England. November 18, 1918. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.— i?^:^/,)' to Dr. Tutton's discussion of the assignment of crystals to symmetry classes. Edgar T. Wherry, Bureau of Chemistry. In the course of his scientific study of natural phenomena, man is continually devising pigeon-holes into which to distrib- ute given series of facts. Nature, however, often refuses to be pigeon-holed, and persists in bringing to the attention of all who will stop, look, and listen numerous facts which do not accord with the classification in vogue at a particular time. New classifications must therefore be continually worked out loo wherry: reply to dr. tutton's discussion as science advances; and this may be just as true in crystal- lography as in any other field. In the paper under discussion^ the writer endeavored to point out an instance where changes in view-point appear to be needed, and is glad to take up Dr. Tutton's criticism (preceding article) and to show that the difference between us consists chiefly in our willingness to admit the above proposition. Dr. Tutton's summary of the paper in question is reasonably adequate; but whether that paper is based on "misconceptions regarding fundamental facts" must be decided by the reader of the present discussion. The magnificent research on diamond by Fersmann and Goldschmidt- has surely established for all time the fact that tetrahedral (Class 31) features are often shown by both the habit and the etch figures of this mineral. The proof of the absence of electric polarity by Van der Veen, which no attempt has been made to discredit, can not alter that fact. What is needed is an explanation of the apparent discrepancy, and that is what the writer endeavored to supply. The structure of the mineral having been established to the satisfaction of all con- cerned by the Braggs, the writer saw therein a way to account for the difficulty, for the structure as a whole, with which the electric polarity is presumably connected, is admittedly holo- hedral (Class 32) while the symmetry of the unit cells is tetra- hedral (Class 31), which is reflected in the habit and etch-figures. In other words, the writer accepts the correctness of the work of all the authors, whereas those by whom diamond "has for some time now . . . been considered as holohedral" must ignore or discredit the work of Fersmann and Goldschmidt, as well as overlook the significance of the Bragg demonstration that the symmetry of the unit cell of diamond is less than that of the structure as a whole. The last sentence of the writer's con- clusion, which Dr. Tutton considers "absolutely, fundamentally ' This Journal 8: 480. 1918. ^ Through the writer's failure to correct proof of his paper the title of the work by these authors was given as "Diament" instead of "Diamant." Also, the heading of the last double column of the table should, of course, read "atomic." wherry: reply to dr. tuTTOn's discussion lOl wrong and entirely unacceptable" is, as the writer endeavored to show, a direct corollary to the Braggs' work. And since Dr. Tutton elsewhere in his discussion accepts the results of the Braggs, it seems evident that he does not appreciate the writer's viewpoint at all. The writer made no attempt to revive the "old method of regarding crystal classes as holohedral, hemihedral, and tetarto- hedral," but merely used such terms, following Dana, as con- venient, brief designations of certain symmetry classes. None of his conclusions would be altered were the classes to be referred to by numbers or by any other method. Nor has he denied that "every one of the 32 possible classes has its own absolutely unique elements of symmetry" or that "a structure [as a whole] either possesses the elements of symmetry of a particular class or it does not." It certainly seems inconsistent in Dr. Tutton to assert that "there are only fourteen space-lattices," in the same paper in which he accepts the correctness of the Braggs' work on diamond. For the structure they assign to that mineral, though not in- cluded among Bravais's fourteen, is, according to the criterion used by Dr. Tutton in his discussion, a space-lattice. Each point of this structure may be "imagined to represent a poly- hedron of such a nature that when an unlimited number are packed together in contact, space is completely filled." In this case the polyhedron is a regular tetrahedron, so far modified by faces of the rhombic dodecahedron that each tetrahedral face has the shape of a regular hexagon.^ X-ray studies have shown, moreover, similar lattices to exist, as for instance a tri- gonal one in bismuth. How many others may be discovered by subsequent research the writer would not venture to pre- dict, but he certainly would not claim that our present knowledge is complete and final in this (or any other) respect. As far as pyrite is concerned, the underlying structure is admittedly not a simple space-lattice, but compound, or com- * Compare Adams. Nole on the fundamental polyhedron of the diamond lattice. This Journal 8: 240. 1918. I02 wherry: reply to dr. tutton's discussion posed of two interpenetrating simple ones. The disagreement over this point, therefore, is merely a matter of definition of terms, Dr. Tutton preferring to use "interpenetrating point-system" for what the writer would call a "compound space-lattice." Substitution of the one term for the other would not alter the conclusions reached in the original paper to the slightest degree. It should be noted, further, that the view that molecules rather than atoms occupy the points or nodes of space-lattices has been rather definitely disproved by the very X-ray study of crystals which started the present discussion. To summarize: in the paper under discussion, the writer assembled the data for a number of crystals, in the assignment of which to symmetry classes one method of study gives results which conflict with those of other methods of study. He presented an interpretation of the relations which appeared to him capable of reconciling these discordant results, involving the new con- ception that crystals may belong to one symmetry class with respect to some properties and to another class with respect to other properties. Dr. Tutton apparently feels that the present views of crystallography are adequate to explain all past (and future) crystallographic observations. Rather than recognize that diamond, pyrite, etc., belong simultaneously to two different classes, depending on what property is considered, he prefers to ignore observations which do not accord with the one of these symmetry classes which for one reason or another he wishes to accept for each substance. In diamond, he overlooks the Class 31 habit and etch-figures, in pyrite the Class 28 habit and electrical phenomena, and so on. The writer does not believe that ignoring results which do not suit a preconceived theory is the proper scientific spirit, and prefers to modify or revise current ideas when necessary to explain undeniable ob- servational facts, even though this may lead to his being accused of putting forward "speculations built on incorrect crystal- lography." ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. PHYSICS. — The conditions of calorimeiric precision. Walter P. White. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40: 1872-1887. December, 1918. In a calibrated calorimeter practically all the errors come in tem- perature measurement, and the most, though often not the greatest of these come in the "cooling correction," that is, the determination of the effect of the thermal leakage between calorimeter and environ- ment. This thermal leakage is analyzed into its factors. R. B. S. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/te place of manganese in the periodic system. F. Russell v. Bichowsky. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40: 1040-1046. July, 1918. The older arguments placing manganese in the seventh group of the periodic system {i. e., giving manganese a normal valence of 7) now appear open to question. On the other hand there are 12 different lines of argument based on purely chemical relationships which indi- cate its position in the eighth group. This conclusion is also in accord with the more decisive reasoning based on atom color presented in a previous paper. An improved form of the periodic table, showing the relations of the eighth and rare earth groups to the rest of the periodic system, is presented. F. R. B. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/i^ melting points of cristohalite and tridymite. J. B. Ferguson and H. E. Merwin. Amer. Journ. Sci. 46: 417-426. August, 1918. The melting point of cristobaHte has been redetermined and found to be 1 7 10 =•= 10° C. This value is consistent with the experimental evidence which was obtained in a study of a portion of the ternary 103 104 abstracts: mineralogy system CaO-MgO-Si02 and which had caused the earher investiga- tions to be viewed with suspicion. Tridymite is unstable at its melting point and this unstable melting occurs at 1670 ± 10°. Artificial tridymite made from quartz could not be melted owing to the rapidity of the tridymite-cristobalite inversion, but a sharp melting was ob- tained with natural material. Since this unstable melting point is below that of cristobalite, there can no longer be room to doubt that cristobalite is the high temperature form of silica. R. B. Sosman. GEOLOGY. — Asphalt deposits and oil conditions in southwestern Arkan- sas. Hugh D. Miser and A. H. Purdue. U. S. Geol. vSurvey Bull. 691-J. Pp. 271-292, with maps. 1918. There are seven asphalt deposits in Pike and Sevier counties, Arkansas. The asphalt occurs in the Trinity formation of I.owe, Cretaceous age which rests on upturned edges of Carboniferous limestone and sandstone. Doubtless the asphalt is a residue of crude petroleum whose lighter and more volatile parts have escaped by evaporation. This petroleum is believed to have been derived from the Carboniferous rocks underlying the Trinity formation, near the base of which the asphalt is found. The geologic structure is not favorable to accumula- tion of petroleum, and the few wells that have been sunk for oil have not found it in commercial quantity. R. W. Stone. GEOLOGY.— J/a/zaw Icucitic lavas as a source of potash. Henry S. Washington. Met. and Chem. Eng. 18: 65-71. January 15, 1918. This paper attempts an evaluation of the total amount of potash that is present in the lavas of the six chief Italian volcanoes along the west coast that have erupted leucitic lavas, which are therefore high in potash. It is considered that in these volcanoes Italy possesses one of the largest if not the largest of the visible supplies of potash known to exist. Some other silicate rock sources of potash are briefly discussed, especially the Leucite Hills in Wyoming and the belt of glauconite that extends from New Jersey into Virginia. R. B. S. MlNBRAhOGY. —Augite jrom Stromholi. S. Kozu and H. S. Wash- ington. Amer. Journ. Sci. 45: 463-469. June, 1918. This paper records the optical characters and chemical composition of the augite crystals that were being thrown out of the volcano of abstracts: entomology 105 Stromboli during the visit of A. I^. Day and the authors in August 1914. Analyses of the lavas are also given. The augite is shown to be of a commonly occurring type. The paper is part of an investigation on the augites and other pyroxenes of ItaUan and other localities. H. S. W. VOLCANOLOGY. — The representation of a volcano on an ItaUan renaissance medal. H. S. Washington. Art and Archaeology 7: 256-263. July-August, 1918. This paper describes a lead medal of Leonello Pio, Count of Carpi, which dates from the beginning of the sixteenth century. The re- verse represents a volcano in violent eruption, and it is shown that this commemorates almost certainly an eruption of Vesuvius in 1500, concerning the actuality of which there has existed considerable doubt. If so, this is the earliest known representation of Vesuvius in eruption. H. S. W. ENTOMOLOGY. — Comparative morphology of the order Strepsipieras together unth records and descriptions of insects. W. DwighT Pierce;. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 54: 391-501, pis. 64-78. 1918. This article comprises the second supplement to a monographic revision of the order Strepsiptera published as Bulletin 66 of the United States National Museum. It contains additional biological studies on the occurrence of parasitism by these insects, and a review of all literature on the order which has been published since the first supple- ment. The leading feature of the article is the study of the com- parative morphology of the order, tracing the modification of the various portions of the thoracic structures especially throughout the group. It is shown that the prescutum of the metathorax from being a trans- verse separate piece moves backward into the scutal area in the form of a triangular piece, and in .successive modification tends to supply the scutum and approach, and even push backward the scutellum. It is shown that the changes in the thoracic structure can be coordinated with the antennal and wing structures which have previously been used for separating the families and genera. A more complete argument as to the reasons for separating the group as an order is presented to- gether with a set of five rules for the formation of an insect order. A number of new species and genera are described and illustrated, and io6 abstracts: apparatus the article also contains a large list of new host records and a bibliog- raphy of recent works. W. P. D. ENTOMOLOGY. — Medical entomology a vital factor in the prosectttion of the War. W. Dwight Pierce. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 20: No. 5. Pp. 91-104. October 3, 1918. The author brings out in this article the importance of entomo- logical work in the study of diseases showing that the entomologist, parasitologist, and physician are all needed to work out their par- ticular phases of the problems of disease transmission. Seven types of relationships of insects, disease organisms, and vertebrate hosts are defined. Various types of transmission of disease organisms by in- sects are also illustrated. The author brings out especially the im- portance of insect-transmitted diseases to armies and finally mentions a number of problems which still remain to be solved. W. D. P. ANTHROPOLOGY.— /CM/^nm tales. Franz Boas, together with texts collected by Alexander Francis Chamberlain. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 59. Pp.387. This comprises 77 texts in the Kutenai Indian language with English translations, 25 with both interlinear and free translations. Forty-four were collected in 1891 by the late Prof. Alexander F. Chamberlain of Clark University, the remainder by Professor Boas in 1914. They are followed by 32 pages of Abstracts and Comparative Notes and Kutenai-English and English-Kutenai vocabularies. Kutenai con- stitutes one of the smaller linguistic stocks, Kitunahan, and embraces but two closely related dialects. The material is therefore of unusual value to the student of American languages, while the comparative notes render it equally important to the folklorist and those interested in comparative mythology. J. R. Swanton. APPARATUS. — Calorimetric methods and devices. Walter P. White. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40: 1887-1900. December, 1918. In this paper various forms of jacket covers (and of stirrer mountings) are described and compared. R. B. S- APPARATUS. — Some points regarding calorimeter efficiency. Walter P. White. Journ. Franklin Inst. 186:279-287. September, 1918. This discussion has special reference to the precision required and the conditions prevalent in commercial work. R. B. S. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The Board of Managers met on January 27, 19 19. A budget for the year was adopted, renewing the appropriations for 19 18 with minor changes. A revision of the Standing Rules of the Board, as recommen- ded by the Executive Committee, was adopted. The following appoint- ments were announced: Members of Executive Committee, Paul Bartsch and Walter T. Swingi,e; Committee on Membership: T. Wayland Vaughan, chairman, G. N. Collins, Walter Hough, H. E. Merwin, and E. T. Wherry; Committee on Meetings: E. W. Shaw, chairman, C. W. Kanolt, H. H. Kimball, H. L. Shantz, and S. S. Voorhees; Editor of Journal for term 1919-1921, Robert B. SOSMAN. The following persons have become members of the Academy since the last issue of the Journal : Mr. Edward Chester Barnard, International (Canadian) Boundary Commissions, 719 Fifteenth Street, Washington, D. C. Dr. Samuel Jackson BarnETT, Department of Research in Terres- trial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C. Robert B. Sosman, Corresponding Secretary. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 327th meeting of the Society was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club on April 10, 191 8. The regular program was as follows : Edwin Kirk: Paleozoic glaciation in southeastern Alaska. During the past field-season a tillite of Silurian age was found in south- eastern Alaska. Kosciusko and Heceta Islands, where the best Silurian glacial deposits are to be found, lie between 55° and 60° north latitude and 133° and 134° west longitude. These islands are situated on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island, toward the northern end. The most favorable locality for ah examination of the conglomerate is in the large bay about midway on the north shore of Heceta Island. The coast here is well protected from storms and there is a continuous outcrop of the limestone underlying the conglomerate, the conglomerate itself, and the overlying limestone. In places the conglomerate is well broken down by weathering, making the collection of pebbles and boulders an easy matter. As exposed, the beds outcrop along the shore between tide levels, and give an outcrop perhaps 2,000 to 3,000 feet in length. 107 I08 PROCeSDINGS: GEOLOGICAIv SOCIETY The glacial conglomerate is under- and overlain by fossiliferous marine limestones. The succession of beds is clearly shown and un- mistakable. The strata as a whole in this region are badly disturbed, and as is the case throughout southeastern Alaska, contacts are very poorly shown, being, as a rule, indicated by an indentation of the shore- line and a depression running back into the timber. At present, therefore, although the relative positions of stratigraphic units are obvious, the character of the imconformity and the nature of the passage beds are poorly known. The limestone series overlying the conglomerate carries a rich Con- ch id imn fauna. In certain thin beds the rock is almost wholly made up of the brachiopods. This fauna appears to be identical with that of the Meade Point limestone of the Wrights and Kindle. The type exposure of the latter is at the northern end of Kuiu Island. At the base of the limestone at this locaUty is a boulder bed which I believe to be glacial in origin and to be correlated with the conglomerate of Heceta. The limestones below the conglomerate likewise carry a rich fauna consisting of pentameroids, corals, and gasteropods. The general aspect of both faunas seems to place them as approximately late Niagaran in age. The conglomerate itself has a thickness of between i,ooo and 1,500 feet. In the main the conglomerate appears to consist of heterogeneous, unstratified, or poorly stratified material. Rarely lenticular bands of cross-bedded sandstone occur in the mass. These are clearly water laid and indicate current action. The boulders in the tillite range in size up to two or three feet in length, as seen. The boulders consist of greenstone, graywacke, limestone, and various types of igneous rocks. Limestone boulders are scarce. All the boulders are smoothed and rounded. Facetted boulders are numerous and, given the proper type of rock, character- istic glacial scratches are to be found. The scratches show best on the fine-grained, dense greenstone. Limestone boulders and certain types of igneous rocks do not show them at all. The shoreline is strewn with these pebbles and boulders, which were undoubtedly derived from the conglomerate, as they are not to be found on the adjacent limestone shores. All the material collected was taken from the con- glomerate itself, however. This is well broken down by weathering in some places, and the pebbles may be picked out with the fingers or tapped out with the hammer. Throughout the Paleozoic section of southeastern Alaska are vast thicknesses of volcanic material, tuffs, breccias, and flows. Con- sidering the sediments as a whole, climatic conditions through the Paleozoic do not seem to have been very different from those of com- paratively recent times and physical conditions may have been very nearly the same. H. E. Merwin and E. Posnjak: The iron-hydroxide minerals. Studies of composition, density, optical properties, and thermal be- proceedings: geological society 109 havior have led to the conclusion that only one compound of ferric oxide and water is known, Fe203.H20, which exists in two pure crystal- line forms, goethite and lepidocrocite. The fibrous material commonly known as limonite is really fibrous goethite with additional water, silica, etc., held in capillaries. It has been possible to find a series of specimens representing the expectable properties of such impure fibrous goethite with variable water content. Turgite appears to be mix- crystals of Fe203.H20 and hematite, with properties varying according to the composition. The amorphous brown iron ores when air dried contain sub-micro- scopic pores from which water has escaped, but they still hold in these pores variable amounts of water in excess of the formula Fe203.H20. They often show marked double refraction due to strain, but are readily distinguished from fibrous goethite by lack of splintery fracture and by lower refractive index. All these minerals except well-crystallized goethite often occur in very close association. J. B. Mertie, Jr.: Repeated stream piracy in the Tolovana and Hess River Basins, Alaska. The theme of particular interest to which this paper was devoted is an example of stream piracy eflfected by one stream at the expense of another; and a subsequent repetition of the same process under diflferent physiographic conditions whereby the second stream recovered a considerable proportion of its former drain- age. The present watershed therefore represents the third recognizable period of stability in the physiographic history of the two drainage basins. The two streams in question are Livengood Creek, a tributary of Tolovana River, and the south fork of Hess River, in the Tolovana district, northwest of Fairbanks, Alaska. Gold-placer mining on Livengood Creek has furnished the necessary underground data on the configuration of bedrock under the gravels. An abnormally steep bedrock gradient at the lower end of the old bench channel on Liven- good Creek justifies the inference that this stream in its earliest recog- nizable stage was much shorter than at present. The pronounced back-hand drainage of its present upper tributaries is regarded as cor- roboratory evidence of this hypothesis. Also the present divide between the two streams has been found by drilling to be silt-filled. An original stream piracy is thus deduced, whereby Livengood Creek stole the headwater tributaries of the south fork of Hess River. The depth to bedrock in the present silt-filled divide, and the depth to bedrock in a narrow gorge in the lower part of the south fork of Hess River, together with the elevations at these two localities, show exactly how much of the upper drainage of the south fork of Hess River was pirated. The new physiographic condition that brought about the original piracy was a progressive drowning or inundation of the stream valleys no proceedings: Washington society of engineers of the Yukon-Tanana region, which resulted in a regional elevation of the base level, and was accompanied by extensive silt alluviation. This new physiographic cycle took place in at least two stages, at the end of the first of which occurred a period of stability when the piracy of the south fork of Hess River by Livengood Creek was accomplished. vSubsequently, these silt-filled valleys were drained, and the regional base level was reduced, and it was during this period that the final readjustment of the two drainage basins was efi'ected, and the south fork of Hess River recovered a large part of its former drainage. vSuper- position of both streams onto bedrock has been responsible for the pres- ervation of the present silt-filled watershed between them. This topic is discussed in more detail in U. S. Geological vSurvey Bulletin 662-D, entitled "The Gold Placers of the Tolovana District, Alaska." The 328th meeting of the Society was held in the Conference Room of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey on May 8, 191 8. The regular program was : George Otis Smith: .4 century of government geological surveys. Published in A Century of Science in America. Yale University Press, 191 8. Also in American Journal of Science Vol. 46, pp. 171- 192, 1918. At the 329th meeting of the Society, held on December 11, 1918, the Presidential address was delivered by the retiring President, Frank H. Knowlton: Evolution of Geologic climate. The address will be published in full in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of i!\.merica at a later date. At the Twenty-Sixth Annual Meeting held on the same evening the following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, E. O. Ulrich; Vice-Presidents, G. H. Ashley and H. S. Gale; Treasurer, Wm. B. Heroy; Secretaries, R. W. vStone and R. S. Bassler; Members at-Large-of-the-Council, L. W. Stephenson, H. G. Ferguson, D. F. Hewett, R. C. Wells, Eugene vStebinger. EsPER S. Larsen, Jr., Secretary. WASHINGTON SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS Ten meetings of the Society were held during the year 1 918 as follows: January 15, 191 8: William C. Edes, Chairman of the Alaskan Engineering Commission: The Alaska Railroad. February 5, 191 8: Joint meeting with the Washington Section of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Professor C. A. Adams, of Harvard University: Standardization in engineering. February 19, 19 18: Lieut. Col. Henry vS. Graves, Forester and Chief of the U. vS. Forest Service: The Forest Engineers in France. March 4, 1918: William B. Landreth, Deputy State Engineer of New York : Relation of the Barge Canal to the transportation problems of the United States. PROCEBDINGS: WASHINGTON SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS III March 19, 191 8: J. O. Martin, of the Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company : Wires of war. April I, 191 8: Moving pictures of the Battle of Cambrai. April 16, 1 91 8: Hon. C. B. Miller, Member of Congress from Minnesota: Personal experiences on the Western Front. The regular meeting scheduled for October 8, 1918, was not held. This was in conformity with the wishes of the Board of Health, on ac- count of the epidemic of influenza. November 19, 191 8: Moving pictures: From ore to finished "National" pipe. December 3, 1918: Annual banquet. vSpeakers: Edwin F. WendT, President of the Society; Adolph C. MillER, Member of the Federal Reserve Board; Charles Piez, Vice-President and General Manager of the Emergency Fleet Corporation; Ira W. McConnell, of the American International Shipbuilding Corporation; Prof. O. M. W. Sprague, of the Council of National Defense; and Dr. H. W. Wiley. December 17, 1918: Annual Meeting for the election of officers; moving pictures illustrating the highways of the United vStates. The following officers were elected for the year 191 9: President, Morris Hacker; Vice-President, William C. Thom; Secretary, H. C. Graves; Treasurer, G. P. Springer; Members of the Board of Direction, 1919- 1920, John C. Hoyt, Anthony F. Lucas, Oscar C. Merrill, Edwin F. Wendt. H. C. Graves, Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. P. W. Bridgman has returned from the naval experimental station at New London, Connecticut, to the Jefferson Physical Lab- oratory, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Dr. Edgar Buckingham, who has been associated with the work of the scientific attache of the American Embassy in Rome, returned to Washington in February. Dr. George H. A. Clowes, formerly of the Gratwick Research Laboratory at Buffalo, N. Y., and lately engaged in research at the American University Experiment Station of the Chemical Warfare Service on the physiological effects of war gases, left Washington in January to take up biochemical research at the laboratories of EH Lilly & Company, of Indianapolis, Indiana. Dr. Oliver L. Fassig, of the U. S. Weather Bureau, has been elected secretary, and Mr. Francois E. Matthes, of the U. S. Geological Survey, treasurer, of the Association of American Geographers. Major General John Headlam, who lectured before the Academy in April 191 8, on "The development of artillery during the war," has been awarded the distinguished service medal by vSecretary of War Baker, "for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services rendered the United States Army while serving as chief of the British Artillery Mission to the United vStates." Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, Curator of Physical Anthropology in the United States National Museum, has been made an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Dr. M. S. Sherrill, formerly with the Ordnance Department in Washington, sailed in January for an extended trip in South America. Dr. F. H. Symth, formerly of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, and lately captain in the Chemical Warfare Service, stationed at the American University Experiment Station, has received a temporary appointment as physical chemist at the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. ViLHjALMUR Stefansson was awarded the Hubbard Gold Medal of the National Geographic Society on January 10, 191 9. Word has been received that Mr. M. N. Str.\ughn, formerly of the Bureau of Chemistry in Washington, and a member of the Chemical Society, died in Porto Rico on January 9, 1919. 112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Voh. 9 MARCH 4, 19 19 No. 5 PETROLOGY. — Microscopic examination of clays. R. E. Som- ERS, Cornell University. (Communicated by David White.) Most of the clays referred to in this report were examined microscopically in order to determine the minerals contained in them, and in addition thin sections of some of the burned sam- ples were studied so far as time would permit in order to obtain some idea of the changes that took place in burning. The investigation is not to be regarded as an exhaustive one, as much still remains to be done along this line, but so far as it went, it is thought that the results are of interest. Table i gives the minerals that were noted in the different specimens examined, and also their approximate abundance. IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTER OF MINERALS Quartz. — When in medium or coarse grains, quartz can be readily discriminated by means of its index of refraction, low in- terference color, and lack of cleavage. There are no other min- erals in clays which resemble it under these conditions. When, however, it is in small grains, it greatly resembles kaolinite. Its index of refraction is then of little assistance, the interference color is lowered to about that of the kaolinite, and its determina- tion has to depend upon its more angular shape and its more rapid extinction, or "quicker wink." Such grains are generally too small to make use of the difference in optical character. While quartz was noted in many of the clays examined, it was particularly abundant in the residual ones. Most of the Wilcox clays from the Embay ment area showed but little. Kaolinite. — This can be distinguished by its orthodox charac- 113 114 SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS TABLE I The Composition of Clays Formation and locality" N Ui CD 3 a 0 K ■4-» '3 0 3 a 8 u ■(3 s u 3 0 H V ■«-> 0 •0 ■5. w 'H a 'tn u a B •0 0 u Residual Clays t From Granite English china clay, washed Sb M VA From Cambria?! sandstone {Chikies) Frazer, Pa. A M A c From Cambrian schist Mt. Holly Springs, Pa., Sandusky Port. Cem. Co. C C A c Mt. Holly Springs, Pa. C A VA c s Mt. Holly Springs, Pa., Phil. Clay Co. A A A c s Mt. Holly Springs, Pa., washed, Phil. Clay Co. C C A S s Mt. Holly Springs, Pa., Holly Clay Corp'n C C A s s s Mt. Holly Springs, Pa., washed. Holly Clay Corp'n M C VA c s Beavertown, Pa. C S VA s Narvon, Pa., Whittaker pit s A A s s c Narvon, Pa., Diller pit A A A c s s s s From Cambrian (Chikis quartzite) Honey Brook, Pa. VA C S c s From Cambrian (Gatesburg) clayey sand- stone Scotia Centre, Pa. S A? c? s s s Warriors Mark, Pa. A S VA A s c? Furnace Road, Pa., Colonial Clay Co. A s A c s From Cambrian shale Cold Spring, Va. s A A s s From Cambrian limestone Lutesville, Mo. A A A Lutesville, Mo., No. i clay C A A s s Lutesville, Mo., No. 2 clay C C A A s s ° The minerals listed here represent the identifiable grains, but some of them contain a variable quantity of exceedingly small grains not identifiable, and which are indicated in the column headed Colloid matter. Aside from this, most of the clays undoubtedly contain colloidal particles so small as not to be visible with the ordinary microscope. '' S, scarce; C, common; M, moderate amounts; A, abundant; V A, very abundant. SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS 115 From Oriskany shales, limestones and sandstones Kunkletown, Pa., disintegrated quartz- ite Kunkletown, Pa., clay with quartzite Kunkletown, Pa., clay with quartzite, washed Saylorsburg, Pa., Crude No. i Saylorsburg, Pa., Crude No. 2 Saylorsbiu-g, Pa. washed Saylorsburg, Pa., Crude, Cement Company's mine Shirley sburg, Pa. Miscellaneous Residual Clays Bauxite, Ark., banded clay under bauxite Bauxite, Ark., white clay under bauxite (Both have some large flakes of mica) Oreana, Nev., Pitt-Rowland deposit Lovelocks, Nev., Adamson-Dickson de posit Beatty, Nev., Bond-Marks deposit Antioch, Calif. Fort Payne, Ala., Brower Mine Fort Payne, Ala., Cochrane pit. Sili ceous bauxite Fort Payne, Ala., Cochrane pit, bauxite Bynum, Ala., Kraus pit, white clay Bynum, Ala., Kraus pit, black clay Sedimentary Clays Carboniferous Cheltenham Clay, St. Louis dis.. Mo. Raw washed pot clay, LaClede-Christy Weathered pot clay, LaClede-Christy Fire-brick clay, LaClede-Christy Selected crude clay, LaClede-Christy Weathered pot clay, Highland Clay Co. Washed pot clay. Highland Clay Co. Indianaite, Huron district, Indiana Earthy white clay Massive white clay FHnt Clay district, Central Missouri Plastic clay. Bland, Mo. White clay, Owensville, Mo... Sassman pit Red clay, Owensville, Mo., Sassman pit S s c A A c A C A A A A A A A A s C A A C A A S VA A s VA S Kc A S A s S s S VA s A A A C A S M A A A s C C A A s A C A A S s A S s A A s A C A A A s S C c C s S s s s c s s s s VA M? A VA C A C C '^ Probably mostly sericite. ii6 SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS Flint clay, Owensville, Mo., Sassman pit Flint clay, Hofflins, Mo., Cox pit Flint clay, Hofflins, Mo., Cox pit Flint clay, Owensville, Mo., Connell pit Flint clay. Rosebud, Mo., Toelke and Heidel pit Diaspora clay. Rosebud, Mo., Brown pit Diaspora clay, Owensville, Mo., Con- nell pit Diaspora clay, Rosebud, Mo., Brown pit Diaspora clay, Owensville, Mo., Sass- man pit Diaspore clay, Owensville, Mo., Con- nell pit Lower Cretaceous White clay, Gordon, Ga., upper bed, Col. Kaol. and Alum. Co. Nodular clay, Gordon, Ga., upper bed, Col. Kaol. and Alum. Co. White clay. Dry Branch, Ga., crude, Amer. Clay Co. White clay. Dry Branch, Ga., washed, Amer. Clay Co. Allendale, S. Ca., Box pit Abbeville, S. Ca., Hill pit White clay, S. W. of Trenton, S. Ca. Bath, vS. Ca. McNamee Kn. Co., i Bath, S. Ca. McNamee Kn., Co., 2 White clay, Langley, S. Ca. White clay, Langle3% S. Ca. Upper Cretaceous Rayflin, S. Ca., Edisto Kaohn Co. White clay, Aiken, S. Ca. Ripley White clay, Perry, Ga., Houston KaoHn Co. White part of mottled clay, Perry, Ga., Houston Kaolin Co. Red part of mottled clay. Perry, Ga., Houston Kaolin Co. Sagger clay, Hollow Rock, Tann. Sagger clay. Hollow Rock, Tenn. Lignitic clay, India, Tenn. Brown sandy clay, E. Paris, Currier pit Dark clay, E- of Paris, Currier pit S c s s S s s VA A S s s c A C •C C s A s s s S c A VA c VA S A A A s S s c A c S c A S s s S s c VA s s c A s S s s A c s A c A s C s M VA A A A s s c A A s s s c VA A s s c A A s c A s A S s s s s A A s s S C s s s S s s s s s s s S s s c A c c s c A A A s s A C S c A A A s s c A C S c c c? c M VA A A A'' '^ Stained with hematite. SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS 117 Porter's Creek Wad clay, Benton, Ky., Howard pit Wad clay, Benton, Ky., Howard pit Wad clay, Briensburg, Ky. Wilcox formation Andersonville, Ga., Sweetwater mine, white clay Andersonville, Ga., Sweetwater mine, mottled clay Enid, Miss., No. 5 pit, Bramlett Enid, Miss., No. 21 pit, Bramlett Holly Springs, Miss., stoneware clay Lagrange, Teiin., Dale sand pit, claylens Lagrange, Tenn., McAnee pit McKenzie, Tenn., No. 10 ball, John- son-Porter McKenzie, Tenn., No. 11 ball, John- son-Porter McKenzie, Tenn., Sparks pit Sagger clay, Henry, Tenn., Chrisman and Reynolds I S. G. P. clay, Whitlock, Tenn., Mandle No. 5 Ball, Whitlock, Tenn., Mandle No. 7 Ball, Whitlock, Tenn., Mandle No. 4 Ball, white, Whitlock, Tenn., Mandle No. 4 Ball, dark, Whitlock, Tenn., Mandle Puryear, Tenn., Dixie Brick & Tile Co. Wad clay. Hazel, Ky., Cooley Ball and Sagger Clay Co. Dark ball clay. Hazel, Ky., Cooley Ball and Sagger Clay Co. No. 4 Ball, Pryorsburg, Ky., Ky. Constr. & Imp. Co. Old No. 4 Ball, Pryorsburg, Ky., Ky. Constr. & Imp. Co. No. 5 clay, Pryorsburg, Ky., Ky. Constr. & Imp. Co. No. 3 Ball, Pryorsburg, Ky., Mayfield Clay Co. Ball, Pryorsburg, Ky., Mayfield Clay Co. No. I Ball, Hickory, Ky., Old Hickory Clay & Talc Co. Crude clay, Lester, Ark., Camden Coal and Clay Co. Washed clay, Lester, Ark., Camden Tertiary Crude, Edgar, Fla. Washed, Edgar, Fla. c A A A s c A A A c A C S A A A S s s S s c VA S s s s A A s s c A A c A S A M s s s c A A A s s A A s s s A A s s A A M s s A A C c s s s A C C s s A c s s A c s s A c A s s A c s c C VA s s s s c C A c s s A C A s s VA A s s VA C A s C A M c VA A S s c A A A s s VA C S c A A A s s s A A C S s A S A S s s A A S s M? Il8 SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS ters when of larger size, combined with its flaky nature and very often its tendency to combine in fan- or worm-shaped bunches. Low index of refraction and low birefringence separate it from the other micaceous minerals. When fine, it can merely be noted as minute, transparent plates, of an index of refraction close to the balsam, and verv^ low interference color. The kaolinite occurs as single scales or plates, sometimes in bunches of fan-shaped character, and as vermiculites. In one clay, the Indianaite from Lawrence County, Indiana, spherulite- like bodies were also found. Specially fine examples of "fans" were noted in the clay from Perr\^ Georgia, Bynum, Alabama, Bauxite, Arkansas, and Antioch, California. Good examples of vermiculites were seen in samples from South Carolina, Perry, Georgia, Bauxite, Arkansas, Antioch, California, and the nodular white clay from Gordon, Georgia. The Florida clay from Okahumpka and Edgar, as well as the samples from Langley and Aiken, South Carolina, showed large single flakes. Hydromica. — This is a distinctly micaceous mineral, which has single and double refractions higher than those of kaolinite, yet not so high as muscovite or sericite. Furthermore, the degree of these refractions varies in different clays. It is therefore assumed^ that there is an isomorphous gradation between seri- cite and kaolinite, with a gradual loss of potash and addition of water, and, in weathering products such as these, hydromica represents a transition stage of weathering toward kaolinite as the final product. The fan of the hydromica is similar to that of the kaolinite, but it may occur in larger grains. Radiating bunches and spherulite- like grains were found in the white clay from near Huron, In- diana. COMPARATIVE ABUNDANCE OF KAOLINITE AND HYDROMICAS Descriptions of the microscopic examination of clays that have appeared from time to time, make frequent reference to kao- ^ For discussion of hydromica see Gai,pin, Sydney L. Studies of flint clays and their associates. Trans. Am. Ceram. Soc. 14: 306 and 338. SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS II9 linite, but the presence of mica is less often commented on, and yet, judging from the nature of the clays described in this report, it seems to be quite abundant. The same might possibly be inferred from the chemical com- position of many kaolins which show a small percentage of pot- ash; for since feldspar seems to be very scarce, the former may be regarded as belonging to mica. Vogt, for example, in 1906, concluded that china clay consisted of kaolinite, muscovite, and quartz, although he based his con- clusions on the chemical composition of the material." Later, Hickling,-^ after studying the china clay of Cornwall, states that in the finest washed clays, kaolinite, mica, quartz, and tourmaline are present, but that the first two make up 90 per cent of the mass. He adds, however, that the relative amounts of kaolinite and muscovite are difficult to estimate. He differentiates the mica into two classes, viz, primary mica and secondary mica derived from feldspar. He refers to the kaolinite as occurring as irregularly hexagonal prisms, with rough faces, which show strong transverse stria- tions corresponding to the basal cleavage. "These prisms are usually curved, sometimes quite vermiculiform. The shorter prisms commonly present a fanlike arrangement and exactly resemble the similar forms of mica, from which they can be dis- tinguished only by their lower interference tint." Isolated plates or very short prisms may occur, and then "even with convergent polarized light, it is not easy to judge the amount of birefringence under such circumstances, and, consequently, to decide to which mineral a given fragment belongs; hence the difficulty of estimating their relative proportions. Both kinds show the same irregular form (due probably to development within decaying feldspars) and the same evidence of corrosion on the edges. The low interference-tint and low index of re- fraction definitely distinguish these crystals from mica. - Vogt, G. De la composition des argiles. Memoires publics par le Societe d'Encouragement pour I'lndustrie Nationale, Paris, 1906, pp. 193-218. ^ HiCKLiNG, G. China clay. Its nature and origin. Trans. Inst. Min. Eng. 36. 1908-09. I20 SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS The identification of kaolinite rests on the following evidence: (a) The index of birefringence is distinctly low, about that of quartz, but variable. (b) The index of refraction is very near to i .56. (c) The prismatic crystals extinguish parallel to the basal plane. (d) Basal flakes show a biaxial interference figure. While Hickling refers to the mica as muscovite, he notes that it may be hydrated ; indeed he thinks that the muscovite changes directly to kaoHnite in the clay, because: i. He can find mica but no kaolinite in feldspar or in the granite. 2. There is no difference in form between the mica and kaolinite. 3. He finds prisms which are mica at one end and kaolinite at the other. He also quotes the observations of Johnstone, ^ who found that by exposing muscovite to pure water, and Vv^ater saturated with CO2, for 12 months, it had changed to hydromuscovite. This Hickling believes shows a conversion in the direction of kaolinite. In line with these observations, reference may be made to the work of Galpin^ on flint clays. In these he found platy masses of what at first appeared to be kaolinite, which frequently show "ribs" or plates of higher index and birefringence intergrown with those of kaolinite, and which ribs show practically every grade of variation between kaolinite and muscovite. Halloysite. — Two clays, viz, those from north of Huron, Indiana, and the Bond-Marks deposit near Beatty, Nevada, contain material in platelike grains, which is isotropic, and is probably to be regarded as halloysite. In no other samples could this material be so definitely identified. Rutile. — The presence of rutile is interesting, in view of the probable constant occurrence of titanium in high-grade clavs. Practically every clay examined shows rutile in some amount. In some cases it is in grains or prisms, perhaps 0.015-0.020 mm. in diameter, when its color and refractive properties distinguish ■* Johnstone, A. On the action of pure -water and of -water saturated -with carbonic acid gas on minerals of the mica family. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 45: 363. 1889. * Galpin, S. L. Studies of flint clays and their associates. Trans. Am. Ceram. vSoc. 14: 301. 1912. SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF ClyAYS 121 it at once. More generally, however, it is found upon close examination as very minute grains or needles which are never- theless so clear-cut that their refractions can be plainly seen. The interference color is of the first order, but the particles are so small that the actual birefringence is thereby shown to be very high. They vary from perhaps cooi mm. to o.oio mm. in diameter and if in needles are 5 or 6 times as long as they are wide. In number these grains are very abundant, but in actual bulk, they represent a very small quantity of rutile. Rarer Minerals. — Tourmaline is well marked by its pleochrom- ism, and its frequent occurrence is notable. Epidote is occa- sionally seen as a slightly greenish mineral of moderate single and double refractions. Grains of both high index and bire- fringence are common, though not in any abundance, and they prove to be zircon and titanite. A distinction between the two is quite possible by means of the higher interference color of the titanite. Zircon is much the commoner. Diaspore. — This is easy to determine by its moderately high index and double refraction, and its occurrence in irregular grains. It is quite common in certain of the clays examined from Missouri. Since the diaspore in these clays or their as- sociated rocks sometimes occurs in grains sufficiently large to be seen with the naked eye, it may be mistaken for quartz, but can be separated from it and clay by means of bromoform (sp. gr. 2.8), in which the diaspore (sp. gr. 3.4) sinks, while the as- sociated minerals float. ^ Texture. — It would be very difficult to standardize clays by size of particle, because any one clay is apt to be made up of particles of all sizes, and because there is no standard to use. Comparing these clays with each other, however, it may be said that relatively coarse grains average o. 100 mm. or more in size, medium grains 0.020-0.025 mm., and fine grains o.oio mm. or less. MINERALS IN THE BURNED CEAY A number of the clays were molded into one-inch cubes. These were all fired for 8 hours up to 950° C. After this one * Wherry, E. T. Field identification of diaspore. Amer. Mineral. 3: 154. 1918. 122 SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS set was refired for 8 hours to 1,150° C, and a second set for 10 hours to 1,300° C. They were then ground to thin sections and examined under the microscope. Quartz grains usually stand out with much greater clearness in the burned than in the raw clay, due to the fact that the hydrous aluminum silicates tend to mat or fuse together to a fine-grained ground mass which holds the quartz. In some speci- mens a fluxing action appears to have taken place between the fine-grained material and the silica, resulting in a corrosion of the quartz, but this is comparatively rare. Hydromica on heating to 1,150° C. either practically disap- pears, forming an isotropic mass, or else it loses the greater part of its interference color. The only exception to this was where the hydromica grains were much larger than usual, in which case it was noticed that the central portion of the grains retained usually the original interference color. This change of the hydromica on heating would seem to sug- gest that it furnishes some of the flux for the clay, and other things being equal, there may be a connnection between the de- gree of densification at the temperature mentioned, and the quan- tity of hydromica present. Kaolinite when not fluxed, appears to retain its shape and at least a good part of its original interference color. Tourmaline and probably epidote disappear even at 1,150° C, but the rutile, zircon, and probably titanite seem to be unaffected even at 1,300° C. The persistence of the rutile can be plainly seen even through the particles are very small. Sillimanite was noticed in a Florida white clay fired at 1,300° C, where the conditions happened to be just right for its develop- ment. That it has formed from the large flakes of kaolinite or low-grade hydromica is clearly indicated by one composite flake of the two minerals. The actual reason for its development is not evident, other clays carrying similar micaceous flakes, and burned at the same time, not showing the sillimanite in the burned product. < O Q PQ o m o U W H 6 W < g s m o » w < SOMURS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CI.AYS a a < 1 . *^. § 2 r- - (U o 2 OJ 1-1 c3 -»-> OJ -,-5 •rt > il o (LI tfl o y rt rt 5 6 -^ ^ OJ o u 3 ■ 2 o a o o y S ii O B ^ .'^ o On a a u OJ "o c W) ° bo Pi i 1 en > -C3 ^ o o y e- *^ rt ,^ C aJ iJ tH -a +j "C c ■" o to a be 2 g 5 ■>-' O •'1 to & o o O ^ Ui +-' ^~* •-i o ^ o +-1 en tn tn O c3 a s ffi PO rO 1 (V t o u rn bfl • »^ bo rt CI oJ fc t 1^ a o o 8 M (U o a '-' a; a > .2 OJ 0) en J3^ OJ 2 3^ <" bo > c - o t: « w c o ■t-l c PQ bo 1-1 n3 rt JJ tn >^ 1^ a; 0 ^ - ^ V ^ SI en o '-H I ^ s ^ Ph • * bO JJ rt b ti « § fc So OJ ;i3 O AjisojOd sn^nn < tn < m 31! < < < m -ojpXH < (J < < > zjjehO u U 2 'E 123 en o a! C C3 a X o I-. o 124 SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS bO C •S IS -S 0) +J Quartz in slightly felted groundmass. Some iso- tropic. Rutile still visible. Fine granular aggregate. Hydromica gone. More isotropic material. More isotropic material. Rutile persists. 0 to 0 00 0 0 0 0 s ,0 Hydromica gone. Quartz in fine felty ground- mass, partly isotropic and partly low inter- ference color. Hydromica color gone. Quartz in fine-grained groundmass, partly iso- tropic and partly with low interference color. Fine texture, partly iso- tropic, partly kaolinite interference Fine granular aggregate. Some hydromica. Some isotropic ma- terial. Granular, slightly matted groundmass. Hydro- mica color gone. Some isotropic material. 0 0 0 0 0 10 n 0 < CO CO < < < < < < < < < < < < < U 0 0 0 0 0 0 Medium to fine a ,3 0) >5 a ,3 •s Medium to fine Medium to fine en bo C •c a CO Mayfield clay, Pryors- burg, Ky. Kaolin, Lutesville, Mo. Kaolin, Saylorsburg, Pa. Washed kaolin, Say- lorsburg, Pa. Crude kaolin, Saylors- burg, Pa. SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS 125 -<3 a a 8 W ■4 ft 2 •4-> O cn (U -l-> 3 Pi 6 a 0 u CO-" -, 03 O y ft ie <*- J3 3 3 6 ■t— rt ii T1 rrt (U 11 r! a v-< ft 3 rt X! ho T3 u u ft (7) I ^ u 0 0 y a; u c U u tA f\> a +-> OJ C 0 o o a; y c a oi •- ^ 3 - I bo 3 ^ is o ^ >, 1 0 6 -u nl 0 ^ 0 d 4J OJ B n uj 0 bx) CO 0 bo rt s fi 0 03 fi 0 T3 3 3 0 0 0 ft 0 Ii 0 y B 0 u •a ft 0 -a 0 0 m _C 1 ffi ffi 01 (U 1-1 OJ ii .a 3 fi ■•' y ■*- 1 m O! O ^ t." a; -M 3 « 0 3 , 0 ft 0 ft s X n y f/i uT < < CO < > < 0 0 <; 0 < 0 0 <; , Q >^ 03 y y 3 j: pq 03 Ii o y OJ 43 y en 126 bichowsky: an unusual sulfur crystal This development of sillimanite by burning and its possible abundance in porcelain'^ may be the explanation of another feature noted. In some of the clays, as indicated in the de- scriptions, a double refraction is produced in the ground mass of the clay by burning to higher temperatures. It is very probable that this is caused by particles too minute to be easily recognizable, and that the development of the interference color may be due to the formation of sillimanite. The single and double refractions of the material would not be against it, but it is not proven in any way except by analogy. In the sections where sillimanite was actually determined, it is present in the form of slender crystals of fair size, and can surely be distinguished b}' its moderate relief, low interference, optical character, and cross fractures. In table 2 there are given in summarized form the features which a number of the thin sections show. They are worth recording, although the series is not sufficiently large to warrant drawing definite conclusions. For further comparison the table also gives the texture of the clay, relative abundance of the important constituents, and porosity after burning. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.— ^M. unusual stdfur crystal F. Rus- sell Bichowsky, Geophysical Laboratory. (Communicated by R. B. Sosman.) The accidental mixing of a hot alcoholic solution of ammonium polysulfide with a mixture of benzonitrile, hydroxylamine hydro- chloride, and ether resulted, among other things, in the forma- tion of the single, well-developed, orange-red, translucent crystal figured below. The crystal was measured and figured (Fig. i) under the impression that it was a crystal of some organic com- pound, but later analysis showed that it was almost pure sulfur containing 0.33 per cent carbon, 0.09 per cent hydrogen, o.io per cent nitrogen, 0.07 per cent ash, and a trace of chlorine. The density 2.01 is not unusual for sulfur, and the angles are in close accord with those calculated, using the Goldschmidt^ ^ Klein, A. A. The constitution and microstructure oi porcelain. Trans. Am. Ceram. Soc. 18: 377. 1916. ' GoLDSCHMiDT. Krystallographische Winkeltabellen, p. 313. Berlin, 1897. bichowsky: an unusual sulfur crystal 127 axial ratios 0.8138 : i : 1.9055. The crystal was about 6 mm. long and weighed 0.27 gram. The following faces were ob- served (both the Miller and Goldschmidt symbols are given in order): c, (001), o; b, (010), 000 ; a, (100), 00 o;e, (loi), 10; m, (no), 00 ; V, (oi3),oV3;«, (on), 01; s, (113), V3; y, (112), V2; p, fin), i; y, (331), 3; r, (311), 31; ^ (211), 21; q, (131), 13; k, (120), GO 2; /?, (130), 00 3; X, (210), 2 CO ; p, (310), 30) . Of these the faces f, (211), 21, and p, (310), 300, are new. The larger faces m, f?, and c were all somewhat pitted and striated and often gave double signals. The other faces all gave first quality sig- nals with the exception of faces 7 and f which in the instruments used gave but faint (though well- defined) ones. Faces 7 and T occurred but once, the first as a narrow im- perfect bevelling of the edge (in)- (iio), the second as a linelike but perfect face bevelling the edge (100)- (311). The remaining faces occurred the theoretical number of times, except faces X and p which occurred three instead of four times each. The most unusual feature of this crystal is the well-developed zone [001] containing the brachy- and macro-pinacoids a and b (2 times each), the primary prism ;w (4 times), the rare macro-prisms k and h (4 times), the rare brachy-prism X (3 times)- and the new p face (3 times). Another interesting zone is the oblique zone [oil] containing the faces n, p, r, f, and a. The corre- sponding zone [loT] is less well developed. The zonal relations of the crystal are in themselves sufficient to establish the symbols of the new faces, but as a check the crys- tal was carefully measured on a makeshift one-circle goniometer using reflections from different parts of the faces and reading on different parts of the circle. The results agreed closely with I have been unable to find the original An unusual sulfur crystal. 2 Given by Gol,dschmidT, loc reference. cit. 128 bichowsky: an unusual sulfur crystal those calculated from the Goldschmidt axial ratio. The angles for the rarer faces are: (oio)-(i3o), measured 22° 18', calculated 22° 16'; (oio)-(i2o), measured 31° 33', calculated 31° 34'; (oio)-(2io), measured 67° 51', calculated 67° 51'; (oio)-(3io), measured 74° 48', calculated 74° 49'; (oii)-(2ii), measured 65° 30', calculated 65° 19'. Table i contains a complete list of the faces reported for rhombic sulfur, their discoverer, Miller and Goldschmidt sym- bols, principal Goldschmidt position angles, and the number of times reported in the literature examined. TABLE I Faces Observed on Rhombic Sulfur a = 0.8138 c = I 9055 MiUer symbols Goldschmidt symbols Discoverer C 001 0 Rome de I'Islei b 010 0 00 Scacchi^ n on 01 Rome de I'lslei V 013 0V3 Brooke-Miller* w 023 0V3 Brooke-Miller* e a 031 043 100 03 0V3 00 0 Molengraafi" Buttgenbachi* Rome de I'Islei e lOI 10 Mohs2 u 102 103 V20 V30 Buttgenbach** Brooke-Miller* m no 00 Molis2 P III I Rome de I'Islei y 112 V2 Scacchi' s 0 113 114 Mohs2 Fletcher* t "5 V5 Mohs2 <0 116 117 Buttgenbachi* Brezina* ^ 119 1. 1. II? V9 Vn Zapharovich^ Schmidt >5 1. 1. 14? 1. 1. 17? Vl4 Vl7 Schmidt'^ Schmidt" k 120 CC 2 Brooke-Miller* K 122 V21 Pelikan'3 h 130 003 Weed & Pirsson'2 Q 131 13 Brezina^ X 133 V3I Scacchi^ Goldschmidt Angle

305 Vso Millosevichi^ 90 GO* 54 33' I 9' 310 300 Bichowsky 74 49^ 90 00 I r 311 31 Brezina* 74 49a 82 id' 7 a 313 1V3 Molengraaf^" 74 49a 67 36 13 /3 315 V5 V6 Dana9 74 490 55 30' 7 M 319 V9 Vs Millosevichi* 74 496 38 58 1 7 33^ 3 Friedliinder^ 50 51' 83 42 14 / 335 Vs Busz" 50 5i«' 61 06 3 g 337 Vt Busz" 50 51-* 52 18 2 3.3. 16? V16 Buttgenbach^* 50 5I-* 29 39 I I 344 V4I Brezina^ 42 40 68 54 I f 551 5 Buszi* 50 51' 86 12" 2 V 553 Vs BuszK 50 51' 78 35' I a Corrected value. Goldschmidt gives the erroneous value 74° 39'. f> New calculation. « New symbol. The symbol ' indicates Va'- ' Rome; DE l'IslE. Crystallogr. i: 289. 1783. 2 MoHS. Mineralogy, Edinburgh 3: 52. 1825. ^ ScACCHi. Mem. Geol. Campan., Rend. Ac. Nap. (1849), 103; Zts. D. Geol. Ges. 4: 168. 1852. * Brooke-Miller. Mineralogy 109. 1852. (Quoted from Brezina. «) 5 Zapharovich. Jahrb. Geol. Reichsanst. 19: 229. 1869. * Brezina. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 60: 539. 1869. " Friedlander. Min. Sammlung Strassburg, 262. 1878. (Quoted from Dana, System of Mineralogy.) 8 Fletcher. Phil. Mag. V. 9: 186. 1880. 9 Dana. Amer. Journ. Sci. 32: 389. 1886. 1" MoLENGRAAF. Zeitschr. Kryst. Min. 14: 45. 1888. '^ Busz. Zeitschr. Kryst. Min. 17: 550. 1890. '- Weed and Pirsson. Amer. Journ. Sci. 42: 401. 1891. 1' PELIKAN. Tscherm. Min. Petr. Mitt. 12: 344. 1891. ''' Busz. Zeitschr. Kyrst. Min. 20: 560. 1892. '^ Schmidt. Zeitschr. Kyrst. Min. 29: 210. 1898. i« MiLLOSEViCH. Atti Accad. Lincei 7: 2 Sem. : 249. 1898. 1' Goldschmidt: Quoted in Krystallographische Winkeltabellen, Berlin, 313. 1897. 18 BuTTGENBACH. Ann. Soc. Geol. Belg. Liege (1898), 25 Mem. 73. I30 bichowsky: an unusual sulfur crystal Figure 2 is a stereographic projection of the known faces. The dots representing the known faces have an area proportional to number of times reported. This figure emphasizes the more important zonal relations of sulfur and particularly the predomi- nance of the primary pyramid zone [iTo]. The brachy- and macro-dome zones [Too] and [010], as well as the oblique zones [loi] and [on], are also well developed. Among the lesser zones sulfur shows a curious preference for zones (and faces) bOlO hl30 Fig. 2. Stereographic projection of the known faces of sulfur crystaL with an intercept ratio involving an odd number such as 3, as compared with those involving an even number such as 2. Com- pare the development of the zones [130], [3T0], [103], [301], [03!], [013], with the corresponding zones [120], etc. The poor development of zones, except [no], having (no) as a pole is interesting. The usual rule that faces at the intersection of important zones are likely to be most commonly developed is schaller: plancheite and shattuckite 131 well emphasized in sulfur, as are certain quantitative relations, but the number of sulfur crystals reported is too small to make quantitative relations of much value. MINERALOGY. — Plancheite and shattuckite, copper silicates, are not the same mineral. Waldemar T. Schaller, Geo- logical Survey. The name plancheite was given by Lacroix,^ in 1908, to a blue copper silicate from the French Congo, Africa. About five years later a blue copper mineral from Bisbee, Arizona, sent to the U. S. Geological Survey for identification, by Philip D. Wil- son, of Bisbee, was determined by qualitative tests as probably plancheite. Abundant material was available for various de- terminations and it was soon found that several discrepancies existed "between the properties of the two minerals from Arizona and from Africa. Accordingly a detailed investigation of the Arizona material was undertaken and it was determined that the Arizona mineral was not plancheite and that an additional new copper mineral was intimately associated with and geneti- cally derived from the more abundant blue mineral, which in a preliminary note- was named shattuckite, the other new copper mineral being called bisbeeite. So far as known to the writer, plancheite has not been found in Arizona. The essential proper- ties of shattuckite and of bisbeeite were published in the Third Appendix to Dana's System of Mineralogy. The paper describ- ing in detail the properties of these two new copper silicates has not yet been published. Zambonini^ has recently questioned the validity of shattuckite as a separate species and has urged its identity with plancheite. He gives a new analysis of plancheite which does not agree with 1 Lacroix, a. Sur une yiouvelle espece mineral, provenant du Congo frangais. Compt. Rend. 146: 722-725. 1908; Les mineraux accompagnant la dioptase de Mindotdi {Congo frangais): plancheite, nov. sp. Soc. Fran?. Mineral. Bnll. 31: 247- 259. 1908. 2 ScHAHER, W. T. Four new minerals. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 5: 7. 1915. ^ Zambonini, F. Sur I'identite de hi shattuckite et de la plancheite. Compt. Rend. 166: 495-497. 1918. 132 schaller: plancheite and shattuckite the original one, but which does agree with the analyses of shat- tuckite. Explanations of his results are suggested at the close of this paper. The nonidentity of shattuckite with plancheite, notwithstand- ing their very close resemblance in properties and in chemical composition, was definitely determined before the name shat- tuckite was proposed. The direct comparison of the two min- erals was readily made, as Prof. Lacroix had kindly presented to the writer in Paris in 191 2 a typical specimen of plancheite. The available specimen could not yield a sample of plancheite of the requisite purity for chemical analysis. Plancheite is in- timately mixed with other copper silicates, the most abundant of which in the single specimen examined, is what is ordinarily called chrysocolla. A set of three thin sections of parts of the plancheite specimen shows that probably several other copper silicates are also present, although the two named are predom- inant. The fibers and spherulites of plancheite are imbedded, in places, in the massive pale green chrysocolla and the other copper silicates. The thin sections also show that although small fairly pure masses of plancheite spherulites occur in the rock, these masses are bordered by a layer of some other copper min- eral. Judging only from the single specimen, it would be most difficult, if not impossible, to prepare even a very small sample of nearly pure plancheite for chemical analysis. Abundant shattuckite was available, from which samples were prepared that after careful selection contained only small amounts of included tenorite. The analyses of three different samples of shattuckite establish its formula as 2CuO.2SiO2.H2O; whereas the formula of plancheite, as revised, is given as 6CuO.- 5Si02.2H20 (the original formula proposed is i5Cu0.i2Si02.- 5H2O). If the only quantitative basis for determining the question of the supposed identity of shattuckite with plancheite were the chemical analyses, then the two minerals would readily be con- sidered as identical. But there is a simple and absolutely con- clusive method by which the question as to the identity of the two minerals can be answered. This is by a comparison of their schaller: plancheite and shattuckite ^53 optical constants, of which the refractive indices are the easiest determined. If the refractive indices show a distinct difference, then the minerals are not the same. The refractive indices of both minerals were determined by the writer before any mention of shattuckite was published and it was found that the lowest refractive index («) of shattuckite was considerably higher than the highest (7) refractive index of plancheite. The actual determinations are shown in table i ; there are also given the independent determinations kindly made by E. S. Larsen, of the U. S. Geological Survey. Mr. Larsen's values are more accurate than those of the writer and should be taken as the correct values. The accurate determinations of the refractive indices of such finely fibrous minerals as those under discussion is an operation requiring very careful work and con- siderable experience. As table i readily shows, there is sufficient difference in the optical constants of shattuckite and plancheite to preclude their being identical. TABLE I Refractive Indices of Plancheite and Shattuckite Plancheite Shattuckite Index Lacroix " Larsen " Schaller Larsen Schaller a y n.d. n.d. I .70 I 645 I .660 1.715 I .640 n.d. 1.697 1.644 n.d. I .702 1-752 I .782 1. 815 I 730 n.d. I .796 « Stated to be near 1.70 (7), Lacroix, A. Mineral. France 4: 758. 1910. b Two sets of determinations, made at different times. Zambonini's analysis of- plancheite yields the same formula as^has been derived for shattuckite and he naturally concludes that the two minerals are the same. Two suggestions are offered : (i) that, through inadvertence, the mineral furnished Zambonini (obtained from Lacroix in Paris) really was shattuckite and not plancheite. This suggestion could have been readily proved or disproved by a determination of the refractive indices of the 134 knowlton: a fossil maize from peru material analyzed; (2) the material analyzed (plancheite) con- tained enough impurities (copper silicates) to affect the composi- tion of the sample so that the results obtained are comparable to the composition of shattuckite. But whatever may be the exact chemical relations of these two minerals and whatever may be the formula of plancheite the difference in the refractive indices proves conclusively that they are not the same. PALEONTOLOGY. — Description oj a supposed new fossil species oj maize from Peru. F. H. Knowlton, U. S. National Museum. Some months ago the United States National Museum came into the possession of a very remarkable specimen of fossil corn from Peru. It was sent in as an ethnological specimen, - - having been secured from a dealer in curios in the city of Cuzco, Peru, by Dr. W. F. Parks, of St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. Walter Hough, of the Division of Ethnology in the National Museum, brought the specimen to me for iden- tification. Although it is wonderfully well preserved, it is in many particulars so different from the ordinary types of corn with which I was famihar that its affinity was not recognized until this was pointed out by Mr. G. N. Collins, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, who for many years has been making a special study of the origin, evolutionary history, and distribution of Indian corn (Zea). The specimen has suffered practically no distortion during fossiHzation, though a portion of the apex has been broken off and lost. It is now a little more than 6 centimeters in length and was probably about 8 centimeters long when complete. The greatest diameter is nearly 4 centimeters. The point of attachment for the "ear" was very small, suggesting that it Fig. I . Fossilized ear of corn. KNOWLTON: a fossil maize from PERU 135 was perhaps drooping, unless it was held upright by the developing leaves. The axis or "cob" has entirely disappeared so far as any structural elements are concerned, and its place has been filled by a closely cemented, fine-grained siliceous sand. The indi- vidual kernels or grains of com are mostly roughly triangular in shape, and markedly different in size. The grains are not ar- ranged in vertical rows but in some parts of the ear there is evi- dence of their being in diagonal rows, though this is perhaps ac- cidental. When viewed as a whole the grains appear to be very irregularly placed. In color the grains are dark brown, almost black, and as the matrix replacing the axis is light yellow in color, the grains stand out in strong relief. No structural or cellular elements are retained in the interior of the grains, this being filled with very fine-grained compact sand. Now the question arises as to the name by which this unique specimen should be known. It must be confessed at once that it proves exceedingly difficult, if not, indeed, impossible, to find characters by which it can be adequately separated from certain living types, such, for instance, as the Copacabana variety from the regions of Lake Titicaca, yet the fact that it is so completely fossilized lends support to the probability of its being several' thousand years old instead of a few hundred years. For this reason alone, and in order that it may be independently re- ferred to, I venture to give it the name Zea antiqua. It is of course extremely unfortunate that nothing is known as to the condition under which this specimen was found. If this were known it might be possible to fix its age with a reason- able degree of certainty. As it stands, however, there is little but the fact of its thorough fossilization to base an opinion on, and from this I venture the tentative suggestion that it seems hardly likely to be younger than at least several thousand years. In a recent paper on "The evolution of maize," by Paul Weather- wax,^ he says: "Geology and archaeology are of little value to us in solving these problems, since the oldest remains of these plants found in the rocks or in human habitations are practically modern." 1 Bull. Torrey Club 45: 334. 1918. 136 CLARK: THE CRINOID GENUS HOLOPUS It seems to me that the specimen under discussion falls very little short of supplying the needed paleontological data on the antiquity of maize. Its very modern appearance may of course readily be interpreted as an indication of its comparatively recent age, but, on the other hand, there is more than a reason- able conjecture that it could be actually as old as has been sug- gested, in which case it shows that the real ancestors of maize must apparently be sought much earlier than has usually been assumed. ZOOLOGY. — The systematic position of the crinoid genus Holopus. Austin H. Clark. U. S. National Museum. The systematic position of Holopus has never been definitely determined. In the latest general work on the Crinoidea^ it was placed by Springer and Clark at the end of the Articulata, in Family 8, Holopidae, beyond Family 7, Eugeniacrinidae, and Family 6, Saccocomidae ; but this disposition was admittedly provisional. Holopus has frequently been associated with Edriocrinus, but it does not seem possible that the two can really be closely related. In Holopus the disc, arms, and pinnules are so obviously of the same type as those of the pentacrinites and comatulids that the relationship with these forms can scarcely be denied. The arms of Holopus are very short and thick and closely appressed against each other; comparison, therefore, must be with the closely appressed arm bases of such types as Endoxocrinus or the genera of the Charitometridae (especially Crinometra) and not with the distal portions of the pentacrinite or comatulid arms, or with the widely separated arms of many forms. The asymmetry of Holopus is duplicated in many of the Comas- teridae. The disc of Holopus is identical in character with that of the very young of the comatulids in which perisomic plates are present — Comactinia, Comissia, Thaumatocrinus, and Pentame- ' Zittel-Eastman's "Paleontology," 1913, p. 241. CLARK: THE CRINOID GENUS HOLOPUS • 137 irocrinus — even to the detail of the slight eversion of the edges of the orals. So far as I can see, the column of Holopus is composed of radials only. In the young specimen figured b}^ Alexander Agassiz the uniformity of the ornamentation on the outer ring appears to indicate that it is composed of a single series of plates, which must be the radials. In one of the specimens figured by P. H. Carpenter- the series of tubercles running down the median line of each sector of the column indicates that the same plate (the radial) persists as far as this ornamentation extends, and probably also to the circumference of the basal disc. An analysis of all the available characters^ indicates that Holopus occupies practically the same developmental plane as the pentacrinites and the comatulids; indeed it is questionable which of the three groups should be considered the most special- ized. My personal opinion is that the pentacrinites, the comatulids, and Holopus are very closely related, in spite of their extraordinary superficial dissimilarity. In the pentacrinites the column is enormously developed; so rapid is the growth that the proximales as they are continuously formed beneath the calyx never succeed in becoming attached to it, but are continuously pushed outward by the formation of new proximales between the last formed and the calyx; the proximales later become separated by the intercalation of other columnals, appearing in the fully developed column as the cirrif- erous nodals. The basals are much reduced and lie horizon- tally. In the comatulids a short column is formed and a proximale appears which, becoming firmly attached to the calyx, increases enormously in size and, the larval column being discarded, con- tains the entire adult stem. The basals, in nearly all the types, become metamorphosed into an internal septum and entirely lose their original character. The base therefore is entirely com- - "Challenger" Report, Stalked Crinoids, 1884, plate III, fig. i. ' Phylogenetic study of the recent crinoids , Smiths. Misc. Coll. 65: No. 10. August 19, 1915- 138 michelson: a second archeological note posed of radials, practically horizontal in position, plus the proximale. In Holopus the same line of specialization has apparently been followed further; the column and the basals have disappeared, and the attachment is by means of the radials, which in the coma- tulids dominated the base. It is conceivable that the very young Holopus is essentially like a short-stemmed comatulid in which the radials, growing very rapidly, form a cylindrical ring with the basals, spread outward until they all lie in the same plane, closing the proximal end, and that this ring becomes at- tached by its lower border to the object upon which the larva rests. ANTHROPOLOGY.— i4 second archeological note.^ ' Truman MiCHEi/SON, Bureau of American Ethnology. Nearly three years ago I showed in this Journai^^ that the provenience of the gray sandstone pipe discussed by Squier and Davis in their Ancient monuments of the Mississippi Valley, pages 249 and 250, must be the upper Mississippi region near the Rock River because the original of the pipe figured there is either the same as that of the Sauk pipe shown on plate 2 at the end of volume 2 of Beltrami's Pilgrimage, or it belongs to the same culture. It will be recalled that previously there was uncertainty as to the provenience of this pipe. I now find that the lowest of the three pipes shown on the plate facing page 279 of Em. Domenech's Voyage pittoresque, said to be from Tennessee, is also of the same culture; indeed it is almost impossible not to believe that the same artist fashioned all three pipes, so great is their likeness. ^ Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 2 6: 146. 1916. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— A^ote on the sintering of magnesia. John B. Ferguson. Journ. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 1: 439-440. June, 1918. The sintering of chemically pure magnesia has been generally re- garded as difficult if not impossible, and this note is intended to place upon record the conditions under which such a sintering was found to take place readily. Pure magnesia powder, upon prolonged heating at temperatures ranging from 1600° to 1720° C, sinters to a cake of considerable mechanical strength and this sintering is due to a recrystal- lization, forming a mass of interwoven crystals, rather than to the presence of any bonding materials. J. B. F. ENTOMOIyOGY. — Origin oj the castes of the common termite, Leuco- termes flavipes Kol. C. B. Thompson. Journ. Morph. 30: No. I. 1917. Termites, since they belong to that most interesting group known as "social insects," have been studied with interest by entomologists for many years. One of the most important unsolved problems in the complex life cycle of termites has been the origin of the castes. There have been two theories as to the origin of the castes. According to most of the older writers, all the young are undifferentiated or alike upon hatching, and only become differentiated later through the ex- ternal influences of food or protozoan parasites; the other view is that the castes are predetermined in the egg or embryo by intrinsic factors. Dr. Thompson shows that the fertile and sterile types are prede- termined at the time of hatching and may be distinguished by the bulk of the brain, the relative size of brain and head, the structure of the compound eyes, and the size of the sex organs. He also proposes a simplification in the nomenclature of forms and castes in termites and in this and a previous paper on the origin of the frontal gland in termites. T. E- SnydER. 139 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 809th meeting of the Society was held at the Administration Building of the Carnegie Institution, November 23, 1918; Vice-Presi- dent Humphreys in the chair; 50 persons present. Mr. W. F. Meggers presented the first paper on Photography of the red and infra-red solar spectrum. This paper was illustrated by lantern slides. Ordinary photographic plates stained with dicyanin have been used extensively for several years at the Bureau of Standards in recording the arc spectra of metals and tube spectra of gases in the red and adja- cent infra-red spectral regions. The spectra of about half of the chem- ical elements have thus been investigated from the yellow at wave- lengths of about 6000 A into the infra-red to about 9000 A, and in some cases to wave-lengths greater than 10,000 A. This success in photographing the long waves from artificial sources suggested an attempt to photograph the infra-red solar spectrum on dicyanin stained plates, for, up to the present time, no complete or accurate determinations of wave-lengths corresponding to Fraun- hofer lines in the infra-red have existed, and there have been scarcely any reliable measurements in spectra of the chemical elements in this same region; identifications of absorption and emission lines have, therefore, been few and uncertain. This work was first undertaken at the Johns Hopkins University in April, 191 7, and a brief account of it was published in the Astrophysical Journal^ together with a map of the solar spectrum from 6860 A to 9600 A. Over 2000 Fraunhofer lines were measured between wave- lengths limits and about 400 of them were identified with emission ^ Meggers. Astrophys. Journ. 47: i. 1918. 140 proceedings: philosophical society of WASHINGTON 141 lines in the spectra of twenty of the chemical elements. Nearly 80 per cent of the total number of lines remained unidentified, and many of these, in addition to the well-known absorption bands A and B, due to oxygen in the earth's atmosphere, were suspected to be of terrestrial origin. An opportunity to separate the solar from the telluric lines by aid of the Doppler-Fizeau displacement suffered by lines of solar origin came with an invitation to use the Porter spectrograph at Alle- ghany Observatory. Light from the eastern and western limbs of the sun was photographed simultaneously in two parallel spectra in which all lines of solar origin appear displaced in opposite directions, while those due to absorption in the earth's atmosphere have the same wave- lengths in both spectra. The spectrograms show that about 75 per cent of the absorption lines with wave-lengths between 6400 A and 9400 A arise in the atmosphere of our earth. A line (wave-length 7664 A) characteristic of potassium is under ordinary circumstances exactly coincident with one of the lines in the A band due to terrestrial oxygen, but was compelled to betray its solar origin by means of the Doppler-Fizeau effect. The presence of free oxygen in the solar atmosphere was demonstrated by the coincidence of six solar lines with lines in the emission spectrum of oxygen. All of the evidence for solar oxygen lies in its infra-red spectrum. Discussion: This paper was discussed by Messrs. Sosman and Humphreys. The second paper on The hot spell of August, 1918, was presented by Mr. A. J. Henry. The hot spell of the first decade of August, 191 8, had its origin over Montana and the central and northern Plains States. It was prac- tically stationar}^ over eastern Kansas and western Montana from the ist to the 3d, inclusive, and on the 4th spread eastward by way of the Ohio valley to western Pennsylvania and also northeastward into the southern part of the Lake region. On the 5th it reached its greatest geographical extension; the area affected on the evening of that date was a little more than a million square miles, or just about one-third of the area of the LTnited States, excluding Alaska and outlying pos- sessions. The increase in the area of the heated territory from the 4th to the 5th was in round numbers a quarter of a million square miles. The peak of the high temperature in the west was reached on August 3-5 and in the east on August 6-7. In the east the daily maxima declined irregularly until the 14th, when normal conditions were reached. The period of extraordinarily high temperature was short, not exceeding three days at any one place. The high temperatures were associated with a dry atmosphere and there was therefore not much bodily dis- comfort and but few heat prostrations were reported in the daily press. The abnormally high temperature was due to a combination of favor- able circumstances. These in the order of their importance are: (i) A pressure distribution that inaugurated and maintained a system of southerly winds over the great interior valleys and the middle Atlantic 142 proceedings: philosophical society of WASHINGTON States. (2) The prolonged period of high temperature over the Plains States preceding the hot spell. (3) The absence of clouds and consequently unhindered insolation throughout the period of the hot weather. Diagrams were shown illustrating the pressure distribution in the United States at the beginning of the hot spell and its daily eastward advance to the Atlantic. The eastern limit of the hot weather corresponded roughly with the 72d meridian of west longitude, which it may be remembered passes through central Massachusetts. Local thunder showers set in over the upper Ohio valley, the northern portion of the Appalachian region, western Maryland, and the District of Columbia in the later afternoon of the 7th, bringing to an end in those districts the unusually high temperatures that had prevailed during the preceding 48 hours. While high maxima were recorded in eastern Pennsylvania, eastern New York, and western New England on the yth, local showers on the 8th brought relief from the extremely high maxima but normal temperatures were not reached in the east until the 14th. Discussion: This paper was discussed by Messrs. White, Kimball, Humphreys, Kadel, and Hayford. The 8ioth meeting, being the 48th annual meeting of the Society, was held at the Administration Building, Carnegie Institution, Decem- ber 7, 1 91 8; President Burgess in the chair; 22 members present. The report of the Secretaries was read by Mr. E. C. Crittenden. This report showed that the present active membership is 182, a net gain of 12 during the past year. Among the active members there were seven deaths during the year, namely: Henry Adams, Thos. B. Ford, G. K. Gilbert, R. A. Harris, Artemas Martin, Richard Rathbun, Geo. M. vSearle. Also one member on the absent list. Captain Ernest Weibel, died of wounds received in France. There was one resignation during the year and thirteen were transferred to the absent list, a number of these being men who were engaged in over- seas military duty. There were 2i2> ^i^w members elected during the year. The Society held 14 meetings for the presentation of papers. At these meetings :^2) communications were presented. About 15 per cent of the Society presented papers. The average attendance at the meetings was 45, constituting about 25 per cent of the membership of the Society. The General Committee adopted new By-laws on December 22, 191 7, to supplement the revised By-laws of the Society which had been adopted November 24, 191 7. These By-laws have been published and issued to the members of the Society. The report of the Secretaries was accepted and ordered placed on file. proceedings: botanical, society of WASHINGTON 143 The report of the Treasurer was read by Mr. H. F. MuELLER. This report shows that the receipts from dues, interests on investments, and miscellaneous items amounted to $1,194.96. The expenses for the same period, including expenses of the officers, programs, hall for meet- ings, and grants, amounted to $804.34. I^i addition, the Cosmos Club bond of $1,000 was paid and a Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis Railway bond was purchased for $1,065.50. The balance on hand December 6, 1918, is $509.25, being $325.12 greater than the balance on hand one year previous. The par value of the securities held by the Society is now $12,500, being the same as one year previous. A list of the securities held by the Society is attached to the Treasurer's report, as is also a list of delinquent dues and the estimated liabilities of the Society. The excess of income over expenditures for 19 18 is shown to be $377.38. The Auditing Committee reported that it examined the books of the Treasurer and found the Treasurer's report to be a correct statement of the resources and liabilities of the Society. The reports of the Auditing Committee and Treasurer were ordered accepted and placed on file. The report of the Tellers, consisting of Messrs. D. R. Harper and R. M. WiLHELM, was read by Mr. Harper. A total of 42 ballots was received. Following the report of the Tellers, the Society proceeded to the election of a President, two Vice-Presidents, Recording Secre- tary, and two members of the General Committee. The result of elec- tion is as follows: President, W. J. Humphreys; Senior Vice-President, R. B. Sosman; Junior Vice-President, R. L. Faris; Recording Secre- tary, S. J. Mauchly; Treasurer, E. F. Mueller; General Committee, H. H. Kimball, F. E. Fowle, and D. L. Hazard, to fill unexpired term of Mr. vSwann. H. ly. Curtis, Recording Secretary. The Sixth meeting was held at the Administration Building of the Carnegie Institution, Januar}^ 4, 1919; President Humphreys in the chair; 72 persons present. The evening was devoted to hearing the address of the retiring President, Mr. George K. Burgess, on Science and the after--utir period. The address was published in this Joltrnal.^ vS. J. Mauchly, Recording Secretary. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 130th regular meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., Tuesday, October i, 1918. Thirty-two members and three guests were present. The following paper was presented: The eradication of the citrus canker: Karl F. KIellERMAN. vSince the autumn of 1914 the Bureau of Plant Industry of the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture has been cooperating with the Gulf States in a ^ 9: 57-70. 1919- 144 proceedings: botanical society of WASHINGTON campaign for the eradication of the canker disease of citrus fruit and trees. The first observation regarding a plant disease which presuma- bly was citrus canker is with reference to nursery stock introduced into Texas in 1 911. It is not improbable that earlier shipments of nursery stock were infected, and it is certain that many later ship- ments of Citrus trifoliata orange seedlings from Japan, both into Texas and into other Gulf States, were infected. Citrus canker is primarily a leaf-spot and fruit-spot, although it also affects twigs and even old bark and wood. In its early stages, how- ever, it resembles the sour-scab of citrus trees, a troublesome but not an especially serious disease that is widely prevalent in the South. Until late in the year 1913 plant pathologists and nurserymen did not clearly distinguish between these two diseases, and, therefore, prior to its recognition and the determination of its serious character, the ship- ment of infected nursery stock was probably taking place throughout the southern areas where citrus culture was being extended. During the seasons of 1913 and 19 14 special efforts were made by State nursery inspectors, by nurserymen, and by citrus growers to check the spread of the disease by complete defoliation of infected stock followed by immediate and thorough spraying with strong Bor- deaux mixture and by painting visible infections with Bordeaux paste. These treatments were ineifectual, however, and citrus growers in southeastern Florida became so concerned over the rapid and destruc- tive spread of citrus canker and the failure of the methods usually employed for controlling plant diseases that they originated the plan of spraying infected trees with burning oil, thus completely destroying them. Eradication work of this character was undertaken imme- diately and financed almost entirely by private subscriptions, but the disease appeared to be gaining upon the forces attempting to control it. Severe tropical storms, in addition to the usual means of spreading the contagion, considerably increased the number of properties in- fected. The grapefruit, the orange, the lime, and the lemon are so readily infected with citrus canker that it does not appear probable that any method except that of complete destruction of all infected trees will serve to check the disease in any locality. Even at the worst, however, but a very small fraction of the citrus properties of the South have been infected, and those in California have escaped completely. Furthermore, the infected properties usually can be cleansed of the disease before many trees are lost. Throughout the last three years great emphasis has been given to the necessity of unusual precautions and constant care to prevent the spread of canker, which is extremely infectious to all kinds of citrus trees. The progress of the work has been very satisfactory, and there appears to be no doubt that the few infections occurring in South Carolina and Georgia have been eradicated, so that further work in these states will not be necessary. The amount of infection in Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas has been very greatly re- duced, and while very thorough scouting and inspection will be neces- proceedings: botanical society of WASHINGTON 1 45 sary in these States, in order promptly to locate scattered infections which may occur, it is believed that further seriously destructive out- breaks of canker can be prevented. The 1 8th annual meeting of the Society was held immediately after the regular meeting. In the absence of the regular officers, all reports were omitted. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, Karl F. KellERMan; Vice-President, C. R. Ball; Recording Secretary, Chas. E. Chambliss; Corresponding Secretary, R. K. Beattie; Treasurer, h. L. Harter. Walter T. Swingle was nominated for Vice-President in the Washington Academy of Sciences. The 131st regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Carnegie Institution at 8 p.m., Thursday, December 5, 1918.^ Forty -four members and three guests were present. The following papers were presented: Effect of temperature and other meteorological factors on the growth of sorghums: H. N. Vinall. The speaker stated that the purpose of tliis study was to determine the reactions of the sorghum plant to climatic conditions. Several varieties were grown under field conditions at Chillicothe, Texas, Bard and Chula Vista, California, and Puyallup, Washington. The average of the monthly means of temperature for the growing seasons at the above points was 75.6°, 81.8°, 62.4°, and 60.4° F., respectively. The percentage of actual to possible sun- shine was 75, 93, 68, and 46. The total degrees of positive tempera- ture received by the sorghums at Chillicothe was 3028°, at Bard 4236°, at Chula Vista 1895°, and at Puyallup 1615° F. None of the sorghums matured at Puyallup, but all matured at Chula Vista with only 280° difference in the total of positive temperatures. This would seem to indicate that the amount of sunshine is an impor- tant factor in bringing sorghums to maturity. The conformance of the sorghums of Chillicothe, Bard, and Chula \^ista to Linsser's Law of Growth was remarkable. The "physiological constant," according to this law, for the period from planting to maturity, was for Chillicothe 0.539, Bard 0.530, and Chula Vista 0.526. Vegetative characters which are ordinarily considered stable, such as the number of leaves per plant, varied with the climatic condi- tions. Blackhull kalir had 3 and Sumac sorgo 6 more leaves at Bard than at Chula Vista. The varieties also showed decided differences in height and diameter of the stem and in the size of the leaf at these two places. Studies on the effects of different dates of planting at Bard indicate that "more favorable conditions are obtained if the date of planting is regulated so that the early stages of the plant's development coincide with a period of high temperatures and the later stages, when the plant is nearing maturity, come when moderate temperatures prevail." ' The November meeting was not held on account of the influenza epidemic. 146 proceedings: botanical society of WASHINGTON Defects in wood in relation to airplane construction: Lieut. J. S. BoycE. Since airplane construction aims to secure the maximum strength with the minimum weight, it is self-evident that wood with any defects which weaken it appreciably must not be used for this purpose. One type of defect is the so-called advance rot, which is merely the early stages of decay, the fungus mycelium having already invaded and weakened the wood, but the only microscopical evidence of this condi- tion is a slight discoloration of the wood. Advance rot is quite prev- alent in the more important woods used in airplane construction, among which are Sitka spruce (Picea sitckensis), Douglas fir {Pseudo- tstiga taxifolia), yellow birch {Betida lutea), white oak (Otiercus alba), and white ash (Fraxinus aniericana). Considerable skill is necessary to separate stock with advance rot from that with harmless discolora- tions resulting from chromogenic fungi or other causes. Very slight lightning wounds, known as "lightning rings," are serious defects in airplane members, since there is a decided tendency for the wood to separate easily along the annual rings in which such wounds occur. In order to make such defects properly understood in their relative importance, it will be necessary to disseminate information in simple form concerning the structure, mechanical properties, and defects of wood throughout the airplane industry. The 132nd regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Carnegie Institution at 8 p.m., Wednesday, January 15, 1919. Thirty members and five guests were present. Mr. Clifford H. Farr, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, was elected to membership. The following papers were presented: The potash-containing marls of the eastern United States: R. H. True. Greensand marls were first recognized in America in 1768 near Marl- boro, New Jersey. After the Revolution their use as fertilizers de- veloped rapidly, marl railroads having been built in the early thirties to haul marl from the most valuable deposits to the surrounding farm- ing country. In the early forties over a million tons were shipped by rail in one year in this state alone. The digging of similar deposits discovered in Virginia began about 1833 and ceased only when the Civil War broke out. The war and the heavy demand on labor led to the ready adoption of guano, ground bone, and other concentrated fer- tilizers, and marling practically ceased. In 1824 Seybert found them to contain calcium carbonate, potassium^ and other substances. Rogers and others claimed chief value for potas- sium, Ruffin for the lime. With the present shortage of potassium these marls furnish a useful source for a very great supply over a prac- ticable hauling radius. Marl samples collected in New Jersey and in Virginia when used in sand cultures yield sufficient available potassium to support a normal growth when supplied at the rate of five or more tons per acre. Germination of immature seeds: J. B. S. Norton. The consideration of immature seed har\^ested under certain conditions in the case of proceedings: botanical society of WASHINGTON 1 47 some crops and at all times with other crops leads to a number of prac- tical questions. It was shown in the experiments reported that wheat seed first began to germinate six days after blossom. Germination increased to 78 per cent at the end of two weeks, then decreased at ripening time and rose slowly to 92 per cent a month after harvest. Corn began to germinate when 12 days old, germinated over 20 per cent in the roasting-ear stage, 88 per cent at four-weeks age, then de- clined and rose slowly after the grain began to lose weight. Tomatoes, peas, and cowpeas germinated well before maturity, and a number of other species germinated to some extent. Blackberry, lily, euphorbia, and ragweed, seeds that might be expected to have difficult germination when ripe, were tried in immature condition to see if the cause of dor- mancy acted before ripening. No germination was obtained in these species. The 133rd regular meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., Tuesday, February 4, 1919. Fifty-eight members and five guests were present. Messrs. M. N. Pope, Curtis H. Kyle, J. P. Benson, J. I. Lauritzen, R. N. Jones, P. G. Russell, L. G. Hoover, and J. A. Stevenson were elected to membership. The program consisted of the following papers: Producing self-fertile muscadine grapes (with lantern) : Chas. T. Bearing. The office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture has conducted muscadine- grape investigations for the past 12 years with a view to the develop- ment of this native type of grape as a fruit industry for the southeastern United States where other grapes do not thrive. These investigations have been in the nature of field surveys, studies of proper cultural, handling, and utilization methods, and breeding. The breeding work has aimed toward maintaining the desirable characters of the species while securing improvement in those ways in which this seemed possible. The production of self -fertile varieties has undoubtedly been the most important result. At the time these investigations were undertaken, there was not such a thing as a self- fertile muscadine grape. All the fruiting varieties were self -sterile and dependent on insects to bring fertile pollen from the wild male muscadines. The Department now has a large collection of self-fertile varieties. The value of these self -fertile varieties is evident, (i) They are of inestimably great value in breeding work in that they afford for the first time the opportunity to intercross within the species without using as one parent a variety of unknown fruiting qualities (male vine). Breeding directly for a combination of the desirable characters found in the fruiting varieties of V. rotundifolia is now possible. (2) They afford directly a cluster of increased size (a breeding object) in that the self -fertile varieties are the result of perfecting the large-clustered male- type blossoms rather than the small-clustered female-type blossoms. (3) They afford greater productiveness in that they are able to set a larger per cent of the bloom buds as berries due to their self -fertility. 148 proceedings: entomological society of WASHINGTON They afford opportunities for greater vineyard production as well as vine production, for they can be used in place of nonproductive male vines as pollinators for imperfect hermaphrodites. It has been abundantly proved that the new perfect-flowered or hermaphroditic type is a result of perfecting the pistils of the bloom of the male type of vine rather than the rudimentary stamens of the bloom of the female t3^pe. It is belie^^ed that it is merely a matter of time un- til only perfect-flowered, self-fertile muscadine grapes will be grown in the vineyards of the South. Plant responses under artificial light (with lantern): L. C. Corbett. That light is one of the most important factors in the environment of green plants has been recognized as long as any phenomenon of plant physiology has been observed. Many experiments have been conducted to demonstrate the effects of the presence or absence of light as a fac- tor of environment. The great majority of these experiments are merely qualitative. They demonstrate the effect of a force with no attempt to analyze or measure it. Plant physiology has up to recent time been largely a qualitative science. This is to be explained chiefly on the ground that bio-chemistry has not been sufficiently developed to permit plant physiology to be other than a qualitative science. While, as has been stated, there are numerous simple tests to illus- trate the fact that light directly influences various plant activities, few studies have been undertaken to show the relation of various portions of the spectrum to plant responses. More than twenty years ago the speaker had an opportunity to con- duct a series of tests to determine the influence which artificial light, used as a supplement to daylight, might have on the rate of develop- ment of various plants growing in greenhouses. After a series of tests extending over three years to determine the influence of incandescent gas light as a supplement to daylight, a series of tests was inaugurated to determine the influence of various-colored incandescent gas lights on plant growth, when used as a supplement to daylight. In these tests incandescent gas lamps were provided with globes tinted red, blue, and green. The behavior of plants in the field of such lights was com- pared with the behavior of like plants in the field of lamps carrying clear globes. Different plants gave varying responses under the stim- ulus of the different-colored light, but each light induced a character- istic effect which was consistent for all plants, but in varying degrees. Chas. E. Chambliss, Recording Secretary. ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 319th regular meeting of the Society was held Feb. 6, 1919, in the new Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club; 36 members and 10 visi- tors were present. The following new members were elected: Dr. U. C. Loftin, of the Bureau of Entomology, John D. Sherman, of New York, and E. A. proceedings: entomological society of WASHINGTON 1 49 McMahon, of the Entomological Laboratory at Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia. The regular program was as follows: W. M. Mann: Notes on the Solomon Islands. An account of a col- lecting trip to these islands, illustrated by lantern slides showing the topography, flora, fauna, and the various types of natives, their dress, habits, implements, and customs. N. E. McIndoo: The olfactory sense of lepidopterous larvae. The author described experiments conducted to determine if the larvae are able to distinguish between various plants offered them as food, the result of these experiments proving that they are able to do so. The author is of the opinion that this is accomphshed by means of an olfactory sense and locates the seat of this sense in certain minute pits scattered over various portions of the body, each pit connected with a sense cell. The structure and position of these organs were illustrated by charts and drawings. In discussing this paper Mr. Busck congratulated Dr. McIndoo on his work and commented on the far-reaching possibilities it sug- gested in economic entomology, when we shall know enough about these supposed olfactory organs to tempt the codling moth away from the apple by a perfumed bait. He pointed out that the organs described by Dr. McIndoo were by no means a new discovery, but that at least those of the head were well known by lepidopterists and had all been carefully mapped out and named in connection with the parts of the head and the head setae. Their position relative to the setae is constant for each species and yields excellent generic and family characters, which enable determination merely from a larval head capsule. Mr. Busck stated that he had hitherto considered the punctures as remnants of aborted setae and he still thought they must be consid- ered such, modified to serve other senses than touch; the setae are sense-touch organs and have nerves running to their bases like the punctures. As one ground for this view he mentioned that certain of these supposed olfactory punctures, the ultra posterior punctures on the head, in some species bear a small hair and in others not. Mr. Busck criticized and objected to Dr. Mclndoo's arbitrary num- bering of these punctures, starting on the thorax, continuing to the last abdominal segment, and ending with the head. He suggested as more rational and simpler to name them after the part of the body they are found on, and he thought it common sense to adopt the al- ready existing names for the head punctures, which were used by Heinrich and himself and which were named after the head parts on which the punctures are situated. Dr. Pierce emphasized the bearing that papers like that under dis- cussion have on taxonomy and economic entomolog\^ and predicted that in future the determination of larvae by the minute characters of small fragments will be very generally possible. 150 proceedings: entomological society of WASHINGTON In reply to a question, Dr. Mclndoo stated that the organs that he had discussed are, in his opinion, used by the insect in selecting its host, but that this is theoretical. Dr. Baker stated that similar organs in aphids undergo modification when the insects change to an- other host plant for a long series of generations, and that in some cases it is possible to determine from this what host plant a given individual developed on. Mr. Busck was of the opinion that the lepidoptera are not so susceptible to changes in host. Notes and exhibition of specimens: Mr. Caudell exhibited a speci- men of the Dectician Capnobotes fuUginosus Thomas that had fallen prey to the wasp Palmodes praestans Kohl, the interesting points being that the prey, itself probably predaceous, was killed by a wasp very much smaller than itself and that the wasp is the fourth known speci- men of its species. Mr. Wood commented on the fact that living individuals of the woolly apple aphis are now present in aerial colonies and attributed this to the mild winter. R. A. Cushman, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The Division of Mineral Resources of the U. S. Geological Survey has been reorganized, with Dr. Edson S. Bastin as geologist in charge. The section of metals will be in charge of G. F. Loughlin ; the section of nonmetals, other than fuels, R. W. Stone; the section of mineral fuels, C. E. Lesher; and the section of foreign resources, J. B. Um- PLEBY. Mr. H. D. McCaskey, formerly chief of the Division, asked to be relieved of his administrative duties after the signing of the arm- istice in November, and will devote his time to special phases of American mineral resources. Dr. SAMUEiy S. Adams has been elected vice-president of the faculty of Georgetown University, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Dr. Frank Baker. Mr. A. D. CoNLEY, associate physicist in the paper and textile laboratory of the Bureau of Standards, resigned from the Bureau in February to take up special research for the Wm. E. Cooper Company, of Baltimore, Maryland. Miss AiDA M. Doyle resigned from the Bureau of Chemistry in February and is now with E- I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, of Wilmington, Delaware. Mr. J. D. Edwards, associate chemist, and Mr. A. D. Bell, assis- tant chemist. Bureau of Standards, expect to leave the Bureau in April to take up research at the laboratory recently organized by Dr. F. C. Frary for the Aluminum Company of America, at Pittsburgh, Penn- sylvania. Dr. F. C. Frary, formerly of the Oldbury Chemical Company of Niagara Falls, who has lately been engaged in war research, first in Washington and later at the Edgewood Arsenal of the Chemical War- fare Service, is organizing a research laboratory for the Aluminum Company of America, at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Dr. Ales Hrdli^ka, Curator of Physical Anthropology in the U. S. National Museum, has been elected a member of the American Philo- sophical Society. Mr. W. H. Keen, formerly general manager of the Chemical Prod- ucts Company and metallurgical superintendent of the Washington Steel and Ordnance Company, is now factory manager of the U. S. Copper Products Corporation, of Cleveland, Ohio. Dr. Willis T. Lee is on leave of absence from the Geological Survey, and is now head of the Department of Geology and Director of the School of Engineering Geology in the University of Oklahoma, at Norman, Oklahoma. Major J. H. Mathews, who has been with the Ordnance Depart- ment in Washington, has returned to the University of Wisconsin as professor of physical chemistry. 151 152 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Prof. EarlE B. Phelps, Professor of Chemistry at the Hygienic Laboratory, Pubhc Health Service, resigned from the Service on March I, 1919. Professor Edward Charles Pickering, professor of astronomy and director of the Harvard College Observatory, and a nonresident mem- ber of the Academy, died at Cambridge on February 3, 1919, in his seventy-third year. Professor Pickering was bom at Boston, Massa- chusetts, July 19, 1846. Excepting the years 1867-1876, during which he was Thayer Professor of Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, his entire academic career was spent at Harvard Univer- sity. His astronomical work was especially concerned with the photom- etry and spectrum photography of the light of the stars. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, president of the Astro- nomical and Astrophysical Society of America, and a member of many American and foreign societies and academies. He had been a mem- ber of the Academy since 1899, and was one of its nonresident vice- presidents in 19 1 5 and 191 6. Mr. Richard L. Templin, formerly of the Bureau of Standards, is Engineer of Tests for the Aluminum Compan}^ of America, at New Kensington, Pennsylvania. Mr. Carl Vrooman, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, resigned in January. Mr. Vrooman will remain for the present in Europe, where he had gone as a member of the Agricultural Commission sent out by the Department. Mr. F. A. WerTz, associate chemist at the Bureau of Standards, will leave the Bureau in March to take up research on varnishes and allied products for the Devoe and Raynolds Company, Incorporated, of New York City. Brigadier General John Moulder Wilson, U. S. A., retired, died at his home, 1773 Massachusetts Avenue, on February i, 1919, at the age of 81. General Wilson first came to Washington in 1885, as superin- tendent of buildings and grounds, in which capacity he had charge of the construction or completion of many of the now familiar structures of the city. He became Chief of Engineers in 1897, and retired in 1903. He had been for the past fifteen years a member of the Board of Managers of the National Geographic Society. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 MARCH 19, 1919 No. 6 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.— r/i^ classification of mimetic crystals. Edgar T. Wherry and Eluot Q. Adams, Bureau of Chemistry.^ As more or less fully described in all text-books on crystallog- raphy, crystals which belong fundamentally to one system or symmetry class may at times exhibit features characteristic of other systems or classes. This may result from accidents of growth, or from the approach of the angles to those of other systems, either with or without twinning. It is customary to group together part or all of these phenomena under the general head of mimicry, mimetism, or mimetic behavior, and to add the prefix pseudo- to the name of the system or class to which the crystals apparently belong. In discussing certain crystallo- graphic relationships, however, it may become desirable to dis- tinguish the several types of mimetic phenomena on the basis of their underlying causes, and to have special terms, for both the original system or class and the one imitated, to apply in each case. The principal types of mimetic behavior are presented in table I, together with prefixes proposed for, and typical illustra- tions of, each of them. The prefixes are derived from well- known Greek roots, transliterated in accordance with accepted usage. The illustrations are drawn from minerals, since the features in question are most familiar in them, although the greatest use for the classification may prove to be among artificial ' Contribution from the Crystallography and Color Laboratories. 153 154 WHERRY AND ADAMS: CLASSIFICATION OV MIMETIC CRYSTALS compounds. The subdivisions arc, it should be noted, not mutually exclusive, and one crystal may fall simultaneously into two or more of them, although usually most typical of one. The names of the crystal systems and classes used are drawni largely from Dana, with the following exceptions: cubic in place TABLIC I. Types of Mimetic Phenomena, with Prefixes Proposed, and Illustrations General prefixes for the whole group { { for original class, homo- (same) [ for class imitated, pseudo - (false) Extrinsic; peculiari- ties of habit Intrinsic; angles approaching those of other classes Crystals twinned Crystals simple Resulting change an apparent increase in symmetry Prefix for original class Prefix for class imita- ted Illustration crypto- (hidden) pheno- (apparent) quartz, cry p to- trigonal but pheno-hcxagonal a)ia- (upwards) syn- (together) aragonite, ana- rhombic but syn- hexagonal Icplo- (slight) peri- (aroimd) albitc, lep t ot r i- clinic, but peri- monoclinic Resulting change an apparent decrease in symmetry Prefix for original class Prefix for class imita- ted Illustration eiido- (within) ecto- (without) copper, endo-cuhic but ecto-trigonal ktita- (downwards) para (beside) spinel, kata-cubic but para-trigonal of isometric; trigonal as a distinct system; and rhombic in place of orthorhombic. No changes in the plans of nomenclature here proposed will need to be made should the use of other names be preferred. DISCUSSION OF TABLE I Whenever it is desired to refer to mimetic behavior without considering the cause or effect as such, the prefixes homo- and pseudo-, signifying, respectively, "the same" and "false," may be used. For instance, the crystallization of the aragonite group may be described as "homo-rhombic but pseudo-hexagonal." WHERRY AND ADAMS: CLASSIFICATION OP MIMETIC CRYSTALS 1 55 The cause of mimetic phenomena may be, first, extrinsic, or connected with influences outside of the crystal, leading to peculiarities of habit which may constitute either apparent increase or apparent decrease in symmetry. It not infrequently happens that the only forms present on a crystal possessing a low degree of symmetry may be those which the class represented has in common with other more symmetrical classes. A good example of this is quartz, which though actually trigonal and trapezohedral, may show only the first order prism and the corresponding plus and minus rhombohedrons. If perfectly developed, the only symmetry which this combination can show is holohedral-hexagonal. It is here suggested that the true class of a substance showing such a relationship be indicated by the prefix crypto-, meaning "hidden," and the class which is apparently represented by pheno-, signifying "apparent." The quartz crystals showing only hexagonal forms would then be fully described by stating them to be: "crypto-trigonal-trapezo- hedral but pheno-hexagonal-holohedral." Other illustrations are pyrite, which is often crypto-pyritohedral but pheno-holohedral cubic; apatite, which is usually crypto-pyrainidal but pheno- holohedral hexagonal; and so on. A still more frequent type of mimetic effect, though not always classed as such, is the decrease in apparent symmetry due to distortion or irregularity in habit produced by external in- fluences. This eff'ect is, indeed, almost universally present among crystals, really perfect development being practically never met with. Whenever simple descriptive terms are needed for this type of relationship, the prefixes cndo-, meaning "in- side," and ecto-, "outside," may be used. To cite a familiar example, the metal coppej-, though well known to be funda- mentally cubic, or endo-cubic, is almost always distorted, and may be ecto-trigonal, ecto-rhombic, or even ecto-triclinic. The second class of causes of mimetic phenomena may be termed intrinsic, since essential features of the internal structure of the crystal are responsible. The effect is connected with the approach of the angles in crystals of one system or class to those of another, and develops most commonly through more or less 156 WHERRY AND ADAMS: CLASSIFICATION OF MIMETIC CRYSTALS multiple twinning. The symmetry is usually increased by such twinning, hence good descriptive prefixes are ana-, meaning "up- wards" and syn-, "together." The common twinned crystals of aragonitc, for instance, would then be termed: "ana-rhombic but syn-hexagonal;" phillipsite, "ana-monoclinic but syn- tetragonal;" boracite, "ana-rhombic but syn-cubic," and so on. Less frequently the symmetry is decreased by twinning, where- upon the original class may be designated by kata-, meaning "downwards" while para- "beside" referring to the individual parts of the twins, may be used for the imitated one. Thus spinel and other cul^ic minerals, when twinned on the octa- hedron, often become apparently trigonal; they may be de- scribed as "kata-cubic but para-trigonal." There is still another situation in which the crystals of one system may imitate those of another, consisting in the mere ap- proach in angular values without twinning or distortion. It should be noted here that the prefix hypo- has been applied rather extensively to this type of relationship, though it is not limited to mimetic crystals, but is used broadly for approach of angular values to within 15° of those of the cubic, tetragonal, or hexagonal systems. A new term is therefore needed for the purpose of the present classification. The prefixes suggested to describe this type of relationship are Icpto-, which means slight, and peri-, which means around or about. For instance, the triclinic plagioclase feldspars, such as albite, approach the mono- clinic orthoclase very closely in angles and habit. The deviation of their interaxial angles a and 7 from 90°, the value character- istic of the monoclinic system, is but slight, and this can be well expressed by calling them "lepto-triclinic but pcri-monoclinic," that is, "weakly triclinic, and approaching monoclinic angular relationships." Other well-known examples are chalcocite, which is lepto-rhombic and peri-hexagonal; muscovite, lepto-mono- clinic and peri-hexagonal; and chondrodite, lepto-monoclinic and peri-rhombic. In conclusion it may be noted that the purpose of this paper is not primarily the development of terms for these types of mimetic phenomena, but rather the pointing out that it may at ROWI.es : SYNOPSIS OF THE GKNUS OCHROMA 157 times be useful to distinguish the different types. Even though none of the prefixes proposed be thought worthy of general adoption by crystallographers, it is hoped that the desirability of some method of distinction of the several types will not be forgotten, and that in future descriptions of mimetic crystals it will rarely be considered sufficient to refer to them only by the prefix "pseudo." BQT ANY .—Syiwpsis of the genus Ochroma, with descriptions of new species. W. W. RowivEE, Cornell University. (Com- municated by Frederick V. Covillc.) The utilization of the wood of Ochroma has brought that genus into prominence during the last few years. The manu- facture of buoyancy and insulation products, such as life rafts, refrigerators, and parts of lifeboats and aeroplanes, especially in connection with the war, has become very extensive. Eighty thousand floats made of balsa wood were used in constructing the 250-mile submarine mine barrage in the North Sea; war vessels as well as transports were in so far as possible equipped with balsa life rafts and lifeboats; and special refrigerating trucks with balsa as the insulating material were used in France. The characteristics of the wood were investigated by the late Pro- fessor R. C. Carpenter in a very thorough manner and the re- sults were published in a paper entitled The properties of balsa wood^ The importance of obtaining first-hand information re- garding the quantity of wood available, and of discriminating between the usable and unusable wood, led the American Balsa Corporation to commission the writer and his son in April, 191 8, to explore Central America with a view to finding out the amount of timber available and to investigate as to the quality of the wood and the kinds that grow in different regions. For this purpose we spent seven months in Panama, Costa Rica, Nica- ragua, and Guatemala. The taxonomic results of the survey are given briefly in this paper. The wood of the trees of the genus Ochroma is the most notable among lightweight woods. It is generally known in vSpanish * Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng. 81: 125. 1917. 158 rowlee: synopsis op thk gknus ochroma America as "balsa," and that word has been transferred to and is in general use in the United States. Balsa is the Spanish word for raft, and it was applied to this tree because the Spanish colonists, when they migrated to the New World, found it in use by the natives for rafts. When they found a tree obviously related to an Old World species, the colonists usually trans- ferred the European name to the new tree. Thus, "roble," the Spanish name for oak, was applied to like trees in the New World; but there was nothing in Spain in any way like balsa, and so the name of the object for which this wood was used was transferred to the tree itself. This name was and still is largely confined to countries where the trees were so used, that is, Ecuador, Colombia, and Costa Rica. In Nicaragua the tree is called "gatillo;" in Guatemala, "cajeto" on the west coast, and "moho" and "lana" on the east coast; in Cuba, "lanillo;" in Jamaica "corkwood" and "down tree," or as the Jamaican negroes have it, simply "dum," In these regions it is doubtful if it was ever used for rafts. Balsa is a very common and conspicuous tree in tropical America. It is distinguished not only by its light soft wood, but also by its large simple leaves, large solitary flowers, and very conspicuous fruit, which is not unlike a cotton boll on a large scale. When the fruit is matured, but has not finally burst, it looks much like a rabbit's foot and presumably from this the first species of Ochroma to be described received the specific name ''lagopus." When the fruit finally bursts and the mass of down falls to the earth, it suggests the fur of a rabbit. The seeds are enveloped in this fur and are disseminated by it. They resemble small grape seeds and, unlike cotton, the "down" is not firmly and permanently attached to the seed. The tree of the Greater Antilles was first given a binary name, Ochroma lagopus, by the Swedish botanist, Olaf Swartz, in 1788^ and was more fully described by him four years later. - At about the same time Humboldt collected specimens of another species in the upper valley of the Magdalena River in » Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 98. 1788. ^ Act. Stockh. 148. pi. 6. 1792. See also Swartz's later description, Fl. lad. Occ. 2: 1 143. 1800. ROWLEE: SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS OCHROMA 159 Colombia and this was described by Willdenow under the name Ochroma tomcntosa. This second species has never been found outside the region where Humboldt collected it. Swartz's type locality is "Jamaica, Hispaniola," but specimens from South America, Central America, and the West Indies have been universally referred to O. lagopus. These two species are the only ones recognized in botanical literature at the present time. Ochroma is confined to tropical America. Its nearest relative in the eastern hemisphere is the baobab tree. It is a relative of the "ceiba" {Bumbax) and "quipo" {Cavanillcsia), of tropical America. The species of this genus most frequently occur in the low- lands and foothills, though rarely, if ever, where the soil is at all affected by brackish or salt water. They have not been dis- covered in the higher altitudes, that is, at more than i,ooo meters above sea level. Balsa is usually a second-growth tree, though it does occur as an isolated tree in the primeval forest. It appears promptly and abundantly where clearings have been made by natural agencies, such as floods and fires, or by human cultivations. In this respect it might properly be called a tree "weed." The natural seeding in some places produces such an abundance of young plants as to suggest weeds in a neglected garden. The tree's growth is very rapid. During the first five or six years of its life it may attain a trunk diameter of 60 to 75 cm., an average increase in thickness of 12 or 13 cm. per year. It also grows very rapidly in height, often attaining under favorable conditions 16 or 20 meters in five or six years. This gives it a place among the most rapidly growing trees known, if indeed it is not the most rapid of all. In the natural state, the wood is very perishable. One rarely sees the remains of trees of balsa in the tropical forests. They decay with apparently the same rapidity as a cotton fabric; the wood absorbs moisture readily and shrinks and warps badly. This is due undoubtedly to the feeble lignification of the cell walls and to the lack of aseptic properties such as the timber of oak and pine possess. It was only when the engineers of the l6o ROWLEE: synopsis OP THE GENUS OCHROMA American Balsa Company, after protracted investigation and experiments, overcame these defects that the wood could be fabricated into valuable products. The leaves of Ochroma, even on an individual tree, are variable. The seedlings of the different species are much more difficult to distinguish, one from the other, than are the mature trees. Even in the case of two species so distinct as O. concolor and 0. limonensis the seedlings are very much alike. We have based our descriptions upon the leaves of mature trees. The flowers, however, are characteristic for each of the several species, though they vary in shape, size, and texture. TABLE 1. ApPROxiMAtE Time of' Flowering and Fruiting of Ochroma Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aur. Sept. Oct. roncolor Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr lagopus Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr limonensis V\. F'l. Fr. Fr grandiflora Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr. tomentosa Fl.? Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr velutina Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr bicolor Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr boliviana Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr obtusa Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr The Species of Ochroma differentiate into two classes as re- gards time of flowering and fruiting. In one group the fructifica- tion takes place in the months of November and April; in the other flowers and fruits develop from May to October. Table i is based on our observations in Central America, supplemented by an examination of herbarium specimens and notes by collectors. Five of the species bear flowers and fruit in one season of the year and four in the other season. vSo far as we could learn, the season of flowering is clearly marked. For example, no flowers or fruit were to be found on the Limon balsa (0. limonensis) from December to March, while both were present in profusion from May to August. On the other hand no flowers or fruit were to be found on the Guapiles balsa {O. bicolor) from May to August, but an abundance occurs from ROWLEE; SYNOPSIS OP THE GENUS OCHROMA l6l November to February. These species grow in contiguous regions and, though they may overlap somewhat in distribution, they are nevertheless distinguished by well marked morphological characters. With the exception of O. limonensis all these species flower and fruit in the dry season of their respective regions. In northeastern Costa Rica there is no well defined dry season and this probably accounts for the exceptional flowering period of O. limonensis. » Key to vSpecies Calyx lobes carinate. Outer sepals triangular acuminate. Leaves thin, green on both sides, conspicuously 5 to 7-lobed, glabrous or nearly so i. O. concolor. Leaves thick, rusty-pubescent, at least beneath, obsoletely 3 to 5- lobed. Flowers 10 cm. long 2. 0. lagopus . Flowers 15 cm. long or more. Calyx tube cylindric 3. 0. limonensis. Calyx tube widened upward 4. 0. grandiflora. Calyx lobes not carinate. Leaves repand-dentate 5. 0. lomentosa. Leaves not repand-dentate. Calyx lobes triangular, acute, coriaceous. Leaves rusty-tomentose on both sides, the hairs 5 to 7- (mostly 6)branched 6. 0. velutina. Leaves glabrous and dark green above, white and stellate- pubescent beneath, the hairs 10 to i5-(mostly i2)branched. 7. O. bicolor. Calyx lobes elliptic or orbicular, obtuse, herbaceous. Calyx lobes elliptic; leaves densely velutinous beneath. 8. 0. boliviana. Calyx lobes orbicular; leaves scantily pubescent beneath. 9. 0. ohtusa. I. Ochroma concolor, n. sp. Barrios balsa. A tree attaining 25 meters in height and i meter in diameter, in woodlands developing a long, smooth trunk, in the open a short trunk and a round, symmetrical top ; heartwood in older trees red, wet, and heavy, the wood of young trees white and light; leaves thin and mem- branous, large and conspicuously lobed, with 5 to 7 acute lobes separated by broad, convex sinuses, green and glabrous on both sides except for a few tufts of brownish tomentum on the primary veins beneath; stipules large, ovate, with prominent midribs; flowers 10 cm. long, glabrous; calyx tube 6 cm. long, glabrous within; calyx lobes very dissimilar, 2 cm. long, the outer 2 acuminate, with a prominent 1 62 ROWLEE: SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS OCHROMA keel on the back, the inner 3 oblong, keeled, with expanded margin; pod 12 cm. long; seed with a short, stout funicle. Type in the U. S. National Herl^ariiim, no. 862345, collected at Trece Aguas, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, Alay 9, 191 4, by O. F. Cook and C. B. Doyle (no. 82). The following Guatemalan specimens in the National Herbarium also represent this species: Mrs. William Owen II, 1 1 A; Goll 230. The flowers are borne in December and January and the fruit in February and March. This species is very different from any other of the genus. It is known only from the country surrounding the head of the Bay of Honduras. It has not been reported from outside of Guatemala, but undoubtedly grows in adjacent Honduras and British Honduras, and in all probability in southern Yucatan. It occurs throughout the lower Motagua Valley from above Quirigua to the sea. Well developed trees are found on the reservation containing the Maya ruins, near Quirigua. It also occurs rather abundantly in the valley of Lake Izabal and the Golfete. Goll reports the name "kapok;" Mrs. Owen gives the Indian names "jujul" and "puj." The local names given us were "lana" and "cajeto." There arc two distinct species of Ochroma in northeastern Guate- mala. In addition to the one characterized above, there is another which is probably specifically identical with the species of northern Costa Rica. Ochroma concolor grows on lower ground than the Costa Rican species or, indeed, than any other species of Ochroma known to us. In the Great vSwamp, along the San Francisco del Mar River, east of Barrios and west of the mouth of the Motagua, many large trees occur on ground that is inundated a considerable portion of the year. The species occurs also on higher ground, as on the hospital grounds at Quirigua, as well as near Virginia and along the Tomeja River. 2. Ochroma lagopus Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 98. 1788. West Indian balsa. Up to the present time, all the species of the genus except Ochroma tomentosa Willd. have been included under this name, which, there is every reason to believe, should be restricted to include only forms that grow in the West Indies. vSmaller in size than the preceding species, usually not exceeding 30 cm. in diameter and 18 meters in height; leaf blades small (15 to 20 cm.), brown-tomentose to nearly glabrous; flowers small, 10 cm. long; calyx tube 6 cm. long, the lobes 2.5 cm. long, 2 cm. wide at the base and 4.5 cm. at the summit, prominently carinate on the back. — Flowers borne in February and March; fruit in April and May. rowi^ee;: synopsis of* the; genus ochroma 163 Known in Cuba as "lanero;" in Jamaica as "corkwood," "down- tree," "dum," and "bombast mahoe." Cuba: Eastern Cuba, 1856-57, C. Wright 38; San L,uis, Oriente, April 2, 1909, Britton 2334; Sevilla 'Estate near Santiago, August 31, igo6, N. Taylor 140 (a tree 30 meters high, the trunk 28 cm. in diameter). HispanioIvA: Taradia, prope Barahona, 1910, Tuerckheini 2826; without locality, Wright, Parry & Brummel 20, 21. Porto Rico: Manati, April 4, 1887, Sintenis 6766; Utuado, March, 1906, M. A. Howe; San Juan, December, 1898, Dignomtz 780. Jamaica: Castleton, March 21, 1915, Harris 11962. 3. Ochroma limonensis, n. sp. Limon baIvSA. A tree of very rapid growth, attaining large dimensions, up to a meter in diameter and 30 meters in height; bark gray, somewhat mottled; wood white, the annual rings indistinguishable; leaves large, nearly orbicular, 25 cm. across, obsoletely 3- to 5-lobed (the margin entire), nearly or quite glabrous above, refescent-tomentose beneath; hairs 7 to 10- (mostly 8) branched; flowers 18 cm. long, yellowish white; calyx tube 9 cm. long, cylindric, glabrous but warty on the out- side, hairy within; calyx lobes acuminate, carinate on the back, 4 cm. long, 2 cm. wide at the base, the inner with feltlike margins ; pods, 15 cm. long; funicle about half as long as the seed. — Flowers l)orne in May and June; fruit in July and August. This is the balsa of the lowlands of the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica and Panama, extending as far west as the Reventazoh River, Costa Rica, and east into Panama. Fine groves have developed along the Banana, Bananito, Estrella, and Sixaola Rivers. Our nos. i, 2, and 3 are of this species, no. i, collected on vSan Clemente Farm east of the Bananito River, Costa Rica, being the type. No. 2 is from a tree at Zent; no. 3 was collected near Moin Junction. The Zent tree is of special interest. It was started as a seedling in April, 19 15, and was photographed September 15th of that year. When measured by us in May, 191 8, it was 16 inches in diameter, and had therefore grown at the rate of five inches per year. Local observers agree that this individual is not in any way exceptional. 4. Ochroma grandiflora, n. sp. ^ Ecuador balsa. A tall tree with mottled gray bark and very light wood; leaves on mature trees nearly entire, orbicular, 20 cm. wide, on young trees lobed, very large (up to 90 cm.), rufescent beneath, glabrous above; flowers 15 to 18 cm. long, showy; calyx tube 7 cm. long, spreading above, 3 cm. wide at the base, 7 cm. wide at the top, granular-puberulent out- side, hairy within; calyx lobes 4 cm. long, 3 cm. wide at the base, carinate, the inner ones broadly margined ; petals large and showy, exceeding the stamens and style, the Umb 5 cm. broad, gradually 164 ROWIvEE: SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS OCHROMA narrowing into a broad claw 2 cm. wide, prominently parallel-veined. — Flowering in July and August; fruiting in September and October. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, collected below Huigra, Ecuador, in 1918, by J. N. Rose (no. 22,604). Also collected at Hacienda La Josefina, San Carlos, Ecuador, vSeptember, 191 8, by Capt. Claussen. 5. Ochroma tomentosa Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 695. 1809 Humboldt's balsa. The original description of this species is as follows: "O. foliis cordatis subtrilobis repandis, subtus tomentosis." It was based on specimens collected by Humboldt and Bonpland in "America Meri- dionali," and was reported from Colombia by Triana and Planchon in 1862.^ It has been collected recently by Rusby and Pennell (no. 271), July 24, 1917, at Quebrada de Angeles, above Natagaina, De- partment of Huila, Colombia, and also by Pennell (no. 3557), at Honda, Department of Tolima, Colombia. The collectors noted it as a large tree with white petals. The calyx tube is very coarsely and densely tomentose with brown hairs; the tube is short and broad. Most characteristic of the species, however, are the repand dentations, i cm. apart, evenly distributed around the margin of the leaf, giving it the appearance of the leaf of Populus grandiden lata . Ochroma tomentosa has not been reported beyond the limits of the upper Magdalena River in Colombia, a region through which Hum- boldt's expedition passed. 6. Ochroma velutina, n. sp. Red Pacific Coast balsa. Wide-spreading tree, usually bifurcately branched, with smooth, light gray bark; heartwood reddish; young shoots and leaves densely velvety-tomentose; leaves ovate, with wide sinuses at the base, ob- soletely 3-lobed, or more often entire, the lobes when present rounded; blades variable in size, thick and firm, longer than broad; stipules brownish tomentose, i to 1.5 cm. long and half as wide, when large inclined to be auriculate and notched at the side, when small, oblong and rounded at the apex; flowers small, about 8 cm. long, the pedicels of about the same length; calyx tube firm and woody, cylindric, 4 cm. long, glabrous externally at maturity, within densely clothed with ascending appressed brown liairs; calyx lobes very dissimilar, the 2 outer triangular, 1.5 cm. long, tlie inner 2.5 cm. long, with wide felt- like margins; petals about 8 cm. long, broadened toward the apex; pod 10 to 15 cm. long, tapering at the ends. Type in the U. vS. National Herbarium, no. 472290, collected "dans les for^ts et paturages de Nicoya," Costa Rica, February, 1900, by » Ann. Sci. Nat. IV. Bot. 17: :i22,. 1862. ROWI.RR: SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS OCHROMA 1 65 A. Tonduz (no. 13,498). The following additional specimens have been seen: El Salvador, Renson 86; Bismarck, Panama, Williams 607; Ancon Hill, Panama, Bro. Celestine 119. The following are our own collections : Orotina, 94 ; Zapotal, 6 ; Abangarez Pueblo, 5 ; Tempisque, 113, 170, 189; all from Costa Rica. We collected it also at Escuintla, Guatemala. The flowers are borne in December, January, and February. The fruit matures in February, March, and April, that is, the dry season of the region where the tree occurs. This is the smallest-flowered species known. It is widely distributed on the Pacific slope of Central America from sea-level up to 500 or 600 meters and may be the form mentioned by Tonduz as "carac- t^ristique pour la zone inferieur c6tes nord et ouest de Cocos Island, alt. o-ioo m." Ochroma veluHna differs from the other species in the following respects: Its wood is harder and heavier; the leaves are densely velutinous on both sides, are nearly or more often quite entire, and are noticeably longer than broad, with a wide sinus at the base; the flowers are small; and the calyx tube is cylindric, firm, and woody. 7. Ochroma bicolor, n. sp. Ouapiues baIvSa. A tree attaining large size, 25 meters high and i meter in diameter, with long, straight bole in the forest, and excurrent in habit when growing in the open; bark mottled gray and white; leaves chalky white with minute stellate hairs beneath, these 12 to 20- (mostly 20) branched, dark, glistening green and glabrous above, thick and leathery, tending to be acuminate, especially on the older trees, nearly as broad as long, about 32 cm. across, with 2 to 4 obsolete primary lobes on each side, the margin between these usually regularly and very shallowly sinuate - lobed, with a vein terminating in each secondary lobe, the marginal vein prominent; flowers with petals strongly reflexed at an thesis, 10 cm. long with petals extended; calyx tube firm, 5.5 to 6 cm. long, granular-puberulent outside, silvery-sericeous within; calyx lobes 1.5 cm. long, plane on the back, triangular, acute, the inner ones with felted margins; petals white, abruptly expanded above, the claw i cm. broad, the limb orbicular, 3 cm. in diameter; stamen tube and stigma equal in length, slightly shorter than the extended petals, much exceeding the recurved petals at an thesis; mass of anthers as broad as long; pod, 16 cm. long; down, light-colored; seed with very short or obsolete funicle, 4 mm. long, 2 mm. thick. — ^Flowering in November and December; fruiting in January, February, and March. The type is our no. 10, collected on the grounds of the residence of Superintendent J. H. Wilson of the United Fruit Company, at Guapiles, Costa Rica. We also collected this species at Guacimo, along the Parisiraa River. It is abundant throughout the whole region known l66 ROWLEE: SYNOPSIS OF THE) GENUS OCHROMA as the Llanuras de Santa Clara, Costa Rica, at a general elevation of about 250 meters. The only specimens we have seen in herbaria are Captain J. D. Smith's no. 6,453, from La Emilia, Costa Rica, collected in April, 1896, and C. F. Baker's no. 2,149, from Chinandega, Ni- caragua. This species is very abundant in northern Costa Rica from the Reventazon River north to Lake Nicaragua. It grows on higher land than the Limon balsa, and while the two species grow in contiguous districts they do not overlap to any great extent. It extends up the Turrialba Volcano to a height of a thousand meters or more, and im- doubtedly occurs on tlie whole northerly slope of the central cordillera of Costa Rica. When in leaf only, and especially with young trees, this species closely resembles the Limon balsa, but the flowers are markedly different. The pubescence, general outline, and texture of the leaves, as well as the period of flowering, clearly distinguish the two species. cS. Ochroma boliviana, n. sp. Bolivian balsa. A tree 8 to 10 meters high, the trunk 20 to 25 cm. in diameter; leaves obsoletely 3-lobed (the margin undulate but not denticulate), nearly orbicular, 30 cm. in diameter, glabrous and dark green above, tawny white and densely velvety beneath; calyx tube 5.5 cm. long, granular- puberulent outside and densely white-tomentose within; calyx lobes herbaceous-membranous, elliptic, acute, 4 cm. long, 2 cm. wide, the inner ones not sharply differentiated into margin and keel, stellate- pubescent without, densely white-tomentose within; petals conspicu- ously parallel-veined and expanded above, protruding 5 cm. beyond the calyx lobes, 5 cm. broad above. Evidently very showy in flower, suggesting the northern tulip tree. Flowers borne in July and August; fruit in August and September. Known only from the following specimens, in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, all from the northeastern part of Bolivia in the vicinity of Mapiri: Mapiri, July-August, 1892, Bang 1501 (type); junction of the rivers Beni and Madre de Dios, August, 18S6, Rushy 1927; Mapiri, September 23, 1901, Williams 714; "San Carlos region de Mapiri, 15° lat. sur," September, 1907, Buchtien. Vernacular names "tami" and "palo de balsa." 9. Ochroma obtusa, n. sp. Santa Marta balsa. A tree 10 to 15 meters high; twigs glabrate; leaves 20 by 20 cm., conspicuously 3-lobed, the sides of the lobes straight, giving the ap- pearance of a maple leaf, glabrous or nearly so above, scantily covered with slender branched hairs beneath; flower, 14 cm. long; calyx tube 5 cm. long, spreading above, at first granular-puberulent, becoming glabrate; calyx lobes nearly uniform in outline, not carinate, nearly as broad as long, 3 cm. long, densely tomentose on back, ciliate; petals oberholser: diagnosis of a ne;w genus of bucerotidae 167 surpassing the calyx lobes, oblong-spatulate, 3.5 cm. wide, conspicu- ously parallel-veined. Type in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected at Mamatoca, vSanta Marta, Colombia, 1898-99, by Herbert H. Smith (no. 829). The collector states that the tree is "common locally near streams, at 500 to 2,500 feet. Flowers in December and January. Petals pale yellowish. The silk enveloping the seeds is used for pillows, etc., and is sold in the market (as 'lana') at Santa Marta. It is collected in May, when it is found scattered on the ground under the trees." We also refer to this species Broadway no. 4,418, collected March 8, 1913, in Tobago; also Pere Duss. no. 3,634, April 10, 1895, from Guadelupe, and his no. 185, from Martinique, although the last two collections do not entirely agree with the type. ORNITHOLOGY. — Diciiiiiosis of a new genus of Bnrcrotidae. Harry C. Obrrholskr, Biological vSurvey. The family Bucerotidae at the present time is represented in the Philippine Islands by four genera. One of these, however, Hydrocorax Brisson, proves to be composite. This genus Hy- drocorax was first instituted by Brisson for Bitccros hydrocorax Linnaeus;^ much later (1880) another species, Buccros min- dancnsis Tweeddale, was added by Elliot; and subsequently still another, Buceros semigalcatus Tweeddale, was referred to this group. The last-mentioned species, however, is clearly not congeneric, and should form the type of a separate monotypic senus which we here call: & Platycorax,- gen. nov. Diagnosis. — vSimilar to Hydrocorax Brisson, but casque entirely different: in superior aspect smaller, shorter, and narrower in general outline (although the bird is actually larger), posteriorly narrower and not so truncate, the anterior portion sharply much constricted, so that the anterior third is much narrower than in Hydrocorax, and concave in outline instead of evenly convex throughout its length: in lateral aspect completely fia4;tened anteriorly, with no vertical pro- jection, the whole bill therefore much less in height;'' feathered inter- ramal space relatively as well as actually broader. Type. — Buceros semigaleatus Tweeddale. ' Hydrocorax Brisson, Ornith. 4: 565. 1760. (Type by taiitonymy, Buceros hydrocorax Linnaeus.) '^ ifkoiTV'i, latus; Kopa^, corviis. ^ These differences in the shape of the casque are well shown by the figures given in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London for 1878, pages 278-279. i68 obrrhoi.srr: diagnosis of a nivW grnus of bucrrotidae Remarks. — This new genus diflfers so much from the other PhiHppine genera, and in fact from all of the genera of the Bucerotidae, that a close comparison is scarcely necessary. It is, of course, apparently most nearly allied to Hydrocorax, although it is so different in ap- pearance from Hydrocorax hydrocorax, the type of that genus, that it is rather remarkable that it has not been separated before. It should be stated, however, that Dr. Edgar A. Mearns had noticed the very striking structural characters in Hydrocorax semigaleatus Tweeddale, and just before his untimely death had planned to create a new generic group for this species. The third species commonly referred to the genus Hydrocorax, Hydrocorax mindanensis (Tweeddale), has a smaller casque than Hydrocorax hydrocorax, but it is of the same shape, and the species is without doubt correctly placed in the same genus. The type of our new genus, Platycorax semigaleatus (Tweeddale), is, therefore, its only species. The only other generic name applied to any species of Hydrocorax is Platyceros Cabanis and Heine, ^ the type of which is Hydrocorax hydrocorax; so that it is, of course, a synonym of Hydrocorax Brisson. By the present separation of Platycorax, there are now five genera of Bucerotidae in the Philippine Islands, of which four, including Platycorax, are endemic, * Mus. Hein. 2: 174, i860. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and sipied by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. PHYSICS. — The decrease in liUra-violet and total radiation ivitJi usage of quartz mercury vapor lamps. W. W. Cobi^untz, M. B. Long, and H. Kahler. Bur. Stands. Sci. Paper No. 330. Pp. 20. 1918. It is well known that the radiations emitted by quartz mercury vapor lamps decrease very markedly in intensity with usage of the lamp. The object of this investigation was (i) to devise methods for determining quantitatively the decrease in intensity of the emission with usage and (2) to make preliminary measurements on radiant power life-tests of quartz mercury vapor lamps. The measurements of the radiations from these lamps were made by means of a thermopile. The ultra-violet rays were absorbed by means of a yellow glass and by this means it was possible to study the decrease in the ultra-violet radiation as well as the decrease in total radiation with tisage of the lamp. It was found the intensity of the total radiation as well as the ultra-violet component, decreases to about one-half of its initial value in the course of 1,000 to 1,500 hours. W. W. C. PHYSICS. — New Bamn^ scale for sugar solutions. Frrdrrick Bates and H. W. BF;ARCii;. Bur. Stands. Tech. Paper No. 115. Pp. II. 1918. Many different Baume Scales have been proposed and used in the past. At the present time there are still in use in the United States three different scales for liquids heavier than water. Two of these, namely, the "Holland" scale and the "Gerlach" scale are used in sugar work. Neither is adapted to modern requirements. The new scale lies between the "Holland" and "Gerlach" scales and has three im- portant advantages which should commend it for general use. They are: 169 I JO abstracts: spectroscopy 1. It is based upon the specific gravity values of Plato, which are considered the most reliable of any available. 2. It is based on 20° C, the most convenient and widely accepted temperature for sugar work. 3. It is based on the modulus 145, which has already been adopted by the Manufacturing Chemists Association of the United vStates, by the Bureau of vStandards, and by all American manufacturers of hydrometers. H. W. B. SPECTROvSCOPY. — Measurements of wave-lengths in the spectrum of neon. Keivin Burns, W. F. Meggers, and P. W. Merrtt.i,. Bur. vStands. vSci. Paper No. 329. Pp. 10. 1918. The lines in the neon spectrum are very sharp, a quality which recommends this gas as a standard source wherever the lines have sufficient strength. The ultra-violet group between 3,369A and 3,52oA may be used for standards, and there are a few good infra-red lines, but the strength and distribution of the lines in the region 5,852A to 7,438A make the neon spectrum particularly useful as a comparison in this region. The wave-lengths of fifty-five lines in the neon spectrum have been measured by means of the interferometer. These lines lie in the region 3,369A to 8,495A. The strong lines in the visible region of the spec- trum have been observed with great accuracy, the probable error being one part in several millions, or less than one-tenth the width of the line. These strong lines were observed by means of three differ- ent pairs of interferometer plates which were each used on several interferometers. The ultra-violet lines and all the strong lines in the visible were compared directly with the fundamental standard 6,438A. Some of the deep red and infra-red lines were compared with well- determined lines in the visible neon spectrum. One hundred and eighty-nine faint lines in the visible and infra- red neon spectrum have been measured by means of a concave grating. The probable error of these grating measurements is one or two hun- dredths angstrom. The region covered by the grating observations extends from 5,343A to 8,783A. The constant differences discovered by Watson are found to hold with remarkable exactness in the case of lines which are strong enough to be measured with the highest accuracy. In fact, the differences are exactly constant within the limits set by the accuracy of the wave- lengths. K. B. abstracts: ceramic chemistry 171 UhUCTRIC VVY.—Elecirual oscillations in antennas and inductance coils. John M. Miller. Bur. Stands. Sci. Paper No. 326. Pp. 20. 1918. The mathematical theory of circuits having uniformly distributed electrical characteristics, such as cables, telephone lines, and trans- mission lines, is applied to the oscillations in antennas and inductance coils. It is shown how the frequency of the natural oscillation of an anternia may be determined analytically or graphically when inductance coils or condensers are inserted in the lead-in. Expressions are derived which permit the calculation of the effective resistance, inductance, and capacity of the antenna and it is shown that in so far as frequency or wave-length computations are concerned the simple formula applica- ble to ordinary circuits with lumped constants gives very accurate results. Experimental methods are given for determining the effec- tive and static or low-frequency values of the antenna constants. Inductance coils are likewise treated from the standpoint of the theory of distributed characteristics. Expressions are obtained for the reactance of the coil at any frequency and for the natural oscilla- tions of a circuit of coil and condenser. It is further shown that, in so far as the frequency of oscillation is concerned, an inductance coil with distributed characteristics is equivalent to a pure inductance of con- stant value with a constant capacity across its terminals. Excepting for skin effect, this pure inductance would be the same as the low- frequency inductance of the coil. This explains a fact which has been frequently observed experimentally, in particular for single layer solenoids. J. M. M. CERAMIC CHEMIvSTRY.— 77/6' calculation of the rational analysis of clays. Henry S. Washington. Journ. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 1:405-421. June, 1918. This paper discusses briefly the factors that render the so-called "rational" analysis of clays uncertain, erroneous, and of little or no value for any purpose. A method for calculating from the chemical analysis the mineral composition, generally quartz, feldspar, and kaolin, is suggested, which is an application of the principles and method of calculating the "norm" of igneous rocks. In the case of clays the procedure is of great simplicity and accuracy, is very expeditious after the chemical analysis has been made, and yields results of great re- Hability. H. S. W. 172 abstracts: botany CERAMIC CHEMISTRY.— r/i^ effect of certain impurities in causing milkincss in optical glass. C. N. Fenner and J. B. Ferguson. Journ. Amer. Ceram. vSoc. 1: 468-477. July, 19 18. In the manufacture of optical glass at one of the plants, a matter which gave considerable difficulty for a while was the occasional produc- tion of pots of glass which were affected by opalescence or milkiness. The evidence indicated that the source of the trouble lay in the sulphate and chloride content of the potash. The trouble disappeared when more reliable methods of temperature-control were installed, by which an assurance could be had of keeping the temperatures constantly at 1400° to 1420° C. Later, evidence was obtained which connected the milkiness quite definitely with the impurities mentioned, at least as regards the case under discussion, although in other cases the same effect is to be ascribed to other causes. Reasons are given for the con- clusion that the milkiness is caused not by the separation of sulphates or chlorides themselves, but to some slight change in the physical properties of the melt which permits the separation of clouds of minute crystals of cristobalite. R. B. Sosman. BOTANY. — Naming wheat varieties. CarleTon R. Ball and J. Allen Clark. Journ. Amer. Soc. Agron. 10: 89-94. February, 1918. Crop varieties should be designated by names that are short, simple, appropriate, easily spelled, and easily pronounced. The multiplication of names and other designations for crop varieties has been carried to great extremes. Present designations may be classed as follows: (i) Names, as Fultz or Kubanka; (2) descriptive phrases, as Early Red Clawson; and (3) numbers, as Minnesota no. 162. The existing confusion in names renders difficult the interpretation of published results of experiments. This confusion occurs in two principal ways: (i) The same name is applied to very different varieties in different parts of the country; (2) the same variety passes under several different names in different parts of the country, or even in the same part. It is desirable to prevent a continuation of such practices and to attempt a solution of the problems already existing. Accordingly, a brief but comprehensive code of nomenclature has been formulated. code of nomenclature I. Eligibility to naming. No variety shall be named unless (a) distinctly different from existing varieties in one or more recognizable abstracts: botany 173 characters, or (b) distinctly superior to them in some character or quahty; and unless (r) it is to be placed in commercial culture. 2. Priority. No two varieties of the same crop plant shall bear the same name. The name first published (see Rule 4) for a variety shall be the accepted and recognized name except in cases where it has been applied in violation of this code. J. Form of names. The name of a variety shall consist of a single word. 4. Publication. A varietal name is established by publication. Publication consists (i) in the distribution of a printed description of the variety named, giving its distinguishing characters, or (2) in the publication of a new name for a variety properly described elsewhere, such publication to be made in any book, bulletin, circular, report, trade catalog, or periodical, provided the same bears the date of issue and is distributed generally among agronomists and crop growers; or (3) in certain cases the general recognition of a name for a commercial variety in a community for a number of years may be held to con- stitute publication. Paragraphs i to 4 have numerous additional clauses not given here which explain or interpret the rule. Paragraphs 5 and 6 deal with formal citation and with changes, respectively. This code, essentially as presented, was officially adopted by the American Society of Agronomy in November, 191 7. C. R. B. BOTANY. — Effects of various salts, acids, germicides, etc., upon the infectivity of the virus causing the mosaic disease of tobacco. H. A. Allard. Journ. Agr. Res. 13: 619-637. June 17, 1918. The virus of the mosaic disease of tobacco was treated for various periods of time with difTerent concentrations of acids, salts, etc., to determine their effect upon the infectivity. Nitric and hydrochloric acids, except in concentrations approaching one gram in 50 to 100 cc. of virus solution, affected the infectivity but little. Somewhat stronger solutions of citric, phosphoric, and acetic acid were required to affect the virus. Manganese sulphate, sodium chloride, aluminium sulphate, lithium nitrate, sodium nitrate, lead nitrate, silver nitrate, and mercuric chloride affected the virus but little under the conditions of the experi- ments. Carbolic acid, creolin, cresol, and phenol affected the infective principle only slightly under the conditions of the experiments, and there was no appreciable difference in their relative effects. Acetone 174 abstracts: phytopathqlogy destroys the infective principle much less readily than ethyl alcohol. In ethyl alcohol the infective principle is destroyed rather quickly in alcoholic solutions stronger than 50 to 55 per cent. Eighty per cent alcoholic strengths killed the virus in less than half an hour. Chloral hydrate, benzoate of soda, quinine bisulphate, naphthalene crystals, camphor, thymol, and glycerin, except in very strong solutions, reduced the infectivity of the virus but little. The virus shows itself con- siderably more susceptible to solutions of formaldehyde, a 4 per cent strength destroying the infective principle very quickly. When the virus is mixed with talc, kaolin, or soil, it frequently loses its infectious properties more quickly than when merely bottled without the addition of any preservative. H. A. A. PHYTOPATHOLOGY. — A serious eelworin or nematode disease oj wheat. L. P. Byars. U. vS. Dept. Agr. Circ. 114. July, 1918. During the past year the eelworm disease of wheat, caused by Tylenchus tritici (vSteinbuch) Bastian and long known in Europe, has been found causing a great deal of damage in certain parts of the United States, particularly in Virginia. Recent examinations have shown a loss in some fields of as much as 40 per cent of the crop. Wheat spikelets affected by the disease contain in place of the normal kernels dark, hard galls filled with larvae of the nematode. These larvae escape from the galls into the soil, reach the young seedlings, become located between the leaf sheaths near the bud and are passively elevated to the spikes. There they enter the young flowers and pro- duce the galls within which they develop to maturity and lay eggs. The latter give rise to larvae and in this way their life cycle is com- pleted. The disease may be controlled by the use of clean seed, crop rota- tion, and sanitation. If uninfected seed cannot be brought in from localities where the trouble does not occur the sound grain may be separated from the nematode galls by floating off the latter in water. L. P. B. PROCKKDTNOvS OF THE ACADRMY AND AFFTUATKD SOCIETIEvS RIOLOGTCAL vSOCIETY OF WAvSHTNOTON The 589th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Carnegie Institution, Saturday, January 11, 1919; called to order at 8.00 p.m. by President Smith; 26 persons present. On recommendation of the Council the following named persons were elected to membership: (^jRorgk Wiijjctt, Los Angeles, and Walter M. GiFFARD, Honolulu. Deaths of the following named members were noted: Dr. Howard E. Ames and Dr. W. T. Foster. The annual report of the treasurer was received and accepted. Prof. A. S. Hitchcock presented the following proposed amendment to the b^^-laws: The President shall not be eligible for immediate reelection. To follow at the end of first paragraph of Article H of the by-laws. President vSmith announced the membership of the Committee on Communications as: A. S. Hitchcock, L. O. Howard, A. Wetmore, R. E. CoKER, J. W. Gidley; and of the Committee on Publications as: C. W. Richmond, J. H. Riley, Ned Dearborn, W. L. McAtee. Under the heading of Brief Notes, Prof. A. S. Hitchcock referred to the work of the Committee on Generic Types of the Botanical vSociety of America, of which he is chairman. Under the same heading President Smith referred to the mild winter so far experienced and its eflfects on the unusual blooming of certain spring-flowering plants. W. L. McAtee, with reference to the same subject, called attention to the late blooming of some autumn-flowering species. In this con- nection Dr. L. O. Howard called attention to a publication on this same subject by Prof. ly. F. Ward many years ago. J. B. Norton presented the first formal communication: A new and easy way to recognize our local asters. He said investigation of several local species of Aster showed great differences in the disk florets. These differences were utilized in a key for the separation of the species which it was suggested could be expanded to include all the forms in the vicinity of Washington. The utilization of similarly neglected charac- ters in other difficult groups would be advisable. His remarks were illustrated by a series of well prepared diagrams showing the variations in the different structures of the disk flowers of Aster. Discussion by W. ly. McAtee and A. S. Hitchcock. 175 176 proceedings: bioIvOGicaIv society Lyman Carrier presented the second formal communication: Dr. John Mitchell, an early naturalist and historian. He gave a synopsis of his rather extensive investigations into the Hfe of John Mitchell,, an early physician in the English Colonies of America who was also noted for his work as a naturalist, historian, and cartographer. Much of his work is published anonymously and much of it is rare and rather inaccessible. Discussion by A. vS. Hitchcock, J. W. GiDLEY gav^e the third paper of the program: Significance of the divergence of the first digit in the primitive mammalian foot. A. S. Hitchcock presented the last paper of the program: A pecidiar species of Lasiacis. Discussion by T. vS. Palmer. This paper appears in full in this Journal (9: 35-3S. January 19, 19 19). The 59otli regular meeting of the vSociety was held in the Auditorium of the New National Museum, vSaturday, January 25, 1919; called to order at 8.00 p.m. by President vSmith; 29 persons present. On recommendation of the Council the following named persons were elected to membership: Erich W. vSchwartze, Bureau of Chemistry; Myron H. vSwenk, University of Nebraska; R. C. Mc- Gregor, Bureau of vScience, Manila. Informal communications were presented as follows: General T. E. Wilcox: Remarks on the berries of Mitchella. President Smith: Exhibition of and remarks on a piece of baleen of the right whale of the Pacific Coast. He stated that this species is nearing extinction as among 999 whales taken last year on the Pacific Coast but one was a right whale. He also referred to whale meat as human food. W. L. McAtee: Reference to an old publication, 178;^ to 1784, in which it appears that peanuts and cotton were commonly raised about Wash- ington at that time. The first paper of the regular program was by G. Dallas Hanna : Additions to the avifauna of the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, including species new to North America. In the collection of birds made on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, during the period June, 191 6, to vSeptember, 191 8, there were 21 species which had not been secured there or reported therefrom before. Four of these had not previously been collected within the limits of North America. Species new to North America and the Pribilof Islands: Eunetta falcata, Falcated Teal; Ilctcroscclus brevipes, Polynesian Tattler; Thalassoaetus pelagicus, Kamchatkan Sea Eagle; Anlhus spinolctta japonicus, Japanese Pippit. Species new to the Pribilof Islands only: Brachyramphus marmoratus, Marbled Marrelet; Pufiinus tenuirosiris, vSlender-billed vShearwater; Nettion crecca, European Teal; Aristonetta valisineria, Canvas-back; Clangula clangtda americana, American Golden-eye; Arctonetta fischeri, Spectacled Eider; Oidemia dcglandi dixoni, Pacific White-winged Scoter; L'hen hyperborea hyperborea, Snow Goose; Brania canadensis hutchinsii, Hutchin's Goose; Numenius tahitiensis, Bristle-thighed Curlew; Haematopus bachmani, Black Oyster-catcher; Archibuteo proceedings: biological society 177 lagapus sancti-johannis, Rough-legged Hawk; Spinus pinus, Pine Siskin; PlcctropJienax Jiypcrborais, McKay's vSnow Bunting; J unco Jiycmalis Jiyenialis, State-colored Junco; Pctrodwlidon hinifrons hini- frons, Cliff Swallow; Hylocichla aliciac aliciae, Gray-cheeked Thrush. Some notes on the food habits and color phases of Rodger's fulmar, a common Pribilof bird, were given. Discussion by A. S. Hitchcock, Wm. Palmer, W. L. McAtee for E. A. Preble, and by L. vStejneger. The second and final paper of the regular program was by W. L. McAtee : An account of poisonous sumachs, Rluts poisoning, and remedies therefor. Mr. McAtee gave a detailed account of the classi- fication and natural history of the poisonous sumachs, of the various theories as to why they poison, of the symptoms of poisoning, and of the host of remedies that have been employed against it. Dis- cussion by Dr. V. K. Chesnut. The 591st meeting of the vSociety was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, February 8, 191 9; called to order at 8.00 p.m. by President vSmith; 53 persons present. On recommendation of the Council, O. E. Jennings, Curator of Botany, Carnegie Museum, was elected to membership. The following amendment to the By-laws read at the 589th meeting was favorably voted on by the vSociety: "The President shall not be eligible for immediate reelection;" to follow at the end of the first paragraph of Article H. Under the heading of brief notes and exhibition of specimens. Dr. R. W. vShufeldt exhibited seven lantern slides of pitcher plants, Sarraccnia purpurea, taken about two years ago in an extensive swamp near Glen Burnie, Maryland. He pointed out that this plant is now practically extinct in the District of Columbia. After describing the main characters of this and related species he showed by means of one of the lantern slides some experiments he had been making with 5. purpurea extending over an entire summer, the main features of which consisted in keeping a number of growing plants indoors and giving them a very limited amount of light. Gradually the new-coming leaves evinced an entire change of form and color. They became pale green with every semblance of markings effaced while the decided diminution in size was accompanied by a shrinkage of the wing, a change in outline, and an almost complete atrophy of the pitchers. In this connection Prof. W. P.^Hay said one of his students had brought him a pitcher plant leaf stating it had been found in a locality near the city of Washington. Professor Hay had visited the alleged locality with the student, but they had been unable to find the rest of the plant. The student however was a reliable person and Professor Hay had no reason to doubt that the leaf had been found as stated. I. N. Hoffman presented an informal note on certain nesting habits of Shufeldt's junco. 178 proceedings: biological society The following formal communications were presented: E. W. Nelson: Dallia pectoralis, Alaska's most remarkable fish. Mr. Nelson gave an account of the appearance and habits of this fish and described the important part it plays in the economic life of the natives of parts of Alaska. He related some of the myths concerning its vitality after freezing. Discussion by Dr. H. M. vSmith. Vernon Bailey: The western skunk cabbage in its prime. Mr. Bailey gave an account of the characters and natural history of this handsome plant and exhibited lantern slides of it in flower. Dis- cussion by the chair and others. M. W. Lyon, Jr.: I sohemagglutinin groups of men. Doctor Lyon defined the term isohemagglutination and gave a brief account of the discovery of the four well-recognized groups of men as deternn"ned by the action of the serum of each group upon the red blood corpuscles of the others. He pointed out that the first author to recognize the four groups as such was Jan Jansky' in a rather obscure publication in 1907 (vSbornik Klinicky'-Arch. Bohemes de Medecine Clinique 8: 85-139. 1907). He designated these groups as I, II, III, and IV in the order of their frequency of occurrence. Moss, in 19 10 (Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 21: 63-70. March, 1910), independently described the four groups and designated them, respectively, as IV, II, III, and I. As Jansky ''s group I has the most active serum and the most resistant corpuscles Dr. L.von suggested it might be called the sthenic group. P'or its direct opposite, Jansky"s IV, he suggested the term antisthenic. For the more common of the other two groups, II, and its opposite, III, he suggested the designations par asthenic and antipar asthenic, respec- tively. A lantern slide table showing the agglutinative action of the serums of 16 persons on the red blood corpuscles of the same persons was shown. A series of test tubes showing the action of sthenic, para- sthenic, and antiparasthenic serum on corpuscles of each of these groups was exhibited. The antisthenic group is very rare and the speaker knew of no individual available belonging to that group when he prepared the demonstration tubes. Discussion by the chair, E. W. Nelson, W. P. Taylor, and others. M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Preparations are being made for another expedition to the Mt. Katmai district in Alaska, under the auspices of the National Cico- graphic Society- Professor Robert F. Griggs, of the Ohio State Ihnversit)^ is director of the expedition, which will consist of photo- graphic, surveying, topographic, and scientific parties. The scientific work will include studies of the revegetation of country devastated by aslifalls, and the /.oology of the region at the foot of the Valley of Ten Thousand vSmokes. In addition, a cooperating party from the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, consisting of Iv. T. Allen, C. N. Fenner, and K. G. Zies, will study the physics and chemistry of the fumaroles and the petrology of the Valley. The expedition will leave in May and return in vSeptember. A joint influenza committee has just been created to study the recent epidemic and to make comparable, so far as possible, the influenza data gathered by the government departments. The members of this committee are: Dr. William H. Davis, chairman, and Mr. C. vS. Sloane, representing the Bureau of the Census; Dr. Wade H. Frost and Mr. Edgar vSydenstricker of the Public Health vService; Col. D. C. Howard, Col. F. F. Russell and Lieut. Col. A. G. Love, United States Army; Lieut. Commander I. R. Phblps and Surgeon Carroll Fox, Ihiited States Navy. The proposed American vSocicty of Mammalogists has issued an invitation to join in a movement to organize a society for the promotion of the interests and study of mammalogy. It is intended that the society shall devote itself to the subject in a broad way, including studies of habits, life histories, evolution, ecology, and other phases. Plans call for the publication of a journal in which both popular and technical matter shall be presented, for holding meetings, both general and sectional, aiding research and engaging in such other activities as may be deemed expedient. The organization meeting will be held in the New National Museum, Washington, D. C, April 3 and 4, 1919, sessions commencing at 10.00 a.m. and 2.00 p.nu No program of papers has been planned for this meeting. The Committee on Organization is: Hartley H. T. Jackson, Chairman, U. vS. Biological Survey; Walter P. Taylor, Secretary, U. S. Biological Survey; GlovER M. AllEn, Boston Society of Natural History; J. A. Allen, American Museum of Natural History; Joseph Grinnell, University of California; N. Hollister, National Zoological Park; Arthur H. Howell, U. vS. Biological Survey; Wilfred II. Osgood, Field Museum of Natural History; Edward A. Preble, U. vS. Biological vSurvey; Witmer Stone, Academy of Natural vSciences of Philadelphia. Mr. A. A. Benedict, formerly of the Liniversity of Pittsburgh, has joined the staflf of the Bureau of Standards as physicist in the sugar laboratory. 179 l8o SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Tlie following members of the Chemical Warfare Service have joined the stafif of the Bureau of Standards since January: Captain J. M. Braham, in the electrochemical laboratory; Lieut. C. W. Clifford, sugar laboratory; S. C. Langdon, electrochemical laboratory; F. W. Rp:ynolds (formerly at Edgewood Arsenal), laboratory of metallurgical chemistry; P. WrightsmaxV, gas laboratory. Mr. J. R. Eckman, formerly of the Ordnance Department, has joined the stafT of the Bureau of Standards as chemist in the analytical laboratory. Dr. Graham Edgar, formerly secretary of the Washington office of the Research Information Service, National Research Council, has resigned and is now with the Nitrate Division of the Ordnance Depart- ment of the Army. Mr. Gordon S. Fulcher is his successor as secre- tary of the Information Service. Dr. C. vS. Hudson, Chief of the Carbohydrate Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistr}^ resigned from the Bureau on February 12, 1 91 9, and is now with the Samuel Heath Company, of Trenton, New Jersey. Col. E. Lester Jones, after service in the Army for about a year, both in America and France, has returned to his duties as head of the Coast and Geodetic vSurvey. Dr. Chester N. Myers, organic chemist of the Hygienic Labora- tory, Public Health Service, resigned from the Service early in March, to organize a research laboratory for H. A. Metz and Company, manu- facturers of local anesthetics and arsenicals, in Brooklyn, N. Y. Mr. W. B. Newkirk, formerly with the Oxnard vSugar Company, has joined the staff of the Bureau of vStandards as sugar technologist. Capt. E. H. Pagenhart, of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, is now stationed at Fort Barrancas, Pensacola, Florida. Captain L. L. vSteet.E, of the Ordnance Department, II. vS. A., has joined the staff of the Bureau of Standards as chemist in the varnish laboratory. ISIr. A. F. Stevenson, sanitary chemist with the Hygienic Labora- tory, Public Health Service, resigned from the vService on March i, to go into commercial research work in New York City. Mr. C. W. Stratford, formerly of the Tidewater Oil Company, has recently come to the Bureau of Standards to take charge of an extensive investigation on the general subject of lubrication, with particular reference to the lubrication of internal combustion engines. A Coast and Geodetic Survey party, under the direction of O. W. Swainson, is at work on the triangulation and topographic surveying of the Virgin Islands, recently acquired from Denmark. Mr. E. D. WalEN, who for the past three years has been chief of the Textile Section of the Bureau of Standards and has been engaged in war research on the development of cotton fabrics as a substitute for linen for use in airplane wing surfaces, resigned from the Bureau in February and is now with the Textile Research Corporation at Boston, Massa- chusetts. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 APRIL 4, 1919 No. 7 OPTICS. — Trigonometric computation formulae for meridian rays. P. V. Wells, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by S. W. Stratton.) The design of optical instruments is notoriously so laborious and complicated that any simplification of notation, or shortening of labor, is important. By far the largest amount of labor is spent in tracing the actual path of selected rays through the tentative system by means of the trigonometric formulae. These formulae are simplest for logarithmic computation when referred to the center of curvature of the refracting surface instead of to its vertex. This is doubtless known to many designers but as I have not seen it in the literature, it may be useful to others. The resulting formulae, using the notation defined in figure i , where the subscript k refers to the k'th surface are: sin ^K = 7~ sin a^ (i) Where Ck = Tk sin d^ — sin ^K (2) «K+1 = «K + ^K — ^K (3) sin d'^ ^ sm a^+i {4) Ck + 1 = Ck + dcK (5) Uk, Ck = Tk— Uk, and dcK = d^ + r^+i- - Tk {6) i8i l82 wells: formulae for meridian rays Fig. I. — ^NoTATioN. Symbols referring to the object-space are unprinied, to the image-space are primed, the image-space for the k'th surface becoming the object-space for the (k -f i)'th surface. k'th refracting surface. Hk = index of refraction, object-space, n^ = index of refraction, image-space. vertex distances, i'k = VkCk = radius of curvature. Uk = VrOk = object distance. VkO^ = image distance. Ck = OkCk = object distance (to center). C„ = O^Ck = image distance (to center). ds = VkVk + 1 = interval between vertices. dcK = CnCK-f 1 = interval between centers. slope angles. slope angle of normal at incidence point. "K = BkOkVk = slope angle of incident ray. a = BkO'Vk = slope angle of refracted ray. A Ok = OrBkCk = angle of incidence. e' = O' BkCk = angle of refraction. hg = DkBk = incidence height (measured positively upward). identities. uk = uk :T:r: — • _. 1/ /.. > ^ a • ('^) WHLLS: FORMUI.au for MliRIDIAN RAYS 1 83 There are two special cases which require consideration: (i) when Uk is infinitely great, and (2) when r^ is large (greater than ten times the focal length) . In the first case, since is large. This is evident from an expression of sin ^^41 which may easily be derived from (4), (5), and (/), namely rK+i sin ^K+i = Tk sin 4 + dcK sin a^+i- When a^^i is small, ^^+1 is determined by 0^ Q-i^d the r's. The angles 6 and a are both small only when r is large, a case which has just been considered in formula (8). The theory of optical instruments is burdened by too much diversity in matters of convention. It seems inadvisable to depart from the time-honored conventions of geometry and trigonometry. Thus distances measured from left to right, 184 wells: kormulaic for meridian rays and angles measured by anti-clockwise rotation, arc taken as positive in the notation of this paper. The vertex of each surface is taken as the origin for its radius and for the object and image distances in refraction at that surface. The slope angles are measured from the rays in to the optic axis, and from the normal (to the surface at the incidence point) in to the axis, and the angles of incidence and refraction are measured from the rays in to the normal. Hence r and if, u and a, n' and a', and d and d' group in pairs having like sign. As r is measured toward the center of curvature, it is convenient to measure both c and c' toward the center. They are defined by equations (O), which have the advantage of sym- metry as regards the signs of u and c. The quantities — , r^, and dj^ are constants for each surface, and their logarithms may be computed in a special column, copied on a slip of paper, and used directly for all rays. Sim- ilarly the logarithms of the ratios may be separately com- puted for each wave-length and used for all the rays of the same color. For paraxial rays the angles d and a are small quantities of the first order, so that sin d may be replaced by d, and cos Q by unity. In this case the B's and as may be eliminated from equations (7) to {4), giving the Gauss formula l^K ^K Ck , . Hk+i Tk - (nK+, - nKJCK If one must work alone, the constants may be checked by com- puting the paraxial rays both by (/) to {4), replacing the sines by the angles, and also by (//). Decimal trigonometric tables are most convenient, such as those published by the French government. COBLENTZ: NOTE ON COEFFICIENT OF RADIATION 1 85 RADIATION. — Note on the coefficient of total radiation of a tmiformly heated enclosure. W. W. Coblentz, Bureau of Standards. Under the above title the writer pubhshed^ a value of the so-called vStefan-Boltzmann constant of radiation from a uni- formly heated enclosure or so-called black body. The value is 0- = 5.72 X 10-'- =t 0.012 watt cm"'- deg~^ It is based upon about 600 measurements, made with 10 receivers, which are summarized in table 6 of a previous publication.- The data obtained with receivers nos. 8 and 9 were not included because the apparatus was defective. The data obtained with these 10 receivers were corrected for radiation lost by reflection, which loss amounts to 1.2 per cent for receivers covered with lampblack (soot) and 1.7 per cent for receivers covered with platinum black. It does not include a set of measurements made on an unblackened radiator. The reflection from a re- ceiver covered with platinum black, then smoked, is 1.2 per cent. These corrections were determined by direct measure- ments upon some of the receivers and by comparison of the sur- faces of the other receivers with samples of lampblack whose reflection losses had been determined in a previous investiga- tion.'' Experiments were made on atmospheric absorption and it was shown that if any correction to these data for atmospheric absorption is to be made, it can hardly be greater than o.i per cent. Recently a new determination' of this radiation constant was brought to my attention, and in view of the fact that this paper contains inaccurate statements concerning my own work a few comments are permissible. For example, the statement is made that the only novelty in the apparatus employed by Coblentz and Emerson {loc. cit.) was a thermopile with a contin- uous receiving surface, which is of secondary importance. As a ' Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci, 3: 504. 191 7. - Coblentz and Emerson. Bull. Bur. vStand. 12: 549. 19 16. » Bull. Bur. Stand. 9: 283. 1913- * Kahanowicz. Nuovo Cimento (6) 13: 142. 1917. 1 86 COBLENTZ: NOTE ON COEI^'FICIENT OI^ RADIATION matter of fact, the crucial part of the apparatus was a receiver with potential terminals attached thereto, at a sufficient distance from the ends to avoid the question of heat conduction to the electrodes. These potential wires, which were from 0.003 mm. to 0.02 mm. in diameter, accurately defined the length of the central part of the receiver which was utilized in the measure- ments. By exposing the whole length of the receiver to radia- tion, conduction losses did not enter the problem. The writer is not aware of anyone having used a similar apparatus which compares with this receiver in nicety of construction, and re- producibility of results under given conditions. The receiver used by Kahanowicz was placed at the center of a spherical mirror, with an opening in one side to admit radia- tion. In this manner the correction for reflection was elimi- nated. The shutter was close to the receiver. If its tem- perature was different from that of the water-cooled diaphragm, which was before the radiator, errors in the radiation measure- ments would occur. As mentioned in my previous papers, the shutter should be placed between the water-cooled dia- phragm and the radiator, to avoid a change in surroundings facing the receiver when the shutter is raised for making the radiation measurements. The temperature range was from 260° C. to 530° C. The distance from the radiator to the re- ceiver was 35 to 55 cm. A series of 28 measurements gave an average value of o- = 5.61 X io~^- watt cm~'- deg~'. Of this number 1 1 gave a value of 0- = 5.7. Out of a series of 4 measure- ments made in Decemljer, 1916, with the distance d = ^6 cm., three gave a value of cr — 5.7. No corrections were made for atmospheric absorption, which for the temperatures used is not neghgible. In a previous paper'' it was shown that on removing the moisture (va])or pressure of 10 to 12 mm.) from a column of air 52 cm. in length, the radiation constant was increased from a = 5.41 to 5.55 or about 2.6 per cent. For the spectral region transmitted by rock salt, to X = 15M, the absorption is about i percent.*^ Other * Bull. Bur vStand. 12: 576. 1916. See table 3, series CI,XXX to CLXXXII. * Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. Loc. cit. KENDALL: WHAT CHARACTERS DISTINGUISH SPECIES? 187 measurements mentioned in these papers indicate an absorp- tion of 2 to 3 per cent of the radiations emitted at 1000° C. for the average humidity of Washington. Dr. H. H. Kimball, of the U. S. Weather Bureau, very kindly sent me comparative data, showing that the vapor pressures at Naples are considerably higher than at Washington. From these data it would appear that the correction for atmospheric ab- sorption must be at least i per cent. For the low temperatures at which the radiator was operated, a fair estimate of the cor- rection to the radiation data obtained by Kahanowicz is 1.5 to 2 per cent, or a value of o- = 5.69 to 5.72 X io~^^ watt cm~- deg~^. In other words, the Naples value of the coefficient of total radiation is comparable with other recent determinations which indicate a value of o- = 5.7 X lo"^'^ watt cm~- deg~^ BIOLOGY. — What kind of characters distinguish a species from its subdivisions?^ William C. Kendall, Bureau of Fisheries. I do not claim to be an authority on Taxonomy, although I have labored to some extent in Systematic Ichthyology, which for a long time was to me a game of "follow the leader," and in which game, it may be said, I was a "bhnd" follower. The fixed views of my leaders, regarding what kind of char- acters should constitute species and subspecies respectively, seemed thoroughly reasonable and logical, but when independ- ently I attempted to apply them in practice, I found myself in a dense fog from which I have not yet emerged. Briefly stated, a species was such by virtue of possessing one or more "distinct and constant" characters distinguishing it from all other species. These characters might be pronounced or shght, but if "constant'' entitled the form so characterized to a binomial label. Of course if there was only one specimen, which was commonly the case, the above specific condition was fulfilled. If, however, two forms, which, if observed by themselves in two separate localities, would seem to be distinct species, should 1 Remarks at the Symposium at the meeting of the Biological Society, Saturday, March 8, 1919- 1 88 KENDALL: WHAT CHARACTERS DISTINGUISH SPECIES? be found to intergrade geographically in characters from one terminus to the other, the one later described or named should be regarded as a subspecies and be given a trinomial name. My preceptors further impressed upon me that a species and its subspecies could not develop in exactly the same environment. I further learned that two forms though differing but slightly and suspected of intergradation should continue to be regarded as distinct species until intergradation should be proved. As previously indicated, I subscribed to all this and am still willing to accept those dicta as gospel, and let them go at that. But the fog still hangs low. For that reason I cannot throw any light upon the question before us tonight. Beyond that which I have just stated no definite plan of procedure seems to have been advanced by any ichthyologist. In fact there seems to be no uniformity and little consistency in ichthyological classification, especially as pertains to species and the minor divisions of species. I have more than once read or heard it stated that there is no such thing as species. If this be so, it would seem that there is a widely prevalent illusion and the systematists are seeing things. This would seem to be borne out by the fact that even certain recognized leaders appear to adhere to no definite system. In the same work one may find subspecies, species, and even genera based upon exactly the same kind or degree of differences, also good and valid species, according to the previously mentioned definition, considered identical with another species. Unfortunately, or rather, fortunately if you please, we are limited to two sorts of names for the minor divisions of classi- fication: binomial for species; trinomial for subspecies. As I conceive of the objects of nomenclature, it is to afford a means of concisely designating certain situations. In regard to this point the question before us tonight seems to me to be: How many of the various situations, if more than one, shall be included in the binomial and how many in the trinomial designation? For it must be recognized that if the previously mentioned definitions of species and subspecies are accepted without modifications or limitation, there are several situations for which no provision has been made. Kendall: what characters distinguish species? 189 Ichthyologically, I, myself, discern two kinds of phantoms, which I designate as species. One is a taxonomic species, the other a natural species. At times they may blend into one but not always. Both conform to the definition given by my leaders and both imply development of one form from another, but there are two lines of development or derivation to be con- sidered which I will designate as horizontal and vertical. The first refers to derivation, development, and relationships on the surface plane of a given time, past or present. The second, to derivation and development in time from the past to the present. Any cross-section of the vertical will present a horizontal plane of development. In taxonomic considerations of species and their subdivisions of living fishes, the tendency appears to be to regard them in their horizontal aspect. That is, in their relations to each other in the period of time in which they exist. If the vertical is considered at all it is usually as though the organism of the past was the same as the present. For instance, it is stated that Salmo salar sehago is derived from Salmo salar, as though the parent stock was the same as the Atlantic salmon of today. It may or may not have been. That is a point to be considered vertically. My meaning may become clearer if we imagine a longitudinal section through the vertical from the past to the present time. During some period of time, recent or remote, through limita- tions to interbreeding and other causes, it is conceivable that two horizontal extremes developed differences of character which graded in toward the center. The persistence to the present time of these interbreeding connections constitute a perfect intergradation geographically between the two extremes of the present time. Again, it is conceivable that by expansion geographically of one or the other or both of the differentiating extremes, there is an actual or relative contraction of the in- termediate connections. In other words, there is a tendency toward segregation of the extremes through weakening of the interbreeding connections. Both phylogenetically and taxonomically in this situation at the present time there can be only one species, not withstand- 190 KENDALL: WHAT CHARACTERS DISTINGUISH SPECIES? ing the fact, that, if we were ignorant of the existence of the connecting forms, the two extremes would be sufficiently dif- ferent to be regarded as distinct taxonomic species. Phylogenetically the form at the center of distribution would typify the species. The fact that one extreme or the other may be the center of distribution does not affect the question. Un- fortunately the species of the present-day taxonomist is often already named and may have come from any point in the hy- pothetical area mentioned. It may or may not be one or the other extremes or it may or may not represent the center of distribution. Consequently a subdivision of the species may in like manner represent almost any point more or less remote from the locality represented by the taxonomic species. In fact, accord- ing to his niceties of discrimination or his idiosvncrasies, one might make any number of subspecies, or whatever subdivisions of a taxonomic species it is decided to call these geographical representatives of a single natural species. Now, if the two lines of differentiation, previously mentioned as developing at each margin or extreme in more or less remote time, should gradually separate, leaving a gap in the intergrada- tion thus restricting the interbreeding to two independent lines of further development, which proceed without further interruption to the present time, they would result in two re- lated natural species, conforming to the specific taxonomic definition of species of the aforesaid authorities. The degree of difference between these two species would depend, partly at least, upon the remoteness of the period of divergence. One of these independent lines, at one period or another, may have repeated either one or both of the previously mentioned situations. The more recent the divergence, the less distinct the differences, until at the present time they are perhaps almost indistinguishable from the first mentioned horizontal or real intergradation. In fact, they may be quite indistinguishable to the systematist having before him only small collections or col- lections from a few localities only. Again, suppose that, in some past period of time, more or less remote, a small portion of one of the main divergent lines of KENDALL: WHAT CHARACTERS DISTINGUISH SPECIES? I9I development, progressing without a differentiation at the margin, should be segregated — -put off at a way station, so to speak — and, by virtue of little or no change of environment, should be retarded or arrested in its phylogenetic development. Then suppose that, at a later period, similar segregation takes place, which for like reasons is also retarded or arrested. Both of these forms, persisting in their isolation and limited inter- breeding to the present day, to the horizontal observer would appear as two intermediate forms, that is to say, connecting links between the respective species resulting from each of the main lines of phylogenetic development, previously referred to. The result of the first mentioned segregation would resemble the species at the present end of the main line other than the one resulting from the line in which the segregation originated, more nearly than would the result of the later segregation. So, although they appear as intermediate forms between ex- isting species, they are not. They represent, rather, vertical intermediates between the common ancestral stock and the one species at the present end of the line from which they them- selves were segregated. They form no intergradation, continuous nor interrupted, between the living species, but between an ancestral species different from the present species, and are, therefore, living fossils as it were. They may have, and probably did pursue, some small degree of development themselves. They should, I believe, be regarded as distinct species. In my hypothesis I have designated only two of this latter character. There might be many. The more there are, the more difficult would it be to recognize the situation. But when the intergradation is interrupted, as it is in these instances, and particularly where each form is somewhat isolated at the present time, as in such instances it is likely to be, I believe that specific definition of my leaders fit the cases. The inter- ruptions are represented by certain characters, which, whether little or great, entitle the forms to specific designation. They are natural species and should be thus taxonomically recognized. There occur to me two other situations that might be, in fact have been, mistaken for real intergradations. 192 cook: evolution through normal diversity One is due to the intermingling and interbreeding of two closely related species. It represents a reunion across lots of long separated relatives. Of course, the intergrading forms are hybrids and there is no question regarding the distinctness of the species producing them or the designations of the results of their crossing. The real problem is in recognizing the situation. The other situation is that of degradation due to degeneration of certain characters. The irregularity of distribution of the various degrees of such degeneration, and the fact that all de- grees, from apparently perfect individuals to extreme degenera- tion of parts or characters, are sometimes found in one locality, suggest physiological or pathological causes and are individual rather than specific or subspecific in their significance. Such forms are even now recognized as species or subspecies, but with no more justification than there would be in regarding a group of human beings affected with alopecia as constituting a distinct race. "A man's a man for a' that." The foregoing hypothetical situations are all represented among fishes today, but are generally not correctly interpreted. Only correct diagnoses of these cases render practicable the uniform application of the previously mentioned definitions of species and subspecies. Then, "true intergradation" designates sub- species. All the other situations are specific. EVOLUTION. — Evolution through normal diversity. O. F. Cook, Bureau of Plant Industry. Mr. F. L. Lewton, of the United vStates National Museum, has brought to my attention a paper by Thomas Meehan, which contains the following passage : The observations on this plant {Impatiens fulva) confirm records I have made during the past quarter of a century that there is an innate power to vary coexistent with the species itself, independent of any conditions of environment. This may be granted without prejudice to the proposition that changes can and do occur at times by the in- fluence of environment, for which there is abundant evidence. It seems proper to present the strong facts on the former side, because of the modem tendency to exalt the latter as the prime motor in evolu- tion.^ * Contribution to the life-histories of plants, No. X. Proc. Acad Phila. 1894: 53. cook: evolution through normal diversity 193 The statement and its context are significant, and the issue is fundamental, though obscured by much deductive reasoning. Inheritance of "acquired characters," the changes that are directly imposed or induced by the environment, is no longer credited, but the environment is still supposed to cause evolu- tionary changes indirectly, through the medium of selection. It has been argued in many ways that evolution must be due to environmental causes, but such inferences do not visualize against a biological background. Not only is current dialectic unclear in failing to recognize elementary distinctions between causal and conditional relations, but essential facts continue to be neglected and dangerous applications entertained, such as the theory of natural selection used in Germany to justify the war. Historical interest may be claimed for the passage from Mee- han on account of the definite recognition of normal diversity. The expression "power to vary" may be misunderstood as assuming a mysterious "principle" or hidden "mechanism of evolution," but evidently it refers to the concrete, visible fact of diversity as the general and normal condition among the mem- bers of species. "The variations must be from some natural law of evolution inherent in the plant itself" was an earlier expression of the same idea that normal evolutionary diversity is a general fact, not determined by environment.^ Darwin recognized variation as a general fact, but he was wont to consider the environment as the cause, and the belief in environmental causation became completely dominant in the minds of many of his followers. Meehan's conception of varia- tion as independent of the environment was framed many years in advance of the formal recognition of heterism or normal di- versity among the members of species as a general evolutionary fact. Owing to the preponderance gained by the Darwinian interpretation, the word variation had come with many writers to refer almost exclusively to differences of accommodation to environmental conditions. The new word heterism seemed 2 T. MbEhan. On the agency of insects in obstructing evolution. Proc. Acad. Phila. 1872: 237. 194 cook: evolution through normal diversity necessary as a means of referring definitely to the class of dif- ferences which Meehan had described as "innate," "inherent," and "coexistent with the species itself." In proposing the name heterism additional examples were given, and the phenom- enon was associated with more specialized forms of diversity that are admitted generally to be independent of the environ- ment, as sexes, castes, and dimorphic or pfflymorphic species.^ Darwin had made much of the agency of' insects in develop- ing the highly specialized floral organs of orchids and other plants, and such adaptive specializations had been accepted as evidence that the environment, acting through natural selec- tion, is the active agent in evolution. Meehan 's observations and reasoning led to the opposite view, that crossing by insects would tend to keep the species uniform, and would thus interfere with evolution, instead of carrying it forward. To him it ap- peared that special characters might develop more rapidly if peculiar strains were kept separate, instead of being crossed by insects. Efforts have been made to demonstrate the power of selec- tion to induce changes of characters, but without finding any consistent evidence. Progress appears to be made in cases where the desired variations occur, but there is nothing to show that variations in a particular direction can be induced by dint of selection, after a pure-bred stock has reached a condition of uniformity. vStatistical investigators often assume that causal effects are demonstrated by proving that the average of any particular character can be raised by selective elimina- tion, but it remains to be shown that there is anything definitely evolutionary in the shifting of averages. To hold logically the idea that selection is the actuating cause of evolution, it must be assumed that the selective elimination or cutting away of one character or part of a species causes the other^ parts to vary farther away from the selective stress, an assumption not supported by definite evidence. Apart from the mutation theory, the alternatives of selective causation of evolution are the Lamarckian idea of direct influence ^ O. F. Cook. Aspects of kinetic evolution. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. 8: 244. 1907. cook: evolution through normal diversity 195 of the environment, to which Darwin himself often incHned, and the idea of spontaneous variation within the species put forward by Meehan in opposition to Darwin. As a hfelong observer, famihar with many genera and species and large numbers of living plants, Meehan was competent to give testi- mony and he took an important step beyond Darwin in perceiving that diversity inside the species is independent of the environ- ment. Nevertheless, the evolutionary bearing of diversity was still obscured because Meehan shared with Darwin the mistake of supposing that contrasted characters must tend to disappear, through the alleged "swamping effect of intercross- ing," an idea that continues to be accepted by many because it appears reasonable from mathematical or statistical points of view. Galton's "law of ancestral regression" has been taken as a mathematical demonstration of the reality of a swamping effect. In recent years the law of regression has been applied to al- ternative inheritance as well as to quantitative or blended char- acters, and no longer seems to require the assumption of an under- lying tendency for the members of an interbreeding group to reach a stable or uniform condition. Inheritance is seen to be alternative rather than equational, as shown by intensive studies of Mendelism and other methods of descent. Many divergent or contrasted characters persist in hybrid populations, instead of being obliterated or averaged away to uniformity. Even when the hybrid offspring are closely alike in the first or conjugate generation, ancestral differences may reappear undiminished in the perjugate generations. The so-called recessive characters that can be transmitted for many generations without coming into expression, as well as reversions or reappearances of characters of remote ancestors, afford striking evidence that transmission is distinct from ex- pression, and that transmission is permanent, while expression is readily changed. Phenomena of variation and diversity are largely differences of expression, including accommodations, or varied expressions of adaptive characters, to suit different conditions of existence. 196 cook: evoIvUTion through normal diversity It was necessary to discard the idea of diversity being lost through crossing, before it could be understood that new char- acters might be preserved in natural species without the indi- viduals being segregated, by selection or otherwise. Preserving the adaptive variations no doubt facilitates evolution in direc tions of increased fitness, but the argument from fitness is far from proving that changes of characters are caused by selection. We say that cold weather makes us put on overcoats, but not that overcoats are made by cold weather. Species become adapted through variation. Each separate group is a distinct evolutionary system for developing new characters, some of adaptive value and others not. How characters are originated and preserved in transmission are questions that relate to the mechanism of heredity, but the nature of the mechanism of evolution is obvious. A very effective way of extending and combining any characters that variation may afford is provided by the organization of each species into a continuous fabric of lines of descent, united through sexual reproduction.^ Endless individual diversity results from the continued de- velopment and gradual diffusion of inherited characters among the members of a species. To find the diagnostic characters, those that are shared by all the members of one species but are absent from related species, often requires very patient and per- sistent work by systematists. Sometimes it is impossible to determine, even from many specimens, whether one species or more than one is represented. The groups must be canvassed in nature to learn whether they are continuous or not, so great and multifarious are the individual differences, while the general similarities are obscure and difficult to state. With diversity accepted as a normal and general condition in species, evolution is seen as a process of continous integration and differentiation of characters. The two essential conditions of evolutionary progress are normal diversity (heterism) and free intercrossing of lines of descent (symbasis), as in natural •* O. F. Cook. The vital fabric of descent. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. 7: 301-323. 1906. See also, Methods and causes of evolution, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. PI. Ind. Bull. 136. 1908. cook: evolution through normal diversity 197 species of plants and animals. The most familiar example of heterism is the individual diversity of mankind, but the same condition is recognized as soon as we become sufficiently familiar with the members of other species of animals or plants. Di- versity is reduced or eliminated temporarily by selective breed- ing, or propagation in single or narrow lines, but reappears when the natural condition of free interbreeding is restored. Instead of tending to impede evolution, intercrossing of lines of descent in species presents a condition most favorable for the preservation and extension of new characters. The develop- ment of multitudes of useless differences is the best evidence of spontaneous development of useful characters. "The prime motor in evolution," to use Meehan's words, "is an innate power to vary, coexistent with the species itself, independent of any conditions of environment." Laboratory geneticists may believe that species consist nor- mally of uniform, identical individuals, or may suppose that the members of species tend to become uniform or to remain uni- form if placed under the same environmental conditions, but these assumptions are not based on familiarity with natural species. Theories may be projected and logical systems de- duced from the assumption of uniformity, as though a world of uniform species really existed, just as mathematicians follow relations of symbols into space of four dimensions. Facts are often obscured by elaboration of conventional ideas. Wider application of biology in agriculture, eugenics, and sociology awaits clearer perception and presentation of the underlying evolutionary and environmental relations. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. PHYTOPATHOLOGY.— Some of the broader phy to pathological prob- lems in their relation to foreign seed and plant introduction. Beveri^y T. Galloway. Phytopathology 8: No. 3. March, 1918. In this paper the author briefly reviews the progress in organized coordinated medical sanitation and emphasizes the results in their relation to plant sanitation; outlines the history of plant-exclusion legislation and points out its bearing on systematic foreign seed and plant introduction; and describes the present intensive work for the protection of new plant introductions against diseases and other enemies and suggests the approaching necessity of similar work for the country at large. Certain principles are recognized in the work of the Office of Foreign vSeed and Plant Introduction: ( 1 ) That the work is international, and the broad phytopathological problems require world-wide consideration and study from the economic as well as from the phytopathological standpoint. (2) That regulatory and restrictive measures, which are only pallia- tive at best, must be internationalized to be most effective, and as such measures are generally highly profitable when properly administered they should receive the best support. (3) That the science of plant hygiene, or the study of crops in re- lation to environment, offers the broadest field for research and applied science, and that this science will doubtless supplant many prevailing practices in phytopathology as preventive treatment is supplanting curative practices of the old-school physician. The need of phytopathological surveys — local, national, and inter- national— is strongly evidenced in the agricultural exploration work, so strongly in fact that the question arises as to whether the risk of introducing injurious diseases and insects is not too great to warrant general agricultural explorations and consequent seed and plant in- troductions, with no check except the necessarily imperfect examinations after the material arrives. 198 abstracts: genetics 199 Agricultural exploration and introduction work is an important function of the Government, but the time seems to be approaching when these explorations should be back-grounded by phytopathological surveys or the explorations and phytopathological work done simul- taneously. Theoretically plants should be free from diseases and in- sects, and, although theoretically only, there is no reason why efforts should not be made to approach the ideal conditions in this respect. The development of some phases of plant hygiene will require com- bined effort and coordinated action of pathologists and others. Syste- matic world-wide studies of the botanical relationships of some of our principal crops seem desirable, not only to obtain a foundation for intelligent action regarding the economic use of plants, but to aid in supplying material with which to fight our present plant enemies. The gradual shifting of plant industries from one region to another is also an interesting study and is due in many cases to lack of proper appreciation or understanding of plant sanitation. Sanitation as a phase of hygiene must be considered. The removal of many causes of disease is practicable, but a vast amount of educational work must be done in this field before effective action can be secured. The in- dividual can accomplish much, but only through the vState can far- reaching results be brought about. The State, however, is moved in such matters only by a groundswell of public opinion, and the best way to create a groundswell for plant sanitation is to bring the individual grower to a realization of its importance in all phases of his work. B. T. G. GENETICS. — A study of hybrids in Egyptian cotton. Thomas J. Kearney and Walton G. Wells. Amer. Nat. 52 : 491-506. Oct.-Nov., 1918. Hybrids were made between two varieties of Egyptian cotton, Pima and Gila, both of which had presumably originated by mutation. The two varieties, as represented by the progenies grown from selfed seed of the individuals which were the parents of the hybrids, differed sig- nificantly in their means for some two dozen characters. Most of these are size or shape characters. The parental ranges for nearly all charac- ters overlapped considerably. With very few exceptions, the means of the simple intervarietal hybrids, in the first, second, and third generations, fell between the parental means. The ^/s backcrosses obtained by twice crossing the 200 abstracts: zoology simple hybrid with either parent were practically identical with the preponderant parent in the means and ranges of the characters studied. The simple hybrids showed little or no evidence of dominance in the Fi nor of segregation in definite ratios in the F2, the Fo distribu- tions having been, practically without exception, unimodal. None of the hybrid plants appreciably exceeded the combined parental ranges in respect to any character, while in the F2 of wider crosses, e. g., between Egyptian and Upland cottons, extraparental characters are abundantly expressed. The second and third generations of the simple hybrids, as compared with the parents after two and three generations of selfing, were not more variable than the more variable Gila parent and were only a little more variable than the Pima parent. This points to the possibility of obtaining relatively stable and uniform recombinations of the desira- ble characters of varieties belonging to the same general type, while breeders have found it well-nigh impossible to "fix" wider crosses such as those of Egyptian (or Sea Island) with Upland cotton. T. H. K. ZOOLOGY. — The criterion of suhspecific inter gradation in vertebrate zoology. Harry C. Oberholser. Science, n. ser. 48: 165-167. 1918. Intergradation is now generally accepted as the criterion of zoological subspecies. What constitutes subspecific intergradation, however, seems to be still debatable, particularly that kind of intergradation represented by individual variation in a form geographically separated from all other races of the species. This is illustrated by the case of Aphelocoma calijornica and Aphelocoma calif ornica sumichrasti, the ranges of which are widely separated by intervening forms which have not, in all cases, direct geographic intergradation, although the individual variation in the latter overlaps that in the former. If in such cases we are to consider the two forms as distinct species, we must, to be consistent, treat all island and isolated alpine forms as distinct species however slightly and inconstantly they may be differentiated. The logical course, however, seems to be to consider this individual varia- tion as equivalent to contiguous geographical intergradation, and thus regard individual variation as one of the chief criterions of subspecific intergradation. H. C. O. abstracts: ornithology 201 MAMMALOGY. — The Wisconsin Napaeozapus. Hartley H. T- Jackson. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 9-10. February 14, 1919. The cooperative field work of the U. S. Biological Survey and Wis- consin Geological and Natural History Survey during the summers of 191 7 and 1918 resulted in the collection of seven specimens of Nap- aeozapus from four localities in northern Wisconsin. This is a definite westerly extension of the previously known geographic range of the genus. The Wisconsin animal represents a clearly defined form which is named Napaeozapus insignis frutectanus. H. H. T. J. ENTOMOLOGY. — The case of the genera Rhina and Magdalis. W. DwiGHT Pierce. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 20: No. 4. Pp. 72-78. September 27, 191 8. This article straightens out a peculiar nomenclatorial tangle of these two genera, and gives tables of the subgenera of Magdalis and of the North American species of the genus. This is the first attempt at a coordination of the European and American classifications of this group. W. D. P. ORNITHOLOGY.— r/t^ migration of North American birds. III. The summer and hepatic tanagers, martins, and barn swallows. Harry C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 20: 145-152. 1918. The tables of migration data in this paper concern the following species, together with their subspecies: Piranga rubra, Piranga hepatica, Progne subis, and Hirundo rustica. By means of these tables it is possible to trace the migratory movements of these species both in spring and in autumn, from north to south. In addition, the breeding and winter ranges of each of the species and subspecies are given, together with the same information for Progne cryptoleuca and Progne chalybea, both of which, however, cannot be considered as of regular occurrence in North America. The average of arrival and departure at the various localities are in ^ome cases based on records extending over as many as thirty-two years, though in most cases considerably less. ' H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — The common ravens of North America. Harry C. Oberholser. Ohio Journ. Sci. 18: 213-225. May, 1918. The subspecies of the common raven, Corvus corax Linnaeus, are among the most difficult birds of the family Conndae. The differ- 202 abstracts: ornithology. ences characterizing them are almost wholly those of size and propor- tion, and, because great individual variation complicates the case, these are largely average distinctions and require series of specimens for proper elucidation. In the old world some sixteen or seventeen forms are at present recognized, but in North America currently only two, Corviis corax principalis of northern North America, with which the birds in the eastern United States are considered identical, and Corvus corax sinuatus of the western United States and Mexico. In addition to these, another smaller form, Corvus corax clarionensis , re- cently described from Clarion Island in the Revillagigedo group, of western Mexico, now appears to be the race inhabiting western North America from Lower California and Arizona to Oregon. The bird of eastern North America from Alabama to southern Labrador, and west to Minnesota and Arkansas, is described as a new race — Corvus corax europhilus. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — Birds observed near Minco, central Oklahoma. Alexander Wetmore. Wilson Bull. 30: 2-10,56-61. 1918. Lists of breeding birds from Oklahoma are particularly important since little information is available concerning the geographic distribu- tion of birds in this state. This contribution comprises notes on sixty -two species and subspecies, mostly breeding birds from the vicinity of Minco, in the central part of the State. The most interesting in- formation from a distributional standpoint is the residence here of Penthestes carolinensis agilis, Muscivora forficata, Agelaius phoeniceus predatorius, Dryobates pubescens medianus, and Thryomanes bewickii cry plus; and the occurrence during migration of Chordeiles minor henryi. Harry C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY. — Notes on the genus Puffinus Brisson. Harry C. Oberholser. The Auk 34: 471-475. October, 191 7. The notes in this paper relate to the generic groups, species, and sub- species currently included in the genus Puffinus Brisson, particularly such as concern North America. The new genus Calonectris, proposed by Mathews and Iredale for Puffinus leucomelas and Puffinus kuhlU, appears to be well characterized. The genus Ardenna Reichenbach is likewise tenable and includes Puffinus gravis O'Reilly, Puffinus creatopits Coues, and also Puffinus carneipes Gould, which has recently been made abstracts: technology 203 by Iredale the type of a new but untenable genus, HemipufUnus. For Puffiniis cimeaius Salvin and Puffinus chlororhynchus Lesson, a separate generic group seems necessary, for which the name Thyellodroma Stej- neger is available. Neither the proposed genus Alphapuffinus Mathews, to include Puffinus assimilis, Puffinus Iherminieri, and Puffinus persicus, nor Neonectris Mathews, proposed for Puffinus tenuirostris tenuirosiris, Puffinus tenuirostris brevicaudns, and Puffinus griseus, are generically separable from typical Puffinus. The action of Mathews in renaming the Puffinus opisthonielas of Coues as Puffinus couesi and the transfer- ence of the name Puffinus opisthomelas to the species commonly known as Puffinus auricularis proves to be unwarranted, since an examination of the types of both Puffinus auricularis and Puffinus opisthomelas show that they belong, respectively, to the species to which the names have commonly been applied. The Puffinus couesi of Mathews there- fore becomes a synonym of Puffinus opisthomelas Coues. Further- more, the subspecies of Thyellodroma cuneata (Salvin) recognized by Mr. Mathews prove to be, on re-examination of pertinent material, all un- tenable. H. C. O. TECHNOLOGY.— 7^0/wo/ recovery. R. vS. McBridij, C. K- Ruinickkr, and W. A. DunkIvEy. Bur. Stand. Tech. Paper No. 117. Pp. 60. 1918. The importance of high explosives in the present war has been amply demonstrated. Nearly all types of explosives are used in some way, but trinitrotoluol, commonly known as T. N. T., because of its high power and great stability, is one of the preferred explosives. As an important constituent in shells, T. N. T. is used both alone and mixed with other explosives. Especially for naval use it is used alone, be- cause the greater stability permits longer storage of the shells before use. On account of the great demand for T. N. T. there has grown up also a large demand for those materials for which it is made, espe- cially toluol. This material finds numerous applications in the chemical industries, but particularly it has been used in the manufacture of dye- stuffs and for the preparation of T. N. T. For this latter it is only necessary to treat the toluol with nitric acid under proper conditions in order to produce the explosive, which is then refined by appropriate means to such degree of purity as is required for the use for which it is intended. R. S. M. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF vSCIENCES The Board of Managers met on February 24, 191 9. Mr. Frederick V. CoviLLE was elected vice-president to represent the National Geo- graphic Society. A committee consisting of A. S. Hitchcock, Adoi^ph Knopf, and W. R. Maxon was appointed to recommend to the Board alternate plans for the sale of the Proceedings of the Academy. The meeting of the Board on March 10, 19 19, was devoted to the consideration of nominees for membership. Robert B. Sosman, Corresponding Secretary. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WAvSHINGTON The 134th regular meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., Tuesday, March 4, 1919. Forty-eight members and six guests were present. Mr. G. Hamilton Martin, Jr., of the Bureau of Plant Industry, was elected to membership. The program con- sisted of the following papers: A botanical trip to the Haivaiian Islands (with lantern) : Prof. A. S. Hitchcock. During the summer and fall of 191 6, the speaker visited the Hawaiian Islands, including in his travel the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kauai, Molokai, and Lanai. Hawaii, the largest island, is about 100 miles wide and contains about 4000 square miles. On this are the two highest peaks, Mauna Kea (13,825 feet) and Mauna Loa (13,675 feet), and the active volcano or lava pit, Kilauea. On Maui is the great crater of Haleakala, said to be the largest in the world. Honolulu is on Oahu; the Leper Colony on Molokai. The three important industries are the raising of sugar, stock, and pineapples. The ranches are located mostly on Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai, the largest being about 700,000 acres. As there are few streams or wells in the drier parts of the islands the water supply is, for the most part, rainwater stored in tanks. The introduced ornamental trees and shrubs are numerous and con- spicuous, and introduced weeds have supplanted the native flora in the vicinity of the inhabited parts of the island. xVmong the important or peculiar plants of the islands may be mentioned the koa {Acacia koa), a common and useful native forest tree; the algaroba {Prosopis jidijlora, introduced from America; the lobelias, consisting of about 100 species and 5 genera of Lobeliaceae, most of the species being 204 PROCIiEDINGS : BIOLOGICAL SOCmXY 205 arboreous and often palm-like in appearance; the silver sword {Ar- gyroxiphinm sandwicense) , a composite with beautiful silvery leaves, growing on the bare lava slopes of Haleakala; and the ape {Gunnera petaloidea) , of the family Halorrhagidaceae, with enormous circular leaf-blades. The ferns are very numerous in species and individuals, often dominating the flora, especially in wet regions. The tree ferns are conspicuous. They produce at the base of the leaf-stalk a mass of yellow wool called pulu, which is used for stuffing pillows. Vegetation of Paradise Key and the surrounding Everglades (with lantern) : Mr. W. E. Safford. Paradise Key, an island in the heart of the Everglades of Florida, nearly ninety miles south of Lake Oke- chobee, is of great biological interest, as an example, within the limits of the United States, of a subtropical jungle unspoiled by man. It is reached by automobile, or by train and automobile from Miami, thirty-seven miles to the northeastward. Though the temperature sometimes falls below freezing point, the mildness of its climate is attested by the presence of many tropical plants including a number of lofty royal palms whose crests may be seen from a distance above the sky line of the forest. These palms have given the name Royal Palm State Park to a tract of land including Paradise Key, some of the near-by marsh-land, and a corner of pine-land, granted to the Florida Federation of Women's Clubs by the State Legislature and afterwards augmented by the gift of a public-spirited woman. The paper, which is to be included in a forthcoming publication of the Smithsonian In- stitution, treats of the climate and physical geography, the various plant formations, including water-plants, plants of the marshes, marsh- loving shrubs, forest trees, lianas, epiphytes, and undershrubs, and con- tains a short account of some of the most interesting plants of the neighboring pine-lands, with reference to the interdependence of the animals and plants of the region discussed, their geographical dis- tribution and dissemination, and notes as to their economic importance to the aboriginal inhabitants of southern Florida. Chas. E. Chambliss, Recording Secretary. BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 592d meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, February 22, 1919; called to order at 8 p.m. by President Smith; 42 persons present. O. P. Hopkins, Washington, was elected to membership. Under the heading brief notes. Prof. A. S. Hitchcock and Dr. A. D. Hopkins called attention to a recently issued book on the birds of Colombia by Frank M. Chapman. The formal program was an address by the retiring president. Dr. J. N. Rose: Botanical explorations in Ecuador. Dr. Rose gave an account of his recent botanical explorations in Ecuador. He spent three months in that country during the past summer and obtained some 6000 botanical specimens. He made two 2o6 proceedings: entomological society sections from west to east, one from Guayaquil to Ambato and the other from Loja to Santa Rosa. He also traveled down the Andean Valley from San Antonio to Loja. He showed thirty slides made from photo- graphs obtained during this trip. One of these showed a house made of the giant bamboo which grows in the mountain canyons and which forms such an important material in the building of houses along the coast of Ecuador. Dr. Rose collected several species of cinchona, a plant which is in use for the manufacture of quinine. vSpecimens of cinchona bark, ivory nut, and various tropical fruits which had been preserved in formalin were on exhibition. Discussion by Messrs. H. M. Smith, A. D. Hopkins, A. S. Hitch- cock, R. M. LiBBEY and others. M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary. ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 320th regular meeting of the Society was held March 6, 191 9, in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. There were present t,T) members and 41 visitors. The minutes of the 319th meeting were read and approved. Messrs. Richard T. Cotton and J. C. Furman, both of the Bureau of Entomology, were elected to membership. The Corresponding Secretary called attention to notices that he had recently received, one from Martinus Nijhoflf of the Hague an- nouncing that, since the removal of the submarine menace, he is in position to fill old and new orders for literature; and one from the publishers of Genera inscctorum listing the parts already published, those to appear in 1919, and those that are out of print. The program for the evening consisted of moving pictures made 1)y the Department of Agriculture and showing the practical applica- tion of control measures against injurious insects. Dr. Howard gave a brief talk concerning the application of moving pictures to education and extension work in science especially as re- lating to agriculture and entomology. The first picture showed methods and apparatus for eradicating poultry pests and a form of sanitary poultry house. Dr. Pierce made a few preliminary remarks by way of explanation of this picture. The second picture illustrated the fumigation of citrous trees in California, and showed the various types of apparatus in use. The legends had not yet been inserted in this picture, and it was fully ex- plained as run off by Mr. vSasscER. The last picture showed the eradication of the pink boll worm of cotton in Texas. During the changing of the reels Mr. Busck gave a brief summary of the history of the invasion of this insect into the United States, and expressed the belief that the methods shown in the picture were responsible for the absolute extermination of this very serious pest from something over 10,000 acres of land. R. A. Cushman, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The "United States Fixed-Nitrogen Administration" has been or- ganized under the joint control of the Secretaries of War, Navy, In- terior, and Agriculture. It will be a civilian organization, and is de- signed to take over and operate all the federal government plants de- signed for the fixation of nitrogen and the manufacture of ammonia and nitric acid. William Bowie;, Major of Engineers, U. S. Army, was honorably discharged on February 28, 1919, and has resumed his duties as Chief of the Division of Geodesy, U. S. Coast and Geodetic vSurvev. Lieut. Paul C. Bowers, formerly with the Chemical Warfare Service in Washington, is now at the laboratories of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, at Wilmington, Delaware. Dr. Keivin Burns, of the Bureau of Standards, has returned after two months spent in visiting laboratories in Europe. Mr. F. C. Clark, of the paper and textile laboratories of the Bureau of Standards, left the Bureau in March and is now with the American Writing Paper Company, at Holyoke, Massachusetts. ISIessrs. Arthur L. Davis and H. H. Hield have been transferred from the Sheffield, Alabama, plant of the Nitrate Division, Army Ordnance, to the Arlington research laboratories of the Division. Mr. L. A. Fischer has returned to the Bureau of Standards to re- sume his duties as Chief of the Division of Weights and Measures. During the war he was commissioned Major in the Ordnance Depart- ment and was engaged in supervising the construction and use of muni- tions gages. Mr. E. W. Guernsey, formerly with the Chemical Warfare Service, is now at the research laboratories of the Brown Company, at Berlin, New Hampshire. Dr. John Johnston resigned as Executive vSecretary of the National Research Council in March, in order to accept an appointment as Professor of Chemistry in Yale University, at New Haven, Connecticut. Mr. J. O. Lewis, superintendent of the petroleum experiment station at Bartlesville, Oklahoma, has been appointed chief petroleum technolo- gist of the Bureau of Mines, to succeed Mr. Chester NaramorE, who has resigned from the Bureau to join the Union Petroleum Company, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Lieut. Gerald H. Mains has returned from active service in France to resume work at the Bureau of Chemistry. Dr. C. Hart Merriam has been elected chairman of the U. S. Geo- graphic Board, as successor to the late Andrew Braid. 207 2o8 .SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Prof. J. C. Merriam, of the University of California, lias returned to Washington to act as Chairman of the National Research Council. Mr. Robert L. Moore, of the Bureau of Standards, has been trans- ferred to the rubber laboratory- of the Bureau at the University of Akron, Akron, Ohio. Dr. James A. Nelson has resigned from the Bureau of Entomology to take up farming near Mt. Vernon, Ohio, retaining a connection with the Bureau as collaborator. Mr. John D. Northrop, of the Geological vSurvey, resigned at the end of January to enter the emplo)^ of an oil company at Cheyenne, Wyoming. Capt. U. W. Parsons, formerly with the Chemical Warfare Service, is now at the Research Uaboratory of Applied Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Capt. H. C. Porter, of the Ordnance Department, U. S. A., is now with the Chemical Service Laboratories, Incorporated, at West Con- shohocken, Pennsylvania. Lieut. Col. GIvEnn S. Smith sailed for the Dominican Republic in INIarch to make a preliminary inspection of topography with the pur- pose of organizing a topographic survey under the direction of the military government of the Republic. Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan, accompanied by D. D. CondiT, C. W. Cooke, and C. P. Ross, left New York on March 19 for the Dominican Republic, to make a preliminary inspection of the geology in prepara- tion for a geological survey under the direction of the military govern- ment of the Republic. Dr. H. S. Washington, of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution, has been elected a foreign member of the Reale Accademia dei Lincei of Rome. A new edition of the Directory of the Academy and its affiliated societies (the "Red Book") was distributed early in March. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 APRIL 19, 1919 No. 8 MATHEMATICS. — Straws due to temperature gradients, with special reference to optical glass. Erskine D. Williamson, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. In spite of the fact that the foundations of the mathematical theory of this subject were laid as long ago as 1879,^ observers have overlooked the simplicity of many of the results and their bearing on practical problems. vSome time ago we had occasion to evaluate the stresses that would occur in blocks of glass of various shapes under varying heat treatments and in the follow- ing pages we give the results obtained and some remarks on their interpretation. To get a concrete idea of the nature of the problems, con- sider a sphere of glass originally homogeneous which is being heated at a uniform rate. Under this heating condition there is set up a determinate temperature gradient such that the out- side layers are hotter than those inside. If the sphere were to consist of a number of detached spherical shells, these shells would separate, but if the sphere be solid, internal stresses are set up to counteract the separation effect. For mathematical purposes we may evidently consider these two actions as taking place separately, i.e., we may consider each element of the sphere as undergoing an expansion due to the temperature effect and then being brought back to its equilibrium position by internal stresses. ^ HoPKiNSON, J. Messenger of Math. 8: 168. 1879. 209 2IO WILLIAMSON: STRAINS IN OPTICAL GLASS A qualitative idea of the stresses can be immediately obtained. Suppose the black parts in figure i represent concentric shells which have become separated by the establishing of temperature differences from shell to shell. To bring these together again will require tensions radially in each of the white sections. The radial tension must increase from the center to the outside as each tension holds in the tension outside it. The effect will Fig. I. Concentric Shells. be radial stretching in all cases, but combined with the stretch- ing in each shell there will be a total displacement inwards or outwards for the outer and inner shells, respectively, and this will result in a change of circumference which will be a decrease for the outer shells and an increase for the inner. The super- position of these effects gives the total strain. MATHEMATICAL DISCUSSION OF PARTICULAR CASES I. Spherical shell with a temperature distribution which is symmetrical about the center. — Let the infinitesimal shell whose p radius is r become finally of radius r -f- p so that - = the tan- dp gential (or circumferential) strain and — = the radial strain. Let Pp represent the radial stress at that point and Pt the tan- WILLIAMSON: STRAINS IN OPTICAL GLASS 211 gential. A tension is considered as a positive and a thrust as a negative stress. Then ^ = ePr -f Pt-fPt + ad (i) and - - -f P, + e Pt-f Pt + ad (2) where 6 is the change in temperature from the initial condition of no stress, a is the coefficient of linear expansion and e and f are elastic constants for the substance. ^ The condition of equilibrium shows that r dPr Elimination of p and Pt yields d-P, , dFr 2 a dd r + 4 = • — dr- dr (e-f) dr and hence ,„ 2 ct r r^ i-^Pr = -J^^j r^e dr + Ci- + C, (4) where Ci and C2 are constants to be evaluated by the boundary conditions. Pt is then evaluated from equation (3). II. Solid sphere with a temperature distribution which is sym- metrical about the center. — This differs from the previous case only in the evaluation of the integration constants. C2must dd dP vanish as -j- and -r~ must be zero at r = o. dr dr Hence ,.r^ 2 a. C r^ r'P,=-(^3i)Jr^<'dr + Q- (5) III. Cylindrical shell or tube with temperature distribution symmetrical about the axis. — ^In this case we made the assumption that planes perpendicular to the axis remained plane. Except at the ends this is justified and in fact it was found to be com- I ^ f * Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio, for the substance in question are - and -. e e respectively . 212 WIIvI^IAMSON : STRAINS IN OPTICAL GLASS pletely justified so far as experiment^ was possible. If the stresses be Pi, P2, and P3, parallel to the axis, radially, and tangentially in the plane at right angles to the axis , respec- tively, and X be the displacement parallel to the axis of the element originally defined by the coordinates (x, r), the elastic equations are: dX -T' = ePi — fPo — fPa + ad = constant ox dp — =-fPi + eP.-fPa + ad - =-fPi-fP2 + ePs + ad dPo P3 = P2 + r f. dr Pi rdr = o The last two equations are necessary for mechanical equiUbrium dX . and the substitution of a constant for ^r^ is the form taken by the assumption mentioned above. Elimination yields ,dPi dd (e-f)^ + «^=o or (e-f) Pi + a^ = Ci (6) dP2 d^Po _ a dd ^^^^ ^~dr+'dr^-~Je^)'dr yielding r^Ps = -^J rddr + -^ + C3 (7) The value of P3 is then obtained from dP2 P3 = P.: + r^ . * The experiments bearing on this will be published in the series of papers on optical glass now in the course of publication by this Laboratory. WIIvLIAMSON: STRAESrS IN OPnCAIv GLASS 2x3 IV. Solid cylinder with temperature distribution symmetrical about the axis. — The only change necessary is that C3 in equation dPa dd (7) vanishes owing to ^r— and -r being zero at r = o. V. Slab with temperature gradient through the smallest dimen- sions, symmetrical about the center. — -The same assumption was made as regards planeness as in the axial displacement for the cylinder and the forces along the Hne of the temperature gradient are neglected. (See previous footnote as regards experimental evidence.) The equations then are: eP — fP + a^ = constant = Ci and I Pdx = o ^ o The integral gives us a method of evaluating the required con- stant, Cx-ad / •/ a e-f or dx = o J Cidx = a f o »/ o ddx APPLICATION OF THESE EQUATIONS TO SPECIFIC CASES* I. Spherical shell. (la) . Shell heated linearly on the surface. (Jb). Approximate formulae for the sam£ case when the internal diameter is very small. (la).^ In this case do hr hai^ dr ~ 3K 30-2 Equation (4) therefore reduces to * The temperature gradients ( — ) in all cases are taken from a forthcoming paper on temperature distribution in solids, by E. D. Wiluamson and L. H. Adaks. * h = rate of heating; k = diffusivity constant. 214 WILLIAMSON: STRAINS IN OPTICAL GLASS 2« /hr^ hai^\ Ci C2 ^' " ~(e-f) W + 6«r/ + 3 + r' But Pr = o at r = a and r = ai so that Ci and C2 may be evaluated, yielding ^' i5«(e-f)L r ^ a^ + 5a%i2_5aj5 a'ai^ — 2a^ai^ + a^ai* a^ — ai^ (a^ — ai^)r^ ] «n I o 5ai^ Pt =,,...„ .^[-2r^-^ + i5»c(e— f)L 2r a^ + 5a^ai^ — 6ai^ a^ai^ — 2a^ai^ + a^aiH a^ — ai^ 2(a^ — ai^)r' J (16). The values are obtained by assuming ai small enough to be negligible compared with a. ah I a-ai^\ i5K(e-f)\ r^ / ah. / a^ai^X Pt = 7 7^( -2r2 + a^ + -^) i5K(e-f)\ r^ / II. Solid sphere. Linear heating, on outside surface. The treatment is exactly as in the previous case and the resulting equations are : d^ _ hr dr ~ 31c Pr = 7 h\-^' + a^l 15K (e-f)L J Pt = —~ — ^\-2r' + a2 1 15K (e-f)L J Except at the center these agree with case (16). At the center in the case of a sphere we have a tension in all directions of a ha^ } TT but if there be a very small cavity the stresses must i5»c(e-f) ^ ^ be got from (16), and it is found that the radial stress vanishes while the tangential tension is double the value for the solid sphere. It follows that small cavities, due for example to bubbles, make glass much more liable to breakage during heat treatment. WIIvI^IAMSON : STRAINS IN OPTICAI, GLASS 215 In the case of the sohd sphere it is also interesting to find the elastic strains. These are got by substituting the values of Pr and Pt in equations (i) and (2). This yields «h ra2 / I 5 X-j Tangential extension^ = —j-^ ~ |_^ - r^(^- + - jj Radial extension^ = ; r I ~r + r '5 The nature of these strains was predicted at the beginning of this paper, and it can be seen that in general the suggestions were correct. The radial extension is practically constant for it is approximately true for most solids that 4f = e, which gives I 5 — — ^ = o. 3n 9k On the other hand, the tangential extension is equal to the radial at the center, but diminishes, passes through zero and becomes a compression for larger values of r. The form of these expressions shows that the stress at any point may be analyzed into a hydrostatic tension proportional to a^ — — combined with a shearing stress which causes radial elongation and tangential contraction proportional to i + — r^ and I— 7~, respectively. III. Cylindrical tube. Since the analysis is exactly similar, only the bare results are written for the two cases considered, namely: (Ilia). Linear heating, on outside only. d^ hr_hai2 dr 2k 2kv • The values of the constants e and f are here expressed in terms of k (the com- pressibility modulus) and n (the rigidity modulus). e = 1 , f = . 3n 9k 6n 9k 2l6 WILLIAMSON: STRAINS IN OPTICAL GLASS ah p. = - --+ "^"^ 4K(e-f) "^ 4'c(e-f) V° a=^ V ahr^ i6K(e — f) """ 4f ctiii- ahai" / i\ Ci C2 P2 =--^-7 ^+ . \. (inr— ) + -^ + -^ - l-K(e-f) \ 2/ 2 r- where Ci and C2 are evaluated by equating the right hand ex- pression to zero for r = a and r = ai. SccT^' _L «hai^ / ^ i\ ^ Ci C2 ^' -~i6K(e-f) + 4«(e-f)\ "^ 2/ + 2 "r^ where Ci and C2 have the values found for the preceding equation. (III6). For a small-bored tube. Linear heating, on outside only. ah(a2-2r-) Pi = P2 = P3 = 8K(e-f) ah(a^-r^-^) i6/c(e-f) o;h^a2-3r2 + -^J i6K(e-f) (IV). 5o/i(i cylinder. Linear heating, on outside only. de _ hr dr 2k ahCa^ — 2r2) Pi = P2 = Pa = 8K(e-f) Qfh(a'^-r^) i6K(e-f) Q;h(a^ — 3r^). i6/c(e-f) (V). Slab. Linear heating, on outside only. d^ hr dr K ~ 2K(e-f)\3 ^ / CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE 217 In all the cases except that of the sphere (for which the cal- culations are exact) it must be emphasized that the calculated stresses are the maximum values on the assumption that no rehef takes place by bending. It will be shown in a later paper that the stresses actually occurring approximate very closely to the values thus calculated. SUMMARY General equations are derived for the elastic stresses produced by temperature dififerences in spheres, cylinders, and slabs when the temperature distribution is symmetrical about the center, axis, or central plane respectively. More specific equations are given for the case of the tem- perature distribution due to uniform surface heating, which is the most important case in practice. ASTRONOMY. — Modern theories of the spiral nebulae.^ Heber D. Curtis, Lick Observatory. (Communicated by W. J. Humphreys.) In one sense, that theory of the spiral nebulae to which many Unes of recently obtained evidence are pointing, can not be said to be a modern theory. There are few modern concepts which have not been explicitly or impUcitly put forward as hypotheses or suggestions long before they were actually sub- stantiated by evidence. The history of scientific discovery affords many instances where men with some strange gift of intuition have looked ahead from meager data, and have glimpsed or guessed truths which have been fuUy verified only after the lapse of decades or cen- turies. Herschel was such a fortunate genius. From the proper motions of a very few stars he determined the direction of the sun's movement nearly as accurately, due to a very happy selection of stars for the purpose, as far more elaborate modern investigations. He noticed that the star clusters which appeared ^ Abstract of a lecture given on March 15, 1918, at a joint meeting of the Washing- ton Academy of Sciences and the Philosophical Society of Washington. The lecture was illustrated with numerous lantern slides. 2l8 CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE nebulous in texture in smaller telescopes and with lower powers, were resolved into stars with larger instruments and higher powers. From this he argued that all the nebulae could be resolved into stars by the application of sufficient magnifying power, and that the nebulae were, in effect, separate universes, a theory which had been earlier suggested on purely hypothetical or philosophical grounds, by Wright, Lambert, and Kant. From their appearance in the telescope he, again with almost uncanny prescience, excepted a few as definitely gaseous and irresolvable. This view held sway for many years; then came the results of spectroscopic analysis showing that many nebulae (those which we now classify as diffuse or planetary) are of gaseous constitution and can not be resolved into stars. The spiral nebulae, although showing a different type of spectrum, were in most theories tacitly included with the known gaseous nebulae. We have now, as far as the spiral nebulae are concerned, come back to the standpoint of Herschel's fortunate, though not fully warranted deduction, and the theory to which much recent evidence is pointing, is that these beautiful objects are separate galaxies, or "island universes," to employ the expressive and appropriate phase coined by Humboldt. By means of direct observations on the nearer and brighter stars, and by the apphcation of statistical methods to large groups of the fainter or more remote stars, the galaxy of stars which forms our own stellar universe is believed to comprise perhaps a bilHon suns. Our sun, a relatively inconspicuous unit, is situated near the center of figure of this galaxy. This galaxy is not even approximately spherical in contour, but shaped hke a lens or thin watch; the actual dimensions are highly uncertain; Newcomb's estimate that this galactic disk is about 3,000 Hght-years in thickness, and 30,000 light-years in diameter, is perhaps as reliable as any other. Of the three classes of nebulae observed, two, the diffuse nebulosities and the planetary nebulae, are typically a galactic phenomenon as regards their apparent distribution in space, and are rarely found at any distance from the plane of our Milky Way. With the exception of certain diffuse nebulosities CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OI^ SPIRAL NEBULAE 219 whose light is apparently a reflection phenomenon from bright stars involved within the nebulae, both these types are of gaseous constitution, showing a characteristic bright-Une spec- trum. Differing radically from the galactic gaseous nebulae in form, and distribution, we find a very large number of nebulae pre- dominantly spiral in structure. The following saUent points must be taken into account in any adequate theory of the spiral nebulae. 1. In apparent size the spirals range from minute flecks, just distinguishable on the photographic plate, to enormous spirals like Messier 33 and the Great Nebula in Andromeda, the latter of which covers an area four times greater than that subtended by the full moon. 2. Prior to the application of photographic methods, fewer than ten thousand nebulae of all classes had been observed visu- ally. One of the first results deduced by Director Keeler from the program of nebular photography which he inaugurated with the Crossley Reflector at Lick Observatory, was the fact that great numbers of small spirals are within reach of modern power- ful reflecting telescopes. He estimated their total number as 120,000 early in the course of this program, and before plates of many regions were available. I have recently made a count of the small nebulae on all available regions taken at the Lick Observatory during the past twenty years- and from these counts estimate that there are at least 700,000 spiral nebulae accessible with large reflectors. 3. The most anomalous and inexplicable feature of the spiral nebulae is found in their peculiar distribution. They show an apparent abhorrence for our galaxy of stars, being found in greatest numbers around the poles of our galaxy. In my counts I found an approximate density of distribution as follows: Galactic Latitude + 45 ° to + 90 ° 34 per square degree. Galactic Latitude —45 to —90° 28 per square degree. . Galactic Latitude +30° to -|-45° and— 30° to — 45° 24 per square degree. Galactic Latitude — 30° to +30° 7 per square degree. * CtTRTis, H. D. On the number of spiral nebulae, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 57: 313. 1918. 220 CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE No spiral has as yet been found actually within the structiire of the Milky Way. We have doubled and trebled our exposures in regions near the galactic plane in the hope of finding fainter spirals in such areas, but thus far without results. The out- standing featiu"e of the space distribution of the spirals is, then, that they are found in greatest profusion where the stars are fewest, and do not occur where the stars are most numerous. This distribution may be illustrated graphically as follows: THE FACTORS OF SPACE DISTRIBUTION 400,000 =•= Spiral Nebulae Our own stellar universe is shaped like a thin lens, and is perhaps 3,000 by 30,000 Hght-years in extent. In this space occur nearly all the stars, nearly all the new stars, nearly all the variable stars, most of the diffuse and planetary nebulae, etc., but no spiral nebulae. 300,000 =*= Spiral Nebulae, 4. The spectrum of the spirals is practically the same as that given by a star cluster, showing a continuous spectrum broken by absorption lines. A few spirals show bright-line spectra in addition. CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE 221 5. The space-velocities of the various classes of celestial ob- jects are summarized in the following short table: TABLE The Factors of Space- Velocity 1 . The Diffuse Nebtdae. Velocities low. 2 . The Stars. Velocities vary with spectral type. Class B Stars: average speeds 8 miles per second. Class A Stars: average speeds 14 miles per second. Class F Stars: average speeds 18 miles per second. Class G Stars: average speeds 19 miles per second. Class K Stars: average speeds 21 miles per second. Class M Stars : average speeds 2 1 miles per second. 3 . The Star Clusters. Velocities unknown. 4 . The Planetary Nebulae. Average speeds 48 miles per second. 5 . The Spiral Nebulae. Average speeds 480 miles per second. The peculiar variation of the space- velocity of the stars with spectral type may ultimately prove to be a function of relative mass. The radial velocities of but few spirals have been de- termined to date; future work may change the value given, but it seems certain that it will remain very high. It will be seen at once that, with regard to this iiriportant criterion of space-velocity, the spiral nebulae are very distinctly in a class apart. It seems impossible to place them at any point in a coherent scheme of stellar evolution. We can not bridge the gap involved in postulating bodies of such enormous space velocities either as a point of stellar origin, or as a final evolu- tion product. On the older theory that the spirals are a part of oiu: own galaxy, it is impossible to harmonize certain features of the data thus far presented. If this theory is true, their grouping near the galactic poles, inasmuch as all evidence points to a flattened or disk form for our galaxy, would indicate that they are relatively close to us. In that event, we should inevitably have detected in this class of objects proper motions of the same order of magnitude as those found for the stars at correspond- ing distances. Such proper motions are the more to be ex- 222 CURTIS: MODERN THEjORieS OP SPIRAL, NeBULAS pected in view of the fact that the average space velocity of the spirals is about thirty times that of the stars. I have re- peated all the earlier plates of the Keeler nebular program, and was able to find no certain evidence of either translation or rotation in these objects in an average time interval of thirteen years. ^ Their form, and the evidence of the sp>ectroscope, indicate, however, that they are in rotation. Knowing that their space-velocities are high, the failure to detect any certain evidence of cross motion is an indication that these objects must be very remote. Even if the spiral is not a stage in stellar evolution, but a class apart, is it still possible to assume that they are, notwith- standing, an integral part of our own stellar universe, sporadic manifestations of an unknown line of evolutionary development, driven off in some mysterious manner from the regions of greatest star density? A relationship between two classes of objects may be one of avoidance just as logically as one of contiguity. It has been argued that the absolute avoidance which the spirals mani- fest for the galaxy of the stars shows incontrovertibly that they must, by reason of this very relationship of avoidance, be an integral feature of our galaxy. This argument has proved irresistible to many, among others to so keen a thinker as Herbert Spencer, who wrote: In that zone of celestial space where stars are excessively abundant nebulae are rare; while in the two opposite celestial spaces that are furthest removed from this zone nebulae are abundant Can this be mere coincidence? When to the fact that the general mass of the nebulae are antithetical in position to the general mass of the stars, we add the fact that local regions of nebulae are regions where stars are scarce does not the proof of a physical connec- tion become overwhelming? It must be admitted that a distribution, which has placed three-quarters of a milUon objects around the poles of our galaxy, would be against all probability for a class of objects which would be expected to be arranged at random, unless it can be shown ' Curtis, H. D. The proper motion of the nebulae. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 27: 214. 1915. CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE 223 that this pecuUar grouping is only apparent, and due to some phenomenon in our own galaxy. This point will be reverted to later. It has been shown that the factors of space- velocity and space- distribution separate the spirals very clearly from the stars of our galaxy; from these facts alone, and from the evidence of the spectroscope, the island universe theory is given a certain meas- ure of credibility. Another Une of evidence has been developed within the past two years, which adds further support to the island-universe theory of the spiral nebulae. NEW STARS Within historical times some twenty-seven new stars have suddenly flashed out in the heavens. Some have been of interest only to the astronomer; others, like that of last June, have rivaled Sirius in brilliancy. All have shown the same general history, suddenly increasing in light ten thousand-fold or more, and then gradually, but still relatively rapidly, sinking into obscurity again. They are a very interesting class, nor has astronomy as yet been able to give any universally accepted explanation of these anomalous objects. Two of these novae had appeared in spiral nebulae, but this fact had not been weighed at its true value. Within the past two years over a dozen novae have been found in spiral nebulae, all of them very faint, ranging from about the fourteenth to the nineteenth magnitudes at maximum. Their life history, so far as we can tell from such faint objects, appears to be identical with that of the brighter novae. Now the brighter novae of the past, that is, those which have not appeared in spirals, have almost invariably been a galactic phenomenon, located in or close to our Milky Way, and they have very evidently been a part of our own stellar system. The cogency of the argument will, I think, be ap- parent to all, although the strong analogy is by no means a rigid proof. If twenty-seven novae have appeared in our own galaxy within the past three hundred years, and if about half that number are found within a few years in spiral nebulae far 224 CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAI. NEBUlyAE removed from the galactic plane, the presumption that these spirals are themselves galaxies composed of hundreds of millions of stars is a very probable one. If, moreover, we make the reasonable assumption that the new stars in the spirals and the new stars in our own galaxy average about the same in size, mass, and absolute brightness, we can form a very good estimate of the probable distance of the spiral nebulae, regarded as island universes. Our galactic novae have averaged about the fifth magnitude. The new stars which have appeared in the spiral nebulae have averaged about the fifteenth magnitude, but it would appear probable that we must inevitably miss the fainter novae in such distant galaxies, and it is perhaps reasonable to assume that the average magnitude of the novae in spirals may be about the eighteenth, or thirteen magnitudes fainter than those in our own galaxy. They would thus be about 160,000 times fainter than our galactic novae, and on the assumption that both types of novae average the same in mass, absolute luminosity, etc., the novae in spirals should be four hundred times further away. We do not know the average distance of the new stars which have appeared in our own galaxy, but 100,000 light-years is perhaps a reasonable estimate. This would indicate a distance of the order of 4,000,000 Ught-years for the spiral nebulae. This is an enormous distance, but, if these objects are galaxies like our own stellar system, such a distance accords well with their apparent dimensions. Our own galaxy, at a distance of 10,000,000 Ught-years, would be about 10 minutes of arc in diameter, or the size of the larger spiral nebulae. On such a theory, a spiral structure for our own galax}^ would be probable. Its proportions accord well with the degree of flattening observed in the majority of the spirals. We have very little actual evidence as to a spiral structure for our galaxy ; the position of our sun relatively close to the center of figure of the galaxy, and our ignorance of the distances of the remoter stars, renders such evidence very difficult to obtain. A careful study of the configurations and star densities in the Milky Way has led Professor Easton, of Amsterdam, to postulate a spiral struc- ture for our galaxy. CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE 225 DISTRIBUTION OF SPIRALS There is still left one outstanding and unexplained problem in the island universe theory or any other theory of the spiral nebulae. Neither theory, as outHned, offers any satisfactory explanation of the remarkable distribution of the spirals. On the older theory, if a feature of our galaxy, what has driven them out to the points most remote from the regions of greatest star density? If, on the other hand, the spirals are island universes, it is against all probability that our own universe should have chanced to be situated about half way between two great groups of island universes, and that not a single object of the class happens to be located in the plane of our Milky Way. There is one very common characteristic of the spirals which may be tentatively advanced as an explanation of the peculiar grouping of the spirals. A very considerable proportion of the spirals show indubitable evidence of occulating matter, lying in the plane of the greatest extension of the spiral, generally outside the whorls, but occas- ionally between the whorls as well. This outer ring of occulting matter is most easily seen when the spiral is so oriented in space as to turn its edge toward us. But the phenomenon is also seen in spirals whose planes make a small, but appreciable angle with our line of sight, manifesting itself in such appearances as "lanes" more prominent on one side of the major axis of the elongated elUptical projection, in a greater brightness of the nebular matter on one side of this major axis, in a fan-shaped nuclear portion, or in various combinations of these effects. The phenomenon is a very common one. Illustrations of seventy- eight spirals showing evidences of occulting matter in their peri- pheral equatorial regions, with a more detailed discussion of the forms observed, are now being pubUshed,^ and additional examples of the phenomenon are constantly being found. While we have as yet no definite proof of the existence of such a ring of occulting matter lying in our galactic plane and outside of the great mass of the stars of our galaxy, there is a * Curtis, H. D. Occulting effects of spiral nebulae. Univ. Calif. Semi-Cent. Publ. (in press). 226 CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE great deal of evidence for such occulting matter in smaller areas in our galaxy. Many such dark areas are observed around certain of the diffuse nebulosities, or seen in projection on the background furnished by such nebulosities or the denser por- tions of the Milky Way; these appearances seem to be actual "dark nebulae."^ The curious "rifts" in the Milky Way may well be ascribed, at least in part, to such occulting matter. Though we thereby run the risk of arguing in a circle, the fact that no spirals can be detected in our galactic plane, a natural result of such a ring of occulting matter, would in itself appear to lend some probability to the hypothesis. The pecuHar dis- tribution of the spiral nebulae would then be explained as due, not to an actual asymmetrical and improbable distribution in space, but to a cause within our own galaxy, assumed to be a spiral with a peripheral ring of occulting matter similar to that observed in a large proportion of the spirals. The argument that the spirals must be an integral feature of our own galaxy, based on a relationship of avoidance, would then lose its force. The explanation appears to be a possibility, even a strong prob- ability, on the island universe theory, and I known of no other explanation, on any theory, for the observed phenomenon of nebular distribution about our galactic poles. SUMMARY The Spiral Nebulae as Island Universes. 1 . On this theory, it is unnecessary to attempt to coordinate the tremendous space-velocities of the spirals with the thirty-fold smaller values found for the stars. Very high velocities have been found for the Magellanic Clouds, which may possibly be very irregular spirals, relatively close to our galaxy. 2. There is some evidence for a spiral structure in our own galaxy. 3. The spectrum of the majority of the spirals is practically identical with that given by a star cluster; a spectrum of this general type is such as would be expected from a vast congeries of stars. * Barnard, E. E. On the dark markings of the sky, with a catalogue of 182 such objects. Astrophys. Journ. 49: i. 1919; Curtis, H. D. Dark nebulae. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 30: 65. 1918. CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE 227 4. If the spirals are separate universes, similar to our galaxy in extent and in number of component stars, we should observe many new stars in the spirals, closely resembling in their life history the twenty-seven novae which have appeared in our own galaxy. Over a dozen such novae in spirals have been found, and it is probable that a systematic program of repeti- tion of nebular photographs will add greatly to this number. A comparison of the average magnitudes of the novae in spirals with those of our own galaxy indicates a distance of the order of 10,000,000 light-years for the spirals. Our own galaxy at this distance would appear lo' in diameter, the size of the larger spirals. 5. A considerable proportion of the spirals show a peripheral equatorial ring of occulting matter. So many instances of this have been found that it appears to be a general though not uni- versal characteristic of the spirals ; the existence of such an outer ring of occulting matter in our own galaxy, regarded as a spiral, would furnish an adequate explanation of the peculiar distribu- tion of the spirals. There is considerable evidence of such oc- culting matter in our galaxy. An English physicist has cleverly said that any really good theory brings with it more problems than it removes. It is thus with the island-universe theory. It is impossible to do more than to mention a few of these problems, with no attempt to divine those which may ultimately be presented to us. While the data are too meager as yet, several attempts have been made to deduce the velocity of our own galaxy within the super-galaxy. It would not be surprising if the space-velocity of our galaxy, like those of the spirals and the Magellanic Clouds, should prove to be very great, hundreds of miles per second. Further, what are the laws which govern the forms assumed, and under which these spiral whorls are shaped? Are they stable structures; are the component stars moving inward or outward? A beginning has been made by Jeans and other mathematicians on the dynamical problems involved in the structure of the spirals. The field for research is, like our sub- ject matter, practically infinite. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. GEOLOGY. — Two lamprophyre dikes near Santaquin and Mount Nebo, Utah. G. F. Loughlin. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper I20-E. pp. 9. 1918. There is no local evidence by which these lamprophyre dikes can be correlated with other igneous rocks. It is assumed that they repre- sent a late stage of the Tertiary volcanic period. The dike rocks are dark gray to black, dense, and porphyritic. Biotite is the only con- spicuous megascopic mineral, and constitutes about 20 per cent of the rock. The northern dike has a glassy groundmass crowded with phenocrysts of augite, biotite, olivine, and magnetite, and minute crystals of apatite. The southern dike consists of phenocrysts of biotite, augite, apatite, and magnetite in a groundmass of feldspar. The chem- ical composition of the northern dike is shown by analysis and com- pared with rocks of similar composition. The rock is classed as a vitrophyric albite minette. It seems probable that the two minettes discussed are genetically related to a monzonitic magma represented by the latite breccias and flows of the region. R. W. Stone. GEOLOGY. — New graphic method for determining the depth and thick- ness of strata and the projection 0} dip. Harold S. Palmer. U. S. Geol. Siu-vey Prof. Paper 120-G. Pp. 7. with 3 plates and 5 figures. 191 8. This paper presents three charts by means of which rapid solution of the following problems may be made, namely: (i) to find the depth to a stratum, given the dip and distance from the outcrop; (2) to find the thickness of a bed or series of beds, given the dip and the distance across the outcrop ; and (3) to find the inclination of the trace of a plane upon a second plane, given the dip of the first plane and the angle between the strike of the two planes. Simple directions for the use of the charts are followed by a discussion of the principles and accuracy of the method. H. S. P. 228 abstracts: paleontology 229 ENTOMOLOGY. — The question oj the phylo genetic origin of termite castes. Caroline Burling Thompson and Thomas Elliott Sny- der. Biol. Bull. 36: 115-129, 2 plates, 5 text figs. February, 1919. The recent observation of one of the authors, that the castes of ter- mites are of germinal origin and not produced by environmental con- ditions, leads to the question of the phylogenetic origin of these varia- tions or castes. Are termite castes to be considered as fluctuating variations or as mutations? Several lines of approach lead to this problem; the study of fossil insects; the comparative morphology of termites; exact field observa- tions on termite biology; breeding experiments to determine the type of progeny and the results of hybridization. Although none of these aspects have been exhaustively studied, there are some data, sum- marized in this paper, drawn from the literature of social insects and from the notes of the two authors. The morphological facts show that a gradation of characters may be traced throughout the members (castes of a species, e. g., Reticulitermes flavipes). These castes might be interpreted either as the gradations in a series of fluctuating variations, or as a series of mutations formed by loss. Field observations and breeding experiments seem to indicate that although the "first form" reproductive individuals produce young of all the castes, the "second" and "third form" individuals breed true to their own fertile castes. In some breeding experiments in arti- ficial nests, from parent reproductive individuals of the "second form" no fertile individuals of any kind were produced. The authors intend to undertake a series of studies and experiments upon the morphology and the breeding of the termite castes. C. B. T. FALUONTOhOGY.— Appendages of trilobites. Charles D. Walcott. Smiths. Misc. Coll. 67: No. 4, Cambrian Geol. and Pal. IV. 115-216, pis. 14-42, text figs. 1-3. December, 1918. In this recent paper Dr. Charles D. Walcott summarizes his in- vestigations of the appendages of trilobites during the past forty- five years, a research undertaken in pursuance of a promise made to Professor Louis Agassiz in 1873. Since that time, he writes, "I have examined and studied all the trilobites that were available for evidence bearing on their structure and organization." 230 abstracts: paleontology His first summary of i88i^ is reviewed and corrected, together with later papers^ discussing his various discoveries in this subject. The highly organized trilobite, Neolenus serratus (Rominger), from the Burgess shale quarry opened by Dr. Walcott, near Field, British Colum- bia, several years ago, shows most graphically in the ten plates devoted to its illustration the highly specialized development of appendages, which is also figured in plates of the Ordovician trilobites, Isotelus, Triarthrus, Calymene, and Ceraurus. In the figure of Neolenus the appendages include antennules, caudal rami, endopodites, epipodites, exopodites, exites, and protopodites. The evidence of appendages is supplemented by numerous figured sections of Ceraurus and Caly- mene. After discussing the mode of occurrence, conditions of preservation, manner of life including methods of progression, food, defense, and ofifense, the author describes species with appendages, which include besides the genera already mentioned, Kootenia dawsoni (Walcott), two species of Ptychoparia including a new one, P. permulta, from the Burgess shale quarry, Odontopleura trentonensis (Hall), Trinucleus concentricus Eaton, and an unidentified Ordovician crustacean leg. The work of C. E- Beecher with Triarthrus is reviewed in some detail, and a different conclusion arrived at in certain features. In section 2 of the paper the Structure of the Trilobite receives at- tention, the author again referring to Beecher and other writers in- cluding Jaekel, Beyrich, Barrande, and de Volborth. He then dis- cusses in detail the appendages, summarizing them as follows: Cephalic: (i) Antennules, (2) Antennae, (3) Mandibles, (4) Max- illula, (5) Maxilla; Thoracic; Abdominal; Caudal rami. Further comparisons are with the recent Anaspides tasmaniae G. M. Thomson, a Malacostracan from Tasmania, Koonunga cursor Sayce, and Paranaspides lacustris Smith, also the parasitic crustacean Cyamus scammoni Dall, illustrations of all of which are given. After the extraordinary interest of the finely developed specimens in the plates representing Neolenus, attention will be drawn by those of Isotelus, Triarthrus becki Green, and other Ordovician trilobites, together with ^ The trilobite: New and old evidence relating to its organization. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 8: 191-224, pis. I-VI. 1881. * Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 20: 94. 1894; Smiths. Misc. CoU. 57: 164-208, pi. 24, figs. I, ic. 1912; op. cit. pi. 6, figs. I, 2. 191 1 ; op. cit. pi. 24, figs, i, 10; pi. 45, figs. I, 2, 3, 4. 1912; Text-book Pal. (Zittel), Eastman 2d ed. i: 701, fig. 1343. P- 716, figs. 1376, 1377. 1913; Smiths. Misc. Coll. 57: 149-153. 1912. abstracts: navigation 231 the sections of Cambrian and Ordovician trilobites, and finally the author's conclusions as expressed by several diagrammatic restorations, also sketches of thoracic limbs of trilobites and recent crustaceans, crustacean limbs, and six plates of tracks and trails of trilobites, each adding evidence to the author's deductions as to the appendages. Some conclusions drawn are that the trilobite's appendages show it to have been a marine crustacean far more highly developed than would have seemed possible in a period so infinitely remote. The following are some of the conclusions: In its younger stages of growth a free moving and swimming animal, it later became a half-burrowing, crawling, and sometimes swimming animal and moving at times with a flow of the tides and prevailing currents. Eggs have been found both within and free from the body. It was at home on many kinds of sea-bottom and was able to accommodate itself to muddy as well as to clear water. It was intensely gregarious in some localities and widely scattered in others, depending upon local conditions, and habits of the various species. Trilobites had an ample system of respiration by setiferous exopodites, epipodites, and exites attached to the cephalic, thoracic, and abdominal limbs, (as shown in restorations of the limbs on plates 34 and 35.) The structure of the gnathobases of the cephalic Hmbs indicates soft food such as worms, minute animal life, and decomposed algae. The trilobite persisted from far back in pre-Cambrian time to the close of Carboniferous time. . . and left its remains more or less abund- antly through about 75,000 feet of stratified rocks. The paper is profusely illustrated and carefully indexed G. R. Brigham. NAVIGATION. — The search for instrumental means to enable naviga- tors to observe the altitude oj a celestial body when the horizon is not visible. G. W. LittlehalES. Proc. U. S. Naval Inst. 44: No. 8. August, 1918. The necessity of seeing the horizon, in order to find the latitude and longitude of a ship at sea, has generally precluded the taking of observa- tions of altitude at night when the number of celestial bodies shining in the firmament is the greatest and would present the most numerous opportimities for determining geographical position if the altitude could be measured without reference to the sea horizon. And even diuing the daytime navigators are often sensible of this inconvenience on account of the obscuration of the horizon by haze or fog while the luminary continues to be visible. 232 abstracts: navigation While adverting to the instances in which the spirit-level or liquid column has been adapted to instruments similar to the sextant, the main object has been to give an account of the evolution of a dynamical artificial horizon for use at sea and, especially, of the gyroscopic horizon designed as an attachment to the frame of the sextant of reflection. G. W. L. NAVIGATION. — Altitude, azimvith, hour angle. G. W. Littlehales. Proc. U. S. Naval Inst. 43: No. 11. November, 1917. This paper presents a chart or diagram for finding, by a simple graphic method, hour angle or azimuth at sea. This chart is based upon the function of the angle called the haversine (half versed sine), not generally employed outside nautical circles, and the formula used as a basis is: hav(a) = hav(6 c) + hav(6 -\- c) — hav(6 « c) hav A If the sides, h, c, be regarded as constants, a, A, being variables, this expression takes the form, y = mx + C which is the equation of a straight line. Based on this, a square chart is given, with sides graduated accord- ing to values of a series of natural haversines, by means of which hour angle and azimuth may be found, when the altitude and declination of the body and the latitude of the place are given. By drawing a straight line upon such a chart through two points easily determined, a connection is established between hour angle and zenith distance on the one hand, and between azimuth and polar distance on the other. Hence, with either element of each of these two pairs given, the value of the other may be taken from the chart. The chart itself is 2 feet square and finely graduated so that it may be read with a great degree of accuracy. The diagram is practical for finding azimuth in sea navigation, and it is possible that in the future it may be adapted so as to be used generally for hour angle purposes as well, especially when the naviga- tion of the air becomes a matter of daily experience. J. F. Meyer. abstracts: navigation 233 NAVIGATION. — The chart as a means of finding geographical position by observations of celestial bodies in aerial and marine navigation. G. W. Littlehales. Proc. U. S. Naval Inst. 44: No. 3. March, 1918. Building upon the principle that at any instant of time there is a series of positions on the earth at which a celestial body appears at the same given altitude and that these positions lie in the circumference of a circle marked out by a radius arm whose pivot is that geographical position which has the body in its zenith and whose length is the same arc-measure as the zenith distance or the complement of the altitude the method proceeds to recognize that the difference of the simultaneous altitudes of the same celestial body at two geographical positions is the shortest great circle arc-distance between the circles of equal alti- tude passing through the two places. By supplying the altitudes and azimuths of the celestial bodies as they would appear at stated intervals of time in a chosen geographical position within the limits of the chart, an observer, in a position as yet unknown, having measured altitude of a celestial body, may at once lay down the locus of his position by comparing the altitude so measured with the tabulated altitude of that body and laying off the difference between the measured and tabulated altitude as an intercept from the chosen geographical position in the direction of the azimuth of the celestial body and toward or away from the bearing of the body according as the measured alti- tude was higher or lower than the tabulated altitude. In the illustrative specimen, consisting of a map of the United States, a large compass diagram has been centered at the middle position in latitude 39° and longitude 97°, since the attending tabulation is with reference to this point; and since all altitude-differences are laid off from there, circumferences of equal distances from this point have also been delineated, in order that, with a given altitude-difference, the observer may at once proceed to find the point through which his locus is to be drawn at right angles to the intercept of altitude-difference by passing out by the amount of the altitude-difference to the proper drawn or intermediate circumference along the compass-radial indicated by the azimuth ascertained from the bordering tabulation. G. W. L. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The Board of Managers met on March 24, 191 9. The report of the special committee on distribution of the Proceedings was adopted, providing for the supplying of certain libraries from the excess stock on hand. The following persons have become members of the Academy since the last report in the Journal: Mr. D. Dale Condit, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Professor Ernest Fox Nichols, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut; and 2022 Columbia Road, Washington, D. C. Professor Elmer Ottis Wooton, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Robert B. Sosman, Corresponding Secretary. BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 593d regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, March 8, 1919; called to order at 8.00 p.m. by Vice-President Hollister; 60 persons present. Three informal communications were presented: P. Bartsch : Remarks on a purple finch which had visited the grounds about his dwelling in the city for three successive seasons. This in- dividual bird had peculiar manners which distinguished it from the several other birds with which it was associated. He had seen it pass from immature to adult plumage. L. O. Howard: Remarks on the spread of the European corn- borer in Massachusetts and New York. N. Hollister: Remarks on the ovipositing of an Indian python in the National Zoological Park. It is at present brooding on twelve eggs. The regular program was a symposium: What kind of characters distinguish a species from a subdivision of a species. The discussion was opened by Prof. A. S. Hitchcock, who explained that, as chairman of the committee on communications, he bad arranged to have the subject discussed by the exponents of a few of the larger 234 proceedings: biological society 235 groups of organisms. It had been impracticable to include a discussion of the very interesting categories, known as physiological species or races, such as the parasitic fungi, among which are races that appear identical morphologically but which are confined to certain host plants, each to each, or such as the bacteria, many forms of which appear identical morphologically but which cause distinct physiological effects, either chemically on artificial substrata, or biologically in producing diverse diseases of plants and animals. Mr. Hitchcock further stated that much of our difficulty in determining whether a given form repre- sents a species or a subdivision of a species results from our ignorance. We do not have sufficient facts. If we are compelled to draw con- clusions from a single specimen in a herbarium or even from several specimens we can give only an opinion as to the relation of this form to others, an opinion strengthened, it is true, by training and experience, but at best only an opinion. If we have all the facts, or enough so that lacking data may be safely ignored, our problem is to interpret results and define relations. Mr. N. HoLLisTER said: Nearly all systematic mammalogists now distinguish subspecies from species by the test of intergradation : some workers insist upon an actual blending of characters over con- tinuous range between typical subspecies, while others admit what is known as "intergradation of characters," even between insular forms, to be sufiicient reason for the use of the trinomial. Old con- ceptions of what is a species are now lightly considered, and authors are frequently inconsistent in their treatment of forms. A good defi- nition of a species was given a few years ago by one writer who stated that "a species is a thing described as such." The same kinds of characters, or precisely the same character, may serve in different instances for distinguishing subspecies, species, or even genera. The difference in the number of the enamel folds in the last upper molars of the capybaras of Surinam and Paraguay was cited as a case where a character sometimes of generic weight serves only to separate sub- species. Specimens showing the process of the loss of one fold are found in Brazil midway between the two typical races. It is a com- mon experience for the monographer working with material assembled from many collections to reduce numerous described species to the rank of subspecies; the forms so treated still retain exactly the same characters that served them as full species. Dr. H. C. Oberholser spoke on the question from the standpoint of an ornithologist. He said: Most ornithologists at the present time regard the distinction between a species and a subspecies as one of the presence or absence of intergradation. In other words, a sub- species is an imperfectly segregated species — a form occupying a separate geographic area and intergrading with some other form. This inter- gradation may take place: (i) by gradual change over contiguous geographic areas; (2) by an abrupt change in an intermediate area; (3) by individual variation, whether or not the ranges of the two forms adjoin. The amount of difference does not constitute the distinction 236 proceedings: biologicaIv society between a species and a subspecies, because even very closely allied forms are species, if their characters are trenchant and the birds do not freely interbreed; while, on the other hand, however great the differences may be between two forms, they are to be regarded as subspecies if intergradation exists. Dr. N. C. Kendall's remarks were published in a recent number of this Journal (9: 187. 1919). Dr. P. Bartsch speaking on the question with respect to moUusks said: There are no hard and fast lines that can be invariably em- ployed in deciding to which nomenclatorial category a certain form should be assigned. He thought that in the present imperfect state of our knowledge, most designations were largely a matter of judgment and expediency. Systematists at present unfortunately recognize only two categories, species and subspecies, by means of which they attempt to designate all the products of Nature's laboratories. This makes all sorts of compromises necessary in order to squeeze a given form into|the one or the other of the two. It is his firm belief that when the work of experimental biologists and breeders, which is heaping up a pile of data, will have advanced a little further, we shall be furnished with a mass of information which will demand recognit on of a larger series of categories designed to express the true inwardness of phy- logenetic relationship a little more definitely than it is expressed by our present system of nomenclature. In many instances it is not difficult to decide the status of a form. The old definition that "A species embraces an aggregation of indi- viduals which may differ in age, sexual, seasonal or individual char- acteristics" is easily enough applied in many instances; likewise can be applied the definition for the subspecies, which simply makes it necessary to have connecting elements between two such groups, but what shall be done with a case like the following.'' "In the Philippine Islands we have, as far as known, only a single species of Vivipara in a given region. In Lake Lanao, on the other hand, we have apparently about forty. At all events there seem to be that many constant forms, for the young which I have extracted from probably more than a thousand individuals have always agreed with the parents in sculptural characters. The range of form modi- fications in these Lake Lanao viviparas can best be seen by consulting my papers on the group. ^ Another paper on this topic is almost completed. This is based on an examination of about 3,000 specimens. What designation shall be given to forms like these ? These are probably the result of cross breeding between two distinctly related stalks of the genus. At least my Cerion breeding experiments would indicate this. ' The Philippine pond snails of the genus Vivipara. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 32: 135-150. pis. lo and 11. 1907; Notes on the Philippine pond snails of the genus Vivipara, with descriptions of new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 37: 365-367. 1909. PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 237 Sometimes I have deliberately used a trinomial when the data at hand really indicated a binomial. Let me explain by an example. The genus Leptopoma has probably twenty phylogenetic stalks or super- species in the PhiUppine Archipelago. Some of these groups have in the past been considered a single widely distributed very variable species. The abundant material which is rapidly accumulating in the U. S. National Museum proves conclusively that ever}^ island has its distinct form, and the larger islands, where faunal barriers exist, may have two or more. In some cases, intergradations exist, while in others they do not. Now the rule would say, designate the distinct forms as species and those with intergrades as subspecies, but how much more rational to consider the entire complex under one specific, name and the various races under a trinomial — ^at least for the present until material from the entire range showing all possible phases of these groups will have been examined, for by so doing one has the advantage of knowing at once that the organism in question is the Leptopoma nitidum representative of Luzon, or a member of the Lep- topoma gonio stoma group." Mr. A. N. Caudell as an entomologist said: In his work on the Orthoptera he recognized two grades below the species, that is the geographical race, or subspecies, and the variety. He gave the follow- ing definitions : Species. A group of individuals separable from allied groups by appreciable external morphological characters of a sufficiently stabilized nature to prohibit a general mergence through variation, based on a biological foundation sufficiently firm to assure breeding true to nature, and the production of fertile progeny. Geographical race. An assemblage of individuals of a species dis- tinguishable from each other, and from the dominant form, by ap- preciable external morphological characters and occupying different, but adjacent, geographical regions, at the junction of which complete mergence through variation occurs. In other words, races are incipient species originating through variation caused by diverse environmental conditions due to geographical distribution. Variety. Individuals of a species or of a race varying more or less from the typical in external morphological or colorational characters, not with relation to geographical distribution and subject to complete integration through variation. Each of these groups was briefly discussed and emphasis was given the fact of this being the present personal opinion of the speaker and not intended in any way to represent the views of entomologists in general. It was admitted that for use in a broader way, especially in higher zoological groups, the definition of species should be broadened to include physiological characters, and also, probably, biological features. Dr. S. F. Blake discussed the question from the botanical aspect: A subspecies in botany, as in zoology, is ordinarily distinguished from a species by the fact that it intergrades with a related form or forms. 238 proceedings: biological society while a species does not. Two kinds of intergradation must be dis- tinguished, that due to fluctuating variation, which indicates sub- specific rank, and that due to hybridism, which may occur between species. As most systematic work is done with herbarium specimens, it is not possible to distinguish these by breeding tests, and their dis- crimination is a matter of judgment and experience. Furthermore, the absence of intergradation is not in itself a criterion of specific rank. Many unit-character forms, very distinct in appearance, such as al- binos or forms with peculiar leaves, will not be found to intergrade, and they even have rather distinct geographical ranges. In such cases the rank to be given the form in question depends on the extent of the botanist's field experience. In general, forms distinguished by several constant characters are species; forms distinguished by only one or by inconstant characters, subspecies ; but there is no absolute test which can be applied, and in doubtful cases the decision depends on the experience and point of view of the botanist. Each of the above speakers was limited to ten minutes for the pre- sentation of his remarks. After the formal remarks a general dis- cussion ensued in which Messrs. A. S. Hitchcock, A. N. Caudell^ P. Bartsch, N. Hollister, S. A. Rohwer, Iv. O. Howard, V. Bailey, and M. W. Lyon, Jr., took part. M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS An executive order by the President, dated February 26, 1919, trans- fers twenty-three former officers of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey from the War Department back to the jurisdiction of the Survey; and forty-six officers, similarly, from the Navy Department to the Survey. Five Survey vessels are also returned. The transfers are to become effective before April i, 1919. The Bureau of Mines has sent a special mission to Europe to collect information on the methods discussed and those adopted in the rebuild- ing of the mining and metallurgical plants and industries in the devastated areas. The members of the mission are : F. G. Cottrell, chief metallurgist; G. S. Rice, chief mining engineer; W. Perdue, petroleum technologist; and F. K. Probert of the University of Cali- fornia, consulting mining engineer. The mission will have headquarters in London. Messrs. Hoyt S. Gale and J. B. Umpleby, of the U. S. Geological Survey, have gone to France to investigate certain questions of mineral resources, particularly potash salts, involved in the peace negotiations. Dr. Olaf Andersen, of the Mineralogical Institute, Kristiania, Norway, visited Washington in March. Lieut. Col. W. D. Bancroft, of the Chemical Warfare Service, has been elected Chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Technology of the National Research Council. Dr. W. N. Berg, formerly captain in the Sanitary Corps, and stationed at Camp Lee, received his honorable discharge from the Army in March and has returned to the Bureau of Animal Industry. Major Charles Harrod Boyd, for forty years an officer of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, died on February 9, 191 9, at his home in Port- land, Maine, in his eighty-sixth year. He entered the Survey in 1855, served with the Port Royal expedition in 1861, and served under Gen. Barnard on the fortifications near Washington later in the war, re- tiring from the Survey in 1894. Dr. H. L. Curtis, of the Bureau of Standards, has gone for a three months visit to European laboratories to obtain data on the progress of certain war problems. Dr. Alfred C. Hawkins, recently appointed crystallographer in the laboratories of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, is spending a few weeks in studying recent advances in this subject at the Bureau of Chemistry and other Washington laboratories. 239 240 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Capt. p. E. Landolt of the Nitrate Division, Army Ordnance, has resigned from the ser\dce and has returned to his work as chemical engineer with the Research Corporation at New York City. Dr. A. O. Leuschner, who has been with the National Research Council since November, 191 8, returned to the University of California in the latter part of March. Mr. James W. McGuire, of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, has been appointed a member of the U. S. Geographic Board. Lieut. Col. William McPherson, Chemical Warfare vService, Professor of Chemistry at the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, who was stationed in Washington in the early part of the war and was later sent to France, received his honorable discharge from the Army in March, and has returned to the University. Dr. W. B. Meldrum, professor of chemistry at Haverford College, and until lately a member of the Chemical Warfare Service and of the price section of the War Trade Board, has received a temporary ap- pointment as assistant physical chemist at the Geophysical Laborator\% Carnegie Institution of Washington. Professor Sem Saeland, Professor of Physics and Rektor of the Technological Institute of Norway, at Trondhjem, Norway, visited Washington in March. Dr. H. C. Taylor, head of the department of agricultural economics in the College of Agriculture, University of Wisconsin, has been ap- pointed Chief of the Office of Farm ^lanagement. Department of Agriculture. Col. W. H. WiLMER, Medical Corps, U. S. A., returned to Washington on March 22. He expects to continue in the Army for a period to write the history of the laboratory work of the Air Service in France. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 MAY 4, 1919 No. 9 BOTANY. — Revision of Ichthyomethia, a genus of plants used for poisoning fish. S. F. Blake, Bureau of Plant Industry. The genus Ichthyomethia, belonging to the tribe Dalbergieae of the family Fabaceae, is of economic importance among the aborigines of tropical America as one of the plants commonly used as a fish poison. Its use for this purpose in Jamaica, where it is called dogwood, was so well described by Patrick Browne^ that it is only necessary to cite his quaint account. The bark of the root of this tree is used for the same purposes, and with the same effects, as the leaves and branches of Surinam poison, already described : it is pounded, and mixed with the water in some deep and convenient part of the river, or creek, etc., from whence it may spread itself more diffusively around; and in a few minutes after it is well mingled, you'll see the fish, that lay hitherto hid under the neighboring rocks, or banks, rising to the surface, where they float as if they were dead; in which situation they continue for a considerable time; but most of the large ones that are left, recover after a time; while the smaller fry are all destroyed, and float upon the surface, for some days after. The eel is the only fish I have observed, that could not be intoxicated with the common doses of this bark, though it af- fects it verv^ sensibly; for the moment the particles spread where it lies, it moves off, and swims with great agility through the water. I have sometimes seen them chased to and fro, in this manner, for some minutes, without being any ways altered. The tree is generally considered as one of the best timber-trees in the island. The wood is very hard, and resinous; and lasts almost equally in or out of water. It is of light brown color, coarse, cross-grained, and heavy. The bark of the roots of the genus has found some apphcation in eclectic medicine, under the name Piscidia or Piscidia bark, ^ Nat. Hist. Jam. 296. 1756. 241 242 BIvAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA but it is not listed in the United States Dispensatory. The active principle, according to Hart as quoted by Felter and Lloyd, ^ is a neutral body, piscidin (C29H24O8), which has narcotic and analgesic properties. It has been used for alleviating insomnia and neuralgia, for allaying spasms, and for similar purposes. Experimentally it has been found to bring about death in animals by causing heart failure or by arresting respira- tory action. Although this genus has generally been known under the name Piscidia, given it by Linnaeus in 1759, it is necessary under the American Code of Botanical Nomenclature to adopt for it the name Ichthyomethia, published by Patrick Browne in 1756, with a reference to the original species, Eryihrina piscipula L. In addition to the original species, Ichthyomethia piscipula (L.) Hitchc. (Eryihrina piscipula L., 1753; Piscidia erythrina L., 1759), and some species wrongly ascribed to the genus by early authors, four species have been described : Piscidia Americana Moc. Sesse, P. mollis Rose, P. cubensis Urban, and Ichthyomethia havanensis Britton & Wilson. A sixth species is Derris grandifolia Donn. Smith, the fruit of which, unknown to the describer of the species, shows it to be a member of this genus. In addition to these species, study of the specimens in the National Herbarium, supplemented by material from the New York Botanical Garden and the Gray Herbarium, has shown the existence of three new species, closely related to /. piscipida but distinguished by constant characters and definite geographical ranges. My thanks are due to the curators of the herbaria mentioned for the loan of the material. Of the eight species here recognized, three (/. grandifolia, I. mollis, and I. cubensis) are very distinct in characters of foliage and pubescence. The other five form a closely related group centering around the original species, /. piscipula. In making out the characters which distinguish these species, and in cor- relating them with distribution in definite floristic regions, I am indebted for advice and assistance to Mr. William R. Maxon. The first of these, /. piscipula, definitely known as a native only ' King's Amer. Dispensatory ed. XI. (3d revision) 2: 15 10. 1900. blake;: revision of ichthyomethia 243 of Jamaica, is distinguished by having the leaves evenly but not densely short-pilose beneath with spreading-ascending, usually rufescent hairs, while in the other four species they are merely puberulous to strigose. In two of these, I. havanensis and I. communis, the leaves are densely puberulous beneath with incurved or ascending hairs, which are more numerous along the veins and veinlets and coincide with them in direction. In the remaining two species, /. americana and /. acuminata, the leaves are distinctly strigose or strigillose beneath, and the hairs, except along the costa and the primary lateral veins, do not follow the direction of the nervation, but all point toward the margin of the leaf; in consequence of which the hairs which arise from the secondary and tertiary veinlets diverge from their veinlets at approximately a right angle, and those which arise from the surface below and near the veinlets lie across the latter transversely. Associated with these characters of pubescence is a difference in the ceraceous covering of the under leaf surface. In I. communis the waxy covering is comparatively thick and is divided by the ultimate veinlets into definitely raised areoles. In most of the other species it is thinner and flatter and, owing to the weaker development of the veinlets, does not have the same areolate appearance. Piscidia carthagenensis, Jacq.,^ briefly described by Jacquin from fruiting material collected at Cartagena, was said to differ from P. erythrina L- in its obovate, much larger leaflets. No material from Colombia has been seen by the writer, and Jac- quin's account is so incomplete that is it necessary for the present to leave the identity of the species in doubt. It is presumably most closely related to /. acuminata, and may prove to be iden- tical. DeCandolle's account of P. carthagenensis in the Prod- romus^ evidently applies in part to Ichthyomethia piscipula and perhaps to other species not then distinguished. Loefling's Piscipula erythrina,'" incompletely described from trees found by Loefling in northeastern Venezuela, is perhaps ' Enum PI. Carib. 27. 1760; Stirp. Amer. 210. 1763. * Prodr. 2: 267. 1825. 6 It. Hisp. 275. 1758. 244 BLAKE: REVISION OP ICHTHYOMETHIA identical witli Jacquin's P. carthagenensis. As I/oefling gives no account of the pubescence of the leaves, it is impossible in the absence of specimens to be certain of the identity of his plant. The only South American material of the genus in the herbaria which the writer has examined consists of fruits in the National Herbarium collected at Rio Macara, Ecuador, altitude 455 to 610 meters, April, 1910, by C. H. T. Townsend (no. 849), and leaves in the Gray Herbarium collected on Chatham Island, Galdpagos Islands, 1899, by Snodgrass and Heller (no. 503). Both these collections are too imperfect for specific determination. Ichthyomethia P. Br. Nat. Hist. Jam. 296. 1756. Piscipula Loefl. It. Hisp. 275. 1758. Piscidia L. Syst. ed. 10. 1155. 1759. Trees or shrubs, not climbing; leaves odd-pinnate, the leaflets oppo- site; flowers in lateral panicles, appearing before the leaves; calyx campanulate, obscurely 2 -lipped, the upper lip emarginate, the lower 3- lobed, the teeth deltoid ; flowers rosy or white and red, rarely yellowish white, vexillum suborbicular or oval-obovate, emarginate, short- clawed; wings falcate-oblong, long-clawed, adherent to keel near mid- dle, the Hmb auriculate above at base; keel obtuse, its petals long- clawed, their limbs united near middle for about one-third their length, auriculate-sagittate on upper side at base; stamens 10, the vexillar one free at base for one-quarter to one-half its length, or rarely free throughout; ovary sessile, many-ovulate; style filiform, incurved, glabrous, with a smaU terminal stigma; legume indehiscent, firm, with linear body, broadly or narrowly 2 -winged on each suture, stipitate^ I to 6-seeded, in age tending to break transversely between the seeds. Type species, Erythrina piscipula L. Key to Species Wings as broad as or much broader than the body of the fruit ; leaflets 3 to 12 cm. long. Leaves very densely and softly cinereous-tomentulose or pilose be- neath ; vexillum glabrous (so far as known) ; vexillar stamen entirely free (so far as known) . Leaves densely tomentulose beneath i. /. grandifolia. Leaves densely short-pilose beneath 2. I. mollis. Leaves puberulous, strigose, or short-pilose beneath ; vexillum densely pubescent; vexillar stamen free for one-fourth to one-half its length. Leaves puberulous to strigose beneath. Leaves densely incurved-puberulous or ascending-puberulous beneath, the hairs more numerous along the veinlets and parallel with them ; stipe of fruit equaling or slightly ex- ceeding the calyx. BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA 245 Low shrub ; petiole and rachis spreading-puberulous ; leaflet prominulous-reticulate beneath; fruit 1.2 to 3.5 cm. long S- I- havanensis. Tree; petiole and rachis strigillose or appressed-puberul ous; leaflets not prominulous-reticulate beneath; fruit 2.5 to 7.5 cm. long 4. 7. communis. Leaves strigose or strigillose beneath, the hairs not more numerous along the veinlets, crossing them transversely; stipe of fruit much exceeding the calyx. Lobes of lower lip of calyx obtuse or rounded 5- -^- americana. Lobes of lower lip of calyx short-acuminate 6. I. acuminata. Leaves short-pilose beneath with spreading-ascending hairs 7-7. piscipula. Wings much narrower than the body of the fruit; leaflets i to 2 cm. long 8.7. cubensis. I. Ichthyomethia grandifolia (Donn. Smith) Blake. Derris grandifolia Donn. Smith, Bot. Gaz. 56: 55. 1913. Tree, with stout branches ; shoots of the year cinereous-tomentulose, the older branches glabrate; leaves 7 to ii-foliolate, 18 to 33 cm. long; petiole, rachis, and petiolules densely cinereous- or sordid-tomentulose with crisped spreading hairs ; leaflets 5.5 to 10 cm. long, 3 to 6.5 cm. wide, oval or the lowest ovate, broadly rounded, mucronulate, rounded at base, thick, above dull green, densely crisped-pilosulous, beneath densely cinereous-tomentulose with crisped spreading hairs, these in youth concealing the secondar}'^ veins; panicles cylindric, dense, 10 to 15 cm. long, sordid-tomentulose; pedicels 1.5 to 4.5 mm. long; calyx 7 to 8 mm. long, densely sordid-pilosulous, the lobes of lower lip deltoid- triangular, short-acuminate; vexillum oval-obovate, glabrous, 10 mm. long; alae 12 mm. long (the claws 5.5 mm. long), the limb ciliate on lower edge toward base; keel 13.5 mm. long, glabrous; vexillar stamen entirely free; fruit 4 to 9 cm. long, 2.5 to 5 cm. wide, 3 to 5 -seeded, densely sordid-pilosulous, the wings usually not divided, as broad as or broader than the body, the stipe exceeding the calyx by i to 3 mm. Type Locality: Cerro Gordo, Guatemala. Specimens Examined: Puebla: Zapotitlan, 1908, Purpus "= 2648." Oaxaca: Near Dominguillo, altitude 1370 to 1675 meters, 1894, Nelson 1826. Guatemala: Volcan Imay, Dept. Jalapa, altitude 1525 meters, 1908, Kellerman 8048 (N. Y. Bot. Gard.). Cerro Gordo, Dept. Santa Rosa, altitude iioo meters, August, 1892, Heyde & Lux 3709 (type collection) . This species departs from other members of the genus in its glabrous banner and its free vexillar stamen. The flowers of the next species, A' 246 BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA 1. mollis, have not yet been collected, but from the agreement in other features it is probable that they will show the same peculiarities. The fruit of both species is precisely that of the type species of Ichthyo- methia, and the character of the stamens is known to Vary in the same way in related genera of this group. 2. Ichthyomethia mollis (Rose) Blake. Piscidia mollis Rose, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 1: 98. 1891. Tree, 3 to 8 meters high; branches rather slender, softly cinereous- tomentulose, in age glabrate; leaves 7 to 13-foliolate, 8 to 20 cm. long; petiole, rachis, and petiolules densely cinereous-tomentulose ; leaflets 3 to 7.8 cm. long, 2 to 4 cm. wide, oval to ovate, acute to rounded, at base rounded, whitish green on both sides, above densely pilosulous with crisped hairs, beneath densely and softly short-pilose with as- cending hairs, in age prominulous-reticulate ; fruit 2.5 to 5 cm. long, 3.5 to 4.5 cm. wide, i to 3-seeded, densely cinereous-puberulous, the wings much wider than the body of the fruit, sometimes split in age. Type Locality: Ridges about Alamos, vSonora. Specimens Examined: Sonora: Alamos, 1890, Palmer 355 (type collection). Dry hills, Alamos, 1910, Rose, Standley, & Russell 12906, 135 15. Near Torres, 1903, Coville 1659. This species is distinguished from /. grandifolia by having its leaflets pilose rather than tomentose beneath. The flowers have not yet been collected. The plant bears the vernacular name "palo bianco." One of the specimens collected by Rose, Standley, and Russell, under their number 12906, is remarkable in having dull green, rather sparsely pilosulous leaves. It is doubtless a sucker growth or young shoot of the plant, and is not properly to be taken as indicating variation in the adult leaves, all those examined being very constant in both color and pubescence. 3. Ichthyomethia havanensis Britton & Wilson, Bull. Torrey Club 44: 34. 1917. Shrub, 2 meters high; branchlets sparsely puberulous, in age fuscous, glabrate; leaves 9-foliolate, 10 cm. long; petiole and rachis rather densely sordid-puberulous with spreading hairs; leaflets (immature) 3.5 cm. long, 1.5 cm. wide, elliptic to oblong-oval, obtuse to rounded, mucronulate, at base cuneate-rounded, above dull green, spreading- puberulous, glabrescent, beneath paler, prominulous-reticulate, densely puberulous with ascending hairs somewhat more numerous along the veins; calyx 5 mm. long, densely rufescent-strigillose, the teeth deltoid, obtuse; fruit, 1.2 to 3.5 cm. long, 2 to 2.8 cm. wide, i to 3-seeded, ap- pressed-puberulous, the wings much wider than the body, usually undulate-divided. BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA 247 Type Locality: Near Cojimar, Havana, Cuba. Specimens Examined: Cuba: Thickets not far from Cojimar, May 14, 19 15, Leon cS" Roca 6194 (type; N. Y. Bot. Card.). This species, of which only the type, in fruit and young leaf, has been examined, is distinguished from the next by its smaller fruit and smaller leaflets, these prominulous-reticulate beneath, as well as by the pubes- cence of the rachis and petiolules. 4. Ichthyomethia communis Blake, sp. nov. Tree, 20 meters high or less; branchlets strigillose, soon glabrate; leaves 7 or 9-foholate, 12 to 22 cm. long; petiole and rachis sordid- strigillose or appressed-puberulous, sometimes glabrate in age; leaflets 4 to 12 cm. long, 2 to 5 cm. wide, oblong or eUiptic to obovate-oval, acute or short-pointed, rounded to cuneate at base, above green, ap- pressed-puberulous, at length glabrate, beneath pale, not prominulous- reticulate, densely incurved-puberulous, the hairs more numerous along the veins; panicles 3 to 9 cm. long, many-flowered, often branched from base, finely griseous-puberulous ; pedicels 2 to 6 mm. long; calyx 4.5 mm. long, densely cinereous-puberulous ; the teeth of lower lip broadly deltoid, obtuse or rounded; vexillum 12.5 mm. long, suborbicular, densely cinereous-pubescent on back; alae about 15 mm. long (the claws 7 mm. long), the lamina sparsely pubescent; keel 12 mm. long (the claws 6.5 mm. long), the petals pubescent below, the claws ciliate beneath above the middle; vexillar stamen free for one-fourth to one- half its length; fruit 2.5 to 7.5 cm. long, 2.8 to 4 cm. wide, i to 6-seeded, cinereous-puberulous, especially on the body, the wings much wider than the body, usually undulate-divided, the stipe equahng the calyx or exceeding it by only 6 (rarely 9) mm. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 41958, collected in forests on coral soil, Ramrod Key (flowers), and on Jewfish Key, Florida (leaves and fruit). May and July, by A. H. Curtiss (no. 685). Other Specimens Examined: Florida: Miami, 1877, Garber. Punta Rassa, Lee County, 1900, Hitchcock 76; 191 6, Miss J. P. Standley 257. Marco, Lee County, 1916, P. C. Standley 12732. White Horse Key, and Key West, 1891, Simpson 234. Palm Cape, Chapman 34. Tamaulipas : Tampico, 1910, Palmer 510. vSan Luis Potosi: Limestone hills, Rascon, 1892, Pringle 4110. Veracruz: Pueblo Viejo, near Tampico, 1910, Palmer 541 (N. Y. Bot. Card.). Yucatan: Merida, 1865, Schott 260. Sisal, 1916, Gatimer & Sons 23219. Without definite locaUty, 1895, Gaumer 524. Honduras: Ruatan Island, 1886, Gaumer 154. Cuba: Manzanillo, 191 2, Shafer 12349. Ensenada de Mora, Oriente, 1912, Britton, Cowell, & Shafer 12926 (N. Y. Bot. Card.). 248 BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA This Species, the commonest and most widely distributed of the genus, has not previosuly been distinguished from I. piscipula. It is readily separated, however, by the leaves, which in /. communis are densely incurved-puberulous beneath, with the hairs along even the ultimate veinlets parallel to the latter. In I. piscipula the leaves are short-pilose with spreading-ascending hairs beneath, and the hairs along the veinlets do not coincide with them in direction but lie across them transversely. /. communis is called "haabi" by the Mayas of Yucatan, and "chijol" by the Huastecan Indians of Tamaulipas and Veracruz. 5. Ichthyomethia americana (Moc. & Sess^) Blake. Piscidia americana Moc. & Sess^, PI. Nov. Hisp. ii6. 1887. Tree; branchlets appressed-puberulous, soon glabrate; leaves 9 to 13-foliolate, 12 to 20 cm. long; petiole and rachis appressed-pubescent, glabrescent, leaflets 4 to 8 cm. long, 1.7 to 4 cm. wide, oval-oblong or elliptic-oblong or the terminal one obovate-oval, rounded or obtuse, sometimes acute, rounded at base, pergamentaceous, above light green, glabrous, beneath pale, evenly but not densely short-strigose, the hairs on the costa and primary veins appressed to them, those on the sec- ondary and tertiary veinlets and on the surface directed toward margin of leaf, thus crossing the veinlets nearly at a right angle, and not more numerous along than between them; panicles 8 to 24 cm. long, strigil- lose ; pedicels 2 to 7 mm. long ; calyx 6 to 7 mm. long, cinereous-puberu- lous with appressed hairs, the lobes of lower lip deltoid-ovate or broadly deltoid, slightly overlapping near base, obtuse or rounded, rarely acutish at tip; vexillum 15 mm. long, densely cinereous-puberulous dorsally, in youth subsericeous; alae 15.5 mm. long (the claws 7 mm. long), the laminae sparsely puberulous toward base; keel 15 mm. long (the claws 7 mm. long), the petals puberulous below; vexillar stamen free for one-third its length; fruit 1.5 to 7.5 cm. long, 1.8 to 4.3 cm. wide, I to 6-seeded, appressed-puberulous, the glabrescent wings much wider than the body, often undulate-divided, the stipe exceeding the calyx by 6 to 12 mm. Type Locality: Apatzingan, Michoacan, Mexico. Specimens Examined: Michoacan: Hacienda Guadalupe, near Rio Balsas, 1903, Nelson 6969. Nusco (Michoacan or Guerrero), 1899, Langlasse 936. Guerrero: La Junta, 1903, Nelson 6991. Guatemala: Naranjo, altitude 90 meters, 1892, /. D. Smith 2815. This species is called "tatzungo" or "zatzumbo" by the Tarascan Indians of Michoacan, according to Modno and Sess6. In Guerrero it is known by the native name "cocuile" and the Mexican names "colorin de peces" and "matapez." Although there is little in the description BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA 249 of Modno and Sesse to differentiate this species, its identity is clear from the locality. 6, Ichthyomethia acuminata Blake, sp. nov. Tree; branchlets strigillose, soon glabrate; leaves 7 to ii-foliolate, 17 to 30 cm. long; petiole and rachis strigillose, glabrescent; leaflets 4 to 13 cm. long, 2.2 to 7 cm. wide, oval to ovate-oval, or the terminal one obovate-oval or rarely suborbicular, obtuse or rounded, rarely short- pointed, rounded at base, pergamentaceous, above light or dark green, glabrous or essentially so, beneath paler, evenly but not densely strigose or strigillose, the hairs lying across the prominulous secondary and ter- tiary veins and not more numerous along them than between them; panicles 10 to 30 cm. long, strigillose; pedicels 4 to 8 mm. long; calyx 5 to 6 mm. long, densely cinereous-strigillose, the lobes of lower lip del- toid, acute or acuminate; flowers "pink;" vexillum 13 to 15 mm. long, densely cinereous-strigose dorsally, in youth subsericeous ; alae 15 to 18 mm. long (the claws 6.5 to 8 mm. long), the laminae sparsely pubes- cent; keel 14 mm. long (the claws 6 mm. long), the petals pubescent below, the claws ciliate below above the middle; vexillar stamen free for one-quarter to one-half its length; fruit 2 to 8.5 cm. long, 2.5 to 4 cm. wide, I to 5 -seeded, strigillose, the wings much wider than the body, often undulate-divided, the stipe exceeding the calyx by 8 to 13 mm. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 639557, collected in An- tigua, Lesser Antilles, February 4-16, 1913, by J. N. Rose, W. R. Fitch, and P. G. Russell (no. 3419). Other Specimens Examined: Porto Rico: Playa de Fajardo, 1913, Britton & Shafer 1575. Punta Guaniquilla, 1915, Britton, Cowell, & Brown 4576. Culebra: Culebra, 1906, Britton & Wheeler 62. Vieques Island: Punta Arenas to Boca Quebrada, 1914, Shafer 2912. TorTola: Road Town to Sea Cow Bay, 1913, Britton & Shafer 684. St. Croix : Christiansted, 1 9 1 3, Rose, Fitch, & Russell 3579. With- out definite locality, 1896, Ricksecker 320. St. Jan: Bethania, 1913, 5nVto« (5f 5/ia/er 336. MoNTSERRAT: Without definite locality, 1907, Shafer 462. Guadeloupe: Without definite locality, altitude 250 meters or less, 1892, Duss 2662. Barbados: Dover or Constitution Hill, Farley Hill, 1895, Wahy 83. Tobago : Scarborough, 1 9 1 4, Broadway 4808 . This species and the preceding (/. americana) are distinguished from the other species of the /. piscipula type by the character of their pubescence and by the long stipe of the fruit. They are distinguished from one another chiefly by the shape of the lower calyx lobes, which are acute or short-acuminate in the present plant and taper from the 250 BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA ' base, while in I. americana they are obtuse or rounded, or rarely slightly acutish at the extreme tip. /. acuminata is known as "bois enivrant" and "bois a ^nivrer" in the French Islands of the Lesser Antilles, and as "ventura" in Porto Rico. 7. Ichthyomethia piscipula (L.) Hitchc; Sarg. Gard. & For. 4:472. Oct. 1891.6 Erythrina piscipula L. Sp. PI. 2: 707. 1753. Piscidia erythrina L. Syst. ed. X. 1155. 1759- "Piscidia inebrians Medic. Vorles. Churpf. Phys. Ges. 2: 394. 1787." "Piscidia toxicaria Salisb. Prodr. 336. 1796." Piscidia piscipula Sarg. Gard. & For. 4: 436. 1891. Tree, 12 meters high or less; branchlets rufescent-strigillose, glabrate; leaves 7-foliolate, 22 to 26 cm. long; petiole and rachis rufescent-strigose or strigillose; leaflets 5.5 to 11. 5 cm. long, 4.5 to 7 cm. wide, oval or obovate-oval, rounded or short-pointed, at base rounded to slightly cordate, pergamentaceous, above deep green, strigillose-puberulous, glabrate, beneath slightly paler, prominulous-reticulate, rather densely short-pilose with spreading-ascending, usually somewhat rufescent hairs, these somewhat more numerous and more or less appressed along the costa and primary veins, those along the veinlets crossing them trans- versely and not more numerous than on the surface between them; panicles numerous, 5 to 16 cm. long, strigillose, much branched; pedi- cels 4 to 7 mm. long; calyx 5.5 to 6 mm. long, densely cinereous-strig- illose, the lobes of lower lip deltoid, the lateral ones broadly rounded or obtuse, the middle one acute or acutish; corolla rosy or "white and red;" vexillum 13 mm. long, densely strigillose dorsally, in youth subsericeous ; alae 13.5 mm. long (the claws 6 mm. long), the lamina sparsely pubes- cent along midline; keel 12 mm. long (the claws 5.5 mm. long), the petals pubescent and short-ciliate below, their claws short-ciliate below above the middle; vexillar stamen free for one-fourth its length; fruit 2.5 to 7 cm. long, 2.5 to 4 cm. wide, i to 6-seeded, cinereous-pubescent es- pecially on the body, the wings much wider than body, often undulate- divided, the stipe exceeding calyx by 2 to 6 mm. Type Locality: "In America calidiore." Linnaeus's references all relate primarily to Jamaica. Specimens Examined: Jamaica: Morant Bay, 1850, March (N. Y. Bot. Gard.). Berwich Hill, altitude 760 meters, 1899, Harris 7708. Hope Grounds, altitude 640 meters, 1903, Harris 8518 (N. Y. Bot. Gard.). Great Goat Island, 1906, Harris 9221. Vicinity of Kingston, 1910, Brown 364 (N. Y. Bot. Gard.). The use of this species by the natives of Jamaica as a fish poison was known to many of the older writers. The species was apparently ' This combination was also published in November, 1891, by Kuntze (Rev. Gen. i: 191). BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA 25 1 first listed by Hermann,^ in 1689, ^s "Coral arbor polyphylla non spinosa." Sloan, ^ in 1696, gave a long list of trees, mentioned by still older writers and travellers as fish poisons, which he doubtfully referred to this species. Ray,^ in 1704, gave a good description of the plant and mentioned its use. A figure of the leafless flowering branch and of a portion of the fruit, with an account of this species and of other fish poisons, was also given in Sloane's Natural History of Jamaica.^" Ichthyomethia piscipula is readily distinguished by the pubescence of its leaves, and is probably confined as a native to Jamaica, where it is known as "dogwood." In the National Herbarium is a sheet from Key West, collected in 1896 by A. H. Curtiss (no. 5656), and another collected in Florida in 1877 by Garber. It is probable that both these specimens were taken from cultivated trees. 8. Ichthyomethia cubensis (Urban) Blake. Piscidia cubensis Urban, Symb. Antill. 7: 229. 191 2. Shrub, I to 1.3 meters high; young branches greenish, densely rufes- cent-strigillose, the older branches gray, lenticellate, glabrate; leaves 5 to 9-foliolate, 2.5 to 4.5 cm. long; petiole (3 to 7 mm. long), rachis, and petiolules (i mm. long) densely rufescent-strigillose ; leaflets i to 2 cm. long, 6 to II mm. wide, oval to oblong, emarginate, apiculate, at base rounded to subcordate, coriaceous, prominulous-reticulate be- neath, above light green, lucid, sparsely strigillose toward margin or glabrous, beneath obscurely strigillose chiefly along the veins; panicles rufescent-strigillose, 2 to 2.5 cm. long; pedicels 2 to 4 cm. long; calyx rufescent-strigillose, 4 mm. long, the lobes of lower lip deltoid, broadly rounded; corolla "pink or white" or "yellowish white;" vexillum 12.5 mm. long, subsericeous-strigose when young; lateral petals 13 mm. long (the claws 7 mm.), the limbs sparsely pubescent at base, sparsely ciliate at apex; keel 12.5 mm. long, (the claws 6.5 mm.), the limbs of the petals sparsely pubescent below toward base; vexillar stamen free for one- third its length ; fruit hnear, straightish, rufescent-strigillose, sometimes constricted between the seeds, i to 6-seeded, 2 to 4.8 cm. long, 5 to 7 mm. wide; wings 4, only i mm. wide; stipe equaling calyx; seeds olive- fuscous, 4.8 mm. long. Type Locality: Riverside to Minas, Camaguey, Cuba. Specimens Examined: Cuba: Dry savanna, Riverside to Minas, Camaguey, April i, 1909, Shafer 1171 (type collection; N. Y. Bot. Card.). Rocky soil, Palm Barren, Santa Clara, March, 191 1, Britton & Cowell 10179 (N. Y. Bot. Card.). Rocky sides of arroyo. Palm Barren, April, 1912, Britton & Cowell 13293 (N. Y. Bot. Card.). 7 Par. Bat. Prodr. 328. 1689. * Cat. PI. Jam. 143. 1696. » Hist. PI. 3 (lib. xxxi.): 108. 1704. 1" Voy. Jam. 2: 39. pi. 176. f. 4-3. 1725. 252 SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS This very distinct species was described by Urban from Shafer's nos. 117 1 and 1549, of which the former is here selected as type. Ur- ban gives the maximum size of the leaflets as 2.5 cm. long, and 1.7 cm. wide, and the fruit as having wings up to 2 mm. broad. Although the fruit of this species is very different in appearance from that of the other members of the genus, owing to the great reduction of the wings, the difference is only a comparative one. In its floral structure I. cuhensis agrees precisely with other members of the genus, and the morphology of the fruit is the same. ELECTRICITY. — Methods oj 'measuring conductivity of in- sulating materials at high temperatures. F. B. Sii,SBEE and R. K. HoNAMAN, Bureau of Standards. The piu-pose of this paper is to describe some measurements carried out at the Bureau of Standards during the past two years, on the resistance of various insulating materials at high tempera- tures. This work was undertaken with a view to studying the relative merits of various insulators for use in spark plugs, and in particular to assist the Ceramic Laboratory of the Bureau in developing improved porcelain bodies for this purpose. The method finally adopted, as a result of this work, for the com- parative testing of materials is described elsewhere.^ The present paper will be confined to a description of the various phenomena observed in the experiments which led to the method finally adopted. The electrical and thermal conditions under which a spark plug is required to operate differ considerably with the type of gasoline engine used. Measurements with imbedded thermo- couples have shown that the temperature of the body of the in- sulator within the metal shell seldom exceeds 250° C. in water- cooled engines. The tip of the inner end, however, may reach temperatures as high as 900 to 1000° C. It therefore appeared desirable to study the resistivity of the specimens in the range of temperature between 200 and 900° C. The electrical stresses applied to a spark plug insulator by the average magneto or battery coil ignition system used for firing gasoline engines, are quite pecuHar and difficult to dupUcate in * Report of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 191 8. SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 253 any method of measurement. The cycle of operation, following the opening of the primary breaker contacts, consists of a rapid rise of the potential applied to the spark plug from zero to a value sufficient to break down the spark gap in the engine cylinder. The breakdown voltage is of the order of 6000 volts and is reached in a few hundred thousandths of a second. After this, a com- paratively low voltage (800 volts) maintains the electric arc between the spark points and lasts for a few thousandths of a second. Since the interval between sparks is of the order of 0.05 to 0.1 second, it will be seen that the average voltage ap- pUed over a complete cycle is quite low and has been found to be approximately 150 volts. These pecuUar electrical conditions should be kept in mind when considering the various methods of measurement described below. The materials studied in this investigation included porcelains, glass, steatite, mica, and fused silica, as these constitute the only class of substances sufficiently heat resisting for use in spark plugs. While the detailed studies of polarization, etc. de- scribed in this report were made on only a few of the porcelain samples, the same effects seemed to be present to greater or less degree in all cases and the process of conduction is probably similar in all of them. The work of earlier investigators^ has shown the complex nature of the phenomena, but as yet no com- plete and satisfactory theory has been worked out to account for them. APPARATUS AND SPECIMENS Most of the work reported in this paper was done on cup-shaped specimens with flat bottoms 3 mm. thick. The principal ad- vantages of this type of specimen are: (i) The conduction takes place through the bottom of the cup, which is of definite and easily measured dimensions. (2) The large area and small thickness of the bottom ensure a rela- tively large current even with material of high conductivity. 2 Gray, T. Phil. Mag. V, 10: 226. 1880. Haworth, H. F. Proc. Roy. Soc. London 81 A: 221. 1908. Somerville, A. A. Phys. Rev. 31: 261. 1910. Campbell. Nat. Phys. Lab. 11; 207. 1914. Kinnison, C. S. Proc. Amer. Ceramic Soc. 17: 422. 1915. PoolE, H. H. Phil. Mag. 34: 195. 1917. Brace, P. H. Trans. Amer. Electrochem. Soc. May 5, 1918. 254 SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS (3) The path over the rim of the cup for any surface leakage is rela- tively long. (4) A satisfactory contact can be made between the specimen and the electrodes by immersing the bottom of the cup in a conducting fluid (in these experiments melted solder) and by inserting some of this fluid inside the cup to form the upper electrode. These specimens were used in the furnace shown in figure i. Fig . I . Electric furnace as used in conductivity measurements . The heating coil inserted in the plug below the specimen was found necessary to compensate for the flow of heat through the bottom of the furnace. By proper adjustment of the relative amounts of current through the main winding and through this additional coil, the temperatures inside and outside the cup could be equal- ized. These temperatures were measured by two copper con- SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 255 stantan thermocouples, one of which was inserted in a closed porcelain tube which dipped below the surface of the solder in the interior of the cup, while the other was imbedded in the steel cup containing the solder below the specimen. Readings of the resistance were taken only when these two thermocouples showed substantially equal temperatures. In cases where cup specimens were not available, measure- ments were made on assembled spark plugs and also on spark plug insulators, and on short pieces of tubing. In these cases the conduction took place between a central electrode and either the shell of the spark plug or a band of platinum deposited around the center of the outside of the insulator or tube. The measure- ments with this type of specimen were definite in indicating the resistance of the specimen, but owing to the uncertainty as to the area of contact and the location of the lines of current flow, it is difficult from such data to compute with accuracy the true resistivity of the material. For reducing the results of either type of specimen from the observed resistance to a basis of the resistivity of the material, the factors connecting these two quantities were computed from the dimensions of the specimens. For the cup specimen, the resistivity is obtained by multiplying the observed resistance by K, where and d is the diameter of the bottom of the cup and t the thickness of the cup in centimeters. For the tubular specimen K = ^ (approx.) (2) ^2.30 logio^^ where / equals the length of the external conducting band meas- ured parallel to the length of the specimen, and Ro and Ri are respectively the external and internal radii of the insulator. In most of the work the resistances were measured by reading a voltmeter connected across the specimen and an ammeter in series with it, and taking the quotient of these values as the re- 256 SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUIIEMENTS sistance. As will be seen from the following, a wide variety of sources was used to provide the appUed voltage and the indicating instruments were correspondingly varied in character. VARIATION OP RESISTANCE WITH TEMPERATURE. The first experiments were carried out with an appUed direct Fig. 2. Typical results on porcelain cup showing variation of resistance with temperature. cmrent voltage of about 2000 volts which was obtained by recti- fying with a kenotron a 3000 cycle voltage suppHed from a step- up transformer. This rather compUcated system was chosen in an attempt to dupHcate to some extent the voltages existing SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 257 in ignition systems, and although this source of voltage was later abandoned, the data obtained with it brought out the salient facts in regard to this type of conduction. The most striking of these facts, as verified by other measurements made later, is the very rapid decrease in resistance of the specimen with increase in temperatm-e. This variation amounts to approximately 2 per cent per degree Centigrade at all temperatures. If the re- sults are expressed by plotting resistance against temperature, or conductance against temperature the resulting curves are so steep as to render it impracticable to express the data over an extended temperature range by a single curve. It is found, how- ever, that by plotting the common logarithm of the resistance against temperature, as in figure 2, a convenient Hne of sUght curvature is obtained, and if this curvature is neglected, the results can be represented approximately by the equation logio R = a — bt (3) This method of expressing the results is very convenient in re- ducing the data to a basis of resistivity, since combining the re- lation p = KXR (4) with equation (3) one obtains logio p = a + logio K — b t = c—bt (5) In this equation b and c are constants of the material and are independent of the shape and size of the specimen used. Un- fortunately, however, the values obtained for one of these con- stants depends very markedly upon the other, so that a slight error in one will cause a compensating change in the other. They are, therefore, not well suited for comparing the relative merits of the different materials and for this latter purpose it has been found convenient to compute an "effective temperature" (Te), which is defined as the temperature at which the material has the arbitrarily selected resistivity of one megohm per centimeter cube, and which may be computed from the equation c - 6 T. = ~r- (6) 258 SILrSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS This value of T^ ranges from 350° C. in the poorer grades of porcelain up to 800° C. for fused silica, and is a convenient index of the value of the material as an insulator at high temperatures. There is a complete absence of any critical temperature at which the material undergoes an abrupt change in its resistance. This shows the error of the commonly accepted idea that porcelain breaks down and becomes conducting at a definite temperature. This belief probably originated from experiments in which the temperature of a porcelain sample was gradually raised while being continuously subjected to an applied voltage. The effect of the current flowing through the sample in such cases would be entirely negligible up to a certain temperature at which the power, ~ , supplied by the measuring current, became comparable with the rate at which heat could be dissipated to the surround- ings. Owing to the very rapid rate of change of resistance with temperature, a very slight further increase in temperature would materially decrease the resistance and consequently increase the E^ ^ loss. Unless the specimen was in a position to give off heat freely to its surroundings, the temperature would rise rapidly causing a further decrease in resistance, thus leading to an un- stable state which would rapidly cause the fusion of the material and the passage of an arc. The rapidity of change of resistance with temperature makes this point of instability quite definite, provided all the conditions of the experiment are maintained constant, but this apparent critical temperature will depend very greatly upon the contact between the specimen and the furnace, upon the applied voltage and other conditions, so that this is in no sense a specific property of the material. The magnitude of this heating effect is exemplified by the behavior of a porcelain sample tested when hot, for example at 500° C. At this temperature, the resistance of a centimeter cube of ordinary porcelain is about 100,000 ohms, and if a voltage of only 500 volts per millimeter (i. e., only about V20 of that required to puncture it while cold) be applied, the current flowing will be 50 milliamperes and the power dissipated in the sample will be SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 259 250 watts. This will suffice to raise the temperature of the sample at a rate of about 100° C. per second and will cause its rapid de- struction. This heating of the specimen by the measuring current was observed on numerous occasions when making tests at 2000 and 1000 volts, and in each case the samples on removal from the furnace were found to contain one or more spots where the por- celain had been fused into a glass by the intense local heating. In the later work at lower voltage, this effect was not present, and readings were taken only when the current was substantially constant. POLARIZATION The early measurements with high voltage direct current showed a number of puzzling discrepancies, such as a variation of the apparent resistance with the voltage used in making the measurement and with the time of application of this voltage. Such discrepancies indicated the presence of an additional phe- nomenon to be reckoned with, which in the absence of definite knowledge as to its origin was called "polarization" and will be so referred to throughout this report. The fundamental manifestation of this so-called poliarization is that if a constant D. C. voltage be applied to a specimen, the resulting current will decrease at first rapidly, and then more gradually. The reduction in current is often equivalent to an increase in resistance by a factor of 10 or 20. If the specimen is allowed to remain at a high temperature but without applied voltage for some time, the effect gradually disappears, but a considerable time is required to accomplish this. The disappear- ance is more rapid at high temperatures than at low. Figure 3 gives a record of the variation of the apparent resistance of a glass beaker, as measured with 1000 volts D. C. after various ap- phcations and removals of the measuring potential. The course of the experiment is indicated by the arrows and the duration of each period of application or of rest is indicated on the curve. The lowest and highest curves give the resistance as observed with very short application of the testing voltage just prior to the 26o SDLSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS polarizing test, and on the following day, respectively. The apparent permanent increase of resistance observed with this specimen serves to explain some mysterious results obtained at an earher date, in which one specimen had shown an increase of resistance to more than twenty times its initial value | after FJg- 3- Variation in resistance of glass cup resulting from polarization. several successive tests. The fact that an appreciable time is required to obtain a reading, even with quick acting direct cur- rent indicating instruments, and that during this time the speci- men is being polarized, is probably a complete explanation of the variation of apparent resistance with appUed voltage. If the SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 26 1 applied D. C. voltage is suddenly reversed after a specimen has become polarized to a considerable extent, the initial current in the new direction is found to be approximately equal in mag- nitude to the original current and much greater than the value immediately preceding the reversal. This implies a counter E. M. F. and an attempt was made to observe such an effect b}^ connecting an electrostatic voltmeter across the specimen. No residual deflection of this meter was observed when the supply current was removed, even after long continued polarization of the specimen. This result is to some extent in contradiction to facts mentioned by other observers.^ A magneto having alternate distributor points of the same polarity connected together was also used as a source of voltage and the polarizing effects found to be in every way similar to those obtained with a steady D. C. source of the same average voltage (150 volts). When alternating current is applied to a fresh specimen, there is no polarizing effect and the current remains constant indefi- nitely, except when the current is so large as to produce heating of the specimen. When alternating current is applied to a speci- men which has been previously polarized by direct current, the polarization disappears at a more rapid rate than if the alternating current had not been appHed. An attempt to throw light on these complex phenomena was made by applying alternating and direct current simultaneously to a specimen. This was accomphshed by connecting a trans- former in series with a generator. By opening the primary cir- cuit of the transformer, or the field of the generator, either source of K. M. F. could be ehminated without opening the circuit or interfering with the current flow from the other source. The A. C. voltage was measured across the transformer terminals with a moving iron voltmeter, and the D. C. voltage by a d'Ar- sonval type D. C. voltmeter across the generator. The alter- nating current through the specimen was passed through the moving coil of an electro-dynamometer, the fixed coil of which was excited by an alternating current of constant magnitude and in « Maxwell, J. C. Electricity and Magnetism. Ed. 3. i; 393. 262 SILSBEE AND HONAMAN : CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS siIvSbee; and honaman: conductivity measurements 263 the same phase as the alternating voltage applied to the speci- men. The direct current through the specimen was measured by a D. C. milliammeter connected in series with the specimen and the dynamometer. With this arrangement, each pair of instruments measured only its particular component of the re- sultant current and voltage and was not affected by the pres- ence of the other component. Figure 4 shows the variation with time during the course of the experiments of the resistances as computed from the two components of the current. In this ex- periment the maximum value of the A. C. voltage was greater than the D. C. voltage, so that the resultant voltage applied to the specimen reversed in sign during each alternation. Other ex- periments, in which the maximum alternating voltage was less than the D. C. voltage, and the resultant voltage was conse- quently unidirectional, showed substantially the same effects. Throughout the experiments, the temperature was held as nearly constant as possible, but a gradual drift of resistance will be noticed, which can be accounted for by a slight change of tem- perature. It appears from these results that the resistance of the specimen is substantially the same for both the alternating and direct currents for all states of polarization. Or, in other words, the polarization produced by the direct current offers resistance to the passage of the alternating current and the de- polarization produced by the alternating current reduces the resistance offered to the passage of the direct current. When alternating current alone was applied to a fresh speci- men, the power factor of the circuit was found to be substantially unity. If, however, the specimen had recently been polarized by the application of direct current, the power factor was some- what reduced; values as low as .9 having been observed. The data described above are quite insufficient for the devel- opment of any complete theory of this "polarization," but it would appear that the assumption of a counter E. M. F. is ruled out by both the experiments of combined alternating and direct current and by the difficulty of imagining a mechanism capable of producing a counter E. M. F. of the order of several thousand volts, which would be required to produce the observed decrease 264 SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS of current. A possible explanation may be developed on a basis of the migration away from one electrode, of the ions carrying the current, thus leaving a scarcity of carriers for the further passage of current in the original direction, but providing a plentiful supply for currents in the reversed direction. Another suggested explanation is the formation of resisting films which may cover a considerable part of the area of the electrodes but which are readily removed by electrolysis on reversal of the current. Tests made using platinized surfaces as electrodes instead of the melted solder showed no difference of behavior. It may be noted in this connection that when the samples were removed after cooling, the solidified solder adhered firmly to both surfaces of the cups which had been tested with direct current, but could be very readily peeled off from specimens which had been tested on alternating current. DISCUSSION OF METHODS FOR MEASURING RESISTANCES As a result of the data obtained in the preHminary experiments just described, it was decided to adopt as the most satisfactory method for the rapid comparison of different types of insulating materials, the volt-ammeter method using alternating current. Under these conditions the observed resistance is substantially independent of the frequency, voltage and time of application, and the convenient values of 60 cycles and 500 volts were adopted for the later work. Figure 2 shows the typical results obtained by this method and indicates the agreement attainable on suc- cessive runs even at different voltages. It should be remembered, however, that the results thus obtained are for the material in the unpolarized state and, when in actual use in ignition systems, the material may show a much higher resistance to the uni- directional impulse from the magneto. Of other possible methods for such work, a bridge method using D. C. would be objectionable because of the variable amount of polarization which would occur. Attempts were made to use alternating current as a source but the measurements are compHcated by the effect of stray capacities shunting the high resistances which are necessary, and the time required to SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 265 obtain a balance on the bridge is a serious draw-back because of the rapid change in the resistance to be measured with even sUght drifts of temperature. The megger, while extremely rapid and convenient, is open to the disadvantages of polarization and to the fact that the voltage supplied varies very considerably with the resistance of the specimen under test. The use of a magneto in place of alternating current as a source has the great advantage that it approximately duplicates the conditions of operation in the engine. The magneto, however, is very variable in its output, both from instant to instant and as a result of permanent changes in the magnets, contact points, etc. Moreover, there is an abrupt change in the operation of the machine when the resistance of the specimen becomes so low as to cause the spark in the safety gap to cease, and also the total variation of the current delivered with various resistances in the circuit is comparatively slight, with this type of machine. A method involving the measurement of the rate of loss of charge from a condenser connected in parallel with the specimen has been used by Cunningham. This method imitates the con- ditions of operation much more closely than does the A. C. method but not as perfectly as the use of a magneto as a source. The principal objections are the very delicate string electrometer which is required and the necessity of recording the result photographically . TYPICAL RESULTS AND CONCLUSION The following table gives the results obtained by the use of the alternating current method on a number of types of sam- ples, the significance of the various constants being the same as those defined on page 257. These figures show a wide variation in the resistance of the different materials but a rather surprising similarity in the con- stant b which is a measure of the temperature coefficient of their resistance. It should be mentioned in this connection that while successive measurements with alternating current on a single specimen give results repeating to a few percent, yet measure- 266 SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS TABLE I Resistivity of Insulating Materials Material Fused silica Best porcelain tested Typical mica plug Average three aviation porcelains. Average automobile porcelain. . . . c b Te II .8 .0065 890° c. I I .2 .0066 790 12 . I .0085 720 n -5 .0085 650 ID. 2 .0085 490 p at 500° C. 340 X lO« 80 X 10* 70 X 10^ 40 X 10' 0.8 X io« ments on different specimens of material which are supposed to be identical show wide variations in resistivity amounting in some cases to a factor of 10. This fact tends to indicate that the conduction is due to a considerable extent to the presence of small amounts of impurities which may vary greatly in amount without appreciably affecting the composition of the material as a whole. It appears from the above data that the A. C. method developed is very practical and convenient for comparative measurements on samples of this character, but that there is a very wide field of investigation concerning the phenomenon of polarization and much interesting work may be done in developing theories as to the precise mechanism by which conduction is carried on in this class of materials. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The Board of Managers met on April 14. Routine business was transacted and new members elected. Mr. H. V. Harlan was ap- pointed an associate editor to succeed Mr. J. B. Norton, who had re- signed on account of absence from Washington. The following persons have become members of the Academy since the last issue of the Journal : Professor CharlEvS O. Appleman, Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station, College Park, Maryland. Miss Eleanora F. Bliss, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Mr. Harry V. Harlan, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Dr. S. L. JODiDi, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Mr. Irwin G. Priest, Bureau of vStandards, Washington, D. C. Robert B. Sosman, Corresponding Secretary. THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 812th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 18, 1919. President Humphreys in the chair, 48 persons present. The minutes of the 809th and 81 ith meetings were read in abstract and approved. The paper of the evening was presented by Major L. T. Sutherland on Some of the accomplishments oj the research division of the chemical warfare service. There was no discussion of the paper as such. However, the speaker expressed his willingness to answer questions and his replies to the questions asked him brought out many interesting points. Upon motion duly seconded a unanimous vote of thanks was ten- dered the speaker. Adjournment took place at 10:09 p.m., following which there was a social hour with light refreshments. The 814th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 15, 191 9. President Humphreys in the chair, 45 persons present. The minutes of the 813th meeting were read in abstract and approved. The first paper was presented by Mr. L. A. Bauer on The field of a uniformly magnetized elliptic homoeoid and applications. There have been repeated occasions in the course of the author's investigations when he had need for the simplest possible expressions defining the magnetic field of certain magnetized bodies, such as ellip- soids of revolution, homoeoids, focaloids and cylinders. A variety 268 proceedings: phii^osophicai^ socmTY of investigations will be found in treatises and papers by eminent authors, but the derived expressions either stop at the gravitation potential and intensity components, or but special cases of magnetiza- tion are treated. Furthermore the published expressions for general cases are often needlessly complex or they contain errors of one kind or another which in some instances have been repeated by later authors. Hence, the attempt was made to derive the desired expressions in the simplest manner possible for practical application. Certain war prob- lems gave added zest to this attempt. According to Poisson, who first solved the problem of induced mag- netism in an elUpsoid placed in a uniform magnetic field, if V be the gravitation potential at the point (x, y, z) of a body of uniform density W p, then — — - is the magnetic potential of the same body umformly magnetized in the direction x with the intensity A = p. Similarly with regard to any other direction of uniform magnetization. If the imiform magnetization results from magnetic induction, the mag- netizing field at all points in the interior of the body will be uniform. So that if the external magnetizing field is uniform, the magnetic field resulting from the magnetization will also be uniform for all points in the interior of the body. The ellipsoid is the only body for which — is a linear function of the coordinates x, y, z in the interior, and V, accordingly, a quadratic function of the coordinates. Poisson's method can, therefore, be ap- plied to the case of the ellipsoid. Hence ii A, B and C be the intensities of magnetization parallel to the three axes of the ellipsoid, and X', V and Z' the components of .gravitational intensity due to a homogeneous ellipsoid of uniform den- sity p = I, the magnetic potential due to the ellipsoid at any external point as resulting from the induced magnetization will be V = AX' - BY' - CZ' (i) As defined by Thomson and Tait^ "an elliptic homoeoid is an in- finitely thin shell bounded by two concentric similar elUpsoidal surfaces." The total intensity produced by such a shell at points within the hollow interior is zero, and at external points anywhere infinitely near the homoeoid it is perpendicular to the surface, directed inward and equal to 47rp/, where p is the constant density of the homogeneous mass and t is the thickness of the shell at the point for which the intensity is sought. 2 Since, furthermore, any two confocal homoeoids of equal masses produce the same intensity at all points external to both, we have in general that the total intensity produced by a homogeneous elliptic homoeoid at an external point {x, y, z) is equal to 4irpt, p being the constant density and t the thickness of the elliptic homoeoid at the point {%, y, z), ^ Thomson and Tait's Natural Philosophy. Pt. 2: 43, footnote 2. "^ Idem. Pt. 2: paragraphs 519-525. PROCEEDINGS: PHIIvOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 269 confocal to the given homoeoid and passing through x, y, z; the intensity is along the normal and directed inward, or towards the given shell. On the basis of equation (i) and MacLaurin's theorem the author has deduced: 1. Expressions for the field of an inductively magnetized rotation ellipsoid in a more convenient form for the general case than previous ones. 2. Expressions for the field of an inductively magnetized prolate elliptic homoeoid have been established, possibly for the first time. It was also shown that expressions in finite form may be established for the field of an inductively magnetized elUptic homoeoid in general — that it is not necessary to assume a rotation elliptic homoeoid. This matter is of special interest in view of the fact that expressions for the field of an inductively magnetized soUd elUpsoid, in general, have not yet been estabHshed in finite form. In conclusion various applications of the derived formulae were given. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides and was discussed by Messrs. Abbot, Littlehales, Sosman and Humphreys. The second paper, also illustrated by lantern slides, was presented by Mr. S. J. Mauchly on Some results of atmospheric-electric observations made during the solar eclipse of June 8, igi8. • The observations forming the subject of this paper were made in the belt of totality near Lakin, Kansas, in accordance with the general plan of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie In- stitution of Washington for magnetic and electrical observations during the total solar echpse of June 8, 1918. The observing station was located on a level treeless plain and the general weather conditions on the afternoon of the echpse were favorable for atmospheric-electric observations. The period of totality at Lakin was of about 84 seconds duration. The potential-gradient was determined from eye readings of an elec- troscope giving the p. d. between the earth and an ionium collector supported at a distance of 95 cm. above the ground, from the middle of a long, insulated, horizontal wire. Observations were made every two minutes over a period of 6 hours approximately symmetrical about the time of totality. The main results may be summarized as follows : (i) Beginning 8 minutes before and continuing througl;out totality there was a rapid but nearly uniform decrease of the potential-gradient amounting to about 25 per cent of the values immediately preceding. The general minimum thus established persisted for about 20 minutes after totality and was marked by a sharp secondary minimum 6 minutes after mid-totality. (2) Throughout the general minimum referred to there was almost total absence of the irregular, short-period, fluctuations which char- acterized the potential-gradient on the afternoon of the eclipse. Be- ginning 20 minutes after totahty and continuing for about 20 minutes there was a marked but gradual increase to approximately normal 270 proceedings: philosophical society values of both the gradient and the ampHtude of its short-period fluctu- ations. For the observations of the specific conductivity of the air the as- piration apparatus devised by Gerdien was employed. By the use of a separate apparatus for each, it was possible to make approximately simultaneous observations of the positive and negative conductivities. The time for a single determination was 2 minutes, and, except for the time required for making frequent calibration and leak tests, the ob- ser^'ations were made continuously throughout a period of 6 hours symmetrical about totality. The results showed, for both signs, a very marked increase in conductivity just before totality. These abnormal values continued for about 20 minutes after totality when both con- ductivities began to decrease. The time of return to normal afternoon values, for both signs and also for the total conductivity, corresponded very closely to the time when the potential-gradient regained its normal values. A short resume of the results of atmospheric-electric observations during previous eclipses by other observers was also given and com- parisons made with the foregoing. Adjournment took place at 10:20 p.m. and was followed by a social hour and refreshments. The 8 1 6th meeting, a joint meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences, was held at the Cosmos Club, March 15, 1919, President Hum- phreys presiding. The address of the evening was given by Dr. H. D. Curtis on Modern theories of spiral nebulae. This address was illustrated by lantern slides and has appeared in this Journal ig: 217. 1919). S. J. Mauchly, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. Paul Bartsch, of the National Museum, has returned from an extended lecture tour to various army camps. Mr. C. F. BowEN resigned from the Geological Survey in April to enter the employ of the Carter Oil Company. He will leave soon for a six months' trip in Venezuela and Colombia. Mr. F. W. Dearborn of the Ordnance Department has joined the staff of the Bureau of Standards and will be engaged in research on the chemistry of cellulose. Mr. Wilson B. Emery resigned from the Geological Survey in April to enter the employ of the Ohio Oil Company at Cheyenne, Wyoming. The Chicago Speedway Hospital has been turned over to the Public Health Service, and two of the seven subdivisions of the building will be devoted to research and to the instruction of public health officers. This part of the work of the hospital will be under the direction of Dr. Joseph Goldberger, of the Hygienic Laboratory. Dr. J. A. Harker, formerly of the National Physical Laboratory, in London, visited Washington in March on business connected with the organization of scientific and industrial research in England. Mrs. Phoebe Apperson Hearst, a patron of the Academy, died at her home at Pleasanton, California, on April 13, 1919, in her seventy- seventh year. She was the widow of the late Senator George Hearst, of California, coming with him to Washington in 1886. She took an active part in educational affairs during her residence in the city. She was elected a patron of the Academy in 1901. Mr. O. B. Hopkins, of the Geological Survey, is on leave of ab- sence and is engaged in work for the Imperial Oil Company in Canada. Mr. H. E. Howe, formerly manager of the commercial department of A. D. Little, Inc., of Cambridge, Massachusetts, will hereafter devote his efforts to the interests^of the National Research Council and particularly to the work of its Division of Industrial Research. Mr. Howe was attached to the Nitrate Division of the Ordnance Department, U. S. A., during the latter part of the war. Mr. M. B. Long, of the gas laboratory of the Bureau of Standards, has resigned in order to accept a position in the research laboratory of the Western Electric Company, in New York City. Mr. J. B. Norton, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, who has been appointed Agricultural Explorer in the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, has left Washington on an expedition to China. Mr. B. E. SivE, formerly of the chemical reagent testing laboratory 271 272 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS of the Bureau of Standards, is now with the American Colortype Com- pany of Chicago, Illinois. The Treasury Department published in April a "Manual for the Oil and Gas Industry under the Revenue Act of 191 8," designed to assist the oil and gas producer to calculate the depletion of his reserves. Attention is called to the publication here as it is not issued by one of the scientific or technologic bureaus and might not reach the scientific public through the usual channels. The Division of Biology and Agriculture of the National Research Council met in Washington, April 14. Fourteen members were nomi- nated by 10 national societies of biology and agriculture, 3 each from the Botanical Society of America and the Society of American Zoologists, and one each from the other societies. These members nominated 8 members at large. The Washington members are: G. N. Collins, American Genetic Association; A. S. Hitchcock, Botanical Society of America; George R. Lyman, American Phytopathological Society; Charles V. Piper, American Society of Agronomy; A. G. Mayer, Carnegie Institution; C. F. Marbut, Bureau of Soils; H. F. Moore, Bureau of Fisheries, members-at-large. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 MAY 19, 1919 No. 10 PALEONTOLOGY. — Significance of divergence of the first digit in the primitive mammalian foot. Jamus WilIvIAMS Gidley, U. S. National Museum. In connection with some recent research work on Basal Eocene mammals I have had occasion to make a critical study of the primitive mammalian foot, especially as regards the meaning of divergence of the first digit. On the interpretation of this character depends in no small degree our concept of the early life history of the Mammalia. Based on certain modifications observed especially in the hind feet of marsupials, including divergence and opposability of the hallux associated with a tendency to enlargement of the fourth digit and reduction and syndactylism of the second and third digits, Huxley in 1880' expressed the view that the existing marsupials have been derived from an arboreal ancestry. Later Dollo,- in full accord with this view, discussed the evidence for it at considerable length. vSoon followed a review by Bensley^ in which he expressed general agreement with the interpretation of Huxley and Dollo. In 1904 Matthew published an article on "The Arboreal Ancestry of the Alammalia,"' in which he accepted the views of Huxley, Dollo, and Bensley regarding the arboreal ancestry of the marsupials, and expressed his belief that the ^ Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 655. ' Les ancetreses Marsupiaux etaient-ils arhoricoles? Miscellanees biologiques, 1899. ^ Amer. Nat. 35: 117-122. 1901. ^Amer. Nat. 38:813-815. 1904. 273 274 gidl^y: primitive; mammalian foot placentals are likewise of arboreal origin. This latter belief was apparently based, principally at least, on the fact that the first digit, in both the fore and hind feet of the early Eocene mammals of generalized type, is so frequently found in a divergent posi- tion, and on the condition found in the earliest known Primates. But unhke Huxley and Dollo, who considered arboreal adaptation in the marsupials a specialization and not a primitive condition, Matthew advanced the hypothesis that opposability of the first digit in the early mammals was a primitive condition. While I do in the main indorse Matthew's characterization of a hypo- thetical "common ancestral group," I am unable to agree with him regarding arboreal ancestry as applied to placentals in gen- eral, and therefore differ from him in the interpretation of the conditions found in the primitive mammalian foot. In order more clearly to set forth my own view I here quote the prin- cipal arguments advanced by Matthew in support of his inter- pretation : (i) In the first place, as far as we can trace back the history of each of the arboreal groups, we find their first ancestors with the first digit as fully opposable as in the modern representatives {e. g., the Middle Eocene primate Northarctus). (2) Second, in those groups which have not an opposable thumb, we find as we trace back their ancestry that the trapezium, whose form and facets give the surest indication on this point, approaches more and more nearly to the type preserved in the Primates, etc. (3) In the four Basal Eocene mammals (Pantolambda, Euproto- gonia, Claenodon, and Dissacus) in -which this part of the skeleton is known, the form of the bone [trapezium] is surprisingly uniform, and when the manus is put together, the first digit is thrown partly out- ward from the rest of the hand, and permits of much freer motion than the remaining digits, with a considerable degree of opposition. Following this, in the same article, Matthew states that the primitive opposability of the hallux is less clearly indicated but suggests this is due to the probability that the evolution of the hind foot for terrestrial locomotion "began earlier or proceeded more rapidly." He further suggested that "the hypothesis that all mammals passed through a stage when the pollex and hallux were opposable," would explain among other things, "(a) the presence of but two phalanges on digit i, three on each of the others ; (6) the epiphysis of digit i being proximal as in the gidl^y: primitive mammalian foot 275 phalanges, instead of distal as in the remaining metapodials ; (c) the anomalous musculature of digit i on all mammals, the object of which is clearly seen when the digit is opposable, but is quite unexplained otherwise." In further substantiation of the arboreal ancestry hypotheses, Matthew's first proposition above quoted has, I believe, little weight as evidence. First, because Notharctus can hardly be considered primitive, since the known species, even in the Bridger epoch, had advanced in foot, limb, and skull structure well toward the condition found in the present-day South American apes; second, admitting NoiJi- arctus to be primitive, the presence of true opposability in this genus can aflfect the proposition under discussion only so far as the Primates themselves are concerned, and cannot be taken as evidence of arboreal ancestry for other orders of mammals, especially as there is no indication of close relationship between any of them and the Primates.' At most the evidence in the case of Notharctus can not be interpreted to mean more than that the group which it represents (the Primates) had adapted themselves to an arboreal habitat at a comparatively early period. But opposability probably followed or accompanied and did not precede their adaptation to tree-living habits. If this be true it explains why there are so many cases in which opposability has not been developed even in strictly arboreal forms, and like- wise why these cases seem to be confined to species of compara- tively small size. For example, many species of rodents and insectivores are living to-day almost exclusively in the trees, }'et, so far as I am aware, there is not one example of true opposability among the Insectivora, and but one among all the Rodentia, living or extinct. This single exception is furnished by the African genus, Lophiomys, in which the first digit of the hind foot is thus developed, and this animal is not arboreal. Among the Insectivora some of the Tupaiidae are mostly arboreal in habit, more so than in any other members of the order, yet even in this family there is not the slightest trace of opposability. ^ It may be here remarked that, in my opinion, there is some evidence that this important order, and probably some other orders of mammals as well, have been derived independently from different though probably more or less closely related premammalian ancestral groups. 276 gidley: primitive mammauan foot Among the Primates themselves there is a whole group of living species, the South American marmosets, that, in the fore feet at least, show no evidence of opposability, although they are strictly arboreal in habits. These smaller, lighter-bodied animals seem never to have acquired the function of grasping a limb, but depend rather on their sharp, widely spread claws for support in progressing among the tree tops. Matthew's second and third propositions, above quoted, do not strictly concern opposability but refer rather to simple di- vergence of the first digit. And the crux of the whole proposi- tion seems to lie, after all, in the interpretation of this condi- tion. "Primitive opposability" and "more or less opposable" are terms which the advocates of arboreal ancestry have frequently used, but have never clearly defined. These terms seem to ex- press a condition somewhat different from the kind of opposa- bility developed in the modern Primates, and as used by Matthew, as I interpret it, seem to imply that simple divergence of the first digit may be taken as proof of opposability or at least former opposability. It becomes necessary then, to distinguish clearly between "opposability" and "divergence" of the first digit, as for an intelligent discussion, one should understand clearly what is meant by "opposability." As applied to arboreal adaptation opposability can imply but one condition, viz., a modification which gives the power to grasp or hold, by opposing the first digit to the others, and this is always accompanied by a special and distinctive arrangement and development of the digital muscles. Opposability, it is true, is usually accompanied by a complete divergence of the opposing digit, ^ but divergence, in all stages, is frequently observed where there is no other evi- dence of opposability. Moreover, examples of divergence without opposability are found most frequently in the older Eocene representatives of almost all the orders of mammals in which the feet are known, while true opposability has not * An exception to this is seen in some of the phalanges in which the first meta- carpal is closely appressed to the second, but the toe is opposable and divergent in its phalangeal portion. gidlEy: primitive mammauan foot 277 been found in any forms of older age than the middle Eocene; and here it is known only in species of a single order. These facts, together with the absence of opposability in tree-living rodents and insectivores, as already pointed out, would in themselves suggest that this condition of opposability is relatively modern in develop- ment, or at least not primitive; and in further support of this view it may be noted that in those orders in which opposability has been developed and retained, it is always most advanced in those species which are in other respects notably specialized. Thus, in the Primates, opposabiHty, especially in the hind feet, is found best developed in the heavier, long-limbed monkeys and apes. It has reached its greatest perfection in the hand of man, although doubtless the higher stages of perfection of this function were accomplished after man, formerly arboreal, had finally taken to a terrestrial habitat. Contrary to what one might expect, if opposability were a primitive condition, in the little marmo- sets of South America, which among living Primates are con- sidered a rather primitive and generalized group, there is, as already stated, not the slightest approach to opposability of the pollex, which is long and functional and it is only moderately developed in the hallux. Yet these little animals are as strictly arboreal in habits as any group of the order. If opposabiHty of the first digit is a primitive condition, then why is it so poorly developed in this particular group while so well developed and perfected in the more highly specialized members of the order? Granting that all Primates began their career in an arboreal habitat, it seems to me a more logical conclusion that the little light-bodied marmosets have never developed opposability, finding the primitive sharp claws sufficiently effective for cling- ing to the bark of trees, while the heavier-bodied forms, or those species which early formed the habit of swinging from limb to limb as a method of progression through the trees, very quickly took advantage of the primitively divergent first digit to develop opposability. This function once developed to a degree where the grasp became firm, the claws would no longer act as formerly, and the constant pressure thus transferred to the palmar side of the toe, or finger tips, would soon modify them into the "nail," so characteristic of the Primates, 278 gidle;y: primitive mammalian foot If by the term "primitive opposability" is meant simple di- vergence of the first digit, it seems to me purely assumption, based on no convincing evidence, to interpret this condition as denoting an arboreal habitat. This interpretation, moreover, seems not warranted without the most positive proof, especially when such a foot as that of Claenodon, for example, or any other primitive mammalian foot of the basal Eocene types shows no evidence of true opposability and, moreover, could be derived, with such comparatively slight changes, directly from the primi- tive reptilian type of foot. In fact it is but a short step in me- chanical adaptation from the reptilian state to the type of foot of which Claenodon is a somewhat advanced example. On exam- ining a foot of Sphenodon or other reptile of generalized type, the distinctly reptilian characteristics seem to be these: Foot completely plantigrade; metapodials all more or less divergent, permitting free spreading of the digits; metapodials shorter than phalangeal portion of the digit; first digit shortest; fourth digit longest of the series; phalangeal formula digits I to V, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 3 or 4, respectively. Comparing now the type of foot under discussion. The following seem to be the principal modifications which mark its advance over the reptilian type: The foot has remained plantigrade with the metapodials shorter than the phalangeal portion of the digit and with digit IV, though rel- atively shortened, still longest of the series; digits II to V are drawn somewhat more closely together, but are still capable of considerable spreading; the first digit, retaining more or less its original reptilian position, is left more divergent than the others; and the phalanges of the median two digits are reduced to the mammalian number, three in each digit. These simple modifications seem to be purely mechanical adaptations brought about in changing from the reptilian crawl- ing manner of locomotion, to the mammalian walking gait, and each modification may be readily explained on this hypothe- sis. In the normal position a reptile or batrachian carries the feet well out from the body, with the toes directed more or less outward in such a manner that the short first digit is directed first inward then forward toward the end of the stride, the heel re- gidIvEy: primitive mammauan foot 279 maining on the ground, so that normally the weight of the body is not brought fully on the ends of any of the metapodials. In terrestrial mammals, even of the most primitive plantigrade type, the feet are brought more under the body in walking, the radius and tibia, respectively, are brought to the inside, the first digit pointing constantly inward and the others more or less directly forward. The result of this modification would be to bring the weight of the body more exactly on the ends of the median toes, especially at the finish of the stride at which time the heel is raised clear of the ground. This would have a tendency to stiffen the wrist and ankle joints, through a closer articulation of their bony elements, to bring the divergent metapodials more closely together, and to shorten the median pair of toes. This change in position of the feet and consequent change of the manner in which the toes are applied to the ground in walking may have been the primary cause of the reduction in phalanges of digits III and IV, and would quite satisfactorily account for the divergence of the first digit so frequently found in the prim- itive mammalian foot. It will be especially noted that the first digit is shortest, and in the mammalian position of the foot is so placed as to take no considerable part in the function of walking, hence it has been least modified and soonest lost in terrestrial forms which acquired a digitigrade gait. It is plainly obvious that, from a central type of primitive mammalian foot similar to that just described, in which the first digit is unreduced, it is but a short step to true opposability. The divergent first digit could readily be converted into a grasp- ing organ, and the modification to opposability doubtless was soon accomplished by those forms which early adopted an ar- boreal habitat. But among ground-living forms, in the other direction, it was an equally short step to the strictly terrestrial digitigrade type, in which the first digit was gradually atrophied, as it became functionless through being raised from the ground, and in many species has been lost altogether. In the process of development of the digitigrade type the functional metapodials are brought closely together and have become relatively length- ened while the phalangeal portion of these digits becomes short- ened. It is through these stages of development that have 28o gidlEy: primitive mammalian foot come directly the modern ungulate types of feet. Still another type developed from the primitive terrestrial mammalian foot, or possibly directly from the reptilian stage, is that type of which the short-toed amblypod and probosicidian feet are examples. In these forms the toes remain more or less spreading, and all, including the first when present, function in bearing the weight of the body. In this type of foot the heel may become raised from the ground as in the digitigrade type, but this modification is always accompanied by the development of a pad so that this portion of the foot still functions in carrying its share of the body- weight as in the plantigrade type. It may be further assumed that the various aquatic types of feet are directly derivable from some such foot as that of Claenodon. It would thus seem that the primitive mammalian foot, of the central group, must have been primarily terrestrial, and from this generalized type of foot, with divergent but not primarily op- posable first digit, have been developed all sorts of modifications of foot structure, each adaptable to the kind of environment chosen, and that divergence of the first digit is primarily an inheritance from the primitive reptilian condition, and can not be considered as in any way supporting the hypothesis of an arboreal ancestry of the Mammalia. It is likewise quite as apparent, it seems to me, that true opposability of the first digit wherever found should be considered a direct specialization of the primitive condition brought about by a mechanical adaptation to a pe- culiar (arboreal) life habit. This viewpoint is certainly not weakened and seems to be strengthened by the difference in type of modification observed in the hind foot of marsupials as compared with that of the Primates. In the former, as observed by Huxley, opposability of the first digit is accompanied with enlargement of the fourth digit, and reduction and syndactylism of the second and third digits, while in the latter there is no approach to either of these modifications. This difference seems to be fundamental, and suggests that the marsupials took to tree-living habits at a some- what earlier stage of development while the fourth digit was yet considerably longer than the others, and for that reason more directly opposed by the first digit. peters: measurement of small dilatations "281 INTERFEROMETRY. — The use of the interferometer in the measurement of small dilatations or differential dilatations. C. G. Peters, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by S. W. Stratton.) The dilatometer originated by Fizeau and further developed by other investigators consists of two interferometer plates separated by three pins of slightly different length, made in the form of a tripod or ring. When this interferometer is illuminated and viewed in the proper manner, curved interference fringes appear. The change in the length of the pins is determined from the displacement of these fringes past a reference mark, which is usually ruled in the center of the lower surface of the upper mirror. The quantity that is actually determined, how- ever, is the change in the distance between the two plates at the reference mark, which is equal to the change in length of the pins, if their behavior is identical, or nearly equal to their mean, but not their individual change in length when they behave differently. In fact, two of the pins may expand while one contracts, or the three pins may change in such a manner as to cause the fringes to rotate through 360° without causing any displacement of the fringes past the reference mark. The unequal variations in the length of the pins cause the direction and angle of the wedge between the plates to change, which in turn changes the direction and width of the fringes. This was slightly noticeable in our work with three pins of steel, quartz, brass, or copper, and quite pronounced with glass near 600° C. H. G. Dorsey^ observed this fact in his work on the thermal expansion of zinc. The exact change in length of each individual pin can be de- termined from the change in the order of interference (the num- ber of light waves) between the plates at the points of contact of the pins. This was accomplished without changing the Fizeau apparatus in any way except to make the reference marks at these points of contact. The pins were made in the form of cones, about 4 mm. across the base and 10 mm. long. Three ' Phys. Rev. 26: 5. 1908. 282 peters: measurement of small dilatations conical holes, 0.5 mm. in diameter, 0.2 mm. deep, and about 15 mm. apart, were drilled in the lower surface of the cover plate. The pins were placed between the interferometer plates so that the points of the cones fitted into the holes in the cover plate. These holes kept the pins in their triangular positions, stopped any creep of the cover plate and served as reference marks in the determination of the change in length of the pins. The fringes were viewed with a Pulfrich- apparatus. With this instrument the part of the interference pattern which is obscured by the pins can be easily bridged with the crosswires. Let the lengths of the three pins be designated as A, B, C, the wave length of the light as X, and the order of interference between the plates at each reference mark as ai, bi, C\, under one condition, and ai, bi, Co, under a second condition. The absolute changes in the lengths of the pins are then : (i) (3) The changes in order (ao - ai), etc., can be obtained, from the displacement of the fringes past the reference marks or from the determination of the whole orders ai, ao, bi, etc., by using the approximate length of the pins and the measured fractional orders due to several wave lengths, by the method described by Meggers,^ which holds as well for straight fringes as for Haid- inger's rings. The relative or differential changes in the length of the pins can be determined from the differences in order at the reference marks. The quantity (ai - 61) is the difference in the orders between the plates at A and B under the first condition, and (a2 — 62) is the difference in the orders at .4 and B under the second condition. These quantities are determined from the whole number of fringes and the measured fractions, between 2 Zeitschr fiir Inst. i8: 261. 1898. 3 Bull. Bur. Stand. 12:203. 1915-16. \A = - (a2 - -a,) AB = ^ (62 - - t'O AC = - (C2 - -^1) PETERS: MEASUREMENT OF SMALL DILATATIONS 283 the reference marks at A and B. The change in these differences of order is then (02 — bo) — (oi — bi) and the relative change in the length of A and B is AA -AB = ^ [(a, - 62) - (ai - b,)] (4) Similarly, the relative change in the length of A and C is AA - AC = ^ [(a2 - C2) - (ai - Ci)] . (5) If AA is known or has been obtained from the determination of (do - Gi), equation (i), the value of B and C can be com- puted from these relations. The arrangement of the apparatus just described was used at the Bureau of Standards to measure the differences in the thermal expansion of steel samples, and to determine the thermal expansions of steel, copper and brass simultaneously in the tem- perature interval of o° to ioo° C. It is now being used in the investigation of dental materials to determine the thermal ex- pansion and the change in length while setting. The results of these investigations will be published in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards. This form of the apparatus is very easily made and adjusted. The pins can be cut out in a few minutes and their size measured with sufficient accuracy with a microm- eter. They can be of almost any shape as long as the base is plane and the top is brought to a conical point. The reference marks can be drilled in the cover plate in a very short time and it is not at all necessary to know the distances between them. The fact that only a small area of the plates close to the refer- ence marks and not a portion of the plates removed from the samples is used in making Ithe measurements of the absolute change in length of the pins, eliminates the necessity of having the plates perfectly flat. They may be slightly concave or con- vex. The same thing holds for the relative determinations. The interference fringes denote the difference in separation of the plates at the reference marks, even though the intervening surfaces deviate slightly from true planes. 284 PETERS: MEASUREMENT OF SMALI^ DILATATIONS By using the Fizeau apparatus in the manner described in this paper the absolute change of length of one, two, or three small pins can be determined during one experiment. The exact change in each pin is determined and not the mean change of the three pins. The unequal change of similar pins is not important in most practical tests, but where precision is de- sired it is quite annoying. The differential changes in length of three pins can also be determined without knowing the abso- lute change of any of them. As it is rather difficult to watch the displacement of the fringes past the three reference marks simultaneously, it is better to determine the absolute change in length of one pin by equation (i) and compute the values for the other two pins with equa- tions (4) and (5). The results in either case are exactly the same because they depend upon the same measurements of the frac- tional orders. The accuracy of these results is limited only by the accuracy with which the fractional orders are determined. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. BOTANY. — A botanical trip to Mexico. A. S. Hitchcock. Sci. Monthly 8: 129-145, 216-338, pis. 34, maps 6. February, March, 1919. An account is given of a trip made in 19 10 for the purpose of study- ing and collecting grasses. A map showing the itinerary indicates that all the states north of the isthmus of Tehuantepec were visited except Sinaloa, Tlaxcala, and the territory of Tepic. There is a dis- cussion of the topography (illustrated by a map), the rainfall (with a table and map showing the annual rainfall at representative stations, a map showing isohyets, a series of maps showing the annual rainfall by months), and the temperature. An account is given of the floral regions, the range conditions, and the forage crops. Especial attention is given to the distribution of the grasses in rela- tion to the floral regions, of which the most important are the eastern Coastal Plain, the western Coastal Plain, the Plateau, the slope from the Plateau to the Coastal Plain, the high mountains, and the ponds and marshes. Orizaba was ascended to nearly 18,000 feet, Popocatepetl to snowline (about 15,000 feet), and Nevada de Colima to the summit (14,370 feet). A. S. H. ECONOMICS.— Potoio flour and potato bread. J. A. LeClerc. The Potato Magazine. January and February, 1919. This article compares the composition of potato and wheat flours and of breads made with a combination of 20 per cent of potato flour and 80 per cent wheat flour. It also shows how many pounds of the various food constituents of potato, potato flour, and of wheat flour can be ob- tained for one dollar with varying prices for these products. The amount of food constituents obtained from one acre of land grown to potatoes and to wheat is also given. Bread made with the use of po- tato flour as a part substitute is appreciably richer in mineral constit- uents than is white bread, but somewhat poorer in fat and protein. 285 286 abstracts: technology With flour at $12.80 per barrel and potatoes at $1.75 per bushel, flour is a cheaper food than potatoes, and will furnish considerably more dry matter, protein, fat, and starch, and heat units for $1.00. On the other hand potatoes will furnish four times as much mineral ingredients as will the white flour for the same money. On the basis of average yields of 100 bushels of potatoes and 14 bushels of wheat per acre, one acre of land planted to potatoes will produce more food than in the form of wheat to the following extent: 36 lbs. of mineral constituents or a gain of 560 per cent; 28 lbs. of protein, a gain of 37 per cent; 437 lbs. of starch, a gain of 87 per cent; 848,000 calories, a gain of 76 per cent. J. A. LeC. TECHNOLOGY. — The micro structural features of "flaky steel. Henry S. Rawdon. Bull. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng. No. 146, p. 183. 19 19. One of the most vital problems in the manufacture of steel is the occurrence of defects designated as "flakes." These spots are usually revealed, if present in steel, when the tension specimen is taken so that it represents the mechanical properties of the material in a direction at right angles to the direction of forging. Flakes constitute one of the most serious problems met with in the manufacture of large caliber guns. Their occurrence in chrome nickel steels of the type used for air-plane crank-shafts is also a serious problem. To the unaided eye, a "flake" appears in the fracture of a freshly broken test specimen as a silvery white, very coarsely crystalline area surrounded by metal having the normal appearance. Such areas vary in size from minute spots to those I cm. or more in diameter. Microscopic examination of numerous specimens showed that the coarsely crystalline appearance is a surface configuration only. The "flake" has no depth; the metal in such areas is refined to the same degree as throughout the body of the piece. Within the mass of the steel, flakes exist as intercrystalline discontin- uities. They may be located by means of X-ray examinations and when the specimen is broken along the line of such discontinuities a typical flake is revealed. The discontinuities in the metal often enclose in- clusions of a nonmetallic nature in the form of very thin films. This is not always the case, however, and while flakes appear to occur most readily in "dirty" steel, it is not safe to assume that the presence of inclusions necessitates the presence of flakes. H. S. R. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 594th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, March 22, 191 9, called to order at 8:00 p.m. by Vice-President N. Holuster; 33 persons present. The regular program was as follows: J. W. GidlEy: Notice of a large canid from the Cumberland Cave de- posits. Mr. Gidley briefly referred to the discovery of these deposits in western Maryland through the digging of a railroad cut and to his explorations of them. He then described the remains of a large doglike animal found in them by him. He pointed out its relationships to modern wolves, coyotes, and to the doglike remains in the asphalt deposits of southern California. A. C. Baker : Intermediates in the Aphididae and their relation to alternate hosts. Rearing experiments have shown the existence of adult intermediate forms in all species studied carefully by the writer. These forms show modifications in nearly all important structural char- acters. They occur between the forms on one host and between the forms on a primary and a secondary host. Thus they indicate the ultimate division of species, such as the latter, into two. In fact, almost, this occurred in the experiments. Host races were developed with such species as Aphis rumicis. These races differed in structure, after 50 generations or more, and individuals of them nearly all died when transferred to the host of their ancestors. Our American species of Anoecia on Cornus compared with specimens from different parts of Europe (from H. Schouteden, Albert TuLLGREN, and others) differs in sensory organs. Our species, as reared, never developed the European characters. In most cases it became modified in the opposite direction. Races were developed which live the year round on grass roots, laying their winter eggs there. These forms differed very distinctly in structure from those including Cornus in their host cycle. In some sections of the country these, or similar races, seem to be settled as definite species with definite structure and definite reproductive and host habits. In our classifica- 287 288 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY tions we have no names for these potential species. In some cases it is necessary to rear very large numbers to determine the connection between forms existing in nature and it would seem advisable to have some designation for such groups of individuals. The family seems to be in a more or less pliable state and these cases which we are able to observe may indicate the method by which different forms have come into existence and possibly some of the methods by which species fixation has taken place. Discussion by Dr. L. O. Howard and S. A. RoiiwER. R. H. True: Bernardin de Saint-Pierre as a plant ecologist. The author of "Paul and Virginia" wrote a three- volumed book, entitled "Studies of Nature," intended to prove to a world that was lapsing into atheism that a beneficent Providence rules the affairs of men and of Nature. In this effort he studies the relations of plants to the main factors of their environment. He groups plants into two great classes, those enjoying a limited water supply, the mountain plants, and those whose supply is not limited, those of the plain, marsh, and riversides. Devices for collecting or shedding water are traced in foliage and stem. Flowers are dealt with in relation to light and heat, seeds and fruits to means of securing distribution. Many practical relations are discussed such as forest planting to increase rainfall, and the relation of stock grazing to forest injury. He deals with his evidence in a teleological spirit, oftentimes proving too much, but writing always with vivacity, clearness, and charm. As "nature writing," his work is worthy of attention from this later generation. It should not be neglected by plant ecologists and naturalists. M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 330th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, Wednesday evening, January 22, 1919, President Ulrich presiding, and 60 persons present. The meeting was a memorial to Grove Karl Gilbert. After introductory remarks by President Ulrich, the following program was presented : Biographical outUne W. C. Mendenhall Gilbert in his administrative relations C. D. Walcott (read by E. O. Ulrich) Gilbert as the student and expounder of geologic structure F. L. Ransome Gilbert the physiographer and explorer H. E. Gregory Gilbert the glaciologist W. C. Alden Gilbert the physicist and mathematician R. S. Woodward Gilbert the topographer. J. H. Renshawe (read by E. O. Ulrich) Gilbert as a man C. Hart Merriam Personal reminiscences. ...CD. White, H. C. Rizer, and J. S. Diller The 331st meeting of the society was held at the Cosmos Club on Wednesday evening, February 12, 1919, President E. O. Ulrich, pre- siding, and 74 persons present. proceedings: geoIvOGical societv 289 informal communications T. W. Vaughn: Correlation of Tertiary formations on the perimeter of the Carrihean Sea. R. S. BassIvEr: Quartz from Waynesboro formation crystallizing with three-faced terminal pyramid and used for correlation. REGULAR PROGR.\M Ralph Arnold : The economic value of paleontology. E. W. Shaw: Stratigraphy of the Gulf Coastal Plain as related to salt domes. This paper being in a way introductory to the following paper on the program has to do primarily with those features of the stratigraphy that are of principal interest in the study of salt domes. The more sig- nificant of these features relate to the age and thickness of the forma- tions, and to the rigidity, chemical nature, and specific gravity of the materials composing them. As is well known the formations are of Mesozoic and Cenozoic age and with the exception of the Jurassic most of the main divisions of these eras are known to be represented by deposits. Perhaps the divisions of the Cenozoic are more fully represented than those of the Mesozoic. The aggregate thickness of the Cenozoic is commonly between 5000 and 7000 feet, the Eocene being 2500 to 3000, Oligocene and Miocene 2000 to 2500, and the Pliocene and Quaternary from 1000 to 3000. The upper Cretaceous seems to have the thickness ranging from 1500 to 2500 and the lower Cretaceous, where present, from a feather edge to about a thousand feet. Over a large area in coastal Louisiana and Texas the aggregate thickness of the various Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary formations probably ranges between 8000 and 12,000 feet and may average about 10,000 feet. Apparently most of formations thicken somewhat toward the coast but the average or aggregate amount of thickening is unknown. To the east there is a notable thinning and rise of certain formations at least; beds lying at a depth of 2000 feet near Mobile lie at far greater depths two hundred miles to the west and a similar distance from the coast. The age and nature of the materials underlying the Cretaceous along the Gulf Coast can only be conjectured. Knowledge concerning these materials and in particular as to whether or not they include beds or masses of salt and intrusions of igneous rock might be of considerable assistance in solving the salt dome problem. In central and western Texas the Triassic and Permian beds are many hundred feet thick and are salt bearing but they dip to the west and without reversal can not be present in Louisiana. Neither this nor any other known fact proves that there are no Permian or Triassic salt beds under Louisiana, but on the other hand the only reason for suspecting that they are present is the conclusion that the salt, gypsum, dolomite, sulphur, and other mineral matter in the salt dome came from below and the fact that such mineral matter is perhaps more common in the Permian and Tri- 290 proceedings: geological society assic than in any other group of beds. The copper and other metalHc minerals, small quantities of which have been reported at one or two places, harmonize with the hypothesis. The lithologic features of the Cretaceous and Tertiary that are of special interest in the salt-dome problem are the generally more clayey and apparently also more carbonaceous constitution of the material west of the Mississippi as compared with that to the east. Apparently the salt domes occur where the beds are thicker, softer, and more carbonaceous, and the writer suspects that there is some relation be- tween these characteristics of the region and the domes. There are, of course, a good many more or less thoroughly indurated beds including chalk and limestone west of the Mississippi, particularly in the older formations, but the mass of Mesozoic and Cenozoic materials as a whole seems to be of a conspicuously yielding nature. The great thickness and the low degree of rigidity are apparently related to a westward littoral current which, though not strong enough to carry sand except along the strand, has for ages carried ver}/ fine- grained and clayey material westward from the mouths of the Missis- sippi and other ancestral and present-day rivers discharging from the central and eastern portion of the Gulf embayment. The most striking general feature of the samples that I collected on the Fish Hawk ex- pedition, a few years ago, is the contrast between the dark and clayey sea-bottom material west of the Mississippi and the lighter-colored and coarser-grained material to the east. Since the deposits are mainly unconsolidated and many layers are plastic it seems presumable that in the process of intrusion, differences in specific gravity between intruding and intended materials will control to a more or less notable degree the form of the intrusion. For example it seems quite possible, if not probable, that if a rising mass of salt or one of molten rock comes to a position where the overlying material weighs less per cubic foot than the rising mass, the mass may cease rising and may even "mushroom," whereas if the overburden were heavier the intrusion might continue to rise and might even develop into an extrusion. The clay and incoherent sand of the gulf coast have an average specific gravity including the water in their pores of about two (probably somewhat less than two) and therefore are a little lighter than salt and much lighter than igneous rock. Hence the absence of igneous rock at the surface cannot be taken as an indication that the salt domes have not formed over igneous plugs. Another way that differential specific gravity may play a part in the growth of salt domes is based on the fact that the hydrostatic head at any point underground is only about half the weight of overlying deposits. Assume a bed of salt with a perfectly smooth top lying at a depth of 10,000 feet and upon this salt a bed of sand with interstices filled with water which, by way of connecting interstices, forms a continuous column up to the surface of ground water. Where the grains of sand rest upon it the salt supports a pressure about 8000 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 29I pounds to the square inch. Where the water rests upon it the pressure is only about half as great. Salt being somewhat plastic the difference in pressure would no doubt cause the sand grains to sink into the salt and the salt to rise between sand grains until friction put an end to the adjusting process, which might be in a fraction of an inch. Now suppose a rising igneous plug approaches the salt bed and raises the temperature until, with whatever aid may be rendered by the ever-present water, it melts the salt. The process outlined above would then proceed to a much greater extent, the salt rising like so much water until the supply near enough the plug to be melted was exhausted. Apparently the process might involve the pushing aside of a large body of sand and other materials and the development of a considerable mass of salt, accompanied by unusual secondary deposits due to the unusually high temperatures. G. S. Rogers: Origin of the salt domes of the Gulf Coast. The origin of the great plugs of salt that occur here and there beneath the Coastal Plain of Texas and Louisiana is an obscure problem which has been a subject of much speculation. The small diameter of these plugs and their great depth (at least 5,400 feet in once case) indicate that they are not original bedded deposits. Nearly all x\merican writers have adopted the view that the salt has been deposited by ascending brines, but the plausibility of this theory is injured by the stupendous quantitv of brine involved, for no likely condition has been suggested under which the waters would deposit more than a fraction of their dissolved load. Although direct evidence of the mode of formation of the salt plugs is scanty, there are several indications that positive tectonic forces have been involved. The plugs are arranged rather regularly along lines that are undoubtedly related to the main structural features of the region. Moreover, the plugs have caused a sharp and very local up- thrust or doming of the normally flat-lying sediments, the uplift in some cases amounting to at least 3000 feet. The surface beds may be only slightly disturbed, if at all, but down on the flanks of the salt mass dips of 60° or more are common and in some cases formations have been thrust clear through the beds that normally overlie them. Still more direct evidence is afforded by the structure of the salt itself; as seen in the mines the salt contains dark streaks which, though com- monly standing almost vertical, are in places thrown into intricate folds which bear an extraordinary resemblance to the flow structure of ancient rocks. The common elongation of the salt crystals in a ver- tical direction and the rough horizontal cleavage of the salt also suggest vertical movement. Laboratory experiments have shown that salt under differential pressure behaves as a highly plastic substance; that its plasticity is increased by heat; and that if shattered it is easily welded by pressure. In view of the field evidence cited, the writer believes that the salt plugs are offshoots of deeply buried bedded deposits which have been subjected to great pressure or thrust, and have been partially squeezed upward in a semiplastic condition along lines of weakness. As the 292 proceedings: geological society region lies along a heavily loaded sea coast, the nature of the lateral thrust is not difficult to understand. The fact that the surface beds are undisturbed, except immediately around the salt plugs, is ex- plained by the nature of the section — a series of indurated and rigid formations overlain by a great thickness of relatively yielding and plastic sediments. Indirect evidence of the origin of the plugs is also afforded by their identity in structure and composition with the Euro- pean salt stocks, the tectonic origin of which is declared to be unmis- takable. The 332nd meeting of the Society was held in the Cosmos Club Wednesday evening, March 12, 191 9, President Ulrich presiding and 46 persons present. informal communications G. W. Stose: Travertine from Rock Creek Park, District oj Columbia. Travertine occurring in a granite country would seem to be unusual, but travertine has recently been found on the granite and schist in Rock Creek Park, near Blagden Mill road. This deposit of aragonite travertine occurs at the mouth of an apparently large spring which empties into Rock Creek. On investigation the spring proved to be an overflow from a nearby city reservoir. It seems therefore that the travertine deposit came from lime dissolved out of the cement in the masonry of this reservoir and its conduit. In discussing Mr. Stose's paper, R. S. BasslER, of the National Museum, called attention to the deposit of calcareous stalactites in a culvert under the aqueduct along Potomac River in the District of Columbia. These stalactites are derived from lime used in the masonry of the aqueduct, and a new crop is found on each annual visit of a class in geology. R. B. Sosman: The temperature inversions in the fumaroles of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Alaska Peninsula. The peculiar inversion of temperatures in the fumaroles of the Valley, which was discovered in 191 8 and reported by Prof. R. F. Griggs in his lecture before the Washington Academy of Sciences on February 18, 191 9, and which seemed at first the most puzzling feature of the fumaroles, may find explanation in the "velocity cooling" which is known to occur in a jet of gas issuing from an orifice. It has been observed experimentally by Joule and Thomson' and by Bradley and Hale^ in high-pressure air jets, and is discussed by S. A. Moss'^ in connection with experiments on steam flowing from orifices. The cooling effect is due to the conversion of heat energy into translational kinetic energy, which is subsequently converted back into heat when the high-velocity jet of steam is checked. We have here the possibility that the ap- parent temperature of a jet, as measured by a thermometer, will show variations with the shape and size of the thermometer. ' Joule and Thomson. PhiL Mag. (4) 4: 491. 1852. 2 Bradley, W. P., and Hale, C. F. Phys. Rev. 29: 266. 1909. ^ Moss, S. A Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng. 38: 766. 1916. proceedings: geological society 293 The temperature differences found by measurements at different levels in the fumaroles of the Valley are, however, on a larger scale than any that are ordinarily observable experimentally, and it is still possible that some other factor may be active in addition to the ve- locity cooling. T. W. Vaughn : Note on Eocene corals from Peru and on other fossils from Haiti and Trinidad. REGULAR PROGRAM F. K. Matthes: Relief shading of topographic maps. The most difficult thing which cartographers and topographers have to deal with is representing the vertical element in the delineation of land features. This delineation can be done in several ways as by hachuring, con- touring, and by shading. Hachuring has been developed to an art in Europe. It requires a draftsman with a steady nerve and hand, and the reproduction of his work by expert engravers. The art had reached fine execution by 1815, yet in Europe, long ago, hachuring was replaced by shading. The same effect is obtained with perhaps one-twentieth the cost. Shading represents land forms perhaps more adequately than hachuring and can be used to better advantage and more generally than hachuring. For the last three decades in the United States we have devoted our energy almost exclusively to contouring. No country has done better, but we have used contours where their use was at a disadvantage. Delineation of land forms has been attempted also by hypometric tints but these must be based primarily on contour work. It is a good practice for hachuring and shading to be done as if a relief model were hung vertically on a wall and illuminated above and to the left. In experimental work done by J. H. Renshawe, of the U. S. Geological Survey, this lighting element has been employed but Mr. Renshawe has developed one method different from that of European topographers, in that dark shading is used to express the lowest altitude of river areas, whereas in European maps lowlands are lighter and high plateaus are dark. On shaded maps made recently by the U. S. Geological Survey, high plateaus are given a light shading and flat areas close to sea level are given a deep shading. This obviates confusion found on European maps in which both the mountain tops and the valley bot- toms are given the same high light. O. E. Meinzer: Quantitative methods for estimating ground-water supplies. This paper relates only to ground water, or phreatic water — that is, water in the zone of saturation. It is not concerned with the subsurface water that occurs above the water table. It relates not to the quantities of water stored in the earth but to the rate of replen- ishment of the ground-water supply, on which conservation develop- ments must be based. Four principal groups of methods are used to determine the annual recharge or the "safe yield" of ground water: the Intake, Discharge, Water-table, and Underflow methods. The first of these consists in 294 proceedings: geological society measuring the quantity of surface water that seeps into the earth and percolates into the zone of saturation; the second in measuring the ground water that is discharged through springs, or by evaporation from soil and plants ; the third in observing the fluctuations in the water table, which represents filling or emptying of the ground-water reser- voir; the fourth, like the gaging of surface streams, in measuring the flow of ground water at selected cross-sections. Discharge methods comprise two very different kinds of methods: (i) the difl'erentiation of ground-water run-off from direct run-off through study of hydrographs, etc., and (2) the mapping of areas that discharge ground water by evaporation and transpiration, and experi- ments to determine rates of discharge under specific conditions of soil, vegetation and depth to water table. In arid regions plants of certain species habitually utilize water from the zone of saturation. For such plants the name phreatophyte, meaning a "well plant," has been pro- posed. The water-table methods are best adapted to regions, such as Cal- ifornia, which have well-defined rainy and dry seasons. The average annual increment to the ground-water supply can be computed by multiplying the average rise of the water table in the rainy season by the percentage of available pore space, and multiplying this product by the area of the water table of the given aquifer. The most uncer- tain factor is the percentage of available pore space, or specific yield, which is not the same as the porosity of the rock, because when the water table descends some of the water is held against the pull of gravity by the molecular attraction of the rock. Tests of specific yield have been made (i) by laboratory experiments; (2) by examination of sam- ples of material which is above the water table but which in the high- water stage was in the zone of saturation; and (3) by making hea\y pumping tests and ascertaining the total pumpage and the total volume of sediments drained thereby. The two lines along which additional research are most needed relate to the habits of phreatophytes and their rates of transpiration and to the specific yields of different kinds of sediments. A very for- tunate feature of the quantitative work is that the three principal methods — intake, discharge, and water-table — are entirely independent of each other and can be used as checks upon one another. The 333rd meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club on Wednesday evening, March 26, 1919, President Ulrich presiding, and 48 persons present. INFORMAL communications F. L. Hess: Phenocrysis in granitic intrusions. Deposits of rare metals are commonly connected with granites and are usually in the outer parts of granitic intrusions, and it thus happens that many of the deposits are accompanied by extraordinary forms of the granite. Close to the cobalt deposits on Blackbird Creek in Lemhi County, Idaho, a remarkable porphyritic granite is found on Big and Napias Creeks. The proceedings: geological society 295 phenocrysts are speroidal or elliptical and as much as three inches long by two inches in diameter. They weather out and look like rounded pebbles. The main intrusion is exposed for about three miles along the creek but it is not known at what angle the creek cuts the dike. Smaller dikes are from fifty to several hundred feet broad and all are crushed to gneisses along their sides. D. E. Winchester: Contorted hittiminous shale of Green River formation in Northwestern Colorado. In the upper part of the oil shale series of northwestern Colorado there is a zone of rich black bituminous shale which is everywhere contorted showing on its weathered surface minute folding and faulting. This shale which has been observed over a wide area is overlain and underlain by beds of laminated and uncontorted shale and sandstone. The bituminous shale itself con- tains a large amount of microscopic vegetable material, including algae, etc., and this may furnish a clue as to the reason for its contorted con- dition. The region is one in which there is practically no faulting, and beds dipping as much as 15° are the exception rather than the rule. It is concluded that the twisting of the laminae occurred before the bituminous shale was completely solidified and that the beds containing the great amount of vegetable matter were least competent and may therefore have taken up any movements which may have occurred in the region. vSpecimens of thinly laminated shale rich in organic matter but occurring at a horizon 300-500 feet below the black contorted beds, show intricate folding and minute faulting. Discussion; E. O. Ulrich: The same contorted condition of thin beds can be seen in mud laid down on tidal flats and then slumped by tidal undercutting. It is shown also in West Canada Creek at Trenton Falls, New York, where the limestone, once a limy mud, has these fea- tures. C. D. White: Green River beds essentially horizontal are a good place to see thin contorted strata. The contorted beds are buried beneath shale and sandstone. It would seem that the organic beds between sandstones must have been slimy mud a long time after burial and even if somewhat hardened must have been the easiest zone for slipping. They doubtless were somewhat solidified when the crumbling took place else there would be no faulting. Possibly the shale exhibited by Winchester was deeply buried and the contortion is due to movement along the oil shales after they were partly solidified. The overlying and underlying formation,s have a somewhat reinforced structure and slight jars or lesser earth movements would be taken up by oil shale beds which are rich in vegetal matter. Similar structure is found in the Elkhorn coal on Marrowbone Creek in eastern Kentucky, where the upper part of the coal bed moved on the lower part. W. C. Alden: This kind of structure is common in glacial lake beds where we find zones a few inches thick highly contorted, while above and below are beds clearly and beautifully laminated, which show no disturbance. It is suggested that the contortion may be due to freezing before the superincumbent layers were deposited. G. H. Ashley: In northern Indiana the plankton found in the small lakes resembles in structure the 296 proceedings: geological society shale shown by Winchester. This jelly-Uke material moves with the movement of the water. Storms move the water-weeds and the hght floating jelly-hke stuff may be moved at the same time, and rumpled. REGULAR PROGRAM Robert B. Sosman: Note on volcanic explosions. The usual con- ception of a volcanic explosion is that of the release of a store of pent- up energy which has been held in a confined space by external pressure. The idea takes two forms: (i) The "boiler explosion," in which the pressure has been raised by heat to a value which exceeds the break- ing strength of the containing rocks; or, (2) the "geyser eruption," in which a metastable configuration of the materials of the volcano has been disturbed and a violent reaction has begun. In either case, the conception is that of a system in rapid reaction in an effort to reach equilibrium, following some change in external conditions. An experiment by the speaker, made several years ago, showed that finely divided alumina, which is well known to be very hygroscopic, could be superheated in an open electric furnace and then be "ex- ploded" by a mechanical disturbance. The phenomenon is strikingly analogous to the dust explosions of Lassen Peak and Mont Pelee. The steam boiler and the geyser may be called "explosive systems." Another class of -explosions results from the initiation of chemical re- actions in "explosive mixtures," such as gunpowder, or a mixture of sulfur and potassium chlorate. It seems unlikely that many volcanic explosions can be of this character, on account of the difficulty of ac- cumulating the necessarily large quantities of substances capable of reacting (such as oxygen and hydrogen), without the dissipation of the energy by continuous quiet reaction, as at Kilauea. In a third class are the "explosive substances," of which nitroglycerin is the most powerful common representative. These explode by in- ternal disintegration and recombination, and can be "detonated" by methods other than simple rise of temperature. Organic dust (flour, coal) with oxygen and moisture adsorbed on the surfaces of its grains is, to all intents and purposes, a chemical compound and an explosive substance, though of a milder type than the nitro-compounds; and even inorganic dust with adsorbed moisture, such as the alumina in the experiment cited, is, analogously, an explosive. It is suggested that dust explosions of the Peleean type, which are often plainly super- ficial and not deep-seated, are true explosions, possibly set off by me- chanical disturbances. The same may be true of Vulcanian and Plinian explosions, the explosive in these cases being a metastable liquid silicate or a mixture of liquid and solid silicates, brought into its metastable condition by a gradual rise of temperature or by the gradual accumula- tion of water or magmatic gases, either through distillation or through fractional crystallization. The specific character of the shock necessary to detonate an explosive substance; the limited range of propagation of the explosive wave in a powdered material, as contrasted with the more complete detonation which can be brought about in a continuous PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 297 liquid or solid explosive; and the fact that the force of a detonated ex- plosion is often in the direction of the detonating impulse and inde- pendent of the configuration of surrounding materials (Pel^e, Lassen); are all applicable to the explanation of known phenomena of volcanic explosions. E. O. Ulrich: Newly discovered instances of early Paleozoic oscillations. Anyone who will undertake a comprehensive course of critical and detailed comparison of stratigraphic sections must inevitably reach the conclusion that the old land surface was exceedingly unstable with respect to sea level and subject to oft-repeated differential move- ments and warping. At times certain parts were pushed up, while other parts lagged, and yet others sank, actually or but relatively, beneath sea level. In other words, the vertical movements of the lithosphere were differential, and the displacements of the strandline were not erestatic, as taught by Suess, but varied in volume and direction from place to place. The differential character of the movements of the continental areas with respect to sea level is indicated by abrupt local, or even widely distributed changes in the character of the sediments; by imperfections in the record of marine deposits at one place which are partly and some- times, perhaps, wholly supplied in the sedimentary record at another place; by the sudden extinction of, say, an Atlantic fauna in a given area by a Gulf of Mexico or an Arctic fauna; and by other more or less competent criteria. Most convincing evidence of land tilting, with alternating east and west tilts more common than those to the south or north, was brought out by detailed comparisons of the sedimentary record on the flanks of old uplifts in interior North America. Particularly illuminating are the facts showing restriction of formations of considerable thickness to one side of such uplifts and similar restriction of other formations to the opposite side. Geographic restriction of deposits, hence also of the seas in which they were laid down, is indicated over and over again on the flanks of the Cincinnati, Nashville, Ozark, Wisconsin, and Adirondacks domes. These domelike areas rarely, if ever, formed islands. As a rule, when they were not completely submerged, they were connected with larger land areas, often probably forming penin- sular projections. Oscillation of land and sea areas was the rule also in the Paleozoic Appalachian Valley. However, the conditions here dift'ered in that the seas were largely confined to subparallel structural troughs. These troughs were not all submerged at the same time; and only very seldom was any one of the five or six troughs submerged throughout its length. As a rule tilting, or difi"erential movements, produced canoe-like de- pressions which, when they reached depths permitting marine submer- gence, formed narrow inland bays. These bays were emptied and again filled many times, and each submergence differed more or less in its geographic expression from those preceding it. 298 proceedings: geoi.ogical society The old belief in broad, deep, and long enduring continental seas — • seas that began early in the Cambrian and continued spreading wider and wider until well toward the close of the Ordovician — ^is still held and taught in some of our best universities. But this inexcusable con- servatism is possible only by closing our eyes to the overwhelming ac- cumulation of opposing facts. vSooner or later it must be abandoned by all. In its place the more progressive geologists conceive of smaller, very shallow, and frequently shifting bodies of water, of seas, that filled a given basin in one age and were withdrawn in the next, that returned again and again in familiar patterns, though perchance from different quarters, in succeeding geological ages. In short, seas that migrated in and out of the structural basins — sometimes extending far across the continents and at other times limited to much smaller areas — ^whenever and wherever a formation of the lithosphere demanded corresponding readjustment of land and marine areas. These adjustments were al- ways marked in the stratigraphic record by recognizable signs. Each year's field work is disclosing evidence of Paleozoic oscillations previously unknown; and some of them occur in what had seemed altogether unhkely places. The purpose of my paper is to discuss a half dozen or so of the more striking instances that have been discovered since the publication of the "Revision." The first of these is found in central Pennsylvania, the second and third in east Tennessee, the fourth in northeastern Alabama, the fifth in Wisconsin, the sixth in the Mississippi Valley. In the last two the formations lie practically horizontal, in the others they are folded in the usual Appalachian manner. R. W. Stone, Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The organization meeting of the American Society of Mammalogists was held in the New National Museum, Washington, D. C, April 3 and 4, 19 19, with a charter membership of over two hundred and fifty, of whom sixty were in attendance at the meeting. The follow- ing officers were elected: C. Hart Merriam, President; E. W. Nelson, First Vice-President; Wilfred H. Osgood, Second Vice- President; H. H. Lane, Recording Secretary; Harley H. T. Jackson, Corresponding Secretary; Walter P. Taylor, Treasurer. The Coun- cilors are: Glover M. Allen, R. M. Anderson, J. Grinnell, M. W. Lyon, W. D. Matthew, John C. Merrl\m, Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., T. S. Palmer, Edward A. Preble, Wither vStone, and N. Hollister, Editor. Committees were appointed on: Life histories of mammals, C. C. Adams, Chairman; Study of game mammals, Charles Sheldon, Chair- man; Anatomy and phytogeny, W. K. Gregory, Chairman; and Bibli- ography, T. S. Palmer, Chairman. The policy of the society will be to devote its attention to the study of mammals in a broad way, including life histories, habits, relations to plants and animals, evolution, paleontology, anatomy, and other phases. Publication of the Journal of Mammalogy, in which popular as well as technical matter will be presented, will start this 3'ear. At the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences held in Wash- ington on April 28-30, 1919, the following fifteen persons were elected to membership: Prof. Joseph Barrell, geologist, Yale University; Dr. Gary Nathan Calkins, zoologist, Columbia University; Dr. Heber Doust Curtis, astronomer, Lick Observatory; Mr. Gano Dunn, electrical engineer. New York City; Dr. Lawrence Joseph Henderson, biologist, Harvard University; Dr. Reid Hunt, pharma- cologist. Harvard University; Prof. Treat Baldwin Johnson, chemist, Yale University; Prof. Winthrop John Osterhout, botanist. Harvard University; Prof. Frederick HanlEy Seares, astronomer, Mt. Wilson Observatory, Cahfornia; Dr. William Albert Setchell, botanist. University of California; Maj. Gen. George Owen Souier, electrical engineer. Signal Corps, U. S. A.; Prof. Augustus Trowbridge, physicist, Princeton University; Prof. Oswald Veblen, mathematician, Princeton University; Dr. Ernest Julius Wilczynski, mathematician. University of Chicago; Prof. Edwin Bidwell Wilson, physicist, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dr. C. G. Abbot was elected Home Secretary of the Academy. 299 300 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Rear x\dmiral John E. Pillsbury, U. S. N., Retired, was elected President of the National Geographic Society on April 17, as successor to Mr. Otto H. Tittmann, who retired from the office on account of ill health. Rear Admiral Robert E. Peary, U. S. N., Retired, was elected a member of the Board of Managers to fill the vacancy caused by the death of the late Brig. Gen. John M. Wilson, U. S. A. Dr. C. G. Abbot, of the Astrophysical Observatory, Smithsonian Institution, sailed for South America on May i to inspect the Smith- sonian solar constant observing station at Calama, Chile, and to ob- serve the total solar eclipse at La Paz, Bolivia. He expects to return to Washington in August. Prof. J. M. Aldrich has been appointed Associate Curator of the Division of Insects in the National Museum. Prof. Aldrich was for- merly with the University of Idaho, but more recently has been working with the Bureau of Entomology. He is one of the best-known Dip- terists in North America and is the author of our most recent catalogue of these insects. Dr. George Ferdinand Becker, geologist in charge of the division of physics and chemistry, U. S. Geological Survey, and a charter mem- ber of the Academy, died on April 20, 191 9, in his seventy-third year. Dr. Becker was born in New York City on January 5, 1847. He began work as a constructing engineer, with the Joliet Iron and Steel Company, then after a few years became instructor in mining and metallurgy at the University of California. He was appointed geologist in the U. S. Geological Survey in 1879, and was thus associated with the develop- ment of the vSurvey almost from its beginning. He approached geologic problems from the viewpoint of the mathematical physicist and engi- neer, and made many contributions to geophysics, as well as to special fields in both physics and geology. The establishment of the Geophys- ical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution grew out of investigations begun by him under a grant from that Institution. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the Geological »Society of Wash- ington, and other American geological and engineering societies, including the Geological Society of America of which he was president in 1914. Dr. F. Russell v. Bichowsky, of the Geophysical Laboratory, has been granted by the National Research Fellowship Board a research fellowship in chemistry at the University of California. E. D. Bromley, of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, has been engaged in a triangulation in the northern half of Chesapeake Bay, to determine the geographic positions of certain points used in testing the long-range artillery at Aberdeen, Maryland. Dr. Keivin Burns, of the division of optics, Bureau of Standards, resigned from the Bureau on May i. He will spend a year on the Pacific Coast and will devote his attention to the use of dicyanin in astrophysical research. ]Mr. J. C. Crawford, formerly Associate Curator of the Division of Insects of the National Museum, has resigned and accepted a position in the Bureau of Entomology. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 3QI Captain S. T. Dana has resumed his duties with the Forest Service as Assistant Chief of Forest Investigations. During the war he was on the General Staff as secretary of the Army Commodity Committee on Lumber, and in charge of determining wood requirements of the Army. Col. E. Lester Jones, Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geo- detic Survey, has been named by the King of Italy an officer of the Order of S. S. Maurizo e Lazzaro. Dr. Leonard B. Loeb, formerly of the Bureau of Standards, has been granted a research fellowship in physics by the National Re- search Fellowship Board. Major A. O. Leuschner has returned to Washington from a furlough in California and is at present acting chairman of the Division of Phys- ical Sciences of the National Research Council. Dr. Samuel C. Prescott, of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, formerly major in the Sanitary Corps, U. S. A., has been ap- pointed expert in charge of dehydration investigations in the Bureau of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, and will continue the investi- gations on this subject carried on during the war under the direction of the War Department. Mr. Homer P. Ritter, for many years an officer of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and a member of the Mississippi River Com- mission, died at the Emergency Hospital on April 21, 1 919, in his sixty- fifth year. He was returning from a meeting of the Mississippi River Commission at Memphis and was taken ill on the train. Mr. Ritter was born in Cleveland, Ohio, March 4, 1855. After receiving his tech- nical training at the Columbia School of Mines he was employed for several years on railway surveys. He entered the Coast and Geodetic Survey m 1885, and had been employed on field work in all parts of the United States and in Alaska. He succeeded Henry L. Marindin as a member of the Mississippi River Commission in 1904. He was a member of the Society of Engineers. Mr. R. Sano, founder and director of the meteorological observatory of Kanayama, near Sendai, Japan, visited Washington in April. Mr. A. H. Smith, of the rubber laboratory. Bureau of Standards, will leave the Bureau on July i, to accept a position with the Goodyear Rubber Company, at Akron, Ohio. Mr. Wm. Schaus has recently been appointed as Assistant Curator in the Division of Insects of the National Museum. Mr. Schaus is a student of Lepidoptera and in recent years has spent much time in tropical America where he made large collections which have been given to the National Museum. Dr. C. H. T. Townsend sailed, early in April, for Brazil where he has accepted a position as entomologist for the Brazilian government. Dr. Townsend has been with the Bureau of Entomology and has spent most of his time studying the Muscoid Diptera. 302 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS A Washington Section of the American vSociety of Mechanical En- gineers has been organized, with the following officers: S. W. Strat- TON, Bureau of vStandards, chairman; Maj. J. H. Kijnck, vice-chairman; Prof. Geo. a. WeschlER, Catholic University, secretary; H. L. Whitte- MORE and A. E. Johnson, members of executive committee. The Sec- tion held a meeting with the following program: S. W. Stratton, Standardization of screw threads; Col. E. C. Peck, Gage work of the Ordnance Department for the U. S. Army; H. L. Van Keuren, Certi- fication of gages at the Bureau of Standards; C. G. Peters, The use of interference methods in calibrating length standards. The Medical Society of the District of Columbia, one of the affiliated societies of the Academy, is raising a fund of $100,000 for the erection of a permanent home for the Society. A site on M street near Con- necticut Avenue has already been purchased. Dr. Edward Y. David- son is chairman of the building committee. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL One vear ago this Journal^ outlined the war reorganization of the National Research Council which went into effect on April i, 191 8. With the coming of peace this plan of organization has been elaborated and the Council placed on a continuing basis. The present organiza- tion was adopted on February 11, 191 9, by the council of the National Academy of Sciences, and is, in brief outline, as follows: The membership is to consist of: (i) Representatives of national scientific and technical societies; (2) representatives of the federal government; (3) representatives of other research organizations, and other persons whose aid may advance the objects of the Council. The membership is organized into thirteen divisions, grouped into two classes, as below: (a) Divisions dealing with general relations: I, Government Divi- sion. II, Foreign Relations. Ill, States Relations. IV, Educational Relations. V, Industrial Relations. VI, Research Information vSer- vice.^ (b) Divisions of science and technology: VII, Physical Sciences. VIII, Engineering. IX, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. X, Geology and Geography. XI, Medical vSciences. XII, Biology and Agriculture. XIII, Anthropology and Psychology. Each division in the class of science and technology, and some of the divisions in the class of general relations, will have a salaried chairman, who will be stationed in Washington. The affairs of the Council will be administered by an executive board, which will include, in addition to ex-ojficio members from the Council itself, the President and Home Secretary of the National Academy and the President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. The Chairman of the 1 This JouRNAi, 8: 337. 1918. 2 See this Journal 8: 223, 339. 1918. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 303 Council will receive a salary of Si 0,000 per year, and the chairmen of divisions, as well as the executive secretary of the Council, will receive $6000. Prof. J. C. Merriam, of the University of California, is at present Acting Chairman of the Council. Officers of some of the divisions have been selected as follows: Physical Sciences, Maj. C. E. Mendenhall, chairman; Engineering, Dr. H. M. HowE, chairman, Mr. G. H. Clev- Enger, vice-chairman; Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Lieut. Col. W. D. Bancroft, chairman, Prof. Julius Stieglitz, vice-chairman; Biology and Agriculture, Prof. C. E. McClung, chairman, Prof. L. R. Jones, vice-chairman. Further information on the organization of the Council will be pre- sented as soon as the organization is completed. UNION OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL WORKERS A mass meeting of scientific and technical employees of the federal Government, called by a committee consisting of H. L. Shantz (Agri- culture), W. L. Thurber (Interior), L. W. Chaney (Labor), P. ' G. Agnew (Commerce), and F. L. Lewton (Smithsonian), was held at the National Museum on Thursday, May 8, 191 9. The attendance was about 400. R. H. True, of the Department of Agriculture, presided. The call for the meeting stated the following reasons for the formation of an organization: Improvement of conditions and facilities for more effective scientific and technical work; adequate presentation of the needs and results of such work to the public and to legislative and administrative officers; greater freedom in both official and non-official activities; just and rea- sonable salaries based on service performed and the economic and social conditions which prevail; greater public recognition of the aims and purposes of research; advancement of science and technology as an essential element of national life. After a statement concerning the British National Union of Scientific Workers and similar movements in Great Britain, the following three plans were discussed: (i) To work only through existing organizations, namely, the Acad- emy and the National Research Council; (2) to form an independent organization of those federal employees doing scientific or technical work; (3) to form a scientific "and technical branch of Federal Employees' Union No. (2).^ Plan No. (i) received very httle support. A large number of speakers discussed plans Nos. (2) and (3). It was generally agreed that organi- zation was necessary; that the situation of the scientific and technical bureaus is serious, as the better men tend to leave and can not be re- placed under the existing salary scale; and that cooperation with ex- isting organizations is not excluded by either Plan (2) or Plan (3). 1 Federal Employees' Union No. i was organized in San Francisco. No. 2 embraces practically all governmental bureaus in the District of Columbia. 304 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Some of the arguments and assertions presented were as follows: For Plan (2) and against Plan (3) : A general employees' union does not and can not represent the special problems of the scientific group. The scientist does not work by hours. The scientist is much more easily appealed to by proper conditions and by recognition than by financial considerations. The scientist works best under conditions similar to those of the university teacher. Independence of action would be too greatly limited by affiliation with the Union. Many things are done in the name of organized labor Avhich are not approved by the great majority of scientists. A political threat through affiliation with the American Federation of Labor is an undesirable method. The government employee owes full allegiance to the government and should join no organization which might conceivably interfere with that allegiance. Affiliation will keep out many who would join an in- dependent organization. If found desirable, affiliation with the union may be brought about later. For Plan (3) and against Plan (2) : An independent organization would not be large enough to exert any influence. Affiliation will help to bring the needs of the scientific profession before the public. There is an unfounded belief in the public mind that the scientific investigator is not a producer; independent organization would only tend to con- firm such a prejudice. The American Federation of Labor has no con- trol over the action of its constituent unions. All organizations take actions that are not approved by considerable fractions of their mem- bership. The plan does not involve a political threat. Congress, in general, desires information and wishes to act justly toward the federal employees and has welcomed the aid of the Union. The constitution of the Union forbids strikes, either direct or sympathetic. Over 550 scientific and technical workers are already a part of the L^nion's 2 1 ,000 members. The Union has in three years secured the following benefits to all federal employees: A general increase of salary; the defeat of the Borland amendment to increase the hours; progress on a retirement plan; and the Reclassification Commission. The Joint Congressional Reclassification Commission, which wishes to deal with employees through organizations and not as individuals, is now at work and im- mediate action is necessary; Union funds and machinery are available for immediate action. The meeting voted 185 to 132 in favor of Plan No. (3). R. H. True was elected chairman, and P. G. Agnew, of the Bureau of vStandards, secretary, of the temporary organization, consisting of a general in- terim committee composed of the chairman and secretary and repre- sentatives from the scientific and technical bureaus, one representative for each 20 members. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 JUNE 4, 1919 No. n PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— r/j^ statement of acidity and alkalinity, with special reference to soils. Edgar T. Wherry, Washington, D. C. In the course of observations on the acid and alkaline reac- tions of soils supporting the growth of native plants, which the writer has been making at odd times during the past several years, considerable attention has been paid to the method of presenting the results ; and it has been concluded that the usual plans can be improved upon, especially from the point of view of their ease of comprehension on the part of workers in non- mathematical sciences. Certain suggestions in this connection are put forward in the present note. Two dififerent methods of stating reactions are in general use by chemists, the "concentration" and the "potential" meth- ods. In the concentration method the number of gram equiva- lents of hydrogen-ion per liter is stated, usually as an integral power of 10 with a coefficient; in the potential method, the exponent of 10, stated to one decimal place (which is directly proportional to the electric potential produced by the hydrogen- ion) is used alone. Thus, the acidity of a given solution might be described as either 5.0 X io~® gram-equivalents of H"*" per liter, or as Ph = 5.3. It^ takes, however, considerable effort to appreciate the relative magnitude of quantities thus stated; to tell off-hand, for instance, whether 5 X io~^ is greater or less than 6 X io~^; to realize that a solution with Ph = 2.4 is 6300 times as acid as one with Ph = 5.6; and to recognize whether a given solution is acid or alkaline in reaction without considering the relation of the exponent to 7 (that of a neutral solution) . 305 3o6 wherry: acidity and alkalinity The usefulness of methods in which computation begins at the neutral point in describing reactions has been urged by Walker and Kay for natural waters/ by L. J. Henderson^ for biological fluids, and by the writer for soils. ^ The plan adopted by the first two authors has been criticized by Clark and Lubs^ as "very inadequate," but that depends on the point of view. The methods here proposed, which represent an extension of those just referred to, are contrasted with the usual ones in table i ; they appear to the writer quite adequate to express the relations involved, and to possess several distinct advantages, as pointed out in the discussion of the table. The first five columns of table i need no comment, as they represent simply a statement of well-known methods of de- scribing reactions; but the remainder require some explanation. Under the proposed concentration method, as headings of col- umns 6 and 7 the terms specific acidity and specific alkalinity^ are used, since the unit, instead of being i gram-equivalent per liter, as in the usual methods, is the number of gram-equivalents per liter of each ion present in a standard substance, namely pure water at ordinary temperature, which is practically 10-'. The actual numbers corresponding to the powers of 10 repre- senting the reactions likely to be met with in soils have been inserted in columns 6 and 7. The headings of the potential columns are also new; as these values may well be called chemical potentials, the letter X, representing the Greek letter chi, the initial of chemical, is applied to them.^ It may be noted here that only the first of these columns need be used, if in the definition of chemical potential the sign of the ion is included; that is, when a given number is * Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. 31: 1013. 1912 "8016110646: 73. 1917. ' Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 6: 675. 1916. 8: 591. 1918. ^ Journ. Bacter. 2:14. 1917. * Walker and Kay calkd them relative acidities and alkalinities; the writer in previous publications has used the term intensity of acidity and alkalinity, but it is better to limit the conception of intensity to potentials. Acidivity and alkalivity might be used if desired, * For the suggestion of this symbol, as well as for much additional assistance in the preparation of this paper, the writer is indebted to Dr. E. Q. Adams of the Bureau of Chemistry. i wherry: acidity and ai^kaunity 307 stated, it is understood that it is + when applied to a positive ion and — to a negative one. In the last column are given descriptive terms for such re- actions as are commonly met with in soils. In the study of soils associated with various native plants the writer has found that TABLE I Comparison of Different Methods of Stating Reactions Usual methods Proposed methods General reaction Concentra- tion Potential Concentration Poten- tial Proposed descriptive terms H+ OH~ Ph 0 POH 14 Specific Acidity specific Alkalinity Xh XOH lO"" lo-i^ 10' IO-' 7 7 lo-i IO-13 I 13 IO« lO"' 6 —6 10-2 io-'2 2 12 10^ 10-^ 5 —5 IO~' IO-" 3 11 10" 10-^ 4 —4 1 Acid (10,000) f Superacid 10-" io->« 4 10 10^ 10-3 3 —3 (1000) I Mediacid IO~^ 10-9 5 9 io2(ioo) 10-2 2 — 2 I Subacid IO~® IO~* 6 8 lo'(io) lo-i I — I I Minimacid | a Neutral IO-' IO-' 7 7 lO^l) IO«(l) 0 0 J > 1 Minim- IO~* IQ-* 8 6 lo-i loi(io) — I I J alkaline Subalkaline lo-" IQ-^ 9 5 10-2 io2(ioo) —2 2 Medialkaline lo-io 10-" 10 4 10-3 I03 —3 3 Alkaline * (1000) 1 Superalkaline IO-" IQ-^ II 3 10-" 10^ 4 4 " (10,000) 10-12 10-2 12 2 10-^ 10^ —5 5 IO-13 lo-i 13 I IO~* IO« —6 6 , lo-i^ IO-" 14 0 10-7 io7 —7 7 " May be grouped together as "circumneutral." certain more or less well-defined types of reaction can be rec- ognized, and it seems desirable to have a special name to apply to each of these. Starting at the acid end of the series, and using for simplicity the numerical specific acidities and alkalinities, these are as follows; • - 3o8 wherry: acidity and alkai^inity Specific acidities greater than looo are shown only by bog- peat, which supports a characteristic flora of "oxylophytes" or acid-soil plants; for such reactions the term superacid may be used. Some bog-peats, many upland-peats, and other soils also supporting oxylophytes, show values of from looo down to loo; for these the term mediacid seems appropriate. Many ordinary woods soils and field soils are also acid, but to a degree so much smaller that typical oxylophytes do not grow in them; the specific acidities under such conditions range from loo down to. lo, and may be characterized by the well-known term subacid. The slight degree of acidity represented by numbers less than lo, for which minimacid is suggested, and the similar alkalinities up to lo, minimalkaline, are observed in woods and field soils, also associated with certain types of plants; there is no evidence of marked change in flora on passing the neutral point, so such reac- tions may in general be classed as circumneuiral. The soils de- rived from limestone rocks under conditions where the lime is not extensively leached out, and also natural waters rising through calcareous materials, often show a specific alkaUnity of from ID to loo, and for them the term subalkaline, corresponding to that used on the acid side for a similar range, may be used. Medialkaline and superalkaline soils, using these prefixes in the same senses as was done on the acid side, are presumably met with in "alkali" regions where free sodium carbonate occurs. It is realized that the division of reactions into groups of equal length in the above manner is a somewhat artificial and arbi- trary procedure. No claim is made, however, that the dividing lines between the groups are actually important critical points, at which the growth of any large number of species ceases. This method of subdivision and nomenclature is merely put forward to fill what is believed to be a real need, namely, for a series of readily understandable and roughly quantitative terms which may be used in the description of the reactions of soils, especially in discussions of plant distribution.^ Certain advantages possessed by the proposed methods of stating reactions may now be indicated. The neutral point is ^ An example of how the method works out in practice will shortly be published elsewhere. • COLLINS; INTOLERANCE TO SELF-FERTILIZATION 309 clearly marked by the figure o; the exponents of the H and OH ions present in a given solution differ only in sign, and solutions of equivalent acidity and alkalinity are described by numerically identical terms, which is not the case in the usual methods. But the most desirable feature appears to the writer to be the ease with which the relative magnitudes of reactions under com- parison can be appreciated when the numerical specific acidities and alkalinities are used. For example, in a recent study of the occurrence of azotobacter in cranberry soils^ it was found that untreated soils had ?„ = 54 to 5.6, and limed soils 6.2 to 6.4. With this method of statement it is not apparent, without stop- ping to calculate it out, in what direction the reaction has been altered or how extensive the change has been. If the same data are stated by the proposed chemical potential method, however, Xh = 1.6 to 1.4 and 0.8 to 0.6 respectively; and when 10 is raised to these powers the corresponding numerical specific acidities are 40 to 25, and 6 to 4, showing directly and clearly that liming has reduced the acidity to about Ve of its original amount. In conclusion, it may be remarked that the proposed methods of describing reactions are by no means adapted only to work with soils; they may prove useful in other fields as well. It may be urged especially that the readiness with which the numer- ical specific acidities and alkalinities can be understood by workers in nonmathematical sciences should lead to favorable consider- iation of this method whenever results obtained by physical- chemical measurement are to be applied in other fields. BOTANY. — Intolerance of maize to self-fertilization. G. N. Collins, Bureau of Plant Industry. Of the important cultivated crop plants maize is perhaps the least tolerant of self-fertilization. Only one strain among hun- dreds that have been tested has yet been discovered, the vigor of which is not reduced by even a single generation of self-fer- tilization. Many strains that have been under investigation * Gainey, Science 48: 654. 1918. 3IO COLUNS: INTOLERANCE TO SELE-FERTILIZATION require special care to keep them alive after four or five successive self-pollinations. In view of this serious limitation it seems re- markable that the species has developed no adequate means of avoiding self-pollination. The staminate and pistillate flowers of maize are borne on different parts of the plant, but most varieties are synacmic, or at most slightly proterandrous, and as the staminate flowers are at the top of the plant it is only when winds continue during all the time pollen is being shed that self-pollination is avoided. It is obviously of advantage to a plant with the sexes disposed as in maize not to be entirely dependent on cross-pollination. But it appears almost equally obvious that a slight departure from synacmy toward proterogyny would be more advantageous than a similar departure in the direction of proterandry. Maize may be successfully pollinated at any time within 5 to 10 days after the emergence of the silks. With a variety normally proterandrous, pollen continues to fall from a plant for one or two days after the silks emerge. If a period of calm pre- vails at this time, the ear will be fertilized by pollen from the same plant. Should there be wind during the forenoon, when most of the pollen is liberated, or if the plant be slightly more proterandrous, fertilization will be dependent on pollen from other plants, and if no foreign pollen is at hand the ear will be sterile. If, on the other hand, the silks were to appear before the pollen, there would be the same opportunity for cross-polli- nation as with proterandrous plants, and should no foreign pollen be available, pollen from the same plant beginning to fall while the silks were still receptive would give self -pollinated seed instead of a sterile ear. From the behavior of varieties imported from the tropics it was at one time thought that the more primitive varieties of maize were more proterandrous, and that the practically synac- mic nature of improved varieties was the result of intensive breeding.^ As selection is usually practiced, markedly pro- terandrous individuals would be considered barren stalks and ^ Collins, G. N. A variety of maizt with silks maturing before the tassels. 'U.S. Dept. Agric. Bur. PI. Ind. Circ. 107. February 7, 1913. COLUNS: INTOLERANCE TO SELF-FERTIUZATION 311 would be eliminated. It now appears, however, that the growing of a variety in a new environment may result in accentuating the proterandrous character. Since the investigations with primitive types have been conducted in this country with in- troduced material, it may be that the observed proterandrous tendency of these types is due largely to environmental causes. The idea that maize may be of hybrid origin makes possible another explanation of why maize is synacmic and at the same time intolerant of self-pollination. Euchlaena, the nearest relative of maize and usually regarded as an ancestor, is not intolerant of self-fertilization. Com- parisons of selfed and crossed strains of Euchlaena do not show a measurable reduction of vigor as a result of self-pollination, and there is no difhculty in maintaining vigorous selfed strains. In fact, as a result of the excessive branching that obtains in Euchlaena, a very large proportion of the seed is normally self- pollinated. Intolerance of self-fertilization is therefore among the characters of maize that must be sought outside Euchlaena. If intolerance of self-pollination were derived from some other source than Euchlaena, it seems not unreasonable to suppose that the ancestor possessing this intolerance would have also some means of securing cross-fertilization, which is not necessary in Euchlaena. This means is suggested by another non-Euch- laena character, the tendency to produce perfect flowers or androgynous inflorescences which are proterogynous. Whenever both stamens and pistils are developed in the same maize inflorescence, the silks appear before the pollen falls. This is true for both terminal and lateral inflorescences. Termi- nal inflorescences mature before the lateral, and since the normal pistillate inflorescence has the lateral position, the delay at- tendant on this position neutralizes the natural proterogyny, with the result that maize plants generally are synacmic or proterandrous. There is thus a sense in which maize is pro- terogynous, the proterandry being that of the plant instead of the individual flower or inflorescence and resulting from the separation of the sexes into difi"erent parts of the plant. 312 ANDERSON: EXPLORATIONS IN THE ARCTIC Whenever two plants with widely different characteristics are crossed, characters, which in either parent may be advantageous, may unite to make an unfavorable combination. It has been assumed that the plant which combined with Euchlaena to produce maize must have been perfect-flowered. It now seems reasonable to assume also that this other ancestor was ade- quately protected against self-fertilization by complete proter- ogyny. If a perfect-flowered proterogynous plant with a terminal inflorescence were combined with Euchlaena, the inability to withstand self-pollination might be retained, while the segre- gation of the sexes to different parts of the plant would result in the practical loss of the proterogyny. In view of these considerations, it is suggested as probable that the extreme intolerance of maize to self-pollination was introduced through a perfect-flowered ancestor and that in this ancestor the danger of self-pollination was guarded against by proterogyny. ZOOLOGY. — Recent zoological explorations in the western Arctic.^ Rudolph Martin Anderson, Biological Division, The Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada. (Communicated by M. W. Lyon, Jr.) The early explorers of this region — -Hearne, Ross, Franklin, Dease and Simpson, CoUinson, McClure and others — were usually naval officers or agents of the Hudson's Bay Company, and made very few observations on the animal life outside of occasional comments on the larger game animals or the few species important to the fur trade. The first really important zoological work to result from these explorations was done by Dr. John Richardson, who travelled in the western Arctic in 1821-23, 1826-27, and 1847-48, summarized in the accounts of these explorations, and in the monumental "Fauna Boreali- Americana." ^ Abridged from a paper read iiefore the Biological Society of Washington, April 5, 1919. ANDERSON: eXPIX>RATlONS IN THB ARCTIC 313 The next great naturalist in the north was Roderick Mac- Farlane, still living in Winnipeg, who, beginning in the late fifties and continuing until the nineties, enriched the United States National Museum with collections made in the Mackenzie basin and the region around Liverpool Bay and Franklin Bay. E. W. Nelson at St. Michaels and farther north from 1877 to 1 88 1, and John Murdoch at Point Barrow in 1881-83, made very important contributions both to collections and to zoolog- ical hterature. Other scientific collectors who reached spots on the western Arctic coast were Frederick Funston (about 1896), E. A. Mcllhenny (1898), and Frank Russell (1894). David T. Hanbury (1904) and Roald Amundsen (1906-07) made some notes, but little in the way of zoological collections. Mr. E. A. Preble, of Washington, although not strictly an Arctic worker himself, in 1908 summed up all previous Arctic zoological work and bibliography in his Biological investigations of the Athabaska-Mackenzie Region (North American Fauna, No. 27). The speaker, in carrying on zoological collecting and explora- tion for the American Museum of Natural History in the Arctic from 1908 to 191 2, visited practically all points on the Arctic coast from Point Barrow, Alaska, to Coronation Gulf, as well as many Arctic districts away from the coast, notably on both sides of the Endicott Mountains divide in Alaska, the Mack- enzie delta, and the edge of the timber-line in the Great Bear Lake and Coppermine River region in Canada. The Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-16, covered a good part of the same region, although its activities were mainly on or near the coast. The first year's base (19 13-14) was at CoUinson Point, Alaska, and the base for the next two years on Dolphin and Union Strait, whence the territory was worked west to Darnley Bay and east to Bathurst Inlet. The southern branch of the ex- pedition was prepared for both terrestrial and marine zoological work, and extensive collections of plants, insects, fishes, and invertebrates were made, as well as good series of the larger animal forms. The northern division of this expedition was mainly interested in geographical work and did very Uttle zo- 314 ANDERSON: EXPLORATIONS IN THE ARCTIC ological work. The reports of this expedition are now being published by the Canadian government in extended form, the separates on each group being distributed as soon as printed. The principal difficulties in Arctic zoological work are (i) difficulty of transportation; (2) Hmited fauna in winter; (3) limited scope for field work in each summer; (4) necessity of moving at best season for field work. It is worthy of note that the eastern North American land fauna runs far to the westward along the Mackenzie River sys- tem. Traces of Western influences begin to appear in the Mackenzie delta. Tongues of the Hudsonian life zone extend far beyond the Arctic Circle in places. The isothermal lines are very irregular. The prevailing east and west migration along the Arctic coast brings some Pacific forms far east along the coast. There is an extensive north and south bird migration along part of the Mackenzie system, the Anderson River, Liverpool Bay, and towards Banks Island. There is little migration along the Coppermine River. Traces of the Siberian fauna come across from Bering Strait and Kotzebue Sound to the Colville delta on the Alaskan Arctic coast. There has evidently been a great diminution of some forms of bird life in the Arctic in recent years, the same as elsewhere, but this is not primarily due to destruction by natives, except perhaps in parts of western Alaska. The reduction of game and fur animals is due principally to white men's influence, directly or indirectly. The numbers of individuals and conditions of existence of many species are rapidly changing over many large areas in the Arctic, and causing rapid and extensive shifting of native population. The Arctic marine life is fairly uniform in circumpolar regions, the conditions of life being nearly uniform. Large series of terrestrial animals show that there is less variation of some species over large areas, than has been supposed. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers ^re requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. GEOLOGY. — Geology and mineral deposits of the Colville Indian Reser- vation, Washington. J. T. Pardee. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 677. Pp. 1 80, 12 plates and i figure. 1918. The rocks exposed are the Covada group which consists of schistose argillite, greenstone, and limestone of probable Carboniferous age; the intrusive Colville granite probably Cretaceous ; dike rocks and lavas of Tertiary age; and Pleistocene glacial deposits. The Pleistocene Cordilleran Ice cap overran all the Reservation except part of San Poil Valley. After the ice had withdrawn the valley of Columbia River was ponded to the present 1700 foot contour. This water body was displaced by the Nesplem Silt from which the river carved terraces as it re-excavated its channel. The Nesplem Silt is correlated with the White Silt formation of Dawson in Frazer valley, British Columbia. The mineral deposits consist chiefly of veins that contain silver, lead, and zinc and contact metamorphic deposits valuable mainly for copper. Most of the known lodes of economic importance are confined within four more or less definite area near Nesplem, Park City, Covada, and Keller. With respect to roek formations, the lodes are about equally divided between the Colville granite and the Covada group. No metal- bearing lodes have been found in rocks younger than the Colville granite. Most of the veins are narrow, the oxidized zone is shallow, and secondary enrichment, though conspicuous in one or two mines, is not common. Some of the contact metamorphic deposits are large but of very low grade. J. T. P. 315 3l6 ABSTRACTS: GEOLOGY GEOLOGY. — Relation of landslides and glacial deposits to reservoir sites in the San Juan Mountains, Colorado. Wallace W. Atwood. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 685. Pp. 38, 8 plates, 17 figs. 1918. Inasmuch as experience has shown that many landslide masses and certain of the glacial deposits are not able to withstand the pressure of a high head of water without serious leakage, it seems desirable to pub- lish a description of the mountain canyons and the deposits commonly found in them and of the geologic conditions associated with the lakes in the mountains, so that, in the future, no expensive errors need be due to a failure to recognize the geologic formations bordering a pro- posed reservoir site. Glacial deposits of the Wisconsin glacial stage are described in detail. Landslides and torrential deposits in larger canyons are discussed. Several reservoirs are described and illustrated in de- tail. R. W. Stone. GEOLOGY. — Geology and ore deposits of the Tintic mining district, Utah. Waldemar LindgrEn and G. F. Loughlin, with a historical review by V. C. Heikes. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper No. 107. Pp. 282. 39 plates, 49 figures. 1919. The report gives the result of a detailed re-survey of the Tintic dis- trict, results of the first survey by G. W. Tower, Jr., and G. O. Smith having appeared in the nineteenth annual report of the Survey in 1898. The scope of the report is similar to that of other Survey professional papers on mining districts, and particular attention may be directed to the following feattues: Part I (by G. F. L.): — Revision of the stratigraphy based on newly- discovered paleontologic evidence, proving the existence of lower, middle, and upper (?) Cambrian, lower and upper Ordovician, upper (?) Devonian, and Mississippian strata; unconformities at the base of the Ordovician and of the Mississippian; description and correlation of igneous rocks, including early latite or andesite, early and late rhyo- lites, later latites and monzonite, and basalt; magmatic differentiation of the igneous rocks, comparing evidence for and against magmatic stoping, abyssal and marginal assimilation; folding and faulting, the latter taking place during 5 periods; rock alteration considered under three heads: (a) before volcanic activity (formation of chert, dolomite, and some sericite, and prevolcanic products of weathering) ; (6) during and immediately after volcanic activity; {c) distinctly later than vol- canic activity. abstracts: geology 317 Part II (by V. C. H.): — Gives history and production from 1869 to 1916, including production by ore zones and by kinds of ore; also the history of smelting and milling. Part III (by W. L.) : — Discusses relations of deposits to fractures in igneous and sedimentary rocks, showing selective replacement of lime- stone ; underground water ; mineralization, with particular attention to silicification of limestone and dolomite, paragenesis of ore and gangue minerals, horizontal and vertical zones of deposition, and processes of oxidation of different ores, genesis of the ore deposits; future of the dis- trict. Detailed descriptions of mines follow, and reconnaissance re- ports on the East Tintic and North Tintic districts are included. G. F. L. GEOLOGY. — The Genesis of the ores at Tonopah, Nevada. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 104. Edson S. Bastin and Francis B. Laney. Pp. 47, 16 plates, 22 figs. 1918. This investigation supplements the work of Spurr and Burgess by applying to the ores methods of microscopic study not in general use when these reports were prepared. The Tonopah district is underlain by a thick series of rocks that are products of volcanic activity and are believed to be of Tertiary age. In spite of complicated faulting most of the volcanic formations are rather flat-lying. In 19 15 the Tonopah production of silver was exceeded in the United States only by that of Butte. The bulk of the metal production of the district has come from ore bodies lying wholly within the Mizpah trachyte. Following are the more important conclusions: 1. The hypogene or primary ores have been modified in places by oxidation and enrichment through the agency of the air and oxygenated solutions originating at or near the surface. The high silver content of much of the ore obtained in the past and of some ore now remaining is unquestionably due in part to these processes. 2. There is evidence not only of recent oxidation of the ores but also of at least one period of ancient oxidation, and supergene sulphide en- richment was probably an accompaniment of each of these periods. 3. The rich silver ores now being mined at Tonopah are probably in the main of hypogene or primary origin. 4. Mining has shown that in certain veins the primary sulphides become less abundant with increasing depth, though the same species are present; mere increase in depth may account for this change in 3l8 ABSTRACTS: GEOLOGY some veins, for every vein must finally end in depth as well as laterally; in many veins change in wall rock has been at least a contributing factor. The veins developed by other deep workings are heavily mineralized and of high grade, and the geologic evidence is favorable to the per- sistence of rich primary silver ores to depths considerably greater than those yet attained in the mining operations. Although hot ascending waters are encountered in a number of the deeper workings, there is little evidence that these waters are now de- positing ores. R. W. Stone. GEOLOGY. — Coal south of Mancos, Montezuma County, Colorado. A. J. Collier. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 691 -K. i6 plates, 2 figs. 1919. There are two coal-bearing formations near Mancos, Colorado, the Dakota sandstone, in the lowlands north of the town, which yields a very impure coal of bituminous rank, and the middle formation of the Mesa- verde group which yields a coal of somewhat lower rank than the Dakota coal, though relatively pure and much esteemed as a fuel. The formations have a uniformly low dip to the south. The coal beds here described are all in the Menefee formation, are bituminous and are nearly all less than 6 feet thick. Three mines supply local demand. R. W. Stone. GEOLOGY. — Geology of the Lost Creek coal field, Morgan County, Utah. Frank R. Clark. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 691-L. Pp. 311- 322, I plate, I fig. 1918. The Lost Creek coal field lies in Morgan County, Utah, about lo or 12 miles northeast of Devil's Slide Station, on the main line of the Union Pacific Railroad. The coal bed, which is lenticular and varies greatly in thickness even in small areas, is confined to one coal-bearing zone. It is sub-bitumi- nous and contains much moisture and many impurities in the form of small lenses or partings of bone and shale. The rocks exposed in this field comprise two formations which differ widely in character as well as in age; the older formation is of Jurassic age and the younger of Tertiary age (Wasatch formation). These formations are separated by a great unconformity representing a long interval of time during which the older rocks were minutely folded and the folds were later truncated by erosion. The rocks that are here assigned to the Jurassic consist of limestone, shale, and well-indurated sandstone. ABSTRACTS: GEOLOGY 319 The rocks overlying the Jurassic unconformably are correlated with the Wasatch formation of Echo Canyon, and consist of an upper and a lower conglomerate and intervening sandstone and shale. The structure of the Jurassic formation is intricate and complicated. The rocks are highly folded and may be faulted. The Wasatch beds were laid down on the truncated edges of the Juras- sic rocks and are now generally flat lying. The coal in the Lost Creek field occurs in small areas and is generally too thin to be of economic value. The lyost Creek coal, being inferior in rank to subbituminous coal of nearby fields, is not hkely to receive serious attention. R. W. Stone. GEOLOGY. — A geologic reconnaissance for phosphate and coal in south- eastern Idaho and western Wyoming. AlfrEd Reginald ScHULTz. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 680. Pp. 8i, 2 plates, 8 figures. 1918. Describes fully the stratigraphy of the region, embracing a geologic column from pre-Cambrian to Quaternary; describes the geologic structure briefly. The occurrence of phosphate rock in several localities is given in such detail as is possible from reconnaissance examination only, but it is apparent that in the Snake River Range, Bighole Moun- tains, and Teton Range, particularly along the east side of Teton Basin, a large amount of phosphate is present. The analyses show considerable variation but they indicate the presence of some high-grade ore that contains approximately the equivalent of 70 per cent of tricalcium phos- phate. Beds of coal have been found at several localities in this field and are at present being mined in a few places. Most of the coal beds that have been exploited are of Cretaceous age, belong to the Frontier formation, and represent the northward extension of the coal beds which are so extensively developed and on which active mines are lo- cated in southern Lincoln County, Wyoming. Beds of coal are also found in rocks stratigraphically below the Frontier formation, which probably represent the Bear River coals that have been prospected in the vicinity of Sage, Wyoming, but on which no active mines are located. The coal is bituminous and rather free from impurities, and occurs in beds i to 4 feet thick. According to report some of it has been coked with fair success. Most of the coal is badly shattered, as would be expected in a region where so much faulting has taken place. Several sections and analyses are given. R. W. Stone. 320 abstracts: geology GEOLOGY. — The Upper Chitina Valley, Alaska. Fred H. MoFFiT. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 675. Pp. 80, 13 plates, 2 figs. 191 8. This report deals largely with the more purely scientific aspects of the geologic problems, discussing at considerable length the stratig- raphy and the igneous rocks. It has been proved that the copper- bearing rocks, which have yielded valuable deposits in the lower Chitina Valley, occur also in the upper valley. It is also shown that the forma- tions from which the Nizina placers have derived their gold occur in this region. On the other hand, no mineral deposits of proved value have yet been exploited in the upper Chitina basin. It must be said, however, that comparatively little prospecting has been done in this field. R. W. Stone. GEOLOGY. — The Nelchina-Susitna Region, Alaska. Theodore Chapin. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 668. Pp. 64, 10 plates, 4 figs. 1918. Discusses the distribution, age, and correlation of the various geologic formations in a little-known region, and the development of its land forms. There has been but little productive mining in the region, and its geology does not encourage the hope of finding extensive placers, yet the wide distribution of alluvial gold indicates considerable mineral- ization. Moreover, the presence of a large number of intrusive igneous rocks also encourages the hope of finding local mineralization of the bedrocks. R. W. Stone. GEOLOGY.— r/te Nenana coal field, Alaska. G. C. Martin. U. S. Survey Bull. 664. Pp. 54, 12 plates. 1919- The Nenana coal field lies southwest of Fairbanks in the northern foothills of the Alaska Range. The rocks of the Nenana coal field con- sist of the coal-bearing beds, metamorphic and igneous rocks beneath the coal -bearing beds, and gravel, sands, and silts above them. The coal-bearing strata consist of slightly consolidated sands, clays, and gravels with numerous beds of lignite. These beds are of Tertiary age. The coal -bearing beds rest unconformably upon Paleozoic (?) schist and igneous rocks and are overlain unconformably by Quarternary gravels, 1,500 or 2,000 feet thick. The structure of the coal areas is fairly simple. The individual coal areas consist of shallow and gently warped basins in which the beds are at some places steeply folded or faulted against masses of crystalline abstracts: ornithol,ogy 321 rock that separate the basins. No intrusive rocks are known to cut the coal measures. The coal of the Nenana field occurs in many beds of different thickness, the thickest measuring perhaps 30 to 35 feet, which are distributed rather uniformly through the coal measures. At least twelve coal beds are of workable thickness, and six or more measure over 20 feet. The analyses show that the coal is a lignite of good grade, of about the same quality as that of Cook Inlet. R. W. StonE. ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new subspecies of the little yellow bittern from the Philippine Islands. Alexander Wetmore. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 31: 83-84. June 29, 19 18. The form of Ixobrychus sinensis occurring on the Philippine Islands proves to be different from all the other races of this species, and, as it has no distinctive name, is to be known as Ixobrychus sinensis astrologus Wetmore. It is apparently most closely allied to Ixo- brychus sinensis bryani (Scale) , from the island of Guam in the Marianne group, from which it differs chiefly in its smaller size, darker upper parts, and paler neck. Its type is from Paete, Laguna, Luzon Island, Philippine Islands, and its range extends from the island of Luzon to Panay Island in the Philippine Archipelago. Harry C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY. — The migration of North American birds. VI. Horned larks. Harry C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 20: 345-349 (map). 19 18. The geographic distribution of the American horned larks extends from the Arctic Ocean to Bogotd, Colombia. Twenty-three sub- species are now distinguishable, most of which are resident. Five subspecies not currently recognized are here revived and their geo- graphic distribution delineated. These forms are Otocoris alpestris enthymia, Otocoris alpestris aphrasta, Otocoris alpestris leucansiptila, Octocoris alpestris, ammophila", and Otocoris alpestris enertera. The map shows the distribution of all the American forms, and tables indicate the migration movements of the four forms that are most migratory. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY.— BiVds of Glacier National Park. Florence Mer- RiAM Bailey. General information regarding Glacier National Park, season of 1918. 52-64. 1918. This list of 184 species and subspecies is reasonably complete for 322 ABSTRACTS: ORNITHOLOGY the Glacier National Park. It comprises all the species heretofore authentically reported from the Park, together with many unpublished data from recent field work in this region. It may be regarded as a prehminary contribution, and contains only brief notes on each species and subspecies, including their manner and place of occurrence in the Park. Harhy C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY. — Bones of birds collected by Theodoor de Booy, from kitchen-midden deposits in the islands of St. Thomas and St. Croix. Alexander Wetmore. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 54: 513-522, pi. 82. 1918. A collection of seventy-three fragments of bird bones from kitchen- midden deposits on the islands of St. Thomas and St. Croix furnishes a number of interesting records. Among these remains thirteen species are represented, including three not identifiable more than genericaUy. Nine species are attributed to the island of St. Thomas, including five not hitherto recorded. These five are Puffinus Iherminieri, Sula leucogastris, Fregata magnificens [rothschildi], Anous stolidus, and an interesting new genus and species of the family Rallidae. The last mentioned is apparently most closely allied to the genera Ar amides and Gallirallus, and is here named Nesotrochis debooyi. From St. Croix six species are recorded, of which Stda piscator [= Sula sula], Nesotrochis debooyi, and Corvus leucognaphalus were previously unknown from this island. The last is of particular interest, since no species of this genus has been recorded in the West Indies farther east than the island of Porto Rico. Harry C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY. — Attracting birds to public and semipublic reser- vations. W. L. McAtee. U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 715: 1-13. 1918. Birds exert a steady influence in reducing the numbers of injurious insects and other plant feeders, and should, for this reason, be partic- ularly useful in public reservations. Birds are beneficial as enemies of a great variety of pests, and many observers claim that an abundance of birds on their grounds has kept down all the ordinary enemies of vegetation. They are, therefore, deserving of careful protection; and more attention should be given to attracting them to public and semipublic reservations such as national parks, national forests, national bird reservations, state parks, zoological gardens, the environs of res- abstracts: ornithology 323. ervoirs and water works, boulevards, and roadsides. On the national reservations much could be done to attract waterfowl by planting suitable water plants which form a large part of the food of such birds, and by furnishing for upland game birds coverts which would also provide abundant food from their fruits. In public parks and zoological gardens the bird population may be very much increased by the proper installment of drinking places, bird boxes for breeding places, and feeding stations during the winter; nor should the planting of suitable trees and shrubs on parkways, boulevards, and along road- sides be neglected. Without much doubt the use of bird-attraction methods on such public and semipublic lands would benefit not only these areas but, through the increased destruction of injurious insects^ also all the adjoining lands and the country at large. Harry C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY. — The duck sickness in Utah. Alexander Wet- more. U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 672: 1-26, 191 8. The annual losses from disease among wild fowl in the Salt Lake Valley, Utah, became so great that the Biological Survey began, in 1 9 13, an investigation of the causes. Although for many years the ducks in the Bear River marshes, at the northern end of Great Salt Lake, have been known to be affected by a peculiar sickness, this did not become serious until 19 10; but in that year so many thousand wild ducks died in this region that sportsmen and other persons interested in wild fowl became much alarmed over the situation. The same con- dition has been reported from other areas — Owens Lake, California, Tulare Lake, California, Lake Malheur, Oregon, Lake Bowdoin, Mon- tana, and the Cheyenne bottoms near Great Bend, Kansas. The species affected in these various outbreaks comprise 36, and include many species of ducks, gulls, terns, shore birds, and other water-fowL together with a few land birds such as Pica pica hudsonia, Xanthocepha- lus xanthocephalus, Anthus spinoletta rubescens, and even Petrochelidon lunifrons lunifrons. The most conspicuous symptoms of this peculiar duck disease in- dicate a paralysis of the nerve centers controlling the muscular system. It is first noted in the inability of the bird to fly for any great distance, and finally in the lack of power to fly at all. The paralysis extends later to the legs and feet, then to the head and neck, so that the bird ultimately becomes entirely helples?. 324 abstracts: ornithology Many theories were advanced regarding the cause of this peculiar malady. One of these attributed it to a bacterial or protozoan in- fection. Some persons claimed that the birds were poisoned by sul- phurous or sulphuric acid from the smelters near Salt Lake City; and still other people contended that the sickness was due to the waste waters from the settling ponds of the sugar factories. A number of additional but much less plausible theories were also suggested. The investigations finally carried on about Great Salt Lake have clearly proved that the real cause is a toxic action of certain soluble salts found in alkali, such as the chlorides of calcium and magnesium. The birds take these into the system by feeding in water heavily charged with them, in places such as drying flats about the margin of Great Salt Lake, particularly in the Bear River region. Fresh water is the only cure, and this has been found effective in all cases of the sickness where the birds treated were not too far gone. Birds slightly affected and even many that were entirely helpless recovered nearly always when simply given moderately fresh water to drink. Since the cause of this disease over wide areas in the northern part of Great Salt Lake is the restriction of the inflow of fresh water, the chief possible means of alleviation must be found in the draining of the mud flats and the increase, somehow, of the inflow of fresh water. Harry C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY.— iVe Iodide .^o-CvAoine lodiJe RnRverdo 1 A full description of the preparation and properties of this substance will appear in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 2 "Halide" is a general term comprising chloride, bromide, and iodide, i. e., binary salts derived from any of the halogens. WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAVERDOL 397 methane, and the isomeric "i6"o-cyanine iodide" is the corre- sponding form of the hydriodide of 4,2'-diquinolyl methane — that is, it differs from cyanine iodide in that the second (or primed) quinoHne nucleus is attached at the carbon atom ad- jacent to the nitrogen, instead of at the one diametrically op- posite. Prior to 19 14 this dyestuff was made only in Germany, but is now being produced both in England and the United States. The present paper consists of a detailed description of the crys- tallography and optical properties worked out for the purpose of testing the identity of these several preparations. CRYSTAIvIvOGRAPHY The crystals from different preparations of pinaverdol exhibit considerable variation in habit, ranging from markedly prismatic to thinly tabular. Orientation of the different types is made easy, however, by the brilliant and striking reflection-pleo- chroism present. There are two prominent zones of faces, lying at right angles to one another, and all of the forms in one of them reflect brass-yellow light, while the dominant forms in the other yield beetle-green reflections. The former zone has been taken as the prismatic one, and the latter held right and left. The crystal system then proves to be monoclinic, although since the base lies but 1° 40' away from the pole of the prism zone, and the plus and minus orthodomes are often about equally de- veloped, it is decidedly close to the rhombic system. According to current usage, it would perhaps be described as "pseudo- rhombic," but it seems to the writers desirable to use prefixes which express more definitely the true relationships.^ In ac- cordance with the plan we have proposed, pinaverdol would be described as "lepto-monoclinic, but peri-rhombic." It may also be noted that according to Fedorov's usage, since the prism angle is 84° 30', that is, nearer 90° than 60°, this substance would be classed as hypo-tetragonal or tetragonoidal. About 20 crystals of all habits were measured on the Gold- ' Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 9: 153. 1919. 398 WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAV^RDOI^ Schmidt two-circle goniometer. Some of them proved to be very rich in forms, although the majority of these are extremely minute, and would have been very difficult indeed to locate on any other instrument. The coordinate angles of the 41 forms observed are hsted in table i ; not quite all of them were ob- Fig. I. Fig. 2. Crystals of pinaverdol: Fig. i typical habit. Fig. 2 shows all forms observed. served on any single crystal, but all were obtained on a sufficient number of crystals to regard them as thoroughly established. The probable error of measurement in the case of the larger forms is =t 5'. Typical combinations of these forms are shown in figures 1-4. Figure i represents in orthographic and clinographic projections, or plan and perspective, the typical habit of the bulk of the crystals. The unit prism in (no) is the dominant form, with narrow faces of the clinopinacoid b (010) in its zone. At rigth angles to this zone lies that of the orthodomes, which are ap- WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAVEIRDOL 399 TABLE I Angle Table for Pinaverdol System monoclinic; lepto-monoclinic, peri-rhombic a : b : c m(= i8o — /3) = 88° 20' 1.1014 : I : 1.6053; Number letter Symbols Gdt. Mill Times noted I C 0 001 8 2 b 0 00 GIG 30 3 a 000 TOG 12 AJ 4 00 410 24 5k 3 °° 310 12 6/ 2 00 210 12 7 w °o no 75 8 n CO 2 I2G 16 9 0 003 13G 36 ID p 004 140 32 II e 0V2 012 4 12 5 01 Gil 12 13 7 G2 021 6 14 d 10 lOI 16 15 e V3O 203 3 16/ V2O 102 6 i7g V3O 1 03 3 18 A V4O 104 2 19/ — VeO T06 5 20 H — V40 104 3 21 G — V30 103 5 22 F — V20 102 3 23 E — V30 203 3 24 D — 10 Toi 18 25*3 — 20 201 2 26 w V2 112 2 27 M I III 8 28 5 2 221 4 29 S — 2 221 4 30 r — V2 332 8 31 t^ — I in 12 32 F — Vs 223 4 33 W^ — V2 112 6 34^ -•A T13 6 35 Y -V4 T14 6 36 z — Ve T16 6 37 R — 1V2 212 4 38 a 21 211 30 ^9/3 32 321 20 40 A — 21 211 36 41 B — 32 321 30 Observed ±5' Calculated Description Narrow, curved Narrow Very narrow, curved Very narrow, curved Very narrow, curved Very narrow, curved Dominant prism form 42° Very narrow, curved 24° Very narrow, curved Very narrow, curved Part of curve Small, often curved Part of curve 16 Well developed Very narrow, curved Very narrow, curved Very narrow, curved Very narrow, curved Part of curve Very narrow, curved Very narrow, curved Very narrow, curved Very narrow, curved Dominant dome form Part of curve Part of curve Part of curve Part of curve Part of curve Part of curve Dominant pyramid Very narrow, curved Very narrow, ciurved Very narrow, curved Very narrow, curved Very narrow, ciurved Very narrow, curved Narrow, curved Narrow, curved Narrow, but bright Narrow, curved 9G° 00' G°G0' OG' 90" 75° 70° 61° 17 12"= 90 GG 9G° OG 9G° 00 90° GG 9G° GG 9G° GG 90° OG 9G° GG 90° GG °OG GG I 40 90° GG 9G° GO 90° GO 90° GG 90° GO 90° OG 45 90^ 90^ 9G° GO 43° 43° 43° 42° 42° 41° 41° 41° 41° 41° 40° 60° 61° 54° 61° 54° GO 90 OG 90° GO 90° GO 38° 58° 72° 56° 45° 37° 27° 21° 12° 19° 25° 35° 43° 55° 70° 48° 65° 77° 77° 73° 65° 05 55° 47° 35° 28° 19° 60° 73° 80° 73° 8g° 90° 00 G° OG 90° GO 74° 37 69° 51 61° 10 42° 15 24° 26 16° 51 12° 48 2° 04 1° 02 0° 31 05' 90° GO 90° GO 90° GO 90° OG 90° OG 90° GG 90° OG 90° GO 90° OG ,0 90 GO 90° GO 90° OG 43° 22 42° 49 42° 32 41° 58 41° 52 41° 41 41° 23 41° g6 40° 29 39° 53 38° 39 6g° 41 61° 25 53° 54 6g°56 53° 32 p 1° 40 90° GO 90° GG 90° GO 90° OG 90° GO 90° GG 90° GO 90° GO 90° GO 38° 46 58° 05 72° 42 56° 05 45° 02 37° 10 27° 15 21° 29 12° 04 18° 33 24° 33 34° 59 43° 19 55° 01 70° 54 47° 50 65° 26 77° 04 76° 58 72° 49 65° 03 54° 58 46° 48 35° 08 27° 37 18° 54 58° 37 73° 24 79° 38 73° 09 79° 31 400 WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAVERDOL proximately equally developed, d (loi) and D (Toi). In the zone of these domes there are also narrow faces of the base c (ooi). Finally, small faces of the minus unit pyramid U (iii), are usually present. Using the upper, orthographic projection of fig. i as a basis, figure 2 has been drawn to show the positions which are occupied by all of the forms observed. Many of these have had to be made D Fig. 3- Fig- 4- Pinaverdol crystals. Habits shown by material of English and German origin. relatively much wider than they are in the actual crystals to show them at all. For lettering these forms the plan has been followed of assigning the usual letters, a, b, c, d, and m to the simple forms, and then in any one zone following as far as possible an alphabetical sequence. Thus the several prisms are made successively /, k, I, m, n, o, and p, the plus orthodomes d, e,J, g, and h, the plus unit s, u (iii), and w, the plus orthopyramids a and /S, and the clinodomes a, 8, and e. The minus forms are then named by capital letters corresponding to the small ones of the plus forms. This gives D, E, F, G, H, and / for the ortho- WHKRRY AND ADAMvS: PINAVERDOL 40I domes, 5, T, U, V, W, X, Y, and Z, for the unit pyramids, and A and B, regarded as Greek capitals, for two of the orthopyra- mids; and finally, two letters left over, Q and R, are applied to a steep orthodome and the remaining orthopyramid, respectively. A habit rather frequently assumed, especially by material received from England, is shown in plan and perspective in figure 3. Its peculiar tabular aspect is due to the prominent develop- ment of the minus orthodome D (Toi). The prism m (no) is usually present around the edge of the plates, although these sometimes become so thin that the prism is practically crowded off. The clinopinacoid, h (010), is often better developed on crystals of this habit than in those of type i, and a small plus orthodome, d (loi), is also usually present as a bounding form. Instead of a plane face where the base, c (001), should lie, a curved surface is usually present, which extends from about the position of c back as far as that of the minus orthodome I (106). Still another distinct habit is illustrated in figure 4. This appears most frequently in a preparation obtained from Germany before the war, which was crystallized from an unknown solvent. In this there is marked elongation along axis h, making the crystals pseudo-prismatic on the orthodomes d (loi) and D (Toi). The only other unusual feature shown by these crystals is the rather prominent development of the clinodome 5 (on). COI^OR PHENOMENA As noted in the introductory paragraph under the heading Crystallography, the crystals of pinaverdol exhibit a striking and brilliant reflection pleochroism. This phenomenon being a rather uncommon one, it will now be described in greater detail. In any biaxial crystal there are three directions at right angles to each other in which properties connected with light are ex- hibited. In the rhombic system these directions coincide with the crystallographic axes; in the monoclinic, one coincides with axis h, while the other two are limited to the plane of symmetry, but do not in general coincide with either of the crystallographic axes lying in that plane. In the present instance, however, the properties of the crystals are peri-rhombic, as we have termed it. 402 WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAVERDOL that is, very close to rhombic in character, so marked deviation of the optical directions from axes a and c is not to be expected. For practical purposes, therefore, the optical phenomena may be considered in the general direction of the three crystallographic axes. The faces of the clinopinacoid h (loo) reflect light of brilliant brass-yellow color. Those of the orthopinacoid a (loo) have not been observed broad enough to determine the color accurately but it does not appear to be materially different from that of h; on theoretical grounds, of course, it must be at least slightly different. The prism faces m (no), which lie about midway between these two pinacoids, are correspondingly also brass- yellow. Faces lying perpendicular to axis c, or nearly so, show a deep bronze-violet reflection color. Intermediate colors are of course shown by all forms lying between the base and the prism, namely, by the domes and pyramids, and the actual color is a brilliant metallic green, which may perhaps best be described as beetle- green. The nearer one of these forms lies to the base, the darker the green, and the nearer the prism, the more yellow appears in it. In fact, the colors of a form may be correlated directly with the value of its coordinate angle p, which represents the angle between the zone axis of the prism and the perpendicular to the face in question. For forms of sufficient size to permit the certain recognition of their color, the relations are as follows : TABLE 2 Colors of Crystals Letter symbol p angle Color C (ooi) i°4o' Violet I (To6) 12° 04' Violet e (012) 38° 46' Dull brownish green D (loi) 55° 01' Bright green d (loi) 56° 05' Yellow-green 5 (on) 58° 05' Yellow-green U{iii) 65° 03' Green-yellow A (211) 73° 09' Green- yellow m (no) 90° 00' Yellow b (010) 90° 00' Yellow WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAVERDOL 403 It is noteworthy that in every case the pseudo-faces which have developed on pinaverdol crystals through contact with the glass container show similar colors, corresponding to their posi- tion. A most striking effect is obtained when a sheet, made up of crystals lying in all sorts of positions, is removed from against a glass surface and examined in reflected Hght, especially with the aid of a low-power lens. Some of the grains are violet, some yel- low, while the bulk of them are of different hues of green, the whole effect being kaleidoscopic in character. When viewed through a nicol prism two components can be recognized in the light reflected from each face. The brassy prism zone faces yield for the two opposed directions of the vibration plane of the nicol, a yellow (plane parallel to c) and a violet (plane parallel to a) component; the green dome faces green (parallel to c) and violet (a) ; terminal forms show violet, which changes but sHghtly as the nicol is revolved. A similar pleochroism of reflected light has been observed in but few substances. The best known case is magnesium platino- cyanide, which has been described at length by Walter.^ A dye known as diamond green or brilliant green, made by the Badische works, was stated by the same author to show it also, although no samples at our disposal do so. The mineral covel- lite, CuS, gives a metallic blue reflection color on the base, and Merwin^ states that the color varies noticeably in different crystallographic directions. Goethite, FeOOH or Fe203.H20 yields nonmetalhc reflection from most of its faces, but one pyramid is reported by Goldschmidt and Parsons'' as giving a yellow colored signal. OPTICAL PROPERTIES Since pinaverdol is readily soluble in organic solvents, it is necessary to use for its study by the immersion method under the microscope aqueous liquids of known refractive indices, and solutions of potassium-mercuric iodide and barium-mercuric * Walter, B. Die Oberfldclien oder Schiller farben. Braunschweig, 1895. 5 Merwin, H. E. This Journal 5: 341. 1915. ^ Goldschmidt, Victor, and Parsons, A. L. Amer. Journ. Sci. 29: 235. 1910. 404 WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAVERDOL iodide in diluted glycerol were found to be satisfactory. Crystals greater than 0.02 mm. in diameter are practically opaque for ordinary white light, but by dissolving a little of the substance in hot methyl alcohol and allowing the liquid to cool rapidly, minute needles of satisfactory transparency can be obtained. For red light, which may be obtained by the use of a Wratten E-red No. 23 ray-filter, the transmission of light is much better. The following optical properties could be observed: In ordinary light: Crystals, rods with oblique or square termi- nations, breaking into irregular fragments. Color very intense, with pleochroism from violet-brown to brown to deep greenish brown; or, in very thin crystals violet to brown to yellow-brown. By the use of a monochromatic illuminator, the crystals showing violet-brown color were found to transmit the red end of the spectrum from the limit of visibility to the orange of wave length about 600; on decreasing the wave length, marked absorption was exhibited, the crystals being highly opaque for the yellow, green, and part of the blue; but on reaching the middle blue at about wave-length 470 transmission was again noted, and con- tinued to the end of the visible violet. The directions in the crystals giving brown or greenish brown behaved differently, however, the red end of the spectrum being absorbed, while a slight though distinct transmission appeared in the yellow and green, with absorption in the blue and violet. Refractive indices: There is such a tendency to yield metallic reflections on the part of the pinaverdol crystals that refractive index determinations do not yield very satisfactory results. The lowest index a, which is shown lengthwise of the crystals of the usual prismatic habit, is about 1.58, for light of wave length 625; this is the direction in which the transmission is usually greatest, and the color violet. The other two indices are much greater than 1.75, which is that of the highest liquid which it has been found possible to prepare. They probably reach a value of at least 2.00. The greenish brown and yellowish brown colors correspond to these, the absorption being great in both of them. In parallel polarized light, nicols crossed: The extinction is pBKRHOLSER : GRANDAUDAE 405 inclined on crystals turned so that axis b is more or less vertical, and reaches a maximum of 5 ° ^ 1°. The double refraction is excessively strong, so that no color effects are obtained. The sign of elongation is negative. In convergent polarized light: Traces of biaxial figures are sometimes seen, but little can be determined about them. The plane of the optic axes runs lengthwise; the sign is clearly nega- tive; and the optical orientation is X A c = 5° in acute angle 13, but whether Y or Z = 6 is uncertain. These properties, with but minor variations, are shown by several different preparations made in this laboratory, by a German product obtained before the war, and by the English "sensitol green." The identity of all of the substances is thus established. OKNlTHOhOGY .—Grandalidae, a new family of turdine Pas- seriformes. Harry C. OberholsER, Biological Survey. The genus Grandala was based by Hodgson on a unique new species which had been obtained in Nepal and which was named by him Grandala coelicolor.^ This beautiful and otherwise re- markable bird has hitherto been referred to the Turdidae, usually without question. It has commonly been considered most closely allied to Sialia Swainson, and, indeed, by Seebohm- was even made a subgenus of that group. It was evidently so placed because of its booted tarsi, blue color, and general size, for in no other important respect does it suggest Sialia. Even a casual examination is sufficient to show that Grandala has, as Oates long ago concluded,^ nothing to do with Sialia. In fact it does not belong in the same family, nor, indeed, to any other currently recognized family of passeriform birds, and it forms, consequently, a very distinct monotypic group, which should stand as Grandalidae, fam. nov. ^ Diagnosis: Similar to the Turdidae, but bill motacilline, not turdine, slender; tip of maxilla not hooked; basal portion of culmen straight or 1 Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 12: 447. June, 1843. 2 Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 5: 328. 1881. ' Fauna Brit. Ind., Birds 2: iio. 1890, 4o6 oberholser: grandalidae even slightly concave, with only the tip noticeably decurved (instead of being convex and more or less decurved from base) ; gonys short, not longer than the exposed portion of the mandibular rami (instead of longer, as in the Turdidae), posteriorly not reaching to the anterior end of the nostrils, and not ascending, but, with the mandibular rami, forming a straight line ; nostrils entirely exposed ; wings very long and pointed , when closed reaching nearly to the end of the tail ; secondaries relatively very short, much as in the Hirundinidae, their tips falling short of the tip of the longest primary by nearly one -half of the total length of the closed wing (instead of less than one-third in the Turdidae); second primary, counting from the outermost, usually longest but always at least equal to the third. General characters: Bill rather short (about one-half the length of the head), slender, somewhat depressed basally, but somewhat compressed distally, in general aspect motacilline rather than turdine, its lateral outline nearly straight, the culmen straight or slightly concave, near its tip noticeably decurved; tip of maxilla not hooked; gonys short, not longer than the exposed portion of mandibular rami, and posteriorly not reaching to the anterior end of the nostrils, not ascending but con- tinuing in a straight line from the mandibular rami ; terminal portion of maxillar tomium slightly notched; nostrils fusiform or lengthened el- liptical, entirely exposed, the feathers of the forehead reaching to their posterior end; narial and rictal bristles short and weak; wings very long and pointed, when closed reaching nearly to the end of the tail; wing tip long, the secondaries relatively very short, the tip of the longest primary exceeding them by nearly one-half (more than two-fifths) of the total length of the closed wing ; tertials short, about the length of the longest secondaries; first (outermost) primary very short, about 15 mm. in length; second primary usually longest; third primary equal to the second or slightly shorter ; fourth primary decidedly shorter than the third ; and all the others regularly decreasing in length ; none of the primaries sinuated on their inner webs, but the third and fourth pri- maries distinctly sinuated on their outer webs, and the fifth slightly so ; tail of 12 feathers, about three-fifths of the length of the wing, deeply emarginate, the feathers moderately broad and stiff, their ends obtusely pointed ; upper tail-coverts rather long ; tarsi moderately long and slen- der, their length about 2V5 times the length of the exposed culmen; acrotarsium entire ; toes moderately long and slender ; claws of moderate length and curvature; claw of hallux not lengthened; length of middle toe without claw three-fifths of the length of the tarsus; plumage of male more or less metallic ; coloration of sexes different ; and young streaked. Type genus: Grandala Hodgson. Remarks: It is rather surprising that the genus Grandala has not before been taken out of the Turdidae, since its aberrance is so apparent. In only two important characters — its booted tarsi and streaked young OBERHOLSEjR : GRAND AUDAS 407 — does it resemble the Turdidae. It is, so far as we recall, the only- passerine bird, excepting members of the Hirundimdae, that has such a remarkably long wing tip, which is produced by its relatively short secondaries. By this and its other external proportions, it is one of the most distinctively characterized of the families of Passeriformes. In some respects, particularly those of its bill and booted tarsus, it recalls some of the Sylviidae, and also some of the Brachypterygidae, as Oates has already suggested,^ but from the latter family it differs in its rela- tively short gonys (compared with the length of the exposed part of the mandibular rami), less turdine shape of the bill, relatively short tarsi, long second and third primaries (beginning from the outermost) rela- tively short first primary, long wings, and long wing tip. It is, more- over, probably more nearly related to the Turdidae than to the Bra- chypterygidae, though not closely to either. Nor is it in any sense inter- mediate, since it differs in many of the same respects from both these families. It might be considered a highly specialized offshoot from the turdine stem, although the determination of its exact affinities must await the examination of its anatomy, which we confidently predict will serve to emphasize still more strongly its external peculiarities. The only species in this new family is Grandala coelicolor Hodgson. * Fauna Brit. Ind., Birds 2: no. 1890. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. BOTANY. — The Cactaceae, descriptions and illustrations oj plants oj the Cactus Family. N. L. Brixton and J. N. Rose. Carnegie In- stitution of Washington, Publication No. 248, Vol. I. Pp. 236, pi. 36, figs. 302. June 21, 1919. This work is the result of a long study by the authors based on ex- tensive field observations and greenhouse and herbarium studies. The investigation has been chiefly financed by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, in cooperation with the New York Botanical Garden and the United States National Museum, while the United States De- partment of Agricultiu-e has taken care of the living collections brought together in Washington. The Cacti as here treated consist of a single order, Cactales, and of a single family, the Cactaceae ; they are divided into three tribes, Pereskieae, Opuntieae, and Cereeae. This volume contains the treatment of the first tribes. The third tribe is to be treated in subsequent volumes. The tribe Pereskieae contains the single genus, Pereskia, in which 19 species are described. The second tribe, Opuntieae, contains 7 genera, Tacinga and Grusonia, each with a single species, Pterocactus with 4, Maihuenia with 5, Nopalea with 8, Pereskiopsis with 10, and Opuntia with 264, grouped into 3 subgenera and 46 series. The genera and species are described in detail and full synonymy is given. One new genus, Tacinga and 42 new species are described. All of the genera have been illustrated and of the 312 species, 267 are represented by one or more illustrations. The illustrations consist of 36 plates of which 28 are in color, 3 are half-tones, and 5 are heliotypes. The text-figures, 302 in number, consist of half-tones and zinc etchings. J. N. R. 408 abstracts: ornithology 409 ENGINEERING. — The compressive strength of large brick piers. J. G. Bragg. Bur. Stand. Tech. Paper No. iii. Pp. 39. 191 8. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the strength de- veloped by brick piers of normal size as used in modern buildings, using in their construction such materials and grades of workmanship as are available in the United States. The variables considered in the investigation are: (i) The quality of bricks employed with respect to grade and geographical location; (2) the quality and kind of mortar; (3) the grade of workmanship em- ployed; and (4) the bonding of courses or method of laying the bricks. The investigation comprises tests on 46 piers 30 in. X30 in. X 10 feet in height, also 4 piers of the same cross sectional dimensions 5 feet in height. The bricks used in their construction are representative of four widely separated districts east of the Mississippi river and are classified ac- cording to the following 3 grades: (i) Hard burned or best quality; (2) medium burned or considered as common; (3) soft burned or poorest product marketed. Three mortars were used in the beginning and three grades of bond and workmanship were employed throughout the in- vestigation. J. G. B. ORNlTHOIyOGY. — The migration of North American birds, V. The shrikes. Harry C. Obkrholser. Bird Lore 20: 286-290. 1918. The tables of migration dates for Lanius borealis show the daily progress of its migration both in spring and autumn between the northern and southern limits of its range, including the average earliest dates of spring arrival for localities in its breeding area and the average and latest dates of its occurrence in places throughout its winter range ; and in autumn the average and latest dates of the last one observed in its breeding area and of the first one noted in the localities in its winter range. Similar data are given for Lanius ludovicianus and its subspecies, the geographic distribution of each one of which is also outlined. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — The subspecies of Larus hyperboreus Gunnerus. Harry C. Oberholser. Auk 35: 467-474. 1918. No subspecies of Larus hyperboreus have hitherto been formally recognized, but recent investigation has resulted in the reinstatement of Larus barrovianus Ridgway as a readily separable race, differing 4IO abstracts: ornithology chiefly in its smaller size and decidedly darker mantle. The range of Larus hyperboreus hyperboreus extends over northern Asia, most of Europe, and northeastern North America, while Larus hyperboreus barrovianus occurs in western North America. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — Food habits oj the mallard ducks of the United States. W. L. McAtee. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 720: 1-36. 1918. This bulletin contains the results of investigations on the food and food habits of Anas platyrhyncha, Anas rubripes, and Anas fuhigula, three closely allied and important game birds of the United States. Of Anas platyrhyncha, which has furnished most of the breeds of do- mestic ducks, examination of 1725 stomachs, taken at all seasons in 22 states of the United States and in 2 Canadian provinces, formed the basis of the author's conclusions. The vegetable elements comprise nine-tenths of the food of this species, and consist principally of sedges, grasses, smartweeds, pondweeds, duckweeds, coontail, wild celery, and various other water plants. Of some, such as Zizania aquatica, chiefly the seeds are eaten, but of many others also the stems, leaves, root-stocks, buds, and tubers are used. Other miscellaneous vegetable items, such as seeds of trees like Planera aquatica and of shrubs like Celtis, together with some acorns, are taken. The animal food of the mallard, which is only about one-tenth of the whole, is made up chiefly of insects and mollusks. An interesting fact in connection with the stomach examinations of this species is the large number of individual items which sometimes are present. In a single stomach taken in Louisiana there were found 75,200 seeds of various water plants, and in another taken in the same State, 102,400 seeds of Jussiaea leptocarpa. Of Anas rubripes, including its subspecies Anas rubripes tristis, 622 stomachs were examined, chiefly from the United States. In these the vegetable food made up 76 per cent of the contents, and consisted chiefly of pond-weeds, grasses, sedges, and smartweeds, together with many other less important items. The animal food, which was 24 per cent of the whole, was mostly mollusks, crustaceans, and insects. The Florida duck. Anas fulvigula, including its subspecies Anas Julvigula maculosa, lives on vegetable food, mostly grasses, smartweeds, sedges, water lilies, pondweeds, and other water plants, to the extent of 60 per cent of its total food; and on animal diet, mostly mollusks, insects, and crustaceans, to the extent of 40 per cent. abstracts: ornithology 411 Two long tables at the end of this bulletin show the items of vegetable food identified in the stomachs of all three species examined, and the number of stomachs in which each item was found. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — On the anatomy of Nyctibius imth notes on allied birds. Alexander Wetmore. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 54: 577- 586. 1918. An examination of the trunk and visceral anatomy of Nyctibius griseus abbotti furnishes some interesting results. It confirms Mr. Ridgway's suborder Nycticoraciae, to include the superfamilies Capri- mulgi, Podargi, and Steatornithes . Owing, however, to the close relationship of the Podargi and Cap- rimulgi, they are here regarded as best included in a single superfamily, so that the suborder Nycticoraciae as here outlined would be divided into two superfamilies, the Steatorniihoideae , containing a single genus Steatornis, and the Caprimulgoideae, containing the families Podargidae, Nyctibiidae, Aegothelidae, and Caprimulgidae. Among other things, attention might be called particularly to the forms of the tongues in this suborder, as there are four general types representative of the Podargidae, Nyctibiidae, Steatornithidae, and Caprimulgidae. Harry C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new lole from the Anamba Islands. Harry C. Oberholser. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 31: 197- 198. December, 19 18. A specimen of lole olivacea from the Anamba Islands in the South China Sea adds this species to their fauna, making altogether 57 species and subspecies of birds now known from this archipelago. It proves to be an undescribed race, and will stand as lole olivacea crypta. It differs very markedly from lole olivacea charlottae of Borneo, but appears to be the same as the bird from Sumatra. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY.— How; to attract birds in the East Central States. W.L. McAtee. U.S.Dept.Agr. Farmers' Bull. 912: i-i 5. 1918. The means of increasing the numbers of birds about the home and elsewhere consist chiefly in methods of protection and provision for nesting places, food, and water. Where feasible the most effectual protection is a vermin-proof fence. Breeding places may be readily furnished by boxes put up for the use of the birds, and water supplied 412 abstracts: ornithoi^ogy for drinking and bathing by fountains and open pools. It is most im- portant, however, to provide food. This can be done artificially, particularly in winter, by feeding boxes and similar devices, but the most permanent and practical plan is to plant various seed and fruit producing trees and shrubs. Among the latter, alders, birches, larches, pines, junipers, bayberries, hollies, and similar trees are among the most satisfactory. The trees bearing fruits attractive to birds are here tabulated in a manner to show graphically the duration of the fruit season ; and those that are desirable to plant as a protection to cultivated varieties which might be molested by the birds are separately indicated. Harry C. Oberhoi^skr. ORNITHOLOGY. — The migration of North American birds. IV. The Waxmings and Phainopepla. Harry C. OberholseR. Bird Lore 20: 219-222. 1918. This paper contains tables of migration dates for both spring and fall from localities in the United States, Canada, and Alaska, illustrating the migratory movements of Bomhycilla garrula, Bmnbycilla cedrorum, and Phainopepla nitens. All of these species, Bomhycilla cedrorum particularly, are more or less irregular and erratic in their movements. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — The status of the genus Orchilus Cahanis. Harry C. Oberholser. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 31: 203-204. Dec. 30, 1918. The generic name Orchilus Cabanis, proposed for a genus of South American Tyrannidae, has commonly had assigned for its type Platy- rhynchus auricularis Vieillot. Its type is, however, really Orchilus pileatus Cabanis, which, since furthermore it is preoccupied by Orchilus Morris, makes it a synonym of Lophotriccus Berlepsch. This leaves the present genus Orchilus without a name, because Perissotriccus Ober- holser, proposed for Orchilus ecaudatus Lafresnaye, is generically distinct from the other species commonly referred to Orchilus. This being the case, the new generic name Notorchilus is here proposed, with Platy- rhynchus auricularis Vieillot for its type. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — Three new subspecies of Passerella iliaca. H. S. Swarth. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 31: 161-163. December 30, 1918. A recent study of Passerella iliaca and its subspecies, besides indicating abstracts: ornithology 413 the distinctness of the recently described Passerella iliaca hrevicauda Mailhard, has revealed the existence of three undescribed subspecies. These are Passerella iliaca mariposae from Chinquapin, Yosemite Park, California; Passerella iliaca fulva from Sugar Hill, Warner Mountains, Modoc County, California ; and Passerella iliaca canescens from Wyman Creek, east slope of White Mountains, Inyo County, California. Harry C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY. — Washington region. (December 1917, and Janu- ary 1918.] Harry C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 20: 164-165. 1918. Notwithstanding one of the severest winters in local annals, there were few of the more northern winter birds about Washington during December 191 7, and January 191 8. Many of the smaller birds were very irregularly distributed and some of them not as numerous as usual. Hawks of various species were uncommonly numerous close to the city limits. A considerable increase was also noted in Colinus virginianus and Sturnus vulgaris, both of which were seen in considerable flocks. A single Plectrophenax nivalis noted on December 19, 191 7, and a single Lanius borealis on December 28, are the most notable oc- currences. Ducks of various species frequented the Potomac through- out the season in much greater numbers than usual. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — Two new genera and eight new birds from Celebes. J. H. Riley. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 31: 155-159. Decem- ber 30, 1918. The zoological explorations of Mr. H. C. Raven in the island of Cel- ebes, principally in the northern and middle portions, have resulted in the gathering of a large collection of mammals and birds. In the pre- liminary identification of the birds, six new species and two subspecies have been discovered, two of the distinct species belonging to new genera. These two new genera are Coracornis, a shrike-like bird allied to Pachycephala Vigors and Horsfield, of which the type is Coracornis raveni; and Celebesia, an interesting flycatcher allied to Malindangia Mearns, the type of which is the new species Celebesia abbotti. The other new species are Rhamphococcyx centralis, Lophozosterops striaticeps, Catapenera abditiva and Cryptolopha nesophila. The two new sub- species are an interesting new form of edible swiftlet, Collocalia vestita aenigma, and Caprimulgus affinis propinquus. Harry C. OberholseR. 414 abstracts: geology GEOLOGY. — A geologic reconnaissance of the Inyo Range and the eastern slope of the southern Sierra Nevada, California. Adolph Knopf. With a section on the stratigraphy of the Inyo Range. Edwin Kirk. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper no. Pp. 130, pis. 23, figs. 8. 1918. The region described in this report comprises Owens Valley, in eastern California, and the portions of the Inyo Range and the Sierra Nevada between which it lies. The sedimentary rocks of the Inyo Mountains are more than 36,000 feet thick and range in age from pre-Cambrian to Triassic. The Silurian is the only Paleozoic system not represented. The Lower Cambrian of this area is not only notable for its great thick- ness (10,200 feet), but it contains the oldest Cambrian deposits known on the continent. Early in Cretaceous time great masses of granitic rocks were intruded, both in the Inyo Range and the Sierra Nevada. The escarpment of the Sierra is composed dominantly of such rocks. Quartz monzonite predominates, and is represented by two varieties — a normally granular quartz monzonite and a porphyritic variety holding large orthoclase crystals, which makes up the summit region of the range. Younger than these is a coarse white alaskite (an orthoclase — albite granite), which occurs in large masses in this part of the Sierra. Notable fea- tures of the geology of the region are the great alluvial cones that ex- tend out from the flanks of both ranges into Owens Valley; the two epochs of glaciation recognizable in the moraines in the canyons of the east slope of the Sierra; and the group of basaltic cinder cones on the alluvial slope between Big Pine and Independence, some of which stand on fault lines marked by fresh alluvial scarps. The region is rich in mineral resources — silver, lead, zinc, tungsten, gold, and marble— and the waters of Owens Lake yield soda and other chemicals. The mines at Cerro Gordo in the Inyo Range have pro- duced more silver-lead ore than any other mine in California. In 1913 large bodies of tungsten ore were discovered in the Tungsten Hills west of Bishop. The ore consists of scheelite associated with garnet, epidote, quartz, and calcite, and is of contact-metamorphic origin. The ore bodies are important additions to the number of recognized contact-metamorphic scheelite deposits, a class of deposits that pre- viously had hardly been suspected as a possible source of tungsten. A. K. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 135th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8.00 p.m., Tuesday, April r, 1919; 65 mem- bers and 5 guests being present. Under "Brief Notes and Reviews of Literature," Prof. A. S. Hitch- cock exhibited a volume on "A Monographic Study of the Hawaiian vSpecies of the Tribe Lobehoideae," by Prof. Joseph F. Rock. Mr. Walter T. Swingle announced that, while he was in China, he pur- chased for the Library of Congress a large collection of Chinese books, mostly on natural history. In a paper on A poisonous milkweed, Asclepias galioides, Dr. C. DwiGHT Marsh gave briefly a history of the loss of sheep in Colorado caused by the eating of the whorled milkweed. He stated that this plant had never been definitely recognized as having a toxic character, but careful feeding experiments demonstrated that it is exceedingly poisonous, not only to sheep, but to cattle and horses. A study of the distribution and habits of the plant shows that the problem of control is one of peculiar difficulty, for in certain irrigated regions, particularly in Colorado, this species is spreading with great rapidity. Dr. C. H. Kaufman gave a paper on The genus Cortinarius, in which he described some of the typical species of the group. The lantern slides that were used were very instructive on the color and form of these brown-spored agarics. He stated that the genus contained over 500 species, of which 200 species have been recognized in the United States. They occur most abundantly in the temperate and colder zones, or in the higher altitudes, being found abundantly northward to the limits of forests and at elevations to the edge of the timber-line. Some species are intimately connected with roots of forest trees, and individual species are limited to special kinds of forests. They develop late in the season, preferring as a rule, the cooler months. Many of these species are highly colored and, as far as known, all are edible. A joint paper on A physiological study of Pythiuni debaryanum Hesse on the potato tuber was given by Drs. Lon A. Hawkins and Rodney B. Harvey, in which it was shown that there is a correlation between the resistance of the tissue of the potato to puncture and the resistance to infection by the fungus. The paper was illustrated by motion photo- micrographs showing the penetration of the cell walls of the potato by the fungus. 415 41 6 proceedings: Entomological society An animated cartoon on The black stem rust and the barberry, by Mr. G. D. George, was shown and explained by Dr. H. B. Humphrey. The Hfe story of this rust was shown on the film. The story begins with the winter spores on stubble and wild grass and shows a spore germinating, the sporidia blowing to the barberry bush, the formation of cluster-cups on the barberry leaf, the blowing of a spore to the wheat leaf, its germination and the entrance of the mycelium, through a breathing pore, it branching and spreading within the leaf, and the production and dispersion of the red or summer spores, and their escape through the ruptured epidermis to infect other wheat plants. A motion picture showing the opening of the flower of the night- blooming cereus was contributed by Mr. H. PiTTiER. A two-reel film on Citrus fumigation prepared as an educational film by the U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, was also projected. The program was followed by a social hour with refreshments. Chas. E. Chambliss, Recording Secretary. THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 322nd meeting of the Society was held May i, 1919, in the As- sembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Vice-President Walton presided and there were present 16 members and i visitor. program A. B. Gahan: The black grain-stem saw fly of Europe in the United States. This paper dealt with Trachelus tabidus (Fab.), the establish- ment of which in the United States has recently been dis- covered. This insect may become a serious pest of small grain, especially wheat, in this country. Some of the points discussed were the distribution both in the United States and in the old world, char- acter of injury, description of adult and larva and comparison with related species, suggestions for control, and bibliography. The illus- trations consisted of drawings of the adult, the larva of this and two allied species of similar habit, and a map of the distribution in the United States. The paper is to be published by the Department of Agriculture. In the discussion of Mr. Gahan's paper Mr. Walton stated that Mr. McConnell of the Bureau of Entomology has discovered in Pennsylvania a parasite that killed as high as 30 per cent of the sawfly larvae. Dr. Quaintance remarked that this appears to be one of the few cases in which the necessary measures for insect control conflict with good ag- ricultural practice, the rotation of wheat and clover being undoubtedly good agricultural practice and also favoring reproduction of the insect. Mr. Walton took exception to this, stating that forage experts claim better clover can be raised on plowed ground ; but planting on stubble is easier and cheaper. Mr. Rohwer stated that sawflies are sluggish fliers, and was of the opinion that if in the rotation the fields to be proceedings: entomological society 417 planted to grain were far apart the infestation would be considerably- reduced. Mr. Gahan thought that the fact that the species is already widely distributed in both mountain and plains regions indicates con- siderable ability to spread Mr. Walton suggested wind as a means of spreading. Mr. RohwER stated it as his experience that sawflies seek shelter in high winds, and also that the species is perhaps more widely spread than outlined by Mr. Gahan, inasmuch as he has a larva from near Parkersburg, West Virginia, that is probably this species. NOTES AND exhibition OF SPECIMENS Mr. ScHWARZ gave an account of a recent visit which he and several other entomologists had made to the Florida Everglades and keys. He described the topography and flora of the region especially contrast- ing the character of the everglades keys with the Florida keys. He spoke of the occurrence in semi-tropical Florida of the Coleopterous genus Dendrosinus (family Scolytidae). The type of this genus, D. glohosus Eichoff, was described in 1868 from two specimens said to have come from "North America," but the correctness of this locality has always been doubted. However, during this visit to southern Florida, Mr. H. S. Barber discovered an undescribed species of this genus at Marathon (Key Vacas) boring in the solid wood of Bourreria havaniensis. This species differs greatly from glohosus, and the other species of the genus, and Mr. Schwarz presented a description of it for publication in the proceedings of the Society. Mr. CuSHMAN discussed the larva of the spider parasite, Polysphincta texana Gresson, describing its method of maintaining its hold on its host. Dr. Baker expressed the opinion that Neotoxoptera violae Theo., described from Egypt, is an aberrant form of Rhopalosiphum violae Pergande of America since similar forms are obtainable from Pergandes species in greenhouses here. Mr. RohwER thought that the fact that a form of the American species resembling the African form can be produced in the greenhouse was no proof that the American and African forms are the same species. ^ He objected to the synonymizing of the two until further proof of their identity is obtained. In support of his contention he cited the case of the so-called Cladius pectinicornis, one of the rose sawflies, stating that the American form, which has heretofore been considered as the same as the European species, is specifically distinct. Mr. Heinrich agreed with Mr. Rohwer, stating that in the Microlepidoptera, American species that have formerly been considered the same as European species are rapidly being found dis- tinct, and the European names are being taken out of American litera- ture. 4i8 proceedings: biological society The 323rd regular meeting of the Society was held June 5, 1919, in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. President Sasscer presided and there were present 22 members and 6 visitors. R. H. Hutchinson: Experiments with steam disinfection in destroy- ing lice in clothing. Mr. Hutchinson prefaced his paper with some re- marks about the louse, showing lantern slides, illustrating sexual char- acters, eggs, hatching, and the effect of steam on eggs. Further slides were then thrown on the screen showing field laundry units and a large delousing plant used at debarkation camps, the speaker explaining in detail all the different pieces of apparatus. Major Harry Plotz, U. S. Army, who was among the visitors, ex- pressed his appreciation of the assistance furnished by Mr. Hutchinson, and told some of his experiences in connection with this work and in the war zone before the United States entered the war. Dr. Baker was interested in the presence, mentioned by Mr. Hutchinson, of the pe- culiar yellow body in the nymphs of lice and the fact that it has not been recorded in the literature of the louse. A similar yellow body always occurs in several groups of Homoptera which he had studied. Its forerunner is present in the egg and is carried to the interior at the time of invagination. In parthenogenetic forms its history is tied up with the development of the ovaries. Buckner in a rather extensive paper on the subject has considered it a commensalistic organism. This view, however, is not held by all embryologists. A. N. Caudell: Notes on Zoraptera. Mr. Caudell spoke of the biology and systematics of this peculiar order of insects. A point of particular interest was the finding of winged forms by Mr. H. S. Barber, and the fact that the insects have the habit of dealation. G. C. Crampton: Phylogeny of Zoraptera. This paper was pre- sented by title by Mr. Caudell, who exhibited the drawings to be used as illustration in the published paper. R. A. Cushman, Recording Secretary. BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON The 597th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, May 3, 1919; called to order at 8.15 p.m. by Vice-President BailEy; 30 persons present. The following informal communications were presented : A. Wetmore: Remarks on the feeding of purple finches on certain plant galls. The galls were the size of a finger-end and were held in the feet of the birds while being torn open. L. O. Howard: Remarks on the soon-expected arrival of the adults of the seventeen-year locust and the desirability of securing more data on the chimney-building habits of the immature insect. In this con- nection Edith R. Keleher, Wm. Palmer, and A. Wetmore reported their observations as to chimney building-habits. R. W. vShufeldT: Remarks on and exhibition of a second specimen of double-headed turtle and of a double-headed snake. Both speci- proceedings: bioi^ogical society 419 mens had died in a very immature state. The snake had been identified as Matrix sipedon. In this connection E. W. Nelson referred to a double-headed snake observed by him. The regular program consisted of two communications: A. Wetmore: Notes on the brown pelican. The speaker gave an account of the life and habits of this bird as observed by him on Pelican Island, Florida, in the early part of the present year. His remarks were illustrated by numerous lantern slides. Discussion by E. W. Nelson, R. W. Shufeldt, a. S. Hitchcock, L. O. Howard, and I.N. Hoffman. Vernon Bailey: The explorations of Maximilian, Prince of Wied, on the Upper Missouri in 18 jj. The speaker described the travels of this early naturalist and many of the animals encountered by him. His remarks were illustrated by lantern-slide views of many of these animals and by motion-picture views of many of the larger mammals of the Upper Missouri region. Discussion by R. W. ShuFELDT. The 596th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, April 19, 1919; called to order at 8 p.m. by Vice-President Hollister; 43 persons were present. On recommendation of the Council H. H. Lane, of Norman, Okla- homa, was elected to active membership. Under the heading, "Book notices, brief notes, exhibition of speci- mens, etc.," the following informal communications were presented: W. P. Taylor : A brief account of the organization of the American Society of Mammalogists on April 3 and 4, 191 9. T. S. Palmer: Remarks on ornithological activities in Germany during the war as revealed by a recently received ornithological journal published in that country for 191 8. Ornithologists appeared to have been active in Germany in spite of the war but their fields of research were necessarily limited through lack of communication with the outside world, but bird problems in Germany, migration records in Germany, including rather complete migration records at Heligoland, and bibli- ographic matters, especially of African birds, received rather marked attention. A. S. Hitchcock: Remarks on the organization of the National Research Council as pertaining to biology. The regular program was as follows: Walter P. Taylor: Notes on Dr. J. G. Cooper's scientific investiga- tions on the Pacific Coast. Dr. James Graham Cooper was one of the most active students of birds and mammals on the Pacific Coast in the middle nineteenth century. Bom in New York June 19, 1830, he early became interested in the West through his connection with the Stevens Survey of the Pacific Railroad Route along the 47th and 49th parallels. He was most active as a field coUecter between the years 1853 and 1866, during which period he worked for more than two years in Washington Territory and collected widely in CaUfornia. He collected types or 420 proceedings: bioIvOGical society cotypes of eight species of mammals; five specific names and one ver- nacular name were given in his honor; and he published formal descrip- tions of four birds, one mammal, and one reptile. His bird papers num- ber twenty-six, his mammal papers thirteen. Before i860 his in- terests were in general natural history, embracing botany and meteor- ology as well as zoology. Subsequent to that time he concentrated his attention on zoology, doing most of his work in conchology and or- nithology. He died July 19, 1902, at Hayward, California. Discussion by T. S. Palmer, A. S. Hitchcock, and L. W. Brown. C. W. Field: Observations on the heath hen, illustrated by lantern sUdes. Discussion by W. W. Grant, h. O. Howard, R. M. Libbey. Albert Mann: Woods Hole diatoms, illustrated by lantern slides. Discussion by A. S. Hitchcock, Mrs. N. Hollister. The 598th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, May 17, 1919; called to order at 8.30 p.m. by President Smith; 45 persons present. The following informal communications were presented: W. R. Maxon: Exhibition of and remarks on a fungus of the genus Mitromyces. W. R. Maxon: Inquiry as to whether both sexes of birds are known to sing. Discussion by H. C. Oberholser and Wm. Palmer, who cited instances in which the females of certain species of birds are known to sing. F. V. CoviLLE : Remarks on a vine in the Department of Agriculture having a length of 11 34 feet. It was planted 12 years ago and by ap- propriate trimming can be made to grow 100 feet a year. It roots at intervals of its length so that water and salts are not drawn through its entire length. Discussion by A. S. Hitchcock and W. E. Safford. A. S. Hitchcock: Remarks on the state of publication of the soon- to-appear flora of the District of Columbia and vicinity. I. N. Hoffman: Remarks on the recently reported occurrence of several flocks of whooping cranes in Texas. Wm. Palmer: Remarks on tide conditions of Chesapeake Bay as influenced by winds and storms and observation on the large numbers of dead croakers and of other fishes recently seen by him in the Bay in the vicinity of Chesapeake Beach. These fishes furnished an abundant food for crows and buzzards. H. M. Smith: Exhibition of and remarks on an exceedingly small (but not the smallest) species of fish, Lucania onmiata from a small fresh- water lake in Georgia. The regular program consisted of two communications: F. V. CoviLLE: The strange story of the box huckleberry. (To be published in full in a forthcoming issue of Science.) W. E. Safford : Plants used in the arts and industries of the ancient Americans. M. W. IvYOn, Jr., Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS MATTERS OF SCIENTIFIC INTEREST IN THE SIXTY-SIXTH CONGRESS In addition to the large supply bills, which provide for the work of the scientific bureaus of the Government, several measures have been introduced in the first session of the Sixty-sixth Congress which are of special interest to the scientific profession. The three bills concerned with the tariff and the removal of the duty- free privilege on scientific supplies were published in the preceding num- ber of this Journal, together with a note on the hearings held on the bills. ^ Mr Bacharach later combined the three bills into one (H. R. 7287) under the title: "A bill to provide revenue for the Government, to establish and maintain in the United States the manufacture of scien- tific instruments, laboratory apparatus, laboratory glassware, laboratory porcelain ware — an industry essential to national defense." On July 15 a hearing on "surgical instruments" was held before the House Ways and Means Committee, at which Col. C. R. DarnELL, of the Army Field Medical Supply Depot, and representatives of three manufac- turers of surgical instruments testified. On July 24 Mr. Bacharach introduced a substitute bill, H. R. 7785, "To provide revenue for the Government, to establish and maintain in the United States the manu- facture of laboratory glassware, laboratory porcelain ware, optical glass, scientific and surgical instruments," in which a paragraph was added placing a duty of 60 per cent on surgical and dental instruments. This bill was reported to the House without amendment, and recom- mended for passage, on July 26 (Report 157). Federal aid to research is provided for in the following bills: S. 16 (Mr. Smith of Georgia) : "To estabhsh engineering experiment stations in the States and Territories, in connection with institutions of higher technical education, for the promotion of engineering and in- dustrial research as a measure of industrial, commercial, military, and naval progress and preparedness in times of peace or war." Referred to the Committee on Education and Labor. S. 105 (Mr. Gronna): "For the promotion of engineering and in- dustrial research." To the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry. H. R. 1108 (Mr. Raker) : "To make accessible to all the people the valuable scientific and other research work conducted by the United States through establishment of a national school of correspondence." To the Committee on Education. S. 15 and S. 1017 (Mr. Smith of Georgia), H. R. 7 (Mr. Towner), and H. R. 2023 (Mr. Raker) provide for the creation of a federal De- partment of Education. * See this Journai^ 9: 389. 191 9. ' 421 422 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS ff Special provisions regarding research in the federal bureaus are con- tained in the following bills and resolutions: S. 814 (Mr. Owen): "To establish a department of health and for other purposes." To the Committee on Public Health and National Quarantine. S. 2380 (Mr. Smoot): "To provide for an increased annual appro- priation for agricultural experiment stations, to be used in researches and experiments in home economics, and regulating the expenditure thereof." To the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry. S. 2507 (Mr. France): "To establish an executive department to be known as the Department of Public Health, and for other purposes." To the Committee on Public Health and National Quarantine. »S. 2635 (Mr. Fletcher): "To authorize the Department of Com- merce, by the National Bureau of Standards, to examine and test manufactured articles or products for the owner or manufacturer thereof, to issue a certificate as to the nature and quality of such man- ufactured articles or products, and to prevent the illegal use of such certificate." To the Committee on Commerce. H. R. 3736 (Mr. Frear): "To transfer the Public Health Service from the Department of the Treasury to the Department of the In- terior." To the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. H. Concurrent Res. 12 (Mr. VailE, by request): "Requiring a scientific study of values and relative values by the Bureau of Stand- ards," To the Committee on Coinage, Weights, and Measures. Attempts to relieve the admittedly desperate situation of the Patent Office are contained in H. R. 5011, H. R. 5012, H. R. 6913, and H. R. 7010. These provide for making the Patent Office a separate depart- ment of the Government, and for increasing the salaries and personnel. Hearings on these bills were begun before the Committee on Patents on July 9. Several measures have been introduced to provide for research on the causes, prevention and treatment of the still obscure disease, commonly called influenza, which was epidemic in the United States in the latter half of 1918. These measures include: S. Joint Res. 76 (Mr. Hard- ing), H. R. 7293 (Mr. Black), H. R. 7700 (Mr. Larsen), H. R. 7778 (Mr. Fess), and H. Joint Res. 159 (Mr, Emerson). Mr. Myers has introduced S. 1258, "To prohibit experiments upon living dogs in the District of Columbia or in any of the Territorial or insular possessions of the United States, and providing a penalty for violation thereof." Referred to the Committee on the Judiciary, At the request of the Engineering Council Mr. JONES of Washington introduced S. 2232, and Mr. Reavis, H. R. 6649, "To create a De- partment of Public Works and define its powers and duties." These bills provide for the assembling of all the engineering activities of the Government in one department. The Department of Public Works would replace the present Department of the Interior, and such bureaus SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 423 of the latter as are nonengineering in character would be transferred to other departments. The new department would include the following existing organizations: Supervising Architect's Office, Construction Division of the Army, several engineering commissions now under the War Department, Bureau of Standards, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Bureau of Public Roads, and Forest Service. Referred to the Com- mittee on Public Lands. On July 22 the House passed H. R. 6810, the "Prohibition Bill," introduced by Mr. Volstead: "To prohibit intoxicating beverages and to regulate the manufacture, production, use and sale of high- proof spirits for other than beverage purposes, and to insure an ample supply of alcohol, and promote its use in scientific research and in the development of fuel, dye, and other lawful industries." One of the amendments accepted on July 2 1 just before the final passage of the bill was as follows: "That alcohol may be withdrawn, under regulations, from any industrial plant or bonded warehouse, tax free for the use of the United States or any governmental agency thereof, for the several States and Territories, and the District of Columbia, and for the use of any scientific university or college of learning, any laboratory for use exclusively in scientific research, or any hospital not conducted for profit." Of local interest are S. 2537 (Mr. France) and H. R. 6237 (Mr. Lazaro, by request): "To. revive with amendments an act entitled, 'An act to incorporate the Medical Society of the District of Colum- bia."' Referred to the Committees on the District of Columbia. THE PUBLIC BUILDINGS COMMISSION AND THE SCIENTIFIC BUREAUS « The space available for the Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines, and other scientific and technologic branches of the Interior Depart- ment has been considerably reduced by the action of the Public Build- ings Commission, according to the report of that Commission made to the Senate on July 8. Re- allotments of space have also been made in the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Navy, Treasury, and War, as well as in the various special war organizations. The apparent saving to the Government "from the vacating of rented buildings is estimated at about $350,000. The Geological Survey is restricted to about one-half the floor space it now occupies. Realizing that the work of the Survey cannot be properly done under such conditions and some classes of work cannot be done at all, the scientific and technical force of the Survey have protested this action in the following letter: "To the Chairman, Joint Commission to assign space in public build- ings: "The undersigned, geologists, engineers, chemists, and other scien- tific and technical members of the staff of the United States Geological Survey, earnestly protest against the recent action of the Public Build- 424 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS ings Commission which will result in reducing the space allotted to the scientific, technical and clerical employees of the Geological Survey in the New Interior Building to 75 square feet per person, or about one- half that now occupied. "It is beyond argument that the industrial, social, and economic ad- vancement of a nation is largely measured by its capacity to encourage scientific researches and apply their results. The Federal and State governments have recognized this fact by establishing scientific and technical bureaus to aid in the development of the country's resources and the administration of the laws. "The proper housing of a scientific and technical bureau such as the Geological Survey demands adequate consideration of freedom from interruption, proper lighting and ventilation, and easy access to nu- merous reference books, drafting tables, valuable maps in various stages of completion, specimens of many materials, and considerable special equipment. "The Geological Survey in carrying out the work assigned to it by Congress has been able to perform highly useful public service, to draw to its staff men of the highest professional training and ideals, and to create standards of workmanship and efficiency that are well known and widely approved. "After 30 years of service the Geological Survey found itself housed under crowded and unsanitary conditions that hindered its efficiency, menaced the standards of its work, and sufficiently endangered the health of its employees to call forth a protest from the Public Health Service. At that time the average floor space available to clerical employees was about 64 square feet and to scientific and technical em- ployees about 102 square feet. These conditions led to the preparation of plans for a building especially adapted to the Geological Survey's needs and in 19 13 to the passage of the bill authorizing the construction of the New Interior Building, of which the Survey now occupies about one-third. "The present personnel of the Geological Survey in Washington in- cludes about 320 geologists, engineers, chemists, and other scientific and technical employees, about 260 clerical employees, and 121 skilled mechanics and workmen. By the proposed reduction in allotted space the first two groups, aggregating 580 employees, must carry out their official work in 44000 square feet of floor space, or about 20 per cent less than that occupied by a similar corps of workers in the old crowded and unsanitary quarters. "Careful investigation gives convincing evidence that an average of at least 150 square feet, or twice that allotted by the Public Buildings Commission, is the minimum within which the employees of the Geo- logical Survey can perform their official duties with proper regard for efficiency and standards of work. "It is stated that the reduction in allotted space is made in the in- SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS . 425 terest of economy. The members of the Geological Survey are entirely willing to bear their due share of any burdens imposed by a program of national economy, but they protest that the proposed reduction in floor space and the resulting crowding will not be an economy but will actually cause a loss in efficiency exceeding the saving. "We respectfully request that the Public Buildings Commission re- consider the allottment of space as it affects the Geological Survey." NOTES Messrs. H. A. Edson and W. W. Stockberger, of the Bureau of Plant Industry; W. I. SwanTon, of the Reclamation Service; C. O. Johns, of the Bureau of Chemistry; J. F. Meyer, of the Bureau of Standards; O. S. AdAm, of the Coast and Geodetic Survey; and vSidney F. Smith of the Patent Office are assisting the Congressional Joint Re- classification Commission in the classification of the employees in the Federal scientific bureaus. The Bureau of Mines is to be divided into an Investigations Branch and an Operations Branch, each with an assistant director in charge. Under the Investigations Branch will come mineral technology, fuels, mining, petroleum, and experiment stations. Under the Operations Branch will be a chief clerk, a division of education and information, the mine rescue work, and the Government fuel yards. Dr. C. G. Abbot, of the Smithsonian Institution, reports successful observations of the solar eclipse on June 5 at La Paz, Bolivia. Dr. Samuel Avery, formerly major in the Chemical Warfare Service in Washington, has returned to the University of Nebraska. Miss Eleanor F. Bliss, of the Geological Survey, and Miss A. F. Jonas are spending three months surveying the crystalline rock area of northeastern Maryland for the Maryland Geological Survey, correlat- ing the Maryland classification and map units with those recognized by these geologists and Miss Florence Bascom, in adjacent portions of Pennsylvania. Dr. William Bowie, chief of the Division of Geodesy of the Coast and Geodetic vSurvey, received the honorary degree of Doctor of Science from Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut, on June 23. Mr. Stephen C. Brown, registrar of the National Museum for over forty years, died on July 11, 1919. Mr. W. A. English, formerly a geologist of the Geological Survey and now engaged in professional work in the oil and gas fields of Cal- ifornia, has returned temporarily to Washington to complete a report for the Survey. Mr. Samuel W. Epstein, formerly in charge of the rubber laboratory of the Bureau of Standards at Akron, Ohio, has been transferred to Washington and placed in charge of chemical rubber investigations at the Bureau. 426 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Mr. J. G. Fairchild has been reinstated as assistant chemist in the Geological Survey after seven years of chemical work in other govern- ment bureaus and for private interests. During part of this time he studied explosives for the arsenal at Dover, N. J., and more recently nitrous gas problems for the Bureau of Soils. Mr. R. Iv. Faris, Assistant Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, has been nominated by the President as a civilian member of the Mississippi River Commission, to succeed the late Homer P. RiTTER. Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, left for the Mesa Verde in July to continue his work in the archeological development of the Park. Mr. Gerard Fowke, who has been conducting archeological field work for the Bureau of American Ethnology in Missouri, has recently sent to the National Museum a large collection of specimens from the Miller Cave, Pulaski County, the largest and most significant collection yet obtained from a Missouri cave. Dr. Walter Hough has recently returned from the White Mountain Apache Reservation, Arizona, where he conducted explorations for the Bureau of American Ethnology in a group of large ruins west of Cibecue. Mr. HoYT S. Gale, of the Geological Survey, who has spent several months investigating the potash resources of Europe for the Depart- ment of the Interior, has made a study of the deposits of Alsace and of Spain, and will study those of Stassfurt, Germany, before returning to the United States. Capt. Herbert C. Graves, hydrographer in charge of coastal sur- veys of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, died suddenly in London on July 26 at the 4ge of forty -nine. He had been abroad since June 12 as a representative of the United States at the International Hydrographic Conference, and was also one of the delegates from the American Sec- tion of the proposed International Geophysical Union, which met in Brussels in July. He was the Secretary of the Washington Society of Engineers. Dr. E. C. Harder has again taken up his work in the iron and steel section of the Geological Survey, after spending four months on leave of absence in geological investigations in Brazil for commercial in- terests. Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist of the Bureau of American Eth- nology, returned to Washington in July, after extended field studies among the Onondaga near Syracuse, New York, and the Mohawk, Aaynga, and Onondaga on the Grand River Grant near Brantford, Ontario. Mr. J. C. HosTETTER has resigned from the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, to take up research and development work for the Steuben Glass Works, of Corning, New York. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 427 Mr. F. B, Laney, who was detailed in 19 13 to the Bureau of Mines for cooperative research on complex and refractory ores, has returned to the Geological Survey where he will continue his research work on the metalliferous ores. After five years at the Colorado, California, Utah, and Pittsburgh stations of the Bureau of Mines, he took charge of a government metallographic laboratory at Pittsburgh where he co- operated with the Ordnance Department of the Army during 191 8 and 1919 in the microscopic examination of metals and alloys used in the manufacture of ordnance. Dr. Willis T. Lee has returned to the Geological Survey after six months' leave of absence, during which he was head of the department of geology and director of the School of Engineering Geology of the University of Oklahoma. Wesleyan University at its recent commencement conferred the degree of Doctor of Science on Dr. F. B. UiTTELL, astronomer of the Naval Observ^atory. Mr. E. Russell Lloyd resigned on July 12 as geologist in charge of petroleum resources in the Division of Mineral Resources of the Geo- logical vSurvey. He is now geologist for the Ohio Cities Gas Company. Mr. Francois E. Matthes, of the Geological Survey, gave a series of lectures in Yosemite National Park during the month of July, under the auspices of the university extension division of the University of California. The subjects were as follows: July 8: Origin of the Yosemite Valley, as indicated in the history of its waterfalls. July 9: The highest ice flood in the Yosemite Valley. July 12: The origin of the granite domes of Yosemite. Mr. Carl W. Mitman has been appointed Curator of the Division of Mechanical Technology in the Smithsonian Institution, Mr. C. H. Ober of the Coast and Geodetic Survey has been granted leave of absence to go with Dr. Alexander Rice's expedition to the Amazon River. Mr. Sidney Paige has resumed his duties at the Geological vSurvey after six months' leave of absence spent in professional work in the northern part of South America. Mr. John L. Ridgway, chief of the section of illustrations of the Geological Survey, has returned from a month's leave of absence spent in a trip to the Pacific Coast. Dr. Charles C. vScalione, formerly a lieutenant in the Research Division of the Chemical Warfare Service, has been appointed assistant catalytical chemist in the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory of the Nitrate Division, Ordnance Department, at the American University. Dr. H. L. Shantz, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, has been ap- pointed botanist with the expedition to South and Central Africa which sailed from New York in July under the direction of Mr. Edmund 428 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Heller, of the American Museum of Natural History. Mr. Raven, of the Smithsonian Institution, accompanied the expedition as naturalist in charge of zoological and anthropological collections. The expedi- tion will proceed from Cape Town to Victoria Falls, cross into the Belgian Kongo, and then travel east to Lake Tanganyika, and will be abroad for at least one year. Mr. R. L. V. StraTTon, who enlisted from the Geological Survey to serve as paymaster in the Navy during the war and was stationed at the Virgin Islands for about eighteen months assisting the new American government of the islands in various capacities, has joined with Ralph W. Richards, formerly a geologist of the Survey, in an engineering firm with offices in Washington. They will specialize on the evaluation of oil and gas properties and the determination of income taxes on such properties. Dr. J. B. Umpleby, of the Geological Survey, has returned from Paris, having been temporarily under the State Department assisting the American delegation at the peace conference in mining matters. Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan, Mr. D. Dale Condit, and Dr. C. Wythe Cooke, of the Geological Survey, have returned to Washington after spending several months in a geologic reconnaissance of the Dominican Republic for the Dominican Government. Mr. C. P. Ross, who was also a member of the party, has remained a few weeks longer to make special examinations of the water resources in the vicinity of Samana Bay. Dr. Vaughan also visited Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and made ar- rangements with the Haitian Government for a preliminary geological survey of Haiti. At the request of the Navy Department he later made geologic reconnaissances at various other points in the West Indies. Mr. C. M. Weber, of Balabac, Philippine Islands, has donated to the National Museum an unusually fine series of Philippine land shells, including new forms. Dr. R. C. Wells, of the Geological Survey, has returned from a visit to the Marine Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington at Tortugas, Florida, where he made a number of chemical determina- tions on water collected directly from the sea. Mr. Dean E. Winchester has returned to the Geological Survey after a month's absence, during which he was engaged in a search for mineral fuels on the island of Jamaica for private interests. Mr. Robert H. Wood has returned to professional work in the oil and gas fields of Oklahoma, after spending several months in Washington completing reports left unfinished when he left the Geological Survey a year ago. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 SEPTEMBER 19, 1919 No. 15 CHEMICAL CRYSTALLOGRAFUY.— Ammonium picrate and potassium trithionate: optical dispersion and anomalous crys- tal angles. HERBERT E. Merwin. Geophysical Laboratory. The optical properties of these two compounds were obtained in connection with certain researches on other subjects, and are placed on record here for the benefit of other microscopists. Ammonium Picrate. — The following observations were made on four samples variously prepared : The crystals are orthorhombic ; a sample recrystallized from water consisted of thin scales 1 1 (010) ; a sample not recrystallized contained slender prisms elongated 1 1 c ; one recrystallized from ammonium hydrate con- tained equant. grains. Measurements of two prisms corre- sponded satisfactorily with previous measurements.^ Refrac- tive indices observed microscopically were :a=i.5io,/3=i. 87© , 7=1 .9I0 . The orientation is o; || c, ^ \\ a, 7 1| b for light wave- lengths greater than 541 ju/x; and a 1| c, /3 jj b, 7 || a for shorter wave-lengths. 2E for546/x/i = 19°, 578)U)u = 51°, 6oofxfx = 60°, 635/^^ = 7i°> 675)UM = 32°, 528MM = 33°, and 513/iM = 45° to 55°-^- The absorption from 700 /x/x to 500/i/x is a<0 = y. The original crystals and those recrystallized from ammonium hy- drate contained streaks which for 7 and |8 were much redder than the main parts of the crystals. The streaks were optically continuous with the rest of the crystal and showed no significant differences in refraction. ^ See discussion and observations by H. Baumhauer, Zeits. Kryst.49: 125. 191 1. 2 Baumhauer found for Li and Na values of 80° (about) and 56°. 429 430 merwin: picrate and trithionate From two natural prisms (no) A (oio) refractive index measurements gave: X = 578 546 529 518 + 513 + 507 /3' = 1.886 I .926 1-956 1.980 1-995 2.015 OL = I.516 + These values are in line with those of Baumhauer, and give (with the orientation and 2K) data for calculating /3 and 7. That is, /3' = ^ -f 21 to 22 per cent of (7 — (S). Therefore the follow- ing dispersion: TABLE I Dispersion of Ammonium Picrate X a ^ T 2V 2E 668 1.499 i.8i''> 1.880 41° + 80° 588 1-508 + 1.872 I .908 29 56 546 I. 516 + 1-925 + 1.930 10 19 541 I.51S 1-933 1-933 0 0 528 1-522 1.944 1 .961 17 Z2> 513 1.528 1 .960 2.004 23-28 45-55 Baumhauer's observations on potassium picrate show that it is very like ammonium picrate. The wave-length for which it is uniaxial is evidently shorter than for the ammonium salt. It seems safe to infer that this wave-length is practically that of the hehum green line 502, for which he obtained a single signal when measuring the dispersion of /3 and 7. Potassium Trithionate} — -Blades about i cm. long were ob- tained by cooling a hot saturated solution to room temperature. The prism angles of these blades were not normal, but as follows (the dome angle was normal) : 7 crystals, 10 m faces, 23 / faces, 10 g faces. / A/ 39° o' — 39° 27' mean = 39° 13' w A m 70 42 — 70 50 mean = 70 46 q A g 45 13—45 39 mean = 45 31 At the base of the blades there were numerous stubby crys- tals, with normal angles. One of these gave the angles °3i' I A I =39' w A m = 71 3 ^ The crystals were prepared and tested by E. T. Ali^En. pittier: origin o? chicle; 431 A second lot of 5 crystals made from a corresponding mother liquor by evaporation at room temperature gave the following angles which are normal: 14 faces, I A / 39° 20' 39° 40' mean 39° 32' 5 faces, w A w 71 0 71 15 mean 71 8 6 faces, q A completion of the map of the United States would be of great military and civil benefit, as accurate maps are es- sential from a military standpoint in the defense of the country, and from a civil standpoint it is necessary to have them for the efficient development of industries and commerce. The speaker said that very accurate maps of large scale should be made along the coasts of the United States for purposes of defense in case of invasion. The war has proved that troops cannot operate effectively without very accurate maps on which a great amount of military detail connected with the movement of troops may be shown. For artillery purposes the maps must be exceedingly accurate, in order that long range firing may be effective. 447 448 proceedings: philosophical society The speaker discussed the question of whether accurate maps can be made from aeroplanes and expressed the opinion that undoubtedly aeroplane photographs can be used in the revision of existing maps. In many cases where the country is practically flat, aeroplane photographs may be used for original surveys. It is probable that difficulty would be experienced in making contour maps from aeroplane photographs. This would be due to the difficulty of having the camera in a vertical position at the time the photograph was taken and on account of the condition which would make it impossible to do accurate contouring when the contour interval is small. Undoubtedly the aeroplane will have considerable use in surveying and at present several of the govern- ment organizations engaged in mapping are investigating the subject of surveying from aeroplanes. Discussion. — Capt. Ellis spoke of the German and French maps of eastern France. Mr. J. F. Hayford discussed the possibiHties of mapping from aeroplane photographs. Mr. G. K. Burgess spoke of the work of the French in constructing maps for Algeria and Morocco from aerial photographs. The second paper was by Mr. Oscar S. Adams on A study of map projections in general and was also illustrated by lantern slides. The difficulty encountered in map construction arises from the fact that the earth's surface is ellipsoidal in shape and is consequently non-developable, that is, it cannot be spread out in a plane without some stretching, some tearing, or some folding. The determination of a projection consists in fixing upon some system of lines in the plane that will represent the meridians and parallels upon the earth. An orderly arrangement of these lines, such as to give a one-to-one corre- spondence between the points on the earth and those upon the plane, is generally expressed in terms of some mathematical formula, and in fact all projections in use can be so stated. In studying projections there are four main things to be considered. These four considerations are: (i) The accuracy with which a projection represents the scale along the meridians and parallels. (2) The accuracy with which it represents areas. (3) The accuracy with which it represents the shape of the features of the area in question. (4) The ease with which the projection can be constructed. The scale of a map in any given direction at any point is the ratio which a short distance measured upon the map bears to the correspond- ing distance upon the surface of the earth. The subject of map projections is generally treated under the follow- ing subdivisions: (a) Perspective or geometrical projections, (b) Conical projec- tions, (c) Equivalent or equal area projections, (d) Conformal pro- jections, (e) Azimuthal or zenithal projections. These classes are not, however, mutually exclusive since a given projection may belong to two or sometimes three of the classes. proceedings: philosophical society 449 The subject of map projections is a very wide one and some of the considerations have their roots extending far into the fertile soil of pure mathematics. A careful working out of the results for any one pro- jection forms a good exercise in the practical application of mathematical knowledge. Discussion. — This paper was discussed by Messrs. Sosman and Wm. Bowie. Adjournment took place at 9.53 p.m. and was followed by a social hour. 819TH MEETING The 819th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, May 10, 1919, President Humphreys in the chair; 40 persons present. The minutes of the 818th meeting were read in abstract and approved. The first paper was presented by Mr. F. J. Schlink On the nature of the inherent variability of measuring instruments. This paper treats of those characteristics of the performance of an indicating measuring instrument, on account of which the instrument fails to give identical readings for repeated applications of the same value of the quantity being measured. Variable errors introduce serious difficulties, and the obtaining of a high degree of freedom from variability in instrument operation, although it has not until very re- cently been given any general or systematic consideration, is likely to be very much more important than mere smallness of calibration error. A means of defining the variability of measuring instruments, either indicating or integrating, with respect to random observations in caUbration, is illustrated, in which, the characteristics of the instru- ment, as regards dispersion of readings, are set forth by reference to *the surface defined by a family of probability curves. The concepts of resilience and the cychc state with respect to instru- ment operation are next introduced and it is shown by experimental results on a typical indicating instrument of considerable mechanical complexity that when once cyclic or regularized operation is set up, the indications lie upon a hysteresis loop which, while defining a zone of uncertainty or variance, is in itself definite and reproducible with high precision, provided that the successive increments of the inde- pendent variable are appHed aperiodically and in the absence of jarring or vibration, in such manner as to avoid all overshooting of the final reading. This method is directly apphcable only in the absence of appreciable transient after-effects in the operation of the instrument. The causes of instrumental hysteresis maybe either elastic or mechan- istic; the nature and effect of the latter are illustrated and explained. The type of calibration that would obtain in the absence of friction has been determined by the study of instruments subjected to vigorous jarring and the relation between cyclic and acyclic calibration was thus made evident. An experiment was shown using a crude type of auto- matic weighing scale which served to demonstrate the determinate nature of the hysteretic lag in the un vibrated, aperiodic condition of 450 proceedings: philosophical society operation, as well as the influence of jarring upon the nature and amount of the lag. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides. The paper was discussed by Messrs. C. A. Briggs and W. P. White. The second paper was presented by Mr. R. L. Sanford on Magnetic analysis. This paper gives a definition of magnetic analysis and briefly dis- cusses the scope of the subject. It points out that a method which makes possible the testing of steel and steel products without in any way injuring the product gives promise of having very great commercial value. The very strict correspondence between the magnetic and mechanical properties may serve as the basis for such a non-destructive method of inspecting steel products by comparison with tested samples which thus constitute standards of quality. The proper interpretation of the results of magnetic analysis re- quires a full and complete knowledge of the correlations existing be- tween magnetic and other properties of steel. Much remains to be done along this line. A number of applications of magnetic analysis that give promise of practical value are described. Each type of problem requires an indi- vidual solution and there are many types of problems. It is not by any means to be claimed that magnetic analysis will displace any of the present well established methods of metallography. On the other hand, it bids fair to develop into a powerful tool in the hands of the investigator as well as a rapid and accurate means for the testing of steel and steel products. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides. Discussion. — This paper was discussed by Messrs. White, Sosman, C. A. Briggs, Dickinson, Crittenden, Herschel, and Agnew. Adjournment took place at 9.50 p.m. and was followed by a social hour. S. J. Mauchly, Recording Secretary. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON 336TH MEETING The 336th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, Wednesday eve- ning, May 7, 1919, President Ulrich presiding, and 173 persons present. Alfred H. Brooks: Some geologic problems relating to the war in Europe. At the outbreak of the war no provision had been made for the use of geologists in any of the belligerent armies. So far as known the British Expeditionary Force was the first to employ geologic officers in determining water supply, and the Germans the first to recognize the need of geologic knowledge in military mining. In the latter field the British soon followed, and under the leadership of Lt. Col. T. Edgeworth David carried the geologic work to a much higher degree of refinement than did any of the other armies. Geologic staffs were organized in both the British and German armies early in 19 16, and probably at about the same time geology was given some recognition in the Austrian Army. A geologic section was established in the American Expeditionary Force in September, 191 7. There were no geologic officers in the French Army during the entire war, though some of the French engineers made use of the science. The principal applications of geology to military problems are as follows : (i) The determination of water resources, both underground and surface, at the front and along the line of communication. (2) The determination of the physical character of soil, subsoil, and bedrock and the presence or absence of underground water with rela- tion to their effect on field works, including trenches, dugouts, and mines. (3) The distribution, occurrence, and quantity of road metal, ballast, and material for concrete. (4) The determination of the physical character of soil, and subsoil during wet and dry seasons, with relation to its influence on the move- ment of large bodies of troops and of artillery and tanks. Practically all uses of geology fall within the above general classifica- tion. It is evident that any engineering project involving extensive excavation may call for geologic knowledge. It is evident too that the sanitation of camps and cantonments must take cognizance of the un- derground drainage conditions as well as of water supply and surface formations. It has been found that certain geologic conditions by furnishing good electric transmission favor the use of the listening de- vices which were extensively used during the period of trench warfare. It should be added that one of the important uses of geology in the 451 452 proceedings: geological society American Expeditionary Force was the forecasting of the physical conditions within the enemy's hnes. 337TH MEETING The 337th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Wednesday evening, May 14, 191 9, President Ulrich presiding, and 58 persons present. Capt. Charles H. Lee: Experiences in supplying water to our army at the front. Drainage areas and general geology with special reference to pervious and impervious rocks were described. The rivers are widely distributed and in many areas springs are a very valuable source of water supply, especially in Northeastern France where the American Expeditionary Force was engaged. The most important are contact springs between limestone and shale. The Paris Basin is an artesian basin, the water being in greensand formations. Illustrations were shown of the various methods used by the engineers to supply the troops with water, including the construction of dams and concrete and wooden tanks, and the transportation of water both by pipe lines, automobile trucks, wagons, and, lastly, by small tanks on men's backs delivered directly to the men in the trenches. Kirk Bryan: Habits of thought of a geologist applied to military problems. The speaker related his experience as a private in the Intelligence Section (G-2) of the 5th Army Corps, First American Army, during the St. Mihiel and Argonne-Meuse operations extending from Septem- ber 12 to November 11, 191 8. He referred to the demand for geologic and physiographic information in active military operations and showed examples of such work done under the disadvantageous conditions of war. He pointed out that geologists have a mental limitation which compels them to think along professional lines; they should on this account be placed in such position in an army that this habit of thought will be most useful. One of these places is in the Intelligence Section where studies of the terrane are required and can be most readily cir- culated. These studies will be of two types: (i) general papers referring to large areas in the theater of war and sent out from Army Headquarters from time to time; (2) special local reports of enemy defensive areas or of the zone of advance sent out from Army Corps Headquarters im- mediately previous to an attack. These descriptions should be skil- fully prepared on the basis of a genetic study of the physiography but without technical language and accompanied by diagrams, profiles, sketches and, when available, photographs. The object of the re- ports is to stimulate the imagination and assist in the visualization of the enemy country. Over this country troops must advance and it is too much to expect that the officers of the time, largely drawn from civilian life, should be adepts at the difficult art of visualization from maps. For, however good the maps, visualization is a difficult mental PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 453 process even for trained men and accurate skilfully written descriptions are a great aid. Adolph KnopE: Present tendencies in geology: metalliferotts deposits. The chief problems and tendencies at the present time in the study of ore deposits are: (i) the reaction against undue dependence on the microscope, whether it be the petrographic or the metallographic microscope; (2) the determination of the influence of pressure and tem- perature in producing the mineral facies of ore deposits, and as a corol- lary, the zonal distribution of ore deposits around intrusive centers; (3) the application of physical chemistry to the problems of ore deposi- tion; (4) the reaction against the extreme acceptance of the doctrine of the origin of ore deposits from magmatic waters; (5) the application of physiography to economic geology, especially with reference to the origin of gold, iron, manganese, and nickel deposits as related to the development of peneplains; (6) the bringing of economic geology into closer touch with economics and with the larger social policies of the State; (7) the taking of inventories of the world's chief mineral resources; and (8) the estimation of mineral reserves by improved methods, espe- cially by applying the modern methods of statistical analysis. The war and the problems arising from the war as to the international adjust- ment of mineral supplies have particularly emphasized the need for detailed information on the world's mineral resources, especially for information of a quantitative character. Ralph W. Stone, Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS MATTERS OF SCIENTIFIC INTEREST IN CONGRESS Since the last report in this Journal^ Mr. Bacharach's bill (H. R. 7785) has been passed by the House of Representatives, and is now in the hands of the Senate Committee on Finance. The bill as now drawn provides an increase of 15 per cent in the ex- isting duty on chemical glassware, 10 per cent on porcelain ware, 25 per cent on scientific instruments, 40 per cent on surgical and dental instruments; removes optical glass from the free list and places thereon a duty of 45 per cent; and repeals the existing "duty-free provision." It was debated in the House (in session as Committee of the Whole) on August I and 2. Mr. Bacharach presented the principal arguments for the bill, emphasizing not only the "revenue," "infant industry," and "cheap foreign labor" arguments which support all protective tariff bills, but also the "key industry" and "foreign propaganda" arguments, which are comparatively new in American tariff discussion. The latter two arguments were scarcely referred to again during the debate. The strongest future foreign competition, according to Mr. Bacharach, is expected to come from Japan, not from Germany. Mr. MoorE, of Ohio, also supported the bill on behalf of glass and porcelain manufac- turers in his district. Mr. Griffin, of New York, opposed the bill, as- serting that it was "the opening gun in the battle for a general increase of the tariff." Mr. Kitchin, of North Carolina, also opposed it, argu- ing in favor of a licensing system instead of a protective tariff. The rest of the debate was essentially political. An amendment to insert "watch crystals, 60 per cent ad valorem" went out on the point of order that the bill related only to chemical and laboratory glassware. Three Democratic amendments to restore existing rates were defeated; likewise an amendment to retain the duty-free provision, in supporting which Mr. Kitchin asserted that the repeal of the duty-free clause would tax college students $900,000 yearly for the benefit of the manu- facturers. The division on this amendment, as pointed out by Mr. Kitchin, was on strictly party lines. Mr. Taylor, of Colorado, introduced, on August 14, H. R. 8441: "Authorizing the Secretary of the Interior to make investigations, through the Bureau of Mines, of oil shale to determine the practica- bility of its utilization as a commercial product." Referred to the Committee on Appropriations. A similar bill was introduced in the Senate on August 4 by Mr. King (S. 2722). Mr. France, of Maryland, has introduced in the Senate a resolu- 1 This JouRNAi. 9: 421. 19 1 9. 454 SCIENTIFIC NOTBS AND NEWS 455 tion (S. J. Res. 91) "conveying the thanks of Congress to Dr. James Harris Rogers, of Hyattsville, Maryland, the discoverer of under- ground and underwater radio." An appropriation of $1,000 is pro- vided for a suitable gold medal. Referred to the Committee on Naval Affairs. A message from the President on August 21 (H. Doc. 197) trans- mitted an invitation from the Government of the French Republic to that of the United States to send delegates to a proposed conference at Paris on September 30, 191 9, "to consider questions relating to the re- organization of the service of the exchange of meteorological informa- tion," with a recommendation from the Secretary of Agriculture that appropriation be made for two delegates to the conference. Referred to the Committee on Appropriations of the Senate, and the Committee on Agriculture of the House. Hearings have been completed on the Patent Office reform bills. NOTES An Agricultural History Society has been organized in Washington "to stimulate interest, promote study and facilitate publication of researches in agricultural history." The officers are: President, Rodney H. True, of the Bureau of Plant Industry; Vice-Presi- dent, Wm. J. Trimble, of the North Dakota Agricultural College; Secretary-Treasurer, Lyman Carrier, of the Bureau of Plant Industry; Members of Executive Committee, R. W. Kelsey, of Haverford, Penn- sylvania, and O. C. Stine, of the Office of Farm Management. The Chemical Society of Washington (the local section of the Amer- ican Chemical Society) held its summer excursion on August 15, going by boat to the smokeless powder plant and the naval proving grounds at Indian Head, Maryland. The Division of Birds of the National Museum has recently ac- quired by exchange from the American Museum of Natural History 665 bird skins from Colombia, forming a part of the material upon which Dr. F. M. Chapman based his "Distribution of Bird-hfe in Colombia," published in 19 17. Dr. C. G. Abbot, of the Smithsonian Institution, returned from his expedition to South America on July 30. Dr. D. G. Byers, of the University of Washington, Seattle, recently a captain in the Chemical Warfare Service in Washington, has been appointed chief of the division of chemistry of the Bureau of Soils. The Division of Plants of the National Museum has received a col- lection of about 1300 specimens from Colorado and New England, pre- sented by Dr. S. F. Blake, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. Dr. F. G. CoTTRELL has been appointed assistant director of the Bureau of Mines, in charge of the newly organized investigations 456 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS branch. The operations branch has been placed in charge of Mr. F. J. Bailey, formerly chief clerk of the Bureau. Dr. Abraham Jacobi, a non-resident member of the Academy, died at his summer home at Bolton Landing, New York, on July lo, 1919, in his ninetieth year. Dr. Jacobi was born at Hartum, Westfalen, Ger- many, on May 6, 1830. He came to the United States in 1853, as a result of his participation in the revolution of 1848. His sixty-six years of active medical work in New York City, during which he lec- tured and taught in several of the medical colleges of that city and con- tributed voluminously to medical literature, earned him the title of "the father and founder of American pediatrics." He had been a member of the Academy since 1899. Dr. J. A. LE Clerc resigned on August 31 from the Bureau of Chem- istry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and is now with the Miner- Hillard Milling Company of Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. Mr. J. J. Skinner, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, has been awarded the Edward Longstreth Medal of Merit by the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, for his paper on "Soil Aldehydes." Dr. J. E. Spurr has resigned from the Bureau of Mines, to become editor of the Engineering and Mining Journal of New York. Dr. Joseph B. Umpleby has resigned from the U. S. Geological Survey to accept the position of Director of the School of Engineering Geology of the University of Oklahoma, at Norman, Oklahoma. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 OCTOBER 4, 1919 No. 16 BOTANY. — The anay, a new edible-fruited relative of the avocado. S. F. Blake, Bureau of Plant Industry. One of the most interesting results of the explorations in search of new and desirable avocados and related fruits, carried on in Central America for several years past by Wilson Popenoe of the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction, is the discovery of the anay. Guided by the reports of natives, Mr. Popenoe first met with the species on September 23, 19 16, when two trees were found at the entrance to the Finca El Compromiso, half a mile from Mazatenango, Guatemala, at an elevation of about 365 meters. Other trees were known to the natives in the near-by forest, and were visited by them at the proper season to secure the fruit. The two trees seen by Mr. Popenoe had been left to provide shade for young coffee trees when the forest was cleared. They were about 22 meters high, with the tall and slender trunk bare of branches for a considerable dis- tance, and an open rounded crown. On this occasion Mr. Popenoe, being unable to find a native venturesome enough to climb the trees, had to content himself with pieces of the bark and with some of the fruits, which were lying in profusion on the ground. He also secured leaves from sucker shoots at the base of one tree, but comparison with specimens secured from the same tree on a later trip shows that these belong to some other plant. The fruits of the anay, which ripen in August and September, are very similar in external appearance to those of certain types 457 458 BLAKE: THE ANAY of avocado {Per sea americana). They are lo to 15 cm. long, ellipsoid-pyriform, sometimes curved, sometimes pointed at apex, often with sharply defined neck, with the body slightly com- pressed, and smooth, glossy, purplish black surface. The skin is very thin and membranous, adhering closely to the firm, oily, rather scanty flesh. This is divided into two zones of color, equal in thickness, the outer pale green, the inner greenish cream-color, both being more sharply defined than is ordinarily the case in the cultivated avocado. The flesh has a rich, bland flavor, like that of a very good avocado, but faintly sweetish. The large, obovoid seed, with the pointed end toward the base of the fruit, has a thick, almost fibrous, outer seed coat and a membranous inner one closely including the cotyledons, but not always reaching to their apex. The pubescent plumule lies im- mediately at the base of the cotyledons, while in the avocado it is located some distance above this point. The fruits fall while still hard, ripening in two or three days, and germinating freely on the ground beneath the parent tree. Most of the specimens found by Mr. Popenoe had been attacked by insects, which tunneled through the seeds. The notes from which this description of the fruit has been drawn up were made by Mr. Popenoe on his first visit to the trees. On a later visit, on January 17, 191 7, a mozo was found who ascended one of the trees by means of a near-by palm and threw down branchlets with leaves, young fruit, and a very few flowers. Study of these shows that the anay is not a Per sea, as Mr. Popenoe at first supposed, but an undescribed species of the genus Hufelandia, which is at once distinguished from the avocado {Persea americana) and its near relatives by the fact that the anthers are 2 -celled instead of 4-celled. Since collecting the anay at Mazatenango, on the west coast of Guatemala, Mr. Popenoe has found it at Chama, on the Rio Chisoy in the Usumacinta basin in Alta Verapaz, northeastern Guatemala, at an altitude of about 300 meters, although no specimens were obtained. It is the belief of Mr. Popenoe that the name of the old Maya settlement Anaite, farther north in BLAKE: THE ANAY 459 the same valley near the ruins of Menche Tinamit and Yax- chilan, has reference to the former abundance of the anay in the same region. The anay, both in the vicinity of Mazatenango and in the Usumacinta Valley, grows in moist regions at an elevation of only 300 to 365 meters. For this reason Mr. Popenoe believes that it will not succeed in California, but that it may do well in southern Florida. Young trees grown from seeds collected by Mr. Popenoe are now cultivated in the Plant Introduction Gar- den at Miami, under the Seed and Plant Introduction number 43432, and their future will be watched with much interest. In its native haunts the species was reported by natives to flower in May, but from the specimens collected by Mr. Popenoe it is clear that the flowering season is December and January. The fruit ripens in August and September. As this species of Hujelandia is known throughout its range as anay (pronounced a-ni,^ and as it is intended to bear the same name on its introduction into culture in the United States, it may be called Hufelandia anay Blake, sp. nov. Large tree, up to about 22 meters high, with thick, reddish brown bark; branchlets stout, angulate, densely griseous or rufescent-puber- ulous with sordid incurved hairs, at length glabrate; leaves alternate, rather crowded toward the ends of the branches, the blades 13 to 20 cm. long, 7.5 to 10 cm. wide, oval, abruptly short-pointed (acumen about I cm. long, obtuse), rounded to cuneate at base, chartaceous, pinnate-veined with 10 to 14 pairs of lateral veins diverging at an angle of about 70°, above green, sordid-puberulous along costa and lateral veins, essentially glabrous on the slightly prominulous-reticu- late surface, beneath glaucous, rather sparsely puberulous on the sur- face with whitish hairs, more densely so on veins with sordid loose hairs, with rather prominent secondary veins and obscure tertiaries; petioles stout, sulcate, sordid-puberulous especially above, 2.5 to 3.5 cm. long; panicles axillary, sordid-puberulous, sparsely branched (at least in fruit) and rather slender, 9 to 15 cm. long (including the 4 to 7 cm. long peduncle) ; pedicels in young fruit somewhat clavate, about 3 mm. long; perianth sordid-pilosulous on both sides, 2.5 mm. long, the segments subequal, oval, rounded at apex, 1.5 mm. wide; perianth tube extremely short; stamens of series I oblong-elliptic, 1.9 ^ The system of diacritical marks here used is that of Webster's Dictionary. 460 BLAKB: TUB ANAY Fig. I . — Hufelandia anay. Leaf, fruit, and longitudinal section through fruit and seed, showing plumule at base of seed, all nearly natural size; a, flower; b, stamen of series I; c, stamen of series II; d, stamen of series III, seen from dorsal side; e, staminode; /, ovary. Details about scale 10. BLAKE: THE ANAY 46 1 mm. long, sordid-pilose on back and ciliate to upper level of anther sacs, papillose above, the filaments about 0.4 mm. long, pilose down middle inside, gradually widened into the 2 -celled anther, this narrowed into an obtuse appendage about as long as the filament; those of series II similar, 1.5 mm. long, the filaments 0.35 mm. long, pilose on both sides, the 2-celled anther 0.65 mm. long, the triangular obtuse papil- lose tip 0.5 mm. long; those of series III 2 mm. long, the filaments com- paratively slender, i mm. long, pilose outside and down midline within, bearing at base two globose sessile basally pilose glands slightly more than half as long as the filament, the oval extrorsely 2-celled anther i mm. long (including the 0.3 mm. long obtuse papillose appendage), papil- lose-pilosulous on back; staminodes triangular, acuminate, 0.9 mm. long, very shortly stipitate, pilose dorsally, glabrous inside; ovary sub- globose, narrowed into and about equaling the stout style and obliquely conical stigma; fruit ellipsoid-pyriform, glossy black, thin-skinned, 10 to 15 cm. long; seed very large, obovoid, with thick outer coat; embryo at extreme base of cotyledons. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1011734, collected in loamy soil of tropical forest at Finca Compromiso, Mazatenango, Guatemala, at an altitude of about 365 meters, January 17, 191 7, by Wilson Popenoe (no. 754). Hufelandia anay is easily distinguished from the two species of the genus previously described from Mexico and Central America, H. mexicana Mez and H. costaricensis Mez Pittier, by the fact that its leaves are glaucous beneath. From H. pendula (Swartz) Nees, of the West Indies, which agrees in the glaucescence of its leaves, H. anay differs in .its larger oval leaves persistently pubescent beneath, its larger sordid-pilosulous flowers, and its much larger fruit. A related species, collected on the Volcan de Poas in Costa Rica by Mr. Henri Pittier some years ago, may also be described in this con- nection. The native name of this tree is not known, nor is the nature of its fruit. Hufelandia ovalis Blake, sp.^nov. Medium-sized tree; branchlets stoutish, subangulate, olive-brown, cinereous-puberulous with appressed hairs, glabrate; leaves alternate, the blades 5.5 to 8 cm. long, 3 to 4.7 cm. wide, oval, acutish or obtuse, at base cuneate to rounded-cuneate, pinnate-veined with 6 to 7 pairs of prominulous lateral veins, thick-pergamentaceous, above dull green or slightly lucid, prominulous-reticulate, rather sparsely pilosulous with loose whitish hairs, glabrescent at maturity, beneath glaucous, finely prominulous-reticulate, pilosulous with loose, curved, whitish hairs, along the veins more densely sordid-pilosulous; petioles stout, flattish, sordid-pilosulous, 7 to 11 mm. long; peduncles axillary, loosely sordid-pilosulous, 2.5 to 3.5 cm. long; panicles ovoid, dense, shorter 462 COBB AND BARTlvETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA than the leaves, sordidly tomentose-pilosulous, 1.8 to 2.5 cm. long, 1.5 to 3 cm. wide; pedicels i to 1.5 mm. long; perianth 2.5 m.m. long, soon deciduous, sordidly pilosulous-tomentulose both sides, the tube obscure, the segments subequal, oval, rounded at tip; stamens of series I 2.2 mm. long, the stout filaments 0.8 mm. long, pilose on back and down midline within, the 2 -celled ovate eciliate sparsely papillose anthers i mm. long, the quadrate obtuse appendage 0.3 mm. long; those of series II similar, 2.4 mm. long (filament i mm., anther i.i mm., appendage 0.3 mm.); those of series III 2.2 mm. long, the filaments slender, pilose, i mm. long, bearing at base 2 cordate- globose short- stipitate glands essentially as long, the extrorsely 2 -celled anther 0.8 mm. long, the thick truncate appendage 0.4 mm. long; staminodes i.i mm. long, deltoid, acute, pilose on back and on the short, broad stipe; ovary glabrous, globose-ovoid, 1.5 mm. long, nar- rowed into the 0.5 mm. long style and oblique stigma. Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 578438, collected on the Volcan de Poas, Costa Rica, altitude 2300 meters, March 31, 1907, by H. Pittier (no. 2040). Hufelandia ovalis is related to H. anay and H. pendula. From the former it may be easily distinguished by its much smaller, finely prom- inulous-reticulate leaves, its longer filaments, and its larger floral glands. From the latter it differs in its thicker more finely reticulate leaves, its dense ovoid panicle, and its longer filaments. GENETICS. — On Mendelian inheritance in crosses between mass-mutating and non-mass -mutating strains of Oenothera pratincola.^ Frieda Cobb and H. H. BartIvETT. A former paper^ has dealt with the striking difference in muta- bility between certain strains of Oenothera pratincola that are morphologically identical. The strains in question were de- rived from seeds of wild plants collected in 191 2 at Lexington, Kentucky. Several of them, typified by the strain designated as Lexington C, show only a moderate degree of mutability. 1 Papers from the Department of Botany of the University of Michigan, No. 160. This paper is pubHshed as presented at the Pittsburgh (19 17) meeting of the Botan- ical Society of America. It has been lying in manuscript since the fall of 191 7. The data upon which it is based have since been greatly amplified. The new re- sults are based upon much larger cultures and verify those here presented, but are not yet ready for pubhcation. A preliminary abstract has appeared elsewhere. (Proc. Mich. Acad. Sci. 1918: 151. 1919-) - Bartlett, H. H. Mass mutation in Oenothera pratincola. Bot. Gaz. 60: 425-456. 1 915. COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 463 They have given rise to a number of interesting mutations, one of which, mut. nummularia, is especially conspicuous in the young seedling stage because of its orbicular leaves, and was on that account the first to receive intensive study. ^ In general, the mutations of the relatively stable strains belong to two types, (a) those that come true when self -pollinated and show matro- cHnic inheritance in crosses with the specific type (e. g., mut. nummularia) and, (b) those that split in every generation into the mutational type and the specific type, regardless of whether they are self -pollinated or polHnated by the specific type. The latter are similar to Oenothera stenomeres mut. lasiopetala^ and to certain mutations from Oenothera Lamarckiana described by de Vries.^ A strain of Oenothera pratincola differing from all the rest has been designated as Lexington B. It has given rise to some, but not all, of the mutations thrown by the other strains, and in addition it has produced in large numbers a series of character- istic mutations having certain characters in common that are not met with among the mutations of the other strains. These characters are revoluteness of the leaves and the possession of a peculiar subterminal filiform appendage on the lower surface of the leaf, into which the midvein is diverted. All of the charac- teristic mutations of the mass-mutant strain, Lexington E, come true, whether self-polHnated or pollinated by the f. typica of strain K. To be more precise, they come true in the sense that they do not revert, in part of each generation, to f. typica, al- though they may be very highly mutable, and give rise to other members of the revolute-leaved series of mutations. In brief, there are relatively stable strains of Oenothera pratin- cola, such as Lexington C, which throw small numbers of flat- leaved mutations belonging to several kinds, one of the most ' Bartlett, H. H. Additional evidence of mutation in Oenothera. Bot. Gaz. 59: 81-123. 1915. * Bartlett, H. H. The mutations of Oenothera stenomeres. Amer. Journ. Bot. 2: 100-109. 1915. ^ DE VriES, Hugo. New dimorphic mutants of the Oenotheras. Bot. Gaz. 62 : 249-280. 1916. 464 COBB AND BARTLBTT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA a characteristic being mut. nummularia. There is also one highly mutable (mass-mutant) strain, Lexington B, which gives rise in large numbers to several kinds of revolute-leaved mutations, produced by no other strain. The most notable of them is mut. formosa. Lexington E also throws some of the flat-leaved muta- tions which are more commonly met with in the other strains, but mut. nummularia has never appeared among them. All experiments thus far made with the revolute-leaved muta- tions indicate that in crosses with f. typica of the same strain in- heritance is matroclinic. Their behavior affords a parallel to that of Oenothera Reynoldsii and its mutations.^ Because of their markedly dissimilar mutation phenomena, it was suspected that the rule of matroclinic inheritance might not hold in crosses between strains C and E. In order to test this point, and also to determine the effect of crossing on the mutability of the strains, the following pollinations were made in 1915: f. typica C X f. typica E (unsuccessful). f. typical E X f. typica C (unsuccessful). f. typica C X mut. formosa E (successful). mut. formosa E X f. typica C (unsuccessful). mut. latifolia C X nmt. foj-mosa E (unsuccessful). mut. formosa E X mut. latifolia C (successful). mut. gynocrates C X rrmt. formosa E (successful). mut. formosa E X mut. gynocrates C (successful). Unfortunately, as indicated above, several of the more im- portant crosses were unsuccessfully attempted. An effort to repeat them in 1916 failed because of unfavorable weather con- ditions. No significance is attached to* the failures, since it is believed that all of the forms are fertile inter se. Probably the next repetition of the crosses, under favorable conditions, will re- sult in a complete series. In any event the delay in rounding out the experiment must be considerable, and since important re- sults have aheady been obtained we have determined to present the data at hand. ^ La Rue, Cari, D., and BartlETT, H. H. Matroclinic inheritance in mutation crosses of Oenothera Reynoldsii. Amer. Joum. Bot. 4: 119-144. 1917. COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 465 A NEW CASE OF MENDEUAN INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA. Perhaps the most authentic case of MendeHan inheritance in the group of the evening-primroses is that afforded by Oenothera hrevistylis, which acts as a recessive in crosses with its parent species, Oe. Lamarckiana, with other mutations from Oe. Lamar ckiana, and even with unrelated species."** Another in- stance is that of the dwarf mutation from Oe. gigas.'^ Both of these cases have been discovered by de Vries. Heribert-Nilsson^° has presented an elaborate MendeHan explanation of Oenothera genetics which is chiefly remarkable for its failure to square with the facts. It is based upon a supposed monohybrid segregation in crosses between red- and white-nerved races of Oe. Lamarcki- ana. He failed to find dominant homozygotes, and the evidence of MendeHan behavior is anything but clear. Gates ^^ has argued that Oenothera ruhricalyx acts as a MendeHan dominant in crosses with Oe. ruhrinervis, but the question is in controversy between Gates and ShulP- and cannot for the present be re- garded as settled. It is obvious that the whole subject of Men- deHan inheritance in Oenothera needs further investigation. Our data deal with the crosses of mnt. formosa E, pollinated by two of the flat-leaved mutations of the C strain. The former is the most fertile and vigorous of the re volute-leaved mutations. " DE Vries, Hugo. Die Mutations-Theorie. i: 223; 2: 151-179, 429. * Davis, B. M. The segregation of Oenothera brevistylis from crosses with Oe. Lamarckiana. Genetics 3: 501-533. 1918. '■' DE Vries, Hugo. Oenothera gigas nanella, a MendeHan mutant. Bot. Gaz. 60: 337-345- 1915- '" Heribert-Nilsson, N. Die Variabilitdt der Oenothera Lamarckiana und das Problem der Mutation. Zeitschr. fiir ind. Abst. Vererb. 8: 89-231. 1912. Heribert-Nilsson, N. Die Spaltungsercheinungen der Oenothera Lamarckiana. Lunds Universitets Arsskrift. N. F., Avd. 2, 12: no. i. pp. 132. 1915. '1 Gates, R. R. The mutation factor in evolution. London, 1915. (Gives full references to the original papers dealing with Oenothera ruhricalyx.) ^^ Shull, G. H. a peculiar negative correlation in Oenothera hybrids. Journ. Genet. 4: 83-102. 1914. Gates, R. R. On the origin and behavior of Oenothera rubricalyx. Journ. Genet. 4: 353-360. 1915. Gates, R.R. On successive duplicate mutations. Biol. Bull. 29: 204-220. 1915. 466 COBB AND BARTlvETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA It has been described and figured elsewhere (see footnote 2). The flat-leaved mutations of strain C were mut. latifolia and mut. gynocrates. The former, not infrequently produced by both strains C and E, gives dimorphic progenies containing mut. latifolia and f. typica. It, also, has already been described and figured. ^^ Mut. gynocrates comes true from seed. It is not one of the better known mutations, but was used in the experiments because it happened to be in flower when the crosses were made, and seemed, in spite of its dwarf habit, to be a form of considerable vigor. Both mut. latifolia and mut. gynocrates have pollen that is equivalent to that of the particular f . typica from which they are derived. In view of the failure of the crosses in which the pollen of f . typica C was used, it is especially important for the reader to understand the basis for this conclusion, which is true not only for these particular mutations, but for all others except those that appear to be tetraploid or triploid. All the progenies thus far grown from self-pollinated mut. latifolia have been di- morphic, consisting of f. typica and mut. latifolia. The f. typica from the dimorphic progenies breeds true, whereas the mutation continues to split, in every generation. When mut. latifolia is crossed with pollen of f . typica, the Fi generation is quite like that resulting from self-pollination. Moreover, when pollen of the mutation is used in crosses with f. typica or its other mutations, nothing is obtained in the Fi or subsequent generations which would not have resulted from self-pollination. Double reciprocal crosses still further substantiate the identity of the pollen of mut. latifolia with that of f. typica. The same facts apply to mut. formosa, except that its progenies do not contain f. typica. It shows the same matroclinic inheri- tance in crosses with other forms belonging to the E strain. Cul- ture records bearing out the conclusions that have been made with regard to the equivalence of its pollen with that of f. typica E and mut. latifolia E are given in table i. The records are in 1^ TuppER, W. W., and Bartlett, H. H. The relation of mutational characters to cell size. Genetics 3: 93-106. 1918. COBB AND BARTLETT: INHKRITANCS IN OENOTHERA 467 part new, in part assembled from a former publication (see foot- note 2). The points brought out are: (a) The essential similarity of the progenies of mut. formosa, when used as a seed parent, regardless of whether the pollen is derived from f. typica, mut. latifolia, or mut. formosa. (b) The failure of pollen from different sources to influence the composition of progenies from the same f. typica seed-parent. (c) The stability in the F2 generation of f . typica derived from the cross f. typica X mut. formosa. It will indeed be observed that mut. formosa occurs in the progeny, but in no greater num- bers than one might expect as a result of mutation. TABLE I CuiyTURE Records Illustrating the Equivalence of the Pollen in f. typica, MUT. latifolia, and mut. formosa, when these are All Derived from the Strain of Oenothera pratincola Designated as Lexington E Parent Seeds Total plants Class- ified f. typ- ica mut. formosa mut. albi- cans 57 I 2 I 0 0 0 0 0 5 mut. revol- uta 54 0 0 mut. seiacea Other muts. typica^ 1477 246 177 1036 133 146 1082 120 195 100 309 177 262 36 All All All All All 96 266 7 0 10 0 644 121 5 typica^ X formosa*^ 4 formosa'^ 130 883 14 194 26 40 0 0 formosa'^ I37I 0 4 I 0 0 formosa^ (1916) 334 236 518 365 333 446 46 0 93 46 0 0 formosa^ (1917) 0 0 formosa^ 49 All 0 0 0 0 formosa'^ X typica^ 218 0 3 2 I 91 0 formosa'^ X typica^ All All All 0 151 23 149 I 0 typica^ from (typica^ X formosa^) 103 0 3 34 0 formosa^ X latifolia^ 0 0 ^ Lex. E-5 -217 /v^zca. ^ hex. ^-5-229 typica. ^ Lex. 'E-5-206 formosa. '^ Lex. E-5-199 formosa. ^ Lex. E-5-199-28 formosa. ^ Lex. E-5-199-58 formosa. ^ Lex. E-5-(229 typica X 206 formosa)--] typica. ^ Lex. E-36-41 latifolia. For the pedigrees of all of these plants, consult Bot. Gaz. 60: 425-456. 1915- In table 2 are presented the data in regard to the Fi genera- tion of the crosses between strains K and C, with mut. formosa as the pistillate parent. Further crosses are being made, but 468 COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA TABLE 2 Fi Progenie of Crosses between Strains E and C, of which mut. formosa was THE Pistillate Parent Parentage Seeds Plants f. iypica f. grisea f. dimorpha Other muts. Died normal defective formosa E X latifolia C 358 190 209 90 41 30 II 72 I 5 formosa E X gynocrates C 97 26 I 10 2 17 ^ Culture number of the individual of mut. formosa used in both crosses, Lexington E-5-199-28. Culture number of mut. latifolia, Lexington C-22-13-87; of mut. gynocrates. Lex. C-52-2-13. there is no doubt, from the evidence at hand, that the flatness of the leaves in the C strain, but not in the E strain, acts as a dominant in crosses with the revolute mutations, when the lat- ter enter into the cross as the female parent. When mut. formosa is pollinated by any form belonging to strain C, a diversified progeny is obtained, but all of the individuals have flat leaves. It will be seen by reference to table i that self -pollinated mut. formosa itself gives a highly diversified progeny, consisting of mut. formosa, mut. albicans, mut. revoluta, and mut. setacea. The three latter are interpreted as secondary mutations from the former. If one were to picture a progeny containing all of these revolute-leaved mutations, with their leaves flattened out, but with their other characters unaffected, the progeny of the cross in question (mut. formosa E X any form of strain C) would be partially depicted. Since f. typica is represented in such a progeny, it is considered to be the equivalent of mut. formosa. The other equivalents, or analogues, are not well known as yet, since it has been impossible thus far to obtain seeds from them. One of them, however, f. grisea, is assumed to be the equivalent of mut. albicans or mut. revoluta, and another, f. dimorpha, the most abundant of all, the equivalent of mut. setacea, Mut. setacea is not only the most abundant of the revolute forms, as they occur as secondary mutations in the progeny of mut. formosa, but it COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 469 also has a very distinctive habit that would enable it to be equated with the corresponding flat-leaved form. Its lower stem leaves, and the leaves of branches that do not bear inflorescences, are very narrowly linear, and exceedingly small. The leaves and leaf-like bracts of the upper portion of the stem, and of the in- florescence-bearing branches, are two or three times as broad, and much longer, giving an effect to the plants as though the flowering branches were all bud-sports on a plant of an entirely different sort. The dimorphic foliage of mut. setacea is well represented in a former paper (see footnote 2). F. dimorpha has exactly the same characteristic, the leaves being flat instead of revolute, but showing the same well-marked dimorphism. Never- theless, after having equated mut. formosa with f. typica, mut. alhicans{}) with f. grisea, and mut. setacea with f. dimorpha, there are still difficulties in the way of classifying the flat-leaved hybrid progeny. Each form shows far more variation than is customarily encountered in an Oenothera progeny. In mut. formosa there is considerable variation in the develop- ment of the leaf blade, in addition to the revoluteness. If a leaf were flattened out, if would not be as broad as a correspond- ing leaf of f. typica. Moreover it would show a markedly ir- regular development of tissue. The flattening that takes place as a result of hybridization with strain C leaves the weaker plants with irregularly developed blades, although the stronger plants are in every respect fine f. typica. The variation with re- gard to blade development within each distinguishable form renders the cultures difficult to classify. Some of the plants that must be referred to f. typica, and that prove to act like f. typica in heredity, are much smaller and weaker than is commonly the case. It is generally when the plants are young that the imper- fect development of leaf blades is obvious. As a plant becomes older, the leaves of the new growth are successively more and more normal, until at length it will pass a cursory examination as typical in every way. The smaller and weaker plants often bear branches as strong and robust as those of the best-developed typica. In a number of cases these branches have been so strik- 470 COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA ingly different from the rest of the plant as to look exactly like bud sports. On the whole, it is impossible to draw any sharp line between the various phases of f. typica, although in table 2 a wholly arbitrary division into "normal f. typica" and "defec- tive f. typica" has been made. The variations appear to be somatic, and highly subject to environmental conditions. Our hypothesis is that the freely segregating factor for flatness, in- troduced by the /S gamete of strain C, only suffices to insure normal blade development under the most favorable environ- mental conditions. TABLE 3 Analysis of F2 Seedling Cultures Grown from Normal typica Parents Be- longing TO THE Fi Progeny of the Cross mut. formosa E X mut. latifolia C, (Lexington E-5-199-28 X C-22-13-87). As Shown in Table 4, all but AN Insignificant Number of the Flat-Leaved Plants were t. typica, and the Re volute- Leaved Ones were mut. formosa Parent Seeds planted Total plants Flat- leaved Revolute- leaved Ratio Fi No. 4 932 336 1353 1050 315 203 620 57 238 154 460 46 77 49 160 II 756 : 244 759 : 241 742 : 258 807 : 193 3671 1 195 898 297 752 : 248 Fi No. 162 940 291 6279 600 217 246 4392 48 155 187 3258* 33 62 59 1 134 15 714 : 286 760 : 240 742 : 258 688; 312 8110 4903 3633 1270 741 : 259 Fi No. 190 640 954 60 85 50 64. 10 21 833 : 167 753 : 247 1594 145 114 31 786 : 214 Fi No. 204 807 1400 92 57 69 45 23 12 750 : 250 789 : 211 2207 149 114 35 765 : 235 Grand total 15582 6392 4759 1633 744 : 256 Four plants of this culture were mut. nummular ia. COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 471 TABLE 4 Analysis of F2 Cultures Grown to Maturity from the Same Parent Plants AS THE Seedling Cltltures of Table 3 Parent Seeds planted Total plants Grown to maturity f. typica tnut. num- mularia Other flat- leaved types mut. formosa Ratio Fi No. 4 932 336 315 203 518 315 200 515 238 154 392 143 178 321 64 62 0 0 0 0 0 0 77 46 123 756 : 244 770 : 230 1268 940 291 761 : 239 Fi No. 162 217 246 463 .^5 92 207 239 446 2 I 3 I 5 6 61 55 116 21 705 : 295 770 : 230 I231 740 : 260 Fi No. 190 954 807 4260 85 0 0 753 : 247 Fi No. 204 90 I I 23 745 : 255 Grand total 1158 II36 839 4 ID 283 751 : 249 TABLE 5 Analysis of F2 Cultures Grown from Defective typica Parents Belonging TO the Fi Progeny of the Cross mut. formosa E X mut. latifoUa C (Lex- ington E-5-1 99-28 X C-22-13-87). In Sharp Contrast WITH the Normal Progenies from Normal Parents (Recorded in Tables 3 and 4) the Pro- geniesfrom Defective typica Plants Consist Largely of Defective Plants. Normal Bud Sports on Defective Plants, However, Give Rise to Normal Offspring Only Parent Seeds planted Total plants Retained and classified f. typica mut. formosa Other (normal) (defective) (normal) (defec- tive) types Fi, No. 30 defective 648 741 56 51 8 34 6 3 0 Fi, No. 31a defective 175 167 40 96 27 39 3 0 2 Fi No. 31b normal bud sport 617 648^ 446 1008 40 29 0 II 0 Fi, No. 39a defective 126 165 100 126 129 96 17 4 96 88 13" I 0 36 0 0 0 Fi, No. 39b, nor- mal bud sport 67 0 29 0 ^ This one cidture was classified in the seedling stage, which fact probably accounts for the failiure to distinguish the class designated as "defective mut. formosa." The other cultures were all analyzed at maturity. 472 COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA Tables 3 and 4 present the data showing segregation into f. typica and mut. formosa in the F2 generation grown from four self-polHnated /j'^'ca individuals of the cross mut. formosa ^X mut. latijolia C. In table 3, which is based upon the classifica- tion of seedlings, the only distinction is between flat-leaved indivi- duals (mostly f. typica) and revolute-leaved {mostly rmxt. jormosa) . The difference between the two types of leaves is perfectly clear in very young seedlings, though the different revolute-leaved muta- tions are not easily distinguished from one another, nor some of the flat-leaved mutations from f. typica, when very young. The cultures were too large to be carried to maturity as a whole, but the seedling classification was verified by growing to maturity a sufficiently large number of the plants. Table 4, based upon the plants which were under observation throughout the entire life cycle, shows that there was no signi- ficant error in the classification of table 3. The revolute-leaved plants were all correctly identified as mut. formosa, and among the flat-leaved plants there was only a negligible proportion of muta- tions. The ratio of flat to revolute conforms to the simple 3 : i Mendelian ratio. The deviations from expectation are very slight, and fall on both sides of the theoretical ratio. The total progeny of each one of the four parents is in quite or almost as good agreement with expectation as is the sum of all four pro- genies. The total of 6,392 plants, from four parents, gives the ratio 744 : 256, in unusually good accord with the expected ratio 750 : 250. The reader will notice that the mean germination is only 41 per cent, and that although the germination of the several cul- tures varies from 4 per cent to 84 per cent, the ratio is neverthe- less not seriously disturbed. The probability is therefore great that we are dealing with a case of simple Mendelian inheritance, uncomplicated by selective elimination of zygotes. Incidentally, the results should tend to reassure anyone who may have feared that the work with Oenothera is in general unreliable, on account of the low germinations frequently recorded. COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 473 It has already been noted that some of the plants resulting from the cross between strains E and C were characterized by- defective leaf development, and that some defective typica indi- viduals bore normal branches, which had every appearance of being bud sports. In two such cases separate progenies were grown from seeds of the normal and defective portions of the same plant, with the very striking results summarized in table 5. The progenies contain only normal plants if derived from seeds borne on the normal bud sport, but if derived from seeds of the defective part of the plant, they contain a considerable propor- tion of plants classified as defective f. typica. The cultures are large enough to afford conclusive evidence that whatever the change may be that results in the production of normal from defective f. typica, the change is one that may come about in the somatic cells, and, once having come about, is permanent. As a final proof of the Mendelian nature of the segregation in- dicated by the 3 : i ratio in the F2 generation, F3 progenies have been grown from a large number of self -pollinated normal typica individuals, in order to demonstrate the existence of homozygous and heterozygous dominants in the ratio i : 2 in the F2 generation. The results are not included in this paper for the reason that they are still being added to and it does not seem desirable to publish only a portion of the data. However, it may be stated that not only do the expected classes occur in • the correct ratio in the F2 generation, but also that the heterozy- gotes continue to split in the 3 : i ratio. The homozygotes of both classes breed true. Having established the non-Mendelian behavior of the charac- ter-pair flatness vs. revoluteness within strain K, and having shown that flatness when introduced into strain E by crossing a revolute-leaved type of the latter with strain C, does act in a Mendelian manner, it remains to indicate a possible explanation of the phenomena, THE HYPOTHESIS OF HETEROGAMETISM. In accordance with the hypothesis of nonequivalent gametes, which has been decidedly helpful in the interpretation of some 474 COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA of the genetical peculiarities of Oenothera^^ (see also footnote 6), the male gametes of all of the mutations concerned are thought of as (3 gametes, and as exactly like the (3 gametes of the particular f. typica from which each mutation was derived. It has been assumed that the appearance of mutations showing matroclinic inheritance in crosses with the parent form is due to changes involving the a gametes, which bear various factors not represented in the 0 gametes. Such mutations constitute the greater number of those derived from Oenothera pratincola. They appear as the result of some modification of the uncom- pensated factors of the generally female a gametes, and therefore breed true from the first. The generally male /S gametes of Oe. pratincola have as yet given rise to no mutations that have been detected, but de Vries^'' has found that one of the mutations of Oenothera biennis (var. suljured) shows patroclinic inheritance in crosses with its parent, and is therefore presumably such a mutation. In the heterogametic species of Oenothera, muta- tions involving the uncompensated factors of the a gametes obviously cannot show Mendelian inheritance. If the a gametes are female, inheritance must be matroclinic. Since such a conception as that of a series of different muta- tions, or even of different species, in which the differentiation is brought about wholly by the female gamete, is justifiably foreign to current thought, it may be well to restate some of the grounds for its adoption. It is a fundamental tenet of Mendelism that in homozygous material the two homologues chromosomes of each pair are equiva- lent and interchangeable. In heterozygous material one or more chromosomes are modified, but still remain interchangeable with their mates. If the uncompensated characters of the a gamete were borne in one chromosome, the only essential difference that would obtain between the conceptions of heterozygosis and of heterogametism would concern the unequal distribution of a. 1^ Bartlett, H. H. The status of the Mutation Theory, with especial reference to Oenothera. Amer. Nat. 50: 513—529. 1916. 1^ DE Vries, H. Gruppenweise Artbildung, p. 298. COBB AND BARTI^ETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 475 and /3 gametes between the two sexes. In view of the very large number of modifications occurring in the a gamete, how- ever, it seems a more probable hypothesis that the uncom- pensated characters are borne by a group of chromosomes, which do not segregate freely, but pass together to one daughter cell or the other at the reduction division. Certainly such a hypothe- sis is useful in the interpretation of Oenothera genetics. The phenomena of matroclinic inheritance are clearly orderly enough in their own way, but are just as clearly non-Mendelian. As Shull (see footnote ii) has said: "Fundamental difficulties are encountered whenever attempts are made to apply to the Oenotheras rules of genetic behavior which are readily demon- strated in other groups of organisms. Equal confusion has arisen by the application of genetic experiences with the Oeno- theras to species in which typical Mendelian phenomena appear. A hereditary mechanism must exist in Oenothera fundamentally different from that which distributes the Mendelian unit-charac- ters." According to the hypothesis of nonequivalent gametes, the Oenotheras should show Mendelian inheritance in cases where the factors concerned are carried by both a and /3 gametes. In case the factors are carried by only one kind of gamete, non- Mendelian inheritance must be the rule. The a and (3 gametes may be conceived of as due to the distribution to the daughter cells at meiosis of a distinctly maternal or distinctly paternal set of chromosomes. In other words, instead of a free segre- gation of chromosomes taking place, one must assume that the haploid set of chromosom^es is reconstituted, as far as the fac- tors peculiar to a and (3 gametes are concerned, just as it entered into the zygote at fertilization. As for the Mendelian charac- ters, we assume that they are represented by factors carried in a residue of freely segregating chromosomes. The conception of heterogametism may be reduced to the following series of propositions: (i) In heterogametic species the zygote normally results from the conjugation of unlike gametes (a and /S). 476 COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA (2) The characteristic portion of each kind of gamete consists of a group of chromosomes that remain in association at meiosis. It is possible that the characteristic portion may consist of one chromosome only. (3) The a gametes, and probably the ^ gametes also, carry factors in the characteristic portion that are not duplicated in the homologous portion of the complimentary gamete. (4) Aside from the chromosomes that determine a and & gametes, the chromosomes of Oenothera are freely segregating, and carry factors for Mendelian characters. (5) The a gametes are usually female, but may be male; the & gametes, on the contrary, are usually male, but sometimes female. (6) Mutations occurring in the characteristic portion of either a or /3 gametes do not make their appearance by Mendelian segregation, and do not subsequently show Mendelian inheritance. Our studies have led us to conclude that the difference be- tween the mass-mutating and nonmass-mutating strains of Oenothera pratincola lies in the freely segregating chromosomes. In Lexington E the factor which determines leaf flatness is associated with the characteristic portion of the a gamete. It is not paired with a similar factor in the /3 gamete. In Lexington C, on the contrary, there is a paired factor for flatness, associated with one of the freely segregating pairs of chromosomes, and therefore carried by both a and /S gametes. In Lexington B, the mutative modification of the unpaired factor for flatness results in the appearance of revolute-leaved mutations, which do not come about as a result of Mendelian segregation. The latter fact is proved by their enormous abundance in certain mass- mutating lines, an abundance far in excess of any Mendelian expectation, and by their matroclinic inheritance in crosses with the parent form. The several revolute-leaved mutations differ from f. typica not only in the leaves, but in characters involving other organs also, the degree of the difference depending upon the extent of the mutative modification undergone by the a gamete. Whereas the production of all of the revolute-leaved mutations involves COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 477 one modification in common, there are additional modifications in the cases of all except mut. formosa which are peculiar to each mutation. If the a. gamete of Lexington C were to undergo exactly the same modification that in Lexington E brings about the pro- duction of a particular revolute-leaved mutation, the effect, as far as revoluteness is concerned, would be nullified by the factor pair for flatness in one of the pairs of freely segregating chromo- somes. This factor pair has not yet become spontaneously heterozygous, and consequently no other strain except Lexington K has thrown revolute-leaved mutations. Let a represent the nondissociating, characteristic portion of the a gamete, bearing a factor for flatness, and susceptible of mutative modification to a', in which the factor for flatness is in- operative. Then using the usual Mendelian notation for the freely segregating factor pair for flatness (FF = homozygous flat ; ff = homozygous revolute) the constitution, phaenotype, and be- havior of the various forms and hybrids involved in our ex- periments would be as follows: f. typica C, \ mut. latifolia C, \ a mut. gynocrates C, f. typica E, mut. formosa E, typica E X formosa E, formosa E X typica E, flat, and, with respect to this jSFF, character, immutable. typica C X formosa E, Fi, a/SFf, typica C X formosa E, F2, formosa E X latifolia C, Fi formosa E X latifolia C, F2 a!|Sff, flat, mutable. a'^E, revolute. ajSff, flat, mutable. a'jSff, revolute, breeding true with re- spect to this character, flat, segregating with respect to mutability. 1 ajSFF, flat, immutable, breeding true. 2 a/SFf, flat, continuing the segregation I of the Fi. I a/Sff, flat, mutable, otherwise breeding true. a'/3Ff, flat, segregating with respect to revoluteness. [ la'jSFF, flat, non-segregating. I 2a' ^Vi flat, continuing the segregation oftheFi. [ la'/Sff revolute, breeding true. 478 COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA The actual behavior of the various cultures is very satisfac- torily accounted for by means of this formulation. That the revolute-leaved mutations breed true for revoluteness is shown in table I. In the same table will be found the evidence that the revolute-leaved mutations give matroclinic progenies when crossed with the f. typica of the corresponding strain. It is the prevalence of matroclinic inheritance in these mutation crosses that makes a purely Mendelian explanation of their behavior impossible, and that requires the conception of a and jS gametes. The data in regard to matroclinic inheritance are in some respects inadequate, and will be amplified as rapidly as possible. The failure of Lexington C, and the other strains that resemble it, to throw revolute-leaved mutations is attested by the accumu- lated data for hundreds of cultures, aggregating many thousands of plants. Since the evidence is negative, it would be idle to assemble here the data supporting the conclusion that Lexing- ton B is the only strain in which such mutations occur. The data regarding the mutability of Lexington E are in part pub- lished (see footnote 2). According to the scheme above, one would expect the cross typica C X mut. formosa to act in a manner quite differ- ent from its reciprocal, which we have been considering. In- stead of a Mendelian segregation of flat-leaved and revolute- leaved plants in the F2 generation, one would expect only segre- gation with regard to the capability of occasionally undergoing the mutative change from flat to revolute. Segregation of this ability would mean that revolute-leaved plants might appear in the the F2 generation, but, if present, each one would be the result of a separate, individual change ; they would not be due to the in- heritance of a changed condition, as was the case in the revolute- leaved recessives in the 3 : i segregation described. Such a character, the capability of mutation, is not easy to deal with, since it is impossible to be sure that a particular parent might not show mutabiUty if more of its seeds were germinated. The degree of mutability does not appear to show great uni- formity from generation to generation, as may be seen by refer- COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 479 a o a to X s to {typica X formosa)- 54 /j/Ji'co {typica X formosa)- 51 typica {typica X formosa)- 6 typica 'sa- X 0 to •-t n a TO ft ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 0 a -1 0\ (O vO Ol 1-1 O VO O ■O so Oj so Oj On 00 C/i 4^ K) QO 00 to 0 ^ w 0 00 to 00 a 10 On M vO 4^ OS 4^ ^ 4^ OS 0 ^ OS 1-1 so 10 ON 11 On On 00 fD 0 a rt- M 00 4^ M OS fO 4- O 4^ O 4^ ON 4^ Cn C^i 4^ Ov 0 0 Cn Cn 0 00 00 p . ft w. 3 » ttiO-a' 2 ft 0. 0. o CO ON " O 00 4- so Oo to 0 0 Oi Cn 0 00 00 -*> I? 00 O 1 o o 2?^ vO ^ 1 Ol K) 4^ 1 4^ O K) 1 W O 0\ 1 0\ O O 1 o o OJ 1 Oj -< t/1 T'rt- " 1 " 0 Ov 1 OS O 0 ? 5- C^ 1 Oj O ON 1 Ol O 1 so 1-1 |3 (J 1 K> 0 OS 1 OS OS 1 OS O rev.- leaved muts. not identi- fied 0 \o 1 vO O 4^ 0 11 0 0 ft ^> U3 ' !^ O tn w o IS m o > o 2: a 2 « s « « > 1-i l-t o •z xn O o :2 w w H O ^ O > > r f/3 o > 0 1-1 0 ►Tl ■n l-t > K V, « 0 ►rl M M Q Q w m i=!; ■?; « w (0 W > r> 1-1 H r > ^ r- 1^ « > o o 1^ » > > ta o 1^ a rr 1^ O 0^ ■- S O w o X n o w w o {-I O ^ X ^^ 1^ O Q ^►< o '^ K^ O « X . - § ^ « ^ S > 2 O 5^ to a'^Vi, flat-leaved, and heterozygous with regard to the Mendelian factor for flatness, segregating in the F2 generation in the ratio i homozygous flat : 2 heterozygous flat : I homozygous revolute. a/SFF X a'/Sff — ^ o;/3Ff, flat-leaved, and heterozygous with regard to capability for giving rise to mutable stocks, segregating in the Fo generation in the ratio i homozygous dominant, flat, immutable : 2 heterozygous, flat, like the Fi generation : i homo- zygous recessive, flat only through the a determiner for flatness, and therefore mutable with regard to revoluteness. VI. The results not only afford one of the best examples of Mendelism in Oenothera hitherto adduced, but likewise give an MICHELSON: notes on the fox INDIANS 483 indication as to when Mendelian behavior, as opposed to matro- cHny or patrocliny, is to be expected. VII. The production of mut. nummularia, which is never thrown by the strain which gives rise to revolute-leaved muta- tions, is shown to be due to mutation in the a portion of the a gamete, but nevertheless dependent for its expression upon the presence of the Mendehan factor F for flatness. It may be re- called that mut. nummularia shows matroclinic inheritance in crosses with the parent form, the fact which proves the first part of this proposition. ANTHROPOLOGY. — Some general notes on the Fox Indians. Part I. Historical. Truman Michelson, Bureau of American Ethnology.^ 1 have assembled here a number of miscellaneous notes on the Fox Indians. The inclusion of bibliographies is justified on the score that recent writers seem to have been totally ignorant of published sources of information on these Indians. THE NATIVE NAME FOR "FOXES," AND SYNONYMY The native name for "Foxes" is Me'ckwA'ki' Ag*"'^ which means "Red- Earths." A good synonymy will be found at the end of the article Fox in the Handbook of American Indians.^ To this the following may be added: Meskwa'kihAgV Meckwa'kihAg'.^ Meckwa'kihAgV Meskwa"ki'AgV Meckwa'ki'Ag',^ Me'ckwA'ki- Ag''*'.^ Musquaquas, ^° Musquakas,^^ Mesquakie,^^ Meskwakis,^^ ' Printed with permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 2 MiCHELSON. Information, 1917. ' Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30. * WiLWAM Jones. Fox Texts, passim. ^ Jones. Ibidem, passim. / ^ Jones. Ibidem: 10.7; misprint? ^ Jones. Handbook of American Indian Languages, Pt. 1:741, * MiCHELSON. Current Anthropological Literature, 2: 22)^. |*"' ^ MiCHELSON. Information, 191 7. ^<' Annals of Iowa, 1870: 366. " Ibidem, 363. 1^ Mesquakie Booster. 13 Iowa Journal of History and Politics, 4: 191. i.« r 484 micheivSOn: notes on the fox Indians me sga Id a ki,^^ mahsquakehake,^^ Mus-quak-kie, ^^ Mus-quak- kie-uck,^'^ Mesh-kwa-ki-ha-gi,^^ Musquaukee," Muskwakiuk, ^^ Mskwakithak,2i Red Earth(s)," Red-Earths,-^ People of the Red Earth, -^ Red-earth family, ^^ de la Terre-Rouge,^^ Wa-go-sha- hugi,^' Fuchsindianer,^^ UtAgami'g,^^ Watagamie,^° Outhagamis,^^ Ottigaumis.^^ The Menominee synonym is the equivalent of the Ojibwa one (vide supra), but the exact phonetics are uncertain ; the Winnebago synonym means "foxes," but the exact phonetics are uncertain. ^^ In the vicinity of Tama, Iowa (their present location), they are not known as "Foxes," but as "Meskwakies," "Mesquakies," "Tama Indians."^^ ^* Native name spelt in the current syllabary. 1= A collection of Meskwaki Manuscripts, i. '® J. Morse's Report to the Secretary of War, 122. 1^ Ibidem. '* J. F. Steward. Lost Maramech and earliest Chicago, 1903. " Ibidem. 2" F. Karsch-Haak, Das gleichgeschlechtliche Lehen der Naturvolker, i: 328. 2' Shawnee synonym collected by GaTschet, of the Bureau of American Eth- nology, years ago. 22 Steward. Loc cit. passim; translation of la Potheril apud Blair, Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi and Great Lakes Region. Vol. i: passim. 2^ Jones. Fox Texts, passim. 2* Steward. Loc. cit. "^ Blair. Loc. cit. ^ La Potherie. Histoire de I'Amerique septentrionale. 1722. 2' Steward. Loc. cit. 28 F. Karsch-Haak. Loc. cit. 2' Jones. Handbook of American Indian Languages. Pt. i: 741. This is the Ojibway synonym, meaning "People of the Other Shore" (Jones, Loc. cit. and American Anthropologist, N. S. 6: 370), or "Those who live on the opposite side" (Warren, History of the Ojibways: 33). Parkman's statement {Half-Century of Conflict, i: Z33y footnote i) that "The name Outagamie is Algonkin for a fox. Hence the French called the tribe Renards, and the Americans, Foxes," is echoed by Kel- LOG, Wise. Hist. Soc. Proc. 1907: 142. This simply betrays ignorance of Algonkin languages. See also my discussion of the early history of the Foxes. The absurd blunder has been repeated by Steward, Op. cit. 79. ^^ Steward. Loc. cit. ^1 Beltrami. A Pilgrimage, 2: 169. 3" Map in J. Long's Voyages and Travels. 2' MiCHELSON. Information. ^* MiCHELSON. Information. MICHBLSON: notes on the fox INDIANS 485 THE EARLY HISTORY OF FOX INDIANS The general history of the Fox Indians is extremely well- known.^^ I shall accordingly only try to clear up the beginning of their history. First of all, the Outitchakouk are not the Foxes, as is stated in the index to the Jesuit Relations (ed. Thwaites).^^ Now we are told: "The Outagamis are of two lineages; those of one family call themselves Renards, and the others are of the Red-earth family."^' Evidently something of this sort is to be understood by the statement in the Jesuit Relations ,^^ "The mission of St. marc to the Outagami, where are the ouagoussak, Makoua, makoucoue, Mikissioua." For ouagoussousak simply meahs "foxes. "^^ Whether or not a misunderstanding arose by taking the name of a gens as the name of the tribe, ^° the fact remains that some Indian tribes did and do call the Meskwakis by the equivalents of "foxes." Now the Skenchiohronon of the Jesuit Relations are not the Neuters as is commonly assumed, ^^ ^^ A list of the more important papers dealing with this topic is as follows : Arti- cles Fox and Sauk in Handbook of American Indians (Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30), H. W. BeckwiTh, The Illinois and Indiana Indians, 146-162; Ward, Meskwakia, Iowa Journ. Hist. Polit. 4: 179-189; Ward, The Meskwaki people of to-day, ibidem., 190-219; Ferris, The Sauk and Foxes of Franklin and Osage Counties, Kans. State Hist. Coll. 11: 333-395; Parkman, A half century of conflict, chapters xii and xiv; J. F. Steward, Lost Maramech and earliest Chicago (1903); M. M. QuaifE, Chicago and the Old Northwest (1913); S. S. Hebberd, Wisconsin under the Dominion of France (1890); J. N. Davidson, Unnamed Wisconsin (1895); F. J. Turner, Indian Trade in Wisconsin (in Johns Hopkins University Studies in Hist. Pol. Sci. 1891); Kellog, The Fox Indians during the French Regime (Wise. State Hist. Soc. Proc. 1907: 142-188); Re(o)bok, The Last of the Mtis-qua-kies (reprinted in Iowa Hist. Record 17: 305-335). Quite a few facts can be gleaned from A collection of Mesk- waki Manuscripts, prepared by Cha ka ta ko si, published by the State Historical Society of Iowa, 1907, but as no English translation accompanies the text, use of it is confined to a few specialists or Meskwaki Indians. ^^ See the Handbook of American Indians under the article Atchakangouen. 3^ La PoTHERiE. Savage Allies of New France, apud Blair, Op. cit. i: 360. 38 Ed. Thwaites, 58: 41. '' On the note, ibidem, 293, see various articles in the Handbook of American Indians. *" Jones, Amer. Anthrop. n. ser. 6: 370; Handbook of American Indian Languages. Pt. i: 741 ; apud Steward, Loc. cit. 79. *i See the ed. of Thwaites, 8: 302. 486 michelson: notes on the fox Indians but the Huron designation of the Meskwakies, as stated by- Hewitt in the Handbook of American Indians. For Skenchioh- ronon means "the Fox people," and the identification by Hewitt rests also upon that made by Potier (circa 1750).^^ It should be expressly noted that the Wyandot designation for the Mesk- wakies, collected by Gatschet in 1881, namely, Skaxshurunu "fox people," derived from skdxshu "the red fox," is more than ample confirmatory evidence. Accordingly we know that Le Jeune mentions the Fox Indians in the Relation of 1640/^ Now since the Fox are cited in connection with the Sauk, Potawatomi, Kickapoo, Winnebago, and Crane Miami we have every reason to believe that their habitat at the time was in the vicinity of the Green Bay region. For the identification of the Huattoeh- ronon, Attistaehronon, Ontarahronon, Aoueatsiouaenhronon, and Attochingochronon see the Handbook of American Indians. [Hewitt's identifications are at least partially supported by Potier.] Le Jeune adds "I have taken their names from a Huron map that Father Paul Ragueneau sent me." It is not known from whom Ragueneau obtained the map, though it is natural to think of Nicolet in this connection, for Ragueneau had a conference with Nicolet in the spring of 1641 near Three Rivers. ^'^ As is known, Jean Nicolet was in the vicinity of Green Bay in 1634. Le Jeune (op. cit. 231) locates the Potawatomi and Na- tion of the Fork^° as being in the neighborhood of the Winne- bago, and adds (p. 233) "I will say, by the way, that sieur Nico- let, interpreter of the Algonquin and Huron languages for the Gentlemen of new France, has given me the names of these nations, which he himself has visited, for the most part in their own country." Now if the Potawatomi and the Nation of the Fork were in the neighborhood of the Winnebago in 1634, it is highly probable that Sauk and Fox also were at least in that general vicinity. There is no argumentum ex silentio, for Le *^ Pilling. Bibliography of Iroquoian languages. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 6: 135, 136. *^ ThwaiTEs' ed. of the Jesuit Relations, 18: 235. ^* Jesuit Relations, ed. Thwaites, 8: note 29, 9; 312. ^ Rasaouakoueton : see article Nassauaketon in the said Handbook. michelson: notes on the; fox Indians 487 Jeune expressly says, "These are the names of a part of the nations which are beyond the shores of the great river vSaint Lawrence and of the great lakes of the Hurons on the North." I think that the following extracts from the Jesuit Relation s'^'^ may clarify the situation: "the Ousaki, and other Tribes, — who, driven from their own abode, the Lands towards the South, near Missilimakinac, have sought refuge at the head of the bay;" "the Poteouatami, the Ousaki, and the nation of the Fork also live here, but as foreigners, driven by their fear of the Iroquois from their own territories, which lie between the Lake of the Hurons and that of the Ilinois." [Both extracts are from the Relation of i67o-'7i.] It is not at all likely that the Sauk (Ou- saki) would have remained in the lower Michigan peninsula to face the enemy alone after the Potawatomi and the Nation of the Fork had been driven out. We must rather assume a gen- eral exodus at the same time, including the Fox (the intimate relations of the Sauk and Fox are well known). Hence C. W. Butterfield^^ is surely in error regarding the Sauks, and prob- ably the Foxes when he states that they had not migrated from the east at the time of Nicolet's great voyage. According to a note in the Jesuit Relations^^ the Skenchiohronon [Foxes, not Neuters] are indicated on (S.) Sanson's map (of 1656) by Squen- guioron. As a matter of fact the map has Squenquioron, at the end of Lake Erie. If this identification be correct, ^^ the map is probably inaccurate; we have seen above, that in 1640 Le Jeune cites the Fox in connection with the Suak, Potawatomi, Kick- apoo, Winnebago, and Crane Miami which certainly points the region of Green Bay as their habitat. Now the differences between the language of the Sauks and Foxes, and Kickapoos for that matter, are very small; and if the ancient home of the Sauks was in the lower Michigan peninsula (vide supra), so was ^ Ed. Thwaitbs, 5S: 103 and 183, respectively. ^^ John Nicolet. Discovery of the Northwest, 64: i88i. 48 Ed. Thwaites, 8: 302. 4^ See the synonymy under the article Wyomingmthe: Handbook of American In- dians for Beauchamp'6 conjecture regarding Scahentoarrhon. 488 michelson: notes on the fox Indians that of the Foxes. If the Foxes had been driven out previously, it is entirely possible small parties may have returned. But I do not think the traditional statements of the Sauk, Fox, and Ottawa,^'' locating the Foxes in the lower Michigan peninsula, should be taken too seriously, for it may well refer to the later raids, especially to the fight at Detroit. It would mean that traditional history, going back practically 200 years, could be relied upon. Similarly, traditional statements of the Foxes having been driven up the Grand River from the Gulf of St. Lawrence or having had their origin near Niagara Falls, '^^ are to be rejected, because we know the history of the area under discussion for a time anterior to 1634. The construction that I place on the statements is that the wars with the Iroquois and Neuters made a deep impression, and that the geography is mixed; that the Foxes often went to Montreal, and even fought at Lake George; it is likely some children may have been bom on such trips, and they may have been told their birth-place, and passed it on. Thus also is to be understood the well-known statement of Black Hawk. The Rhode Island origin of the Foxes'^ is too absurd to combat seriously. I may refer briefly to Tailhan's discussion of the early home of the Foxes. -'^ His argumentum ex silentio falls to the ground, for the Relation of i657-'58 says distinctly "you will see the names of the principal Nations,""^ not "all the Nations." Kellog's paper suffers from a wrong identification of the Outitchakouk (vide supra) , ignorance of the fact that the Skenchiohronon was a synonym of the Fox Indians, and from too great reliance on traditional history. The reference of Re(o)bok to Shea's article,*'^ crediting the latter with stating that Nicolet met the Foxes in Wisconsin in 1634 5° Marston, apud Blair, 21: 146; A. Black Bird, Hist, of the Ottawa and Chip- pewa Indians, 24. " Forsyth, apud Blair, 2: 183-184; Grignon, Wise. Hist. Coll. 3: 265. 52 Atwater. Indians of the Northwest, 88; repeated by Green, The Mesquaki Indians, Red Man 5: 47-52, 104-109; queried by Re(o)bok, loc. cit. 53 Blair. Vol. 2: 250, 251. 5* Jesuit Relations, ed. Thwaites, 44: 239. 55 Wise. Hist. See. Coll. 3: 124-138. MICHELSON: notes on the fox INDIANS 489 is due to uncritical reading. Nicolet very likely met the Foxes in Wisconsin, but Shea does not say so. He begins his history of them in 1 666-1 667. Steward's discussion of the early his- tory of the Foxes suffers from a wrong identification of the Ouachegami"''*' with the (Outagami which shows his ignorance of Algonquian languages), his failure to know that Skenchiohronon is a synonym of Fox, and his too great reliance on traditional his- tory; but it may be noted that he utilized the information con- tained in La Potherie regarding the two lineages of the Outagami which have been ignored by later writers. The recent history of the Fox Indians can be readily followed in the Reports of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and local newspapers. The Mesquakie Booster, a periodical devoted to the present day interests of the Fox Indians, has recently dis- continued. POPUI.AT10N In any attempt to determine the population of an Indian tribe in previous times, we must take into account exaggerations, either unintentional or intentional. The population of the Foxes is concisely treated in the articles Fox and Sauk in the Hand- hook of American Indians. The most reliable estimates of the entire Fox population in early times are those of Pike (1805) 1750, Lewis and Clark (1806) 1200, Beltrami (May 29, 1823) 1600, Ann. d.l. Prop, de Foi (1830) 1500, Report of the Commis- sioner of Indian Affairs (1837) 1600. Pike gives the number of warriors as 400, Lewis and Clark as 300. It will be seen that, roughly speaking, from their figures the total population is four times the number of warriors. In this way an estimate may be made for earlier times when only the warriors are listed. I now give some estimates of the number of warriors : 1 666-1667 {Jesuit Relations) 1000 (gross exaggeration). 1 667-1 670 {Jesuit Relations), 400. 1 7 14 (Charlevoix), 500. 1761 (Wise. Hist. Soc. Coll. i: 32), 350. 1763 (Col. Dioc. N. Y. 10: 583), 320. 1777 (Houck, Spanish regime, i: 146), 300-350. 1783 (Mass. Hist. Coll. I. 10 I1809]: 123), 300. 5^ Article Wachegami in Handbook of American Indians. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30. 490 michelson: notes on the fox Indians With the exception of the first estimate, we have a series that is entirely reasonable. The struggle at the Butte des Morts easily accounts for the decrease in population after 17 14. The estimates of Bouquet and Chauvignerie in 1764 and 1763, re- spectively," and Buchanan^^ are too modest, as is that of Jno. Long (about 1 780, published 1 79 1 ) . With the exception of Chauvignerie (100), these range from 200-250. The statement of Charlevoix that there were 3000 women in 17 14 is pure exaggeration. This would make the number of women six times that of the men, which does not accord with the proportions given by Pike and Lewis and Clark. The extravagant figure of 3202 in 1819^'^ as the total population must be considered as a deliberate inven- tion. The figure of 2000 in 1822 (given by Marston and Morse) is a simple exaggeration. The last separate enumeration of the Foxes is in 1841, where 1600 is given. Here our real difficulties begin. For by enumeration with the Sauks, we lose trace (for a while at least) of the number of true Foxes. And what is more, we are involved in the gross exaggerations in the enum- erations of the Sauks. To make the matter clear, and at the same time not to go into this at too great length as it is a side- issue, it is necessary to state that the most reliable estimate of the Sauks in the early days is that of Lewis and Clark, namely, 2000. That of Pike is 2850, that of the Ann. d. I. Prop, de Foi (1830) is 2406. These are exaggerations of a comparatively mild order; soon we see the wildest kind of guesses; in 18 19 we get 3847, in 1822, 3000 and 4500, in 1823, 4800, which figure we find again in 1837 and 1841, not counting the Missouri Sauks (500, the percentage of Foxes among these cannot be determined, but apparently was small). Drake in 1820 gives the combined Sauk and Fox as about 3000 "one-fifth of whom may be war- riors." The state of affairs can be seen by the remarks of Marsh in 1834; we are told that the agent counted the combined Sauk and Fox as 6400, but that others estimated the number " Schoolcraft, 5: 554, 559. ^* Between 1 770-1 780, reported by HeckweIvDER- 59 Wise. Hist. Soc. Coll. 20. MICHELSON: notes on the fox INDIANS 49 1 to be between 2000 and 2400, adding that he himself considered 2000 to be nearer the figure. Apparently the fact that the population was exaggerated was gradually making headway in officialdom, for, in the Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1838, this is taken into account and the Mississippi Sauk population is given as 2100. But such is the attachment for large figures, apparently to balance at least partially his over-estimates of the Sauks, that the agent gives the reckless figure of 2446 for the Foxes. Unfortunately officialdom could not be contented with such modest figures for the Sauks, and in 1 84 1 we have the old exaggeration (vide supra). A wholesome reaction came in the next year when a treaty for the removal of the Sauks and Foxes from Iowa was effected, and from 1842 to 1845 the combined Sauk and Fox population is given as about 2300. An attempt at honesty was made in 1841 when in spite of the erroneous separate enumeration of the Sauks, the com- bined population of the Sauk and Fox of the Mississippi is given as 2300. It is to be borne in mind that in the same official document the Fox population is given as 1600! Other exag- gerations of the Sauk population are passed over, save that in 1826 Forsyth gives the number of warriors as 1000 and Keo- cuck as 1200.*^° Summing up for the population prior to the removal to Kansas, we may say that if we accept the figures of Lewis and Clark, Drake, Marsh, and the report of the Com- missioner of Indian Affairs for 1842, we have an orderly sequence, such as may be readily accounted for (as by the Black Hawk war, and natural causes) ; the acceptance of the larger figures (and this applies especially to the Sauk) involves us in hopeless meshes. From now, owing to the merging of the enumeration, the situation is difficult. The removal of Indian tribes ordi- ^^ Wennebea (apud Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River 1823, compiled by William H. Keating, vol. i: p. 219) says, "upwards of a thousand warriors . . . the real number of warriors of pure Sauk extraction does not . . . exceed two hundred." The adoption of prisoners of war accounts for the rest. Are we to understand something of this sort from Forsyth's and Keocuck's figures? 492 michelson: notes on the fox Indians narily involves a considerable loss in population ; but in 1 849 the combined Sauk and Fox of the Mississippi is given as 3000; but it is officially known that one-half the Sauk and Fox of the Missouri had joined them. In 1851 three hundred perished by cholera; in 1852 three hundred died of smallpox. According to the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1853 there were 2173 Sauk and Fox of the Mississippi; in the report for 1857 'we learn the Sauk and Fox of the Mississippi in 1853 was 1748: but no explanation of the discrepancy is given. In 1857 the population of the Sauk and Fox of the Mississippi is given as 1367, and those of the Missouri as 350. The probable inter- pretation of this is that the Sauk and Fox of the Missouri who had joined those of the Mississippi had rejoined their own body. From this time on the population diminished slowly but surely; and the details can be readily found in the reports of the Com- missioner of Indian Affairs. What is more important to us is that the Foxes (at least a majority of them) eventually left Kansas for Iowa, where they purchased land. Their popula- tion eventually reached to about 400 when an epidemic of small- pox swept many away. To-day they are 350 in round numbers. Officially they are cahed "Sauk and Fox;" but in language they are Foxes; and also in ethnology. Even the government in its treaties recognized the Foxes as distinct as late as 1859 so that the much heralded amalgamation with the Sauks is shown to be a myth. It may be noted that there are some Sauks among "Sauk and Fox" near Tama, Iowa; and many others have Sauk blood; still others have French, EngHsh Potawatomi, or Winne- bago blood ; and some are hopeless mixtures. Briefly, I doubt if there are still (19 18) any Foxes living who are absolutely free from foreign mixture. Another point may here be taken up. Offi- cially the number of full-blooded Indians is very high ; but this is an exaggeration, as I know from personal field work. In closing it may be said that there are some Foxes among the "Sauk and Fox" (who are mainly Sauks) of Oklahoma, and MICHEL-SON: notes on the fox INDIANS 493 others doubtless have Fox blood; but their proportion is un- known.*'^ THE AIvIvEGED IROQUOIS ORIGIN OF THE EOXES N. H. Winchell,*'- attempts to prove that the Foxes (Outa- gami) were originally an Iroquoian people (thus repeating Smith's old error) . The arguments adduced are so absurd that they would not merit any attention were the paper not in a periodical of high standing. The statement that the Foxes were almost annihilated by the Ojibwa in 1777 simply shows that Winchell could not have investigated the question of the Fox population with any care; the figures given by Lewis and Clark, Pike, Ann. d. Prop, de la Foi, Marston, and Forsyth, give the lie direct to this imputation. "^^ The argument is that the Foxes being vir- tually annihilated by the Ojibwa were absorbed by the Sauks, and began to be transformed, language and all, and consequently present linguistic investigations would be of little value unless such an amalgamation were taken into consideration. The question of annihilation has been dealt with above; as to absorp- tion, undoubtedly many Foxes have Sauk blood, but Fox eth- nology has remained distinct from Sauk ethnology in at least certain respects. '^^ The linguistic point raised by Winchell can readily be overthrown. The language spoken by the Foxes of to-day is more archaic than that spoken by living Sauks, as I have shown elsewhere ;''•' and it should be noted that Kickapoo agrees with Fox in many of these differences. Hence the ques- ^^ Steward {Lost Maramech and earliest Chicago, 1903), discusses the Sauk and Fox populations, and comes to the conclusion that they increased very rapidly between 1805 and 1825. Had he carried his investigations further he would have seen that the supposed increase in reality did not take place (vide supra). Turner (loc. cit.) also touches on the Fox population in so far as he gives various early estimates of the number of warriors, closing with 1762. ^- Proceedings of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association, 1910-1911: 181- 188. ^^ A similar error is to be found in the Handbook of American Indians under the article "Foxes." ^^ For example, in social organization. ^^ Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Ann. Rep. 28. 494 michelson: notes on the fox Indians tion of linguistic assimilation does not come up at all. The argument that the Foxes were not Algonquians because "they spoke a language which could not be understood by an Ottawa interpreter," is positively ludicrous. What use would an Ottawa interpreter be among the Sauk, Kickapoo, or Delaware? He could undoubtedly understand isolated words, but not whole sentences. But what does that prove? Simply that Sauk, Kickapoo, and Delaware are too remotely related to Ottawa to be mutually intelligible. In precisely the same way an English speaking person would be useless as an interpreter among Ger- mans unless he had studied and mastered their language. Al- lowing for the sake of argument that Iroquoian pottery has been found in Wisconsin in localities where the Foxes have dwelt for a long period, that does not prove the Foxes were Iroquoian in a linguistic sense, for it could easily be accounted for by acculturation. What have wars on other Algonquian tribes to do with the problem of whether or not the Foxes linguistically were Algonquian or not? The English and Germans fought against each other in the Great War. Nor have political alli- ances anything to do with linguistic relationship; the Japanese to-day are the allies of the English. As to the statement that they were mound builders thus resembUng the Iroquois in con- trast with all Algonquian tribes, which I doubt, what has a cul- tural phenomenon to do with a linguistic one? Or what have temperamental differences, a psychic phenomenon, to do with a linguistic problem? Nothing. The alleged original home of the Foxes in an Iroquois country is shown in the section dealing with their history to be nothing more than a misunderstanding, to put it mildly. In any case this has nothing to do with the question whether or not the Foxes were originally Iroquoian in a hnguistic sense. Thus all the arguments crumble down, one by one. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. ORNITHOLOGY. — The birds of the Tamhelan Islands, South China Sea. Harry C. OberhoIvSER. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 55: 129-143. 1919. The Tambelan Islands lie in the southern part of the South China Sea, about 100 miles west of Borneo. Dr. W. L. Abbott, who was the first ornithologist to explore these islands, spent two weeks there from August 3 to August 15, 1899, during which time he collected 53 birds, representing 12 species. These, together with his field notes, bring the number of avian species now known from these islands collectively up to 22. A list of these, with critical notes on specimens obtained, forms the present contribution. There are apparently few, if any, endemic forms in these islands; and their affinities so far as birds are concerned seem to be with the Anamba Islands which lie 150 miles farther north, rather than with the nearer Bornean coast. The form of Orthorhamphus magnirostris occurring in this region is apparently without a name and is here called Orthorhamphus magnirostris scom- mophorus. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY.— A^ote5 on birds collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott on Pulo Taya, Berhala Strait, southeastern Sumatra. Harry C. ObER- H01.SER. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 55: 267-274. 1919. The island of Taya is situated at the eastern end of Berhala Strait about 30 miles north of the coast of Sumatra. Dr. W. L. Abbott visited this island and the near-by Nyamok Islets from July 26 to July 28, 1899, and obtained a small collection of 30 specimens of birds representing 8 species. Two other species were seen but not obtained. Critical notes here presented include the description of two new subspecies, Lamprocorax panayensis richmondi and Cinnyris ornata microleuca, both of which are apparently peculiar to this island. Of considerable 495 496 abstracts: ornithology interest is a specimen of the rare pigeon commonly known as Columba grisea (Bonaparte), which Dr. Richmond renamed Columha phasma, but which has an eariier name in Columba argentina Bonaparte. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — Notes on the wrens of the genus Nannus Billherg. Harry C. Obbrholser. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 55: 223-236, 1919. The present investigation of the genus Nannus (ohm Anorthura) concerns chiefly the American forms, but a few changes in Old World races are noted. Altogether there are 36 forms in the genus, and al- though some of these formerly stood as species, they are now con- sidered subspecies of the European Nannus troglodytes. Birds from middle Europe differ from the typical race of Norway and Sweden and should be subspecifically separated as Nannus troglodytes sylvestris (Brehm). The bird heretofore known as Troglodytes pallidus Hume should now be called Nannus troglodytes tianschanicus (Sharpe). The race described as Olbiorchilus fumigatus Clark from the Amur region in eastern Siberia proves to be a good subspecies and should stand as Nannus troglodytes amurensis (Clark). The bird named by Buturlin Anorthura fumigata ussuriensis is apparently the same. The American forms of this genus are now increased to 9 by the addition of the fol- lowing three new subspecies: Nannus troglodytes kiskensis from Kiska Island, Alaska; Nannus troglodytes tanagensis from Tanaga Island, Alaska; and Nannus troglodytes petrophilus from Unalaska Island, Alaska. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY.— 5^Vaf5 of a Washington City dooryard. Harry C. Oberholser. Amer. Midi. Nat. 6: 1-13. 1919. The observations here recorded were made in the built-up portion of the City of Washington from May 5, 191 1, to May i, 19 18. The re- sult again exemplifies the fact that there is ample opportunity for natural history study even in the midst of a crowded city. The total number of species herein recorded is 100, with notes on the dates of their occur- rence. The largest number of these seen on any one day was 18. Among these, the most interesting for their appearance in city dis- tricts were probably Colinus virginianus virginianus, Porzana Carolina, Bartramia longicauda, five species of the genus Hylocichla, and Loxia curvirostra minor. H. C. O. abstracts: ornithoIvOGy 497 ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new seaside sparrow from Florida. Arthur H. Howell. Auk 36: 86-87. January, 1919. The discovery of a new species of bird in North America at the present time is a scientific event of some importance, although the same is not true of a subspecies. Explorations in southern Florida have brought to light what is evidently an entirely new species of the genus Tkryospiza. It differs so remarkably from all the other forms of the genus that intergradation seems never likely to be found. It most nearly resembles Thryospiza maritima sennetti of the coast of Texas, from which, however, it differs conspicuously in its more sharply streaked and more extensively white lower parts. In the general character of its under parts, it is more like Thryospiza nigrescens of eastern Florida, but the color of its upper surface is entirely different. It is appropriately named Thryospiza mirahilis. Harry C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY. — Bird records from the Sacramento Valley, Cali- fornia. Alexander WetmorE. Condor 21: 73-74. 1919. During the period between August 17 and October 17, 191 8, bird observations were carried on in the Sacramento Valley, between Marys- ville. Maxwell, and Tehama. Notes on 12 of the most interesting species noted are presented here. The. northern limit of the range of the following species in the interior of California is apparently extended by these observations: Dendrocygna bicolor, Hydroprogne caspia im- perator, Egretta thula thula, and Tyto alba pratincola. Harry C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY. — Notes on the structure of the palate in the Icteridae. Alexander Wetmore. Auk 36: 190-197. 1919. The keel on the palate of the grackles of the genus Quiscalus is a well-known character. Investigation shows it to be a projection de- veloped as a fold in the horny sheathing of the palate. Its use, hitherto unknown, has recently been ascertained by field observation. It is now found to be of assistance in obtaining kernels from acorns by cutting the shells, and has other similar fimctions. Several other genera of Icteridae have indication of a similar projection on the pal- ate. This is most prominent in Icterus gularis, although apparently absent in all other species of the genus Icterus. In this species it is 498 abstracts: ornithology well developed, knob-like, and almost as prominent as in Quiscalus. It constitutes thus an excellent generic character, and necessitates the segregation of Icterus gularis and its subspecies under the generic name Andriopsar Cassin. Harry C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY.? — Descriptions of apparently new Colombiaji birds. W. E. Clyde Todd. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 113-118. June 27, 1919. A study of the South American collections in the Carnegie Museum has resulted in the further discovery of 5 new species and 14 new sub- species, all from Colombia, brief descriptions of which appear in this paper. The species are: Myiobiiis semiflavus from El Tambor, San- tander, Colombia; Grallaria alticola from Lagunillas, Boyaca; Venili- ornis chocoensis from Malagita, Choco; Odontophorus variegatus from La Pica, Santander; and Crypturus idoneus from Bonda, Santa Marta. The subspecies are: Atlapetes semirufus majuscuhis from Pena Blanca, Santander, Colombia; Phoenicothraupis rubica coccinea from La Colo- rado, Boyaca; Cistothorus aequatorialis fulvescens from Paramo Guer- rero, Santander; Leucolepis lawrencii assimilis from Sautata, Rio Atrato; Leucolepis phaeocephalus propinquus from Jaraquiel, Bolivar; Meco- cerctdus leucophrys notatus from Leonera (near Caldas) ; Platytriccus albogularis neglectus from La Colorado, Boyaca; Pipra erythrocephala flammiceps from El Tambor, Santander; Pipra velutina minuscula from Quibdo, Rio Atrato; Hylopezus perspicillatus pallidior from El Tam- bor, Santander; Leptasthenura andicola exterior from Lagunillas, Boyaca; Deconychura typica minor from El Tambor, Santander; Celeus innotatus degener from El Tambor, Santander; and Nonnula frontalis pallescens from Fundacion, Santa Marta. Harry C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY. — The migration of North American birds. IX. Crows. Harry C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 21: 100-102. 1919. The weU-known Corvus brachyrhynchos, as represented by five sub- species, including Corvus brachyrhynchos caurinus, occupies the greater part of the United States and Canada. It is resident except in the northern part of its range, for which region the dates of its spring and autumn migration are here given. The distribution of Corvus ossi- fragus, the European Corvus frugilegiis, and the European Corvus cor- nix, are also added as of interest in this connection. H. C. O. abstracts: ornithology 499 ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new Conurus from the Andaman Islands. Harry C. Oberholser. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 29-32. April II, 1919. Examples of Conurus fasciatus from the Andaman Islands prove to differ from the mainland birds in their larger size and paler coloration, and are here separated as a new subspecies, Conurus fasciatus abbotti. With this addition there are now five races of Conurus fasciatus. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — Six new birds from Celebes and fava. J. H. RiLrEY. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 93-96. May 20, 1919. Three additional species and two subspecies from Celebes and one subspecies from Java have been brought to light by further study of the bird collections made by Mr. H. C. Raven. The species are: Megalurus celebensis from Besoa, Celebes, the first of its genus to be found in Celebes; Dicruropsis montana from Besoa, Celebes; and Pachycephala pluviosa from Rano Rano, Celebes. The subspecies de- scribed are: Excalfactoria chinensis palmeri from Daroe, Java; Anas superciliosa percna from Koelawi, Celebes; and Zoster ops atrifrons surda from Rano Lindoe, Celebes. Harry C. Oberholser. ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new race of the western gull. Jon- athan DwiGHT. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 11-13. February 14, 1919. The western gull, Larus occidentalis , is found to be separable into a northern and a southern subspecies. The latter, which differs from the typical form of the coast of Oregon and Washington in its decidedly darker mantle and reduction of gray area on the primaries, is here named Larus occidentalis livens. It ranges from the coast of central California south to both coasts of Lower California. Harry C. Oberholser. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON 33 8th meeting The 338th meeting of the Society was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Wednesday evening, May 28, 1919, at 8 p.m. Informal Communications Mr. LaForge spoke of a fairly wide-spread misapprehension of the exact meaning of the words talus and shingle and the resultant in- creasing tendency to use them incorrectly. Talus seems to be used to some extent in the United States for the material which in reality constitutes a talus. The word is synonymous with scree which is commonly used in Great Britain. It means "a heap of coarse rock waste at the foot of a cliff or a sheet of such waste on a slope below a cliff," and its use should be confined to the heap or sheet and not extended to the constituent material, which is rock waste. There seems to be a rather general idea that shingle means gravel com- posed chiefly of flattened pebbles which have been arranged by gravity, waves, or currents so as to overlap like shingles on a roof. This is entirely incorrect, as the word has no relation to the ordinary English word shingle (originally shindle), but is derived from the same Germanic or Norse root from which comes our common word sing, the h having been introduced through corruption, and it refers to the peculiar sound made by the material when trod upon or when rolled down the slope of the beach by a receding wave. This brings up the question regarding the origin of the sound, and, therefore, regarding the essential or distinctive character of shingle. The dictionaries and those text-books which define the word state that it is "beach material coarser than ordinary gravel," but manifestly such a definition is inadequate, as some "singing" beaches consist of fine material and many beaches composed of coarse gravel do not "sing." Apparently the subject has not been investigated experimen- tally, but the number of field observations have led the speaker to the following tentative hypothesis : The production of a sound approximating a musical note requires a certain degree of uniformity in the sound-making material and the pitch of the sound depends on the dimensions of the material, and of the resonating space, if there be any. To have such uniformity it is therefore necessary that the pebbles be of approximately the same size, hence the interstices will not be filled with finer material, as in 500 proceedings: geological society 501 ordinary gravel, and resonating space of approximately uniform "mesh" will be provided. Field observation shows that it is also essential that the pebbles be of fine-grained dense rock and smoothly rounded, so that the rubbing of one upon another will tend to set up definite vibrations rather than irregular jars, and shows further that the coarser the material of a "singing" beach the lower the note produced. If this suggested explanation be correct, shingle should be defined as "beach material, coarser than sand, consisting of smoothl}^ rounded pebbles of dense, fine-grained rock, of approximately the same size, and hence not having the interstices filled with finer material, which gives out a sound resembling a musical note, when trod upon or when rolled about by waves." Mr. Frank L. Hess said that tourmaline cobalt-bearing veins oc- curring in the Blackbird region, Lemhi County, Idaho, are dense black and occur in a dark, fine-grained, thin-bedded quartzite. The cobalt is in many places difficult to see, but it shows up on crushing and panning the rock. A polished section was exhibited showing a mass of microscopic tourmaline crystals with clouds of included cobalt minerals, mostly cobaltite. Dr. H. M. Ami called attention to the fact that on the shores of the Dead Sea in Palestine there are innumerable fresh water shells washed up by the waves along with drift wood and other forms of vegetable matter. The hypersahnity of the water precludes any form of life. He surmises that these shells presumably are brought into the sea by Jordan River, and calls attention to the fact that the presence of freshwater shells in strata does not necessarily predicate that the water in which the sediments were laid down was fresh. Regular Program E. W. Shaw: Present tendencies in Geology. III. Stratigraphy. (This paper will be published later in this Journal.) M. I. Goldman: General character, mode of occurrence, and origin of glauconite. The characters of the mineral were briefly reviewed, and it was pointed out that there are a number of varieties in addition to the common form in rounded, compound-polarizing grains. Some of these seem to have been deposited epigenetically from solution, but the speaker did not believe that there is good evidence for the deposition of any of them from solution syngenetically. The importance of fur- ther study, especially chemically, of the well defined, micaceous green crystals sometimes found associated with the cryptocrystalline forms of glauconite, and believed to be glauconite, was emphasized. The chemical composition and mineralogical affinities were dis- cussed. The potassium content, which averages around 7 per cent, distinctly differentiates glauconite from the chlorites which it resem- bles in many of its mineralogical characters, and the predominance of 502 PROCeSDINGS: GEOIvOGICAL SOCIETY ferric over ferrous iron and the fact that glauconite seems to be an orthosihcate points in the same direction. Then too, the molecule of water which appears to be an essential part of its composition would place it rather with the vermiculites than the chlorites. Allying it with the chlorites, on the other hand, is the magnesia content which seems to be pretty persistent. The chemical composition presents a fundamental difficulty, however, since it is uncertain whether the mineral is a definite crystalline substance or a colloform mixture. Glauconite is a characteristic phase of certain terrigenous marine sediments and very widely distributed around all the continents. But it is rare in the delta type of terrigenous deposit on the one hand and in pellagic deposits on the other. Concerning its mode of forma- tion there is great uncertainty, but it seems to develop in small segre- gated pellets of clay (generally i mm. or less diam.) when there is organic matter present. The process assumed has been the reduction of the sulfates of sea water to sulfides which form iron sulfide with the iron present in the clay. This sulfide is believed to combine with silica in the clay and the iron silicate thus formed to take up potassium from the sea-water. The combination of iron sulfide with silica to form a silicate has been brought about experimentally, but the reaction was prevented by an excess of hydrogen sulfide. On the basis of the facts summarized the speaker presented the hypothesis that glauconite is one of three characteristic modes of occurrence of iron in marine deposits, being an intermediate product between high organic content and reducing conditions yielding the sulfide on the one hand, and low organic content with oxidizing conditions producing the hydrous oxides on the other. Geologically, also, glauconite is a very widely distributed and com- mon mineral, having been found in deposits of every period. It occurs particularly characteristically, however, just above unconformities, that is in transgressing (perhaps also in regressing) formations, and preeminently in connection with the great transgression of the lower part of the Upper Cretaceous. This stratigraphic position has not been adequately explained. The frequent association of glauconite and phosphate in both recent and ancient deposits is familiar, and Murray has pointed out a relation, at least partial, of phosphate with great extremes of surface temperatures of the ocean. Cayeux has suggested that such instabilities of temperature might be produced by extensive movements of the earth's crust and the same explanation may be applicable, in part, to the geologic occurrence of glauconite. G. R. Mansfield: General features of the glauconite marls of New Jersey. (This paper is to be published in Economic Geology.) E. O. Ulrich: Paleozoic glauconite zones and suggestions as to their origin. R. W. StonE, Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The Chemical Society of Washington has secured permission from Maj. Gen. WilHam L. Sibert for its members to visit the government gas plant at Edgewood Arsenal, Edgewood, Maryland, on a Saturday about the middle of October. Others in the city who are interested will be welcome. The chemists of Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Balti- more will also visit the plant on the same day. Details of the arrange- ments will be announced later. Word has been received that Messrs. AllEn, FennER, and ZiES, of the Geophysical Laboratory's party in Alaska, have arrived safely at Kodiak with collections of gases and emanations from the fumaroles of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. This is the first news of the party since the National Geographic Society's expedition entered the Valley in June. Mr. Robert Anderson, a petroleum geologist formerly on the U. S. Geological vSurvey, has returned from Stockholm, Sweden, where he represented the Shipping Board for the past 6 months, and is about to leave for London where he will have charge of geologic investigations for Pearson and Sons. Mr. George H. Ashley resigned from the U. S. Geological Survey on September i, having been appointed State Geologist of Pennsyl- vania. Dr. Arthur F. Buddington of Brown University, recently in Wash- ington with the Chemical Warfare Service, has joined the staff of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Miss Eleonora F. Bliss, associate geologist on the U. S. Geological Survey, is on leave of absence and is visiting her father. General Tas- KER H. Buss, in Paris. Messrs. L. C. Graton, Frank A. Herald, and J. H. Hance, formerly geologists in the U. S. Geological Survey, are now engaged in expert work in the income tax section of the Internal Revenue Division of the Treasury Department. Mr. H. E. Haring, recently in the Inspection Division of the Ord- nance Department, has joined the staff of the Bureau of Standards, where he will be engaged in electrochemical research. Prof. A. S. Hitchcock, systematic agrostologist in the Bureau of Plant Industry, left New York for British Guiana in September. He expects to study the grasses of that country, and will return in about four months. The work is being done in cooperation with the New York Botanical Garden and the Gray Herbarium. 503 504 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, of the Smithsonian Institution, has been visit- ing Camp Dix and Camp Devens for the purpose of classifying cer- tain anthropometric measurements being made during the demobihza- tion of the soldiers. Mr. Prevost Hubbard resigned in July from the Bureau of Public Roads, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and is now chemical engineer with the Asphalt Association, 15 Maiden Lane, New York City. Mr. Paul D. V. Manning, formerly chemist with the Nitrate Divi- sion of the Ordnance Department, at the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, American University, is now electrometallurgist with the Chile Exploration Company of New York City. Mr. Louis N. Markovitz, who has been on leave of absence with the Chemical Warfare Service at Nela Park, Cleveland, Ohio, has returned to his work at the Insecticide Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry. Dr. Charles L. Parsons, Chief Chemist of the Bureau of Mines, has presented his resignation, to take effect November ist. He has en- gaged offices for the American Chemical Society in the Mills Building Annex. He will also do a limited amount of private consulting and chemical engineering work. Mr. E. W. Shaw, geologist of the U. S. Geological Survey, who has been cooperating with the Internal Revenue Office in determining the income tax on oil and gas properties, is in Europe on a two months' leave of absence doing consulting geologic work. Dr. H. Ten Kate, the well-known anthropologist, who has been a resident of Japan for the past twelve years, visited Washington in August. Prof. E. W. Washburn, recently acting chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Technology of the National Research Council, returned to the University of Illinois in September. Mr. L. M. WhitmorE, formerly in charge of the chemical work on leather at the Bureau of Standards, resigned in August to accept a position in the Process Department of Leas and McVitty, Inc., tanners of sole leather, at Salem, Virginia. Mr. Charles W. Wright, a geologist formerly on the U. S. Geo- logical Survey, who has been visiting in the United States for a month, has returned to Sardinia and Rome, where he has offices as consulting mining engineer. Dr. Ralph W. G. Wyckoff, of Cornell University, has joined the staff of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution as assistant physicist JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 OCTOBER 19, 19 19 No. 17 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.— r/i^ crystallography of morphine and certain of its derivatives. Edgar T. Wherry and Elias Yanovsky, Bureau of Chemistry. Optical-crystallographic methods having proved to be of prac- tical value in the identification of the cinchona alkaloids,^ atten- tion was directed by the writers to another group of alkaloids, namely, morphine and its derivatives, to ascertain if similar methods could be applied there. Commercial samples were purified (by the jilnior author) as described below, and crystal- lographic measurements were made to establish their identity with previously described material. On trying these substances by the immersion method under the polarizing microscope it was found that they dissolved so rapidly in every immersion liquid approaching them in refractive index that their identifica- tion by this method would be impracticable. It is probable that some of their salts, such as the hydrochlorides, being less readily soluble, would be' better adapted for optical-crystal- lographic identification, and it is planned to prepare and study these compounds, although the withdrawal of the junior author from the Bureau of Chemistry has led to delay in carrying this out. The results of the crystallographic measurements of the alkaloids are, however, of considerable scientific interest, and this account of them has accordingly been prepared. ^ Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40: 1063. 1918. 505 5o6 WHERRY AND YANOVSKY: MORPHINE DERIVATIVES MORPHINE MONOHYDRATE, C17H19NO3.H2O Anhydrous morphine has apparently never been prepared in well-cry stalHzed condition, but the monohydrate, which sep- arates from all the usual solvents of this alkaloid, has been the subject of several crystallographic investigations. Brooke^ de- scribed crystals showing a pinacoid, prism, and dome, his angle measurements, when transformed, yielding 4> prism — 63° 40' and p dome = 42° 20'. Schabus^ measured crystals with a pinacoid, a prism with 0 = 63° 27' and a dome over the pina- coid with p = 24° 54'; he made the pinacoid and dome side- or TABLE I. Angle Table for Morphine Monohydrate Rhombic (Bisphenoidal); a:b:c = 0.499: i :o.927<^ Number Symbols Observed Calculated letter G'd't Mill. Description

o 00 42°5o' o°oo' 42^50 "^ [ mination J 6 p I III Reported by Decharme 63 "29' 64°i7 °- The axial ratio given is the average of those obtained by the various investi- gators of this substance. It is stated to but three decimal places because of the wide variations which appear to exist. The angles of the crystals here measured showed a maximum variation of ±20', and the probable error of the observed value is about 5'. brachy-forms. Lang^ estabhshed the optical orientation on crys- tals with what appear to have been the same forms, but he took' the pinacoid and dome as front or macro-forms. Decharme,^ without measuring any angles, observed a development of bi- sphenoidal faces on crystals of two different habits. 2 Ann. Phil. (N. S. 6) 22: 118. 1823; discussed by Schabvs, Best. Krysf.-gest. chetn. Lab. erz. Prod., Vienna, 1855, p. 74, and by Rammelsberg, Handb. Kryst.- phys. Chem. II, 358. 1882. 3 Loc. cit.; abstract in Jahresb. 1854: 510, and in Rammelsberg, loc. cit. * Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Vienna 31: 115. 1858. * Ann. Chim. phys. (Ser. 3) 68: 160. 1863. WHERRY AND YANOVSKY: MORPHINE) DERIVATIVES 507 The alkaloid liberated from a commercial sample of the hydro- chloride was recrystallized from absolute methyl alcohol until its specific rotation remained the same in two consecutive crys- tallizations. The final value for a i% solution in methyl alco- hol was [af^° = — i3i-7°- The usually recommended recrys- tallization from amyl alcohol was found to be less satisfactory. The crystals finally obtained from methyl alcohol, which at- tained a diameter of about i mm., were measured on a Gold- schmidt two-circle goniometer, with the results presented in table I. The orientation adopted is that of Schabus, but the steeper dome is taken as the unit form, giving a value dift'erent from his for axis c. The essential agreement between the measurements of pre- ceding authors and those here reported indicates that morphine normally crystallizes, as monohydrate, in a single form, there being no evidence of polymorphism. Partial optical descriptions of this substance have been pub- lished by Lang,- by Kley'' and by Wright^ but there are con- siderable discrepancies among their results. On examining our material by the immersion method, using liquids made up chiefly of a petroleum oil, in which the alkaloid is but slightly soluble, the data of Lang and of Wright were confirmed for the most part, and Kley's value for one refractive index could be explained as a mean between the largest and smallest indices, while his axial angle must be 2 V. The data obtained were: Refractive indices [ d ] « = 1-580, 0 — 1.625, T = 1-645, 7 — 2Ev- CODEINE, morphine; methyl ester, Ci8H2iN03 This alkaloid crystallizes in both anhydrous and hydrous forms. The former was obtained from carbon disulfide solution and * Loc. cit. ' Zeitschr. anal. Chem. 43: 164. 1904. ^ Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 38: 1655. 1916. Number letter Symbols G'd't Mill. I b ooo OIO 2 a OC o lOO 3 m CO no 4 n CO 2 I20 5 q OI on 6 d lO lOI 508 WHERRY AND YANOVSKY: MORPHINE DERWATlVES described crystallographically by Arzruni.^ The forms ob- serv^ed were front and side pinacoids, two prisms, front and side domes, and right and rarely left sphenoids, the important angles being, as transformed: ^no = 47^05' and pici = 28° 41', cor- responding to a:h: c = 0.930:1 : 0.509. It was found best to recrystallize this alkaloid from ethyl acetate until the melting point became constant at 153° (Gri- maux^"). Fine crystals 2 mm. in diameter were finally obtained, which were measured, with the results shown in table 2. TABLE 2. Angle Table for Codeine Rhombic, bisphenoidal; a:h:c = 0.931:1:0.509° Description Narrow; often absent Prominent form One prism form Another prism form Small; often absent Dominant terminal form )Well developed, sphen-( ^ ^ ^ "^ ^ oidal, both + and —^ " As with morphine the measurements vary =e:2o', so axes are given to but three places. The form above described, which we have found to separate also from absolute ether and methyl and ethyl alcohols, is evi- dently the same as that described by Arzruni. The marked solubiUty shown by this alkaloid has permitted only rough measurements of the refractive indices as: a = 1.62, iS = 1.63, 7 = 1.65, 7 — a. = 0.03. The axial angle 2E is very large, about 125°; the sign + ; and the dispersion strong, with 2Er> 2Ev These agree with the data of Arzruni. CODEINE MONOHYDRATE, C18H21NO3.H2O At least six different authors have studied this form of codeine ; and their results have been tabulated and discussed by Hey- drich.^^ The forms which have been observed are the base, a prism with (p = 45° 50' to 46° 15'; two side domes with p = 5 Zeitschr. Kryst. Min. i: 302. 1877. 1" Ann. chim. phys. (Ser. 5) 27: 274. 1882.' " Zeitschr. Kryst. Min. 48: 270. 1910. Observed Calcu lated

2Ev HEROINE, DIACETYIv-MORPHINE, C21H23NO5 = Ci7Hi7NO(CH3COO)2 The commercial alkaloid was recrystallized until a product with a constant melting point of 171-172° was obtained. (Var- TABLE 5- AngIvE Table for Heroine Rhombic, Bisphenoidal; a:b:c = 0.8952:1:0.497" Observed Description Dominant form Narrow, yet well marked Narrow prism form Dominant prism Narrow but definite Very small Narrow, yet well marked Small but defiinite ) Dominant terminal form; \ „o \ both + and — ■ sphenoids ^ " The crystals of this alkaloid were more perfect than those of any of the others and the maximum variation on angles was but ±5', the probable error of any one measurement being =±=i'. This permits statement of the axial ratios to the fourth place. ious authors give from 169 to 173°.) It was found to crystalhze well from ether, ethyl acetate, and methyl alcohol. No crys- tallographic description of this substance could be found in the literature, so four of the excellent crystals obtained from ethyl acetate were submitted to measurement, with the results pre- sented in table 5, and Fig. 2. The crystals obtained from other solvents showed the more prominent of these forms, and the angles agreed within half a degree. The optical properties obtained by the immersion method are as follows: Refractive indices: a = 1.56, /S = 1.60, 7 = 1.6 1, 7 — a = 0.05 ; the maximum and minimum indices are usually o 00 90°oo 65°54 48°io o°oo o°oo 90°oo 90^00 36°45' 48°io p 90°oo 90°oo 90°oo 90°oo 26°28 44°53 29°o6 48°03 36°45 512 WHERRY AND YANOVSKY: MORPHINE DERIVATIVES seen on the plate-like crystals; the optic axial plane being parallel to the surfaces of the plates, no interference figure is visi- ble in most cases, but when flakes are broken across and tilted up, partial figures can be seen, the axial angle 2E being large, about 110°; sign — ; and dispersion strong, with 2Er> 2Ev. On comparing the axial ratios of these alkaloids, it is at once seen that there are certain relationships among them, and it seemed of interest to calculate and compare their topic axial ratios. For this purpose their specific gravities were determined approximately by suspension of clear crystals in mixtures of sassafras oil and small amounts of bromoform, a combination selected because it was found to attack the substances but slowly ; and the gravity of the Hquid in each case was then measured by a Westphal balance. The results are presented in table 6. TABLE 6. Topic Axial Ratios op THE Morphine Alkaloids vStudied Name Compound of morphine Crystallogra a phic axes Mol, wt. c W Morphine + 1H2O 0.499 0.927 303.2 Codeine methyl ester 0.931 0.509 299.2 Codeine methyl ester + 1H2O 0.960 0.830 317 2 Codethyline ethyl ester + 1H2O 1-454 0.789 331.2 Heroine diacetyl deriv. 0.895 0.498 369 -2 Sp. 1 gr. Sp. vol. p V=W/P Topic axes X ^ a> Morphine + 1H2O .32 229.7 3-95 7.92 7.34 Codeine methyl ester .32 226.7 7.28 7.82 3.98 Codeine methyl ester + 1H2O .31 242.1 6.45 6.72 5.58 Codethyline ethyl ester + iHjO .29 256.7 8.83 6.07 4.79 Heroine diacetyl deriv. .32 279.7 7.66 8.56 4.26 The topic axial relations exhibit certain interesting features, and permit of determining in which direction in the crystals substitutions or additions occur. Thus, comparing anhydrous codeine with its monohydrate, it is seen that the addition of the water takes place in the vertical direction, producing a 40 per cent increase in axis 00 while x and lA both decrease about 15 per cent. Comparing the three monohydrates, of mor- phine and of its methyl and ethyl esters, it comes out with equal clearness that the CHo groups enter along the front-back axis, for the value of x increases 50 per cent from morphine to its methyl ester, and 40 per cent more from the methyl to the SHAW: SEDIMENTATION 513 ethyl ester, the other two axes showing decreases of 15-20 per cent in each case. Comparison of the diacetyl derivative with morphine itself would show significant relations only if the an- hydrous form of the latter were available; but on comparison with anhydrous codeine, the monomethyl derivative, it is seen that all three axes of the acetyl compound are about 10 per cent longer than those of the methyl derivative, showing that the acetyl groups produce their greatest increase in direction a, but at the same time expand the structure somewhat in both of the other directions. It is thus possible by this method to throw some light on the positions of the chemical molecules in the crystals of these substances. GEOLOGY. — Present tendencies in geology: Sedimentation} Eu- gene WesIvEy Shaw, U. S. Geological Survey. Interest in sedimentation has both direct and indirect prac- tical bearing. The economic value of this interest may lie for the most part in the future, but should nevertheless be definite and certain. We wish to know how geologic strata were formed. The more we learn about processes and their results the more we find there is to learn, and the more the field widens and apparent complexity increases the more fascinating becomes the subject. The main needs felt are (i) a better understanding of the deposits of past ages; (2) a wider knowledge and better under- standing of the processes now in operation and of their results, as seen in the distribution of sediments, and the form of deposi- tional surfaces— submarine, sublacustrine, subfluvial, subaerial, and subglacial; (3) the ability to apply our knowledge to economic problems the solution of which may rest on the nature of ancient strata and the processes of their deposition, or on similar data concerning present-day deposits. It can be demonstrated that knowledge of sedimentation may reduce the costs of finding the mineral treasure of the sedimentary basins, of harbor improve- ment, of fish culture, etc. A knowledge of sedimentation involves a study of the processes and immediate results of deposition; the source of sediment and ^ Presented before the Geological Society of Washington, May 28, 1919. 514 SHAW: SEDIMENTATION its transportation; and the processes which modify strata and their component materials after they are laid down. The term sedimentation should cover these related matters, else another term is needed, for it seems impracticable to isolate these three branches of investigation. The interpretation of a layer of sediment may involve the examination of the parent rocks or organisms or solutions from which it was derived and a study of the transporting agents that brought it to its present position. It may be possible occasion- ally to trace ancestry back through several generations of strata . but the numbers of individuals in each preceding generation usually show an increase more rapid than the usual biologic ratio of 2, and one is soon lost in a maze which generally ob- structs attempts to trace Uneage back to the ancestral igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is rather curious that although the problems of sedimenta- tion are relatively simple, advances in the science, in the opinion of some, have been of a slow and halting nature. The tempera- tures and pressures involved in processes of sedimentation are of a low order compared with those concerned in the study of igneous rocks. One or more of the processes are everywhere in operation; many of them can be reproduced in large part, some with simple apparatus; and the deposits themselves are fully exposed to view and ready for inspection and sampling. Apparently there have been and will continue to be two gen- eral ways of making progress in knowledge of sediments: One is through contributions from geologists in general and paleon- tologists in particular, who gather facts and formulate ideas in the course of their other work. For example, A. C. Veatch observed impressions of upright trees and, with the associated stratifica- tion, interpreted a formation as made up of sand dunes. Ste- phenson suggests that pebbles worn to disc or oval shapes indi- cate wave action on a beach. Ulrich has outUned the general conditions of deposition of various formations. The other method is by special deductive or inductive field, laboratory or closet studies of selected sediment problems. Up to date there have been many contributions to the first class; to the second, few. SHAw: sedime;ntation 515 Notwithstanding the fact that advances have been made, there is as yet no adequate systematic classification that is generally acceptable. There is not even a satisfactory nomenclature. There are many features of sedimentary deposits that are not understood and are passed unexplained. Concretions, clay balls, mud pebbles, quicksand, singing sand and a large number of less common nameless features are famihar but not thoroughly understood. There are also, for example, extremely interesting problems concerning the development of beaches, the conditions that control the amount of wave erosion which a subsiding land undergoes, and so on. One may assume that wave erosion is most vigorous at the seaward end of a peninsula that is bordered by deep water. Yet the offshore slopes both at the south end of the Florida peninsula and off the mouths of the Mississippi are above average, whereas wave erosion is below the average. At the mouths of the Mississippi the average offshore slope is about 60 feet to the mile, yet houses built on piles whose tops are 4 to 6 feet above sea level are reasonably safe even in a West Indian hurricane. Progress in deciphering the processes of sedimentation is difficult ; the quantity of data and number of working hypotheses to be borne in mind are legion. Lack of progress has been due not only to neglect and oversight but to inherent difficulties. A review of a piece of work in sedimentation is likely to call forth the remark, "Fundamental problems are still unsolved." Too much must not be expected from little expenditure of energy. It is equally true that coordination of effort is necessary for the best results. We must admit that we can see only dimly the conditions under which many of our most familiar formations were laid down. We cannot yet write the equation for the reaction which in Na- ture's laboratory produced the St. Peter sandstone. We can, of course, write: a supply of sufficiently coarse-grained material exposed at the surface -f suitable agents operating in the right direction for its transportation + land of suitable surface con- figuration and altitude + disposal by some means of aU other freight carried by these agents -|- wind or some other work to 5l6 SHAW: SEDIMENTATION round and frost the grains + a transgressing sea to redistribute the sand without introducing any more mud than the formation contains, and so on; but at the end we would still have a very- poor idea of the conditions of deposition. Indeed if each known element in the equation were fully understood and were repro- duced we probably should not get another St. Peter sandstone, and possibly the result would only remotely resemble it. The Devonian black shale, the great coal beds with their persistent thin partings, the wide-spread sandstones, such as the Dakota and Berea, the oolites, the so-called "Lafayette formation," and a great many others are still more or less mat- ters of mystery. We are inclined to make remarks of satisfac- tion such as that we were formerly misguided regarding a cer- tain formation but that we know better now, — we understand the conditions of its deposition; we used to think, for example, that coal is a product of tropical climate; now we know that it is formed under temperate or cool temperate conditions. But is there not still a great gulf between the relatively small and rarely smothered peat bogs upon which our assumed under- standing of coal rests and those great expanses of peat swamp which developed over a sinking and frequently flooded land? It seems to me that after all, we know for most strata only the main features of their conditions of deposition. We do not know whether the surficial sand and gravel deposits of the Atlantic Coastal Plain are mainly marine or mainly fluviatile, and this, notwithstanding the fact that all are geologically recent and some very recent formations. Various criteria become ob- scure with age and in particular the related physiographic fea- tures are gradually wiped out. Yet here in spite of youth and more or less perfect preservation of several kinds of physio- graphic features we are still groping in the dark, and are for- tunate if we are able to avoid the pitfall of jumping at con- clusions. Vaughan^ says: "It is generally agreed that the soundest basis for inferring the condition under which past sediments were formed and deposited is to be obtained through a study of pres- ^ Unpublished memorandum to National Research Council. SHAW: SEDIMENTATION 517 ent-day sediments and sedimentary processes and that as great a diversity of phenomena as possible should be investigated." In the report of the Petrologists' Club committee on sedimentary rocks ^ it is stated that "The main object of petrologic descrip- tions of sedimentary rocks is evidently the interpretation of sedimentary records, though such descriptions should be useful also for identification, classification, economic purposes, and miscellaneous reference." The need of carefully recorded descriptions of the physical characteristics of ancient sediments is especially worthy of em- phasis. We have as yet no adequate color scale and statements concerning texture are usually only the crudest approximations. In geologic field work the proportions of various sizes of grains are rarely determined. The term "porosity" is used promiscu- ously for "total volume of pores," for "size of pores" and for ' 'perviousness ' ' — entirely distinct concepts . Mineralogic or chem- ical constitution is rarely determined in detail ;^ — our classic table of average chemical composition of sedimentary rocks is, I be- lieve, defective;^ and shape of grains in noted onl^ occasionally. Methods of collecting specimens are much in need of stand- ardization. Many samples represent a considerable thickness of strata — from a few inches to a foot or more, — within which more or less difference in conditions of deposition may occur. The resulting complexity in the sample greatly reduces the value of any mechanical analysis. Though already recognized, the fact is still worth pondering that the bulk of our knowledge of sedimentation has come more or less inductively from the study of sedimentary rocks, condi- tions of deposition being inferred from general principles of phys- ics and chemistry. Studies of present-day agents, processes, and kinds of deposits would furnish a much better foundation, though admittedly such studies would not be complete, because the conditions of deposition of most strata, particularly as to areal extent and also in other respects, are not fully represented any- where at present. ' Mimeographed report signed by M. I. Goldman, D. F. Hbwett, G, S. Rogers, and E. W. Shaw. * Shaw, E. W., Sulphur in rocks andin river waters. This Journal 5: 484. 1915. 5l8 SHAW: SEDIMJSNTATION We sometimes feel that the general arrangement and distribu- tion of deposits on lake and sea floors is fairly well known, yet the only detailed areal survey of any considerable portion of the sea floor — ^that made by Thoulet in the Gulf of Lyons — leads to a map that no physiographer or stratigrapher could have produced in advance. Accurate surveys of selected areas of ocean and lake floor are greatly needed; areas not far off shore are of especial interest because of their economic bearing and because here there is greatest variety in process and nature of deposit. Contributions of this sort have already been made by Kindle for certain of the Great Lakes and by Vaughan for waters off the coast of Florida. Inductive work along the same line has been done by many geologists, among the foremost of whom is that eminent geol- ogist of Lehigh and Yale whose loss we are now feeling so keenly. Experimental work has been done by a few, the most noteworthy being perhaps that of Gilbert'' and Engels." Not only is there need of increase in the knowledge of sedi- ments but there is need of dissemination of the knowledge here- tofore gained. Some of the discoveries already made are not serving as they might. It has been shown that corals contribute Httle to accumulation of sediments and yet some still speak of coral islands and coral limestone in a way that indicates a mis- conception. We speak of clastic, chemical, and organic depos- its, forgetting that limestones are generally clastic: are com- posed of fragments, now more or less extensively recrystallized, that were transported on the average thousands if not tens of thousands of feet. We interpret a great many sand lenses as fossil beaches, forgetting that shore deposits are as a rule ephe- meral. Although the study of sediments has lagged behind other branches of geology, real progress has been made in a number of problems. It is worthy of note that most of this progress has been made by men engaged primarily in other lines of science, by men * Gilbert, G. K. The transportation of debris by running water. U. S. Geol. Sur- vey, Prof. Paper 86. 19 14. ' Engels, H. Fluss-Strecken mil beweglicher Sohle. Zeits. fiir Bauwesen. 1905. SHAW: SEDIMENTATION 519 who have either made valuable observations in connection with other work or who have dropped their other work for a time while they undertook a special study of sediments. Especially noteworthy advances in the study of present-day sediments have been made during the last decade or two. Mur- ray and others have collected much information concerning the great ocean deeps. Thoulet gave us a detailed map showing the areal distribution of sediment over a portion of the sea floor. Engels experimenting with an artificial stream analyzed pro- cesses of alluviation. Gilbert deduced, from a series of experi- ments, certain fundamental laws concerning fluviatile transporta- tion of sand and gravel. Barrell gave us a philosophical discussion of the conditions and processes involved in the accumulation of Uttoral deposits. Kindle has observed and recorded diagnostic features of various kinds of deposits. Udden has presented the results of many years of study of the mechanical constitution and peculiarities of the main classes of sediments. Goldman has given us the results of his investigations of sources of certain sediments and the diagenesis of others. Recently T. W. Vaughan has put into operation a plan for coordinating the energies of those principally interested in sed- iments, and in response to his request they have submitted memoranda which have been transmitted to the National Re- search Council. The main feeling behind the movement is ex- pressed in Vaughan 's memorandum in the following words: "As the factors entering into both the origin and deposition of sediments are so diverse and so widely distributed it is imprac- ticable for any one man, any small group of men, or any organiza- tion whose activities are really limited to cover the field." Some quotations from the replies will be of interest. Barrell, obviously impelled mainly by his interest in earth history, says by way of introduction to his ''Project J or a study oj sedimenta- tion,'' dated January, 191 9: "If the interpretation of the climatic and physiographic his- tory of the earth, as based on the nature of the sedimentary rocks, is to progress along Hues now opened up, it is neces- 520 SHAW: SEDIMENTATION sary that comprehensive systematic studies of modem sed- imentation be undertaken from this interpretative standpoint. Such men as Lyell and De la Beche made a good beginning, but the present problems of earth history were beyond their horizon, and the older studies of sedimentation were, furthermore, gen- eral in character and descriptive of the thing in itself rather than of its significance. The idea of the necessity for criteria for the discrimination of various climatic and physiographic controls in the making of ancient sediments was until recently a point of view not conceived." Blackwelder says that because of his interest in the earth's physical history and his experience with sedimentary rocks he has been "especially impressed with the advantages to be gained from painstaking study of the consolidated formations" and in particular their lateral variations. He suggests "the exhaustive study of individual types or type groups of sediments in both modern and lithified state." Kindle is especially interested in lake and sea bottom deposits, in ripple marks, in migration of shores and transportation of Uttoral deposits, etc. Steiger and Wells present an outline of needed and practicable chemical and physico-chemical work. Others have contributed valuable suggestions. SUMMARY Although to progress in the understanding of sediments is somewhat difficult the need is real. Much can be accomplished through coordination, through getting geologists of all lines to give some attention to the subject, and through carefully con- sidered and well executed special plans. Apparently the trend of thought at the present time is in harmony with the needs. Some assistance has already been rendered and more is planned by speciaUsts in other lines. Physicists, chemists, biologists, and others are ready to study marine deposition, the bottom loads of rivers, cementation, dolomitization, problems connected with the origin and accumulation of petroleum, and the geophysics and geochemistry of the great sedimentary basins. Physiog- raphers and climatologists will make their contributions. micheIvSOn: fox Indians 521 It is hoped that a sediment laboratory may be equipped and operated in the Geological Survey. In this laboratory many kinds of petrologic investigation should be carried on. Mechan- ical analyses of specimens of various present-day and ancient deposits and studies of mineralogy, porosity, specific gravity, and shape of grain will be undertaken. It is hoped also that a useful collection of sediments and sedimentary rocks may be built up, as was planned by Hayes, Lindgren and others. The work should be pushed without extravagance but with vigor. What contributions we may expect from field work on sedi- ments now in process of accumulation is not definitely known, but no doubt studies will be made of certain such deposits. In the Florida Keys, for example, this may involve continued re- search on the composition of sea water and the questions of whether or not this water is saturated with carbonate of lime and whether cementation of the shell and other fragments may take place below sea level. During the last decade there has, I believe, been some increase of interest in the study of sediments. Although during the war investigations were checked, there is at the present time, I hope, and am inclined to believe, an increasing interest in the science and a tendency toward cooperation which will lead to fruitful investigations. ANTHROPOLOGY. — Some general notes on the Fox Indians. Part II: Phonetics, folklore and mythology.'^ Truman MiCHELSON, Bureau of American Ethnology. Fax PHONKTICS I have elsewhere'^ briefly discussed the chief differences between Jones' scheme of Fox phonetics and my own. There are a few points that should be taken up here. The most important one is that before an initial consonant of a following word a terminal voiceless aspirated vowel of the preceding word becomes full- sounding and loses its aspiration. As terminal voiceless aspirated vowels are normally lost before initial vowels and diphthongs, * Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. ^ Intemat. Journ. Amer. Ling, i: 54. 52 2 . michelson: fox Indians it will be seen that they are strictly only proper when a break in sense occurs. Unfortunately it was not possible to teach informants to dictate the words this way. It depended on the length of words as to whether I could take more than one at a time; and in this way the resulting texts contain mixed sentence- phonetics. The choice therefore remains of printing texts with these inconsistencies or making the phonetics uniform. It seems correct to do the latter so far as sentence-phonetics are concerned. In this normalization I have chosen the full-sound- ing terminal vowels before initial consonants, save where the sense indicates a pause; before initial vowels and diphthongs terminal voiceless aspirated vowels are eliminated. In this matter I have been guided not only by the fact that in this way a truer picture of the language is presented, but also because in so doing comphcated symbols are avoided: thus -m"*"^' is eliminated in favor of -wa and -w, and so on. The elimination of terminal voiceless aspirated vowels before initial vowels and diphthongs is to a certain extent at least a question of tempo; in actual Fox speech I have heard them even as full-sounding in this position. The texts accordingly represent allegro tempo. Even final full-sounding vowels are aspirated before an initial sibilant. Another point may properly be brought up. Within verbal complexes the elision of final i of one morphological element before another such element beginning with a vowel or diphthong, especially in "loose composition," is to a certain ex- tent a matter of allegro or lento tempo. I have followed the usage of the reciter of the texts. It may be noted that in the current syllabary the Foxes are not consistent in writing or omitting such a vowel; yet in "loose composition" the vowel is written for the most part, and elided in intimate compounds. It should be remarked that the Meskwakis themselves in such cases very frequently separate the elements by periods. The principal word accent is indicated by the acute ('). Fol- lowing the recommendations of the committee of the American Anthropological Association^ I have employed the symbols and ^Phonetic transcription of Indian Languages, Smiths. Misc. Coll. 66, No. 6: i. michklson: fox Indians 523 general scheme of Dr. Jones in the matter of things phonetic save where in my judgment they are inadequate. The following table will show the phonetic elements of Fox as I conceive them: — Vowels and diphthong Full-sounding : a A e i 0 u a d a e Id* (e never occurs save terminally as a rhetorical lengthening of e or i, and then has an i- vanish; 0 when a terminal rhetorical lengthening similarly has a w- vanish; d is found only after w). ai (only before y), an (only in the exclamation 'au'). Voiceless and aspirated (terminally only) : a" o' e' i' o' Consonants stops Spirants Affricatives Nasals Semi-vowels Glottal « Palatal k'k gg^ . . . . yV Alveolar . . c c tc tc'^tc Dental t t d s s . . n^ Labial P P b ... m^ w^ The sibilants 5 and c occur only initially; otherwise they are replaced by 's and V, respectively. The spirant '^ after back vowels is nearly intermediate in effect between a surd velar spirant and our h; after front vowels the effect is more palatal. It always occurs before initial vowels and ai. The stops g d h are articulated with greater strength than in English; they never occur initially; before terminally voiceless vowels g becomes g'^; d and h (both of which are rare, especially the former) do not occur in final syllables. Voiceless " '" -^' '•" are phonetic modifi- cations oi n m y w, respectively, before terminal voiceless vowels. The affricative '^tc occurs initially and medially save in final syllables; "^tc occurs mostly in final syllables, though also in medial ones. It may be noted that 'k H 'p He are given as a series, because (outside of verbal compounds after 'a-, m-, kl-, wl- where they are transformations oi k t p tc) they correspond in Cree to a^sibilant followed by k t p tc. It may be added that * a e i u are open; t 0 are close. 524 michelson; fox Indians 'p 't and 'tc never occur in terminal syllables nor initially. The surd k t p tc are unaspirated; k p tc never occur in terminal syllables. To forestall hasty criticism it should be said that the differ- ences in the quantity and quality of the vowels in such words as 'I'w'' "he said," 'a'i'HcV "then he said;" 'ugima""^' "chief," 'utdgimdmwdwAn^' "their chief;" pemipa'd''^''" "he runs by," pemipa'^owAg^^" "they run by," nepemipa""' "I run by," 'd'pemi'pa'uHc^' "when he ran by;" w^m'"""' "man," ne'niwAJi''' (obviative of the same), neniwA'g^*' "men;" ne'sAnAgi'^f"' "I had difficulty with it," sAUAge'sl'^''" "he is incorrigible" are true phonetic processes and are not merely due to mishearings. ^ I have had abundant opportunity to test these again and again to be sure that there was no error in apperception; and Mr. J. P. Harrington (of the Bureau of American Ethnology) also agrees that these differences are truly phonetic and not merely auditory. The phonetic laws governing these shifts have not been determined, but it is clear that the position of the accent and the nature of the adjacent sounds are in a large measure responsible for the phenomena. The influence of the last are responsible for the different results seen in the contractions''' in nekVciHd'g^'"^' "he made it for me," kekVcVto'n'' "I made it for thee" as compared with kekVci'ta'wipen"'" "you made it for us," kVci'tawd'""^' " he made it for him." It is in the belief that some time it may be possible to enunciate phonetic shifts with accuracy that certain apparent fluctuations have been allowed to stand. Thus for example the fact that d never occurs except after w, and never in penultimate syllables sug- gests that it is a modification of a due to the influence of the neighboring sounds, including following ones. The fact that a never occurs in penultimate syllables though both a and a do,^ tends to show a phonetic shift or shifts have taken place. Hence it is well to be conservative in holding that cases where a and a ^ This will be shown in a future number of the International Journal of American Linguistics. ^ See this Journal, 9: 333. ^ Neither does it occur before 'k, 't, 'p, 'tc, '5, 'c. Where Jones records a in such cases I hear a. Similarly I hear a for a, and a' for '^. miche;i^son: fox Indians 525 apparently interchange medially are merely mishearings. The limitations of the positions of certain consonants (see above) likely enough are in part due to phonetic shifts; some are cer- tainly due to these. The evidence of cognate dialects favors the view, but this is not the proper place to discuss this aspect in detail. In conclusion it may be noted that ck, 'ck are the only true consonantal clusters in the language. The cluster st is found in English loan-word 'i'stakinA'n"'' "stockings."^ Ac- cording to WilHam Jones stc occurs in an exclamation. POX FOLKLORE AND MYTHOLOGY The time for a final discussion of Fox folklore and mythology is hardly ripe. For comparative purposes the data are too meager. We are practically without any Sauk material; the Kickapoo published (Jones) and unpublished (Michelson) col- lections are inadequate; the published Potawatomi material is negligible, and that unpublished (Skinner, Michelson) is prob- ably insufficient; the unpublished^ material of Peoria folklore and mythology (Gatschet, Michelson) is adequate ; the published Cree, Algonkin, and Ottawa collections are deficient; the pub- lished Menominee material is adequate; the published and un- published (Jones) material of Ojibwa folklore and mythology is extremely extensive; and so is that of Fox, especially the un- published portion (Michelson). So that even a comparative study of the folklore and mythology of only Central Algonkins would be very one-sided. When the inadequate published data from such Siouan tribes as the Iowa, Winnebago, and Osage are taken into account, it will .be seen that a truly comprehensive study of Fox folklore and mythology is, for the present, quite out of the question. Happily there is plenty of unpubHshed Winnebago material (Radin), and possibly Iowa (Skinner), so that in the near future conditions may be distinctly improved. At the present time the only adequate collections of Siouan folklore and mythology are from the Assiniboine, Crow, and Omaha ; the published material of the Sioux proper is insufficient. ^ Also in a couple of other loan-words. ' See now Michelson, Joum. Amer. Folk-Lore 30: 493-495. 526 micheivSOn: pox Indians The late Professor Chamberlain ^° undertook a brief com- parative study of the myth of the culture-hero among Central Algonquian tribes, but the Sauk and Fox material available at that time seems to have escaped him; and it must be said in justice to him that it was not readily accessible. The paper by the late J. Owen Dorsey/^ should be read in connection with Professor Chamberlain's article. Some years later Professor Dixon ^- published a comparative study of the mythology of Central and Eastern Algonkins. As he was able to use the Fox collections of Jones, his paper is of importance to us. Unfor- tunately his sources are not given, nor are the mythologies of the plains Indians used in his study. Nevertheless this article is very useful as a stepping-stone. The essential points which Dixon seeks to establish as regards Fox folklore and mythology are: (i) Fox has one set of non-culture-hero incidents with Menominee, and another with Cree-Ojibwa; (2) Fox shares with Ojibwa but few such incidents in common with the Eastern group, though both, especially Ojibwa, have a number of such incidents with this group; (3) Fox has a number of elements which are typically Iroquoian; (4) Fox and Potawatomi form a special group among the Central Algonquian tribes. Additional material, published and unpublished, since 1909, shows that these theses will have to be somewhat modified. I have gone over Barbeau's Huron and Wyandot Mythology and find that with one possible exception Fox has not a single incident in common with Huron-Wyandot which is not shared with some other Central Algonquian tribe. And my unpublished Pota- watomi material, which, though inadequate, is far greater in extent than that published, tends to show that the fourth thesis is wrong. Fox folklore and mythology is treated but incidentally by Dr. Radin in his Literary aspects of North American myth- ology, but it should be stated that on page 8 he has confused the Fox and Menominee versions of the cycle of the death of the culture-hero's younger brother. The general subject of the 1" Joum. Amer. Folklore 4: 193-213. " Ibidem 5: 293-304, "Nanibozhu in Siouan Mythology." '* Ibidem 22: 1-9 [Jan.-March, 1909]. michelson: fox Indians 527 mythology and folk tales of North American Indians is treated by Boas.^^ I have spoken above of my unpublished collection of Fox folklore and mythology. This consists of several thousand manuscript pages written out by Indians themselves. It should be mentioned that even the stories previously published by Jones have an entirely distinct literary style in this collection. I presume this is due to the difference in the method of collect- ing the material. However, it must not be assumed that all my Fox myths and tales are of a single style. Indeed, on the basis of style alone it would be possible to refer many to their respective authors. For example, informant A is extremely pro- lix, and fond of detail ; informant B is brief, but lugs in the rolling- skull episode on every possible occasion ; informant A is a skillful narrator and the tale runs along smoothly and with artistic effect; informant C is unusually awkward; though his tale may contain every incident in the corresponding story of informant A, nevertheless there are distinct breaks in the narrative, and so his tale could not be printed without patching up these portions, however valuable it might be for linguistic purposes or for a control of the myths and tales of others. A question I hope to take up at a future date is the choice of words and phrases among different informants. As to the contents of the above collection. A large percent- age of the myths and tales in Jones' Fox Texts has been dupU- cated; almost all of these occur with rather greater detail than in his collection; numerous other myths and tales, among them the Cosmic Myth, about 1,200 manuscript pages, of the type represented in his collection naturally have also been collected: the distinguishing features of my collection are the more numer- ous animal tales ; many stories clearly of European origin ; origin- legends of gentes; ritualistic origin-myths. I have previously pointed out some of the European cycles. ^^ To these may be added a fox cycle of considerable length and another called "Tiger;" and it may be noted that Cosmic Myth (the story of Me'sA'kAmigo'kwaw"") has an enormous number of incidents '^ Joum. Amer. Folklore 27: 374-410. " Amer. Anthrop., n. ser. 15: 699. 528 michelson: fox Indians that are patently European. The French-Canadian coUections by Barbeau in the Journal of American Folklore make it prob- able that Ca'kana'''' is not a corruption of Jacques le but rather of Jacquelin. Skinner's statement^^ that "the Central Algonkin as a whole have not absorbed much folklore that is European" is not justified by the facts of Fox or Peoria tales. I have made a brief study of Fox ritualistic origin myths. ^^ The essential point is that thus far this particular type of ritualistic origin myths is unique owing to the profusion of information con- tained in them. The value of these myths for strictly ethnolog- ical studies has also been emphasized. As said above, the time is not yet ripe for a final discussion of Fox folklore and mythology. Nevertheless an opinion based on the present materials ma}'' be of some value. Disregarding the origin-legends of gentes and ritualistic origin-myths^'' for the lack of comparative material, it is clear that Fox folklore and mythology is composed of woodland, plains, and European elements. ^^ The plains elements are firmly established by the distribution of the tales corresponding to the Fox story of how the culture-hero (Wi'sA'ka'A') rolls himself downhill to catch turkeys, and the tale of his eating the artichoke ; correspondents to the former occur among the Skidi Pawnee, Caddo, Biloxi, AHbamu, and Ojibwa (ducks secondarily) ; to the latter among the Menominee, Eastern Dakota, Assiniboine, Crow, Pawnee, Skidi Pawnee, Arikara, and Wichita. The occurrence of cor- respondents to the Fox story of the beaver and culture-hero among the Peoria, Ponca, and Shoshoni also points to the plains as a center of distribution. If I have emphasized the occurrence of plains-elements in Fox folklore and mythology, it is because hitherto the stress has been on the woodland-elements. From the materials available it would seem as if Kickapoo folklore and mythology on the whole are closest to those of Fox, and that Ojibwa folklore and mythology are rather remotely con- nected therewith. ^ Joum. Amer. Folklore 27: 100. ^^ This Journal 6 : 209-2 1 1 . 1916. \ " The native term for such as refer to the festivals of the gentes is klgdnowi'dte' sd'kdgAti"''' (plural -AWAg^''). ^* Compare Amer. Anthrop., n. ser. 15: 699. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. GEOLOGY. — Oxidized zinc ores of Leadville, Colo. G. F. Loughlin. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 68i. Pp. 91, pis. 8, figs. 7. 1918. Although deposits of oxidized zinc ores at Leadville, Colo., had been exposed in mine workings for many years previously, it was not until 19 10 that their character and extent began to be realized. Since that year large quantities have been mined annually. Bulletin 681 begins with a review of early accounts of zinc carbonate and silicate and of the recent discovery of the ore bodies. It then describes in detail the oxidized zinc ore minerals and minerals associated with them, the varieties of ore, their range in metal content, their distribution and extent, and their genesis. G. F. L. GEOLOGY.— r/z^ evaporation and concentration of waters associated with petroleum and natural gas. R. Van A. Mills and R. C. Wells. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 693. Pp. 104, pis. 4, figs 5. 1919. The widely observed association of saline waters with petroleum and natural gas is ascribed by the authors, at least in many cases, to deep- seated concentration brought about by evaporation into moving and expanding gas. During this concentration there is a definite order of change in the relative proportions of the dissolved constituents in the waters. Carbon dioxide and other gases are lost from solution. Cal- cium, magnesium, and iron separate from solution as carbonates, and, under favorable conditions, sodium chloride separates, — a process illus- trated in the "salting up" of gas wells. In discussing these changes the authors present evidence based on field studies as well as laboratory determinations, including the results of examinations of the rock specimens, analyses of the waters, the determination of the solubility of salt in solutions carrying calcium chloride, the vapor pressure of water in illuminating gas, and a resum^ of the initial gas pressures in several gas fields. Elaborate compar- 529 530 abstracts: ge;oi.ogy isons are also given between the deep-seated Appalachian brines, sea water, and surface waters, intended to show the probable changes that have taken place in the oil and gas field waters. In short, the com- plete history of the waters is sketched, as nearly as it is possible to do so, from the time of their inclusion in the sediments to the present. Effects likely to be caused by changes in temperature and pressure such as it is reasonable to suppose may have affected the strata are pointed out. Some practical applications of the principles and discussion are given. It is suggested that analyses of the waters in or near oil and gas fields may throw light not only on the location of the more valu- able fluids, but also on the probable reactions and precipitations that might ensue when the different waters are allowed to mix either in the wells or in the strata. Careful consideration should also be given to the movements and rearrangements that the oil, gas, and water under- go incident to extraction. R. C. W. GEOLOGY. — Relations of Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic forma- tions of southwestern Montana and adjacent parts of Wyoming. D. Dale Condit. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 120-F. 19 18. Pp. 111-121, pis. 5, fig. I. This paper presents evidence found in southwestern Montana con- cerning the great Jurassic base-leveling and its bearing on the solution of certain stratigraphic problems involving late Paleozoic, Triassic, and Jurassic formations, and sets forth the relations of those formations to beds in western Wyoming. The conclusions briefly summarized are as follows: Prior to the encroachment of the sea from the northwest in late Jurassic time prolonged erosion and base-leveling occurred over much of the Rocky Mountain region. From Idaho State line near Yellow- stone National Park northward to the vicinity of Helena the erosion surface thus produced truncates beds of Triassic and Carboniferous age, through a stratigraphic range of about 1,000 feet. The Quadrant quartzite at the type locality in the northwestern part of Yellowstone Park is approximately equivalent to the Amsden and Tensleep formations in Wyoming. The Park City (Pennsylvan- ian and Permian), Dinwoody (Lower Triassic), and Chugwater (largely Triassic) of the Wyoming section are in part represented by the Teton formation of Yellowstone Park. The quartzitic cherty basal beds of the Teton, containing the phosphate rock, are equivalent to the Phos- abstracts: geology 531 phoria formation of Idaho, which corresponds to the upper part of the Park City formation. In western Montana north of latitude 45° 30' the overlying Triassic shaly limestone and red shale were removed by the Jurassic erosion and the Ellis formation (Upper Jurassic) rests on the partly eroded Phosphoria formation. R. W. Stone. GEOLOGY.— Ceo/og^y of northeastern Montana. Arthur J. Collier. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 120-B. Pp. 17-39, pis. 6, figs. 5. 1918. Describes a large thinly settled region in northeast Montana which is part of the Great Plains. The topography is discussed and forma- tions from Cambrian to Jurassic exposed in Little Rocky Mountains are described briefly. The Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary form- ations are described more fully, and the geologic structure is explained. Drainage diversion due to the invasion of ice during the glacial epoch forms an interesting conclusion of the report. R. W. StonE. GEOLOGY. — A contribution to the geology of northeastern Texas and southern Oklahoma. Lloyd William Stephenson. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 120-H. Pp. 129-163, pis. 14. 1918. This paper sets forth the present state of knowledge in the areal mapping, in the interpretation of structure, and in correlation, and indicates certain mappable units and structural features that have not heretofore been recognized in the region in central and northeastern Texas and southern Oklahoma known as the Black and Grand prai- ries. The area lies near the northwestern border of the Gulf Coastal Plain in northeastern Texas and southern Oklahoma, and is a dis- sected coastal-plain upland ranging in altitude from about 530 feet in the southeast to 850 feet in places in the northwest. The drain- ageways of the area present many good examples of consequent, sub- sequent, obsequent and perhaps other classes of streams. The area is underlain throughout its extent by strata of Cretaceous age, which rest upon a buried, moderately smooth basement com- posed of ancient rocks. The tilted peneplained surface of the base- ment rocks dips to the south from the northern boundary at rates estimated to range in different places from 50 to 70 feet or more to the mile, and to the southeast from the western boundary at rates prob- ably ranging from 40 to 50 feet to the mile. The basement rocks are separated from the overlying Cretaceous deposits by an unconformity representing a long interval of geologic time, including at least the Triassic and Jurassic periods and prob- ably a considerable part of the Lower Cretaceous epoch. 532 abstracts: geology The Cretaceous deposits are divisible into two great series, a lower, the Comanche series, which appears at the surface about the flanks of the Preston anticline in the northwestern part of the area and has an estimated thickness of 800 to 1,000 feet, and an upper, the Gulf series, which has an estimated thickness of at least 3,000 feet and the outcrop of which covers considerably more than half the area. Each of these series is separable into subordinate divisions. The Gulf series is unconformably overlain by strata of Eocene age which appear at the southeast in a relatively small part of the area. In general the strike of the strata is parallel to the inner margin of the Coastal Plain, and the dip is coastward from this margin at rates ranging from 30 feet or less to 80 feet or more to the mile. A considerable departure from the prevailing regularity in strike and dip occurs in the north- western and central parts of the area, in connection with the Preston anticline. The Cretaceous deposits consist of sand, shaly clay, calcareous shaly clay, limestone, and chalk. Pleistocene alluvial terrace deposits largely conceal the Cretaceous formations in a broad area. R. W. Stone. GEOLOGY. — Geology and ore deposits of the Yerington district, Nevada. Adolph Knopf. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 114. Pp. 68, pis. 5, figs. 12. 1918. The Yerington district in western Nevada is, next to Ely, the most productive copper district in the State. The oldest rocks of the dis- trict consist of andesites, keratophyres, and limestone, with subor- dinate shale, quartzite, and gypsum, all of Triassic age. They were intruded in post-Triassic time, probably early in the Cretaceous, by granodiorite, which was followed by quartz monzonite. These intru- sions intensely metamorphosed the rocks they invaded and converted large areas of them into lime-silicate rocks. After this metamorphism the region was cut by numerous dikes of quartz monzonite porphyry. Faulting then ensued, and along the faults ore-forming solutions rose and produced the copper deposits to which the district owes its economic importance. The Tertiary rocks, resting with marked unconformity on the Meso- zoic group, are chiefly volcanic and are at least 7,000 feet thick. They fall into three major groups which are separated by two well-marked unconformities. The lowest subdivision consists of quartz latite, rhyolite, and andesite breccia; and it is probably the correlative of the Esmeralda formation of Upper Miocene age. The middle subdi- ABSTRACTS: ZOOGEJOGRAPHY 533 vision consists of andesite flows resting in places on the eroded edges of the rhyoUtes. The uppermost subdivision consists of subangular conglomerate overlain by basalt. The principal ore bodies consist of pyrite and chalcopyrite in a gangue of pyroxene, garnet, and epidote. They are replacement deposits of limestone developed along fault zones and are of the contact-meta- morphic type. The primary ore is essentially unenriched by later sulphides. The average tenor of the ore mined has ranged from 2 . 75 to 6 per cent of copper. A. K. ANTHROPOLOGY. — The Maya Indians of southern Yucatan and northern British Honduras. Thomas W. F. Gann. Bull. Amer. Ethnol. 64. Pp. 146, pis. 28, text figs. 84. 1918. The Maya Indians will always be noteworthy as those who attained the highest cultural development in America, or at least in North America. A study of the living representatives of that race or of their antiquities is therefore doubly welcome and in the present bulle- tin we have both; Part i being devoted to the "Customs, Ceremonies, and Mode of Life" of the modern Maya and Part 2 to "Mound Ex- cavation in the Eastern Maya Area." The former, covering 36 pages, considers the habitat, personal characteristics — including the material culture — and the social characteristics^including religion; the latter contains a short description of the ancient inhabitants of the region as revealed by studies of the mounds and objects found in them, but the larger part of the section, and of the work itself, 84 pages, is devoted to the archeological remains themselves. J. R. Swanton. « ZOOGEOGRAPHY.— Lt> zone investigations in Wyoming. MerriTT Gary. N. Amer. Fauna 42: 1-95, pis. 15, figs. 17. 1918. This bulletin embodies the results of many years' exploration in Wy- oming by the author and other members of the Biological Survey. These investigations serve to emphasize the diversified character of the physiography of Wyoming. Its chief characteristics are its many mountain ranges, vast, open rolling plains, and deep-cut valleys due to the numerous streams. The cHmate of the State is mainly arid, the rainfall from 10 to 20 inches, with warm summers and cold win- ters. As a consequence of these physiographic conditions the life 2ones of the State show remarkable diversity. Of the seven trans- 534 abstracts: zoogeography continental life areas all but two occur in Wyoming; and their interre- lationships are, as would be expected, greatly complicated. These five zones with a few of their characteristic species are as follows: The Upper Austral Zone (represented here by its western arid sub- division, the Upper Sonoran), which occupies most of the valleys and lower plains, is the home of the broad-leaved cotton wood, juniper, salt bush and yucca; of such mammals as Eutamias minimus pictus, Citellus tridecemlineatus parvus, Lepus californicus melanotis, and of such breeding birds as Zenaidura macroura marginella, Tyrannus vociferans, Passerina amoena, and Icteria virens longicauda. The Transition Zone, which embraces the high plains, the basal slopes of the mountains, and all the foot-hills except the highest, and covers fully half the State, is characterized by yellow pine, narrow- leaved Cottonwood, and sage brush; such mammals as Odocoileus vir- ginianus macrourus, Sciurus hudsonicus dakotensis, Neotoma cinerea cinerea, and Lepus townsendi campanius; and such breeding birds as Centrocercus urophasianus , Cryptoglaux acadica acadica, Empidonax wrightii, Cyanocephalus cyanocephalus, and Hylocichla fusescens sali- cicola. The Canadian Zone, which covers the middle mountain slopes and the highest foot-hill ranges, is the boreal forest belt of spruce, fir, lodge- pole pine, and aspen ; and is furthermore delimited by such mammals as Alces americanus shirasi, Glaucomys sahrinus bangsi, Phenacomys oro- philus, Evotomys gapperi galei, and Lepus americanus americanus; and such birds as Charitonetta arbeola, Nuttallornis borealis, Melospiza lincolnii lincolnii, and Sitta canadensis. The Hudsonian Zone, which is a narrow belt covering the timber line region, is marked chiefly by the white-barked pine, dwarfed spruce and fir; together with such mammals as Ovis canadensis canadensis, Eu- tamias oreocetes, and Ochotona uinta; and such birds as Nucifraga Colum- biana and Pinicola enucleator montana. The Arctic- Alpine Zone, which occupies the mountain crests and the portion of the peaks above timberline, is a treeless area, the vegetation of which is limited to low bushes and other humble plants like Dryas octopetala and Poa arctica, and is the home of such breeding birds as Lagopus leucurus altipetens, Leucosticte australis, Leucosticte atrata, and Anthus spinoletta rubescens. Under each of these zones detailed lists of mammals, breeding birds, and plants are given, and a further list showing the distribution of all the conspicuous trees and shrubs of Wyoming which are of importance in delineating the life zones is also added. Harry C. Oberholser. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS MATTERS OP SCIENTIFIC INTEREST IN CONGRESS' Mr. Fess has re-introduced his bill for a national university, which failed of final action in the Sixty-fifth Congress. ^ The present bill is H. R. 9353: "To create a national university at the seat of the Federal Government." The institution, to be known as the "National University of the United States," is to be governed by a board of trus- tees, consisting of the U. S. Commissioner of Education and twelve appointed members; the acts of the board are subject to approval by an advisory council, consisting of one representative (usually the presi- dent of the State University) from each State. No student is to be admitted unless he shall have obtained the degree of master of science or master of arts from an institution of recognized standing. No academic degrees are to be conferred. An initial appropriation of $500,000 is provided. The bill was referred to the Committee on Edu- cation. A fact of interest to the scientific public is that the "Army reorganiza- tion bill" (S. 2715, Mr. Wads worth; and H. R. 8287, Mr. Kahn) makes no mention of the Chemical Warfare Service. In his letter accompanying the bill, Secretary of War Baker suggests that the Chemical Warfare Service be made a part of the Engineer Corps. The proposal to abolish the Service as a distinct unit, comparable with the Tank Corps, is being vigorously opposed by the Council of the Amer- ican Chemical Society. Warnings issued by the Public Health Service in September that a recurrence of the 191 8 pandemic of influenza was probable in the autumn months of 1919, stirred renewed interest in the various bills and resolu- tions providing for investigations of that disease, but no final action had been taken at the time of this report, although Mr. Harding's S. J. Res. '76 was reported in the Senate on October i. On September 3, Mr. McKellar introduced S. 2920: "To enable the Secretary of Agriculture to carry out investigations of the causes and means of prevention of fires and dust explosions in industrial plants." The bill provides $100,000 for such investigations. Referred to the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry. A plan for private development, under Federal concessions, of the platinum resources of Alaska is contained in H. R. 8988: "To incor- porate the United States Platinum Corporation and to aid in the de- velopment of the mineral resources of Alaska, and for other purposes," introduced on September 3 by Mr. O'Connell (by request). The proposed Corporation would have a capital stock not to exceed $50,000,- 000; would be exempt from Federal taxation; would be empowered to receive concessions and leases of government-owned platinum sands in Alaska; would pay a royalty of one-eighth of its net products; and would furnish $100,000 for the maintenance of five "U. S. Govern- ment Commissioners of Platinum and its Allied Industries," whose duties are not defined in the bill. Referred to the Committee on Pub- lic Lands. 1 Preceding report : This Journai, 9:454. 1919. - See This Journal 8: 76. 191 8. 536 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS No action was taken on the invitation of the French Government' to send delegates to a meteorological conference in Paris on September 30, and the United States was, therefore, not officially represented. NOTES The proposed American Meteorological Society, formal organiza- tion of which is suggested for action in connection with the next meet- ing of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, is expected to have a large Washington membership, drawn from the staff of the Weather Bureau and from among the meteorologists of the Army and Navy. It is suggested that the Monthly Weather Review be made the medium for publishing meteorological and climatological articles, while a monthly leaflet published by the Society would con- tain news, announcements, notes, and queries. Mr. L. B. Aldrich of the Astrophysical Observatory reports from the Smithsonian Station on Mt. Wilson, California, the successful opera- tion of a new instrument for measuring the loss of heat of the earth to space at night. Prof. AivFRED F. Barker, Professor of Textile Industries at the University of Leeds, England, visited Washington in September to study the work being done in the Division of Textiles of the National Museum. Dr. C. Bonne and his wife, Mrs. C. Bonne -Wepster, of Surinam (Dutch Guiana), students of South American mosquitoes, are spending two months at the National Museum in the study of the mosquito collection. Mr. R. Y. Ferner, formerly with the Bureau of Standards, has re- signed his position as assistant purchasing officer in the Emergency Fleet Corporation, where he had charge of the purchase of navigational outfits, and has opened an office in the Maryland Building, Washington, for the supplying of technical information and service to manufacturers and others. Brig. Gen. Charles F. Lee, of the British Royal Air Force, who lectured before the Academy in March, 191 8, on "Aviation and the War," was killed in an aeroplane accident in England on September 2. Mr. Paul C. Standley, of the Division of Plants, U. S. National Museum, has returned from a collecting trip through Glacier National Park, Montana. Data were secured for a handbook of the plants of the Park, to be issued by the National Park Service for the use of tour- ists. About four thousand herbarium specimens were collected. 3 This Journal 9: 455. 1919- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 NOVEMBER 4, 19 19 No. 18 PHYSICS. — The spectral photoelectric sensitivity of molybdenite as a function of the applied voltage. W. W. CoblENTZ and H. KahlER, Bureau of Standards. In a previous investigation it was observed that the spectral photoelectric sensitivity of molybdenite is confined practically within three spectral bands, the maxima of which are separated by equal intervals, when plotted in terms of frequency instead of wave lengths. The present investigation was undertaken in order to test the validity of this frequency relation, using for the purpose a quartz prism which gave twice the dispersion formerly obtained with a fluorite prism. The sample of molybdenite was soldered to copper wire terminals, and operated in an evacuated chamber as in previous work. The photoelectric substance, the dry battery and the d'Arsonval galvanometer were connected in series. The deflection caused by the small dark current was overcome by rotating th^ suspension head of the galvanometer. The results obtained with this apparatus appear to verify the previous observations, indicating that the frequency max- ima of photoelectrical sensitivity are separated by equal intervals, which decrease with temperature; the arbitrary wave-number being w = 40 at 25 °C. and w = 30 at — i75°C. A new voltage phenomenon. — A photo-negative action (re- sistance increase) has been observed in certain samples of sele- nium,^ when exposed to the total radiation from an incandescent 1 RiES, Phys. Zeits. 9: 569. 1908. Brown, Phys. Rev. 33: i. 191 1. 537 538 COBLENTZ AND KAHLER : PHOTOELECTRIC SENSITIVITY lamp. A similar spectral photo-negative response was observed in some samples of stibnite,- when exposed to radiations of wave- lengths less than X = 0.657 M- But heretofore no one appears to have observed that, for wave-lengths less than about 0.65 n, the nature of the photoelectric response depends upon the voltage applied to the substance under test. We have found in some samples of molybdenite that, for the visible spectrum extending to about X = 0.647 M, the electric response is photo-positive or photo-negative, depending upon the voltage applied to the terminals of the receiver. For wave- lengths greater than X = 0.647 M the photoelectric response was observed to be photo-positive whatever the applied voltage. The region of transition in the spectrum, in which the action changes from photo-negative to photo-positive, is very narrow — less than 9 AU. The critical voltage is very small, as may be inferred from the fact that an increase of 1.3 volts (additional dry cell) changed a positive-negative galvanometer deflection of ± i cm. into a purely negative deflection of — 24 to — 26 cm., which is the photo-negative response under discussion. There seem to be two contending forces acting. The one which causes the photo-positive respons:^ acts quickly and prevails on low voltage. The photo-negative action builds up more slowly and is predominant on high voltages. As a result of these two forces, for certain applied voltages, on exposing the molybdenite receiver to light of wave-lengths less than 0.647 M. the galvanom- eter deflection is first positive, then decreases in value (and may even become negative) when, on shutting off the light stimulus, there is a further deflection in the negative direction, after which the deflection returns to the original zero scale read- ing. For example, using the wave-length X = 0.5876 /j. as a light stimulus, and applying a potential of 10 volts, the galvanometer deflection was almost entirely positive. On 20 volts the de- flection was partly positive and partly negative. On 29 volts the positive response was almost eliminated, and the negative 2 Elliot, Phys. Rev. 5: 62. 191 5. FERGUSON: OXIDATION OF LAVA 539 response prevailed. On 33 volts the galvanometer deflection was entirely negative and eight times as large as the observed maximum purely positive deflection for 10 volts. In another test, at a slightly lower temperature ( — i04°C.), which raises the critical voltage, changing from 35.6 volts to 37 volts trans- formed the positive-negative deflection of =*= ^ tnm. into a nega- tive deflection of — 230 mm. These tests were carried out at — ioo°C. to — i78°C. It is of interest to note that the photo-positive action is the same as a resistance decrease caused by a rise in temperature of the material, while the photo-negative action is similar to the build- ing up of a counter-electromotive force (the electrolytic action), previously observed in silver sulfide. An equal-energy spectrum was used for the radiation stimulus and if this phenomenon were the result of heating and of electrolytic action, then the photo-positive response should occur in the short wave-lengths where the absorption is greatest, and the photo-negative re- sponse should occur in the long wave-lengths where the photo- electric activity is the greatest. This is just the reverse of what has been observed. No explanation of this phenomenon is attempted at this time. Even if it is "only a gas effect," "electrolytic action" or "surface charge," it is unique in being selective as to the wave- length of the exciting radiation and in being photo-positive or photo-negative, depending upon the applied voltage. It there- fore requires further investigation. GEOCHEMISTRY. — Tlte oxidation of lava by steam. J. B. Ferguson, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington. Crystals of olivine and other iron-bearing minerals are found associated with glass in the normal Kilauean lava, and some years ago the question arose as to whether their presence might be taken as evidence bearing upon the probable water content of the volcanic exhalations. Preliminary experiments^ made 1 Day, a. L., and Shepherd, E. S., Water and volcanic activity. Bull. Geol. vSoc. Amer. 24: 602. 1913. Smithsonian Report for 1913, 302 (Publication 2286). 540 FERGUSON: OXIDATION OF LAVA at that time by the writer indicated that the lava was not ap- preciably attacked by water vapor at temperatures in the neigh- borhood of iooo°C. and that the presence in the lava of so much iron in the ferrous condition was not at variance with the water content of the emanations observed by Day and Shepherd.^ These experimental results, obtained in 191 2 and 1913, are now presented as a matter of record. Most of the writers who have speculated upon the role that water plays in the chemical reactions which take place in the volcanic vent during an eruption have based much of their speculation upon the equation' 3FeO + H2O Z^ Fe304 + H2 + 15400 cal. This equation must not be taken too literally, because recent investigations^ have indicated that the action of steam upon a ferrous iron oxide at high temperatures gives rise to a "mag- netite" of variable composition. The actual composition ob- tained is dependent upon the temperature.^ An analysis of a fresh flow of Kilauean lava" shows 9.28 per cent FeO and 1.92 per cent Fe203. The ratio of ferrous to ferric iron in this rock is much greater than the ratio in magnetite (1:2) and, were we deaUng with the pure iron oxides only, this fact might be used as an argument against the presence of a preponderance of water vapor in the gas phase. The lava, however, does not contain ferrous oxide as a separate phase. The ferrous iron exists mainly in the silicate minerals and the glass, together with a little in the traces of magnetite which are probably present, although microscopic examination does not show appreciable amounts of Fe304. The equations which would 2 Day and Shepherd, Loc. cit. Shepherd, E. S., Bull. Hawaiian Volcano Obs. 7 (July). 1919. * Chamberlin, R. T., Carnegie Publication No. io6: 66. 1903. R. A. Daly, Igneous rocks and their origin, p. 272. 1914. Von Wolff, Vulkanisnius, I, p. 116. 1914. ^ Htlpert, S., and Beyer, J., Ber. deutsch. Chem. Ges. 44: 1618. 1911. * The whole problem of the various oxides of iron is an exceedingly difficult one to study experimentally and much yet remains to be done before the problem can be considered satisfactorily solved. * Ferguson, J. B., Am. Journ. Sci. 37: 400. Analysis B. 1914. FERGUSON: OXIDATION OF LAVA 54I represent the reaction between water and the ferrous iron in the silicates might be quite different in character from the equation given for the pure oxides, and an assumption of analogous be- havior in these cases appears to be a somewhat risky matter.^ Indeed, Thaddeef's^ results upon the oxidation of olivine by ignition in air indicate that the oxides are much more easily oxidized than is the ferrous iron of the olivine. He found that only two-thirds of the iron present in this silicate could be oxi- dized by such ignition, whereas it is common knowledge that ferrous oxide would be readily changed to ferric oxide under similar treatment.^ My results qualitatively confirm the observations of Thad- deef in this respect and were carried out as follows: Materials. — A piece of lava from the crater floor of Kilauea was crushed in a hardened steel mortar and the part that passed the twenty but not the forty mesh sieve (0.38-0.86 mm.) and also the part that passed the two hundred mesh sieve (less than 0.074 mm.) were used. The nitrogen was made from sodium nitrite, or by removal of oxygen from air by copper, and was passed through the usual purifying and drying train. Apparatus and procedure. — The furnace was a platinum- wound resistance furnace of the type usually employed in this laboratory. The temperatures were determined by means of a platinum-platinrhodium thermoelement and a suitable potentiom- eter set-up. A long porcelain tube was placed in the furnace so that it projected twenty or thirty cm. out of the furnace at one end and five or six cm. at the other. The charge was placed in a platinum boat in the porcelain tube, and the boat had at- tached to it a stiff platinum wire which enabled one to insert the boat into the hot portion of the tube or to withdraw it into the colder portion at will. ^ Such an assumption appears to have been made by Brun, who states that water vapor du-ectly oxidizes the ferrous siHcate to magnetite. His statement is not con- firmed by analyses of the soHd products after reaction with water, but rests on the change in color of the rock and the presence of hydrogen, together with CO and CO2, in the gases evolved. Arch. sci. phys. nat. 41: 404. 1916. 8 ThaddeEF, K. Z., Kryst. 26: 77. 1896. 9 SosMAN, R. B., and HosTETTER, J. C, Joiu-n. Amer. Chem. Soc. 38: 820. 1916. 542 i^Erguson: oxidation of lava For the steam experiments the steam-generating apparatus was attached to that end of the porcelain tube which projected 5-6 cm. from the furnace. This apparatus consisted of a boiler and pre-heater. The latter also acted as a trap for liquid water. The boiler had two valves so that the water in it could be boiled for some time to expel all oxygen before an experiment was started. The rest of the apparatus was so arranged that it could be initially swept out with pure nitrogen and then, after the steam had been shut off at the close of an experiment, could be again filled with nitrogen. The water that condensed in the cold portion of the porcelain tube was wiped out before the boat was withdrawn. During the wiping-out process and the cooling of the charge an atmosphere of pure nitrogen was maintained. Typical experiment. — Five grams of lava powder were placed in the platinum boat and the boat placed in the cold end of the porcelain tube. Nitrogen was then admitted to the apparatus and all the air swept out. The boat was then pushed into the hot portion of the porcelain tube. The nitrogen was partly shut off and steam admitted. When a good flow of steam was obtained through the furnace the nitrogen was entirely shut off. The porcelain tube was so tilted that the water condensing in the colder portion of the tube, after passing the hot zone, would drain away from the furnace. After the experiment had run for the desired time the steam was gradually replaced by nitrogen. The liquid water in the end of the porcelain tube was wiped out (a good flow of nitrogen prevented the access of air during this operation) and then the boat was withdrawn to the cold portion of the tube and, when cold, removed. A part of the charge was ana- lyzed for ferrous iron by the modified Pratt method as used by Washington. ^° Calcium phosphate as recommended by Gage was used to aid in the determination of the end points in the permanganate titration. ^^ It should be noted that if any of the reducing gases present in the rock dissolved when the rock sample was brought into solution, they would be titrated and would appear as ferrous iron. 1° Washington, H. S., The chemical analysis oj rocks, 2d Ed., p. 136-138. 1910; 3d Ed., p. 186-190. 1919. " Journ. Amer. Chem. See. 31: 381-385. 1909. FERGUSON: OXIDATION OF LAVA 543 TABLE I ResuIvTs of Experiments with a Kilauean Lava in Contact with Nitrogen AND Steam Exp. No. Initial FeO Final FeO Ga Fineness Time of of Percent- content content per inch Remarks in FeO I 8. 69 8 69 ' 7-93 nitrogen I 20-40 1000 8.8 8 71 2 8 69" 8 69 7.90 nitrogen I 20-40 1000 9,2 8 71 . 3 8 69 8 69 • 8.25 nitrogen I 20-40 1000 5-2 8 71 . 4 8 69 8 69 • 8.16 nitrogen 2 20-40 1000 6.2 8 71 ^ and steam (steam) 5 8 69 8 69 ■ 7-91 nitrogen 2 20-40 1000 91 8 71 and steam (steam) 6 8 69^ 8 69 • 7.98 nitrogen 2 20-40 1000 8.3 8 71 and steam (steam) 7 8 69^ 8 69 > 7-91 nitrogen 2 20-40 1000 91 8 71 and steam (steam) 8 8 69' 8 69 \ 8.31 nitrogen I 20-40 IIOO 4-5 8 •71 J and steam (steam) 9 8 .69 1 8 69 \ 8.37 nitrogen I 20-40 II 00 3.8 8 •71 J lO 9 ■32 7 7 84! 80/ nitrogen 1V2 200 1 000 16. 1 ' Air pumped out of charge and re- II 9-32 8 18 nitrogen V4 200 1000 12 .2 placed by nitrogen 12 9-32 8 06 nitrogen I 200 1000 13.5 before charge in- 13 9-32 7 80 nitrogen I 200 1000 16.3 serted into hot 14 9 32 7 87 nitrogen V2 200 1000 15.6, part of tube 15 9-32 7 7 93M 92M nitrogen I 200 1000 14.9 150 i6 9 32 7 95 \ nitrogen I 200 1000 12.5 8 37 j and steam (steam) 17 932 8 26 nitrogen V2 200 1 000 II. 4 ^ Time for experi- 0.1 mm. ments 2 hrs., in- pressure cluding heating i8 932 7-95 nitrogen 0 . 1 mm. pressure V2 200 1000 14-7 and cooling ^ Top of charge. 2 Bottom of charge. 544 FERGUSON: OXIDATION OF LAVA The results obtained in the experiments at atmospheric pres- sure and at a low pressure of nitrogen are given in table i. In addition, the results of two miscellaneous experiments are given below. ( 1 9) Some of the lava powder was heated in a platinum crucible in air over a Meker burner for two hours. The ferrous iron content was then found to be 1.94 per cent. (20) Some of the oxidized product obtained in experiment (19) was heated in a partial vacuum (o.i mm. of nitrogen) for 4 hours at iioo°C. The ferrous iron value was then found to have been raised from 1.94 to 3.90 per cent. A duplicate analy- sis gave 3.87 per cent. Discussion. — The results given in table i show that after heating there is a decrease in the ferrous iron content of the rock amounting, in terms of the ferrous iron originally present, to 4-9 per cent for the coarse powder and 11-16 per cent for the fine powder. The variations within each group are not trace- able in any way to the gas phase present. In fact the steam appears to have acted like an inert gas.^^ Just what is the complete cause of the decrease noted is some- what of a question. A certain apparent decrease in the ferrous iron content might be expected from the loss of the reducing gases which are liberated upon heating the lava, and some de- crease might also arise from the taking up of some iron by the platinum boat.^^ An actual decrease would occur if part of the ferrous iron were oxidized by adsorbed gases. These effects, would, however, be expected to be small. The decrease in ferrous iron must therefore be ascribed mainly to some reaction within the lava sample itself. The magnetite which formed when the lava crystallized^'* was probably the last ^2 It cannot be argued that the gas reacted only with the surface material and did not penetrate the charge, for experiment (15) shows that samples from the bottom and top of the charge contain exactly the same amoimt of ferrous iron. Also it can hardly be argued that there was a surface attack upon the lava grains since the re- sults with both fine and coarse materials show the same independence of the gas phase, and the same final ferrous iron content. '' SosMAN, R. B., and Hostetter, J. C, This Joltrnal. 5: 293. 1915. ^* After an experiment the material was found completely crystallized, although originally containing much glass. Ferguson: oxidation of lava 545 material to dissolve during the decomposition of the sample with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, and if the formation of this mineral were at the expense of the oxygen in the remainder of the lava, the analytical results would probably not indicate this but would rather show merely less ferrous iron. The mechanism of such a reaction within the lava with the formation of magnetite can only be speculated upon. Sosman^^ has suggested the possi- biUty of the presence of iron (Fe) in solution in the glass or min- erals after this reaction. Another possible reaction would be the formation of a lower oxide of titanium than the Ti02 usually reported. The fact that both the fine and coarse material, although of shghtly dififerent initial ferrous iron content, contain prac- tically the same percentages after treatment is probably trace- able to the larger percentage of glass and smaller percentage of Fe304 in the fine material. Whatever the cause of the small decrease in ferrous iron, and of the variations therein, the experiments leave no doubt that considerable ferrous iron, when in silicate combinations, can exist in the presence of water vapor at high temperatures. The vacuum experiment (No. 20) with the oxidized material shows clearly the ease with which oxygen can be removed from such materials and indicates that due regard must be given to this phenomenon not only in the study of the chemistry of lavas, but also in the interpretation of the results obtained in experi- ments in which gases are pumped from rocks at high tempera- tures. The data given in this article are of a qualitative rather than a quantitative character, and are not to be regarded as final data on the reactions of water vapor with iron-bearing silicates. The complete story cannot be obtained by experiments on so complex a material as a natural lava, but must be learned by experiments with simple siHcates of known composition. These results are presented here, however, on account of their current interest and in the absence of any fundamental data on the re- actions concerned. IB Private communication; see also this Journal. 7: 58. 1917 546 HITCHCOCK: Mexican grass The microscopic examination of the samples was made by H. K. Merwin of this Laboratory, RECAPITULATION Under certain conditions steam is capable of oxidizing iron and its lower oxides to magnetite, Fe304, or to ferric oxide, FcoOs. This fact has often been quoted as an indication of the probable oxidizing action of steam upon lava during volcanic activity. In this paper this reasoning from analogy is subjected to the light of recent investigations and found wanting. In addition, some experimental results are given which confirm the view that the ferrous iron is not thus oxidized, and indicate that the pres- ence of much ferrous iron in the lava and much steam in the volcanic emanations of Kilauea are two facts which are in full accord. Several miscellaneous experiments are also reported which show that in the experimental study of the chemistry of the lavas careful attention must be paid to the character of the gas phase in contact with the lava if results of value are to be obtained. The bearing of these experiments upon the interpre- tation of the results obtained by pumping gases from rocks at high temperatures need only be mentioned. BOTANY. — History of the Mexican grass, Ixophorus unisetus. A. S. Hitchcock, Bureau of Plant Industry. In 1 791 Thaddeus Haenke, a Bohemian botanist accompany- ing Malaspina on an exploring expedition to the Pacific coast of America, visited Mexico, stopping at San Bias and Acapulco. From the latter place he visited the interior of the country. His collections were sent to Prague and were examined by the botanists J. S. Presl and C. B. Presl, who finally published an account of a few famihes, including the grasses,^ under the title, Reliquiae Haenkeanae. In this work 15 genera and about 250 species of grasses were described as new. They came from the western coast of South America, Panama, Mexico, Monterey (California), Nootka Sound (Vancouver Island), and the Philip- pine and Marianne Islands. Some of the species, supposed to be new, proved to be the same as others previously described, 1 Presl, Rel. Haenk. i: 207-349, pi. 37-48. 1830. HITCHCOCK: MEXICAN GRASS 547 but a large number are still maintained as valid. The plants were deposited at the Bohemian Museum but, when the German University was established, the collections were divided, a part going to each institution. In 1907 the writer found a part of the Haenke grasses at the Bohemian Museum and a part at the German University. The labels on the specimens are meager, usually merely a single word, such as Mexico, Panama, Acapulco, and sometimes even this lacking. There is not always an agree- ment between the label on the specimen and the locality as published by Presl, and in a few cases there is evidence that the labels have been misplaced. The grass under consideration was described as Urochloa uniseta. The genus Urochloa was based upon Urochloa pani- coides,^ a species of Panicum from lie de France (Mauritius), referred to later in this article. This species has the spikelets in one-sided spikelike racemes with one or two slender stiff hairs on the pedicel below the spikelets. In Presl's species the spike- lets are in similar one-sided spikes and are subtended by bristles, a single one below each spikelet, these bristles being, however, sterile branchlets instead of hairs or trichomes as in Urochloa panicoides. The locality of U. uniseta as published is merely Mexico. The type specimen, at the German University, is labeled, "Urochloa uniseta Pr. Mexico, H." It is the upper part of a culm bearing three leaves and a panicle of about 20 spikes. In 1834 Trinius, in revising the section Setaria of the genus Panicum, remarked that Presl's Urochloa uniseta, which ap- parently he had not seen, probably belonged in Setaria and named it Panicum unisetum. In 1862 Schlechtendahl revised Setaria and its allies and es- tablished the genus Ixophorus, basing it upon Urochloa uniseta Presl. He also mentioned a specimen collected by Schiede, which he called I. schiedeana. This species is not described, the author merely saying that it is more delicate and the bristles are thinner and longer. In 1886 Fournier, who wrote an account of the grasses of Mex- ico, described a new species of Setaria, which he called 5. cirrhosa, 2 Beauv. Ess. Agrost. 52. pi. 11. fig. i. 1812. 548 HITCHCOCK: Mexican grass based upon a specimen (No. 387) collected at San Agustin (Oaxaca) by Liebmann, a Danish botanist, who made extensive collections in Mexico (Vera Cruz and Oaxaca). The type speci- men of this species was kindly sent for examination by the Director of the Botanical Museum at Copenhagen. It proves to be the same as Ixophorus unisetus. The specimen bears, in Fournier's handwriting, the name Panicum cirrhosum Fourn. n. sp., a name which, in pubUcation, he changed to Setaria cirrhosa. The species just mentioned is the fifth species of Setaria in Fournier's account. His sixth is Setaria uniseta, based upon Urochloa uniseta Presl. As number seven he hsts without de- scription Setaria schiedeana, based on Ixophorus schiedeanus Schlecht., stating that he has not seen this and that Schlechten- dahl does not describe it, thus inflicting on the botanist another nomen nudum. Thus the species remained until 1893, when several manu- script descriptions of Dr. George Vasey were pubHshed after his death. Under the name Panicum (Ptychophyllum) palmeri Vasey is published a new species based on a specimen collected by Dr. K. Palmer at Tequila, JaUsco, in 1886. Vasey remarked that this is near Setaria cirrhosa Fourn. Vasey referred this to the section Ptychophyllum of Panicum because of the single bristle below the spikelets, because of the inflorescence, which resembles that of P. sulcatum, and perhaps because of the rather broad blades. In 1895 Dr. J. N. Rose published an account of the plants col- lected in Mexico by Dr. E. Palmer in 1890 and 1891. Among the grasses is a new species credited to Dr. Vasey, Panicum {Ptychophyllum) pringlei. The specimens mentioned are Pr ingle 2047 and 2423, and Palmer 1256 in 1891. All are small forms of Ixophorus unisetus. Because of the specific name and be- cause Dr. Vasey has written the name upon Pringle 2423, this specimen is the type. In 1896 Beal published the same species as new under the name Panicum schiedeanum "Trin. ex. Steud. Nom. Ed. 2, 2: 263 (1841). P. Pringlei Vasey in ed.," basing it on Pringle's No. 2423 from Jahsco, which is the type of Panicum pringlei. Beal HITCHCOCK: MEXICAN GRASS 549 uses the name P. schiedeanum because it appears on the printed labels of the plants distributed by Pringle (No. 2423). The citation given by Beal, however, is a nomen nudum (a name without description or citation of a synonym). A specimen in the Trinius Herbarium labeled Panicum schiedeanum is a species of Paspalum. Beal gives Panicum palmeri Vasey on a succeeding page as a distinct species. In 1897 Scribner revised the genus Ixophorus, describing I. unisetus, I. pringlei Scribn. ''{Panicum schiedeanum Beal, not Trin.)," and I. pringlei var. minor Scribn. The descriptions of the forms do not differ except in the size of the vegetative parts, the specimens assigned to I. pringlei being smaller, the blades shorter and narrower, and the spikes fewer and shorter. The variety is a still more depauperate form, with blades only i to 3 inches long {Palmer 1256 in 1891 from CoHma, Mexico). Finally, in 1900, Scribner and Merrill, in their revision of the genus Chaetochloa (Setaria), listed among the excluded species Setaria cirrhosa Fourn. (see above), which they refer to Panicum as P. cirrhosum. In this they depended upon Fournier's de- scription as they had not seen the single collection cited by him. The above account of the nomenclatorial history of a little- known species is instructive as showing how variable are the judgments of different botanists, or of the same botanist at different times, when working with inadequate material. The single species has been described under five different specific names and has been referred to four genera. Fournier had not seen Presl's specimen and American authors had not seen Four- nier's nor Presl's specimens. Only recently has there been sufficient material to confirm the judgment that all the forms belong to one species. A peculiarity of the sterile palea is worthy of note. At first the margins, wide and thin, overlap and inclose the three large anthers of the sterile or lower floret. At maturity the margins expand and spread around the sterile lemma, appearing wingHke and papery. This expansion appears to be rather sudden as it is observed only in specimens with fruiting spikelets. 550 HITCHCOCK: MEXICAN GRASS Ixophorus unisetus is cultivated in Costa Rica as a forage grass under the name of Honduras grass (Zacate de Honduras). The synonymy of the species and a Hst of the specimens in the National Herbarium follow: Ixophorus unisetus (Presl) Schlecht. Urochloa uniseta Presl, Rel. Haenk. i: 319. 1830. Panicum unisetum, Trin. Mem. Acad. St. Petersb. VI. Sci, Nat. i: 217. 1834. Ixophorus unisetus Schlecht., Linnaea 31: 421. 1862. Ixophorus schiedeanus Schlecht. Linnaea 31: 421. 1862. Setaria schiedeana Fourn., Hemsl. Biol. Centr. Amer. Bot. 3: 505. 1885. Setaria uniseta Fourn., Hemsl. Biol. Centr. Amer. Bot. 3: 506. 1885. Setaria cirrhosa Fourn., Mex. PI. 2: 43. 1886. Panicum palmeriYasey, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb, i: 281. 1893 Panicum pringlei Vasey, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb, i: 363 1895- Panicum schiedeanum Trin., Beal, Grasses N. Amer. 2: 119 1886. Ixophorus pringlei Scribn., U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost Bull. 4: 6. pi. 2. 1897. Ixophorus pringlei minor Scribn. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost Bull. 4: 7. 1897. Panicum cirrhosum Scribn. & Merr., U. S. Dept. Agr. Div Agrost. Bull. 21: 40. 1900. DISTRIBUTION San Luis Potosi: Rascon, Pur pus 5425. Tepic: Acaponeta, Rose 14253. Jalisco: Tequila, Palmer 372 in 1886. Valley of the Rio Grande de Santiago, Pringle 2423. Near Guadalajara, Pringle 2047. Morelos: Trimenta, Orcutt 4407. Valley of Cuantla, Pringle 8493. Cuernavaca, Hitchcock 6821, 6841. Colima: Cohma, Palmer 141 in 1897, 1256 in 1891. Alzada, Hitchcock 7070, 7091. Jala, Hitchcock 7007. Guerrero: Iguala, Hitchcock 6695. Balsas, Hitchcock 6805. HITCHCOCK: MEXICAN GRASS 551 GuaTEmaIvA: Patulul, Heyde & Lux 6401. Salvador: San Salvador, Renson 301, 362. Sonsonate, Hitch- cock 8977. Nicaragua: Corinto, Hitchcock 8614. Realejo, Hitchcock 8750. Costa Rica: Guadelupe, Tonduz 14480 (cultivated). In a preceding paragraph it was stated that the genus Urochloa, to which Ixophorus unisetus was first referred, was based upon a single species, U. panicoides Beauv. (1812). A few years later (18 1 6) Poiret described the same species as Panicum javanicum. In 1 82 1 Trinius, in an article entitled Agrostographische Beyirdge,* published an allied species from the East Indies, as Panicum helopus. Later authors confused the two species and Hooker in his Flora of British India unites them under the name P. javanicum. This author, who is much given to placing under one name several allied species, makes the following statement under P. javanicum: "Kunth (Revis. Gram. i. 206) says, under Urochloa panicoides, that he has examined in Desfontaine's Herbarium the type of Poiret's P. javanicum, and identified it, which he cites as a syn. of Urochloa panicoides, but his figure of which again quite accords with a narrow-leaved form of P. helopus, Trin. This requires the adoption of the name javanicum (by misprint japonicum in Kunth Revis.) for the species. Bent- ham, on the other hand {Fl. Austral., vii 477), says that Munro has seen an authentic specimen of javanicum, and that it is quite distinct from P. helopus. I have no means of verifying either authority." The original description of P. javanicum states that the spikelets are glabrous; the original description of P. helopus states that the spikelets are hirsute. Beauvois's figure, accom- panying the original description of Urochloa panicoides, shows the spikelets to be glabrous. Thus one can easily distinguish the two species without consulting the evidence of which Hooker speaks. The species with glabrous spikelets should be known as Pani- cum panicoides (Beauv.) Hitchc. {Urochloa panicoides Beauv. Ess. Agrost. 52. pi. II. fig. I. 181 2; Panictim javanicum Poir. in Lam. Encycl. Suppl. 4: 274. 18 16). 3 Spreng. Neu. Rntd. 2: 84. 1821. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. GEODESY. — General theory of polyconic projections. Oscar S. Adams. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Spec. Publ. 57. Pp. 174. pi. i. figs. 48. 1919. In this publication an attempt has been made to give a fairly com- plete treatment of the various systems of projection in which the parallels are represented by a group of non-concentric circles with the centers of these circles all lying upon a straight line. The number of such systems is unlimited; the aim has been, therefore, to give a de- velopment of the projections that are most frequently met with in practice. Some attention, however, is given to more general theoretical considerations in order to illustrate the way in which particular prop- erties can be attained in a given projection by the introduction of ana- lytical conditions in the mathematical definition of the projection. In the treatment of any particular projection, the development is given first from the standpoint of the simpler geometrical or analytical principles upon which it is based, and later the same results are deduced from the more general principles that may be found to apply to the projection under consideration. This method of attack is found more rigidly applied in the case of the conformal polyconic projections than in the treatment of any other class in the polyconic group. The com- paratively simple geometrical or analytical development is first given and this is followed by a development of the results by the employment of functions of a complex variable in accordance with the principles demonstrated by Gauss and Lagrange, A full mathematical treatment of the ordinary or the American polyconic projection is given in the latter part of the volume. No adequate development of this has ever before been given in one volume in an American publication. Information in regard to it has been largely confined to articles in the various annual reports of the Super- intendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the result has been that it was difficult to get copies of the articles on account of the exhaustion of the supply of the reports in which the articles were found. 552 abstracts: botany 553 This volume will, therefore, serve to meet the requirements of those who wish to have information with regard to the mathematical prin- ciples underlying this projection, which has always been extensively used in America. O. S. A. PHYSICS. — Some optical and photoelectrical properties of molybdenite. W. W. CoBLENTz and H. KahlER. Bur. Stand. Sci. Paper 338. Pp. 51. 1919. This paper gives data on the transmissivity and the reflectivity of molybdenite; also data upon its change in electrical conductivity, when exposed to thermal radiations of wave-lengths extending from the ultra-violet into the extreme infra-red. The efifect of temperature, humidity, intensity of the exciting light, etc., upon the photoelectrical sensitivity of molybdenite were investigated. It was found that: (i) samples of molybdenite obtained from vari- ous localities differ greatly in sensitivity; (2) there are maxima of sen- sitivity in the region of 0.73 ix, 0.85 /x, 1.08 /x, and 1.8 /x; (3) there is no simple law governing the variation in the photoelectric response with variation in intensity of the radiation stimulus; (4) the increase in photoelectric cmrent with increase in intensity of the incident radiation is greatest for infra-red rays. It is greatest for low intensities of the exciting light and it is greatest on the long wave-length side of the maximum; (5) the photoelectric sensitivity increases with decrease in temperature. At 70 °C. the bands at 1.02 fx and 1.8 /x have practically disappeared. On the other hand, at liquid air temperatm-es, the greatest change in electrical conductivity is produced by radiations of wave-lengths between 0.8 fj, and 0.9 ix. Unlike selenium, molybdenite appears unique in being photoelec- trically sensitive to infra-red rays, extending to about 3 ix. W. W. C. BOTANY. — Flora of the District of Columbia and vicinity. A. S. Hitchcock and Paul C. Standley, with the assistance of the botanists of Washington. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 21. Pp. 329. pis. 42. fig. I. 1919. The area included by the Flora is approximately a circle of 15 miles radius, with the Capitol as the center. The formal list includes all indigenous plants and all introduced ones that have become established. All the species admitted to the Ust are based upon specimens in the District Flora Herbarium, which has been segregated from the main collection of the National Herbarium. Species reported but which are 554 abstracts: ornithology not supported by specimens are mentioned in notes. All the species mentioned in Ward's Flora (the standard list of the region up to the present) and its Supplements have been accounted for, even though they cannot now be verified by specimens, some in synonymy and some as being errors of identification. There are formally listed 646 genera and 1630 species, and many more are mentioned in notes as being waifs. There are two keys to families, one based mainly upon vegetative char- acters, the other mainly upon floral characters. There are also keys to genera and to the species. Under each species is mentioned the com- mon name, the habitat, the distribution in the District, the flowering period and the general distribution. An introduction gives a brief history of botanical activity in the District and a short account of the geologic and ecologic features of the region. The work concludes with a Glossary and Index and is accompanied by 42 plates giving 57 halftones, some illustrating the ecologic features of the flora, others several of the interesting species. A. S. H. ORNITHOLOGY. — Washington region. (February and March, 1918.) Harry C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 20: 231-32. 1918. February and March are usually the least favorable months for bird observations about Washington. In the year 191 7, however, these months were notable for the many ducks which frequented the Potomac River. Two species, Marila americana and Spatula clypeata, both of which are rare about Washington, particularly in the spring, were observed in March. Furthermore, Nettion carolinense and Aristonetta valisineria remained later than ever before. Notwithstanding the very severe winter a number of early migrants appeared considerably ahead of their schedule; Fulica americana on March 9, earlier than any previous record. Some species, such as Regulus satrapa, N annus hiemalis hiemalis, and Sitta canadensis canadensis have been unusually scarce; others, such as Passerella iliaca, at times more than commonly numerous. H. C. O. ORNlTHOhOGY.— Notes on North American birds. VII. Harry C. OberholsER. Auk 36: 81-85. January, 19 19. An investigation of the American Nettion carolinense shows that this bird is clearly a distinct species and not a subspecies of the European Nettion crecca. On the other hand. Circus hudsonius (Linnaeus) proves to intergrade individually with Circus cyaneus of Europe, and should, therefore, stand as Circus cyaneus hudsonius (Linnaeus). The gray abstracts: ornithology 555 sea eagles from eastern Asia prove to be subspecifically different from the European Haliaeetus alhicilla and should be called Haliaeetus alhicilla brooksi Hume. The birds of this species occurring on the Aleutian Islands belong, of course, to this race, and Haliaeetus alhicilla brooksi is thus added to the North American list. The American bird now called Larus brachyrhynchus proves to be only subspecifically dif- ferent from Larus canus of Europe, and its name, therefore, should be Larus canus brachyrhynchus. Although Corvus caurinus Baird has been commonly considered a distinct species, there is apparently nothing in either size or color to warrant its status as other than a subspecies. It, therefore, should hereafter be called Corvus brachyrhynchus caurinus Baird. The golden warbler commonly known as Dendroica bryanti castaneiceps Ridgway proves now to be a subspecies of Dendroica erithachorides Baird, since Dendroica bryanti is found to intergrade with the latter. Its name, therefore, should be Dendroica erithachorides castaneiceps Ridgway. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY.— M«/aMc?a ornithologica. V. Harry C. Oberhol- SER. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 7-8. Feb. 14, 1919. The woodpecker now known as lyngipicus auritus (Eyton) has an earlier name, and should therefore be known as Yungipicus moluccensis (Gmelin). The names of four other woodpeckers are preoccupied and they, therefore, require changing as follows: lyngipicus pygmaeus (Vigors) becomes Yungipicus mitchellii (Malherbe) ; Dendropicos minutus (Temminck) is here renamed Dendropicos elachus. Campethera punctata (Valenciennes) will now stand as Campethera punctuligera (Wagler) ; and Gecinus striolatus (Blyth) becomes Picus xanthopygius (Bonaparte). H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY.— MMtowda ' orw?Y/io/ogica. VI. Harry C. Ober- HOLSER. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 21-22. Apr. 11, 19 19. The changes in the names of birds on account of preoccupation or overlooked earlier names here made concern five species. The bird commonly known as Francolinus chinensis (Miiller) must now stand as Francolinus pintadeanus (Scopoli) ; Totanus maculatus (Tunstall) be- comes Totanus erythropus (Pallas) ; Cuculus canorus minor Brehm is named Cuculus canorus bangsi; Monasa nigra (Miiller) becomes Monasa atra (Boddaert) ; and Alcedo grandis Blyth is now to be called Alcedo megalia, nom. nov. H. C. O. 556 abstracts: ornithoi^ogy ORNITHOLOGY. — A review of the plover genus Ochthodromus Reich- enbach and its nearest allies. Harry C. Oberholser. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 19: Pt. i. 511-523. Dec, 1918. The present study originated in the desire to determine the proper generic name for the plover commonly known as Ochthodromus wilsonius (Ord). It resulted in an examination of not only all the species com- monly referred to the genus Ochthodromus, but some of other genera as well. The eleven species concerned are found to represent the following seven genera: Eupoda Brandt, Pernettyva Mathews, Pluviorhynchus Bonaparte, Pagoa Mathews, Pagolla Mathews, Cirrepidesmus Bonaparte, and Charadrius Linnaeus. The synonymy of each of these genera, together with its detailed characters and a discussion of its relationships and nomenclature forms the main portion of this paper. The chief changes from the conclusions of the latest reviser of the group are as follows: The generic name Eupoda Brandt is used in place of Eupodella Mathews; the current genus Podasocys Coues is found to be inseparable from Eupoda, and its only species should, therefore, now stand as Eupoda montana; the subgenus Pernettyva Mathews, instituted as a subgenus for Charadrius falklandicus Latham, is raised to a fuU genus and includes Ochthodromus bicinctus (Jar dine and Selby); the generic name Pagolla Mathews should replace Ochthodromus Reichen- bach because preoccupied by Ochthedromus LeConte, and its only species, therefore, becomes Pagolla wilsonia (Ord). H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new subspecies of Piranga hepatica Swainson. Harry C. Oberholser. Auk 36: 74-80. January, 1919. The original description of Piranga hepatica was based on a specimen from the State of Hidalgo, Mexico, and the typical race of the species is, therefore, that from central Mexico. Birds from more northern localities now prove to be subspecifically different in their larger size and darker coloration. They form, therefore, an additional new sub- species, Piranga hepatica oreophasma, which ranges from western Jalisco, Mexico, north to central western Texas and northwestern Arizona. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of an interesting new Junco from Lower California. Harry C. Oberholser. Condor 21: 1 19-120. June 6, 1 91 9. The form of the genus Junco inhabiting the Hanson Laguna Moun- tains in northern Lower CaUfomia is of considerable interest, since it abstracts: ornithoIvOGY 557 forms the connecting link between Junco oreganus thurberi of California, and Junco oreganus townsendi of the San Pedro Martir Mountains in Lower California, and indicates that the latter is, without doubt, a subspecies. Confined as it is to this single group of mountains and possessed of sufficiently distinctive characters, it is found to be sub- specifically distinct from all the other known forms of the genus and is, therefore, named Junco oreganus pontilis. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — Fourth annual list of proposed changes in the A.O. U. check list of North American birds. Harry C. Obe;rholser. Auk 36: 266-273. 1919. The Fourth Annual list of proposed additions and changes made for zoological reasons in the names of North American birds includes everything pertinent up to December 31, 19 18, inclusive. The total number of additions and changes amount to 51, the additions being 26 subspecies, 2 species, i subgenus, and i genus. The rejections and eliminations from the list total 19, of which the eliminations of subspecies amount to 5, species 2, and genera 2. This leaves a net gain of 21 species and subspecies. H. C. O. ORNITHOLOGY. — A revision of the subspecies of the white-collared kingfisher, Sauropatis chloris (Boddaert). Harry C. Oberholser. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 55: 351-395. 1919. Birds allied to Sauropatis chloris present a difficult problem to the systematist, chiefly because of the great amount of variation, sexual, seasonal, and individual, in both size and color. They seem to rep- resent a genus distinct from Halcyon, in which group they have usually been placed. Most of them are subspecies of Sauropatis chloris, al- though a number now thus regarded have heretofore been considered distinct species. As here understood the species Satiropatis chloris ranges from the Philippine Islands, India, and Abyssinia, south to Java and northern Australia, and east to the Fiji Islands. The number of subspecies here recognized is 24, and it is interesting to note that of these only six, including three found in Australia, are continental in distribution. Each is treated more or less at length, and in most cases, with the addition of tables of measurements. The following new sub- species are described: Sauropatis chloris palmeri from Java; Sauropatis chloris azela from Engano Island, western Sumatra; Sauropatis chloris chloroptera from Simalur Island, western Sumatra; Sauropatis chloris amphiryta from Nias Island, western Sumatra; and Sauropatis chloris hyperpontia from Vat6 Island in the New Hebrides group. H. C. O. 558 abstracts: chemical technology CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY.— r/i^ identification of "stones' in glass. (Geophysical Lab. Papers on Optical Glass No. 4.) N. L. BowEN. Journ. Amer. Ceramic Soc. i: 594-605. Sept. 1918. The petrographic microscope is a convenient and efficient instru- ment for the determination of the nature and origin of "stones" or crystalline particles occurring in glass. Stones are divided into four classes: (i) pot stones, (2) batch stones, (3) crown drops, (4) devitri- fication stones. These classes have distinctive features of structure and texture that are revealed by the microscope. Moreover, the crystalline phases contained in stones can be identified by a determination of their optical properties. The results of a study of stones by these methods are given in this paper. N. L- B. CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY.— 7/z& condition of arsenic in glass and its role in glass-making. (Geophysical Lab. Papers on Optical Glass No. 6.) E- T. AllEn and E. G. ZiES. Journ. Amer. Cer- amic Soc. i: 787-790. Nov., 1918. Analyses show that in all the glasses tested, both plate and optical glasses, the major part of the arsenic present exists in the pentavalent state, but nevertheless a portion exists in the trivalent state. It ap- pears that arsenic trioxide is oxidized at a low temperature and the product formed is stable enough to remain until a high temperature is reached and the glass becomes fluid, when it slowly dissociates into oxygen and arsenic trioxide, both of which aid in the fining. E. T. A. CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. — Constitution and microstnicture of silica brick and changes involved through repeated burnings at high temperature. Herbert InslEy and A. A. KlEin. Bur. Stand. Tech. Paper 124. Pp.31, pis. 10. 1919. The investigation involves a petrographic microscopic study of test cubes and commercial silica brick, some of which had received repeated burnings by use in ki]ns. Quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite are the main constituents. Small amounts of pseudowollastonite and glass are present. Long burning at temperatures slightly less than i470°C. causes the formation of a large percentage of tridymite. Cristobalite characterizes higher burned brick. Quartz first inverts to cristobalite in the fine grained ground mass and along cracks caused by shattering on heating, and then to tridymite if the temperature does not exceed i470°C. The Hme added in grinding aids more as a flux than as a bond. Most of the cementing action in the burned product comes from the interlocking of the quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite crystals. H. I. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON 1 3 6th meeting The 136th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8 p. m., Tuesday, May 6, 1919, forty-three members and two guests being present. The program consisted of the folloAving papers: Agricultural explorations of Frank N. Meyer (with lantern) : David G. Fairchild. The speaker gave a brief account of the life and work of Mr. Meyer, illustrating his talk by lantern slides made from pictures taken by the explorer in China and other parts of Asia. Meyer was a Hollander by birth and spent his childhood among the gardens of Amsterdam, rising through his own talents to be the assistant of Hugo de Vries. His passion for travel took him on foot across the Alps and into Italy to see the orange groves and vineyards of the Mediterranean and later led him to explore America and northern Mexico on foot. His first expe- dition in the years 1905-8 was into North China, Manchuria, and northern Korea; his second, in 1909-11, through the Caucasus, Russian Turkestan, Chinese Turkestan, and Siberia; his third, in 191 2-15, through northwestern China into the Kansu Province to the borders of Tibet, and his last expedition in search of plants began in 191 6 when he went in quest of the wild pear forests in the region of Jehol, north of Peking, and the region around Ichang. He was caught at Ichang by the revolution and for many months was unable to escape. The confinement and uncertainty with regard to the great war, together with an attack of illness, had by this time combined to bring on a re- currence of a former attack of what amounted to nervous prostration, and before he could reach the encouraging companionship of people of his own class he was drowned in the Yangtze River near the town of Wu Hu, thirty miles north of Nanking. He has sent in hundreds of shipments of living cuttings and thousands of sacks filled with seeds of the useful plants of the countries through which he traveled, which are growing successfully in American fields and orchards, and has ren- dered great service to our horticulture by showing us what the Chinese have done to improve their native fruits. Agrictiltural explorations in Guatemala (with lantern) : W11.SON PoPENOE The avocado is being planted commercially in California 559 560 proceedings: botanical society and Florida, and its cultivation seems likely to become important in those States. In order that this new industry may be built upon solid foundations the Department of Agriculture, through the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, has undertaken to conduct an exploration of those parts of tropical America where avocados are grown, for the purpose of obtaining the best available varieties as well as information regarding the requirements of the tree. The work in Guatemala, which extended over sixteen months in 1916 and 19 17, resulted in the introduction of about 25 new and promising sorts. The avocado is the principal fruit tree of the Guatemalan highlands, and ranks alongside the banana as a source of human food. The Guatemalan Indians use it largely in the place of meat. The tree is found in Guatemala at all elevations between sea-level and 8500 feet, at which latter altitude severe frosts occur. It is significant that avocados are grown in regions which are considered too cold for the orange, the latter fruit not being found above 7500 feet. In addition to avocados, numerous other plants were obtained and introduced into the United States. These include several varieties of the chayote, a promising new vegetable for the South; the large-fruited Guatemalan haw, Crataegus stipiilosa; the Central American cherry, Prunns salicifolia; choice varieties of the cherimoya for cultivation in California; a beautiful dwarf Chamaedorea which gives promise of being valuable as a house plant; two new dahlias, one a double-flowered tree dahlia which has been named D. maxonii, and the other a smaller plant, considered by W. E. Safford, who has named it D. popenovii to be one of the ancestors of the cultivated race of cactus dahlias; the beautiful blue-flowered Guatemalan lignum-vitae, Guaiacum gtiate- malense, which promises to do well in Florida; a new blue-flowered Salvia; and the little-known ilama, Annona diver sifolia, a fruit which resembles the cherimoya and deserves to be cultivated in all tropical countries. Carbon monoxide, a respiration product of Nereocystis luetkeana: Seth C. Langdon and W. R. GailEy (by invitation). The data con- tained in this paper were obtained at Puget Sound Marine Station in an investigation to determine if the carbon monoxide present in the pneu- matocysts of the giant Pacific Coast kelp was an intermediate step in photosynthesis or a respiratory product. It was found that carbon monoxide was formed only when oxygen was present in the gas. The carbon monoxide was produced just as readily in the dark as in the light, hence its formation is related to respiration rather than to anabolic processes. special meeting The Botanical Society of Washington met at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., July I, 1919, in special session in honor of Dr. A. D.Cotton, Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, England, Pathologist to the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries of England and Wales; Dr. Geo. H. Pethy- BRiDGE, Economic Botanist to the Department of Agriculture and Tech- PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 561 nical Instruction of Ireland; and Dr. H. M. Quanjer, Plant Patholo- gist of the Institute for Phytopathology at Wageningen, Holland. In response to an informal welcome by the President of the Society, Dr. Karl F. KellErman, Dr. Cotton told the Society of the condition of botanical work in England and the effect of the war on the universi- ties and the research laboratories. While serious losses to the personnel have come through the war, economic work has been stimulated. A research institute and an institute of applied botany have been es- tablished at Rothamsted. The British Mycological Society is more and more recognizing plant pathology. IS Dr. Pethybridge explained that the war had stimulated a great development of food production in Ireland and that it had brought a recognition of the value of economic biological work. There is a small but active group of men in Ireland interested in natural history. Dr. Quanjer called attention to the fact that Holland is a small country, being only about one-one hundred and sixtieth of the United States, yet it has produced in the past and present a goodly number of botanists and has several well-developed university departments of botany. After referring briefly to the botanical work of Lotsy, Oude- mann, De Vries, Beyerinck, Treub, Ritzema Bos, Wakker, Van Hall, and others, he discussed the difficult group of plant diseases which in- cludes mosaic of tobacco, leaf-roll and mosaic of potato, the Sereh disease of sugar cane, a dwarfing of a Japanese mulberry, and an in- fectious mosaic of the ornamental Abutilon. These diseases, he said, are probably due to ultra-microscopic organisms. Chas. E. Chambliss, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS MATTERS OF SCIENTIFIC INTEREST IN CONGRESS^ The Finance Committee of the Senate, which has had before it the bill for a tariff on scientific supplies (H. R. 7785), decided on October 3 to postpone all revenue and tariff matters until after the treaty of peace had been acted upon. During the hearings on the bill the Tariff Commission prepared a report entitled Information concerning scientific instruments, which has been recently published. The report brings together a large num- ber of opinions and arguments concerning the tariff on scientific sup- plies, received from various sections of the Bureau of Standards, from manufacturers of instruments of all kinds, and from universities and organizations. Two distinct questions are involved: (i) Should Congress repeal the privilege, now granted to institutions of learning, of importing supplies free of duty? (2) Should the present rates be increased and imported articles now on the free list be taxed? The opinions quoted are not analyzed in the report, but the following brief outline will indicate that those interested are still far from being in agreement. (Definite recommendations only are counted.) (i) Of eleven university professors quoted, one favors and ten oppose repeal of the duty-free clause. Of twelve opinions from the Bureau of Standards, five favor and seven oppose repeal. Of seven manufacturers quoted on this subject six favor and one opposes repeal. The Council of the American Chemical Society is quoted in favor of repeal of the duty-free clause, "for a reasonable period of years, at least." (2) Opinions on the subject of the imposition and increase of tariff rates on scientific supplies are quoted as follows: Ten manufacturers, all in favor of higher tariff; eleven sections of the Bureau of Standards, seven in favor and four against. The Commission believes that "the extremely diverse nature of the products falling under such a general designation as 'scientific instruments' renders general statements concerning the entire group of little value for the purpose of deciding on any rates of duty related to the competitive conditions which affect individual instruments." The report also discusses in a general way the status of the domestic industry, imports and exports, tariff history, competitive conditions, and war developments. A conference of campaign committees, delegates from affiliated engineering, architects', and constructors' societies, and other interested parties, is planned for some time in November, to give active support to the Jones-Reavis bill for a National Department of Public Works. ^ Preceding report : This Journal. 9:535. 1919- =i62 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 563 On October 6 Mr. France, chairman of the Senate Committee on Public Health and National Quarantine, asked unanimous consent to consider S. J- Res. 76, providing for an investigation of the cause and methods of prevention of influenza and allied diseases. Mr. Smoot objected, and no action was taken on the resolution. The Senate resolution concerning the Botanic Garden (S. Res. 165) was taken from the table on August 23 and referred to the Committee on the Librar}^ together with the report of the Fine Arts Commission. This report recommends the acquisition of 400 acres on Mount Hamil- ton, in the northeastern quarter of the District, as a site for "an ade- quate national botanic garden and arboretum." It will be recalled that the earliest scientific society in the District of Columbia, the Columbian Institute, organized in 1816, was the founder of the Botanic Garden, which was afterwards turned over to the Federal Government but still occupies its original grounds at the western base of Capitol Hill. NOTES The United States Geological Survey is about to supervise extensive topographic mapping in the West Indies. The Republics of Santo Domingo and Haiti have made appropriations sufficient to complete the surveys of their countries and have requested the Geological Sur- vey to take charge of the work and to furnish the technical personnel. It is probable that Porto Rico and the Republic of Cuba will take simi- lar action. In order to provide for the administration of this work a Division of West Indian Surveys has been created in the Topographic Branch. Lieut. Col. Glenn vS. Smith has been relieved from his duties in connection with military surveys and has been designated as Topo- graphic Engineer in Charge of the new division. Field work in the Dominican Republic has already been started with an organization of five parties having a force of approximately sixty men which will be gradually increased to ten parties as the work progresses. It is ex- pected that the survey of this Republic will be completed within four years. The glass work and the chemical part of the cement investigation work of the Bureau of Standards, which has been located for several years at the U. vS. Arsenal buildings at 40th and Butler Streets, Pitts- burgh, Pennsylvania, has been transferred to Washington. Mr. P. H. Bates, director of the Pittsburgh branch, is now located in the new Industrial Building of the Bureau. Mr. A. V. Bleininger, chief ceramic chemist of the Bureau, will move to Washington in the near future. The following educational courses are being given at the Bureau of Standards this winter: ^4. Advanced theoretical mechanics, W. S. Gorton; B. Harmonic functions, D. R. Harper; C. Introduction to mathematical physics, L. B. Tuckerman; D. Thermodynamics, h. H. Adams; E. Colloidal chemistry, W. D. Bancroft. Dr. C. W. Kanolt is chairman of the committee in charge. 564 SCIENTIPIC NOTES AND NEWS Mr. John Boyle, Jr., assistant examiner in the Patent Office, has resigned his position and will open an office in Washington for the prac- tice of patent law. Dr. F. C. Brown, formerly associate professor of physics at the University of Iowa, has been appointed technical assistant to the director of the Bureau of Standards. During the war he was commissioned major in the Ordnance Department of the Army, and was engaged in research on problems of aircraft armament. Mr. E. R. Clark, of the Bureau of Standards, has resigned to accept a position with the Standard Textile Products Company of New York City. Mr. John B. Ferguson has presented his resignation from the Geo- physical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, to be in effect November i, and has accepted a research position with the Western Electric Company in New York City. Messrs. A. N. Finn and L. J. Gurevich, of the Bureau of Standards, have resigned to accept positions as Chief of the Technical Section of the Development Department, and Research Metallurgist, respectively, with the Hydraulic Pressed Steel Company of Cleveland, Ohio. Dr. H. D. GiBBS, of the Bureau of Chemistry, has resigned to take up work with E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, of Wilmington, Delaware. Mr. H. D. Holler has resigned from the Bureau of Standards and is now at the Parlin Laboratory of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Com- pany, of Wilmington, Delaware. Mr. F. J. Katz has been granted leave of absence from the Mineral Resources division of the U. S. Geological Survey in order to accept an appointment as Expert Special Agent in charge of Mines and Quarries for the Bureau of the Census. This arrangement is to insure close and effective cooperation between the two bureaus in the Fourteenth Census. Mr. Willis T. Lee, geologist of the Geological Survey, will be absent from Washington until February, 1920, in order to deliver a course of lectures at Yale University. Mr. Richard B. Moore, until recently stationed at the Bureau of Mines' experiment station at Golden, Colorado, has been appointed chief chemist of the Bureau, to succeed Dr. C. L. Parsons, resigned. Mr. J. G. Riley, formerly with the Bureau of Chemistry, and re- cently Captain in the Sanitary Corps, is now in the laboratory of the Bureau of Internal Revenue, Treasury Department. Mr. F. J. Schlink, a member of the staff of the Bureau of Standards since 1913, and for the past two years technical assistant to the Di- rector, has resigned to carry on physical research for the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company of Akron, Ohio. Mr. Schlink recently received an award of the Edward Longstreth Medal of the Franklin Institute for his invention of an improved type of weighing scale. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 NOVEMBER 19, 1919 No. 19 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— 7/^^ nature of the forces between atoms in solids.''- Ralph W. G. Wyckoff, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. The study of the arrangement of the atoms within a crystal- line body and especially of variations in these arrangements with changes in the physical conditions of the soHd, such as tem- perature and pressure, when taken in connection with the knowledge which has been accumulating concerning the nature of the atom, should give considerable information concerning the kinds of forces operating between atoms and between molecules. With this in mind the determination of the structures of a number of typical compounds was undertaken by the author about two years ago in the chemical laboratory of Cornell University. It seems possible to arrange all crystalline solids in a number of groups according to the nature of the forces between their atoms. The general outhne of such a classification is presented in this discussion. Because of the numerous speculations which have been introduced into recent discussions of the structure of the atom, it has seemed advisable to present the point of view which has served as a basis for this classification. The first part of this paper is given up to such a presentation. J. J. Thomson,^ G. N. Lewis, ^ and W. Kossel'* have applied the present knowledge of the structure of the atom to a consideration of the nature of the forces of chemical combination. In develop- ing the following discussion extensive use was made of the first ' This paper was written in February, 1919, but was still in manuscript when Langmuir's paper on a similar subject appeared (June, 1919). 2 J. J. Thomson, The forces between atoms and chemical affinity. Phil. Mag. (6) 27: 757-789. 1914- 3 G. N. Lewis, The atom and the molecule. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 38: 762- 785. 1916. * W. KossEL, Ueber Molekiilbildung als Frage des Atombaus. Ann. d. Physik (4) 49: 229-362. 1916. 565 566 WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS of these papers. Recently I. Langmuir^ has extended the theory of G. N. Lewis and has also tried to obtain from purely chemical considerations information about the more intimate structure of the atom. A. L. Parson^ has applied his "magneton" theory of the atom to an explanation of chemical forces. THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM The "nucleus atom." — An accurate relation has been shown to exist between the wave lengths of the X-rays characteristic of the various elements and their order numbers in the periodic table.' This relation was discovered after the importance of this order number, known as the "atomic number," had already been urged. ^ Its bearing on the structure of the atom will be seen from the following facts. If alpha particles are shot at a substance, a certain number of them will suffer a large change in direction. The "scatter- ing" (change in direction) actually observed in the case of the various elements is that which would be expected if the atom possessed at its center a minute positively charged nucleus.^ Experiments indicate that this charge has a magnitude Ne, where e is the charge on the electron and N is the atomic num- ber. ^° Further, a study of the disintegration products of ura- nium and thorium shows clearly the variation of the chemical properties with variations in the nuclear charge. ^^ These facts ^ I. Langmuir, The arrangement of electrons in atoms and molecules. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: 868-934. I9i9- ^ A. L. Parson, A magneton theory of the structure of the atom. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 65: No. II (Publication No. 2371). 1915. ' H. G. J. MosELEY, Phil. Mag. (6) 27: 703-713. 1914. If N is the order num- ber of the elements, beginning with hydrogen as one, helium as two, lithium as three, etc. ; V the frequency of the corresponding lines in the X-ray spectra ; A a constant which is the same for all elements; and b a similar constant having a value less than unity, then !> = A{N—by-. ^ A. VAN DEN Broek, Physik. Zeits. 14: 32-41. 1913. ^ E. Rutherford, Phil. Mag. (6) 21: 669-688. 191 1; etc. 1" H. Geiger, Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 83: 492. 1910. '1 F. SoDDY. The chemistry of the radio-elements . II. The radio-elements and the per- iodic law, p. 2. 1914. The loss of an alpha particle (doubly positive helium- atom) decreases the nuclear charge by two units producing an element placed two positions to the left in the periodic table. The loss of a beta particle (an electron) produces a shift of one unit in the opposite direction. WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 567 are most simply explained by considering the atom to be pos- sessed of a very small nucleus carrying a positive charge equal to its atomic number. That the electron is a constituent of all matter can no longer be doubted. Then, since the atom as a whole is electrically neutral, enough electrons to neutralize the nuclear charge must be arranged about the central nucleus.^ Thus the hydrogen atom is a small positive nucleus bearing a single positive charge and accompanied by a single electron; the helium atom is a doubly charged nucleus accompanied by two electrons; and so forth. Loosely-bound electrons. — Some of the electrons in an atom may be expected to be more tightly bound than others. Close to the positively charged nucleus the electrical forces (and pre- sumably also the magnetic forces) should be much stronger than farther away from the nucleus. Consequently those electrons which are close to the center of the atom will be held with greater force than the more distant electrons. There are numerous indications'- that the atoms do contain a small number of more or less weakly bound electrons. The application of the electron theory to the dispersion of radiation indicates the existence of such electrons. By using the relations which have been developed for the theory of dispersion it is pos- sible to calculate roughly the number of dispersing systems in each molecule. If such a calculation is carried out for quartz, for instance, it is found that each molecule possesses three to four, probably four, "dispersion electrons." These calculations must be inexact, however, because the proper application of the expressions used requires a knowledge of all the vibrating sys- tems in the molecule. Experimental difficulties, especially in the extreme ultra-violet, make this impossible. Studies upon the absorption of light and the optical proper- ties of metals furnish similar results. Metallic conduction is assumed to be due to electrons which possess a certain amount of freedom of movement. Then there are those electrons which, as is well known, can be Hberated by hght and heat; these also ^2 Campbell. Modern electrical theory. 568 WYCKOFF: forces between atoms in solids must be rather weakly bound. The positive rays are atoms which have lost a few electrons. Perhaps the strongest evidence, at any rate from the point of view of the chemist, that atoms possess a small number of loosely held electrons is furnished by the phenomenon of electrolytic dissociation. Since the mag- nitude of the electrical charges concerned is the same as that of the charge on the electron, the conclusion can hardly be avoided that a few electrons are involved. It is the natural thing to identify them with the "dispersion electrons" already mentioned. These outside rather weakly bound electrons are the ones involved in chemical changes. Arrangement of electrons. — No real information is available concerning the exact arrangement of the electrons in an atom. These electrons must either be in motion about the nucleus (the revolving-electron type) or else they must be held in equil- ibrium positions about the center (the stationary-electron type). There are serious difficulties in the way of either arrangement.^^ Since the loosely bound electrons are the only ones involved in chemical reactions, the exact arrangement of the inner elec- trons is a matter of secondary importance to the chemist, at least for the present. ^^ From the standpoint of the chemist the stationary-electron atom seems simpler because its qualitative application is easier. This application can be made with either type of atom, however, and in the present state of our knowledge one is quite justified in imagining and using for chemical purposes whichever type of '^ It may be of interest to chemists to restate the most obvious of these objec- tions. If the electrons are in revolution about the nucleus and if light is an electro- magnetic phenomenon, as it is firmly believed to be, then a continuous radiation of energy from the atom as a result of this motion would be expected. In a com- paratively short time the atom would "run down," disintegrate. This may or may not be a fallacious argument. On the other hand, in the case of the station- ary-electron atom, unless a hitherto unknown force of repulsion is assumed, it is hard to see why the negatively charged electrons do not fall into the positively charged nucleus and become neutralized. ^* Also since chemical changes affect only the outside electrons, it is quite clear that chemical facts can present only the most indirect information concerning the inside electrons of an atom. WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 569 atom model meets his fancy (always remembering that his par- ticular type of atom is only a convenience).^^ Arrangement of outside electrons. — -Although we are unable at the present time to determine the general arrangement of the electrons within the atom, the facts of chemistry furnish consider- '^ It has been found convenient to picture an atom, the inner electrons of which are in rapid revolution, the outer electrons of which might be held in positions of equilibrium between the atoms in a molecule. Langmuir (see notes, p. 566) has suggested an ingenious arrangement for the electrons in a stationary model. The examples of the application of his model, however, to chemical compounds are those which would be equally well satisfied by any type of atom of the kind described above. As already stated, chemical facts, simply because they involve only the outside electrons, cannot give direct information concerning the arrangement of the inner electrons. The stationary- and revolving-electron atoms might differ from one another in the nature of the electrical fields surrounding the atom. The electrical fields about the revolving- electron atom would be expected to be quite uniform while those about the other type might be clustered in patches. In the Stark atom (Prinz. d. Atomdynamik, III) the "positive electrification" was grouped in patches and electrons took up equilibrium positions about these patches. It is not evident whether a definite choice between the two atom types can ever be made upon these grounds. Langmuir has lu-ged that the existence of charcoals and similar porous sub- stances having the form of solids of large apparent volume, where each atom of carbon (taking charcoal to be specific) is surrounded by fewer than four carbon atoms, is a proof that the electrons are stationary within the atom. This does not necessarily follow. In a structiue of this sort the valence bonds which were linked up with other atoms in the formation of wood are, in the charcoal, partly or com- pletely saturated by holding adsorbed gas (as will be seen later, adsorbed gas is probably held to charcoal and similar substances by primary valence bonds). As indicated by Bohr (Phil. Mag. (6) 26: 857. 1916) and discussed by Kossel {op. cit.) the four outside electrons in a revolving-electron atom in the case of carbon would be expected to place themselves, if possible, at the corners of a tetrahedron. As a consequence of these facts the large apparent volume of charcoal is not a proof of the inherently directed natiue of the valence bonds of carbon. Many sulfides of large apparent volume are known which, when heated to a certain tem- perature, will suffer a rather sudden change in shape (and apparent volume), i. e., they crumble. This quite possibly is due to the loss of adsorbed gas. These objections are lu^ged, not as proofs that the electrons are not stationary, but simply as showing that the evidence in favor of their stationary nature is not conclusive. The experiments of Hull (cited by Langmuir, op. cit. p. 869) are inconclusive. As S. Nishikawa has pointed out, the effects which led Hull to believe that electrons occupy definite positions in the crystal lattice are in some cases similar to those effects which would be expected to result from the thermal agitation of the atoms in the crystal. The best way to determine whether or not the effect is real would be to make the X-ray studies at a point where the specific heat is very small. The author hopes to make such a study in the near future. 570 WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS able information concerning the outermost ones. As we pass along the periodic table horizontally from left to right, each atom differs from the one preceding it in carrying a nuclear charge greater by one and hence in possessing one more electron.^" It is seen that with simple atoms (short series of the periodic table) the. general characteristics of an atom repeat themselves after the addition of eight electrons: lithium and sodium are similar. With the long periods eighteen electrons (thirty-two in the last complete series) must be added before there is a complete repeti- tion of properties. Three elements, those in the eighth group, exhibit a similar valence, so that there are really only twice eight kinds of valence (valence groups). There is, however, a partial repetition in the long periods after eight valence groups have been passed over. The sub-group elements show a valence similar to that of the primary elements: copper, silver and gold resemble the alkalies. Radio-active phenomena and more especially the whole sub- ject of electrochemistry emphasize the intimate connection between valence and the electron. The alkalies ionize losing one electron, the alkaline earths lose two; the elements of the oxygen group tend to acquire two, the halogens one; and so on. In 1904 Abegg'*^ pointed out that the sum of what we choose to call the maximum positive and negative valences of an element is always equal to eight. Eight is the number involved in the recurrence of properties. All of this seems to point clearly to some sort of repetition of the configuration of the outside electrons characteristic of the atom after the addition of eight outside electrons. ^^ The repeti- tion of properties is so striking that one is forced to the conclu- sion that when a certain definite number of electrons has been added to the outside of the atom, the force fields about the atom, except those resulting from the unneutralized charges upon the nucleus, become practically negligible. If hydrogen is the simplest element, this definite number of electrons in the case of the very simple elements (first short period of the table) is two. For the other simple elements it is eight. The heavier ^' R. Abegg. Zeits. anorg. Chem. 39: 330. 1904. " See references 2, 3, and 6, on page 565. WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 571 elements require twice eight additions to "close" the atomic fields effectively. Then an atom of an alkali metal has one outside electron, an alkaline earth two, and so on until we reach the halogen with seven outside electrons and the next inert gas with eight outside electrons, starting a new group. ^^ Tendency to form clusters of eight. — The fact that oxygen with six outside electrons and chlorine with seven are negatively bl- and mono-valent, respectively, points to the existence of a ten- dency to form clusters of eight electrons. ^^ In other words, in '8 The simple elements would probably be represented as follows (if hydrogen is the simplest element and helium comes next) : Electron Arrangement 1 electron 2 electrons forming a "closed cluster" of two 3 electrons: inside cluster of two, one outside electron 4 electrons: inside cluster of two, two outside electrons 5 electrons: • inside cluster of two, three outside electrons 9 electrons: inside cluster of two, seven outside electrons 10 electrons: inside cluster of two, "closed cluster" of eight 1 1 electrons : inside cluster of two, inside cluster of eight one outside electron Element Nuclear Charge Hydrogen I positive Helium 2 positive Lithium 3 positive Glucinum 4 positive Boron 5 positive * * * * * * * Fluorine 9 positive Neon 10 positive Sodium II positive Recently Debye (Physik. Zeits. 18: 276. 1917), Vegard (Ber. deutsch. phys. Ges. 19: 328. 1917), and Kroo (Physik. Zeits. 19: 297. 1918) have tried to explain the K-series lines in the X-ray spectra of elements as due to an inside ring of three or four electrons. If this innermost ring preserves its character when we pass to the more complex atom, and if there are not one or two very light elements, as yet undiscovered, it is highly probable that this inside ring contains two electrons. " A. Lr. Parson, op. cit. 572 wyckoff: forces between atoms in solids addition to the force holding the normal number of electrons to the nucleus, there is a force which causes the atoms to tend to add electrons beyond the number equal to the positive charge on the nucleus. The force responsible for this tendency to form eights may be mainly an electrostatic attraction between positive and negative charges. This has been mentioned by Langmuir:'-'' "According to ordinary potential theory, electrons uniformly distributed throughout a spherical shell should exert no forces on electrons inside the shell, but should repel those outside the shell as though the electrons in the shell were concentrated at the center. On the other hand, an electron in the spherical shell itself is repelled by the others in the shell as if one-half of the other electrons were removed altogether, while the sec- ond half were concentrated at the center. Thus, let us consider a carbon atom (A^ = 6) which has taken up 4 extra electrons and has completed its octet. An electron in the outside shell is thus attracted by the nucleus which has 6 positive charges, is repelled by the two electrons in the first shell as though they were concentrated at the center, and is repelled by the 8 elec- trons in the outside shell as if 4 of them were concentrated at the center. The repulsion of the electrons is thus only just able to neutralize the attraction by the nucleus, notwithstanding the fact that the whole atom has an excess of 4 negative charges." In the case of an oxygen atom (A^ = 8) which has acquired two electrons to complete its cluster of eight electrons, an electron in this outer cluster is attracted by the positive charge of eight units and is repelled by the equivalent of a negative charge of six units (by the two inner electrons and by the outer eight as if four were concentrated at the center). There is thus a strong extra attraction holding these additional electrons to the neutral oxygen atom. Fluorine would hold a single extra electron still more strongly.'-^ 2° Op. cit., p. 909. 21 This discussion considered only the case where the electrons were distributed uniformly throughout a shell. A similar state of affairs will exist if the inside electrons are in revolution. WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOUDS 573 We can thus account for the existence of a tendency to add electrons beyond the number numerically equal to the charge on the nucleus but we are unable to state why electrons will add on to the atom to form clusters of eight rather than seven or nine or some other number-- and why the formation of the cluster of eight results in such a great condensation of the fields of force about the atom. For our purposes the recognition of this tendency is all that is necessary. Chemical valence. — Valence, then, might be defined simply as the tendency for the electrical (and probably also the magnetic) '^ fields to condense together to the greatest possible extent with the possession of an outside cluster of eight (also sometimes a cluster of two and sometimes a cluster of twice eight) electrons. The repetition of properties after the addition of eight elec- trons and the existence of a tendency to add electrons with the formation of clusters of eight were recognized by J. J. Thom- son;- they underlie the application of the "magneton" atom of A. L. Parson*^ and the "cubical atom" of G. N. Lewis ;-^ and they form the basis of what Langmuir' has chosen to call "the octet theory of valence," which is simply the application of this un- deniable tendency to the representation of chemical compounds.-^ Doublets. — Two electrical charges of opposite sign form a dotiblet, the moment of which with respect to an outside point (roughly, the effect of which upon an outside point) increases as the distance apart of the poles becomes greater.'-^ Such doub- 2^ Langtnuir's idea of cells suggests an explanation of this, but it must be borne in mind that his work only gives a possible geometrical arrangement of points of one kind about a point of a diffe^-ent kind and does not discuss how such a system could be physically stable. If the only forces of attraction and repulsion acting are those with which we are now familiar, such an atom model is unstable. As long as this theory is used simply as a convenient aid in picturing the atom it may prove useful to the chemist, but as yet no evidence has been presented to show that this model represents the actual arrangement of the electrons in the atom. ^3 As was earlier implied, these various discussions are not setting up new the- ories of valence but are indicating the explanation which the knowledge of the structure of the atom has to offer of the facts of valence as we have learned them. ^^ A doublet of this sort can be conveniently pictured. The fields of force between two electrical charges can be represented by lines (really tubes of force) passing from one to the other. The number of the lines serves as a measure of the intensity of the field. If the two charges are close together, the lines of force are for^the 574 W^CKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS lets will exist within an atom possessing electrons and a pos- itively charged nucleus.^' The formation of the clusters of eight electrons so condenses together the lines of force about the atom that their moments with respect to other atoms are nearly negligible. Where the outside loosely bound electrons are concerned, the fields about the doublets become of the utmost importance in determining the chemical and physical properties of bodies. Magnetic fields of the atom. — This discussion has taken no account of the magnetic fields about the atom. That atoms are possessed of fields of their own is shown by the effect of large outside fields upon the spectrum lines, — the Zeeman effect — and by various other lines of evidence. ^"^ It is probable that a detailed discussion of these magnetic effects would remove many of the difficulties arising from the application of such a theory as the present one. Certainly such a discussion must accom- pany any entirely general or quantitative theory. The "mag- neton" theory of A. L. Parson^ is an attempt in this direction. Contradictions to some of the most commonly accepted ideas (such as the point-electron and the Rutherford type of atom) which Parson's theory presents make it simpler to neglect, at present, consideration of magnetic phenomena. It is probable that the magnetic forces influence in a marked degree the in- tensity of bonding between atoms but that their consideration will not introduce any new kinds of linkage. Forces between atoms. — Conditions of equilibrium require the action of forces of attraction and repulsion. Uncertainties con- cerning the size of the atom make themselves felt in a considera- tion of the forces of repulsion . We find that the distance be- tween the atoms in a solid ^^ is of the order io~^cm. The actual most part concentrated in the small space between the charges, so that the in- tensity of the field at any point (m) at a distance from both charges is slight. In other words, the moment of the doublet with respect to the point is small. If the separation of the charges is greater, the field will be more spread out, more lines of force will pass through m, and the moment of this new doublet with respect to m is much greater. 2* J. J. Thomson, op. cit. 2« See W. J. Humphreys. Science, N. S. 46: 273-279. 1917. 2" W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg. X-rays and crystal structure, Chap. VII. WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 575 size of the atom may be very small compared with this distance. Atoms in a solid would then be held apart by some repulsive force, the intensity of which must decrease rapidly from the origin. Concerning its possible nature we have no inkling. Presumably the heat vibrations would aid this force. But the diameter of the atom, meaning the diameter of the outermost ring of electrons, may be comparable with the distance apart of the atoms. The tightly drawn-in fields about the closed groups of electrons make the atom, except for a few valency electrons, behave like an elastic solid, so that two atoms can interpenetrate only to an extent involving these outside electrons. This effect, together with the thermal agitation, is quite sufficient to explain the ordinary phenomena observed. The assumption of a fur- ther repulsive force, essential to the other theory, does not seem necessary. The view that the atoms are held apart simply as the result of their own impenetrability and their thermal vibration will therefore be used. The influences of which we are aware that affect the combina- tion of atoms one with another are then : 1. The electrostatic attraction between positively charged nuclei and negatively charged electrons. 2. The large condensation and drawing in of the fields of force which accompany the formation of certain clusters of electrons (two, eight or twice eight). The result of (i) and (2) is an ap- parent tendency to form clusters of electrons. 3 . The thermal agitation of the atoms (and probably in certain cases groups of atoms acting together) which acts as a force of repulsion. 4. The magnetic fields (our ideas of which are at present of an indefinite nature). Exterior structure of the elements. — An alkali metal results when the total number of electrons needed to form the "closed clusters," including the outermost "closed cluster," is i less than that required to neutralize the nuclear charge, i. e., there is one outside or "left-over" electron. The closed cluster in the case of lithium contains fewer electrons than eight, pre- sumably two. So few electrons can hardly be expected to draw 576 WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS in very completely the fields about the atom. With sodium, possessing a single cluster of eight electrons, the fields are more condensed. Where clusters of twice-eight electrons are effec- tive (potassium, rubidium, caesium) the outside fields become of little importance. This suggests an explanation for the marked difference in properties exhibited by the transition elements of a group. As the atom gets larger the detachable electrons be- come farther removed from the nucleus and consequently less tightly bound. Elements of the sub-group have a single cluster of eight so that, although they resemble the alkalies in having a single outside electron, the forces about the atom which tend to enmesh and hold the electron are very much greater. The atoms of the other groups will be similarly constituted. Those of the second group possess two outside electrons, the third three, and so on, up through the eighth group. For the eighth group the theory is not so simple. In this group there is a single cluster of eight electrons and no outside electrons. The atom is quite complex, however, and a single cluster of eight electrons is unable to close the fields completely. As a result the atom possesses considerable reactivity. The facts of chemistry show that, perhaps on account of the vigor of these forces, two and sometimes three of these electrons can be detached. The existence of three similar elements in this group is conveniently explained by the assumption that at this point, when the two additional electrons are added, rearrange- ments of the internal rings are more stable than the addition of an outside electron. ^^ The character of the rare-earth elements could be explained by an assumption like the last one, namely, that when this point in the periodic series is reached, the stable arrangements, for a number of successive increases in the nuclear charge, result 2* The system is seen to be tending towards a more stable condition with each readjustment. The outside fields become more and more drawn in and the elec- trons become less loosely bound. This is shown by the transition in properties from iron, Fe" (less stable) and Fe"' (more stable), through cobalt, Co'" (less stable) and Co" (more stable), to nickel, Ni" only. The assumption made by Langmuir that ten electrons are necessary to form the first half of the larger closed groups is about as satisfactory. In the absence of any real information upon the subject either can be used. WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 577 from a rearrangement of the electrons among the interior rings rather than from the addition of electrons to the atom surface. But this assumption, in common with every other yet made regarding the arrangement of the electrons in the eighth-group and rare-earth metals, is not very satisfactory as a description of the real arrangement of the electrons in these atoms. The behavior of hydrogen is interesting. In water solution of many of its compounds it behaves as if strongly "electro- positive." This would indicate that it lost an electron with great readiness. But in most of its properties hydrogen acts like an element which holds on to electrons with great tenacity: its salts with weak anions are much less dissociated than the corresponding alkali salts; it occupies a position quite low in the electromotive series table; many of its compounds are vol- atile, and its diatomic molecule is very stable. This apparently anomalous behavior of many hydrogen compounds follows di- rectly from the structure of its atom. As long as hydrogen pos- sesses a single electron, it holds on to it energetically and tends to acquire another to close its fields; if the electron is removed, the only force exerted by the atom is due to the attraction of its single positive charge. THE STRUCTURE OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS, PARTICULARLY SOLIDS Polar and non-polar compounds. — All chemical compounds may be considered as included within the following extremes, compounds the constituent atoms of which are electrically 1. Charged, 2. Neutral. If the atoms are charged, the compound is "polar;" if neu- tral, it is what is now called a "non-polar" compound.-^ In a polar compound the tendency of the electronegative atom to complete a cluster of eight is so much greater than the attrac- tion of the positive nucleus of the electropositive atom for the outside electrons that the electronegative atom is able to remove them completely. 29 W. C. Bray and G. E- K. Branch. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 35: 1440-1447. 1913- 578 WYCKOFF: forces between atoms in solids A non-polar compound is held together by the entangling of the fields of force about the constituent atoms. No electron transfer occurs. Each atom may be considered as drawing electrons from another in the endeavor to complete a stable group. In such a union as this, one unit of valence is equivalent to two "free" chemical "links," that is, one chemical "bond" in the compound. ^° Such a non-polar compound would of course have to be formed between atoms which held their electrons with about equal intensity. All gradations between these two extremes probably occur where the bonding electrons, taking up positions between the two atoms, may be thought of as belonging to both. Most compounds, especially in the vapor state, must lie in this inter- mediate class. A given compound is not necessarily polar or non-polar in all its states of aggregation; it may shift from one class toward the other. In the solid and liquid states the close proximity of other atoms has a strong influence upon the prop- erties of a molecule.^^ States of aggregation. — When the total attractive forces be- tween the units (molecules) of a substance is less than the repel- lent forces of thermal agitation, the molecules will part from one another and the substance is said to be in the gaseous state. The less the attractive force compared with the thermal agitation, the more "perfect" will be the gas. A liquid results when these residual fields (stray doublet fields) just exceed the effects of the heat vibrations. When the fields become relatively very large and the atoms are able to take up definite positions, the substance solidifies. Of greatest importance in causing the 8" J. J. Thomson (op. cit.) has indicated this fact. Using the idea of Faraday tubes of force, as he does, we would say that unless a cluster of eight is formed the valency electron, to be fixed in position, requires that it shall have tubes of force running to two atoms, one other besides the one to which it belongs. This will be quite evident when typical cases, chlorine and methane, have been con- sidered. 2 1 When molecules approach one another, there will be an interlocking of their stray fields. A certain weakening of the fields of the molecule itself will result. With doublets of large moment, where the separation of the charges is great, the fields will be spread out and the interlocking may be of marked effect upon the molecule. WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 579 individual molecules to stick together are the electrical doublets. The greater their moments the more important will be their effect upon neighboring atoms. Consequently polar compounds tend to be strongly aggregated. Nearly all such compounds are solids at ordinary temperatures. The lower the temper- ature the less the repulsion and the more the particles cling together. At a sufficiently low temperature, the absolute zero, a substance possessing even the smallest outside fields would be a solid simply because the heat motion of the atoms, and consequently their repulsion, vanishes. The effect of the intensity of combination is complicated. If the bonding forces in the gas molecule of a particular com- pound are so large and the residual forces so small that the molecule remains a definite entity in the liquid and solid states, it will in general be true that the greater the bonding forces, the more bound-in will be the fields and the less will be the degree of condensation. If, on the other hand, we have a com- pound in which the molecule as we ordinarily understand it disappears in the condensed states, and the entire portion under consideration appears as one large molecule, it would seem to be true that the more intense the bonding the more condensed is the system. Formation of molecules in non-polar substances. — At room tem- perature the molecule of chlorine is diatomic. The chlorine atom possesses seven outside electrons and the tendency to pick up one more and close the cluster is considerably greater than the repellent eft'ect of the heat vibrations. The molecule can be represented somewhat as follows:^- :®r®: • • « • '- There is a certain interest and importance attached to the representation of com- pounds by the use of graphical formulas. The conventions in common use do not indicate the nature of the forces between atoms. The representation, by G. N. Lewis (op. cit.), of the distribution of the outside electrons between the atoms in chemical compounds is a distinct advance in the writing of graphical formulas. But his method has certain disadvantages. It is often tedious and, moreover, unless considerable space is devoted to the formula, it does not show the positions 580 WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS each atom striving to claim an electron from the other. This arrangement will quite completely close the fields about the molecule as a whole and the diatomic chlorine molecule (CI2) will possess relatively little residual affinity. As the temperature is raised the increased energy results (i) in a larger vibration of the atoms within the molecule, and (2) more especially in the increased violence of the motion of the molecule as a whole. Thus there will come a time when some of the molecules will be traveling with so great a speed that the violence of their collisions will be suffi- cient to cause the splitting of the molecule. At this point we begin to have monatomic chlorine. The number of simpler molecules increases faster than the increase in temperature at a rate depending upon the importance of factor (i). The ampli- tudes of the atomic vibrations depend in an inverse ratio upon their weights and the intensity of the bonding. It is to be ex- pected that the dissociation of a weak compound under the influence of heat will proceed at a faster rate than when the union is strong. Increase in temperature raises the reactivity because with larger intra-molecular vibrations the fields of force of the electrons. The pictures used by Lewis and adopted by Langmuir give, as representations of space models, a truer idea of the actual state of affairs within compounds, but, by reason of their complexity, are not in most cases sufficiently useful to be practicable. It has been found useful to designate the mode of combination, where this added information is of value, by the following modifications of the ordinary chemical "bonds." The passage of an electron from one atom to another is shown by a full-pointed arrow. Caesium chloride, in which the chlorine atom has captured the outside electron of the caesium atom, is Cs > CI. The holding of an elec- tron in an equilibrium position between two atoms, as in bromine vapor where each bromine atom of the bromine molecule is striving to acquire one electron from the other bromine atom, can be indicated by a half -pointed arrow pointing in the direction of the displacement of the electron (as, Br ^ Br). If it is of advantage to know the approximate amount of this displacement, which serves of course as a measure of the doublet fields set up, this can be done by cutting the arrow with a dash at the approximate position of the electron. Thus .4 1 ^ B would mean that B was drawing one of ^'s electrons with a pull sufficient to displace it to a position half the way towards B. The diagrams given in the text are a combination of this method of representa- tion with the idea of showing the distribution of all the outside electrons. WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 58 1 are gradually becoming more opened up and hence more readily broken up by other atoms. As the temperature is lowered, if the pressure is made suffi- ciently high, that is, if as many molecules are furnished within a definite space as could possibly be needed, the tendency of the molecules to stick together will approach in value the tearing- apart tendency of the heat motion. The critical temperature is the point where these opposing tendencies are equal. At no higher temperature can the gas be liquefied; at all lower tem- peratures the substance can be condensed. As the temperature of the liquid is lowered the motion of the molecule becomes less and less till at a certain point the residual forces of attraction (stray fields) become able to hold the molecules in definite posi- tions. This happens at the melting point. According to this view solid chlorine consists of molecules held together by stray fields. Valency forces are involved in holding the atoms together in the molecule. ^^ Methane is a substance of the same type. A molecule of methane may be represented thus : © ■ ®"©."(H) \1 ® It has a normal dielectric constant and presumably does not possess any doublets of large moment.- This indicates that the tendencies of either carbon or hydrogen to acquire electrons 33 It is possible that with the close proximity of other atoms, both the ingoing and the outgoing unions will not remain directed towards the same atom. In that case each atom would be linked by primary valence with two atoms, each of which would be linked with other atoms and so on throughout the mass. With this state of affairs the molecule as ordinarily understood would lose its identity. The smallest unit, aside from the atoms themselves, becomes the entire mass. This is a possible structure for solid chlorine. There is at present no evidence in its favor. If this second view is correct the vapor subliming from the solid ought possibly to contain an appreciable number of monatomic molecules. 582 fwYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOUDS to complete the clusters are not nearly so great as the tenacity with which hydrogen and carbon retain electrons. The elec- trons consequently are not appreciably displaced from their equilibrium positions. The stray fields are relatively small and the gas liquefies at a rather low temperature. The chemical molecules preserve their identity in the liquid and solid states, being held to one another by the relatively slight secondary attraction. Carbon compounds in general are characterized by great stability, due to the intensity with which carbon clings to its electrons, and by the smallness of the residual attractions pos- sessed by the molecules of such compounds. In passing hor- izontally along the periodic table, when carbon is reached the tendency to add electrons with the formation of a stable cluster is not as yet so great that carbon is able to capture electrons from other atoms, and consequently there are no doublets of large moment. The properties of organic compounds in general force the conclusion that in the solid and liquid states the chem- ical molecule remains just as definite an entity as in the vapor. Practically all but the simplest compounds are solids or liquids, in spite of the weakness of the residual forces, because such large molecules require a considerable amount of heat energy to pro- duce even a small displacement.^^ Certain kinds of organic compounds, such as the alcohols, acids, and nitro- and nitrile- compounds, are more associated than would be expected. This is due to their possessing doublets of considerable moment.^ Formation of molecules in polar substances. — With compounds of the polar type the mechanism is quite different. The ten- dency of chlorine to acquire one electron is so great and the holding power of sodium for the one outside electron is so weak that in a molecule of sodium chloride vapor the electron may be considered to have gone over most of the way to the chlorine. A molecule of sodium chloride vapor may be represented thus: ®^:© ^^ Information from the specific heats and from the variations in the specific heat with temperature should be of interest in this connection. wyckoff: forces between atoms in solids 583 A doublet of very large moment exists in this molecule and sodium chloride vapor would be expected only at an elevated temperature. In the solid and liquid states each sodium atom (except those upon the surface), positively charged by the loss of an electron, is surrounded by several chlorine atoms, all negatively charged.^'' These other chlorine ions, each posses- sing a pull upon the sodium ion, will more or less completely tear apart the fields which in the gaseous state bind the sodium atom to one particular chlorine atom. Sodium chloride be- comes a body of ions held together mainly by the electrostatic forces of attraction between opposite charges. A cross-section of a crystal of sodium chloride would appear thus :^^ e © e e e e 0 © 0 0 0 0 0 © 0 © © © 0 © 0 © 0 © 0 © © © ©©©©©©© ''^■"^' © 0 © © © © © © © © © © © 0 MT «f*K> The gaseous molecule disappears quite completely. A study of the effect of a sodium chloride crystal upon X-rays leads to belief in such a structure. ^^ Concerning the liquid state of sodium chloride we know prac- tically nothing. It would seem most reasonable to assume a structure similar to that possessed by the solid, with the added fact of mobility; that is,^ an agglomeration of an equal number of positive and negative ions. When such a solid sublimes, ions should appear in the space above. ^^ In general all crystals made up of strongly electropositive and electronegative elements are ^ Sodium chloride possesses absorption bands in the extreme infra-red which are produced by charged particles of atomic mass. ^^ This structiure for sodium chloride and similar crystals has been suggested by Stark, Prinz. d. Atomdynamik, III. p. 193. '^ W. H. and W. L. Bragg. X-rays and crystal structure. *8 The chemical molecule is in certain cases a natural consequence of the belief in atoms. It is not, however, in aU cases a necessary consequence. If we are to imagine two or three atoms, each with a certain tendency to react, coming together. 584 WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS of this type. Sodium nitrate and calcium carbonate^^ are exam- ples. In these cases the nitrate and carbonate ions act as single units. Three factors are of importance in determining the crystal form of such substances : 1. The stable arrangement of points in space which corre- spond in charge and number with the ions of the substance. 2. The number and arrangement of the atoms making up the ions. 3. The volumes of the ions. The sodium chloride arrangement is the simplest possible for the grouping of an equal number of positive and negative particles of about equal volume. Sodium nitrate and calcium carbonate have the same structure as sodium chloride, the nitrate and carbonate ions replacing the chlorine ions. Valency compounds. — Magnetite (Fe^Fe'^o O4) is an example of another general type of compound. In a crystal of magnetite each divalent iron atom is surrounded by four oxygen atoms, each trivalent iron atom by six oxygen atoms, and each oxygen it is natural to suppose that they will combine together to form a definite whole — ■ the molecule. This is what happens in the case of gases. The first actual evidence to show the existence of molecules came from the study of gases. This evidence is furnished by the Gay-Lussac Law of Volumes. The splendid success of the kinetic theory in describing the behavior of gases pointed in the same direction. When gas molecules had been shown to exist, a tendency to apply the idea of mole- cules to solids and liquids as well made its appearance. The extension of the gas laws to the case of dilute solutions showed that in this case the material of the dissolved substance is distributed throughout the solvent in a molecular condition, that is, as single atoms or as groups of a few atoms together. Only in these two cases, gases and dilute solutions, have we stue evidence of the existence of molecules. Certain observations upon solutions of solids in solids would seem to indicate for them a structure similar to that possessed by liquid solutions. The abnormal behavior of some pure liquids finds its simplest explanation in the assumption of a molecular structure. Because of this certainty of the existence of the molecule in gases and in solutions, and because with organic solids and liquids it is quite im- possible to imagine any other than a molecular composition, chemists in general seem to have felt justified in concluding that all matter is molecular in structure. It is important to note that this conclusion is only an inference, in no way justified by experimental evidence, and that the recent evidence which has appeared, tend- ing to show that certain kinds of solids and liquids are not made up in such a way that each piece consists of a large number of chemical molecules, is merely de- stroying some generally-held opinions and is not in any way contradictory to our previously acquired knowledge. WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOUDS 585 atom by four iron atoms. ^'■* The diamond, carborundum, certain oxides and sulfides, and presumably nitrides and carbides, are compounds of this kind. The elements which go to make these substances are not strongly electropositive or electronegative, so that no actual electron transfer takes place. Completely closed groups are not formed and each valence unit corresponds to two bonds. The atoms in such a crystal are held together by valency forces. The chemical molecule does not appear; the entire crys- tal behaves as a single chemical individual. It is improbable that liquids of this sort can ^xist. Certainly such compounds cannot be vaporized without undergoing pro- found changes. It is possible that at elevated temperatures the electronegative element may be able to relieve the other of electrons. Such a substance, when existing in the liquid state, would belong to the class previously described, the polar type of compounds. Metals belong to the polar type. Just as the close proximity of other atoms in the case of sodium chloride is sufficient to break up the fields binding one particular sodium atom and one particular chlorine atom, so in the metallic state the presence of other atoms breaks up the fields holding certain electrons to the metal ion. A metal may be considered as a compound of metal ion and electrons entirely similar to a liquid of the polar type, which is a compound of metal ion and negative ion. The peculiar properties characteristic of metals are due to the fact that the electrons as a result of their minute size are readily able to pass between the atoms. This mobility makes the mech- anism within the metal resemble that within a fused electrolyte. The atoms in intermetallic compounds, which presumably exist as such only in the solid state, are held together by the same forces that hold metal ions together in the pure metal. If a certain grouping of atoms offers an especially marked condensa- tion and drawing-in of the fields of force, that grouping will appear as one of these compounds. Classification of crystalline solids. — -The crystalline state fur- nishes the greatest condensation of the fields about the indi- »» W. H. Bragg. Phil. Mag. (6) 30: 305. 1915. S. Nishikawa. Proc. Tokyo Math. Phys. Soc. 8: 199. 1915. 586 WYCKOFF: forcks betweien atoms in solids vidual particles (atoms or molecules, depending upon the type of solid)/*' Three limiting types of crystalline solids may be said to exist: 1. Molecule- forming compounds. — ^The atoms are held together in molecules by valency forces. The molecules, in turn, are held together in the solid by relatively weak stray fields. Com- pounds giving soHds of this nature do not possess large doublets. 2. Polar compounds. — ^The atoms are held together by electro- static attractions. The chemical molecule has disappeared. 3. Valency compounds. — The atoms are held together by val- ency forces. The molecule is the entire crystal. Combinations of these classes and all transition stages be- tween them are found. In sodium nitrate the nitrogen and oxygen atoms are held together by valency forces to form the nitrate ion. The combination between the sodium and the nitrate group is polar. The silver and mercury (mercurous and mercuric) halides are probably midway between (i) and (2). In a crystal of silver iodide, because of the vigor with which silver clings to the one electron, the electron may be considered as placed part way between the silver and the iodine atoms. The molecules of silver iodide are held together partly by the stray fields and partly by the fields of the doublet of relatively small moment. A brief discussion of certain phenomena which illustrate the application of this point of view will now be given. Some of these subjects have been considered already from similar points of view.^^ They are given again either because they are especially helpful to an understanding of the previous discussion or because of their importance in the consideration of the structure of solids. Dissociating Solvents. — ^The hydrides of the electronegative elements furnish the strongest dissociating solvents. Methane has been dealt with in detail. The fields of its molecule are quite *" If the substance is cooled very rapidly it may be impossible for the particles to arrange themselves in an orderly fashion. The solid is then amorphous. *^ E. C. C. Baly. Jom-n. Amer. Chem. Soc. 37: 979-993. 1915; also papers in Trans. Chem. Soc. London. I. Langmuir. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 38: 2221- 2295. 1916; 39: 1848-1906. 1917; 40: 1361-1403. 1918. W. D. Harkins, E. C. H. Davies and G. L. Clark. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 39: 541-596. 1917. WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 587 thoroughly saturated. With ammonia the tendency for nitrogen to acquire electrons is so much greater than the ability of the hydrogen to hold them that the electron of hydrogen is dis- placed quite a distance towards the nitrogen atom. Doublets of very considerable moment are thus set up within the ammonia molecule and are of large effect upon other atoms or molecules nearby. In water, doublets of still greater moment are to be distinguished on account of the more pronounced tendency of oxygen to acquire electrons. In hydrogen fluoride the single doublet is of even greater moment. In the water molecule each of the two doublets is of shghtly greater moment than each of the three in ammonia. However, the fields about the molecule of water are much more important than those about the ammonia molecule largely because of the comparative simpUcity of the former. The hydrogen atoms in ammonia must lie in three different directions; the water molecule requires at most two directions, and probably both hydrogens would be in a line (the symmetrical arrangement). Consequently the turning of the water molecule in, order that it may exert its maximum effect is much simpler a process than the corresponding process for ammonia.^ Concerning the fields about hydrogen fluoride there is relatively little information. The molecule is not much simpler than the molecule of water; the single doublet does not possess a very much greater moment than either of the doublets of the water molecule. The fields about the water molecule seem to be the strongest of those considered. In liquid water the combination between two molecules due to the interlocking of these doublet fields draws in the fields so that those about the "dihydrol" molecule are much lessened. The dihydrol is a fairly stable compound. Such a liquid, in which combination with itself is possible, is said to be "associated." The fields are intense enough and sufficiently localized to make possible combination between two, occasionally more, molecules but not strong enough to cause sohdification. Organic acids associate by reason of the intensity of the combinations between the — COOH groups of different molecules, and alcohols because of the association of — OH groups. 588 WYCKOFF: forces between atoms in souds Adsorption ^"^ — There will be fields of force upon the surfaces of all solids and all liquids. The molecules of the gas surround- ing the solid likewise possess stray fields of greater or less im- portance. One of two things will happen to those gas mole- cules which strike the surface of the solid (or liquid) . 1. If the molecule is moving so fast that its energ}^ exceeds that necessary to hold together the two fields, it will be reflected from the surface with a loss in energy depending upon the stray forces. 2. Otherwise it will condense and be held upon the surface. The molecule may by reason of collisions from other molecules acquire enough energy to enable it again to leave the surface. The average life and the number of atoms upon the surface at any one time will depend upon the balance set up between these opposing tendencies. As a result of the condensation (adsorp- tion) a new surface, really one of the adsorbed substance, is produced. From this point of view adsorption is seen to depend upon the following factors : 1. The adsorbed substance. The greater the outside fields of the molecules, the higher will be the adsorption. 2. The adsorbing substance. Solids of the valency and polar (electrolyte) types should have large surface fields and should adsorb strongly. Those solids, the particles of which are held together by stray fields only (the organic type), will adsorb to only a slight extent if at all. Solubility. — Solubility results from the entangling of the fields of force of the solute and solvent. The process is influenced by: I. The intensity of the residual forces of the solvent. When these forces are large, the degree of association of the liquid will furnish a rough measure of the forces. With weaker non- associating liquids the boiling point, combined with the weight of the molecule, gives the desired information. 2. The intensity of the residual forces of the solute. The vari- ous kinds and degrees of these have been discussed under a con- sideration of various typical solids. *2 I. Langmuir. Phys. Rev. 8: 149-176. 1916; Journ. Amer. Chera. Soc. 40: 1361-1403. 1918. WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 589 It seems possible to state as a general rule that strong sol- vents (i. e., those possessed of large external forces) dissolve strong solutes, while weak solvents dissolve weak solutes. Weak solutes are not usually markedly soluble in strong solvents nor is the reverse case true. Water dissolves electrolytes; carbon disulfide and benzene dissolve organic compounds; but electro- lytes are not appreciably soluble in carbon disulfide or benzene, while water dissolves only those organic compounds which are possessed of large fields — the acids, alcohols, sugars and the like. Solubility results, in fact, from a chemical reaction between solvent and solute. In order that marked solution can take place, it is necessary that the stray fields about the solvent and the dissolving substance shall each be strong enough to "open up" and make reactive the condensed systems of the other. A certain solubility can be considered to exist in all cases unless the temperature is carried too low. The ordinary tendency for the solute to "vaporize" into the liquid will be enhanced to an extent depending upon the added stray fields of the solvent. The solubility of molecular compounds in non-associated liquids is perfectly straightforward. There will always be some solubility, increasing in amount as the solvent fields, which in such liquids are already pretty well opened up, become of in- creasing importance compared with those of the solute. In order that a substance may be strongly soluble in an associating liquid, it must possess fields great enough more or less to break up this association. Two types of solids have strong outside fields: valency compounds and electrolytes. The fields upon the surface of valency Solids are due to the tendency of the surface atoms to complete their clusters of eight electrons. Ex- cept directly upon the surface, a valency compound is very thoroughly saturated. The surface atoms will be able to com- bine with the solvent molecules, but little action will result be- cause of the much greater force within the solid material. Ad- sorption, rather than solution, results from this reaction. Elec- trolytes possess doublets of large moments which are able to open up to a large degree the fields of the solvent. The extent of the solution of an electrolyte depends upon 590 WYCKOFF: FORCKS BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 1. The degree of association of the solvent (which might be taken as a measure of the potential reactivity), 2. The moments of the doublets within the solid, 3. The stray fields within the solid. In solids possessing multiply-charged ions the increase in the intensity of the binding fields would, where a condensing together of the fields is possible, be greater than the increase in the mo- ments of the doublets. There would thus be a smaller tendency to dissolve. This tendency to condense together, which would ordinarily be found occurring with a double bonding, depends upon both the number and arrangement of the atoms within the solid. Calcium carbonate is only slightly soluble in water while sodium nitrate, ^^ possessing the same structural arrange- ment, dissolves readily. If the ion possesses about it con- siderable fields, it may be able to form with the molecules of the solvent more or less short-lived compounds. This point of view suggests for ionization a mechanism some- what different from that usually accepted. A salt does not usually become ionized at the moment of solution; it is already ionized in the solid state. When a crystal of sodium chloride is added to water, ions, not molecules, are torn from the solid by the process of solution. These ions may, and will when there are enough of them present, combine temporarily to form sodium chloride molecules. The process of solution and ionization is not molecule — > molecule — > ions, but ions — >■ ions — > solid solution solution solid solution molecule. solution Molecular Complexes. — Molecular complexes are formed by the interaction of the stray fields of simple compounds. Molec- ular compounds are formed when two molecules hold together. Complex ions result from the entangling of a simple ion by the fields of a "neutral" molecule. Hydrates are typical solid molecular compounds. In order that such a compound shall be formed, it is essential that both ^' The fact that the carbonate group, being a weak anion, is unable to draw the extra calcium electrons near to it with the production of the large doublets present in sodium nitrate is also of influence in reducing the solubility. WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 59I constituents shall be possessed of fairly large outside fields. In compounds where the binding electrons are held between the electropositive and electronegative portions, the fields are more condensed together and more stable than those of the extreme electrolytes. Complexes formed by them are more stable than those involving ionizing substances. The conditions for stability of a hydrate can be shown by an example. In a solution of zinc sulfate the zinc ions, and probably to a lesser extent the sulfate ions, will be combined with varying numbers of water molecules, that is, probably some ions will be anhydrous, some will have one water molecule attached, etc. As the concentration of the solution is increased, some of the zinc ions will hold to sulfate ions forming hydrated as well as non-hydrated zinc sulfate molecules. The non-hydrated molecule of zinc sulfate by rea- son of the large doublet it contains will tend to become hydrated. There will therefore be in the solution molecules of different degrees of hydration which will in turn tend to acquire more water molecules and also to associate together. When con- centration has progressed far enough, this associating tendency will outweigh the reverse action. That particular hydrate will continue to grow which offers the greatest condensation of the forces involved. This will be usually the highest hydrate within which the forces are great enough to overcome the disrupting effect of thermal agitation. Complex ions. — Complex ions result from the interaction be- tween the fields of a neutral molecule and an ion. The ion becomes imbedded within- the fields of the neutral part. A molecule, in order to form the neutral part of a complex ion, must have the following requisites : 1. It must have fields strong enough to hold the ion. 2. The attractions within the molecule must be such that it is not dissociated into ions either as a solid or upon solution. Such molecules are furnished by compounds of a type inter- mediate between the molecule-forming and the polar classes, where the electron is held so strongly by the electropositive element that it can pass only part of the way over to the negative atom. The complex formed by the addition of potassium cyanide 592 WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS to silver cyanide is typical. Silver cyanide possesses a structure similar to silver iodide. The cyanide ion is less strongly negative than the iodide ion, the electron is nearer the silver atom and consequently the doublet is of less moment. The fields within the silver cyanide molecule are quite intense. When the solid is placed in a solution of potassium cyanide, the cyanide ions will become by collision imbedded within these drawn-in fields between the silver atom and the cyanide radical. This addi- tional cyanide ion will so increase the resulting doublet fields that the water molecules are able to cause solution by reason of the interaction of their fields with those of the new silver cyanide anion in the solid. In future papers it is planned to discuss in detail the informa- tion which X-ray determinations of the structure of crystals, infra-red spectra measurements, and specific heat measurements offer concerning the nature of the forces between the atoms in solids, and to present the results of X-ray studies of various typical crystals. SUMMARY 1. The structure of the atom, as we now know it, is discussed with reference to the nature of the forces operating between atoms, and it is emphasized that only the arrangement of the outside electrons has a bearing on the phenomena usually in- cluded under the term "chemistry." The arrangement of the inner electrons cannot be deduced from chemical data alone. The outstanding fact is the tendency, still unexplained, to form "closed clusters" of eight or twice-eight electrons. 2. Several typical compounds are considered with reference to the nature of the forces producing them. All compounds lie between the two extremes of "polar" and "non-polar" com- pounds. A simplified method of representing the type of com- bination in a given compound is suggested. 3. Solid substances are classified, according to the nature of the forces of combination, into molecule-forming, polar, and valency compounds. 4. The phenomena of adsorption, solubility, ionization in solu- tion, formation of complex ions, and molecular complexes are discussed from this point of view. MICHELSON : FOX INDIANS 593 ANTHROPOLOGY. — -Some general notes on the Fox Indians.''- Part III: Bibliography. Truman Michelson, Bureau of American Ethnology, LINGUISTICS.^ Boas, Franz. The Indian languages of Canada. Annual Archaeological Report 1905: 88-106. Toronto. 1906. The description of Algonquin (94, 95) is based essentially on Jones' first paper. Flom, George T. Syllabus of vowel and consonantal sounds, in Meskwaki Indian. 1906. Published by the State Historical Society of Iowa. Known to me only by the remarks on p. vi of .4 collection of Meskwaki Manuscripts and in the list of names of Meskwaki Indians in the lo^i'a Journal of History and Politics. April, 1906. The title may therefore not be absolutely accurate. To judge from the orthography of the Indian names, the phonetic scheme is deficient. Apparently the author was unacquainted with the work of William Jones. Jones, William. Some principles of Algonquian word-formation. Amer. Anthrop. n. ser. 6: 369-411. 1904. The first scientific paper on the Fox language. Jones, William. A71 Algonquin syllabary. Boas Anniversary Volume: 88-93. 1906. Explains the principles of a number of Fox syllabaries. Only the first one described is in current use. At least two others not described by Jones exist; however, their mechanism is on the same lines. Jones, William. Fox texts. Publ. Amer. Ethnol. Soc. i: 1907. Gives a description of Fox phonetics as he conceives them, and numerous texts. Jones, William. Algonquian (Fox) (revised by Truman Michelson). Handbook American Indian Languages. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 40, Part i: 735- 873. 1911. . Michelson, Truman. 0?i the future of the independent mode tn Fox. Amer. An- throp. n. ser. 13: 171, 172. 1911. Michelson, Truman. Preliminary report on the linguistic classification of Algon- quian Tribes. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Ann. Rep. 28: 22i-29ob. 1912. Michelson, Truman. Note on the Fox negative particle of the conjunctive mode in Fox. Amer. Anthrop. n. ser. 15: 364. 1913. Michelson, Truman. Contributions to Algonquian grammar. Amer. Anthrop. n. ser. 15: 470-476. 1913. Michelson, Truman. Algonquian linguistic miscellany. Joum. Wash. Acad. vSci. 4: 402-409. 1 9 14. Michelson, Truman. The so-called stems of Algonquian verbal complexes. XIX Internat. Cong. Americanists: 541-544. 191 7. Michelson, Truman. Notes on Algonquian languages. Intern. Journ. Amer. Lang, i: 50-57. 1917. Michelson, Truman. Two proto-Algonquian phonetic shifts. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 9: 333-334- - I9i9- Michelson, Truman. Some general notes on the Fox Indians. Part II: Phonetics, folklore afid mythology. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 9:521-528. 1919. See 521-525. There are some unfortunate misprints, which are corrected in an errata sheet preceding the index. Ward, Duren J. H. The Meskwaki people of to-day. Iowa Journ. Hist. Pol. 4: 190- 219. 1906. Gives the more current syllabary; also the phonetic elements of the Fox language as he con- ceives it. The priority of this paper or Jones' second one is unknown. The phonetic scheme is better regarding vowels than consonants. It is deficient in important respects. The philo- sophic tendencies are those of Gobineau, on which see Boas, Mind of Primitive Man, Chap. V (1911) and Michelson, Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 7: 234. 1917. ' Pubhshed with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- tion. 2 The vocabularies, etc., contained in the works of early writers, such as Mars- ton, Forsyth, Galland, Fulton, and Busby, are passed over, for the words are so badly recorded as to be utterly useless. 594 michelson: fox Indians Weld, Laenas G. ; Rich, Joseph W. ; Flom, George T. Prefatory note. Coll. Meskwaki Manuscripts, Publ. State Hist. Soc. Iowa. 1907: v-vii. Remarks on the alphabet employed by Cha ka ta ko si (ordinarily known as "Chuck") in volume; various remarks on the phonetic elements of Fox. Not of much value. The fact that j is used for the ch sound does not point to French influence as is stated: j in French has the value of z in azure; while j in the "Manuscripts" certainly for the most part has the phonetic value of dtc. It is more likely that the j is a reflection of English j, heard in a slightly faulty manner. The alphabet is certainly not in common use among the Foxes; and I suspect Chuck invented it. The Indian texts contained in the volume can be used by the specialist. folklore; and mythology Blair, Emma Helen. Indian Tribes of the Upper Missisipi Valley and the Great Lakes Region. 2: 142-145. 1912. The volume contains Marston's letter to Rev. Dr. Jediah Morse, dated November, 1820; originally printed in the latter's report to the Secretary of War, dated November, 1821, printed at New Haven, 1822. The supposed historic statement that the Shawnees were descended from the Sauk nation by a (Sauk or Fox?) chief, is nothing more than a (Sauk or Fox?) variant of the "Bear-foot Sulkers," on which see Jones, Fox Texts: 30, 31. To-day the Shawnee tell it of the Kickapoo and vice versa (Michelson, information). Busby, AlliE B. Two summers among the Musquakies. i886. Contains extract from Isaac Galland's Chronicles, etc. See below. Fulton, A. R. [Initials stand for?] The Red Men of Iowa. 1882. Contains extract from Isaac Galland's Chronicles, etc. See below. Galland, Isaac. Chronicles of Northamerican savages. 1835. Complete copies are apparently impossible to obtain. Has important information on the gentes and tribal dual division. Part of this cannot be substantiated to-day. Portions re- printed in Annals of Iowa, 1869, under the title of Indian Tribes of Ike West (especially 347- 366), also in Fulton's The Red Men of Iowa, 1882 (131-134), also in Busby's Two summers among the Musquakies, 1886 (52-63). Jones, William. Episodes in the culture-hero myth of the Sauks and Foxes. Joum. Amer. Folk-Lore 15: 225-239. 1901. Jones, William. Fox texts. 1907. Most important of all publications on the subject. Jones, William. Notes on the Fox Indians. Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore 24: 209-237. 1911. Contains much matter supplementary to his Fox Texts. Marsh, Cutting. Letter to Rev. David Greene, dated March 25, 1835. Printed in Wise. Hist. Coll. 15: 104-155. 1900. Traditions regarding the Me-shaum (phonetically mt'cami^i'"), We-sah-kah (Wi'sA'ka'^", the culture-hero), the death of his brother, the flood, etc. See pp. 130-134. Most of the information given can be substantiated to-day. The parts of the letter appurtenant to Fox ethnology, folklore and mythology have been reprinted in the appendix to M. R. Harring- ton's Sacred bundles of the Sac and Fox Indians (1914). Marston, Major M. Letter to Rev. Dr. Morse. 1820. Printed in Morse's Re- port to the Secretary of War, 1822. See p. 122 for a supposed historic statement which is nothing more than legendary: vide supra under Blair. Michelson, Truman. Notes on the folklore and mythology of the Fox Indians. Amer. Anthrop., n. ser. 15: 699, 700. 1913. Points out that Fox folklore and mythology consists of native woodland and plains as well as European elements. Michelson, Truman. Ritualistic origin myths of the Fox Indians. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 6:209-211. 1916. Michelson, Truman. Some general notes on the Fox Indians. Part II: Phonetics, folklore and mythology. Joiu-n. Wash. Acad. Sci. 9: 521-528. 1919. General discussion of Fox folklore and mythology. Owen, Mary Alicia. Folklore of the Musquakie Indians of North America. 1904. See the review by Michelson in Curr. Anthrop. Lit. 2: 233-237. 1913. Steward, John Fletcher. Lost Maramech and earliest Chicago. 1903. A num'aer of stories are scattered throughout the text. 57-59: Bull Head and Elk; Wa-sa-ri misprint for Wa-sa-si, or a corruption of some sort; phonetically wA'se'si'^". Michelson has a variant of this in his unpublished collection. 59-62: Wi-sa-ka and the Dancing Ducks; variant to Jones' Fox Texts, 278-289; a Sauk version collected by Michelson agrees in part quite closely with tale collected by Steward. 62-65: They who went in pursuit of the Bear; variant to Jones' Fox Texts, 70-75. 345-351; Wa-pa-sai-ya; variant to Jones' Fox Texts, 8-31, and his Notes on the Fox Indians, 231-233; two unpublished versions collected by Michel- son agree more closely with those of Jones than with that of Steward. michelson: fox Indians 595 ethnology Armstrong, Perry A. The Sauks and the Black Hawk War. 1887. Quite a bit of Sauk ethnology may be gleaned from this. Marred by the statement (13) that with the "Sauks, like all other Indian nations, the gens ran in the female line" — which is an absurdity, and is not only opposed to the information given by the Sauk Indians of to- day, but is in direct contradiction to the testimony of Morgan (1877) and Forsyth (1827; see Blair, infra). Evidently the author was under the influence of Morgan's general theories as was McGee {Atner. Anthrop. 1898: 89). Atwater, Caleb. The Indians of the northwest. 1850. See especially pp. 72, 76, 81, 87, 93, 104, 105, 106, 107, 115, 123, 129, 130, 132, 175. The time referred to is 1829. Beltrami, Giucomo C. A pilgrimage, etc. 1828. vSee his letter dated May 24, 1823, in vol. 2. Blair, Emma Helen. The hidian tribes of the Upper Missisipi Valley and the Great Lakes Region. 191 2. Vol. 2 contains Major Marston's letter to Jediah Morse, dated November, 1820; originally printed in the latter's report to the Secretary of War, dated 1821, printed 1822; and Thomas Forsyth's "Account of the Manners and Customs of the Sauk and Fox nations of Indian Traditions," a report to General Clark dated St. Louis, January 15, 1827. These two are the best accounts of Fox ethnology. Forsyth's "Account" is printed here for the first time. Busby, AlliE B. Two summers among the Musquakies. 1886. Besides containing extract from Galland (see infra), also gives lists of gentes, dances, mar- riage ceremonies, description of some ceremonials, burial customs; clothing, etc. These are the observations of a former school-teacher, and are interspersed with more or less interesting gossip. The ethnological observations for the most part can be substantiated; on some matters {e. g., the "Mule Dance") the author is hopelessly in the dark as to the real im- port. Carver, Jonathan. Three years travel, etc. 1796. Though published in 1796, refers to thirty years previously, in round numbers. See 30, 31, 145, 170, 219, 230. Catlin, George. Illustrations of the manners, customs, and condition of the North American Indians. 1841. See vol. 2: 207-217. There are other editions. Important. Good for certain dances, clothing, and ethnological facts. Fulton, A. R. The Red Men of Iowa. 1882. See Chapters VIII and XXIII especially. Contains an extract from Galland, historical and ethnological notes. Needless to say, the translation of Mus-qua-kie "the man with the yel- low badge or emblem" and of Sau-kie "the man with the red badge or emblem" should be reversed, and even then the renditions are not accurate; Mus-qua-kie means "Red-Earths;" and Sau-kie is often taken (though mistakenly) to mean "Yellow-Earth." [The last really means "They who came forth." Once given "Red-Earths," "Yellow-Earths" would be a popular etymology, though not correct — witness medial -g-, not -'k-, in the native des- ignation.] Galland, Isaac. Chronicles of the Northamerican savages. 1835. Contains an account of the gentes, but it is not certain whether the list is for the Sauks or Foxes. The dual division is based on some misunderstanding. Complete copies are appar- ently not now to be had. Portions reprinted in Annals of Iowa, 1869: 194 et seq.; see espe- cially 347-366; also in the popular books of Busby and Fulton. Harrington, M. R. Sacred bundles of the Sac and Fox Indians. University Museum Anthrop. Publ. 4, no. 2, 1914. See review by Michelson, Am. Anthrop., n. ser., 17: 576-577, by vSkinner, ibidem, 577-579. Gives a sketch of Sac and Fox culture; detailed description of sacred packs; exquisite photogravures. Besides the references to sacred packs given by Michelson, loc. cit., the following are in order: Armstrong: 37; Bel- trami, 2: 159; Keating (see infra), 2: 229; Rep. Comm. Ind. Affairs, 1851:66. As long as Skinner gives a reference to a presumably Ottawa pack, attention may be called to Ann. Prop. Foi, 4:481. The Potawatomi term for sacred pack is the phonetic correspondent to the Ottawa pindikossan of Perrot [Michelson] , as is evidently the Ojibwa pindjigossan (taken from Baraga); Cree kaskipit^gan (from Lacombe) stands by itself; Sauk, Kickapoo, Shawnee all have phonetic equivalents to Fox mi'cam™i" (Michelson, information). Hodge, Frederick Webb. Handbook of American Indians. 1907, 1910. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30. See articles Fox, Sauk. Full bibliographies at end. Jones, William. The Algonkin Manitou. Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore 18: 183-190. 1905. Best exposition of the fundamentals of Fox religion. Jones, William. Fox texts. 1907. Contains incidental ethnological notes. Jones, William. Mortuary observances and the adoption rites of the Algonquin Foxes of Iowa. Congres International des Americanists, XV': 263-277. 1907. Jones, William. Notes on the Fox Indians. Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore 24: 209, et seq. 191 1. Various ethnological notes interspersed with folk tales. Rules governing membership in tribal dual division wrongly given. 596 michelson: fox Indians Keating, William H. Narrative of an expedition to the source of St. Peter's River — in the year 1823. 1824. See vol. 1 . Though primarily concerned with Sauk ethnology, nevertheless should be con- sulted. Lahonxan, Armand L. de. New voyages to North America. 1703. See 2: 85. Long, John. Voyages and travels of an Indian interpreter and trader. 1791. See p. 151. McKenney and Hall. History of the Indian tribes of North America. 1854. Especially good for Fox costumes; contains other valuable facts. Marsh, Cutting. Letter to Rev. David Greene, dated March 25, 1835. Printed in Wise. Hist. Coll. 15: 1900. Reprinted as far as concerns Fox ethnology, etc., in Harrington's Sacred bundles. Information on the whole, good. Michelson, Truman. Notes on the social organization of the Fox Indians. Amer. Anthrop. n. ser. 15: 691-693. 1913. It is possible that the information given may have to be modified in some details, but not the rules given governing membership in the tribal dual division; and the general proposi- tion that the dual division is for ceremonial as well as for athletic purposes stands. Michelson, Truman. Terms of relationship and social organization. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 2: 297-300. 1916. General discussion of terms of relationship; and Algonquian ones in particular. Discussion of the Fox system is incidental. Morgan, Lewis H. Systems of consanguinity, etc. 1871. The "Sauk and Fox" system is from Sauk informants; some schedules are faulty; the Sauk and the Fox systems are identical (Michelson, information). Morgan, Lewis H. Ancient society, i^tj. Gives list of gentes, but whether Sauk or Fox is unknown. The two tribes, though legally consolidated, are distinct ethnologically and linguistically. Owen, Mary Alicia. Folk-lore of the Musquakie Indians of North America. 1904. The ethnological data are untrustworthy: see the review by Michelson, Curr. .Anthrop. Lit. 2:233-237; that of "A. F. C. and I. C. C." in Journ. .-imer. Folk-Lore 18: 144-146 is a bare enumeration of the contents of the volume without any attempt at criticism. Patterson, J. B. Autobiography of Black-Hawk. 1882. Has data on Sauk ethnology and so is of value. Pike, Zebulon Montgomery. An expedition, etc. (ed. Coues). 1895. .See 338, 339. Reports of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. For facts beyond population and statistics see reps, for 1851; 66; 1896: 162; 1897: 148; 1898; 161, 166, 171; 1901: 240. As a whole reliable. INSTITUTIONS AT WHICH THERE ARE FOX ETHNOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS American Museum of Natural History. Collector: William Jones. Cambridge University Museum of Archeology and Ethnology. Collector: Miss Owen. Davenport Academy of Sciences. Collector: Truman Michelson. Field Museum of Natural History. Collectors: William Jones, Truman Michel- son, and one or two others. Museum fiir Volkerkunde (Berlin). Collector: Truman Michelson. One sacred pack. Museum of the American Indian. Collectors, M. R. Harrington, Truman Michelson United States National Museum. Collector: Truman Michelson. Sacred packs only. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. GEODESY. — Grid system for progressive maps in the United States. William Bowie and Oscar S. Adams. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Special Publ. 59. Pp. 227, figs. 6. 1919. This publication contains tables, with the description of "their use, which make it possible to construct a "grid" on any map in the United States, similar to the grids used on military maps in Europe during the war. The basis for the grid system in the United States is the poly- conic projection. The polyconic projection lines cannot be used to advan- tage in military operations where it is necessary to compute quickly the distance and direction between two points, but by means of a plane coordinate system, the relation between any two or more points can be obtained easily by the solution of right-angled triangles. The values in the tables in this publication are the plane coordinates for the intersections of 5 -minute parallels and meridians. The country is divided into seven zones and any coordinate can be used for each of the seven zones by merely shifting the longitude by 8 °. It was imprac- ticable to have a single zone for the whole country, because of its wide extension in longitude. The zones in the United States extend in a north and south direction and are 9° in width. Each zone overlaps the contiguous zones by i °. This makes it possible to avoid a com- plete break in the plane coordinates at the margins of the zones. The grid lines of two zones can be used on the maps in the overlapping areas and thus provide a connection between them. The origin for each zone is outside of the United States and is to the southwest of each zone. By having the origin in this location all of the coordinates within the zone are positive. The X-coordinates increase to the eastward and the Y-coordinates to the northward. A careful study was made of the various projections in general use 597 598 abstracts: physics before deciding on the one to be used as the basis for the grid tables. The Lambert projection, which was used in France, was not apphcable to the United States because of the great range in latitude in this country. The publication contains examples of the transformation of the geographic to grid coordinates and the reverse. While the tables were computed especially for use in the construction of military maps in the United States, it is possible that the system may sometime be used on maps for civil purposes. W. B. PHYSICS. — Specific heat determination at higher temperatures. Wal- ter P. White. Amer. Journ. Sci. 47: 44-59. January, 1919. This paper deals with the experimental technic of specific heat determination at temperatures up to 1400° by the "method of mix- tures," and continues some earlier presentations. Detailed modifica- tions in furnaces and in methods of transferring to the calorimeter are described. The heat losses attending the dropping of hot bodies into water proved to be surprisingly large; their prevention is probably advisable in accurate work, perhaps by the use of aneroid calorimeters. W. P. W. PHYSICS.— r/i^ determination of the compressibility of solids at high pressures. L. H. Adams, E. D. Williamson, and John Johnston. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: 12-42. January, 19 19. This paper describes a method by means of which the volume- change under pressure of a solid may be determined with an accuracy of about one part in 10,000 of the original volume of the solid. Results are presented for the metals gold, copper, silver, aluminum, zinc, tin, cadmium, lead, and bismuth; for the alloys brass and tin- bismuth eutectic; and for sodium chloride, calcium carbonate, and silica, both crystalline and amorphous. The pressure range was 2,000 and 12,000 megabars (i megabar = 0.987 atm.). The P — AF graphs which show the relation between volume-change and pressure were found to be nearly straight lines; however, the more compressible metals exhibit a slight but unmistakable curvature such that the graphs are concave toward the pressure axis. From this curvature a rough estimate was obtained of the change of compressibility between o and 10,000 megabars of all the solids examined (except gold, copper, silver, aluminum, and brass, for which the compressibility is inde- pendent of pressure within the error of experiment). L. H. A. abstracts: analytical chemistry 599 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/z^ thermal dissociation of sulfur di- oxide. J. B. Ferguson. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: 69-72. January, 19 19. The degree of dissociation and the equilibrium constants for the dissociation of sulfur dioxide have been calculated from the equilibrium measurements of the reduction of sulfur dioxide by carbon monoxide and the dissociation of carbon dioxide, and the results of these calcu- lations for a number of temperatures and pressures are given in this paper. The values obtained confirm the experimental results which indicated that the dissociation was too slight to be directly studied by the present available methods. J. B. F. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.— A contribution to the methods of glass analysis, with special reference to boric acid and the two oxides of arsenic. E- T. AllEn and E. G. ZiES. (Geophysical Lab. Papers on Optical Glass, No. 5.) Journ. Amer. Ceramic Soc. i: 739- 786. Nov., 1918. Arsenic. An accurate method for the separation and determination of both trivalent and pentavalent arsenic in glasses is described. The separation depends on the volatilization of the trivalent arsenic as AsFa when the glass is heated with hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids, while the pentavalent arsenic remains in the residue. The procedures described for arsenic in glasses are generally applicable to substances in which the arsenic can be transformed into sulfide without loss, and are highly accurate. A comparison of the iodometric method and the magnesium pyroarsenate method for arsenic in glasses is made. The former has the advantage in accuracy, and also in speed except where occasional determinations are called for. Boric Acid. For the determination of boric acid we have found that Chapin's method is very reliable and yields highly accurate re- sults. It has been shown that in order to obtain very acciurate results a "blank" must be made and the value applied as a correction to the amount of boric acid found. The correction is small and for ordinary work can be neglected. The accuracy of the method is very appre- ciably affected by relatively large amounts of arsenious acid but not by arsenic acid. Relatively large amounts of fluorides appreciably affect the accuracy of the determination but do not seriously impair its use- fulness for ordinary work. Other Determinations. Experience with the following cases in glass 6oo abstracts: geology analysis is detailed: (i) The determination of the minute quantities of iron in optical glass; (2) the separation and determination of zinc; (3) the separation and determination of lead and barium occurring together; (4) the separation of calcium or barium from relatively large quantities of aluminum occurring with almost no iron; (5) the determi- nation of those elements in boric acid glasses with which the boric acid interferes. Attention is called to the universal presence of hygroscopic moisture in powdered glass samples. Some data by E. S. vShepherd on gases in glass are given. E- T. A. GEOLOGY. — Salt resources of the United States. W. C. PhalEn. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 669. Pp. 284, pis. 17, figs. 16. 1919. This bulletin describes the geology of the salt deposits of the United States, discussing separately by States the position and extent of deposits, and the stratigraphy and structure of the region, and gives a bibliography for each State. It also gives theories of origin and formation of salt deposits ; the chemical composition of saline materials ; and statistics of the production of salt in the United States from 1880 to 191 7. R. W. Stone. GEOLOGY. — Clays and shales of Minnesota. Frank F. Grout. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 678. Pp. 251, pis. 16, figs. 38. 1919. This bulletin comprises a discussion of the distribution, origin, prop- erties, classification, and adaptability of the clays and shales of Minne- sota. An attempt has been made to test all the more important de- posits with sufficient exactness to determine for what purposes they may be used. The general character of each geologic formation and the character of the clay products made from it by the several methods of manufacture are set forth. Deposits suitable for common brick are abundant and widely distributed in many accessible localities in the eastern part of the State. The red laminated clay of the eastern counties makes good red brick and may be used as a slip glaze for semi- refractory ware. R. W. Stone. GEOLOGY. — The Anvik-Andreafski region, Alaska. George L. Har- rington. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 683. Pp. 69, pis. 7. 1918. The Anvik-Andreafski region as described in this report embraces the territory west and north of the lower Yukon River between Anvik and Andreafski rivers and an extensive area of low-lying country im- mediately contiguous to the Yukon on its east and south sides. abstracts: geology 6oi Greenstones of a rather wide range in composition and origin make up a large proportion of the metamorphic rocks. Closely associated with the greenstones are slates, quartzites, and conglomerates and many intermediate rock types. The greenstones appear to have suf- fered the most intense changes, but secondary structure has developed in the sediments also. Undeformed acidic dikes cut both the green- stones and the sediments. It is tentatively assumed that the green- stones, including the tuffs and some conglomerates which occur with them, are of late Paleozoic age and that the sedimentary rocks are the metamorphosed equivalents of the Cretaceous beds found elsewhere in this region. Cretaceous rocks were found on Anvik and Andreafski rivers and probably occupy much of the intervening area. More or less closely associated with the Cretaceous rocks in the northern and eastern parts of the region are a series of tuffs and flows of intermediate basic types. Some of the flows appear to be intercalated with the Cretaceous sedi- ments. In the southern part of the region are a number of dacitic porphyry dikes of late Cretaceous or post-Cretaceous age. No sediments of known Tertiary age were found in the area, but at somewhat widely separated points vesicular lavas occur as undeformed horizontal flows which are either late Tertiary or early Quaternary. Quaternary deposits are found throughout the region. At the beginning of the Quaternary period the surface stood at a somewhat higher elevation than now, and the base-level of erosion was lower, so that many of the streams were able to carve deeper valleys in bedrock than those they now occupy. It appears likely that the stream systems had become well established and a fairly mature topography had been developed. At some time in this stage of erosion there was an extravasation of basaltic lava which materially altered the courses of sonic of the larger streams, possibly including the Yukon itself or its predecessor. The report concludes with a discussion of the mineral resources of the region. R. W. Stone. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETlEvS WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF MANAGERS At the meeting of the Board of Managers on April 30, 1919, the special committee on distribution of the Proceedings reported that 50 reserve sets had been wrapped, and arrangements had been made for the distribution of the greater part of the remaining complete sets. At the meeting of the Board on May 26, 1919, the following commit- tees were authorized and appointed: Committee to present to the Congressional commission on reclassification of government employees the desirability of enlisting the aid of the National Research Council: P. G. Agnew and W. J. Humphreys; committee to prepare information concerning scientific and technical positions in the government bureaus, for the assistance of the Reclassification Commission: F. L. Ransome, F. V. CoviLLE, E. B. Rosa, C. S. Scoeield, R. B. Sosman, W. T. Swingle. At the meeting of the Board on June 30, 191 9, the membership of the Academy in the American Metric Association was continued, and problems of reclassification, salaries, and retirement were discussed. At the meeting of the Board on October 27, 1919, a committee con- sisting of Paul Bartsch, F. V. Coville, and F. L. Ransome was requested to make a report concerning the relation of the Shaw Aquatic Gardens to the proposed engineering improvements along Anacostia River. The following persons have become members of the Academy since the last report in the Journal: Mr. Oscar S. Adams, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C. Dr. Arthur Chaden Baker, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Mr. Herbert Spencer Barber, National Museum, Washington, D. C. Dr. Charles Franklin Brooks, U. S. Weather Bureau, Washing- ton, D. C. Mr. Albert Franklin Burgess, Bureau of Entomology, Melrose Highlands, Massachusetts. Mr. Otis Fisher Black, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Mr. Theodore Chapin, U. S. Geological Survey, Anchorage, Alaska. Mr. Arthur J. Ellis, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Mr. Henry C. Fuller, Institute of Industrial Research, Washing- ton, D. C. 602 proceedings: Washington academy of sciences 603 Mr. Louis J. Gillespie, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Mr. R. B. Harvey, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Mr. Oliver Baker Hopkins, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Mr. James A. Hyslop, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Mr. James T. JardinE, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Mr. Neil M. Judd, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. Dr. Lyman Frederic KeblER, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Dr. George Richard Lyman, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Mr. S. C. Mason, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Dr. Everett Franklin Phillips, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Mr. Fred J. Pritchard, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Mr. Arthur W. Sampson, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Mr. E. Ralph Sasscer, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Mr. Joshua J. Skinner, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Robert B . Sosman, Corresponding Secretary. 134TH meeting The 134th meeting of the Academy was held jointly with the Chem- ical Society of Washington in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, the evening of Thursday, March 27, 191 9. Dr. Arthur L. Day, Director of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington, and Vice-President of the Corning Glass Works, Corning, New York, delivered an address on Optical glass. The lecturer outlined the position of the United States with respect to supplies of optical glass both in 19 14, when imJDorts from Europe began to be interrupted, and in 191 7, when the United States entered the war. The danger from American dependence on European supplies had been recognized before 191 7 and some progress had been made in this country in the manufacture of optical glass; but the situation was unsatisfactory, because the prospect that the supply would increase with sufficient rapidity to keep pace with the demands of the American Army seemed remote. Intensive efforts to stimulate the production of the one plant that was then producing glass in appreciable quantity, and the bringing into production of two additional commercial plants in the latter part of 191 7, had by November, 191 8, solved the problem of an adequate supply. At the same time laboratory and plant research had secured improved raw materials and had gotten at the many diffi- 6o4 proceedings: Washington academy oe sciences culties with manufacturing processes, so that the quality also had been brought up to a high standard. The lecturer showed lantern slides illustrating the various processes used in manufacturing optical glass, together with curves indicating the rapid increase in American pro- duction in 1917 and 1918. 135TH meeting The 135th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, the evening of Friday, April 4, 1919, the occasion being an address by Lieut. Col. Byron C. Goss, U. S. A., Chief Gas Officer, Second Army, A. E. F., entitled Gas warfare at the front. The lecture was devoted principally to the military features of gas offense and defense, as experienced by the American Army in 191 8. At this stage of the war reliance was placed mainly on gas shell, and the gas cloud, which was the method by which gas warfare was introduced in 1915, was very little used. The use of toxic shell may be divided into three periods. From May, 191 5 to July, 191 6 only lachrymatory shell were used. Phosgene and chlorpicrin shell, intended to produce cas- ualties, came into increased use from July, i9i6toJuly, 191 7. With the latter date began the use of the so-called "mustard gas." The tactical handling of gas shell depends on the object to be accomplished, whether the production of casualties or the neutralization of troops. Details of tactics and of shell design were ably discussed by the lec- turer and were illustrated with lantern slides. The lecture closed with the presentation of some new moving pictures showing the use of thermit bombs and smoke clouds and the handling of gas shell by American artillery at the front in the autumn of 191 8. 136TH MEETING The 136th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, the evening of Thursday, May 15, 1919. An address was delivered by Prof. John C. Merriam, Acting Chairman of the National Research Council, entitled Cave hunting in California. The discovery of prehistoric stone implements supposed to be from the auriferous gravels of California aroused interest some years ago in the question whether man was present on the West Coast during Pliocene or Pleistocene time. The lecturer outlined his early studies of the problem through the examination of auriferous gravels, river terrace gravels, and caves, illustrating the story with many lantern slides of California caves. Among the localities where significant material was obtained were Mercer's Cave in Calaveras County, Haw- ver's Cave and the Robbers' Cave in the American River valley, and Potter Creek Cave and Sarnwel Cave on the McCloud River. Many new species of extinct Pleistocene animals were found in the course of the explorations, but no absolutely certain evidence has been discovered of the existence of man in California before the present epoch. The lecture was discussed by several members of the Academy. William R. Maxon, Recording Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEER- ING SOCIETIES American Association for the Advancement of Science. St. Louis, Missouri, December 29-31, 191 9. Chicago, Illinois, December, 1920. National Academy of Sciences. Washington, D. C, April, 1920. American Ceramic Society. Hotel Walton, Philadelphia, Penn- sylvania, February 23-26, 1920. American Chemical Society. St. Louis, Missouri, April 13-16, 1920. Chicago, Illinois, September, 1920. American Physical Society. Chicago, Illinois, November 28-29, 1919. Geological Society of America. Boston, Massachusetts, Decem- ber 29-31, 1919. American Society of Zoologists. St. Louis, Missouri, December 29-31, 1919. American Institute of Electrical Engineers. New York City, February 18-20, 1920. Annual Convention, June 22-25, 1920; place not yet decided upon. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. New York City, December 2-5, 1919. St. Louis, Missouri, probably May, 1920. American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. New York City, February 16-20, 1920. National Electric Light Association. Pasadena, California, May 18, 1920. THE MAP-MAKING CONFERENCE On July I, 191 9, the Engineering Council addressed a letter to the President of the United States suggesting that a conference of the map-making bureaus of the Federal government be called in order to make plans for cooperation and for expediting the completion of the topographic map of the United States. On August 27 the President referred the matter to the Secretary of War and requested that a con- ference be called. The conference was held on September 15-29, and the following fourteen map-making organizations of the Federal government were represented: U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, U. S. Geological Survey, General Land Office, Topographic Branch of the Post-Office Depart- ment, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Reclamation Service, Bureau of Public Roads, Bureau of Indian Affairs, International (Canadian) Boundary Commission, Forest Service, U. S. Hydrographic Office, and the fol- lowing organizations from the U. S. Army: Corps of Engineers, Mis- sissippi River Commission, and U. S. Lake Survey. Ten national scientific and engineering societies were also represented. 605 6o6 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS The conference reached the general conclusion "that there is little actual duplication of effort materially affecting the progress of map- ping the United States. The U. S. Geological Survey is charged with the preparation of a topographic map of the United States, which, with certain minor modifications, will adequately meet the needs for a general utility map. The work of that bureau is progressing as rapidly as the available funds will permit. Approximately one- third of the area of the continental United States, exclusive of Alaska, is now covered by satisfactory maps of this class. The U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, in addition to its other work, is engaged in the execu- tion of the primary control in the interior of our country. A basic horizontal and vertical control which will permanently establish some geographic position and elevation within about 50 miles of any point in the United States has been approximately 50 per cent completed. Close cooperation exists between the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and the U. S. Geological Survey so that there is no duplication in carrying out the work necessary for the standard topographic map." The report also shows that certain map needs of various other bureaus are met by the standard topographic map of the Geological Survey. In addition, they all require certain special maps, some of which demand more detailed surveys than those necessary for the standard map, and others of which require the collection of entirely different kinds of data. Some of the organizations concerned (for instance, the Inter- national Boundary Commission) are conducting specialized surveys, and while they would be benefited in some degree by the early comple- tion of the standard map in the areas in which they operate, still this map would not obviate the need of the special surveys. The work of the Hydrographic Office is entirely outside the continental limits of the United States. The conference adopted the following recommendation: "It is recommended that the present procedure be continued, under which the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey executes the primary control of the area of the United States and U. S. Geological Survey prepares, publishes, and distributes the standard topographic map and that Congress be asked to make larger appropriations for these purposes in order that the complete map may be available at an early date. ***** It is further recommended that this general project be approved and placed before Congress with the request that Congress adopt the project for execution by successive annual appropriations for these two bureaus. Under this general plan it is assumed that a large number of States will continue to cooperate in topographic map- ping by making specific appropriations for that work." The conference also recommended: (i) that a permanent Board of Sur\^eys and Maps be appointed to act as an advisory body; (2) that a central information office be established, preferably in the U. S. Geo- logical Survey, but under the general supervision of the Board of Surveys and Maps; (3) that the copyright laws be so amended as to provide that a copy of every map presented for copyright be trans- SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 607 mitted to the information office; (4) that all Government agencies be instructed to comply with requests for data from the Board; (5) that surveys by agencies other than the Geological Survey be made to conform to the specifications of the standard topographic map; (6) that the Coast and Geodetic Survey be given general supervision of the final adjustment of all important control data; (7) that maps be issued as soon as possible after the field work has been completed; and (8) that the program of the Interdepartmental Committee on Aerial Surv^eying be approved. It is estimated that the work of primary control can be completed by 1933 at a cost of $6,305,000, and that the topographic map can be completed within the same period for $40,490,000 (including coopera- tive appropriations by States). NOTES Mr. C. H. BiRDSEYE has been appointed Chief Topographic Engineer of the U. S. Geological Survey, to succeed Mr. R. B. MarshaIvL, who recently resigned as Chief Geographer. Mr. Birdseye was formerly chief of one of the divisions of topographic mapping and during the War served in France as Lieutenant Colonel of the Coast Artillery. Mr. Marshall will remain a member of the Survey, being enrolled as a topographic engineer on a per diem status, and will thus be available for occasional service. Prof. M. A. CarlETon has resigned his position as cerealist with the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and is now engaged in special field investigations for the U. S. Grain Corporation, with headquarters at 42 Broadway, New York City. Dr. Henry A. Christian, Dean of the Harvard Medical School, came to Washington on November i as chairman of the Division of Medical Sciences of the National Research Council. Mr. D. Dale Condit has resigned from the Geological Survey, and Mr. Ralph W. Howell is on a year's leave of absence, to accept posi- tions as petroleum geologists with Pearson and Sons. They sailed for England about the middle of October. Mr. R. W. Frey, formerly with the leather and paper laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, has re- signed to accept a position in the chemical department of John H. Heald & Co., Inc., manufacturers of tanning and dye-wood extracts at Lynchburg, Va. Dr. Albert Mann has resigned from the Department of Agriculture to accept an appointment as Research Associate of the Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington. The change was made so as to enable him to give his entire time to his work on the diatoms. He will have his office and laboratory at the National Museum. 6o8 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Prof. A. A. MiCHELSON, of the University of Chicago, who was until recently engaged in research for the Navy Department at the Bureau of Standards, has been appointed Research Associate at the Mount Wilson Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, for the year ending July, 1920. Mr. Bert Russell, first assistant examiner in the Patent Office, and secretary of the Patent Office Society, has resigned in order to de- vote his attention to chemi co-legal work with the firm of Prindle, Wright & Small, of New York City. Mr. C. E. SiEBENTHAL, geologist of the U. S. Geological Survey, will spend a large part of his time this winter in the Internal Revenue division of the Treasury Department assisting in the adjustment of the income- tax valuation of mining properties. Prof, C. A. Skinner, formerly head of the Physics Department at the University of Nebraska, has recently come to Washington as chief of the Division of Optics of the Bureau of Standards. Dr. M. W. Travers, formerly of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, and connected during the war with the manufacture of chemical glass in England, visited Washington in October. Dr. L. B, TucKERMAN, formerly professor of Theoretical Physics at the University of Nebraska, has recently joined the Engineering Ma- terials Division of the Bureau of Standards. Dr. P. V. Wells, of the Bureau of Standards, is on leave of absence and is spending a year in the laboratory of Prof. Perrin in Paris. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 DECEMBER 4, 1919 No. 20 PHYSICS. — The relation between birefringence and stress in various types of glass. L. H. Adams and E. D. WiIvIvIam- SON, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington. When a rigid body is subjected to stress there are produced changes in refractive index which are related to the direction of stress and to the vibration directions of the entering light. Iso- tropic substances such as glass then become birefracting. It is evident that birefringence may serve as a measure of strain and, consequently, of stress; indeed this method is commonly used for the determination of internal stress in glass, and is of especial importance in the examination of optical glass, which for use in lenses and prisms must be well annealed. While it is common practice to speak of strain in glass in terms of birefringence, little is known concerning the absolute magnitude of the stresses or strains involved,^ and, as a part of the general problem of glass annealing, definite information concerning the relation of birefringence to stress was required. Accordingly in this paper we present the results of some measure- ments of the birefringence due to loading of nine kinds of op- tical glass. A brief review of the optical effect of stress is also given. EXPERIMENTAIv METHOD AND RESULTS Blocks of each kind of glass measuring about 2 by 3 by 3 cm. were prepared. The faces were made as nearly plane parallel 1 The only observations known to us are those by Pockels with reference to several glasses, some of which were flint glasses, while the others were unusual alumino- borates. See page 615 and 620. 609 6io ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS as possible, two opposite faces being polished and the other four faces left with a finely ground surface. Each block was in turn subjected to compression in a Riehle vertical testing ma- chine, and a beam of light polarized by a nicol prism was passed through the block, the plane of polarization of the light being at 45° to the direction of pressure. The blocks of glass when loaded showed a certain amount of double refraction which Fig. I. Diagrammatic representation of apparatus for measuring birefringence of glass under load. Pressure is transmitted to the block of glass G through the hardened steel blocks A A and B B. Light from the lamp 5 is polarized by the nicol prism N, passes through the glass, the lens L, the graduated quartz wedge W, the eyepiece E and the analyzing nicol iVj. The nicols are crossed and the axis of thrust makes an angle of 45 ° with the vibration direction of the light entering the block G. could be detected by the use of polarized light, and could be measured by determining the optical path difference^ according - If two rays of light travel with velocities Va and Vb through the distance /, we Vb lla Na Xft have - = ~ = t; = — > >^a and tib being the corresponding refractive indices, Va Hb Nb Xo Xa and \b the wave-lengths, and Na and Nb the total numbers of waves. More- / ftal over, Na = — = — m which Xi is the wave-length corresponding to w = i . Simi- Xa Xi flbl larly Nb = — and Xi Na— Nb == (lla nb)l The product tial or 7ibl, respectively, is called the "optical path;" (wo — nb)l is the "optical path-difference" and is the quantity which we measure. Obviously the birefringence iia — iib may be obtained by dividing the optical path-difference by the geometrical length of path. ADAMS AND WIIvI/IAMSON : BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS 6ll to standard methods.^ The optical system for measuring the birefringence consisted of a petrographic microscope supported at the proper angle on one post of the testing machine and in such a position that the block of glass G was between the nicol A'^ (Fig. i) and the low-power lens L. A graduated quartz wedge, W, was in the focal plane of an eyepiece, E, on which was mounted a cap nicol, N-2.. Upon illuminating the system with light from an ordinary incandescent lamp, S, the wedge W- — which was placed with its N ^^^; ^ H^i^^^ ^^^ -*-_£>-« ^^^^^^^^/f Fig. 2. Diagram to show arrangement for determining the uniformity of loading. The block of glass G is illuminated by light from S which passes through the diffusing screen D and is reflected from the sheet of glass R. The thrust is applied to the glass in a direction at 45 ° to the plane of polarization of the light, and the interference colors produced by loading are observed through the analyzing nicol N. longest dimension in a horizontal position — was observed through the eyepiece and nicol. When the analyzer was placed so that the nicols were crossed, a series of colored lines extended across the field in a vertical direction, and the position of the central black Une with respect to the graduations on the wedge determined the birefringence of the specimen. One division on our wedge represented lo mm retardation and no difficulty was experienced in reading to V2 division or 5 /xju, which was about i percent of the maximum observed birefringence. The load ' For example, see F. E- Wright, The methods of petrographic-microscopic research. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Publ. 158, Chap. III. 191 1. 6l2 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS could be read to o.i kg. or better — a higher degree of precision than is necessary, since readings to within 5 kg. would corre- spond in accuracy to the readings of the wedge. The first results obtained were irregular and generally unsatis- factory. This was found to be due to the fact that the load was not applied uniformly. In seeking to remedy this defect we found that the problem of loading a block of glass evenly up to a pressure of a few hundred kg. per sq. cm. offers unex- pected experimental difficulties and requires the greatest pos- sible amount of care and patience. Fortunately birefringence serves not only for the quantitatiA^e measurement of stress but also for the qualitative examination of the uniformity of stress. TABLE I Chemical Composition and Optical Properties of the Various Glasses Kind of glass Ordinary Crown Borosilicate Crown. . . Light Barium Crown , Heavy Barium Crown Barium Flint Light Flint Medium Flint Heavy Flint Extra Heavy Flint. Recipr. rel. App ro.xim ate composition Refrac. index disper- sion (con- "d strin- gence) V PbO CaO BaO ZnO NazO K2O AI2O3 B2O3 I 523 59 — . 12 14 I . 516 62 — ■ 4 ■ 9 8 — 12 574 57 — ■ 29 I I 3 5 I 4 608 57 — • 43 8 — — 3 6 606 44 24 15 8 3 4 — ■ — 573 42 35 • — ■ — 6 5 — 616 37 48 ■ — — 3 4 — • — • 655 33 52 — — 3 3 — ■ — I 756 27 69 — ■ — ■ — 3 — — Si02 73 67 47 40 46 54 45 42 28 To detect unevenness of loading a polarizer of large aperture is required. A convenient arrangement is shown in Fig. 2. Light from the lamp 5" is diffused by the translucent screen D (of ground glass or tracing cloth) and polarized by reflection from the sheet of plate glass R which is painted black on the back. The vibration direction of the beam of light, as with- the previous arrangement, is inclined 45° to the direction of pressure. The interference colors are observed through the nicol prism A^, no lens being required. If the block of glass G be uniformly loaded it appears in the field of view to be of a certain uniform color ADAMS AND WIIvLIAMSON : BIRKFRINGENCE; AND STRESS 613 on the Newton scale, the color depending on the amount of birefringence present, but if the load be uneven the color will vary from place to place in bands or streaks or irregular blotches. After numerous unsuccessful attempts to secure uniform stress throughout the blocks of glass, the following method was found to be satisfactory. The thrust was applied through two hardened steel blocks {A, A in Fig. i) the curved surfaces of which were in contact with the curved surfaces of the blocks B, B. The adjacent surfaces of steel and glass were ground so as to be as nearly plane as possible and were then ground together with very fine emery. Above and below the block of glass was placed a piece of thin drawing paper. With this arrangement we were able to load the glass uniformly up to a pressure of 200 kg. per sq. cm., which was sufficient for the purpose. TABLE 2 Birefringence Produced in Glass by a Thrust of i Kg. per Sq. Cm. Kind of glass Ordinary Crown Borosilicate Crown. . . Light Barium Crown. Heavy Barium Crown, Barium Flint Light Flint Medium Flint Heavy Flint -. . , Extra Heavy Flint. . . , Path diff. MA* per kg. D/W Width of block cm. b 0.959 2.68 0.852 2.35 0.964 2 .92 0.638 3.37 0.976 3.18 I .022 3.13 I .068 2.93 0.912 ^2.93 0.439 2.78 —h X 10~ D/W. Birefringence due to 1 kg. per sq. cm. -2.57 X 10-7 -2.85 X 10-7 -2.81 X 10-7 -2 .15 X 10"' -3 .10 X lO'"' -3 .20 X 10"' -3.13 X io~^ -2 .67 X IO~" -I .22 X IO~' Modulus of compressibility. Kg. per sq. cm. K 0.46 X 10^ 0.43 X 106 0.52 X 106 0.53 X 106 0.42 X 106 0.35 X 106 0.34 X 106 0.34 X 106 0.32 X 106 Modulus of rigidity. R 0.28 X 10^ 0.29 X 10^ 0.30 X 10^ 0.29 X 10^ 0.26 X lo^ 0.24 X 10* 0.22 X 10^ 0.22 X 10* 0.20 X 10^ Table i shows the chemical composition and optical properties of the glasses used, and in table 2 are given the results of our measurements. If W is the load applied to the block of glass by the testing machine and D the corresponding optical path- difference as determined by the graduated quartz wedge, the ratio D/W was found to be constant for each specimen to within the limit of accuracy of the measurements. This result is in accord with the observation by Brewster^ in 181 4 that the * Brewster, Phil. Trans. 1814, 1815, 1816. 6l4 ADAMS AND WILUAMSON : BIREFRINGENCE; AND STRESS optical effect produced is proportional to the amount of the stress. The ratio TD/W , however, is not independent of the dimen- sions of the block, but it is readily seen that W lah is the pressure and that D la is the path difference (6 and a are the dimensions of the block measured transversely to the direction of thrust, a being in the direction of the beam of light (see Fig. i)). More- over, the ratio Bla bD or W/ab W is the birefringence produced by unit pressure and is de- pendent only on the nature of the glass. It is interesting to note that only one dimension of the block needs to be mea- sured. The second column of table 2 gives for each kind of glass the weighted mean value of D/W in mm per kg., and in the third column are values of b, the width of the block in cm., i. e., the length of an edge perpendicular both to the direction of thrust and the direction of the beam of light. The quantity bD/W as shown in the fourth column is then the birefringence produced by a pressure of i kg. per sq. cm. For reasons which will appear later it may be useful to know the rigidity and compres- sibility of each of the various kinds of glass. In the last two columns of table 2 are given the rigidity and compressibility calculated according to the method described by Hovestadt,^ except for ordinary crown glass, the compressibility of which we measured by a method already described.*'' These calcu- lated elastic constants are of course only approximate values, but are probably sufficiently accurate for our present purpose. All of the results in the fourth column lie between 2.57 X io~^ and 3.20 X 10 ~^ except for two comparatively uncommon glasses. It is a curious and unexpected circumstance that for the more generally used optical glasses a given stress should produce so nearly the same amount of birefringence. The heavy * H. HovESTADT, Jena glass. Transl. by J. D. and A. EvERETT. London, 1902; pp. 155-160, 185-193. \ * L. H. Adams, E. D. Williamson and J. Johnston. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: 12-42. 1919. ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS 615 barium crown, containing 43 per cent barium oxide (BaO), and to a still greater extent the extra heavy flint, containing 69 per cent lead oxide (PbO), show a much smaller ratio of birefrin- gence to stress. The variation of this ratio with lead content in the flint glass has been investigated by Pockels,^ who has ex- pressed his results in a form very different from the one we have used. Before comparing his results with ours it is therefore necessary to give a short discussion of the principles involved. ^ THE BY ELEMENTARY THEORY OF OPTICAL EFFECTS PRODUCED STRESS Since the stress at any point in a solid may be resolved into three components at right angles to each other, it is sufficient Y P * y (L ) 0 ♦ / X P yz Fis. 3- Drawing to accompany elementary discussion of optical effects of stress. The thrust P is applied in the direction 0 Y. The ray of light enters the cube of glass in the direction OX, becomes elliptically polarized and is treated as two rays vibrating, respectively, in the directions OY and OZ. Ordinarily the ray vibrating along OY travels with the higher velocity, that is, ordinary glass under uni-directional com- pression behaves like an optically negative uniaxial crystal. to consider what happens to light passing through a cube of glass subjected to forces normal to its faces. In Fig. 3 let OX, OY, OZ represent the coordinate axes, and consider a beam of Hght passing through the cube in a direction parallel to OX. Now if the glass be acted upon by a vertical thrust {i. e., parallel to OY) the cube will be compressed in that direction and ex- ^ F. PocKELS. Ann. Phys. (4) 7: 745. 1902. 6l6 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS tended along OX and OZ. The velocity of the beam of light will be altered and in general the wave will be split into two wave fronts proceeding with different velocities and polarized in direc- tions at right angles^ to each other. Moreover, a ray of polar- ized light after passing through the block of glass in a direction normal to the surface will remain a single ray but will be found to be elliptically polarized and may best be treated as the re- ^iltant of two rays vibrating, respectively, along OY and OZ and differing in phase^ by a certain amount. The compressed block of glass thus behaves as a uniaxial crystal whose optic axis is parallel to OF. Now a thrust in the direction OZ will produce an effect similar to that in the direction OY, for the cube will be com- pressed in the direction OZ and extended along OY , but a thrust parallel to OX will produce no phase difference of the rays vibrating along OY and OZ since the cube is extended the same amount in these two directions. It is evident, therefore, that when a beam of light passes through a block of strained glass the velocity of the Ught (and hence the refractive index of the glass) depends on (i) the direc- tion of vibration of the light, and (2) the dilatations in those directions perpendicular to the path of the beam of light. THE GENERALIZED EQUATIONS The equations used by Neumann ^° for expressing the influence of elastic deformation on the propagation of light are as follows : •Vx = V -[- qXx + pyy + pZz (Ia) Vy = V -{- px^ -f qyy + pz.^ (Ib) Vz = V + pXjc + pyy + qzz (ic) * A ray of light by reflection from a polished surface becomes partially or completely polarized. The plane of polarization is arbitrarily defined as the plane containing the incident and reflected rays, and the direction of vibration is usually taken as the normal to the plane of polarization. The vibration direction so defined is the direction of the electric vibrations of the electromagnetic disturbances and is per- pendicular to the magnetic vibrations. ^ In the actual measurement of birefringence the beam of polarized light is usually arranged to vibrate in a direction at 45° from OF or OZ. The phase difference obviously may be expressed as a path difference by taking account of the wave length of the light. 1' F. NEtnviANN. Ann. Phys. 54: 1841. ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON! BIR^IfRINGENCE; AND STRESS 617 in which x^, jy, and z~_ are dilatations in the three directions parallel to the three principal axes, v is the velocity of light in the unstressed material, and Vx> Vy, and v. are the velocities of light waves whose vibrations are parallel to the three axes. p and q are coefficients which are to be determined by experiment. If n is the refractive index of the unstressed medium and Ux, fly, and n^ are the refractive indices for light vibrating in the three principal directions, then nv = n^Vx = nyVy = n-v^ and from Equation (ia) Vx - V n - fix q p = - Xx +- iyy + 2,). (2) V ■ fix V V Referring again to Fig. 3, it is obvious that a thrust, P, acting on the block in the direction OY will produce the three prin- cipal dilatations : X, = aP/E yy= - P/E Z, = aP/E E being Young's modulus and a Poisson's ratio. Substituting in Equation (2) we have fix - n P p /Pa\q P r p ^1 r \ = -(i - a) - -(-E^r = ^ (i - 0-)" ~ ^~ ]■ (3a) ^ V \E /v E {_ V vJ E Similarly it can be shown that fly — n P ( p 2(T fly E '- + 2) (3.) V v/ and = fc^.)^-4 (3.) EL V VJ ^3 When the coefficients p and q have once been determined, these three equations may be used for calculating the effect of a thrust, P, in the direction OY (Fig. 3) on the three indices of refraction fix, fiy, and n^ corresponding to light vibrating in the directions OX, OY, and OZ. The changes in refractive index for a given thrust, P, depend on the elasticity constants E and p q a, and the coefficients — and - which are characteristic of the V V given material and can be determined experimentally. 6l8 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS The change n,^ is the same as that of n^ (for a thrust along OY) so that no birefringence is observed for a ray of hght pass- ing through the block in the direction OY, but the velocity of a ray in the direction of the triple arrow {i. e., along OX) de- pends on the direction of vibration, that is, rix is different from H:, and fly — n^, by definition, is the birefringence.^^ Since ordinarily n^ and Uy do not differ from n by more than one part in looo, we may put with a maximum error of a small fraction of one per cent , riy — n Wz — n Uy - n,^ Uy yir, n refore by subtracting Equations (33) and (3c) we obtain fly — n, P (q p^ = ^c + .)(? - n (4) n This equation may be put in slightly different form by making use of the identity E ^ ^ 2(1 + ^) R being the modulus of rigidity. Substituting this value of R in Equation (4), we have Uy — W- 5^G - f)- (5) n From Equations (4) and (5) it is evident that the birefringence is proportional to the difference of the two coefficients p and q. Conversely, p and q can not be determined by measurements of birefringence alone, but if in addition to the birefringence we measure the absolute retardation of a ray of Hght vibrating, say, in the direction OY, both p and q will be uniquely deter- mined. Suppose now that instead of a thrust we apply to the block of glass a hydrostatic pressure, P' . In order to obtain a rela- tion connecting the coefficients p and q with the hydrostatic pressure P' , it is obvious from considerations of symmetry that " In the case^of a uniaxial crystal, birefringence is usually expressed as w^ — n^, which is identical with ny — its, the direction Y being the direction of the optic axis. ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS 619 it is sufficient to add the three Equations, (3^), (3b), and (3c). n — fix . n — fix Then, since is approximately equal to , we have = ^(2 - 4(7)- + - (i - 20-)- = fi E V E V |'(. - ..)(^^ + ?) (6) ■ E \ V v/ E By putting — r = K, in which K is the modulus of vol- 3(1 - 2(t) ume-elasticity,^^ the equation becomes Wv - n - a? * !) n 2,K^ which expresses in terms of known or measurable quantities the effect of hydrostatic pressure on the index of refraction, which of course under these conditions remains independent of the plane of polarization of the light. COMPARISON WITH POCKBL'S RESULTS The optical effects of stress on several kinds of glass have been studied by Pockels,^^ who loaded rectangular plates of the glasses and measured with a Jamin interferometer the abso- lute retardation of a ray of light vibrating parallel to the direc- tion of pressure. He also measured the birefringence with a Babinet compensator and from the two series of measurements P q . calculated the values of - and - . His results are shown in table V V 3. The first column describes the glass, the second gives its number in Winkelmann's list;^^ in the third and fourth columns are the elastic constants of the glass; the index of refraction n is shown in the sixth column, and the percentage of lead oxide in the seventh. In the next two columns are the results of P Q Pockels' determination of - and -, the coefficients which occur V V 12 I /K = 13, the compressibility at constant temperature. 13 F. Pockels. Ann. Phys. (4) 7: 745. 1902. " Compare HovESTAdT, op. cit., p. 146. 620 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON : BIRE^FRINGBNCE AND STRESS in Equations (i) to (7) of this paper. Substituting these values in Equation (4) we have calculated the birefringence fiy - n^ caused by a thrust of i kg. per sq. cm. and have placed the values obtained by this calculation in the last column of table 3. We are now able to make a comparison between our results and those of Pockels. The first three glasses in table 3 are unusual alumino-borates, but the remaining four form a series of flint glasses with lead content varying over a wide range. In Fig. 4, for the sake of comparison, our results for the flint TABLE 3 Results of Pockels' Measurements on Optical Effects op Stress Kind of glass a 3.6 o Sodium Alumino borate Lead Alumino borate Lead Alumino borate Light Flint Heavy Flint. . . . Extra Heavy Flint Heaviest Flint. . 42 21 47 26 3Z 20 E Young's modulus 106 kg. per.sq. cm. (7 Poisson's ratio n Refrac. index Per- centage of PbO in glass Coefficients of Equation (1) t V 5 V 0.480 0.274 1.508 0.274 0.166 0.472 0.268 I .512 32. 0.0908 0.0228 0.547 0.250 1.545 25. 0.289 0.182 0.610 0.222 1.570 2>2,- 0,306 0.213 0.547 0.224 1.644 51 .7 0.335 0.264 0.550 0.239 I .751 67.5 0.354 0.319 0.503 0.261 1.963 80. 0.427 0.466 Birefrin- gence due to 1 kg. per sq. cm. calc. from Equation (4) —4.32 -2 .76 —3.78 —2.93 2 .61 — 1.38 I .92 glass and also those of Pockels have been plotted with PbO content as abscissa and birefringence due to i kg. per sq. cm. as ordinate. By inspection of Fig. 4 it may be seen that Pockels' results for the flint glasses on the whole agree very well with ours. It should be noted, however, that the content of PbO does not com- pletely determine the character of the glass and that therefore certain small discrepancies between Pockels' results and ours as indicated by Fig. 4 may not have a real existence. It is interesting to note that ordinarily q is less than p. When this is the case the birefringence «„ — w^ by Equation (5) is negative. But for the heaviest flint (PbO = 80 per cent) in- ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS 621 vestigated by Pockels (see table 3) g is greater than p and there- fore this glass when acted upon by a thrust shows positive double refraction. ^^ Since the next flint glass in the series (PbO = 67.5 per cent) exhibits negative birefringence, it is evi- dent that there must be some intermediate flint glass for which the birefringence would be zero and which therefore would re- main isotropic under the influence of any elastic deformation. In attempting to make such a glass the composition 74.6 per cent PbO, 23.6 per cent Si02, 0.6 per cent (KoO -|- Na20) was 3 t / I T V 0 0 /°.cA. 1) try / / y n ^^____ ^ ( - • c w 4 0 J 0 b 0 7 0 e 0 l-saej 0x1 ds fsr CenT Fig. 4. Graphical representation of the results for the flint glasses. The abscissa is % PbO and the ordinate is the birefringence caused by a thrust of i kg./cm^. tried by Pockels, and was found to give positive birefringence of 0.2 X 10 ~^. This datum has also been plotted in Fig. 4, from which it can be seen that a glass containing about 74.0 per cent PbO would, no matter how poorly annealed, show no birefringence. APPLICATION TO PROBLEMS DEALING WITH GLASS As an example of the way in which the results given in this paper may be used, suppose that a sheet of ordinary crown glass be observed between crossed nicols and illuminated with white light, and suppose that in looking through 10 cm. of the sheet the interference color in a certain part of the cross-section is seen to be a red of the first order. In order to ascertain the 15 It should be remembered that in Equations (3), (4) and (5), P is a thrust. If P be a tension most glasses will show positive double refraction. 622 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS internal stress corresponding to the observed color we find, by referring to a chart^'' showing Newton's color scale in terms of optical path-difference, that a first-order red corresponds to a retardation of about 530 mm or 530 X 10 ~^ cm. The birefrin- gence then is the path-difference per unit of length, that is, 530 X io~^ = 53 X 10 ~^ Now, according to table 2, a bi- refringence of 2.57 X io~^ corresponds in ordinary crown glass to a (uni-directional) pressure of i kg. per sq. cm. Hence the 53 X io~^ observed birefringence corresponds to a stress of , = 2.57 X 10-^ 20.6 kg. per sq. cm. or 300 lb. per sq. in.^^ In conclusion, we shall note the change in refractive index produced (i) by a hydrostatic pressure of 1000 kg. per sq. cm. acting on a block of light flint glass; and (2) by a uni-directional P <7 pressure of 1000 kg. per sq. cm. According to table 3, - and - are, for light flint glass, respectively, 0.306 and 0.213 J ^ is 0.61 X 10"^ kg. per sq. cm.; a is 0.222; and n is 1.57. Substituting these values in Equation (6) we have 10^^(1 -o.444)(o.6i2 +0.213)1.57 n^ — n = An = ; z = 0.00118, 0.61 X 10*^ The index of refraction is thus increased 0.0012 by a pressure (hydrostatic) of 1000 kg. per sq. cm., and this change in index is independent of the plane of polarization of the light. On the other hand, for the case of a uni-directional pressure, we use Equations (3b) and (3c), and suppose that, as in Fig. 3, the pressure is exerted along OY, and that the ray of light travels along OX. Then Hy — n = Aw„ = 1.57 X 1000 — - — ^(0.213 - 0.444 X 0.306) = 0.00020 0.61 X 10^ ^^ See, for example, the chart in J. P. Iddings, Rock Minerals (191 1) ; or N. H. WiN- CHELL, Optical Mineralogy (1909). '' We have observed, in poorly annealed glass, stresses very much higher than 300 lb. per sq. in. By taking into account the sign of path-difference in polarized light, it is easy to show that the stress in the center of a slab of unannealed glass consists of a tension in all directions parallel to the large surface of the slab. CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF ECHINODERMS 623 and n = AUy = 1.57 X 1000 (0.306 X 0.778 - 0.213 X 0.222) = 0.00049. 0.61 X 10*^ That is, a thrust of looo kg. per sq. cm. changes the refractive index 0.00049 for a ray vibrating perpendicular to the axis of pressure and only 0.00020 for a ray vibrating in the direction of the thrust. SUMMARY Glass when stressed becomes doubly refracting as shown by its behavior in polarized light. This principle has often been made use of in the detection and measurement of strain in glass, but little has been known of the quantitative relation between stress and birefringence. In this paper we have presented the results obtained by loading blocks of glass in a testing machine and measuring the concomitant birefringence. For all of the glasses which we studied except the heaviest flint, a thrust of one kg. per sq. cm. produces a birefringence of 2 to 3 X 10 ~'^; or, in other words, a path-difference of 2 to 3 n/x per cm. thick- ness of glass. Our results show satisfactory agreement with those of Pockels for the flint glasses. ZOOGEOGRAPHY. — Discontinuous distribution among the echi- noderms. Austin H. Clark, U. S. National Museum. While discontinuous distribution among terrestrial and fresh- water animals has received a considerable amount of attention, the same phenomenon among marine types has not been so widely noticed. The following apparently anomalous ranges are occupied by the genera of brittle-stars, starfishes and urchins listed ; there are no similar cases among the crinoids; and the holothurians, on account of the relatively unsatisfactory state of our present knowledge, have been omitted. 1. Warmer parts of the eastern and western Atlantic; Mexico to Chile: Narcissia, Arbacia. 2. Both coasts of tropical America: Encope, Mellita. 624 CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF ECHINODERMS 3. Caribbean Sea and the western coast of Central America: Hemipholis, Ophiocryptus, Ophiozona. 4. Caribbean Sea and the Galapagos Islands (probably in reality the same as the preceding) : Sigsbeia. 5. Peru to southern California (some only in part): Astro- caneum, Diopederma, Gymnophiura, Platasterias, Nidorellia, Am- phiaster, Paulia (Galapagos Islands also), Pharia, Phataria, GaenocentroUis (Galapagos Islands also), Tetrapygus. 6. Caribbean Sea and eastern Atlantic, the Hawaiian Islands, southern Japan and the Kei Islands: Caenopedina. 7. Western coast of Mexico, the Hawaiian Islands, Australia, Tasmania, Lord Howe Island, the Mediterranean Sea and the adjacent parts of the Atlantic: Centrostephanus. 8. Southern and Lower California, southern Japan and south- ern Australia : Heliocidaris. 9. Caribbean Sea and the Hawaiian Islands: Podocidaris. 10. Caribbean Sea and southern Australia: Ophioprium. 11. Southern California and New Zealand: Ophiopteris. In view of the past intercommunication between the Carib- bean Sea and the Pacific the similarity of certain elements of the Caribbean fauna and of that of the western coast of tropical America is not surprising; the latter, however, includes a very considerable number of genera which occur nowhere else, to- gether with a few species of characteristic Indo-Malayan types, such as Mithrodia, Acanthaster, Anthenea, Leiaster, Astropyga, etc., which are not represented in the Caribbean Sea. A significantly large number of genera, including well-known and conspicuous littoral types, inhabit a more or less extensive portion of the following anomalous range: Mediterranean Sea, Caribbean Sea, southern Australia and New Zealand, southern Japan, the Hawaiian Islands, and the western coast of tropical America. This discontinuous range, though indicated by very diverse types and only in part by each, nevertheless must be considered a zoogeographic unit. Its outstanding feature is the fact that it represents the extreme outer limits of a tropical and subtropical faunal region the center of which is the Indo-Malayan region. CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF ECHINODKRMS 625 The types inhabiting it, that is to say, occurring only on the extreme periphery of the Indo- Pacific faunal area (of which the Mediterranean Sea was at one time a part), may be considered, therefore, as reHcs of a previous fauna at one time characteristic of the central Indo-Malayan region, from which they have now been extirpated through the competition of younger and more efficient types. The same facts are brought out equally well in many other groups of marine animals, and are also reflected in a modified way in the terrestrial faunas. In the faunas of the colder seas all intergradations are found between types which are quite unique and types differing little or not at all from others in the Indo-Malayan region, and this inter- gradation is complete enough so that we are justified in con- sidering the fauna of the colder waters as similarly ultimately derived from the (past or present) fauna of the East Indian region largely through the intermediary of deep water forms. Some of these genera of the colder waters, as Astriclypeus and Glyptocidaris, are extraordinarily restricted in their distribution and rare, while others are abundant and widely spread. ABSTRACTS Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue. GEODESY. — General instructions for precise and secondary traverse. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Special Publ. 58 (serial iii). Pp. 48, figs. 5. 1919. The instructions are designed for the highest class of traverse, equal in accuracy to primary triangulation, and for secondary traverse com- parable in accuracy with secondary triangulation. R. L. F. APPARATUS. — A furnace temperature regulator. Walter P. White and Leason H. Adams. Phys. Rev. 14: 44-48. July, 1919. By making the heating coil of an electric furnace one arm of a wheat- stone bridge, and combining this with a galvanometer regulator, thus keeping constant the resistance of the coil, we can, regardless of varia- tions in the current-supply, and with no attention, maintain constant the temperature of furnaces not too directly influenced by the tempera- ture of the room, or where the surrounding air is kept constant. The power available in this regulator is relatively very great; nothing has to be inserted within the furnace cavity, and the lag is practically nothing; the regulator is often nearly at its best under conditions most unfavorable to other regulators. It has held a small furnace for hours constant to 0.1° at temperatures from 500° to i4oo°C. W. P. W. PHYSICS. — Temperature distribution in solids during heating or cooling. E. D. Williamson and L. H. Adams. Phys. Rev. 14: 99-114. August, 1919. (Geophysical Lab. Papers on Optical Glass, No. 11.) In deciding on the best methods of carrying out various operations in the manufacture of optical glass, it was found necessary to have some idea of the temperature gradients in the pieces during heat treatment. 626 abstracts: physics 627 While great precision in absolute magnitudes is generally of minor im- portance in such cases, the only way to gain insight into the question of the variation of the temperature differences with the shape and di- mensions of the blocks and the method of heating is actually to work out numerical cases. Equations have been derived for the temperature distribution in solids of several typical shapes, the solids being heated or cooled ac- cording to one of two methods, viz., the surface of the body (i) is con- tinuously heated (or cooled) at a uniform rate; or (2) experiences a sudden change to a higher or lower constant temperature. With these equations a number of calculations have been made and the results of the computations are presented in tabular form and, in certain cases, are also shown graphically. By the use of these tables and graphs it is a comparatively simple matter to determine the temperatures within solids of a large variety of shapes when, as is commonly the case, they are heated or cooled according to one of the methods mentioned above. The equations given are in convenient form for calculation and for showing a number of interesting qualitative relations between the tem- perature gradients in various solids, and they will probably prove useful in connection with the determination of specific heat and thermal con- ductivity by dynamic methods. While the main interest at the time was in the application to glass manufacture, the equations are perfectly general, as are also the qualita- tive deductions made. B. D. W. PHYSICS. — Silicate specific heats. Second series. Walter P. White. Amer. Journ. Sci. 47; 1-43. Jan., 1919. Specific heats of various forms of silica and silicates were determined for upper temperatures from 100° to 1400°. The method was by drop- ing from furnaces into calorimeters. Two new methods are described for determining true or atomic heats from interval heats. On the whole, the general temperature variation of the specific heats is one depending mainly on the value of v, the atomic vibration period, for oxygen in combination. Several forms of silica, whose expansion is very small, and which therefore practically give values of specific heat at constant volume, Cv, show that Cv for high temperatures appears to exceed the theoretical value 5.96. Glasses show, in the main, a specific heat only slightly above the corresponding crystal forms, but with a tendency to increase at some rather high temperature. In several sets of poly- morphic forms with sluggish inversions there were differences of about 628 abstracts: inorganic chemistry 2 per cent between the two forms, but none of these forms showed any' variation in specific heat near the inversion temperature. In quartz, below the a-/3 inversion at 575°, the heat absorption is greater than can be accounted for even by the abnormal expansion. If such absorption, unusual change of volume, and change of crystal properties are each or all together the sign of a change of state, then quartz under- goes a gradual change of state over an interval of 400° below what is commonly called its a-^ inversion. Quartz and probably other forms of silica exhibit what appear to be two kinds of inversion, due to dif- ferent mechanisms. Some of these facts militate against certain hypothe- ses which make polymorphism the resultant of polymeric or isomeric changes in the solid. W. P. W. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/j^ hydrated ferric oxides. Hugen PosNjAK and H. E. Merwin. Amer. Journ. Sci. 47: 311-348. May, 1 919. Microscopic and chemical studies show that no series of hydrates of ferric oxide exists among the natural minerals. The only existing hydrate is ferric oxide monohydrate. This substance occurs in nature in two polymorphic forms — goethite and lepidocrocite — and in an "amorphous" condition — limonite. The two crystallized forms are contrasted as follows: Goethite. — Orthorhombic, a : b : c = 0.91 : i : 0.602; density (grams per cc.) 4.28 ±0.01; a = 2.26, /3 = 2.394, 7 = 2.400; streak, dull orange-yellow; pleochroism faint. When crystallized in dense aggre- gates of thin blades and fibers inclosing much adsorbed and capillary water, it has commonly been called limonite; however, sufficient proof is now given to show that such crystallized material is really goethite. Lepidocrocite. — Orthorhombic, a : b : c = 0.43 : i : 0.64; density, 4.09 ± 0.04; a = 1.94, /3 = 2.20, 7 = 2.51; streak, dull orange; pleo- chroism very strong. The name limonite is retained for material which appears to be essentially isotropic ferric oxide monohydrate with adsorbed and capil- lary water. However, this substance should not be considered a dis- tinct form of ferric oxide monohydrate, as the real nature of such "amorphous" substances is still uncertain. The fibrous mineral turgite is variable in composition, and considerable evidence is given that it probably represents solid solutions of goethite with hematite, together with inclosed and adsorbed water. The genetic conditions of the hydrated ferric oxides and the stability relation of the two monohydrates are unknown. abstracts: inorganic chemistry 629 No definitely crystallized synthetic hydrated ferric oxide has up to the present been prepared. However, it seems certain that only two distinct types of "amorphous" hydrated ferric oxide exist, one yellow and the other reddish brown. The yellow is apparently essentially ferric-oxide monohydrate, while the reddish brown substance may hold its water in either a dissolved or an adsorbed condition (or both). Thus the synthetic and the natural hydrated ferric oxides exhibit, chemically, great similarity. H. E- M. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/z< w > o n < w U W < o w K o o < w Ph < c* ^ oj -6 o OJ c 03 S.2 o 03 C c3 C cti ho .« rt ■p^-su 3 g-O 3 1-1 ^ t/i O 03 03 3 b/) 3 3 C _ cr o! - 03 "C 5 <^ 03 ^^ rp tn ^' t— I c"^ 03 3 o S 03 03 Opq 03 o T3 3 03 3 V) ""-rt-O 3 O ncente i Islan s Islan o o 3 h-J ,—1 1— ■ >H 03 4J o! o3 <5 W WPhH !~0 rO On O lo lo O 00 O O fn 'J- M « o 00 CO ^ f^ •-' O 00 00 O Q^ O CO -rl- lO "0 iO>0 lO tJ-oo <-i t-- C~.vc >0 >-i 00 GO t^OvcO ro^C^corOfO"^r^fO"^fOO CNt^»oO fO O O O "OioO >0'0>or^t^i^r-~>ooo r^r-r^oo "O 1-1 ro<-00 O i^l^O Ooo lOOOOO O ^^OOOO ^O OOQi-'^OiO'-ii-'iOONiOiO'-'OOOOiOiOOO'-' CNrOnMCSNi-irO 00 r^ IN >0 fOCO 00 lO o Ov t^ CO CO lO O N tN CO Ha" 6-° ■z. ° 2; 00 >ooo M O t^OO ^ lO CO 00 ■ O O i^^ Or~OOONt^OfOO-i r^oo yD CO CO CN lo ■* CO Ovoo Osoo >-< CH 00 r^ t^ O 0'^fOcofOio> 3 -, rt 3 +J-- 03 rt 03 c o o 3 3 o! 3 (-1 3 OJ ic;3 O kri J o o.S 03 3 03 3 OJ :0 ^S 03 03 e 6 o o a aia O O tH ^ j: o -U +J "73 3 3 03 03 a rt 55 03 O E^ o ^ O -' r- a. 3 "^ O n 3 03 o axi j3 03 o! oJ g 2 >^ 3 OJ ^ rt o Ji 3 t- o 5 t* b«+J ^ OJ 3 J2 'in en en 3 'en C W 3 3 03 OJ y S=;b-^23--;33K 03 3 OJ 3 "^ i2 OJ 3cu3rtraHH'".3o3-;: enoo3en^C3 > aiS aJ(lJGJ0JOJ(l>OJCU0J-< u +-> ^-' ■!-> cd 03 c3 E SE OJ OJ 4= XI a a rt 03 u u >, >, 03 rt EE CJ 43 a 03 oi E OJ 43 a u >, +-1 E djojajeuojojuojajajojojajajajojojajoiu 4343X4343434343434343434343434343434343 aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa O3o3<:so3o8o!rto3o3o3rto3c!3c3o3o3c3o!csos oJG3o3o3o3rto3c3o3o3o3o3o3o3cdo3c3o3o3o3 SEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE OJ -t-l ■!-> c^ o3 c^ EEE BARTSCH: PHILIPPINE LANDSHELLS 655 « ajojojajDajP' Qj flj a ft ft R ft o a 01 0) ft ft 0) 01 ft • ft ft >p u 3 to- S ""^ S l-i e3 o) C H-Q ^ 13 3 n N ;:j^-d 3 t/i 3 i_T ■3 (« be 3 I ■ bo C 3 03 3 3 en o3 03 03 03 03 o be 03 P-i u ; 03 03 3 O N 3 s" 03 pq 3a 3 03 CJ 03 3 -2 3 Wot 03'^ '^ 01 >:-^ ^ N 3 3 o! 0) 3 D* 3 -O 3 £?bio y Sf I- =" 1^ - 3 :3 o - rt ^' c3 O a; N > h4f5 •So rt c3 ,^03 '^ H < V OS 01 3 a* /\ 03 OOT o o N N 3 3 3 S - - 03 en CO — -< MM lO ^ -^ fS OS O ■^ lO t^QO 10 t^ ■* ■+ O -* 00 00 M o w M CO 1-1 ■1-1 0 u. 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Holuster. Thirty- six persons were present. The following informal communications were presented: R. W. ShufeldT: Exhibition of a young specimen of the wood tortoise [Clemmys insculpta (Le Conte)] secured recently near Bennings, in the District of Columbia. An adult animal was shown for comparison. Wm. Palmer: Further remarks upon the occurrence of the wood tortoise in the District of Columbia. Three were reported from the Eastern Branch, one from Plummers Island and another from a marshy spot below Plummers Island. One taken by E. A. Preble is now in the District Collection in the National Museum. Three young tor- toises of this species were taken from the stomach of a copperhead killed by F. C. Craighead. P. Bartsch: Note on the extraordinary tameness of red-breasted nuthatches observed on Mt. Monadnock, New Hampshire. The regular program consisted of three communications. J. S. Outsell: Use of selective screens in studies of oyster larvae. Mr. Outsell stated that in studies of larval oysters the Bureau of Fish- eries has developed a method of collecting material from a power boat, by means of a pump having a capacity of several gallons a minute. The water thus secured is strained through a screen made of bolting silk. Catches are made in desired localities, placed in suitable con- tainers, and transferred to the laboratory. There the material is passed through a series of six wire-gauze screens of graduated fineness. Much undesired material is removed by the two upper screens that are coarse enough to permit the passage of the oyster larvae. The four remaining screens automatically separate the larvae according to size. Dail}^ studies of the condition of the segregated larvae make it possible to foretell the time when the larvae will set. As the method of col- lection is quantitative, it is possible also to show where the larvae are drifted by tidal currents and thus to indicate the location of the culch when the proper time arrives. Discussion by Dr. P. Bartsch followed. 656 1/ proceedings: biological society 657 T. S. Palmer: The discoverer of the toothed birds of Kansas. Dr. Palmer presented a brief account of the life of Prof. Benjamin Frank- lin MuDGE, former State Geologist of Kansas. Prof. Mudge was born at Orrington, Maine, August 11, 181 7, and died at Manhattan, Kansas, Nov. 21, 1879. He came to Kansas about the beginning of the Civil War and was elected State Geologist in 1864. In 1865 he was ap- pointed Professor of Natural Sciences in the State Agricultural College at Manhattan. The last five years of his life were spent in collecting fossils for Prof. O. C. Marsh. During the summer of 1872 Prof. Mudge discovered in the Niobrara beds of the Solomon River the re- mains of Ichthyornis dispar, the first known Cretaceous bird belonging to the group that had teeth in sockets. Four years later at Fort Mc- Kinney, Texas, he discovered another species now known as Ichthyornis lentus. Only five other species of this genus are now recognized. Prof. Mudge has been described as a "Prince of collectors in the West," and Prof. LesquerEaux referred to him in 1871 as "the only truly scientific Geologist west of the Mississippi River." Discussion by J. W. GiDLEY, A. Wetmore and R. W. Shufeldt followed. Paul Bartsch: Results in Cerion breeding. Dr. Bartsch gave an interesting account of experiments in transplanting landshells of the genus Cerion from Andros Island in the Bahamas to certain of the Florida Keys. A complete report of the results obtained is now in press and will be published shortly by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Discussion by H. C. Oberholser and A. Wetmore followed. Alexander Wetmore, Recording Secretary pro tern. 600TH meeting The 6ooth regular meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, on November I, 191 9; called to order at 8.10 p.m. by President H. M. Smith. Fifty- five persons were present. On recommendation of the council the following were elected to membership: Federated JVIalay States Museum, Kuala Lumpur, F. M. S.; Ellsworth Killip, U. S. National Museum. It was announced that the Council had resolved to tender a vote of thanks to Dr. M. W. Lyon, Jr., in recognition of his faithful and un- tiring service as Recording Secretary. This action of the Council was confirmed, and unanimously endorsed by the members present. Under heading of book notices and general notes the following were communicated : Dr. H. M. Smith read an announcement of the unveiling of a monu- ment at Arlington Cemetery, dedicated to the memory of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg. Gen. Sternberg was President of the Society in 1895 and 1896. Dr. T. S. Palmer gave notice of the meeting of the American Or- nithologists' Union to be held in New York City, November 11 to 13, 658 proceedings: biological society inclusive. Dr. Palmer continued with an account of a visit to the New York City Marble Cemetery, where he saw the grave of Dr. David Hosack. Dr. Hosack, a physician, came to this country from Scotland in 1794, and was instrumental in founding the first Botanical Garden in America, in 1801. Dr. Palmer also announced that re- cently, in Philadelphia, he had examined a slate over the grave of Rafinesque, a site that previously had been unmarked. A suitable tablet has now been installed through the generosity of Messrs. Hand, Mercer and Rhoads. Dr. C. W. Stiles remarked that he had recently seen the grave of E. A. de Schweinitz in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Dr. Stiles also announced that recently two manatees {Trichechus manaUis Linn.) had appeared in Wrightsville Sound, eight miles from Wilmington, N. C, a northern record for this mammal. One of these manatees had been captured and was now on exhibition in Wilmington. Dr. H. M. Smith exhibited a recent publication by Dr. R. E. Coker on The fresh water mussels and the nmssel industry of the United States, published in the bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries. This paper was excellently illustrated and embodied a most thorough and compre- hensive treatise on the subject. Dr. Smith also announced that the steamer Albatross had sailed for a cruise along the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts as far as Yucatan. The vessel has been refitted recently with greatly improved apparatus. He also remarked that a recent communication from the agent of the Bureau of Fisheries on St. George Island, Alaska, announced the finding of a dead specimen of the bearded hair seal [Erignathus harhatus (Erxleben)] on the beach. The animal measured 93 inches long and appeared to be very old. Rear Admiral Baird exhibited an interesting collection of sea-weeds made thirty years ago by Mrs. Baird under the instruction of the elder Verrill. The regular program was introduced by the President, Dr. H. M. Smith, who stated that the present meeting was to be celebrated as the sixth meeting-centenary of the Society. The Biological Society was founded on December 3, 1880, with 44 founders and original members. With 35 of these the speaker had had personal acquaintance. The custom had arisen of setting aside each hundredth meeting of the Society as a commemorative meeting, of which the present was the sixth. The first commemorative meeting (one hundredth meeting) had taken place on November 27, 1886, with Dr. G. Brown Goode in the chair, and the fifth on October 19, 191 2, at Plummers Island, Maryland, where the Society had been entertained by the Washington Biologists' Field Club. The Secretary then read a letter from Dr. F. A. Lucas congratulating the Society upon the occasion and regretting his inability to be present. Dr. L. O. Howard presented a paper entitled Early days of the So- ciety. The speaker remarked that in 1880, at the time of the formation of the Biological Society, Boston w-^ considered the scientific center of proceedings: biological society 659 the United States and the present-day concentration of scientific workers in Washington was just beginning. The first meeting of the Society was held in the home of an entomologist, C. V. RilEy, and the first paper presented was by an ichthyologist, T. H. Bean. A number of incidents of early days were related, among which was one of the attendance on May 8, 1897, of Theodore Roosevelt, then Assistant Secretary of the Navy. Mr. Roosevelt came to discuss a recent com- munication by Dr. Merriam on the classification of mammals. In closing, Dr. Howard remarked that with the increased number of special- ists other bodies had .been organized as ofi"shoots from the parent Biological Society and that more of these were coming in the future. All were united, however, in desiring long life and prosperity to the original organization. The second paper, by Dr. W. H. Dall, was entitled Reminiscences. Dr. Dall related that in 1880, in company with T. H. Bean, he was engaged on a survey of the Alaskan coast in the vessel Yukon. He returned to Washington December 31, 1880, and was elected to mem- bership in the Biological Society in January, 1 88 1 . The first paper read at a meeting of the Society was by T. H. Bean on results obtained on this voyage of the Yukon, while the second was a presentation of Ward's Flora of the District of Columbia. Other incidents of great interest regarding the early days of the Society were given and the speaker closed by remarking that in his opinion no other society had contributed more toward the advancement of the study of biology in North America. Dr. T. S. Palmer continued the regular program with a discussion of The ''Proceedings.'' The speaker stated that with the current year the Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington will have com- pleted thirty-two volumes that have averaged from one hundred to two hundred pages each. The series now has covered approximately five thousand pages. The first six volumes include addresses made before the Society as well as other matter. The character of the publication was then changed to its present form, a series of brochures comprising short papers and brief notes that deal with new and original contribu- tions in systematic zoology and botany; while one brochure, published at the close of each year, gives a brief synopsis of the regular meetings of the Society. The Proceedings have attained such importance that workers in systematic biology find it essential to have the set avail- able for reference. Discussion of these three papers followed, by H. M. Smith, M. B. Waite, W. p. Hay, and David White. Alexander Wetmore, Recording Secretary pro tern. SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS Dr. Arthur L. Day, Director of the Geophysical Laboratory, Car- negie Institution of Washington, gave the public lecture at the annual meeting of the trustees of the Institution in Washington, on December II, 191 9. The subject of the lecture was "The War Work of the Geophysical Laboratory." Rear Admiral James Milton Flint, U. S. N. (Retired), a charter member of the Academy, died at his home in Washington on November 21, 19 19, in his eighty-second year. Admiral Flint was born at Hills- borough, New Hampshire, February 7, 1838. He entered the United States Navy as assistant surgeon in 1862, and became medical director of the Navy in 1897, retiring from the service in 1900. During his ser- vice with the Navy he was connected at various periods with the U. S. Fish Commission (i 884-1 887), and with the Smithsonian Institution and National Museum, as curator of the Division of Medicine. Mr. William M. Hall, assistant forester in the Forest Service, re- signed on November 24 after twenty years of forestry work. He has become a partner in an enterprise established in Chicago to handle land exchanges. Major Henry LEE Higginson, one of the trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, died at Boston, Massachusetts, on November 14, 1919, in his eighty-fifth year. Mr. C. H. KiDWELL has been appointed chief of the Quality-of- Water Division of the Water Resources Branch, U. S. Geological Survey, as successor to Mr. A. A. Chambers, resigned. Dr. Otto Klotz, Director of the Dominion Observatory, Ottawa, has been appointed the representative of Canada on the "Committee on Magnetic Surveys, Charts and Secular Variation" of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union, recently formed at Brussels. Mr. E. C. McKelvy, of the Chemical Division of the Bureau of Standards, died at Emergency Hospital on November 29, 19 19, in his thirty-sixth year. His death resulted from burns received on the after- noon of November 28, from an explosion of amm.onia-condensing ap- paratus containing petroleum ether cooled by liquid air. Mr. McKelvy was born at Upper Sandusky, Ohio, May 9, 1884. Lie joined the staff of the Bureau in July, 1907, and was chief of the physico-chemical section of the Chemistry Division at the time of his death. Llis work for several years past had been on the physical constants of ammonia and other substances used in commercial refrigeration. He was a member of the Academy and one of the associate editors of its Journal; had been secretary of the Chemical Society since 1915; and was a member of the Philosophical vSociety. 660 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 66 1 Dr. James Dudley Morgan, one of the early members of the Acad- emy, died at his home at Chevy Chase, Maryland, on November 21, 1919, in his fifty-eighth year. Dr. Morgan was born in Washington July 5, 1862. He spent most of his life in the practice of medicine in Washington, being connected at the same time with the Medical School of George Washington University, Garfield Hospital, and Emergency Hospital. In addition to his memberships in the medical societies, he was a member of the Columbia Historical Society, of which he was president from 1909 to 191 6, and became a member of the Academy in 1903. Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, has been elected an associate member of the Academic des Sciences, Paris. Mr. Ferdinand Westdahl, hydrographic and geodetic engineer in the Coast and Geodetic Survey, died at San Francisco, California, on October 25, 191 9, in his seventy-seventh year. Mr. Westdahl was born at Wisby, Sweden, January 20, 1843. He entered the Survey as an aid in 1867, having been employed previously by the V/estern Union Telegraph Company, Russian extension, as first mate of the bark GoLen Gate. At that time he had served on board sailing ships in every capacity from boy to ordinary seaman, able seaman, second and first mate, and sailing master. He was the oldest ofiicer and next to the oldest in point of service in the Survey. His work was chiefly in hydrography along the Pacific Coast, in Alaska, and in the Philippine Islands. 662 ERRATA ERRATA VOLUME IX, 1919 For Humphries read Humphreys For ndsperos read nisperos For an read au Omit "' For spirant ' read sp irant' n bottom : For read affricative tc or 'a'i'Hci' read 'ai'Hc" P. 357, Hne 26 P. 433, line 16 P. 523, Une 13 P. 523, Hne 15 P. 523, Hne 24 P. 523, Hne 7 f affricative tc P. 524, Hne 6: P. 524, Hne 23: V'or kekVci'ta'wipen""' read kekVciia'wipen"'" P. 524, last Hne footnote ^: For hear a for a, and ""' for °. read hear -a for -a, and -^' for -". P. 535, Hne 28: For Res. '76 read Res. 76 VOLUME Vni, 1918 P. 108, line 10: For Medical Corps read P. 471, line 6 from bottom: For trajections read P. 475, line 16: For plant read P. 478, lines 12 and 15, and p. 479, lines 4, 15 and 16: For sight read P. 509, last line: For Section read P. 693, second column, line 4: After 251 add VOLUME VI, 1916 P. 226, line 2: For 17th read VOLUME V, 19 15 P. 183, last paragraph, line i : For i6th read P. 390, line 6: For 40° i' read VOLUME IV, 19 14 P. 556, line 7 of table : For prism 1 10 read VOLUME III, 1913 P. 226, Hne 5: For p^, p2, pn read Medical Reserve Corps trajectories plane site Service 292, 369, 1 8th 17th 44° I' GIG Vpl, Vp2, ^Pn Xr, P. 229, line i: Add after word "weight :"(or weight - in (2)) P. 229, line 4: For by the least square method read P. 231, line I : For Xi, oc^, Xn, read P. 231, Hne 2: For (5) read P. 231, Hne 3: For {x) read from (3) X\, X2, Xn P. 178, line I : For 175 VOLUME II, 1912 read (2)' 176 L i INDEX TO VOLUME IX An * denotes an abstract of a published paper. A t denotes an abstract of a piper presented before the Academy or an afiSIiated Society. A § indicates an item published under the head Scientific Notes and News. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Biological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 175, 205, 234, 287, 355, 418, 656. Botanical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 143, 415, 559. Entomological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 22, 81, 148, 206, 357, 416. Geological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 107, 288, 382, 451, 500. Philosophical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 20, 140, 267, 349, 447, 642. Washington Academy of Sciences. Proceedings and Notes: 81, 107, 204, 234, 267, 344, 602. Washington Society of Engineers. Proceedings: no. AUTHOR INDEX Abbot, C. G. fEclipse party, obser- vations of the Smithsonian, June 8, 1918. 21. Adams, Elliot Q. Crystallography and optical properties of the photo- graphic sensitizing dye, pinaverdol. 396. Crystals, classification of mimetic. 153- Adams, L. H. fAnnealing of glass. 351- — ■ — *Compressibility of solids, deter- mination of. 598. *Fiirnace temperature regulator. 626. Mustard "gas," some physical constants of. 30. Relation between birefringence and stress in several types of glass. 609. *Temperature distribution in sol- ids during heating or cooling. 626. Adams, Oscar S. *Grid system for pro- gressive maps in the United States. 597- fMap projections in general, study of. 448. — — *Polyconic projections, general theory of. 552. Allard, H. a. *Mosaic disease of to- bacco, effects of salts, acids, germ- icides, etc., upon virus causing. 173- Allen, E. T. *Glass analysis, contri- bution to the methods of. 599. *Glass, condition of arsenic in, and its role in glass making. 558. Anderson, Rudolph Martin. Zoologi- cal exploration in the western Arc- tic, recent. 312, t356. Atwood, Wallace W. *Landslides and glacial deposits, relation of, to reservoir sites in San Juan Moun- tains, Colorado. 316. 663 c^ y/-7 664 AUTHOR INDEX Austin, L. W. Calculation of antenna capacity. 393. Radiotelegraphy, quantitative ex- periments with coil antennas in. 355- Bailey, Florence Merriam. *Birds of Glacier National Park. 321. Bailey, Vernon. fMaximilian, Prince of Wied, on Upper Missouri in 1833. 419. fSkunk cabbage, the western. 178. Baker, A. C. flntermediates in the Aphididae and their relation to al- ternate hosts. 287. Ball, Carleton R. *Naming wheat varieties. 172. Bartlett, H. H. Mendelian inheri- tance in crosses between mass-mu- tating and non mass-mutating strains of Oenothera pratincola. 462. BarTsch, Paul. fCerion breeding, re- sults in. 657. — - — Philippine Island landshells of the genus Platyraphe. 649. fRed-breasted nuthatches, tame- ness of. 656. fSpecies, what kind of characters distinguish, from a subdivision of a species? 236. Bastin, Edson S. *Ores at Tonopah, Nevada, genesis of the. 317. Bates, Frederick. *Baume scale for sugar solutions, new. 169. Bauer, L. A. fEclipse, solar, of June 8, 1918, results of magnetic ob- servation diu'ing. 22. fMagnetic elliptic homoeoid, the field of a uniformly, and applica- tions. 267. Beal, a. F. fComparison of invar with steel as shown by the rates of high grade watches. 643. Beal, F. E. L. *Swallows, food habits of. 51. Bearce, H. W. *Baume scale for sugar solutions, new. 169. Berry, E. W. fPaleontology, present tendencies in. 382. *Upper Cretaceous floras of the eastern gulf region in Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia. 631. Bichowsky, F. Russell v. *Color of inorganic compounds, the. 78. Manganese in the periodic sys- tem, the place of. 103. *Planck radiation law, necessary physical assumptions underlying proof of. 18. Sulfur crystal, an unusual. 126. Blake, S. F. Anay, the, a new edible- fruited relative of the avocado. 457. — — Ichthyomethia, a genus of plants used for poisoning fish, revision of. 241. — — ■ fSpecies, what kind of characters distinguish, from a subdivision of a species? 237. Boas, Franz. *Kutenai tales. 106. Bowen, C. F. * Anticlines in a part of the Musselshell Valley. 442. Bowen, N. L. *Glass, devitrification of. 640. *Glass, identification of "stones" in. 558. Bowie, William. *Grid system for progressive maps in the United States. 597. fMapping the United States for military and civil needs. 447. Boyce, J. C. fAirplane construction, defects in wood in relation to. 146. Bragg, J. G. *Piers, large brick, com- pressive strength of. 409. Britton, N. L. *Cactaceae, descrip- tions and illustrations of plants of the Cactus Family. 408. Brooks, Alfred H. fGeologic prob- lems relating to the war in Ein-opc. 451- Brooks, Charles. *Apple scald. 378. Bryan, Kirk. fGeologist, habits of thought of a, apjilied to military problems. 452. AUTHOR INDEX 665 BuRCHEivL, E. F. tManganese-ore de- posits of Cuba. 385. Burgess, George K. *Tin, conserva- tion of, in bearing metal, bronzes, and solders. 341. ■ Science and the after-war period. 57- Burns, Keivin. *Neon, measurements of wave-lengths in the spectrum of. 170. Byars, L. p. *Wheat, a serious eel- worm or nematode disease of . 174. Canfield, G. H. * Water-power in- vestigations in southeastern Alaska. 632. Capps, Stephen R. *Gold lode mining in the Willow Creek district, Alaska . 633- *Kantishna Region, Alaska, the. 439- *Mineral resources of the upper Chulitna region. 633. *Mineral resoitrces of the western Talkeetna Mountains. 633. Carrier, Lyman. fMitchell, Dr. John, early naturalist and historian. 176. Cary, Merritt. *Life-zone investiga- tion in Wyoming. 533. Casey, Thomas L. *Coleoptera, me- moirs on the. VIII. 79. Caudell, a. N. fSpecies, what kind of characters distinguish, from a subdivision of a species? 237. — ■ — ■ fZoraptera, notes on. 418. Chamberlain, Alexander -Francis. *Kutenai tales. 106. Chapin, Theodore. *Alaska, mining developments in the Ketchikan dis- trict. 632. *Alaska, mining in Fairbanks, Ruby, Hot Springs, and Tolstoi Districts. 635. *Nelchina-Susitna Region, Alas- ka, the [geology of]. 320. *Stratigraphy of Gravina and Revillagigedo islands, Alaska, structure and. 49. Chase, Agnes. fOil-grasses and their uses in perfumery. 356. Clark, Austin H. Discontinuous dis- tribution among the echinoderms. 623. — ■ — Holopus, the systematic position of the crinoid genus. 136. Clark, Frank R. Famham anticline. Carbon County, Utah. 638. *Geology of the Lost Creek coal field, Morgan County, Utah. 318. Clark, J. Allen. *Wheat varieties, naming. 172. Coast and Geodetic Survey. *Gen- eral instructions for precise and sec- ondary traverse. 626. Cobb, Frieda. Mendelian inheritance in crosses between mass-mutating and non mass-mutating strains of Oenothera pratincola. 462. CoBLENTz, W. W. *Photoelectric prop- erties of molybdenite. 553. Photoelectric sensitivity of mo- lybdenite, the spectral. 537. — — ■ *Quartz mercury vapor lamps, the decrease in ultra-violet and total radiation with usage of. 169. CocKERELL, T. p. A. *Cretaceous fish scales, some American. 440. CoE, H. S. *Rhizoctonia in lawns and pastures. 329. CoLLEY, Reginald H. *Cronartium ribicola, parasitism, morphology and cytology of. 377. Collier, Arthur J. *Coal south of Mancos, Montezuma County, Colo- rado. 318. — ■ — *Geology of northeastern Mon- tana. 531. ■ *Nesson anticline, Williams, North Dakota, the. 49. Collins, G. N. Maize, intolerance of, to self-fertilization. 309. CoNDiT, D. Dale. *Oil shale in west- em Montana, southeastern Idaho, and adjacent parts of A\'yoming and Utah. 638. *Paleozoic, late, and early Meso- zoic formations of southwestern Montana aiid adjacent Wyoming. 530. 666 AUTHOR INDEX Cook, O. F. Evolution through normal diversity. 192. Maya farms, the size of. 11. CooLEY, J. S. *Apple scald. 378. CORBETT, L. C. tLight, artificial, plant responses under. 148. Crampton, G. C. fZoraptera, phylog- eny of. 418. CuRTiN, Jeremiah. *Seneca fiction, legends and myths. 340. Curtis, Heber D. Spiral nebulae, modern theories of the. 217. Curtis, H. L. fMeasurements of short time intervals. 642. CusHMAN, Joseph Augustine. Lower cretaceous age of the limestones underlying Florida. 70. *Pliocene Foraminifera of the Coastal Plain of the United States. 328. CuSHMAN, R. A. *Idiogastra, new sub- order of Hymenoptera with notes on miniature stages of Oryssus. 327- Dall, William H. Tertiary fossils from the Pribilof Islands, i. fReminiscences [of the Biological Society]. 659. Day, Arthur L. fOptical glass. 603. Bearing, Charles T. fMuscadine grapes, producing self- fertile. 147. Bellinger, J. H. *Principles of radio transmission and reception with an- tenna and coil aerials. 641. Buncan, R. C. fMeasurements of short time intervals. 642. BUNKLEY, W. A. *Toluol recovery. 203-. BwiGHT, Jonathan. *Gu11, description of a new race of western. 499. Ely, Charles R. *Gracilariidae, re- vision of North American, from standpoint of venation. 327. Fairchild, D. G. jMeyer, Frank N., agricultural explorations of. 559. Fenner, C. N. *Optical glass, effect of certain impurities in causing milkiness in. 172. Ferguson, John B. *Cristobalite and tridymite, melting points of. 103. — ■ — *Equilibrium between carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur di- oxide, and free sulfur, the. 79. *Magnesia, note on the sintering of. 139- *Optical glass, effect of certain impurities in causing milkiness in. 172. *Optical glass, volatilization of iron from pots [used for], by chlorine at high temperatures. 640. Oxidation of lava by steam. 539. *Sintering of magnesia, note on the. 139. *Sulfur dioxide, thermal dissocia- tion of. 599. *Temperature uniformity in an electric furnace. 80. ■ *Ternary system lime-magnesia- silica. 629. *Tridymite and cristobalite, melting points of. 103. *Wollastonite and related solid solutions in the ternary system lime- magnesia-silica. 630. Ferguson, S. P. fMeteorological phe- nomena of solar eclipse of June 8, 1918. 20. Fisher, D. F. *Apple scald. 378. Gahan, a. B. fSawfly, the black grain- stem, of Europe in the United States. 416. Gailey, W. R. Carbon monoxide, a respiration product of Nereocystis luetkeana. 560. Galloway, Beverly T. *Phytopatho- logical problems in their relation to foreign seed and plant introduction. 198. Gann, Thomas W. F. *Maya Indians of southern Yucatan and northern British Honduras. 533. George, G. D. fRust, black-stem, and the barberry. 416. Gibson, Edmund H. flnsect prob- lems, some war-camp. 357. AUTHOR INDEX 667 Gibson, K. S. *Ultra-violet and vis- ible transmission of eye-protecting glasses. 380. GiDLEY, James William. fCanid, no- tice of a large, from the Cumberland cave deposits. 287. Foot, primitive mammalian, sig- nificance of divergence of first digit in. 273. Goldman, M. I. fGlauconite, general character, mode of occurrence and origin of. 501. Goss, Byron F. t^as warfare at the front. 604. Greene, Charles T. *Diptera, con- tribution to the biologj^ of North American. 328. Gregg, W. R. fTrans-Atlantic flight from meteorologists' point of view. 353- Griggs, Robert F. fKatmai and the Ten Thousand Smokes. 347. Grout, Frank F. *Clays and shales of Minnesota. 600. GuTsell, J. S. fUse of selective screens in the study of oyster larvae. 656. Hammond, J. C. fObservations of solar eclipse of June 8, 1918, by Naval Observatory Eclipse Expedition. 20. Hancock, E. T. *Geology and oil and gas prospects of the Lake Basin field, Montana. 50. Hanna, G. Dallas. fAvifauna of Pribilof Islands, Alaska, additions to, including species new tb North America. 176. *Birds, summer, of St. Matthew Island Bird Reservation. 327. Harrington, George L. *Anvik- Andreafski region, Alaska. 600. *Fairbanks, Ruby, Hot vSprings, and Tolstoi Districts, Alaska, mining in. 635. *Seward Peninsula, Alaska, min- eral resources of. 636. Harvey, Rodney B. ^Pythium debar y- anum on potato tuber, physiological study of. 415. HaTBcOck, Bernard D. *Tiles, hol- low building, tests of. 343. Hawkins, Lon A. ^Pythium debary^ anum on the potato tuber, physio» logical study of. 415. Heikes, V. C. *Geology and ore de- posits of the Tintic mining district, Utah. 316. Henry, J. H. fHot spell of August, 1918, the. 140. Hess, F. L. fPhenocrysts in granitic intrusions. 294. Hewett, D. F. fManganese deposits. 386. HEViriTT, J. N. B. *Seneca fiction, legends and mjrths. 340. HiDNERT, Peter. *Molybdenum, pre- liminary determination of thermal expansion of. 341. Hitchcock, A. S. *Flora of the Dis- trict of Columbia and vicinity. 553. fHawaiian Islands, botanical trip to. 204. Ixophorus unisetus, history of the Mexican grass. 546. Lasiacis, a peculiar species of. 35 . tLong's Peak, Colorado, notes on botany of. 55. *Mexico, a botanical trip to. 285. fSpecies, what kind of characters distinguish, from a subdivision of a species? 234. HoLLisTER, N. *African, East, mam- mals in the United States National Museum. 50, 343. — — fSpecies, what kind of characters distinguish, from a subdivision of a species? 235. Honaman, R. K. Conductivity of in- sulating materials at high tempera- tures, methods of measuring. 252. HosTETTER, J. C. Apparatus for grow- ing crystals under controlled con- ditions. 85. — - — *Electrometric titrations, with special reference to the determina- tion of ferrous and ferric iron. 630. 668 AUTHOR INDEX HoSTKTTER, J. C. *Optical glass, vol- atilization of iron from pots [used for], by chlorine at high temper- at'ires. 640. Howard, L. O. fEarly days of the Biological Society of Washington. 658. Howell, Arthur H. *Sparrow, a new- seaside, from Florida. 497. Hutchinson, R. H. fLice in clothing, experiments with steam disinfec- tion in destroying. 418. Insley, Herbert. *Silica brick, con- stitution and microscopic structure of. 558. Jackson, Hartley H. T. *Napaeoza- pus, the Wisconsin. 201. Johnston, John. *Compressibility of solids, determination of. 598. Jones, E. L. fManganese deposits of Colorado River desert region. 384. *Pine Creek District, Idaho, reconnaissance of. 637. XahlER, H. Photoelectric sensitivity of molybdenite, the spectral. 537. *Quartz mercury vapor lamps, the decrease in ultra-violet and total radiation with usage of. 169. Kalmbach, E. R. *Crow, and its re- lation to man, the. 52. Kaufman, C. H. \Cortinanus, the genus. 415. Kearney, Thomas J. *Cotton, Egyp- tian, study of hybrids in. 199. Kellerman, Karl F. fEradication of citrus canker. 143. Kempton, J. H. Maize, the ancestry of. 3- Kendall, William C. Species, what kind of characters distinguish, from its subdivisions? 187. Kessler, D. W. *Marbles of the United States, physical and chem- ical tests on the commercial. 444. Kew, W. S. W. *Oil resources, struc- ture and, of Simi Valley, southern California. 441. Kimball, Herbert H. fMeteorological phenomena of solar eclipse of June 8, 1918. 20. Kirk, Edwin. *Inyo Range, stratig- raphy of. 414. fPaleozoic glaciation in south- eastern Alaska. 107. Knopf, Adolph. *Geology and ore de- posits of the Yerington district, Nevada. 532. *Inyo Range and eastern slope of southern vSierra Nevada, Cali- fornia, geologic reconnaissance of. 414. Metalliferous deposits. 453. Knowlton, F. H. Fossil maize, de- scription of a new species from Peru. 134- KoTiNSKY, Jacob, flnsect evolution, fundamental factors of. 358. Kozu, S. *Augite from Stromboli. 104. La Forge, Frederick B. f'Singing" beach. 500. Laney, Francis B. *Ores at Tonopah, Nevada, genesis of the. 317. Langdon, Seth C. Carbon monoxide, a respiration product of Nereocystis luelkeana. 560. Le ClERC, J. A. *Potato flour and potato bread. 285. Lee, Charles H. fWater, experience in supplying, to our army at the front. 452. Lee, H. Atherton. *Citrus-canker, susceptibility of rutaceous plants to. 376. Leffingwell, Ernest deK. *Alaska, Canning River region, northern. 375- LiNDGREN, Waldemar. *Geology and ore deposits of the Tintic mining district, Utah. 316. LiTTlEHALES, G. W. *Altitude, azi- muth, hour angle. 232. *Altitude of a celestial body when horizon is not visible, instrumental means to enable navigators to ob- serve. 231. *Chart as a means of finding geographical position by observa- tions of celestial bodies in aerial and marine navigation. 233. AUTHOR INDEX 669 Long, M. B. *Quartz mercury vapor lamps, the decrease in ultra-violet and total radiation with usage of. 169. LoTKA, Alfred J. *Birth-rate and death-rate, relation between, and rational basis of empirical formula for mean length of life. 53. Epidemiology, contribution to quantitative. 73. LoUGHLiN, G. F. *Geology and ore de- posits of the Tintic mining district, Utah. 316. *Lamprophyre dikes near Santa- quin and Mt. Nebo, Utah. 228. *Zinc ores, oxidized, of Leadville, Colorado. 529. Lyon, M. W., Jr. flrifluenza. 55. flsohemagglutinin groups of men. 178. Maddren, a. G. *Sulphnr deposits and ! each placers of southwestern Alaska. 631. Mann, W. M. fSolomon Islands, notes on. 149. Marsh, C. DwighT. ■\Asclepias gali- oides, a poisonous milkweed. 415. Martin, G. C. *GeoIoi;ic problems at the Matanu.ska coal mines. 0.3^. *Nenana coal field, Alaska, the. 320. Marvin, C. F. f Aircraft, flight of, and deflective influence of the earth's rotation. 354. Mather, Kirtley F. *Oil fields of Allen County, Kentucky. 439. Matthes, F. E. fTopographic maps, relief shading of. 293. Mauchly, S. J. tSolar eclipse of June 8, 1918, some results of atmos- pheric-electric observations made during the. 269. McAtee, W. L. *Birds, attracting to public and semipublic places. 322. *Birds, how to attract in East Central States. 411. *District of Columbia, sketch of natural history of, with indexed map. 374. McAtee, W. L. *Ducks, mallard, food habits of the. 410. fPoisonous sumachs, Rhus poison- ing and remedies therefor. 177. McBride, R. S. *To1uo1 recovery. 203. McIndoo, N. E. fOlfactory sense of lepidopterous larvae, the. 149. McNicholas, H. J. *Eye-protective glasses, ultra-violet and visible transmission of. 380. Meggers, W. F. *Neon, measurements of wave-lengths in the spectrum of. 170. fPhotography of the red and infra-red solar spectrum. 140. Meinzer, O. E. fGround-water, quan- titative methods for measuring. 293- Merriam, John C. fCave hunting in California. 604. Merrill, P. W. *Neon, measurements of wave-lengths in the spectrum of. 170. Mertie, J. B., Jr. *Chromite deposits in Alaska. 633. *Platinum-l earing gold placers of the Kahiltna Valley. 633. — — fRepeated stream piracy in the Tolovana and Hess River basins, Alaska. 109. Merwin, Herbert E. Ammonium pic- rate and potassium trithionate: op- tical dispersion and anomalous crys- tal angles. 429. — ■ — ■ Bucher cyanide process for fixa- tion of nitrogen. 28. *Cristobalite and tridymite, the melting points of. 103. *Hydrated ferric o.\ides. 628. • — — ■ flron-hydroxide minerals, the. 108. *Ternary system MgO-AlaOs- Si02. 46. *Ternary system CaO-MgO-Si02. 629. *Wollastonite and related solid solutions in the ternary system CaO-MgO-Si02. 630. 670 AUTHOR INDEX MiCHELSON, A. A. *Optical conditions accompanying the striae which ap- pear in optical glass. 341. MiCHELSON, Truman. Fox Indians: Part I, Historical, 483; Part II, Phonetics, folklore and mythology, 521; Part III, Bibliography, 593. Proto-Algonquin phonetic shifts, two. 333. MiLivER, John M. *Electrical oscilla- tions in antennas and inductance coils. 171. Mills, R. van A. *Petroleum and nat- ural gas, evaporation and concen- tration of waters associated with. 529- Miser, Hugh D. *Asphalt deposits and oil conditions in southwestern Arkansas. 104. fManganese deposits of the Bates- ville district, Arkansas. 384. MoFFiTT, Fred H. *Chitina Valley, Alaska, the upper [geology of]. 320. Morey, George W. *Chemical equil- ibrium, laws of. 47. *Pressure-temperature curves in mono variant systems. 48. *Solubility and fusion at high temperatures and pressures. 47. MoulTon, F. R. fStars, duration of. 346- Murlin, John R. fFood-efficiency in the United States army. 347. Nelson, E. W. ^Dallia pectoralis, Alaska's most remarkable fish. 178. Norton, J. B. fAsters, new and easy way of recognizing the local. 175. Norton, J. B. S. fGermination of im- mature seeds. 146. Oberholser, Harry C. *A. O. U. checklist of North American birds, fourth annual list of proposed changes in. 557. *Bam swallows, migration of. 201. — ■ — *Birds, notes on North American: V, 51; VI. 324; VII, 554. Oberholser, Harry C. Bucerotidae, a new genus of . 167. *Conurus, description of a new, from Andaman. 499. *Crows, migration of. 498. * Cyanolaemus clemenciae, new subspecies of. 326. Grandalidae, a new family of tur- dine Passeriformes. 405. *Iole, description of a new, from Anamba Island. 411. *Junco from Lower California, an interesting new. 556. *Lanius, description of a new, from Lower California. 326. *Larus hyperboreus, the subspecies of. 409. *Martins; migration of. 201. *Migration of North American birds: II. Scarlet and Louisiana tanagers, 325; III. Summer and hepatic tanagers, martins and barn swallows, 201 ; IV. Waxwings and Phainopepla, 412; V. Shrikes, 409; VI. Horned larks, 321; IX. Crows, 498. — — ■ — • *Mutanda ornithologica : IV, 325; V, VI, 555. — ■ — *Nannus, notes on wrens of the genus. 496. *OrchUus, status of the genus. 412. *Piranga hepatica, new subspecies of. 556. — - — • *Ochthodromus, plover genus, and its nearest allies. 556. *Puffinus, notes on the genus. 202. *Ravens, the common, of North America. 201. *Sauropatis Moris, revision of subspecies of the while-collared kingfisher. 557. tSpecies, what kind of characters distinguish, from a subdivision of a species? 235. Spizixidae, a new family of pyc- nonotine Passeriformes. 14. AUTHOR INDEX 671 ObERHOlsER, Harry C. *Subspecific intergradation in vertebrate zoology, the criterion of. 200. — • — *vSumatra, birds collected by W. L. Abbott on Pulo Taya. 495. *Swan Lake, Nicollet County, Minnesota, as breeding ground for water- fowl. 19. *Tambelan Islands, south China Sea, birds of. 495. *Tanagers, scarlet and Louisiana, migration of. 325. - *Tanagers, summer and hepatic, migration of. 201. *Toxastoma redivivtim, revision of races of. 19. *Washington city dooryard, birds of. 496. *Washington region [Bird obser- vations], 554; [October-November, 191 7], 325; [Winter bird records], 413- *Waterfowl, Swan Lake, Nicollet County, Minnesota, as breeding ground for. 19. *Wrens of the genus Nannus, notes on. 496. *Zo6logy, vertebrate, criterion of subspecific intergradation in. 200. OvERBECK, R. M. *Geology and min- eral resources of west coast of Chichagof Island, Alaska. 632. Palmer, Harold S. *New graphic method for determining the depth and thickness of strata and the pro- jection of dip. 228. Palmer, T. S. fBison, number of, in North America. 356. ^Rhinochitus jubatus. 356. tThe discoverer of the toothed birds of Kansas. 657. jThe Proceedings [of the Biolog- ical Society]. 659. Palmer, William. fOccurrence of the wood tortoise. 656. Pardee, J. T. *Geology and mineral deposits of the Colville Indian Res- ervation, Washington. 315. Pardee, J. T. *Manganese deposits in Madison County, Montana. 48. — — fManganese deposits of the north- western States. 385. Peters. C. G. Interferometer, use of the, in measurement of small or differential dilatations. 281. PhalEn, W. C. *Salt resources of the United States. 600. Pierce, W. DwighT. *Medical ento- mology a vital factor in prosecution of the war. 106. *Rhina and Magdalis, the case of the genera. 201. *Strepsipteras, comparative morphology of order, with records and descriptions of insects. 105. Piper, C. V. *Rhizoctonia in lawns and pastures. 329. PiTTiER, H. Chicle, origin of, with de- scriptions of two new species of Achras. 431. POPENOE, Wilson. fGuatemala, agri- cultural explorations in. 559. POSNJAK, EuGEN. Bucher cyanide pro- cess for fixation of nitrogen. 28. *Hydrated ferric oxides. 628. *Iron-hydroxide minerals. 108. Power, Frederick B. *Odorous prin- ciples of plants, distribution and characters of. 379. PtTRDUE, A. H. *Asphalt deposits and oil conditions in southwestern Ar- kansas. 104. Rankin, G. A. *Ternary system MgO- AhOa-SiOj, the. 46. Rawdon, Henry S. *Steel, the micro- scopical features of "flaky." 286. Reinicker, C. E. *To1uo1 recovery. 203- Riley, J. H. *Birds, annotated cata- logue of collections made by Cop- ley Amory, Jr., in Siberia. 326. — — *Birds, six new, from Celebes and Java. 499. *Bullfinch, new, from China. 19. *Celebes, two new genera and eight new birds from. 413. 672 AUTHOR INDEX Roberts, Howard S. *Electrical ap- paratus for use in electrometric titration. 631. ■ *Electrometric titrations, with special reference to the determina- tion of ferrous and ferric iron. 630. *Optical glass, volatilization of iron from ■ pots [used for], by chlorine at high temperatures. 640. Rogers, G. S. fSalt domes of the Gulf Coast, origin of the. 291. ROHWER, S. A. *Idiogastra, new sub- order of Hymenoptera, with notes on immature stages of Oryssus. 327. Rose, J. N. *Cactaceae, descriptions and illustrations of. 408. fEcuador, botanical explorations in. 205. Ross, Donald W. *Silica refractories. 381. RowLEE, W. W. Ochroma, synopsis of the genus, with descriptions of new species. 157. Safford, W. E. Dahlia, notes on the genus, with descriptions of two new, from Guatemala. 364. fParadise Key and the surround- ing Everglades, vegetation of. 205. vSanford, R. L. t^iagnetic analysis. 450. Sasscer, E. R. jHydrocyanic acid gas and its use in the control of insects. 82. ScHAD, Lloyd W. *Molybdenum, pre- liminary determination of thermal expansion of. 341. ScHALLER, Waldemar T. Plancheite and shattuckite, copper silicates. 131. ScHLiNK, F. J. Indicating instruments, determinateness of the hysteresis of. 38. • treasuring instruments, on the nature of inherent variability of. 449- vScHULTz, Alfred Reginald. *Geo- logic reconnaissance for phosphate and coal in southeastern Idaho and western Wyoming. 319. Scott, H. *Steel alloy, effect of rate of temperatiu-e change on the trans- formations in a. 446. Shaw, Eugene Wesley. *Oil fields of Allen County, Kentucky. 439. fSalt domes, stratigraphy of the Gulf Coastal Plain as related to. 289. — — Sedimentation. 513. ShufeldT, R. W. ^Sarracenia pur- purea. 177. fWood tortoise, exhibition of a young specimen of. 656. SiLSBEE, F. B. Conductivity of insu- lating materials at high tempera- tures, methods of measuring. 252, 352. Skillman, Edward. *Tiles, hollow building, tests of. 343. Snodgrass, R. E. tinsects, fruit, notes and exhibition of water-color draw- ings of. 23. Snyder, Thomas Elliott. *Ternite castes, phylogenetic origin of. 229. SOMERS, R. E. Clays, microscopic ex- amination of. 113. SosMAN, Robert B. fFumaroles, tem- perature inversions in the, of Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Alaska. 292. §Matters of scientific interest in the Sixty-Sixth Congress. 42 1 , 454, 535. 562, 645. — ■ — • fVolcanic explosions. 296. StandlEy, Paul C. *Flora of the Dis- trict of Columbia and vicinity. 553- Stebinger, Eugene. '''Oil and gas geology of the Birch Creek — Sun River area, Montana. 443. Stephenson, Lloyd William. *Geol- ogy of northeastern Texas and southern Oklahoma. 531. Stose, G. W. fManganese deposits of the Appalachian Valley of Virginia and Tennessee. 383. — — fTravertine from Rock Creek Park, District of Columbia. 292. AUTHOR INDEX 673 S,WANTON, W. I. §United States Gov- ernment publications, guide to. 24. SwARTH, H. S. *Passerella iliaca, three new subspecies of. 412. Tayioisonous sumacs, ivy poisoning, and remedies therefor. 30 minutes. Tuesday, February 4. The Botanical Sopiety, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. ] CONTENTvS Original Papers Page Mathematics.— Note on rotations in hyperspace. Edwin BidwELL Wilson . . 25 Chemistry. — Note on the Bucher cyanide process for the fixation of nitrogen. EuGEN Posnjak and H. E. Merwin 28 Physical Chemistry. — Some physical constants of mustard "gas." Leason H. Adams and Erskine D. Williamson 30 Botany.— A peculiar species of Lasiacis. A. S. Hitchcock 35 Technology. — The determinateness of the hysteresis of indicating instruments. F. J. Schlink ^. 38 Abstracts Physics 46 Inorganic Chemistry .> 46 Physical Chemistry 47 Geology 4^ Mammalogy 50 Ornithology 5 ^ Vital Statistics 53 Proceedings Washington Academy of Sciences 54 Biological Society '. 54 Scientific Notes and News 56 Vol. 9 February 4, 1919 No. 3 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS A. S. Hitchcock J. Frankun Meyer R. B. Sosman BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS GEOPHVglCAI, LABORATORY V ASvSOCIATE EDITORS N. HOLUSTER S. A. ROHWER BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY _ ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY J. B. Norton J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY Sidney Paige ^ F. B. Silsbee GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUOUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OP PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET RASTON, PA. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton. Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3. 1917. Authorized on July .S. 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (3) pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiUated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member- of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp.- 50 copies $1.08 $1.95 $2.93 $3.80 100 copies 1.30 2.40 3.60 4.70 Additional copies per 100 45 .90 1 .35 1 .70 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $2.00 for the first 100. Additional covers $1.00 per 100. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R, L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: WilUam Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911. will be sent for $3.00 .Special rates are given to members of scientific societies aflfiliated with the Academy, eschenbach printing company Easton, pa. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: William R; Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Cog,st and Geodetic Survey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES vSaturday, February 8. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: Demonstration of a new portable -moving-picture machine. 15 minutes. E..W. Nelson: Dallia pectralis, Alaska's most remarkable fish. 15 minutes. Vernon Bailey: The western skunk cabbage in its prime. (Illustrated.) 10 minutes. M. W. Lyon, Jr.: Iso-hemagglutin groups of men. (With demonstration.) 20 minutes. CONTENTS Original Papers Page General Science. — Science and the after-war period. George K. Burgess. . . 57 Geology. — Lower Cretaceous age of the limestones underlying Florida. Joseph A. Cushman 70 Epidemiology. — A contribution to quantitative epidemiology. Alfred J. LoTKA 73 Abstracts Physical Chemistry 78 ■ Inorganic Chemistry 79 Entomology 79 Apparatus 80 Proceedings Washington Academy of Sciences 81 Entomological Society. '. . .• 81 Scientific Notes and News 83 Voi,. 9 February 19, 1919 No. 4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS A. S. HITCHCOCK J. Franklin Meyer R. B. Sosman BUREAU OP PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OP STANDARDS GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY ASSOCIATE EDITORS N. HOLUSTER S. A. ROHWER BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY J. B. Norton J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY Sidney Paige - F. B. Silsbee GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION 2 1 1 CHURCH STREET E ASTON, PA. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3. 1917. Authorized on July-3. 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (3) pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiUated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten*and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. 50 copies $1.08 $1.95 $2.93 $3.80 100 copies 1.30 2.40 3.60 4.70 Additional copies per 100 45 .90 1.35 1.70 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $2.00 for the first 100. Additional covers $1.00 per 100. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is , $6.00* Semi-monthly nimibers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦Volume I, however, from July 19. 1911, to December 19. 1911. will be sent for $3.00 Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. ESCHENBACH printing COMPANY EAStON, PA. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. h. Faris, Poast and Geodetic Survey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Saturday, February 22. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: Address of the retiring President, J. N. RosB: Botanical Explorations in Equador. (Illustrated.) Tuesday, March 4. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: A. S. Hitchcock: A botanical trip to the Hawaiian Islands. (Illustrated.) 35 min. W. E. Safford: Veieiation of Paradise Key and the surrounding Everglades. (Illustrated.) 35 min. CONTENTS Originai, Papers Page Apparatus. — ^An apparatus for growing crystals under controlled conditions. J. C. HoSTETTER »5 Crystallography. — ^X-ray analysis and the assignment of crystals to symmetry classes. Alfred E. H. Tutton 94 Crystallography. — ^Reply to Dr. Tutton's discussion of the assignment of crystals to symmetry classes. Edgar T. Wherry 99 Abstracts Physics 103 Inorganic Chemistry 103 Geology 104 Mineralogy 104 Volcanology 105 Entomology 105 Anthropology 106 Apparatus '. 106 Proceedings Washington Academy of Sciences 107 Geological Society . 107 Washington Society of Engineers no Scientific Notes and News 112 Voi<. 9 March 4, 19 19 No. 5 JOURNAL OP THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A. S. Hitchcock BORBAU OP PLANT INDU3TR7 BOARD OF EDITORS J. Franklin Meyer BURBAU OP STANDARDS R. B. SOSMAN C80PBYSICAL LABORATORY ASSOCIATE EDITORS N. HOLUSTER BIOLOGICAL SOCISTV J. B. Norton BOTANICAL socwrr Sidney Paige GEOLOGICAL SOCIff> "» S. A. ROHWER BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIBTY J. R. SWANTON ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCISTT F. B. SiLSBEB PHILOSOPHICAL SOCISTT PUBUSHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION ail CHURCH STREET EASTOW, PA, Kntered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-offlce at Easton, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (3) pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, excejit dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of Ais illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. 60 copies $1.08 $1.95 $2.93 $3.80 100 copies 1.30 2.40 3.60 4.70 Additional copies per 100 45 .90 1.35 1.70 Covers bearing the name^ of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $2.00 for the first 100. Additional covers $1.00 per 100. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should mvariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume^ is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers '. 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast aud Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911,wil| be sent for $3.00 Special rates are given to members of scientific societies aflSliated with the Academy, eschenbach printing company easton, pa. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Tuesday, March 4. The Anthropological Society, at the Army Medical Museum, at 4.15 p.m. Program: J.Walter Fewkes: Archeology of the Mexican oilfield. (Illustrated.) Tuesday, March 4. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: A. S. Hitchcock: A botanical trip to the Hawaiian Islands. (Illustrated.) 35 min. W. E. Sakford: Vegetation of Paradise Key and the surrounding Everglades. (illustrated.) 35 min. Wednesday, March 5. The Society of Engineers. Wednesday, March 5. The Medical Society, at 8.00 p.m. Thursday, March 6. The Entomological Society. Saturday, March 8. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: A Symposium on the subject : The kind of differences that distinguish a species from a subdivision of a species. Mammals, N. HoIvLister; birds, H. C. ObER- hoIvSEr; fishes, W. C. Kendall; insects, A. N. Caudell; mollusks, P. Bartsch; botany, C. V. PipER, S. F. Blak3. 10 min. each. Wednesday, March 11. The Electrical Engineers. Thursday, March 12. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: F. E. Matthes: The graphic representation of topographic forms. R..B. Sosman: Note on volcanic explosions. Thursday, March 12. The Medical Societ3^ Friday, March 13. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: Lieut. Col. Arthur B. Lamb, Chemical Warfare Service: Chemical protection against poisonous gases. Saturday, March 15. Joint meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences and the Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at "8.15 p.m. Program: Dr. H. D. Curtis, Lick Observatory: Modern theories of spiral nebulae. Tuesday, March 18. The Anthropological Society. « CONTENTS Original Papers Page Petrology. — Microscopic examination of clays. R. E. Somers 113 Crystallography. — An unusual sulphur crystal. F. RussELL Bichowsky. ... 126 Mineralogy. — Plancheite and shattuckite, copper silicates, are not the same mineral. Wai,demar T. Schaller .' iji Paleontology. — Description of a supposed new fossil species of maize from Peru. F. H. KInowlton 134 Zoology. — The systematic position of the crinoid genus Holopus. AusTUf H. Clark 136 Anthropology. — ^A second archeological note. Truman MichELSON 138 Abstracts Inorganic Chemistry 139 Entomology 139 Proceedings Philosophical Society 140 Botanical Society ^ 143 Entomological Society 148 Scientific Notes and News 151 Vol,. 9 March 19, 1919 No. 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A. S. Hitchcock BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BOARD OF EDITORS J. Franklin Meyer BUREAU OF STANDARDS R. B. SOSMAN GEOPHYSICAI, LABORATORY ASSOCIATE EDITORS N. HOLUSTER BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. C. McKeloy CHEMICAL SOCIETY J. B. Norton BOTANICAL SOCIETY J. R. SWANTON Sidney Paige GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY M S. A. ROHWER entomological society F. B. Silsbee philosophical society ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JITLY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY ' BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-oflGce at Easton. Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JoxniNAi., the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (3) pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific Ufe of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot imdertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. 50 copies $1.08 $1.95 $2.93 $3.80 100 copies 1.30 2.40 3 60 4.70 Additional copies per 100 45 .90 1.35 1.70 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be $2.00 for the first 100. Additional covers $1.00 per 100. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers , 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journai, does not exchapge with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19. 1911. will be sent for $3.00 Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. ESCHBNBACH PRINTING COMPANY E ASTON, PA. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Wednesday, March 19. The Society of Engineers, Wednesday, March 19. The Medical Society. Thursday, March 20. The Washington Academy of Sciences, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p. m. Program: Lieut. Col. John R. Murlin, U. >S. A.: Food efficiency itt the United States Army. Thursday, March 20. The Society of Foresters, at the Wilson Normal School, at 8.15 p.m. Program: Forestry in the Southern Appalachians : Wii^LiAM Iv. Hall: htfluence of government oxintership. W.W.Ashe: Effect of changed cojiditions upon forestry. F. W. Reed: Progress in silvicuUural practice. Saturday, March 22. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Wednesday, March 26. The Medical Society. Wednesday, March 26. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: R. B. Sosman: Note on volcanic explosions. E. O. Ulrich: Newly discovered evidence of oscillating seas of the Paleozoic era. Thursday, March 27. Joint meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences and the Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program : Arthur L. Day: Optical glass. Saturday, March 29. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: W. R. Gregg: Trans-Atlantic flight from the meteorologist's point of view. (Illus- trated.) 40 min. C. F. Marvin: The flight of aircraft and the deflective influence of the earth's rotation. 15 min. Tuesday, April i. The Anthropological Society. Wednesday, April 2. The Society of Engineers. Wednesday, April 2. The Medical Society. Thursday, April 3. The Entomological vSociety. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Crystallography. — The classification of mimetic crystals. Edgar T. Wherry and Et-uoTT Q. Adams 153 Botany. — Synopsis of the genus dchroma, with descriptions of new species. W. W. RowLEE 157 Ornithology. — Diagnosis of a new genus of Bucerotidae. Harry C. Ober- HOLSER 167 Abstracts Physics .' 169 Spectroscopy 1 70 Electricity . . . ^ 171 Ceramic Chemistry 171 Botany 172 Phytopathology 1 74 Proceedings Biological Society 1 75 Scientific Notes and News 179 Vol. 9 April 4, 19 19 No. 7 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A. S. Hitchcock BORBAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BOARD OF EDITORS J. Franklin Meyer BUREAU OF STANDARDS R. B. SOSMAN GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY ASSOCIATE EDITORS N. HOLLISTER BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. C. McKelvy CHEMICAL SOCIETY J. B. Norton BOTANICAL SOCIETY J. R. SWANTON Sidney Paige GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY S. A. Rohwer ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY F. B. SitSBEE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET ' EASTON, PA. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton. Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103. Act of October 3, 1917, Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certain of "these articles; (3) pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that ?opy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $1.15 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90 250 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished jwhen ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without cliarge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume I, however, from July 19, 191 1, to December 19, 191 1 . will be sent for $3.00 Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. ' ESCHENBACH PRINTING COMPANY EASTON, PA. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. -Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Friday, April 4. The Washington Academy of Sciences, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: Lieut. Col. Byro^ C. Goss, Chief Gas Officer, Second Army, A. E. F.: Gas warfare at the front. Saturday, April 5. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: W. P. Taylor: Notes on Dr. James Graham Cooper's scientific investigations on the Pacific Coast. 10 min. Alexander Wetmore : The brown pelican. (Illustrated.) 20 min. Agnes Chase: The oil grasses and their uses in perfumery. 15 min. Tuesday, April 8. The Electrical Engineers. Wednesday, April 9. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: C. E- Van Ostrand: Temperatures in some deep wells in the United States. E. T. Wherry: Some practical applications of crystallography. E. W., Berry: Present tendencies in geology. I. Paleontology. Wednesday, April 9. The Medical Society. Saturday, April 12. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: William Bowie: Mapping the United States for military and civil needs. (Illustrated.) 30 min. Oscar S. Adams : A study of map projections in general. (Illustrated.) 30 min. Tuesday, April 15. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: Reports from tlie Buffalo Meeting of the American Chemical Society. Tuesday, April 15. The Anthropological Society. Wednesday, April 16. The Society of Engineers. Saturday, April 19. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Optics. — Trigonometric computation formulae for meridian rays. P. V. WELLS. i8i Radiation. — Note on the coefficient of total radiation of a uniformly heated enclosure. W. W. CoblEntz 185 Biology. — What kind of characters distinguish a species from its subdivisions? William C. Kendall 187 Evolution. — Evolution through normal diversity. O. F. Cook 192 Abstracts Phytopathology 1 98 Genetics 1 99 Zoology 200 Mammalogy 201 Entomology 201 Ornithology .' 201 Technology 203 Proceedings Washington Academy of Sciences 204 Botanical Society .* 204 Biological Society 203 Entomological Society ; 206 Scientific Notes and News 207 Vol.. 9 April 19, 1919 No. 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A. S. Hitchcock BUREAU OK PLANT INDUSTRY BOARD OF EDITORS J. Franklin Meyer BUREAU OF STANDARDS R. B. SOSMAN GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan BOTANICAL SOCIETY N. HOLLISTER BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. C. McKelvy CHEMICAL SOCIETY J. R. SWANTON F. B. SiLSBEE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY Sidney Paige GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY S. A. Rohwer ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONT9LY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919. at the post-oEQce at Easton, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it pubhshes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (3) pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. » Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $1.15 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90 250 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: WilHam Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19. 1911. will be sent for $3.00 Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. ESCHENBACH TRINTING COMPANY EASTON, PA. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Saturday, April 19. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Wednesday, April 23. The Medical Society. Wednesday, April 23. The Geological Society. Thursday, April 24. The Chemical Society. ^ Friday and Saturday, April 25 and 26. Ninety-seventh regular meet- ing of the American Physical Society at the Bureau of Standards. Exhibit of physical apparatus illustrating the application of physical principles to the solution of war problems. Monday, April 28 The Board of Managers of the Washington Academy of Sciences. Wednesday, April 30. The Medical Society. Xhursday, May i. The Entopiological Society. Saturday, May 3. The Biological Society. Saturday, May 10. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: F. J. Schlink: On the nature of the' inherent variability of measuring instruments. (Illustrated.) 30 min. R. L. Sanford: Magnetic analysis. (Illustrated.) 30 min. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Mathematics. — Strains due to temperature gradients, with special reference to optical glass. KRSEaNE D. Williamson 209 Astronomy. — Modern theories of the spiral nebulae. HebER D. Curtis 217 Abstracts Geology 228 Entomology / 229 Paleontology 229 Navigation 231 Proceedings Washington Academy of Sciences 234 Biological Society 234 Scientific Notes and News 239 Vol.. 9 May 4, 1919 No. 9 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A. S. Hitchcock BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BOARD OF EDITORS J. Franklin Meyer burbao of standards R. B. SOSMAN GEOPHYSICAI. LABURATORV ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan BOTANICAI, SOCIBTV N. HOLLISTER BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. C. McKelvy CHEMICAL SOCIETY Sidney Paige GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY S. A. ROHWER ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY F. B. SlLSBEE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY J. R. SWANTON ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-oflBce at Easton. Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the ofiBcial organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it pubhshes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (3) pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affihated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific hfe of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $l.'l5 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90 250 2.20 4.40. 6.60 8.80 2.15 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly niunbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. Europeafi Agent: Wil\iam Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers wiU be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after c|ate of the following issue. ♦Volume I, howeVer, from July 19, 1911, to December 19. 1911. will be sent for $3.00 Special rates are given to members of scientific societies afiBliated with the Academy. ESCHENBACH PRINTING COMPANY EASTON, PA. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. h. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Tuesday, May 6. The Botanical Society. Wednesday, May 7. The Medical Society. Thursday, May 8. The Chemical Society. Saturday, May 10. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: F. J. Schunk: On the nature of the inherent variability of measuring instruments. (Illustrated.) 30 min. R. Ir. Sanford: Magnetic analysis. (Illustrated.) 30 min. Tuesday, May 13. Electrical Engineers. Wednesday, May 14. The Geological Society. Wednesday, May 14. The Medical Society. Thursday, May 15. The Washington Academy of Sciences. Saturday, May 17. The Biological Society. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Botany. — Revision of Ichthyomethia, a genus of plants used for poisoning fish. S. F. Blake 241 Electricity. — Methods of measuring conductivity of insulating materials at high temperatures. F. B. Silsbee and R. K. Honaman 252 Proceedings Washington Academy of Sciences 267 Philosophical Society • 267 Scientific Notes and News 271 s Voi,. 9 May 19, 1919 No. 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS A. S. Hitchcock J. Franexin Meyer R. B. Sosman BUREAU OF PI;ANT industry BURBAU op standards GSOPBVSICAl, LABORATORY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. HarIvAn Sidney Paige BOTANICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIBTV N. HotUSTER S. A. ROHWER BIOLOGICAL 80CIBTY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. C. McKei^vy F. B. SilsbeE CHEMICAL SOCIETY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY J. R. SWANTON ^^'SZA ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER. WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION 2 1 1 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-ofSce at Easton, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the ofl&cial organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (3) pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific Ufe of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. ■ Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $1.15 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90 250 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly ntunbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦ Volume I, however, from July 19. 191 1, to December 19. 191 1 . will be sent for $3.00 Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. KSCHENBACH PRINTING COMPANV n easton, pa OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: Wii^liam R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L,. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Surv^ey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES Tuesday, May 20. The Historical Society. Wednesday, May 2 i . The Medical Society. Thursday, May 22. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: H. D. GiBBS: The tvork of the Color Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry. K. P. Monroe: The commercial preparation and utilization of the enzyme invertase. Saturday, May 24. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: V H. L. Curtis and R. C. Duncan: Measurement of short time intervals. (Illus- trated.) 20 minutes. A. F. Beal : Comparison of invar with steel as shown by the rates of high-grade watches. (Illustrated.) 40 minutes. Monday, May 26. Board of Managers, Washington Academy of Sciences. Tuesday, May 27. The Washington Academy of Sciences, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: A. O. Leuchner: The determination of the orbits of comets and planets. Wednesday, May 28. The Medical Society. CONTENTS Original Papbrs Page Paleontology. — Significance of divergence of the first digit in the primitive mammalian foot. James Williams GidlEY 273 Interferometry. — The use of the interferometer in the measurement of small dilatations or differential dilatations. C. G. Peters 281 Abstracts Botany 285 Economics 285 Technology 286 Proceedings Biological Society 287 Geological Society 288 Scientific Notes and News 299 Vol*. 9 June 4, 1919 No. 11 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS A, S. Hitchcock J. Franki^in Meyer R. B. Sosman ^URBAD OF PLANT IMDDSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS GBOPBYSICAL LABORATORY • ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan Sidney Paigb BOTANICAL SOCIBTY GBOLOOICAL SOCIBTY N. Holuster S. a. Rohwer BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTY BNTOHOLOOICAL SOCIBTY E. C. McKelvy F. B. Silsbee ; CHBIUCAL SOCIBTY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTY J. R. SWANTON ANTHROPOLOOICAL SOCIBTY PUBLISHED SBMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JtJLY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY TH8 WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OPWCE OP PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. Entered aa Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919. at the post-ofiSce at Easton, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1 103. Act of October 3. 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918 f CTBTXESI Cf tfce «S9L 93QL. 12] 1.40 &ai 2Ja togaes C€ re- :.^%19.Rf:i.*» », ntl.«ai 3logy. — Recent zoological explorations in the western Arctic. Rudolph Martin Anderson 312 Abstracts Geology. . .' 315 Ornithology 321 Entomology 327 Paleontology 328 Mycology , 328 SciENTiPic Notes and News 330 Voi,. 9 June 19, 1919 No, 12 JOURNAL . OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS A, S. Hitchcock J. Franklxn Meyer R. B. Sosman BDK8AD OF PLANT INDOSTXV BURHAD OF STANDARDS CBOPBySICAI. LABORATOKT ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan Sidney Paige BOTANICAL SOCISTV GBOLOOICAL SOCIBTY ^ N. HOLUSTER S. A. ROHWER BIOLOGICAL SOCISTy BNTOHOLOGICAL SOCIBTT ~ E. C. McKei^vy F. B. Silsbee CHBMICAL SOCISTY PHILOSOPHtCAL SOCISTT J. R. SWANTON ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCISTV PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JXJLY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THS WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OP PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. Entered a* Second Clasa Matter, January 25. 1919, at the post-office at Eaaton. Pa., under the Act of Auguat 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1 103, Act of October 3. 1917, Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (3) pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth 6f the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly t3npewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. • 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 . $5.60 $1.15 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 - 1.90 250 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. I,. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $3.00 Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. ^:j- OFFICKRS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum, Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Anthropology. — Two proto-Algonquian phonetic shifts. Truman Michelson 333 Radiotelegraphy. — Quantitative experiments with coil antennas in radio- telegraphy. L. W. Austin 335 Abstracts Anthropology 34° Electricity 34° Metallurgy 34i Optics ...:... 341 Physics 341 Technology r 342 Mammalogy 343 » Proceedings Washington Academy of Sciences _. . . . 344 Philosophical Society . 349 Biological Society 355 Entomological Society 357 SciBNTiPic Notes and NEwa. r 359 Vol. 9 , ]vhY 19, 1919 No. 13 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS A. S. Hitchcock J. Franklin Meyer R. B. Sosman BDRSAU OP PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OP STANDARDS GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. HarIvAN Sidney Paige BOTANICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY N. HOLUSTER S. A. ROHWES BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. C. McKelvy F. B. Silsbee . CnCMICAL SOCIETY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY J. R. Swanton ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OP PUBLICATION 211 CHtTRCH STREET EASTON, PA. Bntered aa Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919. at the post-ofTice at Easton. Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it pubh"shes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (3) pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific Hfe of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors imless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Repri?its. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $1.15 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90 250 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: WiUiam Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume I, however, from July 19. 1911, to December 19. 1911. will be sent for $3.00 Special rates are given to members of scientific societies afiiliated with the Academy. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome;, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: RobkrT B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Physics. — "Physical" vs. "chemical" forces. P. V. WELLS 361 Botany. — Notes on the genus Dahlia, with descriptions of two new species from Guatemala. W. E. Safford. . . ■ 364 Abstracts Biology 374 Geography 375 Mycology 37^ Phytochemistry 379 Spectrophotometry ; 380 Technology 381 Proceedings Geological Societj'^ of Washington . 382 Scientific Notes and News 388 Vol,. 9 August 19, 1919 No. 14 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS A. S. Hitchcock J. Frankwn Meyer R. B. Sosman BDRBAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BT7RBAO OP STANDARDS GEOPHYSICAL LABORATOKT ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan Sidney Paige BOTANICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY N. Holuster S. a. Rohwer BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. C. McKelvy F. B. Silsbee CHEMICAL SOCIETY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCISTV J. R. SWANTON ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OPPICE OP PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. Entered ai Second Class Matter, January 25,1919. at the post-ofi5ce at Eaaton, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3. 1917, Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences • This Journal, the ofiBcial organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original ipapers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certam of these articles; (3) pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. A uthors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as maiiy additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. . 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $1.15 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90 250 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911. will be sent for $3.00. Special rates gre given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical lyaboratory. Recording Secretary: WiIvLiam R.-Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Radiotelegraphy. — Calculation of antenna capacity. L. W. Austin 393 Crystallography. — The crystallography and optical properties of the photo- graphic sensitive dye, pinaverdol. Edgar T. Wherry and Elliot Q. Adams 396 Ornithology. — Grandalidae, a new family of turdjne Passeriformes. Harry C. Oberholser. . 405 Abstracts Botany ' 408 Engineering • 409 Ornithology 409 Geology 414 • Proceedings Botanical Society 415 Entomological Society 416 Biological Society 418 Scientific Notes and News 42 1 Vol,. 9 September 19, 191 9 No. 15 JOURNAL OK THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A. S. Hitchcock BCKSAU OF PLANT INDOSTRV BOARD OF EDITORS J. FrankIvIn Meyer BUREAU OP STANDARDS R. B. SOSHAN CBOFBVSICAL LABORATOBT ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan BOTANICAL, SOCISTY N. HOLLISTER BIOLOGICAL SOCISTY E. C. McKelvy CaSlUCAL SOCISTY Sidney Paige GBOLOOICAL SOCISTY S. A. ROHWER BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCISTY F. B. SasBEE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCISTY J. R. Swanton ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCISTY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER. WHEN MONTHLY BY THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OlfPICE OF PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. Entered u Second ClaM Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Eaiton, Pa., under tht Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1 103, Act of October 3. 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (3) pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific Hfe of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond tS calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $1.15 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90 250 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Serai-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 2?emx7tonce5 should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦Volume I, however, from July 19. 1911, to December 19, 1911. will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies afiSIiated with the Academy. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F, L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. vSosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: WiIvLIAm R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic vSurvey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES^ Thursday, October 2. The Entomological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. 'The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the Editor by the thirteenth and twenty-seventh of the month CONTENTS Original Papbrs Page Chemical Crystallography. — Ammonium picrate and potassium trithionate: optical dispersion and anomalous crystal angles. Herbert E. Merwin. . . 429 Botany. — On the origin of chicle with descriptions of two new species of Achras. H. PiTTiER 431 Abstracts Geology. 439 Engineering 444 Metallurgy 445 Proceedings Philosophical Society 447 Geological Society 45 1 Scientific Notes and News 454 Vol,. 9 October 4, 1919 No. i6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS m A, S. Hitchcock J. Franklin Meyer R. B. Sosmah BDKBAD OP PLAKT INDUBTRT BUKSAO OP BTANDAKOB GBOPBVSICAI, LABOBATOR* ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Hari^n Sidney Paige BOTANICAL aOCtSTY GBOLOOICAI. BOCtSTV N. HoLLISTER S. A- ROHWBR BIOLOOICAI, SOCISTV BNT01I0U>0ICAI, BOCISTT • E. C. McKEtvY F. B. SasBEB GB8UICAI, SQCIBTY PHIbOBOPHICAL BOCIBtT J. R. SWANTON ANTBKOPOI.OGICAI, SOCIBTY PUBLISHED SBMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JXJtY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. Bntered h Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919. at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for In Section 1 103. Act of October 3. 1917. Authorixed on July 3. 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it pubh'shes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (3) pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific Ufe of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number cofitaining his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16'pp. Cavers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $1.15 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90 250 . 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers • 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19. 1911. will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: "William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES^ Tuesday, October 7. The Anthropological Society, at Room 43, National Museum, at 4.30 p.m. Tuesday, October 7. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: John A. Stevenson: Some botanical aspects of Porto Rico. The annual meeting for the election of officers and transaction of other business will be called immediately at the close of the meeting. Thursday, October 9. 'The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: E. K. Nelson: Vanillyl acyl amides. C. O. Johns and A. J.. Finks: Growth experiments with *he proteins of the navy bean. W. M. Clark and Harper S. ZollEr: Manufacture of commercial casein. Saturday, October 11. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, • at 8.15 p.m. Program: C. G. Abbot: Solar studies in South America. (Illustrated.) 30 minutes. Iv. A. Bauer: The total solar eclipse at Cape Palmas, Liberia, May 2g, igig. (Illustrated.) 30 minutes. D. M. Wise: The total solar eclipse at Sobral, Brazil, May 2g, igig. (Illustrated.) 10 minutes. Saturday, October 18. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. - ' The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page it sent to the Editor by the thirteenth and twenty-seventh of the month \ CONTENTS Original Papers Page Botany — The anay, a new edible-fruited relative of the avocado. S. F. BlakE 457 Genetics — On Mendelian inheritance in crosses between mass-mutating and non-mass-mutating strains of Oenothera pratincola. Frieda Cobb and H. H. Bartlett 462 Anthropology — Some general notes on the Fox Indians. Part I. Historical. Trxjman Michelson 48.1 Abstracts Ornithology *. 495 Proceedings Geological Society ; 500 SciENTunc Notes and News 503 » Vol,. 9 October 19, 1919 No. 17 JOURNAL OF THIC WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES . BOARD OF EDITORS A. S. Hitchcock J. Franklin Meyer R. B. Sosman BDKBAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BCRBAU OP STANDARDS GSOPRVSICAL LABOKATORT ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan Sidney Paige BOTANICAL SOCIBTY GBOLOOICAL loCIBTY N. HOLUSTER S. A. ROHWER BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTY BNTOHOLOGICAL aoCISTY E. C. McKelvy F. B. SasBBE CBSMICAL SOCIBTY PHILOSOPHICAL aociBTV J. R. SWANTON ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFPICE oy PUBLICATION 211 CHUJICH STREET EASTON, PA. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919. at the post-ofiSce at Easton, P«., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in .Section 1 103, Act of October 3, 1917, Authorized ou July 3. 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official orgau of the Washington Academy' of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it pubhshes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of certain of these articles; (3). pro- ceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each, month, except dur- ing the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Ma7iuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $1.15 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90 250 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see^ proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. / - European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within "thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19. 1911. will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of ScientiTic societies affiliated with the Academy. OFI^ICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary r'RoB^Rt B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: WiIvLIAM R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. I/..Faris, Coast and Geodetic vSurvey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES^ Tuesday, October 21. The Anthropological Society, at Room 43, New National Museum, at 4.45 p.m. Program: j. W. FE.WKES, J. T. Harrington, J. N. B. Hewitt, W. Hough, A. Hrdlicka, N. M. JuDD, F. LaFlesche, T. Michei.son, J. R. Swanton: Field experi- ences (results of anthropological field work during the past year): Thursday, October 23, The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: Charles L. Reese, of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Co%: The status and pros- pects of the dye industry in the United States. ' Saturday, October 25. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: J. H. Dellinger: Principles of radio transmission and reception with amtenna and coil aerials. (Illustrated.) F. iy. MohlEr, Paul D. Foote, and H. F. Stimson: Ionization and resonance potentials for electrons in vapors of lead and calcium. (Illustrated.) vSaturday, November i. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos CluJ), at 8.00 p.m. Anniversary Meeting {600th meeting). Saturday, November I. The Chemical Society, 9. 10. a.m., Excursion to Edgewood Arsenal . Tuesday, November 4. The Anthropological Society, at Room 43, New National Museum, at 4.45 p.m. Program: Continuation of the reports on Field experiences. * Tuesday, November 4. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.G0 p.m. A. D. Cockayne, of the Department of Agriculture of New Zeland, will lecture on the vegetation of New Zealand. « Thursday, November 6. The Entomological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. 'Tlie programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the ' Editor by the thirteenth and twenty-seventh of the nionth. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Crystallography — The crystallography of morphine and certain of its de- rivatives. Edgar T. Wherry and Euas Yanovsky 505 Qeology — Present tendencies in geology: Sedimentation. Eugene Wesley Shaw 5 '3 Anthropology — Some general notes on the Fox Indians. Part II: Phonetics, folklore and mythology. Truman Michelson 521 ■ Abstracts Geology 529 Anthropology 533 Zoogeography '. • 533 SciENTiRic Notes and News - 535 Voi,. 9 November 4, 1919 No. 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS A. S. Hitchcock J. Frankxin Meyer R. B. Sosman BDRBAD OF PLANT INOUBTRV BDKBAD OF STANDARDS OBOPBYSICAL kABORATORV ASSOCIATE EDITORS H, V. Harlan Sidney Paige BOTANICAL SOCISTT G80L00ICAL SOCIBTV N. Holuster S. a. Rohwer BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTV BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIBTV E. C. McKelvy F. B, Sn.SBEE CHSmCAL SOCIBTV PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTV J. R Swanton ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTV PUBLISHED SBMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY TH8 WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OF PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. Entered a« Second Clau Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., undar th« Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3. 1917, Authorised on July 3, 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington ; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued serai-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty- eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. , Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. 'Covers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $1.15 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90 250 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should mvariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R, L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge", provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911. will be sent tor $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. RansomE, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosm^n, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES^ Tuesday, November 4. The Anthropological Society, at Room 43, New National Museum, at 4.45 p.m. Program: Continuation of the reports on Field experiences. Tuesday, November 4. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: A. D. Cockayne, of the Department of Agriculture of New Zealand, will lecture on the vegetation of New Zealand. Wednesday, November 5. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Thursday, November 6. The Entomological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: Notes and exhibition of specimens. L. O. Howard.: On entomologists. Saturday, November 8. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: R. W. G. Wyckopf: The nature of the forces between atoms in solids. H. L. Curtis, R. C. Duncan and H. H. Moore: Methods of measuring ballistic phenomena on a battleship. Tuesday, November 11. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Wednesday, November 12. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 :oo p.m. Thursday, November 13. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: A nnual election of officers. ' ^ E. T. Wherry: Crystallography in the service of the chemist. Saturday, November 15. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Tuesday, November 18. The Anthropological Society, at Room 43, New Nationai Museum, at 4.45 p.m. Wednesday, November 19. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. •The programs of the meetitigs of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the Editor by l.lie thirteenth and twenty-seventh of the month. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Physics — The spectral photoelectric sensitivity of molybdenite as a function of the applied voltage. W. W. Coblentz and H. Kahler 537 Geochemistry — The oxidation of lava by steam. J. B. Ferguson 539 Botany — History of the Mexican grass, Ixophorus unisetus. A. S. Hitchcock 546 AnSTRACTS Geodesy 552 Physics 553 Botany 553 Ornithology 554 Chemical Technology 558 Proceedings Botanical Society 559 Scientii»ic Notes and News 562 Vol,. 9 November 19, 1919 No. 19 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY y OF SCIENCES A. S. Hitchcock BUBSAD OF PLANT INDUSTRY BOARD OF EDITORS J. Franklin Meyer BCRSAD OF STANDARDS R. B. SOSMAM OBOPBV8ICAL LABORATOBT ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan BOTANICAL SOCIBTY N. HOLLISTER BIOLOGICAL SOCISTY E. C. McKelvy CHEMICAL SOCIBTy Sidney Paige GBOLOGICAL SOCIBTY S. A. ROHWER 8NTOHOLOOICAL SOCIBTY F. B. SiLSBEE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTY J, R. Swanton ANTHROPOLCaiCAL SOCIBTY PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OP PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA. Entered u Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919. at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under tbt Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in /■ Section 1103. Act of October 3, 1917. Authorised on July 3. 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific fife of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty- eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no 'proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $1.15 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90 250 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15 Covers bearing the nam% of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of vSciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. * Volume I, however, from July 19, 191 1 , to December 19, 191 1 . will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon,* National Museum, Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACApEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES^ Wednesday, November 19. The Society of Engineers, at the National Museum, at 8.15 p.m. Program: General discussion on preliminary report of Engineering Council's Committee on Classification and Compensation of Government Engineers, led by John C. Hoyt. Saturday, November 22. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: R. C. Tolman: A conception of the business of mathematical physics. C. W. Waidner, E. F. Mueller and P. D. FooTE: The standard scale of temperature. Tuesday, November 25. The Scientific-Technical Section of the Fed- eral Employees' Union, at the National Museum, at 8:15 p.m. Pro- gram : Irving Fisher : The purchasing power of salaries. Wednesday, November 26. "The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 .00 p.m. vSaturday, November 29. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Tuesday, December 2. The Anthropological Society, at Room 43, New National Museum, at 4.45 p.m. Tuesday, December 2. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Wednesday, December 3. The Society of Engineers, at Rauscher's. Annual Banquet. Thursday, December 4. The Entomological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Saturday, December 6. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: Annual meeting for reports and election of officers. 'The programs of the meetings of the afBliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the Editor by the thirteenth and twenty-seventh of the month. • CONTENTS Original Papers Page Physical Chemistry — The nature of the forces between atoms in solids. Ralph W. G. Wyckoff 565 Anthropology — Some general notes on the Fox Indians. Part III: Bibliography. Truman Michelson 593 Abstracts Geodesy 597 Physics 598 Inorganic Chemistry 599 Analytical Chemistry 599 Geology 600 Proceedings Washington Academy of Sciences 602 ScmNTIIHC NOT«8 AND NBWS • • • , • 605 \ Voi,. 9 December 4, 19 19 No. 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS A. S. Hitchcock J. Franki,in Meyer R. B. Sosman BDRSAD OP PLANT IMDUSTKy BDRBAU OP 8TANDAKD8 CBOPHTSICAI. LABOSATOBT ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Hari^an Sidney Paige BOTANICAL SOCIBTT OBOLOOICAI. SOCIBTT N. HOLUSTER S. A. ROHWBR BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTV BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIBTT E. C. McKelvy F. B. SilsbEE CBBmCAL SOCIBTV PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTV J. R. SWANTON ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTV PUBLISHED SBMI-MONIRLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEBIBER. WHEN MONTHLY BY THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICE OP PUBLICATION 211 CHURCH STREET EASTON, PA, Entered aa Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post>ofBce at Easton. Pa., under the Act of August 24. 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3. 1917. Authorised on July 3. 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it pubhshes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and aflSliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty- eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should b^ clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing withput essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Keprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $1.15 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90 250 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15 I Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly numbers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be ma^ payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦ Volum? I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19. 1911. will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to membeiy of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical I/aboratory. Recording Secretary: WilIvIam R. Maxon, National Museum. Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES^ Thursday, December 4. The Entomological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at. 8.00 p.m. ' Program: Election of officers for 1920. Wm. Schaus: Collecting in the American Tropics. Notes and exhibition of specimens. Saturday, December 6. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.ra. Program: Annual meeting for reports and election of officers. Tuesday, December 9. The Institute of Electrical Engineers; at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Wednesday, December 10. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Program: Annual meeting for election of officers and presidential address. Thursday, December 1 1 . The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Saturday, December 13. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Tuesday, December i6. The Anthropological Society, at Room 43, New National Museum, at 4.45 p.m. Wednesday, December 17. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. ; Annual meeting. Saturday, December 20. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: J. Warren Smith: Predicting minimum temperatures. (Illustrated.) Charles F. Brooks: Clouds and their significance. (Illustrated.) Prospective members of the American Meteorological Society are invited to be present. At the close of the program there will be a short business meeting to discuss organization plans and to nominate officers for that society. , 'The programs of the meetings of the a£51iated societies will appear on this page if sent to the Editor by the thirteenth and twenty-seventh of the month. CONTENTS Original Papbrs Page Physics — The relation between birefringence and stress in various types ,of glass. L. H. Adams and E. D. Wilijamson 609 Zoogeography — Discontinuous distribution among the echinoderms. Austin H. Clark - j 623 Abstracts Geodesy. 626 Apparatus . • 626 Physics 626 Inorganic Chemistry 628 Analytical Chemistry 630 Geology 631 Entomology 638 Ceramic Chemistry 640 Radiotelegraphy 641 Proceedings Philosophical Society 642 Scientific Notes and News. . . '. 645 Vol.. 9 December 19, 19 19 No. 21 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS • A. S. Hitchcock J. Franklin Meyer R. B. Sosman BUKSAD OP PLANT INDDSTRV BDRBAD OP STANDARDS GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORT ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. V. Harlan S. A. Robwbr BOTANICAL SOCISTY BNTOUOLOGICAL SOCISTV N. HOLLISTER F. B. SiLSBEE BIOLOGICAL SOCISTY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCISTY Sidney Paige J. R. Swanton GSOLOGICAL SpCISTY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCISTY PUBLISHED SSMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT m JXn.Y, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY BY THS WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES office op publication 211 chxxrch street easton, pa. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919. at the post>office at Eatton. Pa., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for ia Section 1103, Act of October 3. 1917, Authorized on July 3. 1918 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem- bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the scientific Ufe of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty- eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the issue of the Journal for the following foiurth or nineteenth, respectively. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes. The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errfers. References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication. Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript. Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise ^ue care in seeing that copy is followed. Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at the following schedule of prices: Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers 50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $1.15 100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40 150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65 200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90 250 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15 Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered. As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re- prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript. The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00* Semi-monthly nimibers 25 Monthly numbers 50 Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences," and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ington, D. C. European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London. Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made within thirty days after date of the following issue. ♦Volume I, however, from July 19. 1911, to December 19. 1911, will be sent for $3.00. Special rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: F. h. Ransome, Geological Survey. Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Ivaboratory. Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum. Treastirer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES^ Saturday, December 20. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: J. Warren Smith: Predicting viininuim temperatures. (Illustrated.) Charles F. Brooks: Clouds and their significance. (Illustrated.) Prospective members of the American Meteorological Society are invited to be present. At the close of the program there will be a short business meeting to discuss organization plans and to nominate officers for that society. Saturday, January 3. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: Enoch Karrer: I. Diffusion of light in a searchlight beam. (Illustrated.) II. The contrast sensibility of the eye at low illuminations. (Illustrated.) Fred. E. Wright: The contrast-sensibility of the eye as a factor' in the resolving power of the microscope. Iv. A. Bauer: The solar eclipse of May 2Q, iQiQ, and the Einstein effect. (Illus- trated.) Tuesday, January 6. The Anthropological Society, at Room 43, New National Museum, at 4.45 p.m. Tuesday, January 6. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Wednesday, January 7. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Thursday, January 8. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. 'The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent to the Editors by the thirteenth and twenty-seventh of the month. CONTENTS Original Papers Page Zoology — The Philippine Island landshells of the genus Platyraphe. Paul Bartsch 649 Proceedings Biological Society 656 Scientific Notes and News ^ 660 Errata 662 Index Proceedings •..•••• 663 Author Index 663 Subject Index 674 MBL/WHOI LIBRARY JLH^lflXT Y •