th Whe yt ow asyet Aer erties eg hteitet ys ete his ie aihoag A nee EES LEON, eT a ead ee I eae aearbaan ORT EECA ee atid sons ES ie an ee Stee gon ge ae Ps prrerrT apt Fo a SET TEED 2 . rer * ae Te al eae oe y ee RE RG aS HH eS ee ek Ae VST 25 MOLT ie ate rome ss a oe “7 mn ie ner mina Re palin re hs ae sgeetare ets ‘ ae GP te ONSET parte gE PA OE Sm. ktede hal “oe Salen bee aoa di eee Ge OE DD Pa ce e Saones Rese aa aiall i ‘ eel rege onic ty eee Te fe OR ae Sg Sos ATT ae SC raesrse eee ah Fee gre ES eee a RS VE e wee ee ST — anne acre ne eae - « a A cnn IPT Pry SERRE eer gee anes eto Ravens. a ees (RECEIPES sw | = pe. (Fa (Se a 1 _¥ iP | gm NY é laa \lex\l\ \ AN! 3 ame . \ ~ , oY ee M A = wo i \! an an\\ a \ IA aN —\) =\ fA) ] { | | | | | } j EE —~ Z | \ \ 1 | | | VA) \y al iB\iAAANAAR { ! AAAAAAARRARAA : | : = uw |W «CO ; ry | , W ¥ | « cr Ci cue Cac @ © CC a a I TS SS Sri im pee | FOURNA L oc ROYAL SOCIETY NEW SOUTH WALES * he ig ? i Uj 4 FOR ie | a | Kinghorn, James Roy, Australian Museum, Sydney. Kirchner, William John, B.sc., “‘ Wanawong,” ‘hornleigh-road, Beecroft. Kirk, Robert Newby, 25 O’Connell-street. Knox, Edward W., ‘ Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Double Bay. Leech, ''homas David James, B.sc., Syd., ‘Orontes,’ Clarke-st., Granville. Le Souef, Albert Sherbourne, Taronga Park, Mosman. L’Estrange, Walter William, 7 Church-street, Ashfield. Leverrier, Frank, B.A., B.Sc, K.c., Wentworth Road, Vaucluse. “ingen, J. T., m.a. Cantab., x.c., c/o Union Club, Bligh-st. Lions, Francis, B.se,Pn.D., Lecturer in Organic Chemistry in the University of Sydney. Loney, Charles Augustus Luxton, M.Am.Soc.Refr.E., Equitable Building, George-street. Love, David Horace, Beauchamp Avenue, Chatswood. Love, William Henry, B.sc, ‘‘Lumeah,” 9 Miller-street, Haberfield. MacCormick, Sir Alexander, K.c.M.G., M.D., C.M. Hdin., M.R.C.S. Eng., 185 Macquarie-street. Mackay, Iven Giffard, ¢c.m.a., D.s.o., B.A., Student Adviser and Secretary of Appointments Board, The University, Sydney. McDonald, Alexander Hugh Earle, Superintendent of Agri- culture, Department of Agriculture, Sydney. McDonald, Robert, J.r., u.s., Pastoral Chambers, O’Connell-st; p.r. ‘ Lowlands,’ William-street, Double Bay. McGeachie, Duncan, M.1.M.#,, M.1I.8, (Aust.), M.1.m.u. (Aust.), ‘Craig Royston,’ Toronto, Lake Macquarie. McIntosh, Arthur Marshall, ‘Moy Lodge,’ Hill-st., Roseville. McKay, R. T., L.S., M.Inst.c.E., Commissioner, Sydney Harbour Trust,,.Circular Quay. McLuckie, John, M.A., B.Sc., (Glasgow), D.Sc. (Syd.), Assistant- Professor of Botany in the University of Sydney. McMaster, Frederick Duncan, ‘‘ Dalkeith,’’ Cassilis. McQuiggin, Harold G., m.B., ch.m., B.Sc, Lecturer and Demon- strator in Physiology in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘ Berolyn,’ Beaufort-street, Croydon. Madsen, John Percival Vissing, p.sc., B.E., Professor of Elec- trical Engineering in the University of Sydney. Mance, Frederick Stapleton, Under Secretary for Mines, Mines Department Sydney; p.r. ‘ Binbah,’ Lucretia Avenue, Longueville. 1880! P1| Manfred, Edmund C., Belmore-square, Goulburn. Elected, XVi. 1920(P1| Mann, Cecil William, 41 Jenkin-street, Chatswood. 1920 1908 1914 1929 1926 1912 1929 1922 1928 1926 1879 1922 1924 1879 1915 1923 1893 1917 1924 1891 1920 1903 1921 1913 1891 1928 Mann, James Elliott Furneaux, Barrister at Law, c/o H.. Southerden, Esq . Box 1646 J.J., G.P.O., Sydney. Marshall, Frank, c.M.¢., B.D.s., 143 Macquarie-street. Martin, A. H., Technical College, Sydney. Matheson, Alexander James, Teacher, ‘'he High School, Bathurst. Mathews, Hamilton Bartlett, B.a. Syd., Surveyor General of N.S.W., Department of Lands, Sydney. Meldrum, Henry John, B.a., 8.8c. ‘ Craig Roy,’ Sydney Road, Manly. Mellor, David Paver, Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry in the University of Sydney ; p.r. Flat 8, ‘Deanville,’ Milson-- -road, Cremorne. Mills, Arthur Edward, m.s., cn.m., Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, Professor of Medicine in the University of Sydney ; p.r. 143 Macquarie-street. Micheli, Louis Ivan, Ph.D., Colonial Sugar Refining Co.,. Pyrmont. Mitchell. Ernest Marklow, 106 Harrow Road, Rockdale Moore, Frederick H., Union Club, Sydney. P 15) Morrison, Frank Richard, 4.a.c.1., F.c.s., Assistant Chemist, P2 P 4 Pe2 Technological Museum, Sydney; p.r. Brae-st., Waverley. Morrison, Malcolm, Department of Mines, Sydney. | Mullins, John Lane, m.tu.c., M.A. Syd., ‘ Killountan,’ Double: Bay. Murphy, R. K., Dr. Ing., Chem. Eng., Lecturer in Chemistry Technical College, Sydney. Murray, Jack Keith, B.a., B.sc. (Agr.), Principal, Queensland. Agricultural College, Gatton, Queensland. Nangle, James, 0.B.E., F.R.A.S., Superintendent of Technical Kducation, 'I'be ‘l'echnical College, Sydney; Government Astronomer, The Observatory, Sydney. (President 1920., Nash, Norman C., ‘Ruanora,’ King’s Road, Vaucluse. Nickoll, Harvey, L.B.c.P., L.R.c.s., Barham, via Mudgee, N.S.W. tNoble, Edward George, t.s., 8 Louisa Road, Balmain. Noble, Robert Jackson, M.sc., B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., Biologist, Dept. of Agriculture, Sydney ; p.r. ‘Casa Loma,’ Shell Cove- Road, Neutral Bay. Hon. Secretary. tOld, Richard, ‘ Waverton,’ Bay Road, North Sydney. Olding, George Henry, *‘ Werriwee,’ Wright’s Road, Drum-- moyne. Ollé, A. D., F.c.s., ‘Kareema,’ Charlotte-street, Ashfield. Osborn, A. F., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Water Supply Branch, Sydney;- p.r. ‘ Waugoola,’ Fern-street Pymble. Osborn, Theodore George Bentley, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Sydney. Elected 1921 P3 Pit P 52 ES P2 pt XVii. Osborne, George Davenport, D.se., Lecturer and Demonstrator: in Geology in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Belle-Vue,’ Kembla-st., Arneliffe. Parkes, Varney, Conjola, South Coast. Parsons, Stanley William Enos, Analyst and Inspector, N.S.W. Explosive Department, p.r. Shepherd Road, Artar- mon. Penfold, Arthur Ramon, F.c.s., Curator and Economic Chemist, ‘'echnological Museum, Harris-street, Ultimo. Pittman, Edward F., Ass»c.R.S.M. L.S., ‘The Oaks,’ Park-street, South Yarra, Melbourne. Poate, Frederick, F.R.A.S., L.s., ‘ Clanfield,’ 50 Penkivil-street,. Bondi. Poate, Hugh Raymond Guy, m.B., cn. mM. Syd., F.RB.c.s. Hng.,. L.R.c.P. Lond., 225 Macquarie-street. Pope, Roland James, B.a., Syd., M.D., Ch.M., F.R.OS.. Hdin., 185 Macquarie-street. Powell, Charles Wilfrid Roberts, a.t.c., c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., O’Connell-street. Powell, John, 17 Thurlow-street, Redfern. Price, William Lindsay, B.E.,B.sc., c/o Research Section, P.M.G, Dept., 360 P.O. Place, Melbourne Priestley, Henry, M.D., Ch. M., B.Se, Associate-Professor of Physiology in the University of Sydney. Purser, Cecil, B.A., M.B., Chm. Syd., 185 Macquarie-street. Pyke, Henry George, Chemical Testing Assistant, N.S.W.. Government ‘Tramways; p.r. Bellamy-street, Pennant- Hills. Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald, u.a., Cantab., m.a., Adel., F.R.A.I., Cantab., Professor of Anthropology in the Uni- versity of Sydney. Raggatt, Harold George, B.sc., “‘ Meru,” Epping-av., Epping. Ranclaud, Archibald Boscawen Boyd, B.sc., B.g., Lecturer in Physics, ‘l'eachers’ College, The University, Sydney. Reid, David, ‘ Holmsdale,’ Pymble. Reidy, Eugene Nicholas, a.s.t.c., Analyst, Department of Mines, Sydney. Robertson, James R. M., m.p., c.M., F.R.G.S., F.G.8., ‘Vanduara,” Ellamang Avenue, Kirribiili. Ross, Allan Clunies, B.Se., 15 Castlereagh-street, Sydney. (Member from 1915 to 1924.) Ross, Chisholm, mu.p. Syd., M.B., Ch.M., Kdin., 225 Macquarie-st. Ross, Herbert E., Savings Bank Building, 14 Castlereagh- street, Sydney. Ross, [an Clunies, D.V.Sc., ‘‘ Lorne,’ The Grove, Woollahra. Roughley, Theodore Cleveland, ‘T'echnological Museum, Sydney. Royle, Norman Dawson, m.p., c».m. 185 Macquarie-street, Sydney. Ryder, Charles Dudley, D. Eng. (Vienna), Assoc.I.R.S.M,. (L.), Ass.A.C L., F.C.S., (L.), Public Analyst (by appoint.), ‘* ‘he Astor,” Macquarie-street, Sydney. Elected 1922 1920 1920 1919 1923 1918 1924 1927 1907 1900 1922 1919 1921 1917 1916 1921 1914 1920 1913 1900 1909 1916 1927 1919 1920 1918 1901 1919 1920 Pl P =" Pil Ped Pl P12 XVIll, Sandy, Harold Arthur Montague, 326 George-street. Sawyer, Basil, B.£., ‘Birri Birra,’ The Crescent, Vaucluse. Scammell, Rupert Boswood, B.se, Syd., ‘ Storrington,”’ 10 Buena Vista Avenue, Clifton Gardens. Sear, Walter George Lane, c/o J. Kitchen & Sons, Ingles-st., Port Melbourne. Seddon, Herbert Robert, pD.v.sc,, Director, Veterinary Research Station, Glenfield. Sevier, Harry Brown, c/o Lewis Berger and Sons (Aust.) Lid., Cathcart House, Castlereagh- street. Shelton, James Peel, msc, B.Se, Agr., Holland-av., Bellevue Hill. Shearsby, Alfred James, 152 Bland-street, Haberfield. Sibley, Samuel Edward, Mount-street, Coogee. tSimpson, R.C., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Sydney. Smith, Thomas Hodge, Australian Museum, Sydney. Southee, Ethelbert Ambrook, 0.B.8., M.A., B.Sc, B Sc.Agr., Prin- cipal, Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W. Spencer- Watts, Arthur, ‘Araboonoo,’ Glebe-street, Randwick. Spruson, Wilfred Joseph, S.M. Herald Building, Pitt and Hunter-streets, Sydney. Stephen, Alfred Ernest, F.c.s., Box 1197 H.H.G.P.O., Sydney. Stephen, Henry Montague, B.A., uu.B., c/o Messrs. Maxwell and Boyd, 17 O’ Connell- street. Stephens, Frederick G. N., F.R.c.s., M.B., Ch.M., Captain Piper’s Koad and New South Hiead Road, Vaucluse. Stephens, John Gower, m.s., Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown. Stewart, Alex. Hay, B.z., ‘ Yunah,’ 22 Murray-street. Croydon Stewart, J. Douglas, B.v.se., M.R.C.v.S., Professor of Veterinary Science in the University of Sydney ; p.r. ‘ Berelle,’ Home- bush Road, Strathfield. (President 1927.) Stokes, Edward Sutherland, m.s. Syd., ¥.n.c.P. Irel., Medical Officer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. Stone, W.G., Assistant Analyst, Department of Mines, Sydney. Stump, Claude Witherington, M.D., D.Sc., Assoc.-Professor of - Anatomy in the University of Sydney; p.r. 40 Shirley-rd. Wollstonecraft. Stroud, Sydney Hartnett, F.1.C., Ph.c., c/o Elliott Bros., Ltd., Terry-street, Rozelle. Sulman, Sir John, Kt., Warrung-st., McMahon’s Point, North Sydney. Sundstrom, Carl Gustaf, c/o Federal Match Co., Park Road, Alexandria. *Sussmilch, C. A., F.G.s., F.S.T.c., A.M.1.E. (Aust.), Principal of the East Sydnev Technical College, and Assistant Super- intendent of Technical Education. (President 1922. Hon. Secretary. {Sutherland, George Fife, A.R.c.sc, Lond., Assistant-Professor in Mechanical Engineering, in the University of Sydney. Sutton, Harvey, 0.B.E.,M D., D.P.H. Melb., B.Sc. Oxon., ‘ Lynton,’ Kent Road, Rose Bay. Elected . 1926 1915 1905 1923 1919 1924. 1913 1919 1916 1923 1923 1923 1879 1925 1890 1921 1892 1903 1924 1919 1910 1910 1879 1919 1903 1901 P3 P5 Pil xix. Tannahill, Robert William, B.Sc. Syd., m.sc., ‘‘Eastwell,’ 40» Cammaray Avenue, North Sydney. Taylor, Harold B., D.sc., Kenneth-street, Tonal. {Taylor, John M., m.a., uu.B. Syd., ‘Woonona,’ 43 East Crescent- street, McMahon’s Point, North Sydney. Thomas, David, B.E., M.I.M.M., F.G.S.. 15 Clifton Avenue; Burwood. Thomas, John, u.s., ‘Remeura,’ Pine and Harrow Roads, Auburn. Thompson, Herbert William, ‘ Marathon,’ Francis-st.,Randwick Thompson, Joseph, M.a., LL.B., Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-st.. Thorne, Harold Henry, B.A. Cantab., B.sc. Syd., Lecturer in Mathematics in the University of Sydney; p.r. Rutledge-st., Eastwood. Tillyard, Robin John, M.a., D.Sc. F.R.S., F.L.S., F.E.S., Chief Commonwealth Entomologist, Canberra, F.c.T. Timcke, Edward Waldemar, Meteorologist, Central Weather: Bureau, Melbourne. Tindale, Harold, Works Engineer, c/o Australian Gas-Light Co., Mortlake. Toppin, Richmond Douglas, a.1.c., Parke Davis & Co., Rose- bery. Trebeck, P. C., c/o Box 867 F., G.P.O., Sydney. Tye, Cyrus Willmott Oberon, Director of Development,,. Premier’s Dept., Sydney; p.r. 19 Muston-st., Mosman. Vicars, James, m.u., Memb. Intern. Assoc. Testing Materials; Memb. B. 8. Guild; Challis House, Martin Place. Vicars, Robert, Marrickville Woollen Mills, Marrickville. Vickery, George B., 9th Floor, Karrack House, Barrack-street.. Sydney. Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.sc., F.tnsj.P., Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney. Wade, Rev. Robert Thompson, m.a., ‘‘ Headfort,” Pennant: Hills, Parramatta North. Waley, Robert George Kinloch, 63 Pitt-street. Walker, Charles, ‘Lynwood,’ Terry Road, Ryde. Walker, Harold Hutchison, Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-st. Walker, H. O., ‘ Moora,’ Crown-street, Granville. Walkom, Arthur Bache, D.sc., Macleay House, 16 College-st. Walsh, Fred,, J.p., Consul-General for Honduras in Australia: and New Zealand; For. Memb. Inst. Patent Agents, Lon-- don; Patent Attorney Regd. U.S.A.; Memb. Patent Law Assoc., Washington; Regd. Patent Attorn. Comm. of Aust.; Memb. Patent Attorney Exam. Board Aust.; 4th Floor,. Barrack House, Barrack-street, Sydney ; p.r. ‘Walsholme,’” Centennial Park, Sydney. Walton, R. H., ¥.c.s., ‘Flinders,’ Martin’s Avenue, Bondi. ‘Hlected XX, 1913 P4| Wardlaw, Hy. Sloane Halcro, p.s.. Syd., Lecturer and Demon- 1922 1921 1924 1919 1919 1919 1876 1910 1911 1920 1920 1921 1881 1922 1909 1892 1923 1928 1921 1920 1924 1923 1891 1906 1916 1917 1921 P3 Pi P 24 Pl P3 P2 Pill strator in Physiology in the University of Sydney. Wark, Blair Anderson, V.c., D.S.0., M.1.Q.C., ¢/o thompson and Wark, T. & G. Building, Elizabeth-street; pr. ‘ Braeside,’ Zeta-street, Lane Cove, Sydney. tWaterhouse, G. Athol, p.sc, B.E., F.F.8., Curator of the Division of Economic Entomology, Canberra. Waterhouse, Leslie Vickery, B.z. Syd, 6th Floor, Wingello House, Angel Place, Sydney. Waterhouse, Lionel Lawry, B.z. Syd., Lecturer and Demon- strator in Geology in the University of Sydney. Waterhouse, Walter L., M.C., D.SeAgr., DI.C., ‘Hazelmere,’ Chelmsford Avenue, Roseville. Watkin-Brown, Willie Thomas, F.r.u.s., Lucasville Road, Glenbrook. Watkins, John Leo, B.A. Cantab., m.a. Syd., University Club, Castlereagh-street ; p.r. 169 Avoca-street, Randwick. Watson, James Frederick, m.B., ch.m., ‘Midhurst,’ Woollahra. Watt, Robert Dickie, m.a., B.Sc, Professor of Agriculture in the University of Sydney. (President, 1925). Vice- President. ; Welch, Marcus Baldwin, B.sc., A.1.c., Economic Botanist, Tech- nological Museum. Wellish, Edward Montague, m.a., Associate-Professor in Math- ematics in the University of Sydney. Wenholz, Harold, B.sc.agr., Director of Plant Breeding, De- partment of Agriculture, Sydney. tWesley, W. H., London. Whibley, Harry Clement, 39 Moore-street, Leichhardt. {White, Charles Josiah, B.sc Lecturer in Chemistry, Teacher’s College. White, Harold Pogson, r.c.8., Assayer and Analyst, Depart- ment of Mines; p.r. ‘Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn. Whitehouse, Frank, B.v.sc, (Syd.), Hawkesbury Agricultural Agricultural College, Richmond,‘N.S.W. Wiesener, Frederick Abbey, M.B., ChM., D.o.ms., 143 Mac- quarie-street, Sydney. Willan, Thomas Lindsay, B.sc., c/o Alluvial Tin Malaya Ltd., Ho Hong Bank Bld., Market and Beach Streets, Penang, Straits Settlements. Williams, Harry, A.1.c.,c/o Whiddon Bros.’ Rosebery Lanolines Pty. Ltd., Arlington Mills, Botany. Williams, William John, 18 Bridge-street, Sydney. Wilson, Stanley Eric, ‘Chatham,’ James-street, Manly. Wood, Percy Moore, t.r.c.p. Lond., M.R.c.8. Eng., ‘ Redcliffe,’ Liverpool Road, Ashfield. Woolnough, Walter George, D.Sc, F.a@.s., ‘Callabonna,’ Park Avenue, Gordon. (President, 1926.) Wright, George, c/o Farmer & Company, Pitt-street. Wright, Gilbert, Lecturer and Demonstrator in Agricultural Chemistry in the University of Sydney. Yates, Guy Carrington, 184 Sussex-street. XX1, ‘Elected Honorary MEMBERS. Limited to Twenty. M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal. 1918 Chilton, Charles, M.A., D.Sc, M.B.,c.M., etc., Professor of Biology, Canterbury College, Christchurch, N.Z. 1914 Hill, James P., D.sc, F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, University College, London. 1908 Kennedy, Sir Alex. B. W., Kt., LL.D., D. Eng., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Engineering in University College, London, 17 Victoria-street, Westminster, London S.W. 1915 Maitland, Andrew Gibb, F.a.s., Government Geologist of Western Australia, ‘ Bon Accord,’ 2 Charles-street, South Perth, W.A. 3912 Martin, C. J., c.M.G., D.Sc, F.R.S., Director of the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, Chelsea Gardens, Chelsea Bridge Road, London, S.W. 1. 1928 Smith, Grafton Elliott, w.a., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P., Professor of Anatomy in the University College, London. 1900 | M | Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William Turner, K.c.M.G., C.1.E., M.A., LL.D., Se. D., F.R.8., The Ferns, Witcombe, Gloucester, England. 1915 Thomson, Sir J. J., O.M., D.Sc, F.R.S., Nobel Laureate, Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, England. 1921 Threlfall, Sir Richard, c.B.z., M.a., ¥.R.S., lately Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney, ‘Oakhurst, Church Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, England. 1922 Wilson, James T., m.B., ch.m. Hdin., ¥.R.8., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge, England. 381 Grange Road, Cambridge, England. OBITUARY 1929-30. Ordinary Members. Elected. Elected. 1915 Armit, Henry William 1880 McKinney, Hugh Giffin 1894 Balsille, George 1917 Ormsby, Irwin 1913 Bishop, Joseph Eldred. 1880 Palmer, Joseph 1876 Codrington, John Frederic 1909 Pigot, Edward Francis 1918 Elliott, Edward 1891 Poole, William 1896 Fairfax, Geoffrey E. 1918 White, Edmond Aunger 1884 Henson, Joshua Binnington Honorary Member and Clarke Medallist : 1894 Spencer, Walter Baldwin. Xxil, AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL. Established in memory of The Revd. WILLIAM BRANWHITE CLARKE, m.a., F.R.8., F.G.S., etc. Vice-President from 1866 to 1878. To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. The prefix * indicates the decease of the recipient. Awarded 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1895 1895 1896 1900 1901 1902 1903 1907 1909 1912 1914 1915 1917 1918 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1927 1928 1929 *Professor Sir Richard Owen, K.¢.B., F.R.S. *George Bentham, C.M.G., F.R.S. *Professor ‘l'hos. Huxley, F.R.s. *Professor F. M’Coy, F.R.s., F.G.S. *Professor James Dwight Dana, LL.D. *Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, k.c.M.¢., M.D., Ph.D., ¥.R.S., F.L.8. * Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.B.S., F.G.S. *Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, 0.M., @.¢.s.1.,¢.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,F.R.S. *Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p. *Sir James Hector, K.c.M.G., M.D, F.R.S. *Rev. Julian E. Tenison- Woods, F.G.8., F.L.S. *Robert Lewis John Ellery, ¥.R.s., F.R.A.S. *George Bennett, M.D., F.R.c.8. Eng., F.L.S., F.Z.S. *Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.s., F.G.S. Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, k.c.M.G., C.1.E.,M.A., LL.D.y Se, Des: F.R.S., F.L.S., late Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. *Professor Ralph Tate, F...s., F.G.8. *Robert Logan Jack, LU.D., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. *Robert Etheridge, Jnr. *The Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, 0.M.G., F.R.G.S. *Sir John Murray, K.c.8., LL.D., Se. D.,/FsR.S: *Edward John Eyre. *F,. Manson Bailey, c.M.G.. F.L.S. * Alfred William Howitt, D.sc., F.G.S. Walter Howchin, r.a.s., University of Adelaide. Dr. Walter E. Roth, B.a., Pomeroon River, British Guiana, South America. *W. H. Twelvetrees, F.G.s. A. Smith Woodward, uu.pD., F.R.s., Keeper of Geology, British Museum (Natural History) London. * Professor W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E., 0.M.G., D.S.0., B.A., D.Sc., F.R.8., F.G.S., The University, Sydney. Leonard Rodway, c.m.a., Honorary Government Botanist, Hobart, ~ Tasmania. *Joseph Edmund Carne, F.«-s. *Joseph James Fletcher, M.a., B.Se., Richard Thomas Baker, The Crescent, Cheltenham. *Sir W. Baldwin Spencer, K.c.M.G., M.A., D.Sc. F.B.S., National Museum, Melbourne. *Joseph Henry Maiden, 1.5.0., F.R.S., F.L.8., J.P. *Charles Hedley, F.u.s. Andrew Gibb Maitland, F.a.s., “Bon Accord,’ Melville Place, South Perth. Ernest C. Ardrews, B.A., F.G.S., Government Geologist, Depart- of Mines, Sydney. Ernest Willington Skeats, D.sc, A.R.¢.8., F.G.8S., University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria. Xx1. AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE. Money Prize of £25. Awarded. 1882 John Fraser, B.a.,West Maitland, for paper entitled ‘The Aborigines of New South Wales.’ 1882 Andrew Ross, m.p., Molong, for paper entitled ‘ Influence of the Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’ The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25. 1884 W.E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper entitled ‘Water supply in the Interior of New South Wales.’ 1886 S.H. Cox, F.a.s.,F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Tin deposits of New South Wales.’ 1887 Jonathan Seaver, ¥.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘Origin and mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated Minerals.’ 1888 Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.a.s., F.L.S., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.’ 1889 Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.m.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘ List of the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and Neighbourhood.’ 1889 Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper entitled ‘The Australian Aborigines.’ 1891 Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Micro- scopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’ 1892 Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper entitled ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has pro- duced upon Indigenous Vegetation.’ 1894 J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper entitled the ‘ Timbers of New South Wales.’ 1894 RK. H. Mathews, tu.s., Parramatta, for paper entitled ‘The Abori- ginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales.’ 1895 C. J. Martin, p.sc., u.B., F.R.S., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The physiological action of the venom of the Australian black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).’ 1896 Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of the Deposits in which they are found.’ AWARDS OF THE WALTER BURFITT PRIZE. MONEY AND MEDAL. Money Prize of £50. Established as the result of a generous gift to the Society by Dr. W. F. Burritt, B.A., M.B., Ch.M., B.Se., of Sydney. Awarded at intervals of three years to the worker in pure and applied science, resident in Australia or New Zealand, whose papers and other contributions published during the past three years are deemed of the highest scientific merit, account being taken only of investigations described for the first time, and carried out by the author mainly in these Dominions. Awarded 1929 Norman Dawson Royle, M.p., chm. e ee sie a fy 4 wt gO |), ) SLD SEE be and i es, PIOURN AL PROCEEDINGS 2 OF THE OF NEW SOUTH WALES t + celantintatdiinbeniidieineeisnase: treated toes 5 Table in Geological Mapping. By H. G. Ragaatt, BSc., and F. W. Booxsr, B.Sc. (With Plates ais I., and two ee text figures,) (Issued August 12th, 1929) ... knee ot : iv Aer IV.—The Celluloses of some Australian - Plants. By w. ne EP, ARNEMAN and J. C. Ear, D. Se Ph. D. Issued August . th, TOPS) Gis. i cel ~ : eS —An Extension of the Conception of the ‘Distribution = ~ Coefficient. By I. W. Wark, D.Sc., Ph.D. (communicated by _ (Prof. C. E. Fawsirt, D.Se., Ph.D.) Tee? November 5th, oA oe 1929. ) eee vee oe seo see ees eee ts ee Pi ‘Arr. VIL. —The Development of the Inflorescence of Avena sativa, Ts _ By A. R. Cattacuan, D.Phil., B.Sc., B.Se.Agr. (communi- cated by Prof. R. D. Wart, M. A., B.Sc.) le Movember = ‘ p20, TQ20) 0s. a ee Apr. ‘VIL. —The Occurrence of a number of varieties of Eucalyptus _ dives as determined by Chemical Analyses of the Essential — Oils. Part III. By A. R. Penroup, F,A.C.I., F.C.S., and _F..R. Morrison, A.A.C.I., F.C.S. (Issued December 12th, 1929) eke ties ue Sn =o Pak Sot sac ee “Arr. VIII.—The Testing of Lead Azide Detonators. “By 3. he _ Cresswick, A.A.C.1., F.C,S,. and 8. W. E. PARSONS, A. A. C. L,, - AS.T.C, (Issued Degomber 9th, 1929.) see ae a He: fae we" Tae action of Acids on DiataninoWsnpenae = ee) i i ee Haru, D.Se., Ph.D. (Issued December 9th, 1929.) ... 9... Awe. X.—Note on the Leaf Oil from Dacrydium Franklini, Hooker. ie By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.I., F.C.S., and J. L. Sn ‘D.Se., F.L.C., F.A.S.B. (Issued December 12th, 1929.) ART. ax: —The Essential Oils of Melaleuca decora aud M.,. veauan a —--var. Tenwifolia (De Candolle), from the Port Jackson District. * Part I. By A. BR. PENFOLD, F.A.C.1.. F.C.S., and F. BR. _ Morrison, A.A.C.I., F.C.S. (With Plates VII. -IX. y (Issued _ February 26th, 1930.) Le abe teas OEE ira Bey eee _ XIT.—Some Mechanical Properties of Australian Geowk- Pinus insignis *(P. radiata). Part II. By M. B. Wetca, _ BSc, ALC. (Issued February 26th, 1930.) . Sees Sate IIT.—Some Properties of Red Satinay, Suncare Hillii. By ] 4 _&B. Hee B. jean A. I. C. (With Plates. X-XI. ae (issued 000 eee tS PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS By W. Poo.ue, M.E., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.M., ete. Delivered to the Royal Society of New South Wales, May 1, 1929. During the past year the Society has maintained its activities and membership. The Imperial Geo-physical Experimental Survey is eondueting investigations in Australia in conjunction with the State Authorities and the Council of Industrial and Scientific Research. The object of these investigations is to ascertain if geo-physical methods of prospecting are applicable in Australia to make a mineral survey of the eountry. The fourth Pan-Pacific Conference is to hold its next Meeting in Java and the Australian delegation to the Con- ference has just left for Java. Mr. HE. C. Andrews was appointed leader of the Australian delegates. At the request of the Great Barrier Reef Committee, which was inaugurated in 1922 by the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, Queensland Branch, a well-equipped expedition was organised by the British Association for the Advancement of Science, to make a biological survey of the Great Barrier Reef. The expedition, which is under the leadership of Dr. C. N. Yonge, Balfour Student of the University of Cambridge, has now been at work for about ten months, and will conclude its operations in July next. ‘One of the primary objects of the expedition is to enquire into the conditions which govern the growth of coral and A—May 1, 1929. 2 W. POOLE. associated animals and plants, the nature and variation in the quantity of the plankton, minute organisms upon which: larger animals feed, and the salinity, temperature and other conditions of the sea water. The bottom fauna and flora is being examined and a representative collection of the animals and plants which live on and about the Reef’ is being made. Economic possibilties are also being inves- tigated and it is hoped that important results of scientific interest and also of practical utility will be achieved. The: members of the expedition are well qualified by training and experience in the laboratories of the Old World, and they have had the co-operation of a number of Australian workers, whose local knowledge has been, we hope, of considerable service, and who, on the other hand, have: gained valuable experience in up-to-date methods of marine: investigation. Recently Australia was visited by the Danish exploring vessel ‘‘Dana,’’ which is making a two years’ round-the-. globe trip for the purposes of oceanographical research. The scientific staff is headed by Dr. Johannes Schmidt, Director of the Carlesberg Laboratory, Copenhagen, a: zoologist and marine explorer of international reputation,,. who is perhaps best known as the world’s foremost student and authority on the natural history of the eel. The ‘‘Dana’’ will investigate the depths, temperatures, salini- ties, and the general physical and chemical characters of ocean waters, and collect samples of the animals and plants. which live in the sea. We may confidently expect that much new and useful knowledge will result from the researches of the Danish scientists, who have already done: so much to advance our knowledge of oceanography. The British Barrier Reef and the Danish Oceanographical Expeditions are strong reminders to the people of Aus- PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 tralia of the vast amount of research work that is overdue, in investigating the marine biological resources of the Australian tropical and temperate seas. The detail chart- ing of the great maze of reefs and channels of the Great Barrier Reef also should be pushed to completion. During the year I attended a meeting at the Sydney Observatory as one of the official visitors and was brought into close personal contact with the work being carried out at the Observatory. One of the most important factors in the solution of some of the immense problems confronting astronomers is a knowledge of any change in the positions of celestial bodies. It is not too much to say that were astronomers to-day in possession of exact knowledge as to the positions -of stars and nebulae made a thousand years ago, our knowledge of the extent and mechanics of our and other universes would be vastly greater. With a view to a very systematic measurement of the positions of the stars, and having also in view the fact of the then beginning-to-be- used photography in astronomical work, a conference of astronomers, representing all the civilised nations of the world, met at Paris in 1887. After much discussion, a plan was finally agreed upon. This plan involved the making of a Great Star Catalogue, from measures of photo- gsraphie plates. The sky was divided into zones, and a number of zones were allotted to the different National Observatories. The late Mr. H. C. Russell, who represented Victoria and New South Wales, accepted, on behalf of the Governments of these two States, the responsibility of making the photographs and the consequent measures of the plates in the zones that were allotted to the Observatory at Sydney and publishing the results. On Mr. Russell’s return to New South Wales, the Government acquiesced 4 W. POOLE. in all that he had done, and bound this country to this great National Convention in the carrying out of the work allotted to it. Further than this, Mr. Russell was author- ised to set to work at once on the work of the zones allotted to Sydney. Though the work has been carried on ever since by Mr. H. C. Russell, Professor W. E. Cooke, and Mr. J. Nangle, the work at Sydney has not yet been com- pleted. There have been many delays, which have not been very creditable to New South Wales. Some little time ago, the Government of the day decided to disestablish the Observatory. Fortunately, it was led to reconsider its decision, with the result that the Observatory is being carried on, but with a very much smaller staff. In addition to the routine work of con- ducting the time service and many other matters connected with the requirements of civil astronomy in the State, the Star Catalogue is being proceeded with. At the present rate I am informed it will be ten years before it is com- pleted. Besides the work of taking the photographs, measuring the plates, and the reductions of the measures, there is also the obligation to publish the results in ecata- logue form. In all, there will be 36 volumes of measures. Up to the present, six volumes have been published. The Government is strongly urged to continue with this work at the present rate, if not a little faster, and, further, to publish the observations. In doing this, it will not only be carrying out the contract which it made in the first instance, but will be doing a lot more, in that it will be making a contribution on behalf of this State to the accumulation of that general knowledge of facts which are so important towards the continued enlightenment and advancement of the human race. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5 UTILISATION OF THE WATER RESOURCES OF AUSTRALIA. The future progress of Australia will depend on closer rural settlement and the development of industrial, business and residential urban areas which will necessitate the proper utilisation of the water resources of the country to yield adequate supplies for domestic, urban and indus- trial centres, stock, intense cultivation and grazing, hydro- electric power, navigation, hydraulic sluicing, ete. RAINFALL. The souree of all water supples, including artesian water, is the rainfall. The rainfall in Australia varies in a most remarkable manner as to the average amount, percentage variation for wettest and driest years and periods of monthly distribution, heavy storms, intensity of downfall, evaporation, ete. The subject of the rainfall and the utilisation of its run-off in Australia is a wide subject; my remarks, excepting artesian water, will be con- fined to the State of New South Wales, but are in a general way applicable to the rest of Australia. The distribution of rainfall in New South Wales is included in the accompanying table, which is based on official publications. The table shows that there is a great range of average annual rainfalls ranging from very high on the coast, to very low in the far west of the State. Maximum or (a3 vdeo minimum ‘‘one year’’ rainfalls in any district have a very great proportional range above or below the average rain- fall. This range is greater than in most temperate climates. There are long periods ranging from seven to eleven years in various districts during which the rainfall may be continuously above the average, and from five to eleven years during which it may be continuously below the ‘90B[d LO JoIAYSIP Yove ot VE 0€ car 09-G6 = OST—0¢ © Gc-OT GG-Gé 6c-GL OV—-GE 0c-0T 09-06 O61 06-07 *jua0 Jad *yue0 ed “ye 10d AepT yYquou T ‘XB] ‘xe OF [[@jUIeA ASVIBAV OY} JO Son[VA osejUddIEed o1e ,,.yUed Jod,, Japun 68 L8 Lh GL-L9 98-82 L8-€8 98-68 8-08 VdSBIDAR MO[OG G = a = g G&L OT-9 Ist=all TI-8 OVI-0ET 6-9 GSI-66l oa O&T—-Oct Olss Gél-0el savwoX °*yuood z0d 9 9 9 9 9 | aes 90 6g 99T OV GT3 GV-GE G8I-SLT gg-cr O8T—-O9T 09-S¢ OLT-O9T 04-09 O9T—-OST 09-0¢ O8T-O0ST savoXx ‘quod aed *yuea0 az0d ICO K 189K “UTTAT “XBT VdIVIOAB DACGV GPT suolze4s [TV 19 9¢ GT-O1 Z-91 LE-¥E ZE-BZ OS-GE Soyoul uuYy ISBIOAY *(suanjzor [etoyjo uo poseq) SLINSAY TIVANIVY SUUIN[OD SNOIAeA dY,.—'2}0N EF Bsr ureyig pesiy eluvusey, ‘sdulidg ou], "foe = 3, uowduneusjooy "M'S’N “90144SIG U10}89/4 "M'S'N ‘SUIB[q U104S9 " "M'S'N ‘sedo[S usteqyss "M'S'N ‘Spueyorqey, " “M'S'N ‘SPoLystq [eyseop PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. tf ‘average. These periods of deficient rainfall usually contain ‘several successive years of severe drought. Close examina- tion of rainfall records during droughts show that not only are the total rainfalls low, but they are often made up of ‘small falls of rain of little or no value to vegetation, and ‘they are of such character that there is no run-off. There rare often long periods between heavy downpours which give useful run-offs from a catchment. The great rate of evaporation, usually much above the average in drought periods, materially increases the difficulties of securing an — amount of stored water, which will ensure a sufficiency of water supply during years of deficient rainfall. On the ‘other hand, there may occur single rainstorms which will fill the storage basins. The rainfall in the Coastal, Tableland and Western ‘Slopes Districts of New South Wales is, on the average, ample for appropriate agriculture, and in places where the soil is rich, also for intense grazing of stock. Drought years cause serious loss of crops and feed for stock, and emphasise the necessity of growing and conserving fodder for feeding stock—especially on intense grazing areas during periods of fodder deficiency. Irrigation can be applied with great advantage to intense culture, and for ‘growing fodder for intense grazing, even in districts where the normal rainfall is good. It is necessary in most localities to augment the ordinary ‘water supplies in creeks, ete., by conservation in tanks, ‘dams, ete., or by obtaining water from wells. In the Central Plains and in the Western District, the rainfall is light, in the southern Central areas is usually both sufficient in amount, and seasonable in time, for profit- able wheat growing. It is, however, necessary—at large ‘expense, except on the rivers—to conserve water on a 8 W. POOLE. liberal scale for stock purposes. Irrigation is necessary for intense culture, and under favourable conditions of soil gives excellent cultivation results, as at Yanco and other irrigation settlements. There is, on the average, a sufficiency of rainfall in the Western District to grow highly nutritious feed for light gerazing. The great losses of stock that have at times oc- curred during drought have been due, in most eases, to a. failure of conserved water, rather than to a failure of feed. The northern portions of the Central Plains and Western: Districts are in the Great Australian Artesian Basin area, in which, since there has been an adequate perennial supply of artesian water, the losses of stock have been mostly due to failure of feed. EVAPORATION. Spontaneous evaporation of water from open water sur- faces, soil and vegetation, is very large in this State, and is a serious factor affecting the run-off from catchment areas, storage of water, and the preservation of moisture: in the soil for vegetation. The variations of evaporation: in New South Wales are shown in the accompanying table, which is based on official returns: Maximum Districts. Average (approx.) in inches. day in inches. Year. December. June. December. June. Coastal” 4." su sw) .op-45 5-6 1.25-1.75 .4-.6 .20-3.5 Tablelands.. .... 35-50 5-7 1.0-1.75 .35-.6 .15-.20 Western Slopes .. 45-60 6-9 1.25-2.0 4-.7 .20-.25 Western Plains .. 55-65 8-10 1.75-2.5 .6-.8 .20-.30" West:..6 22 oi. 65280 9-12 2.0-3.0 .7-1.0 .22-.35» The average annual evaporation exceeds the average annual rainfall for the whole of the State, except in a narrow strip along the coast. It is only in such latter areas that there is any marked development of dense: vegetation or jungle growth. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. x The experiments carried out over many years by the late Mr. H. C. Russell, a late Government Astronomer, showed that the evaporation from bare and grassed sur- faces of saturated soil were respectively 80 and 102 per cent. of that from open water, which shows that water is rapidly evaporated from all saturated surfaces.* The temperature, velocity and relative humidity of the air have very marked influence on the rate of evaporation. During periods of very hot, dry winds, the evaporation,,. especially from wide shallow bodies of water, has been known to have a rate of evaporation exceeding an inch per day. There are great losses from evaporation and percolation from water in natural and artificial channels.. Careful gaugings of the rivers of the Murray-Darling System show that there is a marked and decreasing diminution of average flow at successive gauging stations: after passing the last of the foot hills. Take as an example the Lachlan River, where the last of the confluent streams. enter the river near Condobolin. The annual average flows. taken over many years at the gauging stations are pub- lished by the Water Conservation and Irrigation Com- mission, and from these data I have prepared the follow-. ing tabulated statement. Annual flow average Low years 1899 to 1910’ of all years. except 1900 and 1906. Acre feet % Acre feet Yo ara te... BOZ,I2T O22 178,700 82.7 Morbes .. .. .. 384,066 100.0 216,000 100.0 Condobolin .. .. 301,268 78.4 143,900 66.6. Euabalong .. .. 280,998 iee2 109,600 50.8: The average of all years contains the loss of water due to effluent streams as well as by direct and indirect * See Results of Rain, River and Evaporation Observations: made in New South Wales, by H. C. Russell, annual vols. 1885-1902. t Report of Commissioner for Water Conservation and. Irrigation, 1914. 10 W. POOLE. evaporation. The average of ten low years contains very little loss of effluent streams; the difference in flow between Forbes and Eubalong may be taken as roughly approxi- mating to the losses by evaporation. The average annual flow at Wilcannia on the Darling River is approximately 3,320,000 acre feet and at Menindie is 2,840,000 acre feet** or about 85% of the flow at the former station. The loss in flow between the two stations is closely approximate to the calculation of evaporation loss from an area equal to that of the river surface between the two places. The decreasing flow in our western rivers is accompanied by a decreasing area of cross section. The diminishing cross sections of the Macquarie River from Dubbo to Mount Harris are given in a paper which I wrote in 1898.* It is well known that water from artesian bores flows along drains to a markedly greater distance in winter than in summer, the difference in flow being due to the differ- ence in evaporation. The evaporation from stored water is so great, and the dry periods or droughts so long, that water should be stored in deep reservoirs, dams, excavated tanks, ete. The loss of water by evaporation from the wide, shallow Stephens Creek Reservoir near Broken Hill during hot, windy months was ten times that used in supplying the needs of Broken Hill. The more recent dam in the Umberumbica Creek is very much deeper, with a consequent lessening of the proportion of water lost due to evaporation. SUPPLY FROM SUBSURFACE GRAVEL AND SAND DEPposItTs. A very important and permanent source of supply is subsurface water contained in the deposits of gravel and eo ibid: *The Warren Weir, by W. Poole. Proceedings of Sydney University Engineering Society, 1898. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 11 ‘sand which underlie plains and extend laterally from river beds. The course of rivers may be divided into two main sections, viz., the upper, where the river bed is being cut down into the underlying strata; and the lower, in which the bed is being raised by material brought down from the upper portions. There are instances in which, owing to tectonic movements of the earth’s crust—e.g., on the Lower Murray River in South Australia—a section of a degrading Tiver course is interposed between aggrading lengths. The neutral point between the degrading and aggrading courses is usually well within the foot hills and gradually works up the stream. In some streams, especially on the coast, aggrading lengths and areas are relatively short and small. On the other hand, on the western rivers of this State, the aggrading courses may be very long. The vast alluvial plains of the Murray-Darling system of rivers are com- prised within the aggrading area. Many streams and rivers in their upper or degrading courses and all rivers in their lower aggrading courses, have extensive alluvial flood plains along the river banks. The plains are underlain by sands and gravels in direct and close communication with gravel in the beds of the river. ‘These lateral underlying gravel and sand beds contain water which stands at about the low water level of the river, but fluctuates to a lesser degree with the water level -of the stream. These bodies of underground water are utilised only to a very moderate degree. The water from these gravel beds may be regarded as filtered river water, and more extensive use of it should be made for domestic and stock ‘purposes, and for irrigation of limited areas. Rivers in their aggrading areas have built up extensive alluvial plains, and in doing so have meandered over the whole or most of these extensive areas. Though the surface 12 W. POOLE. may be of sandy loam to stiff clay, the beds of such rivers: are composed of boulders, gravel or sand, which gradually get smaller in lumps or grains as they are worked down stream. The river during its wanderings gradually raises: its bed, leaving layers of gravel and sand which are mostly in continuous connection with the existing river beds, though this connection may be, and often probably is,. very circuitous, the rest of the alluvial strata being sand clay and clays which have been laid down by flood water: above the ordinary low water river bed. These clay beds form impervious containers for the water bearing sand and gravel beds. When these beds are: pierced by wells or bores the water frequently rises to: a considerable height in the well or bore. These water bearing beds have been proved to exist over wide areas. They form pumping supplies which are receiving active and marked attention in some districts—e.g., the plains between the Castlereagh and Macquarie Rivers, where they are becoming the principal source of water supply for stock. The water from such sources, especially from the shallower ones, is of the surface well type. As these wells: do not overflow, they cannot be wastefully exhausted, and are therefore permanent supplies which may be expected to become somewhat better in quality as the underground stores of water are made to circulate by drawing upon them. There are fewer layers of water bearing sands in districts where the alluvial plains are being mainly built up by effluent streams from the river. Water supplies are: -here fewer and more difficult to find; nevertheless they are: of great importance—e.g., in that large area roughly bounded by the Murrumbidgee, Lachlan and Darling Rivers and the Willandra Creek. Many comparatively shallow non-artesian supplies have been found over very large areas, when putting down bores to the great deep- —) CO PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13 ‘seated artesian supply, but as the former did not come to the surface they were neglected. As the cost of deep artesian bores is great, and coupled with the gradually diminishing surface flows or cessation of flow, these com- paratively shallow supples must eventually receive more active attention and exploitation. There is little doubt that there are ample supplies of water for all stock pur- poses below the wide alluvial plains which constitute a large proportion of the area of this State. All that is necessary is to locate and obtain them. ARTESIAN SUPPLIES. The Great Artesian Basin of Australia is the largest known artesian basin in the world, and has an area of over 500,000 sq. miles, that is, about one-sixth of the area of Australia. It extends over an area in Queensland of 327,000 sq. miles, New South Wales 70,000 sq. miles, South Australia 102,000 sq. miles, and Central Australia about 18,000 sq. miles. The Great Artesian Basin has been of enormous value ‘to the above States by enabling an adequate and absolutely certain supply of water over an enormous area, where it would be very difficult to conserve water in ordinary ‘seasons, and which would otherwise, in great part, fail in periods of drought. The inestimable value of artesian water in the dry and poorly watered pastoral districts of the interior was early recognised and enormous sums of money have been spent in obtaining supplies from shallow to great depths. Much of the artesian water was, and is, used in a manner that is nothing short of useless wanton waste, as if the supply were inexhaustible. Many owners have strongly resented any efforts on the part of the Government of their State to regulate the uncontrolled flow of water from their bores. Governments, being political bodies influenced by public opinion, have been 14 W. POOLE. backward in adopting the recommendations of their responsible officers, who are keenly alive to the national danger of overdrawing upon the artesian water supplies. It is quite certain that the supply of water from this great basin is not unlimited in quantity. Investigations: carried out by the controlling water authority in each State show that both the water pressure and flow are decreasing over the whole basin. There are grave misgivings that the artesian flowing wells in large districts will cease to: overflow and become pumping supplies with an ever- increasing depth to the surface of the water. Many flowing wells have already ceased to flow. The supply in the artesian beds is replenished by water which enters along lengths of porous outcrops in Queensland, New South Wales and Central Australia. The friction of water in flowing through porous sand and gravel beds is so great as to reduce the velocity of flow to a very small amount— so small, in fact, as to cause the replenishing supply stream to be strictly hmited in quantity, even if the supply at the intake be exceedingly large and always available. There is little doubt that the total discharge of all bores greatly exceeds the replenishing supply. The progressive and increasing depletion of the artesian water supply is such a serious national matter that I shall freely quote and summarise figures and statements given in the reports of the Interstate Conferences on Artesian Water, which have been held during the past sixteen years. The report of the First Interstate Conference (1912) showed that in Queensland there were 785 flowing bores with a total flow of 517 million gallons per diem (mil-gal- day) and 329 wells from which were pumped about 10 mil-gal-day. In New South Wales there were 380 flowing wells giving a total flow of about 111 mil-gal-day, and 74 bores with pumping supplies. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15> The report of the. Second Conference (1914) showed that in New South Wales there was a general falling off in flow, and gives a table which shows that the decrease in flow is greatest during the earliest period of flow, and that the percentage of decrease lessens with increasing years. Queensland reported a general decrease in flow in 977 flowing bores. Bores which had been gauged for 15: years showed an average decrease of 40 per cent. of the aggregate flow, or an average decrease of 2.9 per cent. per annum. Pressure tests also showed a marked decrease. The report of the Third Conference (1921) showed that in Queensland there were 1236 flowing bores and that there was an average decrease in total supply of 2.07 to 2.27 per cent. in the south-western districts and 3 to 5 per eent. in the northern districts. The average reduction in water level in non-flowing bores was about 3 feet per annum. Bores that had ceased to flow numbered about 11 per cent. of the total originally flowing bores. Attention was drawn to the enormous waste of flowing water from privately owned uncontrolled bores. In New South Wales. 331 out of 381 flowing bores had been regularly gauged from 1914 to 1921 and showed a total decrease in flow of 22.29 per cent. for the period, or 3.18 per cent. per annum. The average reduction in water level in non- flowing wells was 2.60 feet per annum. The conference, referring to the portion of the Great Artesian Basin in South Australia, stated that :— ‘‘the future of the pastoral industry in this region depends upon the careful husbanding of the water resources stored beneath the surface. No surface supplies can be relied upon in the north-east of South Australia by reason of the low rainfall’’ (5 to 7 inches. per annum) ‘‘and great evaporation’’ (110 to 120 inches per annum), ‘‘and artesian supplies have an 16 W. POOLE. importance in this region that they do not possess in districts favoured with better climatic conditions. We therefore strongly recommend ... that effective means be taken to prevent waste.”’ The report of the Fourth Interstate Conference (1924) showed that in New South Wales about 9 per cent. of flowing bores had ceased to flow, and the decrease in water level in these bores was about 1.55 feet per annum. A number of bores were closed or partially closed at different times, with the result that the rate of decrease in discharge was in such cases to some extent arrested. The report of the Fifth Conference (1928) has not yet been published. I have been verbally informed that, inter alia, the following figures were supplied to the members of the Conference, viz—The total discharge of all bores in Queensland and New South Wales in 1912 was 627 mil- gal-day,* and was about 500 mil-gal-day in 1921, and had fallen to about 400 mil-gal-day in 1928.** There has thus been a decrease of 227 mil-gal-day in 16 years, equal to a total decrease of 36 per cent., or an average of 2.25 per cent. per annum. In 1912 the total artesian flow in Queensland and New South Wales was about equal to the summer flow of six rivers of the type of the Lachlan, Macquarie, Castlereagh, Namoi, Gwydir and MacIntyre Rivers and the falling off in flow has been equal to the loss of two such rivers. The great decrease in the flow of bores in artesian basins has also been closely investigated in America. For the North Dakota Artesian Basin— * See Report of First Interstate Conference on Artesian Water. ** Byrom E. C. Andrews, Government Geologist of New South ‘Wales. ' PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 17 “Gt was estimated in 1923 that in the east-west row of townships under special investigation the rate of discharge from the artesian wells averages close to 3000 gals. a minute in the 38 years since the first well was drilled in 1886. The rate of discharge was esti- mated to be nearly 10,000 gals. a minute during the period of peak of some period between 1905 and 1910, about 5,000 gals. a minute in 1915, about 2,000 gals. a minute in 1920... it was almost exactly 1,000 gals. a minute in 1923.’’*** This American investigation shows that the outflow has decreased to one-tenth of its maximum flow, and should of itself, quite apart from the investigations of the Interstate Conferences, show the great danger of failure or seriously diminished flowing supply in the Great Artesian Basin of Australia. It is customary to distribute the water from flowing bores by means of drains cut in the soil. The loss of water from these drains by percolation and evaporation is exceedingly great. Most of the water from flowing bores is consumed in this manner; the percentage actually used for stock and domestic purposes is very small. A much greater area of distribution, combined with a _ great economy of water, can be obtained by the use of pipes as has been necessary, highly effective, and economical in the rural water supplies of South Australia. Individual owners may soon be forced to such means of distribution and economy in use, especially when the overflow of the bores becomes very small, or ceases and becomes a pump- ing supply. All bores should be treated to prevent under- ground water losses, and so that they can be shut down effectively and with safety, to give a diminished flow. *** OQ. E. Mereiger re Compressibility and Elasticity of Artesian Aquifers—Economic Geology, Vol. XXIII., p. 269, 1928. B- May 1, 1929. 18 W. POOLE. The State authorities may, in the comparatively near future, be forced to compel such a distribution and ration- ing of a rapidly diminishing available supply of artesian water. The Great Artesian Basin is one of the greatest national assets possessed by the Commonwealth. The problems of its preservation and efficient utilisation are of the greatest national importance. Much has, and is, being done by the owner States, but more effective measures will be necessary in the near future to minimise waste and unprofitable use, if the artesian supply is to remain a great and effective national asset. STORAGE SITEs. The streams and rivers which flow east to the coast or west to the Murray and Darling Rivers have their sources in a series of tablelands which have, in most cases, been deeply dissected on their flanks. Most of the tributaries as well as the main rivers have one or more sites admirably formed and situated for large storage dams. Many of these sites have already been utilised—many works are under construction or are under serious consideration. For instance, confining my remarks to New South Wales, there are, on the coastal rivers, the Cataract, Avon, Cordeaux and Chichester high concrete dams and the Pros- pect earth dam in operation, the Nepean and Woniora high concrete dams are under construction, the George’s River concrete dam is approved for early construction, and the giant dam on the Warragamba River is under serious consideration. On the western streams are the Burrinjuck, Cotter and Umberumbica concrete dams and Stephens Creek earth dams in operation. On the Murray River there is the Hume Dam, the largest but one storage reservoir in the world, in an advanced stage of construc- tion, and on the Lachlan River the Wyangala Dam is in PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19 “the preliminary stages of construction. Besides these, ‘there are a large number of high thin-arch concrete dams ‘for country towns’ water supply. New South Wales is famous in the world for its great mumber of high concrete dams, built, in progress, or ‘shortly to be commenced. IMPOUNDING SCHEMES. It is rarely that irrigation schemes become financially ‘profitable before the whole scheme is in full operation, and many such schemes have had to be relieved of a large portion of their capital cost before they have become pay- able propositions. Irrigation settlements such as Mildura, Renmark, ‘Coomealla, ete., and many private irrigation properties pump direct from the Murray and other rivers, and are not financially burdened with the cost of providing expen- sive impounding and storage works. Even with the latter expense, they have become payable only with careful management. In the Burrinjuck-Yanco Irrigation Scheme, it was expected and intended that the irrigation settlement should meet the interest on the great cost of impounding and river regulation scheme, as well as the distribution, etce., scheme at the irrigation settlement. The scheme on this basis has been a distinct failure. The cost of the impound- ing works should not have been charged to the irrigation ‘settlement. The regulation of the river, however, has been a great benefit to riparian holders. It is difficult to outline any fair financial scheme whereby ‘such works as the Hume and Wyangala Dams can be made directly to pay working expenses and interest on capital cost. The interest on the cost of intake and distribution and working costs should be met by all irrigation settle- 20 W. POOLE. ments, but the cost of large impounding schemes (except for town water supphes), whether intended to supply one or more irrigation settlements, navigation, general settle- ments, ete., should be classed as national works, and be a general charge on the community, as is the case for the cost of improvement of bar harbours, roads and (as also in fact) for branch developmental railways, the benefit to the State being settlement and general prosperity. Unless this is done it is highly improbable that the vast national asset of the water in our rivers, especially in our inland rivers, can be beneficially and fully developed. WESTERN RIVERS AND EFFLUENT STREAMS. The rivers in the western slope of the Great Dividing Range flow past the last of the foot-hills out on to immense alluvial plains, where the main stream has numerous effluent. channels. Many of these effluent channels return to the main channel, but numerous streams do not, or only to a small extent, return to the main stream. Most of these effluent streams do not flow until the main stream is at least half-bank high. These effluent streams are a natural, though wasteful, means of usefully distributing water over very wide districts. Large storage schemes will have the effect, except in time of high flood, of regulating the flow in the river and lessening the frequency and amount of flow in the effluent streams. Large storage schemes should therefore be accompanied by appropriate works to regulate: she supphes to effluent channels. Town WATER SUPPLIES. More effective and efficient use must be made of catch- ment areas for town water supplies. Water from unpopu- lated or but thinly populated and strictly regulated areas. is advantageous, but such schemes may be unjustifiably expensive when the use of undoubtedly effective methods. of treating and purifying water for domestic consumption PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Oi may enable a cheaper and more certain supply to be adopted. Valuable land may also be saved for useful and needed settlement. The rapid increases in population in metropolitan and industrial areas may make it very difficult to get sufficient unpopulated catchment areas except at such great distances as to cause an unjustifiable cost of construction and operating. Colonel F. F. Longley, who came from the Rockefeller Institute, to advise the Commonwealth and State Govern- ments on the hygiene and sanitation of towns, remarked to me that too much reliance was placed, in Australia, on the purity of untreated water from unpopulated areas, that some of the untreated waters for our big cities con- tained too many bacteria, and that at times the typhoid rate was much too high, and probably connected with the domestic use of untreated and unpurified water. Most towns and cities in Britain, the Continent of Europe and the United States are forced to obtain their ‘water supplies from populated—often densely populated— catchment areas. Almost the whole of the water supplhes for the vast population of London are obtained from sources which, in Australia, would be considered highly polluted.: The water is treated by settlement and filtering to remove earthy turbidity and bacteria, and as supplied to the public is noted for its great purity and wholesomeness. The same remarks apply, with even greater force, to the water supphes of the towns and great cities which are built on many of the inland rivers of the United States of America. The treated effluent of the sewerage works of some cities must, perforce, run into streams which become the water supply for populations lower down stream, and for whom the only available water supply is the river. The water is treated for turbidity, bacteria, colour and odour Map W. POOLE. and the regulation of hardness. A very soft water, though very acceptable for washing and as boiler feed, is not so wholesome for drinking; it also allows a more rapid. corrosion of iron and steel pipes, and causes a secondary deterioration, in the pipes, of the quality of the water in: the pipes. 3 The results obtained from the working of the new supply and treatment scheme for the City of Rockhampton im Queensland, with the installation of which I was closely associated, show that highly successful and certain results. ean be obtained from a supply of a very varied character. The water is obtained from the Fitzroy River, which has: a lightly-populated catchment with a few towns of small — magnitude. During periods of low river the water has 2: low turbidity, high hardness, a distinct green colour,. frequently a distinctly weedy taste and smell, the general bacteria count is high, while the count of dangerous. bacteria, such as B. colt, may be unpleasantly high. During floods, the turbidity, during the first fresh after a long dry spell, may be as high as 7000, on Hazon’s scale, and. the hardness is low. No great difficulty has been experi- enced in supplying, with certainty under all varying conditions, a water of negligible turbidity, a regulated. hardness, good colour, and freedom from bacteria, weedy taste and smell. Such water is supplied to the newly reticulated areas and to the town reservoir, but the water passing through the old reticulation mains _ receives: secondary contamination from the deposits from the previous water supply. The total cost of treatment and. filtration, including salaries, labour, material, repairs and. interest on capital expenditure of the plant is less than. two-pence per 1000 gallons. The Nepean catchment area is reaching its maximum aver- age supply capacity, and it will be necessary, in the very near: PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 23 future, to augment the Sydney Water Supply from some other source. The catchment of the Wollondilly, Cox and Warragamba Rivers has been proposed, but strong objec- tion has been taken, in some quarters, to the fact that it is a polluted source, overlooking the fact that these waters are already the source of supply for the towns of Penrith, Richmond and Windsor. The grosser forms of pollution can be prevented by law and rigid inspection. The supply should be treated and filtered, but it may also be advisable to similarly treat the water from the other sources. 24 F. W. BOOKER. PRELIMINARY NOTE ON NEW SUBGENERA OF PRODUCTUS AND STROPHALOSIA FROM THE BRANXTON DISTRICT.* By F. W. Booker, B.Sc., Department of Mines, Sydney. (With Plates I-III.) (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, June 5, 1929.) The Specimens herein described were collected in the Branxton district during 1928 by a field party working under the direction of Mr. M. Morrison, Geological Sur- veyor, of which the author was a member. The specimens show so many new and remarkable char- acters that it was thought advisable to publish descriptions and figures immediately and to leave more detailed systematic work for a future paper. I am greatly indebted to Mr. W. 8. Dun, Paleontologist, Department of Mines, for his very valuable advice. I have also to thank Dr. C. Anderson, Director of the Australian Museum, and Mr. J. Kingsley for their valuable assistance. Genus—STROPHALOSIA, King, 1844. Subgenus—WyYNDHAMIA, Subgen. nov. Pl. L., figs. 1-5; Pl. IL, figs. 1-5; PL Uae Shell large, plano-convex and regularly spinose, with a median sinus on the pedicle valve. Hinge line nearly as long as the greatest width of the shell. A well marked area is developed in both valves. The ears are well de- veloped, flattened and usually without ornamentation. The [* Published by permission of the Minister for Mines. ] Journal Royal Society of N\S.W., Vol. LXIIL., 1929. Plate f. Figs 1 —-5— Wyndhamia dalwoodensis, Sp. nov. Figs. 6, 7—Strophalosia gerardi, King. “4 cir Res es PRODUCTUS AND STROPHALOSIA. 25 brachial valve is flat and sometimes very thick, particu- larly at the anterior margin. The hinge teeth are strong and well developed, fitting into deep sockets in the brachial valve. A long septum is developed in the brachial valve and extends anteriorly nearly two-thirds of the length of the valve. The cardinal process is strong and inclined. It is bifid anteriorly and quadrified posteriorly. (See Pl. II., fig. 5; Pl. III., figs. 4 and 6.) A specimen of Strophalosia geradi, King, from Jump-up Creek, where it crosses the boundary of Parishes of Belford and Ovingham, County of Northumberland, is figured for comparative purposes (PI. I., fig. 6, 7), and shows the remarkable resemblance of its cardinal process to that of Wyndhamia. The adductor muscle sears of the brachial valve are flabellate and cannot be differentiated into anterior and posterior elements. They are triangular in shape, with one side parallel to the septum, the apex directed posteriorly and the base raised considerably above the general level of the valve forming the blunt prominence common to most species of strophalosia. The brachial supports are directed postero-laterally from near the middle of the muscle scars and run sub-parallel to the shell margin to the antero-lateral margin, then curve sharply backwards, then inwards, but not meeting the median septum. (PI. L., figs. 3 and 4; Pl. II., fig. 4.) Type, Wyndhamia dalwoodensis, Sp. nov. Locality, Por. 147, Parish of Branxton, County of Northumberland. WYNDHAMIA DALWOODENSIS, Sp. nov. Pile fics.d-5- Ph LIL, figs. 0, 7. Shell moderately large and plano-convex, with beak in- curved. 26 F. W. BOOKER. The pedicle valve is covered with spines which seem to be more or less regularly arranged in concentric rows. The ears apparently do not bear spines, but are well de- fined and sometimes ornamented with a few ribs. The brachial valve is flat or slightly concave and generally thin. The hinge line is long, but not equal to the full width of the shell. There is an area in both valves (PI. I.,. fig. 5), and the teeth are strongly developed, fitting into. deep sockets in the brachial valve. (Pl. L., fig. 2.) The cardinal process strongly resembles that of Strophalosia,, being slightly inclined, bifid anteriorly and quadrified pos- teriorly. The adductor muscle sears in the brachial valve are flabellate and cannot be differentiated into anterior and posterior elements. The brachial supports are directed postero-laterally from near the middle of the adductor muscle scars and run sub-parallel to the shell margins to the antero-lateral margin, then curve sharply backwards. and then inwards, but do not meet the median septum. Locality, Por. 147, Parish of Branxton, County of North-: umberland. | WYNDHAMIA VALIDA, Sp. nov. Pl. IL. figs. 1-53-Pl Wt fies, 2 Shell larger generally than Wyndhamia dalwoodensis, plano-convex and spinose. The spines are larger, coarser and more sparse than those of Wyndhamia dalwoodensis. The shell is ornamented with a few faint ribs, mainly on the marginal slopes. A sinus can be seen on internal casts of the pedicle valve, but is largely obseured by the shell growth. The species may therefore be considered to be in a katagenetic con- dition. The hinge line is long, straight and nearly the full width of the shell, there is a well marked area in both valves, and the ears are well marked but without spines. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIIL,, 1929. Plate L1. Figs. 1 —5— Wyndhamia valida, Sp. nov, y Seite PRODUCTUS AND STROPHALOSIA. ey The brachial valve is flat or slightly concave, and in this. species is very thick in adult specimens. The teeth are exceptionally well developed and fit into deep sockets in the brachial valve. The septum of the brachial valve ex- tends anteriorly for nearly two-thirds the length of the valve. The cardinal process is very large and strong, some-. what inclined, bifid anteriorly and markedly quadrified moerenoriys (Pl. II1.,. fig..5; Pl..IL., figs. 4, 6.) The flabellate adductor muscle scars in the brachial valve are compact and cannot be differentiated into anterior and posterior elements. They are triangular in shape and practically identical with those of Wyndham dalwood- ensis. The brachial supports are also identical with those of the type Wyndhamua dalwoodensis. Locality, Por. 152, Parish of Branxton, County of North- umberland. The subgenus Wyndhamia has been erected for the re-: ception of shells resembling Strophalosia clarkei in outward appearance, but which have a well developed sinus in the pedicle valve, and which differ markedly from S. clarke and from Strophalosia generally in the internal characters: of the brachial valve. For the purpose of a preliminary paper it will be suf- ficient to compare the new subgenus with Strophalosia,. King, 1844, Aulosteges, von Helmerson, 1847, and Pro- ductus (Teniotherus) subquadratus, Morris, 1845. Wyndhamia is perhaps most nearly related to Stropha- losia clarkei, Eth. Fil., particularly in size and general contour of the shell. The ornamentation of Wyndhamia,. however, is decidedly coarser than that of St. clarkei, while 1 Etheridge, R., Junr., Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh,. Wells, Pi. 9, fig. 21, 1880. Specimen No. F2412, Mining Museum, Sydney. 28 F. W. BOOKER. internally the adductor muscle sears of the brachial valve of St. clarkei are distinctly differentiated into anterior and posterior elements, whereas those of Wyndhamia are un- differentiated. A deep sinus extending right to the umbo is characteristic of Wyndhamia, but Strophalosia generally is without a sinus, though St. excavata, Geinitz? has a sinus in the anterior part of the pedicle valve, and one of the specimens of St. clarket examined (F2412, Mining Museum, Sydney) also had a slight sinus in the anterior part of the pedicle valve. Ktheridge3 figures one specimen as Strophalosia clarket which will almost certainly need to be referred to Wynd- hamia. The form of the brachial supports of Wyndhamia is similar to that of Strophalosia jukesi4, but the distortion ‘Vol. 5, Pl. XIII, figs. 39-48, 1880. of St. gukesit is such that one is never likely to have dif- ficulty in separating the two. There is absolutely no sign of distortion of the pedicle valve of either species of Wyndhamia due to its having at some stage of its existence been attached to some foreign body. This last character is used by Clarke5 as a generic distinction between Strophalosia and Productella, Hall, 1847. The species under discussion, however, have little affinity with Productella, differing markedly from it in the characters of the cardinal process, teeth and muscular impressions. The brachial supports of Wyndhamia are 2 Waagen, W., Pal. Indica, Series XIII, vol. 1, p. 642, Pl. LRY, fig. 5, 1887. 3 Etheridge, R., Junr., Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, Vol. 5, F129; ie. 25, L880: 4Etheridge, R., Junr., Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, 5 Hall and Clarke, Palaeontology of New York, Vol. VIII, part 1, p. 3lonhseg7.: PRODUCTUS AND STROPHALOSIA. 29° strongly developed and very characteristic of the subgenus, while in Productella they are rarely retained ‘even if present. Aulosteges, von Helmerson, is characterised by a convex, spike-like deltidium covered with tubercules or spinules, and by the teeth being either rudimentary or absent. Wyndhamia, on the other hand, has strongly developed teeth and sockets. The deltidium was only observed in one specimen which it was impossible to figure, but it seemed to be small and triangular, not spike-like as in Aulosteges, and it showed no signs of spines or tubercules. King® was not disposed to regard the spinose condition of the deltidium as of generic value, but the differences in the teeth and deltidium are sufficient to definitely separate Wyndhamia from Aulosteges. Productus (Taemotherus) subquadratus, Morris, was de- seribed and figured by Etheridge in 18807 and 1892.8 In 1909 the species was redescribed and refigured by Ether- idge and Dun. They directed attention to the many eharacters which this species had in common with Aulos- teges, but did not consider it to differ sufficiently from Produectus to erect a new sub-genus or genus for its reception. In 1926 Whitehouse’ proposed the name Taenotherus sub-quidratus for the species, but did not describe or 6 King, W., The Permian Fossils of England, printed for the Palaeontographical Society, 1850, p. 94. 7 Etheridge, R., Junr., Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, Viol. 5, DP. 283. 8 — , Geology, Palaeontology, etc., of Queensland, p. ade, Fl. ao,figs. 7-10; Pl. 40, fig. 5. 9 Etheridge, R., Junr., and Dun, W. S., Records of the Geological Survey of New South Wales, Vol. VIII, part 4, p. 300, PI XLT, figs. 1-5. 10 Whitehouse, F. W., Trans. Aust. Ass. Adv. Science, Perth, T9276, p. 281. 30 F. W. BOOKER. figure his types. It will be noted that P. (Taeniotherus) subquadratus is much the larger of the two. An area in both valves and compact dendritic adductor muscle sears in the brachial valve are features common to both. They differ considerably, however, in the form of the brachial supports, and the cardinal process of Wyndhamia is typically strophalosoid, while that of P. (Taeniotherus) subquadratus closely resembles Productus proper. Wyndhamea must therefore be classed as one of the intermediate forms between Productus and Strophalosia and nearer to Strophalosia than Productus. Genus—Propuctus, Sowerby, 1812. Subgenus—BRANXTONIA, Subgen. nov. BRANXTONIA TYPICA, Sp. nov. Pl, I1.,.figs:-de3: Shell plano-convex and productoid in form. A _ well developed sinus is present in the pedicle valve. The hinge line is short and curved, and no ears are developed. The brachial valve is flat or slightly concave and no area is developed in either valve. Teeth are present, but are more or less rudimentary. The septum is very long and strongly developed and reaches nearly to the anterior margin of the shell. The cardinal process is somewhat inclined and bilobed posteriorly. The adductor muscle sears of the brachial valve are flabellate, compact, and not differentiated into anterior and posterior elements. They are triangular in shape, with one side parallel to the median septum, the apex directed posteriorly and the base raised considerably above the general level of the valve, forming a boss resembling that developed in the genus Strophalosia. The brachial ridges have their origin near the middle of the adductor scars and run sub-parallel to the margins of the shell to the antero-lateral edge, where they definitely terminate. (PI. III, fig. 1.) : Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.. Vol. LXIII , 1929. Plate 111. Figs. 1 - 3—Branzxtonia typica, Sp. nov. Figs. 4, 6,— Wyndhamia valida, Sp. nov. Figs. 5, 7,—Wyndhamia Dalwoodensis, Sp. nov. PRODUCTUS AND STROPHALOSIA. ol Type, BRANXTONIA TYPICA, Sp. nov. Locality, Portion 147, Parish of Branxton, County of Northumberland. This species is represented only by three internal casts, but the characters are so marked that one has no hesitation in erecting, tentatively at least, a new subgenus for its reception. The species is most nearly related to Productus, but differs from that genus in having dental eallosities developed, while the adductor sears of the brachial valve are remarkably like those of Wyndhamia. ‘The affinities of the species cannot be further discussed without material showing the external appearance of the shell; an attempt will, however, be made to obtain such material for description in a future paper. The two new subgenera described occur on the same horizon about 2,250 feet below the Muree Beds, in the _ Branxton Stage of the Upper Marine Series in the Hunter River District. The Branxton Beds and Muree Beds abound in productid types, a close examination of which may make it possible to divide these strata into zones of considerable stratigraphic value. 32 F. W. BOOKER. LIST OF PLATES. PLATE I. Fig. 1—Wyndhamia dalwoodensis. A damaged internal cast showing one ear, and spines penetrating the matrix. Fig. 2—. . . . An internal cast showing the deep impressions of the teeth. Figs. 3and4—. . . . An internal cast of the brachial valve, and a mould made from it to show the disposi- tion of the brachial supports, septum ete. Fig. 5.—. . . . A mould of the brachial valve and ‘part of the pedicle valve showing the area of both valves. Figs. 6 and 7.—Strophalosia gerard:. A brachial valve showing the cardinal process, area and internal Structures. PLATE II. Figs. 1-3.—Wyndhamia valida. A large specimen show- ing the shell structure and ornamentation. Fig. 4—. . . . Half of a brachial valve showing the brachial supports and muscle scar. Fig. 5—. . . . An enlarged view of the cardinal process and area, X 2. PAH. il, Figs. 1-3.—Branaxtonia typica. Three views of an internal cast. Figs. 4, 6—Wyndhamia valida. Two views of a brachial valve showing the cardinal process and_ brachial support. Fig. 5—Wyndhamia dalwoodensis. An internal cast of a young specimen showing the sinus and ears. Fig. 7—. . . . Mould of a brachial valve showing ornamentation. USE OF THE ANEROID BAROMETER. 33 NOTES ON THE USE OF THE ANEROID BAROMETER AND PLANE TABLE IN GEOLOGICAL MAPPING.* By H. G. Rageart, B.Sc. and F. W. Booker, B.Sc., Geological Survey, Department of Mines. (With Plates IV. to VI. and two Text Figures.) (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, June 5, 1929.) Since May, 1927, a modified form of the Barometric Method of Geological Surveying, described by Lahee,t has been used by the authors in the Singleton-Branxton area. The method has been used, chiefly, for the topographic work necessary for the preparation of a structure contour map of the area. The geology of most of the district had been previously worked out by the field party under Mr. Morrison, Geological Surveyor (of which the authors were members), but in certain areas geology and topography have been surveyed simultaneously. One of the objects of this paper is to give Lahee’s method wider notice in New South Wales, since it appears to be little known amongst local geologists. In its appli- cation by us, the method of correcting barometric readings, as suggested by Lahee, has been subject to very little modification, but its use in conjunction with the Plane Table for detailed mapping may be new, and in any ease, a description of such a method should prove of interest to geologists. * Published with the permission of the Under-Secretary for Mines. + Lahee, F. H.: “Economic Geology,” Vol. XV., 1920, pp. 150-169. Day, David T., and others: “Handbook of the Petro- leum Industry,” Vol. I, 1922, pp. 183-191. C—June 5, 1929. 34 H. G. RAGGATT AND F. W. BOOKER. UsrE or ANEROID BAROMETER. Aneroid barometers are looked upon as unreliable instruments by many geologists, because there are too many inferior ones in use, and because a systematic method of correction has not been universally applied to the results obtained by their use. There are in general four methods of checking baro- metric readings :— (1) By means of the barograph. (2) By observation of relative heights, instrumentally or otherwise. (3) By internal checks, such as taking several read- ings at the same station over a known interval of time. (4) By checking readings at points of known height, such as Trigonometrical stations and railway platforms. It is not proposed to discuss these in detail, but several comments are offered. The barograph may be useful in wide areas of fairly | uniform topography, but its results are misleading in a district like the Hunter Valley, which is bounded by high Carboniferous hills to the north, and to the south by an escarpment bordering a plateau approximately 2,000 feet above sea level. The graph traced by a barometer stationed | at Singleton is little or no use in correcting a set of read- ings obtained, say, at Broke or Dyrring. Hach of these places experiences thunderstorms in the summer which Singleton usually escapes. The second method is a decided aid in conjunction with Lahee’s scheme, since points clearly visible from stations at which aneroid readings are taken may be included in the map. Possible inflection points, on the variation curve, | | Ta ae Joaj JO MeIS |e USE OF THE ANEROID BAROMETER. 39 ‘may also be detected by examining the movement of the barometer while noting approximately the true relative differences in elevation between points on a traverse. It ‘sometimes happens, for instance, that the barometric reading may remain stationary during a period in which an obvious ascent has been made, or a rise may be shown between points which observation shows to be on the same level. Fig. 1. Types of curves drawn to illustrate the need for a reliable method of correcting readings of the aneroid barometer. Using the third method, the movement of the barometer may be checked by two or more readings at the same station over an interval of not less than twenty minutes,* by making an offset and returning through the station from which the offset was made, by closed traverses, and by passing through the same points twice or more during the same day. By the fourth method the barometer reading is checked against stations of known height, not only giving an indi- * While searching for fossils, for example. 36 H. G. RAGGATT AND F. W. BOOKER. cation of the movement of the instrument, but referring them to a fixed datum. The third and fourth methods are commonly used by geologists, and it is with the systematic and accurate application of these to the correction of readings of the aneroid barometer that Lahee’s method is chiefly concerned. The need for a reliable and systematic method of correcting readings of the aneroid barometer is shown by: the diversity in the form of the curves in Fig. 1. The curve A is fairly typical of a spring day in the Hunter Valley. B, C, D and E are curves obtained for four consecutive days in May, 1927. A thunderstorm occurred at 3.35 p.m. in D. It may be noticed that E represents approximately the average of the three preced- ing stages. These curves show that the results obtained on one day cannot be carried forward to the next without introducing appreciable error, and that the method of allowing so much per hour over the day’s readings would also lead to unreliable results. Columns 1, 2 and 3 in the following table give some of the results obtained in a traverse,* in the vicinity of Branxton, on the 28th August,. 1928. Column 4 gives the elevation of points of known height, one of which is obtained from another traverse. The curve to be used in correcting readings of the baro- meter is obtained by plotting elevations in feet as ordinates and times of abscissae. Using squared paper labelled as convenient a choice of origin will, of course, be made such that the curve will be conveniently situated on the graph paper. The station chosen as headquarters at the time of the traverse described * At this stage the method by which the traverse may have been made is not considered. USE OF THE ANEROID BAROMETER. 37 herein was made, is nearly the lowest point in the area. Consequently a point near the lower left hand corner of the squared paper was selected as origin. Barometer Known Corrected Station. Time. Reading. Heights. Readings. Base wy. We dies J}... 8.30 705 90 — Black Ck. Bridge .. 9.00 710 — 130 ome. eo... «=~ 915 790 — 175 eee os |. 91S 850 275 — lobe eee. 2, ; 9.20 760 — 185 RM a kw et, 9-20 850 — 275 Aeris 4. «9.00 810 — 235 ee ers -10520 760 — 185 Black Ck. Bridge .. 10.40 715 — 130 Overhead Bridge, Branxton 10.55 740 152 — Seeepml tear pete tice. 11.50 880 ca 255 Branxton R’lway Stn. 12.30 795 137 — eed etait! be.00 795 ~— 120 eee et. 5, 200 840 — 120 Ber Gort. c.2i..--.. 8.00 920 -— 190 steerer e se. 1.20 1005 — 275 PEN ee ee | OLED 970 — 245 PEO ai a casts.) o.00 945 — 220 Bete OG ee octet. «»». 4,00 1050 — 325 Pete e toy rc st.o. 410 1000 — 280 Mee. ess sa, 4:30 955 — 235 Meise Lo beds ss,» . 0.00 800 90 — Fixed points on the curve are obtained by plotting the algebraic difference between the aneroid readings in feet and the actual elevation of points of known height. Fixed points on the curve in Fig. 2 are A, B, C and D, repre- senting (705—90), (740—152), (795—137) and (800—90) respectively. (See columns 3 and 4.) 38 H. G. RAGGATT AND F. W. BOOKER. The trend of the curve between the fixed points is obtained by using lines known as guide lines. For in- stance, at station Br. 62, the barometer reading in feet rose from 795 at 12.50 to 840 at 2.00 pm. The guide line LM illustrates this. The points L1 and M1 on the correction curve correspond to the points L and M on the etide line. Obviously LM is not related to any horizontal datum. It is important to note that the curve is not necessarily parallel to the guide lines. The latter are drawn on the eraph simply for the convenience of reference, the only 700 Ssaasursssssvssnevasrasts ee eee eeeaeeenenn Hope tueecaistt : 4 -_ Hy aiteeiniesreseitoeeatidit seueegseceeceess(Jescesensicceace ane +h Benees See sernenaeneuce ae Fig. 2. Graph illustrating method of drawing a Correction Curve. essential relation between the two being that points on the correction curve lying on the same abscissae as the ends of the guide lines shall be similarly related in vertical difference. Thus K is the same height above G as K1 is above G1, but the curve nevertheless has an inflection point between G1 and K1 which is determined. by other data. Having drawn the curve, corrections are applied to the readings of the aneroid barometer as follows :—Note the time at which a given reading was taken and read. from the graph the ordinate (feet) of the point on the USE OF THE ANEROID BAROMETER. 39 curve for which the given time is the abscissae. Subtract this amount from the reading of the aneroid barometer at the given time, for the point in question, and the result is the required corrected height of the point in feet. For example, at 3.50 p.m. the barometer read 945 at station Br. 65. The ordinate of a point which has 3.50 as its abseissae is 725. The required figure is therefore 945 minus 725, that is, 220 feet. We have found the method to be quite as accurate as Lahee claims it to be. The following check was applied. Using the railway stations Branxton, Belford, Minim- bah, Whittingham and Singleton, and such trigonometri- cal stations as were available as fixed points, traverses were made, which crossed the Great Northern Railway at a number of places. The contours based on these traverses were then compared with the working section in the Railway Department, which gives a profile section along the permanent way. The result was highly satis- factory. In the parish of Belford contour lines drawn at intervals of fifty feet cross or come very close to the railway about seventeen times. In one place the error was twenty feet. In four other places the contours re- quired very slight modification. There were no other appreciable errors. The contours were drawn on a base map with a scale of one inch equal to twenty chains. It is evident that when the map is reduced to half this scale the errors mentioned will scarcely be reflected in the structure contours based upon them. PLANE TABLE TRAVERSING AND THE BAROMETRIC METHOD. The barometric method may be used in conjunction with any of the recognised methods of traversing. It is es- sential, however, that readings of the barometer should be systematically recorded, and be easily referable to stations 40 H. G. RAGGATT AND F. W. BOOKER. indicated on the map. For these reasons we have found the profile (Campbell) method and the tabulation method of recording observations unsatisfactory when used by themselves. We consider that there is not enough space available on each page of a field notebook, using either method. Further, in the topographic base map of a geo- logical survey, observations are best recorded permanently at the time they are made. The course of a stream plotted from prismatic compass traverses cannot possibly be as accurately traced as if it were indicated on a plane table in the field. The scheme adopted by us has been to combine plane table traversing with the tabulation method of note taking. This was possible because the greater portion of the area had been subdivided and cleared of thick forest. The area was also fairly well known to us before topographic work was commenced. The following is a brief description of the method. Two heliographs of each of the parish maps (scale, one inch equals twenty chains) over which work is to be done are obtained from the Department of Lands. One of each of these is cut into rectangles twelve inches by eight inches, each rectangle being mounted on linen which has pre- viously been covered with white paper. The mounting is done in such a way as to leave a white margin of about one inch around the map rectangle. These sheets are then ready for field work. (Plate IV.) The plane table used measured fourteen inches by twelve inches. This size was found to be quite large enough for use with a sight rule twelve inches long.* * One of the reasons why the “sight and pacing”? method as described below was used by us was that we could not expect to achieve accuracy by intersection and resection with the apparatus available. f\ Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIIL,, 1929. Plate LV. worm \_ SE OR et aen nar tue see on eal ssemor — eee, ai So nbosecs + UP se aa € v BBSsrigeyli thE gn ene ee ee xe peer 5 ns nt a“ ’ ‘ . Lue i ~ aS r+ 3 PE mek ; et ae oe De puS rg Sara! Wier ae es : f: — . USE OF THE ANEROID BAROMETER. 41 -The plane table is set up in the usual way at a known point, station number, aneroid reading and time noted in a field book (vide table, page 37), the station number marked on the map, and the topography sketched on the plane table. As work proceeds, geological notes are also made in a separate field book and referred to the station at which they are prepared. Station numbers are allotted consecutively, prefixed by the first letter or letters of the name of the parish in which the traverse is made. (For instance, B1, the first station in Belford; BR2, the second ‘station in Branxton.) This system makes for convenience of reference in drawing the correction curve subsequently. If the first station (or any subsequent station) is situated on a portion boundary fence, say, about half a mile long, which trends in such a way as to traverse a number of natural features, it may be followed, the plane table being set up at intervals and the topography sketched, using the alidade freely for intermediate points close to the traverse. If the station is not thus conveniently situated, a sight is taken in the usual way with the alidade and a line drawn on the map. Distances are measured by pacing, using an ordinary sheep tally for counting. Prior to the commencement of a traverse, a pencil line is drawn down the middle of the most convenient white margin surrounding the map rect- angle. The number ‘‘O’’’ is entered at the bottom of the left-hand of the two columns so formed, and at each sub- ‘sequent station the number shown by the tally entered in turn. The distance between stations is then given by a ‘series of subtractions, the results of which are entered at the right-hand column. If an error in plotting should occur there is thus a per- manent record of the distance between stations which will enable the error to be located. 42 H. G. RAGGATT AND F. W. BOOKER. A note may be added in reference to pacing and plotting generally. Many geologists count their paces, checking each hundred in some way with the fingers. They then convert paces to chains and plot the distance. It will be found easier, quicker and more accurate to use a sheep tally, or any other automatic counting device, depressing the lever at every second pace, and plotting the numbers. given by the instrument as units of distance. For instance, assuming pacing at the rate of 25 paces to the chain, using this method, and commencing from zero, the tally will show 50 at the end of four chains. Assume the scale of the map to be one inch equals twenty chains, i.e., one-tenth of an inch equals 25 units on the tally. It is much easier and quicker to plot the two-tenths directly than to convert 100 paces to chains first. The advantages will become: more apparent if a number which is not a multiple of five be selected. With a pacing error not exceeding four per cent., and. frequent checks at portion corners, the traverse should re- quire no correction. Hill features are shown by form lines, to assist in draw- ing the contours after the correction curves have been: applied to the barometer readings. Plate V shows a map rectangle as completed in the field.* After the aneroid readings have been corrected and the contour lines drawn on the field map, they are transferred. to the uncut office map. All the information required on the final map is also inked in and the map washed in dilute oxalic acid. This removes all stains caused by patches in the original tracing, names of portion holders’ acreages, and other marks or notes which not only are not * Except that the record of numbers on the white margim has been omitted. Plate V. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIII., 1929. —T ST =a) Wars 2 eM KSie e ai See pe on nape : as tuauanagers Fen, sw) gueck spyware > 4 Journal Royal Society of N.S.W, Vol. LXIIL., 1929, Plate VJ. Sr techs iy “. ‘ ‘ , " 5 a ix “ . 5 ‘ ; wi ‘ “ 4 1 £ a 7 er i r = a Ps 7 = > - t@ / r r yh . re A . 4 6) ie a : ' ’ ij Lt < i ‘ ,' > D ¥ pe alee AN reese a edeneen weetate yin tel at arm 1, * = TT USE OF THE ANEROID BAROMETER. 43: required on the final map, but which may obscure essentials: if allowed to remain. The result is a clear map with only such information as has been marked in Indian ink remaining. (Plate VI.) It has seemed to the authors desirable to keep this paper as short as possible. It is assumed that anyone reading these notes is familiar with the technique of geological surveying, but if not, the above information may be sup- plemented by reference to any one of the many publications on the subject. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate IV.—Facsimile of plane table sheet before commencement: of traverse. Plate V.—Facsimile of plane table sheet as completed in the field, ‘and with corrected heights of stations indicated. Traverse shown by broken lines, except where subdivision fences have been followed. Stations shown by circles, - numbered where aneroid readings were noted. Plate VI.—Facsimile of completed office map corresponding to plane table sheet in Plates IV. and V. NOTE.—Owing to overlapping of traverses on various sheets, it was not practicable to give the notes and corrections curves: corresponding to the plane table sheet illustrated. 44 W. G. ARNEMAN AND J. C. EARL. THE CELLULOSES OF SOME AUSTRALIAN PLANTS. By WriLu14AM GERHARD ARNEMAN and JOHN CAMPBELL EARL, D.Sc., Ph.D. {Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, June 5, 1929.) The opinion has been expressed (Heuser, Zeitschrift fiir angewandte Chemie, 1921, 34, 461) that celluloses from all sources are probably identical, and there is no doubt that the same view is widely held by other workers in the field of cellulose chemistry. The isolation of an abnormal cellulose from posidonia fibre, previously recorded by one of us (Journal of the Chemical Society, 1924, 125, 1322), appears to be irreconcilable with this view. Posidonia cellulose, prepared by the usual chlorination method from posidonia fibre, yields a triacetate having an optical rota- tion ([a]pD = —839.8°, in chloroform) nearly double that of cotton cellulose triacetate ([a]p = —22.3°). This ab- normality has been confirmed by numerous independent observations, control experiments on cotton cellulose with the same reagents being carried out in each ease. The unsupported evidence of the exceptional nature of posidonia fibre cellulose would hardly justify a refutation of the generally accepted view of the identity of celluloses from all sources. A search was undertaken, therefore, among a wide range of Australian plants, to ascertain whether any other exceptional cellulose could be discovered. CELLULOSES OF SOME AUSTRALIAN PLANTS. 45: ISOLATION OF CELLULOSES. The isolation of the cellulose from the plant material was. effected by the well-known chlorination method of Cross. and Bevan. The modification was introduced, however, of alcohol (ef. Cross and Bevan, J. Chem. Soc., 1889, 55, 205), instead of sodium sulphite solution, the extracting agent usually employed. If necessary, the chlorination and extraction were repeated until a pure white product was obtained. In the case of posidonia fibre, a preliminary treatment with 2 per cent. sulphuric acid was applied to remove the pentosans, which otherwise might partly survive the chlorination treatment (Earl, J. Chem. Soc., 1923, 123, 3223). The preliminary acid treatment was not employed in the case of posidonia leaves or any other of the fibrous materials examined. ACETYLATION. For this purpose the procedure devised by Barnett (J.. Soe. Chem. Ind. 1921, 40, 8T) was employed. The acetyl content of acetate prepared by this method corresponds: approximately to that of a cellulose triacetate (ef. Irvine: and Hirst, J. Chem. Soc. 1922, 121, 1588; Earl, J. Chem. Soe. 1924, 125, 1323). Individual determinations were not made in each case under review. The application of the method under somewhat varying conditions, although it might affect the acetyl content, has little effect on the: optical rotation. of the product, as the following results. obtained for cotton cellulose show :— Duration of heating. Maximum temperature. [a|p 1 hour Ome’: OG 2 hours (Oe eC BBE 3/3 [IY 2 hours ay A Oe Sy COMPARISON OF CELLULOSES. The celluloses examined were selected over as wide a range as possible, and included wood cellulose, celluloses. A6 W. G. ARNEMAN AND J. C. EARL. of water plants (some of which, in the absence of suitable material, could not be identified botanically), and finally the cellulose of the salt bush (Atriplex vesicarium), as exemplifying a cellulose formed under saline. conditions. The results are summarised in the following table :— Source of Cellulose. [a|p of acetate. (Posidonia fibre ~:] “ie —39.9° |Posidonia leaves... 9.5 923 —39.9° Water |Cymodocea sp. .. .. .. —22.0° Plants |Potamogeton sp. .. Se . optically inactive |Unknown (possibly Zostera Spe) eee ; —22,.2° (Doryphora sassafras .. .. ee iyigods lAraucaria Cunninghamii .. —22.6° ae Atriplex vesicarium .. .. —20.1° The conclusion to be drawn from the above results is that the accepted view of the identity of all celluloses must be viewed with suspicion if not entirely rejected. On the ‘other hand no explanation of the differences shown can be offered at present; work in this direction is proceeding. ‘The remarkable result recorded for Potamogeton is based on the examination of one sample only, and requires con- firmation and closer examination before its full bearing on the general cellulose problem can be determined. The author’s thanks are due to the former Curator (Mr. Hooper) and the Economic Botanist (Mr. M. B. Welch) of the Technological Museum for the supply of authentic ~wood specimens, and to Professor Osborn for supphes of ‘saltbush and for his kindness in identifying several of the plants examined. CONCEPTION OF THE DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT. 47 AN EXTENSION OF THE CONCEPTION OF THE DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT. By Ian Wiuuiam Wark, D.Sc., Pu.D. (Communicated by Professor C. E. Fawsitt, D.Sc., Ph.D.) (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, July 3, 1929.) It is the purpose of this communication to develop a general thermodynamic treatment of physico-chemical equilibria based upon an extended conception of the dis- tribution process. Initially relations for the change of distribution coefficient with pressure and temperature are deduced; in the sequel these are applied in a systematic manner to various types of equilibria in order to obtain relations showing the effect of changes in temperature or pressure on such equilibria. A generalised form of the elapeyron equation is deduced. The gain in the generality of treatment may be of help to the student of thermo- Clapeyron equation is deduced. The gain in the generality ciples of the Phase Rule. Throughout the paper, the notation of Lewis and Randall is employed, and, at the outset, the author would like to acknowledge his indebtedness to their treatise on thermo- dynamics* and also to van’t Hoff’s ‘‘Lectures on The- oretical and Physical Chemistry.’’ * Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Sub- stances (New York, 19238). 48 I. W. WARK. SECTION A.—VARIATION OF DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT WITH TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE. Let the component X be distributed between the two phases I and II such that its activities in these phases are [a], and [a,],, respectively. Then, if k be the distribution coefficient, ke — (aa [a | But (see Lewis and Randall (1.c¢.), p. 255) RY infal ly = Eo ea Peiasenenes,) (2) and RT In lasl= = Pee ae oe) where ip and me are the partial molal free energies of the component X in the two phases, and F° and lie the corresponding values for X in its standard state in each of the two phases. Since the phases are in equilibrium, F, =F, and sub- tracting Net i (2), we see that Rin ae dias saat ee een ee) Bes ate == | AN? 0, pore. ana ae teas) where AF°® is the gain in free energy in transferring one mol of X from its standard state in the phase I to that in phase II.* (a) Temperature Variations :— Differentiating equation 3 with epee to temperature, pressure being constant, Ce is ML ae asc (See Lewis and Randall, p. 178, for proof of this transformation. ) * Note the resemblance to the general equation for the equilibrium constant, RT In K = —AF®, (L. & R., p. 294). CONCEPTION OF THE DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT. 49 where AH is the gain in heat content characteristic of transferring one mol of X from its standard state in phase I to that in phase II. This equation is identical in form with the well-known van’t Hoff isochore. Applications of equation (4) are given in an appendix to this paper. (b) Pressure Variations :— Differentiating (3) with respect to pressure, temperature remaining constant, Be BE ot where AV is the change in partial molal volume upon transferring one mol of X from its standard state in phase I to that in phase II. (See L. and R., p. 204, for proof of this transformation. ) (c) Generalised Clausius-Clapeyron equation: Since k is a function of P and T alone, we have the relation | = egy alah ee 6T/In k ét /P ) egaaea b or substituting for the last two terms, from equations (4) amd (5) : = Reel él /In k tr AV This expression shows how the external pressure must be made to vary with the temperature if there is to be no variation in distribution coefficient, 1.e., for all practical purposes, if there is to be no change in the equilibrium. The relation is a generalised form of the Clausius-Clapeyron equation ; it applies for the ‘‘equilibrium constant’’ equally well. Physical and Chemical Equilibria. The similarity to the corresponding expressions for the chemical equilibrium constant, K, is not surprising. For D—July 3, 1929. » 50 I. W. WARK. thermodynamics takes no cognisance of the distinction, drawn for convenience, between ‘‘chemical’’ and ““pnhysical’’ changes. In fact it is possible to regard all ““ehemical’’ changes as cases of distribution and to derive the equilibrium conditions on this assumption. Thus in the closed system containing no components other than those indicated by the equation, CaCO; = CaO + CO:, we may regard the CO, as being distributed between the gaseous and the two solid phases, just as iodine is shared between water and carbon tetrachloride when a gaseous phase is also present. The dissociation of calcium carbonate is in accord with precisely the same laws as the iodine distribution. There is, however, one important distinction, namely, that the miscibilities of the phases are more restricted, being confined to certain narrow limits. Of course cases are known which cover all ranges of miscibility and it is the function of chemistry to investigate the causes of variations in miscibility, whereas, as pointed out above, thermodynamics is not concerned with the causes of solution, but merely with the phenomena which have been observed. Section B. -SysTemavic APPLICATION OF THE DEDUCTIONS OF SECTION A. I.—-QNE COMPONENT SYSTEMS. (a) Liquid-Vapour Systems. The component is regarded as distributed between the liquid and gaseous phases. aie where Bas | is the activity of the k= ae component in the vapour phase, ete. iqui But Big is taken as unity, i.e., the liquid is chosen as the standard state (L. and R., p. 256), and hence k= a or a liquid possesses a fixed vapour pressure. D.s —" CONCEPTION OF THE DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT. 51 ‘Temperature Changes.—By equation (4) of Section A, dln k asp rat avap.\ AH on ar Sener RT ‘AH being the molal heat of condensation. Now a ain is approximately equal to the vapour pressure, ‘p. Hence ‘dln p Seas, ap = pps (e/p. li and &.,,p: 185.) an expression which shows how the vapour pressure of a liquid varies with the temperature. (For the integration of this equation, see van’t Hoff’s lectures. ) Pressure Changes.—By equation (5) of Section A, aS a | as. as oat cand, as above, ig on ps AV Me reap. ieee as Cer — RT AV being the molal change of volume on condensation. (Cp. L. and R., p. 185, in which the volume of the liquid is neglected, with the result that V in their equation replaces AV in ours.) es : Olay py Jin AE ‘and further pv = RT where v is the molal volume in the dln p me al vapour phase, a Ip ince i op\ .. Ar (iit) 2.. 1.e, ane aay the usual approximation to the Clapeyron equation. ‘(b) Solid-Vapour Systems. The component is distributed between the two phases ‘such that k= a vap. & solid 52 I. W. WARK. In a manner precisely similar to the above, it may be shown that the relations (i), (11) and (iii) of sub-section (a) again apply. (In this case the solid state has been selected as the standard state. ) (c) Liquid-Solid Systems. As before, K = sell The liquid state being taken as. lia. standard, this becomes k = Agolia. Temperature Variations.—By ae tk Section A, (ln k k Be pcan “ce \ éT r)P aor), = ere This relation is of great use in ve determination of activity from freezing points (lL. and R. p. 282). Pressure Variations.—By equation (5), Section A, Sin k ln asotia AV PE eos spo | e showing how the activity of the solid phase varies with change of pressure. (AH and AV are the molal heat of fusion and the molal change of volume on fusion respectively.) | | : ‘(d) Solid-Solid Systems. In this case k = —-, where a, and a, refer to the a I activity of the component in the solid phases II and I respectively. Temperature Variations.—From the relation, oo dln k\ AH Gan (Pp RE transition at the temperature T and pressure P, we derive the relation rp ak aes if the activity of the component in the phase I be taken as unity at the temperature and- pressure considered. where AH is the molal heat of CONCEPTION OF THE DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT. 53 Pressure Vartations.—Likewise, A AV : aS ope where AV is the molecular Se ty Re? volume change at transition. Dependence of Transition Temperature wpon Pressure.— Binally — = Evy, showing how the transition temperature depends upon the pressure. From these equations it will be seen how the activity of one solid phase at any given temperature and pressure ean be calculated, from the data of transition at that temperature and pressure, in terms of another solid phase ‘as standard substance. In the preceding sub-sections it has been shown how to ealculate the activity of the solid phase from the data of fusion, and also that of the vapour phase from the data of vaporisation, both in terms of the activity of the liquid phase. Hence it is possible to estimate the values of the activity of a substance in any state in terms of some one standard state—an important practical point. II.—Two or MorE COMPONENT SYSTEMS. For a two component system there are two sets of equations to be considered—one set for each of the com- ponents. The partial molal quantities W.. Wes ba, His ete: replace the quantities V, H, ete. of the previous sections. ‘(Generally it will be necessary to consider the relations for one component only; those for the second component are exactly similar. For a three component system there is a third set of relations which are precisely similar to those for a two component system, and so on for a four com- ponent system, etc. 54 I. W. WARK. (a) Liquid-Vapour Systems. For component A, the distribution coefficient, (ai). ; ie = pea (a) Wn being the activity of component. A. Ge, a in the gaseous phase. Each of the components must be regarded as being shared between the liquid and gaseous. phases and consequently there is a second coefficient, (a2) Vay. k, = ——.**— for the component B, and anuneapenaine Mee) ag equations for C, D, ete. The activity of the components. in the liquid phase is no longer dependent only om temperature and pressure, but depends also on econcen- trations. ete dln k, Temperature Variations ——Now ar =p = eal where AH, is the partial molal heat of condensation of the: component A at the particular temperature, pressure, and. concentration under consideration. AH, RT? f If we restrict ourselves to constant composition* we may take the activity of the component A in the liquid phase as unity. (It is possible to find how this activity itself depends upon that of the pure liquid component A; hence we do not lose in generality by so choosing the standard.) é [In a Aa)ii | Uenccquenn? [ ” z le dln f, ree Hence or )p Oo = RT f, being the fugacity of the component A in the gaseous phase. : dln p, \ ewes : pu Or, approximately, cae PO TRE? Pi being the partial pressure of A. * Perschke (Z. anorg. u. allg. Chemie, 151, 126, 239) has: shown that k varies with concentration. CONCEPTION OF THE DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT. dD Pressure Variations—As before, we may take (Qi) as unity, whence approximately, din p,)\ eee ANG SPT Ae RT a relation which shows how the partial pressure of com- ponent A varies with the external pressure, the temperature and concentration, C being fixed. (b) Vapour-Solid Systems. The relationships are identical with those considered under (a). (c) Liquid-Liquid Systems. . dln(a dln (a) AH As in (a) [ ae ee re = RT where (a), and (a) a are the activities of the component A in the two liquid phases. For dilute solutions we may take (a,),, as beg approximately constant in the phase rich in A and regard (a,), as a measure of the solubility of Ain B. We thus arrive at the relation for a change in solubility with temperature of one liquid in another, namely “F z = ela’ SA Re A in the phase rich in B.* S: being the solubility of A similar relation is easily deduced to show the effect of pressure on solubility, viz. eae s per a *This equation breaks down if association occurs in one phase. If we retain (a), in place of s, the relation is, how- ever, still true, for the concentration in this case is not even approximately proportional to the activity but to some simple function of it. If the degree of association be known, the concentration can, of course, be approximately calculated from the activity. It should be remembered that thermodynamics takes no cognisance of the actual ‘state of any phase at all, and that its rigorous equations apply to activities or thermo- dynamic concentrations and not. to the ordinary stoichiometric concentrations. 06 I. W. WARK. Corollary.—At the critical solution temperature k,=k.=1. Consequently AV, = AV.= AH,= AH,= (d) Liquid-Solid Systems. Temperature Variations.— Cp = se , where (a cera : 6 & 9 = Gor In discussing this class of equilibrium, solid it is customary to regard the solid phase as consisting of one only of the components unless it has been specifically demonstrated that solid solutions may oceur. That the distribution law applies to cases where mixed erystals are formed has been shown by the work of van Bylert (Zeitschr. f. Phys. Chem. 8, 343), who showed that the amount of thiophene erystallising along with benzole (C.H.) is directly proportional to its concentration in the liquid phase, and that of Beckmann and Stock (l.c. 17, 120; 22, 609), who showed that the system iodine-benzole also conforms to it. Possibly all such equilibria belong to this class. (Rivett, The Phase Rule, London, 1923, p. 8; Taylor, J.C.S., 1924, 125, 1969.) Nevertheless it is of interest to consider for a moment the case in which the amount of the component B in the solid phase is zero or so small that it may be neglected. . d1n(a.).o1ia - O Then since oe = (Sin (ei) a él Pe ea Or, for dilute solutions, s being the ‘‘solubility’’ of A and AH its heat of solution, we derive the well-known : sd : olny... YAgED expression for the solubility of A in B, “Fh Go CONCEPTION OF THE DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT. 57 Corollary—Van’t Hoff’s Law of the Lowering of the Freezing Point. In lke manner we have for a dilute dln(ae), AG solution of B in A aa RT2 But (Lewis and Randall, p. 268) dln (az ) eae = din (a1) i: liq. Zz ‘where N, and N. are the molal fractions of A and B respectively in the liquid phase. Further, in dilute solutions, a, is approximately equal ; ae an 27 An N,\ of /P- RT N,\OT/P RYT? Now in dilute solutions, N. is approximately constant, and equal to unity, and AH, differs little from the heat of ‘fusion of pure B. Inverting, we thus arrive at van’t Hoff’s ' éT RYT2 ‘equation, BSN AHL ‘to N,. We thus have ~whence - Pressure Variations—Where the formation of solid ‘solutions may be neglected, and dilute solutions only are ‘dealt with, by a method of procedure similar to the above - dln s meee a's F it may be shown that Cp Tt > Rr where s is ‘the solubility of A in B and AV is the volume change -for A on solution. Corollary. oe to the van’t Hoff equation, RT AV; _AV, is approximately equal to the molecular fusion volume ‘the relation ec 3N, ep = may be deduced where ‘change of the solvent. Similar relations hold, of course, at the Boiling Point. 58 I. W. WARK. Solid-Solid Systems. Such systems are important in metallurgy, but as thermo-- dynamic equilibria are not often reached, it is doubtful. whether the general equations, (dln in) | ONE dln k, f ate VSrye © RI and (Sp JT > aa where k, = oe could often be applied. The latter 1 It formula is obviously of importance in any consideration. of the equilbria involved in the cooling of the earth’s crust, in which pressure variations have played an important role. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. The variation of distribution coefficient with temperature: and pressure has been investigated. Following this a general method of investigation of the effect of temperature: and pressure changes on any type of equilibrium has been developed in some detail. It is pointed out how the: distribution coefficient and equilibrium constant follow identical laws with temperature and pressure variations.. From this it is argued that ‘‘chemical’’ reactions differ: from physical only in that the miscibility range in com- pounds is restricted and corresponds to definite stoichio-. metric proportions. Compound formation is merely a. particular class of solution. It will perhaps be objected that what applies for compounds must also apply for atoms. The existence of isotopes seems to indicate that elements, like solutions and compounds, are of variable composition, though the- variations occur in fixed steps. Solubilities inside the atoms. are governed by quantum steps; is this a general characteristic of solubility ? The author wishes to express his thanks to Professor- C. E. Fawsitt, whose help and advice in connection with the presentation and publication of this paper have been. of great value. CONCEPTION OF THE DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT. 59° APPENDIX. CONFIRMATION AND APPLICATION OF fares (4), VIZ. :— Cm *)p ii aT System: Air <— Bromine —> Water. Sufficient data are available to test the equation on this system. Hantzsch and Vagt (Zeitsch ftir Phys. Chem. 1901, 38, 705) have determined the distribution coefficient of bromine between: air and water over the temperature range 0° to 60°. Their experimental figures are set out in the following d log k table, together with our calculations of and of aE AH = 4,579 T? a ne i=) Bromine is concentrated in the aqueous phase. Consequently, in writing biwinear =—— Br, in water, k (at 0°) = 63.15 ete. llogk | T k Chaar | AH ah dT 63.15 a 88 38 —0.0210 —7430 90 93 04 228 | 8660 30 15.31 UGS eae 40 10.70 Be Te aren ee 50 7 84. 135 | 6250 60 6.05 112 5920 Whence AH at 18° = —8,200 cals. The figures indicate that the experimental values of k are probably subject to considerable error, and therefore in estimating AH at 18° from the figures at 15° and 25° the error may be fairly considerable. Berthelot and Ogier (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., (5) 1884, 30, 410) have measured the latent heat of vaporisation of bromine at 18°. They found that ee lig.) == Br, Grap.), AH = 7,500.cals. ‘60 I. W. WARK. From these two sources, both for 18°C., viz.: Br, (vap.) in air == Br, in water, AH = —8,200 Br, (liq. ) =—— Bro i(@ape, AH = — 7,500 it follows that * Br, (liq.) == Br, in water, AH = —700 cals. The AH value for the last equation has been determined experimentally by two experimenters, who give the follow- ing results at 18°. | Thomsen (Ber. 18738, 6, 710) AH = —1080 eals. Pickering (J.C.S., 1888, 53, 865) AH = (—1500 eals.)? Pickering considered his own result doubtful, and placed greater weight on that of Thomsen. Without serious error we may therefore take AH to be —1,100 cals. for this action. This figure, which is an experimental one, agrees very well with that calculated above, viz., —700 cals. The ‘caleulated value involves use of the equation (4) and the lose agreement may therefore be regarded as a confirma- tion of this equation. Other Applications.—V ariations of AH with temperature are generally not so great as those of the above table. Hantzsch and Vagt cite figures for several other systems. From these, two have been selected as illustrative of general classes of distribution. System: Fe(CNS),; in ether ==Fe(CNS), in water. d log K sh ' k = AH emp qT 0 Race 0.0272 9,600 90 1814 261 9,900 30 3 303 260 | 10,600 25 4.39 234 9,800 * It is here assumed that AH = 0 for the action Br2 (vap.) in air =— Br. (vap.) air free. This is probably very close to the truth. AJ CONCEPTION OF THE DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT. or Here AH varies little with temperature. It follows that the temperature coefficients of the heats of solution in the two solvents are practically identical. System: HgCl, in toluene == HgCl, in water. Temp. k ore k | AH i a —0.0028 —990 20 11.40 —0.0007 960 30 11.20 | —0.0008 — 390 | 50 ae 195 +0.0001 50 eals. Here, the heat change in passing from one phase to the other is very small and the distribution coefficient changes. but little with temperature. Pree Energy Changes for the above Systems.—Though the value of AH is so small for the last system considered, AF (=—RT Ink) is rather greater. AF at 25° is set out for each of the above systems in the following table. Change k 25° AH AF Br2 in air =—Br, in water... .. .. .. ../19.17! —7,200; —1,750 Fe(CNS); in ether == Fe(CNS)s; in water| 2.60 10,600, —570 HgCl, in toluene == HgCl. in water ..|11.30| — 320) —1,430 The difference between AH and AF represents the amount of heat which, if the change be conducted under reversible conditions, is absorbed from or emitted to the surroundings. In the first system this difference of 5,450 cals. represents the amount of heat lost to the surroundings even when the transference of one mol of Br. from air to water is carried out reversibly. 62 ALLAN R. CALLAGHAN HE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INFLORESCENCE OF AVENA SATIVA, L.* By ALLAN R. CALLAGHAN, D.Phil., B.Sc., B.Sc.Agr. (Communicated by Professor R. D. Watt.) (With seven text-figures.) ‘(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Aug. 7, 1929.) Introduction. Very little investigational work of a detailed microscopie ‘nature has been done with oats, the greater importance of ‘wheat having eclipsed the other cereals, with perhaps the exception of barley, which, owing to its malting qualities, has received a great deal of study, especially in, connection with the grain. Cannon (2) made a very complete study of the development of the flower and embryo of Avena, fatua, but paid no special attention to the development of ‘the inflorescence as a whole. While a detailed description of the mature panicle of oats is deemed unnecessary, for the sake of completeness, ‘some reference must be made to those special features which have a definite morphological bearing on the developmental work that follows. The main axis or rachis of the inflorescence is a con- tinuation of the stem of the plant, and is normally straight or only slightly undulating. Each half whorl of branches arises from a node in the rachis similar to the nodes of * The morphological work included in this paper is a small section of a dissertation (Callaghan (1) ) presented at Oxford for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, and as yet unpublished. THE INFLORESCENCE OF AVENA SATIVA 63 ‘the lower unspecialised portions of the eulm. The branch- ing of the main axis is racemose, that of the side branches, -eymose. A scheme of branching is indicated in Figure (1), which according to Zade (11) was propounded by Fernekess (8). From this and from figures (6 and 7) it will be seen that 1 A hi 2 B ie } 2 eC ] D Sie 3 2 2 >> ; 4 3 65 E I 2 Ws J 4\ 4 F 3 2 O 6 5 5 . 6-—> 4 I Fig. 1. Scheme of the panicle branching. The primary branch of each node is marked 1, whilst secondary branches and branches of higher order are marked 2, 3, 4, etc., respectively. (After Fernekess.) only the one primary branch arises from each node, 1; this gives rise to two lateral branches, 2, each of which gives rise to branches of higher order, 3, 4, ete. The branching is more profuse at the base of the panicle, diminishing gradually in degree towarés its apex ; similarly 64 ALLAN R. CALLAGHAN the branches decrease in length from those of the lowest node, which are the longest, to those of higher origin on the rachis. The spikelet represents the unit of inflorescence and consists of a short axis, the rachilla, bearing one to four flowers, one, two, or three of which may develop, the upper flowers, or flower, remaining rudimentary and imperfect. In sharp contrast to one another are the equilateral, or spreading panicle, and the unilateral, or one-sided panicle. The branches of the latter remain almost erect and closely adpressed to the rachis, whilst twisted growth completes the apparent one-sidedness. Attention is drawn to the nature of the branching from the lowest node of the unilateral panicle. The branching from the first node of the rachis in this case is morpho- logically the same as in the equilateral panicle, but the secondary branching is delayed somewhat, so that variously long intervals occur between the node, or point of initial branching, and the actual point of isolation of the secondary branches, and in some instances a false node is the result. Denaiffe and Sirodot (4, loc. cit. p. 40) have described and figured abnormal nodes of unilateral panicles. Etheridge (5) and Marquand (10) regard the false node phenomenon as varietal, and both use it in their classifica- tions for purposes of distinguishing between certain varieties of Avena sativa orientalis. Figure (2) shows the nature of the branching from the first node of various forms. A represents that of an equilateral panicle showing the branches isolated at a level corresponding to that of the ‘‘collar’’. B is of the uni- lateral type, and in this there is a short interval between the level of the ‘‘collar’’ and the actual point of isolation . 65 THE INFLORESCENCE OF AVENA SATIVA various suture ’ he lowest node 3s and HE, A, that of an equilateral panicle; B,C, D, Showing variations in the manner of branching from t of the rachis. forms of the unilateral Panicle , c, ‘“‘collar”’ or vestigal bract x3. E—August 7, 1929. 66 - ALLAN R. CALLAGHAN of the branches. In the abnormal unilateral forms, the condition shown in B is extenuated still further, and the branches are consolidated for some distance above the actual node, not only with themselves, but together with the rachis. The false node thus formed is illustrated in C, D, and E of figure (2). The faint suture there shown is usually quite distinct along the rachis, between the false node and the true node below. Intermediate expressions are commonly met with in the same variety. The nature of the ‘‘collar’’ is similarly very variable. In D the latter extends from the level of the node to the point of isolation of the branches; in C it is only partially extended in this way; while in EH, it is not extended but remains near the node, as in the normal panicle. This ““eollar’’ is present in all oat inflorescences, and in the equilateral panicles of two recently evolved Australian varieties, (Boppy and Kiah), it has been observed as a distinct bract extended into a leaf-like flange. Developmental Phases. Several very important changes take place in the develop- ment of the plant between the time of the unfolding of the first foliage leaf and that of the fifth. Briefly these may be stated as, (1) the initiation of adventitious root development, (2) the beginning of internode elongation, resulting in the so-called ‘‘shooting’’ of the stems, (3) the establishment of tiller buds in the axils of the coleoptile and of the first three or four leaves, and (4) differentiation of the inflorescence primordium at the apex of the primary shoot. The first three of these important changes develop simultaneously, but the rudiments of the inflorescence do not appear until the tillering process is under way, and after its origination no further leaf rudiments appear, and all the tillering buds that are to be formed as direct off- shoots of the main axis are already differentiated. a ‘THE INFLORESCENCE OF AVENA SATIVA Fig. 3. Diagram to show the state of development of the young plant at the close of the fourth leaf-stage. The main axis is represented by 1 and successive leaves of that axis, commencing with the coleoptile, as 4, 2 etc.jand the shoots as 11, 12etc. +r at , roots, and p, rudiments of the in- florescence. 12. 67 668 ALLAN R. CALLAGHAN It is evident, therefore, that the rudiments of the mature plant, excepting accidents,* are established by about the time of the unfolding of the fifth leaf, those of the main axis by the commencement of the fourth leaf-stage, and Fig. 4. To show the relation and orientation of the leaves and axes of the young plant. Indications the same as in figure 3. subsequent growth is concerned with the development of the inflorescences and the elongation of the internodes of both main and lateral axes, the latter synchronizing for the most part with the unfolding of the successive leaves of the plant. * Accidents to the plant such as fungus or insect attack, or destruction by grazing animals. hi _— THE INFLORESCENCE OF AVENA SATIVA cy \ / ie Fig. 5. Median longitudinal sections of the developing inflorescence. A, at tthe close of third leaf stage; B. fourth leaf stage; C, fifth leaf stage ; D and H, sixth leaf stage, and F, close of sixth leaf stage. c, and c,, collar or vertigial bract of lowest and second lowest node of the rachis. X83. 69 lad 70 ALLAN R. CALLAGHAN The state of development of the young plant at the close- of the fourth leaf-stage, when the folded tip of the fifth leaf is Just peeping, is represented diagrammatically in figure 3, and the relation and orientation of the axes and leaves is. shown in figure 4. Development of the Inflorescence. The foregoing remarks make it clear that the develop- ment of the inflorescence commences very early in the life: of the plant after all the leaf rudiments have formed. The first signs of development are evident at the close of the third leaf-stage (see figure 5, A). Two low, primary ridges of tissue, similar in origin and continuing the alternate arrangement of the foliage leaves, make their appearance around the periphery, and at the base of the merismatic apex (figure 5, ec, and ¢2 of all drawings). These flanges mark the positions of the first and second nodes of the rachis, and they persist as vestigial structures in the mature inflorescence, referred to oe previously as the ‘‘collars’’. The meristem above these nodes then elongates and at the same time bulges of tissue originate throughout its length (see figure 5, E), each extending partially around the primordium. These subsequently develop into the branches of the higher nodes. Thus in the eighth drawing of figure 6, the initial of branch a, is accompanied by the: alternate branch b at a lower level on the rachis, re- presented in sections 7 and 6; and similarly down the rachis (Az) the alternate branches d, e, and f originate in: that sequence, as the remaining sections of figure 6 show. For some time the chief development of the inflorescence: is concerned with the higher-placed branches, followed later: by an elongation of the internode between the lower nodes, and branching from the axils of the vestigial bracts. i\ THE INFLORESCENCE OF AVENA SATIVA 71 Successive stages in the development are shown in the drawing of figure 5, representing median longitudinal sections of the developing inflorescence. The leaf-stage is recorded in each case by way of correlating vegetative development with that of the inflorescence. By reference to figure 5, it is evident that until the sixth leaf of the Fig. 6. Series of transverse sections through a developing inflorescence, of the same stage as E of figure 4. The main axis is represented as Ax, and the successive series of branches as a,b, c,d, e and /, respectively. ts represents the terminal spikelet. x 74. axis has unfolded no very marked advance is made in inflorescence growth. During the sixth leaf-stage, however, the full complement of branch primordia are established, the last of which to appear being that from the axis of the lower flange or vestigial bract. This phase may be followed by reference to the transverse sections of figure 6, 72. ALLAN R, CALLAGHAN where the lowest branch primordium is represented as a bulge of tissue, f, in the axis of the vestigial bract c; whilst in alternate arrangement with the latter, the next lowest branch e, in the axis of a second vestigial bract cz, has already reached the stage of rebranching, as the two portions marked e in the third drawing of the same figure indicate. Further progress in the growth and rebranching of the lower branches f and e are traced in the successive drawings of figure 7. These drawings are transverse representatives of the median longitudinal section shown in figure 5, F. Each branch primordium that arises undergoes rapid elongation accompanied by a similar growth in length of the rachis between them. Spikelet primordia develop at the apex of each branch, whilst others arise sympodially along the axis of the branches. The spikelet terminating the rachis is the first of the panicle to develop. Spikelet development, however, does not come within the province of this paper. Figure 6 shows a series of transverse sections through a developing inflorescence at the same stage as that depicted longitudinally in figure 5, E, and in this, marked ts, the first evidence of spikelet formation at the apex of the rachis is shown. Further, it will be seen that although the terminal spikelet is at this advanced state of develop- ment, branching has only just begun at the lowest node. This figure also shows the regular alternate manner of branching throughout the inflorescence. SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIPS. The early stages above described, during which the foundations of the plants’ yielding capabilities are being laid down in the form of inflorescence and _ spikelet primordia, mark the first, and probably the most important, eritical period of its existence. It is during this period THE INFLORESCENCE OF AVENA SATIVA 79 that the plant decides, as it were, on the production possible, from the cultural material available. The phenomenon described by practical workers with oats as ‘‘bolting’’, results in very poor panicle develop- Fig. 7. Series of transverse sections through the two lowest nodes of the rachis of an inflorescence at the same stage of development as F in figure 4. The indications are the same as those in figure 6. Note the spikelets of f in various stages of development. x 78. ment. Two papers by Ellictt (6, 7) deal with the specific problem of Oat Blast and Sterility in Oats; in these the fact is established that these lesions are non-pathogenic, and that they are most probably of a physiological nature. 74 ALLAN R. CALLAGHAN ‘“Bolting’’ differs to some extent from Oat Blast described by Elliott (6, 7), in that many sterile spikelets may appear on otherwise fully developed panicles; nevertheless, the conditions seem to be related in certain cases. Oat Blast,, as Elhott (6, 7) points out, is probably controlled by weather conditions at the time of panicle exsertion. This. latter period is without doubt the second crucial stage in the life of the plant, and cultural conditions then materially affect the ultimate yield of each inflorescence. In plants that have ‘‘bolted’’ the two lower nodes, or even more, fail to develop branches, and the panicle may only produce five to ten spikelets, or as occasionally happens, only the terminal spikelet. The conditions of culture as controlled by soil and weather, and the time of sowing are intimately connected with the development of the panicle. If the equilibrium of growth is interfered with at the time of development of inflorescence primordia, shooting of the culms may progress rapidly following on more favourable conditions, allowing only time for the: establishment of the upper branches and spikelets of the panicle. In all cases of poorly developed panicles, however, the two vestigial bracts demarking the lower nodes of the inflorescence are clearly defined; this is to be expected. from the order of development of the inflorescence parts. It is suggested that the recently evolved science of photoperiodicity may have a significant bearing on the above probiem, for late sowings appear to result in a higher percentage of bolters, or panicles bearing sterile spikelets.. The length of day may determine the phase of rapid growth. that results in reproduction at a time when the plant is physiologically unprepared. From figure 3, it will be seen that prior to the elongation. of the internodes, the inflorescence and four or five of the: higher internodes are crowded together at the apex of each. THE INFLORESCENCE OF AVENA SATIVA > stem. It is at this stage (i.e., the fourth or fifth leaf-stage) according to Cunliffe, Fryer and Gibson (3) that the plant is most liable to Frit Fly attack. From the foregoing developmental description several reasons for the notice- ably high mortality of plants at this specific stage present themselves. (1) The three or four highest nodes of the plant are crowded together and surmounted by the developing in- florescence, as yet very small, thus the larva passing down between the folded leaves and leaf-sheaths at this stage is very soon brought into contact with the most actively- growing regions of the plant, and is more liable to destroy the shoot while the inflorescence is so small and accessible. (2) The concentration of sugars in the region of the developing inflorescence and the unelongated internodes is probably at its highest during the life of the plant at this period prior to active elongation of the stems and panicle: formation. (3) As the larva is small, a certain amount of leverage gained from the tightly folded young leaves and leaf- sheaths at this stage may facilitate its entry, and at the same time direct it to the growing apex of the plant. The first of these points must, it seems, have a significant. influence upon the mortality of the plants. Once the inter- nodes commence to elongate, the nodes become more widely separated and the inflorescence is carried higher, thus the chance of the plant surviving an attack should increase accordingly. Further, there is a decided strengthening and thickening of the stem and leaf-sheath tissues after the: initial elongation of each internode. 1. Frit Fly (Oscinella frit) fortunately is unknown in Aus- tralia, but in Great Britain and Europe generally, it is by far the most troublesome and destructive pest attacking oats. 76 ALLAN R. CALLAGHAN From observations and measurements of the internodes of two widely different varieties up to the fifth-leaf stage, little difference in the rate of internode growth was observed, though the varieties showed constant differences in internode length. Whether there is a varietal difference between the rate of internode growth after the fifth leaf- ‘stage, which is the critical period from the point of view of Frit Fly attack, remains undecided, but it is a point worthy of careful study. Differences in such rate jof elongation may have some bearing upon the higher susceptibility of some varieties over others. The most lhkely reason, however, for the extreme sus- eceptibility of the plant at the fourth and fifth leaf-stages, is that concerned with the nature of the cell sap at that period. Should the concentration of sugars be the con- trolling factor in attack, it becomes a difficult and well- nigh impossible task to find an index to explain the comparative resistance of certain varieties. Recently Finnell (9) published data indicating different results from the grazing of wheat at various stages in its early growth. Oats now take their place as a grazing proposition in Australia and undoubtedly the correct time to graze is of basic importance. It is suggested that the latter problem is closely concerned with the development of the inflorescence. From Finnell’s (9) work with wheat it seems that his remarks may be equally true for oats, 1e., ‘‘that while sound plants are reduced in total production by late grazing, their response in numbers of replacement shoots formed is in respect to the degree of partial or entire replacement required.’’ Late grazing, and the consequent complete destruction of already differentiated panicles, necessitating complete THE INFLORESCENCE OF AVENA SATIVA (we replacement by the growth of secondary tillers, appears to have a doubtful advantage over an early grazing, whereby a high percentage of initiated panicles may escape destruction, and only partial replacement be necessitated. SUMMARY. 1. A relative description of the mature inflorescence is given, special attention being paid to the false node of some unilateral panicles. 2. Growth phases synchronising with inflorescence de- velopment are briefly related. 3. The development of the inflorescence, as studied in the variety Abundance, of the species Avena sativa, L., is described and figured. 4. The following problems appear to be significantly related to the development of the inflorescence :— (a) The phenomenon known as ‘‘bolting’’ in oats. (b) Frit Fly attack. (c) The correct time to graze a young crop of oats. LITERATURE CITED. 1. CALLAGHAN, A. R. A Morphological and Physiological Study 192820: the-Oat Plant. . (In abstract.) Absts. of Dissertations for Deg. of D.Phil. (Oxon.). Vol. 1, pp. 140-44. _ 2. CANNON, W. A. A Morphological Study of the Flower and 1900. Embryo of A. fatua. roc Cale Acad, Sc.) series. 3, Vol. tl, Nor 10; pp: 329-64. oe CUNEDEREE: IN. FRYER, J. C. F., and GIBSON,.G: V. Studies 1925. on Oscinella frit. The Correlation between Stage of Growth of Stems and Susceptibility to Infestation. Ann. App. Biol., Vol. 12, pp. 516-26. PDN AIE PE OC. and H., and SIRODOT, E. L’Avoine. 1927. 2nd Edit., pp. 554, illus. Carignan (Ardennes). Stee RIDGE, W. C.—A (Classification of the Varieties of 1916. Cultivated Oats. Corn. Univ. Agr. Exp. Stat., Mem. 10, pp. 172. 48 ALLAN R, CALLAGHAN 6: ELLIOTT, €C... Sterility in, @ats: 1922. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bull. No. 1058, pp. 8. PRELINOT EC. Oats ailast 1925. Phytopath., Vol. 15, No. 9, pp. 564-67. 8. FERNEKESS, K. Die Haferrispe nach Aufbau und Verteilung 1908. der Kornqualitaten. Dissert., Munchen, l.c., p. 7. (See ZADE, “Der Hater -VWeo pp. 58-9.) 9, FINNELL, H. H. Relations of Grazing to Wheat Smut and 1929. Tillering. Jour. Am. Soc. Agrn., Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 367-74. 10. MARQUAND, C. V. B. Varieties of Oats in Cultivation. 1922 Welsh Pl. Br. Stat., Bull., Series C, No. 2, pp. 42. 11. ZADE, A. Der Hafer, eine Monographie auf wissenschaft- 1918. lischer und praktischer Grundlage. Pp. 355, illus. Jena. VARIETIES OF EUCALYPTUS DIVES. 79 THE OCCURRENCE OF A NUMBER OF VARIETIES ‘OF EUCALYPTUS DIVES AS DETERMINED BY ‘CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF THE ESSENTIAL OILS. PARTE TI. iByA. RK. RPENFOLD, ,A.A.C4., E-C.S., Curator and Economic Chenust, and FE’. R. Morrison, F.A.C.I., F.C.S., Assistant Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney. (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 4th Sept., 1929.) In our Part I. Paper on this subject (this Journal, Vol. LXI., page 57), reference was made to the so called Vic- torian type of Eucalyptus dives, described therein as E. dives var. ‘‘A.’’ Our first-hand knowledge of this form of Hucalyptus dives was confined, apart from the examination of essential oils submitted for report, to practically one part of New South Wales, viz.: Spring-grove, near Braidwood. The opportunity was, therefore, availed of in the course of a hurried visit to Victoria during the month of May this year, to inspect the principal areas of Eucalyptus dives occurring in that State, mainly in the North-East corner. Through the courtesy of W. K. Burnside, Esq., who arranged an itinerary, one of us (A.R.P.), was enabled to visit expeditiously practically all the areas of country under commercial exploitation, and thus the very neces- sary first-hand knowledge of these most interesting and important fields was acquired. Samples of leaves and terminal branchlets from various individual trees were 80 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON. secured, and in every instance the results of the examina- tion of the essential oils obtained therefrom confirmed the field observations. Areas of Hucalyptus dives at the following places were critically examined, viz.: Tallangatta and Craven Hill in the Tallangatta Valley, Whitfield, and Blackwood, near Trentham. The trees occurring in the Tallangatta Valley and at Whitfield were found to consist essentially of the Type with a sprinkling of trees of variety ‘‘A.’’ The soil was good and the country generally was of a superior and richer type (more suitable for agricultural purposes), than the poor granite and sandstone country in New South Wales. Although a comparatively limited area of country could be traversed in the time available, yet quite a large number of trees distributed over various working fields were ex- amined. Particular attention was given to the so called ‘‘sucker’’ leaves, i.e., the new crowth from the stumps of old trees which had previously been cut for distillation purposes. Only in one instance was an apparent inter- mediate form detected (see this Journal, Vol. LXI., page 57), aS will be observed from results in Table ‘‘A.’’ Most of the trees examined, especially in a large area such as that of Whitfield, were found to be Hucalyptus dwes, Type, with an admixture of var. ‘‘A.’’ The field observations, confirmed by laboratory examina- tions of the essential oils (see Table ‘‘A’’), furnishes the reason for the lower piperitone content of Hucalyptus dives oil obtained from this important field, i.e., admixture of var. ‘‘A’’ with the Type. On the other hand, the areas of Eucalyptus dives at Blackwood near Trentham proved extremely interesting, not only on account of their vastness, but for the fact that they consisted almost entirely of var. ‘‘A.’’ . seg 81 VARIETIES OF EUCALYPTUS DIVES. 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The trees were typical of EL. dives, both when examined in the field, and when judged by morphological characters. Specimens submitted to Mr. E. Cheel, Curator of the National Herbarium, Sydney, were duly determined as ‘such. In the Part II. contribution (this Journal, Vol. LXIT. (1928), pp. 72-78), we dealt exclusively with H. dives var. ““C,’’? and further investigations made since that date have merely confirmed the data contributed therein. However, one particular examination is worthy of record, being typical of many, as it affords confirmatory evidence of the value of examining leaf material under certain con- ditions by olfactory means without the expenditure of the time -and labour involved in subjecting it to steam dis- tillation and subsequent chemical examination of the essential oil. A correspondent furnished a bag of leaves and terminal branchlets of Eucalyptus leaves from the Tumbarumba District of New South Wales (this Journal, Vol. LXII. (1928), pp. 72-78), for report as to their suitability for the commercial production of Eucalyptus oil. By crush- ing the leaves in the hand and observing the odour, it was possible within a few minutes to furnish a reply to the effect that the oil would be of negligible commercial value. The leaves could be sorted into those of Eucalyptus dives, ‘Type, H. dives, var; ‘‘A,’’ and EH. dies, var: Be” and consequently the oil obtained from such a mixture of leaves would be of no value either as a source of piperitone or for sale as a pharmaceutical oil. However, in order to provide convincing evidence for our correspondent, the mixed leaves were subjected to steam distillation, when an essential oil in good yield (3.2% ) was obtained, possessing the following chemical and physical constants, viz. :— VARIETIES OF EUCALYPTUS DIVES. 83 ‘Specific Gravity 0.9044 ‘Optical Rotation .. —26.6° Refractive Index 1.4710 Piperitone content . 15% ‘Cineol .. MMi 10-15% Phellandrene .. present in abundance. 3/11/1925 TABLE * B,” EUCALYPTUS DIVES FROM VICTORIA. { Solubility Pives : Yield of 5 in 70% peri- Dat Localit ; jae 2 oe | t ate | ocality Oil. 15 ay a | Res YEE H.N, Supple,} 2.9% 0.8866 | —68.7° | 1.4783 | 10 vols. 367%, Craven Hill. H. W. Smith, | 3.4% 0.9062 | —57.8° | 1.4810 | 1.4 vols. 53% Koetong. D. W. Kelly, 4.0% 0.9008 | —62.0° | 1.4799 | 1.6 vols. 48% Koetong. H. Short, 4.0% 0.8982 | -59.5° | 1.4802 | 5.5 vols. 46% Corryong. As this paper deals almost exclusively with Eucalyptus dives from the State of Victoria, a series of analyses of essential oils from leaves obtained from that State during the past 5 years and not hitherto recorded, have been in- cluded in Table ‘‘B.’’ Although there is still some evidence of the occurrence of Forms of Hucalyptus dives inter- mediate between the Type and var. ‘‘A,’’ as recorded in our Part I. contribution, we are of the opinion that in the great majority of instances where the piperitone content of the essential oil fluctuates between 26 and 36% it is invariably due to admixture of leaves of the Type and var. “*A,’’? such as was observed in the Whitfield District of Victoria. If confirmation regarding the stability of each of the varieties described were needed, it is only necessary to state that, over the areas of country traversed, it has been 84 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON. observed that large areas of each variety exist, and in any one locality one particular variety appears to predominate: over the other varieties: thus, in the Braidwood district of New South Wales, the normal Type prevails, being associa-. ted with but small quantities of var. ‘‘A’’; near Goulburn,, New South Wales, are found both the Type and var. “‘B’’; the predominating species in the Tumbarumba district, New South Wales, is var. ‘‘C,’’ with very little of the Type; and in Victoria, very large areas of var. ‘A’? are erowing in conjunction with the Type species. It is thus apparent that all forms of H. dives are well established as separate: varieties, according to the chemical composition of the respective oils. In conclusion, we desire to express thanks to W. K.. Burnside, Esq. (Messrs. W. K. Burnside, Pty. Ltd., Mel- bourne ), for his practical assistance in not only accompany- ing one of us to the Victorian areas of Eucalyptus dives, but also in providing the very necessary means of rapid. transit. TESTING OF LEAD AZIDE DETONATORS. 85 THE TESTING OF LEAD AZIDE DETONATORS. By J. A. CRESSWICK, A.A.C.I., F.C.S. and Dee fo PARSONS, A.A.C.1., A.S:T-6. (Chem). (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 2nd Oct., 1929.) The term ‘‘detonator’’ is defined by the ‘* Explosives ?) Act, 1905,’’ as a ‘‘capsule’’ or ‘‘case,’’ which is of such strength and construction, and contains an explosive of the Fulminate-explosive class in such quantity that the explosion of one capsule or case will communicate the explosion to other like capsules or cases. In appearance it consists of a cylindrical shell of either copper or aluminium closed at one end and containing a charge of explosive. The mixture almost universally used until quite recently was Mercury Fulminate and Potassium Chlorate (80:20) as the initiating agent, the quantity used determining the number assigned as a guide to strength. Thus No. 5 detonator contained 0.8 grms. mixture. 9) 6 73 9) 1.0 9) hp) 9? 7 99 2? 1.5 bP) ” bP) 8 79 9? 2.0 29 9? Kor some time manufacturers in various parts of the world have sought a new substance or mixture which would replace the Mercury Fulminate-Potassium Chlorate mix- ture, and not possess the same objectionable features, i.e., (1) lability to moisture absorption, and (2) sensitiveness to shock in handling. Amongst those involved was a mix- ture containing Tetryl (tetra nitro methyl aniline) with Lead Azide priming. It was claimed for this mixture that it did not possess the objections referred to. Moisture absorption is practically negligible, and field use has shown 86 J. A. CRESSWICK AND S8. W. E. PARSONS. a superiority over the older type in the question of sensi- - tiveness to shock in handling. The Tetryl-Lead Azide mixture was filled into alumin- ium tubes, and the manufacturers forwarded a small parcel to this State, early in 1927. We might here state that aluminium tubes were used instead of copper, Since it was found that with copper objectionable compounds were: formed. Samples selected for examination were submitted to the Sand Test, evolved by C. G. Storm and W. C. Cope - at the Bureau of Mines Laboratory Testing Station, Pitts- burg, U.S.A. This test consists essentially in weighing the amount of sand which passes through a 100 mesh sieve, after having been crushed by the detonator in a suitable bomb. The detonators (termed No. 6) were found to crush an amount of sand similar to that crushed by a No. 6 Fulminate type detonator, and were authorised for manu- facture in or importation into this State. Later shipments received, however, gave results consi- derably lower than previously obtained, indicating that: the quantity of composition had been reduced or had dete- riorated in quality. The weights of composition compared were as follows :— Original authorisation .. .. .. .. .. 0.852 grms. Later shipments ..0 2...) 02)... 88) (066 4ormd The manufacturers claimed that the Sand Test results obtained were not a true indication of the detonating efficiency, and that the later shipments, notwithstanding the decrease in the amount of composition used, were as efficient as the Mercury Fulminate-Potassium Chlorate type of the same number. An investigation was accordingly carried out by the Explosives Department to determine whether or not such was a fact. TESTING OF LEAD AZIDE DETONATORS. 87 In carrying out the investigation referred to above, it was decided to utilise the ballistic pendulum, so that a direct reading might be obtained of each shot fired. As a preliminary, charges of 10 grams, each of standard non- gelatinous powders, were fired, using alternatively the aluminium and copper type detonators. Results obtained, expressed in degrees of deflection, are summarised below: Copper Aluminium Explosives Used. Detonator. Detonator. Opie DVM. 2. 2. 19.0 20.5 “G00 02 16.6 18.2 Quarry Monobel .. .. 20.4 22 Further experiments were then conducted, using the same explosives and desensitising them by means of liquid paraffin, to determine the point at which one type deto- nator would fire the charge whilst the other type failed. Various percentage additions of liquid paraffin were made. Results of experiments are expressed below :— Copper. Aluminium Explosives Used. Detonator. Detonator. 40% Lig. Dyn.— So mmiiure: 1.) 0.) 22.3 | — mo. mitre us S. 18.8 22.3 hay, mixture .. .. failure PANE Stonobel— | Ty ee ee sk Ld 20.3 Ley BO BP Cee 20.0 © 20.55: faye ee... Spart:.(.12 failure , 10.6 18.4 enue Quarry Monobel— By es oso) ss 2 ee — exceeds 24 lo 21.5 — Wee ss part 12 23.9 failure 88 J. A. CRESSWICK AND S. W. E. PARSONS. After a lapse of two months, the above mixtures were again tested, using aluminium detonators, and it was found that in each case complete detonation of the charge resulted, with development of power, as indicated by the degree deflection, the same as when previously tested and freshly made. These results conclusively prove that the aluminium (Lead Azide) detonators, as at present imported, are shghtly more efficient as initiating agents than the older copper (Mercury Fulminate) type of the same number. The desensitised non-gelatinous explosive test appears to offer considerable advantages over the Esop test, which uses pieric acid desensitised with olive oil, as the quantity additions are larger and the desensitised mixture can be used over a period of at least one month and still give reliable results, enabling a much greater ease of manipu- lation and reliability for comparative purposes. However, the Sand Test shows reliability and consistency in com- parison with the weights of composition, so that it will be still maintained as the routine test for comparison of shipments and checking deterioration from the determined standard. It is, however, in the comparison of the new types of detonators that the desensitised Nitro-Glycerine test gives more reliable results than tests at our disposal prior to the investigation. In conclusion, we would express our appreciation of the Superintendent’s permission to communicate the contents of this paper to this Society. EXHIBITS. (1) The Pittsburg Sand Tester and Accessories. (2) Samples of various detonators - with composition removed. , ACTION OF ACIDS ON DIAZOAMINOBENZENE. 89 THE ACTION OF ACIDS ON DIAZOAMINOBENZENE By J.C) Harn, DiSe, Ph.D. (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 2nd Oct., 1929.) From time to time the existence of modifications of -diazoaminobenzene having lower melting points than the normal product has been recorded (Fischer, Ber., 1884, 17, ‘642; Walther, J. Pr. Chem., 1897 11, 55, 548; Orloff, J., ‘Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc., 1906, 38, 587). Such a product was encountered during a study of the reaction between aniline and pinene nitrosochloride (Karl and Kenner, J., Chem. Soc., 1927, 1269), and led to the present investiga- tion. The conditions under which the reaction between pinene nitrosochloride and aniline gives rise to diazoaminoben- zene are such that the presence of small quantities of hydrochloric acid is not precluded. In the total absence of hydrochloric acid, although not of acetic acid, the re- action takes a different course with the formation of pinene nitroanilide. The clue to the low-melting point of the .diazoaminobenzene was sought, therefore, in its behaviour with very small quantities of hydrochloric acid. Treatment of carefully purified diazoaminobenzene in -eold alcoholic solution with very small quantities of hydro- ‘echloric acid certainly led to low-melting products, from which pure diazoaminobenzene was not readily obtained by fractional crystallisation. This excludes the possibility ‘of the low melting point being due to the presence of -aminoazobenzene (cf. Rosenhauer and Unger, Ber., 1928, 90 J. C. EARL. 61B, 392), since diazoaminobenzene is crystallised readily in a pure condition from mixtures in which only it and. aminoazobenzene are present. The possession of low melt-. ing point is accompanied by the property of producing a deep-red colour with alcoholic alkalies, a property which has long been observed as a common one of unpurified pre- parations of diazoamino compounds (ef. Hantzsch and. Perkin, Ber., 1897, 30, 13899), but for which no explanation. has been assigned. Previous work on the action of acids on diazoaminoben-. zene has definitely proved the following :— (1) With moderately concentrated acids, hydrolysis into a diazonium salt and a salt of aniline takes. place; on heating secondary reactions consequent. on the break-down of the diazonium salt are ob- served. (2) With dilute acids, there is more or less complete- conversion into aminoazobenzene, no intermediate. products having been detected with certainty. The experiments here described amplify this information. by showing that the first effect of acids upon diazoamino- benzene is to produce a substance (A), which apparently forms coloured salts with alkalies in alcoholic solution. If the action is prolonged, under the same conditions of tem- perature and acid concentration as those required to pro- duce A, the latter disappears and, as far as can be judged,, a practically quantitative conversion into aminoazobenzene- takes place. It may be taken, therefore, that A represents an intermediate stage in the diazoamino-aminoazo trans- formation. In these experiments, the concentration of acid was very low; a 0.1 to 0.2 per cent. alcoholic solution. of hydrochloric acid was emploved. With more concen- trated acid, a partial hydrolysis in the sense of (1). is. |\ ACTION OF ACIDS ON DIAZOAMINOBENZENE. 91 observed, and under extreme conditions the formation of aminoazobenzene can be almost entirely avoided. If it were possible to isolate A in a pure condition, the: matter of determining its relationship to diazoaminoben- zene on the one hand, and aminoazobenzene on the other,. would be greatly simplified. However, in spite of repeated attempts, a satisfactory purification has not been accom- plished. Partly for this reason, and partly on account of the very large mass of conflicting evidence which is avail- able on the whole subject of the hydrolysis, constitution and rearrangement of diazoamino compounds, discussion. of the more theoretical aspect of the question is reserved: for a later communication. The action of small quantities of acids upon diazoamino- benzene being so pronounced, it is obviously desirable to: prepare it, as far as possible, under non-acid conditions. In the course of the present investigation, a method was. devised which yielded directly almost pure diazoaminoben- zene of a golden yellow colour. One or two crystallisations. were necessary to bring it to a state of purity. The procedure is described in the experimental part of this. paper. EXPERIMENTAL. Conversion of pure Diazoaminobenzene into a product of low melting point. Purified diazoaminobenzene (2.5 grams) which yielded only a faint red colour with alcoholic potash was dis- solved in spirit (50 ee.) and cooled to 17° C. A solution of hydrochloric acid (0.2 ce. concentrated acid) in spirit (20 ec.) was then added, and the mixture allowed to stand at room temperature (14° C.) for ten minutes, after which it was poured into distilled water (20 ec.) and stirred thoroughly. After filtration and drying in a vacuum desiccator over sulphuric acid, the product (2.05. 92 | TG) wART. grams) melted at 91-92°C., and retained this melting point after storage for several weeks. Found (micro) N, 21.6 per cent. The product gave an intense red colour with alcoholic alkalies. ‘Quantitative estimation of “diazo”’ nitrogen. A weighed quantity of the produet (0.2 to 0.3 erams) ‘was treated with aqueous hydrochlorie acid (10 ec.; 1 vol. concentrated acid diluted with 3 vols. water), in an apparatus from which all air had been expelled by carbon dioxide. The reaction was carried out at 65 to 70° C., and the evolved gas driven into a nitrometer filled with potash (50 per cent. by weight). Material. Pericents,$sdiazo” nitrogen found. Pure diazoaminobenzene a ee 14.3 Acid treated diazoaminobenzene, m.p. 91-92° C. 5 sh hte ae VRE oot ra a ean 13.6 hecryscallised,; mp. 1836s ween 13.8 The ealeulated yield of nitrogen from diazoaminoben- zene is 14.2 per cent. Attempts to estimate the amount of aminoazobenzene formed in these experiments by colour comparison with prepared solutions of aminoazobenzene were not success- ful. In some eases the amount of aminoazobenzene re- quired to produce a solution of similar colour exceeded the weight of diazoaminobenzene used in the experiments. ‘The explanation les, possibly, in the existence of yellow and violet salts of aminoazobenzene in different propor- tions in the two solutions (Cf. Hantzsch and Hilscher, Ber. 1908 47, ANT). 3 ‘Conversion of diazoaminobenzene into aminoazobenzene. To a solution of pure diazoaminobenzene (2 grams) in aleohol (80 ec.) a solution of hydrochloric acid (specific gravity 1.168 at 14° C.; 0.3 ec.) in aleohol (40 ce.) was ACTION OF ACIDS ON DIAZOAMINOBENZINE. 93 added, and the mixture allowed to stand in the ice chest for three weeks. The solution had then acquired a deep orange-red colour, and no longer gave the characteristic bluish red colour on the addition of alkali. It was allowed to evaporate at room temperature, redissolved in alcohol to which a little ammonia had been added and filtered. An excess of hydrochloric acid (equal volumes concen- trated acid and water) was then added, and after stand- ing the precipitated aminoazobenzene hydrochloride was: filtered off and dried in air (1.4 grams). A further quan- tity (0.3 grams) was obtained by diluting the mother liquor with an equal volume of water. The total yield was, therefore, about 72 per cent. of the theoretical. From the hydrochloride the free base was liberated by dissolving in alcoholic ammonia and pouring the solution into excess of dilute aqueous ammonia. So obtained, the erude base melted at 116° C.; after one recrystallisation from ligroin the melting point was raised to 124-5° C. Complete hydrolysis without conversion into aminoazobenzene.. A mixture of hydrochloric acid (10 ce. concentrated acid, 8S.G. 1.168 at 14° C.) and alcohol (30 ec.) was heated to boiling under a reflux condenser and a solution of pure diazoaminobenzene (2.0 grams) in alcohol (80 ee.) added during a period of three-quarters of an hour. The solution became reddish in colour and a copious evolution of gas took place. After a further fifteen minutes’ boiling the mixture was cooled and its colour compared with known solutions of aminoazobenzene in alcoholic hydrochloric acid of the same concentration. By this means it was estimated that the amount of aminoazobenzene formed amounted to 0.024 grams, equivalent to 1.2 per cent. of the diazoaminobenzene used. For reasons dealt with in connection with the estimation of ‘‘diazo’’ value is probably too high. nitrogen, this ‘94 J.C. PARE: ‘Modified method of preparation of diazoaminobenzene. Redistilled aniline (9.2 grams) was mixed with a solu- tion of sodium nitrite (7.0 grams) in water (40 ec.) and -aleohol (30 ce.) added to bring about complete solution. A slow stream of carbon dioxide was passed in for 24 hours, by which time the mixture contained a mass of erystals. These were filtered off, and carbon dioxide passed into the filtrate for a further 48 hours or more when a further separation of crystals occurred. Each fraction was redissolved in alcohol, the solution filtered, and water added until erystallisation commenced. By ‘this means 7.1 grams of golden-yellow erystalline material ‘was obtained, melting at 99° C. Further purification by recrystallisation from alkaline alcohol yielded the product in the form of long, lemon-yellow needles, which gave only a very slight colour with an alcohole potash solution. The pure product melted at 99.5-100° C. Department of Organic Chemistry, The University, Sydney. LEAF OIL FROM DACRYDIUM FRANKLINI. 95 NOTE ON THE LEAF OIL FROM DACRYDIUM FRANKLINI, HOOKER. By Aah PENFOLD, F.A.C.1. F.C:S., Technological Museum, Sydney, and J. L. SIMONSEN, D.Sc., F.LC., F.A.S.B., Guy's Hospital Medical School (University of London), S.E.1. (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 6th Nov., 1929.) During an investigation of the leaf oil from Dacrydium Franklim, Hooker, Baker and Smith (‘‘A Research on the Pines of Australia,’’ p. 397), noted the presence, in addition to l-a-pinene, d-limonene and methyl eugenol, of anew hydrocarbon, to which they gave the name dacrydene. This hydrocarbon was characterised by the preparation of a erystalline nitrosochloride, m.p. 120-121°, but its con- stitution was not determined. On considering the constants of this hydrocarbon it occurred to us that possibly it was identical with either A3- or A‘-carene, and we decided there- fore to subject the hydrocarbon oil to a _ renewed examination. We have been able to confirm the presence of /-a-pinene and d-limonene, and we have found also that the fraction b.p. 161-171° contains a small quantity of B-pinene. The yield of nopinie acid obtained on the oxidation of this fraction is extremely small, and it was obvious that some other constituent was present. The careful examination of this fraction from three different specimens of the oil failed to reveal the presence of A3-carene, but on one occasion on oxidation with potassium permanganate, a small quantity of liquid acid yielding a crystalline semicarbazone, 96 A. R PENFOLD AND J. L. SIMONSEN. m.p. 182°, was isolated. As this is the melting point of one of semicarbazones of 1:1-dimethyl-2-y-ketobutyleyclo- propane-3-carboxylic acid, an oxidation product of A4-carene, the presence of this hydrocarbon seemed probable. Gibson and Simonsen (J.C.8., 1929, 305, 909) have shown recently that a very convenient method for the detection of the carenes consists in the oxidation of the appropriate fraction of the oil with Beckmann’s chromic acid mixture, when trans-caronic acid is obtained in a comparatively good yield. On applying this method of analysis we have succeeded in obtaining trans-caronie acid, m.p. 202°, which was probably the laevorotatory acid (see p. 9). We conclude, therefore, that Baker and Smith’s dacrydene is in all probability identical with A‘-carene,,. and it is possible that the crystalline nitrosochloride which they prepared, is actually a derivative of this hydrocarbon, although we have been unable to confirm this. This conclusion receives support from a comparison of the constants of the two hydrocarbons. d-A4-Carene Dacrydene [over 165.5-167°/707 mm. 165-166° 30° 20° a deno 0.8552 d 0.8524 a 1.474 Ny 1.47 1.4749 * Ode +14,48° We would suggest that the name dacrydene be removed from the lterature until evidence of its separate existence be forthcoming. Experimental. A quantity of the air-dried leaves of Dacrydium Franklini was procured from the west coast of Tasmania early in 1927. LEAF OIL FROM DACRYDIUM FRANKLINI. 97 The oil obtained from this material was used for this investigation, but in order to secure confirmation of the results it was deemed advisable to examine oils from further consignments. Consequently the publication of the results was delayed penaing receipt of additional lots of leaves both in 1928 and 1929. The critical examination of the essential oils from the two last consignments afforded confirmation of the original results. The crude distillates were in every instance divided into 2 portions, one lot being examined in Sydney, and the other in London. For reference purposes the chemical and physical char- acters of the various lots of leaves are set forth in the following Table, marked No. 1. A preliminary fractionation of the oil (1st lot, 25/3/1927), under diminished pressure, gave the results shown in Table 2. TABLE 2. No. BP. (20mm) dog ne Yield % (1) 60-65° 0.8583 ~ 16.9° 1.4675 18 (11) 65-68° Or6o50" 9. aie 4). 1.4691 30 (111) 68-74° OrSO2SE” Fiooro. 1.4716 27 (iv) 70-155°/10 mm. 0.9496 +17.4° 1.5060 12 (v) residue OOT08 = 17.28 1.5244 tt The terpene fraction of the oil was redistilled at the ordinary pressure using a twelve pear still head, with the following results: TABLE 8. No. BP. (769mm.) 433, UO Yield % (i) 155-157° 0.8597 -81.75° 14666 11 (ii) 157-159° Gig592. 12559 t4es0 9 (iii) 160-165° 0.8562 .-.41° 14690 18.5 (iv) 165.5-169° 0.8522. «+ 81.6° «= 1.4718 (v) 169-174° Oleatl ye 5202) | awe, es G—November 6, 1929. a10,q JO “STOA OT "SBI, 4SBOD “‘BIUBUISBY, ‘S48 4 ; : : ie : 10}e@AIOSUOD £4 popaeni0q SLG GT [osu] TL8'1 o6 + | TT68°0 | %E'0 |"SqIOST | 489M “URYe9Z | 6Z6T/P/8 Sanaa aaa 9°9T 8° ‘op G08P'T | o98T+ | 39480 | %8h'O |SQI6TZ |'SBL ‘ueyeryg | gz6L/P/ZT ‘SJOA OT =H ‘ es ke aencn 6°98 LRG ‘TOsuy S08FT | of 8 + | 66L8'O | %69L'0 |'sqIaHZ) “seL ‘orang | Lz6T/e/9z Sree | cama eign Sapa Ge hg || aes OO Beet ee ‘ Io T £ . pizened ON 1O1Se ON TOAST UrAyrIqnog | 80% | 008 ont (PIPL uBio | T ATAVL 98 LEAF OIL FROM DACRYDIUM FRANKLINI. 99 An examination of these fractions showed the presence of l-a-pinene, a trace of 8-pinene and of d-lmonene, but no crystalline nitrosochloride, m.p. 120°, could be prepared, and no evidence was obtained of the presence of A3-carene. In view of these negative results a second sample of the terpene fraction of the oil was subjected to a more pro- longed fractionation (five distillations) with a column. It will be observed from the results summarised in Table 4 that the fractions b.p. 161-171° tend to become very small. TABLE 4. First Fractionation. Fifth Fractionation. No. B.P. (774mm.) Yield % B.P. (774 mm.) Yield % (iy Pes-16 1° Dae Pathos 36.5 [d] — 29.91° 5461 (ii) 161-165° 24 160-163° 10.4 {i11) teal? 28.6 163-169° 15) (iv) 171-185° 16.6 169-176° AVA [d] + 79° 5461 (v) Residue (by difference) 6.5 0.5 Fraction 1.—Owing to its high optical activity, Fraction 1 only gave a small yield of a-pinene nitrosochloride (m.p. 109°) and the presence of this hydrocarbon was, therefore, confirmed by oxidation to pinonie acid. (See this Journal, Vol. LVI, page 195.) The acid soon solidified, and on reerystallisation from petroleum ether (b.p. 50-60° ), melted at 70°. 1.059 grams dissolved in 10 ¢.c. chloroform gave a reading of —10.2°. (aj>° = -96.31°. The semi- carbazone prepared in the usual manner melted at 207°. A small quantity of nopinie acid was separated from the Oxidation acids. Fractions 2 and 3—On oxidation with potassium per- Manganate, nopinic acid was separated as its sparingly soluble sodium salt. 10 ¢.c. each of the respective terpene fractions were oxidised with 24 grams potassium perman- ganate in the presence of 5 gers. sodium hydroxide, 200 grs. 100 A. R. PENFOLD AND J. L. SIMONSEN. ice, and 1200 ¢.c. iced water. After completion of the reaction the mixture was saturated with carbon dioxide, the manganese sludge removed by filtration, and the filtrate evaporated to a small bulk in the presence of carbon. dioxide. The small quantity of sparingly soluble sodium salt was. separated, and on decomposition with dilute sulphurie acid solution and extraction with benzene, it yielded only a trace of nopinic acid to the solvent. The filtrate from the sodium nopinate was acidified with dilute sulphuric acid and the liberated acids extracted with chloroform. On removal of the solvent, a liquid acid closely resembling pinonic acid was obtained. It was converted directly to the semicarbazone, which proved to be more soluble in aleohol and of a different crystalline character to that obtained with pinonic acid. It melted. at 182°, In view of this result a quantity of the oil, b.p. 163-168° at 755 mm. (30 ¢.c.) was oxidised with Beckmann’s chromic acid mixture under the conditions used by Gibson and Simonsen (loc. cit.). The oxidation acids so obtained partially crystallised on keeping. The solid was collected, m.p. 197-199°, and purified by crystallisation from hot water, when it separated in glistening prisms, m.p. 201- 202°, and this melting point was not depressed on admix- ture with l/-trans-caronic acid. Unfortunately the acid was not available in sufficient quantity for its rotation to be determined, but since the melting point remained unaltered on admixture with the laevorotatory acid, there can be little doubt that it was the l-trans-acid, showing it to be derived from the dextrorotatory hydrocarbon. The com- position was confirmed by a titration. (Found M., 160; eale. M., 158.) = LEAF OIL FROM DACRYDIUM FRANKLINI. 101 Fraction 4 was identified as d-limonene by the prepara- tion of the tetrabromide, m.p. 104-105°, and dipentene dihydrochloride, m.p. 48-50°, both alone and when mixed ‘with an authentic specimen. Residue, Table 2, page 98.—It is interesting to record ‘that the high boiling residue from the first lot of oil (25/3/1927) solidified when kept in the ice-chest for a prolonged period. The crystalline mass was placed on a porous tile kept at 15° and the resultant crystals purified by recrystallisa- tion from acetone, an excellent solvent for the purpose. Combustion and molecular weight results showed it to be a diterpene, C..H 2, possessing a specific rotation in chloroform solution of +18.9°. It melted at 95° and is undoubtedly identical with Phyllocladene referred to in ““Pines of Australia,’’ by Baker and Smith, pages 422- 426. It has not previously been recorded as a constituent of the leaf oil of Dacrydium Franklini. We desire to thank Prof. C. 8S. Gibson, O.B.E., for determining the rotatory power of the pinene and limonene ‘fractions, and also for providing facilities for carrying out ‘a portion of the work in his laboratory, and Mr. F. R. Morrison, A.A.C.I., F.C.S., for assistance in the deter- mination of the constants of the crude oils and various fractions. | We are also indebted to the Conservator of Forests, Hobart, Tasmania, for kindly furnishing the necessary ssupphes of leaf material. 102 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON. THE ESSENTIAL OILS OF MELALEUCA DECORA. (SALISBURY) DRUCHE, AND M. NODOSA VAR. TENUIFOLIA (DE CANDOLLE), FROM THE. PORT JACKSON DISTRICT, EAR By A. R. PENFOLD, FVA.C.1, F\CS., Curator and Economic Chemust, Sydney Technological Museum, and FF’, R. Morrison, F.C.S., A.A.C.L, Assistant Economic Chemist, Sydney Technological Museum. (With Plates VII-IX.) (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 6th Nov., 1929.) These two species of Melaleuca occur widely distributed throughout eastern Australia, being especially abundant in certain parts of the Port Jackson District of New South. Wales. i We have, as yet, only had an opportunity of examining material from the Liverpool District, about 20 miles south. of Sydney. The rapid advancement of settlement fore- shadows the probable early extermination of these two tea. trees, despite the very extensive areas which they cover.. The examination of the essential oils was commenced in 1922, but pressure of other work precluded our devoting the necessary time to an exhaustive examination of material collected from different localities. We considered it advis- able, under the circumstances, to record at an early date: the results obtained from material collected in the Port. Jackson District. Both species are tall shrubs or trees possessing paper barks, and grow together in the Liverpool District, mainly in situations of a swampy character. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX1II1., 1929. Plate VII. Plate VII. A typical tree of Melaleuca decora growing in the Liverpool District, New South Wales. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXI1I., 1929. Plate VIII. o Plate VIII. Large tree of Melaleuca decora at Guildford, New South Wales. Note the “Tea Tree” scrub in background. ro ESSENTIAL OILS OF MELALEUCA. 103 MELALEUCA DECORA (Salisbury), Druce. This tall paper bark tea tree grows to a height of 30 feet, and is identical with Melaleuca genistifolia (Smith). The species was first named by Salisbury and published in ‘“‘Prodomus’’ (1796), page 352, under the name of Metrosideros. It is not identical with Melaleuca genistifolia (Smith) examined by Messrs. Baker and Smith (see Proc. Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XLV (1911), pages 365/369), which in the opinion of Mr. E. Cheel, Curator of the National Herbarium, Sydney, is identical with Melaleuca lanceolata (Otto). The botanical features of the species are also referred to in Bentham’s ‘‘Flora Australiensis,’’ Vol. III, page 143. The trees from which leaves were obtained for oil distillation purposes did not exceed 15 to 20 feet in height, a good proportion of them being regrowth on previously cleared country. Plate VII affords a good indication of the nature and habit, character of leaves, ete., of an average tree of thas species occurring in the Liverpool District. The tree shown in Plate VIII is of exceptional size, being not less than 50 ft. in height. It is one of several erowing at Guildford which have been preserved on private property for shade purposes. The size and luxuriant nature of the tree is probably due to the removal of ““serub’’ from its immediate neighbourhood, thus affording ideal conditions for its full development. Typical ‘‘Tea Tree’’ scrub, consisting mainly of Melaleuca nodosa, var. tenuifolia, is depicted in the back- ground. The Essential Oil. The essential oils were of a bright yellow colour with a pronounced odour of pinene and_ sesquiterpene. Altogether 677 lbs. weight of leaves and terminal branch- 104 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON. lets, cut as for commercial purposes, yielded on steam distillation an average of 0.23%, varying from 0.12% to 0.31%, the lower yield being obtained from material collected at a very dry period. The principal constituents which have so far been identified are d-a-pinene (50/60%) and sesquiterpenes (25/30% ), together with small quantities of a-terpineol 2, dipentene and sesquiterpene alcohol. Experimental. Six hundred and seventy seven lbs. weight of the leaves and terminal branchlets from Cabramatta, near Sydney, yielded on distillation with steam, crude oils possessing the chemical and physical characters shown in the following tables: On distillation the crude oils behaved as follows, viz.: 22/8/1922 241 ce. at 10 mm.:—50% at 62-65°, 14% at 69-120°, and 35% between 120-140°. 30/1/1923 300 cc. at 10 mm.:—62% below 65°, 18% at 65-129° and 18% between 130° (4 mm.) and 140° (5 mm.). Determination of a-pinene. The fractions distilling below 65° and 10 mm. were repeatedly redistilled over metallic sodium at 770-774 mm., when the greater portion distilled below 160°. The following fractions were obtained with the second consignment, viz. : Boiling Point. Volume. dae an ae 155-157° 95 @.¢. 0.8627 +24.25° 1.4674 157-158° i Seie: 0.8627 +20.5° 1.4686 158-160° EAA OK: 0.8630 Loto 1.4696 32 ¢.c. of Fraction 155-157° were oxidised with potassium permanganate by the method described in this Journal (Vol. LVI (1922), page 195). The crude pinonic acid isolated therefrom was purified by recrystallisation from - 105 ESSENTIAL OILS OF MELALEUCA. \ *s[OA G°g A0V LO 8g UI 9TQNIOg 6P9P'T | oh 4+ | 8406°0 | %6'°0 | OTL ‘op = ‘op €261/1/08 *S[OA @'T | ‘fauphs aveu %&S L'0F c's UL 8Tqnjog | 1POP'L | oST'St | e160 | ZO'T QLZ | “eqqeureraey § 2z6T/s/ST | | : "sq] ‘(poqQew ‘mOoTyetAjooy | “deg yoy 9 | | : *SOAvaTT : oyooly “02 | a a el! 11C@) *k , Ee aati. | Sea [ow armeeey| acy oe? | ame (oteia | gg ay “VITOMINNAL “IPA VSOCON VOOATV TATA 9°8S 6'1T ‘op SL8P'T oSBI+ | 69060 | Z2TO | LEI ‘op = ‘op—s| 8z61/2t/8T F'08 1'8 ‘op G8ZP-T | oG@'eI-+ | s6ss'o | Z%TS‘0 Ges ‘op ‘op €61/t/oe feuphkg aveu 2'Ge €'6 ‘s[OA OT OI8h'T | otS@It+ | st6sO | Z%sz'0 | soe eyyemviqey | 2261/8/ST *Tosatr : 7 ‘say pea eey ‘deg 40g (qq S10m 7 | a a = 110 goAve'T . i . oyoo % 2 oO ° 5 san Ht "ON roe] Nea nT AaITRINTOS oo" 208” erat: #0 PIOEA Rayon teil ee ‘sonaq ‘(Aanqstjeg) vuooda voonwiIwiayy 106 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON. petroleum ether, B. pt. 55-60°. It proved “more thar usually soluble in that solvent and was found to be the inactive form. The pinoniec acid melted at 104-105°, and a solution in chloroform was found to be optically inactive. The semicarbazone prepared therefrom melted at 207-208°. Fraction 157-158° was treated with dry hydrochloric acid gas at — 20° and the solid hydrochloride thus pre- pared was separated, dried and recrystallised from absolute. alcohol. It melted at 180-181°. 0.6694 gram in 10 ee. alcohol gave a reading of +1°, [aj = +45°. Determination of dipentene. The residues remaining in the flask after the distillation of d-a-pinene distilling below 160° were worked up and a small quantity of liquid distilling at 168-176° was isolated. The amount was too small for determination of its physical constants, but on account of the characteristic odour, it was dissolved in acetic acid and brominated at. — 20°. On standing in the ice-chest overnight a small quantity of crystals separated. These were purified from ethyl acetate and the melting point determined as 123-124°,. thus affording evidence of the presence in small quantity of dipentene. Occurrence of a-terpineol. In the course of redistillation of that portion of oil distilling above 65° at 10 mm., a small fraction, measuring 10 c.c. (ex 300 ¢.c. crude oil) was separated. It possessed the following characters: B. pt. 80-100° (10 mm.) (principally 90-96° ); d= 0.9063, an —8.85°, 1 aL aOee. It reacted with both phenylisocyanate and napthyliso-. eyanate, but no definite urethane could be isolated. In view of the occurrence of a-terpineol in oils of this nature. and the definite determination of the alcohol in the oil | ESSENTIAL OILS OF MELALEUCA. 107 of M. nodosa, var. tenuifolia, there is every indication of its presence in the essential oil, although experimental evidence in support thereof could not be obtained. Determination of sesquiterpenes. The fractions distilling between 120-140° (5 mm.) were subjected to repeated fractionation over metallic sodium, when the following distillates were obtained, viz.: Boiling Point. ~ Volume. d= an ne 100-120° (10 mm.) 10 ec. 0.9146 —12° 1.4942 I20-2o° (5mm.) 7 ee. 0.9217 +2.85° 1.4990 120-125° (5mm.) 35 ec. 0.9281 Tai ce e502 All three fractions gave the usual colour reactions with bromine in acetic acid solutions and sulphuric acid in acetic anhydride solution, characteristic of sesquiterpenes. The third fraction did not yield a erystalline hydro- chloride but on dehydrogenation with sulphur at 210-215° a good yield of azulene resulted. The identity of the latter was confirmed by the preparation of the picrate, which melted at 117-118° and by its erystalline character- istics when examined with the microscope. MELALEUCA NODOSA var. TENUIFOLIA. The botanical features of this tea tree, which also possesses a paper bark, are described in Bentham’s ‘‘ Flora Australiensis,’’ Vol. III, page 158. It is a tall shrub, usually attaining a height of 6 to 10 feet, and possessing rigid spiny pointed leaves (Plate IX). It occurs in dense masses, forming what is generally called ‘‘Tea Tree Serub,’’ an idea of which can be formed from Plate VIII, which shows a mass of this species in the back- ground. ? The very extensive areas of ‘‘Tea Tree’’ scrub growing at Cabramatta and Guildford in the Liverpool District 108 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON. consist almost entirely of this species, with a limited number of trees of Melaleuca decora intermingled there- with. It might possibly have been a commercial proposi- tion some years ago to have distilled this species, but the rapid spread of population and the consequent destruction ° of large areas has rendered its utilisation very improbable. The Essential Oils. The essential oils were of a pale lemon yellow colour with a pleasant odour of cineol modified by the terpenes and alcohol and closely resembled in general characters commercial eucalyptus oil containing cineol. Altogether 386 lbs. weight of leaves and terminal branchlets, cut as for commercial purposes, yielded on steam distillation an average yield of oil of 1%. The principal constituents which have so far been identified are cineol (40-55%), a-pinene, dipentene, a-terpineol, sesquiterpene, etc. Experimental. Three hundred and eighty six pounds weight of leaves and terminal branchlets collected at Cabramatta, near Sydney, yielded on distillation with steam erude oils possess- ing the chemical and physical characters shown in the following table: 300 ec. erude oil, 30/1/1923, behaved as follows on distillation at 10 mm.: 78% distilled below 65°, 9% at 65-85°, 6% at 85-110° and 6% between 110-140°. Determination of terpenes. The fractions distilling below 65° at 10 mm. and at 65-85° were redistilled several times and the three under- mentioned portions were finally separated, viz.: Boiling Point. Volume. a an ne 50-57° (10 mm.) 75 ce. 0.8947 +11.65° 1.4626 57-62" “(10mm)” Adz eer 050m + AG Loe 1.4624 62-68° (10 mm.) 58 c.c. 0.9086 2G 1.4627 Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIITI., 1929. Plate 1X Plate IX. Typical tree of Melaleuca nodosa, var. tenuifolia, growing in Liverpool District, New South Wales. ESSENTIAL OILS OF MELALEUCA. LOD; All three fractions appeared to be rich in cineol, as the last two had congealing points of —18° and —16° respec- tively. Treatment with 50% resorein solution, however, in order to effect the removal of this constituent, proved very difficult, owing to the cineol-resorcin compound separating as a solid erystalline mass. It required the use of large volumes of resorecin solution to effect the separation of quite small quantities of terpenes for identification. Finally 52 ec. of crude terpenes were separated, which on distillation over metallic sodium at 763 mm. yielded the following fractions, viz. : Boiling Point. Volume. d= aa ny 155-160° Za CC. 0.8583 +28.85° 1.4676. 161-167° Jef AGRO 0.8565 rg lesan 1.4696 The first fraction gave a good yield of pinene nitroso- chloride of melting point 114-115°. The presence of this terpene was confirmed by the preparation of the hydro- chloride, which melted at 125-126°. The second fraetion was examined for £-pinene with negative results. The liquid acid resulting from the oxidation with potassium permanganate in the presence of sodium hydroxide yielded a semicarbazone of melting point 208-210°.. It was found to be a mixture of a-pinene with dipentene. Fraction 161-167°, together with a portion distilling between 168-176°, yielded on treatment with bromine in glacial acetic acid a good yield of tetrabromide of melting point 124-125°. The terpenes present, therefore, consisted of a-pinene and dipentene. Determination of cineol. The resorcin washings were subjected to steam distilla- tion and the regenerated cineol. purified by distillation | il 110 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON. over metallic sodium. The colourless liquid of camphor- aceous odour thus obtained gave the following constants on examination, viz.: Boiling point, 174-176° (764 mm.), a 0.9297 a2 were, ne 1.4585, congealing point -—1.25°, melting point +0.5°. Its reaction with phosphoric acid and iodol confirmed its identity. This constituent was quantitatively determined in the ‘erude oils by the phosphoric acid method immediately after ‘distillation. Determination of a-terpineol. The fractions distilling between 65-85° (10 mm.) and ‘85-110° (10 mm.) were redistilled until finally a portion (10 ¢c.c.) distilling at 98-102° at 10 mm. was collected for examination. It had dy 0.9265, a) “a il Sandee 1.4815, and on treatment with napthylisocyanate gave an excellent yield of napthylurethane melting at 144-146°, thus confirming its identity with a-terpineol. Sesquiterpenes. The high boiling fraction distilling between 110-140° at 10 mm. representing 6% of the crude oil had az 0.9423, oe Lb.2F amdsns 11,4956: The quantity available was altogether too small for thorough examination, but the well-known colour reactions with bromine in glacial acetic acid and sulphuric acid in -acetic anhydride solutions, showed it to consist essentially -of sesquiterpenes. Dehydrogenation with sulphur resulted in the production of azulene. We are indebted to Mr. E. Cheel, Curator of the National Herbarium, Sydney, for the botanical determination of ‘the species referred to in this paper. AUSTRALIAN GROWN PINUS INSIGNIS.. 111 SOME MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AUSTRA- LIAN GROWN PINUS INSIGNIS (P. RADIATA). Nie. WELCH BSc. 7k Ce Technological Museum, Sydney. Part II. - (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 4, 1929.) Several years ago, through the courtesy of the Forestry Commission of New South Wales, timber specimens of Pinus insignis (P. radiata) were obtained from Gosford and Sutton Forest, New South Wales; Creswick, Victoria; and Wirrabara and Mt. Gambier, South Australia. A number of static bending and Izod impact tests were made, and the results published in a paper read before this Society.* Subsequently the necessary apparatus for the making of compression, shear, cleavage, tension and hard- ness tests, in conformity with the standard practice first adopted by the United States Forest Products Laboratory, and subsequently by most similar institutions in the British Empire,f was obtained. A further series of tests on small clear specimens has been made with the following results :— Compression Parallel to the Grain. Size of test specimens 2in. x 2in. x 8in. —_ — *Welch, M.B. Some mechanical Properties of Australian Grown Pinus insignis (P. radiata), Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1xi, 354-370, 1927. +Mechanical and Physical Properties of Timbers. Tests on small clear specimens, Project No. 1, Forest Products Research Laboratory, Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, London, 1928. 112 GOSFORD. Max. Min. Mean (6 tests ) Cy 4500 2500 3389 Sutton Forest. Max. vlna 22 Mean (6 tests ) CRESWICK. Max. Min. Mean (6 tests ) WIRRABARA. Max. Min. Mean (5 tests ) Cy 3850 2800 Mt. GAMBIER. Max. Via Mean (6 tests ) Cy © = 3080 Sq. in. M. B. WELCH. C 5825 D075 5330 C 6270 4000 0435 E 1,710,000 980,000 1,330,000 E 3,750,000 1,170,000 2,160,000 E 3,030,000 1,620,000 2,430,000 E 2,220,000 1,130,000 1,834,000 E 2,604,000 1,170,000 1,872,000 W r.pi. LW. M 42.6 5.5 30 13.2 37.9 4.0 40.8 4.4 W Ppa: Sala) 28.3 2.0 3119 ot W rope 37.4 8.0 29.9 4.0 34.3 6.1 Wer pa: 20,6 Goa 27.0. 4.3 Zio Oot W Yr.p.i. 81.2 4.5 27.0 2.0 25 27 L.W. 30 10 18 L.W. 25 - 15 21 L.W. 15 10 12 L.W. 25 12 12.6° 12.9 13.8 13.6 29:9" Sok OR ees Compressive stress at proportional limit in lbs. per sq. in. Crushing strength at maximum load in lbs. per AUSTRALIAN GROWN PINUS INSIGNIS. 113 E == Modulus of elasticity in lbs. per sq. in. W = Weight per cubic foot in lbs. at time of testing. r.p.i. == Number of growth rings per inch. L.W. = Average percentage of late wood in the growth ring. M = Percentage moisture content at time of testing, ealeulated on the dry weight. The results show that the wood is weak in compression in comparison with air dry Oregon or Douglas Fir, Pseu- dotsuga taxifolia, for which values for C, are given as 4220 and 7290 lbs. per sq. in.; and for C, 7600 and 8885 Ibs. per sq. in., by Canadian* and U.S.A.t authorities respectively. The weights per cubic foot for the Oregon used in the tests quoted are 29.1 and 29.6 lbs., whereas the mean for the Pinus insignis is 33 lbs. per cubic foot. Taking into consideration the much greater density of © the Gosford wood (40.8 lbs. per cubic foot), one would have expected the timber to have shown greater strength in compression, in comparison with the other material, whilst actually it is the weakest in ultimate crushing streneth. An almost similar result was obtained from the static bending tests given in Part 1, where the heavy Gos- ford wood was found to be by no means the strongest as a beam, although it possessed remarkable toughness, and in shock absorbing ability easily outclassed the other material. The Creswick grown wood proved to give the maximum ultimate compressive strength and the greatest modulus of elasticity, and incidentally to have the slowest average *Some Commercial Softwoods of British Columbia, McElhanney and Perry, Forest Service Bulletin No. 78, Dept. of the Interior, Canada, 1927. +Mechanical Properties of Woods grown in the United States, Newlin and Wilson, U.S. Dept. Agric. Bull. No. 556, 1917. H—December 4, 1929. 114 M. B. WELCH. rate of growth, whilst that from Wirrabara showed the greatest compressive strength at the proportional limit and ranked next to Creswick in slowness of growth. Compression Perpendicular to the Grain. GOSFORD. Cp With. $< 3.) 2 eke “ORS Wi Pee a ae LOO Mean (7 tests) .. 1300 4 radial, 4 tangential. Sutton Forest. Cp IEE): eg ee eres 050) IMA gees Soe Leh ee ROD Mean (8 tests) .. 1060 CRESWICK. Cp Wax i A beatae ear eneol IVE A 2% 5 dps Wee Ae alae OU) Mean (6 tests) .. 985 WIRRABARA. Cp ian ee ett te som) Min ee eee ei ae Mean (12 tests) .. 800 Mr. GAMBIER. Cp IMIS Xe ecet tet See eces MALO Ming toh Cte cel ater hool Mean (18 tests) .. 885 Cp Mean (46 tests) .. 970 W 40.8 Oia 39.5 10.1, 9.0 2.0 3.6 pel. spel Tae Tet. Ppa L.W. 30 15 24 AUSTRALIAN GROWN PINUS INSIGNIS. 115 Cp ae Compressive stress at proportional limit in lbs. per sq. in. W, r.p.i., L.W. and M as in compression parallel to grain. The value of Cp is obtained by measuring the deflections at varying loads, using a plate 2 inches wide on a specimen 2 inches in width, and giving a bearing surface of 4 square inches. The proportional limit is determined from the usual stress-strain diagram. In approximately half of the above tests the load was applied on a radial surface, and on the other half, tangentially. The mean result, with the load applied to the radial surface (22 tests), was 1040 Ibs. per sq. in., and to the ‘tangential face (24 tests), 975 lbs. per sq. in.; the difference is not very great, and might be accounted for by individual variation of the test pieces. It would be natural, however, to expect the wood to resist compression better when the radial plane is the bearing surface, due to the stiffening effect of the growth rings on edge. The value of this test is as an indication of the safe bearing surface for joists, ete. Results obtained from Canadian and U.S.A. tests (l.c.), are respectively 997 and 1085 lbs. per sq. in., indicating that Oregon is somewhat stronger in this direction than the Pinus insignis which was tested. The harder and denser ‘Gosford wood shows a definite superiority over that from other localities in spite of the comparatively high moisture ‘eontent, but the comparatively light-weight wood from Sutton Forest is stronger than the denser Creswick material. Shear Parallel to Grain. ‘GosForD. S Wold rpaal saw © ONE een). ) 8195084730 6.0" | 801! TOT Pm 6 1660. 37.6 20° 20. 12.6 Mean (10 tests) .. 1810 39.7 3.9 24 a er 116 M. B. WELCH. Sutton Forest. S W fDi ee NE Nias eee) sores a eae maga) 34.5 5.0 20 13.6 Vina eeu pi Dore 30.3 2.9 15 13.4 Mean (10 tests) .. 1540 32.1 3.7 22 13.5: CRESWICK. S Wo pip a eat Max)... 22 2. 0. 9880 °° 9729" RG ee Min, .. .. 2. 22 1250 © - 81.4 aa ieee Mean (12 tests) .. 1620 339° “416 7 lag eeae VEER ABA g Wee's, aempiae a gre vec Max, .. .. ..... 1745 32:0) ets ela is Min. .. 1995 ~ 275 4s Grider Mean (14 tests) .. 1470 28.6 5.8 12 13.0: Mt. GAMBIER. S W ropa TuWenge aL Mas Or aticee £2) 830 31.0 6.0 25 13.3. VIII ke, See = oO) 26.0 1.5 10 12.9 Mean (18 tests) .. 1560 21d 2.9 1g. 13.1 S W Tip.i., Tae ee Mean (959 tests) .. 1590 32.2 4.3 19.1 AS S = Shearing strength, parallel to grain, in lbs. per Sq. 1n. W, r.p.i., L.W. and M as in compression parallel to grain. Comparative figures for Oregon from Canadian and U.S.A. tests are 1270 and 1175 lbs. per sq. in. respectively. The shearing strength shown by these tests, which is greater than that of Oregon, indicates the resistance to slipping of one part of the wood over another, and is important in joints in building timbers. The Gosford grown wood is again strongest, the wood possessing considerable ability to resist longitudinal shear, followed by Creswick and Mount Gambier, the latter possessing a very satisfactory figure considering the comparatively low density and rapid AUSTRALIAN GROWN PINUS INSIGNIS. Eri growth. Approximately the same number of tests were made with the plane of shear in radial and tangential planes; the mean results were plane of shear radial (28 tests), 1565 Ibs. per sq. in.; plane of shear tangential (31 _ tests), 1635 lbs. per sq. in. The difference is comparatively small; apparently a normal condition in softwoods. Tension Perpendicular to Grain. «GOSFORD. Wax... Min; . Mean (11 tests) .. Surton ForEst. lax. | lee a 8. Mean (9 tests) “CRESWICK. Max. 1... Min. Mean (11 tests) .. “WIRRABARA. Max. Min. Mean (14 tests) .. Mr. GAMBIER. Wax; >; Maas et. Mean (12 tests) .. dean (57 tests) .. T = Strength in tension in lbs. per sq. in. ub 990 O90 W 41.3 one 30.1 31.0 26.0 29.0 W 33.0 Tepes 6.0 2.0 4.1 Kapale 2.0 2.0 3.0 Eide 7.0 3.0 4.8 fale 6.9 4.5 5.9 ye, 6.0 1.5 3.0 eal. 4.4 L.W. 30 15 23 L.W. 25 12 22 L.W. 18 M 13.1 M 14.1 14.0 14.1 M 13.9 W, r.p.i., L.W. and M as in compression parallel to grain. 118 M. B. WELUH. Results of tests made on air dry Oregon by Canadian and U.S.A. authorities (1c¢.) are 539 and 325 lbs. per sq. in. respectively. The Gosford wood proved to be considerably stronger than the other material, there being comparatively little difference between the figures obtained for the timber’ from the other localities. Tests were made on approximately the same number of specimens with the planes of failure radial and tangential ; the actual results were, plane of failure radial, 485 lbs. per sq. in.; plane of failure tangential, 568 Ibs. per sq. in. A somewhat greater strength in tension in a tangential plane: is commonly found in timber, although in many woods there is comparatively little difference in strength in the two directions. Cleavage. Gap tene: C1. W tp, Bet Wie Ui Bat as ee Wao8 41.3 6.0 30 13.5: Mima, Ge ee AEE mis CeO 33.8 2.9 15 12.7 Mean (9. tests) .. 9/366 3018 3.9 2A Tok Sutton Forest. CL Ww Ppa, Le ea UES eee tO (ita oe RA 39785) 33.) 5.0 30 14.5: Mine Wik cate! erage eu) 30.3 2,0 12 13.6, Mean (18 tests) .. 3138 31.6 3.4 24 14.1. eS CL. W roi Dw lame A sbttis oees Mee eed Ses) 6.5 25 13.8: JY ERAN Reger ikea re 230 31.4 3.0 18 12% Mean (12-tests) .. ‘old 33.5 4.7 21 Tose Meee Cl. W . cr pip haem Mia 7 0 Ss 60 3200 6.5 Lp 14.2: I Lito home Ne ete HOO 26.5 4.5 6 13.2: Mean (138 tests) .. 277 29.0 6.0 uh 13.7 AUSTRALIAN GROWN PINUS INSIGNIS. LS Mr. GAMBIER. Cl. W rpi. LW. M Were... we | 895 31.0 6.0 25 15.5 Pie se fe. . 210 27.0 1.5 12 13.6 Mean (ll tests) .. 284 29.3 3.2 18 14.6 Cl. W Epis law: M Mean (58 tests) .. 308 31.4 4.2 18 aS ar Cl. = Cleavage or sphtting strength per inch of width of specimen, in lbs. W., r.p.1., L.W. and M as in compression parallel to grain. Cleavage tests indicate the resistance of a wood to split- ting, and furnish some idea of the ability to stand nailing, screwing and the driving of spikes, or the ease or otherwise with which the wood can be split for firewood, ete. Tests made in Canada (1.¢.), on Oregon, are given as 265 Ibs. per in. width. Cleavability may be largely affected by factors such as interlocked grain, though wood is usually more fissile in a radial plane than tangentially. The mean of 29 tests in each case showed a splitting strength of 343 Ibs. per sq. in. width in a tangential plane, and 277 lbs. per in. width in a radial plane. GosFrorD. Tet 4) tlre Ele. SW as NV Maxie. )5. .< 1630 1546 1270 40.8 5:0 30 15:8 tie es: 7 160. 810. 980. 37.1 2:0 15 44 Meam (7 tests) 4190- 1155 1095 39.5 3.6 24 5.1 SutTtTon Forest. Ht. Hr. He. W 1 ON L.W. M Hee... .. 600. 710 930 33.5. 5.0° 95 157 Min. ..-.. .. 460 500 690 291 20 7 151 Mean (8 tests) 545 610 700 31.2 33 17 154 CRESWICK, Ht Hr He Wre.pdi. L.W. M te .. 1000.4 990 1110 375 60 25 15.0 Min. 600 610 820 314 35 20 142 Mean (6 tests) 780 770 955 36.9 4.7 22 146 120 M. B. WELCH. WIRRABARA. Ht. . Hr, He. Wetpaint Max. .. .. .. 740°. 810° °830: 3210) a unaiamnas 6 Min... 5. 400° 410) <:640. 27.6) Sane. S Mean (13 tests) 550 530 725 289 5.8 11 13.5 Mt. GAMBIER, Ht Hr. He Wrpi L.W. M Max... ..... 940 9820 Oto Sim deen Min).. .. .. 340 9390 | 610) Sei is manners Mean (13 tests): 600 580 840 28:9 2° Saige Mean (47 tests) 688 680 836-.3196° 44d Ht., Hr., and He. are the loads in lbs. required to imbed a ball 0.444 in. in diameter to half its diameter, on a tangential, radial, and end surface respectively. W., r.p.i., L.W. and M as in compression parallel to grain. The hardness of a timber is important since it indicates its ability to withstand bruising, and, to some extent, mechanical abrasion. At least a moderate degree of hard- ness is essential in joinery timbers, e.g., skirtings, door jambs and architraves, also in furniture, flooring, paving, blocks, rollers, ete. Hardness is largely infiuenced by the weight of the timber. Comparative figures for Oregon tested in Canada and U.S.A. (Le.), are H G@ & r) = 687 and 735 lbs., and He. = 799 and 835 lbs. respectively. The Gosford grown wood proved to be much harder than the others, and is equal in this respect to Pitch Pine (Pinus spp.). The Creswick material, also of high density, gave a high hardness figure. End hardness is usually higher than lateral hardness, and as the mean results show, the difference between the radial and tangential figures is not very appreciable. SUMMARY. A further series of tests shows that there is compara- tively little difference in the mechanical properties of Pinus insignis and Oregon or Douglas Fir. Whilst the denser wood from Gosford was exceptionally tough, it was weaker AUSTRALIAN GROWN PINUS INSIGNIS. 121 in some other respects than that from Creswick, notably in static bending and compression parallel to the grain. In compression perpendicular to the grain, shear parallel to the grain, tension perpendicular to the grain, cleavage and hardness the Gosford material proved superior. The results indicate that considerable variation in mechanical and physical properties occurs in the wood from different lo- ealities, and no doubt a similar variation will be found in individual trees in the same plantation, due to varying eonditions of growth, just as the wood in one log may vary in strength and weight with its position in the tree. The tests are of some value in showing that the wood is not brittle and devoid of strength as is commonly believed. Whereas the denser Gosford wood resembles Piteh Pine, the hghter and milder South Australian wood possesses the characteristics generally of the White Pine group, which includes the Clear and Sugar Pines. It seems, therefore, that by proper grading, Pinus insignis can be obtained for many of the purposes for which imported coniferous soft- woods are used, provided, of course, that it can be obtained in lengths free from defects. Objections are frequently raised because of the presence of knots, but it is often difficult to find a lineal foot of Baltic Pine, Picea excelsa, as imported into this country In large quantities for flooring and lining, without a knot. Moreover, knots can be minimised by proper treatment during growth, although they certainly are characteristic of logs obtained from ‘“‘back yard’’ plantations, and, un- fortunately, on such logs most of the popular prejudice is based. I am much indebted to Mr. F. B. Shambler, of the Museum Staff, for preparing the test specimens, and his assistance in making the tests, and to the Mechanical En- gineering Department, Sydney Technical College, for the ‘use of the necessary machines. bo to M. B. WELCH. SOME PROPERTIES OF RED SATINAY, SYNCARPIA HILLII. M. B. WELCH, B.Sc., A.I.C., Technological Museum, Sydney. (With Plates X and XI.) (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 4, 1929.) Red Satinay or Fraser Island Turpentine, Syncarpia Hill, Bailey*, was first described from Fraser Island, off the Queensland coast, and it is practically confined to this Island. Botanically it differs from Turpentine, S. lawr- folia, an allied species, in its larger foliage and flowers and in being glabrous. According to Swaint ‘‘a height of 130 feet and a girth. of 180 inches is not uncommon, and there are giants of even more massive proportions.’’ It is little known on the Sydney market, although Swain states that Queensland. Forest Service field estimates are that 50,000,000 super feet are available, and with its ease of natural regeneration and. rapid growth, rationed supplies can be maintained. A considerable amount of information as to its uses is given by Swain, who also mentions that the heartwood possesses: great durability, and is resistant to white ants and borers.. In appearance it resembles Turpentine, Syncarpia lauri- folia, or the red form of Brush Box, Tristanwa conferta, but is usually lighter in weight; like these woods it requires. careful seasoning. One of the chief disadvantages is its * Bailey, F.M., Contributions to the Queensland Flora, Part. II., Proc. Roy. Soc. of Queensland 1, 86, 1884. + Swain, E. H. F., The Timber and Forest Products of Queensland, Brisbane, 1928. PROPERTIES OF RED SATINAY, SYNCARPIA HILLII. 123: comparatively high density, thus rendering it unsuitable for many purposes where weight is a consideration. Figured logs appear to have possibilities for veneer, but apparently do not cut satisfactorily whilst green, without steaming. General Properties. The close textured wood is typically dull reddish brown: in celour, without pronounced sheen when straight grained, but lustrous when figured, due to reflection of the lght from the surface of the undulating fibres. It possesses no: natural figure, but may possess a high degree of accidental figure viving rise to fiddle mottle, ribbon grain, or a com- bination of these two. It is moderately hard and heavy, and inclined to dull and whilst it is somewhat ‘‘eritty,’’ tools quickly, it works cleanly and planes erisply, with httle tendeney of the ‘‘grain’’ to tear up. In sawing or drilling it is inclined to ‘‘burn,’’ but does not splinter, and is not tough or leathery, but has rather a tendency to be *‘short grained.’’ It requires little filler, and readily takes. a high polish. A high tannin content in the wood is indi- cated by the blue black colouration produced when the wet timber is worked with steel tools. Gross Anatomy. Pores small, but easily visible on end section with naked eye, almost uniformly distributed with some tendency to form oblique rows, frequently with very pale lemon yellow deposits, appearing as light coloured dots on end section or as short narrow lines on the surface. Soft tissue not apparent. lays scarcely visible on end or tangential sur- faces without lens, but conspicuous on a radial face, ap- pearing darker in colour than the ground tissue. Growth rings ill defined and indicated by somewhat darker zones, due to a diminution in the pore distribution. Ripple marks not present. 124 M. B. WELCH. Minute Anatomy. Cross Section. Pores numerous, comparatively evenly distributed; al- most always single, rarely in groups of 2-8; usually oval in shape with the greater diameter, radial; variable in size; radial diameter 75-2604, mean 150yu; tangential diameter 55-170u, mean 110»; walls 3-4 in thickness ; num- ber per sq. mm., 16-21; tyloses very prevalent; pores 0c- easionally more or less filled with light coloured granular material which is insoluble in boiling water, alcohol, or chloroform, and does not show any evidence of staining with alkannin. Wood fibres moderately thick walled, often with greater diameter radially directed; average diameter 25; walls up to 6» in thickness; bordered inter-fibre pits readily visible in section. Wood parenchyma diffuse, or to a shght extent vasicentric: often in short tangential rows of 2-6 cells cells up to 40 in diameter. Rays numerous, conspicuous, with reddish brown granular or amorphous contents which are darkened by iron salts; considerably un- dulating in contact with vessels; 13-16 per mm. of cross section. Growth rings not well defined and only indicated by reduction in pore number. Radial Section. Vessel segments 300-7504 in length; end walls usually oblique; end perforation simple; end projection usually prominent and measuring up to 300 in length. Vessel- tracheid pits not crowded, border rounded to oval, usually in longitudinal pattern corresponding to the position of the tracheids. Vessel-ray pits very large, semi-bordered, irregularly oval, very distinct from other vascular pitting ; inter-vessel pits often elongated, scalariform. Wood fibres 600-1700» in length, very prominently pitted, the inter-fibre bordered pits in section appearing almost like a row of beads; borders usually very distinct, pit opening Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIII, 1929. Plate X. =" ¥ ~ = XI. Plvte , 1929. N.S.W., Vol. EXIT. ty ° vé Journal Royal Soc 3 Fig — Rr Ste a Fig, 4, ? a ; ‘ = gees L ” » a . “ avy us = P) \ — va < a - —————— if P 4 ac, | | | j : —— { nee \ — » : ; 2 ibe Sea! ‘ PROPERTIES OF RED SATINAY, SYNCARPIA HILLII. 125. oval to shit like; fibres pass through every degree of varia- tion to copiously pitted tracheids; both fibres and tracheids are often very irregular in shape. Wood parenchyma thin walled, in elongated strands, not prominently prosenchy-. matous: cells almost rectangular, cells occasionally con-. jugate; pits small, usually rounded, numerous; crystals not observed. Rays strongly heterogeneous, vertical cells 1 to: many rows, occasionally nearly the whole ray consists of almost square vertical cells; cells moderately thick walled; inter-cell pitting prominent; ray-tracheid and ray-fibre: pits small, number depending on degree of pitting in ad- joining mechanical cell; few and slit like or wanting in contact with fibres, more numerous, rounded, adjoining tracheids ; ray-parenchyma pits small, rounded, numerous; contents reddish-brown, usually clear and amorphous and almost completely filling cell cavity, but sometimes densely granular; oil globules occur in ray cells and to a lesser extent in wood parenchyma. Tangential Section. Wood fibre and tracheid pitting very prominent in sec- tion and in surface view. Wood parenchyma usually in 1-4 rows, more prominent than in radial section. Rays very numerous, diffuse, uniseriate or biseriate, rarely triseriate, occasionally branched, or with two biseriate por- tions connected by uniseriate ray; one to many cells in height, vertical height up to 2100p. Aqueous extract pale brown in colour; heavy blue black precipitate with ferric chloride; brown precipitate with potassium bichromate. Red Satinay can be separated from Turpentine, S. lawri- folia, by the smaller pores and thicker walled fibres in the latter wood, but probably most easily by the prevalence of uniseriate rays in the Turpentine, whereas in Satinay they are commonly biseriate and even triseriate. Whereas. (126 M. B. WELCH. shavings of Brush Box, Tristania conferta smoulder to a light coloured ash, Red Satinay and Turpentine do not smoulder and burn ‘‘black.’’ The rays are much more homogeneous, and the fibres and vessels much thicker walled in Brush Box than in Red Satinay. MECHANICAL TESTS. A series of mechanical tests was made on material sup- plied by the Queensland Forest Service. The tests were made in conformity with the standard practice for testing small clear specimens.* Average moisture content, 15.2%. Static Bending Tests. Size of specimens 2in. x 2in. x 28in. span centre loading. Wto Wto Sat Sat i E PL. ME, Pay en Max. 13000-18900 2680 3.98 15.79 465 675 56.7 15.8 Min. 7970 11080 1490 1.57 4.21 285 396 4865143 Mean. 10050 14810 1984 2.83 9.47 359 518 51.7 15.2 (10 tests) {= Fibre stress at proportional limit in lbs. per sq. in. f== Modulus of rupture in lbs. per sq. in. E = Modulus of elasticity in 1000 lbs. per sq. in. W to P.L.= Work to proportional limit in in:-lbs. per Gl. 1m. W to M.L. = Work to maximum load in in. lbs. per cu. mile S at P.L.= Horizontal shear in lbs. per sq. in. at pro- portional limit. S at M.L. = Horizontal shear in lbs. per sq. in. at maxi- mum load. * Project No. 1. Forest Products Research Laboratory, Dept. -of Scientific and Industrial Research, London, 1928. PROPERTIES OF RED SATINAY, SYNCARPIA HILLI. 127 W = Weight per cubic foot in lbs. at time of testing. M = Moisture percentage at time of testing, cal- eulated on dry weight. Compression, parallel to grain. Ci C E Mek 2 es 6. «. 6900 10070 3,636,000 Mii eS) .. , 3500 6500 1,364,000 Mean (7 tests) .. 4990 7800 2,655,000 C, = Compressive stress at proportional limit in lbs. per sq. in. C = Crushing strength at maximum load in lbs. per Sq. in. E = Modulus of Elasticity in Ibs. per sq. in. Other Tests. Cp Hr. Ht, He. i Max. .. .. 2,450 1,750 1,910 2,180 15 Og ee sy: 1,400 1,250 1,210 1,580 4 Mean .. .. 1,845 1,480 1,490 1,800 8 (10 tests) _ (6 tests) (12 tests) Cp = compressive stress at proportional limit, perpendicular to the grain, in lbs. per sq. In. Hr, Ht, He = load required to imbed a ball 0.444in. diameter to half diameter, on radial, tangential and end surfaces respectively. (Hardness. ) J == Energy absorbed in foot lbs., determined by Izod Impact test, half of tests radial and half tangential. S. Cl. Nes Mt nee es. «2210 665 1045 450 Rites. 1... 1,340 300 265 145 iiieam 2... .. 1,739 400 547 297 (11 tests) (10 tests) (9 tests) (10 tests ) ie 128 M. B. WELCH. S = Shearing strength, parallel to grain, in lbs. per sq. in. Cl = Cleavage strength in lbs. per in. width. Tr. & Tt. == Tension perpendicular to grain in lbs. per sq. in.; r and t indicate that the place of failure is radial or tangential. The screw holding properties were determined, using a 14 gauge wood screw, inserted to a depth of one inch in hole drilled ¢2in. in diameter. Ser. Sct. Sce. CMiaxe ft wie tc lad oes SOE 1130 910 AVIS aT hast eee ok ea Oe 1040 700 Mean CO tests) co. pees 1082 800 Se = the load in lbs. required to extract the screw by means of a direct pull r, t and e being on a radial, tan- gential and end surface respectively. The results of the static bending tests on Red Satinay showed that the wood was inclined to be brittle and to fail in brittle tension without warning, the broken pieces often fiying out of the machine. The comparatively low energy absorption indicated by the work to the propor- tional limit and to the maximum load, also show that the wood is not particularly tough. The mean result of the Izod Impact tests confirms the view that the wood com- monly lacks toughness, the mean figure of 8 foot lbs. for the energy of rupture being low, considering the density of the wood. It is of interest to note that the mean result of 72 impact tests made on Australian grown Pinus im- signis was 16.7 foot lbs., with a mean density of only 32.8 Ibs. per cubie foot. The modulus of elasticity is high and shows that the wood is able to carry considerable loads with little deflection. Compression, hardness, shear and tension figures are apparently normal, although the tension results in a tan- —x PROPERTIES OF RED SATINAY, SYNCARPIA HILLI. 129 gential plan are low. Insufficient figures are available for other Australian timbers to allow of a general comparison being made. Fire Resistance. Tests were made by the writer to determine the relative resistance to burning of Red Satinay in comparison with Turpentine, S. laurifolia. The apparatus used was de- signed by Mr. R. Cherry, who carried out a number of ex- periments on the fire resistance of Australian and other timbers.* The material used (Red Satinay and Turpen- tine) was supplied by the Queensland Forest Service. The method is to use a small simply supported beam, loaded centrally by means of a spring; a small gas flame is allowed to impinge on the lower surface of the beam, and the time taken for the beam to break is measured. b d f Red Satinay Mean6tests 0.482 0.475 4min. 38 secs. Turpentine Mean 6 tests 0.484 0.489 9 min. 52 sees. b and d = breadth and depth of test pieces in inches.f Although inferior to Turpentine, the wood is neverthe- less very fire resistant, an extremely useful property in a wood used for building purposes and interior fittings. In conclusion, I am indebted to Mr. F. B. Shambler, of the Museum Staff, for the preparation of the test specimens and his assistance during the making of the tests, and to the Mechanical Engineering Department, Sydney Technical College, and to the Australasian Scale Co., Sydney, for the use of the necessary machines. *Cherry, G. R. Comparative Combustibility of Timbers. Jour. of the Insurance Institute of New South Wales, 1903. ; } The results of these tests are published in full by Swain, ie. I—December 4, 1929. 130 M. B. WELCH. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE X. Syncarpia Hillw, Fig. 1. Transverse sections of wood showing diffuse porous structure. The pores are usually single. The crowded undulating rays are prominent. Syncarpia Hill, Fig. 2. Transverse section, more highly magnified, showing distribution of wood parenchyma. The inter-fibre bordered pits are visible in section. PuLaTeE XI. Syncarpia Hilla, Fig. 3. Radial longitudinal section showing heterogeneous rays. The bordered pits of the wood fibres are very distinct. Owing to the undulation of the rays it is difficult to obtain a longitudinal section showing the ray over more than a short distance. The wood perenchyma is commonly in isolated strands. Syncarpia Hillii, Fig. 4. Tangential longitudinal section show ing the numerous rays which are chiefly uniseriate. ADDENDA. Magnification Plate X., Fig. 1, x 36. 99 99 X., Fig. 2, x 185. Plate XI., Fig. 3, x 40. I) 99 XL, Fig. 4, xe 40, In the fifth line of Explanation of Plate XI., Fig. 3, for ‘“perenchyma” read ‘‘ parenchyma.” \ GEOLOGICAL ‘FAULTS FROM BRANXTON. 131 ON SOME INTERESTING GEOLOGICAL FAULTS IN THE VICINITY OF BRANXTON, N:S.W. By G. D. OSBORNE, D.Sc., and H. G. Rageatr, B.Sc. (With three text figures.) (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1929.) Introduction. Branxton Railway Station is situated on the Main Northern Railway Line 34 miles 37 chains from Neweastle, or 134 miles from Sydney, the latter distance being indi- cated by the mile-post which occurs just near the station. To the west of the station, beginning at a mileage of 134-20* and continuing to a mileage 134-65, is a large railway cutting, trending approximately east and west, which exposes sediments belonging to the Branxton Stage of the Upper Marine Series (Permo-Carboniferous or Permian System). Beyond the cutting, to the west, is Black Creek, at mileage 134-70, and the section traversed between this stream and Branxton Station is across por- ‘tion of the western side of the Lochinvar anticline or dome. In the cutting a number of interesting geological struc- tures are revealed, chief amongst which is a series of faults, mainly of the overthrust type. In view of the fact that the Branxton district is frequently visited by geological excursion parties from the University of Sydney and other institutions, and particularly, since on such occasions a detailed examination of the cutting in question is generally * In giving distances, the plan adopted in this paper is to state ‘the number of miles and chains from Sydney, e.g., 134-20 means yeis4 miles 20 chains. . Feet G. D. OSBORNE AND H. G. RAGGATT. Section of Branxton Stage between Black Ck. and Branxton Stn. (Descending Stratigraphically). Sandstone with pebbles and erratics not exceeding 6 inches in diameter. Alternate sandstone and sandy shale, the former predominant at top. Pebbles and erratics up to lft. diam. Fossil wood. Mar-} tiniopsis and Fenestellide abundant, Junction with underlying beds somewhat disconformable, Thinly - bedded shale with abundant Fenestellide andj sporadic erratics, the larger ones measuring about 44ft. x 24ft.. vertical section. Three calcareous concretions. Sandstone and shale !n alternating beds from 2 to 4 feet thick. Fossiliferous calcareous lenses, four feet from base. A few pebbles and erratics occur. Fenestella Shales, Blue, finely laminated sandy shale, many of the lamina being richly fossiliferous. | Fine-grained argillaceous s. stone with sporadic pebbles. Shale. Lenticular sandstone bed. Sandy shale. Granite erratic exceeding 30 cub.ft. in volume. Friable fine-grained argillaceous sandstone, Mainly shale with some beds of argillaceous sandstone. Sandstone with thin argillaceous bands. Pebbles and erratics of variable size, current bedding near base. Current-bedded sandstone with pebbly bands. One erratic present measures 2ft. x 14ft in vertical section. Mainly fine-grained conglomerate with a few erratics. Chiefly fine-grained compact’ sandstone with some thin pebbly bands. Total thickness, 306ft. Fig. 1. 133 GEOLOGICAL FAULTS FROM BRANXTON. AINOAC Wus0dy abeayius ~~» OS-tE/ I¢ hye JQAQ ds buoy eam sc fe Fas BP sosua 7] SNO24P/ - a= ‘ a oe Bae - 2 ¥ 3 Sq 8 = _ $9AN IE. [es (e) 591496 ene ‘i Sa og chien. Wie ek co, ies if Oy bus ynej\. 2 a . 0 ee ee an sipun : ee en a ‘nu07spueG TL in zpenb yeymawios EMT ES Tes QU0pSPURS PAPHY jon PL) —~ “e a $b-bel aber 1UL YP 6y99909 Gempey ur ysnayjaang |] ws 4o 40r}2a¢ 134 G. D. OSBORNE AND H. G. RAGGATT. made, it has been thought desirable to record the strati- graphy and to deseribe the faults, indicating their signifi- cance in relation to the tectonic geology of the district. Stratigraphical Notes. The rocks exposed in the railway cutting between Branx- ton Station and Black Creek bridge show a gradual change from east to west, 1e., ascending stratigraphically, from. beds dominantly sandy to finely laminated and richly fossi- liferous shales. . A. B. Walkom!' in dealing with the stratigraphy of the: Maitland-Branxton district referred to the general litho-. logical features and listed the fossils occurring within the: Branxton Stage. | A detailed section of the sediments in the cutting has. recently been measured and is given in text-fig. 1. It may be mentioned here that the erratic figured by Professor David? in 1907, and now obscured by soil, belongs to the unit which occurs third from the top of the section given. im texte, 1 The Fenestella Beds, of which a splendid section is. exposed in the cutting, are a very important horizon from: an economic viewpoint, inasmuch as they occur approxi- mately 1550 feet above the top of the Greta Coal Measures.. The lower 115 feet consists mainly of sandstone, which is the same as that indicated as a massive sandstone bed on Sir Edgeworth David’s Geological Map of the Hunter River Coalfield in portion 139, Parish of Branxton, County of Northumberland. This bed forms wall-like outcrops: for two or three miles south of the railway cutting, and at first sight might easily be mistaken for the Muree Beds.. Details of the Faults. There are two portions of the cutting where groups of faults and related structures occur. These are respectively GEOLOGICAL FAULTS FROM BRANXTON. 135 within the distance 134-40 to 134-44, and in the interval between 134-50 and 134-60. The latter place is the more important, and the faults occurring thereabouts are illustrated in text-fig. 3. At the former place the following structures are present :— (i.) At mileage 134-40 there is an overthrust fault, F,, which dips N. 62° at 87° (approx.). The throw is approxi- mately 14 ft. and the heave 2 ft. (ii.) At mileage 134-44 there is a very instructive over- thrust, F, a diagram of which is given in text-fig. 2. This is -seen on the north side of the cutting, where a hard, somewhat silicified sandstone has been fractured. The general dip of the fault is in the direction S. 65° W. and in the upper part of the structure there is a small displace- ment. As one follows the fault surface down it is seen to decrease in dip and to curve towards the horizontal, eventually dying out in a zone of minor fractures and passing into solid rock, whose elastic strength has taken up the strain to which the mass was subjected when the fault developed and caused displacement elsewhere in the sandstone block. This fault is a splendid example, on a small scale, of the nature of many thrusts, and one can interpret from the section the manner in which a thrust-fault dies out and passes into undisturbed rock-material. The curving of - the fault-surface (see text-fig. 2) is very characteristic, and by analogy, it may be inferred that such a curving, with concavity upwards, takes place in many of the larger thrusts. This feature was suggested by one of us} for the Great Boundary Fault or Hunter Overthrust, which occurs some distance to the north-east. (ii1.) At mileage 134-444 there are two steep normal faults, F,; and F,, which are seen best on the south side 136 G. D. OSBORNE AND H. G. RAGGATT. of the cutting. These cut through the sandstone and dip at a high angle to the south-south-west. The throw in each ease 1s very small. The Main Group of Thrusts. The relative positions of the faults in this group are shown in text-fig. 38, which as stated, shows the section exposed upon the north face of the cutting. Some of the faults are fairly well-exposed on the southern face, but a complete section is not obtainable on that side. The details revealed there, however, have been used to correlate struc- tures across the cutting, and thus arrive at fairly reliable results for such items as the throw, strike, ete., of the faults. These are summarised in the table below :— | Dip Throw Heave : Fault | Direction | Amount. | (approx.) | (approx. ) 1 N62 ava 13 ft. 2. it 2 S. Oo W. See text See text 3 S.S.W. 75°—80° ae — 4 S.S.W. 7a°—80° 8 ins. — 5 S550". W, 42° 4 ft. 3 eat: 6 Seon NNO 44° ; otverlicatape 2 tt if S. 34° W. AT° Oa th. Sette 8 Cees i (See |. » mote below) 9 S. 50° W. Of) | 9 ine, 10 ins. NOTE.—The section of Fault No. 8 on the northern face of the cutting gives an apparent dip of 12° for the structure, but the section on the south side indicates that the true dip of the fault is considerably greater, although there is not enough information available to determine the strike or the value of the true dip. General Discussion. It will be seen that the faults agree reasonably closely in strike-direction. This is found to vary from about north-west to north-north-west, the chief exception being GEOLOGICAL FAULTS FROM BRANXTON. 13% that of F,, about which there is some doubt. Now it is found on examining the general folded structure in the Branxton area that there is a gradual change in dip from the neighbourhood of Black Creek to near Branxton Sta- tion. At the former locality the dip is W. 20° N. at 12°, while at the latter it is N. 25° EH. at 47°. The first- mentioned is the general dip of the beds on the western limb of the Lochinvar anticline in this locality. The latter dip is undoubtedly due to the influence of the Greta Fault, which passes from near the railway station in a north- westerly direction into the sharp fold defined by the Muree Beds north-west of Branxton. The general strike of the faults is more or less parallel to that of the Greta Fault and of the Hunter Overthrust and this fact, taken in conjunction with a knowledge of the tectonic history of the area, suggests that all these faults were produced by the same general set of earth- ‘movements. The probable genetic relation between the Greta Fault and the Great Boundary Fault or Hunter Overthrust has been suggested by one of us (H.G.R.)3, and the thrusts described here, although differing in character from the ‘Greta Fault, represent, we believe, shear-planes developed about the same time as this fault, and are not due to ten- sional forces. The authors have shown3*©+, in dealing with various phases of the structural geology of the Hunter Valley, that at least two orogenic movements affected the Branxton and ‘surrounding districts, one of these producing meridional folds and faults and the other being characterised by the formation of the Hunter Overthrust, which developed as a result of a general thrust from the north-east towards the south-west. At the time of this second diastrophism the Lochinvar anticline existed, and the Upper Marine Beds at 138 G. D. OSBORNE AND H. G. RAGGATT. Branxton possessed the general dip shown at the present: time. It is also almost certain that, at the same time, no. great mass of rock overlay the present Black Creek- Branxton section, and thus the conditions existing were those of strong sub-horizontal compression, with least com- pression in a vertical direction. Under these conditions it has been shown experimentally (see5) that shear-planes will develop in homogeneous brittle- rock-masses. These fractures will be in systems which intersect at varying angles according to the nature of the material. The intersecting planes are so arranged that the direction of thrusting bisects the acute angle between them. | Now in the present case it is seen that two sets of frac- tures are represented, as the two normal faults, F, and F,, are probably unrelated in origin to the thrusts. One system. of fractures has a general dip to the south-west or west- south-west at angles varying from 37° to 47°. The other set embraces one fault, F',, whose true dip is unobtainable and another, F,, which dips to the east-north-east at 37°. This means that the acute angle between the two systems: varies from 74°-84°. In the ideal case, with brittle material like sandstone, the angle is about 60°. In the present instance, however, it should be noted that the beds consist. of alternating shaly and sandy bands of varying resistance, and that these beds were not lying horizontal at the time: of compression. The existence of inclined bedding-planes, acting as planes of weakness, would tend to produce angular relationships between the fracture-systems which would differ from those obtained in the ideal case. The occurrence of the wedge or prism of rock formed by the intersection of the faults, F; and F,, and the presence of the border-thrusts, F; and F, remind one of the results obtained by R. T. Chamberlain and Richards® 7 from experi-- GEOLOGICAL FAULTS FROM BRANXTON. 139! ments dealing with the effects of compression upon certain materials. In these experiments the original masses. were wedge-shaped, and compression produced by clamping both sides of the wedge caused the development of over- thrusts in the central portion of the masses, and the squeezing-up of a central wedge, which was flanked by parallel border-thrusts. Under somewhat similar condi- tions wedge-faulting was also produced in loose sand. One of the chief features of these experiments is that little ver- tical compression exists, the conditions being almost equivalent to tensional stress in an upward direction. We believe that the wedge in the Branxton section, with its bordering thrusts, is an illustration, on a small scale, of the production of earth-wedges, as conceived by Chamberlain. A further point of interest about the Branxton faults is that they emphasise the fact, first demonstrated by Cadell® in his classical experiments, that thrusts do not necessarily result from upturned folds. This feature is also shown on a grand scale by the Hunter Overthrust. The authors are grateful to Professor L. A. Cotton for helpful discussion during the preparation of this note. (One of the authors [H.G.R.] acknowledges the permission of the Minister of Mines to collaborate in this paper.) List OF REFERENCES. felt, ba WALKOM: Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W,, vol. xxxviti, 1913. pp. 135-6. 2. T. W. E. Davin: Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Geology No. 4, Plate xxiv, facing p. 198. fe) tiseG.RAGGATT: Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. liv, 1929, p. 275. 3a. Idem: p. 276. 4. G. D. OsxBorne: Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. liv, 1929, p. 460. 5. W. H. Bucher: Journal of Geology, vol. xxviii, 1920, p. 707. 6. R. T. CHAMBERLAIN & J. T. RicHarps: Science, vol. xlvii, 1918, p. 492. 7. R. T. CHAMBERLAIN: Journal of Geology, vol. xxxiii, 1925, p. 755. 8. H. M. Caper: Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xxxv, p. 337. 140 L. A. WATERHOUSE AND W. R. BROWNE. NOTE ON AN OCCURRENCE OF QUARTZITE CONTAINING COMMON OPAL AND CHAL- CEDONY AT TALLONG, N.S.W. By L. L. Warrrnouss, B.E., Lecturer in Geology, University of Sydney, and W. R. Browne, D.Sc., Assistant-Professor of Geology, University of Sydney. (With Plate XII and one Text-figure.) (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 4, 1929.) Introduction. The country in the neighbourhood of Tallong contains many features of interest to the geologist. Among other things there is exposed in the bank of the gorge of the River Shoalhaven an extraordinarily fine example, of text-book clearness, of a right-angled unconformity, Ordovician schists and phyllites being overlain by prac- tically horizontal Permo-Carboniferous breccias, conglom- erates and massive sandstones. These in their turn have been covered by a flow of Tertiary basalt, which, along the edge of the left bank of the river near Badgery’s Lookdown, has been eroded away in places, revealing a layer of hard glassy quartzitic rock. These relations are shown on the Sketch-section herewith. Attention was first called to this, as to the other geological features of this important area, ‘by Dr. W. G. Woolnough.' Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII1., 1929, Plate XII. Fig. 5. (H. Gordon Gooch QUARTZITE CONTAINING OPAL AT TALLONG. 14} TERTIARY Olivine Basalt. Quartzite with opal ‘ prneeoweewe] PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS mene Sr 2 F2Z21Sandstones shales, conglomerates reccias. Vv 500 to) (000 2000 teet A = 2 Sketch-Section near Badgery’s Lookout, Tallong, N.S.W. The quartzite, which is only three or four feet in thick- ness, has usually been regarded as silicified Permo-Carboni- ferous sandstone, where impregnation by silica occurred in connexion with the Tertiary basaltic outpourings. A few years ago, however, the suggestion was made to us by Miss Ida A. Brown, B.Se., that the quartzite might really represent an original Tertiary terrestial sand, she having investigated very similar rocks near Ulladulla and elsewhere on the South Coast of New South Wales, whose silicification was undoubtedly related to Tertiary basalt-flows?; these quartzites were found to enclose remains of petrified wood definitely determined to be of Tertiary age. As some specimens of common opal had been found among this. -South Coast quartzite, a search was made last year, during the course of a geological excursion by University students, among the quartzites near Badgery’s Lookdown, with the result that the presence of opal and chalcedony in these rocks was definitely established, a fact which it has seemed to us desirable to place on record. | 142 L. A. WATERHOUSE AND W. R. BROWNE. Petrographical. The unaltered sandstone is an ordinary fine-grained type. Under the microscope the quartz-grains, variable in size but seldom more than 1 mm. in diameter, are notably angular. An occasional grain is composite in character, as if derived from a pre-existing quartz-vein, and the tiny inclusions so characteristic of plutonic quartz are some- times to be seen. . Quartz is the predominant granular mineral, but in addition there are flakes of muscovite and bleached biotite, and a few grains of brown tourmaline. There are also grains of orthoclase felspar, but generally so altered to sericite and kaolin that any estimate of their abundance is impossible. The cementing material has been largely converted into sericite, and to indeterminate cryptocrystalline material. A few patches of fibrous, colourless chlorite (?) appear in the paste. It appears evident that the sandstone has been derived principally from an acid granite, and that a certain amount of recrystallization has oceurred during the process of cementation. The quartzites show considerable variation among them- selves in texture and colour. All are exceedingly hard and dense, but while some are coarse and uneven in grain, evi- dently representing silicified grits and pebbly grits, others are fine-grained like normal quartzites. Others again are exceedingly fine-grained, resembling cherts and Jaspers. The colour may be white, grey, red, brown, reddish-brown or black. In the very fine jasperoid red and brown types silicified woody structures have been found, and in them, too, are frequent thin veinlets and irregular white patches of opaline and chalcedonie character. The lustre of the rocks is more or less vitreous, with a suggestion of oily or greasy QUARTZITE CONTAINING OPAL AT TALLONG. 143 lustre in some of the very fine-grained types. They are all very hard when fresh, and some of them remain so on exposure to the weather, but others containing kaolin soften and lose their glassy lustre. A sub-conchoidal fracture is often noticeable. The quartzites resemble in their general characters much of the so-called ‘‘grey billy’’ of the dry interior parts of the State. The field-relations of the different types are difficult to determine; no regular gradations are evident, but just an apparently haphazard passage from one to another. Possibly an exhaustive investigation would reveal some method in the distribution of types, but it seems not un- likely that the variations are the result partly of the ill-assorted nature of the original material and partly of the unequal incidence of solutions which may have carried iron as well as silica. Microscopic examination shows that there are several interesting features connected with the cementation of the original sand-grains. The clastic grains of the rock are in all cases practically entirely of quartz, with odd granules of tourmaline, zircon and sphene, some felspar and a few very tiny shreds of muscovite, but these last two minerals are much scarcer than in the parent sandstone. The quartz-grains are markedly angular, and the prevalence of concave sides to them is very striking. They give the impression of having been produced by the disintegration of a quartz-rock through the flaking-off of the grains. In regard to the original clastic material the quartzites are very variable in grainsize, and there is but little evidence of sorting. In one type, perhaps the most common, the grey-coloured rock consists mainly of an uneven aggregate of clastic quartz-grains set in a matrix which is of microcrystalline 144 L. A. WATERHOUSE AND W. R. BROWNE. quartz, the granules having sutured junctions and being evidently due to deposition from solution (Plate XII, Fig. 1). How far this deposition has occurred as enlargement of existing tiny clastic quartz-grains it is impossible to say, but there are in places distinct indications of outgrowths to the larger grains. Some of the rocks of this type contain occasional little interstitial filings of almost eryptocrystal- line quartz, very similar to that which is found replacing felspars and other minerals in silicified igneous rocks. The grey colour of the rock is due to the kaolin which is scattered through the matrix. This type is practically indistinguishable microscopically from the UNadulla quartzite. We turn now to those types in which the interstitial silica is in the form of opal with or without chalcedony. In some of these the opal is apparently just an exceedingly subordinate cementing material to the close-packed, tiny, clastic granules which fill in the spaces between the larger grains, in others the grains are separated by kaolin, which is intimately associated with opal, as though it had been thoroughly soaked by the siliceous solutions (Plate XII, Fig. 2) ; in these rocks the kaolin-opal matrix may make up roughly 30% of the entire rock. In the red and brown quartzites the place of kaolin is taken in part by earthy haematite and limonite. The kaolin is doubtless an original or pre-basalt cement, but it is not quite clear whether the same statement applies to the iron-oxides; there seems a probability that they may have been introduced subse- quently, but in any case they were deposited before the opal, and some specimens have been collected whose appearance rather suggests that the iron-oxide was removed altogether in places and replaced by opal. Yet another type of matrix is found in the quartzites. In this the opal forms an exceedingly narrow fringe or QUARTZITE CONTAINING OPAL AT TALLONG. 145 investment to the clastic quartz-grains, and the tiny angular interspaces are filled with fibrous-radial chalcedony which is sharply bounded against the opal (Plate XII, Fig. 3). The quartz-grains are never in contact, so that apparently either the opal and chalcedony have replaced the former cement, or else, as seems more probable, the siliceous solu- tions percolated through an incoherent mass of sand, with much pore-space, first depositing a film of opal on the erains and afterwards filling the remaining space with chaleedony. Apart from functioning as a cement the opal and chalce- dony appear with or without haematite as filings to narrow irregular cracks through the quartzite. In these veinlets, which sometimes cut right through quartz-grains, and were therefore formed after cementation, the opal occurs as a lining to the walls, the middle space being filled with fibrous chaleedony (Plate XII, Figs. 4 and 5). These veinlets are found even in quartzites which are free from opal as a cement, but they are perhaps particularly characteristic of the very fine red jasperoid rocks. No quartz-filled veinlets have been found, though it appeared to us that in some places the central filling of a veinlet was of finely-granular quartz. The woody structures referred to above are preserved in opal and ecryptocrystalline quartz plentifully stained with iron oxides, and they also are intersected by opal-chalce- dony veinlets. It should be mentioned that the opal is easily recognizable by its very low refractive index and by its general isotro- pism; only rarely are there indications of a very feeble birefringence. The chalcedony has fibrous or fibrous-radial structure, a low birefringence, a refraction slightly below that of Canada Balsam, and a negative elongation of the fibres. J—December 5, 1929. 146 L. A. WATERHOUSE AND W. R. BROWNE. The absence of any signs of precious opal from our col- lection is worthy of remark. This may be because it does not occur, or because it was not searched for sufficiently. However, local inquiry failed to elicit any evidence that precious opal had been found at Tallong, and in our opinion there is no compelling reason why the precious type should be found with the common opal. Original Condition of the Quartzites. There is nothing in the field-occurrence of the quartzites to indicate definitely that they have not resulted from impregnation of the Permo-Carboniferous sandstones by siliceous waters. Sharp junctions with the underlying unaltered sandstones are not seen, but one can readily imagine that there is a gradual though fairly rapid passage from quartzite down into sandstone. A microscopic exami- ~ nation of the quartzite, however, reveals a very close resemblance to the Ulladulla quartzite, as well as to the silicified Tertiary sands of Mt. Macedon, Victoria, described by Skeats and Summers.3 In addition to this the detrita! . grains of the quartzite, though entirely similar in kind, differ in shape and arrangement from those of the unaltered Permo-Carboniferous sandstone, and the impression is gained that the latter has in Tertiary times under subaérial weathering suffered disintegration resulting in the aeccumu- lation of a layer of angular quartz-sand as a kind of seden- tary or perhaps alluvial soil. Such a mantle of sand is to be seen about Tallong itself, and particularly at the neigh- bouring town of Wingello, produced by weathering of sandstones either during the ‘Tertiary peneplanation or during the present cycle of erosion. Colour is lent to the possibility of a Tertiary mantle of sand by the consideration that in a compact sandstone with no very considerable pore-space the heated siliceous waters QUARTZITE CONTAINING OPAL AT TALLONG. 147 would penetrate with comparative slowness and affect but a thin layer, whereas percolation through a loose, uricom- pacted sand would be easy and rapid, and would be lkely 4o extend down through the full thickness of the disinte- grated material; the effects would then die out gradually in the partially decomposed but still comparatively solid rock beneath. This might account for the existing thickness of quartzite, and for the absence of a sharp plane of division between it and the unaltered sandstone. In certain jasperoid phases of the quartzite abundant well-preserved silicified woody structures were detected with the microscope, but it has not been possible to gain from them sufficient information to settle the question of the probable geological age of the plant-material. On the whole we consider that there is quite a strong probability that Miss Brown’s suggestion is correct, that the quartzite is really a cemented Tertiary sand. Causes of the Silicification. ~ Quartzites petrologically similar to those being dealt with ‘are found in this State under a variety of circumstances and due to a variety of causes. First of all there are the rocks, such as the Upper Devonian quartzites, which are apparently due to the transformation of rather siliceous sandstones under conditions of regional and sometimes of contact metamorphism, the Devonian rocks having been not merely folded but invaded by granite in places. Such rocks are found among our older and middle Palaeozoic sedimen- ‘tary formations. Secondly, we may recognise those quartzites which occur extensively as cappings to hills and ridges in the drier interior parts of Australia, as, for instance, at White Cliffs im this State.45° These are level-bedded, often overlie Cretaceous marine sediments, and are usually attributed to 148 L. A. WATERHOUSE AND W. R. BROWNE. cementation of outcropping rocks or sands through the exudation of silica in solution from the rocks beneath the surface, either during the present physiographic cycle or during an earlier one of Tertiary age. In a third group: may be placed those rocks, originally river-sands and gravels mainly, whose cementation has been very evidently connected in some way with the outpouring of Tertiary basalt, inasmuch as they are either actually overlain by: basalt-flows or else are restricted to areas from which the: fava has been eroded.”7,74 To the quartzites and silicified conglomerates belonging to the last two groups, the term “‘grey billy” is often applied by miners, and to some extent the name is used descriptively by geologists, but its undeniable convenience: and usefulness are somewhat marred by the fact that the: colour of the rocks is by no means constant, buff, red and. brown tones being common. It is very clear that the Tallong quartzites belong to the third of the groups just mentioned... They appear not as. ° a widespread covering to the sandstone country, but purely as a local occurrence, and their close association with the: basalt puts their relation to it beyond reasonable doubt. Source of Silica and Causes of Devosition. The question next arises as to the exact source of the silica by whose deposition the change from sand to quartzite was effected. Clearly it must either have been introduced from without, that is, from volcanic sources, or else have been already present in the sand at the time of the voleanie eruptions, either in the form of quartz-grains or else in solution in waters mechanically contained within the layer of sand. The generally-received explanation of the formation of contact-quartzites of this kind is that the sediments—sands, QUARTZITE CONTAINING OPAL AT TALLONG. 149 ‘gravels or sandstones—became saturated, during the period of voleanic activity, with highly-heated waters of volcanic derivation containing silica which was subsequently depo- ‘sited, with decreasing temperatures, as quartz, opal or ¢haleedony.?74 Under this explanation the cementing silica is entirely of foreign origin. But it has also been sug- gested that the heat produced by the overlying lava would quicken the solvent power of the water already contained in the pore-spaces of the sediment and cause it to attack the grains and take silica and other substances into solu- tion.2?, According to analyses quoted by F. W. Clarke® it would appear that river-waters may contain appreciable proportions of silica and also probably of alkali carbonates and silicates, doubtless derived largely from the decom- position of silicate minerals. If the sediments before being overlain by the lava contained such waters, then not merely ‘would there be some silica available in solution, but on the heating-up of the waters quartz and other minerals of the sediments would be attacked by the alkali solutions and the silica content of the waters would be correspondingly increased, There appears to be a third possibility. There is much evidence in both lava-flows and intrusions that the residual magmatic waters of certain basic magmas may contain alkali carbonates and silicates in solution. These soaking through porous sediments at high temperatures might readily attack both quartz and felspar, resulting in the ‘taking of silica into solution. The last two processes would of course involve corrosion of the attacked quartz-grains, and as a matter of fact in some of our thin sections of the quartzites there are what wwe consider to be evidences of such corrosion, particularly marked in those rocks which contain much opal in the gmiatrix (Plate XII, Fig. 2). 150 L. A. WATERHOUSE AND W. R. BROWNE. The problem, however, is not merely one of the method: by which the silica was taken into solution, but also of the means by which deposition was accomplished. Where the: silica was in solution at high temperature the obvious result of cooling would be precipitation in the form of quartz or some other silica-mineral, as has been the case in quartz- veins, and since in the present instance the solutions, whe- ther original or introduced through volcanic agencies, must have been at some time highly heated, falling temperature: may be regarded as a possible cause of deposition. The observed association of quartz and chaleedony im large mineral-veins has been attributed to the differential cooling of hot siliceous waters, quartz having separated at: higher and chalcedony at lower temperavubes” It is also on record” that the hot waters issuing from Iceland geysers contain alkaline silicates in solution, and that on exposure to the air these are decomposed with the: formation of silica and alkali carbonates. Doubtless falling temperature is an important factor in the reaction. Clarke" has brought together much information in: regard to the experimental work on the precipitation of various forms of silica, which may have some bearing on the present problem. For instance, it has been shown that quartz taken into solution by alkali silicates at high temperatures is reprecipitated when the temperature is. lowered. Such quartz might form extensions of original. clastic grains or else appear as a cement, converting in- eoherent sands into quartzites. Further, it has been demonstrated that the heating of a. solution of colloidal silica brings about the formation of: quartz; in the presence of carbonic acid the same result is. obtained. It would appear, therefore, that if a sediment. contained water comparable with river-water in composi- — QUARTZITE CONTAINING OPAL AT TALLONG. 151 tion, then deposition of quartz might take place as a result of mere heating through contact with overlying lava. The recent experimental work of Moore and Maynard” has shown that colloidal silica may be precipitated from a sufficiently concentrated solution by sodium chloride, and to a smaller extent by calcium and magnesium bicarbonates. There is little possibility that any of these substances was present in the sands at Tallong. It is evident, then, that there are many ways in which silica could have been made available, and deposited directly or indirectly through the influence of volcanic eruptions, and it 1s possible that more than one process may have been operative. On the whole, however, having regard to the quantity of silica involved in the cementation of the sand, and to other considerations, we are rather inclined to the view that the bulk of the silica was added to the sands from voleanie sources, and that falling temperature was the main factor in its precipitation. Mineral-Forms and the Order of Their Deposition. The evidence of the rocks shows that the silica was depo- sited in three forms, and in the order: quartz, opal, chalce- dony. It is true that a little quartz was detected in the middle portion of one of the veinlets, but we could not be quite certain that this was not a quartz-grain isolated in the veinlet. We have been unable in the literature at our disposal to find any precise data as to the conditions determining which of these three forms of silica shall be deposited, but pre- sumably the order is to some extent one of decreasing temperature. It is rather contrary to expectation that chaleedony succeeds opal in the order of deposition: one would hardly 152 L. A. WATERHOUSE AND W. R. BROWNE. have anticipated that the hydrous amorphous opal would come between the anhydrous and crystalline quartz and the chalcedony; nevertheless the evidence on this point is very clear, the opal being always interposed between quartz and chalcedony in the interstices and the veinlets. We find nothing to support the view that chalcedony is a mixture of crystalline and amorphous silica; on the con- trary its individuality as a separate mineral is very pro- nounced. Nor is there any support for Dr. Rastall’s suggestion’’ that chaleedony represents the erystallization of an original colloidal and amorphous opal. In the quartz- ites the two minerals are in the closest association, but the boundaries between them are always sharp anil clearly defined, with no sign of a transition from one to the other, and no suggestion of a derivative relation. rf Similar Occurrences in the State. Although there are in this State many known occurrences of sand or sandstone converted into quartzite by Tertiary lava-flows, from none of them, so far as we know, has opal been recorded. A few occurrences of common opal there are which may be attributed to contact-action of basalt, but they are not quite analogous to that at Tallong. Jensen'+ mentions veins of opal ramifying through volcanic tuff in the Warrumbungle Mountains; Skeats ' has de- scribed masses of black opal apparently due to the whole- sale opalization of earth between two basalt-flows at Tweed Heads; and Morrison” in his report on the Tintenbar opal- field refers to a siliceous earth which has been opalized through the influence of an overlying basalt-flow. Silicifi- eation of river-alluvium in deep leads has been a frequent occurrence, and occasionally opalized wood has been discov- ered in such circumstances, and there has been silicification of diatomaceous earth with the production of a kind of QUARTZITE CONTAINING OPAL AT TALLONG. 153 highly vitreous siliceous sinter, probably due to overlying lava-flows; but the only other example of common opal associated with contact-quartzite that we have seen is one shown us by Miss Ida Brown, which was found in the neighbourhood of Moruya, whence there has also been col- lected a specimen of opalized wood, presented to the University Geological Museum by Mr. W. Flood. Very probably the contact-quartzites of New England and other basaltic areas have never been specially examined for common opal, which might be found if search was made. REFERENCES. 1. Woolnough, W. G.—The General Geology of Marulan and Tallong. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 34, 1909, p. 782. 2. Brown, Ida A.—Some Tertiary Formations on the South Coast of N.S.W. This Journal, 59, 1926, p. 387. 3. Skeats, E. W., and Summers, H. S.—The Geology and Petrology of the Macedon District. Bull. Geol. Surv. Vic., INO. 24,1912, p. 15. 4, Pittman, E. F.—Mineral Resources of N.S.W., 1901, p. 399. 5. Andrews, E. C.—Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., for 1924, p. 84; also The Mineral Industry of N.S.W., 1928, p. 302. 6. Ward, L. K.—Review of Mining Operations in S. Aust., No. 25, 1917, p. 36. ‘7. David, T. W. E.—The Vegetable Creek Tin-mining Field. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., No. 1, 1887, pp. 88 and 45. 7a. Cotton, L. A.—The Tin-Deposits of New England, N.S.W. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 34, 1909, pp. 746-8. 8. Clarke, F. W.—The Data of Geochemistry. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 770, 1924, Chap. III. 9. Beyschlag, Vogt and Krusch—Ore Deposits (trans. Trus- cott), 1914, Vol. I, pp. 104-5. 10. Roscoe and Schorlemmer—A Treatise on Chemistry, 1920, Vol. I, p. 927. ‘11. Clarke, F. W.—The Data of Geochemistry, pp. 361-266. ‘12. Moore, E. S., and Maynard, J. E.—Solution, Transportation and Deposition of Iron and Silica. Econ. Geol., 24, 1929, pp. 272 and-365. 13. Rastall, R. H.—Physico-Chemical Geology, 1927, p. 239. 14. Jensen. H. I.—Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 32, 1907, pp. 585 and 869. 154. L. A. WATERHOUSE AND W. R. BROWNE. 15. Skeats, E. W.—Notes on a Plant-bearing common Black Opal from Tweed Heads, N.S.W. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 26,. 1974. 18. 16. Morrison, M.—Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., for 1919,. D. pio. EXPLANATION OF PLATE. Plate XII. Microphotographs. Fig. 1—A typical quartzite without opal cement. The clastic quartz-grains are set in a matrix of microcrystalline quartz, the granules having sutured junctions. Abundant tiny inclu- sions are present in the central quartz-grain. Crossed nicols. x 29 Fig. 2.—Quartzite with kaolin-opal matrix. Some of the larger quartz-grains such as those at the bottom and the upper’ left-hand corner of the figure show numerous microscopic in- clusions with linear arrangement. Some quartz-grains show’ corrosion. Ordinary light. x 29. Fig. 3.—Quartzite with opal cement. The clastic quartz- grains are invested by opal. Part of the opal cement is stained with haematite. It is noteworthy that the quartz-grains are: never in contact. The colourless interstitial material is chalce- dony. Ordinary light. x 25. Fig. 4.—Quartzite with quartz cement intersected by veinlet: of opal and chalcedony. The veinlet cuts across several quartz: grains and encloses quartz fragments. Crossed nicols. x 29. — Fig. 5.—Quartzite with cement composed mainly of opal, traversed by an opal-chalcedony veinlet. The central clear’ filling of the veinlet is chalcedony, the walls being coated with: opal. The dark-coloured matrix in the lower left-hand corner: is stained with haematite. Ordinary light. x 29. HYDROLYSIS OF CELLULOSE. 155 STUDIES ON THE HYDROLYSIS OF CELLULOSE. Pary.[. By Miss J. Cuaumers and J. C. Haru, D.Sc., Ph.D. (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales Dec. 4, 1929.) There are a number of methods available for the quantitative hydrolysis of cellulose to glucose, and by the use of some of these, various intermediate products have been obtained and examined. The study of these inter- mediate products furnishes an important avenue of approach to a knowledge of the structure of cellulose itself, and for this reason the development of further methods of eontrolled degradation of cellulose is desirable. The action of methyl alcohol containing hydrogen. chloride on cellulose triacetate was employed by Irvine and. Hirst (J. Chem. Soe. 1922, 121, 1585) in their quantitative degradation of cellulose. This method has been used re- peatedly for the breakdown of many other polysaccharides and their derivatives, and has proved a very useful aid’ to the study of the structure of such substances. In the particular case of cellulose triacetate the employment of only a small percentage of hydrogen chloride and digestion. in a sealed tube at temperatures above 100° C. are recom- mended as the best conditions under which to apply the reagent. Various other sets of conditions were explored by Irvine and Hirst, among them being the action of boiling methyl alcohol containing 1 to 2 per cent. of hydrogen chloride at atmospheric pressure. In this case no formation of methyl glucoside was observed after boiling for 24 hours. In spite of this observation, further experiments have now been made with a somewhat greater proportion of hydrogem 156 MISS J. CHALMERS AND J. C. EARL. chloride, namely, 5 per cent., and it has been established that cellulose triacetate is progressively attacked and also that methyl glucoside is formed. The progressive attack was followed in several series of experiments, one of which is quoted here (Table I). In each case 1 gram of the tri- acetate was taken and boiled for the specified time with 00 ce. of methyl alcohol containing 5 per cent. of hydrogen ehloride. Time (hours) Weight undissolved (grams) 3) 0.521 i 0.454 lu 0.323 1 0.291 21 0.271 TABLE If. To establish the presence of methyl glucoside in the ‘dissolved portion, 10 grams of the triacetate were boiled for 7 hours with 500 ee. of methyl alcoholic hydrogen chloride. After removal of the undissolved portion (4 grams), the acid solution was neutralised by lead carbonate, filtered and evaporated. The residue consisted of a mix- ture of crystalline solid and syrup. The crystalline portion was separated, and after purification by recrystallisation, was found to have the characteristics of a-methyl glucoside (m.p. 167 — 169° C.; [a] p 10 methyl aleohol = + 163°). During the reaction of the conversion of cellulose tri- acetate into methyl glucoside, de-acetylation takes place. This applies both to the insoluble (cf. Irvine and Soutar, J. Chem. Soc., 1920, 119, 1489) and to the soluble pro- ducts. For instance, in the experiment just described, the undissolved portion of 4 grams was found to consist of material containing only 11.5 per cent. of acetyl. It is obviously of interest to determine whether this material HYDROLYSIS OF CELLULOSE. 157 is merely a partly de-acetylated cellulose triacetate or whether it represents a degradation product. With this. object the product was fully re-acetylated by the usual method and yielded a substance containing 46.54 per cent.. of acetyl and possessing in chloroform solution an optical rotation of [a], = — 8°. Repetition of the experiment. gave comparative results, i.e., the insoluble material con-- tained 15.2 per cent. of acetyl; on re-acetylation the acetyl. content was increased to 46.84 per cent. ; [a], = — 10°. These results make it perfectly clear that the insoluble material obtained in the experiments represents a partially de-acetylated degradation product. After re-acetylation, such a product can again be sub- jected to treatment by boiling methyl alcoholic hydrogen ehloride, yielding, as before, soluble and insoluble frac- tions. The results of such a repeated treatment are shown in Table II. _w soluble, 3.08 gms. Cellulose triacetate “insoluble, 7.36 gms. (15.2% acetyl). (16.0 grams) Of this, 6.3 gms. were fully re- acetylated and yielded 9.14 gms. (46.84% acetyl; [a], =e hOeye __-# soluble, 3.21 gms. ——~ insoluble, 2.16 gms. (5.36% acetyl). Of this, 1.77 gms. re-acetylated to 1.98 gms. (48.77% acetyl; lo], ae 7.85 gms of this 2 soluble, 0.609 ems. Mee ome of fis — mee oo | insoluble, 0.393 oms. TABLE II. A study of this table shows that the degradation of cel- lulose acetate is accompanied by the lowering of the specific 158 MISS J. CHALMERS AND J. C. EARL. rotation (of the fully acetylated products), an observation which’ may prove of value as providing a means of deter- ‘mining the relationship of alleged acetyl celluloses to cel- lulose itself. Further, in spite of the inevitable losses during the repeated manipulation, the total yield of soluble material calculated as methyl glucoside is approximately 83 per cent. of the theoretical. It may be expected, there- fore, that this mode of application of the methyl alcoholic hydrogen chloride degradation process may prove useful as .a quantitative method. Experiments to establish this are in progress. The acetyl determinations quoted in this paper were made in the following way :— A weighed portion of the acetyl derivative was boiled with a solution of approximately N/2 caustic soda for two hours. Sufficient 10 per cent. sulphuric acid was then added to bring the acid concentration to approximately 5 per cent. The solution was then submitted to steam dis- tillation, the distillate being collected in batches of about 390 ec., each of which was titrated with standard alkah. When the same quantity of alkali was required for two successive batches, the distillation was stopped and a cor- rection made by deducting from the titration value of each batch, the limit value attained in the last two batches. Treated in this way, ordinary cellulose triacetate was found to have an acetyl content of 44.1 per cent. (calculated 44.8 per cent). Precautions were taken to exclude carbon di- oxide, and a blank determination was made with the re- agents. The authors’ thanks are due to the trustees of the Science and Industrial Endowment Fund for a grant to- wards the expenses of this investigation. Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Sydney. TRIMETHOXY-QUINOLINE DERIVATIVES. 159 SOME TRIMETHOXY-QUINOLINE DERIVATIVES. By Francis Lions, B.Se., Ph.D. ——- (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 4, 1929.) It has been pointed out previously (Lions, Perkin and Robinson, J.C.S., 1925, 127, 1161) that 6-substituted-3 :4- dialkyloxy acylanilides exhibit the nitric acid reaction of brucine, but that the alkaloid itself is very much more sensitive to this reagent. It was thought that this might be due to a further substitution of the benzene ring of the alkaloid, in particular, to an attached ether linking, be- cause the function of the ‘‘second oxygen atom”’ of strych- nine and brucine has not yet been completely elucidated. - Jn an attempt to gain information on this point 1-acetyl- 5 :6 :7-trimethoxy-2 :4-dimethyl-1 :2 :3 :4-tetrahydroquinoline (I) and 1-acetyl-6 :7 :8-trimethoxy-2 :4-dimethyl-1 :2 :3-4- tetrahydroquinoline (II) re re CH,0 CH,° Ne cu Neu CH,0 i o CH,O Ch. CHO —CH H,O NH CH.O es CHO : Sits CH, i ee CH,O ' CO.CHs 30) Corey (1) (IT) (III) have been synthesised from 3:4:5-trimethoxyaniline (IIT) and 2:3:4-trimethoxyaniline (IV) respectively, by appli- eation of Combe’s quinoline synthesis (cf. Compt. rend., 1887, 106, 142; Bull. Soe. Chim., 1888, (iv), 49, 90), fol- lowed by reduction and acetylation. Acetylacetone was condensed with 3 :4:5-trimethoxyaniline and 2:3 :4-trimeth- oxyaniline respectively, to give the Schiff’s bases B-(3 :4:5- 160 FRANCIS LIONS. trimethoxyanilino)-propenyl methyl ketone (V) and £- (2:3 :4-trimethoxyanilino)-propenyl methyl ketone. Solu- tion of these in cold CH CH CH,O ‘igh CH,0 ri CQ a CH,0 CH,O i" CH,O " CH,0 Cb) (V) (VI) concentrated sulphuric acid led to the almost quantitative formation of 5:6 :7-trimethoxy-2 :4-dimethyl quinoline (VI) and 6:7 :8-trimethoxy-2 :4-dimethyl quinoline respectively. Reduction of these bases with sodium and boiling ethyl alcohol gave the corresponding tetrahydro bases as colour- less oils of constant boiling point. Both yielded oily yellow nitrosoamines when treated in dilute acid solution with sodium nitrite solution. Gentle acetylation with acetie anhydride led to the formation of the amides (I) and (II), of which the former was obtained crystalline. The latter, — however, could not be induced to erystallise, nor could the corresponding 1-benzoyl-6 :7 :8-trimethoxy-2 :4-dimethyl- 1 :2:3 :4-tetrahydroquinoline (VII) be obtained in a erystal- line condition. u ¢ CH,O Ach, CH—CH CHO W 3 CH,0 co. CeHs (VIT) ‘The isomers (1) and (II) are 6-substituted-3 :4-dialkyl- oxy-acylanilides further substituted in the benzene ring by a methoxy group. They have the requisite substituent groups previously shown to be necessary for the brucine TRIMETHOXY-QUINOLINE DERIVATIVES. 161 reaction. It was found on experiment that both (I) and (II) exhibit almost identical colour reactions with nitric acid, but that these differ widely from the brucine reaction in sensitiveness and in tint. It would thus appear im- probable that there is a third ether link attached to the benzene ring of brucine. The quantitative nature of the quinoline ring closure by means of concentrated sulphuric acid of the Schiff’s bases, 8-(3 :4:5-trimethoxyanilino )-propenyl methyl ketone and #-(2:3:4-trimethoxyanilino)-propenyl methyl ketone, is of interest in connection with the observations of Roberts and Turner on the factors controlling the formation of such derivatives of quinoline (J.C.S., 1927, 1832). In view of the fact that no substance so far obtained from strychnine or brucine has been definitely proved to contain the quinoline nucleus, it seems of importance to prepare an acylated 5:6-dimethoxy dihydroindole and examine its behaviour towards nitric acid. Such a derivative should show the ‘‘brucine reaction,’’ and its sensitiveness towards the reagent may resemble that of the alkaloid more closely —though neither 5:6-dimethoxyindole nor its 1-acetyl derivative resembles brucine in its reaction with nitrie acid (ef. Oxford and Raper, J.C.S., 1927, 1625-6). The syn- thesis of 5:6-dimethoxy-dihydroindole is in progress. EXPERIMENTAL. B-(3:4:5-Trimethoxyanilino)-propenyl methyl ketone. d-Aminopyrogallol trimethyl ether (Graebe and Suter, Ann. 340, 222-4 (1905) ; 30 grams) was heated with acety- lacetone (18 grams) on a steam bath for three hours, during which globules of water separated. The yellow ethereal solution of the oil was well washed with water and dried over sodium sulphate. Removal of portion of the solvent, followed by cooling and scratching, caused the Schiff’s K—December 4, 1929, 162 FRANCIS LIONS. base to erystallise in very pale yellow rhombic prisms. One further crystallisation from ether gave a pure product melting at 101°C. (Found: C, 63.4; H, 7.2. C,,H,,0,N requires ©, 63.5; H, 7.2%.) This compound is chiefly characterised by the great ease with which it erystallises. Slow evaporation of an ethereal solution can be made readily to yield rhombs over one centimetre in length. It is best purified from ether in which it is only sparingly soluble in the cold. It is very soluble in benzene, chloro- form, acetone and ethyl acetate, moderately in alcohol and only very sparingly in light petroleum. 5 :6:7-Trimethoxy-2:4-dimethyl quinoline. The above mentioned Schiff’s base (10 grams) was added in small portions with efficient stirring and cooling to ice- cold concentrated sulphuric acid (60 grams). Finally, after standing for 30 minutes in the cold, the pale brown solution was poured into ice-water (600 ec.). This solution was carefully basified with ammonia, when the quinoline separated as a white crystalline powder, which was filtered off, washed well with cold water and dried in vacuo (yield, 8 grams). If the sulphuric acid reaction mixture be poured into a smaller volume of ice-water it is possible to induce the sulphate of the base to crystallise as a voluminous white precipitate. Reecrystallised from dilute methyl! alcohol, the base was obtained in radiating clusters of long slender needles, m.p. 59° C. (Found: C, 67.7; H, 6.8. C.,Hi;O;,N requires C, 68.0; H, 6.9%.) It is very soluble in most of the usual organic solvents, only moderately so in ether and sparingly in light petroleum. It is practically in- soluble in water, but dissolves readily in acids. The solu- tion in cold concentrated sulphuric acid is practically col- ourless, but becomes dark on warming. Demethylation probably occurs, for on dilution and addition of alkali TRIMETHOXY-QUINOLINE DERIVATIVES. 163 there is no precipitate and the solution rapidly changes through violet to a very dark colour. '5:6:7-Trimethoxy-2 :4-dimethy]-1:2:3 :4-tetrahydroquinoline. 5 :6:7-Trimethoxy-2 :4-dimethylquinoline (8 grams) was dissolved in boiling absolute ethyl alcohol (100 ec.) and reduced by the rapid addition of sodium (10 grams) in small pieces. After complete solution of the metal most of the alcohol was removed in a current of steam, and the il which separated from the cooled diluted solution taken up in ether, dried over sodium sulphate, solvent removed and then distilled in vacuo. A colourless viscous oil (7 grams) boiling at 211-214°/13 mm. was obtained. On Jong standing it solidified to a finely crystalline white solid, m.p. 89°. (Found: C, 66.8; H, 8.1. C,,H2O3N requires C, 66.9; H, 8.4%.) The tetrahydro base dissolves readily in acids. The solution in hydrochloric acid gives the nitro- soamine as a pale yellow sticky oil, when treated with sodium nitrite solution in the cold. Solution in twice its weight of acetic anhydride followed by two hours’ stand- ing and then 15 minutes’ heating on the steam bath led to acetylation of the base. After decomposition of excess of reagent by dilute hydrochloric acid and washing, the ‘pale brown oil was induced to erystallise. Recrystallisation from methyl alcohol gave the pure acetyl derivative in melourless prisms,m.p. 137° C. (Found: C, 65.1; H, 7.8. C,,;H.,0,N requires C, 65.5; H, 7.8%.) This substance is readily soluble in most of the usual organic solvents with the exception of light petroleum. It dissolves very ‘slowly in cold concentrated sulphuric acid to a colourless ‘solution, which acquires an immediate wine-red colour on the addition of a trace of nitric acid. On standing, the eolour fades to an orange. A solution in glacial acetic acid also acquires a wine-red colouration when treated with a b 5 — 164 FRANCIS LIONS. few drops of nitric acid, but the colour appears much more slowly than in the case of brucine and is also of a different. tint. On standing it deepens to a purplish red, which then. slowly fades to a brown. 4-Aminopyrogallol trimethyl ether. The hydrochloride of this base has been described by: Graebe and Suter (Annalen der Chemie, 340, 227 (1905) ),. who prepared the base by the action of sodium hypochlorite: on 2:3 -4-trimethoxybenzamide and isolated it as the above- mentioned salt. The following process was found better for the isolation of the base in quantity. Ethyl gallate: trimethyl ether (Pollak and Feldscharek, Monats. 29, 139-- 155 (1908) ) was nitrated according to the method of Hamburg (ibid., 19, 599 (1898) ), and the resulting nitro- ester, m.p. 68-70°, hydrolysed by solution in warm aqueous. potassium hydroxide solution. A solution of the resulting 2-nitro-gallic acid trimethyl ether (m.p. 164°; 50 grams) in dilute ammonia was run in a thin stream into a boiling solution of crystallised ferrous sulphate (390 grams) in | water (850 ee.), with vigorous shaking. Small portions. of concentrated ammonia were then added at intervals. until the boiling solution became definitely alkaline, each addition being followed by vigorous shaking. The mixture was then boiled five minutes, filtered, and the 3:4:5-tri- methoxy-anthranilic acid recovered from the concentrated. filtrate with acetic acid. The yield was almost theoretical. The product was obtained pure in jade green glistening plates, m.p. 140°, by re-crystallisation from ethyl alcohol. (Found: C, 52.7; H, 5.7. Calculated C,.Hi3,0;N requires. C, 52.9; H, 5.7%.) This acid shows a very fine blue-violet fluorescence in alcoholic solution. A suspension of 3:4:5-trimethoxy anthranilic acid (30: grams) in glycerol (200 grams) was kept vigorously stirred. TRIMETHOXY-QUINOLINE DERIVATIVES. 165 -~whilst the temperature was slowly raised to 200°. Carbon dioxide commenced to be evolved at 150°, and the evolution ‘was apparently complete at 190°. The cooled solution was diluted to four times its volume with water and extracted several times with ether. From the combined dark-red ethereal extracts, dried over sodium sulphate, the solvent was removed, and the residual oily base was distilled under diminished pressure. 15 grams of a colourless oil, b.p. 147-8°/15 mm. were collected. (Found: C, 58.8; H, 7.0. ‘Calculated C,H::;0;N requires C, 59.0; H, 7.1%.) 4- Aminopyrogallol trimethyl ether is practically odourless and darkens rapidly on exposure to air. A dilute solution of the hydrochloride rapidly changes through purple to deep-red with ferric chloride solution. The acetyl derwa- tive obtained by the action of acetic anhydride on a solution of the base in dilute acetic acid is a colourless solid, m.p. a0". B- (2:3:4-Trimethoxyanilino)-propenyl methyl ketone. 4-Aminopyrogallol trimethyl ether (14 grams) and acetylacetone (9 grams) were heated together on the water- bath for half an hour, when globules of water separated. The oily yellow liquid was dried in ether and finally dis- tilled under diminished pressure, 20 grams of an almost colourless thick oil, b.p. 206-8°/14 mm. being collected. This soon solidified and, after several re-crystallisations from petroleum, ether was obtained in colourless prisms, mp. 70°. (Found: C, 63.3; H, 7.2. C,,H,,0,N requires C, 63.4; H, 7.2%.) 6:7:8-Trimethoxy-2:4-dimethyl quinoline. B- (2:3 :4-Trimethoxyanilino )-propenyl methyl] ketone (15 grams) was carefully dissolved in ice-cold concentrated sulphuric acid (90 grams). After standing at room tem- perature for an hour the clear brown solution was poured 166 FRANCIS LIONS. into ice-water and carefully basified with ammonia. The precipitated pale yellow oil was taken up and dried in ether, and finally distilled under diminished pressure. 11 grams of a pale yellow viscous oil were collected, b.p. 198- 200°/12 mm. After standing some days this solidified, and by re-crystallisation from petroleum ether was obtained in colourless prisms, m.p. 59.5°. (Found: C, 67.9; H, 6.9; C,H 470,N requires 'C, 68:0; ER 697.5) 6:7:8-Trimethoxy-2 :4-dimethyl-1 :2 :3 :4-tetrahydroquinoline. The quinoline derivative just described (8 grams) was dissolved in boiling absolute ethyl alcohol (150 ec.), and reduced by the rapid addition of sodium (15 grams) cut in small pieces. After complete solution of the metal the alcohol was removed by steam distillation and the cooled, diluted residue extracted with ether. After drying and removal of the solvent the remaining oil was distilled under diminished pressure, a colourless oil (5 grams) boil- ing at 173-5°/11 mm. being obtained (Found: C, -66.7; H, 8.3; CysH2i0;,N requires C, 66.9; H, 8.4%.) This base — is almost odourless. It dissolves readily in dilute mineral acid solutions, and treatment of such solutions in the cold with sodium nitrite solution leads to the immediate pro- duction of a viscous oily yellow nitrosoamine. Solution of the base in twice its weight of acetic anhydride, allowing to stand for two hours and then warming on the steam- bath led to the formation of the acetyl derivative (1), which was obtained as a pale yellow oil on decomposition of excess: of reagent with very dilute hydrochloric acid in which the amide (1) is quite insoluble. The oil could not be induced to ecrystallise. It dissolves readily in glacial acetic acid, and the solution gives a wine-red coloration with a few drops of concentrated nitric acid. The reaction is very similar to that shown by the isomer described above.. TRIMETHOXY-QUINOLINE DERIVATIVES. 167 It does not resemble the brucine reaction. Treatment of the tetrahydro base with benzoyl chloride and dilute alkali led to the formation of the benzoyl derivative (VII), which was isolated as a very stiff almost colourless gum. It could not be induced to erystallise. Its solution in glacial acetic acid gave an immediate red colouration with nitric acid practically identical with that shown by the acetyl de- rivative. In conelusion, the author desires to thank Professor R. Robinson, F.R.S., for his interest in the work, the Royal Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851 for a Scholar- ship, and the Chemical Society of London for a grant which defrayed a part of the expenses. The Universities of Oxford and Sydney. 168 FRANCIS LIONS. RESEARCHES ON INDOLES. Part I, 2-METHYL-5 :6-DIMETHOXYINDOLE. By Franois Lions, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 4, 1929.) The difficulty of obtaining derivatives of 5:6-dihydroxy- indole has already been pointed out (cf. Perkin and Ruben- stein, J.C.S. 1926, 357; Oxford and Raper, ibid., 1927, 417). It having become necessary for the author to prepare and study various derivatives of 5:6-dimethoxyindole in con- nection with the problem of the constitution of the alkaloid brucine, a re-examination has been commenced of the general methods available for the preparation of sub- . stituted indole derivatives with a view to rendering these more accessible. Most promising results have been obtained by employing the Japp-Klingemann reaction for the pre- paration of substituted phenylhydrazones of a-ketoesters and a-diketones, followed by cyclisation of these to indoles a method initiated by Manske, Perkin and Robinson (J.C.S. 1927, 2). Results of such experiments will be described shortly. In the present paper a method is described whereby eugenol methyl ether (I) can be converted into an indole derivative, - 2- methyl - 5 : 6 - dimethoxyindole. EKugenol methyl ether is a readily accessible substance which occurs in many essential oils, notably in that of the Tasmanian ‘‘Huon Pine’’ (Dacrydium Franklini) and in certain species of Melaleuca. On nitration in glacial acetic acid solution it readily yields 5-nitro-4-allyl veratrole (II), RESEARCHES ON INDOLES. 169 which adds on bromine with extreme ease to give the dibromo eompound (III). Hp YrchecH=cH, = CHO CH,.CH=CH, CHD CH, CHB CRBs £H,0 CH, NO, CH, NOe (I) (IT) (TIT) Foulds and Robinson (J.C.S. 1914, 1969) showed that by a variation of Lipp’s indole synthesis (cf. Ber. (1884), 17, 1067, 2507), 6-nitro safrole could readily be converted into 2-methy1-5 :6-methylene-dioxy indole. It has now been found that 5-acetylamino-4-allyl veratrole (IV )—which is obtained when 5-nitro-4-allyl veratrole is reduced with tin and hydrochloric acid and the resulting base treated with acetic anhydride—readily yields a dibromide (V), which on treatment with strong potassium hydroxide solution is converted into 2-methyl-5 :6-dimethoxy indole (VI). Z “ CHyCH=CH, —CH,O CH.CHBr-CHB, CH i, CH NH-CO.CH3 CH, NH.CO-CHs CHK ore (IV) (V) (VI) EXPERIMENTAL. 5-Nitro-4-allylveratrole dibromide. 5-Nitro-4-allyl veratrole (Lions, Perkin and Robinson, J.C.S. 1925, 1168; 5 grams), dissolved in cold carbon tetra- ehloride (25 ec.), was treated gradually with a solution of bromine (3.7 grams) in carbon tetrachloride (25 ec.) in ‘the cold. Bromination was practically instantaneous, most of the dibromide being at once precipitated as a dark sticky oil. Excess petroleum ether was added, and after standing 10 minutes the liquid was decanted from the precipitated -oil, which erystallised after two days’ contact with alcohol. 170 FRANCIS LIONS. It was obtained pure by re-crystallisation from acetic acid, in nodules of salmon coloured prisms, m.p. 111° C. (de- comp.). (Found: C, 34.8; H, 3.5. C:,Hi;0,NBr. requires. C, 34.5; H, 3.5%). The substance is readily soluble in alcohol, ethyl acetate, benzene, and acetic acid, but is:: almost insoluble in chloroform, carbon tetrachloride and hgroin. On heating it melts-to a pale yellow liquid with vigorous gas evolution. 5-Acetylamino-4-allylveratrole dibromide. To a solution of 5-acetylamino-4-allylveratrole (Lions, Perkin and Robinson, loc. cit.; 10 grams) in chloroform (40 ce.) was gradually added with stirring and efficient cooling a solution of bromine (7 grams) in chloroform (10 ec.). Bromination was practically instantaneous; and: finally most of the chloroform was distilled off and the. residue mixed with alcohol (30 ec.) ; the dibromide crystal- lised and was filtered off (14 grams). Re-crystallised twice from dilute acetic acid and twice from ethyl acetate, it was obtained in colourless prisms, m.p. 160-161° C. (Found: C, 40.1; H, 4.4. Ci3;Hi;O,NBr. requires C, 39.5;: H, 4.38%.) It is only sparingly soluble in most of the usual organic solvents, except glacial acetic acid, in which it dis- solves with great readiness. Such a solution shows the ‘‘brucine reaction’’ with nitrie acid, but the test is not. nearly so sensitive as with the unbrominated substance. 2-Methyl-5 :6-dimethoxy indole. To a solution of 5-acetylamino-4-allylveratrole dibromide: (15 grams) in boiling ethyl aleohol (150 ec.), a solution of potassium hydroxide (40 grams) in water (40 ee.) was: added. The liquid was then refluxed for twenty minutes, cooled and poured into water. The flocculent precipitate which gradually separated from the milky fluid was filtered off and macerated with dilute alcohol, when a sticky solid. RESEARCHES ON INDOLES. 171 (6 grams) was obtained. It was difficult to purify owing to its inability to erystallise rapidly. However, by repeated erystallisations from boiling petroleum ether, it was even- tually obtained in white micaceous plates, m.p. 91° C. sound: ©, 69.1; H, 6.81. Ci,Hi,0.N requires C, 69.1; H, 6.8.) The crystals became reddish brown on exposure to air. Acids rapidly cause reddening; a dilute solution in glacial acetic acid becomes dark brown at once on treat- ment with a drop of nitric acid. Alcoholic solutions give a fine magenta coloration with a solution of p-dimethylamino- benzaldehyde and a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid. in conclusion, the author desires to express his gratitude to the Royal Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851 for a scholarship, and to the Chemical Society of London for a grant which defrayed the cost of the materials em- ployed. The Universities of Oxford and Sydney. 172 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX. CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES IN AUSTRALIAN PLANTS. Part II. A.—EREMOPHILA MACULATA. THE NATIVE FUCHSIA. By Horace FINNEMoRE, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C., and CHARLES BERTRAM Cox, B.Sc. (Syd.), Research Officer, C.S.LR. (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 4, 1929.) As long ago as 1887 this plant was classified as a stock poison by Bailey and Gordon in ‘‘ Plants reputed poisonous to Stock,’’ and in 1897 it was included in the same category in ‘‘Plants reputed poisonous to Stock in Australia,’’ by J. H. Maiden, who reported that it was often sent to Sydney as a suspected plant, although some persons look on it as good fodder. Maiden stated that it did not appear dan- gerous to stock accustomed to eat it, but to others, travelling stock particularly, it is considered to be deadly. The effects seemed worse after rain, and it was thought to be more dangerous when in fruit. In 1910 our knowledge advanced a step further when Brunnich and Smith! recorded the presence of a glucoside which yielded hydrocyaniec acid and an aldehyde, similar in its properties to benzaldehyde, although the amount of material did not permit these workers to identify the latter. The amount of hydrocyanic acid was considerable (0.297 CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 173: per cent.), but not so high as that recorded in the present paper. During May of this year in connection with an investiga- tion undertaken by the Poison Plants Committee into the loss of stock on the Georgina River, North Queensland, two specimens of Native Fuchsias were received from Mr. J. A. Wilson, Walgra, North Queensland. These were labelled ‘‘Fine leaf Fuchsia’’ and ‘‘Broad leaf Fuchsia,’” and were identified by Mr. EH. Cheel, Curator of the National Herbarium, to whom our thanks are due, as Eremophila Goodwinu and E. maculata respectively. The former gave a negative and the latter a strongly positive test for hydrocyanic acid when treated with sweet almonds,. and this sample was almost but not quite free from the appropriate enzyme. About 9 lbs. of leaves, collected in July this year, were subsequently obtained from the same source; these arrived in excellent condition thanks to the eare that had been taken to dry them in the air before despatch. On hearing from Mr. Brunnich that it was not his inten- tion to continue work on this plant, we decided to under- take its investigation, particularly as much evidence con- nected it with loss of stock, although opinion seemed divided locally between this plant and Gidgea, Acacia Georgina, as the chief contributing cause. We have suc- ceeded in isolating the cyanogenetic glucoside, and have identified this as prunasin, formerly called Fischer’s glu- coside, because this worker obtained? it from amygdalin by controlled hydrolysis. This substance has been obtained from natural sources by Hérissey3, who separated the glu- coside of Prunus Laurocerasus, prulaurasin, into its two optically active isomers, prunasin and sambunigrin. 174 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX. Prunasin has also been isolated by Power and Moore in small quantity from the bark‘ and leaves’ of the pharma- ecopoeial drug, Prunus serotina. It is of interest to recall that sambunigrin was isolated by us last year from two Australian Acacias, viz., Acacia glaucescens and A. Cheelu® Quantitative Determination of the Hydrocyanic Acid. Four grams of the finely disintegrated leaves were mixed with five grams of crushed sweet almonds and 500 ce. of water and allowed to stand with occasional shaking for ‘24 hours at room temperature in a tightly closed flask. ‘Steam was then blown through the mixture and the distil- late collected in a dilute solution of potassium hydroxide. After acidification the hydrocyanic acid was titrated in the presence of sodium bicarbonate by means of N/10 iodine ‘solution, of which 24.4 ce. were required. This figure cor- responds to 0.824 per cent. of hydrocyanic acid, and as the material, dried at 100°, lost 11.8 per cent. of moisture, ‘the water-free leaves contained 0.934 per cent. Calculating from this the amount of glucoside in the leaves dried at 100°, it is seen to be slightly over 10 per cent., and this amount was actually isolated. Presence of Enzyme. It has been mentioned above that the sample contained a small amount of enzyme, as it gave only a trace of hydro- cyanic acid when moistened with water, whilst a much increased yield was obtained when additional enzyme from ‘sweet almonds was added. In the sample examined by Brunnich and Smith’, the leaves contained no enzyme at all, but apparently this was present in the fruits, as when macerated together they yielded distinct indications of hydrocyanie acid. We have only been able to examine a single fruit, and our experiment with that showed it to CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 175 eontain glucoside but no enzyme, but we attach no sig- nificance to this single experiment. Brunnich and Smith, however, seemed to ascribe the fatal results obtained ex- perimentally by H. O’Boyle, M.R.C.V.S., to the presence of a few fruits in the sample, and, moreover, consider that some support is given to the popular idea that the plant is most dangerous when in fruit. Another sample, collected at Nyngan, N.S.W., in Septem- ber, 1929, gave the following result: Leaves (air dried) .. .. 0.140% HCN Whole flowers (air dried), 0.074% HCN The leaves, flowers and the one fruit all contained gluco- side. The leaves contained some enzyme, but insufficient to give the maximum yield of hydrocyanic acid. Both the flowers and the fruit were devoid of enzyme. Identification of Benzaldehyde. It has been observed that when the leaves were treated with sweet almonds the odour of benzaldehyde was ap- parent. For the isolation of this substance 200 grams were macerated with water and sweet almonds for several hours. The product was then steam distilled. The distillate con- tained globules of 01] heavier than water; it was extracted with ether and the solvent evaporated at the ordinary tem- perature. A phenyl hydrazone was readily prepared from the residual oil; this melted at 154°, and was identified as that of benzaldehyde by the method of mixed melting- points. Isolation of the Glucoside. For the isolation of the cyanogenetic glucoside the method described by the present authors® for the isolation of sambunigrin was employed. One hundred grams of the air-dried leaves were extracted in a Soxhlet with ether. - 176 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX. After two hours a portion of the green extract gave a posi- tive reaction for hydrocyanic acid by the picrate test, and after a further one hour’s extraction a crystalline deposit had separated on the sides of the flask. This proved to be the glucoside, which, when re-crystallised from a mix- ture of ethyl acetate and chloroform, was obtained in col- ourless glistening needles melting at 147-148°. Many such extractions have been carried out; the highest yield of crude glucoside from the above quantity of leaves was 8.8 grams, which is 98 per cent. of that indicated from the amount of hydrocyanic acid obtained. The extraction is slow, 70 hours being required to obtain the maximum yield, but as the process requires little attention, this is not a serious. disadvantage. If a comparison is made with the process employed by Power and Moore for the isolation of prunasin from the sources mentioned, it will be seen that it possesses striking advantages as regards yields. From the leaves of Prunus serotina, containing 0.09% of glucoside, calculated from the hydrocyanie acid liberated, - they obtained 0.25 gram of pure glucoside in the form of its acetyl derivative from 3.78 kilograms. The bark con- tained 0.81%, and they isolated only 3% of the total glucoside present. Analysis. 0.2106 gave 0.4423 CO, and 0.1098 H,O, whence C = Die20: == oe, CyzH,,NO, requires C = 56.96; H = 5.76. 0.6134 gram dissolved in sufficient distilled water to produce 50 ec. gave in a 2 dem. tube at 17.5°, a,,— 0.68°, whence [a] 5 = — 27.1". Preparation of Acetyl Derivative. The acetyl derivative was prepared by heating 3 grams of the pure glucoside with 60 grams of acetic anhydride CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 177 and 10 grams of sodium acetate for one and a half hours. The excess of acetic anhydride was distilled off, and on the addition of water the acetyl derivative separated and rapidly crystallised. It was purified by twice re-crystal- lising from dilute alcohol, when it melted sharply at 134°. Analysis. 0.2166 gave 0.4526 CO, and 0.1068 H,O, whence C = 56.97 and H — 5.49. | C14Hi3;(COCH:)4NO, requires C = 57.02 and H = 5.40. 0.4970 gram dissolved in ethyl acetate sufficient to pro- duce 50 cc. gave in a 2 dem. tube at 16°, an - 047°, whence [a] 5° = — 23.6° _ These figures agree with those obtained for J-mandelo- nitrile glucoside, from the hydrolysis of amygdalin, and prunasin, from natural sources. A comparison of the con- stants obtained for this glucoside, with those obtained by the workers previously mentioned, is given below. Power and Eremophila Fischer. Hérissey.9 Moore.10 glucoside. iarpon. .. .. 56.7 — 56.9 57.26 ‘Hydrogen parte OO — 6.0 3.79 Mion... {gl— 26.9 [a] ~27.10 [e] —29.6 {[a]175— 27.7 D D D D ‘Melting Point 147-9° 138-9° 145-7° 147-8° Tetracetyl Derivatives. Power and Eremophila Hérissey. Moore. glucoside. LOE Ee a 56.6 56.97 BeMraEOSCN 6.055 6. kk tk os 5.6 5.49 Optical Rotation lal, — 24.0 [al — 24.0 lal — 23.6 Melting Point .. 1384-6° 136-7° 134° L-—-December 5, 1929. . 178 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX. The above figures prove conclusively the identity of this substance with J-mandelonitrile glucoside, or prunasin. Prunasin has been isolated by a slight modification of the process given herein from the bark of Prunus serotina by F. Willson White, and one of us (H.F.), and its iden- tity with the glucoside now isolated from Hremophila maculata, has been confirmed by the mixed melting point method. ‘ oa ENZYMES IN FODDER PLANTS. PAS B—THE PRESENCE OF ENZYMES IN FODDER PLANTS AS A FACTOR IN THE POISONING OF STOCK. With SuZANNE Kate REICHARD. The isolation of sambunigrin and prunasin has afforded the opportunity of testing, by means of these cyanogenetic ‘glucosides, for the presence of enzymes in plants capable of decomposing them, and liberating the hydrocyanic acid which they contain. This enquiry seemed necessary from ‘two points of view. In the first place our investigation of Eremophila maculata showed that the sample of dried plant employed contained practically no enzyme, and that, therefore, only a trace of hydrocyanic acid was hberated, and, in spite of the presence of an exceptionally large amount of glucoside, there still remained some doubt whether this plant was poisonous or not. Another plant, Heterodendron olaeifolium recently submitted for examina- tion, similarly contained a large amount of cyanogenetic glucoside, but not sufficient enzyme to give a positive reaction until enzyme from another source had been added. In this particular case it has been recorded by Petrie that only one-third the amount of acid was lberated before the addition of emulsin. From the second point of view it seemed desirable to repeat Petrie’s work, during which he examined some 150 grasses of New South Wales for the presence of @. enzymes. By using amyegdalin as his reagent, his results may only be considered as valid for the presence of that particular enzyme which is capable of splitting amygdalin, viz., B. amygdalase, and apparently both these are somewhat re- “stricted in their distribution. q — 180 H. FINNEMORE, C. B. COX, AND S. K. REICHARD. Although it soon became evident that amygdalin was rarely decomposed by plant extracts, prunasin and sam- bunigrin are readily affected, indicating a wide distribution of 8. enzymes. In using prunasin as a test for 8. enzymes, we have been anticipated by Armstrong and his co-workers, who have claimed for its use in place of amygdalin, an important advance in technique. These workers found that of some thirty plants examined, which decomposed over 10 per cent. of the prunasin to which they were subjected, only three of these similarly decomposed 10 per cent. of amygdalin. For the purpose of our experiments a series of commonly occurring plants was collected in the grounds of the Uni- versity, about two grams of the fresh material was cut up: finely with scissors, and mixed with 4 ees. of the solutions of amygdalin, prunasin and sambunigrin of equivalent strength of hydrocyanic acid. These were incubated at 40° to 42°, and the intensity of colour of picrate paper taken as a rough measure of the extent of hydrolysis. Of 25 specimens, 5 gave equal intensity, amygdalin yielded an excess of colour in two cases, prunasin in 7, and sambuni- erin in 11. Six specimens of native grasses, kindly collected for us by Mr. Cheel on November 24th at Bullia Island, gave evidence of the presence of enzyme, but in this case all gave equal intensity when incubated at 40° overnight. Among the material we have tested special mention should be made of the unripe pods of Acacia suaveolens. We found a striking difference between the effect produced on the three glucosides, prunasin being most readily at- tacked, then sambunigrin, and amygdalin not at all. On repeating these experiments three weeks later no hydro- eyanic acid was liberated. _ ENZYMES IN FODDER PLANTS. 18] It then occurred to us there might be some connection ‘between the apparent ease with which prunasin is decom- posed by the enzyme of this plant, and the fact that local observers have ascribed the poisoning of stock on the ‘Georgina River to the eating of the pods of an allied plant, Gidgea, Acacia Georgina, rapidly fatal results having been observed after eating them. Unfortunately, it has not been possible to obtain fresh specimens of these pods from that district for trial, but through the kindness of Mr. Cheel we have been supplied with herbarium specimens from the National Herbarium, and although these were very old, having been collected in 1910, they still retained sufficient enzyme to decompose prunasin. This result has been con- firmed by specimens obtained from the National Her- barium, Brisbane, a few pods and leaves being kindly sent to us by Mr. C. T. White, the Government Botanist. Both pods and leaves showed a striking difference with the three glucosides named; in half an hour’s incubation amygdalin was not decomposed, but a decidedly positive reaction was obtained with both prunasin and sambunigrin. It is our intention to attempt a quantitative examination of this ‘subject as soon as the necessary material is available. Meanwhile an attempt will be made to test the validity of the suggested inter-relation of Eremophila maculata and Acacia Georgina and its bearing on the poisoning of stock ‘on the Georgina River. Summary.—The ease with which prunasin and sambuni- ‘grin are decomposed, as compared with amygdalin by the enzymes of plants, is shown, and the significance of the presence of enzymes in fodder plants is illustrated. The authors acknowledge with grateful thanks their in- debtedness to the University of Sydney for laboratory facilities, to Professor J. C. Earl for placing the facilities vof his laboratory for the analysis of prunasin at their dis- 382 H. FINNEMORE, C. B. COX, AND 8. K REICHARD. posal, and to the Council for Scientific and Industrial Re- search for a grant to the Poison Plants Committee, that. has enabled one of them (C.B.C.) to collaborate in this. work. REFERENCES. 1. Queensland Agricultural Journal, 1910, 25, 291-298. 2. Ber. d. d. chem. Ges, 1895, 28, 1508. 3. Archiv. d. Pharm., 1907, 245, 463, 474, 641. 4, Jour. Chem. Soc. Trans., 1909, 95, 2438-261. 5. Jour. Chem. Soc. Trans., 1910, 96, 1099. 6. This Journal, 1928, 62, 369. 2 loci ett, 8. loc.. cit. 9.. loc. cit. 10s Voc! cit. ts lade: cit. Department of Materia Medica and Pharmacy, The University, Sydney. ABSTRACT oF PROCEEDINGS i . ‘ i ae a reir s. 8 “.* x 7.4 % aoe se ae A \ = : * ? ‘ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE Hopal Society of Slew South ales. —— <= > == MAY 1, 1929. ~The Annual Meeting, being the four hundred and eighty- fourth General Monthly Meeting of the Society, was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 5 Elizabeth Street, Sydney, | at 8 p.m. y, Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair. Twenty-two members were present. The Minutes of the General Monthly Meeting of the 5th December, 1928, were read and confirmed. It was announced that the following members had died during the recess:—Sir George Knibbs, Harry Ambrose Russell, and Richard Teece. The President spoke of the loss sustained through the death of Sir George Knibbs and asked the meeting to endorse the following motion, carried at the Council meeting on 23rd March, 1929: “That the Council of the Royal Society of New South Wales record its appreciation of the valuable assistance to the Society by the late Sir George Knibbs over forty- eight years. As a member of the Council for thirteen years, during which time he served as President and Vice- President, and for nine years as Honorary ‘Secretary, he placed his great abilities as an organiser at the service of the institution. More particularly his en- . « r lt - 4 Iv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. quiries into the Title possessed by the Society to its former: house in Elizabeth Street, and his survey of boundaries. were important to the Society. He contributed twenty- eight papers to the Journal and Proceedings and his contri- butions of Vital Statistics continued to within twelve months. of his death.” This was done, those present standing in silence. Letters were read from Miss Cambage, Mrs. Darley, Lady Knibbs, Mrs. MacCulloch, Mrs. Russell, Miss Teece and. Mrs. Willington expressing thanks for the Society’s sym- pathy in their recent bereavements. The certificates of four candidates for admission as ordinary members were read; one for the second and three for the first time. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society:—Henry George Pyke. The Annual Financial Statement for the year ended. 31st March, 1929, was submitted to members and, on the motion of Professor Chapman, seconded by Mr. Cheel, was. unanimously adopted. ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Statement of Receipts and Payments for the Year ended 31st March, 1929. GENERAL ACCOUNT. Dr. Cr.. RECEIPTS. To Balance — 31st March, £ s. d. £s.d £ s. a TOP Sieh OM Wid snare 10538 4 FL » Revenue— Subscriptions sie ota 610 16 0 RVETITS! Aur, Voeah apelin 490 18 7 Sundry Receipts se 15a a a Government Subsidy .. 600 0 0 Interest — Government Bonds and Stocks .. 1364 10 90 3217 16 6 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ve. », Donations— Liversidge Bequest .. 500 0 0 Add Interest OS Meee 8 16 8 es he Walter Burfitt Prize Fund—Interest ee 26 16 O —#_——— 53512 8 » J. H. Maiden Memorial Isy ois Interest 1 ee Nee" % 36 345 2 0 » Clarke Memorial Fund— Interest 5)" ae 7419 3 » Royal Society’s Fund— Interest 5 oy eee 169 12 0 » Royal Society’s House— Building Investment HOAMMEUNG .5- «5 3s 4605 5 3 £9690 11 9 PAYMENTS. SOSA 1G.’ USS. tilt Se ids By Administrative Expenditure— Salaries and Wages— Office Salary and Ac- countancy Fees .. 291 15 0 Assistant Librarian 53 0 0 Caretaker ene eNO. 554 18 7 Printing, Stationery, Advertising and Stamps & Telegrams 45 1 4 Office Sundries, Sta- tionery, ete... °.. Sy siems) Advertising .. .. 18 6 0 Brinune .:- :. .. i138 0 —————- 141 10 1 Rent, Rates, Taxes and Services— Rent eae ee loni nt. a Electric Light & Gas 92 12 10 Insurance Nadie hoe ats. O Rates Gamer ek Pan sy 7 a A a Telephone wen es 18 6 1 1974 6 4 vi. 99 99 99 39 99 39 Printing & Publishing Society’s Volume— Printing, etc. ..iser 06 3 Bookbinding... "48> a4 Library— Books & Periodicals 7614 2 Bookbinding .:)/.. 94 tar Sundry Expenses— Legal Expenses .. 104 5 6 Repairs...) "aad. 2.0 Lantern Operator .. 827 eG Bank Charges ae 0 4 10 Clarke Memorial Fd. 011 0 SUNGrIeS 56 2. .n Be =| Interest— Union Bank of Australia Ltd. Royal Society’s Fund Clarke Memorial Fund .. Building Loan Fund Maiden Memorial Fund Cost of removing Basement Library Architectural Competition Government Bonds and Stock .. Building Conversion Fund Balance—381st March, 1929— Union Bank of Australia Ltd. Cash on Hand ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS 004 11 Vth ae lor) co 74 19 165 16 ot SO © &w CO © e 3364 16 420 231 768 2737 2000 168 17 £9690 11 oO NF FE 10 it ows © 2 9 Compiled from the Books and Accounts of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and certified to be in accordance therewith. (Sgd.) HENRY G. CHAPMAN, M.D., Honorary Treasurer. (Sgd.) W. PERCIVAL MINELL, Chartered Accountant (Aust.), Auditor. Sydney, 17th April, 1929. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Vile. BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31st MARCH, 1929. LIABILITIES. fs. d. So. Soe Investment Fund— Clarke Memorial Fund tee cote Aes. G Walter Burfitt Prize Fund--... .. 537 7 9 Pavestinent Kund........ *.. .. 8400 1 9 Liversidge Bequest PRES ee ono OUST: 3S 5690 4 8. Building and Investment Loan Fund .. 4983 6 10 aH. Maiden Memorial .. .. .. .. 376 15 0: Accumulated Funds een 29,324 18 4 £40,374 19 10: ASSETS. Se) de Si Ser de. Cash— Union Bank of Australia, Ltd. .. 165 16 1 Petty Cash Mea Oa Ue are ake le ee ae ————— 16817 2 Government Bonds and Stock .. .. 27813 10 2 Building Conversion Fund .. .. .. 2000 0 0 Sundry Debtors— For Rents MT Maher ice. pee OO 2. 6 For Subscriptions in arrears .. 443 10 0 DAZ 1 Gs Library— Insurance Valuation ES Paes 8460 0 0 Office Furniture—Insurance Valuation 1050 0 Q: Pictures—Insurance Valuation .. .. 180 0 0 Microscopes—Insurance Valuation od 120 0 0 Lantern—Insurance Valuation Rey Wee 40 0 0: £40,374 19 10: Compiled from the Books and Accounts of The Royal Society of New South Wales, and certified to be in accordance therewith.. (Sgd.) HENRY G. CHAPMAN, M.D., Honorary Treasurer.. (Sgd.) W. PERCIVAL MINELL, Chartered Accountant (Aust.), Auditor.. Sydney, 17th April, 1929. | esl _ vill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. INVESTMENT FUND. STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31st MARCH, 1929. RECEIPTS. Sve, a: £ s. @ ‘To Balance—81st March, 1928 a8) kaha ee 4910 11 9 », Lnterest— Clarke Memorial Fund .. .. 325) 774718582 Walter Burfitt Prize Fund “2 23°20 ¢me- Liversidge Bequest ~o) ) o 16° ‘6 Investment Fund.'..'|..° 20) "n) DG2 eae 280 3 if 4, luiversidge Bequest... ~ 2. coe 500 0 0 £5690 15 8 PAYMENTS. $s. @& By Expenses—Clarke Memorial Fund df. pase 011 @ » Balance—3l1st March, 1929 .. .. .. |... .. 0690) 4am £5690 15 8 On the motion of Professor Chapman, seconded by Mr. ‘Cheel, Mr. W. P. Minell was duly elected Auditor for the current year. The Annual Report of the Council was read, and on the motion of Dr. Noble, seconded by Mr. A. D. Olle, was adopted. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1929-30. (lst May to 23rd April.) The Council regrets to report the loss by death of nine ordinary members. Eight members have resigned. On the other hand, eleven ordinary and one honorary members have been elected during the year. To-day (23rd April, 1929) the roll of members stands at 341. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 1X. During the Society’s year there have been eight general monthly and ten ordinary and three special Council meetings. Four Popular Science Lectures were given, namely :— June 21—‘‘Science and Industry,’’ by Assoc.-Professor fee Hastaugh, A.R.S.M., F.1.C: July 19—‘‘ Australian Butterflies,’’ by G. A. Waterhouse, .Se¢:, BH. August 23—‘‘Elements of Geophysical Prospecting,’’ by E. C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S8. September 20—‘‘Some Problems of the Grazing Industry in Arid Australia,’ by Professor T. G. B. Osborn, bse, 2 .L:8. Meetings were held throughout the Session by the Sec- tions of Geology and Physical Science. The Section of Industry during the year again devoted its attention to visiting several industrial establishments. Tweny-one papers were read at the monthly meetings and covered a wide range of subjects. In most cases they were illustrated by exhibits of interest. Lecturettes were given at the monthly meetings in June, July, August, September and October, by Dr. R. J. Noble, Mr. James Nangle, Mr. T. Ranken, Professor O. U. Vonwiller and Professor J. C. Earl respectively. The monthly meeting on November 7th, 1928, was devoted to a series of short addresses for the purpose of celebrating the bi-centenary of the birth of Captain James ‘Cook. Addresses were given by Messrs. W. Poole, W. Gale, Sir Edgeworth David, Professor H. G. Chapman, Mr. R. H. Cambage and Sir Joseph Carruthers respectively. The Annual Dinners for 1928-29 and for 1929-30 took place at the Union Refectory, University of Sydney, on Thursday, 26th April, 1928, and 18th April, 1929, respec- xX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. tively. We were honoured on both occasions by the presence of His Excellency Sir Dudley Rawson Stratford de Chair, K.C.B., M.V.O., Governor of New South Wales. The Hon. F. 8. Boyce, M.L.C., Attorney-General, repre- sented the Government in 1928. The Presidents of many societies were the guests of the Society on both evenings. The Council has awarded the Clarke Memorial Medal to Professor Ernest Willington Skeats, D.Se., A.R.C.S., F.G.S. On Thursday, 7th February, 1929, an informal meeting of members was held for the purpose of extending a welcome to Professor Johannes Schmidt, leader of the Dana Expedition, and his staff. The following members have been honoured during the year :—Professor H. G. Chapman, M.D., Director of Cancer Research, Sir George Julius, Knights Bachelor, Professor Griffith Taylor, Professor of Geography in the University of Chicago, Mr. E. C. Andrews, President, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Dr. H. 8. Wardlaw, President, Linnean Society of New South Wales. WALTER BURFITT PRIZE:—A Walter Burfitt Prize is to be awarded this year. A large number of nomina- tions have been received but the adjudication has not yet been made. MAIDEN MEMORIAL PAVILION :—A site has been selected in the Botanic Gardens, Sydney, for the erection of the Maiden Memorial Pavilion. It is expected that the erection will begin in the near future. The donations to the lbrary have been as follows:— 1225 parts, 71 volumes, 60 reports, 1 calendar and I catalogue. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. X1. SCIENCE HOUSE:—Despite many efforts to bring about an agreement with the Linnean Society of New South Wales and the Institution of Engineers, Australia, it is not yet possible to commence the erection of the new Science House. The Government of New South Wales is awaiting agreement to make the site available and the Royal Society is eager to commence building the new house. A competition has been held, as a result of which Messrs. Peddle, Thorp and Walker have been selected as architects. It is hoped that in the near future an agree- ment will have been reached and the building commenced. OBITUARY. RicHarD Hind CAmBaGE, C.B.E., F.L.8S., was born at Milton in New South Wales on 7th November, 1859, and died on 29th November, 1928, aged 69 years. At the age of 18 he began his career as an articled surveyor. After qualifying as a licensed surveyor, Mr. Cambage joined the Department of Mines in 1885 as a mining surveyor. In 1902 he was appointed Chief Mining Surveyor, a position he held until 1916 when he was appointed Under Secretary for Mines. This latter position he held until his retirement in 1924. Mr. Cambage was elected a member of this Society in 1904 and became a member of the Council in 1908 and remained an office-bearer from then on to his death, a period of twenty years. He was elected President in 1912 and again in 1923; he was Vice-President in 1913, 1924 and 1928, and for twelve years held the position of Eon. Secretary. His genial personality, his unfailing tact, his administrative ability and his wide scientific knowledge and experience made him an ideal President and Hon. Secre- tary and in these capacities he rendered invaluable M Xil. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. service to the Society, and his death left a gap not easy CO alle . He contributed 29 papers to the Society’s proceedings, most of which were on botanical subjects. He had a won- derful knowledge of the distribution of plants in Australia and in his field work gave particular attention to the distribution of plants in relation to soil conditions and in this subject he was a recognised authority. He earried out an extensive series of investigations on the growth of Acacia seedlings, the results of which are published in the Society’s volumes. His puble activities were not limited to the Royal Society. He was a foundation member of the Institution of Surveyors, of which society he was three times President, and for fifteen years he was a member of the Board of Examiners for Licensed Surveyors. For some years he conducted the Surveying classes at the Sydney Technical College. He was for many years a member of the council of | the Linnean Society of New South Wales and a past President of that Society. In 1904 he was elected a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London. He took a prominent part in the meetings of the Aus- tralasian Association for the Advancement of Science and at the time of his death was its President. He was closely associated with the establishment of the Australian National Research Council, of which body also he was President at the time of his death. In all his varied activities he has left behind a wonderful record of faithful public service. Cecin West Darzey, I.8.0., M.I.C.—E.—The late Cc. W. Darley was born in Wingfield, County Wicklow, Treland, in 1842. He arrived in Australia in 1867 and ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. X11l. entered the service of the New South Wales Government as Resident Engineer for Neweastle and district. In 1881 he was promoted to the position of Chief Assistant Engineer in the Harbours and Rivers Branch of the Public Works Department and was eight years later promoted to the position of Engineer-in-chief of that branch. In 1896 Mr. Darley was appointed Engineer-in-chief of the Public Works Department, which position he held until 1901 when he was sent to London by the New South Wales State Government as Consulting and Inspecting Engineer. He died in London on 18th October, 1928, aged 86 years. Mr. Darley was elected a member of the Royal Society in 1876, so that at the time of his death he had been a member for 52 years. He contributed three papers on Engineering subjects to the proceedings of this Society. He was at one time a member of the Council and occupied the position of its President in 1892 and 1893. Epwarp Parrick Freminc.—The late Mr. Fleming was born in Parramatta in 1875 and entered the Railway service as a lad. Later he joined the Lands Department and rapidly rose through various ranks until he became head of the Department as Under Secretary for Lands. Recognising his remarkable administrative ability, the Prime Minister of the Commonwealth in 1926 appointed Mr. Fleming to the Federal Development and Migration Commission for a period of five years. When, in 1927, the city of Sydney was placed under a commission, Mr. Fleming was chosen by the State Government of New South Wales to be Chief Civic Commissioner, this position he held at the time of his death in 1928, and he filled it to the satisfaction of all political parties. He was elected a member of this Society in 1922. xiv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. GrorGE Hanpuey Kwynripps, K.C.M.G.—The late G. H. Knibbs was born in Sydney on June 13th, 1858, and was: educated in his native town. In 1877 he entered the service of the State Government in the Land Survey Department, where he remained until 1889; he was then appointed Lecturer in Surveying at the Sydney Uni- versity and started in private practice as a licensed surveyor. In 1904 he and the late J. W. Turner were appointed commissioners by the New South Wales Govern- ment to report upon the systems of education in Hurope’ and America; a most valuable report was presented upon their return. Soon after he was appointed Superin- tendent of Technical Education for New South Wales. In 1905 he was appointed Commonwealth Statistician. This position he held until 1921, when the Common- wealth Government appointed him to take charge of the newly-formed Bureau of Science and Industry. From this latter position he retired in 1926 owing to ill-health, and he died on the 30th March, 1929, aged 70 years. His connection with the Royal Society of New South Wales began when he was elected a member in 1881. He became a member of Council in 1894 and held the position of Honorary Secretary almost continuously from 1896 to 1906. He was elected President in 1898 and Vice-President in 1902. He contributed 29 papers to the Society’s proceedings. He was also connected with many other scientific and professional societies: he was Presi- dent of the Institute of Surveyors in 1892-3 and again — in 1900-1; was President of the New South Wales branch of the British Astronomical Association in 1897-8, and President of the Australasian Association for the Advance- ment of Science in 1923-24, Sir George Knibbs received many honours in recog- nition of his publie services. In 1906 he was elected an ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV, Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society ; he was ‘selected as one of the 200 distinguished statisticians to form the International Institute of Statistics, and in 1921 he was elected a Vice-President of the International Engineers’ Conference in New York. In 1911 his services to the Empire were rewarded by His Majesty the King eonferring upon him the Companionship of the Order of St. Michael and St. George, and in 1923 he was created a Knight Bachelor. Not only was he a great public servant, but he was also a scientist of distinction, a scholar of merit and a man of wide culture. His charm of manner and his unvarying kindness of heart made him hosts of friends all the world over; he was intensely human in his interests and in his outlook on life. To the Royal Society of New South Wales he rendered invaluable service, and although he spent much of the latter part of his life in Melbourne, he always retained his interest in its affairs. STannope H..-MacCuniocn, M.B., Ch.M.—He was born in New South Wales, was educated at the Sydney Grammar School and then proceeded to the Edinburgh University, where he obtained his medical degree. He then returned to Sydney to practise his profession and became widely tecognised as an authority on obstetrics He did a vast amount of work in an honorary capacity and was closely associated with the establishment and running of the Women’s Hospital, Crown Street, Sydney. For many years he was Examiner in Obstetrics for the Sydney Uni- versity, and died while still in harness on 25th October, 928, at the age of 76 years. He was elected a member of this Society in 1887 and thad therefore been a member for 42 years. XV, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Henry AMBRoSE RussELL, B.A.—He was born in Sydney in 1865 and was the son of the late H. C. Russell, a former: President of this Society. He received his early education at Fort Street School and at the Sydney Grammar School. In the latter he finished as dux and captain. He then entered the Sydney University, won a number of bursaries; and took his B.A. degree with first-class honours im Mathematics and Classics, winning the University Medal. He then took up the legal profession and became a member of the firm of Sly and Russell. He specialised in all phases: of marine and admiralty law, becoming a _ recognised; authority in this branch of his profession in this State. In addition to his legal work he was closely associated with. the direction of several prominent Sydney newspapers. He was elected a member of this Society in 1897 and remained a member until the time of his death. RicHarpD TrEce, F.I.A., F.F.A., F.S.8.—He died on 30th: December, 1928, at the age of 51 years. He was well- known throughout Australia as general manager and actuary of the Australian Mutual Provident Society and. had a world-wide reputation as an actuary. | He was born in New Zealand in 1847. In 1865 he matriculated and entered the Sydney University. In J uly, 1866, he entered the service of the Australian Mutual Provident Society and in 1890 he became general manager,, a position he held for 27 years, retiring in 1917. Among other positions, Mr. Teece was a Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries of Great Britain and Ireland, @ Fellow of the Faculty of Actuaries of Scotland, a Fellow of the Actuarial Society of America, and a Vice-President of the Permanent Committee of the International Congress: of America. Mr. Teece was a foundation member of the ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xvlt. Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science and was for some years its Treasurer. He was elected a member of the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1899 and remained a member until his death. WALTER THOMAS WILLINGTON, O.B.E.—Mr. Willington was born in 1849 and died on 1st March, 1929, aged 79 years. IHlis life was devoted mainly to commercial pursuits and he was at one time president of the Chamber of Manu- factures of New South Wales. He was elected a member of this Society in 1917. tr The President announced that the following Popular Science Lectures would be delivered this Session :— July 18—‘‘Cancer Research,’’ by Professor H. G. Chap- man, M.D. August 15—‘‘The Occurrence and Origin of Mineral Oil,’’ by C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S. September 19—‘‘Psychology of the Individual and his Vocation,’’ by A. H. Martin, M.A., Ph.D. October 17—‘‘ Wireless,’’ by Professor J. P. V. Madsen, D.Se., B.E. In accordance with Rule 50, the following alteration. to Rule 36, which had been carried at the general monthly meeting held on 5th September last, was, on the motion of the President, seconded by Mr Olle, duly confirmed by the meeting. Alteration to Rule XXXVI. confirmed at. Annual Meet- ing, May Ist, 1929 :— ‘“The funds of the Society shall be lodged at a Bank named by the Council of Management. Claims against XVill, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. the Society when approved by the Council shall be paid by cheque signed by two of three members nominated by the Council for that purpose.”’ The following donations were received:—146 parts, 3 volumes, and 5 reports. The President, Mr. W. Poole, then delivered his address. There being no other nominations, the President declared the following gentlemen to be Officers and Council for the coming year :-~ President: Prof. L. A.. COTTON, M.A., Dse. Vice-Presidents: C. ANDERSON, ¥.A., DSc. W. POOLE, M.E., M.Inst.C.E., M.LM.M., Ete. Prof. R. D. WATT, M.A., B.Sc. | Sir GEORGE JULIUS, Kt., B.Sc., B.E., M.I.Mech.E, Hon. Treasurer: Prof. H. G. CHAPMAN, wp. Hon. Secretaries: C. A. SUSSMILCH, F.a.s. | ve di Nope Fee iar oe c., -nec., gr., ae Members of Council: E. C. ANDREWS, B.a., F.G.s. | Prof. C. HE. FAWSITT, G. H. BRIGGS, Bsc, Ph, | Dee Assist-Prof. W. R. BROWNE, | 2) \" NC D.Se. A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.1., F.C.S. R. W. CHALLINOR,F.1.c., F.c.s.| Rev. E. F. PIGOT,S.J., B.A., M.B. Prof. J. C. HARL, v.Sc., Ph.D. C.. W.. O. DYE: Mr. W. Poole, the outgoing President, then installed - Professor L. A. Cotton as President for the ensuing year, and the latter briefiy returned thanks. On the motion of Assist.-Professor W. R. Browne, a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to the retiring Presi- dent for his valuable address. Mr. Poole briefly acknow- ledged the compliment. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xix. JUNE 5, 1929, _ The four hundred and eighty-fifth General Monthly Meeting was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 5 Eliza- beth Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m. Professor L. A. Cotton, President, in the Chair. Seventeen members and one visitor were present. The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The President spoke of the loss sustained through the death of the Rev. E. F. Pigot and asked the meeting to endorse the following motion, carried at the Council emeting on 29th May, 1929 :— “That the Council of the Royal Society of New South Wales record its appreciation of the valuable assistance rendered to the Society by the late Reverend Edward Francis Pigot, S.J., B.A., M.B., over a period of twenty years. He was a member of Council at the time of his death and had served the Society as a Councillor for a little more than six years. He contributed two papers to the Journal of Proceedings of the Society and his scientific work at Riverview College. Observatory in connection with Seismo- logy was known and appreciated world-wide. Father Pigot endeared himself to all with whom he came in contact by his charming and kindly personality.” This was done, those present standing in silence A letter was read from the Rector of Riverview College expressing thanks for the Society’s sympathy in the death ‘of the Rev. E. F. Pigot. The certificates of four eandidates for admission as ‘ordinary members were read; three for the second and one for the first time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary Members of the Society:—Samuel Harry Harris, Joseph William Hawley and Norman Dawson Royle. XX ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The President announced that the Council had awarded the ‘‘ Walter Burfitt Prize’’ to Dr. Norman Dawson Royle. whose contributions to medical science are so well known.. The following donations were received :—3 volumes, 81 parts and 4 reports. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘‘Notes on the use of the Aneroid Barometer and Plane Table in Geological Mapping,’’ by H. G. Raggatt,, B.Se., and F. W. Booker, B.Se. Remarks were made by Professor Browne, the President. and Mr. Poole. 2. ‘‘Preliminary Note on New Subgenera of Productus: and Strophalosis from the Branxton Distriect,’’ by F.. W. Booker, B.Sc. Papers 1 and 2 were read by Professor W. R. Browne: in the absence of the authors. 9 3. ‘‘The Celluloses of some Australian Plants,’’ by W.G. Arneman, B.Sc., and J. C. Earl, D.Se., Ph.D. In the absence of Dr. Harl, the paper was read by Mr.. R. W. Challinor. Remarks were made by Messrs. R. T. Baker and R. W.. Challinor. LECTURETTE: A lecturette on ‘'The Milky Way’’ was given by Mr. J.. Nanegle. JULY 3, 1929. The four hundred and eighty-sixth General Monthly — Meeting was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 5 Eliza-- beth Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m. Professor L. A. Cotton, President, in the chair. Twenty-six members and two visitors were present. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. X Xi. The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The eertificates of two candidates for admission as. ordinary members were read; one for the second and one: for the first time. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society :—Gilbert Fatkin Caley. The President announced that Professor H. G. Chap- man, M.D., would deliver a Popular Science Lecture entitled ‘‘Cancer Research,’’ on Thursday, 18th July, $929, at 8 p.m. The following donations were received :—277 parts, 9 volumes and 11 reports. WALTER BURFITT PRIZE:—The Walter Burfitt. Prize, consisting of a medal and a cheque for £50, was. presented to Dr. Norman Dawson Royle. In doing so, the President said that Dr. Royle had been awarded the ‘‘Walter Burfitt Prize’’ for his contributions to the study of muscular action and his investigations into the problems of muscular paralysis. The prize has been adjudged to him by the Council of the Royal Society, as the Council considers: his papers published during the years 1926 to 1928 to be those of the highest scientific merit carried out in the Dominions of Australia and New Zealand. Dr. Royle has been engaged for nearly fifteen years in research into the manner in which the contraction of muscles within the body are controlled by the nervous system. His discoveries. have added a new conception to our knowledge of the type of nervous control of muscular movement. The idea that nervous impulses are conveyed through nerves of the sympathetic system into muscular fibres has attracted world-wide interest. His discovery has thus illuminated that field of physiology rescued from darkness by the att ¥ J al *X X11. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ‘genius of Magendie at the beginning of the nineteenth cen- tury, added to the brilliant picture of the mechanism of the regulation of motion by nerves expounded by Claude Bernard and extended our view of reflex action elabor- cated with so much detail by the late President of the Royal Society of London, Sir Charles Sherrington. Not only have these contributions given to us a better explanation of mus- cular movement, but they have formed the basis of new means of treatment which have given a new hfe to many ‘eripples who had uever expected to walk again. | The President announced that Dr. Walter Burfitt himself had generously defrayed the cost of the prize for this year in addition to the £500 he had previously provided for the foundation of the ‘‘ Walter Burfitt Prize.’’ THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ: “*An Extension of the Conception of the Distribution Co-efficient,’’ by Ian William Wark, D.Se., Ph:D. (communicated by Professor C. E. Fawsitt, Ph.D.). LECTURETTE: Mr. T. C. Roughley gave a lecturette (illustrated by lantern slides) on ‘‘Sharks and Shark Products.’’ AUGUST 71929: The four hundred and eighty-seventh General Monthly Meeting was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 5 EHliza- beth Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m. Professor L. A. Cotton, President, in the Chair. Thirty members and two visitors were present. The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The President spoke of the loss sustained through the death of Mr. William Poole, a past President, and asked | ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. x xXi1i, the meeting to endorse the following motion carried at the: Council meeting on 31st July, 1929 :— “That the Council of the Royal Society of New South Wales records its high appreciation of the valuable services: rendered to the Society over thirty-eight years as Presi- dent, member of the Council and member by the late William Poole, who died on 16th July, 1929. His untiring zeal for the welfare of the Society during his term of office was. of great worth to the Council in the direction of the affairs of the Society. His genial spirit and warm-hearted comradeship endeared him personally to his colleagues and fellow members. His outstanding labours in the realm of education and in his profession of engineering has had a very valuable influence upon his generation.” This was done, those present standing in silence. The President also announced the deaths of Messrs.. George Balsille and Edward Elliott and Sir Baldwin Spencer as honorary member and Clarke Medallist. A letter was read from Mrs. Poole expressing thanks: for the Society’s sympathy in her recent bereavement. The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member was read for the second time. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society :—Allan Robert Callaghan. The President announced that Mr. C. A. Sussmileh would deliver a Popular Science Lecture entitled ‘‘The Oceur- rence and Origin of Mineral Oil,’’ on Thursday, 15th mugust, 1929, at 8 p.m. The following donations were received :—183 parts, 6 volumes and 7 reports. THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ: “‘The Development of the Inflorescence of Avena Sativa i by A. R. Callaghan,\D.Phil., B.Sc., B.Se.Agric. (communicated by Professor R. D. Watt.). XXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The paper was taken as read. Addresses on the scientific work of the 4th Pacifie ‘Seience Congress held in Java, June, 1929, were given as under :— (a) Organisation and Agriculture, Mr. E. C. Andrews. (b) Anthropology, Professor A. R. Radcliffe-Brown. (ce) Physical Anthropology, Professor A. N. Burkitt. (d) Biology, Professor E. J. Goddard. (e) Oceanography, Mr. G. H. Halligan. (f) Geology and Geography, Mr. C. A. Sussmilch. SEPTEMBER 4th, 1929. The four hundred and eighty-eighth General Monthly -Meeting was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 5 Eliza- beth Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m. Professor L. A. Cotton, President, in the Chair. Twenty-three members were present. The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The President announced the death of Dr. John Frederic Codrington, who was elected a member in 1876. Letters were read from Lady Spencer and Mrs. ‘Codrington expressing thanks for the Society’s sympathy in their recent bereavements. The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member was read for the first time. The President announced that Dr. A. H. Martin would deliver a Popular Science Lecture on Thursday, 19th September, 1929, at 8 p.m., entitled ‘‘Psychology of the Individual and his Voeation.”’ The President announced that arrangements had been made for Dr. Yonge to give an address to members on the ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXV. ‘subject of the scientific work of the Great Barrier Reef _ Expedition. The lecture had been held on Thursday, 29th August, 1929, and was largely attended. The following donations were received :—7 volumes and ‘220 parts. THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ: ““The occurrence of a number of varieties of Eucalyptis dives as determined by chemical analysis of the Essen- meus Part Il, by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.1., F.C.S., ead lk. RK. Morrison, A.A.C.1., F.C.S. LECTURETTE: Mr. W. B. Gurney gave a lecturette (illustrated by Saptern slides) on ‘‘The Control of Insect Pests by Parasites.’’ OCTOBER 2, 1929. The four hundred and eighty-ninth General Monthly Meeting was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 5 Eliza- beth Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m. Professor L. A. Cotton, President, in the Chair. Fifteen members and three visitors were present. The certificates of three candidates for admission as ordinary members were read; one for the second and two for the first time. The President announced that Professor J. P. V. Madsen would deliver a Popular Science Lecture, entitled “Production of Wireless Waves and their Method of Pro- pagation,’’ on Thursday, 17th October, 1929, at 8 p.m., in the lecture room of the electrical engineering depart- ment, University of Sydney. A letter was read from Mrs. Elliott expressing thanks for the Society’s sympathy in her recent bereavement. X XVI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The following donations were received:—189 parts, T volumes, and 3 reports. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘‘The Testing of Lead Azide Detonators,’’ by J. A. Cresswick, A.A.C.I., F.C.S., and S. W. E. Parsons) MAC AS: 2. ‘‘The Action of Acids on Diazo-aminobenzene,’’ by Professor J. C. Earl, D.Sc., Paw: LECTURETTE: Mr. R. W. Challinor gave a lecturette on “‘Some Useful Applheations of Acetylene.’’ NOVEMBER 6, 1929. The four hundred and ninetieth General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Royal Society’s: Rooms, 5 Elizabeth Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m. Professor L. A. Cotton, President, in the Chair. Twenty-two members and one visitor were present. The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of five candidates for admission as ordinary members were read; three for the second and two for the first time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :—Fidel George Baur, Francis Lions, and Alexander James Matheson. A letter from the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, asking for information re research connected with the Whaling Industry, was read, and members were asked to forward any information to the Hon. Secretary. The following donations were received :—286 parts, 9 volumes, 8 reports and 1 calendar. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXVll. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘‘Note on the Leaf Oil from Dacrydiuwm Franklinn,’’ if@oker, by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.1., F.C.S., and J. L. Simonsen, D.Sc., F.I.C. Remarks were made by Mr. R. T. Baker. 2. ‘‘The Essential Oils of Melaleuca decora (Salisbury ) Druce, and M. nodosa var. Tenutfolia (de Candolle) from the Port Jackson District,’’ Part 1, by A. R. Hentold, ELC.S., and F. R. Morrison, F.C.S8. Remarks were made by Messrs. E. Cheel and R. T. Baker. LECTURETTE: Mr. M. B. Welch, B.Sc., gave a lecturette (illustrated by specimens and lantern slides) on ‘‘ Veneers and their Utilisation. ’’ DECEMBER 4, 1929. The four hundred and ninety-first General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 95 Elizabeth Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m. Professor L. A. Cotton, President, in the Chair. Twenty-six members and five visitors were present. The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of two candidates for admission as ordinary members were read for the second time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :—Robert Ewen Jeffery and David Paver Mellor. The following donations were received :—99 parts and 2 calendars. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘‘Some Mechanical Properties of Australian grown Pinus insignis,’’ Part II., by M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C. N XXVili. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 2. ‘‘Some Properties of Red Satinay, Syncarpia Hillii,*’ by M. B. Welch, B.Se., A.I.C. 3. ‘‘Some Interesting Geological Faults in the Vicinity of Branxton, N.S.W.,’’ by G. D. Osborne, D.Sc., and H. G. Raggatt, B.Se. Remarks were made by Sir Edgeworth David. 4. ‘‘Notes on the occurrence of Quartzite containing Common Opal and Chalcedony at Tallong, N.S.W.,”’ by L. A. Waterhouse, B.E., and Assist.-Professor W. R. Browne, D.Se. Remarks were made by Sir Edgeworth David. 5. ‘‘Studies on the Hydrolysis of Cellulose,’’ Part I., by Miss J. Chalmers and Prof. J. C. Earl, D.Se., Ph.D. Remarks were made by Messrs. R. W. Challinor and AOR: Bentold. 6. ‘‘Some Trimethoxy-Quinoline Derivatives,’’ by F._ Hions, 5.5¢5 2h Dp: 7. ‘‘Researches on JIndoles,’’ Part I., 2-Methyl-d :6- dimethoxyindole, by F. Lions, B.Se., Ph.D. 8. ‘‘Cyanogenetie Glucosides in Australian Plants,’’ Part Il., Eremophila maculata, by H. Finnemore, B.Se., EC: GEOLOGICAL SECTION. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXX, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE PBEQOLOGICAL SECTION. JOG Annual Meeting, Apri 26, 1929. Assistant-Professor Browne was in the Chair, and nine ‘members were present. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch and Dr. G. D. Osborne were elected Chairman and Honorary Secretary respectively for the year. EXHIBITS AND DISCUSSION: 1. By Dr. G. D. Osborne: (i) A series of specimens of ironstone containing plant remains; locality, Armi- dale; age, probably late-Tertiary. (11) Ferruginous grit and conglomerate of Tertiary or Pleistocene age; locality, Armidale. (ii1) Ironstone with fossil insect wing (?); locality, Armidale. 2. By Mr. W. Clark: Specimens of granite, pegma- tite, greisen and schist from about 20 miles S.E. of Albury, between the Ovens and Mitta Mitta Rivers. These rocks are probably Ordovician in age, and equivalent to the Omeo Complex. ‘3. By Mr. M. Morrison: (i) Bismuth ore from Hermin- dale. (11) Tantalite (?) from Pt. Darwin, with abnormal specific gravity of 7.8. 4. By Mr. H. F. Whitworth: (1) From Bellbird Colliery, iridescent coke produced from the dust on mine floor and walls during the course of a recent explosion. XXXIl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. (11) Emery nodule, which occurred in basalt. (iii) Two specimens from Attunga, N.S.W., showing two: stages in the development of magnesite from ser- pentine. . By Mr. T. Hodge Smith: Rare minerals recently acquired by the Australian Museum, as follows:— (1) Rubellan = altered biotite-leucite-basalt-tuff. (ii) Curite (Lead-Uranium-silicate) associated with tor- bernite and kasolite; locality, Belgian Congo. (iii) Gummite and Uranophane surrounding Uraninite;. locality, North Carolina. (iv) Chaleostibnite, from. Province of Morocco. (v) Altered basalt with much, iddingsite; locality, Bagdad Hills, California, U.S.A. . By Dr. A. B. Walkom: (i) Two terminal shoots of (?) Glossopteris; the specimen showed terminal cones. bearing sheaves of leaves; locality, Gloucester, N.S.W.. (11) Specimen from the Dirty Seam, Dudley, N.S.W..,. showing in association, a “‘scale-leaf’’ of Glossopteris, a large winged seed (Samaropsis Pincomber) and gvroups of so-called microsporangia of Glossopteris. (iii) A typical Glossopteris ‘‘scale-leaf.’’ . By Dr. W. R. Browne: (i) Glassy dacite from the head of the Clarence River, showing perlitic cracking with associated columnar structure on a small scale.. (ii) Sechists and phyllites from Michelago, N.S.W. All the above exhibits were widely discussed. May 24, 1929. Assistant-Professor Browne was in the Chair and five: members were present. The Honorary Secretary was instructed to write to the Rector of St. Ignatius’, Riverview, expressing the regret of members at the death of Rev. Father Pigot, S.J. , ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXIll. EXHIBITS: 1. By Mr. M. Morrison: (i) Haematite with rhomboidal cleavage ; locality, South Coast, N.S.W. (ii) Ilmenite from Central Australia. (iii) Large Martinopsis, with unusual ribbed-markings; locality, Cessnock; (iv) Glendonite in caleareous concretion, from Glendon, N.S.W. . By Assist.-Professor Browne: A concretionary siliceous bo - object of ellipsoidal shape and characteristic exterior ; possibly Beekite; locality, unknown. 3. By Dr. G. D. Osborne: Common Opal from Bellinger River District. All the exhibits were discussed by members. June 28, 1929. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch was in the Chair, and nine members and three visitors were present. | EXHIBITS: 1. By Assist.-Professor Browne: Villiaumite (Na fluoride) in nepheline syenite from Guinea. Sent by Professor Lacroix. 2. By Miss I. A. Brown: Suite of specimens, photographs and maps illustrating the voleanic islands of Kraka- tau and certain voleanic areas in Java. Miss Brown described many points of interest concerning these areas. The specimens exhibited were: (i) Basic inelu- sion in the boulders of the Kloet Lahars, Eastern Java. (11) Pumice, Lang Island; from the 1883 eruption of Krakatau. (ii) Seoria from Anak Krakatau, a new island built up by the 1928-1929 eruption at Kraka- tau. (iv) Tridymite-hypersthene-andesite, from Rakata Island, Krakatau. (v) Scoria, hypersthene-andesite, Anak Krakatau. (vi) Obsidian from Lang Island, Krakatau. (vil) Typical andesite from the Kloet Jedi XXXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, Voleano, Java. (viii) Hornblende xenoeryst in — boulder of the Kloet Lahars, Eastern Java. (ix) Spherulitic Obsidian, Goenoeng, Central Java. . By Mr. H. G. Raggatt: (1) Highly. fossiliferous Upper Marine calcareous shale, from a little south of Antiene. (11) Erratic in Upper Marine Series with Strophalosia attached ; locality, Loder, six miles south of Singleton. (11) Fine white tuffs with Glossopteris; from the Greta Series, near Muswellbrook. (iv) Glendonite from the Crinoidal Shales, $-mile east of St. Hilliers, Muswellbrook district. (v) Specimens from dyke cut- ting through coal measures at Muswellbrook. (vi) Basalt from Tertiary (?) plug near Grasstree. (vii) Photographs by Mr. Booker taken in St. Hilliers’ Col- hery, showing dyke-rock intrusive into coal and coke prisms due to same. Also photograph of what is probably thickest coal seam in the State (viz., 48 feet). Also photograph showing anticlinal structure in Whitburn Colliery, the thickness of the coal varying — abruptly. Photograph showing minor faulting in same colliery. (vill) Specimens of clastic rock from St. Hillier’s Colliery, the mode of occurrence is in doubt. (ix) Basalt with scoriaceous patches; the origin of the structure in this rock being unknown; locality, Liddell, N.S.W. All these exhibits were widely discussed. 4. By Mr. H. F. Whitworth: (1) Galena and- blende replacing crinoidal limestone, the crinoid stems being selectively replaced. (11) Large erystals of rutile from 150 miles N.E. of Alice Springs. . By Mr. W. Poole: (i) Specimens of Miocene Lime- stones and also cemented sand-rock from near Pt. Fairy, Victoria, N.S.W. (11) Photographs of Tower ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXV. Hill area, near Warnambool, Victoria. (iii) Graphs registered by barograph on successive days in Rock- hampton. 6. By Dr. G. D. Osborne: On behalf of Rev. R. T. Wade, specimens of Hawkesbury sandstone with fragments of shale and nodules of iron pyrites; locality, Dee Why, N.S. W. Mr. E. C. Andrews gave a short address upon the recent Science Congress held at Java, dealing with the general aspects of the Congress activities. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch described in a comprehensive way, the proceedings of the Geology and Geography Sections at the Congress, discussing some of the chief results of the meeting. Mr. Waterhouse drew the attention of members to the fact that some mention had been made of a proposed road through the Devil’s Coach House at Jenolan Caves, and it was decided to obtain information about the matter and discuss it at a subsequent meeting. July 26, 1929. Mr. Sussmilech was in the Chair, and seven members and three visitors were present. The following resolution, moved by Sir Edgeworth David, was earried in silence :— “That the members of the Geological Section of the Royal Society of New South Wales desire to record their deep regret at the death of their esteemed friend and beloved colleague, Mr. William Poole, and wish to extend to the bereaved relatives their heartfelt sympathy.” EXHIBITS: 1. By Dr. G. D. Osborne: Aragonite with fibrous radial structure from near the Cotter Dam, Federal Terri- tory. 1 ; ‘i — a, XXXVI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 2. By Mr. T. Hodge Smith: (i) Black vitreous mineral from Zine Corporation, Broken Hill, N.S.W.; the min- eral is associated with calcite and galena. It is apparently a hydrous silicate of manganese and iron. (11) Section of unique chiastolite from Bimbowrie,. South Australia. ; 3. By Miss I. A. Brown: Lepidocyclina Limestone, from massive foraminiferal limestone horizon at base of the Miocene; locality, Tagogopoe Mts., west of Bandoeng, Java. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch addressed the Section on the ‘“Geology of Java,’’ giving a comprehensive account of the stratigraphy, physiography, structural geology and vul- canology of the Island of Java. He also discussed the relations of Java with some of the other islands in . the Netherland East Indies. Some discussion by members followed the address. August 30, 1929. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch was in the Chair and eight members. and two visitors were present. A letter of thanks from the family of the late Mr. W. Poole was read. Assistant-Professor W. R. Browne presented a paper entitled ‘‘ Abyssal Injection and some of its Implications.’’ After referring to the prevalence of the “stromatolithic” type of intrusion in areas that had been subjected to great — compression he described the characteristic features associ- ated respectively with the two types of bathyliths, viz.: (a) the orogenic or synchronous batholith, and (b) the subse- quent batholith. He referred to his experience with intru- sive masses which to some extent showed features inter mediate between the two types. ABSTRACT OF PRCCEEDINGS. XXXV11 Dr. Browne dealt with the general aspects of the mechanics of intrusion of the various types, pointing out the relationships of the bathylites to geosynclinal areas.. Some palaeogeographical implications of the presence of: large intrusive masses were then dealt with. The paper was discussed by Sir Edgeworth David, Pro-. fessor Cotton and Messrs. Andrews and Whitworth. September 27, 1929. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch was in the Chair, and nine members: and five visitors were present. EXHIBITS : 1. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse: (i) Beach Sand from. Bareke, British Solomon Islands; the sand contained olivine, magnetite, ilmenite, and augite; Professor: Cotton suggested that the olivine and augite were derived from a friable basic tuff. (ii) Sand from beach on east side of King Island, containing ilmenite,. magnetite, tinstone, monazite, augite, topaz, quartz,. zircon and osmiridium. 2. By Assist.-Professor Browne, on behalf of Miss D. R.. Taylor and Mr. C. T. Grout-Smith: A suite of speci- mens from the Lansdowne District, Middle North Coast, N.S.W.; the area is of extreme interest on account of the occurrence of plugs and flows of alka-. line rocks, doubtlessly co-magmatie with the Tertiary masses of the Nandewar and Warrumbungle Moun- tains. The rocks comprised trachytes and pitchstones. and other rocks of the alkaline rhyolite family. The. exhibit excited much interest and was discussed in Fall: eo. by Mr. G. FF. Whitworth: (1) Varve-rock (?) from. Poolamacea, near Broken Hill. (11) Rhodocrosite from. Zine Corporation, Broken Hill. “XXXVI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 4. By Dr. G. D. Osborne: Photographs and lantern views of interesting structures in the Long Bay district. Mr. H. F. Whitworth presented a paper upon ‘‘The Mineralogy and Origin of some Beach-Sand Concentrates -of N.S.W.’’ He drew attention to the places where these concentrates are found and gave an account of his investigation upon their contents. In connection with the Sydney district beaches it was shown that the heavy mineral content was qualitatively much the same as that cbtained from samples of crushed Hawkesbury sandstone. This suggests that the concentrates on the beaches occurring at no great distance to the north and south of Sydney, were derived originally from the disintegration of the Hawkesbury sandst:ne. In the same way the concentrates on the North Coast beaches may have been derived from the Mesozoic Clarence Series. The paper was based upon a great deal of extremely ‘tedious and minute investigation. Professor Cotton pointed out the desirability of determining the radio-active content of the minerals with a view of ascertaining the .absolute age of these minerals. October 14, 1929. Mr. Sussmilch was in the Chair, and twelve members and twenty-five visitors were present. A hearty welcome was extended to Professor Douglas W. Johnson, of Columbia University, New York, and Mrs. -Johnson, and also to Dr. Henderson, Director of the New Zealand Geological Survey. Professor Johnson delivered a very instructive lantern Jecture entitled ‘‘Studies in Shore-line Physiography.’’ He dealt with the shore-line features of the Atlantic Coast of North America and discussed in detail the prob- lems connected with the determination of the chronology 4 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXIX. of the strand-line in late geological time. A fine exposi-- tion was given of the criteria by which one could recognise emergence or submergence as having affected a coastline at a relatively recent date. The later physiographical history of the Atlantic Coast of the United States was fully dis-. cussed and comments were made upon Daly’s researches. into the latest movements of the strand line. A vote of thanks was accorded the lecturer on the motion. of Sir Edgeworth David and Mr. E. C. Andrews. November 29, 1929. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch was in the Chair, and ten members. and nine visitors were present. The Hon. Secretary reported that a half-day geological. excursion was held to Maroubra and Long Bay on Satur- day, October 26th. ° EXHIBITS: 1. By Mr. H. F, Whitworth: Specimens of clay contain-. ing nodules and disseminated masses of vivianite, from New Zealand. 2. By Mr. E. J. Kenny: Nodule of barytes from White Cliffs, N.S.W.; this and similar nodules were supposed locally to be composed of a lead compound. 3. By Mr. F. W. Booker: Fossils from Belford, N.S.W., viz.: (1) Wyndhamia dalwoodensis sp. nov. (ii) Branztona typica sp. nov. (11) Wyndhamia valida sp. nov. (iv) Stutchburia costata. Also Productus Brachythaerus and Productus sp. from Muswellbrook, N.S.W. (The types (i), (ii), and (iv) are described in Journ. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., 1xiu, p. 24 et seq.) 4. By Dr. G. D. Osborne: A collection of Indian fossil plants sent to University of Sydney by Professor B. Sahni, of Lucknow University. (i) Gangamopteris Kashmirensis Seward; locality, near Srinagar, Kash- xxl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS mir. (1) Mesembrioxylon Partasarathyi, from Vellum, west of Madras. (iii) Glossopteris sp.; locality, Apharwat, Kashmir district. (iv) Noegger- athiopsis Hislopt; locality, Apharwat. (v) Glossop- teris sp., from Raniganj Coalfield, Behar district. (vi) Vertebraria imdica, from Raniganj Coalfield. (vil) Ptilophyllum sp. and two detached pinnae of Nilssonia sp. (vill) Gleichenites gleichenoides; locality, near Bindrabum, in the Rajinahal Hills. (ix) Nilssonia sp. ef. N. Morrisiana; locality, Rajinahal Hills. (x) Ptilophyllum acutifolium, Morr.; locality, N.W. Rajinahal Hills. Dr. A. B. Walkom addressed the Section on ‘‘The Glossopteris and Thinnfeldia Floras in South Africa and Australia.’’ He pointed out that the general succession in the South African Upper Palaeozoic is much the same as in Aus- tralia, except that on certain horizons there is an abundance of land animals which assist in inter-continental correla- tion. He then summarised the facts concerning the range of the Glossoptcris and Thinnfeldia floras in Eastern Aus- tralia (particularly N.S.W.) stressing the importance of the time of appearance of a flora in any scheme of correlation. The general stratigraphy of the South African Upper Palaeozoic was then discussed and certain correlations made and comparisons instituted. Dr. Walkom referred to the discussion on “Gondwana Land” that had taken place at the recent meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in Africa, and explained that he had suggested a possible explanation of the peculiar associations and minglings of the Glossopteris and Thinnfeldia floras. This was that in addition to the dispersal of types from a northern centre there had been a migration northwards from the southern hemisphere of the Thinnfeldia flora, the result being’ a series of puzzling associations between different floras. ae, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. dhe The address was discussed by Professor Cotton, Pro- fessor Browne and Messrs. Sussmileh, Kenny and Whitworth. The Secretary was requested to obtain what information was available regarding the rumoured proposal to con- struct a road through the Devil’s Coach House at Jenolan Caves. Mr. Shearsby reported in reference to the reservation of an area at Hatton’s Corner, near Yass, that the matter ‘was still incomplete. SECTION OF INDUSTRY. ; Say eT a ‘ >. 4 _— _ / x é: . . < - ' ‘ ~ ‘ remy, = ’ . ‘ Q : ’ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF INDUSTRY. Officers—Charrman: A. D. Olle, F.C.S. Honorary Secretary: H. V. Bettley-Cooke. Reports re visits paid to Industrial Works during the year 1929 :— May 21st—Arnott’s Biscuit Factory, Homebush. June 18th—Hadfield’s Steel Works, Alexandria. July 16th—Newland’s Bedstead Works, Surry Hills. Aug. 20th—Lewis Berger’s Paint Works, Rhodes. Sept. 19th—Palmolive Soap Works, Balmain. Oct. 15th—The Cream of Tartar Works, Camelia. Nov. 19th—Peter’s Ice Cream Works, Redfern. eters, .. oe aT re lee SECTION OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xhx ae ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE’SECTION OF PeyYSICAL SCIENCE. Seven meetings were held during the year, the average attendance of members and visitors being 12. The election of officers for the year was held at the May meeting and resulted as follows :— Chairman: Professor J. P. V. Madsen, D.Se., B.E. Honorary Secretary: J. Bannon, B.Sc. Council: Associate Professor Bailey, M.A., D.Phil., F.Inst.P.; Associate Professor Wellish, M.A.; Assistant Professor Briggs, B.Se., Ph.D., F.Inst.P.; Major E. H. Booth, M.C., B.Sc., F.Inst.P.; G. Godfrey, M.A., B.Se. April 17, 1929 Professor Wellish in the Chair. Major E. H. Booth read a paper on ‘“‘The Present Posi- tion of Seismic Geophysical Prospecting.’’ The speaker briefly outlined the principles involved in the Seismic method of Geophysical Prospecting, mentioning the apparent discrepancy between theory and practice in accounting for the refracted ray, referring to Jeffrey’s work in this connection. He described the different types of detecting and recording apparatus in use at Gulgong by the Seismic Section of the Imperial Geophysical Experimental Survey, and showed that they were getting 3 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.. consistent results as to depth and outline of underground strata—bedrock—on the deep lead which they are at pre- sent investigating. He pointed out that the nature of the bedrock appeared to be a hard clay state, in which the refracted wave travelled with a velocity of 12,800 feet per second; this last statement, however, being dependent on the accuracy of Jeffrey’s work. May 15, 1929. Professor Wellish in the Chair. Mr. W. Love opened a discussion on ‘‘ Photographie photometry.”’ , Photometric methods in the optical and X-ray region were described. The method of measuring photographic density and the difficulties. associated with same were considered, and it was shown that under certain conditions, the density of a spectrum line is measured by the height of the line regis- tered by the microphotometer. The relation DD — fut’), where D = density of line 1 = intensity of radiation t = time of exposure p =} constant was treated from various aspects, and general methods of comparing relative intensities in the optical region were given, In the X-ray region the above relation can be simplified considerably. Methods of comparing intensities in the X-ray region were described, and such a determination for the 8 group in the L spectrum of tungsten was described in partieular. Som ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. he June 19, 1929. Professor Wellish in the Chair. Dr. G. H. Briggs gave an account of Recent Theoretical Advanees in Radio-activity. R. W. Gurney and independently G. Gamow have sug- gested an explanation of the escape of alpha particles from radio-active substances based on the ideas of the New Wave Mechanics. The alpha particles are regarded as having an energy insufficient on classical mechanics to enable them to surmount the potential barrier surrounding the nucleus. However, on the wave mechanics an alpha particle has a finite probability of escaping through this barrier. Mathematically the problem is analogous to the reflection and transmission of a wave at a refracting barrier, the ratio of the transmitted to the incident intensity giving the transformation constant. Further the probabil- ity of escape increases rapidly with the energy of the alpha particle and on fitting certain available mathematical con- stants for one member of a transformation series, the well known Geiger Nuttal law is very well accounted for. An extension of the theory to the disruption of atomic nuclei by alpha particles gives results in good agreement with the experiments of the Cambridge School. duly 17, 1929. Professor Madsen in the Chair. MomvietG. Baker, BB. B.Se.,. read a paper on “A Method of Determining Mean Free Paths of Electrons in Gases.’’ | The method depends on the production of positive ion sheaths over all electrodes in a tube containing gas at a low pressure. The main part of the voltage drops are con- entrated in the sheaths and the body of the gas is prae- lii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. tically field free. By taking volt-ampere characteristics: the fraction of electrons deflected through a oiven angle at collisions can be determined, and hence the fraction. suffering collisions. September 18, 1929. Professor Madsen in the Chair. Professor V. A. Bailey read a paper on ‘‘A New Prin-- ciple for the Measurement of Velocities of Electrons in Gases.’’ | The method depends on the effect of a uniform magnetic: field on the divergence of a stream of electrons which move- in a gas under the influence of an electric field which. acts in the same direction as the magnetic field. The following theorem was established. In an apparatus. of the usual type the magnetic field of intensity H affects— the distribution ratio r as if the quantity Z/ke becomes. Zo/ke, where o =1+4+ (HW/Z)? This theorem was established by means of experiments. carried out with hydrogen, in which gas the velocity of electrons is known for a large range of values for the- ratio Z/p. The experiments gave results which were in. complete agreement with the theory. Several detailed methods, based on this theorem, were then described, and were shown to read the following for-- mulae for the velocity W: W = Z/H vy (n-1) W = Z/H V (1-1/n?) W = Z/H V(k—1). The last formula is particularly applicable when nega-- tive ions are present. All these methods when applied to: hydrogen were found to give results in good agreement. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lil. with those obtained in 1921 by means of Townsend’s well. known method. == the pressure of the gas. = the electric intensity in volts per cm. the magnetic intensity in e.m.u. = the velocity of drift of the electrons in the- direction of Z. k = the mean energy of an electron in terms of’ sjmN the mean energy of a molecule at 15°C. the inner electrode distance. n .= an arbitrary factor of variation of p, Z or C. a October 16, 1929. Professor Madsen in the Chair. Professor Bailey read a paper on ‘‘The Adventures of Slow Electrons amongst Molecules of Ammonia.’’ After a description of the behaviour of electrons moving: in a steady state, under the influence of an electric field, amongst molecules, the methods used for determining the facts were briefly outlined. The methods for determining, k +- a/p have already been described some time ago, and the method for determining W was given at the previous: meeting. The application of these methods to the molecules of ammonia was described in some detail and the resulting: values were used to determine the values of the mean free path L of an electron, the fraction A of energy lost at a collision of an electron with a molecule, and the probability h of attachment of an electron at the collision. The most striking result was the increase of h from 0.4 * 10> to: 00 X 105 as the velocity of agitation of the electron. changed from 2.6 & 107 to 9.8 & 107. November 20, 1929. Professor Madsen in the Chair. liv. ABSTRACT OF. PROCEEDINGS. Mr. W. G. Baker, B.E., B.Se., read a paper on ‘‘Cor- rections to Measurements of Field Strengths with Loop Antennae.”’ The paper treats with the question of measurement of the electric field strength from wireless transmitting sta- tions, and deals with refinements on the ordinary methods of measurement. The loop antenna is taken as equivalent to an electric transmission line with uniformly distributed resistance, inductance and self-capacity. The loop resistance is usually measured by noting the effect of an added resistance. The effect of this is shown to depend on the place of insertion, and also on where © the voltage is introduced. Correction factors are derived, making it possible to. reduce the results of different methods to a common and correct result. Most methods of field strength determina- tion depend on determining the loop resistance with a voltage introduced in a different way from that of the field to be measured, so that errors up to 20% can readily be made if these corrections are neglected. INDEX. PaGe A Abstract of Proceedings i.-xxviii. Geology ... Xxxi.-xli. Industry xlv. Physical Science xlix-liv. Acacia Georgina .. 173, 181 », glaucescens oie LTS SMO MBCLUD |) cta wish ei LFS >» suaveolens .. 180 Action of Acids on Diazoamino- benzene : es, Oo Alteration to Rule xxxvi. XVli. An Extension of the Conception of the Distribution Co- efficient 47 Aneroid Barometer and Plane Table in Geological Mapp- ing, Notes on the use of 33, 34 Annual Dinner ... aries Annual Financial Statement . EOLy. Arneman, W. G., and J. C. Earl The Celluloses of some Aus- tralian Plants At Artesian Supplies me AB Australian grown Pinus Insignus (P. radiata), Some Mechan- ical Properties of . os DE Australian Plants ,Cyanogenetic Glucosides in lena Australian Plants, The Cellulo- ses of some Avena fatua .. se Avena Sativa, L., The Develop- mentof the Inflorescence of 62 Award of Walter Burfitt Prize and Medal . el. Awards of Clarke “Medal XXil. Awards of Society’s Medal and . 44 62 Money Prize aoe Xxil. B Balance Sheet ... AA sey Vids Balsille, George .. Xxxlii. Bi-centenary of the birth of Captain James Cook Booker, F: W. Preliminary Note on new Subgenera of Productus and Strophalosia from the Branxton District .. Booker, F.W.and H.G. Raggatt Notes on the use of the Aner- oid Barometer and Plane Table in 1 eG ee ing ix. 33 PAGE: Branxton, N.S.W., Some inter- esting Geological Faults in the vicinity of . 131 Branxtonia typica, sp.nov. ... 31 Browne, ‘V.R., and L. L. Water- house Note on the occurrence of Quartzite containing Com- mon Opal and Chalcedony at Tallong, N.S.W, .. 140° Burfitt Prize, Walter x., xx., xxl. C Callaghan, Allan R. The Development of the In- florescence of Avena sativa, L. Oa Cambage, ‘Richard Hind A Cellulose, Studies on the Hydro- lysis of ae Celluloses of some Australian Plants, The.. Chalmers, Miss iL and J. C. Karl Studies on the Hydrolysis of Cellulose... Clarke Memorial Medal awarded to Prof. E. W. Skeats x.. Codrington, Frederic .. xxiv. Common Opal and Chalcedony at Tallong, N.S.W., Note on an occurrence of Quartz- ite containing Complete Hydrolysis ‘without conversion into aminoazo- benzene i Conception of the Distribution Coefficient, An Extension of the Conversion of diazoaminoben- zene into aminoazobenzene Conversion of pure diazoamino- benzene into a product of low melting point ... 91 Council’s Report ; ..- Vili. Cox, C. B., and H. Finnemore Cyanogenetic Glucosides in Australian Plants, Part IT. 172 Cox, C. B.,and H. Finnemore, with Suzanne K. Reichard The presence of Enzymes in Fodder asa Factor in the Poisoning of Stock .. 17 . 155: . 140: 93 AT 92 lvi. Pace -Cresswick, J. A., and S. W.E. Parsons The Testing of Lead Azide... Detonators . ; ant ‘Cyanogenetic Glucosides in Australian Plants, Part II. 172 85 D Dacrydium Franklini, Hooker, Note on the Leaf Oil from ‘Dana Expedition ca 2 Detonators, The Testing of Lead Azide .. Development of ‘the Inflores- cence of Avena sativa, L., The ..: Development of the Inflores- cence.. Developmental phases .. o Diazoaminobenzene, The Action of Acids on. Distribution Coefficient, ception of 89 Con- 47 E Earl, J. C. The Action of Acids on Diazo- aminobenzene : Karl, J. C., and Miss J. Chal- mers Studies on the Hydrolysis of Celluloses, Part I. . 2c. LOG Earl, J.C., and W. G. Arneman The Celluloses of some Aus- tralian Plants . 44 Elliott, Edward... xxiv. Enzymes i in Fodder Plants as a Factor in the Poisoning of Stock, The Presence of ... 179 Eremophila Goodwinii 173, 179 maculata 172, 178, 181 Essential Oils of Melaleuca de- cora (Salisbury) Druce, and M. nodosa, var. Tenuifolia (De Candolle) from the Port Jackson District .. 102 ‘Essential Oils, the occurrence of a number of Eucalyptus dives as determined by Chemical Analyses of the Hucalyptus dives and its vari- eties from Victoria Eucalptus dives as determined by Chemical Analysis of the Essential Oils, The oc- curence of a number of varieties of .., 89 79 81 79 INDEX. PaGE Evaporation Extension of the Conception of the Distribution Coefficient 47 Financial Statement 1V.-Viil. Finnemore, H., and C. B.,Cox Cyanogenetic Glucosides in Australian Plants, Part II. 172 Finnemore, H., and C. B. Cox, with Suzanne K, Reichard The Presence of Enzymes in Fodder Plants as a Factor in the Poisoning of Stock... Fleming, Edward Patrick 179 ...Xiii, Geological Faults in the vicin- ity of Branxton, N.S.W., On some interesting . 131 Geological Section XXXi. Great Barrier Reef Committee 1 Heterodendron olaeifolium - 179 Honorary Members " . XX. Hydrolysis of Cellulose, Part I, Studies on the ue .. 155 Impounding Schemes ... 19 Indoles, Part I., Researches hy 168 Industry, Section of .. Xiv. Investment Fund spi bin K Knibbs, George Handley {xiv L Lead Azide Detonators, The Testing of 85 Leaf Oil from Dacrydiwm Frank- lint, Hooker, Note on the.. Lions, Francis Researches on Indoles, Part I. 168 Some oe Quinoline 95 Derivatives .. . 159 List of Officers ... Xvili. Longley, Colonel F. F. 21 M MacCulloch, Stanhope H. een KV. Maiden Memorial Pavilion .., x. Melaleuca decora and M. nodosa Tenuifolia, from the Port Jackson District. The Hs- sential Oils of Bes .. 102 Members, List of on honoured ... x Modified method of preparation of diazoaminobenzene INDEX. PaGE Morrison, F. R., and A. R, Penfold The Essential Oils of Mela- leuca decora (Salisbury) Druce, and M. nodosa var. Tenuifolia (De Candolle), from the Port Jackson district 102 The occurence of a number of varieties of Eucalyptus dives as determined by Chemical Analyses of the Essential Oils ... - ae Motions, re Sir George Knibbs (deceased) iii. Rev. E. F. Pigot (deceased) xix. William Poole (deceased) ... xxiii. 79 Note on new Subgenera of Pro- ductus and Strophalosia from the Branxton District, Pre- liminary. 24 Note on the Leaf Oil from Dac- rydium Franklini, Hooker 95 Note on an _ occurrence of Quartzite containing Com- mon Opal and Chalcedony at Tallong, N.S.W... ... 140 Notes on the use of the Aneroid Barometer and Plane Table in Geological Mapping 33 Occurrence of a number of varieties of Eucalyptus dives as determined by Chemical Analyses of the Essential Oils, The } Obituary— 79 Balsille, George ae vo 00s Cambage, Richard Hind _... xii. Codrington, Frederic XXiv. Darley, Cecil West ... ee XA Elliott, Edward i XXIV. Fleming, Edward Patrick ...xili. Knibbs, George Handley .. xiv. MacCulloch, Stanhope H. ... xv. Russell, Harry Ambrose... xvi. Spencer, Sir Baldwin XXIV. ‘Teece, Richard xvi, Willington,William Thomas xvii. Observatory, Sydney ... oo? Officers and Council .. XViii. Oil from Dacrydium Franklini. Note on the Leaf . Opal and Chalcedony at Tall- ong, N.S.W. Notes onthe occurrence of Quartzite containing Common oo 140 95 lvil. PaGE Osborne, G. D. and H. G. Raggatt On some interesting Geologi- cal Faults in the vicinity of Branxton, N.S.W. vee LOL P Pan-Pacific Conference, 4th ... 1 Parsons, S. W. E. and J. A. Cresswick The Testing of Lead Azide Detonators ... Bee se OD Penfold, A. R., and F. R. Morrison The occurrence of a number of varieties of Eucalyptus dives as determined by Chemical Analyses of the Essential Oils 79 The Essential Oils of Mela- leuca decora (Salisbury) Druce, and M. nodosa var. Tenuifolia (De Candolle), from the Port Jackson Dis- trict . . 102 Penfold, A. R. cand J. L Simonsen Note on the Leaf Oil from Dacrydium Franklini,Hooker 95 Physical and Chemical a bria ... ; 49 Physical Science, ‘Section Ofi % xix. Pigot, Edward Francis ..X1X. Picea Excelsa Sogn ia! Pinus insignis ... 120, 121 Pinus Insignis, Part II, Some mechanical Properties of... 111 Pinus radiata ae Ui Plane Table. Notes on use in geological Mapping .. 33 Poisoning of Stock. Enzymes in Fodder Plants as a fac- tor in the . 179 Poole, W Presidential Address... Sie? ad Popular Science Lectures, ix. & xvii. Preliminary Note on new Sub- genera of Productus and Strophalosia from the Branxton District... e: Presence of Enzymes in Fodder Plants as a factor in the Poisoning of Stock, The Productus and Strophalosia from the Branxton District. Pre- liminary note on the new sub-genera of Productus (Taeniotherus) quadratus 24 179 eer | sub- 29 eee e00@ Iviii. INDEX. PaGE Page: Prunus Laurocerasus ... . 173 | Syncarpia Hillii. Some proper- Hs serotina ... 174, 176 ties of Red Satinay ee 32) Quartzite containing common Opal and Chaleedony + at Tallong, N.S.W. .. 140 R Raggatt, H.G. and, F. W. Booker Notes on the use of the Aner- oid Barometer and Plane Table in Geological Mapping Raggatt, H. G., and G. D. Osborne On some interesting Geologi- cal Faults in the big | of Branxton, N.S.W. aie Rainfall .. 5 Red Satinay, Syncarpia Hillii, Some Properties of . 122 Reichard, Suzanne K., H. Finnemore, and C. B. Cox The Presence of Enzymes in Fodder Plants as a factor in the Poisoning of Stock 179 Report of the Council for the year 1929-30 35 . Vili. Researches on Indoles, Part I. 168 Royle, Norman Dawson ..XXi. Rule xxxvi. Alteration of xvii. Russell, Harry Ambrose ev. Ss Science House ... ee Asie <8 Simonsen, J. L., and A. R. Penfold Note on the Leaf Oil from Dacrydium Franklini, Hooker 95 Some Mechanical Properties of Australian grown Pinus in- signis (P. radiata) . 111 Some Properties of Red Satinay, Syncarpia Hillv . 122 Some Trimethoxy - Quinoline Derivatives .. . 159 Statement of Receipts and Ex- penditure iv. Storage Sites 18 Studies on nity | of Cellulose, Part I. 255 Strophalosia Me bia 24, 26 Py clarket i 27, 28 a geradr 25 Subgenera of Productus and Strophalosia from the Branxton District.. 24 Syncarpialaurifolia 122, 125, 129 x Teece, Richard ... The Action of Acids on Daou. aminobenzene rey The Essential Oils of Melolewen decora (Salisbury) Druce, and M. nodosa var. Tenui- folia {De Candolle), from the Port Jackson District 102 The Celluloses of some Austra- lian Plants ... The Development of the In- florescence of Avena sativa, XVI. 89: 44. The occurrence of a number of varieties of Hucalyptus dives as determined by Chemical Analyses of the Essential Oils The Presence of Enzymes in Fodder Plants as a factor the Poisoning of Stock ... 179 The Testing of Lead Azide De- ; tonators ae vis i. So Town Water Sugplies ... 20 Trimethoxy-quinoline derivatives 159 Tristania conferta 122, 126 19 U Utilization of the Water Re- sources of Australia WwW Walter Burfitt Prize Wark, I. W. An Extension of the Concep- tion of the Distribution Coefficient Water Resources of Bi gests lass, Utilization of cial Waterhouse, L. L., and W, R. Browne : Note on the occurrence of Quartzite containing Com- mon Opal and Chalcedony at Tallong, N.S. W. .. 140 Welch, M. B. Some Mechanical Properties of Australian grown Pinus insignis (P. radiata) Some Properties of Red Sati- nay, Syncarpia Hillis 122 Willington, William Thomas... xvi. Wyndhamia dalwoodensis 25, 26, 27 valida tie ae x, EK XXL 47 . 111 9 eee E, PRINTER. 344 KENT STREET, >, 1930 =p. a < ” x“ ) j ¥ eg \ : E t M j ay * / ‘ — Na - car a ; \ \ ! ; 5 be Pulte bod, ee 'B. Brownz, D.Sc. (With ‘Plate x Ces ete April 16th, aoe, } eee a ene e 140 oo ee ove aoe ooo eee , ued 155 : rimethoxy - - Quinoline Derivatives. ae =, | Ph.D. (Issued June 12th, 1930.) ... 159 earche on Indoles. ‘Part I. ‘By F, Lions, B.Sc., ned « 12th, 1930.) 3... 2s. He an .. 168 etic Glucosides in Roden Plants. Part ee E m phil maculata. By H. Finnemore, B.Sc., es nd C. B. Cox, B.Sc. (B) The Presence of Enzymes ees Plants as a Factor in the Poisoning of Stock. NE K. Petersen, Maes vets 30th, oe “eve. 172 a — xxviii. we ae a Sele. aa HE .» =Xlix.—liv, weeny Ale VD see Be: er VED) > ee ee ee ane See eee es p JOURNAL PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY NEW SOUTH WALES 1930. (INCORPORATED 1881.) ee VOI. xt. . : - THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. hg THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. q La! APR 21 1932|| S868 > Se Tig Ma i INAL MUSE eee > SYDNEY | PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE, GLOUCESTER, A D ESSEX STREETS, SYDNEY. ISSUED AS A COMPLETE VOLUME, JUNE, 1931. CONTENTS. VOLUME LXIV. ‘Page | Art. I.—PresipintTiaAL AppREss. By Professor wate paisa M.A,, D.Se. (Issned August, 1930.) ; aes II.—A Review of some of the Permo- Og aaebawves ae ductide of New South Wales, with a tentative reclassific- ation. By F. W. Booker, B.Sc. . (With Plates-I.-III. and one Text Figure.) (Issued October 14, 19380.) . a - 65 ae Art. IiI.—tThe Intrusive Igneous Rocks of the. Musaeninenien Singleton District. Part I. By H. G. Raee@art, B.Sce., and H.F. on eum B. Se. ee Plate Vy (Issued October 22nd, 1930) . a ae s Art. IV.—The eceutini Oils of Zieria ‘Smiths tNadeoee aa its various forms. Part I. By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.I., F.C.S. (Issued October 22nd, 1930.) Sat “te 83 oa Art. V.—Dimethyl-B-Phenylindene. By J. 0. ‘aaae ‘D. Se. PhD., : . and C. A. SmyrHe, B.Se. (Issued November 10th, 1930.) . 90 Art. VI.—The Action of Acids on Diazoaminobenzene. Part It. by J. GC. Earn, D,Sc., Ph.D. (Issued December 8th, 1930.)... 96 Art, VII.—The Essential Oil of Eucalyptus rariflora (Bailey). By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.I., F.C.S., C. B. Rapcuirre, cg and F. W. Snort, D.Sc. ‘(Issued December 22nd, 1980.) . 101 4 ? Art. VIII.—The Fossil Fishes of the Australian Mesozoic Rocks, By R. T. Wane, M.A. Si one text fae? Tees February 21st, 1931.) a 115_ i Art. [X.—Thrusts Faults and Counicien Joints in hie Wared beds, near Grasstree, New South Wales. By H. G. Racearr, B.Se. (With Plates V. and VI. and two text Pains: j (Issued February 21st, 1931.) ... so EB. ; | Art. X.—The Geology of the Wellington District, N. Ss. W., ere special reference to the origin of the Upper Devonian Series. By A. J. Maruerson, B.Se. (communicated by Prof. L. A. Cotton). (With Plates VII. and VIII. and three text Filer tt (Issued March 19th, 1931.) Wine inka: 171 Art, XI.—The History of the Development of the ene Death System in the Marulan District, with special reference to River Capture. By’ G. F. K. NAyvior, B.A., B.Se. (With five text figures.) (Issued March 19th, 1931.) ... ait, hip aang AO Arr. XIL—Notes on the Essential Oils from some Cultivated Eucalypts.. Part II. By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.I1., F.C.S., and F. R. Wie a A.A.C.L., F.C.S. ene March’ 19th, 1981.) .. eH ene 521004 ae Art, XIII. istics on 3 Mvnanallee of the Silver iui vine Deposits of New South Wales, with special reference to the- ~ Barrier Ranges Silver Field... By Grorae SmirH (com- ~~ municated by Dr. C. Anderson). (Issued April fee aan 224 A VO wk N AL id AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR if 4 1930. (INCORPORATED 1881.) Viet Tov : EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. SYDNEY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE, GLOUCESTERS AND ESSEX STREETS, SYDNEY. ISSUED AS A COMPLETE VOLUME, JUNE, 1931. CONTENTS. VOLUME LXIV. Page Art. I.—PReEsIDENTIAL ApDpREss. By Professor L. A. Corton, M.A., D.Se. (Issued August, 1930.) ... sal ae ee ee 1 ArT, II.—A Review of some of the Permo-Carboniferous Pro- ductidz of New South Wales, with a tentative reclassific- ation. By F. W. Booxsr, B.Sc. (With Plates I-III. and one Text Figure.) (Issued October 14, 19380.) ... acs : 65 Art. III.—The Intrusive Igneous Rocks of the MSeaIBSae ee! Singleton District. Part I. By H. G. Raeeatt, B.Sc., and H.F. Ae nea B.Sc. ek Plate re (Issued October 22nd, 1930) . ; 78 ArT. 1V.—The meee atial Oils aE Zieria “Smithii inareeen anh its various forms. Part I. By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.I., F.C.S. (Issued October 22nd, 1930.) or 83 Art. V.—Dimethyl-B-Phenylindene. By J.C. Cron ‘D. Se., Ph, D., and C. A. SmyrHe, B.Sc. (Issued November 10th, 1930. Nits 90 Art. VI.—The Action of Acids on Diazoaminobenzene. Part IL. by J. C. Eart, D.Sc., Ph.D. (Issued December 8th, 1930.)... 96 Art, VII.—The Essential Oil of Eucalyptus rariflora (Bailey). By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.I., F.C.8., C. B. Rapcuirre, M.Sc., and F. W. SHort, D.Sc. (Issued December 22nd, 1980.) ... 101 Art. VIII.—The Fossil Fishes of the Australian Mesozoic Rocks. By R. T. Wang, M.A. (With one teat figure.) (Issued February 21st, 1931.) dis Pe me ste — sso0 LES Art. IX.—Thrusts Faults and Compression Joints in the Muree beds, near Grasstree, New South Wales. By H. G. Raaa@att, B.Sc. (With Plates V. and VI. and two text hence ) (Issued February 21st, 1931.) ... Ee 148 Art. X.—The Geology of the Wellington Disteict,. N.S. W. with special reference to the origin of the Upper Devonian Series, By A. J. Matueson, B.Sc. (communicated by Prof. L. A. Cotton). (With Plates VII. and VIII. and three text ie) (Issued March 19th, 1931.) Se 171 Art. XI.—The History of the Development of ake ee Deninees System in the Marulan District, with special reference to River Capture. By G. F. K. Nayuor, B.A., B.Se. Ce five text figures.) (Issued March 19th, 1931.) ... as 191 Art. XII.—Notes on the Essential Oils from some Cultivated Eucalypts. Part II. By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.1., F.CS., and F’. R. Morrison, A.A.C.I., F.C.S. Maa ai March 19th, 1981.) .. aac ase 210 Art. XIII. —_ Notes on the Nana oes of the Silver-Lead-Zine . Deposits of New South Wales, with special reference to the Barrier Ranges Silver Field. By GrorGe SmiTH (com- municated by Dr. C. Anderson). (Issued April 22nd, 1931). 224 ann 31 982 vite he \ (IV. ) Art. XIV.—The Essential Oils of three species of Geijera and the occurrence of a new Hydrocarbon. Part I. By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.I., F.C.S. (Issued April 28rd, 1981,) .. 264 ART. XV.—Studies in the Inheritance of resistance to Bunt in a cross between Florence x Hard Federation Wheats. By J. G. CHURCHWARD, B.Sc.Agr. (communicated by Professor R. D. ea (With one text me 5) eae ae 30th, 1931.) .. oe 298 Art. XVI Oey ties iosneien, of Dipnensll Te Part bi By A. J. CuHAatmers, B.Sc., F. Lions, B.Se., Ph.D. and A. O. - Rogson. (lssued April 30th, 1931.) sd 320 Art. XV1I.—Experiments on Moisture in Timber. By M. B. Wetca, BSce., A.I.C. ad two text ely ei) May 4th, 1931.) —... ‘ 337 Art. X VIII.— The occurrence of iaverbalnalbe Canaan in ae Wood of some species of Flindersia. By M. B, Wetcu, B.Sc., A.I.C. (With Plate IX. and ee i ee e ae May bth, WOSL-). 1%, eh wipe: ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS ie a ee oa vas), ta RL. PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION ... Ke RL = ERE, PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF INDUSTRY bye ve ... XXXL. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE XXXil. — XXXiv. TitLeE Pacs, Contents, Notices, PUBLICATIONS, ... sia (i. — vi.) OFFICERS FoR 1930-1931 Bes wae su es ae ant CVE) List or Members, &c. ... i ¥ ee aa =e aie ta: InDEx To VoutumE LXIV. Bi er, Ae aif Bhs PERKY. NOTICE. THe Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the “ Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the “ Philosophical Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. TO AUTHORS. Authors should submit their papers in typescript and in a condition ready for printing. All physico-chemical symbols and mathematical formule should be so clearly written that the compositor should find no difficulty in reading the manuscript. Sectional headings and tabular matter should not be underlined. 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Pages 67, 69-71, 73, 74, Plate I., Figs. 1-5, Plate II., Fig. 1, and Plate III, for Terrakea fragile, read Terrakea fragilis. Pages 69, 70, Plate II., Figs. 2-4, for Terrakea leve, read Terrakea levis. Page 90, for Dimenthyl, read Dimethyl. Page 95, line 27, omit viz., C,, H,, NO,, N,5.3%. Page 346, delete bottom line. FORM OF BEQUEST. E bequeath the sum of £ to the Roya Society oF New Soutu WateEs, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within calendar months after my decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose. 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I—x1 Transactions of the Royal Society,N.S.W., 1867—1877 1878, pp.324, price 10s.6d. 5. x11 Journal and Proceedings XIII 39 9 9 99 99 9 99 +P) +e) 29 9 9 ” te) 99 9) 9 99 9 99 29 9 bd 99 Led 93 999 5, ” > 99 91, ” 1 >» 440, ” 1882, ,, 327, ” 1 999 324, 29 1 999 224, 99 » 9» 240, ” 999 396, Ed 1887, ,, 296, a 1888, ,, 390. n 1989; cde) ee 1890, ., 200. 1891", 368.7 1892, ;;:426, 4 1893, 530." des 1894, ,, 368, ,, 1895, ” 600, 9 1896, ,, 568, ” 1897, ,, 626, ” 1898, ,, 476, ig 1899, ,, 400, » 1900, ,, 484, » 1901, ;, B6l a ss 1902, 530, Pe 1908, ,, 668, 4, 1904, ,, 604, ” 1905, 55.20 ee 1906, 4, 868; as 1907, ,, 377, ” 908, ” 593, ” 1909, ,, 466.0" 1910,,, 719) > 2 1911, 5) 604,07 ag 1912, 99 275, 99 1913,.,, Ske nies 914, ,, 584, ” 1915, ,, 58%. = 1916, ,, 362, > us 1917, ,, 786, ” 1918, ,, 624, —,, 1919, ,, 414 a 1920, ,, 312, price £1 1s. 1921, 418.7} 922, ,, 372, ” 1928,..° 420 hor 924, ” 366, 29 are) 468, ” >» 470, ” ys 492, » yo» 458, ” 199 263, 999 434, 29 AMopal Society of Hew South dates. ARON eS ee tee ee See nese Ol POSO-LeSt. ae eR Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE JOHN LAWRENCE, BARON STONEHAVEN, P.c., G.c.m.G., D.s.o. Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia. Vice-Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY AIR VICE-MARSHALL SIR PHILIP WOOLCOTT GAME, G.B.z., K.c.B., D.S.o. Governor of the State of New South Wales. President: Prof. O. U. VONWILLER, Bs-., F,Inst.P, Vice—-Presidents: C. ANDERSON, m.a., D.sc. Sir GEORGE A. JULIUS, Kt., B.Sc. B,E., M.I.Mech.E. Prof. R. D. WATT, m.a., Bsc. Prof. L. A. COTTON, m.a., D.sc. Hon. Treasurer: Prof. H. G. CHAPMAN, m.p. Hon. Secretaries: C. A. SUSSMILCH, r.a.s,, F.s.t.c,, etc. | R. J. NOBLE, msc, B.sc.agr., Ph.D. (Vice C. W. O. TYE.) Members of Council: E. C. ANDREWS, B.a., F.G.s. A, R. PENFOLD, F.a.c.1., F.c.s. Assist. Prof. W. R. BROW NE, D.Sc, Prof. A. R. RADCLIFFE-BROWN, R. W. CHALLINOR, F.1.c., F.c.s. M.A.,, F.R.A.I. BEC SRIE Prof. J. DOUGLAS STEWART, Prof. C. E. FAWSITT, p.sc., Pn.p. B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S. Prof. T.G. B. OSBORN, psc, F.L.8. |C. W. O. TYE LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE AMopal Society of Few South Hales TO LI I, P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society Journal, The numerals indicate the number of such contributions, { Life Members. Elected. 1908 Abbott, George Henry, B.A., M.B.,Ch.M., 185 Macquarie-street; Drs‘ Cooringa,’ 252 Liverpool Road, Summer Hill. 1904 _| Adains, William John, M.1.Mech.E., 175 Clarence-street. 1898 Alexander, Frank ‘Lee, William- ‘street, Granville. 1905 | P3| Anderson, Charles, m.A., D.Sc. Edin., Director of the Australian Museum, College- street. (President, 1924.) Vice-President. 1909 | P9| Andrews, Ernest C., B.A., F.a.s., Hon. Mem. Washington Academy of Sciences, Government Geologist, Department of Mines, Sydney: p.r. 32 Benelong Crescent, Bellevue Hill. (President, 1921.) 19380 Aston, Robert Leslie, 24 Radmyre Road, Strathfield. 1919 Aurousseau, Marcel, B sc., No. 65a Market-lane, Manly. 1923 Baccarini, Antonio, Doctor in Chemistry (Florence), c/o Dante Alighieri Society, Box 1168, G.P.O. Sydney. . 1878 Backhouse, His Honour Judge A. P., m.a., ‘ Melita,’ Elizabeth Bay. 1924 Bailey, Victor Albert, M.A., D.Phil., F.Inst.P., Assoc.-Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney. 1919 Baker, Henry Herbert, Watson House, Bligh-street, Sydney. 1894 |P 27| Baker, Richard Thomas, The Crescent, Cheltenham. 1926 Bannon, Joseph, B.Sc. Demonstrator in Physics in the Unger sity of Sydney; p.r. ‘Dunisla,’ The Crescent, Homebush. 1919 Bardsley, John Ralph, ‘'The Pines,’ Lea Avenue, Five Dock. 1925 Barker-Woden, Lucien, F.R.G.s., Commonwealth Department of Navigation, William Street, Meibourne. 1908 | P1| Barling, John, t.s., ‘St. Adrians,’ Raglan-street, Mosman. 1895 | P9| Barraclough, Sir Henry, K.B.£., B.E., M.M.E., M. Inst. C.E., M.I. Mech. E., Memb. Soc. Promotion Eng. Education; Memb. Internat. Assoc. Testing Materials; Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the University of Sydney. 1929 Baur, Fidel George, m.p., Ophthalmic Surgeon, 213 Mac- ‘ quarie-street, Sydney. 1909 | P2| Benson, William Noel, D.sc. Syd., B.A. Cantab., F.G.s., Professor of Geology in the University of Otago, Dunedin, N.Z. 1926 Bentivoglio, Sydney Ernest, B.sc.agr., c/o Tooth and Co., Limited, 1919 Sydney. Bettley-Cooke, Hubert Vernon, ‘The Hollies,’ Minter-street, Canterbury. Elected. 1923 1916 1920 1915 1923 1905 1888 1926 1920 1922 1916 1926 1917 1891 1929 1929 1909 1923 1891 1920 Birks, George Frederick, c/o Potter & Birks, 15 Grosvenor- street Birrell, Septimus, Appian Way, Burwood. Bishop, Eldred George, 8 Belmont-road, Mosman. Bishop, John, 24 Bond-street. P4| Blakely, William Faris, ‘Myola,’ Florence-street, Hornsby. Blakemore, George Henry, ‘‘ Wawoona,” 10 Cooper Street,. Strathfield. {Blaxland, Walter, F.R.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Lond., ‘ Inglewood,” Florida Road, Palm Beach, Sydney. P 4| Booker, Frederick William, B.sc,, ‘Dunkeld,’ Nicholson-street, Chatswood. P4| Booth, Edgar Harold, M.C., B.Sc., F.Inst.P., Lecturer and Demon- stratorin Physics in the University of Sydney. Bradfield, John Job Crew, D.Sc. Eng., M.E., M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. E. Aust. Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Railway Construction, Rail- way Department, Sydney. Brage, James Wood, B.a., c/o Gibson, Battle &Co. Ltd.,Kent-st. Branch, Kenneth James F., 99 Ocean Beach,Manly. Breakwell, Ernest, B.A., B.Sc, Dept. of Education, Box 33 A, G.P.O., Sydney. Brennand, Henry J. W., B.A., M.D., Chm. Syd., V.D., Surgeon Commander R.A.N. Ret., 223 Macquarie-street; p.r. 73 Milsons Road, Cremorne. Brereton, Ernest Le Gay, B.sc., Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry in the University of Sydney. P1| Briggs, George Henry, B.sc., Ph.o., Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics in the University of Sydney. Brown, Herbert, ‘ Sikoti,’ Alexander-street, Collaroy Beach, Sydney. Brown, James B., St. Andrew’s, No 1 Maitland Avenue, East Kew, H. 4, Victoria. P 16) Browne, William Rowan, p.sc., Assistant-Professor of Geology in the University of Sydney. tBurfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.a., M.B., Ch.M. B.Sc. Syd., ‘Wyom- ing,’ 175 Macquarie-street, Sydney. Burkitt, Arthur Neville St. George, m.B., B.sc., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Sydney. P 10) Burrows, George Joseph, B.sc., Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry in the University of Sydney; p.r. Watson-street, Neutral Bay. P1| Caley, Gilbert Fatkin, Manager, Glycerine Distillery Co., Ltd., Alexandria; p.r. ‘Windyridge,’ Park Road, Auburn. Callaghan, Allan Robert, D.Phil, B.Sc. (Oxon.), B.Sc,, Agr, Plant Breeder, Wagga Experiment Farm, Bomen, N.S.W. Calvert, Thomas Copley, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., c/o Dept. of Public Works, Newcastle, N.S.W. Cameron, Lindsay Duncan, Hilly-street, Mortlake. Carment, David, F.1.a. Grt. Brit. & Irel. ¥.¥.a., Scot., 4 Whaling Road, North Sydney. Carruthers, Sir Joseph Hector, K.c.M.G., M.L.C., M.A., Syd., LL.D- St. Andrews, ‘Highbury,’ Waverley. lected 1903 | P3 1913 1909 1913 1925 1909 1896 1920 1913 1928 1882 1919 1909 1892 1886 1921 1927 1925 1912 1890 1886 1928 1930 1919 1921 41921 P3 P2 P16 Pil P 20 P 4 P3 PZ Pri Xl. Carslaw, Horatio S., m.A., Sc. p., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Sydney. Challinor, Richard Westman, F.1.c., F.c.s., Lecturer in Chem- istry, Sydney ‘l'echnical College. Chapman, Henry G., m.p., 8.s., Director of Cancer Research, University of Sydney. Hon. Treasurer. Cheel, Edwin, Curator National Herbarium, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Clark, William E., High School, Armidale. Cleland, John Burton, m.p., ch.m., Professor of Pathology in the University of Adelaide. (President 1917.) Cook, W. E., m.c.e. Melb., M.Inst.,C.E., Burroway-st., Neutral Bay. Cooke, Frederick, c/o Meggitt’s Limited, Asbestos House, York and Barrack streets, Sydney. Coombs, F. A., F.c.s., Instructor of Leather Dressing and Tanning, Sydney Technical College; p.r. Bannerman Crescent, Rosebery. Coppleson, Victor Marcus, m.z., Ch.m., F.R c.s., 225 Macquarie- street, Sydney. Cornwell, Samuel, J.p., ‘Capanesk,’ Tyagarah, North Coast. Cotton, Frank Stanley, B.sc., Chief Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physiology in the University of Sydney. Cotton, Leo Arthur, m.A., D.sc, Professor of Geology in the University of Sydney, Vice-President. (President 1929.) Cowdery, George R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E, ‘Glencoe,’ Torrington Road, Strathfield. Crago, W. H., w.R.c.s. Eng., u.z.c.P. Lond., 185 Macquarie-st. P 1 |{Cresswick, John Arthur, 101 Villiers-street, Rockdale. P 1| Currey, Geoffrey Saunders, 13 Princess-avenue, Homebush. P 23 P2 Curry, Harris Eric Marshall, 8 Lower Wycombe-road, Neutral Bay. Curtis, Louis Albert, u.s., F.1.s. (N.S.W.), v.p., Room 618, Government Savings Bank Building, Castlereagh-street ; p.r. No. 1 Mayfair Flats, Macleay-street, Darlinghurst. Dare, Henry Harvey, M.E, M.Inst.c.E, Commissioner, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Department of Apriculture Building, Raphael-street, Sydney. David, Sir Edgeworth, K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.0., B.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.g.s., Wollaston Medallist, Emeritus Professor of Geo- logy and Physical Geography in the University of Sydney; p-r. ‘Coringah,’ Burdett-street, Hornsby. (President 1895, 1910.) Davidson, Walter Charles, General Manager Clyde Engineer- ing Company, Granville. Davies, Harold Whitridge m.B., b.s. (Adel.) Professor of Physiology in the University of Sydney. de Beuzeville, Wilfrid Alex. Watt, J.P., ‘ Mélamere,? Welham- street, Beecroft, N.S.W. Delprat, Guillaume Daniel, c.B.z., ‘Keynsham,’ Mandeville Crescent, ‘Toorak, Victoria. Denison. Sir Hugh Robert, K.B.£., 701 Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street. Elected 1894 1906 1913 1928 1908 1924 1924 1923 1919 1924 1916 1908 1921 1910 1909 1922 1927 1923 1920 1888 1879 1920 1905 1925 1918 1926 P3 P6 P7 P2 Xli. Dick, James Adam, c.u.G., B.A. Syd., M.D., Ch.M., F.B.C.S. Edin.,. ‘Catfoss,’ 59 Belmore Road, Randwick. {Dixson, William, ‘ Merridong,’ Gordon Road, Killara. Doherty, William M., F.1.c., F.c.s., Second Government Analyst, p.r. ‘ Jesmond,’ George-street, Marrickville. Donegan, Henry Arthur James, a.s.'r.c., Chemical Laboratory, Department of Mines, Sydney. Dun, William S., Paleontologist, Department of Mines, Sydney.. (President 1918.) Dupain, George Zephirin, a.a.c.1., F.c s., Dupain Institute of Physical Education, Manning Building, Pitt and Hay Streets, Sydney, p.r. ‘Syming‘on,’ Parramatta Road, Ashfield. Durham, Joseph, 120 Belmore Road, Randwick. Earl, John Campbell, p.sc. Pn.p., Professor of Organic Chem- istry in the University of Sydney. Earp, The Hon. George Frederick, c.B.z., mu.u.c., Australia House, 52 Carrington-street. Eastaugh, Frederick Alldis, a.r.s.m., F.1.c., Assoc. Professor: in Chemistry, Assaying and Metallurgy in the University of Sydney. Enright, Walter J., B.a., High-street, West Maitland, N.S.W. Esdaile, Edward William, 42 Hunter-street. Farnsworth, Henry Gordon, ‘ Rothsay,’ 90 Alt-street, Ashfield. Farrell, John, a.tT.c., Syd., Riverina Flats, 265 Palmer-street,, Sydney. Fawsitt, Charles Edward, p.&c., Ph.p., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. (President 1919). Ferguson, Andrew. Finnemore, Horace, B.Sc., F.1.C., Lecturer in Pharmacy in the University of Sydney. Fiaschi, Piero, 0.B.z., M.b. (Columbia Univ.), p.p.s. (New York) M.R.C.S. (Eng.), L.R.c P (Lond.), 178 Phillip-street. Fisk, Ernest Thomas, Wireless House, 47 York-street. Fitzhardinge, His Honour Judge G. H., m.a. ‘Red Hill,’ Pennant Hills. {Foreman, Joseph, m.R.c.s. Eng. u.R.c.p. Edin., ‘The Astor,” Macquarie-street. Fortescue, Albert John, ‘Benambra,’ Loftus-street, Arncliffe. Foy, Mark, c/o Hydro Office, Liverpool and Elizabeth streets,. Sydney. Friend, Norman Bartlett, 48 Pile-street, Dulwich Hill. Gallagher, James Laurence, m.a. Syd., ‘Akaroa,’ Ellesmere Avenue, Hunter’s Hill. Gibson, Alexander James, M.E., M.Inst.c.E., M.I E.Aust., 906 Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street, Sydney. Elected 1921 1897 1922 1922 1923 1880 1912 1892 1919 1912 1887 1909 1905 1913 1929 1923 1918 1929 1916 1914 1916 1919 1919 1918 1921 1928 1930 1916 P5 P2 P5 PS Pil P2 P2 xiii. Godfrey, Gordon Hay, m™.A., B.Sc., Lecturer in Physics in the Technical College, Sydney; p.r. 262 Johnston-street, Annandale. Gould, The Hon. Sir Albert John, xk.z., v.p., ‘ Eynesbury,” Edgecliff. Grant, Robert, F.c.s., 24 Edward-street, Woollahra. Greig, William Arthur, Mines Department, Sydney. Gurney, William Butler, B.sc., F.E.s , Government Entomologist, Department of Agriculture, Sydney. Halligan, Gerald H., u.s., ¥.4.s., “ Uplands,”’ Station Street. Pymble. Hallmann, E. F., B.sc., 72 John-street, Petersham. Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, t.s., 82 Pitt-street. Hambridge, Frank, Adelaide Steamship Co. Chambers, 22 Bridge-street, Sydney. Hamilton, Alexander G., ‘Tanandra,’ Hercules-st., Chatswood. Hamlet, William M., F.1.c., F.c.s., Member of the Society of Public Analysts; p.r. ‘Glendowan,’ Glenbrook, Blue Moun- tains. Atlas Building, 8 Spring-st., Sydney. (President: 1899, 1908). Hammond, Walter L., B.sc., High School, Bathurst. Harker, George, D.Sc., F.A.¢.1.,57 Junction-street, Summer Hill. Harper, Leslie F., r.a.s., Geological Surveyor, Department of Mines, Sydney. Harris, Samuel Harry, Surgeon, m.p., chu. (Syd.), 185 Mac- quarie-street, Sydney. Harrison, Travis Henry, B.sc.Agr., Lecturer in Entomology and. Botany at the Hawkesbury Agrieultural College, Rich- mond; p.r. 17 Hurlstone-avenue, Summer Hill. Hassan, Alex. Richard Roby. Hawley. Joseph William, 15 Springdale-road, Killara, Hay Dalrymple-, Richard T., u.s.; 45 Bay-street. Double Bay Hector, Alex. Burnet, ‘“‘ Druminard,”’ Greenwich-road, Green- wich. Henderson, James, ‘ Dunsfold,’ Clanalpine-street, Mosman. Henriques, Frederick Lester, 208 Clarence-street. Henry, Max, DS.0., B.V.Sc., M.R.c.V.s., Chief Veterinary Sur- geon, Dept. Agriculture, Sydney. p.r. ‘Coram Cottage,” Essex-street, Epping. Hindmarsh, Percival, u.a., B.sc. (Agr.), Teachers’ College, The University, Sydney; p.r. ‘Lurnea,’ Canberra Avenue, Greenwich. Hindmarsh, William Lloyd, B.v.sc, M.R.C.V.S., D.v.H., District. Veterinary Officer, Glenfield. Hirst, George Walter Cansdell, B.Sc., Chief Mechanical Engi- neer’s Office, N.S.W. Govt. Railways, Wilson Street, Redfern; p.r. ‘St Cload,’ Beaconsfield-road, Chatswood Hodson, Jobn S., Electrical Engineer, H.M. Naval Establish- ments, Garden Island, Sydney. Hoggan, Henry James, A.M.1.M.£., A.M.1.E. (Aust.). Manchester Unity Chambers, 160 Castlereagh-street; p.r. ‘ Lincluden,” Frederick-street, Rockdale. Elected 1924 1930 1901 1905 1920 1919 1919 1913 1920 1923 P3 P2 P15 P 3 X1v. Holme, Ernest Rudolph, 0.8.8., m.a., Professor of English Language in the University of Sydney. Holmes, James MacDonald, Associate Professor of Geography in the University of Sydney. Holt, Thomas S., ‘Amalfi,’ Appian Way, Burwood. Hooper, George, J.P., F.T.c. Syd., ‘Mycumbene,’ Nielsen Park, Vaucluse. Hordern, Anthony, c.B.E., 12 Spring-street, Sydney. Hoskins, Arthur Sidney, Eskroy Park, Bowenfels. Hoskins, Cecil Harold, c/o Australian Iron and Steel Co., Ltd., Kembla Building, Margaret-street, Sydney. Hudson, G. Inglis, J.p., F.c.s. 180 Arden-st., Coogee. Hulle, Edward William, Commonwealth Bank of Australia. Hynes, Harold John, M.sc., B.s.c. Agr, Senior Asst. Biologist, Department of Agriculture, Sydney. Inglis, William Keith, M.D., Ch.M., Lecturer in Pathology in the University of Sydney; p.r. 34 Wolseley-street, Drummoyne. Ingram, William Wilson, M.c., M.D., Ch.B., 185 Macquarie-st., Sydney. Jacobs, Ernest Godfried, ‘Cambria,’ 106 Bland-street, Ashfield. Jaquet, John Blockley, a.x.s.M., F.@.s., Chief Inspector of Mines, Department of Mines, Sydney. Jeffrey, Robert Ewen, a a.c.1., Managing Director, Bardsley’s Ltd.; p.r. 9 Greycliffe-avenue, Vaucluse. Jenkins, Charles Adrian, B.E., B.Sc, 2 Ramsgate Avenue, Bondi Beach. Jenkins, Richard Ford, Engineer for Boring, Irrigation Com- mission, 6 Union-street, Mosman. John, Morgan Jones, M.1.Mech.&., A.M.1.E.E. Lond., M.1.E. Aust., w.um. Aust., Atlas Building, 8 Spring-street; p.r. Olphert Avenue, Vaucluse. Johnston, Thomas Harvey, M.A., D.Sc. F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., Professor of Zoology in the University of Adelaide. Jones, Leo Joseph, Geological Surveyor, Department of Mines, Sydney. Judd, William Percy, 49 Hirst Street, Arncliffe. Julius, George A., Sir, Kt., B.8c., M.E., M.I.Mech.E., Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street, Sydney. Vice-President. Kenny, Edward Joseph, Field Assistant, Department of Mines, Sydney; p.r. 45 Robert-street, Marrickville. Kent, Harry C., M.a., F.R.I.B.A., 35 Beresford Road, Rose Bay. Raseaou, Hereward Leighton, M.D., Ch.M., D.Sc. Bulladelah, New South Wales. King, Kelso, Sir, k.B., Mercantile Mutual Building, 117 Pitt- street, Sydney. Elected 1923 1920 1919 1877 P3 P2 Kinghorn, James Roy, Australian Museum, Sydney. Kirchner, William John, B.sc., ““ Wanawong,” Thornleigh-road, _ Beecroft. Kirk, Robert Newby, 25 O’Connell-street. Knox, Edward W., ‘ Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Double Bay. Leech, '‘homas David James, B.sc., Syd., ‘Orontes,’ Clarke-st., Granville. Le Souef, Albert Sherbourne, Taronga Park, Mosman. L’Estrange, Walter William, 7 Church-street, Ashfield. Leverrier, Frank, B.A., B.Sc, K.c.,. Wentworth Road, Vaucluse. Uingen, J. T., u.a. Cantab., «.c., c/o Union Club. Bligh-st. Lions, Francis, B.Sc,Pn.D., Lecturer in Organic Chemistry in the University of Sydney, p.r., 21 Bridge-street, Epping. Loney, Charles Augustus Luxton, M.Am.Soc.Refr E., Equitable Building, George-street. Love, David Horace, Beauchamp Avenue, Chatswood. Love, William Henry, Bsc, ‘‘Lumeah,” 9 Miller-street, Haberfield. MacCormick, Sir Alexander, K.c.M.G., M.D., c.M. Hdin., M.R.C.S. Eng., 185 Macquarie-street. Mackay, Iven Giffard, c.u.a., D.s.o., B.A., Student Adviser and Secretary of Appointments Board, The University, Sydney. MacKenzie, William Donald, M.I.Chem.E., at.c., ‘l'echnical Director, Messrs. Lever Bros. Ltd., Balmain McDonald, Alexander Hugh Earle, Director of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture, Sydney. McDonald, Robert, J.P., u.s., Pastoral Chambers, O’Connell-st; p.r. ‘ Lowlands,’ William-street, Double Bay. McGeachie, Duncan, M.I.M.£,, M.1.e, (Aust.), m.1.M.m. (Aust.), ‘Craig Royston,’ Toronto, Lake Macquarie. McIntosh, Arthur Marshall, ‘Moy Lodge,’ Hill-st., Roseville. McKay, R. T., L.S., M.Inst.c.E., Commissioner, Sydney Harbour Trust, Circular Quay. McLuckie, John, M.A., B.Se., (Glasgow), D.Sc. (Syd.), Assistant- Professor of Botany in the University of Sydney. McMaster, Frederick Duncan, ‘*‘ Dalkeith,’’ Cassilis. McQuiggin, Harold G., u.B., ch.m., B.Sc, Lecturer and Demon- strator in Physiology in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘ Berolyn,’ Beaufort-street, Croydon. Madsen, John Percival Vissing, p.sc. B.E., Professor of Elec- trical Engineering in the University of Sydney. Mance, Frederick Stapleton, Under Secretary for Mines, Mines Department Sydney; p.r. ‘ Binbah,’ Lucretia Avenue‘ Longueville. Manfred, Edmund C., Belmore-square, Goulburn. Mann, Cecil William, 41 Jenkin-street, Chatswood. Mann, James Elliott Furneaux, Rarrister at Law, c/o T. H. Southerden, Esq . Box 1646 J..J.. G.P.O., Sydney. Elected, 1908 | 1914 1929 1926 1912 1929 1922 1928 1926. 1879 1922 1924 1879 1915 1923 1893 1930 | 1924 | 1891 'P 2 Noble, Robert Jackson, M.&c., B.Sc Agr., Ph.D., Biologist, Dept. oe 1903 1921 | 1930 | 1913 1928 1921 ' Marshall, Frank, c.m.a., B.D.s., 143 Macquarie-street. Martin, A. H., Technical College, Sydney. P1| Matheson, Alexander James, Teacher, 'The High School, Dubbo. Mathews, Hamilton Bartlett. B.a. Syd., Surveyor General of N.S.W., Department of Lands, Sydney. Meldrum, Henry John, B.a.. 8.8c. ‘ Craig Roy,’ Sydney Road, Manly. Mellor, David Paver, Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry in the University of Sydney ; p.r. Flat 8, ‘Deanville,’ Milson- -road, Cremorne. Mills, Arthur Edward, mu.B., ch.m., Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, Professor of Medicine in the University of Sydney ; p.r. 143 Macquarie-street. Micheh, Louis Ivan, Ph.D., Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Pyrmont. Mitchell. Ernest Marklow, 106 Harrow Road, Rockdale Moore, Frederick H., Union Club, Sydney. 'P 16| Morrison, Frank Richard, 4.a.c.1., F.c.s., Assistant Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney; p.r. Brae-st., Waverley. Morrison, Malcolm, Department of Mines, Sydney. Mullins, John Lane, m.u.c., m.a. Syd., ‘ Ranleigh,’ Darling Point Road, Darling Point. Murphy, BR. K., Dr. Ing., Chem. Eng., Lecturer in Chemistry Technical College, Sydney. P2)| Murray, Jack Keith, B.a., B.sc. (Agr.), Principal, Queensland Agricultural College, Gatton, Queensland. P4| Nangle, James, 0.B.E., F.R.A.S., Superintendent of Technical Education, The ‘T'echnical College, Sydney; Government. Astronomer, The Observatory, Sydney. (President 1920.) P1/ Naylor, George Francis King, ‘ Kingsleigh,’ Ingleburn, New South Wales. Nickoll, Harvey, L.B.¢.P., L.R.c.s., Barham, via Mudgee, N.S. W. Noble, Edward George, L.s., 8 Louisa Road, Balmain. of Agriculture. Box 36a, G.P.O, Sydney, p.r. ‘Casa. Loma,’ Shell Cove Road, Neutral Bay. Hon. Secretary. | told, Richard, ‘ Waverton,’ Bay Road, North Sydney. “Olding, George Henry, ° Werriwee,’ Wright’s Road, Drum- moyne. O'Leary Williain, sJ., Seismologist. St. Ignatius’ College, | Riverview, Sydney. Olé, A. D., F.c.s., ‘Kareema,’ Charlotte-street, Ashfield. eas Theodore George Bentley, D.c., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Sydney. P3 Osborne, George Davenport, D.sc. Lecturer and Demonstrator: | in Geology in the University of Sydney. Elected 1921 1928 1920 1879 1881 1919 1896 1921 1918 | 1927 | 1918 1893 1929 XVii. P 1! Parkes, Varney, Conjola, South Coast. Parsons, Stanley William Enos, Analyst and Inspector,. N.S.W. Explosive Department, p.r. Shepherd Road, Artar-- mon. P 56| Penfold, Arthur Ramon, F.c.s., Curator and Economic Chemist, P 8 P 2 | Pl T'echnological Museum, Harris-street, Ultimo. Pittman, Edward F., Assoc.R.S.M. L.S., ‘The Oaks,’ Park-street, South Yarra, Melbourne. Poate, Frederick, F.R.A.S., L.8., ‘ Clanfield,’ 50 Penkivil-street,. Bondi. Poate, Hugh Raymond Guy, m.B., cn. mu. Syd., F.R.c.s. Eng.,. L.R.c.P. Lond., 225 Macquarie-street. Pope, Roland James, B.a., Syd., M.D., Ch.M., F.R.C.S., Edin., 185 Macquarie-street. Powell, Charles Wilfrid Roberts, A.1.c., c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., O’Connell-street Powell, John, 17 Thurlow-street, Redfern. Price, William Lindsay, B.E., B.Sc.,60 McIntosh-st., Gordon. Priestley, Henry, M.D., Ch. M., B.Sc. Associate-Professor of Physiology in the University of Sydney. Purser, Cecil, B.A., M.B., Chm. Syd., 185 Macquarie-street. Pyke, Henry George, Chemicat Testing Assistant, N.S.W.. Government Tramways; p.r. Bellamy-street, Pennant Hills. Radcliffe- Brown, Alfred Reginald, m.a., Cantab., m.a., Adel., F.R.A.I., Cantab., Professor of Anthropology in the Uni- versity of Sydney. Raggatt, Harold George, B.sc., “ Meru,’ Epping-av., Epping. Ranclaud, Archibald Boscawen Boyd, B.sc., B.z., Lecturer in Physics, Teachers’ College, The University, Sydney. Reid, David, ‘ Holmsdale,’ Pymble. Reidy, Eugene Nicholas, a.s.1.c., Analyst, Department of Mines, Sydney. Robertson, James R. M., M.p., C.m., F.R.G.s., F.G.S., ‘Vanduara,” Ellamane Avenue, Kirribilli. Ross, Allan Clunies, B.Sc, Colonial Mutual Building, 14 Martin Place, Sydney. (Member from 1915 to 1924.) Ross, Chisholm, M.D. Syd., M.B., Ch.M., Hdin., 225 Macquarie-st.. Ross, Herbert E., Govt. Savings Bank Building, 14 Castle- reagh-street, Sydney. Roughley, Theodore Cleveland, Technological Museum, Sydney. Royle, Norman Dawson, m.p., cn.mM. 185 Macquarie-street, Sydney. Ryder, Charles Dudley, D. Eng. (Vienna), Assoc.I.R.S.M,.(L.), Ass.A.CL, F.CS., (L.}, Public Analyst (by appoint.), ‘‘ The Astor,” Mac quarie-street, Sydney. Sandy, Harold Arthur Montague, 326 George-street. Sawyer, Basil, B £.. ‘Birri Birra,’ The Crescent, Vaucluse. Scammell, Rupert Boswood, B.sc., Syd., “Storrington,”’ 10 Buena Vista Avenue, Clifton Gardens. Elected 1919 1923 1918 1924 1927 1917 1900 1922 1919 1921 1917 1916 1921 1914 1920 1913 1900 1909 1916 1919 1920 1918 1901 1919 1920 1926 Pa P — Pl Po Pl XVIli. Sear, Walter George Lane, c/o J. Kitchen & Sons, Ingles-st., Port Melbourne. Seddon, Herbert Robert, p.v.sc,, Director, Veterinary Research Station, Glenfield. Sevier, Harry Brown, c/o Lewis Berger and Sons (Aust.) Ltd., Cathcart House, Castlereagh-street. Shelton, James Peel, m.sc., B.se, Agr., Holland-av., Bellevue Hill. Shearsby, Alfred James, 152 Bland-street, Haberfield. Sibley, Samuel Edward, Mount-street, Coogee. tSimpson, R. C., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Sydney. Smith, Thomas Hodge, Australian Museum, Sydney. Southee, Ethelbert Ambrook, 0.B.€., M.A., B.Sc., B Sc.Agr., Prin- cipal, Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W. Spencer-Watts, Arthur, ‘Araboonoo,’ Glebe-street, Randwick. Spruson, Wilfred Joseph, S.M. Herald Building, Pitt and Hunter-streets, Sydney. Stephen, Alfred Ernest, r.c.s., 7 Wynyard-street, Sydney. Box 1197 H.H.G.P.O., Sydney. Stephen, Henry Montague. B.A., LL.B., c/o Messrs. Maxwell and Boyd, 17 O’Connell- street. Stephens, Frederick G. N., F.R.c.s., M.B., Ch.M., Captain Piper’s s Koad and New South Head Road, Vaucluse. Stephens, John Gower, m.B., Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown. Stewart, Alex. Hay, B.z., ‘ Yunah,’ 22 Murray-street, Croydon Stewart, J. Douglas, B.v.sc., M.R.c.v.s., Professor of Veterinary Science in the University of Sydney ; p.r. ‘ Berelle,’ Home- bush Road, Strathfield. (President 1927.) Stokes, Edward Sutherland, m.s. Syd., F.R.c.P. Irel., Medical Officer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. Stone, W.G., Assistant Analyst, Pe of Mines, Sydney. Stroud, Sydney Hartnett, F.1.C c., c/o Eliott Bros., Ltd., Terry-street, Rozelle. Sulman, Sir John, Kt., Warrung-st., McMahon’s Point, North Sydney. Sundstrom, Carl Gustaf, c/o Federal Match Co., Park Road, Alexandria. P 12/tSussmilch, C. A., F.G.s., F.S.7.c., A.M.1.E. (Aust.), Principal of the East Sydney Technical College, and Assistant Super- intendent of Technical Education. (President 1922). Hon. Secretary. t{Sutherland, George Fife, A.Rx.c.sc., Lond., Assistant-Professor in Mechanical Engineering, in the University of Sydney. Sutton, Harvey, 0.B.5.,M.D., D.P.H. Melb., B.Sc. Oxon., p.r. ‘ Lyn- ton,’ Kent Road, Rose Bay. Professor of Preventive Medicine and Director Commonwealth Health Dept., Uni- versity of Sydney. Tannahill, Robert William, B.se. Syd., msc. ‘Eastwell,’ 40 Cammaiay Avenue, North Sydney. XIX. Elected 1915 | P 3: Taylor, Harold B., D.sc., Kenneth-street, Longueville. 1905 (t{Taylor, John M., m.a., LL.B. Syd., ‘Woonona,’ 43 East Crescent- street, McMahon’ s Point, North Sydney. 1923 Thomas, David, B.E., M.I.M.M., F.G.s.. 15 Clifton Avenue, Burwood. 1919 Thomas, John, L.s., ‘Remeura,’ Pine and Harrow Roads, Auburn. 1919 Thorne, Harold Henry, B.A. Cantab., B.sc. Syd., Lecturer in Mathematics in the University of Sydney; p.r. Rutledge-st., Eastwood. 1916 Tillyard, Robin John, M.a., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.E.S., Chief Commonwealth Entomologist, Canberra, F.c.T. Bureau, Melbourne. 1923 Tindale, Harold, Works Engineer, c/o Australian Gas-Light. Co., Mortlake. 1923 Toppin, Richmond Douglas, a.1.c., Box 1454 JJ, G.P.O., Sydney 1879 Trebeck, P. C., c/o Box 867 F., G.P.O., Sydney. 1925 Tye, Cyrus Willmott Oberon, Director of Development and of the Migration Agreement Executive Committee, Public Works Dept. Building, Sydney; p.r. 19 Muston-street, Mosman. 1890 Vicars, James, m.u., Memb. Intern. Assoc. Testing Materials; Memb. B.S. Guild; Challis House, Martin Place. 1921 Vicars, Robert, Marrickville Woollen Mills, Marrickville. 1892 Vickery, George B., 9th Floor, Karrack House, Barrack-street. Sydney. 1903 | P 5| Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.sc., F.tnst.P., Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney. President. 1919 Waley, Robert George Kinloch, 63 Pitt-street. 1910 Walker, Charles, ‘Lynwood,’ Terry Road, Ryde. 1910 Walker, Harold Hutchison, Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-st. 1879 Walker, H. O., ‘Moora,’ Crown-street, Granville. 1919 | P1| Walkom, Arthur Bache, D.sc., Macleay House, 16 College-st. 1903 Walsh, Fred,, J.p., Consul-General for Honduras in Australia. and New Zealand; For. Memb. Inst. Patent Agents, Lon- don; Patent Attorney Regd. U.S.A.; Memb. Patent Law Assoc., Washington; Regd. Patent Attorn. Comm. of Aust.;. Memb. Patent Attorney Exam. Board Aust.; 4th Floor, 16 Barrack House, Barrack-street, Sydney ; p.r. ‘Walsholme,” Centennial Park, Sydney. 1901 Walton, R. H., F.c.s., ‘Flinders,’ Martin’s Avenue, Bondi. 1913 | P 4} Wardlaw, Hy. Sloane Halcro, p.s.. Syd., Lecturer and Demon- strator in Physiology in the University of Sydney. 1922 Wark, Blair Anderson, v.c., D.S.o., M.I.Q.c., c/o Thompson and Wark, T. & G. Building, Elizabeth-street; p.r. ‘ Braeside,’ Zeta-street, Lane Cove, Sydney. 1921 tWaterhouse, G. Athol, D.Sc, B.E., ¥.E.8., 89 Stanhope Road,. Killara. jE lected 1924 1919 1919 1919 1876 1910 41911 1920 1920 A921 1881 1922 1909 1892 1928 1921 1920 1924 1891 1906 1916 1917 1921 eal E26 eal 2 Pat XX. Waterhouse, Leslie Vickery, B.z. Syd, 6th Floor, Wingello House, Angel Place. Sydney. Waterhouse, Lionel Lawry, B.z. Syd., Lecturer and Demon- strator in Geology in the University of Sydney. Waterhouse, Walter L., M.C., D.Sc.Agr., D.I.C., ‘Hazelmere,’ Chelmsford Avenue, Roseville. Watkin-Brown, Willie Thomas, F.e u.s., Lucasville Road, Glenbrook. Watkins, John Leo, B.A. Cantab., m.a. Syd., University Club, Castlereagh-street ; p.r. 169 Avoca-street, Randwick. Watson, James Frederick, m.B., ch.m., ‘Midhurst,’ Woollahra. Watt, Robert Dickie, M.A., B.Sc, Professor of Agriculture in the University of Sydney. (President, 1925). Vice- President. Welch, Marcus Baldwin, B.sc., A.1.c., Economic Botanist, 'l'ech- nological Museum. Wellish, Edward Montague, m.a., Associate-Professor in Math- ematics in the University of Sydney. Wenholz, Harold, B.sc.agr., Director of Plant Breeding, De- partment of Agriculture, Sydney. tWesley, W. H., London. Whibley, Harry Clement, 39 Moore-street, Leichhardt. {White, Charles Josiah, B.sc., Lecturer in Chemistry, Teacher’s College. White, Harold Pogson, F.c.s., Assayer and Analyst, Depart- ment of Mines; p.r. ‘Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn. Wiesener, Frederick Abbey, M.B., Chm., D.o.ms., 143 Mac- quarie-street, Sydney. Willan, Thomas Lindsay, B.sc., Williams, Harry, A.1.c.,c/o Whiddon Bros.’ Rosebery Lanolines Pty. Ltd, Arlington Mills, Botany. Williams, William John, 5 Effingham-street, Mosman. Wood, Percy Moore, t.R.c.P. Lond., M.R.c.s. Eng., ‘ Redcliffe, Liverpool Road, Ashfield. Woolnough, Walter George. D.Sc, F.@.8., ‘Callabonna,’ Park Avenue, Gordon. (President, 1926.) Wright, George, c/o Farmer & Company, Pitt-street. Wright, Gilbert, Lecturer and Demonstrator in Agricultural Chemistry in the University of Sydney. Yates, Guy Carrington, 184 Sussex-street. Xxl. Elected Honorary MzmMBeERSs. Limited to Twenty. M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal. 1914 Hill, James P., v.se, F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, University College, London. 1908 Kennedy, Sir Alex. B. W., Kt., LL.p., D. Eng, F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Engineering in University College, London, 17 Victoria-street, Westminster, London 8.W. 1915 Maitland, Andrew Gibb, F.a.s., Ex-Government Geologist of Western Australia, ‘Bon Accord,’ 28 Melville Terrace, South Perth, W.A. 3912 Martin, C. J., c.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director of Animal Nutrition, C.S. and I.R., University of Adelaide. 19380 Masson, David Orme, K.B.E., MA., D.Sc. LL.D., 14 William- street, South Yarra, Victoria. 1928 Smith, Grafton Elliott, m.a., M.pD., F.R.S., F.R.c.P., Professor of Anatomy in the University College, London. 1915 Thomson, Sir J. J., 0.M., D.Sc. F.R.S., Nobel Laureate, Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, England. 1921 Threlfall, Sir Richard, c.B.z., M.A., ¥.R.S., lately Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney, ‘Oakhurst, Church Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, England. 1922 Wilson, James T., m.B., ch.M. Edin., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge, England. 31 Grange Road, Cambridge, England. OBITUARY 1930-81. Ordinary Members. Elected. Elected. 1887 Faithful, Robert Lionel 1913 Thompson, Joseph. Honorary Members: 1918 Chilton, Charl-s. 1900 Thiselton-Dyer, William Turner. XXII, AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL. Established in memory of The Revd. WILLIAM BRANWHITE CLARKE, .a., F.R.s., F.G.s., ete Vice-President from 1866 to 1878. To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. The prefix * indicates the decease of the recipient. Awarded 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1895 1895 1896 1900 1901 1902 1903 1907 1909 1912 1914 1915 IS) 1918 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1927 1928 1929 1930 *Professor Sir Richard Owen. k.c.B., F.R.S. *George Bentham, C.M.G., F.R.S. *Professor Thos. Huxley, F.R.S. *Professor F. M’Coy, F.RB.S., F.G.S8. *Professor James Dwight Dana, LL.p. * Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G., M.D., Pu.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. *Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. *Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, o.M., @.c.s.1.,¢.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,F.R.S. *Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p. *Sir James Hector, K.c.M.G., M.D, F.R.S. *Rev. Julian E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.8., F.L.S. *Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.s., F.R.A.S. *George Bennett, M.D., F.R.c.S. Eng., F.L.S., F.Z.S. *Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.s., ¥F.G.S. 7 *Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, k.c.M.G.,C.1.E.,M.A., LL.D., Sc. De» F.R.S., F.L-8. *Professor Ralph Tate, F...s., F.G.S. *Robert Logan Jack, LL.D., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. *Robert Etheridge, Jnr. *The Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, ¢.M.G., F.R.G.S. *Sir John Murray, K.c.B., LL.D., Sc. D., F.R.S. *Edward John Eyre. *F, Manson Bailey, c.M.a.. F.L.S. * Alfred William Howitt, D.sc., F.G.S. Walter Howchin, F.a.s., University of Adelaide. Dr. Walter E. Roth, B.a., Pomeroon River, British Guiana, South America. *W. H. Twelvetrees, F.G-s. A. Smith Woodward, LL.D., F.R.s., Keeper of Geology, British Museum (Natural History) London. *Professor W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E., C.DI.G., D.S.0., B.A., D.Sc., F.B.S., F.G.S., The University, Sydney. Leonard Rodway, c.u.a., Honorary Government Botanist, Hobart, Tasmania. *Joseph Edmund Carne, F.@.s. * Joseph James Fletcher, m.a., B.Sc., Richard Thomas Baker, The Crescent, Cheltenham. *Sir W. Baldwin Spencer, K.c.M.G., M.A., D.Sc. F.R.S *Joseph Henry Maiden, 1.8.0., F.R.S., F.L.S., J.P. *Charles Hedley, F.L.s. Andrew Gibb Maitland, r.a.s., “Bon Accord,’ 28 Melville Ter- race, South Perth, W.A. Ernest C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S., Government Geologist, Depart- of Mines, Sydney. Ernest Willington Skeats, D.sc, A.R.c.s., F.G.S., University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria. L. Keith Ward, B.A., B.E., D.Sc., Government Geologist, Geological Survey Office, Adelaide. Xxlil. AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE. Money Prize of £25. Awarded. 1882 John Fraser, B.A., West Maitland, for paper entitled ‘The Aborigines of New South Wales.’ 1882 Andrew Ross, m.p., Molong, for paper entitled ‘Influence of the Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’ The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25. 1884 W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper entitled ‘Water supply in the Interior of New South Wales.’ 1886 S.H. Cox, ¥.c.s.,F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Tin deposits of New South Wales.’ 1887 Jonathan Seaver, ¥.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘Origin and mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated Minerals.’ 1888 Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.s., F.L.8., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.’ 1889 Thomas Whitelegge, r.z.m.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘ List of the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and Neighbourhood.’ 1889 Rev. John Mathew, mu.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper entitled ‘The Australian Aborigines.’ 1891 Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Micro- scopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’ 1892 Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper entitled ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has pro- duced upon Indigenous Vegetation.’ 1894 J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper entitled the ‘Timbers of New South Wales.’ 1894 R. H. Mathews, t.s., Parramatta, for paper entitled ‘The Abori- ginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales.’ 1895 C. J. Martin, p.sc., m.B., F.R.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The physiological action of the venom of the Australian black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).’ 1896 Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of the Deposits in which they are found.’ AWARDS OF THE WALTER BURFITT PRIZE. MONEY AND MEDAL. Money Prize of £50. Established as the result of a generous gift to the Society by Dr. W. F. Burritt, B.A., M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc., of Sydney. Awarded at intervals of three years to the worker in pure and applied science, resident in Australia or New Zealand, whose papers and other contributions published during the past three years are deemed of the highest scientific merit, account being taken only of investigations described for the first time, and carried out by the author mainly in these Dominions. Awarded ; 1929 Norman Dawson Royle, M.D., cam., 185 Macquarie-st., Sydney. ots is on 1 Wee ; 7 U iy = ‘ : , . rs i ‘ J ‘ ‘ 4 ‘ f ae a td ‘ , > | | 4 5 ‘ ve { ' ; < ! i ey = > \ ies 5 \ ' =F > + ‘ j : 5 ‘ + aa Ls 4 t A? eg Oi ae r ‘ chs) ' bRibiy 4 « { Heh yy ry } ] ‘ cy : €Fycip) f ty i? be BOI ; ’ r Wieeeaal ae re i . = att . ahs - hae “lg 1 Settle ito THER I oil ii ii SOLTELEG aihi te ty fotos Be atid »oorlt val hedges) aco eee - LE site aby H ki PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS By Proressor L. A. Corton, M.A., D.Sc. a ee (Delivered to the Royal Society of New South Wales, May 7, 1930.) The honour of occupying the presidential office carries with it the duty and privilege of presenting to you an address, which usually takes the form of a general report upon the activities of the Society for the current year, and an account of some investigation connected with that branch of science in which the President has been specially interested. This procedure I therefore propose to follow in my address to you this evening. During the past year, eleven new members have joined the Society, but unfortunately our losses have been greater than our accessions to membership. Fifteen members have been lost by resignation or default, and eleven ordinary members and one honorary member have been lost by death. The present membership of the Society is three hundred and twenty-five. We have lost by death two members of the Council in the persons of the late Presi- dent, Mr. William Poole, and the Rev. Father E. F. Pigot, S.J. The vacancies on the Council have been filled by the appointments of Professor T. G. B. Osborn and Professor A. R. Radeliffe-Brown. The other members lost by death are Dr. Henry William Armit, George Balsille, John Frederic Codrington, Edward Ellictt, Geoffrey E. Fairfax, Joshua Binnington Henson, Hugh Giffen McKinney, Irwin Ormsby, and Edmond Aunger White. In addition, the death of Sir Walter Baldwin Spencer has removed from us a dis- tinguished honorary member. A—May 7th, 1930. 2 L. A. COTTON. Henry WiuuiAmM ARrMitT, who was elected a member in 1915, died at his home on the 12th of March, 1930, after a short illness of only four days. Dr. Armit was educated in England, and was a member of the Royal College of Surgeons and a Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians, London. For some years he worked at the Lister Institute. Later, he joined the staff of the British Medical Journal, and was also a representative of the London ‘‘Times.’’ He came to Australia early in 1914 upon the invitation of the British Medical Association in Australia to take charge of the publication of that Asso- ciation, a position which he held at the time of his death. GEORGE BALsILLE, who died at Dunedin, New Zealand, on the 25th of March, 1929, became a member of the Society in 1894. He was actively interested in the study of astronomy, and had corresponded with the Society in con- nection with the eclipse of the 21st September, 1922. JOHN FREDERIC CODRINGTON died at Woollahra on the llth of August, 1929. He had been a member of the Society since 1876. He was born in the little seaside village of Lyme Regis, in Dorset, England, in 1838, and came to Australia as a child. He returned to England to pursue his studies in medicine, and gained his degree as a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons at Edinburgh. After graduating, he returned to Australia, and after living at Peak Downs in Queensland for a few years, he settled in Orange, where he remained until he retired from practice in 1896. After a few years of travel he came to Sydney, where he resided until the time of his death. He was, prior to his decease, the oldest living member but one of the Society. Dr. Codrington has left a legacy of part of his residual estate to the Royal Society. Epwarp E.uiorr, who died at Penshurst on the Ist August, 1929, was born at Gateshead-on-Tyne in 1870. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 After studying in England, he worked for many years ‘with the distinguished chemist Fresenius at Wiesbaden. He returned to England to join the staff of the United Alkali Company at their works at Gateshead-on-Tyne. Later, he joined the firm of Reckitts Ltd. at Hull, and when this company opened a branch factory in Sydney, he was appointed works manager. For a period of ten years he was the Honorory Secretary of the Sydney Branch of the Society of the Chemical Industry, which owes much to his services. Mr. Elliott was, in addition, an accomplished musician, and acted for many years as organist and choirmaster at the parish church of St. ‘George. He joined this Society in 1918. GEOFFREY EK, Farrrax, after an illness of some months, died on the 27th April, 1930. He was born in Sydney on the 26th June, 1861, and received his early education at the Sydney Grammar School. He afterwards studied at ‘Oxford, where he graduated in law. As the Senior Director of the ‘‘Sydney Morning Herald,’’ he played a very im- portant part in the affairs of this State, and the Royal Society is indebted to his newspaper for much help and many courtesies. He became a member of the Society in 1896. JOSHUA BINNINGTON HENSON died at his home at May- field on the 29th January, 1930, after a short illness, at the age of seventy-two years. He was born at Ashfield, Sydney, and, after completing his school education, entered the service of the Sydney Municipal Council on the City Engineer’s Staff. Upon the formation of the Metro- politan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage he was appointed Assistant Engineer for Water Supply. On the establishment of the Hunter District Water Supply and Sewerage Board, he was appointed board engineer, a 4 L. A. COTTON. position which he retained until his retirement in 1925. In addition to his valuable professional work, Mr. Henson rendered great service as a private citizen of Neweastle,. where he took a keen interest in the preservation of the flora, and general development of the district. He was. elected a member of this Society in 1884. HucH GirrEN McKiInnety, who was a member of the Society since 1880, died on the 9th March, 1930, at Turra- murra, at the age of eighty-three years. He was educated at Queen’s University, Belfast, and later entered the Indian Civil Service as an engineer counected with the develop- ment of canals along the Ganges. In 1885 he was appointed: engineer to the Commission on the cunservation of water in New South Wales, and prepared valuable reports on the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers. Later, he became resident engineer at the Sydney water supply works. After retiring from this position in 1900, he devoted himself to private practice as a consulting engineer. He was an active member of this Society, to which he contributed nine papers, chiefly concerned with irrigation problems. Irwin Ormssy, who died on the 2nd March, 1930, became a member of this Society in 1917. He was born at Orange on the 23rd April, 1875. At the time of his death he was Assistant Factory Manager of the British-Austra- lasian Tobacco Company Proprietary, Limited, in Sydney. He gave valuable support to the Sydney Technical College Chemical Society, having been a foundation member and past President of that body. He contributed many articles: to the ‘‘Bulletin’’ under the pen-name of ‘‘Zadig.’’ FatrHer Epwarp Francis Picot, 8.J., who was born at Dundrum, Ireland, on 18th September, 1858, died at Sydney on the 22nd May, 1929, after a short illness in hospital. Father Pigot was educated for the medical PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5, profession at Trinity College, Dublin, and after a post- graduate course at London returned to Dublin, where he practised as a physician for some years. He then found his true vocation in the priesthood, and after joining the Jesuitical order, came to Sydney in 1882, where he was stationed at Riverview, and undertook the duties of Science Master in that institution. In 1899 he went to China as a medical missionary, but found that failing health necessi- tated giving up this work, to which he was devoted. This reverse became the opportunity for devoting himself ‘quietly to the study of science, for which he did so much in his later years. As a student in Dublin he had taken a great interest in astronomy, and had attended lectures from the great astronomer, Sir Robert Ball. This led to his appointment to the Observatories of Zi-kai-wei and Zo-se, near Shanghai, where he carried out astronomical work for six years. In 1905 he returned to Riverview and estab- lished the Observatory at that College. From that time onward he devoted himself chiefly to the study of seismo- logy, in which he made valuable contributions by the eareful and precise work which he carried out in that study. He aimed always at securing the best possible instruments for this work, and finally succeeded in having a magnificent instrument of the Galitzin type built in Sydney for his Observatory. In 1923 he established at Riverview a solar observatory, which he maintained until his death. Father Pigot was elected a member of the Australian National Research Council in 1921, and represented this body as a delegate to the International Astronomical Union at Rome in 1922, and the Pan-Pacifie Science Congress at Tokyo in 1926. Father Pigot was a past President of the New South Wales section of the British Astronomical Association. He became a member of the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1909, and in 1921 was elected to 6 L. A. COTTON. the Council, on which he served for seven years. He contributed two papers to the proceedings of this Society. Father Pigot was a man of many interests, and amongst other things was an accomplished musician. His gentle: disposition and modesty endeared him to all his colleagues, who mourn his loss as a friend, as well as a collaborator im scientific work. Wiuii1am Pooue died suddenly on July 16, 1929, at the age of fifty-nine years. He received his early education at the Sydney Grammar School, and graduated as an engineer at the University of Sydney. For many years he devoted his attention to mining engineering. Later he was appointed Director of the Charters Towers School of Mines, where he remained for some years. He wrote many technical papers on surveying, civil engineering, the treat- ment of ores and industrial manufacture. He was also keenly interested in scientific work, and as a young mar joined in the work of the famous Funafuti Expedition under the leadership of Professor David. This interest im science he maintained throughout his whole life. In the later part of his life he practised as consulting engineer,. and was associated with the firm of Julius, Poole and’ Gibson as a partner. He was elected a member of this: Society in 1891, and served on the Council for six years. In 1929 he was elected President, and was a Vice-President at the time of his death. He will be long remembered by the members of this Society for his personal good qualities: and kindly nature. . EpMonpD AUNGER WHITE, who died in Melbourne on 14th November, 1929, was born in New Zealand in 1875. He came to Queensland at an early age, and when a young man entered the service of the Mount Morgan Gold Mining Company, and later became an engineer. He was appointed’ constructing engineer for the Electrolytic Refining and PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 7 Smelting Company of Australia Limited in 1908, and after four years in their service was promoted to the position of general manager. He occupied this office at the time of his death. He took an active interest in public affairs and civic movements, particularly in the Illawarra district, where he resided in later life. He was elected a member of this Society in 1918. Sir BaLtpwin SPENCER died at Ushuaia, Argentina, in July, 1929, while engaged on a scientific expedition for the purpose of studying the life and customs of the natives of Patagonia. He was born at Stretford, England, in 1860, and was educated at Owen’s College, Manchester, from which he proceeded to Oxford, where he graduated. In 1887 he came to Australia to take up duties as Professor of Biology in the University of Melbourne. His extra- ordinary energy and enthusiasm soon made his influence felt in the study of biology throughout the whole of Australia. He contributed numerous scientific papers to Australian journals, and became particularly interested in the work of the Australasian Association for the Advance- ment of Science, of which he was a past President. He was also an active member of the Australian National Research Council. In 1912 he was appointed Special Commissioner and Chief Protector of Aborigines in the Northern Terri- tory. Upon his retirement from teaching duties in 1919 he was elected Emeritus Professor of Biology at the University of Melbourne, and thenceforward devoted himself to further researches, particularly in ethnology, which became his dominant interest in later life. He was for many years the Honorary Director of the National Museum, Melbourne. He was greatly interested in bringing the fruits of scientific investigation before the public in a clear and interesting manner, and in his later years crystallised the results of his life work into book form, 8 L. A. COTTON. and was actively engaged in this work at the time of his death. He was elected an Honorary Member of this Society in 1894, and was awarded the Society’s highest honour in the form of the Clarke Memorial Medal in 1923. The loss to science in Australia occasioned by his death is widely felt throughout the whole of the Commonwealth. The Library of the Society has received the following accessions during the current year:—1,759 parts, 50 volumes, 44 reports, 3 calendars and 1 catalogue. The current periodicals are available for the use of members, but the main library, unfortunately, cannot be re-estab- lished until the completion of Science House. In the meantime, however, the opportunity is being taken for binding about 4,000 volumes, and these will be completed by the end of this year. During the year there have been eight general monthly meetings, at which nineteen papers were read. In addition, lecturettes were given at the meetings held in July, September, October and November, and the Society is indebted to Messrs. T. C. Roughley, W. B. Gurney, R. W. Challinor and M. B. Welch for their contributions at these meetings. | A special lecture was also arranged for the purpose of giving members the opportunity of hearing from Dr. C. M. Yonge, the leader of the Great Barrier Expedition, a general statement regarding the ‘‘Scientific Results of the Great Barrier Reef Expedition.’’ The Popular Science Lectures for the year were as follows :— ‘Cancer Research,’’ by H. G. Chapman, M.D. ‘‘The Occurrence and Origin of Mineral Oil,’’ by C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S. ‘‘Psychology of the Individual and His Voeation,”’’ by A. H. Martin, M.A., Ph.D. ““Wireless,’’ by Professor J. P. V. Madsen, D.Sc., B.E. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9 Upon the return of a number of our members and ‘delegates from the Fourth Pacific Science Congress, which was held at Java in June, 1929, the monthly meeting for August was devoted to a series of short addresses from Messrs. E. C. Andrews, G. H. Halligan and C. A. Sussmilch .and Professors A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, A. N. Burkitt and E. J. Goddard. The Clarke Memorial Medal for this year was awarded to L. K. Ward, B.A., B.E., D.Se., in recognition of the valuable work which he has done for Australian Geology by his researches in Tasmania and South Australia. The first award of the Walter Burfitt prize was made at the meeting held on the 3rd July, 1929. The prize, which ‘consists of a medal and money prize of £50, was awarded -and presented ‘to Dr, N. D. Royle in recognition of the notable researches of world-wide importance and interest, ‘which he has carried on during the last three years in pursuit of the investigations in which he was originally a -collaborator with the late Professor John Hunter. One of our members, Sir Kelso King, has been honoured by the King, who has conferred upon him the title of Knight Bachelor. The Maiden Memorial Pavilion, to which many members -of this Society have contributed, has now been erected in ‘the Sydney Botanic Gardens, and an opening ceremony “will be arranged at an early date. The erection of Science House has now been commenced. ‘The deed of gift of the land was completed on September ‘6th, 1929, and was conveyed to the Royal Society of New South Wales, the Linnean Society of New South Wales and the Institute of Engineers, Australia, in fee simple as ‘tenants in common of the land. A partnership agreement 10 L. A. COTTON. between the three bodies was drawn up anid signed on the: 20th December, 1929, and a contract for the erection of’ the building has been given to Messrs. John Grant and Sons for the sum of £38,750. The contractor took over the site on the 24th March and is due to complete the building in the thirty-nine weeks from that date. The erection of this building and its occupation by many scientific bodies will mark an epoch in scientific work in: this State, and will surely yield fruitful results. AN OUTLINE AND SUGGESTED CORRELATION OF THE PRE-CAMBRIAN FORMATIONS OF AUSTRALIA. Introduction. The study of natural phenomena reveals on every side- the dominance of a cyclic principle or rhythm in the: operations of nature. We see this manifested in the biological realm, in such illustrations as the cycle of spring’ in the plant world, or in the circulation of blood in the animal kingdom. In the material world the periodic: disturbances within the atom on the one hand, and the- majestic cycle of the planets in their orbits on the other: hand, are but the limits of a great series of cycles which lie: between, such as the rhythms of day and night, of the- tides, of the seasons, sun-spot cycles and the like. The- studies of the earth itself reveal similar rhythms, but on a- grander scale of time. : The trend of geological thought in late years has been in the direction of placing more emphasis on this principle, and on its importance in geological correlation, as the- evidences of the rocks make it more apparent. The studies: PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. lI of Barrell, culminating in the work of Joly and Holmes, have recently led to interesting suggestions for the explanation of the cycles of major earth movements throughout geological time. The stages of a single cycle in earth movements have been recognised as follows :— (1) A period of extension of the continental masses in area and elevation. (2) Prolonged erosion with the filling of geosynclinal troughs, accompanied by sea transgressions and sedimentation in epeiric seas. (3) A period of compression and intense folding of geosynclinal sediments, accompanied by sea regressions. (4) A period of continental uplift resulting in the restoration of the initial conditions of the cycle. In many cases such cycles have found a world-wide expression in crustal disturbances and igneous intrusion. The object of the study undertaken in this paper is to examine the older geological records in Australia, and to discuss the chronology of the major earth movements in the Pre-Cambrian history of the continent. Much has already been done by other workers, and the chief contri- bution of this study will perhaps be the presentation of the facts from a somewhat different angle. General Features of the Pre-Cambrian. As in the study of human history the relation of cause and effect gives a unity to the whole, so in the history of the earth a similar continuity is often apparent. The events of Pre-Cambrian time have left inheritances, the influences of which can be traced throughout the whole of geological history. In actual time relation, the duration 12 L. A. COTTON. . Of the Pre-Cambrian is about twice that of all succeeding time. The rocks in which are recorded the events of Pre- Cambrian time are found, at the surface, over a large area of the Commonwealth, probably exceeding 800,000 square miles. In addition, they underlie, in a _ considerably increased area, a thin veneer of later sediments, through which they project in many places. Owing to their great age and the changes to which they have been subjected, the rocks are, as a rule, very much altered, and this often makes difficult the interpretation of their origin and relationships. Again, they occupy large. areas of either unoccupied, or sparsely populated territory, difficult of access, as in the regions of Central Australia, so that much less is known of their characters and distribution than of rocks in the coastal belts of the continent. 7 | ~The investigations which have been made are chiefly those of members of the staffs of the Geological Surveys and Universities of the States, working within their own boundaries. Few of these workers have had the opportunity of studying the conditions in other States, and this naturally introduces difficulties in correlation. _ On the other hand, the valuable mineral deposits which have been exploited in the Pre-Cambrian rocks have directed special attention to their investigation, so that much is known of their character and structure in certain areas. The intensive studies made of the Goldfields of Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie, and of the great lead and zine deposits at Broken Hill are examples of such researches. The study of the geological history of the Pre-Cambrian in Europe and North America has shown that this period was characterised by earth revolutions on a grand scale PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 18 with regard both to time and space. Areas as large as Australia have been shown to have suffered changes of a singularly uniform character, and to exhibit rock groups which can be correlated over areas of continental dimen- sions. Indeed, the general sequence of events is similar not only in North America and Europe, but in many other parts of the world. This has led to the suggestion that the major events of Pre-Cambrian time have been more or less synchronous throughout the world, and owe their sequence to crustal disturbances arising from; internal movements which affected the whole earth. With this background of experience in view, we may reasonably expect the Pre- Cambrian rocks of the Commonwealth to exhibit types and structures capable of correlation throughout the continent. In attempting any such correlation some district must be selected as a type area or standard of reference. Such an area should preferably contain as complete a record as possible, and exhibit a diversity of rock types sufficiently distinctive for the purposes of correlation. The district which best fulfils these conditions is to be found in the neighbourhood of Pilbara, in the northern part of Western Australia. Professor David has for many years regarded this as the type area for the Pre-Cambrian formations of Australia. The discovery of gold in this district led to its examina- tion by the Geological Survey of Western Australia, which has issued a number of bulletins dealing with the area. As a result of this work a clear subdivision into three great series has been recognised. These are as follows :— The Nullagine Series (youngest). The Mosquito Creek Series. The Warrawoona Series (oldest). 14 L. A. COTTON. A brief description of the characters of each series and of the ages which have been assigned to them will now be given. The Warrawoona Series. This series consists of an ancient group of sediments with which are interbedded a great series of greenstone schists. All these rocks are intruded by gneiss, which has its foliation parallel to the schistosity of the altered Sediments. The sediments are represented by quartzites, conglomer- ates and mica-seritic-quartz schists. Of these, the conglom- erates exhibit the most striking changes, the pebbles being Stretched and flattened to an extraordinary degree. The greenstone schists represent either sills or lava flows of a basic character which have been altered by regional metamorphism. They exhibit such varieties as hornblende, chlorite and tale schists. In rare cases uncrushed nuclei revealing the original character of the rock have been found in the greenstone series. The greenstones appear to have provided favourable conditions for the concentration of the gold-bearing ores brought in by the younger intrusive granites. Associated with the greenstones 1s a remarkable series of jaspillites, which occur as thin bands or ribbons arranged parallel to the strike and foliation of the greenstones. These are interpreted as being due to the silicification of erushed zones in the greenstones. } Another feature of the Warrawoona Series is the occur- rence in them of intrusive dykes of porphyry, now crushed to form sericite schists, with porphyritic potash felspars giving rise to augen structure. These also trend parallel to the schistosity and strike of the metamorphic series. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15 The whole series is further intruded by basic dykes, which are of two ages. The older series strikes parallel to the schists and has itself suffered crushing with them. The newer series cuts the older nearly at right angles, and is of much younger age, as it cuts also the Mosquito Creek and Nullagine Series. The Mosquito Creek Series. These are a series of shales, grits and fine conglomerates which outcrop along Mosquito Creek, one of the tributaries of the Nullagine River near Pilbara. They appear to be of great thickness, but the amount is uncertain, as the structure has not yet been worked out in detail. They have so far not been found resting on the Warra- woona Series, but are certainly of younger age, as numerous pebbles of the characteristic jaspillites of the Warrawoona beds have been found in the conglomerate. Moreover, the striking difference between the state of alteration of these beds and those of the Warrawoona Series indicates that a very strong unconformity exists between the two series. A further noteworthy fact is that, although the Mosquito Creek beds are cut by granites of a normal character, the older gneisses of. the Warrawoona beds do not intersect them. The sediments are strongly folded along axes parallel to those of the Warrawoona Series, indicating a revival of similar forces to those which operated during Warrawoona time. The Nullagine Series. These beds, which probably are the most widely distri- buted of any geological formation in Western Australia, rest with a violent unconformity on the folded and denuded beds of the Mosquito Creek Series. The basal bed of the series is a coarse conglomerate with boulders up to four feet, but for the most part less than a 16 ~L. A. COTTON. foot in diameter. This formation has been compared with. the ‘‘ Banket’’ of South Africa, and like it, is gold bearing. It also contains diamonds. Many of the boulders in this. conglomerate are flattened and are suggestive of a glacial, possibly a fiuvio-glacial, origin. Above these conglomerates are grits, sandstones and shales with a great development of interbedded lavas and tuffs. These are chiefly basic in character, but some acidic lavas, chiefly rhyolites, also occur. The granites which intrude the Mosquito Creek Series: do not cut the Nullagine beds. The newer basic dykes, however, are intrusive into the whole Pre-Cambrian Series, including the Nullagine Formation. An examination of other Pre-Cambrian rocks in the Commonwealth will now be undertaken, and from this it will be seen that in most cases the types in widely separated areas can be correlated with one or other of the series occurring in the Pilbara District, upon fairly strong evidence. The Goldfields of Central Western Australia. Probably no part of Western Australia has received such detailed study as this province, from which has been won such great wealth in the form of gold. The area discussed under this section lies approximately between latitudes 26 to 33 degrees south, and longitude 116 and 123 degrees east. Many reports by different workers have been published dealing with various parts of this large area, and there are naturally enough some differences in opinion as to the interpretation of the rock types and their relationships in such a complex area. | PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 17 The chief geological units represented are an old and highly metamorphosed sedimentary series associated with sreenstones and gneiss, and a series of younger and less altered sediments intruded by unaltered or little altered granites. There are also numerous acid dykes, and dolerites which occur as little altered dykes. In attempting to interpret the sequence of these types, the relationships of the granites and gneiss appear to give rise to the greatest difficulty. In some districts the gneiss appears to be a marginal phase of the granite, but in others the granites are clearly intrusive into the gneisses. A brief summary and discussion of the geology of this province will now be given. In the south-west of the area lies the Yilgarn Goldfield, which has been described by Blatchford and Honman.”” Here three great auriferous belts occur arranged en échelon with a general north-north-west trend. On the western belt hes Westonia, on the central lie Bullfinch and Southern Cross, and on the eastern are situated Mt. Jackson and Marda. A statistical summary of the areas occupied by sediments, greenstones and granite in a district extending over 2,661 sq. miles to the south of Southern Cross is as follows :—%3 Area of Sedimentary rocks .. .. 2.4 per cent. Area of Greenstones .. .. .. 11.8 per cent. meeceaeoriG@ramites .. .. ..... «% 85.8 per cent, This statement gives a typical picture of the distribution of the older rocks as remnants lying like ‘‘islands in a sea of granite.’”? _ In the Bullfinch belt the oldest rocks are the metamorphic sediments which consist of fine-grained phyllites, quartzites and crushed quartz conglomerates. B—May 7th, 1930, 18 L. A. COTTON. The greenstones are younger than these sediments, and both are intruded by granite, which along its contact with the greenstones is gneissic in character. ) | ie | an G = | 2 : 56 L. A. COTTON. EXPLANATION OF FiauRzEs 1, 2 AND 3. These figures illustrate respectively the trend lines of the Warrawoona, Mosquito Creek and the Nullagine Series. The numbers on the maps give the references to the litera- ture in which the strike and foliation of the rocks are recorded. | In the following paragraphs a number is placed in brackets following each number referred to on the map, and this bracketed number gives the literature reference incorporated in the bibliography. Thus, in the map showing the Warrawoona trends the figures 6(106) mean that the trend numbered 6 in figure 1, showing the Warrawoona trends, is plotted from the record contained in the bibliographic reference num- bered 106. Figure 1. Warrawoona Trends. References to map and bibliography are given as follows: —1(73), 2(73), 3(73),, 4(92), 52), G(10G), 7109), 8(109), 9(49), 10(80), 11017), 12017), asia). 15(14), 16(41), .17(95), 18(76); °19(23), 20a 2 Wy 22(39), 23(87), 24(28), 25(8), 26(G5)0\ 27027) eos) 29(19), 30(97), 31(10), 82(10), 33(10), 34(10), 35(102), 36(60), 37(59), 38(98), 39(54), 40(35), 41(23), 42(2), 43 (104). Figure 2. Mosquito Creek Trends. References to the literature are as follows:—1(73), 2(73), 3(73), 4(73),.5(73), 6C13),- 77), Ste oo). 10.692), 11(109), 12(17), 18(50), 14(96), 15(44)5 16793), 17(93), 18(94), 19 (94), 20(56), 21(46), 22(64), 23(64), 24(64), 25(23), 26(23), 27(40), 28(85), 29(86), 30(84), 31(99), 32(90a), 33(101). Figure 3. Nullagine Trends. 1(73), 2(92), 3(92), 4(92), 5(96), 6(93), 7(93), 8(93), 9(58), 10(61), 11(55), 12(55), 18(52), 14(101), 15(104), 16(2). 10. 11. 12. 3. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 57 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Andrews, E. C. Notes on the Structural Relations of Australasia, New Guinea and New Zealand. Journ. Geol., Vol. 24, 1916. Andrews, E. C. Geology of Broken Hill. Mem. No. 8, Geol. Surv., N.S.W., 1922. Ball, L. C. The Hamilton and Coen Gold Fields. Qld. Geol. Surv. Pub., No. 163. Bali; Lz 'C. Report on the Cloncurry Copper Mining District. Qld. Geol. Surv. Pub., No. 215, 1908. Ball, L. C. Mount Holmes Tin Mine. Qld. Min. Journ., Vol. 13, 1912. Ball, L., C. The Etheridge Mineral Field. Qld. Geol. 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The Geology of a Portion of the East Coolgardie and North-East Coolgardie Goldfields. Bull. No. 90, Geol. Surv., W.A., 1925. Clarke, E. de C. Metamorphic Rocks of W.A. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., Hobart, Vol. 19, 1928. David, T. W. E. The Growth of Australia. Proc. inn. soc., N.s:W., Vol. 18, 1898. David, T. W. E. Notes on Some of the Chief Tectonic Lines of Australia. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. 45, 1911. David, T. W. E. The Tectonic Geology of N.S.W. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sci., N.S.W., Handbook, 1914. David; T.. W. E. Nullagine—Adelaide Series. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Hobart, Vol. 19, 1928. David, T. W. E. Notes on Newly-Discovered Fossils in the Adelaide Series: (Lipalian?), South Australia. Roy. Soc., S.A., Vol. 52, 1928. Dunstan, B. North-Western Queensland. Geological Notes on the Cloncurry-Camooweal-Burketown- Boulia area. Qld. Geol. Surv. Pub., No. 265, 1920. ‘60 40. Al. 42. 43. 44, 45. 46. 47. Ag. 49, 50. 51. 52. L. A. COTTON. Dunstan, B. Mount Isa Silver-Lead Deposits. Qld. Mining Journ., Vol. 25, 1924. Farquharson, R. A. The Mining Geology of Kookynie, Niagara and Tampa, North Coolgardie Goldfield. Bull. No. 78, Geol. Surv., W.A., 1921. Farquharson, R. A., and Jutson, J. T. Appendix to the Geology of the North Coolgardie Gold- field, Part I., The Yerilla District. Bull. No. 73, Geol. Surv., W.A., 1917. Feldtmann, F. R. The Mining Centres of Quinn’s and Jasper Hill, Murchison Goldfield. Bull. No. 80, Geol. Surv., WEES 1921. Feldtmann, F. R. The Geology and Mineral Resources of the Yalgoo Coit field, Part I. Bull. No. 81, Geol. Surv., W.A., 1921. Gray, G. J. Geological Reconnaissance of Arnheim Land. Bull. No. 14, Northern Territory, 1915. Gray, G. J., and Jensen, H. I. Report on the Maranboy Tinfield. Bull. No. 11, Northern Territory, 1915. Hardman, E. T. Report on the Geology of the Kimbenten District, W.A. Parliamentary Paper, 1884. Hardman, E. T. Second Report on the Geology of the Kimberley District, W.A. Parliamentary Paper, 1885. Honman, C. S8. The Geology of the Country to the South of Kalgoorlie. Bull. No. 66, Geol. Surv., W.A., 1916. Honman, C. S. The Geology of the North Coolgardie Goldfield, Part L, The Yerilla District. Bull. No. 73, Geol. Surv., W.A., 1917. Hossfeld, P. S. Tanunda Creek Granite and its Relationships. Roy, soc, S.A.; Vol. 49, 1825, Howchin, W. Geology of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Roy. Soc., S.A., Vol. 30, 1906. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 6r Howchin, W. Geology of the Flinders Range. Roy. Soc., S.A., Vol. 46, 1922. Howchin, W. The Geology of the Barossa Ranges in Relation to the Geological Axis of the Country. Roy. Soe., S.A., Vol. 50, 1926. Howchin, W. The Geology of South Australia. Second Edition, 1929. Jack R. Logan. Artesian Water in the Kimberley District. Bull. No. 25, Geol. Surv., W.A., 1906. Jack, R. L. The Geology of the County of Jervois and of Portions of the Counties of Buxton and York, etc. Bull. No. 8, Geol. Surv., S.A., 1914. Jack, R. L. The Geology and Prospects of the Region to the South of the Musgrave Ranges, etc. Bull. No. 5, Geol. Surv., S.A., 1915. Jack, R. L. The Geology of the Moonta and Wallaroo Mining District.. Bull. No. 6, Geol. Surv., S.A., 1917. Jack, R. L. The Iron Ore Resources of South Australia. Bull. No. 9, Geol. Surv., S.A., 1922. Jack. Rk. Li. Some Developments in Shallow Water Areas in the North- East of South Australia. Bull. No. 11, Geol. Surv., S.A., 1925. Jensen, H. I. The Building of Eastern Australia. Roy. Soc. Qld., Vol. 23, 1911. Jensen, H. I. Geological Report on the Darwin Mining District, McArthur River District and the Barkley Tableland. Bull. No. 10, Northern Territory, 1914. Jensen, H. I. Report on the Geology of the Country between Pine Creek and Tanami. Bull. No. 14, Northern Territory, 1915. Jensen, H. I. Notes on Parts of the Geology of the Gladstone District.. Qld. Min. Journ., Vol. 19, 1918. ‘62 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. fA: “72. 73. 7A. “75. 76. Tike 78. 79. 80. L. A. COTTON. 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Maitland, A. Gibb. The Volcanic History of Western Australia. Roy. scoc., W-A., Vol. 13; 1927. Marks, E. O. The Oaks and Eastern Portion of the Etheridge eee Qld. Geol. Surv. Pub., No. 234, 1911. Marks, E. O. Records, No. 3, Note 6. Qld. Geol. Surv. Pub., No. 285, 1911. Mawson, D. Geological Investigations in the Broken Hill Area. Mem. Roy. Soc., S.A., Vol: 2, Pt. 4, 1992) Mawson, D. Igneous Rocks of the Mt. Painter Belt. Roy. Soc., S.A., Vol. 47, 1923. Mawson, D. Geological Features of Meadows Valley. Roy. Soc., S.A., Vol. 47, 719238. 81. 82. 83. 84, 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 90a. 91. 92. 93. 94. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 63 Mawson, D. Igneous Rocks of South Australia. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., Perth, 1926, Vol. 18, 1928. Nye, P. B., and Lewis, A. N. Geology of Tasmania. Handbook to Tasmania, Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., Hobart, 1928. Nye, P. B. Metamorphic Rocks of Tasmania. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., Hobart, Vol. 19, 1928. Reid, J. H. 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Wade, A. The Supposed Oil-bearing Areas of South Australia. Bull. No. 4, Geol. Surv., S.A. Wade, A. Petroleum Prospects—Kimberley District of Western Australia and Northern Territory. Commonwealth Parliamentary Paper, 1923. Ward, L. K. Contributions to the Geology of Tasmania—The Pre- Cambrian. Roy. Soc., Tas., 1909. Ward, L. K. The Possibilities of the Discovery of Petroleum on Kangaroo Island and the Western Coast of Eyre’s Peninsula. Bull. No. 2, Geol. Surv., S.A., 1913. Ward, L. K. Notes on the Geological Structure of Central Australia. Roy. Soc., S.A., Vol. 49, 1925. Ward, L. K. Geological Map of South Australia, 1927. Woodward, H. P. The Geology and Ore Deposits of the West Pilbara Goldfield. Bull. No. 41, Geol. Surv., W.A., 1911. Woodward, H. P. A Geological Reconnaissance of a Portion of the Murchison Goldfield. Bull. No. 57, Geol. Surv., W.A., 1914. ‘Woodward, H. P. The Reputed Petroliferous Area, Warren River District. Bull. No. 65, Geol. Surv., W.A., 1915. Woolnough, W. G. Report on the Geology of the Northern Territory. Bull. No. 4, Dept. External Affairs, Melbourne, 1912. Miscellaneous Reports. Bull. No. 59, Geol. Surv., W.A. PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS PRODUCTIDAE. 6D A REVIEW OF SOME OF THE PERMO-CARBONI- FEROUS PRODUCTIDAE OF NEW SOUTH WALES, WITH A TENTATIVE RECLASSIFICATION.* By F. W. Booker, B.Sc. Geological Survey of New South Wales. *(Published with the approval of the Minister for Mines.) (With Plates I-III and one Text Figure.) Read: before the Royal Society of New South Wales, June 4, 1930. In 1892 Etheridge!’ published descriptions and figures of Productus brachythaerus, G. Sowerby, from Bowen River and Stanwell, Queensland, and in 1909 Etheridge and Dun? described specimens from New South Wales. Etheridge and Dun also made an exhaustive enquiry into the history and validity of the species, and gave a complete synonymy. The species as defined by Etheridge and Dun, however, contained a number of different forms. This fact was realised by Mr. Dun, who very kindly made available to me the material upon which Etheridge and he had worked, despite the fact that he had already partly completed an investigation upon this subject. I have to thank Mr. Dun for his very valuable advice and criticism. I have also to thank Dr. C. Anderson, director of the Australian Museum, and Mr. W. W. Thorpe for their kindness in making material available to me; Mr. H. G. Raggatt, B.Se., for much valuable advice and 1Jack & Etheridge, Geol. & Palaeontology of Queensland, 1892, pp. 248-252, Pi. 12, figs. 10-13, Pl. 18, fig. 5. 2 Etheridge & Dun, Records Geol. Survey of N.S. Wales, 1909, 2a VIITL., pt. 4, pp. 293-300, Pls. XLII., figs. 1-8, XLIII., figs. E—June 4, 1390. 66 F. W. BOOKER. for the permission to use material collected during the geological survey of the Muswellbrook-Singleton District ; and Mr. Tom Iredale, of the Australian Museum, for his help in problems of nomenclature. Genus TERRAKEA, gen. nov. Pis’ Inti, Synonyms :— Productus brachytherus, Morris, Strzelecki’s Phys. Descrip. N.S. Wales, ete., 1845, p. 284, Pl. 14, fig. 4e. Preductus fragilis, Dana, Wilkes’ U.S. Explor. Exped., X, Geol., 1849, p. 686, Pl. 2, fig. 7. Productus brachytherus, Dana, loc. cit., p. 686, Pl. 2, fig. 8. Productus brachytherus, Eth. Fil., Proe. R. Phys. Soe. Edinburgh, 1880, Vol. V; p. 284) Pi eee iG. rh a figs. 17 and 18. Productus brachytherus, Eth. Fil., Geol. and Pal. Q’land, etc., 1892, pp. 248-252, Pl. 12, figs. 10-13. Productus brachytherus, Etheridge and Dun, Ree. Geol. Survey N.S.Wales, Vol. VIII, Pt. 4, 1909, pp. 293-300, Pl. XU, figs. 1-8; Pl. XLUG, fies oi Shells of medium size, subtrapezoidal to subrectangular, more or less refiected, gibbous or geniculate. Pedicle valve much curved; surface convexly rounded, with flattened triangular ears, sharply separated from the rest of the valve. Beak small and acute, umbonal region often depressed from above, sometimes greatly recurved and sometimes more or less incurved over the hinge line. Hinge line long and straight, front of shell usually much recurved and occasionally laterally expanded, assisting to give the shell much of its geniculate appearance. 3For complete synonymy see Etheridge & Dun, Rec. Geol. Survey, N.S. Wales, 1909, Vol. VIII., Part 4, p. 297. PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS PRODUCTIDAE. 67 ‘The surface, when the outer shell is preserved, is shiny cand silky, with a few growth constrictions towards the front, and indistinct undulations on the umbonal region ; longitudinally and indistinctly costated by delicate, elon- gate, parallel spine bases, within the substance of the shelly matter, penetrating the latter as small, free, tubercle- like spine bases, giving a general prickly or pimply appear- cance to the entire valve, especially towards the front. Terrakea fragile, Dana (sp.), which is abundant in the Muswellbrook district, carries abundant, long, fine, delicate spines; when the thin outer shell is removed, or in decor- ticated examples, these long spine bases leave a series of fine channels on the surface of the fossil. In thin section the spines of 7. fragile appear to be hollow and made up of concentric layers. No trace of longitudinal fibres or spine within spine structure was observed. (See Pl. IJ, fig. 5.) The ears are covered with numerous tubular spines. The eardinal muscle scars are but little marked; the adductors ‘are straight, and formed of oblique ramifications. The brachial valve is flat or shghtly concave, often produced in front and in some forms more or less strongly genicu- lated. Ears flattened, hinge line long. Septum varies from ‘about half the length of the valve to almost the full length. Cardinal process generally erect and bilobed, adductor muscle sears generally small and flabellate. Brachial ridges care generally not observable, but when seen they are delicate structures. (See de Kon Pal. Fossils of N.S.W., Mem. ‘Geol. Survey N.S.W., Pal. No. 6, Pl. X, fig. 4; and Etheridge Hil, Proce. Roy. Phys. Soc._Edinburgh, 1880, Pl. XIV.., fig. 47.) 4 Etheridge Fil., Geo. & Pal., Q’land, 1892, pp. 248-9, pl. 12, figs. 10-13. 68 F. W. BOOKER. Type: Terrakea brachythera. G. B. Sowerby, 1844 (sp.). The genus Terrakea has been erected for the reception of productide characterised by the type of ornamentation described above. The examination of a series of several hundreds of specimens has shown that this type of orna- ment, which could well be described as the Terrakea type of ornament, is a constant and easily recognised character to which generic value can be assigned. The validity of ornament as a generic character has been well established by Thomas’ in his valuable Memoir on the Carboniferous: Producti of Great Britain. In this Memoir he has cited seven productid genera: Productus, J. Sowerby, 1814; Avona, Thomas, 1914; Pustula, Thomas, 1914; Buxtoma,. Thomas, 1914; Overton, Thomas, 1914; Proboscidella, Oehlert, 1887. Of these seven genera no less than four are founded on the surface ornamentation of the shell. Of the remaining three, one, Overtonia, is founded entirely on the internal structures of the brachial valve, and the other two, Proboscidella and Etheridgina, are specialised genera founded on the peculiarities developed by their environment and life habits.°® | In 1926 Miss Helen M. Muir-Wood, M.Sc.,’7 published a classification which was essentially the same as Thomas’, but which included a new genus, Sinxatella, Muir-Wood, the genotype being Leptaena sinuata, de Kon,, 1851. This classification also stressed the value of ornament as a generic character among the Productide. After considering =a 5 Thomas I., Mem. Geol. Survey Great Britain, 1914, Pal. Vol. 1, Part 4, pp. 226-241, etc. 6 Thomas I., Mem. Geol. Survey Great Britain, 1914, Pal. Vol. - 1, Part 4, pp. 258-261. 7 Muir-Wood, Miss H. M., Mem. Geol. Survey Great Britain, 1928, Pal. Vol. III., Part 1, pp. 35-88. PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS PRODUCTIDAE. 69 the foregoing evidence one has no hesitation in assigning ‘generic value to the striaturus type of ornament, which is a definite and constant morphological unit, persistent throughout a large series of specimens from widely- ‘separated localities and characteristic of a definite group of related forms. This group, therefore, must be accorded a rank equal at least to Productus (sensu stricto), Avonia, Pustula and Buxtonia, The genus Terrakea may be subdivided into two series, one a non-geniculated and one a geniculated series, each of which may be again divided into two species by the relative convexity of the valves, and secondarily by the condition of the septum. (See Text Fig. 1.) Text lig vr Diagrammatic Sections showing the relative proportions of the four species Terrakea, gen. nov. Not to scale. (a) Terrakea leve, sp. nov. (b) T. brachythaera. Sowerby. (c) T. fragile, Dana. (d) T. elongata, Eth. Fil. 70 F. W. BOOKER. The following nomenclature has been adopted for these: divisions :— (a) Non-geniculated Forms: Terrakea brachythera, G. B. Sowerby, 1844 (Sp.): Terrakea levis, Sp. Nov. (b) Geniculated Forms: Terrakea fragile, Dana, 1848 (Sp.). Terrakea elongata, Etheridge Fil., 1909. TERRAKEA BRACHYTH4RA, G. B. Sowerby, 1844. Pl. 1, figs. 2, 5, Text ae. Ub: Productus brachytherus, Etheridge Fil., Proc. Roy. Physi. Soe. Edinburgh, 1880, Vol. V, page 284, Pl. 8, fig. 16;- Pl 9; fies, l6*and 17. Productus brachytherus, Etheridge Fil., Geol. and Pal. Q’land, 1892, pp. 248-252, Pl. 12, figs. 10-13. Productus brachytherus, Etheridge Fil. and Dun, Records. Geol. Survey N.S. Wales, 1909, Vol. VIII, Part 4,. Pl XE ties: 8 and 10. Shells of medium size, with the type of ornament. described above on page —. Hinge line long, ears well marked. Pedicle valve strongly vaulted and much curved,, umbo large and ineurved, often depressed from above. Anterior margin of the shell not greatly produced or geni- culated. Brachial valve flat or shghtly coneave. Septum very variable, but generally three-quarters of the length of the valve or more. Loealities: Jamberoo, Wollongong, Dapto, Nowra, Bowen. River Coal Field, Queensland, ete. TERRAKEA LEVE, Sp. nov. Pl. II, figs. 3, 4, Text fig. Ia. Productus brachytherus, Etheridge and Dun, Records: Geol. Survey N.S. Wales, 1909, Vol. VIII, Part 4, Pl, XO fies 6, 9 and ie PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS PRODUCTIDAE. 7 Shell smaller than Jerrakea brachythera, and character- ised by the same Terrakea type of ornament. Pedicle valve relatively much less convex, umbo not so highly in- eurved. The septum varies a good deal in length, but is relatively shorter than that of 7. brachythera, having generally about half the length of the valve. Localities: Mulbring (F1158), Jamberoo (F10945, F 10943). Terrakea brachythera may be readily distinguished from T. leve by the generally flatter and less inflated appearance of the latter, by its smaller size and by the shorter and weaker septum. In both these species there is considerable variation in the length of the septum. Mr. 8. 8. Buckman in a note on Morris’® type specimens in the British Museum stresses the value of the length of the septum, and it was thought that this character might be of specific value, but the variation between specimens which were otherwise identical was such that to have made a distinction for each individual length of septum would have made necessary almost as many new species as there were specimens, and one would have been at a loss to draw a line of demarcation between them. The general length of the septum of T. brachythera, however, seems to be above three-quarters of the length of the brachial valve, while that of 7. leve is generally about half to two-thirds the length of the brachial valve. The individual variation in both species is, however, so great that no hard and fast rule can be laid down. TERRAKEA FRAGILE, Dana, 1848 (Sp.). Pieiesiose i) >) Pl. 11 fig, 1: Pl, Lil. text fig. le. Productus fragilis, Dana, Wilkes’ U.S. Explor. Exped., X, Geol. 1849." p..686, Pl. 2) Fie. 7. = = =e eee —~ 8 Etheridge & Dun, Records Geol. Survey N.S. Wales, 1909, Wolk Viil., Part 4, p. 298. 72 F. W. BOOKER. Shell sub-rectangular to sub-trapezoidal, about lin. wide, 7/10in. long and 4/10in. deep. These proportions are approximately constant through a large series of specimens. The pedicle valve is much curved, the umbo incurved, and the contour of the shell from beak to anterior margin is regularly and strongly curved. A faint shallow sinus extends from the umbo and to the anterior margin. Hinge line long and straight, ears well developed. No sign of area or hinge teeth was observed. Shell substance thin, shell covered with long, thin, delicate, hollow spines, which in thin section (see pl. I, fig. 5) seem to be composed of a number of concentric layers, These were attached to the shell by long spine bases which gave the shell the character- istic ornamentation common to the group as a whole. To- wards the anterior margin occasional large tubercles oceur. These may be regarded as gerontic characters. The brachial valve is flat or concave until it reaches the pedicle valve and is then reflected sharply and produced parallel to the pedicle valve, forming a pronounced geniculation in the brachial valve. This is the most constant and re- markable character possessed by the species, and, together with the condition of the septum in the brachial valve, forms the basis of its classification. The cardinal process is stout, erect and bilobed (see Pl. II, fig. 1), and the septum is generally long, being about three-quarters of the length of the non-geniculated part of the brachial valve (see Pl. 1, fig. 4). The adductor muscle sears are relatively small, fiabellate and compact, and are not divisible into anterior and posterior elements (see Pl. I, fig. 4). Localities: Jamberoo (F10946, F16890), Moss Vale Road (F1082), and the following localities in the Muswellbrook district : Junction of Muscle Creek Road and Main Northern Road; Ayrdale Road; Por. 200, Ph. Balmoral, Co. Durham ; PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS PRODUCTIDAE. 3 Cliff in Pringle’s Creek, Por. 124, Ph. Howick, Co. Durham ; Por. 35, Ph. Howick, Co. Durham; Por. 11, Ph. Brougham, Co. Durham; 8.W. corner Por. 76, Ph. Savoy, Co. Durham ; Pors. 129, 55, 306, 4, 59, Ph. Savoy, Co. Durham; in Creek, West of Antiene Railway Platform; in railway cutting, North of Antiene Railway Platform; Quarry, Por. 182, Ph. Savoy, Co. Durham; Por. 2, Ph. Rowan, Co. Durham ; 'T.S.R. No. 13,693, Ph. Savoy, Co. Durham; Por. 132 and Q.R. 168, Ph. Savoy, Co. Durham. The foregoing description has been prepared from a large series of specimens collected in the Muswellbrook district during 1929 by a field party of the Geological Survey of New South Wales, consisting of Mr. H. G. Raggatt, B.Sce., Geological Surveyor, and the Author. This was deemed to be expedient in view of the very brief description of his species given by Dana. It seems evident, however, that it was a shell of this type that he had before him and his ‘species, which was regarded by Etheridge as merely a highly geniculate form of Productus brachytherus, has been revived to cover these forms. Terrakea fragile is abundant in the Branxton and Muree stages of the Upper Marine Series of the Muswellbrook district. It occurs as far South as Portion 137, Parish of Howick, County of Durham, and as far East as Hebden. The principal locality is a high cliff on Pringle’s Creek in . Portion 124, Parish of Howick. Caleareous beds containing an abundant Stropholosia fauna occur in the Branxton Beds of the Branxton and Singleton district. In the Muswellbrook district similar beds oceur in which Terrakea fragile is the dominant form TS ST ST 9 Etheridge & Dun, Rec. Geol. Survey of N.S. Wales, 1909, ‘Vol. VIII., Part 4, p. 300. 74 F. W. BOOKER. instead of Stropholosia, which is comparatively rare. The relationship between the fauna of the Muswellbrook and the Singleton-Branxton districts is therefore most interest- ing, and it is hoped that an investigation may be made upon the subject at an early date. TERRAKEA ELONGATA, Eth. Fil., 1909. PLU, fig. 5, text teeerdy Productus brachytherus, Var. Elongatus, Eth. Fil. and Dun, Records Geol. Survey N.S. Wales, 1909, Vol. VIL, Part 4, p. 299, Pl. XU), fies, 2) ao ee HES 25.4 Shell with the typical Terrakea type of ornament. Hinge line long and straight. Pedicle vaive highly vaulted,. gibbous and very much produced anteriorly. Localities: Shoalhaven Heads; Railway cutting North of Antiene Platform, Ph. Savoy, Co. Durham. The validity of Terrakea fragile and T’. elongata is dependent mainly on the value to be assigned to the econ- dition of geniculation of the shell. Thomas’ states that his genus Avonia contains at least two series, one non-genicu- lated, such as Productus youngianus, Davidson, while the other is geniculated as in the case of Productus bassus, Vaughan. This can only be taken to mean that geniculation: or non-geniculation is a character of at least specific importance. Added weight is lent to this view by the opinion of Professor Grabau™ that ‘‘in the case of ribs we have to do with a phenomenon due to the weakening of the mantle-function at certain periods. During its growth the 10 Thomas i., Mem. Geol. Survey Gt. Britain, 1914, Pal. Vol. 1 Part 4... (259) 11 Thomas I., Mem. Geol. Survey Gt. Britain, 1914, Pal. Vol. 1, 11Thomas I., Mem. Geol. Survey Gt. Britain, 1914, Pol. Vol. 1,. Part 4, pp. 2338-234. PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS PRODUCTIDAE. 75» mantle, on account of a weakening, due, possibly, to racial degeneration, tends to lose its normal shell-depositing funce- tion and is unable to retain its outward extension with usual rigidity. The mantle would droop and again revive its strength, and this intermittent weakening and strength- ening of the mantle would result in the formation of the ribs as a consequence of the periodical rise and fall. The: ultimate failure of the mantle to revive would be a contri- butory cause of the geniculation and formation of a trail laterally and anteriorly.’’ The acceptance of the view that geniculation is a sign of racial degeneration makes it imperative that all forms showing such geniculation must be separated from those forms which do not normally show such geniculation. Miss Helen M. Muir-Wood, M.Sc, uses the degree of geniculation among other characters to differentiate between: several species, notably between Productus carbonarius,. de Kon, and P. concinnus, J. Sowerby.” Differences in the condition of the trail, or geniculated front portion of the shell, are also quoted among the specific: characters of a number of different species described in the: same monograph; notably P. carbonarius, de Kon., P. con- cmmnus, J. Sowerby, and P. vaughani, Muir-Wood.%3 Ktheridge states that he considers Productus fragilis, Dana, to be merely a highly geniculate form of P. brachy- therus, but on the next page he says:™4 ‘‘As compared with Productus scabriculus the present one (P. brachytherus) is much more geniculate, but they frequently resemble one: another in shape.”’ 12 Muir-Wood, Helen M., Mem. Geol. Survey, Gt. Britain, 1928, Pal, Vol. III., Part 1, p. 59. 13 Muir-Wood, Helen M., Mem. Geol. Survey, Gt. Britain, 1928,. aleve. UE. Part 1, pp. 49, 56, 57, 65, 66. 14 Ktheridge, R., fil., Geol. & Pal. Q’land, 1892, pp. 251 and 252.. 76 F. W. BOOKER. After carefully weighing the foregoing evidence it seems justifiable to revive Dana’s species to cover highly genicu- late forms of Terrakea. Etheridge’s Productus brachytherus var. elongatus® 1s an extreme form in which the valves are greatly produced in comparison with the width of the shell. This form may be compared with the genus Proboscidella, Oehlert, 1887 ;7° Productus cylindricus, Waagen, 1882;!7 and Productus humboldti, Orbigny."® Productus cylindricus seems to bear approximately the same relationship to P. humboldti as Terrakea elongata does to T. fragile, though P. cylindricus does not appear to be such an extreme form as S. elongatus. The genus Proboscidella represents an extreme in the development of the anterior margin of the shell. The brachial valve is small and operculiform, while the pedicle valve extends laterally to meet the brachial valve and anteriorly forms one or more distinct cylindrical tubes. It is evident, therefore, that Thomas, Muir-Wood, ‘Waagen and Etheridge himself considered that the condi- tion of the anterior margin of the shell was of specifie value at least, and for this reason Productus brachytherus var. elongatus, Etheridge, has been tentatively accorded specific rank as Terrakea elongata. 15 Ktheridge & Dun, Records Geol. Survey, N.S. Wales, 1909, Vol. VILL., Part 4, p. 299,.Pl. XLII. figs. Sadat Pier ree NGS O2, Oye. 16Thomas I., Mem. Geol. Survey, Gt. Britain, 1914, Pal. Vol. 1, Part 4; p. 261. 17 Waagen, W., Palaeontologia Indica, Salt Range Fossils, 1882, Vol. I., p. 702, Pl. LXXV., figs. 3 & 4. 18 Waagen, W., Palaeontologia Indica, Salt Range Fossils, 1882, Vol. I., Page 695, Pl. LXXVLI., figs. 1-3. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIV., 1930. Plate I. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5, Figs. 1 -5.—Terrakea fragile, Dana, sp. Fig. 6.—Terrakea elongata, Eth. Fil. s a8 Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. LXIV., 1930. Plate I. Fig. 1. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 1.—Terrakea fragile, Dana, sp. Figs. 2, 4,—T7', braehythera, Sowerby. Figs. 3, 4.—T’. leve, sp. Nov. Journal Royal Society of N.S. W., Vol. LDXIV., 1980 Plate IIT. Terrakea fragile, Dana, sp. w a PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS PRODUCTICAE. 17 EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate 1. Figs. 1 & ere rrakce fragile, Dana, sp. two views of a. -gpecimen from a cliff in Pringle’s Paddock, Por. 124, Ph. Howick, Co. Durham, Muswellbrook District. XI. Fig. 38.—Terrakea fragile, Dana, sp. = 2X 3 w 3 > i=) JHL 40 Lud 40 dVW WO1901049 \ \ i | GEOLOGICAL map OF PART OF THE MUSWELLBROOK- SINGLETON DISTRICT \ _ SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS S SS SCALE NIG x Chains 160 10 80 400 4 2 Miles & ns \ \ WN6o, N 20%» aque) 4 Me ‘ ¢ 2. - may II AR sa Dykes Sok S - eT Te 5° ~ z all \ Sy’ oh Ax iM a g S s Dykes Res a UZ) \) ae N= 4e- RAW OR Ty \ Reference SEDIMENTARY POST-TERTIARY Alluvium TRIASSIC Upper Coal Measures erinolea! sis ase watering Murez Scege Series Branxton Stage Greta Coa/ Measures PERMIAN lower Marine Series CARBONIFEROUS Kuttung Series IGNEOUS TERTIARY Sills - Mainly Alkaline Dolervte Basa/P- Extrusive FAULTS Oo PLUGS (Wumbered- See Text) lil Dykes too small and too numerous to show individually ROADS ----"==<<----- RAILWAYS ———e ‘AT Id “0861 “AIXT 1A “M'S'N fo fy21009 pohogy pousno 4 ‘a ts - ) , : i qe it ' ; ar a INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS. 81 The porphyritic type appears to be confined to the dykes. Many small sills have been noted, all composed of the non- porphyritic type. The sills in places have considerable lateral extent, but none of them exceeds ten feet in thickness. A discussion of the probable age of this group of rocks is reserved for a later paper. Apart from their scientific interest, a study of the in- trusive rocks has considerable economic importance. The eindering action of dykes on coal seams is universal, but is generally confined to narrow limits adjoining the dyke walls. As a dyke exceeding ten feet in width is quite exceptional in the Muswellbrook area, it is clear that the total amount of coal cindered by this agency is not large. On the contrary, however, the development of a large number of thin sills in some parts of the coalfield may prove to have cindered quantities of coal, out of all proportion to the size of the burning agent. The age of the igneous rocks is of economic importance also in its bearing on the oil and gas prospects of the area. Dykes which are very much younger than the sediments they intrude may ruin a potential oil-field, but if there is no great disparity in their relative ages, no loss of oil and gas is necessarily occasioned; on the contrary, the dykes may facilitate their accumulation.' The geological map accompanying this paper is compiled from plans of the Geological Survey of New South Wales. One of us (H.G.R.) has been associated with this work since 1922, first as Assistant to Mr. M. Morrison, and later with Mr. F. W. Booker, B.Sc., as Assistant. The other 1 Day and others: “Handbook of Petroleum Incustry,” Vol. L., 1922, pp. 638-65. F—June 4, 1930. 82 H. G. RAGGATT AND H. F. WHITWORTH. author (H.F.W.) has also spent some time in the field in the examination of areas occupied by igneous rocks. He is mainly concerned, however, with the petrological side of the work. The scale of the map is too small to enable much detail to be shown, but as the map is merely intended to show the distribution of the igneous rocks, this is no great objection. Maps drawn on a larger seale will be given with subsequent papers. The numbers on the map adjacent to the convention used for indicating plugs refer to the list on page 80. ESSENTIAL OILS OF ZIERIA SMITHII. 83 THE ESSENTIAL OILS OF ZIERIA SMITHII (ANDREWS) AND ITS VARIOUS FORMS. Part I, By, A. RK, Penrow, . F.A.C.L, F.C.S8., Curator and Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney. Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, June 4, 1930. Zieria Snuthi is a small Rutaceous shrub which grows in moist situations throughout New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland. It is very sparsely distributed, and only in a limited number of localities does it occur in sufficient abundance to warrant collection for investigation of its essential oil. It is a short upright shrub, and is known vernacularly as ‘‘Stinkwood”’ on account of the unpleasant odour of its leaves. Its essential oil has been under investigation in the Sydney Technological Museum for a number of years, but the variation in chemical composition of the various con- signments secured from both Queensland and New South Wales has militated against the publication of the results. The botanical features of the species are described in Bentham’s ‘‘Flora Australiensis,’’ Vol. 1, page 306, but there appears to be some difficulty in deciding whether ‘some of the New South Wales material is a form of Zieria Smith or is worthy of specific rank. Pending further anvestigation, the writer is confining the account of the essential oil to material forwarded from Queensland through the good offices of the Queensland Forest Service, jeaving the discussion and publication of the results 84 A. R. PENFOLD. obtained with material from New South Wales for a later occasion. The chemical composition of the essential oils from Queensland material has shown the principal constituents: to be phenol ethers (70-80%), mainly safrol and a little methyl eugenol, whilst the minor bodies present are d-a-pinene, sesquiterpenes, eugenol, stearic acid, ete. Material collected at Narrabeen, near Sydney, showed methyl eugenol to be the principal body present to the extent of 95%, whilst oils distilled from leaves collected at Terrigal, New South Wales, contained mainly safrol, and from Toronto, New South Wales, the phenol ethers present were found to be a mixture of elemicin and safrol. These essential oils are undoubtedly a very remarkable series. Some of the minor components of the New South Wales oils are of special interest; such a ketone as nopinone having been separated and identified. The yield of oil from the Queensland material was found to be very variable, due apparently to the difficulty of drying and transporting the leaf material to Sydney. One consignment yielded no oil at all, whilst another gave only 0.15%. The writer believes the true yield of oil to be about 0.5% on the fresh material, or 0.9% to 1% on air-dried material. The yield from the New South Wales material is greater, being as high as 1.2% on fresh material. EXPERIMENTAL. Two hundred and twenty-eight pounds weight of leaves and terminal branchlets furnished by the Queensland Forest Service were subjected to steam distillation. With one exception, the distillates were pale yellow oils, heavier than water, highly refracting, and possessed the characteristic odour of safrol. One sample was lighter than water, reddish in colour, and although the penetrating ESSENTIAL OILS OF ZIERIA SMITHII. 85 odour of safrol was pronounced, it was so modified with other constituents as to be unpleasant. The chemical and physical characters are shown in accompanying table. The oil from the first consignment of leaves (2/11/1922) was subjected to fractional distillation under reduced pressure with the following result, viz.: 100 ¢.c. erude oil taken. Boiling Pt. Volume. dis an aa 48-72° (10mm) 4% 0.9029 aoa.” 1.4794 72-106° (10mm) 4% 0.9314 + 24.4° 1.4898 106-112° (10mm) 65% 1.0807 + 2.25° 1.5320 113-120° (10mm) 138% 1.0734 + 3.2° 1.5289 121-150° (10mm) 1296 1.0417 — 0.15° 1.5260 The oils from the remaining consignments were mixed together, and after removal of acid and phenolic bodies ‘were subjected to repeated fractional distillation with the following result :— Boiling Pt. Volume. 32° ae Oey 45-56° (10mm) 18% 0.8582 ap alte 1.4696 56-104° (10mm) 7% 0.9007 + 16.4° 1.4870 105-115° (10mm) 52% 1.0698 a= 1.5297 115-118° (10mm) 20% 1.0630 2210 1.5300 residue 3% Determination of Phenol and Free Acid. The sodium hydroxide washings from the crude oils were ‘acidified with dilute sulphuric acid, and the liberated bodies extracted with ether. On removal of the solvent they were obtained in a yield of 1%. The viscous oily liquid partially erystallised, and it was possible to remove the liquid portion by filtration. This liquid possessed a pronounced odour of eugenol, and on treatment with benzoyl chloride yielded the ‘characteristic benzoyl derivative melting at 69°-70°. The extremely small quantity of crystalline material was recry- Stallised from ethyl alcohol and found to melt at 68°. It 86 ‘A. R. PENFOLD. appeared to be stearic acid, but the quantity available was: altogether too small to permit of further examination with. a view to its confirmation. Determination of d-a-pinene. The first fractions were washed with 50% resorcin solution, and finally distilled over metallic sodium. The chemical and physical characters of the final distillate were as follows, viz. :-— Boiling point 155-158° (764 mm), dt3, 0.8623, a” + 40° ie) 4 670. When mixed with an equivalent quantity of l-a-pinene it gave an excellent yield of pinene nitrosochloride melting: at 109°. Sufficient material was not available for its oxidation to pinoniec acid. Small quantities of other low boiling constituents accompanying the pinene appear to be- present, but sufficient oil has not yet been available for: their isolation and identification. Determination of Safrol. The fractions distilling between 106°-120° at 10 mm were mixed together and placed in a bath of solid carbom dioxide, and the frozen mass transferred to a buchner filter: funnel surrounded with a mixture of ice and salt. On continued repetition of this process the principal consti- tuent, safrol, was separated in a fairly pure condition and further purified by fractional distillation. As thus obtained’ it possessed the following chemical and physical characters,, V1Z. :-— Melting point, + 11°, boiling point (10 mm), 109°-110°, ate) 1 1028). ae el ad82 (Choe (1) 10 grams were shaken with 22 grams powdered. potassium permanganate and 3 grams potassium hydroxide, 700 ¢.c. water and 700 grams ice. On ESSENTIAL OILS OF ZIERIA SMITHII. 87 eompletion of the reaction, removal of manganese sludge, and concentration of the lquor, erystals of piperonylic acid were obtained in excellent yield on acidification with dilute sulphurie acid. On recrystallisation from alcohol the crystals melted at 228°. About 20 grams of the safrol were boiled for some hours with a 5% solution of sodium ethoxide in ethyl alcohol, and the iso-safrol subsequently isolated possessed the following characters, viz. :— Boiling point, 10 mm, 120.5°-122°, dt, 1.128, n®", 1.5740. D P AN bo wH" This product was then oxidised with chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution to heliotropine. The crude aldehyde was purified through the bisulphite compound, and on recrystallisation from ethyl alcohol melted at 37°. Determination of Methyl Eugenol. The filtrate from the solid safrol was repeatedly frozen for the removal of further quantities of this constituent, and finally subjected to fractional distillation. The portion distilling above 116° to 10 mm, about 118-123°, was tested for methoxyl groups by means of Ziesel’s method. 0.6134 gram of oil gave 0.2404 er. Silver Iodide = 5.17% OCH. The quantity of methyl eugenol contained in this fraction computed from the above results represented about 15%. 6 ¢.c. of the fraction were treated with 18 grams potassium permanganate in 400 ¢.c. water at room temperature, but only piperonylic acid could be isolated. The presence of Methyl eugenol was confirmed by oxidising in similar man- ner the crude oil of a sample of the oil of Zierta Smitha obtained from Narrabeen, near Sydney, which contained about 95% of methyl eugenol. An excellent yield of veratric 88 A. R. PENFOLD. acid was obtained of melting point 179 -180°. A mixed melt- ing point determination showed no depression. 0.428 gram. required 4.7 ¢.c. semi-normal potassium hydroxide solution for neutralisation. Molecular weight = 182 (C,H, QO, re- quires 182). Determination of Sesquiterpenes. ‘Small amounts of these substances were detected by the usual colour reactions. The quantity present was inguffi- cient for isolation and identification. I desire to express thanks to the Queensland Forest Service for the total supply of plant material furnished, and to Mr. F. R.: Morrison, ,A.A. CI, FiG sp aseistane Economie Chemist, for considerable assistance in the chemical examination of the essential oils. "U0I}IPUOD poos UL poALLLy } “Opeys Ul Polip "S[OA PT Ul ‘© ‘pueysy | “Ie SOABOTT T'9% 97 qqpos jceest =| .géh + 6PFOT |%60 | “S41 82 TaZeIT 661 /6/V6 jySo], A[qeqoaid | [lo ewo0g “Arp *S[OA 6 UL ‘y ‘pursy AlO@A = SOABIA'T 9°9F 9°61 eqnjoS | Zgog't olE + lggn6'0 |1%ST'0 | ‘S41 98 Tozelq —G66T/L/S1 4d 109 | -d1 d1OFOq 4SOT TO —uWorytpuos poesodwiosep ut ‘auUBqSIIG PoeaAlsdo1 Seavey — saa = oe Se IN | S41 $26 | ‘ytodyynog |pzet/e/pz ‘UOI}IPUOD ‘S[OA P UL ‘> ‘purlsy Yserf Ul SeAve'] L°86 S37 eTqnjos jee t ob + [88S0°T |%F0 | “SAL 0ZT |eYorqpesrys |Zz6L/11/zZ ‘uorye[Aqooe, “des ‘joy *lOYOo[V a ai | eT ‘IlO ‘SoAvery a : : oe *SsyrewWoy 194jye ‘say ZT 408 Ul wu 0 sip it 50 jo *AYI[V00'T 07eq ‘ON “409SG | "ON ‘soysy | ATIqnjog | 0% ome oft | preLA 94310 ‘AINVISNHAND WOU ITHLIWS VITAIZ 90 J. C. EARL AND C. A. SMYTHE. aa-DIMENTHYL-8-PHENYLINDENE. By JoHN CAMPBELL EARL, D.Sc., Ph.D. and CHARLES ARTHUR SMYTHE, B.Sc. (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, July 2, 1930.) The dehydrogenating action of aluminium chloride was. made the subject of a series of studies by Scholl and his: collaborators (Annalen, 1912, 394, 111; 1913, 398, 82;. Ber., 1922, 55B, 109, 118, 324 and later papers). Apart from this work, other instances of a similar effect have been recorded, but not exhaustively studied. In the number of examples quoted by Scholl, the union of aromatic nuclei by the elimination of aromatic hydrogen is involved, and it is pointed out in the first paper of the series that this: is analogous to the change brought about in many pyrogenic reactions. The present communication describes the pro- duction of a similar effect by aluminium bromide, with the: added interest that ring-formation by the simultaneous: elimination of aromatic and aliphatic hydrogen is observed. When aluminium bromide is allowed to act upon a solution. of trimethylethylene dibromide in benzene, a solid hydro- carbon of the composition C,;H,., is formed in considerable quantities. A study of the break-down by various means. of this hydrocarbon leads to the conclusion that it is aa-dimethyl-6-phenyl-indene (1). On exhaustive oxidation. by sulphuric acid in the presence of mercuric sulphate, phthalic acid is obtained, while less drastic oxidation by chromic acid in glacial acetic acid leads to the formation. of a very stable acid of the composition C,;H,.Os. DIMETHYL-B-PHENYLINDENE. 9} This acid is apparently a y- or 6-keto-acid, since, whem it is heated with acetic anhydride, an acetyl derivative, C,,H,;0,.00C.CH;, is obtained. The formation of this: derivative is quite in accord with the structure (II): indicated for the acid. cae ro ©. HieNEDN, Ci. Further work is necessary before any assertion can be made as to what extent the other methods of conversion also involve the above reactions, but it is significant that the best results are obtained when additional aniline is present. Also, the mechanism of the reaction represented by the first equation requires elucidation. It is not simply a coupling of diazoaminobenzene with a phenyl diazonium salt produced by partial breakdown, since experiment shows that this type of reaction does not proceed in the presence of dilute acid. These matters will be the subject of a later communication. EXPERIMENTAL. Formation of Benzene-diazoaminoazobenzene from Diazoaminobenzene. Finely powdered diazoaminobenzene (7.5 grams) was dissolved in glacial acetic acid (90 ec.) which had been THE ACTION CF ACIDS ON DIAZOAMINABENZENE. 99 eooled until the separation of crystals had commenced. The temperature was maintained at 14° C. for 20 minutes by occasional cooiing in an ice-bath. The solution was then poured into a large excess of ice water, and after thoroughly stirring, the mixture was kept in an ice-bath for 45 minutes. After the separated solid had been filtered off and thoroughly washed, it was dissolved in hot aleohol con- taining a little ammonia. A little water was added and the solution cooled, when 0.7 grams of substance melting at 117° C. erystallised out. A further quantity of less pure material was obtained from the mother liquor and after recrystallisation yielded a further 0.15 grams of substance melting at 113° C. Repeated recrystallisation raised the melting point to 119.5° C. The substance so purified was deep-red in colour, and, when mixed with benzene- diazoaminoazobenzene prepared by diazotising aminoazo- benzene and coupling it with aniline, caused no depression of the meiting point. (Found: N, 23.6 per cent.; calculated for CisH,;Ns, 23.3 ‘per cent. ) Crystallisation of Mixtures of Diazoaminobenzene and Benzene-diazoaminoazobenzene. For the purpose of studying the behaviour of mixtures of diazoaminobenzene and _ benzene-diazoaminoazobenzene when crystallised from alcohol, quantities of 2 grams of the former were taken, with varying quantities of the latter. The mixture was dissolved in 50 ee. of spirit by warming, and after standing for 15 minutes the solution was poured. into water. When the mixture had fully separated, it was filtered and a portion dried, and its melting point deter- mined. It was then dissolved in hot alcohol, and after the addition of a little water the solution was cooled. The erystalline material was filtered off, dried and weighed, and its melting point determined. The process was then 100 J. C. EARL. repeated. The results obtained are summarised in the fol- lowing table, which demonstrates clearly the inefficiency of alcohol as a medium for separating the two substances. Mixture M. Pt. Ist Crystallisation. 2nd Crystallisation. Quantity. M.P. Quantity. M.P. 94-5° with I.—2 gms. dab. _RO z preliminary Ovens abdanb: 94-5 1.67 gms. 94-5. 1.25 gms. shviuking at 87°. Shrinks at 83-4°, 81-83°, IIl.—2 gms. dab. 83°, solidifies solidifies 0.15 gms. bdaab. melts at Leiems and remelts Tere, and remelts: 91-2°. at 94-5°, at 94-5°. III.—2 gms. dab. 5 ks ¥ 2 0.2 gms. saat T7-78°. 0.96 gms. 77-80°. 0.61 gms. 77-79° C. (Note:—dab = diazominobenzene; bdaab = benzene- diazoaminoazobenzene. ) Petroleum ether was no more effective than alcohol in separating the two substances. Mixtures of the composi- tions I. and III. in the above table, which had been twice recrystallised from alcohol, were then recrystallised from petroleum ether (b.pt. 60-80°). The melting points of the: products were 94-5° C. and 77-79° C. respectively, that is, unchanged. The author acknowledges with thanks the kindly interest: taken by Professor Kenner in this work. Department of Organic Chemistry, The University of Sydney. The College of Technolegy, Manchester. THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS RARIFLORA. 101 THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS RARIFLORA (BAILEY). iy A. Ry PENFOLD, FACIL, F:C.S., C. B. Rapcuirre, M.Sc., and W. F. SHort, D.Sc. (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Aug. 6, 1930.) This very interesting Eucalypt was first described by F. Manson Bailey, C.M.G., F.L.S., Colonial Botanist of ‘Queensland, in the Agricultural Journal (new series), Vol. 1 (January-June, 1914), page 62. Eucalyptus rariflora is a tall tree not recorded as very abundant, the type localities given in the original desecrip- tion being Eidsvold and Mundubbera, Queensland. Since that date the late J. H. Maiden, F.R.S., in his ‘‘ Critical Revision of the Genus Euealyptus,’’ Vol. VIII, Part I, page 69 (Part LXXII of the complete work), furnishes a list of localities in New South Wales where this tree has been observed. This botanist, who appears to have oniy had an opportunity of examing herbarium ~ material, makes mention of its very close resemblance to the species Hucalyptus populifolia. The author of the species, in his original description, makes the following comments, viz. :— “The present species is one of the most puzzling so far met with in Queensland; and it has only been through the indefatigable zeal of my friend, Dr. T. L. Bancroft, who collected so much information and such a complete suite of specimens, that mistakes have been prevented. The bark and foliage, as well as the flowers and fruit gathered at one stage of the tree’s growth, would certainly lead one to believe it to be a species of Ironbark. Indeed, had the whole of the specimens been received from a less accurate collector, one might have doubted the specimens belonging ‘to one species.” 102 A. R. PENFOLD, C. B. RADCLIFFE AND W. F. SHORT. It was Dr. Bancroft himself, as far back as 1922, who suggested the examination of the leaves and terminal branchlets of this most interesting species. He also kindly furnished the excellent supplies of leaf material for this. investigation. There is, therefore, no possible doubt re- garding the authenticity of the material examined. Tur EssentiaL OILs. Two consignments of leaves and terminal branchlets were’ kindly provided by Dr. T. L. Bancroft, of Eidsvold, Q. We would lke to have distilled material collected from a New South Wales locality for purposes of comparison, but,. unfortunately, were not aware of its occurrence in that State until writing these notes. The oils, obtained in an average yield of 2.5% on air- dried material, were of a reddish yellow to yellowish brown colour and possessed a pronounced phellandrene odour, modified by the aromatic aldehydes, which are readily detected, even in small quantity. The principal constituents which have so far been identified are the terpenes A‘-carene, 8 phellandrene,. l-a-pinene, 8-pinene, cymene, with cineol (about 10%), sesquiterpenes (principally aromadendrene), sesquiter- pene alcohols, with small quantities of the aromatic alde- hydes (euminal, phellandral and ecryptal), alkali soluble bodies (unidentified phenols and dehydroangustione (8 diketone) ). The identification of A‘-carene is noteworthy, as it is the first record of its occurrence in Eucalyptus oils. Although Semmler in 1903 (Ber. 386 1908, 1749), showed that crude phellandrene from Eucalyptus oils contained two isomeric phellandrenes by a study of the oxidation pro- ducts using potassium permanganate, yet Messrs. Baker and Smith and other investigators only appear to have ees Se et | 16 8- "S[OA OT | 8667'T] .€- | T8660; %0E SImoy 6 Puc | 6G 6 "S[OA ]@T [0G8PT|.G OL -| 79680! %O0L sanoy Ff 4ST —'ZIA ‘suoljz10d OM} UI PexdaT[OD SVM JUOWUSISUOD JSIY OY} WOT [IO JO UOTZI[ISIP oy} ‘s}UeNzIJSUOD SNoOTIvA ay} Jo UOIye[oSI Apvor Jo sesodaind 104 "S[OA OT ul eTqnyos O SOAVO] POlIP-ILY |% OT ynoqe) gg O'Or | Altered | go6r'T) OL | FST60| %P6%S|"SAL SEE) ‘PIOASPI | 6Z6T/G/ST = aeag mes : ulUIe}u0D =| &% GT ueyy SOABO| PO2TIP-ILY) o10Ul ae "S[OA 8°0 %GO'’ |S4L P6Z ‘PIOASPIL | Z26T/8/TT Gusiem 4q)/ iG sytem | save, [MR DY ovoory ee | aoe 3 ‘ON 4094S Ayyiqnyos 9dzUIBIIAd| JUSIOM (AGTIVE) VPYOTMIYVA SALTATVOAA AO THEO IVILLNASSA 104 A. R. PENFOLD, C. B. RADCLIFFE AND W. F. SHORT. identified l-a-phellandrene. So far as is known l|-a-phel- landrene is the predominating isomer present in the majority of Eucalyptus oils, and the identification of 1-B-phellandrene in quantity in the oil of Hucalyptus rariflora is of special interest. Rather interesting too is the isolation and identification of dehydroangustione. It was only this year that Messrs. C. S. Gibson, A. R. Penfold and J. L. Simonsen, in a paper contributed to the Chemical Society, London (J.C.S. (1930) 1184-1201), showed that the phenolic bodies representing the principal constituents of the essential oil of Backhousia angustifolia were actually @ diketones. The identification of one of these 8 diketones in this Eucalyptus oil shows how widely distributed these bodies are likely to be. Experimental. A total of 627 Ibs. weight of air-dried leaves and terminal branchlets, cut as for commercial purposes, yielded, on distillation with steam, crude oils possessing the chemical and physical characters shown in undermentioned table 500 ce. of the 1st 4 hour portion of the first consignment yielded the following fractions on distillation at 20 mm., V1Z. :— Volume absorbed Percentage 15° aoe” noo by 50 % Resorcin Fraction Volume 15° D D Solution 68-70° 16%» 0.8698" = 9 25271 4y2a 27.5% 10-73° 31% O87387 134° - 1LAvol 37.5% 131? 2% FO. 8146 (SNe Bara 35.0% Residue above 75° (20 mm.) 31% The oil from the second consignment was subjected to steam distillation in order to roughly separate the terpene THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS RARIFLORA. 105 portion from the sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene alcohols. This approximate separation was necessary in order that the various authors could work independently, the terpene portion being retained in Sydney whilst the investigation of the sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene alcohols was undertaken in New Zealand. Determination of Alkali Soluble Constituents (Phenols and B Diketones). The crude oils, including the low and high boiling fractions, were washed with 5% to 8% sodium hydroxide solution, and the alkali soluble constituents regenerated with dilute sulphuric acid and extracted with ether. Dark reddish brown viscous oils to the extent of about 1% on the weight of crude oil were obtained upon removal of the solvent. Although several grams of crude alkah soluble constituents were obtained from the first lot of oil and most of it distilled at 110-112° (5 mm.), it could not be definitely identified. The distillate gave a purple colouration with ferric chloride in ethyl alcohol solution, thus resembling phloracetophenone-dimethyl ether, but it could not be obtained in a erystalline condition, nor a crystalline derivative prepared. (See this Journal, Vol. LXI (1927), 184-185. ) The alkali soluble oil separated from the second lot of oil gave an orange red colouration with ferric chloride in ethyl alcohol solution, and, therefore, pointed to the prob- able presence of @ diketones. ; The small quantity of oil available was subjected to dis- tillation at 5 mm., when it was resolved into two equal portions distiling at 114-120° and 120-136°. The imino derivative was readily obtained on treatment of the higher boiling fraction with concentrated aqueous ammonia. The white crystalline solid on reerystallisation from cyclohexane 106 A. R. PENFOLD, C. B. RADCLIFFE AND W. F. SHORT. separated in glistening prismatic needles melting at 151°. A mixed melting point determination with amino-dehydro- angustione from the oil of Backhousia angustifolia showed no depression. Determination of Aromatic Aldehydes (Cuminal, Phellandral, etc.) The crude oils and fractions after washing with 5-8% sodium hydroxide solution and removal of bulk of terpenes were shaken with 30% sodium bisulphite solution. The aldehydes were separated by the method of Penfold (J., 1922, 121, 266). In this way quite small quantities of the three aldehydes, not exceeding 7 cc. in all, were obtained. The solid bisulphite compound, on treatment with sodium carbonate solution in the presence of steam, yielded 2 ec. aldehyde having dit’, 0.957, «, — 112°) ae eae. an The oxime prepared therefrom melted at 84-85°, indica- tive of a phellandral containing a little cuminal. Rigorous purification of this derivative resulted in its melting point being raised to 87-88°. The crude aldehyde separated from the sulphonic acid salt by means of sodium hydroxide had @72°, 0.950, a}, — 50°, and mn’, 1.4960. These constants pointed to the aldehyde consisting principally of phellandral. The oxime prepared therefrom melted at 87-88°. Determination of a-Pinene. In working up the first fraction of the first consignment, distilling below 70° at 10 mm., a small quantity of liquid was obtained distilling at 155-162° (770 mm.), and pos- sessing the following characters, viz. : dys, 0.8567, 2°, 04% 03), 4n2r- D ? It was found to contain a small quantity of phellandrene by the nitrosite reaction. On oxidation with potassium THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS RARIFLORA. 107 permanganate (see this Journal, Vol. LVI, page 195), a liquid pinonic acid was obtained, whose semicarbazone: melted at 207°. A mixed melting point determination made with a similar derivative from l-a-pinene from the leaf oil of Dacrydium Franklini (this Journal, Vol. L.XITI,. 1929, page 99) showed no depression. Determination of B Phellandrene. The second fraction of the first consignment was ex-. amined for phellandrene by the characteristic qualitative test with acetic acid and sodium nitrite solution in the presence of petroleum ether. The nitrosite was isolated, and after repeated purification from acetone melted at 98°. 0.0576 gram in 10 ec. chloroform gave a reading of ge 18> stam, > 138,9°. It was decided to re-examine the terpene fraction of the second consignment of essential oil, which measured 690 ee.. and possessed the following characters, viz. :— sr Od, Ge — BA 2°)? 1.4764. 300 ec. of this fraction were treated with the following reagents, viz. :— (1) 8% sodium hydroxide solution; (2) 380% sodium bisulphite solution ; (3) 50% resorein solution. The terpene fraction was then subjected to steam dis- tillation, dried, and distilled several times over metallic: sodium at 20 mm., with the following result, viz. :— Boiling Point Volume dis° an nn W1-74° (20 mm.) 182 ec. 0.8584 -26.2° 1.4748: me76° (20 mm.) 118 cc. 0.8601 —31° 1.4784. Both fractions were examined for phellandrene, and the nitrosite prepared therefrom separated and purified from. acetone. Considerable loss resulted, but finally the deriva-- 108 A. R. PENFOLD, C. B. RADCLIFFE AND W. F. SHORT. tive was obtained in a pure condition. It was a white erystalline solid which melted at 98°. 0.0273 gram in 10 ec. chloroform gave a reading of 0.55") [a], = 202°. The phellandrene present in this oil is undoubtedly the B isomer. Confirmation was obtained by oxidation of 25 ee. of the terpene fraction with cold 0.5% solution potassium permanganate. The small quantity of glycol isolated there- from was treated with dilute sulphuric acid and steam dis- tilled. A small quantity of oily distillate was obtained possessing the characteristic odour of the aromatic alde- hydes. The semicarbazone prepared therefrom when re- erystallised from methyl alcohol melted at 204-205°. The semicarbazone prepared from an authentic sample of phellandral isolated from the essential oil of Eucalyptus eneorifolia melted at 204-205°. A mixed melting point determination showed no depression. Determination of At-Carene with Traces of B Pinene. Oxidation of the first fraction of terpene, distilling at 71-74° (20 mm.) with alkaline potassium permanganate solution according to the procedure outlined in paper, “Note on the Leaf Oil from Dacrydium Franklini,’’ by Penfold and Simonsen (this Journal, Vol. LXIII, pages 99-100), resulted in the formation of a small quantity of sparingly soluble sodium salt. On decomposition with dilute sulphuric acid solution and extraction with benzene, it yielded a small quantity of nopinie acid of melting point 125°, The filtrate from the sodium nopinate was acidified with dilute sulphuric acid solution and the liberated acids ex- tracted with chloroform. On removal of the solvent, a THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS RARIFLORA. 109 liquid acid was obtained. It was converted to the semi- carbazone, which proved to be more soluble in alcohol and of a different crystalline character to that obtained with. pinoniec acid. It melted at 181-182° and was, therefore,. identical with the semicarbazone of 1:1-dimethyl-2-y- ketobutyleyclo-propane-3-carboxylic acid, an oxidation pro- duct of A4-carene. A mixed melting point determination made with a similar derivative, obtained with A4-carene from the leaf oil of Dacrydium Franklini (Loe. cit.) showed no depression. | Provided a-pinene is not present in appreciable quantity, this derivative appears to be a very characteristic one for the ready identification of this important terpene. Determination of Cymene. In the oxidation with dilute potassium permanganate of the second terpene fraction (b.pt. 743-76° ), it was observed that the phellandrene was removed before the A-4-carene, and finally traces of unchanged hydrocarbon were left which were unattacked by cold 1% potassium perman- ganate, both at 0° and 20°. The liquid possessed an odour resembling cymene, but could not be obtained in sufficient quantity for identification. Recourse was, therefore, had to the terpene fraction of the first consignment of essential oil which possessed a pronounced odour of cymene. The phellandrene and carene were removed by means of 1% potassium permanganate solution and the unattacked portion recovered by steam distillation. Cineol was then removed by the use of 50% resorein solution. The remain- ing liquid was washed with water, steam distilled, and finally distilled over metallic sodium. It had boiling point Sieh, 7%; 0.8634, «°°, —3.5°, 2%, 1.4875. D? Di? 110 A. R. PENFOLD, C. B. RADCLIFFE AND W. F. SHORT. The optical rotation showed that other bodies, probably ‘terpenes, accompanied the crude cymene, but it was suf- ficiently pure for purposes of identification. The small ‘quantity, 5 ce., was oxidised by the method of Wallach (Liebig’s Annalen, 1891, 264, 10), using a hot solution of potassium permanganate containing 12 ers. in 300 ee. ‘water. An excellent yield of p-hydroxyisopropyl benzoic acid resulted. On reerystallisation from dilute ethyl -aleohol the erystals melted at 157-158°. Determination of Cineol. The resorcin washings from the 690 ec. terpene fraction ex second consignment of oil, gave on steam distillation 116 ee. crude cineol with a congealing point of —10°. On redistillation over metallic sodium two fractions of equiva- lent volume possessing the following chemical and physical characters were obtained :— 15° 20° 20° Congealing B. Pt. “730 *“D "D Pt. 66-70° 0.9253 — 2,2° 1.4600 —5° Oat 1° 0.9276 - 3.0" 1.4621 —od° It was evident that the cineol contained probably terpenie bodies as impurity, and the first fraction was combined with phosphoric acid and regenerated therefrom in much the same way as the constituent is quantitatively estimated by this particular method. The cineol was washed with water and redistilled several times over metallic sodium. It was not obtained pure even then, but of a high enough degree for its identification to be placed beyond doubt. The water white liquid possessing the characteristic eamphoraceous odour distilled at 175-176° (764 mm.), and had dt2°, 0.927, a®°, -0.4°, mn’, 1.4576. Congealing point —2°. Its deportment with resorein and phosphoric acid and the preparation of the iodol derivative, melting point 112°, confirmed beyond doubt its identity with cineol. THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS RARIFLORA. Usk Examination of High Bowling Portion of Second Lot of Crude Oul. The residual oil left after the greater portion of the terpenes had been removed by steam distillation weighed 920 grams, and it possessed the following chemical and physical characters, viz. :— gts 0.9419, at, + 1.91°, n®, 1.5004. Ester No. 10.9. Ester No. of acetylated oil 73.8. A first fractional distillation at 10 mm., employing a ‘Widmer column, resulted as follows, viz. :— Weight 19° 19° 20° in a4 A578 nD Fraction B.Pt. (10 mm.) Grams 1 up to 85° 76 0.8709 —29.78° 1.4760 9 85-110° 36 O91 46 = 17.28° 4 1.4859 3 110-120° 27 0.9278 '— 5:62° 1.4960 4 Woe 177 zea Bae ae Mali 010 1) 5 fap2se 905 Sito 1.5015 6 128-130° 119 0.9404 +12.44° 1.5040 Y 130-140° 73 0.96834 +10.04° 1.5060 8 140-150° 100 Es ee Oe 9 above 150° 34 — ——__— ors Residue (resinous) 28 —— ——— ——— and loss Determination of Sesquiterpenes. The sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene alcohols were separated as far as possible by fractional distillation, using a Widmer column, and the _ sesquiterpene fraction freed from oxygenated compounds by prolonged refluxing with sodium-potassium alloy in a vacuum. The product so obtained was subjected to further fractionation ‘‘in vacuo’’ in presence of a small quantity of potassium, and the following fractions were finally collected :— 112 A. R. PENFOLD, C. B. RADCLIFFE AND W. F. SHORT. Weight in on doe (1dem) 7p Fraction B.Pt.(10 mm.) Grams i ap: to. 120 8 a — 214° 1.4968 2 121-122° 26 wee — 0.84° 1.4989: 3 122-123° 46 0.9522 + L.16¢ 1.4991 4 123-123.5° 95 ay, une 1.4998: 5) 123.5-124° 50 —— + 9,02° 1.5002 6 124-125° 22, ——_—— ~ +10.20° 1.5011 i 120-127 > 35 0.9197 + 15.68° 1.5024 8 127-129° 16 aioe 1.5046 a 129-132° 15 i 1.5069 The molecular refraction of fraction (3) was 65.76, and that of fraction (7) 65.58. The physical constants indicated that at least two ses- quiterpenes were present. One of these was found to be aromadendrene since ozonisation of fractions (3), (4) and (7) by the method described by Briggs and Short (J., 1928, 2528), yielded a ketone which melted at 80-81°, and gave an oxime melting at 103°. These products did not depress the melting points of authentic preparations of aromadendrene and its oxime. Approximately the same yield of aromadendrone was obtained from each of the fractions subjected to ozonisation. It is, therefore, clear that the principal sesquiterpene is aromadendrene and that, in spite of protracted fractionation, a second sesquiterpene could not be separated in an approximately pure condition. Fraction (9), of boiling point 129-132° (10 mm.), was dehydrogenated with sulphur and the resulting product isolated as a deep blue-coloured oil. On treatment with picric acid it yielded a small quantity of the characteristic crystals of eucazulene of melting point 116-117°. No other picrate could be isolated. THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS RARIFLORA. 113 Determination of Sesquiterpene Alcohols. The fractions of high boiling point were greenish-blue viscous oils. It was not found possible completely to separate the alcohols from sesquiterpenes by fractional distillation either before or. after acetylation. An attempt to separate the alcohols in the form of boric esters, according to the methods of Deepe, Sohn and Zeitschel (English patent 252,570), resulted in their dehydration. The alcohols were, therefore, converted into their sodium derivatives by the action of sodium powder in xylene, and the sesquiterpenes removed by distillation in a high vacuum, The residual alcoholates were decomposed, with water, and the liberated alcohols fractionated at 10 mm., three fractions being collected (1) boiling point 148-155°, (2) 155-161°, and (38) 161-175°. They were light vellow - viscous oils which did not erystallise when cooled in liquid air. The main fraction (2) was examined further. Its physical constants were as follows :— J) a2, 0.9984; d 2, ~—7.238°; »™, 1.5170; molecular a refraction 67.51. The following results were obtained on combustion, viz. : 3.020 mg. gave 10.481 mg. CO, and 3.611 mg. H.O. C= 81.3; H = 11.4. 2.894 mg. gave 8.614 mg. CO, and 2.995 mg. H.O. C = 81.2; H = 11.6. Cpe. requires C = 81.1: Gri.0 requires C = 81.8; H Tale AED: From these results it is clear that both bicyclic and tri- eyche sesquiterpene alcohols of the formula C,;H..0 are present. The constituent alcohols are probably all tertiary alcohols since they did not unite with phthalic anhydride either at 100° or at 120-130°. H —Aug. 6, 1930. 114 A. R. PENFOLD, C. B. RADCLIFFE AND W. F. SHORT. A portion of the sesquiterpene aleohol fraction was boiled with formic acid for 20 minutes. Approximateciy half was thereby dehydrated to a mixture of sesquiterpenes © (boiling point 123-128°, 10 mm.; m® 1.5112), the rest being resinified. Dehydrogenation of the sesquiterpene mixture with sulphur or selenium gave a deep blue oil. This was dissolved in petroleum ether and shaken with syrupy phosphoric acid until colourless. The oil recovered from the petroleum ether layer yielded a small quantity of an orange picrate (melting point 114.5-115°), which did not depress the melting point of an authentic specimen of eadalene picrate. This shows that one constituent of the sesquiterpene alcohol fraction is of the cadinene type, and is probably bicyclic. No trace of eudalene picrate could be de- tected, and it, therefore, appears that eudesmol is not present in the oil of Hucalyptus rarvflora. In conclusion, we have to express our thanks to Dr. T. L. Baneroft, of Eidsvold, Queensland, for the excellent supplies of leaf material furnished for this investigation, and to Mr~ F. R: Morrison, F.C.S., A.AeGy ee Assistant Economic Chemist, Sydney Technological Museum, for much assistance in the chemical examination of the essential oil. We are also indebted to the New Zealand Institute for the loan of an ozonisation apparatus. Sydney Technological Museum, and University College, Auckland, New Zealand. FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 116 fe erOssiiy FISHES OF THE AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. By R. T.. WADE, M.A., (With one Text figure.) (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Sept. 3, 1930.) CONTENTS. Preface. The first notice of Australian fossil fishes was published by J. D. Dana, in the year 1848 A.D. Since that notice was published, many interesting fossil fishes have been recovered from Australian rocks and have been described. The descriptions have appeared seattered through a number of different publications, and each paper has con- fined itself almost entirely to the particular forms under examination and the locality at which those forms were found. The aim of the following pages is not merely to collect these scattered notices, but to bring the Australian Mesozoic fishes into relationship with one another and with the general subject of Palaeicthyology, to set out their geological and geographical distribution, to draw attention to noteworthy peculiarities and any ‘contributions the forms have made to our knowledge of Palaeicthyology, and to consider the problem raised by the occurrence of sup- posed Palaeozoic forms in the Upper Triassic beds of New South Wales. Finally a fossiliferous horizon at Brookvale, near Manly, New South Wales, is noted. Since constant reference is made throughout the thesis to geological horizons and localities, an account is first given 116 R. T. WADE. of the distribution of Mesozoic rocks in Australia. This is accompanied by a large map of Australia which indicates the localities at which fossil fish have been found; a number placed near a locality on the map refers to the bibliography at the end of the thesis and indicates the publication in which full deseriptions are given of the fossil fishes. Much of the information has been summarised in tables placed near the end. They show in compact form the class- ification, and the geological and geographical distribution of the genera which have been found in Australia. II.—Distribution of Mesozoic Rocks in Australia. The fossil fishes with which this thesis is concerned are those that, in Australia, are found in beds of Mesozoic age. Before considering the fossils, it seems advisable to indicate the distribution in Australia of the Mesozoic beds them- selves in order that references to horizons and localities may be intelligible. Our knowledge of the distribution and stratigraphical suecession of: Australian Mesozoic rocks, as accepted at present, is largely the result of the labours of Dr. A. B. Walkom! (who based his classifications on fossil flora) and of Drs. W. H. Bryan and F. W. Whitehouse.? These show that nearly all the beds of Mesozoic age were deposited in freshwater lakes. Some few marine horizons. are known. In the Upper Wianamatta stage (see following table) in New South Wales, ostracods and foraminifera ‘‘represent a brackish or estuarine fauna, having a curious intermingling of Rhaetic and Lower Jurassic types, with others more properly referable to the Upper Palaeozoic of 1 ‘Geology of the Lower Mesozoic of Queensland, etc.,’’ A. B. Walkom, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Part I, p. 37, 1918. 2 ‘Later Palaeogeography of Queensland,” by W. H. Bryan and F. W. Whitehouse, Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, Vol. X XXVIII, No. 10, 1926. hy FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. COE 0 pee eee IO ; -——— prel(zuos Bed Dy yeg— 1) S83 IUMoyy/5 BS seodciens _————— 9 VE a L Sula 5) Yu Z dojey00} -AeupAs % ny a be nes Pe eweied! 4 SYSeSmane fit (e) Iso WHA Wl oe YJ4ed? are yoimsd) 3 “Fremee) ay | UOJP[E4d4) ° seo ‘i une 2 aac e11QuoTEM(G)) = ce UudO]/EM° > a =e (2 eB N Pang ® S ow rae M80 wo : ENO 9€2 xo sf a’ .. .,)@ueenslama Maryborough beds .. Eucla beds (pars.) .. S. Australia Jurassic (Lias to Lower Oolite). Clarence River beds Artesian beds Talbragar beds N.S. Wales Walloon beds with } Tiaro beds ene South Gippsland beds Cape Otway beds © Wannon River beds Victoria Marine strata at Geraldton and Cape Riche W. Australia —_ Vv : = —— (ogo eS SS —_———______- = ~ 1 Chapman, F., Ree. Geol. Soc. N.S.W., VIII, p. 335, 1909. FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 119 Rhaetie. The Bundamba beds (Jueensland Upper Triassic. Leigh’s Creek basin S. Australia - Ipswich beds Broowena beds ~ Queensland Esk River beds Wianamatta beds N.S. Wales Middle Trias. The Hawkesbury Sandstone’ N.S.Wales Lower Trias. The Narrabeen beds N.S.Wales | The Fish Bearing Beds. Of the above, the beds from which fossil fishes have been collected and described are :— The Talbragar beds .. .. .. .. New South Wales (10) Sonn Gippsland beds... .. ..' Victoria ... .. .. (12) Wianamatta beds .. .. .. .. New South Wales (7) The Hawkesbury sandstones .. New South Wales (4) Other beds (not mentioned in the above lst) that have yielded fossil fish are found :— (a) Near Hobart, Tasmania, Triassic (?) ...... (8) (b) Near the Glenelg River, Victoria, Lower Jurassic (?) . A Bene te er ee mere eae |), (c) Near vite New South Wales, Cretaceous (25) (d) Near the Flinders, Leichhardt and Hamilton Rivers of Queensland, Cretaceous .. .. .. (15-24) A large collection of fishes in process of description has been made at Brookvale, New South Wales, from a deposit of shale in the Hawkesbury sandstone. 120 R. T. WADE. IlIl.—Notes on Australian fossil fishes which have been described to date (1930). Through the courtesy of the Department of Mines and — the Curator of the Mining Museum I have been able, whilst reading the memoirs written by Sir Arthur Smith Woodward, to work over all the material that had been sent to him for description from Gosford, St. Peters and Talbragar Creek; also to examine the form (Atherstonia) from Harrington which he has described. A number in a bracket, following a name, is the reference number in the bibliography supplied. Elasmobranchu. The Elasmobranchs form a sub-class of the Cartilaginous fishes, called Chondrichthyes. These are in general lowly organised, and possess primitive features such as the optic chiasma, contractile conus arteriosus, and the spiral intes- tinal valve, which are all present in the living Elasmo- branchs. In the modern forms also no true bone is formed in the endoskeleton. This absence of bone has been usually considered a primitive feature, but Stensio thinks it a secondary character. The exoskeleton consists of placoid seales. The teeth are simply modified scales and are not fixed in the jaw, but only in the skin. The gills are laminar and not filamentous. There is no air bladder, nor has there ever been an air bladder. Placoid scales are superficial hollow cones of dentine only, containing a pulp-cavity, and covered with an enamel layer. They do not grow through- out life, but may be shed and replaced. Australian Elasmobranchu. Pleuracanthus (1-5) is by far the best known of all the Palaeozoic Chondrichthyes, and the type specimen of Pleuracanthus parvidens, found at St. Peters, was the largest nearly complete skeleton of a Pleuracanth dlis- eovered up to 1908. It is nearly 5 feet long. FOSSIL FISHES. OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 121 - Pleuracanthus is shark-like in shape, with a powerful spine behind the head. The teeth, which have three cusps, are extraordinarily small in P. parvidens. The endo- skeleton was of cartilage. In P. parvidens neural and haemal arches and spines are very well shown; so, too, are the pelvic basipterygium and the long axis of the pectoral fin with actinotrichia overlapping the basal cartilage. The dorsal fin begins almost behind the head and is con- tinuous. A small notch separates the caudal fin from the dorsal. Other Elasmobranchit. Hybodus, Corax and Lamna appendiculata are repre- sented by teeth only, Lamna davies by seven conjoined vertebrae. | Dipnoi. Because they show affinity on the one hand with primi- tive Teleostomes and on the other with Amphibia, the Dipnoi are among the most interesting of fishes. Of the Dipnoi, the most interesting to Australians are Ceratodus and its forerunners, for not only is Neoceratodus (which as Ceratodus seems to have become extinct in extra- Australian areas in Cretaceous times) living in some Queensland rivers, but it has been suggested that Ceratodus was evo.ved in Australia. The Dipnoi have a characteristic autostylic attachment of the jaws,’ 1.e., the upper arcade articulates directly with the cranium, without the aid of a hyomandible. The scales are peculiar to the order. The outer layer of cosmine is reduced to small spiny processes (an arrangement found in no other fish), and is supported by a middle layer of trabecular bone and an inner layer of isopedine. The vertebral column is a thick fibrous sheath with em- bedded cartilaginous masses alternately above and below. 122 R. T. WADE. The fin supports are segmented and intimately connected with the axial skeleton. The hving Dipnoi have a diphycereal tail. The dentition is highly characteristic. In the palate a pair of strong pterygopalatine bones bear large dental plates, whilst the splenial below bears similar dental plates, the grinding surface being radiating ridges. The Dipnoi have no branchial rays on the branchial arches. The most characteristic feature of the group is the possession of lungs. The fossil Dipnoi recorded from Australian rocks are as. follows :— Ganorhyncus sussnilchi, a cranial buckler from Devonian rocks of the Murrumbidgee River, N.S.W.! Ctenodus breviceps, from Carboniferous rocks of Mans- field, Victoria.? Gosfordia truncata, from lower Triassic of Gosford,. N.S.W. (4). Sagenodus (properly Ceratodus) breviceps from the Upper Triassic of St. Peters, N.8.W. (7). Ceratodus avus, a tooth found at Cape Patterson, Vic- toria, in beds of Jurassic age (12). Ceratodus avus (?), a seale from Kirrak, South Gipps- land, in Jurassic rocks (14). Ceratodus wollastoni, from the Upper Cretaceous of Walgett, N.S.W. (25). ; Epiceratodus pattinsonae, from the Upper Cretaceous of White Cliffs, N.S.W. (26). Epiceratodus gregoryi and Epiceratodus eyrensis, from Lower Pleistocene or Upper Pliocene of the Lake Eyre district, South Australa.3 1 Etheridge, R., Jun., Rec. Aust. Mus., VI, No. 3, 1906. 2 Woodward, A. S., Mem. Nat. Mus., Melb., No. 1, 1906. 3 White, E. J., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 9, Vol. 16, 1925. FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 123: Neoceratodus, Pleistocene, Queensland.‘ Gosfordia truncata (4) occurs as a very imperfect skeleton. The head is small and triangular, the median fin is continuous and supported by a double series of interspinous bones, the pelvic fin is acutely lobate and. biserially fringed. The fish was probably about 2 feet long. The trunk is fairly deep and long. Sagenodus (Ceratodus) laticeps (7).—The element of particular determinative value in this case is the palate, which is sufficiently well preserved to show the para- sphenoid and the palatine dental bones. Each plate bore four very divergent ridges and the pair of plates meet in: the middle line at an unusually wide angle. The author of the memoir (7) reeords this peculiarity, which excludes. the fish from the genus Sagenodus, and though he clearly wished to call the form Ceratodus, his conception of the: eedlogical age of the rocks—he thought them Permian—- led him to decide in favour of Sagenodus. Since the rocks are undoubtedly Triassic, the objection to Ceratodus based. on geological age is removed, and it may be regarded as certain that the form is Ceratodus laticeps. Any suggestion that Ceratodus may have evolved in. Australian waters has nothing to support it. The fossil remains so far found have been so fragmentary that de-. tailed comparison of form with form is impossible. Coelacanthidae. The only evidence of the existence of Coelacanthus in Australian Mesozoic rocks is supplhed by a single specimen. from the Talbragar (10) rocks. The specimen gives one of. the pectoral fins, which is obtusely lobate, with a large fringe of dental rays. It is noteworthy in showing some of the bones that support the rays. 4 Etheridge, R., Jun., Geol. and Pal. Qld., p. 646, 1892. 124 R. T. WADE. Palaeonscidae. These are of the order Chondrostei, in which the endo- skeleton remains for the most part ossified, and in which the endoskeleton supports of the median fins are fewer in number than the dermal rays. A clavicle is always present. The Palaeoniscidae are Chondrostei of a primitive kind which appear in the Lower Devonian and die out in the Cretaceous. The scale is characteristic. It has four layers, a lower layer of isopedine, followed by a vascular layer on top of which is a layer with horizontal canals covered by a layer of successive lanellae of enamel-like ganoine. The orbits are far forward, the snout blunt. The cheek is covered by a posterior extension of the maxilla and a preoperculum. The hyomandible is elongated backwards. Branchiostegal rays are numerous, as are fin spines. The tail is heterocereal. | The genera of the family Palaeoniscidae. The older genera are founded almost entirely on general body proportions and the fins. They take no account of the neural cranium, the palate, ete., concerning which there was no information at the time the genera were founded. But the work of Moodie (1915), Stensio (1921), Watson (1925, 1928) (see note) has made known the neural ¢eranium, hyobranchial skeleton, palate, primary shoulder and pelvic girdles of some Palaeoniscids, and it is quite clear that such a genus as Elonichthys, for example, is merely an artificial assemblage, since a number of forms Note Mocdie, R. L. (1915), A new fish brain from the Coal Measures of Kansas, ete., Journ. Comp. Neurcl., Vol. XXV. * Stensic, E. A., 1921, Triassic Fishes from Spitzbergen, Part I, Vienna, 1921. Watson, D. M. S., 1925, The Structure of certain Palaeoniscids, etce., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., Part 3, No. LIV, 1925, and Proc. Zool. Soe. Lond., Part 1s Ne. Fy, 1928: FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 125 that were referred to this genus have been shown to differ widely in the character of the skull. The genera of the families Palaeoniscidae, Catopteridae, Semionotidae, Pholidophoridae are all in similar case. It is necessary to.await the result of research at present in progress before assigning the known Mesozoic fish to the eenera to which they belong. In the following mention of Palaeoniscidae, Catopteridae, Semionotidae and Pholidophoridae, the names that were originally assigned are therefore used simply for the sake of present convenience, and it will be understood that research may soon alter their systematic position. Australian Palaeonscidae. The Palaeoniscids are well represented in Australian rocks. Recently there has been published a preliminary note on a form termed Elonichthys, found in the Permian (Permo-Carboniferous) of. Neweastle.! Sir A. Smith Woodward has described Elonichthys from the Carboniferous of Mansfield, Victoria”, and also (7) two species from the Upper Triassic of St. Peters. Of Acrolepis, two species have been reported from Tas- manian Lower Mesozoic rocks near Hobart by Johnston and Morton (3). As the identification of these forms is based almost wholly on scale marking, it is questionable. Egerton in 1868 named a specimen Palaeoniscus antipodeus on very slender evidence. Feistmantel (5) gave the same name to a specimen sent him from Gibraltar tunnel in the Wianamatta of New South Wales. A. Smith Woodward (7) points out that it is a different species and prefers to call it Palaeoniscus feistmantelt. Specimens found at St. Peters have been referred to the species P. antipodeus (7). 1 Mitchell, J., 1924, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 49, p. 503 (pl.). 2 Woodward, A. S., 1906, Mem. Nat. Mus. Melb., No. 1. 126 R. T. WADE. ‘Smith Woodward (7) regards one of the St. Peters speci- mens as Palaeontscus crassus. Atherstonia australis from Harrington is preserved in ‘pyrites. The specimen clearly shows the Chondrosteid clavicle, as well as the enlarged post anal seale and ridge ‘seale, regarded as characteristic of Atherstonia. Myrvolepis is a very striking form. WM. clarkei attains a length of 17 inches and a breadth of 4 inches. The caudal pedicle is stout and produced to a large upper lobe. The opercular apparatus is small, the operculum triangular. ‘The genus derived its name from the extremely small scales. All the fins are large, with anterior rays gently arched. ‘They have a comparatively long base line. The fin-rays are broad and much flattened, with a longitudinal median keel. ‘They are articulated, except perhaps in front of the pec- toral, and divided distally. The pelvic fins are placed mid- way between the anal and pectoral fins. The pectoral fins are about twice the size of the pelvics, and are faleate in ‘shape. | Apateolepis has been found only in Australia. The type specimen is 8 inches long. ~The name was given be- cause the scales of the body, except those on the prolonged ‘eaudal lobe, are so delicate as to appear missing in the fossil. The fish was slender with a very thin caudal pedicle. The fin-rays are delicate, infrequently articulated, and ‘show no fulera. The scales are marked by two prominent convergent diagonal ridges. Elpisopholis is another purely Australian genus. It has curious, thickened, arrow-head shaped seutes along the lateral line. This fish was about 6 inches long. It has strong teeth. The fin-rays are stout, and articulated and divided distally. There are no fulera. The pelvic, anal and dorsal fins are much extended. Smith Woodward er FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 127 (7) regards it as a link between Palaeoniscidae and Belonorhynchidae. Coccolepis australis (10) is a large species about 14 inches long, and 2 inches deep. It has fairly large pelvic fins. The dorsal fin rises about the middle of the back. The anal fin was somewhat smaller than the dorsal. The fin-rays are articulated and branch distally. Fulcra were minute or absent. The scales were thin, of moderate size, and showed a rhombic area where exposed. The species is noteworthy as supplying the sturgeon-like endoskeletal supports of the pelvic fin. -Psilichthys, which Hall (11) so named from the absence of scales on the body, is the name given to an imperfect skeleton found in Western Victoria Jurassic rocks. I have figured the anterior part of the fossil. The pos- - terior part shows the strongly heterocereal tail of the Palaeoniscidae, with fulecral scales on the upper lobe, stout flattened haemal supports in the lower caudal Jobe, part of the anal fin consisting of stout, closely articulated rays. Psilichthys closely resembles the New South Wales Jurassic form Coccolepis (10), but Hall saw sufficient difference to place it in a new genus, whilst leaving its family unde- termined. . Stensio thinks it cannot be Jurassic. Catopteridae. This family has been under review for some time, and new forms found in South Africa throw much light on the characteristics of Catopterids. The results of research on these and some North American Catopterids will soon be available. It is probable that then the Australian forms referred to Dictyopyge will have to be removed from that genus. Dictyopyge (4). Three species of this form have been described—D. symmetrica, D. illustrans, D. robusta. 128 R. T. WADE. Belonorhynchidae (4 and 2). The Hawkesbury fossils added considerably to the facts known regarding the genus Belonorhynchus. It had been assigned a place amongst the Cretaceous Teleosts, but Belonorhynchus gigas and B. gracilis revealed such primi- tive characters that Smith Woodward placed them near the Palaeoniscidae amongst the Chondrostei; e.g., in the dorsal and anal fins the interspinous bones are fewer in number than the dermal rays they support, there is no trace of ossification in the sheath of the notochord and there is the possibility of the presence of a series of basal cartilages at the base of the pelvies. Stensio amongst the fossil material gathered at Spitz- bergen found specimens that enabled him‘ to describe in the utmost detail the complete anatomy of the fish, osteology of the primordial neurocranium, the axial skeleton, the girdles, skeleton of the fins, and even the brain and cranial nerves. And he has concluded that at present no certain boundary can be drawn between the genera Belonorhynchus and Saurichthys. He uses the name Saurichthys for the Spitzbergen fishes, the Hawkes- bury Belonorhynchidae and others, and, like Smith Woodward, considers that the Saurichthyids are closely related to the Palaeoniscidae. Belonorhynchus (now Saurichthys) is distinguished by its greatly elongated trunk—a species 19 inches long has a depth of 2 inches. The head with opereular apparatus is very long, nearly half the length of the trunk. The skull tapers rapidly in front of the orbit.and is prolonged to a very slender snout. The operculum is small. The dentition is powerful. Dorsal and anal fins are nearly equal in size, very long and remote. 1Stensio, E. A., 1925, Triassic Fishes from Spitzbergen, Part II, Stockholm. FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 129 The tail is diphycercal and not deeply cleft. The exoskeleton of the trunk consists of four longitudinal series of dermal seutes, a dorsal and ventral series and a Series along the lateral line of each side. Semronotidae. The Semionotidae form a family of the order Amioidei, which belong to the subdivision Holostei. These are higher in organisation than the Chondrostei. The endoskeleton is ossified; in the median fins the dermal rays and their supports are equal in number; the tail is abbreviate heterocereal, or homocereal; there is no clavicle. The Amioidei are distinguished by the presence of separate vertebral pleurocentra and hypocentra, at all events in the caudal region. The oldest family of the Amioidei is the family Semionotidae. These are deeply fusiform fishes with a small gape, having an outer pointed series of teeth on the jaws and inner grinding teeth. The dorsal fin is large. There are large fin fulcra. The fin rays are robust, well spaced, articulated and divided distally. The cranial and facial bones are all robust. The mandible is complex, with a well developed splenial rising into a coronoid process and bone. No clavicle. Some Australian fossil fish have been referred to the Genera Senionotus, Pristosomus, Aphnelepis, Aetheolepis, and Cleithrolepis. This latter genus certainly has been wrongly included in the Semionotidae, through lack of material giving sufficient detail. _ Research is in progress to ascertain whether or not the others were rightly placed. The new knowledge that is being gained of Catopterids for instance may remove _ Pristosomus and some species called Semionotus trom the Semionotidae. 130 R. T. WADE. Three species were described as belonging to the genus Semionotus, viz., S. australis, and S. tenus and S. formosus. The specimens in the case of the first two species were very fragmentary. Pristosomus is a remarkable genus found only in Australian Triassic rocks. The body is very deeply fusiform. Three or more series of the flank seales are markedly deepened and very noteworthy is the presence of prominent ridge scales both dorsally and ventrally. Even more remarkable are the two genera Aphnelepis and Aetheolepis. These two have not been found in extra- Australian areas. Aphnelepis might have been assigned to the genus Semionotus which it closely resembles in general, had it not been for the peculiar squamation. The whole trunk is covered with scales, but whilst those in advance of an oblique line from the origin of the dorsal to the origin of the anal fin are thick, those behind that line suddenly become very thin. All are rhomboid in form. Aetheolepis has a trunk that is compressed laterally and is so deep that the length of the trunk from the pectoral arch to the base of the caudal fin is scarcely more than three-quarters of the maximum depth. The head is small. The dorsal and anal fins are much extended. The dorsal fin rises considerably in advance of the middle point of the back, and extends nearly to the base of the caudal fin. As in Aphnelepis, the squamation is remarkable. Along the dorsal and ventral borders there seems to have been an azygous series of seales, not en- larged. On the anterior half of the trunk the scales are thick and quadrangular, but behind these the scales are thin, deeply overlapping and ecycloidal. And there seems to be some gradation between these types of scale. Cleithrolepis is one of the three forms from Australia > described in 1864 by Egerton (1), who gave it its name | . FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 131 ““Lock-seale’’ because of the unbroken squamation which consists of deep scales, united by a peg and socket arrange- ment of the anterior thickened margin. It has a small head, a very deep trunk, remote, apposed dorsal and anal fins, abbreviate heterocercal tail. It has been placed from time to time in different families. In describing the Gos- ford fish Sir A. Smith Woodward placed it among the Semionotidae. He was struck by its resemblance to the Platysomidae, but the Gosford material was very poor. South African specimens and specimens from Brookvale, New South Wales, show that the Cleithrolepidae form a family standing in the same relationship to the Platy- somidae as the Catopherids do to the Palaeoniscidae. Pholidophoridae. Pholidophoridae are mioids of elongate shape. Fulcra are present on the fins. The fin rays are not numerous and are spaced. The scales have ganoine above and isopedine below, but only a few irregular transverse vascular channels; there is no real cosmine-like layer. The scale has a number of small tubules passing inwards at right angles to the lines of growth from the lower and lateral surfaces. Two Australian forms were referred to Pholidophorus, viz., P. gregarws and P. australis (7). Another form was referred provisionally to Peltopleurus (?) dubius. Here again the present research may remove the fish to other families. Archaeomenidae. Archaeomene is a genus found only in the Jurassic rocks of Talbragar Creek, N.S.W. It differs from the Pholido- phoridae in that it has thin ecycloidal scales and has ridge Seales along the mid-dorsal and ventral lines. 132 R. T. WADE. Teleoster. This is the highest order of fish and includes almost all living bony fishes. Typically there is no ganoine on the exoskeleton, the scales are thin, round and overlapping, the vertebral centra are annular or amphicoelous and bony There are inter-muscular bones. The tail is homocereal with hypural bones. The lower jaw is simplified to consist only of dentary, angular and articular elements. There are no special cheek plates. They are not known below the Jurassic. The most primitive of the Teleosts (pre- serving the ganoine on the scales and head bones, with undivided vertebral centra, a tail only nearly homocereal and with no expanded hypurals) are the Leptolepidae. Leptolepidae. With regard to the Lepetolepis remains found at Tal- bragar Creek and described in 1895, Sir Arthur Smith Woodward says (10): ‘‘No satisfactory, concise synopsis of all the principal characters of Leptolepis appears to have hitherto been published. The beautiful impressions of the skeleton in the new Australian collection may therefore be utilised in attempting an emended and amplified descrip- tion,’’ which he gives on pages 20 and 21. The outstanding points are an elegantly fusiform trunk, delicate head bones, obtuse snout, prominent mandible, arched maxilla, teeth minute, preoperculum broad, suboperculum large, but smaller than the operculum, vertebrae in form of con- stricted cylinders, fins delicate, fulera absent, dorsal fins opposed to pelvic pair, or to the space between pelvie and anal, scales very thin, cycloidal, and the exposed portion coated with smooth enamel. Ridge scales are absent. Leptolepis crassicauda, found at Casterton, Glenelg River, Victoria, is distinguished from the Talbragar species by the greater comparative width of the caudal pedicel, FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 133 which is about half the depth of the trunk. Then, too, the dorsal fin rises slightly in front of the pelvics. The pelvies are supported by a bony lamina broadened at inner end. Cretaceous Fish Fossils. With the possible exception of Belonostomus, the remains of Teleosts collected from the Cretaceous rocks have been merely scraps of ttle distinction. Of Belonostomus sweets there was found a long, slender fish about 50 inches in length, with deep narrow ganoid scales and feeble fins, lacking the greater part of the head. The gill arches, operculum, supraclavicle and supratemporals are preserved. Of the fins there are fragmentary remains of pectorals and eaudal fins. The rays are all robust, unarticulated except in the distal divisions. One series of flank scales is ex- eessively deepened. The vertebral centra are well ossified. A head has been deseribed by Etheridge (22) as Ichthyodectes marathonensis. The skull is about 74 inches by 3. The specimen shows the hyoid bones, the pectoral fins, ten of the anterior vertebrae, parts of the branchi- ostegal rays, and the remains of some ribs. IV.—The occurrence of Upper Palaeozoic fishes in New South Wales Upper Triassic rocks. When a collection of fossil fishes from the brickworks of St. Peters, Sydney, New South Wales, was described, it was observed that the fishes were preserved in two different kinds of material, the one a dark, fine-grained shale, the other a coarser greyish mudstone. It was further observed that whilst the assemblage of fishes in the mudstone resembled in general fish previously described from the Hawkesbury sandstones of Gosford, and were Triassic in age, the fishes occurring in the dark material seemed to be of Permian and even of Carboniferous age. , Pe _ a, ay! R. T. WADE. The first suggestion was that beds of both Permian and Triassic age occurred at St. Peters. But it was shown that the dark and grey beds occur interbedded in the same quarries and that the dark bands occur at several levels in any quarry. Moreover, sections, natural and artificial, in the Sydney basin make it quite easy to read the strati- graphical suecession. Permian (Permo-Carboniferous) beds occur at a great depth. They are covered by sandstones and shales known as the Narrabeen series, which have a thickness of about 1000 feet. Above these again is a deposit of about 1000 feet of the Hawkesbury sandstones, which. include lenticular beds of grey mudstone. Then follow the Wianamatta beds, shales fine-grained or sandy, ecar- bonaceous or highly ferruginous. The St. Peters brick- works are situated in this last series, the Wianamatta beds. Variety in texture and colour of the shale in a pit is obvious to anyone who visits such a brick pit. Since the two materials are therefore unquestionably im the same series, it seemed that there was a definite blending of Palaeozoic and Upper Triassic fishes, i.e., a persistence of Palaeozoic forms right up to Upper Triassic times. The deseription of this fauna was published in 1908. Discoveries made since that date tend to show that the forms in the dark shale and assigned to the Permian may be properly referred to the Triassic. In that case the problem almost wholly disappears. The forms concerned are Acentrophorus, Elonichthys,. Palaeoniscus, Platysomus, Pleuracanthus, Sagenodus, Myriolepis. One specimen only, a very imperfect specimen that lacked a head, was assigned to the genus Acentrophorus with the qualification ‘‘probably.’’ Similarly a single scale was regarded as evidence of the possible occurrence FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 135 of a Platysomus. Such fragmentary specimens are clearly of no determinative value. Further, Platysomus is not confined, as was thought, to the Palaeozoic, species having been found in the lower Trias. of Canada and Spitzbergen (2). I have mentioned above the difficulty of referring Triassic fish to such genera as Hlonichthys and Palaeoniscus 'unless the head of the specimen is well known. In the case of the St. Peters fish the heads are poorly preserved. In the present state of knowledge, reference of a Mesozoic form to such a genus as Elonichthys is meaningless from the point of view of distribution. Pleuracanthus was earlier regarded as Palaeozoic only, but it has been recorded from the Trias. of England. Myriolepis clarket was considered to be of the same genus as an Irish Carboniferous form, Myriolepis hibernica. But ignorance of the osteology of the head is again a bar to considering these as belonging to the same genus. Finally, the form ascribed to Sagenodus is a Ceratodus, not Sagenodus. The evidence for this statement is supplied by the writer, who described’ the form, viz., the angle at which the dental plates are set—they meet in the middle at a wide angle, a fact which excludes the form from the genus Sagenodus. The author of the memoir writes: ““At least, if the fossil be not referable to Sagenodus, it belongs to Ceratodus, and, judging from the geological age of the specimen, the latter alternative is most improbable.’ As he wrote thinking the geological age to be Permian (Permo-Carboniferous), and the age is most certainly Upper Triassic, he too would, I think, now reverse the balance of probability and eall the form Ceratodus. Such considerations show that there is no bar on the Palaeontological side to considering the dark shale bands 136 R. T. WADE. in the St. Peters quarry to be other than what they are known to be on stratigraphical grounds, viz., Triassic. But, although the forms are those that are found in Triassic rocks in other localities, the assembiage, including the forms found in the grey mudstones, when considere:l as a whole, is reminiscent of an Upper Palaeozoic fauna, in the presence in it of so many Chondrostei and the absence of fish of the higher types. Stensio found a similar ancient character in the fish from the Triassic of Spitzbergen. Nor is it the fish alone of N.S.W. Triassic rocks that show this general resemblance to Palaeozoic forms. Very large insects, with a wing spread of nearly three feet, have been found in the Carboniferous of Europe, and smaller, though still large, forms in the Permian; but in Europe very large insects have not been found in beds younger than the Permian. From the St. Peters beds some - insects with a wing spread of about twelve inches were found, and many more with the same wing spread have been recovered from the brick pits at Brookvale. Of the plants, Phyllotheca alone persists from Palaeozoic times. | Forms of life in general seem to be those little in advance of Palaeozoic forms. That phenomenon would seem to be connected with the general conformability of the beds in this New South Wales geosyncline. Dr. Walkom, from an examination of the plants of this series of rocks, concludes that ‘‘The unconformity between the two series’’—Upper Palaeozoic and Triassic—‘‘is one which involves a definite interval of time, but not any considerable movement.’’ Of course, if, as seems to be the case, the latitude of the area remained the same, the altitude the same (about sea level), and the distribution of sea and land substantially the same, the climate would be affected only by changes which in- fluenced the whole globe. Given only slow change in climate, fauna and flora would change only very slowly. FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 137 It is noteworthy, too, that the fishes of these beds were clearly powerful fish. The build, large fins, wide mouth and strong teeth of the forms named Myriolepis, Elonich- thys, Acrolepis and Pleuracanthus, must have made them formidable gompetitors for the available food supply. My general conclusion is that the fishes, which in 1908 were considered of Upper Palaeozoic age, are properly referable to the Trias, and that any similarities which the St. Peters fish show to fish of Permian times is due to the facts that the climate was not greatly altered, the geo- graphical conditions remained nearly the same, the geosyn- eline continuously subsided, and the older forms of fish had no serious rivals, possibly because of the isolation of these fresh water beds from the rest of the world. V.—Fossil fish of The Hawkesbury Series at Brookvale, N.S.W. Throughout the years 1925-1929, inclusive, I have been collecting, as occasion offered, from the brick pits of the Manly Brick Company, Brookvale. Brookvale is about two miles north of Manly, which is near the entrance to Port Jackson. The pits are near the top of Beacon Hill, a trig. station known as Manly trig. station, and marked 489 feet above sea level. The fossils are found as impressions, carbonaceous and ferruginous, in a very fine-grained shale or mudstone, that is, situated between layers of cross-bedded Hawkesbury sandstone. They supply a record of a number of forms of life. Plant remains are very numerous, but belong to com- paratively few genera, and the structural details required by the Palaeobotanist are not very clearly shown. The following genera are present :—Phylletheca, Cladophlebis, Stenopteris, Neocalamites, Taenopteris, Ginko, Thinn- feldia, ete. The only shells found are those of Umo or Unionella. 138 R. T. WADE. Two species of Hstheria are present, H. coghlam and an. undescribed Hstheria with an unusually long hinge line. A erustacean has been described by Dr. Chilton, of New Zealand as Anaspides (?) antiquus. He considers that it resembles very closely a freshwater shrimp in the Tas- manian waters of to-day. Insects are much more satisfactorily represented, both by wings, often remarkably complete, and bodies with the wings. There is a possibilty that some of these supply details of the mouth parts. Some probable larval forms. have also been collected. Dr. R. J. Tillyard has seen nearly 40 of these fossil insects. He recognised insects of three orders, viz., Mecoptera, Hemiptera and Orthoptera. More: recently Coleoptera have been found. Of the Mecoptera there are two species. ‘‘The Hemip- tera include no less than eleven specimens of a wonderful new type, large and magnificently coloured.’’ This insect had a wing spread of not less than 12 inches. ‘‘There is one smaller species of Bug, and two plant-hoppers of the extinct family Scytinopteridae. Of Orthoptera there are two species of’ Cockroach and two of Locustoids.”’ Since he saw this collection many more specimens have’ been recovered, and one very complete form Dr. Tillyard declares to be a Cicada, of a species very lke one to be | found to-day in the highlands of S.E. Australia. A. Stegocephalian head, an advanced species of Capito- | saurus, approaching Cyclotosaurus, is in the hands of | Professor Watson, London University. A very large collection of fishes has been made. Some | hundreds of specimens have been sent to Sir Arthur Smith Woodward. The collection now with me numbers about | one hundred and twenty fossils. It will take some con- siderable time to work these out. The state of preservation — makes it difficult to determine structures. First, there has. | FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 139 ry been crushing, so that the fish now is usually only a fraction of a millimetre thick. Next, a most peculiar fact, the in- organic matter seems to have been completely removed, whilst the organic matter is represented by bituminous or ferruginous stains. In the case of Cleithrolepis, for example, a form covered with thick scales, the endoskeleton that one would not expect to be able to press through the scales, can be clearly made out in impression, whilst the scales have gone. Fortunately, there are many specimens, and an examination of the whole series may be expected to yield good results. Amongst the specimens are some well preserved examples of Cleithrolepis. The bones of the head, and the endo- skeleton fin supports and the neural arches are fairly clear, and establish the fact that Cleithrolepis is not a Semionotid. This result has been anticipated by recent work at London University on some South African Cleithrolepidae. The results of that research will shortly be published. The Brookvale specimens will then add to a knowledge of the ethnoidal region and perhaps of other parts of the head, and of the endoskeleton. One Brookvale specimen, prob- ably the largest Cleithrolepis known, is about 74 inches long. A curious form is very elongated, recalling Belonorhyn- chus both in its endoskeletonal relations, elongation of trunk, and its tail, but with a blunt snout and an arrange- - ment of the head bones similar to the Palaeoniscids. In addition, the axial skeleton is highlv ossified. When worked out it may prove of very great importance in the study of the relations of Belonorhynehids (now Saurichthyids) and the Chondrostei in general. The collection may yield a series connecting the Palaeon- iscidae and the Catopteridae. Forms that seem to fall in 140 R. T. WADE. these families will, of course, need comparison with other Triassic fish of similar affinities and with ‘South African forms, descriptions of which are soon to be published. With these, too, Australian fish previously described as Palaeon- iscidae, Catopteridae, Semionotidae and Pholidophoridae will need comparison and review. There is apparently a series of fishes in the collection of ages from extreme youth to maturity that show the order in which seales develop over the trunk of fishes. There are some specimens of large Palaeoniscidae. The head of one species indicates a fish of about one metre long. There is evidence in one or two instances only of the presence of possible protospondylh. A Dipnoan scale and some parts of a Dipnoan head occur. VI.—Table showing the Classification of Australian Mesozoic fishes. The following table shows the Australian Mesozoic fishes in the systematic positions to which they have been assigned hitherto. Forms whose positions have been rendered un- certain by more recent investigations are marked by an asterisk. Vil.—Geological distribution of fishes in Australian rocks. (Nomenclature of the original memoirs retained.) Lower Triassic. Selachii—An undetermined Cestaciont. Dipnoi—Gosfordia truneata. Palaeoniscidae—Acrolepis hamiltoni., Acrolepis tasmanicus. Apateolepis australis. Atherstonia australis. Myriolepis clarkei. Myriolepis latus. FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 141 Catopteridae—Dictyopyge symmetrica. Dictyopyge illustrans. Dictyopyge robusta. Belonorhynchidae (now Saurichthyidae)— Belonorhynehus (8.) gigas. Belonorhynchus (S.) gracilis. Senionotidae—Cleithrolepis granulatus } not Semionotids.. Cleithrolepis altus § Pristosomus gracilis. Pristosomus latus. Pristosomus crassus. Semionotus australis. Semionotus tenuis. Pholidophoridae—Pholidophorus gregarius. Peltopleurus dubius. _ Incertae (probably Palaeoniscidae )—-Psilichthys. Upper Triassic. Ichthyotomi—Pleuracanthus parvidens. Dipnoi—Sagenodus (really Ceratodus) laticeps. Palaeoniscidae—Elonichthys armatus. Klonichthys semilineatus. Elpisopholis dunstani. Palaeoniscus antipodeus. Palaeoniseus feistmanteli. Palaeoniscus crassus. Myriolepis pectinata. Platysomidae—Platysomus (?). Semionotus formosus. Pholidophoridae—Pholidophorus australis. Jurassic. Dipnoi—Ceratodus avus. Coelacanthidae—Non-det. Palaconiscidae—Coccolepis australis. 142 R. T. WADE. Semionotidae—Aetheolepis mirabilis. Aetheolepis (?). Aphnelepis australis. Archaeomenidae—Archaeomena tenuis. Archaeomene robustus. Teleostei— Leptolepidae—Leptolepis talbragarensis. Leptolepis lowel. Leptolepis gregarius. Leptolepis ecrassicauda. Cretaceous. Selachu—Hybodus ineussidens. Corax. Lamma appendiculata. Lamma daviesil. Dipnoi—Ceratodus wollastoni. Aspidorhynchidae—Aspidorhynehus. Belonostomus sweeti. Teleoster. ‘Chirocentridae—Portheus australis. Ichthyodectes marathonensis. Saurodontidae—Cladocyelus sweeti. Incertae—2 fragments. VIII.—Geological and Geographical distributions in general of Australian Mesozoic genera. 1. Purely Australian—Aetheolepis, Apateolepis, Aph- nelepis, Archaeomene, Elpisopholis, Gosfordia, Myrio- lepis, Pristosomus, Psilichthys. 2. Trias of Europe—Belonorhynechus, Dictyopyge, Pelto- pleurus, Pholidophorus, Semionotus, Pleuracanthus. 3. Trias of North America—Dictyopyge, Semionotus, Pholidophorus, Platysomus. 4, Lower Mesozoic of 8. Africa—Atherstonia, Cleithro- lepis, Dictyopyge, Semionotus. FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 143 5. In India—Cleithrolepis. 6. Lower Lias of Europe—Belonorhynchus (?), Coceco- lepis, Leptolepis, Pholidophorus. 7. The Cretaceous forms found in Australian rocks are found in Cretaceous rocks elsewhere. 8. Ceratodus has been found in the Upper Cretaceous of Patagonia. 9. Belonostomus and Cladocyelus have been reported from Brazil. 1X.—Bibliography. The following list of publications in which reference is made to Australian Mesozoic fossil fishes, has been compiled from— (a) Catalogue of the Fossil Fish in the British Museum (Sir Arthur Smith Woodward), Vols. I-IV. (b) The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. (c) “Zoological Record.” (d) Reference made in the papers concerning Australian fishes. The Bibliography is divided into four sections, of which three give the publications dealing with Triassic, Jurassic, and Creta- ceous fossil fishes respectively, whilst the fourth division, for the sake of convenience and completeness, includes three works quoted in footnotes. The reference number that precedes each title is the number used in brackets throughout the thesis wherever reference is made to a particular publication. Chronological order is observed in, each section. Triassic. No. 1. 1864. Egerton, Sir P. de M. “On some Ichthyolites from New South Wales.” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. xx, pp. 1-5, pl. 1. 2. 1888. Woodward, (Sir) A. S. “Note on the early Mesozoic Ganoid Belonorhynchus.” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), Vol. I, p. 356. 3. 1889, 1890. Johnston and Morton. (a) Notes on the discovery of a Ganoid fish in the Knock- lofty Sandstones, Hobart. (b) Description of a second Ganoid fish from the Lower Mesozoic Sandstones near Tinder Box Bay. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1889 (p. 102) and 1890 (p. 152). 4. 1890. Woodward, (Sir) A. S. The fossil fishes of The Hawkesbury series at Gosford. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Pal. No. 4. 144 1UOF Tate 12. 13. 14. 15. IG: ie R. T. WADE. 1890. Feistmantel, O. | Geological and Palasontclogical relations, etc., etc. + Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Pal. No. 3, p. 75, pl. 39. 1902. Woodward, (Sir) A. S. On two new species of fish from New South Wales. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Vol. VII, pt. 2, pp. 88-91, pl. XXIV. 1908. Wocdward, (Sir) A. S. The fossil fishes of The Hawkesbury series at St. Peters. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Pal. No. 10, LOTT De Vise iG. Wo Mesozoic fossils. Ann. Qld. Mus., No. 10. Jurassic. 18938. Woodward, (Sir) A. S. Note on the evolution of the Scales of fishes. Natural Science, III, No. 22, pp. 448-450. 1895. Woodward, (Sir) A. S. The fossil fishes of The Hawkesbury Series at Talbragar Creek, N.S.W. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Pal. No. 9. 1900: Hall 2S: A new genus and a new Species of fish from the Mesozoic Rocks (Jurassic or Triassic (?)) of Victoria. Proc.. Roy. Soc. Vic.,) Vol. XIT CN-S.), pt. 2. me 47 -1o0 pL SLY. 1906. Woodward, (Sir) A. S. On a tooth of Ceratodus from the lower Jurassic of Victoria. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. VII, Vol. XVIITU pp. a-3, pl. i: 1907. Smith Woodward, (Sir) A. On a tooth of Ceratodus, etc. (Reprint of 12.) '’Rec. Geol. Surv. Vie., Vol. I, pt. 2, p. tab: 1912. “Chapman, F. Report on Jurassic and Carboniferous fish remains. _ Rec. Geol. Surv. Vic., pt. II, pp. 284-2385, pl. XXXIX. Cretaceous. 1870. Moore, C. Australian Mesozoic Geology and Palaeontology. Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc., XXVI, p. 228. 1872. Etheridge, R., Jun. Descriptions of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic fossils of Queensland. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., XXVIII, p. 346. 1885. JaekieRy lL. Reports on the Geological features of part of the district to be traversed by the proposed Transcontinental Railway. Queensland Parl. Papers, p. 8. * 18. £9. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. ol. o2. FOSSIL FISHES OF AUSTRALIAN MESOZOIC ROCKS. 145 1888. Etheridge, R., Jun. Descriptions of fish remains from The Rolling Downs. Formation of Northern Queensland. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., LII (2), pt. 1, p. 156. 1891. Etheridge, R., Jun., and Woodward, (Sir) A. S. On the occurrence of the Genus Belonostomus in The Rolling Downs Formation of Central Queensland. fians: Roy. soc. Vic., pt.1—pl. 1. 1892. Etheridge, R., Jun. The Geology and Palaeontology of Queensland. Pp. 503-504. 1894. Woodward, (Sir) A. S. On some fish remains . . . from The Rolling Downs Formation of Queensland. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 6, Vol. XIV, pp. 444-447, pl. X. 1905. Etheridge, R., Jun. Description of the Mutilated Cranium of a large fish, from the Lower Cretaceous of Queensland. Rec. Aus. Mus., VI, pp. 5-8, pls. I and II. 1909. Chapman, F. On the occurrence of the Selachian genus Corax in the Lower Cretaceous of Queensland. Proce. Roy. soc. Vic., Vol. XXI (N.S.), pt.-2, pp. 452,453. 1913. Longman, H. A. Note on Portheus australis. Mem. Qld. Mus., Vol. II, p. 94. 1914. Chapman, F. On a new species of Ceratodus from the Cretaceous of N.S.W. 1926. White, E. I. On the occurrence of the genus Epiceratodus in the Upper Cretaceous of New South Wales. General Works—Palaeontological and Geological. 1890-1901. Woodward, (Sir) A. S. Cat. Foss. Fish. Br. Mus., Vols. I-IV. 1918. Walkom, A. B. The Geology of the Lower Mesozoic Rocks of Queensland, etc. Eroc linn.’ Soc. N.S.W., pp. 37-115, pt. 1. 1926. Bryan, W. H., and Whitehouse, F. W. Later Palaeogeography of Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Vol. XX XVIII, No. 10. 1914. Chapman, F. Australasian Fossils. 1917. Eastman, C. R. Fossil fishes in the collection of the U.S. National Museum. Us. Nat. Mus> Proc:,- Vol. 52, p: 281. Notice of an unnamed form from Gosford, N.S.W. 1921-1925. Stensio, E. A. Triassic fishes from Spitzbergen, pts. I and II. J—Sept. 3, 1930. 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G. RAGGATT. THRUST FAULTS AND COMPRESSION JOINTS IN THE MUREE BEDS, NEAR GRASSTREE, NEW SOUTH WALES.* By H. G. Rageatt, B.Se., Geological Survey of New South Wales. (With Plates V and VI and two text figures.) (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Oct. 1, 1930.) In the railway cuttings about half a mile west from Grasstree railway station the Muree beds are well exposed over a distance of 35 chains. In the larger of the two cuttings (the one nearer Grasstree) there are a number of thrust faults and joints well exposed. These were, appar- ently, first noted by Sir Edgeworth David many years ago.? The faults and joints are so well shown by the exposures that a mere record and description of them would serve a useful purpose. In addition, one is here dealing with thrust faults which have been formed under the conditions. attending the formation of most overthrust faults on a large scale (except, possibly, for the factor of deep burial), a fact which makes the occurrence doubly interesting. Application of the strain ellipsoid method of analysis, . after the teaching of C. K. Leith?, led to results at variance with observation. The present paper contains substantially the results of research into this apparent anomaly. A brief account of the stratigraphy and structure of the area is an essential preface to a discussion of the faults and joints themselves. ae fit A Es he SS ree fy 2 z 4. *Published with the permission of the Under-Secretary for Mines. THRUST FAULTS AND COMPRESSION JOINTS. 149 Stratigraphy. The sequence of Permian rocks established for the Lower Hunter Valley by the early workers in New South Wales (chiefly C. S. Wilkinson, R. Etheridge and Sir Edgeworth David) has also been recognised by the Geological Survey of New South Wales to be generally true for the Muswell- brook area. Progress reports have been made from time to time on this area since the publication of the late J. E. Carne’s report in 1914, by M. Morrison and the author jointly in 19283 and by the author in 1929.4 The sequence is as follows :-— 1. Upper Coal Measures. 2. Upper Marine Series. (a) Crinoidal beds. (b) Muree beds. (ec) Branxton beds. 3. Lower Coal Measures. (a) Greta Coal Measures, proper. (b) Skeletar beds. 4, Gyarran Voleaniec Series—Lower Marine. (a) Rhyolite. (b) Muscle Creek basalts. Probably a study of the lower series (the Greta and the ‘Lower Marine) has little bearing on the conditions con- trolling rupture of the Muree beds, and they need not be discussed here. Some details concerning these series were given by the author in the Annual Report of the Depart- ment of Mines for 1929. A knowledge of the hthology and thickness of the beds overlying and immediately underlying the Muree beds in 150 H. G. RAGGATT. which the fractures are developed is, however, essential to the discussion, and the following notes on these for- mations are, therefore, given :— 1. Upper Coal Measures: The stratigraphy of this series has not been worked out in detail, but it is clearly similar to that given for the Singleton district, which is as follows :—3 Descending Order. I. 2,300 feet. Very largely sandstone and con- glomerate, but with some massive shale: beds containing glossopteris and verte- braria. Six or seven seams of coal present. II. 450 feet. Chiefly shale with some sandstone.. Six. coal seams. 1008 000 feet. Shale and sandstone. Barren of coal. seams. Total thickness—38,100 feet. It is doubtful whether the uppermost beds of the series. were ever deposited over the Grasstree area. The maximum. thickness of these beds present at the end of Permian time was probably about 800 feet. This estimate is based on. a general study of the palaeogeography of the region and a reconstruction of structure prior to the development of the Muscle Creek overthrust. Probably the coal measures here consisted mainly of incompetent shale beds with some: sandstone beds not more than 20 feet thick. 2. Upper Marine Series: (a) The Crinoidal beds are substantially the same lithologically over the whole of the Hunter Valley. They consist of shale and mudstone, essentially incompetent rocks. They attain a thickness of about 1,350 feet at the southern end of the Muswellbrook THRUST FAULTS AND COMPRESSION JOINTS. 151 coalfield, but immediately to the east of the area under notice they are only 700 feet thick. They possibly attained a thickness of 500 feet over the area mentioned in the paper. (b) The Muree beds consist of sandstone and con- olomerate, passing into tillite in places. Splendid exposures of these beds are to be seen in the railway cuttings between the Grasstree and Antiene platforms, where the sections show much in common with the Muree beds in the Aellalong-Mulbring area originally described by Sir Edge- worth David and later by Mr. L. J. Jones, of the Geo- logical Survey of New South Wales. The sections here show the Muree beds to be competent and to consist of conglomerate with glacial erratics underlying and over- lying sandstone, the latter in places being markedly current-bedded. These beds are characterised by thick- shelled fossils, such as Pectens and Martinopsis subradiata (large variety), mainly fragmentary. The average thick- ness of the beds in the Antiene-Grasstree section is about 300 feet. Owing to the gentle dip of the beds near Grasstree it is practically impossible to measure a section. The following section measured at Antiene platform (443 miles south from Grasstree) may be taken as typical of this part of the area :— Descending Order. 15 feet. Friable conglomerate with erratics and marine fossils. 30 feet. Compact conglomerate. Pebbles mainly 2 ins. in diameter, some 6 to 8 inches. Erraties up to 12 feet in length. Consider- able number of large Pectens, mainly frag- mentary. Bottom four feet coarse con- glomerate. 152 H. G. RAGGATT. dd) feet. Sandstone with fine current-bedding; one small conglomerate band. : 50 feet. Conglomerate much lke second unit, but with fewer pebbles and erratics, and appar- ently unfossiliferous. 150 feet. Sandy shale with sandstone bands (details obscure ). Total—300 feet. The first three units appear in the photographs illus- trating this paper. Field work shows that from Antiene southwards the Muree beds thin markedly, and from the St. Helier’s mine, northwards, they increase in thickness to about 900 feet. (c) The Branxton beds comprise mainly blue, sandy mudstones, shaly in some places, massive in others, and in the Muswellbrook area, particularly, consisting almost en- tirely of very weak beds considered from the point of view of resistance to tensile and compressive forces. In the vicinity of Grasstree, the Branxton beds, which are richly fossiliferous, have a thickness of 800 feet. Structure. The following section from a recent report by the author4 shows the thrust faults in relation to the general structure of the Muswellbrook area. It is practically impossible to choose a scale suited to showing in greater detail the struc- ture in the railway cuttings in which the faults are exposed. At the eastern end of the first cutting west from Grasstree the dip of the beds is E. 20° N. at 6 deg. This gradually changes to W. 30° N. at 11 deg. at the western end of the cutting, the beds over the interval in which the faults are exposed being nearly horizontally disposed at the top of ‘e018 YOOIg T[emsn yy, JO oanjonays [etaues 07 UOIQe[eT UI Sz[NVy ySn1g} Sutmoys uoyoeg— |] “sIq ‘42240008 0009 000% 0002 2. 0008 es “‘suley) O9I od! og OF 0-02 ovlFjuozt Seas Burney FAA SnouasINOBUYD sods sunien 2h 7[]] TIT : Poe? 0 L614 YLT pay, me SPenseayjecg ers Famed ee orone 1 HL LT TWLIN PA a = EY. ck CMT ee = = ! , \ 4) a NVINY3d 9 + : n > Oo Se ee g a auEN, PO 2p 12.0.0. 0 | ~ ‘9 FS = a = a ss r = 5 iS add cae 2 iS : E Seed spag fepouif— > S Bee B 5 SF 3 EY = & 0 E > ap ar cee eas ey m 4 3 a Ss 3 224NSe dW 120) daddy 2a aceg” 2 ae > Zz a z s S20 oneze ES ep at = : : 2 8°20 (<= > 4 9oudU|a!O mm SS oem “a 5 Jou "FF pas B 4 F 4 4 53> 4 a om ee Lae H. G. RAGGATT. the gentle anticline so formed (see plates). There is a syncline between the two cuttings, the dip in the second cutting west from Grasstree being HK. 40° N. at 10 deg. It has been pointed out in several papers,5 © © published in recent years, that at least two orogenic movements have: affected the Permian beds of the Hunter Valley. One of these produced faults and folds arranged approximately meridionally; the other resulted in the Great Boundary Fault (Hunter overthrust) and subsidiary faults such as the Hebden, Muscle Creek and Macqueen thrusts (see: text fig.). The author is not prepared to concede that the age of the first movement is decided beyond doubt, as late-. Palaeozoic, but the possibility must be recognised that the faults may be of that age. The second movement is beyond. doubt of post-Triassic (probably Tertiary age). The occurrence of a considerable number of thrust faults, parallel to the Grasstree faults and adjacent to the Antiene-Grasstree section, suggests that the thrusts being’ studied are to be correlated with the later movement. Summary of conditions existing at the time of compression. The foregoing statements show that, as regards strati- eraphy, at the end of Permian time, the following con-- ditions existed :— 1. Incompetent overlying beds— (a) Upper coal measures, 800 feet thick. (b) Crinoidal beds, 500 feet thick. 2. Competent beds in which thrust faults and com- pression joints were subsequently formed. Muree beds, 300 feet thick. 3. Incompetent underlying beds. Branxton shales—800 feet thick. THRUST FAULTS AND COMPRESSION JOINTS. 155 Taking the most likely consideration, that the faults were formed during the later orogeny mentioned above, the geological history of the region indicates that the thickness. of the overlying beds present will have been of very little account. If, however, the faults are of late-Palaeozoic age, the vertically acting force at the time of thrusting will have been equal to the weight of 1,300 cubic feet of rock of a specific gravity of about 2.5. This is equal to a pressure of about 90 tons per square foot. The first part of the following discussion assumes the vertically acting force to have been of no account. The present dip of the beds in that part of the railway cutting selected for study is nearly horizontal (see plates). Quite probably, when the faults originated, they were abso- lutely so. It appears, then, that there existed a system ideally adapted to the production of thrust faults under conditions which geologists have repeatedly imitated in laboratory studies. Description of Faults and Joints. Omitting those faults with a throw of less than twelve inches, the following are exposed, commencing from the eastern end of the cutting, horizontal distances having been measured at rail level, on the southern side of the cutting. Distance from East end of Throw Cutting. Strike. Hade. in feet. A 38 chains N.380°W. 60° i B Aes N.30°W. 60° 5 C OE bss N.20°W. 60° 2 D Ne 55 N.380°W. 60° 4 1D Weal +5 N.30°W. 58° 13 F oe 55 N.25°W. 55° 3 G Z Ne) 3 10 feet N.25°W. Sie 12 156 H. G. RAGGATT. Two groups of faults, DE and FG, show in miniature the phenomenon so frequently noted on a larger scale, of principal and border thrusts, but it is to be noted that, although the fault of larger throw in the one group, FG, is nearer the origin of compression, in the other, DE, it is the further therefrom. The largest fault, G, also shows in a marked way the tendency of compressive stress to express itself as a number of closely spaced planes of shear (or incipient shear) gently concave to the direction from which thrust has been directed. In general the faults are sharply defined fractures, but thin pebbly bands adjacent to some of them show dragging of the beds along the fracture surfaces in the manner fre- quently referred to in text-books. Both faults and joints are sharply defined in the sand- stone member. The larger faults also appear as planes of shear in the overlying conglomerate, but the smaller ones pass into folds or joints when they enter the con- glomerate. This is particularly well shown by fault (B), which passes upward into a monoclinal or terrace-like fold. See Plate VI. The principal series of joints consists of two well-defined sets, which strike parallel to the faults. One set (J1) is developed parallel to the faults in section also, the other (J2) being inclined thereto at an angle of approximately 120 degrees. The joints show out on the almost vertical face of the railway cutting as a series of rhomboidal cracks inclined to each other at an angle of 120 degrees, the » apparent angle varying of course with the direction of section provided by the railway eutting. In the exposure illustrated, the wall of the cutting is normal, or nearly normal, to the planes of the joints. THRUST FAULTS AND COMPRESSION JOINTS. 157 Some of the joints (J2) have moved forward along joints of the set (J1), the latter being in reality small faults; and, in one or two places the joints (J1) have moved backward very slightly along joints of the set (J2). ) The joints (‘‘slp joints,’’ in the nomenclature of C. O. Swanson ),’ (J1) parallel to the thrust surfaces have their maximum development adjacent to the faults, and on that side of the latter facing the direction of compression. A second series of joints is also present, striking obliquely to the first. One set of this series is much more conspicuous than the other, though even it is not well defined except near fault G, where a number of joints of the set occur, obscuring the pattern of the first series. In general, the joints of the second set are short, ill-defined, and, in many places, terminated by joints of the first series, Factors controlling Formation of Faults and Joints. The faults and joints as described above, being so surikingly displayed, are at once interesting and instructive. Whatever one’s preconceived ideas about joints may have been, it would be impossible to escape the conclusion that one was here looking at a series of related phenomena entirely or very largely due to compression.* It-is desired to explain :— 1. The constancy of the angle of shear, 1.e., the hade of the faults. 2. The angular relationship of the joints of the first series to each other. It is convenient to approach this problem by means of a brief review of the literature of faults and joints which has a bearing on these particular phenomena. *The steeply-dipping joints are not here included. 158 H. G. RAGGATT. Low angle and thrust faulting generally have been the ‘subject of considerable field, experimental and mathe- matical investigation, particularly during the past fifteen vyears. Thrust faulting is strikingly shown in the north-west highlands of Scotland, where it has been examined and described in detail.§ These excelent examples of faulting at low angles led Cadell to undertake his classic experiments in mountain building as early as 1888. His results constitute the groundwork upon which all subsequent investigations rest.9 Hayes’? and Willis" have offered explanations for the | ‘Special types of overthrusts encountered by them, the latter supplementing his field work by experiment. Experimental work in connection with Alpine structure thas also been done in Europe, and probably all geologists are acquainted with the later work of Chamberlin and Miller’?, and the splendid critical investigation by W. H. Bucher’s, in which are cited numerous references to the ‘behaviour of various substances under compression, tension and combinations of various force factors. Jointing in homogeneous rocks in two sets of planes at right angles to one another, and inclined at 45 degrees to the axes of greatest and least stress, is satisfactorily explained by G. F. Becker.“ Structural geologists have realised that 45 degrees is the theoretically most likely angle at which, under normal conditions, faulting should oceur, where the forces involved are not large; but ob- servation and experiment alike indicate that the angle of rupture in rocks under compression is usually considerably less than 45 degrees. In the experiments of Chamberlin and Miller? a fracture angle between 30 and 35 degrees was obtained repeatedly, and it is within this range that the angle of rupture in the Grasstree occurrence, falls. THRUST FAULTS AND COMPRESSION JOINTS. gg) Stevens's in reviewing this question shows that, in a homogeneous mass under pressure, slipping tends to take place only along those planes on which the ratio of tan- gential stress to direct stress is equal to the coefficient of friction of the material sliding on itself. In a clear mathe- matical analysis of the problem, the author shows that the most likely plane of fracture is one whose angle of inclina- tion, 6, to the greatest principal stress in a material, whose coefficient of friction is a, is given by cot 26 = a. Chamberlin and Miller arrive at the same conclusion,» expressed in an equation of different form, namely, 6 = 45° — —,. These equations may be readily deduced, one 2 from the other, since a = tan 0. In order to determine the applheation of these equations to the value of the angle of shear as observed in the field, the angle of friction of the Muree sandstone from the Grasstree cutting was determined experimentally. ) We are in no doubt as to the orientation of the strain ellipsoid in the example under notice. The major axis. must be placed vertically, because the effect of the thrust faults has been to induce elongation of the beds in that direction, with shortening approximately horizontally. The strain ellipsoid may therefore be constructed as follows :— On a tracing of the two intersecting sets of joints (J1, J-), draw an ellipse with its centre, O, at the inter- section of any two joints and such that the major axis AOB bisects the obtuse angle between them. With O as. centre, describe a circle through the four points of inter- section of the trace of the two joints with the ellipse. By inspection, the area of the ellipse is greater than that of the circle whose deformed equivalent it represents, indi-- cating a volume increase during deformation. The point to this part of the discussion is that without visual proof of the direction of greatest compression, using the joint pattern itself one might form a wrong view of THRUST FAULTS AND COMPRESSION JOINTS. 167 the stresses involved, particularly if the bedding planes are not obvious, and one wants to infer the position of axes of folding. The author had intended to develop this further, but now considers it unnecessary in view of a paper pub- lished with a similar object in view. (23) Relationship of faults to principal thrust faults of area. The direction of movement on the thrust faults in the Grasstree cutting is in the opposite sense to the major overthrusting which the area has experienced. There are, however, a number of thrust faults such as the Antiene faults (shown on the map accompanying the author’s statement in the Annual Report of the Department of Mines for 1929), which throw in the same direction as the Grasstree faults. It is hoped that it will be possible, at a later date, to undertake a study of the relationship of all the smaller faults, both at Antiene and Grasstree to the major structure (the Great Boundary Fault). These appear to form a series of wedges such as Chamberlin figures in his discussion on the wedge theory of diastrophism, and to be like those described by Pearl Sheldon on a small scale in the vicinity of New York, U.S.A.?5 The steeply-inclined joints. The steeply-dipping joints described on page 157 and shown in the photographs (plates V. and VI.), have been omitted from the earlier discussion. The relationship of these joints to the compression joints shows that the latter were formed last, because many of the steeply-inclined joints are cut off by those of the other set. They may be due to local tension on the more steeply flexed side of the anticline mentioned on pages 153-154. In support of this suggestion it might be noted that, as pointed out on page 157, these joints are much more marked at the 168 H. G. RAGGATT. western end of the cutting than at the eastern end (see plates V and VI). It is also possible that they are tension joints associated with the buckling producing the Muswellbrook Dome, a suggestion which, however, is not in accord with the prob- able relative ages of the earth movements affecting the region. SUMMARY. The Muree beds, as exposed near Grasstree, consist of competent beds underlain and overlain by thick series of incompetent beds. They are thus ideally adapted for the development of compression phenomena under conditions which geologists have imitated on a small scale in the laboratory for many years past. The conditions are, in fact, the ruling ones in the production of the great over- thrusts of the earth’s crust. It has been shown that the faults and joints are satis- factorily explained by investigations which indicate that friction is the principal factor in producing shear planes inclined to the axis of maximum compression at angles less than 45 degrees. The striking visual proof of a natural law thus afforded may enable one to indicate, with some degree of confidence, the conditions of stress which have operated in other places, where actual rupture may not have taken place, or lead one to suspect and look for faulting where search might not otherwise be mace. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The author is greatly indebted to Professor L. A. Cotton for his criticism of this paper, to Mr. J. L. Vogan for much valuable discussion and for suggestions from the engineer’s viewpoint. He also gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to his geological survey colleagues, particu- larly Mr. A. C. Lloyd. Journal Royal Society of N.S. W., Vol. LXIV., 19380 Plate V. ‘ ae by a is AT . 5 - s Fs a { = Se , ‘ S ‘ ay 5 e r i = \ \ Vol. LXIV., 1980. Plate VI. St Journal Royal Society of N g Tr "See Sa ofa’ Ae > aua7TSpues 7 swe —— eet we. J : LO, 97P19W0]5U09 a a 2 97Puawo7dUu02 . hee ern pe on 9467 smolgnod gnosebnse a. srotebsse Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIV., 1980. Plate VI. 12. 12a. 12b. Ao. 18a. 18b. 14. 15. 16. wi. 18. 19. 20. THRUST FAULTS AND COMPRESSION JOINTS. 169 REFERENCES. . W. E. David: Ann. Rept., Dept. of Mines, N.S.W., 1886, p. FAT, . K. Leith: “Structural Geology,’ New York, 1913, pp. 18-20. Morrison and H. G. Raggatt: Ann. Rept., Dept. of Mines, N.S.W., 1928, pp. 111-115. G. Raggatt: Ann. Rept., Dept. of Mines, N.S.W., 1929, pp. 100-104. D. Osborne: Proc. ‘Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. liv., 1929, p. 460. G. Raggatt: Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. liv., 1929, pp. 273-282. O. Swanson: Jour. of Geol., Vol. xxxv., 1927, pp. 198-223. . N. Peach, J. Horne, W. Gunn, C. T. Clough and L. W. Hinxman: Mem. Geol. Surv., Great Britain, 1907, pp. 463-594. H. M. Cadell: Trans. Roy. Soc., Edin., Vol. xxxv., 1890, pp. 337-357. C. W. Hayes: Bull. Geol. Soc., Am., Vol. ii., 1891, pp. 141-154. Bailey Willis: U.S. Geol. Surv., 13th Ann. Rept., 1893, part II., pp. 217-274. R. T. Chamberlin and Z. R. Miller: Jour. of Geol., Vol. XXvl., pp. 1-44. Idem, p. 16. Idem, footnote, pp. 18-19. W. H. Bucher: Jour. of Geol., Vol. xxviii., 1920, pp. 707-730; Vok xxix., 1921,. pp. 1-28. Idem, Vol. xxix, p. 14. Idem, pp. 15-16. G. F. Becker: Bull. Geol. Soc., Am., Vol. iv., 1892, pp. 46-48. B. Stevens: Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. xl., 1910, pp. 475-491. L. Hartmann, “Distribution des deformations dans les metaux soumis a des efforts.” Berger-Levault, Paris, 1896 (not seen, guoted from Ref. No. 12). International Congress for testing materials: Amsterdam, 1927, Vol. i., pp. 15-88 (see also Vol: ii., plate 13). Supplement to “The Engineer,” April 27th, 1928, pp. 57-58. F, E. Richart, A. Brandtzaeg and R. L. Brown: Univ. of [linois, Vol. xxvi., No. 12, 1928. Th. von Karman: Zeitschs des Veneins deut. Ingenieure: Woh iv., 1911, pp. 1749-b757. F BOO ee ee ee 170 H. G. RAGGATT. 20a. Idem, Table, page 1755. Ail (HS art: oe “The Engineer’s Handbook,” London, 1912, Dao 22. E. Steidtmann: Jour. of Geol., Vol. xviii., 1910, pp. 259-270. 28. R. R. Morse: Jour. of Geol., Vol. xxxi., 1923, pp. 669-675. 42. R. T.. Chamberlin: Jour. of Geol, Wolk SecamE1925; pp: 761-778. 25. Pearl Sheldon: Jour. of Geol., Vol. xx., 1912, Fig. 3, p. 61. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate I.—The plate represents a combination of five photographs,, two being taken from the bottom and three from the top. of the railway cutting. The letters F and G refer to Table 1, page 155. The throw of fault F is three feet; of fault G, twelve feet. The lower conglomerate is just visible at the lower right-hand corner. Note gentle curve of faults convex in the direction of movement and closely-spaced series of fractures parallel to fault G. Also joints intersecting at 60 degrees and steeply-dipping discontinuous joints. Plate II.—This plate shows fault B (see Table 1, page 155) in sandstone passing upwards into a monoclinal or terrace- like fold in the overlying conglomerate. The two sets of compression points are clearly shown. Explanation is given. by reference to the transparency above, and the scale by the throw of the fault which is five feet (OJ and OJ: in the strain ellipsoid diagram, Fig. 2, are traced from the original of this plate). GEOLOGY OF THE WELLINGTON DISTRICT, N.S.W. 171 THE GEOLOGY OF THE WELLINGTON DISTRICT, NEW SOUTH WALES, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE ORIGIN OF THE UPPER DEVONIAN SERIES. By A. J. Matneson, B.Sc. (With Plates VII., VIII., and three text-figures.) (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Oct. 1, 1930.) The town of Wellington, situated 251 miles from Sydney on the Great Western Railway, is on the western fringe of the Western Slopes of New South Wales. The area dealt with in this paper includes portion of parishes Gundy, Ponto and Curra in County Gordon, parish Micketymulga in County Lincoln, and_ parishes Nanima and Wellington in County Wellington, and repre- sents a square of sides approximately 12 miles, with the town at its centre. PILYSIOGRAPHY. The town hes in a valley bounded by the Catombal Range on the West, and by a series of low hills on the East, North and South. Through this valley flows the Macquarie River in a North-westerly direction, and its tributary, the Bell River, which flows almost due North, and joins the Macquarie River at a point about one mile North-west of the town. The town is built mainly on the alluvial material deposited by the Bell River. This alluvium, overlying an igneous rock, is of considerable thickness, and represents a decided terraced structure. River gravels occur at regular intervals between the Caves Reserve and the town, at heights varying from ten to twenty feet above the present 172 A. J. MATHESON. level of the Macquarie and Bell Rivers. These gravels probably mark the position of the old channel of the Bell River, and from their distribution it would appear that the Bell formerly joined the Macquarie at a point about 2 miles above its present junction. The Catombal Range on the Western side forms a very prominent ridge, running almost due North and South, and reaching its highest point in Mount Arthur, 875 feet above the level of the town and 1,875 feet above sea-level. In the Eastern portion of the area around Wuuluman the topography changes from a series of low hills separated by fertile valleys, to .a rugged range of granite hills characterised by an abundance of granite tors. Caves occur in a limestone band about 5 miles due South from the town, and varied remains of Pleistocene vertebrate life have been collected from this region. GEOLOGY. The chief rocks of the area are of Silurian and Devonian age. These have been folded into a series of anticlines and synclines, and an oblique normal fault, striking in a Yorth-north-westerly direction, has downfaulted the Devonian against the Silurian. The presence of this fault has been established by stratigraphical evidence, but so far no information as to its dip or throw has been obtained. The Silurian. The Silurian Series consists of five stages of a total thick- ness of about twenty thousand feet. The Lower Shale Stage outdrops in the region of Drip- stone Railway Station. It consists of a fine-grained shale, associated with narrow hmestone bands, which as yet have not yielded any fossils. The shale is of a light grey colour, GEOLOGY OF THE WELLINGTON DISTRICT, N.S.W. 173 CONTOUR MAP WELLINGTON DISTRICT 174 A. J. MATHESON. and has been considerably intruded by andesitie rocks, with resulting brecciation of the limestones and silicification of the shales. The igneous rock and the shale seem to alternate the one with the other, no one band being of any great thickness. This suggests that the magma intruded the shales and forced its way along the bedding-planes, form- ing small sills shortly after the deposition of the shales, and ‘may indicate that the centre of eruption was in this Southern portion of the area. The Igneous Stage shows a great deal of variation. It outcrops in the Southern end of the area as a well defined zone between the shales and the limestone; and in the Northern end over a much wider area. It is difficult to explain this great variation in width of outerops, and, in the absence of definite evidence of struc- tures, I have represented the broad Northerly outcrop as a series of anticlines and synclines. It is partly on the evidence of this igneous stage that the presence of the oblique fault is established. In the Southern area an accurate sequence of the rock types can be noted. It would appear that the lowest member is com- posed of a massive agglomerate, consisting of an andesitic lava in which are cemented well rounded boulders of grano- diorite, diorite, basalt, andesite, quartzite and quartz, up to ten to twelve inches in diameter. In the Northern area the outcrop of this agglomerate is adjacent to the Devonian Series, indicating that faulting, followed by denudation, has moved the outcrop of this zone “westwards. The varied character and rounded nature of the included boulders suggest that the lava has picked up these boulders in the course of its flow. Above the agglomerate is a zone of tuffs. These show great variation in texture, from fine- GEOLOGY OF THE WELLINGTON DISTRICT, N.S.W. Ce Oren Ar ——— Beals \ | a a || he\! y Taye Vi yy a nl te | Yy A\~ Se7 sped ) fea tt UCN iii IN oma ONiNaG Ht 4 a’ s AR y t X 4 ee AX | \\ anu a x NRE TY ey ‘N a qf p= ———— aS Fitin F ——_ — = SS 107 Soa —— ~ SS J = VES; , XN ez NN 2 a ¢ SS ‘ é SSS SS ————— Y = ae ao oe SS; H ————— “ANY e = mia °° . Ry mee AW + ee ¢ Sa Es ISS iS as ee Nets need GN ®t ere SS en ete as eis ee Gave ee 6 Veea oN i see ecen 0 0. KS \e7 i \S > = e . ee oa : He (200 ae of Vs : Ae oe : oe SS oS ; 7, B—T Sf — sll porn = zs saa aa ae é Nii WD M* SETS , Nee 7 Za E> wn ioe | P: | A = Sacase => \ND | si i NK : Sith it HW ill | : | 176 A. J. MATHESON. grained banded tuffs, representing an accumulation of vol- canic ash, to coarse-grained tuffs containing fragments of different rocks. Along the Mudgee Road, at a point about two miles from the town, occurs a fine-grained banded tuff with a strike out of conformity with the rest of the series, possibly due to some local disturbance. These tuffs gradually pass upwards into a series of an- desitie and felsitic lavas. In the South-east portion of the area these andesites and felsites have been intruded by the Wuuluman granite. The Lower Limestone Stage is a massive dark grey rock practically homogeneous throughout its entire thickness. It contains comparatively few fossils, except in small areas in the Western portion of the district. The chief fossils present are species of Favosites, Tryplasma (including lons- dalei and princeps), Heliolites, Cyathophyllum and Diphyphyllum. All the limestone outcrops in the area, with the exception of the two zones on either side of the Devonian, belong to this horizon. Any metamorphism due to the folding of the series seems to have been confined to the limestone bands. These in places have been partly recrystallised, forming impure marbles, generally highly coloured with iron oxide. In the South the strike is about 15° West of North, but in the North it changes to almost due North and South. The dip is indeterminate, though the angle is steep. The Upper Shale Stage, separating the two limestone horizons, is light grey in colour and finely stratified, mak- ing both dip and strike easily determinable. East of the Devonian the strike is 15° West of North in the Southern area; but in the Northern part it is only 5° West of North. On the Western side of the Devonian the strike is North ai vese = £ wt ¢ 2 a ; aN ae Siyos art 14 096€ p fies] 31VY3N019NO9 13 029+ Peg 31IZLYvNO ) YaddN E39 31vqs 374und 14 90¢€ NVIYN MS ESS] -*31IZL0°07VO CIN P YSMO7 : 13 O87 e NVINOA3O 3 13 0262 yh ese]} NVINOA 3G Hig. 2: GEOLOGY OF THE WELLINGTON DISTRICT, N.S.W. L—October 1, 1930. _ . 178 A. J. MATHESON. and South. The dip varies throughout from 60° to 70° either East or West. These shales in the Eastern portion, have suffered most through contact metamorphism by the granite. They have been intruded by aphlte dykes and quartz veins, many of which are auriferous. These shales appear to be devoid of fossils. This is rather remarkable, because, not only do they reach a great thickness, but they are associated, both above and below, with fossiliferous limestones. The Upper Inmestone forms the horizon in which occur the Wellington Caves. It is dark grey in colour, fine in texture, and forms a conspicuous outcrop in the caves reserve, and also on the Western side of the Bell River directly opposite the Caves House. The presence of a small anticline over the river in the river cave indicates that a great deal of minor folding has taken place. In the caves reserve the limestone is almost barren of fossils, but in the area to the West of the Bell River large quantities of fossils can be found in narrow shale bands associated with the limestone. They include species of Phillipsastrea, Cyatho- phyllum, Favosites, Heliolites, Cystiphyllum, Zaphrentis, Acervularia, Fenestella, Stromatopora, Atrypa, Rhynchon- ella, Spirifer, Orthis, Chonetes, Cyrtina, Pecten, Murchi- sonia, Bellerophon, Crinoid stems and ealices and traces of Trilobites. In the North-west portion of the area, in the region of the Holmes Estate, about one and a half miles West of Mary- vale, occurs another outcrop of this limestone, with much the same fossil assemblage. The Devonian Series. The upper limestone of the Silurian appears to merge gradually into a siliceous rock containing very few fossils; and this is over-lain by a thick series of shales, sandstones GEOLOGY OF THE WELLINGTON DISTRICT, N.S.W. 179 and conglomerates of a deep red colour, forming the hills knowns as the Catombals, with a North and South trend, about one and a half miles to the West of the town, and ter- minating at its Northern outcrop about one and a half miles West of Maryvale Station. These rocks cover an area of approximately seventy-two square miles, having a length of about twenty-four miles, and an average width of from two and a half to three miles. The presence of Spirifer disjunctus and Lepidodendron australe in this series fixes their age as Devonian. The great difference in lithological characters between the Silurian limestone and the overlying red series, must indi- cate a considerable time-break between the periods of deposition of the two formations. This interval is repre- sented by the sandstones between the limestone and the red-coloured series, which, for reasons stated later, has been called the Transition Series. The Silurian limestone is overlain by a limestone, which, in places, is highly siliceous, and contains quartz grains up to an eighth of an inch in diameter. As no unconformity is noticed between the Silurian and these rocks, we might infer that Upper Silurian and Lower Devonian times were continuous in this area, and that these Transition Beds represent the Lower and Middle Devonian. The siliceous limestone of Lower Devonian age contains quartz grains surrounded, by calcite (see plate VII., figure 1). This rock was laid down under marine, clear water conditions, for the rock contains very little iron or alu- minous material. The presence of large quartz grains probably signifies either an uplift of the land-surface or an increase in the activity of continental waters. Either of these factors would be sufficient to cause a migration and rearrangement of the fauna, and the extinction of many forms. 2) 180 A. J. MATHESON. The gradual increase in the silica and diminution in the lime content may be seen in the table showing the analyses. of samples taken at intervals of approximately two hundred. feet across the outcrops of the Transition Series. ANALYSES OF Rocks FROM THE TRANSITION SERIES. Rock. %SiO,%Fe.0; %AI1,0; %CaCO, Age. Remarks.. X, Limestone 9.07 AN2 — 65.61 Silurian X» Siliceous Lower Limestone 41.94 Zea 1.67 51.5 ’ Devonian” “=== X; Calcareous Lower Sandstone 46.57 on 21.08 28.38 Devonian X, Quartzite 92.23 99 3.75 —— Middle Felspar- Devonian? present X; Quartzite 94.53 2.04 1.00 —— Middle Felspar: Devonian? present. X,; Quartzite 78.81 Bat: 11.74 5.13 Middle Devonian? X; Slate T2.10.> (A451 14.98 —— Upper Felspar- Devonian present Zs Quartzite 79.61 3.46 8.52 —— Upper Felspar- Devonian present The first three analyses show the great increase in silica. and the corresponding decrease in calcium carbonate; be- sides this variation alumina increases from 0% to 21.08%.. This high alumina content, probably deposited as the hy- drate, and not as undecomposed felspar, for the slide shows. no trace of it, rendered the waters turbid and unsuitable for the development of clear-water marine forms; and so. we find that the deposition of these strata have resulted in. the almost complete extinction of clear-water life in the area. The next two analyses are very interesting. If the sediments were deposited in sea-water, the clear-water con-. ditions suggested by the low percentage of alumina and iron oxide should have resulted in the development of ealcium-carbonate-secreting forms of marine life. The GEOLOGY OF THE WELLINGTON DISTRICT, N.S.W. 181 absence of calcium carbonate in these sedimentary rocks, in which there is a certain amount of free felspar, suggests that the causes which allowed felspar to be incorporated, prevented the inclusion of calcium carbonate. The next band of rock with no free felspar contains 5.138% of calcium carbonate, 11.74% of alumina, and 2.11% of iron oxide. Here the alumina and iron oxide percentages are high, a result of turbid conditions of sedi- mentation. The presence of calcium carbonate indicates marine life, which was probably different from previous forms, in order to withstand these altered conditions. In this zone specimens of Spirifer disjunctus have been found. The next two bands, which are in the Red Beds of Catombal Series, contain no calcium carbonate but high alumina and iron oxide percentages. It appears then that the Transition Series, containing Spirifer disjunctus only In its upper part, represents a group of rocks possibly of Lower and Middle Devonian age, between the Silurian and the Red Series; and that the limestone of Silurian age is continuous with the siliceous limestone of Lower Devonian. This then explains the absence of any unconformity between the Silurian and Devonian, and is of considerable interest, since nowhere in New South Wales has any undoubted unconformity between the Silurian and Devonian rocks been noted. The Catombal Series is far more resistant than the under- lying rocks, and forms the prominent ridge known as the Catombals. It comprises approximately six thousand six hundred feet of strata, striking 10° West of North, with a variable dip East of West of from 55° to 86°, and is composed of shales, quartzites, sandstones, and conglomer- ates. Throughout the series current-bedding is abundantly developed, and this fact, coupled with the steep dip of the 182 A. J. MATHESON. beds, gives the appearance of a steep westerly dip to beds: normally dipping eastwards. The oldest member comprises alternating bands of shales, sandstone and quartzites of no great thickness, showing a marked degree of dove-tailing into each other. Narrow conglomerate bands are of frequent occurrence, and are: often seen marking the line of junction between shale below and sandstone above. The typical red colour is in places relieved by narrow green bands usually showing imperfect remains of Lepidodendron australe. Above this oldest member is a bed which is typically of a quartzitic nature, though in it occur narrow bands of both shales and conglomerates showing the same features as in the underlying zone. The youngest member, mainly of conglomerate, forms the boldest outcrops of the whole series. A conspicuous feature is the presence of large pieces: of rounded quartz, mixed with the brown quartzite pebbles. These show evidence of having been subjected to fairly intense water action, resulting in the rounding off of the corners and the reduction of the boulders to egg-shaped masses. Throughout the whole of the Catombal Series, the indi-. vidual beds do not, as a rule, exceed fifteen feet in thickness ; and the conglomerates, sandstones, and shales are closely interstratified. The conglomerates also include fragments. of material derived from the underlying beds of the same series, indicating that there must have been periods in which the sediments were exposed to the drying action of the atmosphere, and later subjected to erosion. (Plate VIIL.,. figure 3, shows, at ‘‘A,’’ fragments of underlying shale included in a conglomerate. ) Mud-eracks, worm-burrows, and current-bedding occur both in the basal shales and in those intercalated with the GEOLOGY OF THE WELLINGTON DISTRICT, N.S.W. 183 conglomerate. Along Curra Creek a conglomerate, over- lying a shale, shows on its under surface well defined imprints of the ripple-marks on the shale beneath; and towards the northern end of the series worm-burrows are abundantly developed in a fine grained sandstone, about one mile west of Maryvale railway station. Another feature of general occurrence is the intercalation of pebbles along the planes of stratification of the quartzites and shales. The association of conglomerates of no great thickness with narrow shale and sandstone bands has been noted in all areas where sections are visible; and the similarity between this and other Devonian areas in other parts of the world is striking. Analyses of these sandstones and shales shows a high iron oxide content, and this is the cause of the typical coloration. The intensity of the colour shows much varia- tion; vermilion, buff, and purple-red bands are of frequent occurrence, the variation in colour bearing a distinct relationship to the grainsize. The purple-red bands are characteristic of the shales, whereas the buff and vermilion are typical of sandstones, quartzites, and conglomerates. Microscopic sections show that this colouring matter is present in the sandstones in two forms (Plate VII., figure 2) :— (a) As a coating on the sandgrains. (b) As an interstitial filling. The percentage of iron oxide present in the shales is higher than in the sandstones. It is suggested, in order to explain this fact, that the extremely fine nature of the iron oxide would tend towards its deposition in the muds rather than with the coarser sandstones. This may have an important bearing on its concentration in the muds, but a more important factor seems to be, that, as the oxide is at- 184 A. J. MATHESON. tached to the periphery of the sandgrains, the finer grains of the muds, would, bulk for bulk, be able to hold more iron oxide than the larger grains comprising the sandstone. The finer state of division of the muds would thus increase the surface to which oxide may be attached. That this must have an important effect is shown by the fact that the interstices in both eases are filled with iron oxide, and, though greater space is left in the sandstone, the shales show a much higher percentage of oxide. This iron oxide might have been derived in two ways :— (a) From pre-existing red beds;; (b) By the breaking down of iron-bearing silicates. The massive conglomerate is composed largely of large boulders of ferruginous quartzite, either red or green in colour, showing that part, at least, of the parent rock, which went to form the conglomerate, was red in colour. The felspathic nature of the sandstone shows that the red- coloured rock from which part of these sediments was formed cannot be taken as the only rock from which the series was derived. However, it is feasible that the red- coloured rocks could provide the iron oxide necessary to stain the whole series. | On the other hand, some of the parent rock must have been granitic, and the iron oxide might have been derived from the decomposition of ferro-magnesian minerals con- tained in this granitic rock. The intense red or purple colour of these rocks indicates that the oxide is in a poorly hydrated condition. In this area, there is no evidence of volcanic activity, nor of the development of much heat accompanying the folding of the sediments, so it would appear that the chief factor causing dehydration of the iron oxide was atmos- pheric temperature. GEOLOGY OF THE WELLINGTON DISTRICT, N.S.W. 185 Tomlinson (4) states, ‘‘That the heat of the sun 1s limited to a superficial stratum rarely more than 15 feet in depth, and that insolation cannot be responsible for any extensive dehydration in the red beds, whose characteristic colours are known to extend to more than 2000 feet.’’ However, if a fluviatile origin is ascribed to these beds, dehydration would only have to penetrate the depth of the latest deposited thin layer. Again, if we assume that the period of deposition was characterised by periods of heavy rainfall, separated by long periods of hot, arid conditions, the parent rocks would suffer little decomposition, beyond that resulting in the liberation of the iron oxide, and total dehydration could take place with the formation of hematite, even before the sediments were transported. In such case, the oxide would become attached to the sand- grains. When subsequently transported by water, it would be deposited as hematite, since there would be no hydrating action. Throughout the Catombal Series there occur narrow. bands of green sandstone and quartzite, and the purple-red shales are frequently mottled with green spherical patches. These green bands contain specimens of Lepidodendron, the only evidence of fossils in the series. These bands contain ferrous oxide, and it is suggested that the rock, originally red in colour, has been turned green by the reducing action of the carbon on the ferric oxide. = ce : ’ A uf =e, 5 tie | F | \ = 5 ee a % a P : \ ‘ ~ i oh & : < . ‘ 4) " i . t Sa =) a ’ ; 4 x i va , rh 7 . R on ps ry . s ‘ Fue iS ot yee = - EO ; es ae ' a i x) : 1 3 A " ‘ ; . , x ‘ ¥ ’ ; ’ DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN THE MARULAN DISTRICT. 191 THE HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESENT DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN THE MARULAN DISTRICT, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO RIVER CAPTURE. By GrorcE F. K. Nayuor, B.A., B.Sc. (With five text-figures.) (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Oct. 1, 1930.) = Bineee at the map of south-eastern New South Wales is sufficient to show that the course of the Upper Shoal- haven River is collinear with that of the Upper Wollondilly. A. second glance will reveal the fact that the Shoalhaven makes a sharp right-angled bend towards the east only a few miles south of the Wollondilly itself. This imme- diately suggests the possibility of river piracy of some kind. This possibility becomes a probability when the fact is made known that there exists between the angular bend of the Shoalhaven and the nearest point on the course of the Wollondilly no positive topographic feature. On the contrary, there is a broad depression forming, at its northern end, the valley of an inadequately small stream, Joarimin Creek. This probability appears to be converted, in turn, to a certainty by the existence within that depression of deposits of what are apparently the gravel beds of a large iver, now non-existent. So obvious is this conclusion that it has been generally accepted since geological and geographical research in the Marulan-Tallong area was commenced, and for years this 192 G. F. K. NAYLOR. has been quoted as a ‘“‘stock example’’ of river capture. It is only as regards the precise mechanism by which the capture took place that no unanimous agreement has as yet been reached, and it is the object of the present paper to suggest certain definite possibilities by which the piracy may have been effected. Mr. E. C. Andrews, in a book published in 1904,! was. possibly the first to suggest piracy between the two rivers. His view does not appear to the writer to have met with the recognition which it merits. It offers a solution to the problem of the present drainage system of the Sydney district, which appears to fit fairly well with the present river distribution. Briefly it may be stated as follows :— In Tertiary times a number of consequent streams flowed eastward to the coast, and each tended to develop strong: subsequent tributaries flowing northwards in a meridional direction, more or less at right angles to the main streams. The subsequents are supposed to have developed along lines of weakness, and hence increased in magnitude so rapidly as to become the main streams rather than tribu- taries. The Hawkesbury’s north-flowing subsequent was greatly aided in its development by the soft nature of the Wianamatta shales over which it flowed, so that it be- headed, in turn, many of the consequent streams to the south of it, and in this way conquered and diverted the waters of the Grose, Cox and other similar streams now flowing into it from the western side. This would account for the insignificance of the Parramatta River, and the peculiar shape of the George’s River. The capture of the Upper Shoalhaven (what is now the Upper Wollondilly ) is considered to be the final act of piracy on the part of the Hawkesbury’s huge tributary. 1“Introduction to the Physical Geography of N.S.W.,” 1904. “ 4 TRS we i} \ on ee 3G We = SuvSy ac a Ree, ; & oe St Oise 2 S mie pee ? x : See eel fhe oa: A § Tee yy facouuag® —*?-— ppuaydays : P C Fay b x PCa Hy yo to ws i ; w & WWALSAS an oh : Sean: i JOVNIVEO ~ So a mn A eee ents NSO fe ee 194 G. F. K. NAYLOR. In 1906, Dr. W. G. Woolnough, who may be regarded as the geological pioneer of the Marulan district, published in collaboration with T. Griffith Taylor the results of his investigation of the subject... Their paper gives a good account of the evidence in favour of piracy of a different kind, and familiarity with it is presupposed in the presen- tation of this paper. The details of the capture, however, as suggested by these writers, give rise to certain anomalies. The theory offered by them is that the old Wollondilly (i1.e., including part of the present Shoalhaven) turned east from Bungonia in a huge meander; then, swinging northward, skirted Ballanya Hill on the eastern side along what is now the course of Digger’s Creek, and finally flowed north-west in a fairly straight course down the present Joarimin Valley to the present course of the Wollondilly some two miles or so east of the site of the village of Brayton. The chief evidence on which they based this conclusion was the existence of gravel at several points along this route. In particular they observed the presence of coarse gravel at the head of Digger’s Creek east of Ballanya. This, then, seemed to be the starting point of the forsaken course of the old river. The difficulty in accepting this theory as such is that it appears to ignore the fact that this suggested course inter- sects that of Barber’s Creek, now a tributary of the Shoal- haven. This stream follows approximately the course of the Southern Railway Line from Wingello through Tallong towards Marulan, till just north of Ballanya it swings southward and, plunging over Glenrock Falls to the west of that hill, enters the Shoalhaven Valley near its right- 1Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1906, (Vol. XXX, Part tie pp. 546-554). DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN THE MARULAN DISTRICT. 195 angled turn, from a gorge commensurate with that of the Shoalhaven itself. The course of Barber’s Creek above Glenrock Falls is certainly that of a mature stream, and there seems no reason to doubt that it was contemporaneous with the Upper Wollondilly and Upper Shoalhaven. That is, 1t was in existence before the piracy occurred. The course suggested by Woolnough and Taylor for the old ‘Wollondilly-Shoalhaven intersects the present course of Barber’s Creek at the point where the latter turns south- ward, about half-way between Tallonge and Marulan, quite near the bridge on the railway line. As the phenomenon of the intersection of two contemporaneous streams is a rare one, it is only reasonable to assume either that the old river did not run north from Digger’s Creek on the eastern - gide of Ballanya, or else that no waterway existed along the present course of Barber’s Creek south of the site of the railway bridge. This leads one to ask the following questions :— = i. If the former alternative be correct, where, then, did the old river flow? 2. If the latter, what is the history of Barber’s Creek? Assuming, in the first instance, that the course suggested by Woolnough and Taylor were the real one, Barber’s Creek must then have been a tributary flowing into the main stream somewhere near the site of the railway bridge (Fig. 2A). There could scarcely have been any watercourse where ‘the present lower part of Barber’s Creek runs, unless it were a short tributary entering from the west at nearly the same point as that at which Barber’s Creek entered from the east. The possibility of the present lower Barber’s Creek being in the position of a one-time billabong of the old river is exceedingly remote when we consider the fact 196 G Fk) “NAYLOR: that Ballanya Hill would then have separated the two courses in a most unusual manner. The state of affairs being as postulated above, it is quite easy to conceive of a coastal river working westward by headward erosion until it tapped the main stream near the present junction of Digger’s Creek with the Shoalhaven (Fig. 2B). But it is not so easy to conceive of how the lower portion of Barber’s Creek came into existence. The most likely manner would appear to be as follows: After the rejuvenation had progressed for some con- ~ siderable period, and the river was flowing through a newly-formed gorge at least as far west as Bungonia, one of the tributary gullies to which such a gorge must neces- sarily give rise worked its way northward along the strike of the old folded strata. The stream of this gully cut back as far as Barber’s Creek (which until then still flowed into the beheaded Wollondilly) and succeeded in a second act of piracy, further beheading the Wollondilly by diverting the waters of Barber’s Creek back to the Shoalhaven, and leaving the valley of what is now Joarimin Creek (but was then the floor of the main stream) practically dry for several miles. (See Fig. 2C.) While one can scarcely deny the possibility of this explanation of the mechanism of the actual capture, there are many arguments against its probability. , In the first place, Barber’s Creek below Glenrock Falls. resembles a rejuvenated rather than a subsequent stream. The meanders of its course, as may be well seen from the top of the Razorback Spur (locally known as ‘‘ Long Point’’), are more than strongly indicative of the incised course of a mature stream. As was pointed out, a short tributary to the old stream might have been in existence somewhere in the vicinity; but the most obviously rejuve- 198 G. F. K. NAYLOR. nated parts actually occur at the opposite end to what one would expect were this the ease. In short, the bulk of the evidence seems to be in favour of the pre-existence of a stream of some sort along prac- tically the whole of the present course of Barber’s Creek ; and, as has been previously pointed out, the corollary of this conclusion is that it is most unlikely that the course of the old Shoalhaven-Wollondilly should have intersected it. That is, that the theory offered by Woolnough and Taylor is scarcely tenable in its details. It would now seem advisable to examine the validity of the evidence offered by them in support of the suggested old course of the river from the head of Digger’s Creek to the point of intersection with Barber’s Creek, namely, the site of the railway bridge. This evidence consists largely in the occurrence of supposed river gravel at several points along this route and in particular at the head of Digger’s Creek almost on the slopes of Ballanya. But it can searcely be regarded as proved that these are really river gravels. The presence of extensive conglome- rate horizons in the Permian strata which outcrop through- out the Tallong area has resulted in the produetion of widespread pebble beds as a consequence of natural weathering, and it seems to the writer quite possible that the deposits of the boulders supposed to represent the deserted bed of the old river are merely decomposed Permian conglomerates. Two points at least may be enumerated in support of this possibility. The first is _ that, although the gravels are of a very coarse nature, one is, at that point, right at the base of the Permian series where the occurrence of a coarse basal conglomerate is not only to be considered possible but, indeed, to be expected. Coarse conglomerates actually do occur at many DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN THE MARULAN DISTRICT. 199 places in the same district. The second point is that Ballanya Hill was probably an island in the Permian Sea, so that it would naturally give rise to coarse shore-line deposits. The situation is closely paralleled by that in the vicinity of Hampton on the western edge of the Permo- Triassic Basin, where Mount Bindo was almost certainly an island in Permian times also. On the eastern slopes of Mount Bindo, and in particular at a point on the Jenolan Caves Road about five miles south of Hampton, very coarse boulder deposits occur, which at first sight were taken for Devonian rocks in situ, and later for a river or glacial deposit, but were finally shown to be part of the Permian series. They undoubtedly represent an extremely coarse Shore-line facies probably formed as a result of storm action. These observations are illuminating when applied to the explanation of the occurrence of the coarse boulders on the flank of Ballanya Hill. It is pointed out by Woolnough and Taylor that the gravels include a large number of rock types; but it is a noteworthy fact that nearly all, and in particular the larger ones, are composed of the same material as Ballanya itself, namely, slate, quartzite and chert. There seems no reason why the other less frequent igneous types could not have been swept into position by wave action, for it must be remembered that these would have outcropped on the sea floor not very far distant to the north and west. In any case, the variety of rock con- stituting the pebbles in the undisputed Permian conglome- rate is very great. Those familiar with the margins of the Coal Measure Basin of this State cannot have failed to notice how the last stages of denudation of the basal conglomerates are represented by the presence of a veneer of pebbles on the surface of the recently-exposed older rock, after all signs of horizontal stratification have van- 200 G. F. K. NAYLOR: ished; and that these pebbles are often concentrated in shghtly-depressed areas by a process of normal gravitation. The gravels exposed resting on top of the eroded granite surface in the railway cutting just near the bridge over Barber’s Creek certainly have the aspect of a river deposit. There can be little doubt that their origin is fluvial. But this suggestion, if true, is in line with the theory offered later. Moreover, it is possible that. the earlier writers may have been influenced by the appearance of these when forming their conclusions about those near Digger’s Creek. The presence along the suggested route of the old stream of a certain variety of eucalypt which was found to flourish on the gravel patches was offered as additional supporting evidence by Woolnough and Taylor. However, it has since been shown quite conclusively that the presence of this tree is not restricted to any one particular geological formation. Hence this can scarcely be regarded now as an argument in favour of the continuity of the gravel material. In the light of these considerations there need be little hesitation in suggesting that there is more evidence against the original interpretation than in favour of it. Even supposing that the gravels near Digger’s Creek do really represent a river deposit (and the writer is hardly inclined to agree to this), the most lhkely interpretation of their presence in that position would then seem to be as a result of the shifting of the course of the old stream by some kind of domestic piracy, long before the uplift of the peneplain occurred. That such a process can and does take place we have ample evidence elsewhere in this State. So far the trend of this paper has been inclined toward destructive criticism. It is hoped that the following section will prove of a more constructive nature, as the suggestion it contains appears to the writer to be one more DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN THE MARULAN DISTRICT. 201 nearly in accord with the observed facts. Some of these facts may now be enumerated. In the first place, it will be agreed that extensive changes in the drainage system have occurred in the Marulan- Tallong district in comparatively recent times, the effect of these changes probably being the diverting eastward of ‘the headwaters of the old Wollondilly. Secondly, the valley of Joarimin Creek, at all events, represents the only possible gap through which the old river could have flowed northward. Thirdly, the channel of the lower part of Barber’s Creek is apparently that of a rejuvenated stream, being consti- tuted, as it is, of a series of incised meanders. Fourthly, the course of the Shoalhaven east of its june- ‘tion with Barber’s Creek is also a very tortuous one, definitely suggesting the rejuvenated aspect of a late mature stream. This character is preserved for some distance east of the Tallong Lookover. Fifthly, the Kangaroo River flows in the opposite direc- tion to the main stream of the Shoalhaven, which it joins ‘some twenty miles or so east of Bungonia. In view of the above, the most reasonable conclusion seems to be that the drainage system, prior to the main uplift, was something similar to that shown in Fig. 3. The main stream, the old Wollondilly, flowed through the gap between Ballanya and Glenrock, along the present course of Lower Barber’s Creek. Two streams entered it from the eastern side, namely, on the south of Ballanya, that representing the Kangaroo River and that portion of _ the present Shoalhaven between Bungonia and the Kan- garoo junction, and, north of Ballanya, the upper portion of the present Barber’s Creek. It is very probable that before the final uplift of the southern peneplain the land 202 G. F. K. NAYLOR. surface sloped gently inland from the coastline. Griffith Taylor, in many of his works,' gives clear suggestions that he considers a stream representing the Lower Shoalhaven to have flowed westward away from the coastline towards. an inland drainage area. The present writer agrees with Taylor in supposing that the upper portion of this stream flowed in a westerly direction, but is inclined to favour the view that it turned northward near Marulan towards. the Cox-Nepean system, giving a drainage distribution as shown in the block diagram, Fig. 3. Then came the uplift with the production of swiftly- flowing rivers on the coastal scarps. One of these cut backwards by headward erosion and reached the head- waters of a westward-flowing tributary of the Wollondilly. This offered it a line of weakness along which it quickly cut back, reversing the direction of flow of that stream little by little as it did so. On reaching the junction with the Kangaroo, it captured the waters of this river and continued to carve its gorge westward. Other lateral streams were similarly captured and. rejuvenated. Finally, the reversal of the originally westward-flowing stream was completed as far as the junction with the main Wollondilly, and the effect upon that stream was inevitable. Its headwaters were turned eastward and the process of reversal and rejuvenation began to attack the beheaded part. These processes of reversal and rejuvenation are still in operation, but have, up to the present, only pro- ceeded as far as (old) Barber’s Creek and a little beyond Glenrock Falls, respectively. Nevertheless, the capture of the waters of Barber’s Creek has resulted in the draining to a large extent of the Joarimin Valley. 1“Physiography of Eastern Australia,” Commonwealth Bureau. of Meteorology, Bulletin No. 8, 1911. Fig. 3. 204 G. F. K. NAYLOR. The rejuvenation of Barber’s Creek has not progressed as far up-stream as would be necessary to divert the waters of the formerly northward-flowing stream south- wards to the Shoalhaven had nothing happened to assist it. The distance between the limit of rejuvenation of Barber’s Creek and the suggested point of confluence of the old streams, namely, the site of the railway bridge, is about a mile. However, it must be remembered that the old stream was a mature one, and must have had a very shght grade, so that the fall over that distance would amount to a very few feet. Thus the shghtest warping action would be sufficient to cause the waters of Upper Barber’s Creek to turn southward instead of northward as before. More- over, Taylor and Woolnough not only suggest but postulate a slight warp of such a nature. They note that the level at the head of Joarimin Creek is lower than that of the gravels at Digger’s Creek, but higher than that of those at the railway bridge. Thus it is necessary to assume a warp in any explanation involving rivers flowing from south to north. It might be pointed out here also that, if the stream along the course of Joarimin Creek originally flowed from north to south as suggested by Andrews, at least two warps must be postulated. Thus the south-to-north theory offers greater simplicity, and, other things being equal, should be preferred to the north-south one. The rejuvenation of the Upper Wollondilly (now Upper Shoalhaven) has proceeded far more rapidly, a natural consequence of its original direction of flow. Tributary gullies of a true subsequent nature have been formed along the sides of the gorge. In other cases the valleys of pre- existing streams have been cut to huge depths. This is probably so in the case of Bungonia Creek. = cama _Joarimin Ch | se Barbers Ch} (XY Wollondilly R.| —————— we ~? Ne os y _Yarunga R.| Aangaroo R.\ Fig. 4. 206 G. F. K. NAYLOR. Very definite evidence as to the possibility of such a hypothesis is afforded by the present drainage system of the Nepean Ramp, just south of Sydney district. Here the upper tributaries of the Nepean, including such streams as the Avon, Cataract, Cordeaux, and the others of the Sydney Water Supply Catchment Area, rise almost on the coastline and flow inland down a very gentle slope. However, the precipitous coastal scarp is being rapidly attacked on the seaward side and juvenile gullies are breaching it in many places. It can now be only a matter of a very short time, geologically speaking, before the whole of the Upper Nepean system is captured and reversed in a manner exactly analogous to that by which the writer considers the present Shoalhaven-Wollondilly system to have developed. One cannot suggest at what precise point the coastal stream first tapped the headwaters of the eastern branch of the old Shoalhaven-Wollondilly system. It is doubtful whether such could ever be determined now. But the meanders of the Shoalhaven east of Barber’s Creek, and even east of Digger’s Creek, speak for themselves. So also do those of Barber’s Creek. The process of rejuvenation is still in operation at the present day. Barber’s Creek is gradually cutting its gorge northwards, and, in time, further capture of Wollondilly water must result, as the grades of the two rivers are so unequal. Only some great tectonic movement can avert this result. The theory of reversal and rejuvenation as suggested above appears at first glance to be radically different from those suggested by the earlier writers. However, by accepting some such history for the development of the. river system since early Tertiary times as that which follows, it will be seen that, not only can the present theory 3 a Zz = Ln 7 Se ee ( eae { eae tec \ * Veo | cae / / a Sy ~ / Sut ee EL ~N = i De % a } \ mine’. . 2tvige Om Tat ie mi | So dine | Mm. ewe) oT | aoe PS ,: Fig. 5. eae 208 G. F. K. NAYLOR. be reconciled with two of those previously offered, but that these can also, to a large extent, be reconciled with each other. In the first instance the drainage system of the early Tertiary may have been as indicated in Fig. 5A. In the vicinity of the Sydney area several consequent streams. flowed eastward into the sea. Further south the divide, possibly assisted by flows of basalt, swung in toward the coast, so that the main drainage in that part was in a westerly direction. Such a distribution would accord partly — with that suggested by Taylor and partly with Andrews’ view, and seems not impossible in view of the fact that similar systems exist at the present day in our coastal — districts. If the eastward-flowing streams had developed strong northward-flowing subsequents, then, as Andrews suggests, a series of captures may have taken place. Finally, the over-developed subsequent of the Hawkesbury might have sueceeded in tapping the main westward-flowing stream and diverting its waters northward, giving rise to a state of affairs as shown in Fig. 5B. The above would probably have taken place towards the close of Tertiary times and would have been closely followed by the uphft of the Kosciusko epoch. There is good reason to believe that this uplift was of a differential nature, resulting in greater elevation towards the west than towards the east. Such is obviously the case in the Blue Mountain area. Such an uplift would have had two major effects. In the first place, it would cause the immediate develop- ment of swift consequent streams along the coast, which, cutting backward by headward erosion, effected the. reversal and rejuvenation previously described. DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN THE MARULAN DISTRICT. 209 The other effect would be that of the differential nature of the uplift, which in itself would tend to assist reversal in general, and which might, in particular, have been wholly responsible for the reversal of what is now the Upper Wollondilly, then a very mature stream with an extremely shght grade. Some sort of differential uplift or warping has, as has already been pointed out, to be postu- lated in any theory of capture leading up to the drainage system as it is to-day (Fig. 5C). In conclusion, then, it may be suggested that the theory offered by the present writer need not be considered as contradictory to the work of previous investigators, but rather as complementary. The writer’s only justification for the pubheation of this paper is that it appears to him to take into consideration some of the facts passed over by earlier workers. Just as each of these has contributed his share towards the solution of the problem so far, so it is hoped that the observations herein recorded, and the suggestions made, may be of service to others in the ultimate discovery of the truth. N—October 1, 1930, 210 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON, NOTES ON THE ESSENTIAL OILS FROM SOME CULTIVATED EUCALYPTS. Part II. By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.L, F.C.S., Curator and Economic Chemist, and F’, R. Morrison, A.A.C.L, F.C.S., Assistant Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney. (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Oct. 1, 1930.) Since the Part I. paper contributed by one of us (A.R.P.) to this Society in 1926 (see this Journal, Vol. LX., pp. 50-09), many additional distillations have been conducted with leaf material from a number of species of cultivated Hucalypts. The present paper furnishes particulars of the oils obtained from trees grown from seed by Mr. E. Cheel at Ashfield, and from Eucalyptus dives similarly cultivated by A. R. Penfold at Pennant Hills, both near Sydney. An interesting comparison is obtained by the inclusion of some results of the examination of oils of Hucalyptus Smithu and Eucalyptus Macarthuri cultivated in Kenya Colony, South Africa, samples of which were kindly fur- nished by the distiller, Mr. W. T. Dawson, of Njoro, Kenya Colony, Africa. A still further interesting series is that dealing with Eucalyptus bicostata, cultivated both by Mr. E. Cheel, Ashfield, and Mr. R. C. Dixson at his estate at Castle Hill, near Sydney. One of the finest avenues of Eucalyptus trees in Austraha is this very magnificent one at Castle Hill. The results obtained are of special interest, ESSENTIAL OILS FROM CULTIVATED EUCALYPTS. 745 | as they direct attention to the slight variations both in yield and composition of oil which are found to exist in individual trees of a particular species. We are indebted -to Mr. Dixson for bringing the observation he made of the variation in the shape and colour of the leaves of the trees constituting the avenue before our notice. It is noteworthy that the seeds from which the trees were grown were ob- tained from one particular tree at Jenolan, New South Wales. EUCALYPTUS AUSTRALIANA. pee collected at Wyndham, New South Wales, and sown at Ashfield, 1917.) The results of distillations conducted on leaves and ter- minal branchlets collected in 1922 and 1925 were described am this Journal, Vol. LX. (1926), page 56. in 70% yo ter BCE” Content. 9.9.27 1.14% 0.92738 +6.4° 1.4664 1.1 vols. 24.7 54.6 56.5% ) (Ortho- Cresol i method). { metAvenue of trees at Estate of Mr. R. C. Dixson, Castle Hill; i trees aged 4 and 5 years at September, 1930.) Mr. R. C. Dixson personally collected seed from a large tree growing near the Grand Arch at Jenolan Caves, New 220 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON. South Wales, and subsequently planted the avenue referred to in the introductory remarks of this paper. We propose at an early date to examine the essential oil from the leaves and terminal branchlets of this HEuealypt growing at . Jenolan and other localities in order to determine the chemical composition and to compare it with the results obtained from cultivated material. . A. collection of the leaves and terminal branchlets was made in June, 1928, when the trees were about 2 to 24 years old. The material was cut as for commercial pur- poses and, on distillation with steam, yielded a pale straw- coloured oil possessing the following characters, viz. :— Vv: lubili ister No. Yield 15° 2° 20° ae Ester ge Cineol Date. of oil. d i D OD. Relea Nov. lation, Content. 22.6.28 1.77% 9.9171 +9.5° 1.4643 12vels. 66 36.4 55% x 638% + 55%* 55-58 %t + Congealing point —18.5°. * Phosphoric acid method. + Ortho-Cresol method. Determined on crude oil. x Ortho-Cresol method. Determination on portion distilling below 185°. A further collection of leaves and terminal branchlets was made in January, 1930, and it was decided to separately distil and examine the essential oils obtained from the different types of leaves. Mr. R. C. Dixson, in a communi- eation under date 22nd August, 1930, to Mr. Cheel states: “But there is such a wide variation in my trees that they will probably be of considerable botanic interest.’’ Un- fortunately, it was not practicable to determine the moisture content of the leaves at the time of distillation, but, owing to the dry- conditions prevailing, they became practically air dry. ESSENTIAL OILS FROM CULTIVATED EUCALYPTS. 221 It is worthy of note that, although the leaves distilled had. lost considerable moisture, the various lots were uniform in that respect. The series, therefore, was subjected to distillation under identical conditions, so that the results of all distillations are comparable. However, further dis- tillations will be conducted at a later date, when, the mols- ture content will be given special attention. The varied results obtained up to the present provide sufficient evidence of the existence of several forms within the species, which observation is of considerable interest in view of the seeds. having been collected from one tree. The results of the distillation are set forth in special table hereunder. The figures obtained agree very well with those published from time to time for Eucalyptus globulus, except that the eudesmol appears to be present in greater amount than has hitherto been reported for this species. As a matter of fact, the constituents of the two oils are practically identical. Isovaleric aldehyde, d-a-pinene, cineol and eudesmol have been definitely identified. Identification of Constituents. The small quantity of Isovaleric aldehyde was insufficient for the preparation of derivatives. It is a very common constituent of this group of Eucalyptus oils and has been separated and identified by us when working with other species. d-a-pinene. The portion of oil distilling below 170° was treated with 00% resorein solution in order to remove the cineol. The erude terpene thus obtained was repeatedly distilled over metallic sodium when the greater portion distilled at 155- 158° (764mm.). It had dt3° 0.8612 a2 + 36.9° n® 1.4667. On oxidation with potassium permanganate (see this Journal Vol. LVII (1923), p. 242), a good yield of pinonie >) 222 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON. acid was obtained, which on _ reerystallisation from petroleum ether (B.Pt. 55-60°) melted at 70°. Its specific rotation in chloroform solution was found to be [a] + 100°. Eudesmol. The high boiling residues left after separation of the portion of 01! distilling below 185° soon solidified on cooling. These were placed on a porous tile, and the solid subse- quently removed and purified from ethyl alcohol and water. The crystalline solid thus obtained possessed all the ordinary characters of eudesmol,.and melted at 80.5°. (White solid prepared by melting of the feathery crystals on the water bath.) It possessed a specific rotation in chloroform solution of [a]*" + 34.8°. Cineol Estimation. We desire to avail ourselves of the opportunity to men- tion the success which has attended the use of the Ortho- eresol method for the estimation of cineol in Eucalyptus oils when that constituent is present to the extent of 40-65%. On the other hand we prefer the freezing point method of Kleber and Von Rechenberg (J. pr. Chem. (1920), 101, 171-6) for oils containing from 66% to 85% of cineol. The accuracy and rapidity of the latter method commends itself to us, especially in laboratories where from 20 to 50 estimations may be required in the course of a few hours. No other method is comparable with it on the grounds of accuracy and speed of execution. In conclusion, we desire to express thanks to Mr. E. ‘Cheel, Curator of the National Herbarium, Sydney, for the provision of supplies of leaf material from time to time, and for his mterest and assistance in the determination of the various species examined. We also desire to express thanks to Mr. R. C. Dixson for the supplies of Eucalyptus bicostata. ‘[IO SpNsd dy} UO yO parsed SeM YIyM ‘SC ‘ON JO UOTVdIXd 9Yy} YM ‘ CgT MOTIq Sur[sip [Io Jo uorjzI0d yey} UO peu IBM SUOI}LLUT}Sa [OOUID sy, ned Wp ro 02 re 6bZb I ov PI+ rbz60 % 9'T PEG 0} | [ ‘SON sur : -juoso1da1 | | ‘UOT}II]JOO | eseioAy | 9 et MSS VL cr iba O€Zy I | 9¢t+ 8Ic60 MOET / °°" SABO] | IgyonS | ¢ pv LOL LCC Vi bOsr T 60Ca- 9F¢60 %v7 t | +2 (peoag | | ud 0} uéL + SUOT rss all —fa}epoz0ueT 17 os %59 | cor 09 fell 9V9r'T Bol shae r6l60 MEV? “peat | | -nejs nq ‘7 ‘ON OF teas |e ‘ Wel b'°86 9'FC oa! bO8r'T goitaR £0f6'0 %ET I = peor | uel 0} ukL + SU0] | ud 0} wl (razeposoury | 7 YRG | c 8p c8 ite! LS9b¢'T o8t | LEC6 0 Ta C 3 ee a I atl + SU] u8l OF UCT : J}ETOOIUR] morseN | [| 0¢./1/0€ cl : *SOAROT B HO 3° PPA | io amyey | ON| PC “6 “OUP | suo : 1ye[4}998 des QGysiem Aq) Te283)-OF 10) Tayye ‘yoy sioy joyoore %OL -uoy joour | ON Sa | EL ON rosa | UE Aimiqnjog | 0% piceee € oat ‘foupAS Jesu [I eapised PIP LISOId SALIATV INA ai BOAEST JO. sists snories aii sO penuassq es 224 MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. NOTES ON THE MINERALOGY OF THE SILVER LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS OF NEW SOUTH WALES, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE BARRIER RANGES SILVER FIELD. By GEORGE SMITH. (Late Inspector of Mines, N.S.W.) (Communicated by Dr. C. ANDERSON. ) (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Nov. 5, 1930.) Introduction. In the comparatively early years of 1891-3 mineral classification at Broken Hill was well advanced, mainly through the efforts of C. W. Marsh,! whose mineralogical knowledge enabled him to determine, from various mines in the district, many minerals which were unknown previ- ously to exist in Australia. There were, however, long after he had left the State, many new discoveries of minerals, which were not always recorded. During the early part of the succeeding years, mineral developments were at their best, and, as further and deeper explorations in the oxidised zone were carried on, it was found that changes in the ore bodies had produced new minerals or modifications of those already known. It is obvious that in a huge lode containing perhaps the most varied and beautiful metalliferous minerals known to exist ic any ore deposit, a personal knowledge of their occurrence in situ would be essential to an accurate description of them. Even before 1891 some had already disappeared, 1Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., XXIV, 1890 (1891), pp. 177-195; XXVI, 1892, pp. 326-382. MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 225 while many had not been disclosed, hence a description based on the occurrences of any particular period could not be otherwise than incomplete, and in consequence the mineral history of those distant years must depend upon the observations of those whose good fortune it had been to watch its unfolding under varying conditions that were never repeated. The mineral developments in the lode from the outcrop to the depth of the dense sulphide zone were thus noted in their sequence, and their history, as here recorded, may be considered to be as complete as close investigation and the methods of determination of that period could make it. A brief review of the previous literature on the mineral- ogy of the Barrier Ranges silver field is conveniently commenced at the year 1894 with the publication of Mr. Jaquet’s memoir, ‘‘Geology of the Broken Hill Lode and Barrier Ranges Mineral Field, New South Wales.’’? This was the first notable record of the mines of Broken Hill, together with the whole of the smaller mines then in opera- tion in the surrounding districts, and included a general list of their minerals. The writer3 and Professor R. Beck+ published notes on the origin of the rare silver minerals. in the Consols lode and the presence of rhodonite in the gangue of the Broken Hill lode, respectively. The economic minerals of the Broken Hill district are referred to in Mr. E. C. Andrews’ memoir, ‘‘The Geology of the Broken Hill District,’’5 and a rather full and de- tailed list of the minerals of the field, prepared by the writer, was also included in this work. 2Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Memoirs Geol. No. 5, 1894. 3Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Engr., XXVI, 1896 (1897), pp. 69-78. 4Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S. Wales, VII, 1900, pp. 20-28. 5Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Memoirs Geol. No. 8, 1922. O— November 5, 1930. 226 G. SMITH. In 1926 a more comprehensive work, ‘‘A Contribution to the Mineralogy of New South Wales,’’® by the writer of the present notes, was published by the Department of Mines, New South Wales. The publication, ‘‘The Mineral Industry of New South Wales,’’ was issued by the Department of Mines in 1928, and referred briefly and incidentally to the minerals of the Broken Hill district in several chapters. The purpose of these notes is to present some of the writer’s observations on the mineralogy of the Barrier Ranges silver field made before and after the period 1891-3, referring particularly to the silver-lead-zine ores of the Broken Hill district, and at the same time drawing attention to certain inaccuracies in previous publications. SoME CHARACTERISTICS OF SILVER LODES AND MINERALS IN NEw SoutH WALES. The statement that ‘‘In New South Wales silver is ob- tained from silver-bearing galena and zinc blende, cerussite, mispickel, iron and copper pyrites and limonite derived from the decomposition of pyrites’’? is open to criticism. If iron pyrites were an argentiferous mineral, limonite resulting from its oxidation would be the same, but it is not in this class of lode material that silver deposits are found. The proof of this may be seen in those limonite lodes which have resulted from the oxidation of pyrites and contain as much gold as silver. That a large propor- tion of the silver lodes of the New South Wales (the majority in fact) are composed of lmonite above the water level is common knowledge, but they had quite a different origin. — 6Dept. Mines, New South Wales, Min. Resources, No. 34. 7The Mineral Industry of New South Wales, 1928, p. 126. MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 227 When oxidation ceases at or near the water level, the silver haloid minerals disappear, and any copper ores present invariably take the form of copper pyrites, with, or without, covellite,® accompanied by galena and possibly blende and other sulphides; concomitantly there is a con- siderable fall in the average value of the ore bodies. The ‘silver is then, as a rule, almost entirely contained in the galena. The lode gangue does not change into pyrites, as it should if the limonite of the upper level had resulted from its oxidation; it usually takes the form of siderite. In those occurrences in which siderite is not the original lode material, and in which the ferruginous character is due to the oxidation of mixed sulphides, the source of the ‘silver can be traced neither to iron nor to copper pyrites. Argentiferous tetrahedrite, when present, is the most im- portant of these sulphides. It is of common occurrence and is frequently found with copper pyrites, an association which, according to the writer’s observation, denotes lower ‘silver values generally, though the silver is contained almost wholly in the former mineral. Limonite in any ease is not silver-bearing in itself, what- ever itS origin, lodes promising in appearance having proved to be barren, while others are rich in parts through the presence of isolated silver concentrations and the dif- fusion of silver chloride leached from them. The source of this silver might be traced to various silver-bearing sul- phides, not excepting the practically unknown silver-lead- antimony group, from which so much of the silver chloride of the Barrier mines was derived. 8Covellite, it might be explained, is the first stage in decom- Position of copper pyrites, and, incidentally, the mineral yenerally described as black oxide of copper. 9A Text Book of Mineralogy, 1916, p. 298. 228 G. SMITH. In referring to the above quotation it may be pointed out also that iron pyrites is not a producer of silver, and that, although, as stated by Professor E. S. Dana,’ copper pyrites sometimes contains silver, it is not an ore of that metal in New South Wales. Tetrahedrite. Observations throughout the State have shown that, except lead ores, tetrahedrite is the most widely distributed of silver-bearing minerals. Not being confined to any par- ticular class of deposit, it might well be described as a mineralogical paradox, inasmuch as it is not a silver ore and may yet be very highly argentiferous. It may contain a notable quantity of silver in a lode in which no other mineral is argentiferous, thus indicating an affinity for silver greater than that of other minerals, not excepting galena, in which it is found embedded with much higher silver content than its host. It may contain much or no silver, and yet maintain a uniform appearance which affords no clue to its composition. It oceurs as different types, of which the richest in one locality may closely resemble the poorest elsewhere. It has been found to be constant in silver value in large deposits, though most variable in the same lode in different areas. It was observed (beyond Broken Hill) as the only deep- seated permanent argentiferous mineral, while in the oxi- dised zone above were silver chloride and secondary silver sulphides, which apparently could only have been derived from its decomposition. Silver content of Galena in relation to external characters. The statement’ that the finely textured types of galena are generally rich in silver perpetuates a fallacy of long 10The Mineral Industry of New South Wales, 1928, p. 154. : | MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 229 standing. According to Professor E. 8. Dana," ‘All galenite is more or less argentiferous, and no external gharacters serve to distinguish the relative amount of silver present.’’ Forty or more years ago it was a common belief that the fine-grained variety of galena was of higher silver value than that then known as ‘‘cubical’’ galena. Experience has proved, however, that the silver value is not regulated by structure. The writer,’ in describing his “own observations extending beyond the period mentioned above, endeavoured to show that it is impossible to estimate at sight the approximate value of any strange galena by its texture. This opinion was based upon the results of his wn assays of some hundreds of samples of this ore. For the purpose of comparison, some figures previously quoted by the writer are given, which show the extreme variation of the silver contents of both fine and coarse textured ‘galena. Texture. Mine Locality. Silver. onda Very fine (resem- | Consols Mine, | 724 oz. 80% bling chalcocite).. Broken Hill Fine (known as| Yerranderie at 50" .07: 50% “steel grained”’).. | Fine (known _ as'Apollyon Valley | 5. OZ. 65% “steel grained’’).. Moarse .... .. ..|Consols Mine, | 1078 oz. 75% Broken Hill ! Mearse .. .. ..-..;Consols Mine, 15 oz. 70% Broken Hill | Very coarse .. ..| Gipsy Girl Mine, 80 oz. 80% Thackaringa | Very coarse... ..| South Australia | trace 60-70% The last assay is included for comparison; it was the only Silver-free galena known to the writer. 114 Text Book of Mineralogy, 1916, p. 286. 12A Contribution to the Mineralogy of New South Wales, 1926, yp. 24-5. 230 G. SMITH. The two ores containing the most silver occurred in the vicinity of rich silver deposits, and their high values were due to proximity to these deposits, though they showed. no evidence of alteration or impregnation; the unusually high lead content is sufficient to indicate their purity as lead ores. In these deposits clean unaltered galena of very high silver and lead value was covered by deposits of pure: cerargysite, not in actual contact, but separated by mala- chite and other oxidised material not more than one- sixteenth of an inch in thickness. The 15 oz. ore occurred in the same lode some hundreds of feet below water level, and, though it was in the zone of rich ore bodies, there was no decomposition of any silver mineral and no enrichment of the galena. The structure of the 15 and the 1078 oz. ores was much the same, indicating" that galena may be rich or poor in silver according to the conditions by which it is surrounded, or under which it is deposited, irrespective of its form. All the assays quoted above, except the first, were of bulk samples of at least some tons. It has been observed also that silver enrichment of galena may take place in lead, as distinguished from silver lodes. Galena may outcrop with little, if any, oxidation, or it may be oxidised for some distance below the surface. In the latter case it may be enveloped by an intermediate layer of sulphate of lead with an outer crust of carbonate (Thacka- ringa and other centres), or changed to carbonate with no visible sulphate (Apollyon Valley and elsewhere). The oxidised portions contain higher silver values owing to the. enriching effect of descending solutions as the lodes are worn down. The kernel of galena, whatever its structure, cannot remain entirely unaffected by these changes, and is, therefore, more argentiferous than less altered ore at deeper levels. MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 231 NoTES ON THE MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE BARRIER RANGE FIELD. Relation of minerals to lode ganque. So far as the writer is aware, the great diversities in constitution of the Broken Hill lode have not been fully described or explained; it is, however, not his purpose to discuss such a purely geological problem, but to consider, in the light of his observations, the effect they appear to have had upon the associated minerals. It was noted that gangue may be impregnated and per- haps changed in character by material derived from dis- similar bodies, especially where they may have merged into each other, with the result that by this means minerals were deposited in positions to which, according to their composition, they might appear not to belong (examples: iodyrite in kaolin and in porous siliceous material much impregnated by ferric oxide; lead minerals in siliceous. material contiguous to masses of cerussite). The general characteristics of the same mineral appeared to depend upon conditions of environment and varied according to proximity to dissimilar bodies (examples: pyromorphite types at sulphide level or near the surface in semi-decom- posed siliceous cerussite, mimetite, embolite). Conditions of depth were necessarily unstable at any level, its effects in different localities varied with degree of permeability of lode gangue as was shown in certain minerals (exam- ples: cerussite, copper salts, calamine ) The mixtures constituting the lode-filling may for the purpose of comparison be separated into four main di- visions, each of which exerted its influence upon mineral character, namely, cerussite, and the ferrugino-siliceous, siliceous and aluminous dry ores. The first contained embolite, but no iodyrite; the second iodyrite and, as the writer remembers it as an early ore, no embolite; the others 232 G. SMITH. eontained both minerals. As their description implies, these dry ores contained little or no lead; they were argen- tiferous only by reason of impregnation by silver haloids, and were therefore bodies of valueless non-metalliferous material invaded by minerals foreign to them. ‘Their designation was convenient, but it was not correct, as they ‘were in no Sense ores. While association did not always suggest that minerals owed their origin to their surroundings (example: anglesite in cerussite), they owed to them some of their charac- teristics (examples: embolite, anglesite, mimetite, pyro- morphite). The principal cause of these variations might be attributed to the complexities of lode filling, the in- fluence of which upon descending waters was reflected in the mineral deposits; had the lode been more uniform in composition its mineralogy would have been less interesting. Lying upon the sulphide ores were bodies of more or less granular quartz, the skeletons of leached siliceous sulphides of lead and zine of which traces only remained. Upon them were isolated deposits of pyromorphite and anglesite, the results of leaching from above; these marked the limit below which secondary minerals were not then known to extend. Much of the silver associated with their transference had been precipitated at higher levels, while nearly all the zine that had existed above had been carried away by circulating waters. This granular quartz showed no impregnation of any kind, but enrichment of the ad- jacent underlying sulphide ores was shown by its compara- tively high silver values as compared with those at greater ‘depth. The continual lowering of the level of oxidising in- fluences was very perceptible; its results were propor- tionate to the changeable nature of, and accessibility to, MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 233 mineral deposits. Large blocks of cerussite found "in the Proprietary mine retained the form of the original galena and illustrated the gradual oxidation in the inside, and the ultimate result of dissolution on the outside; inci- dentally, these pseudomorphs indicated that at higher levels galena had existed in cubical form of coarser struc- ture than any seen in the sulphide ores at that date (1897). The causes of oxidation, however insidious they may be in operation, are most devastating in their results. Mineral deposits which to all appearance are well beyond the reach of disturbing agencies must eventually come within range of influences that destroy them. In the writer’s experience, as described in another chapter, the process was well and unmistakably marked; it could be followed in unbroken line from ruins yet remaining to what is commonly termed the unaltered ore, though at what depth such a mineral really exists who shall say? Mineralogically, the ore bodies of no two mines were quite alike; there were resemblances, but it is extremely unlikely that the minerals contained in any two separate ore bodies in the same mine were free from dissimilarities. Each mine presented characteristics peculiar to itself, and several produced species that were unknown beyond their own boundaries. The minerals of Block 10 were as un- usual as the ore bodies which contained them, while the combinations of the Junction mine were comparable with those of no other mine. Comparisons between ore bodies of contiguous mines which more closely corresponded in character showed that each could be distinguished by the excellence of some of its minerals contained in the same ¢lass of ore body (examples: linarite and _ cerussite (British) ; pyromorphite and anglesite (Block 14); cerus- ‘site (types), azurite and iodyrite (Proprietary ).) 7 _ —~a, 234 G. SMITH. The’ porous variety of cerussite existed in great quan- tity and was readily permeable by meteoric waters; it contained the largest number of erystallisations, and, there: is good reason to believe, contributed to some of the lead minerals referred to, which, though occurring beyond its. limits, may not have been beyond the influence of solutions. which had percolated through it. It was the most im- portant of the three matrices, each of which was itself a. secondary mineral, and was not only a source of new com- binations, but an impregnation and associate of the greatest. number of dissimilar minerals. Limonite, valueless in itself, was in parts richly im- pregnated with silver also, and was the associate of the: finest groups of certain minerals with which it was closely connected (examples: native silver, iodyrite and azurite). Psilomelane may be described as the third matrix, because in its crevices so much embolite was found, but it was not impregnated as the others were; in its connection with. embolite, calamine and pyromorphite it was simply an associate. The iodyrite described elsewhere in these notes may not. have been deposited by causes similar to those which led to the precipitation of the chloro-bromide, though there can, be little doubt that its silver content had been derived from. similar descending waters. The various lead minerals possessed some individual. distinction such as lustre, perfection, variety, or other quality which need not be described here, but another characteristic, that of stability, has a bearing upon the subject of this chapter. In considering the alterations: that minerals undergo through various causes, it is neces- sary to recognise that some are more capable than others: of resisting disintegration which may remove them, their MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 235 associates, or their base. Pyromorphite was found upon material that had been oxidised and/or leached before and after its deposition, but it remained unaffected by chemical action that had caused these changes around it. Anglesite, probably the most indestructible and con- sistent in form and composition of all the metalliferous. minerals, resembled pyromorphite in many _ respects. Neither was seen in association with other minerals (ex- cepting that anglesite was nearly always found deposited upon cerussite). Both were always crystallized (except pyromorphite in the outcrop). Each had survived severe conditions of alteration; anglesite, indeed, remained in all its perfection after its base of cerussite had been removed. There was, therefore, no dissolution or alteration of these minerals aS was seen in cerussite, and no redeposition as. with galena. These resemblances are the more notable owing to the fact that each mineral occurred in such large quantity. As examples of unstable minerals, azurite and mimetite may be mentioned. Each was found in much leached condition, which was due to meteoric conditions ; both were perfect at greater depth. Mimetite, however, resembled pyromorphite in its liability to chemical replacements, and. it is probable that its deeper varieties were of a composition less subject to change; such tests as were carried out during early years would add support to this supposition. In comparing the effects of oxidation at corresponding: levels in general, it is therefore necessary to consider unequal powers of resistance to alteration possessed by minerals, besides the unequal quality of descending solu- tions due to those diversities in lode constitution to which reference has already been made. The upper part of the Broken Hill lode was composed of cerussite, kaolin and siliceous material, the last of these 236 G. SMITH. being impregnated with iron and manganese oxides, though there were smaller areas containing iodyrite without similar impregnation. These bodies were irregular in form and in their association with each other, as could best be seen when this portion of the lode was being removed in the course of surface mining operations. The siliceous material was more or less granular; it was perhaps the insoluble residue of the original sulphide ores; if so, its erratic occur- rence would indicate that some parts of the lode had been much more siliceous than others. Water passing downwards had carried from the outcrop into the siliceous bodies much ferruginous and mangani- ferous matter; it was in these and the contiguous garnet sandstone that many of the small shallow deposits of lead minerals, such as mimetite, vanadinite and stolzite, were found. From their positions it would seem that these minerals had been derived from the adjacent cerussite, as the siliceous matrix in itself contained neither silver nor lead. It was observed that some of the kaolin was similarly impregnated and that these portions were of low silver value. Where the kaolin was not so impregnated it con- tained embolite and much iodyrite. The kaolin, like the siliceous material, therefore appeared to have been invaded by solutions from different quarters. Incidentally it was in the argentiferous parts of these gangues that the mercury compounds were found. It is assumed that the silver minerals in the otherwise non-argentiferous material were leached from the silver- lead portions of the lode. There appeared to be no other source from which they could have been derived. If they were due to the weathering down of cerussite the absence of iron and manganese oxides in the argentiferous kaolin MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 237 and granular silica might be explained by the fact that cerussite contained little iron and still less manganese. The silver haloid minerals were not always together; in their mode of occurrence they were dissimilar. Embolite was found as films and impregnations; there were also replacements in softer parts of the kaolin. Iodide was in films and small plates in slickensided joints, but no replace- ment by it was seen. At the southern end of the lode there was similar ferru- ginous, siliceous gangue which contained iodyrite also; it was therefore dissimilar to other bodies of dry ore referred to. There seemed no reason to doubt that the source of these impregnations was the same as in other parts of the lode. As leaching of the cerussite was effected, the silver and lead became separated. The former was precipitated in some of the vughs as embolite; probably a large portion entered the adjoining lode filling as already suggested, and some of it was carried downwards into the underlying ore, which was therefore enriched through the impoverishment of the upper portions. | Lead was not known to impregnate like silver; it was: redeposited in open spaces, large and small, in which it could erystallize; hence there were no deposits of it in the compact bodies of kaolin. In describing various kinds of lode matter, the enrich- ment of which appeared to have been derived from sources: beyond their own limits, no reference has been made to the effect which the loss of so much of its substance had had upon the cerussite. At the higher levels, where the effects of oxidation and leaching action were most pro- nounced, it was partly dissolved and in consequence was: relatively much more siliceous. In these altered siliceous 238 G. SMITH. areas were secondary minerals such as pyromorphite and mimetite, which were also found elsewhere. It is therefore impossible to draw an abitrary line of division in the oceur- rence of such minerals. . The many vughs in the cerussite ore afforded evidence of mueh leaching action; that the process was in constant operation could be seen by the later deposits of cerussite and other minerals in the openings. The quantity of lead redeposited bore little relation to what had been leached out; that much of it had been carried downwards was Shown by the large depositions of anglesite and pyro- morphite upon masses of siliceous material near the water level. The whole of the lead contained in these secondary de- posits, however, did not appear to equal the amount that had been removed from the large area of cerussite that was affected. If there was a loss of material, and there seems no reason to doubt that there was a very large deficiency, it can only have been carried away by lode waters, as had happened in the case of the sulphide minerals, the siliceous residue of which has just been referred to. In referring to the occurrences of cerussite, it seems desirable to distinguish between what might be termed the mineral as distinct from the ore. The former was a re- deposition of material leached from the ore. It was erystal- lized and practically free from silver like all the secondary lead crystallizations of the Broken Hill lode. Its finest types were found in vughs of which some at least were the result of earlier leaching action. The great bodies were friable, porous and crystalline; ‘some were fairly clean, others were siliceous, and all con- tained more or less silver. Cerussite, the mineral, varied in form, as might be expected, owing to its association with MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 239 ‘such huge masses of ore that were not altogether uniform in composition, but being pure and confined to its own bodies it did not display great variations, such as were seen in pyromorphite. The range of its occurrence was greater than that of any other oxidised mineral. From near the surface it continued downwards into the primary ore and formed large deposits underlying the sulphides. It was therefore the deepest of the oxidised minerals. The erystallizations were similar to those of the shallow oceur- rences seen in the British mine several years earlier, though the surrounding conditions of each deposit so greatly differed. Owing to its unusual position in relation to the sulphide ores, its colour was not white but very light bluish orey ; it was translucent rather than opaque. In appearance it was therefore a distinct type, which, apparently, is not represented in our museum collections. This ore body oceupied a channel through which oxidising solutions had passed; it was found in the Central mine. Though the deposit was a large one there was no portion of it that was not crystallized, and at no point could the enclosing sulphide ore be seen in the stope. Embolite, like other minerals, varied according to local- ity, association and gangue. Just below the outcrop it was more green than yellow, and by reason of its connec- tion with psilomelane it was the darkest variety known. In kaolin, garnet sandstone and lmonite it was much lighter in colour, some being almost colourless. There were differences in form also; the upper deposits, when they were not coralloidal, were more solid, especially when stalagmitic; the lower were coralloidal or filmy according to the gangue which contained them. It was most interest- ing in its association with calamine and cerussite. The latter had been crystallized in vughs large enough to admit of the growth .of many groups of crystals, some of which 240 G. SMITH. were as much, as a foot or more in length and an inch or more broad. Upon some of them embolite had been de- posited in such quantity that it had run over the sides of the crystals, the overflow forming small stalagmitic groups on the floor of the vughs. It is suggested that it had been deposited from solutions that had passed through eracks in the roof of the vughs or had dripped from certain points. Precipitation had most probably occurred where the deposits were found. The accumulated embolite did not cover the whole length of the crystals to which it was attached; there were small heaps of it upon certain parts of many of them. Some of the crystals of cerussite were secured when they were found over 40 years ago, but the groups were too fragile to be moved, even if they could have been extracted intact. The outcrop contained embolite which had been deposited in interstices that appeared to have been caused by leach- ing. It was to such leaching that the innumerable stalac- tites of psilomelane beneath the outcrop might be attri- buted. In the writer’s opinion the embolite deposited upon the cerussite crystals had been derived from the same source in similar manner. The many occurrences of pyromorphite have been described, but it has not been explained that, compared with the masses in the outcrop and the deposits at the water level, the aggregate quantity of all the occurrences between these two points was infinitesimal. The amount of psilomelane in the outcrop was immense; much of it was carried downwards a short distance and deposited as stalactites. From these stalactites to the rhodonite the quantity of manganese in the lode was very limited. ® MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 241 The calamine deposits were confined to the higher levels. Between them and the sulphide ores no zine compounds. were known. These three minerals either did not exist in the middle and lower portion of the oxidised zone, or they occurred in small quantity. Effect of Meteoric Waters upon Ore Deposits. In dealing with this subject as it applied to the Broken Hill lode the references were more general than particular, for the reason that in such a large mixed ore body it was: difficult to find direct evidence. That descending waters had percolated through porous material and deposited in openings some of their contents seemed obvious (examples: stalagmitic embolite, calamine, cerussite) ; but it was not pos- sible to connect cause and effect as might be done in the case of smaller lodes. Complete evidence could be found in some of the outside lodes of the Barrier Field, in which result could be traced to source and cause. In several of the Apol- lyon Valley-Pumamoota group, which have been regarded as chloride (of silver) lodes, the original ore (or what was accepted as such in the absence of any knowledge of its. origin ) was silver sulphide combined with lead or antimony, or both. This, in most of these lodes, had been leached or replaced, with the additional result that much of the Silver was disseminated through the gangue of limonite in the form of chloride. The cause of the alteration was evidently descending solutions which had acted upon the original ore bodies and so brought about the result des- eribed. The writer had many opportunities of watching and assisting in the extraction of these ores, and of noting how often the replacements and impregnations were associ- ated with vughy parts of the lode. It was obvious that these gave the freest passage to solutions, and it was in P—November 5th, 1930. e 249 G. SMITH. the vicinity of this vughy ground that most of the dissemi- nated chloride was found. The vughs were sometimes lined with small pseudomorphous erystals of imonite, and it was this association that led the prospector to regard the pre- = sence of these crystals as an indication of the proximity of payable silver ore. The Consols lode, however, afforded a much clearer example of cause and effect, because it was unique in its mineral occurrences. They were peculiarly adapted for close observation, were strongly defined in their relation to enclosing gangue, were concentrated to a remarkable degree; there were no mixtures and they showed clearly the very severe attacks to which they had been subjected. The lode had an unusually flat underlie and the method of mining was to uncover portions containing the ore deposits (terms sometimes synonymous, as when the ore completely filled the fissure) by removing the hanging wall rock; by this means large sections of the unbroken ore were exposed which could be removed with the minimum of waste and incidentally any changes in its character were revealed as it was broken out. Some of the deposits were large enough to require months for their extraction ; the last and largest, though irregular and not the richest, was discovered eleven months before the writer left the mine and was not ex- hausted until about two years later. The larger deposits were thus spread over a wide area, though this does not imply that they formed a large uniform sheet of ore throughout. In such occurrences there were fluctuations in values and breaks in the ore bodies, but the connection was continuous. There was never a gradual petering out of values as with impregnations; when the end came it was sudden and definite; the surrounding gangue, without apparent change, and however favourable in appearance, became barren even within a foot or two of ore which had MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 243 approximated thousands of ounces of silver per ton. This explanation may make clearer what will now follow. It has been stated herein that ore bodies in the Broken Hill lode, seemingly identical, yet presented dissimilarities. ‘Of the Consols lode it can be said that deposits in the same chute, in the vicinity of each other, containing the same minerals and apparently deposited under identical con- ditions, were known to present unlike features; and, fur- ther, that portions of some deposits had been much altered while other sections remained unchanged. The depth in some instances being the same, these conditions were not the result of its variations, nor of degree of oxidation, but were due mainly to the effects that descending waters had had upon certain parts. Why and how these particular localities were attacked will be shown in due course. The Source. It may perhaps make the following description of mineral alteration more intelligible if it is explained that there was no evidence that any silver mineral except dyserasite had originally existed in the upper part of the lode. In its unaltered condition it was first met with at ‘a vertical depth ofi possibly 100 feet, and in this condition it was proved to continue downwards in certain localities to the lowest point reached in mining operations which were conducted upon the lode. In its decomposition it was always changed to chloro-antimoniate of silver, which in turn was leached in varying degrees according to con- ‘ditions of depth and other causes that will be explained. Near the surface the whole of the silver in this secondary mineral had been removed; at lower levels it was partly removed and partly replaced by cerargyrite, while still dower there was no replacement and little or no leaching. The antimony which had formed an essential part of the 244 G. SMITH. dyscrasite remained, or partly remained, in its original position as an insoluble oxide. That the chloro-antimoniate was the result of alteration of dyscrasite is beyond doubt; it was pseudomorphous, and, where the change was incomplete, contained an unaltered core of the latter mineral. Between the core and the outer portion intermediate stages in the alteration could be fol- lowed. Some of the masses weighed several hundredweight.. The Effect. In shallow level vughs were small deposits of antimony oxide which at the time of their discovery could not be accounted for; later discoveries at deeper levels with differ- ent associates showed that they were the relics of bygone deposits of dyscrasite. The first silver associate of the antimony oxide met with was cerargyrite; deeper occurrences contained chloro- antimoniate of silver also; and this mineral, as was sub-. sequently discovered, was the source of the other two, Several gradations in the alteration of the chloro- antimoniate were met with as depth was attained, leading to those which contained the core of unaltered dyscrasite,. which solutions had not advanced sufficiently to reach. Finally the unaltered dyscrasite was met with, and, as no- further chemical action upon it had taken place in this. part of the lode, the downward extension in the occurrence of the former mineral had reached its limit, the limit having been determined by proximity to water level. Abundant cerargyrite showed to what extent leaching and redeposi- tion had been carried on. Crystals of the latter were freely distributed upon the chloro-antimoniate, even though it was undergoing decomposition, indicating that the two minerals were unequal in their resistance to decomposing MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 245 agencies. Jodide of silver in large quantity covered some of the large rich ore bodies, and it is believed that its silver content was derived from the same souree. The concen- tration of these secondary minerals did not suggest gradual alteration such as had occurred in the stopes above. There had apparently been a stronger decomposing force in operation in these localities, which will be referred to when the suspected cause is described. Deposits of native silver believed to have been derived also from this source were found just below the water level. Of these there were two types, one form beirg entirely arborescent and enclosed in calcite, the other in crystalline wires in the same matrix in a condition of sludge. The chief interest in these occurrences was in their connection with the calcite and the order of their deposition. The arborescent variety was fragile, and if some of its stems had been attached to the sides of what had been open spaces before the entry of the calcite, they could not have supported the weight of their branches, even if the vughs at the time had been full of still water. If the calcite had been the first in position and had solidified before the silver was introduced, it would seem impossible for the latter to have penetrated any portion of it, except possibly along its cleavage planes, as other minerals are known to do, but it did not occur in this manner. Calcite is known to have been carried down by surface waters, and it was, and commonly is, seen in the process of deposi- tion ; owing to its more ready solubility it might be expected to have been the first to be deposited, but, if so, the silver had perhaps been carried into it before solidification had taken place, and in that case both minerals may have erystallised simultaneously. Owing to the constant lowering of surface conditions, which had gradually made freer passages leading down- 246 G. SMITH. wards, the deposit of wire silver had apparently been brought more directly into contact with descending waters. The empty vughs met with above, and those whose contents, were in various stages of decay below them, afforded evi- dence of this more direct downward creep of disintegrating: agencies. The sludge was an illustration of how the removal of the calcite was being effected; by chance it was found while the process was in operation. It would obviously be impossible to estimate, however crudely, the quantity of silver that had been removed as a consequence of the decomposition of the dyscrasite between the surface and a vertical depth of 100 feet, above which most of the decomposition and removal had occurred. The chute of ore passed obliquely across the flat underlie (in this locality) of the lode; its length was, in consequence, about three times the vertical depth. If the whole of the chloro-antimoniate had remained the loss of silver through the replacement of the dyscrasite would have averaged about 20°%; but, as stated, most of the silver had dis- appeared from the highest levels. If it be assumed that dyserasite had originally existed in this 300 feet, as its remains indicated, in anything like the same relative quan- tity as at lower levels, and its average value be based upon such a supposition, its probable original silver content would be insufficient to account for the whole of the large deposits of secondary sulphides which were found above the water level. It therefore seems necessary to conclude that these deposits were derived in part, probably the largest part, from minerals that had existed at higher levels than are represented by the ground surface of to-day. Some distance below the water level various silver sulphides were found which were also regarded as being due to secondary deposition. They were comparatively MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 247 shallow as under-water minerals, except pyrargyrite,. which was disseminated over a wide area in the cleavage planes of siderite some hundreds of feet deeper. Such occurrences of pyrargyrite have been observed in this lode (and elsewhere) to diminish consistently with depth. (In this connection it is interesting to note that Le Conte’ suggests that meteoric waters may extend for several miles below the surface. ) The Cause. The following explanation of how solutions may have found their way downwards is, in some instances, based upon actual observation. The process of alteration could be seen in progress in the stopes when the ore was un- covered ; the effects were plainly visible when it was broken out. Where changes were not seen in operation they could be followed by their results. For the purpose of explanation, solutions may be divided into two classes, namely, those which passed downwards. through the lode, and those which, in the absence of a more fitting term, will be called ‘‘seepage.’’ The first class: might be sub-divided into those which to a great extent passed through pre-existing cavities and those which filtered. through the lode gangue over a wide area; in operation. they differed but their results were similar though in different degree. The gangue, originally siderite, had been oxidised to water level, the lower portion being in a transition stage of alteration. It was more or less vughy, the ceilings of the vughs being generally formed of pseudomorphie erystals which left no doubt that the limonitie portion was siderite in its oxidised form. After the vughs had been 3Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Engrs., Vol. XXIV, 1894, pp. 999-1000. 248 G. SMITH. partly filled with calcite, crystallised quartz had been de- — posited over it, with, here and there, some galena. The dissolution of the calcite had been rendered possible by the downward trend of surface agencies which had per- mitted solutions to reach it under or behind the quartz that otherwise would have continued to protect it. The removal of the calcite made a freer passage for descending waters, and, incidentally, was the means of revealing some interesting occurrences. It was noted that the quartz had, when deposited, conformed in shape to the crystals of calcite; but more interesting was the discovery of small spherical bodies of chloro-antimoniate of silver which, as dyserasite, had been enclosed in the ealcite. These were coated with crystals of cerargyrite, and as they, too, had fallen to the bottom of the vughs, they somewhat resembled nests of eggs of assorted sizes. Descending waters passing more freely through these open spaces into direct contact with the ore bodies would necessarily produce greater results than would be expected from those which penetrated more gradually by permeation. The selective action upon the calcite-native silver associa- tion, already described, indicated that in one case there had been a more direct contact than in the other, which, being out of line, had escaped any alteration. Similar evidence was shown by the larger ore bodies of which a particular area was replaced and leached, resulting in some of their substance being precipitated in the immediate neighbourhood, while other parts of the same ore body were practically unaffected. No doubt other passages from vugh to vugh existed, which, being unconnected with silver deposits, were unnoticed. Impregnations due to permeations occurred most readily in the porous parts, and, where they had not been oblit- erated, in the cleavage planes of the limonite, for this MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 249 gangue had not entirely lost those original structural features peculiar to siderite which serve to distinguish it from limonite of different origin (example: limonite after pyrite). The track of impregnation could be followed by specks and films, sometimes by richer concentrations, of cerar- gyrite, but it is obvious that values of the impregnated parts of the lode would be determined by the quality and quantity of the source and the amount of leaching to which it had been subjected. Impregnation in general lessened in depth as the silver bearing solutions became weaker with distance from their source, and oxidation gradually decreased. When the unaltered siderite began to appear within the limonite the limit of the downward extension of the impregnating cerargyrite was in sight, for the reason that cerargyrite and siderite apparently do not (probably eould not) occur together. The term ‘‘seepage’’ used to deseribe moisture which was noted to have had a destructive effect on the ore bodies at comparatively high levels, may not be applicable. Both walls of the lode were often exposed in mining operations, and, being composed of very hard unaltered amphibolite, it seemed improbable that moisture could have oozed through it into the lode; if it did so, it was not observed. A more likely explanation, as the moisture came from the hanging wall side, is that it passed downwards through the flucan on that side, and in certain localities came into direct contact with the ore. There had probably been long- continued dampness at these points, and this had caused such decomposition that (as an illustration) small nuggets of chloro-antimoniate after dyscrasite surrounded by a covering of antimony oxide were all that remained of darger bodies; the leachings had passed over underlying Stromeyerite which, by this means, became so impregnated 250 G. SMITH. that its silver value had been greatly increased. Dyscrasite- — was the most vulnerable mineral, but its associates, stromeyerite and tetrahedrite, did not escape in the general. alteration. It was not upon all ore bodies that such action could occur as, where they were composed solely of stromeyerite and dyscrasite, they were known to occupy the whole of the lode fissure and were then sometimes ‘“‘frozen’’ to the walls and therefore impervious to moisture. Alteration. of any kind was not seen in these areas. As they have some bearing on the subject of mine waters, deposits of galena contained in the same limonite as that associated with silver deposits in the vicinity may be referred to. The limonite contained no silver and had not been penetrated by descending waters, as was shown by the fact that the galena exhibited no oxidation or other change. Some water was present, but it was imprisoned in small vughs which were lined with quartz crystals and enclosed in the limonite. These galena deposits assayed. 40-45 oz. silver and 65°94 lead, but were not large enough. to be important. Their extension brought them very close ) to silver deposits assaying possibly 10-12,000 oz., but with. them there was no connection. In close proximity were deposits of the same mineral (referred to elsewhere in these notes) which assayed 1078 oz. silver and 75% lead.. These two varieties of galena resembled each other so closely that it was necessary to bag them underground as it was. difficult to separate them at sight on the ore floors. The Outcrop of the Broken Hill Lode. This has been variously described as manganic-ironstone,. manganiferous iron ore, and ironstone. None of these designations appears to be applicable. It contained a large percentage of pyromorphite with patches of siliceous, ferru-- MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 25% ginous and aluminous material, and was not uniform in size, composition or contour, but even with these mixtures. it maintained a manganiferous character throughout. When smelting was in progress at the British mine the outcrop was used for fluxing purposes; its lead content was then found to be as high as 25° and its manganese’ content exceeded that of the iron. Pyromorphite was not confined to the outcrop of the British mine, but the writer is unable to state in what quantity it existed elsewhere along the lode, but it was plainly visible at that date. At the time of writing the continuation of this outerop: is being mined at the Zine Corporation mine, where, though small, it is said to be composed practically of pure psilomelane. In its original unbroken condition it formed a black mass of imposing dimensions, the only black outcrop on the Barrier Field. Omitting its lead content, its silica and alumina, it might be appropriately described as ferru- einous psilomelane. The Silver Haloids. It is not clear from Mr. Jaquet’s statement™ concerning the occurrence of embolite, native silver, iodyrite, 1odo- bromite, and cerargyrite at Broken Hill, whether he in- tended to convey that the last named mineral was present in the main Broken Ilill lode or not, but this is evidently implied, because the presence of these minerals is referred to in almost the same terms as those used by Jaquet in HK. F. Pittman’s reference’ to that lode. The writer, dur- ing investigations extending over many years, has been 4Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Memoirs Geol., No. 5, 1894, oe OL: 1sMineral Resources, New South Wales, 1901, p. 97. 252 G. SMITH. unable to verify the presence of cerargyrite in the ores of the Broken Hill lode, though other silver haloids, embolite and iodyrite, have been found to’ be present in such abundance. At the Australian Museum a large num- ber of the chloro-bromide type from the Broken Hill lode have been tested, but none has been found which does not conform to the embolite or iodembolite series. It is worthy of note that cerargyrite, which occurred so plentifully in the Consols lode, was absent from the adjacent Broken Hill lode, while embolite, the commonest haloid present in the latter, was not found in the former, a fact in keeping with the great dissimilarity between the silver minerals of the respective lodes. The existence of iodobromide has also not been con- firmed, though the writer at an early period determined, among the minerals from the Broken Hill lode, the chloro- bromo-iodide which apparently remained otherwise un- known until ten years later, when it was more closely inves- tigated by Messrs. Prior and Spencer, who gave it the specific name of iodembolhte.’® It is still searcely known as a mineral distinct from embolite, though it was not uncommon in the shallower levels of the lode. Cerargyrite. The only complete analysis of silver chloride available shode stone’’ from Silverton.” (It might be stated that no lodes likely to shed ‘‘slugs’’ were 74 is that of a slug or known to exist at Silverton, which in 1885 was a general name embracing some of the outlying centres. The exact locality was probably Apollyon Valley.) Min. Mag., Vol. XIII, No. 60, pp. 177-185. 17Ann. Report, Dept. of Mines, New South Wales, 1885, p. 35. MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 253 The analysis is as follows :— Per cent. NpineaenUG ets. cae ve) tee, hey Mem ates oe yes 0.48 Gitoride of silver). ..0.. 0... .. 72.28 Mire OMe Face (ole sale, apie rhe! able) oe 9.70 G@arwomave. Of ION 2.) 2. 52) esl ies se 4,26 AURIS OG a ee ee a eS 2:33 @aroonate of lime ..09..°... «. «. %. 6.40 Carbonate of Magnesia .. ..... .. +. 3.75 WiadeterMINned vslyitsl es ec ars. oe oe , 0.85 100.00 This analysis is unusually interesting by reason of the fact that it shows the presence of iron carbonate together with lime-magnesia carbonates, of which it is suggested that none was lode material, the first because it could not have resisted oxidation and the latter because they were known as inerustations by surface waters and unknown as a part of limonite lodes which had been derived from the oxidation of siderite. The absence of ferric oxide, assum- ing the analysis to be correctly recorded, is alone sufficient to separate this particular slug from others of similar origin, and to place it in a class by itself. If oxide be substituted for carbonate of iron in the above analysis, a slug of more normal type would be indicated. Cerargyrite was generally observed to be compact, embolite being commonly coralloidal. Some of the ‘‘shode stones’’ enclosed within a crust of limonite were in coral- loidal form, resembling the commonest type of embolite of the Broken Hill lode, but they were not determined mineralogically. This fragile mineral could not have sur- vived surface attrition without some protecting material, and nothing of this nature was seen in association with it, or with any of the slugs, except limonite, siliceous or otherwise, in which they had originally been enclosed when im situ. The slugs (‘‘shode stones’’) were found only in 254 G. SMITH. the vicinity of limonite lodes from which they had been shed, particularly in the Apollyon Valley-Purnamoota dis- trict. Many passed through the writer’s hands, all of which were encased, wholly or partly, in this gangue; none was free from it, and carbonate of iron was seen in none. As a lode gangue carbonate of iron is as much an under- water mineral as cerargyrite is a secondary ore which may ‘skirt along the water level without passing below it. The former shows signs of oxidation just above the water level and this increases as the surface 1s approached, the un- altered core becoming ever smaller and the characteristic cleavage less distinct. The waste heaps on mines which produced this mineral -afford evidence of its oxidation when exposed to the atmos- _ phere. The writer has before him pieces of siderite from the Consols and Pioneer (Thackaringa) lodes which have been exposed on the surface of those mines for possibly thirty years or more. The effect of oxidation is shown upon each by its colour, which has been superficially changed from the characteristic fawn of siderite to the dark brown of limonite. It may be gathered from these examples that surface exposure in a dry climate would require a long period to complete the change to the centre, and even then it would be partial only, as the darkened portion is but an early and incomplete stage in the progress of oxidation. The gradation from pure siderite to pure Timonite in all its stages has been carefully noted under- ground from the surface to water level, and it would seem that moist conditions in the lode accelerated the process. ‘The period of time occupied in completing in situ the change from one extreme to the other under conditions that now exist would seem to have been a lengthy one, as specu- lative as that connected with the wearing down of the surface level which resulted in the shedding of the slugs. MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 2558 Iodyrite. * This mineral has been recorded as having occurred in erussite in the Broken Hill lode.’ The writer saw no such association. For some reason for which no explanation is suggested, it was known to impregnate the dry ores only, and in them it occurred in large quantity. It is an inter- esting fact that the iodide was the only silver haloid known to be common to the very dissimilar Broken Hill, Consols and East Consols lodes which were adjacent to, and yet, so far as known, quite distinct from each other. In its mode of occurrence it differed in each mine, but in no in- ‘stance was it seen in association with lead minerals. It was not known to occur in any other lode on the Barrier Field. About 1895 slabs of compact hmonite were obtained from the Proprietary mine, upon which had been deposited the largest and finest crystals of iodyrite seen on the field. These crystals formed irregular lines upon the surface of the limonite and it was noted that they followed cracks in this gangue, which otherwise was free from this or any other material. There was no deviation from the direction taken by the cracks and it seemed reasonable to suppose that the mineralising influence necessary for the precipita- tion of the silver had passed upwards through the openings, and so caused deposition from silver-bearing solutions at. the point of contact. This occurrence was of high scientific and spectacular value; the crystals were pure, perfect and free from the incrustation which covers the best of the prisms of this mineral which were found upon the same gangue in the same mine. These specimens were not exhibited, but were Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Memoirs Geol., No. 5, 1894, po 91, 256 G. SMITH. taken from Australia shortly after their discovery. There was but one such occurrence known. | An interesting example of secondary galena which in its mode of deposition resembles the iodide erystals specially — referred to, 1s on view at the Mining Museum, Sydney. It may indeed have been formed under analogous conditions. Pyromorphite. The massive type of this mineral has already been re- ferred to as a component part of the Broken Hill lode outcrop; in its occurrence with the psilomelane there was an intimate connection not only in their general associa- tion but in the fact that. manganese oxide had penetrated into its small interstices. The under surface pyromorphite was always crystallised and was the most variable mineral found in the lode (nine distinct types have been recorded ).9 Its physical characters varied with depth, a relative term measured by conditions rather than by distance. At the time of its deposition it would be in accord with the conditions prevailing at those points; hence it may be assumed that each variety indicated some variation of those conditions where and when it was deposited. The canary- coloured erystals of the upper portion of the oxidised zone would have seemed out of place in any other matrix than that composed of the friable, semi-decomposed, siliceous cerussite which enclosed them, while the solid mammillated and botryoidal forms of the sulphide association appeared to be appropriately placed in the position in which they were found. Having regard to this great dissimilarity between the highest and lowest varieties, it would appear most improbable that they would have been deposited in the same forms if their relative positions in the lode had been reversed. 194 Contribution to the Mineralogy of New South Wales, 1926, ‘p. 82. r MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 257 | It is, however, not intended to convey that all the pyro- morphite associated with the sulphide ores was of the solid type. A large quantity of small, delicate erystals was found overlying leached sulphides in the Junction mine in 1889, probably the first of this association met with. Depths at which these different varieties occurred were unequal and the surrounding conditions probably differed accordingly. But, whatever the cause of such great variations in form may have been, the sulphide connection was strongly shown upon them; none possessed the characteristics by which those of the upper zone could be identified. It is probable that the various types differed in com- position as in physical characters, though little is known of their chemistry. Tests were made 35-40 years ago, but the results cannot be recalled after such a lapse of time. In quantity, owing to the large occurrences in the out- crop, this mineral ranked as the third, and last, of the great lead-producing minerals of the Broken Hill lode. Zine Ores. The statement that zine has been obtained in New South - Wales from calamine and zincite?? was perhaps due to inadvertence. It is true that calamine was mined in the oxidised zone of the Broken Hill lode, but it was as part of the gangue; it was not treated with the object of obtain- ing that metal. Zinecite is a rare mineral which is not known to occur in New South Wales or indeed in Australia. Mr. Jaquet?! describes the occurrence of calamine as follows: 20The Mineral Industry of New South Wales, 1928, p. 157. 21Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Memoirs Geol., No. 5, 1894, Pp. 59, Q— November 5, 1930. 258 G. SMITH. “On the ceilings of the numerous vughs, which occur all through the oxidised ores, stalactites, either of psilo- melane and limonite, or a combination of these two minerals, occur coated with zinc carbonate, while more rarely large stalactites possessing a columnar structure entirely com- posed of calamine are seen. The amount of zinc distributed through the mass of the oxidised ores is, however, very small, and yet we know it has been derived from highly zinciferous sulphides. A consideration of these circum- stances has led to the suggestion that the zinc carbonate, being more soluble than the other ore constituents, has been leached out from them and reprecipitated in the sulphide ore below, and in this way the intimate association of zinc and lead sulphides has been brought about.” The occurrences so described were unusually interesting ; they differed in the order of introduction and appeared to indicate an unequal adaptability in their mode of deposi- tion. Each mineral had been deposited separately, pro- bably denoting a different phase in regard to time, though it seemed probable that there had been some simultaneous deposition. In their sequence there was no observable variation, limonite being the first to form stalactites (and stalagmites), followed apparently closely by psilomelane, which covered many of the stalactites while they were yet very small. The comparatively few lmonite stalactites which remained free from the covering of psilomelane were very much larger, and it is believed their enlargement was simultaneous with the deposition of psilomelane upon the small ones. Compared with limonite, the quantity of material contained in the psilomelane stalactites was very much greater. In no instance was any deposition of limonite upon psilomelane known. The deposition of psilomelane had apparently been com- pleted before the calamine appeared, as the crystals showed no stains to indicate later deposition of either of the oxides; there was no overlapping or repetition of any of the minerals, MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 259 It was in these particular vughs that the finest crystals of calamine were found; they were more closely connected with the psilomelane, probably because the crystals readily adhered to its hard surfaces rather than to the soft material of the limonite. It would appear that after these three minerals had been deposited, embolite was introduced and precipitated im- partially upon both psilomelane and calamine. In this connection the only instance of mixing was noticed, particles of embolite being enclosed in some crystals of calamine; the entry of the embolite thus appears to have occurred just before the ‘completion of the calamine crystallisation. Stalactites of psilomelane without the minute nucleus of limonite were noted, but they were far less common. The large columnar stalactites, in whatever part of the lode they occurred, had also started their growth upon psilomelane, which invariably enclosed the same _ small limonite stalactite, as could be seen when the stalactites were broken off at their base. These larger deposits of calamine contained no definite crystals, and, though occur- Ting in the form of stalactites (and stalagmites), were not ‘stalactitic in character as the term is generally understood. In the Broken Hill lode it occurred only as definite crystals or crystalline groups; the amorphous type which might have formed true stalactites was unknown. In stalactitie form, calamine was present only as an aggregation of erystalline grains upon pre-existing stalactites of psilome- lane. These grains formed a very rough, uneven, granular surface, very unlike the smooth sides down which solutions pass to dripping points, as may be seen in progress in the formation of limestone, limonite and other stalactites. There were no dripping points of calamine; the psilomelane shad served as a necessary base to build upon, not to drain 260 G. SMITH. from, and once established the deposition of the calamine upon itself obviously continued until the stalactites in-; creased enormously in size, and, in some instances, reached the growing stalagmites and so formed large columns. Consideration of the above would suggest that erystalline structure and stalactitic growth are incompatible; this has also been so noted in other lodes. To describe these occur- rences as stalactites is not strictly correct; they were so in form but not in reality; the calamine was simply an invest- ing mineral upon true stalactites composed of other minerals, and therefore stalactites entirely composed of calamine were not seen as stated. The suggestion to which reference is made in the fore- going quotation emanated from various mine officials and was not the only theory advanced at that period to account for the unexpected excess of zine encountered when the sulphide zone was first exposed.?2, The sulphide ore was then untreatable on a payable basis, and it was hoped by some, though doubted by others, that beneath the masses of the friable, refractory, zinciferous mixture which had been developed, a cleaner lead sulphide would be found that would ensure the success of future mining operations. In the writer’s opinion, viewing the above suggestion from the lode conditions at its early date, the hmited occur- rence of zine carbonate could, with greater reason, have been attributed to the fact that the oxidation of zine sulphide results in the soluble sulphate, which would be earried away by circulating waters. As a matter of fact, at that date (1892) the mine water contained, as it does to-day, a notable quantity of zine sulphate. As seen im situ the zine carbonate bore no evidence of the leaching action. The many beautiful examples of this 22C. W. Marsh, Trans. Aust. Inst. Mg. Engrs., 1894, pp. 56-65. MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 261 mineral exhibited in our museums show that it existed in unblemished condition. The only lead-zine association developed in 1892 was the porous, friable type, which overlaid the massive unaltered ores then unexplored and practically unknown. The former class of ore had been prospected, however, some years earlier, aS an accumulation, estimated at 5000 tons, was sampled underground in the Block 14 Mine by the writer in 1888. This proved to be unsuitable and unprofit- ‘able for direct smelting, the only method of treatment known at that time. There was no indication that the zine present in this ore was the result of secondary deposition due to leaching from above; it was obviously a body of ore representative of the lowest portion of the lode, show- ing appreciably the effects of alteration due to surface causes. The zine sulphide was as much an integral part of this altered primary ore as the galena with which it was associated. That it might be primary ore in an altered condition indicative of what was below was apparently overlooked, as was the fact that, when the oxidised ores of lead and zine occur together in any such deposit, the same association might be expected to be encountered when the unaltered sulphide zone is entered. Cobalt Minerals. The presence of cobalt bloom and smaltite has been recorded as having occurred in the Consols lode.?3 #4 Both were met with in small quantity. By far the most.import- ant cobalt mineral present was cobaltite, which was found plentifully in this lode at various periods from 1890-1898. Some of the deposits were of considerable economic value, owing to their high silver content.?5 23Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Memoirs Geol., No. 5, 1894, m. 123. 24The Mineral Industry of New South Wales, 1928, p. 144. 28A Contribution to the Mineralogy of N.S.W., 1926, p. 21. 262 G. SMITH. Corrections of previous Publication. Opportunity is here taken to make the following adjust- ments in a previous paper by the writer, ‘‘A Contributiom to the Mineralogy of N.S.W.,’’ Mineral Resources, No. 34, published by the Department of Mines, New South Wales,. in 1926. P, 24, par. 2. The pseudomorphs referred to were of chloro-antimoniate of silver after dyscrasite. P. 25, par. 7. For ‘‘tetrahedrite’’ read ‘‘stromeyerite.’” P. 118, line 2. After ‘‘The ore’’ read ‘‘below 300 feet.’” P. 119, par. 1. After ‘‘sulphate’’ read ‘‘of magnesia.’” P, 114. Reference was made to the impregnating char- acter of silver chloride. It might be appropriate to describe herein its significance in relation to mining operations. Among the many smaller mines with which the writer was more or less connected (100 or more) upon the Barrier Field, there were many varieties of ore bodies the com- position of which differed and values fluctuated consider- ably, but few were extensive or rich enough to maintain the expense of a trained staff, or, as the richer shallow ores were depleted, could bear the cost of continual assay fees. As the lead deposits became better understood the value of their respective, and on the whole, dissimilar, ores, could be judged fairly accurately, but it was quite a differ- ent matter to estimate at sight the probable value of an argentiferous gangue, the silver minerals of which might, and generally did, show through it in occasional patches: only. The owners of these mines were, however, not slow to perceive that in lodes containing silver chloride (and these formed by far the greatest number) it was possible to become expert in recognising by the merest traces those parts of the lode which were permeated with this mineral MINERALOGY OF SILVER-LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS. 263 in payable quantity, even though it might not always be visible, and estimating the silver value of the whole. A large number of parcels of this class of ore purchased by the writer were never sampled and assayed until the sale was effected, but it was seldom indeed that a marked differ- ence existed between the assay and the owner’s estimate. It would be difficult to over-estimate the advantage which the ability to discriminate between payable and unpayable ore at sight afforded those operating these mines. No other mineral was known to impregnate its gangue in this manner. Iodide of silver did not occur in the mines just referred to, but, as it was so intimately associated in such large quantity with the dry ores of the Broken Hill lode, it is possible its impregnating characteristics are similar to those of the chloride. It is not suggested that it is unusual to find silver minerals in matrix which, without impregnation, is not silver bearing; limonite is a common type of such occur- rences. Mention might be made of mines on the Barrier Field in which the ore consisted solely of micaceous schist impregnated with silver chloride. The writer’s assays of this rock ranged to upwards of 100 oz. per ton. The silver eontained in hmonite can generally be traced to its source, but he is unable to suggest what may have been the source of the silver chloride in the schist. The question of im- pregnation has, perhaps, been dealt with too fully. It is, however, a subject of much importance, both from a mineralogical and an economic point of view. Its full significance ean be fully realised only by those who have found it necessary to classify silver ores according to their value with no other assistance than a knowledge of mineral impregnation and association to guide them. 264 A. R. PENFOLD. THE ESSENTIAL OILS OF THREE SPECIES OF GEIJERA AND THE OCCURRENCE OF A NEW HYDROCARBON. Part 1. By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.L, 2.8: Curator and Economic Chemist, Sydney Technological Museum. (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 3, 1930.) The investigation of these essential oils was undertaken on the suggestion of Dr. T. L. Bancroft, Hidsvold, Queensland, who kindly supplied most of the Queensland material examined. GEIJERA PARVIFLORA (Lindley). The botanical characters of this small Rutaceous tree are described in Bentham’s ‘‘Flora Australiensis,’’ Volume 1, page 364. Perhaps the best botanical description of this most interesting tree is given in Maiden’s ‘‘Forest Flora of New South Wales,’’ Volume 7, pages 159-165. It is known under the common name of ‘‘ Wilga,’’ and sometimes for very obvious reasons as the Austrahan Willow. It was first observed by Lt.-Colonel Sir Thomas L. Mitchell, Kt. D.C.L., near the Narran River in 1846, and the original reference written on page 102 of his ‘‘ Journal oP) of Tropical Australia’’ reads as follows, viz. :— “We there met (on the banks of the Narran River, say, in latitude 29°) a new species of the rare and little known genus Geijera, forming a strongly scented shrub, about 10 ft. high, ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 265 having long narrow drooping leaves. Its fruit had a weak peppery taste.” Dr. T. L. Baneroft, of Eidsvold, Queensland, who is so well acquainted with the tree as it occurs in Queensland, supphes the following description, viz. :— “The largest size stem of this small tree or shrub would be about 1 ft. in diameter—tree 25 ft. in height—much branched. “The usual size is about 10 ft. in height and very bushy— many hranches coming off a foot or two from the ground.” Gewera parviflora is one of the best shade trees in’ the Western district of New South Wales, and stands drought conditions better than any other. It is an extremely hand- some tree, with dense spreading pendulous foliage which practically touches the ground. The tree is widely distribu- ted, occurring in all the States of the Commonwealth, except ‘Tasmania. It is abundant in the North, North-West and ‘Western portions of New South Wales, and occurs at Eidsvold, Dalby, Rockhampton, and Mundubbera, all in Queensland. It is remarkable that such an important and valuable tree should not have been previously examined for its essential oil. There has been much conflicting evidence published re- garding the value of the ‘‘Wilga’’ as a fodder tree. Apparently it is relished by sheep in some districts, whilst in others the leaves are only eaten during periods of drought, when other feed is scarce. It is quite a common sight in Western New South Wales to observe trees which have been kept trimmed by stock. Many samples of leaves have been submitted from time to time to certain Government Departments, notably the Department of Agriculture and the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Proximate analysis by the Agricultural Chemist 266 A. R. PENFOLD. revealed practically no differences (see Maiden’s ‘‘ Forest Flora’’ referred to above). It was thought that careful analyses of the essential oils: might reveal some difference, but up to date none has been observed. The essential oil found in the leaves to the extent of 0.5%. and consisting largely of terpenes, does not seem to point to the leaves being of value as a fodder, and I am inclined’ to agree with the late J. H. Maiden, F.R.S., when he stated. (loc. cit.) page 161 :— “T suggest that the truth of the matter is that sheep object to the pungent taste of Wilga at first, but when they get: used to it they eat it ravenously, if grass and herbs are: scarce.” ! The Experiment Farm of the Department of Agriculture: at Nyngan, New South Wales, very kindly furnished. supplies of leaves of ‘‘ Wilga’’ marked ‘‘readily eaten by stock’’ and ‘‘not readily eaten by stock’’ respectively. A perusal of the table furnishing the chemical and physical characters of the various essential oils as well as: their detailed examination on page 13 shows little difference,, with the exception that the terpenes from the lot marked. ‘readily eaten by stock’’ were highly fluorescent. It is evident, therefore, that any differences must be: sought for in the other chemical constituents of the leaves.. It is not unlikely that glucosidal or other complex con-- stituents present in small quantities may exert some influence in the selection of certain trees by stock. It was at first thought that two different varieties were: involved, but the botanists, including Mr. E. Cheel, Curator of the National Herbarium, Sydney, who examined the material failed to detect any morphological differences. A. friend who had spent much time on western stations, ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 267 mentioned that certain field differences could be detected, one particular type having a tall upright appearance, whereas another form possessed a willowy or drooping appearance. This observation is worthy of record. Supphes of leaves from each form were kindly furnished by Wonbobbie Station, Warren, but the differences in the yield and composition of the respective essential oils as: shown in the table, are not considered sufficiently great to warrant the differentiation of the two trees. The essential oils obtained from the New South Wales. and Queensland leaves presented remarkable physical and. chemical differences. Most of the collections made in different parts of New South Wales yielded oils of fairly uniform composition. They were without exception, all of a bright yellow colour, quite mobile, and possessed a very pleasant but characteristic terpenic odour. They con- tained pinene and camphene to the extent of 80%. On the other hand, the oils obtained from the Eidsvold, Queensland, material varied from a dark green to deep blue in colour, according to the amount of azulene present.. They were more viscous and possessed a very sickly odour of linalool and a new hydrocarbon, modified by the sesquiterpene and possibly some unidentified odoriferous constituents. The diversity in chemical composition is very marked and quite remarkable. The botanists up to the present time have been unable to — separate the New South Wales and Queensland material on morphological evidence. As the species was first deseribed from Queensland the writer is compelled to accept the tree in this State as. representing the Type, and to view the New South Wales one as a variety under the term of variety ‘‘A.’’ I would have preferred the alternative course on account of the 268 A. R. PENFOLD. apparent greater stability of the New South Wales tree judged by the constancy of composition of the essential oils. THE ESsENTIAL OILS. Geijera parviflora, variety “A” (New South Wales). Altogether a total of 2819 lbs. weight of leaves and ter- minal branchlets was collected from trees growing in vari- ous parts of New South Wales. On distillation with steam, pale straw to yellow coloured mobile oils, of pleasant and characteristic terpenic odour, were obtained in an average yield of 0.84%. The principal constituents so far identified were found to be d-a-pinene, camphene, limonene and dipentene (80%), cineol, sesquiterpenes and phloracetophenone dimethyl ether. Expermmental. The many consignments of leaves and terminal branch- lets collected in New South Wales were subjected to distilla- tion with steam, and yielded crude oils possessing the chemical and physical characters shown in accompanying Table No. 1:— 1% ‘deays Aq uozee ATIpeot Jou WI0T| G'PZ 9°V ‘Op 8GLP'T o6 6F'+ | S9L8°0 ‘deoys Aq uezeo wiog| SPT ST ‘op 96LV'T | GL°8F+ | 76980 ‘deoys Aq uazeo A[Ipeert Jou uULIoOg = aa “op TdLyV'T | .GL’8h+ | 8898°0 ‘deeys Aq uejeo wioOg ina —s ‘op 9GLV'T | GLOr+ | L980 T'&6 9°S ‘op OSLP'T | .G8°0G:+ | 9EL8°0 L°06 ov “op 9087'T 08°66:+ | VE88°0 *(ULIOF sutdaaMm) ‘op| greg aay, ‘op OPLT'T 06 GV + | 9L98°0 *(WI0F 4Yd11dn) UdTIe M ‘U01984S sIqqoquoM WoT | SPs | sg ‘op VLLV'T 0807 + | V6L8°0 GGG 9'v ‘Op SELV'T of 97 + | €SL8°0 90€ | GT “Op SVLy't 09 Gb + | 69L8°0 “S[OA OT 68h GGT "[OsUT 9887'T 08'Gat | 67680 ‘yoyedsop IoJ poyord ysay uoYyM “Sd, 0O0T | 0°08 6°9 SPLOE | cply 1 oG ov + | GLL8°0 LS ater | ‘des yoy | *lOYOOLV a a Gc] “SyYIe WY Ia}jye ‘say YT %08 Ul Pts 02” G1 2 ‘ON Joysa| ON 1998) AITIqnToS 4 Fi cc V5, APotae A ‘(SeTeMA YJNOG MON) VUoTaIANVa VUaLIAD %$'0 L8 ‘Op ‘op %GS'0 8h “Op ‘Op %EG'0 | ¥6 “Op 8261/G/V6 %WGPp'0 L ‘uBdudN Wie dx ‘asy Jo “Ideq | gz6t/e/p | %L6'0 GOT ‘oyey) uRsog ‘OWO S107 | gzgT/g/92 %L1'0 | st “TIqeate N ‘0YO 489104 ‘op %LT0 | G8 ‘op ‘op %TS'0 86 “oqqnd ‘OOO 382404 | 9461 /8/4s %88'0 PLE pte OOS ; OVUM “IT “H VC6I/L/9% %6S'0 | 918 ‘uesuds “OD 3 Yool[poom VG61/8/TS %86'0 GIL “TAQGVILEN "1048910 FOLTISIG| ZG /O1/8 %G"0 oVh ‘uBsUusN “SqI | “OD 2 Yoo[poo MA Sc61T/01/&E lO “SaAvaT [VIIa EY, JO PPIA ars A Jo ad1nog ay TON AIGVL 270 A. R. PENFOLD. 400 ec. erude oil from first consignment received 8/10/1923 and distilled at 20 mm. and 755 mm. yielded the following fractions, viz. :— No. Boiling Point. Volume. ad = a nem 1 156-158° (755 mm.) 45cce. 0.8634 +5475. 1.4676 2 158-159° ( — ) 76 ce. 0.86384 +-54.6° 1.4683 3. 159-160°" (, ==") ) 59ec. 0.8680 +52.95° © 1.4684 A 2160+165° ( = >) 82 cc. 0.8617 + 48.4° 1.4686 5 165-170° ( — ) 35 cc. 0.8611 +38.8° 1.4695 6 171-177° ( — ) 20 ce. 0.8640 wary AS 1.4708 Tf 70-100° ( 10 mm.) TAvec. 0.8975 +18.6° 1.4773 8 100-121° ( 10 mm.) 13 ces 0.9262 +10.25° 1.4905 9 121-1438° ( 10 mm.) 34ece. 0.9518 L185 1.0072 Determination of Principal Terpenes. It was found best to wash the crude oils with 8% sodium hydroxide solution to remove alkali soluble bodies, using 1 litre lots of oil at a time, and to subject them to steam distillation, so as to approximately separate the terpenes from the sesquiterpenes. Every consignment was similarly treated, and the individual distillates examined. For the purpose of this paper, however, only the best average set of figures is recorded. The terpenes were repeatedly dis- tilled over metallic sodium at 20 mm., and finally through a 12 dise column at 764 mm. .d-a-pinene. It was found that a considerable portion of the terpene fractions distilled at 156-157° and appeared to consist largely of d-a-pinene. The optical rotation and refractive index were much higher than is usually observed with d-a-pinene of undoubted purity, and consequently the author believed he had isolated a highly rotatory pinene. The physical characters of various samples provided evi- dence in support of this impression, viz. :— a ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 271 B.Pt. 15° 20° 20° Date. 760-764 mm. dx ay ny 3/10/23 156-157° 0.8641 +:56.4° 1.4686 31/3/'24 155-157° 0.8655 +:59.5° 1.4681 26/7/24 155-157° 0.8655 +61.75° 1.4681 26/8/'26 155-157° 0.8634 + 58.5° 1.4685 The oxidation of these fractions with potassium perman- ganate and the preparation of the respective hydrochlorides and hydrobromides yielded products in every instance similar to those obtained with authentic specimens of d-a-pinene. For example: 58 ce. of d-a-pinene (d@2, 0.8639, ai” — 43° m* 1.4661) were oxidised with potassium perman- ganate (see this Journal, Vol. LVI. (1922), 56, 195), and yielded 26 gers. of liquid pinoniec acid of B. Pt. 175-185° (5 mm.). An equal volume of terpene from Geijera parvl- flora (d 33° 0.8635, af” +59, ni" 1.4687), yielded 18 grs. of liquid pinonic acid of B. Pt. 175-185° (3 mm.). Similarly the hydration of 35 ec. by Bertram and Walbaum’s Method (See ‘‘The Volatile Oils’’ of Gildemeister and Hoffmann, Vol. I, page 305), of the second terpene yielded 14 gers. erude isoborneol (melting point after purification 212°), and an equivalent volume of the first terpene gave 12 ers. of both liquid and solid alcohols, from which borneol of melting point 204° was separated. The various fractions ef boiling point 155-157° were all oxidised with potassium permanganate, and the liquid pinonie acid separated there- from was allowed to stand in the ice chest for a period of about 6 months. Crystals then began to form, and these were separated and purified from petroleum ether (B. Pt. 90-60"), when they were found to melt at 69-70°. 0.9910 grams in 10 ce. chloroform gave a polarimeter Yeading of +9° [a)5” = +-90.82°. The confirmation of the identity of this acid with pinonic acid was obtained by the preparation of the semicarbazone a : 202 A. R. PENFOLD. which melted at 207°. The terpene yielded a nitrolbenzyla- mine melting at 122-123°. Preparations of the Hydrochloride. The hydrochlorides of the various fractions distilling between 155-157° were prepared in the usual way by pass- ing dry hydrochloric acid gas through them at a tempera- ture of — 20°. The following preparations are of interest, on account of the variation in specific rotation, viz. :— 1. Melting point 130-131°. 0.3966 gram in 10 ee. ethyl alcohol gave a reading of O40 eligi 10. 2. Melting point 131-132”. 0.4430 gram in 10 ce. ethyl alcohol gave a reading of O40? ele) 203 : 3. Melting point 131-1382°. 1.2130 gram in 10 ee. ethyl aleohol gave a reading Oe 09 walla erent 4, Melting point 130-131°. | 0.8905 gram in 10 ec. ethyl alcohol gave a reading Of 21 35°s (a) oe le Preparation of Hydrobromide. Fractions of terpenes possessing the undermentioned physical characters, were taken from the preparation of this derivative, which was prepared in a similar manner to the hydrochloride, viz. :-— B.Pt. 152 e © Gea de a ny 155-157° 0.8658 +60.3° 1.4687 157-158° 0.8663 462° 1.4693 158-159° 0.8660 + 62° 1.4697 In every instance the hydrobromide after recrystallisation from ethyl alcohol melted at 98-99°. 0.1888 gram in 10 ee. ethyl alcohol gave a reading of +4.7°; a” 4+24.9°. ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 273 Determination of Camphene. In order to determine if the highly dextro-rotatory pinene was a separate entity or a mixture of terpenes, a more vigorous fractional distillation of the terpene fraction from the oil obtained in March, 1924, was carried out in August, 1929. The following well defined fractions were obtained, V1Z. -— B.Pt. 15° 20° g 764 mm. Volume ais aD ny 130-155° PEs CC. 0.8632 + O20" 1.4683 155-156° 154 cee. 0.8640 + 63.5° 1.4686: 1563-1573° 583 ce. 0.8646 +64.75° 1.4691 2574-158" Al ce. 0.8655 + 65.1° 1.4700: 1583-159° 10 ce. 0.8636 +64.25° 1.4703 159-160° 12 ee: 0.8628 102.4 1.4708. 161-163° 12 ce. 0.8614 tienen ATL Oxidation with alkaline Potassium Permanganate. All fractions were separately treated under the follow- ing conditions, viz. :— 10 ec. of terpene were treated with 24 grs. potassium permanganate, 1200 ec. iced water, 200 ers. ice and 10 ee. 29% solution sodium hydroxide. After oxidation was com- pleted the solid acid was isolated by a similar procedure to that adopted in the isolation of nopinie acid from the oxidation of 8-pinene. The acid obtained in excellent yield from the fraction of B, Pt. 157-158° on reerystallisation from acetone melted at 142°. This acid was obtained from ail fractions, includ- ing both the first and last, the yield diminishing with the increase in boiling point of fractions above 159°. 0.2950 gram of acid dissolved in alcohol required 5.8 cc. * KOH solution for neutralisation. Molecular weight = 202. (C,.H,.O, has a molecular weight of 200.) The acid was, therefore, identified as camphene camphoric acid (see ‘‘The R—December 3, 1930. 274 A. R. PENFOLD. Volatile Oils’’ of Gildemeister and Hoffmann, Vol. I, page — 304). For comparative purposes a mixture was made of Schimmel’s Camphene (M. Pt. 51°) 60% and d-a-pinene 40%, and subjected to oxidation under similar conditions. The camphene camphoric acid isolated melted at 135-136° (loc. cit). Hydration of Fractions 1564-1574 and 1574-158°. 50 ce. of the mixed fractions on treatment with Bertram and Walbaum’s Method (see Gildemeister and Hoffman, ““The Volatile Oils,’’ Vol. I., page 305), yielded 20 ers. isoborneol which on recrystallisation from petroleum ether (B. Pt. 32-50°) melted at 212°. These results are recorded in considerable detail, so that other investigators may not be subjected to the unnecessary labour involved in deciding if a terpene fraction of the physical characters observed is a separate entity or a mixture of d-a-pinene and camphene. The writer is not ashamed to admit that a delay of six years in the publica- tion of these results was occasioned through the difficulty of deciding if the principal terpene was a separate entity or a mixture of two. The evidence submitted in the first part of this account is certainly conflicting. It can, there- fore, be taken as a reliable criterion that a terpene fraction possessing the physical characters mentioned is d-a-pinene in admixture with camphene, especially if a good yield of isoborneol is obtained on hydration. After completion of this work the author observed the following extract in ‘‘Chemical Abstracts,’’ Vol. 23, No. 16, 20th August, 1929, viz. :— “Hydration of pinene by Bertram and Walbaum’s method. Yasuji Fujita J. Chem. Soc., Japan., F. obtained borneol and isoborneol from pure pinene by applying W. & B. ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 275 vhydration method. He concludes: “This shows that to prove the existence of camphene by the hydration method great are must be used.” Abundant evidence in support thereof is provided in this paper. It is highly probable that many investigators have over- looked the occurrence of camphene in some essential oils. Dr. J. L. Simonsen a number of years ago directed my at- tention to the high optical rotation of d-a-pinene from the essential oil of Doryphora sassafras (see this Journal, Vol. LY. (1921), page 273). There is now no doubt that cam- phene was present in considerable quantity in the fraction of B. Pt. 157-158° di 0.8679, an” +64.53°, n2” 1.4688. Similarly the fraction of B. Pt. 157-158° possessing an optical rotation of +61.7° isolated by Miss M. E. Scott from the Essential Oil of the leaves of Atherosperma moschatum (J.C.S. Vol. 101 (1912), page 1612), must have contained much camphene. Determination of Limonene and Dipentene. Fraction No. 5 on saturation with water was dissolved in four times its volume of glacial acetic acid, and treated with bromine at —20°. On standing overnight in the ice chest erystals separated, which, on isolation, drying and re- erystallisation from ethyl acetate melted at 119-120°. The fractions of terpene distilling between 165° and 177° obtained in the course of examination of subsequent con- _ signments of oil were examined for limonene and dipentene. They were found to be accompanied by small amounts of ¢ineol which were removed by means of 50% resorein solu- tion. The terpenes were then redistilled over metallic sodium at 750 mm., when the following fractions from two different lots were obtained, viz. :— 276 A. R. PENFOLD. Boiling 15° 202 208 No. Point ais ay ny 1 170-175° 0.8549 +37.8° 1.4742 2 173-177° 0.8509 + 48° 1.4735. . No. 1 fraction yielded a bromide of melting point 122- 123°, whilst that from No. 2 melted at 123-124°. These results are evidence of the presence of limonene and dipentene. Determination of Cineol. The resorcin washings from the terpenes distilling be- tween 165-177° were subjected to steam distillation, when very small quantities of a water white liquid of charac- teristic camphoraceous odour were obtained. This liquid distilled at 174-176°, and yielded the characteristic Todol derivative of melting point 112-113°. Determination of Sesquiterpenes. The high boiling portions of the two earliest consign- ments were redistilled many times over metallic sodium,. when the following final fractions were obtained, viz. :— From Consignment 31/3/’24. Boiling 15? 208 202 Point Volume d 15 bad My, 118-123° (10 mm.) 19 ce. 0.9129 +8.6° 1.4900 123-128° (10 mm.) 17 ce. 0.9204 +10.25° 1.5025 From Consignment 26/8/’26. Boiling 15° 20° 20° Point Volume ds eS ny 80-116° (5 mm.) 5 ce. 0.9087 +13° 1.4895 116-130° (5 mm.) a Ce: 0.9243 +-18° 1.5044 131-135° (5 mm.) 14 ce. 0.9363 +23.2° 1.5075 The quantities available did not permit of the sesquiter- penes being prepared in a condition of great purity. They ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. OTT were, therefore, not very closely examined. All fractions gave the usual colour reactions for sesquiterpenes, with bromine vapour when dissolved in acetic acid, and with sulphuric acid in acetic anhydride solution. No crystalline derivatives with hydrochloric acid gas could be prepared. The sesquiterpenes present in these oils are apparently of an interesting character, and worthy of further investiga- tion. It was noticed that repeated fractional distillation of the crude oils, even at 10 mm., resulted in increasing amounts of polymerised residue, probably resulting from the sesquiterpenes. That the residue was of a polymerised nature was proved by a molecular weight determination made by the boiling point method, viz. :— 1.3220 gram in 22 ec. acetone elevated the boiling point | 0.3°. Molecular weight = 444. Determination of Phloracetophenone Dimethyl Ether. The crude oils distilled from the New South Wales leaves on treatment with 8% sodium hydroxide solution yielded from 0.8 to 1.5% of a white crystalline phenolic constituent soluble in the ordinary organic solvents, except petroleum ether of B. Pt. 32-50°, in which it was insoluble. Methyl Alcohol was found to be the best solvent for recrystallisation from which it was obtained in the form of white crystals of melting point 82-83°. This substance which gave a purple red colouration with ferric chloride in alcoholic solution was recognised as being probably identical with the ether isolated from the essential oil of Blumea balsamtfera by R. Jonas (see Report of Schimmel ~& Co., April, 1909, page 150). Its identity was confirmed by the following combustion determinations and the pre- paration of well defined derivatives, viz. :— 278 A. R. PENFOLD. 1. 0.1050 gram on combustion gave— 0.2339 gram CO, and 0.0574 gr. H,0. C = 60.75% H = 6.03% 2. 0.1074 gram gave 0.2412 gram CO, and 0.0572 gram H,0. C = 61.25% H = 3.92% CioHi204 requires C = 61.22% H = 6 6:00% A. determination of Methoxyl groups by Ziesel’s Method gave the following result, viz. :— 0.3011 gram substance gave 0.6790 gram silver iodide = 29, 74% (OC HMe Ci9H,.0, requires (OCH;), = 31% The preparation of the oxime of M. Pt. 108-110°, acetyl. compound, 107-108°, and monobromide, 188-189°, provided conclusive evidence of the identity of this substance with. phloracetophenone dimethyl ether. Essential Owls from leaves forwarded by Nyngan Expervment Farm, 24/5/’28. No. 1 Lot (readily eaten by stock). | 84 ce. crude oil distilled at 20 mm. Ist drops 56°. ane 15° 202 20? Boiling Pt. Volume. d a ay n, 60-64° (20 mm.) 72 ce. 0.8614 =+-§a.0" 1.4693 (highly fluorescent) 64 (20)-115 (10 mm.) 3 ce. 116-140 (10 mm.) 6 cc. No. 2 Lot (not readily eaten by stock). 100 ee. distilled at 20 mm. ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 279 Boiling Pt. Volume. d i a nee 60-65 (20 mm.) 80 ce. 0.8619 SRG 1.4694 (not fluorescent) 65 (20)-120 (10 mm.) 2 ce. 120 (10)-150 (10mm.) = 18ce. Small quantities of paraffin were detected in the still residues. Geijera parviflora from Queensland. Essential Oils from leaves and terminal branchlets supplied by Dr. T. L. Bancroft, Erdsvold, Queensland. Large supplies of air dried leaves totalling 1496 lbs. received from this locality yielded on distillation with steam essential oils varying in yield from 0.6 to 1.18%. The leaves in every instance were air dried, the moisture. content varying from 10 to 15%. The oils were somewhat viscous, and varied in colour from a dark green to a deep blue, indicative of the presence of azulene. They possessed a very sickly and distinctly unpleasant odour. The principal constituents, which have so far been iden- tified, are linalool and a new hydrocarbon, probably C1,His (B. Pt. 198-199° at 774 mm.) constituting about 50% of the oil; the remainder being unidentified sesquiterpenes, to- gether with small amounts of azulene, caprylic acid, etc. The oils obtained from material supplied from Rockhampton contained linalool and the new hydrocarbon, as well as a considerable quantity of phloracetophenone dimethyl ether, whilst those from Dalby contained d-a-pinene, d-camphene and sesquiterpenes. Experimental. The crude oils obtained from the various consignments by distillation with steam were found to possess the chemi- eal and physical characters summarised in accompanying table No. 2. ‘mMojoo on[q -ystueeis Jo [10| T'26 | GP *INO0][O9 uoeis @AT[O Jo TIO) og | LTT ‘Ino[Od AOT[oA “-ystumorg JO [IO] T'7G | Se *INno[Oo useid Yep JO [IO] GTIl| 0°6 ‘InO[Oo enjq yrep JO [1O} pos | TST ‘op Od) GIL | ov ‘Ino[oo enjq -ystuee1s Jo. [IO] 6:06 | FL ‘yued sod ZOL SeAve] polap -II@ jo 4uejU0I oINJSIOT. ‘“ANO[OD onjq 4yxep Jo TO} O'SOT| OT ‘uoryel |. sun [HY nab ‘ON Joqsy N 7998 a ‘S[OA OT a,qnjos AT[BIWAV ‘op ‘op ‘op ‘op “SIOA OT ‘a[qnjosu] "SOA OT a[qnyjos A[1evaN s[oa TT prqiny ATWYSIS ‘Oqooy %08 ul AYTTIQNIOS ‘(QNVISNEANY) VAOWIAYVd VAALIAL) 6T0S'T 0009°T Ovér'T veto t OPO T| “AZVP COL S00s'T S66P'T L86P°T| Atep COL da 006 u ‘O ‘PIOASPIA ob SST6°0| W8I'T | “SAL 09 |“GFostouRg "TL, “4q| O€61/F/86 oS Ti+ | 6260) %F'0| ‘S4 FLOT "op “op 666T/0T/TE (Aqreq) oV9L+ | 8806°0; %LF'0 | “S41 FE8 oP 8361/6/§ *(uoydweyxo0y ) BIIAIBS 4Se10,q “ytUp COOL | GZc6'0| %O'T | “S41 #7 pue[susen® 8361 /8/FS 6616°0; %F°0 | “SOI 06 ‘op “op SG61/0T/92 09 — 0L06°0| %rL'0 | “S41 Tae ‘Oop “op S66T/L/66 op 6ST6'0| %69°0 | “S41 968 ‘op “op V26T/E/LT "® ‘PIOASpIA T8T6'°0| %99'°0 | “SOL 6TS|“9JortouRg "TJ °7, “Aq |8Z6T/2/FT (patap-a1e) d 9 st 110 “sAuaT] *[Bl19} e] aye 0036 of LT P JO PIPtA jo yo aaan0og d 4319 M "6 ON ATAVEL ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 281 775 ee. erude oil obtained from material supplied by Dr. 'T. L. Baneroft. 29/7/1925, were treated with 8% sodium hydroxide solution for removal of free acid and phenols, and subjected to distillation at 10 mm. with the following result, viz. :— Ist drops at 78° (10 mm.). ‘No. Boiling Point. | Volume. diz nr il 1 78-86° (10 mm.) 296 c.c. (0.8807 —3.75° 1.4883 2 86-90° (10 mm.) 85 cc. 0.8879 — 2.9° 1.4934 3 90-99° (10 mm.) 94 cc. 0.8983 —2.85° 1.5018 4 100-118° (10 mm.) 50 c.c. 0.9100 —§,.4° 1.5052 ‘5 1183-127° (10 mm.) 80 cc. 0.9207 toodark 1.5026 6 ( 127° (10 up to (142° (5 mm.) 123 c.c. 0.9449 Blue coloured 1.5034 IT residue (Viscous). 45 ¢@.¢. — — Determination of the Hydrocarbon. The first fraction measuring 296 ec. was repeatedly treated with 50% resorcin solution to remove oxygenated bodies until no appreciable diminution in volume could be detected. The terpene portion was separated and repeatedly distilled over metallic sodium at 20 mm., when the follow- ing fractions were obtained, viz. :— Boiling Point. Volume. ad a ae nr 91-92° (20 mm.) 66 cc. 0.8773 +0.3° 1.4904 923-943° (20 mm.) 55 ce. 0.8802 =E0;° 1.4915 942-97° (20 mm.) AT ce. 0.8835 S07 1.4923 These results showed conclusively that a mixture of bodies was present, and the fractions were therefore again redistilled over metallic sodium at 767 mm. until the prin- cipal hydrocarbon appeared to be obtained in a reasonably pure condition. It distilled unchanged at 198-199° (774 mm.) and pos- sessed the following physical constants, viz. :— d= 0.8788 a?* =0° nh” 1.4914. 282 A. R. PENFOLD. A second lot of the terpene was prepared from the last consignment of oil (28/4/’30) as recently as August, 1930, with a view to the determination of its constitution. The sample possessed the following physical constants, viz. :— Boiling Point 92-94° (20 mm.), 22 0.8776 a” +0° n®” 1.4910. Ahews gram on combustion gave 0.3138 gram CO, and. 0.1056 gram. H,O. C = 87.67% Hi =. 11.9096 Molecular refraction, 49.7. Caleulated for C,,Hy, (two: double bonds), 49.83. A molecular weight determination by the Boiling Point method gave the following results, viz. :— 0.9116 gram in 23 ce. acetone raised the Boiling Point. 0.6° Molecular weight = 146. A molecular weight determination by the Freezing Point method gave the following result, viz. :— 0.2328 gram in 10 gers. benzene depressed the freezing: point 0.72°. Molecular weight 160. C,,H,, requires 150. Unfortunately, no crystalline derivative such as bromide,. hydrochloride, nitrosochloride, nitrosite or hydration product typical of terpenes could be prepared. The oxida- tion with potassium permanganate under varied conditions. has up to the present given unsatisfactory results. The same remarks apply to the attempts to reduce the hydro- carbon. The combustion and molecular weight results, together with the physical constants, point to the hydrocarbon. having a molecular formula of either C,,H ig or C 2H. ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 283: The author is unable to trace the record of any similar constituent having been isolated from an essential oil. The author refrains from proposing a name pending the result of its investigation with Professor J. L. Simonsen now in progress. | Determination of Linalool. The resorcin solutions from the treatment of the fractions distilling between 78-86° at 10 mm., by the use of which the terpene was separated from the oxygenated bodies, were subjected to steam distillation. The following prepara- tion of crude linalool resulted, viz. :— 14/2/23 17/8/’24 29/7/25 Volume. 30. ee. 48 ec. 56 ee. Boiling Point (10 mm.) .. 85-87° 85-87° 844-864° Specame eravity 15/15 .. .. 0.8702 . 0.8732 0.8709 Wotical rotation ¥. 9). 2.6. (-— 12° = 13.52° =12.35° Refractive Index 20° .. .. 1.4637 1.4670 1.4674 The identity of this sleohol with linalool was readily obtained by the preparation of the phenylurethane and a-napthylurethane which melted respectively at 65-66° and 53°. Fractions Nos. 2 and 3 were found to consist mainly of mixtures of the terpene and linalool in varying proportions. Determination of Azulene. The high boiling fraction in lot of oil, 17/3/1924, of dark blue colour, was dissolved in petroleum ether and syrupy - phosphoric acid added. The Azulene compound was Separated, decomposed with water, and the liberated hydro- carbon extracted with ether. The picrate prepared there- 284 A. R. PENFOLD. from melted at 111-115°. It appeared to be identical with chamazulene. (See Ruzicka and Rudolph, Helv. Chem. Acta; 1926,.9, 118.) Determination of Sesquiterpenes. The high boiling fractions after treatment with phos- phoric acid for the removal of azulene were considered ot doubtful use for the purpose of identifying the sesquiter-. penes, owing to the possibility of alteration. Therefore, another lot of oil was distilled, and the blue and green coloured fractions containing azulene were used for the isolation of the sesquiterpenes. The 6th fraction, 29/7/1925, of dark blue colour, was repeatedly distilled over metallic sodium until a distillate of fairly constant boiling point measuring 92 ec. was obtained. It was of a bright yellow colour, and possessed the fol- lowing physical characters, viz. :— Boiling Point 125-132° (10 mm.) d)*° 0.9187 a®* — 11° ne” 1.4994. } This liquid was again subjected to repeated fractional distillation over metallic sodium, when the following fractions resulted, viz. :— Boiling Point. Volume. di an” nw 100-121° (10 mm.) 9 cc. 0.9147 —9,1° 1.5002 121-126° (10 mm.) 25 ce. 0.9129 —11.6° 1.4987 126-128° (10 mm.) Tt ce: 0.9161 —11.6° 1.4982 128-130° (10 mm.) 25 CC. 0.9155 —12.5° 1.4984 All the fractions gave the characteristic colour reactions for sesquiterpenes. No crystalline derivatives such as the the hydrochloride could be prepared. Apparently two ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 285 sesquiterpenes are present, of which one appears to be identical with aromadendrene. During the working up of various lots of oil distilled from material supplied by Dr. T. L. Bancroft, of Hidsvold, Queensland, a fraction distilling constantly at 100-103° at 10 mm. was observed. About 30 ec. were obtained from a litre of crude oil. The fraction possessed the following physical characters, . 15° 20° ° ° 290° we & 0909-913. a, —3 to —4° mn, 1.5100. It possessed a pronounced fluorescence, and gave strong colour reactions for sesquiterpenes. It is worth further investigation which has been deferred, pending additional supplies of oil. Determination of free acid and phenolic bodies. 100 ee. each 1928 and 1924 lots of oil were mixed together, and the alkali soluble bodies and free acid removed by means of 8% sodium hydroxide solution. The alkaline liquid was acidulated with dilute sulphuric acid solution and the liberated bodies extracted with ether. The ethereal layer was washed with sodium carbonate solu- tion, and each examined separately. The crude phenol obtained weighed 0.3 gram, and melted at 156-157°. It could -not be identified. The free acid which was regenerated from the sodium carbonate solution possessed a pronounced cocoanut-like odour. The silver salt prepared therefrom yielded 44.85% of silver on ignition. Seeing that only 0.099 gram was avail- able, the result points to the acid consisting largely of 286 A. R. PENFOLD. eaprylic acid (the silver salt of this acid would yield 48% silver on ignition). It will be observed that phloracetophenone dimethyl] ether was not detected in the oils from Eidsvold. Owing to the extreme diversity in the chemical com- position of the essential oils obtained from New South Wales and Eidsvoid, Queensland material, it was found necessary to secure leaves of Gesjera parviflora from other parts of Queensland. The Queensland Forest Service ren- dered good service in the procuring and dispatch of three lots of material collected at Rockhampton and Dalby, Queensland. The oil obtained from the Rockhampton material was of a dark blue colour, and closely resembled in general physical and chemical characters the oil obtained from the Hidsvold leaves, with the exception that phloracetophenone dimethyl ether, which was not observed in the Eidsvold oils, ‘was found to occur in moderate quantity. Then again the essential oils from the Dalby material were of a brownish yellow colour, and bore a closer resemblance to the oils from New South Wales leaves on account of the presence of pinene and camphene in quantity, although the sesquiter- penes were present in greater amount. It can be considered of an intermediate character between the New South Wales and Rockhampton specimens. This evidence is of considerable value, as it offers con- firmation of my view that there are several physiological forms of Geijera parviflora, The writer has not yet had an opportunity of examining this tree in the field, and as apparently some considerable time must elapse before it presents itself, it has not been deemed advisable to withhold publication. ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 287 Determination of leaves and terminal branchlets collected from other parts of Queensland. The essential oils from the three lots of material provided by the Queensland Forest Service for comparison with that obtained from the Hidsvold, Queensland, material were not exhaustively examined. The determination of the chemical and physical characters, together with a prelimin- ary examination of the fractions obtained by fractional distillation, provided sufficient evidence for comparative purposes. Experimental. Two hundred and thirty-nine and a half pounds weight of the leaves and terminal branchlets supphed by the Queensland Forest Service from Rockhampton and Dalby on distillation with steam yielded crude oils possessing ¢ehemical and physical characters shown in Table No. 2, viz. : Sample of Oil from Rockhampton Material, 24/8/1928. 70 ec. erude oil of dark blue colour were distilled at 5 mm. Ist drops 68° collected up to 100° 17 ee. 1002 (3 mm.) to 125° (6 mm.) 22 ce. 125° (5 mm.) to 140° (5 mm.) 14 ee. 5 Residue Solidified. The residue was transferred to a porous plate, when 12 grs. crude solid resulted. This on recrystallisation from methyl alcohol melted at 82-83°, and was identified as _ phloracetophenone dimethy! ether. The various fractions were redistilled with the following final result :— 288 A. R. PENFOLD. Boiling Point. Volume. d zz a” ie 82-100° (10 mm.) 10 ce. 0.8882 — 0.4° 1.4987 100-102° (10 mm.) 4 ce. 0.9039 —2° 1.5084 100-120° (3 mm.) 8 cc. 0.9080 — 5° 1.5080 120-185° (3 mm.) 18 cc. 0.9287 toodark 1.5076 135-140° (3 mm.) 10 ce. 0.9771 toodark 1.5097 The first fraction was found to contain linalool and the new hydrocarbon referred to under Hidsvold oil. The sesquiterpenes could not be definitely identified. Neither erystalline hydrochlorides nor dehydrogenated products yielding definite picrates could be prepared. Samples of Owl from Dalby, Queensland, Material, 1st lot, 3/9/1928. 90 ec. erude oil of pale brownish yellow colour, when treated with 8% sodium hydroxide solution yielded only 0.25 gram of phenolic bodies. The oil was then subjected to fractional distillation with the following result :-— 40-80° (5 mm.) 34 ce; 80° (5 mm.) to 120° (a) mma 27 ec.; and 120-148° (3 mm.) 25 ee. On redistillation the following final fractions were ob- tained, viz. :— Boiling Point. Volume. d = al ne 50-60° (10 mm.) 26 ce. 0.8628 +46.25° 1.4693 60-120° (10 mm.) 10 ee. 0.8682 22-1 5e% 1.4750 120-140° (10 mm.) 26 ce. 0.9175 + AULBS 1.5023 141 (10)-151° (5 mm.) 21cce. 0.9478 a= 1.5112 The first fraction was found to consist of d-a-pinene and camphene. The sesquiterpenes could not be definitely identified. Neither erystalline hydrochloride nor dehydro- genated products yielding well defined picrates could be prepared. Azulene picrate of melting point 119-120° was isolated in small quantity from the dehydrogenated pro- ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 289 ducts of the last fraction, most probably from the sesquiter- pene alcohol. The second consignment of leaves and terminal branch- lets obtained 31/10/1929 yielded an essential oil lower in terpenes, but much higher in sesquiterpenes and sesquiter- pene alcohol. GEIJERA MUELLERI (Bentham). The botanical characters of this small tree are described in Bentham’s ‘‘Flora Australiensis,’’ Vol. I., page 364. This brush tree occurs in the North Coast district of New South Wales, and South Coast of Queensland. In view of the interesting results obtained in an exami- nation of the species parviflora from both New South Wales and Queensland, a collection of leaves and terminal branch- lets was furnished by Dr. T. L. Bancroft, of Eidsvold, Queensland. The low yield of oil and the occurrence of well known essential oil constituents did not warrant the expense of further collections. The Essential Oil. 263 lbs. weight of leaves and terminal branchlets fur- nished from Eidsvold, Queensland, yielded on distillation with steam only 0.09% of brownish green coloured essen- tial oil, with pleasant terpenic odour. The principal con- stituents which have so far been identified are d-a-pinene and d-camphene, cadinene, with small quantity of sesquiter- pene alcohol and unidentified alkali soluble body (0.3%). Experimental. The crude oil obtained from the leaves and terminal branchlets gave the chemical and physical characters as set forth in accompanying Table No. 3. S— December 3, 1930, xv) “PIOASPI ‘S[OA OT ‘qyoroueg O'Lg 6°3T ‘osu] 0cé6r'T o8 FL + o&16'°0 %60°0 ‘SQ. 96 | “I \L “dG &26T/2I/PFI “UOl}e] ‘des 404 "[OYOOTV ¥ | fe ‘LLO "SoAGOT *[B110} eA | “Aqeoy | say Tt | 9408 UW u p ag Jo ac Jo -ayed IazJFe "ON teysq | AV[Iqn[os 00% 00% oST PIPIA qYUS1OM 201n0g “ON 4104S ee ee. ; THATIAN] Vaart) S$ ON GTIEVE ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 291 Removal of Alkali Soluble Bodtes. 75 ec. of crude oil were shaken with 8% sodium hydroxide solution to remove free acid and phenolic constituents. Only 0.21 gram was thus obtained which, beyond giving a purple brown colouration with ferric chloride in alcoholic solution could not be definitely identified. The oil after the above treatment was subjected to dis- tillation at 10 mm. and resolved into the following fractions, ‘V1Z. :-— Boiling Pt. 15° 20° 20° 10 mm. Volume. as ay ” 50-98° 20 cc. 0.8633 a a ee 1.4680 98-140° Ai Ce. 0.9250 ae ahh 1.5000 Determination of d-a-pinene and d-camphene. The fraction distilling below 98° at 10 mm. was repeat- edly distilled over metallic sodium, when the following principal fraction was obtained, viz. :— Boiling Point 157-162° (764 mm.) di" 0.8629 az” EE4G.6°° me’- 14677. It was found to consist of a preponderating mixture of d-a-pinene with d-camphene by the procedure described under a similar heading in that portion of this paper treat- ing of Getjera parviflora. Determination of Sesquiterpene. The second fraction of the crude oil was also subjected to repeated fractional distillation over metallic sodium, when the following ultimate fractions were obtained :— _ Boiling Pt. gis pate ne (10 mm.) Volume. 15 D D 105-1283° 6 ce. 0.9202 +0 1.4965 129-133° 24 ce. 0.9212 teas” 1.5005 292 A. R. PENFOLD. The larger sample was treated with dry hydrochlorie acid gas in dry ether solution at — 20° when an excellent yield of hydrochloride of melting point 1184°-119° was obtained. 0.1500 gram of hydrochloride in 10 ee. chloroform gave a reading of —0.6° [a]>” = — 40°. The experimental evidence points to the principal ses- quiterpene being cadinene. GEIJERA SALICIFOLIA (Schott). The botanical characters of this moderate size glabrous tree are described in Bentham’s ‘‘Flora Australiensis,’’ Volume 1, page 364. It attains a height of 60-80 feet, with a girth of 6-8 feet (frequently much smaller), and is a denizen of the brushes extending from the Illawarra district of New South Wales to North Queensland. It is a hand- some densely foliaged tree, and as its name implies, is often called the ‘‘ Willow Leaved Wilga.”’ Two collections of leaves and terminal branchlets from Eidsvold, Queensland, were furnished by Dr. T. L. Bancroft, and one lot for comparative purposes from Casino, New South Wales, by the District Forester of that locality. A considerable difference in chemical composition was observed between the oils obtained from the Queensland and New South Wales leaf material. The Queensland leaves yielded a large quantity of a white solid phenol ether, called phloracetophenone dimethyl] ether, with very little essential oil, whilst the New South Wales material yielded an essential oil in very poor yield, contain- ing none of the solid phenol ether. This very poor result might possibly be accounted for by the unfortunate con- dition in which the leaves arrived. A goodly proportion ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 293 were hot and blackened, and apparently much ‘‘sweating’’ had oceurred during their transit. The oil of this species from Queensland is remarkable for its high content of phloracetophenone dimethyl ether, being the richest source recorded for this substance up to the present time. The Essential Oils. The first consignment of leaves from Eidsvold, Queens- land, furnished by Dr. T. L. Bancroft, yielded 28 grs. oil and 218 ers. of solid, whilst the second gave 144 grs. oil and 1720 gers. of solid. The oil from the first consignment was of a bluish colour, and possessed a pleasant odour reminiscent of both linalool and elemicin. The second lot of oil was of a dark brown colour, but possessed a similar odour. The oil from the New South Wales material was of a light greenish yellow colour, and possessed a pronounced terpenic odour. The solid was identified as phloracetophe- none dimethyl! ether, melting point 82-83°, but all efforts to identify the constituents of the oily portions of the Queens- land samples as well as the New South Wales oil proved fruitless in every instance. Experimental. The leaves and terminal branchlets from both Queensland and New South Wales, and totalling 7074 lbs., yielded on ‘distillation with steam solid and essential oils in accordance with particulars of yields and chemical and _ physical characters set forth in accompanying table, No. 4, viz. :— UuOT}IPUOD poo UL SOABOT PeRtp tEy’ qIsuBd} UL «POPBOMS,, SOAVI] UuOI}IpUOd poos UL SOABO] pelsp-aLVy *‘syIeUlay &vél UOT} BT -Ay0W Ia}je ‘ON 1098q 0°SE LOL ‘des yoy ‘say YT ‘ON 489Sq “SOA G'0 errs ‘S[OA OT a[qnjosuy “B[OA OT eTqn[os "JOYOOry %08 Ut AYITIGNIOS [ro 6E8P'T \o8'F — {68160 %iV'0\'si1s SHPT| “SAL 86Z Pr[os = _—_i— 068 |%LGT|'sasd OZLT 9G8P'T | o9f + |8088°0 %9T'0 "Sq[ ¥L9T [Io 9009°T | oF’ 9+/FPE6'0 %Z0'O| ‘Std G°gZ prfos -- — — | 028 | %2'0| ‘S48 QTZ | ‘Sd 8hZ soe" ny eae auiog | ‘age | -ovennaq | jo sulyonW Pauposed JO platx | WSIOM O “PIOASPI ‘yyoroueg TZ ‘Id “M'S'N ‘oulseg ‘1948910 J PTASIG O “PIOASPI ‘qjoroueg 866T/E/61 LG6T/6T/9T "IL “Ad |S@6T/3t/s *[BI19} 2 jo aa1n0g a3eq ‘VIIOMIOIIVG VUALITY ‘YON ATEAVL ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 295 Determination of Solid, M. Pt. 82-83°. The crystalline magma from both Queensland distilla- tions were freed from water and purified from methyl aleohol. The crystals melted sharply at 82-83°, and were found to be identical with phloracetophenone dimethyl ether isolated and definitely identified according to experi- mental data given in section dealing with Getjera parviflora. The volatile distillate from the leaves of Geijera salicifolia contain therefore at least 90% of this interesting ketone ether. Kazamination of Essential Oris. Queensland sample No. 1, possessing a light blue colour, distilled at 10 mm., with the following result, viz. :— 1st drops 110° rising to 130°. Boiling Pt. ° ° ° 10 ee Volume. die ay ny 130-140° 4 ce. 0.9021 +0 1.4872 141-162° 16 ce. 0.9375 + 2° 1.5035 (principally 144-150°) No particular constituent could be identified in either fraction owing to my inability to prepare any crystalline derivatives, although there is every indication that the last fraction consisted mainly of a sesquiterpene alcohol. A portion of the Queensland second sample weighing 50.7 grs. was examined. It was first treated with 8% sodium hydroxide solution, when a considerable quantity of phloracetophenone dimethyl ether was removed. The residual oil measuring 33 cc. was distilled at 10 mm., with the following result, viz. :— Ist drops 70°. - Boiling Pt. 15° 20° 202 (10 mm.) Volume. dis CD eh 75-95° 14 ce. 0.8715 — 10.85° 1.4666 95-1438° I ec. 0.9148 — 3.7° 1.4854 296 A. R. PENFOLD. The principal constituent appeared to be an alcohol con- ‘centrated in the first fraction and admixed with sesquiter. pene in the second, one. Repeated attempts to effect its identification over a period of years proved abortive, although the physical characters pointed to its identity with linalool. No definite derivatives could be isolated from the reaction products with both phenylisocyanate and napthylisocyanate. : A sample of oil obtained from the Casino, New South Wales, leaves measuring 40 ce. on treatment with 8% sodium hydroxide solution, yielded only 0.1 gram unidenti- fied phenolic body. The residual crude oil, when subjected to distillation at 10 mm., gave the following results, viz. :— Boiling Pt. Volume. ay oa ne Up to 70° (10mm.) = 14 cc. 0.85385 + 22° 1.4711 70° (12 mm.) to 100° 6ce. 0.8579 + 10.7° 1.4770 (5 mm.) 100°-1383° (5 mm.) 18 ce. 0.9157 + “7.69 1.5030 The first two fractions were mixed together, and re- distilled over metallic sodium at 782 mm. The following final fractions resulted, viz. :— Boiling Pt. Volume. a an ne 160-165° 7 ce. 0.8543 + 24.80 1.4679 1653-170° 6 ce. 0.8529 + 19.6° 1.4719 _ All efforts to determine the identity of these terpenes proved fruitless, although the fractions were examined for B-pinene, the carenes, camphene, hmonene and dipentene. In connection with the separation and purification of 1720 grams crude solid obtained from the distillation of the leaves, 19/3/1928, 93.5 grams of a dark coloured viscous oil was separated. This oil possessed the following chemi- eal and physical characters, viz. :— ESSENTIAL OILS OF GEIJERA. 297 a= 0.9289, a too dark for reading nv 1.5022. insoluble in 10 volumes of 80% aleohol, ester No. 11.51 and ester No. after acetylation 60.7. On treatment with 8% sodium hydroxide a considerabie quantity of phloracetophenone dimethyl ether was removed. The residual oil distilled at 130-165° (10 mm.) and eon- sisted essentially of sesquiterpene and _ sesquiterpene alcohol. This main fraction which had d}2 0.9285, a” +8,8° ni” 1.5042 was dehydrogenated by means of sulphur. A mixture of hydrocarbons resulted, from which a good yield of a picrate was obtained. It melted at 115-116°, but was ‘not identical with cadalene. In conclusion, I have to express thanks to Mr. F. R. Morrison, F.C.S8., A.A.C.I., Assistant Economie Chemist, for invaluable assistance in the examination of the many ‘samples of oils investigated. I am particularly indebted to Dr. T. L. Bancroft, Eidsvold, Queensland, for the numerous consignments of leaves supplied, and to the Queensland Forest Service, the Manager of the Experiment Farm, Nyngan, the late Mr. H. L. White, of Scone, and the officers of the Forestry Com- mission of New South Wales, for providing the m-iny other lots of leaves required in the investigation. , 298 J. G. CHURCHWARD. STUDIES IN THE INHERITANCE OF RESISTANCE TO BUNT IN A CROSS BETWEEN FLORENCE X HARD FEDERATION WHEATS. By J. G. CHuRCHWARD, B.Se., Agr. (Syd.). (With one text figure.) (Communicated by Professor R. D. Watt.) (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 3, 1930.) Introduction. Bunt or stinking smut of wheat is world wide in its importance. Loss is brought about by the reduction in yield per acre, and the lowering of the grade, quality, and market value of the erain. Not only does the disease manifest itself in the ears, but the growth of the stalk is. affected, and the general constitution of the plant is under- mined. The presence of bunt in wheat lowers its milling value, and egg production falls off with fowls fed on bunted wheat. In America enormous losses occur each year, especially among the winter wheat crops. The loss due to bunt in 1926, an epidemic year, was estimated at 26 million bushels, but it is present in smaller quantities each year in the various wheat-growing States. In Kansas it has varied from a few to 75% of the crop in the field. It has been increasing in the Pacific North West, and in the State of Washington conservative estimates place the loss at 1.000,000 bushels annually. The Botany Division in Michigan (23) reported, in 1927, the heaviest field infection — they had observed. ‘‘Field after field in North Michigan showed a loss of over 90%.”’ RESISTANCE IN WHEATS. 299 Nor is the loss due entirely to reduction in yield per acre. Dockage is made on:smutted crops. In 1927, in Illinois alone, an average dockage of 8.3 cents per bushel cost the growers $518,572. In Kansas, records over a number of years show an average annual loss of approxi- mately $1,000,000 (23). In Australia, bunt occurs in the wheat crops of all States. It is successfully controlled by treating the seed with copper carbonate, yet notwithstanding this, untreated erops are still sown. In N.S.W. the occurrence of bunt in treated crops is rare. Conditions are different, however, from those ex- perienced in U.S.A. In America the winter wheats, being sown shortly after the spring crops have been harvested, are more liable to be infected because of the heavy soil contamination resulting from wind-blown spores. In view of the recent work by Bodine and Durrell (2), this source of infection is very important. In N.S.W. over 90% of the seed wheat is treated, copper carbonate being almost universally used. Untreated or carelessly treated seed almost invariably gives heavy losses in yield, a case being reported of a 50% infection at harvest time (21). It is a significant fact that the three most popular varieties of wheat grown in N.S.W. (22), which occupy approximately half the area under wheat, are very liable to infection by bunt. In 1930, 5,000,000 acres of treated seed were sown in N.S.W. Assuming the average rate of seeding was 50-lbs. per acre, and the cost of pickling 4d. per bushel, it is estimated that approximately £70,000 were spent in preventing bunt. No estimates of the actual in- fection percentage in Australia have been made during recent years. 300 J. G. CHURCHWARD. In India, bunt is rarely found in the crops. Under the moist seed bed conditions in England the formalin method is completely successful in preventing infection by bunt. The Pathogen. Bunt or Stinking Smut of wheat is caused by two closely related species of smuts, JTilletia tritict (Bjerk.) Winter, and Tilletia lewis (Kiihn). Surveys have shown that the species are confined to certain districts. Until recently, in U.S.A., 7. tritici was responsible for the epidemics west of the Rockies. Later reports (34) show that, although 7. tritici is still the pre- dominant species, 7. levis has now become established in Washington State. 7. lewis is responsible for infection east of the Rockies. In a few isolated cases, 7. triticr is found in the Upper Mississippi and Missouri Valleys, but then only on durum wheats. In Canada (8), the result of an examination of bunt balls in samples of smutted wheat in 27 carloads from 22 different places, indicates that there is no sharp delineation of the areas occupied by T. tritici and T. levis, though T. tritici seems dominant in the northern, and T. levis in the southern regions of Western Canada. On the Continent of Europe (28) TJ. tritici is most prevalent in Northern Russia and Siberia. T. levis is rare in these regions, but common in Transcaucasia. In Western Australia, 7. tritict is comparatively rare, T. levis being the dominant species, while in N.S.W. T. tritict is the most common form. This was confirmed by an examination of a collection of bunt made from the different States by the writer. A representative sample of bunt taken from a wheat-cleaning plant in Melbourne, and bunt balls from three other wheat districts in Victoria all proved to be T. tritict. Of the samples from nine dis- RESISTANCE IN WHEATS. 301 tricts in South Australia, all except one belonged to the rough spored species, 7. tritecs. T. levis was the species of bunt in the collection from Hyre’s Peninsula, S.A. Control. The incidence of bunt in a crop of wheat may be con- trolled by :— 1. The use of fungicides. 2. Growing resistant varieties. For almost three centuries, the first method has been practised, but only in recent years has any endeavour been made to breed resistant varieties. Copper sulphate, while effective in killing spores, affects the germination of the grain adversely. The Jensen hot water method, although effective, has never become popular on account of its inconvenience and tediousness. The use of formalin (1-320) as a fungicide—until re- cently the standard American method—gives a better con- trol of bunt than other fungicides. It is effective, cheap and safe to handle. Since Darnell Smith and Ross (10), writing in 1919, showed the effectiveness of copper carbonate dust as a fungicide for bunt, much work has been done in America and elsewhere, where comparisons of wet and dry methods have been made. In N.S.W. the use of copper carbonate as a fungicide is almost universal, while in the other States of Australia it is certainly more popular than the wet methods of treat- ment. McAlpine (19) reports a loss of £50,000 in Victoria In 1898 when the seed wheat was not treated for bunt. Considering the cost, efficiency as a control, and effect. on germination and subsequent growth, the general con- 302 J. G. CHURCHWARD. clusion lies in favour of the use of copper carbonate. Seed treated with copper carbonate dust may be stored for many months. Comparative yield tests with grain treated in different ways have shown an increase of 2-24 bushels per acre with copper carbonate treated seed (25). In 1922 this dust began to displace the standard American Formalin Method, and Professor W. W. Mackie states that, in that year, thousands of acres of the Pacific States were ‘sown with wheat dusted with copper carbonate. Varietal Resistance. Farrer (17) was the first worker to realise the possi- bility of utilising bunt resistant varieties as a practical means of control, and to systematically breed for resistance. Comparing the susceptibility of 10 different wheats, he found infections varying from 12%-95.5%. He made no attempt to establish Mendelian ratios by observing the segregation of resistant and susceptible families. Pye (24) compared 21 varieties and found that two Farrer wheats, Florence and Genoa, gave 3.03% and 2.08% infections re- spectively. All of the 40 varieties grown by Reed (26) were more or less susceptible to bunt, the amount of in- fection varying from 97.6% to 20%, but mostly over 50%. As the result of studies of the incidence of bunt in wheat by several workers (33), it was*found that almost all the American commercial varieties, and all except one of the Australian varieties grown were lable to infection by bunt. The hard red winter wheats are resistant and the white wheats in general, very susceptible. Club wheats are very susceptible, the hard red spring and soft red winter wheats being intermediate (30). The vulgare group of wheats, comprising Triticum vulgare, T. spelta and T. compactum are susceptible; the dicoceum group of RESISTANCE IN WHEATS. 303 T. durum, T. polonicum, and T. dicoccum, and the mono- coccum group are resistant (30). There is an abundance of corroborating evidence (8, 29, 32) to show that the quality of resistance is inherent in a variety, although the degree of infection varies with physical and chemical conditions. The two species of Tilletia vary in their attack on dif- ferent varieties of wheat (18). Brentzel and Smith (3) found that durum wheats were 100% more susceptible to T. tritici than to T. levis. Both species of bunt were present in red durum class in about equal quantities. Of the 12% infection of the hard red spring wheats, over 80% was T. levis, the remainder 7’. tritict. The durums, as a class, when compared with the hard red spring varieties, are more susceptible to 7. tritict than to T. levis. Up to the present, in Australia there has been no obvious difference in the susceptibility of wheats to the two species of bunt. Although rapid germination shortens the period of sus- ceptibility of the host, it is now generally conceded (9, 35, 36) that resistance is not due to this characteristic. Re- sistance is probably due to certain inherent properties of the cell which prevent the internal development of the mycelium. Kuhn (36) suggests that resistance is correlated with the moisture content of the plant; plants with low moisture content resisting the growth of the fungus. Carne (7) notes that resistance appears to be correlated with hard _ bright grains. Hurd Karrer (17), investigating the cause of resistance, found, contrary to Von Kirchner’s report, that resistance is not correlated with the H-ion concen- tration or high titratable acid concentration. 304 J. G. CHURCHWARD. Genetics of Resistance. From early times it has been known that plants and animals vary in their ability to resist disease. This resist- ance may be induced, or natural; and the test for natural resistance is inheritance. There is ample evidence to show that resistance to bunt is inherited. Heald (15) found that Turkey Red continued to show the lowest percentage of bunt, in a test extending over 4 years. In 1923 Stephens and Woolman (31) made a number of pure line selections from varieties of wheat immune to both species of bunt. These were so highly resistant that they could be safely sown without seed treatment. Schafer, McColl, Hill and Bean (27) obtained an immune variety of winter wheat, Ridit; a cross between TJurkey and Florence. During 1923 Mackie and Briggs (20), by using the sur- viving plant method, were able to develop strains more resistant than their parents. Tests in hybridisation in- dicated that smut resistance is dominant—the parents being two immune strains. In 1905 Biffen (1) first showed resistance to yellow rust (Puccinia glumarum Erikss.) to be a simple Mendelian — recessive, and since that time predisposition to many dis- eases has been found to be inherited along Mendelian lines. Gaines (12) was the first worker to record the mode of inheritance of resistance to Bunt of wheat. A very wide range in the amount of bunt infection was produced in the F383 generation. A continuous series of resistances, varying from immunity to complete susceptibility, was obtained, which warranted the conclusion that resistance to bunt is inherited on a multiple factor basis rather than as a simple Mendelian factor. Different wheats possess different kinds of resistance, and factors for resistance vary in their potency. One carried by Turkey is four times more powerful than that carried by Martin. RESISTANCE IN WHEATS. 305 There does not seem to be any correlation between re- sistance and any morphological characters. He further claims (14) that some varieties have no heritable factors for resistance, some a weak factor which is concentrated in crosses, and others have two or three cumulative factors. Resistant varieties such as Florence, crossed with suscept- ible types, gave progeny which generally showed a dominance of susceptibility, but in crosses between immune and susceptible varieties, resistance was dominant. His results indicate multiple factors for resistance in Plorence. Briggs (4) showed a one factor difference for resistance between Martin and Hard Federation. Hussar differs by two tactors, one of these being identical with the one carried by Martin (5). He showed (6) also that White Odessa differs from White Federation in one main factor for resistance. This factor is similar in its effect to the one found in Martin. While numbers of investigators have bred resistant wheats, few have attempted to study the genetics of re- sistance to bunt. Gaines believes that resistance is inherited on a multiple factor basis, while Briggs claims that it is due to simple Mendelhan factors. This paper deals with the inheritance of factors which cause resistance to bunt, expressed in the segregates of a cross made between Florence and Hard Federation. MertTHODS AND MATERIALS. The parental material, F, and F, families, were grown in the plots at the University of Sydney in 1925-26-27, and the F, generation at Glenfield in 1928. The conditions prevailing at Glenfield were much more favourable to the development of bunt than in previous years. Two drill widths of ‘‘bird-mixture’’—a mixture of early and late maturing wheat seeds—were sown around the experimental ‘v’— December 3, 1930 306 J. G. CHURCHWARD. plot. It was hoped in this way to prevent birds from dam- aging the F; families. The grain was inoculated with fresh spores of TY. tritici just before planting. The seeds were shaken with an excess of inoculum in a test tube until thoroughly blackened. The bunt balls obtained in one season were used to inoculate the grain of the next generation. If there were more than one physiologic form of bunt present, then thoroughout the ex- periment the plants were subject to attack by the same mix- ture of forms. ; Previous experiments at the University of Sydney had shown that susceptibility to bunt in this cross was dominant. The cross-bred grains were therefore not inoculated. The grains were sown by hand 3 inches apart in 10 feet rows. The rows were 8 inches apart. In 1927, the F. generation was so badly attacked by sparrows that only one or two heads from each plant were saved by bagging. The F, plants were back-crossed on to Florence. At harvest time the records were obtained as follows :—In the F. generation the plants were arranged in three classes: (1) Tip bearded heads, (2) intermediate tip bearded heads, and (38) beardless heads. Each class was divided into 3 piles: (a) Entirely bunted, (b) partially bunted, (c) entirely bunt free. The number of grass tufts was also counted. Seven plants were destroyed in the Fs families, while in the F;, two families failed to germinate and one gave only grass tufts. The F, families were separated into three classes, viz.: those homozygous for tip beard, those heterozygous for tip beard, and those homozygous for beardlessness. Each class was again divided into two—bunted and bunt free. A plant — showing any signs of infection, regardless of degree, was classed as bunted. Gaines (13) made a quantitative esti- RESISTANCE IN WHEATS. 307 mation of the bunt present in each row, using the formula ab + e@ =d, where ‘‘a’’ is the percentage of bunted heads on partly bunted plants, ‘‘b’’ is the percentage of partly bunted plants in the row, and ‘‘c’’ is the percentage of entirely bunted plants; ‘‘d’’ gives the total percentage of the row that is bunted. However, Briggs (4) points out that although this method gives a satisfactory quantitative measure of infection, the nature of segregation is not indi- cated, as each plant ceases to be regarded as a genetical identity. A count for grass tufts in the F, and F; families was also made. ; | Parent Stock and F,. _ Florence is a Farrer wheat, with a tapering head of medium length, with some short awns giving the head its typical tip-bearded appearance. The straw is rather tall and hollow, and it has a tendency to lodge. It is a good early maturing dual purpose variety for dry districts, and is a medium strong wheat. It is notably resistant to bunt. Hard Federation has a shightly tapering head with a tall, thick-walled straw which does not lodge. It is an early- midseason variety and is very susceptible to bunt. _ The F, generation showed hybrid vigor, stooling much better than either of the parents. The F; heads were inter- mediate between the two parents for the amount of tip- beard present. | Bunt. Segregation in Fo. All the F, progenies were grown in 1927. The results Showed 115 bunted, compared with 139 bunt-free plants, or 45.3% infection. Florence and Hard Federation controls showed 1.7% and 53.3% of bunt respectively. Of the 115 bunted plants, 25 showed complete infection, the remaining 90 being partially bunted. 308 J. G. CHURCHWARD. It is clear that these figures cannot be taken as indicative of the manner in which families segregate for bunt infection. Many apparently resistant plants merely escape infection, and it is well known that a completely susceptible plant seldom shows all bunted heads. This was borne out in the F; generation, for while a susceptible F. plant may escape infection, it is not probable that an entire row in the F, generation would escape. Grass Tufts. The count for grass tufts showed 261 normal plants com- pared with 51 grass tufts. This is clearly a 18:38 ratio, indicating the presence of an inhibiting factor. TABLE 1—Number of normal plants compared with number of grass tufts in F. generation of a cross Florence x Hard Federation, on a 13:3 expectancy. Kind of Plants. Number of Plants. D. Observed. Expected. P.E. NOMI Lary.) ue eee 261 253.5 7.5 Grass tufts .. .; ag 58.5 an MOcale ct er Soe oe Sy 4.65 Reference to tables show that the P.E. for this ratio in a D population of 312 is 4.65 and 5 = 1.6. Tip-beardedness. An analysis of the F, families for tip-beardedness showed that this character is inherited as a single Mendelian factor. The segregation was as follows:—59 homozygous tip-beard; 135 heterozygous tip-beard ; 67 homozygous beardless. Bint Segregation in Fs. Write. The F; progeny were grown at Glenfield in 1928, con- firming the results obtained in the F; generation. In this series there were 251 families representing, with check rows of both parents every tenth row, some 12,000 plants. The F, data are recorded in Table 2. lo |—Ir Te Ie | | Ler | sel eri oz lor | ox | er | ve | ar ove bat SOG SI | came el CN YC fe co F & ae) E Et ST | Ga | 6L | 0 |9T | HE | ST | PT | SF x Uol}erepey P4leH eS, eal ae ieee Gr ee ec aouoTOLA Pee obeslitele teint iz. ale ieligde se ie | a = nemerepon pe eo) te) 06) Co ~] aa op) oP) On On _ > Go (ee) iw) iw) comme Pepe OO Re Maher Lie: * Peel SES SS See als yea See Cee SSOIN IO JUoIeg ) a ———S ee ee Ee EE ee ee ee Ee eee ee ‘UOTpooFUL JUNG FO Sassv[d osequsd.Ied Aq SMO JO UOIyNQIA}sSIG "836L UL pleyueTy ye UMOAS UdYM ‘UOIJOFUI JUN TOF sasseyo "yu9d tod g OF! ‘UOT}eIepay prey] X VdUaIO[,] ‘ssor9 oy} JO SMOX *y 9Y} pue jUeIed oY} Jo UOTyNQIA4sIq—Z ATIAVL 310 J. G. CHURCHWARD. The average infection in the Florence plants was 1.2%,. which was spread out over three classes. There were 66.2% of the Hard Federation controls bunted. The F plants showed a range of infections from immunity to complete susceptibility. The nature of the distribution is seen in Figure 1. The graph includes the 25 F, plants, which were com- pletely bunted. They were placed in the 95%-100% class. it 1s reasonable to assume that these families all possessed a homozygous factor for susceptibility. Had these families been grown on into the F; generation, it is more than prob- able that the infections would have varied from 55%-100%, and with the 25 families distributed in these classes the eurve would have gradually risen from the minimum at the 57.5% class. The formation of a trimodal curve seems to indicate a 1:2:1 ratio. There are 69 families lying between the first minimum and 0, 47 from the second minimum to 100%, and between the two minima 135 families. This gives a 2.9: 1.1 ratio for susceptibility with a P.E. + .074, Showing that there is a single factor difference for bunt resistance in the two varieties, with.dominance of suscepti- bility. 7 | Back crosses were made and gave a 1:1 ratio for sus- ceptibility, confirming the F, results, In the homozygous resistant class sixty-nine families.” occurred where ‘63 were expected, and 1385 heterozygous. susceptible families where 126 were: expected. The 47 homozygous susceptible families give a ratio differing from expected ratio by .25, which is 3.3 times the P.H. The fit is fair only. It should be remembered that the two minima do not necessarily mark the division between the different phenotypes. An inspection of Table 2 will show that the HSSeeeae TeSECo CoC oooeeeeeeeeeen LNT | a en i et (a | es | gun ESE RESeeeaeao *SeTTImey JO sxeyuUsoIag Percentage of Bunt Infection. Fig. 1.—Distribution of F, families of the cross Florence x Hard Federation in 5% classes for bunt infection. 12 J. G. CHURCHWARD. ». spread of the susceptible parent extends from the 25%- 30% class up to the 95%-100% class. If we regard the ° two parents as homozygous, resistant and susceptible types, then it is fair to assume that the F; homozygous susceptible segregates are spread proportionately over the same classes. The same reasoning may be applied to a number of resistant families showing more than 5% infection. In other words, among the 135 heterozygous families are scattered some homozygous types, both resistant and susceptible. Assum- ing a proportionate spread into the F,; heterozygous segregates, the estimated numbers in each class are 63: 119: 69, which closely approximates to a 1:2:1 ratio. Tip-beardedness. The results of the counts taken for tip-beardedness are recorded in Table 3. TABLE 8—The segregation of families for tip-beard and beardlessness in the Fs; of a cross between Florence and Hard Federation. Observed Character. No. of Expected | Observed Poh, families. ratio. ratio. bi Homozygous tip-beard .. .. 58 1 0.92 +.074 Heterozygous tip-beard .. .. 130 2 2.08 +.085 Homozygous beardless .. .. 63 1 1.00 +.074 "Total As ..3. dee aas 251 4 4.00 The results agree with a 1:2:1 ratio. Each class was divided into two parts for bunt resistance, giving the fol- lowing results :— Homozygous tip-beard 13 bunt free; 45 bunted plants Heterozygous tip-beard 20 bunt free; 110 bunted plants Homozygous beardless 23 bunt free; 40 bunted plants There is no correlation between the inheritance of tip- beardedness and bunt. 4 RESISTANCE IN WHEATS. 313 Grass Tufts. Studies of the 226 F, families were made. Of the 74 families showing the presence of grass tufts, 58 were bunted and 18 bunt free, while in the 149 normal families, 109 ~were bunted and the remaining 40 classes were bunt free. There is no correlation between the inheritance of bunt and grass tufts. DISCUSSION. It is claimed that bunt is second only to rust in the amount of damage done throughout the world in wheat erops. Two methods of control are practised; firstly, the use of fungicides and secondly the breeding of varieties resistant to bunt. The first method must be regarded as only a temporary measure of control and a costly one. Large sums of money are spent annually in preventing, but not eliminating, the disease. Seed disinfection in America does not prevent occurrence of bunt in winter wheats (16), but helps to reduce the amount of infection by destroying the seed-borne spores. In view of the recent work of Bodine and Durrell, it seems that the bunt fungi- ides are only effective in destroying spores on the grain, or in its immediate vicinity. These workers have shown that, under laboratory conditions, wheat tissue is capable of being infected at any period up to the flowering stage of the plant. Seedlings from treated grain are liable to infection by spores in the soil, on soil surface, or by wind- blown spores. Further, bunt is sporadic in its occurrence —not occurring in epidemic proportions yearly, and it has been pointed out that in certain years some crops are unnecessarily treated. Gaines has shown that the difference in resistance to bunt of certain varieties was due to three factors, viz., (1) spore load, (2) environmental conditions, (3) factor for ‘Tesistance. For ten years pure lines have been grown and o 314 J. G. CHURCHWARD. have not varied in their resistance. Clean plants in sus- ceptible varieties have been grown on, but the selections in the following year yielded the same percentage of bunt as the parent. Each variety has a constant index of sus-: ceptibility, which varies with environmental conditions.’ Resistant varieties have been bred by Farrer in Australia, and highly resistant varieties hke Albit and Ridit have been produced in America. Investigators have shown that the most satisfactory solution of the bunt problem in the Pacific North West of U.S.A. .is by the production of varieties immune or resistant to bunt. The fact that there are several physiologic forms of T. triticc and T. levis further complicates breeding re- sistant varieties. Florence is a bunt resistant wheat in Australia, and until recently showed resistance in U.S.A. Reed has noted a 66.6% infection with a form of T. tritici, and grown in Davis, California, it registered 76.6% in- fection in 1921. So far as the writer can ascertain, no. work has yet been done to determine the presence of physiologic forms of bunt in Australia. Should new forms. appear, it is quite possible that hitherto resistant varieties will become infected. If high yielding, commercial, bunt resistant varieties are to be bred, a knowledge of the inheritance of resistance is. necessary. Gaines and Briggs appear to be the only workers who have studied the genetics of resistance to bunt in wheat crosses. Seasonal and individual fluctua- tions make the interpretation of resistance to bunt, on a factorial basis, difficult. No easy task was experienced in drawing the line between heterozygous and homozygous susceptible families. Examination of F, families in the field showed, without doubt, that certain families classified. as heterozygous were clearly homozygous for susceptibility.. * RESISTANCE IN WHEATS. 315 However, the results of the present work indicate a one factor difference for resistance to bunt, between Hard Federation and Florence. Susceptibility to bunt acts as a dominant factor in a cross between these two varieties. Briggs found that when resistant and susceptible varieties were crossed, there was a dominance of susceptibility in the segregates. Under Australian conditions, bunt in wheat is suecessfully controlled by the use of copper carbonate as a fungicide, but at a premium. Woolman has shown that the fungus enters seedlings of all varieties with equal facility, but in resistant varieties fails to develop further. With the discovery of new physiologic forms of bunt, and the fact that a plant may become infected at any period up to the flowering stage by wind-blown spores, the problem may possibly become a serious one in Australia. The best guarantee against such a happening is the breeding of bunt resistant commercial varieties. SuM MARY. The bunt problem is particularly serious in’ U.S.A., enormous losses occurring each year (26 millions of bushels in 1926). It is rare in India, and is readily controlled in England and Australia. Some crops are still sown untreated in Australia, and heavy infection generally results. | Although specialisation has been shown in other coun- tries, no physiologic forms have yet been differentiated in Australia. Bunt is readily controlled by the use of fungicides. Dry copper carbonate is the most popular preventive in Australia. Varietal resistance offers the best means of bunt control. Most varieties of wheat are more or less susceptible to bunt. 316 J. G. CHURCHWARD. Florence and Genoa are the most resistant Australian varieties. Albit and Ridit, two recently bred American wheats are resistant to bunt. Resistance is due to inherent properties of the cells which prevent the development of intercellular hyphae. Rapid germination only helps that plant to escape infection. Resistance to disease, in many cases, has been shown to be inherited on a Mendelian factor basis. In crosses between resistant and susceptible varieties, susceptibility to bunt is dominant. Gaines claims that resistance to bunt is inherited on a multiple factor basis. Briggs has shown that resist- ance is inherited as a simple Mendelian factor. Florence (resistant) and Hard Federation (susceptible) wheats were crossed, and showed a one factor difference for bunt resistance. In the F; generation the three classes, homozygous resistant, heterozygous susceptible, and homo- — zygous susceptible gave an approximation to a ratio of aL) ae The occurrence of grass tufts in the progeny of the cross was studied, and indicated the presence of an inhibiting factor. Studies were also made of the inheritance of tip- beardedness in this cross. A single factor determines the inheritance of this characteristic. In the cross between Florence and Hard Federation the inheritance of bunt resistance, grass tufts, and tip-bearded- ness is controlled by single independent Mendelian factors. The writer acknowledges valuable suggestions and help from Dr. W. L. Waterhouse, University of Sydney. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) RESISTANCE IN WHEATS. 317 Biffen, R. H. 1907. Studies in the Inheritance of Disease Resistance. Jour. Agr. Sci., vol. 2, pt. 2; pp. 109-128. Bodine, E. W., and Durrell, L. W. 1930. Inoculation of Wheat with Tilletia levis (Kuhn). Phytopath., vol. 20, No. 8; pp. 663-668. Brentzel, W. E., and Smith, R. W. 1929. Varietal Resistance of Spring Wheats to Bunt. North Dakota Sta. Bul., 231; p. 42. Briggs, F. N. 1926. Inheritance of Resistance to Bunt, Tilletia trittc¢ (Bjerk.), Winter, in Wheat. Jour. Agr. Re- search, 32; pp. 973-990, illust. 1929. The Inheritance of the Second Factor for Re- sistance to Bunt, Tvulletia tritici, in Hussar Wheat. Jour. Agr. Research, vol. 40; pp. 225-232, illus. 1929. Inheritance of Resistance to Bunt, Tilletia tritict, in White Odessa Wheat. Jour. Agr. Re- search, vol. 40; pp. 353-360. Carne, W. M. 1925. Cereal Smuts. Jour. Dept. of Agr. W.A. ii., i.; pp. 10-19. Conners, I. L. 1925. Rept. Dom. Bot. for year 1924, Canada, Dept. of Agr.; pp. 51-64. Darnell-Smith, G.P. 1910. Some Observations on Bunt and Fungicides. Dept. Agr. Gazette, N.S.W., vol. 21; p. 751. and Ross, H. 1919. A Dry Method of Treating Seed Wheat for Bunt. Dept. Agr. Gazette, N.S.W., vol. 30, pt. 10; p. 685. Farrer, W. 1901. Results of the Lambrigg Bunt Experiments of 1900. Dept. Agr. Gazette N.S.W., vol. 12; Ds 419: Gaines, E. F. 1920. The Inheritance of Resistance to Bunt or Stinking Smut of Wheat. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 12 (1920), No. 4; pp. 124-130. 1923. Genetics of Bunt Resistance in Wheat. Jour. Agr. Research, vol. 23; pp. 445-479. 1925. The Inheritance of Disease Resistance in Wheat. and Oats. Phytopath., vol. 15; pp. 341-349. 318 (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) 421) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) J. G. CHURCHWARD. Heald, F. D. | 1920. Thirtieth Annual Report. Washington Sta. Bull. 158 (1920); pp. 30-32. and Gaines, E. F. 1980. Control of Bunt or Stinking Smut of Wheat. Sta. Coll. Washington Bull. 241. Hurd Karrer, A. M. 1925. Acidity and Varietal Resistance of Wheat to Tilletia tritict. Amer. Jour. Bot., vol. 12, No. 7; pp. 359-3871. Johnston, C. O. 1924, Wheat Bunt Investigations in Kansas. Abs. in Phytopath., vol. 145: No; 13). 3% McAlpine, D. 1910. The Smuts of Australia. Mackie, W. W., and Briggs, F. N. 1923. Wheat Smut Investigations. California Sta. Rpt., 1928; pp. 68-70. 1924. N.S.W. Dept. Agr. Gazette, vol. 35; p. 29. 19380. N.S.W. Dept. Agr. Gazette, vol. 41; p. 712. 1928. The Plant Disease Reporter, Aug. 1st, 1928; p. 304. Pye, H. 1909. Diseases and Pests of Cereals. Dept. Agr. Victoria, vol. 7; pp. 368-373. Rabien, H. 1927. Conditions of Germination and Infection of Tilletia tritici. Abs. in E.S.R., vol. 61, No. 6; p. 5384. Reed, G. M. 1924. Varietal Susceptibility of Wheat to Tilletia levis (Kuhn). Phytopath., vol. 14, No. 10; p. 487. Schafer, E. G., McColl, M. A., Hill, C. E., and Bean, R. P. 1923. Thirty-third Annual Report. Washington Col. Sta. Bul. 180. Sigriansky, A. M. 1925. Cereal Smuts in Russia. Abs. in English. R.A.M., vol. 5, pt. 33 p. tone Spandenberg, G. E. 1925. On the Susceptibility of Varieties of Spring Wheats to Bunt in the Ukraine. Abs. in English. .R.A.M., vol. 5,° pt. os (pantas: Stakman, E. C., Lambert, E. B., and Flor, H. H. 1924. Varietal Resistance of Spring Wheats to Tulletia levis. Minnesota Univ. Studies. Biol. Sci., No..;5; . pp. 307-317, RESISTANCE IN WHEATS. 319. (31) Stephens, D. E., and Woolman, H. M. 1922. The Wheat Bunt Problem in Oregon. Oregon Sta. Bul. 188; pp. 5-42, figs. 5. (32) Straib, W. 1927. Causes of Differing Varietal Susceptibility of Wheats to Stinking Smut. Abs. in English. REALM.; vol.L7e ps Sit. (33) Tisdale, W. H., and Martin, J. H. 1925. Relative Resistance of Wheats to Bunt in the Pacific Coast States. U.S.D.A. Bull. 1299. , Leighty, C.E., and Boerner, E. G. 1927. A Study of the Distribution of TJ. tritici and Tf lens ine l926.. Phytopath., vol. 17, No. 35 pp. 167-174. (35) Woolman, H. M., and Humphrey, H. B. 1928. Report of Idaho Sta. Bull. 1381. (36) ; | | 1924, Summary of Literature on Bunt or Stinking Smut of Wheat. U.S.D.A. Bul. 1210. (34) 320 A. J. CHALMERS, F. LIONS, AND A. O. ROBSON. BI-NUCLEAR ISOMERISM OF DIPHENYL TYPE. Part I. By ALicE JEAN CHALMERS, B.Sc., Francis Lions, B.Sc., Ph.D., and ALAN OwrENn Rosson. (Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 3, 1930.) THEORETICAL. Following on their destruction of the evidence for the Kauffler diphenyl formula, Turner and Le Févre (Chem. & Ind., 45, 831-833 [1926]) suggested that the observed stereoisomerism of certain nitrodiphenie acids, all of which had at least three substituents in the positions ortho to the bond linking the benzene nuclei could be attributed to the co-axial non-coplanar configuration of the two rings, with resultant molecular asymmetry. It was assumed that a mutual ‘‘repulsion’’ between the ortho substituents tends to push the planes of the rings apart; but the evidence available did not permit a decision whether the repulsion was due to spatial or electrical forces, or to a combination of both. Shortly afterwards, Mills (Chem. & Ind., 45, 883, 905 [1926]) pointed out that if a considerable degree of molecular rigidity be assumed, then the stereoisomerism can be adequately explained by spatial considerations. Thus, in diphenyl compounds of types I. and II., having at least three ortho substituents, the spatial demands of these will ensure a co-axial non-coplanar configuration of the rings with resultant molecular dissymmetry. BI-NUCLEAR ISOMERISM OF DIPHENYL TYPE. 321 A as : os > BY Jo. iL Gal (X may or may not be identical with A, Y may or may not be identical with B.) For example, a compound of type (I) would exist in two enantiomorphous forms (Ia) and (Ib), in each of which the two ortho groups A and B act as ‘‘obstacles’’ or ‘‘blocking groups’’ to the passage of the group X in the ortho position of the other nucleus, thus preventing inter-conversion of optical antipodes. For some time it was not possible to obtain evidence on the nature of the ‘‘obstacle effect.’’ Without further ex- perimental work consideration of possible electrical forces other than those concerned in the spatial make-up of the ~ atoms could not be ignored in favour of the very attractive hypothesis of Mills. However, in 1929, Moyer and Adams (J. Am. Chem. Soce., 51, 680 [1929]) showed that diamino- dimesityl (III) existed in two enantiomorphous modifi- cations, neither of which could be racemized. In this substance the four ortho blocking groups are identical H, Cus CH, W nu, CHy CA, NH ameg and of the least polar type possible—the molecular asym- metry, of course, being caused by the asymmetry of each ring about the common axis, and the non-coplanar con- figuration of the two rings. The practical impossibility of racemization of the active forms of this substance is very strong evidence that the spatial requirements of the ortho groups are the important factors in the asymmetry. U—December 3, 1930. 322 A. J. CHALMERS, F. LIONS, AND A. O. ROBSON. Early this year Stanley and Adams (J. Am. Chem. Soe., 52, 1200 [1930] ) pointed out that, ‘‘although the resolution of diamino-dimesityl was substantial evidence against the theory that interference is due merely to the relative elec- trostatic charges on the substituent groups, much more experimental work is necessary before an entirely satis- factory analysis of the phenomenon may be expected.’’ They then proceeded to a discussion of actual atomic distances in compounds of diphenyl type, as indicated by X-ray data, and, from the figures adduced, concluded that if the hypothesis of Mills is correct, substances such -as 2 :2’-difluoro-6:6’ dicarboxy-diphenyl (IV), 2:2’ di fluoro-6:6’ diamino-diphenyl (V) and 2:2’-difluoro-6:6’ dihydroxy-diphenyl (VI) might well be expected to be E COOH F NH F OH COOH OsdéF NH, F OH W v ui resolvable, but owing to the small size of the substituent 9) “*blocking groups,’’ racemization of the optical antipodes should occur with relative ease; whilst a substance such as 2:2':6:6’-tetrafluoro-diphenyl with the proper substi- tution to make each ring unsymmetrical in itself should yet be incapable of resolution. Undoubtedly, the pre- paration and examination of these compounds may be ex- pected to shed much light on the problem. Stanley and Adams (loc. cit.) further discussed the racemization of asymmetric diphenyl derivatives, and pointed out that the only representatives yet prepared and resolved which have merely three substituents in the ortho BI-NUCLEAR ISOMERISM OF DIPHENYL TYPE. 323 positions, viz., 2:4’-dinitro-6:6 dicarboxy diphenyl and 2:4:4’-trinitro-6:6’ dicarboxy diphenyl—are readily race- mized in alkaline solution. .‘‘ Those compounds, with four groups in the ortho positions, have at least two points of collision to aid in resisting racemization. Such tetra-sub- stituted compounds, and especially those representatives which have two pairs of similar groups present in the proper positions, are essentially symmetrical in regard to electrostatic or mechanical forces. In the trisubstituted compounds, however, there may be only one point of col- llision at any one instant, and, at the same time, much less symmetry in the molecule. Hence the possibility is greater that a distortion of the molecule, due either to elec- trostatic forces or to other factors, may take place and aid racemization.”’ According to the calculations of the ‘‘interference effect’’ ‘by Stanley and Adams, it should be possible, by suitable ‘selection of substituent groups, to obtain trisubstituted compounds of all gradations of stability to racemization. Such a study would again afford valuable evidence con- cerning the nature of the phenomenon. On the other hand the 2:6:6’-trisubstituted diphenyls are rather difficult to "prepare. Now, it appears to the authors that valuable evidence may be gained by a study of certain non-condensed bi- nuclear heterocyclic substances of diphenyl type which are relatively easy to prepare—especially those with only three substituents ortho to the bond linking the rings. To Kermack and Slater (J. Chem Soc., 1928, 36) is due the first suggestion that stereoisomerism of the type under ‘discussion might occur amongst sueh heterocyclic sub- stances. They attempted the resolution of 3-0-nitrophenyl indole-2-carboxylic acid, but without success. However, much more obvious examples to examine are derivatives 324 A. J. CHALMERS, F. LIONS, AND A. O. ROBSON. of the phenyl pyridines, which may be related to the type substances 2-phenyl pyridine (VII), 3-phenyl pyridine (VIII) and 4-phenyl pyridine (IX). N «. «2, pediGae Government Subsidy .. .. .. .. 400 0 0 Interest— Government Bonds and Stock and Jsoan... 2 «si «iy, daze 2580 18 0 », Donation—Dr: W. Burfitt ..... .. 50) 10.0 » J. H. Maiden Memorial—Interest .. 5 a a » Royal Society’s Fund — Interest added! Hs) tc we ata eee , 298-14: 6 5, science House—Refund .. .. .. .. 13881 138 0 ,, Government Bonds and Stock .. .. PADI. io £26,398 1 5 PAYMENTS. Dr. 8 sl de Se sae SS) dd. By Administrative Expenses— Salaries and Wages— Office Salary and Ac- countancy Fees .. 291 15 0 Assistant Librarian.. 48 0 0 Caretaker ;.). «:' (2) 184127 4 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. £ Printing, Stationery, Ad- vertising & Stamps— Stamps & Telegrams 41 Office Sundries and Stationery .. .. .. 6 Advertising .. 10 Printing .. 52 Rent, Rates, Taxes and Services— TEN ola Ses oe ise «L868 Electric Light & Gas 115 insurance ......... 24 Rates .. ie) woo Telephone ....+. .. 19 Printing & Publishing Society’s Volume— Printing, ec, .. .. .. 129 Bookbinding . 48 Library— Books & Periodicals 33 Bookbinding .. . 472 Sundry Expenses— Legal Expenses .. .. 10 Repairs ... ais 21 Lantern Operator 6 Bank Charges 0 Sundries .. 52 », Interest 16 Union Bank of Australia Ltd... Royal Society’s Fund .. Building Loan Fund e hemoval Expenses .. =. .. 4... » science House Expenses .. d = Sy de Ss 6 5 0 6 110 8 5 6 3 6 9 5 1860 14 5 6 4 G7 16.10 at 0 505 10 11 0 2 0 4 7 92°20. 2 3220 18 010 O 20 Sod 4G Pr 2on a etO 556 9 139 1 1276 16 iil. ao fF Lv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ao Ser ole aes. 2d. » Jd. H. Maiden Memorial Fund .. .. aoa. 11° 8 IOAN we oh ae a sl oe ee 18000 0 0O 5, Dr. Walter Burfitt sPrize sy. setae 50 10 0 y» Building Investment Loan Fund .. 1583 6 10 », Balance—31st March, 1930, ; Union Bank of Australia Ltd... ..1165 3 2 Cash on Hand 2.0)... 905 “a. ee 1186 8 0 £26,398 ' 1 5 Compiled from the Books and Accounts of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and certified to be in accordance therewith, ‘subject to our letter of even date. (Sgd.) HENRY G. CHAPMAN, M.D., Honorary Treasurer. (Sgd.) W. PERCIVAL MINELL, F.C.A. (Aust.), Auditor. Sydney, 7th April, 1930. BALANCE SHEET AS AT 3ist MARCH, 1930. LIABILITIES. Sale Seuss a. Investment Fund— Clarke Memorial Fund .. .. .. .. 1809 3 6 Walter Burfitt Prize Fund :. ...-. 565 10 9 Investment: Fund ... ..-2. ..\.. S578 Milos Liversidge Bequest.......... ... - ., 080) 80e ; —_———— 5988 19 2 OnLoan ). 06. 6. ks ho chy tee Se ea J. H. Maidens Memonial Fund (\..4. ..) oe Hea eect 0) Accumulated Funds 4... 0.2 .2 2... 34 Slee Uw Oommen £38,056 19 0 ASSETS. So “is5. de So Se Ge Cash— Union Bank of Australia Ltd... .. 1165 3 2 Onviand:.S0s¢. “aise fe se oe” oe 21 AiG 1186) 3 40 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Vv. Ae, send: Gs sid: Government Bonds and Stock (Nominal Value £6200) .. .. .. 589%. 2) 5 Ocn 1GCeci 5 re 20000 0 O Sundry Debtors— oie INS a ar or 96 16 8 For Subscriptions in Arrears .... 3871 1 0O 467 17 8 Library— Insurance Valuation .......... 8610 “0 0 Add:—Expenditure during year 505 10 11 las) al) Office Furniture—Insurance Valuation .. .. .. .. 1050 0 0O PRichunes——Insurance Valuation: ....:....... ..-.... 180 0° 0 Microscopes—Insurance Valuation .. .. .. .. .. 120 0 0 ihantern—Insurance Valuation .. .. .. .. .. «. 40 0 0 £38,056 19 0 Compiled from the Books and Accounts of The Royal Society of New South Wales, and certified to be in accordance there- with, subject to our letter of even date. (Sgd.) HENRY G. CHAPMAN, M.D., Honorary Treasurer. (Sgd.) W. PERCIVAL MINELL, F.C.A. (Aust.), Auditor, Sydney, 7th April, 1930. Queensland National Bank Chambers, 27 Hunter Street. INVESTMENT FUND. Statement of Receipts and Payments for the year ended 31st March, 1930. Dr. RECEIPTS. Cr. fe = Ss) od: Sy ® 1h, To Balance—31st March, 1929 .. .... 5690 4 8 », Interest— Clarke Memorial Fund .. .. .. 65 5 0 Walter Burfitt Prize Fund .... - 28 38 0 ihiversidge Bequest ..°..°.... °26 18 0 imvestiment|Fund ... .. .......1 178 18 6 298 14 6 £5988 19 2 PAYMENTS. : fi) aS: poealanaece——olst March, 1930 .. .. .. .. .. .. 5988 19 2 ZO98S 19m 2 vi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS On the motion of Mr. Sussmilch, seconded by Dr. W. R. Browne, Mr. W. P. Minell was duly elected Auditor for the current year. The Annual Report of the Council was read and, on the motion of Mr. Sussmilch, seconded by Sir Edgeworth ~ David, was adopted. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1929-30. (Ist May to 30th April.) The Council regrets to report the loss by death of eleven ordinary members and one honorary member. Nine mem- bers have resigned and six names were removed from the list of members owing to non-payment of subscriptions. On the other hand, eleven members have been elected during the year. To-day (30th April, 1930) the roll of members stands at 325. During the Society’s year there have been eight general monthly and ten ordinary and two special Council meetings. Four Popular Science Lectures were given, namely :— July 18.—‘‘Cancer Research,’’ by Prof. H. G. Chapman, M.D. August 15.—‘‘The Occurrence and Origin of Mineral Oil,’’ by C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S. September 19.—‘‘Psychology of the Individual and His Voeation,’’ by A. H. Martin, M.A., Ph. D. October 17.—‘‘ Wireless,’’ by Prof. J. P. V. Madsen, D.Sc., B.E. On Thursday, 29th August, 1929, a special lecture was given by Dr. C. M. Yonge, Leader of the Great Barrier Reef Expedition, on ‘‘Scientific Results of the Great Barrier Reef Expedition.’’ Meetings were held throughout the Session by the Sec- tions of Geology and Physical Science. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Vil. The Section of Industry during the year again devoted its attention to visiting industrial establishments. Nineteen papers were read at the monthly meetings and covered a wide range of subjects. Lecturettes were given at the monthly meetings in July, September, October, and November, by Messrs. T. C. Roughley, W. B. Gurney, R. W. Challinor, and M. B. Welch respectively. At the monthly meeting on 7th August, 1929, a series of short addresses on the scientific work of the 4th Pacifie Science Congress, held at Java, in June, 1929, were given by Messrs. E. C. Andrews, G. H. Halligan, and C. A. Sussmilch, and Professors A. R. Radeliffe-Brown, A. N. Burkitt, and E. J. Goddard. The Annual Dinner took place at the Union Refectory, Sydney University, on 24th April, 1930, when we were honoured by the presence of the Hon. T. R. Bavin, K.C., B.A., LL.B., Premier of New South Wales, and the Presi- dents of several societies. The first award of the Walter Burfitt Prize was made to Dr. N. D. Royle at the July meeting. The following member has been honoured during the year Sir Kelso King—Knight Bachelor. SCIENCE HOUSE.—On 6th September, 1929, the land situated at the corner of Gloucester and Essex Streets, in the Observatory Hill area, made available by the Govern- ment of New South Wales for the erection of a building, - was conveyed by grant to the Royal Society of New South Wales, the Linnean Society of New South Wales, and the Institution of Engineers, Australia, in fee simple as x Vill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. tenants in common of the land. An agreement between these bodies, appointing a Joint Management Committee and contracting to erect the building and to administer Science House when erected, was signed on December 20, 1929. A contract was made with Messrs. John Grant and Sons for the building on 20th December, and work was begun on March 24, 1930. MAIDEN MEMORIAL PAVILION.—This pavilion has now been erected in the Sydney Botanic Gardens, but has not yet been officially opened. The donations to the library have been as follows :— 1759 parts, 44 reports, 3 calendars, and 1 catalogue. It was announced that the Clarke Memorial Medal had been awarded by the Council to Dr. L. Keith Ward. A letter was read from Dr. L. Keith Ward, thanking the Council for awarding him the Clarke Memorial Medal. The President announced that the following Popular Science Lectures would be delivered this Session :— July 17.—‘‘The Romance of. Wood,’’ by M. B. Welch, B.Se., A.LC. August 21.—‘‘ Natural History Museums,’’ by C. Anderson, M.A., D.Sc. | September 18.—‘‘The Developments in Economic Import- ance of Carbon Compounds,’’ by V. M. Trikojus, B.Se., D.Phil. October 16.—‘‘Wool Fibre; Its Nature, Character, and Use,’’ by Professor J. Douglas Stewart, B.V.Sce., M.R.C.V.S. The following donations were received :—5 volumes, 120 parts, 4 reports, and 1 catalogue. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 1x The President, Professor L. A. Cotton, then delivered his address. _ There being no other nominations, the President declared the following gentlemen to be Officers and Council for the coming year :— President: Prof. O. U. VONWILLER, B.sc.., F.Inst.P. Vice-Presidents: C. ANDERSON, M.A. D.Sc. Sir GEORGE JULIUS, Kt., B.Se., B.E., M.I.Mech.E ‘Prot, Kk. D. WATT, M.A., B.Sc. Prot. L. A. COTTON, M.A., D.Sc. Hon. Treasurer: Prof. H. G. CHAPMAN, m.p. | Hon. Secretaries: -€. A. SUSSMILCH, Fass. .C. W. O. TYE. Members of Council: E. C. ANDREWS, B.A., F.G.s., Prof. T. G. B. OSBORN, Assist.-Prof. W. R. BROWNE, D.Sc., F.L.S. ee A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.1, F.CS. R. W. CHALLINOR, F.tc., F.c.s. Prof. A. R. RADCLIFFE- E. CHEEL Prof. C. E. FAWSITT, p.sc., php. BROWN, M.A., F.R.A.1L R. J. NOBLE, Prof. J. DOUGLAS STEWART, M.Sc., B.Sc.,Agr., Ph.D. BiV:Sei MR Caves: Professor Cotton, the outgoing President, then installed Professor O. U. Vonwiller as President for the ensuing year, and the latter briefly returned thanks. On the motion of Sir Edgeworth David, seconded by Mr. E. C. Andrews, a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to the retiring President for his valuable address. _. Professor Cotton briefly acknowledged the compliment. JUNE 4, 1930. The four hundred and ninety-third General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Royal Society's Rooms, 15 Castlereagh Street, at 8 p.m. X. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Professor L. A. Cotton, President, in the Chair. Eighteen members and one visitor were present. The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The death was announced of Mr. Joseph Palmer, who was elected a member in 1880. Letters were read from Mrs. J. E. Bishop, Miss Fairfax, and Mrs. J. Palmer, expressing thanks for the Society’s. sympathy in their recent bereavements. It was announced that His Excellency Air Vice-Marshal Sir Philip Woolcott Game, G.B.E., K.C.B., D.S.O., had accepted the office of Vice-Patron of the Society. The following resolution was moved from the Chair and adopted by the members :— | “That members of the Royal Society of New South Wales: unite in tendering their heartfelt congratulations to Miss Amy Johnson on ther safe arrival in Australia and in expressing their unbounded admiration of the skill and courage and indomitable resolution which enabled her to achieve what must remain for all time one of the most memorable triumphs in the history of the conquest of the: air. “To members of this Society such an occasion has a special and sentimental interest because it was at its meetings that Lawrence Hargrave gave the world those remarkable contributions which have been of such funda- mental importance in the development of the aeroplane. When, less than a generation ago, these papers were read, the hearers little thought that many of them would live to: see such a brilliant and wonderful sequel as this epic ment.” It was announced that the Council had appointed Dr. R. J. Noble, Honorary Secretary, in place of Mr. Tye. The certificates of five candidates for admission as ordi- nary members were read—two for the second and three for the first time. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. x1. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :—Harold Whitridge Davies and John 8S. Hodson. A letter was read from Sir David Orme Masson, thanking the members for electing him an honorary member of the Society. The following donations were received :—5 volumes, 192 parts, 3 reports, 1 map, and 1 calendar. Mr. A. B. Hector gave notice that at the next meeting he would move :— “That, referring to Mr. E. C. Andrews’ recent address in Brisbane regarding the possible revival of the ‘Per- ductive’ method of the study and presentation of Science, it is now opportune to consider whether members should adopt this method and whether the adoption of some aspects of ‘Pragmatism’ would mean for the advancement of Science and increase interest of members generally.” THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘‘A Review of the Permo-Carboniferous Productidae of New South Wales, with a tentative reclassification,’’ by F. W. Booker, B.Sc. Remarks were made by Professor Cotton and Mr. H. G. Ragegatt. 2. ‘‘The Intrusive Igneous Rocks of the Muswellbrook- Singleton District,’’ Part I., by H. G. Raggatt, B.Se., Singleton District,’’ Part II., by H. G. Raggatt, B.Sc., and H. F. Whitworth, B.Sc. Remarks were made by Professor Cotton. 3. ‘‘The Essential Oils of Zieria Smithii (Andrews) and its) Various Forms,’ by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.L, E.C.8; Remarks were made by Professor Cotton, Messrs. R. W. Challinor and A. B. Hector. Xl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. LECTURETTE: Mr. A. R. Penfold gave a lecturette (illustrated by lantern slides) on ‘‘The Economies of Some Important Australian Essential Oils.’’ JULY 2, 1930. The four hundred and ninety-fourth General Monthly Meeting was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 15 Castle- reagh Street, at 8 p.m. Professor O. U. Vonwiller, President, in the Chair. Twenty members and one visitor were present. The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The death was announced of Dr. R. L. Faithfull, who was elected a member in 1887. A letter was read from Mrs. Faithfull, expressing her appreciation of the Society’s sympathy in her recent be- reavement. » | The certificates of three candidates for admission as ordinary members were read for the second time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society:—Ronald Leshe Aston, James MacDonald Holmes, and William Donald MacKenzie. A letter was read from Miss Amy Johnson, thanking the members for congratulations on her aerial flight to Australia. The President announced that the foundation stone of Science House, Sydney, was set by His Excellency Sir Philip Game, on Tuesday, 24th June, 1930. The President announced that Mr. M. B. Welch, B.Sc., would deliver a Popular Science Lecture entitled, ‘‘The Romance of Wood,’’ on Thursday, July 17, 1930, at 8 p.m- ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xill- The following donations were received :—2 volumes, 149 parts, and 2 reports. Motion by Mr. A. B. Hector :— “That, referring to Mr. E. C. Andrews’ recent address in Brisbane regarding the possible revival of the ‘Perductive’ method of the study and presentation of science, it is now opportune to consider whether members should adopt this method and whether the adoption of some aspects of ‘Pragmatism’ would mean for the advancement of science and increase interest of members generally.” After considerable discussion, it was.decided to alter the motion as follows :— “That in the opinion of this meeting the time is now opportune to consider whether members should not adopt some method of presenting their papers whereby the interest in our meetings would be increased.” It was moved by Mr. Hector, seconded by Mr. Andrews, and carried. On the motion of Mr. A. R. Penfold, seconded by Mr. R. W. Challinor, it was decided to appoint a Sub-committee, consisting of the Executive Officers, Professor O. U. Vonwiller, Drs. H. G. Chapman, R. J. Noble, Mr. C. A. Sussmileh, and Messrs. A. B. Hector and E. C. Andrews. to consider the best method of carrying the above resolution into effect. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘‘Dimethyl-B-Phenylindene,’’ by J. C. Earl, D.Sc, Ph.D., and C. A. Smythe, B.Se. 2. “‘The Action of Acids on Diazoaminabenzene,’’ Part II., byte C. Karl,-DiSe., Ph.D. In the absence of Dr. Earl, the papers were read by Mr. R. W. Challinor. LECTURETTE: Professor O. U. Vonwiller gave a lecturette entitled, ‘‘A Brief Survey of Present Day Physical Research in Hol- land.” ’ XIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. AUGUST 6, 1930. The four hundred and ninety-fifth General Monthly Meeting was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 15 Castle- reagh Street, at 8 p.m. Professor O. U. Vonwiller, President, was in the Chair. Thirty-two members and one visitor were present. The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member was read for the first time. The President announced that Dr. C. Anderson would deliver a Popular Science Lecture entitied, ** Natural His- tory Museums,’’ on Thursday, 21st August. 1930, at 8 p.m. The following donations were received :—® volumes, 270 parts, and 5 reports. The President reported that the Sub-committee had sub- mitted a preliminary report which had been cirecularised among members. He stated also that certain other proposals were under consideration, namely, (a) holding the,monthly meeting in the afternoon at 4.30 p.m., (b) having a mem- bers’ dinner (informal) on the evening of each monthly meeting, etc. These would be brought before members in due course. THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ: ““The Essential Oil of Kuecalyptus rariflora’’ (Bailey), by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.I., F.C.8., C. B. Radcliffe, M.Sc., and F. W. Short, D.Sc. Remarks were made by Messrs. R. W. Challinor and A. B. Hector. LECTURETTE: Mr. C. A. Sussmilch gave a lecturette entitled, **The Volcanoes of Java,’’ illustrated by lantern slides. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV EXHIBITS: 1. Prof. L. Wilkinson. (a) Isometric sectional drawing of St. Paul’s Cathedral, showing details of construction. (b) Model of roof of Westminster Hall, constructed to demonstrate the principals of its construction. 2. Prof. U. O. Vonwiller. An interesting effect produced by lightning. 3. Mr. E. Cheel. Certain species of Acacia. Mr. Cheel exhibited fresh flowering specimens of fifteen species of ‘‘Wattles’’ (Acacia spp.) taken from plants cultivated on his private property at Hill Top on the Main Southern line. He also exhibited a series of specimens taken from twenty-four (24) separate trees of the ‘‘ Cootamundra Wattle’? (Acacia Baileyana), showing variation in the number of pinnae and the vestiture of the branches, branchlets, and leaflets. Some were quite glabrous, while others were more or less hairy. Attention was also drawn to the distinctive characters of the so-called varieties of Acacia decurrens, which, it was contended, represented at least eleven species, as follows :— Acacia decurrens. He Meal Daa. » mollissrma. » Deaner. » mollifolra. » Muellertana. ,» adenophora. » arundelliana, and three apparently un- described species. 4. Prof. L. A. Cotton. Some rocks which reveal Australia’s climates millions of years ago. 5. Mr. F. R. Morrison. Ethyl] Silicates and their Technical Application. XV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. SEPTEMBER 3, 1930. The four hundred and ninety-sixth General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 15 Castlereagh Street, at 8 p.m. Professor O. U. Vonwiller, President, in the Chair. Twenty-eight members and one visitor were present. The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. | | The certificates of two eandidates for admission as ordinary members were read—one for the second and one for the first time. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society :—George Francis King Naylor. The President announced that a Popular Science Lecture, entitled ‘‘The Development in Economic Importance of Carbon Compounds,’’ would be delivered by Dr. V. M. Trikojus on Thursday, 18th September, at 8 p.m. The following donations were received :—100 parts, 3: volumes, 2 reports, and 2 maps. THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ: ‘“The Fossil Fishes of the Australian Mesozoic Rocks,’’ by Rev. R._T. Wade, M.A. In the absence of the author, the paper was read by Mr. C. A. Sussmilch. LECTURETTE: Dr. Warnford Moppett gave a lecturette entitled ‘‘The Action of X-Rays on Living Tissues,’’ illustrated with lantern slides and exhibits. EXHIBITS: 1. ‘‘A new Composite Tool for use with blasting Ex- plosives,’’ by S. W. E. Parsson, A.A.C.I. 2. ‘‘Chart re the production of Iodine,’’ by A. E. Stephen, ECs: | i ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XVil.- 3. ‘‘Fossil Fish,’’ exhibited by the Mining and Geological ~ Museum. OCTOBER 1, 1920. The four hundred and ninety-seventh General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Royal Society’s: Rooms, 15 Castlereagh Street, at 8 p.m. Thirty members and one visitor were present. Professor O. U. Vonwiller, President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member was read for the second time. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society: William Perey Judd. A letter was read from Science House Management Committee asking the Society to bring under the notice of its members that there was about 7,000 sq. ft. of space still available for letting in Science House at a rental of 50/6 per square foot. The President announced that a Popular Science Lecture, entitled ‘‘Wool Fibre, its Nature, Character and Use,’’ would be delivered by Professor J. Douglas Stewart, B.V.Se., M.R.C.V.8., on Thursday, 16th October, at 8 p.m. The following donations were received :—5 volumes, 57 parts, 3 reports and 1 map. Mr. A. B. Hector gave notice that at the next meeting he would move :— “That, in view of the economic stress existing in Aus- tralia at present, it is advisable that the Society should devote at least one or more evenings to the consideration of our educational system and to try and suggest some practical means of increasing its efficiency.” XVill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. “Thrusts Faults and Compression Joints in the Muree beds, near Grasstree, New South Wales,’’ by H. G. Raggatt, B.Sc. Presented by Professor L. A. Cotton in the absence of Mr. Ragegatt. 2. ‘The Geology of the Wellington District, N.S.W., with special reference to the origin of the Upper Devonian Series,’’ by A. J. Matheson, B.Se. (communicated by Prof. Li. A. Cotton). Presented by Professor L. A. Cotton in the absence of Mr. Matheson. 3. ‘‘The history of the Development of the present Drain- age System in the Marulan District, with special reference to River Capture,’’ by G. F. K. Naylor, B.A., B.Se. Diseussion on the above three papers was left for the next meeting of the Geology Section. 4. ‘*Notes on the Essential Oils from some cultivated Eucalypts,’’ Part 2, by A. R. Penfold, F.C.S., and Ek. Morrison, F:C:S. Remarks were made by Mr. Cheel. LECTURETTE: “*The Culture of the Australian Aborigines, the value of its scientific study,’’ by Prof. Radcliffe-Brown, M.A. EXHIBITS: 1. ‘‘Governor Brisbane’s Telescope,’’ by Mr. J. Nangle. 2. “‘Some examples of pure chemicals illustrating the relation of colour to composition,’’ by Mr. A. B. Hector. NOVEMBER 5, 1930. The four hundred and ninety-eighth General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 15 Castlereagh Street, at 8 p.m. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS X1X. Professor O. U. Vonwiller, President, in the Chair. Thirty-nine members and three visitors were present. The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The President announced the death of Joseph Thompson, who was elected a member in 1913. The certificate of one candidate for admission aS an ordinary member was read for the first time. The President announced that forty-four replies had been received re Questionnaire—time of meeting—and of these, twenty-nine were in favour of the meeting being held. at 8 p.m., three at 6 p.m., and twelve at 4.30 p.m. The following donations were received :—167 parts, 3 volumes, 3 reports, 2 maps and one calendar. It was moved by Mr. A. B. Hector, seconded by Professor: C. E. Fawsitt and carried :— “That, in view of the economic stress existing in Aus-. tralia at present, it is advisable that the Society should devote one or more evenings to the consideration of our educational system with the object of suggesting some: practical means of increasing its efficiency.” THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ: 1. ‘‘Notes on the Mineralogy of the Silver-Lead-Zine Deposits of New South Wales, with special reference: to the Barrier Ranges Silver Field,’’ by George Smith: (communicated by Dr. C. Anderson). A discussion of a paper by Messrs. A. R. Penfold and F.. R. Morrison on ‘‘Notes on the Essential Oils from some cultivated Eucalypts,’’ Part IJ, read at last meeting, was. opened by Mr. Penfold. Messrs. R. T. Baker, F. W. Booker, M. B. Welch, H. Finnemore, Dr. C. Anderson, Professor: Fawsitt and Mr. A. B. Hector took part in the discussion.. RX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. LECTURETTE: Mr. A. 8. LeSouef gave a lecturette on *‘ Habits, Actions and Reactions common to men and animals.’’ A vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. LeSouef on the motion of the President. EXHIBITS: 1. ‘‘A new cutting tool for metals made from an alloy of tungsten carbide and cobalt,’’ by EH. G. Bishop. 2. ‘‘Some products of the ductless glands,’’ by A. B. Hector. 3. ‘‘A simple apparatus illustrating some properties of gases,’’ by O. U. Vonwiller. 4. Detailed plans of Science House with explanation by the Architect. DECEMBER 8, 19380. The four hundred and ninety-ninth General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 15 Castlereagh Street, at 8 p.m. Professor O. U. Vonwiller, President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. A letter was read from Mrs. Thompson, expressing thanks for the Society’s sympathy in her recent bereavement. The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member was read for the second time. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society: William O’Leary. The following donations were received :—4 volumes, 114 parts, 2 reports and 3 calendars. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘‘The Essential Oils of three species of Geijera and the occurrence of a new Hydrocarbon,’’ Part I, by A. R. Penfold, F.C.S. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XX1. Remarks were made by Messrs. F. W. Booker, E. Cheel, Professor F. Lions and Mr. A. B. Hector. 2. ‘‘Studies in the Inheritance of resistance to Bunt in a cross between Florence x Hard Federation Wheats,’’ by J. G. Churchward, B.Sec., Agr. (communicated by Professor R. D. Watt). | Remarks were made by Mr. A. B. Hector. 3. ‘‘Binuclear Isomerism of Diphenyl Type,’’ Part I, by F.. Lions, B.Se., Ph.D., and A. O. Robson. This paper was taken as read. 4. ‘‘Experiments on Moisture in Timber,’’ by M. B. Welch, B.Sce., A.I.C. 5. ‘The occurrence of Intercellular Canals in the Wood of some species of Flindersia,’’ by M. B. Welch, B.Se., A.LC. Remarks were made by Messrs. R. T. Baker and E. Cheel. LECTURETTE: Mr. D. T. Sawkins, M.A., gave a lecturette on ‘‘ Notes on the present Financial Difficulties. ’’ On the motion of Sir Edgeworth David a vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Sawkins. EXHIBITS: 1. “‘A simple apparatus illustrating some properties of gases,’’ by O. U. Vonwiller, B.Sc., I*.Inst.P. 2. “The radio-activity of a common weed,’’ by Mr. A. B. Hector. XX11. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTIGH. Annual Meeting, April 23, 1930. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch was in the Chair, and six members and five visitors were present. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch and Dr. G. D. Osborne were elected Chairman and: Hon. Secretary respectively for the year. The Secretary reported that no further information was available concerning the possible construction of a road through the Devil’s Coach House, Jenolan Caves. Mr. Shearsby reported that nothing further had been done concerning the Hatton’s Corner Reserve. The Secretary reported that the Local Committee of Section C of the A.A.A.Se. in Brisbane considered it not practicable to include in the programme for the Brisbane meeting a discussion on the Upper Palaeozoic Stratigraphy of Eastern Australia. EXHIBITS: 1. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse, on behalf of Miss Z. Moller, Honours Student in Geology at the University: (a) Dacite, apparently Devonian in age. Loc. Road cross- ing Byrne’s Creek, 4 miles east of Yerranderie. (b) and (c) Two types of nepheline basalt, one containing ageregates of olivine crystals. Loc. Far Peak, one mile W.S.W. of Yerranderie. (d) Water-worn galena, rounded in milling operations, from Colon Peaks, Yerranderie. (e) Fine and coarse granular ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXlll. galena showing slickensides; from No. 3 Level, Colon Peaks Mine, Yerranderie. 2. By Assist-Prof. Browne: Specimens of Rhacopteris from Yessabah, Kempsey District. Collected by Mr. A. N. Voisey. 3. By Mr. C. A. Sussmilch: (a) Fossiliferous limestone of probable Devonian age. (b) Erratic of Devonian rock from the Upper Marine Series. (c) Series of acid lavas and tuffs, of interest because of their age relation- ships. They may be Devonian or possibly Permo- Carboniferous. All specimens from Kandos, N.S.W. 4, By Dr. G. D. Osborne: A series of Devonian, Carboni- ferous and late-Tertiary sedimentary and igneous rocks to illustrate the address referred to below. Dr. G. D. Osborne addressed the Section on ‘‘A Geolo- gical Reconnaissance across the Devonian and Carboni- ferous rocks of the Upper Hunter and Upper Manning Districts of N.S.W.”’ A brief description of the relationships of the Permian, Carboniferous and Devonian systems between Willow Tree and Nundle, and in the Upper Hunter region, was given, and then the extensions to the south-east of Nundle of the Devonian rocks and the serpentine intrusions were described. Dr. Osborne pointed out that, although the exact relations of the Devonian and Carboniferous rocks were not clearly demonstrated, observations over a wide area indicated that tthe two series were, in general, conformable. The existence of more than one line of serpentine intru- ‘sion was discussed, and the detail of the occurrences of albite dolerite and spilites, and also of a new limestone area were given. The address was discussed by Professor Cotton, Pro- fessor Browne, Messrs. Andrews and Sussmilch. XXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. May 21, 1930. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch was in the Chair, and four members: and two visitors were present. wo EXHIBITS AND DISCUSSION: By Mr. C. A. Sussmileh: (a) Fossil corals of probable: Silurian age. (b) Rhyolite with nodules of chalcedony. The rhyolite appears to underlie the Upper Marine: Series and may itself be of Permo-carboniferous age. (c) Photographs of various formations and structures: in the Kandos district. Mr. Sussmilch contributed some notes concerning the geology of the Kandos: district. The exhibits, particularly the nodular rhyo-. lite, were discussed by members. By Dr. G. D. Osborne: Three specimens of fossil tree- stems from Wingham collected by Mr. G. 8. Hill, of Wingham, obtained more or less in situ in Carbonifer- ous rocks. The fossils were probably examples of Clepsydropsis. Professor W. R. Browne explained the details of a section in the Railway Cutting between Emu Plains: and Penrith, near where the railway line begins to ascend Lapstone Hill. The section showed old river eravels resting on folded Hawkesbury sandstone and a small fracture, apparently truncating the sandstone and disturbing the gravels. It appeared that the fold- ing and faulting took place after the deposition of the eravels. This conclusion, if true, carries some impor-. tant implications regarding the age of the folding of the Glenbrook anticline. June 18, 1930. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch was in the Chair, and nine members. and four visitors were present. RSH 6s ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXV. EXHIBITS: 1. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse, on behalf of Miss Z. Moller: (a) Rich granular argentiferous galena from Silver Peak and Colon Peak Mines, Yerranderie. Both spe- cimens carried traces of Bismuth. (b) Blende and galena cut by vein filled with tabular calcite and dark brown ankerite. (c) Pyrargyrite with traces of Arsenic; the specimen suggesting secondary enrich- ment of silver. Loc. Silver Peak Mine. (d) Argen- tite associated with galena and blende. 2. By Dr. G. D. Osborne, on behalf of Miss Powell: Black shale with beautifully polished surfaces due to slicken- side action. From the Ipswich Coal Measures, Ipswich, Queensland. 3. By Mr. H. G. Raggatt: (a) Olivine basalt from Bick- ham plug, 4 miles east of Blandford, N.S.W. (b) Basalt from north of Parkville. (c) Types of Tertiary basalt from Owens Gap, N.S.W. (d) Specimens from basic plug in Bosley’s Gully, near Wingen. (e) Por- phyrite (?) which may be Carboniferous or later in age, loc. near Bosley’s Gully. Some of the basalts exhibited by Mr. Raggatt were zeolitic, containing much natrolite. The field occurrence of the many types was discussed by members, and Mr. Raggatt explained that the stratigraphy of some of the rocks was quite out of harmony with that of similar rocks in the Lower Hunter Valley. Mr. G. A. V. Stanley addressed the Section on ‘‘The Present Position of the Search for Oil in New Guinea.”’ He gave an instructive account of the investigations which have been carried out by geologists of various countries into the possibilities of the occurrence of oil in New Guinea, illustrating his remarks with maps and sections. He summarised the more recent activities of private companies XG XXVi, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. and of the Commonwealth Government in association with the A.P.O. Co., and showed that while the area to be investi- gated was of great extent, very little work of a detailed character had been done. Professor Cotton moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Stanley for having given to the Section a splendid résumé of the oil-search activities in New Guinea. This was carried by acclamation. July 17, 1930 Mr. C. A. Sussmilch was in the Chair, and four members and four visitors were present. EXHIBITS: 1. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse: Specimen of chloritic mineral (containing MgO, Si0., CaO, FeO, H.O and traces of CO.). This was brownish-green in colour, and was found in joints in columnar basalt in Suva, Fiji. The material is pale blue when exposed, but turns dark green, and finally brownish green. Changes may be due to dehydration, and the origin may be late-magmatie. e 2. By Assist.-Professor W. R. Browne: Common Opal from the Reservoir Quarry, Prospect. This is doubt- less of deuteric origin and is of interest because of its occurrence in basic alkaline rocks. 3. By Dr. G. D. Osborne: Cleavage block of calcite which had been treated to corrosion in warm dilute nitric acid ina basin. The faces of the block showed selective solution, some faces being striated very regularly with ridges and furrows and others possessing a less regular, but more or less distinct pattern. The origin of the structures was discussed, and it was considered that the regular furrows were developed by the uprush of currents of acid caused by convection. The solution ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. X XVil. of certain lines more readily than others would imme- diately provide lines of least resistance for further solution. The suggestion was made that the escape of CO, might help to determine the solutions furrows. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch addressed the Section on ‘‘Notes on the Geology and Physiography of South-Eastern Queensland.”’ A general account of the chief geological formations was first given. These comprised the recent sands and alluvials, the Tertiary volcanic rocks, the Tertiary sediments, the Trias-Jura Series and the Brisbane Schists. Mr. Sussmilch then described the various physiographic units of the area and proceeded to explain their relation- ships. He put forward the view that the various units comprising the coastal lowland, the D’Aguilar Range, the Tambourine Plateau, the Lower Belt of the Middle Brisbane Valley of Trias-Jura rocks (mostly), the McPherson Range, and the Main Tableland (with varying elevation), repre- sented parts of a formerly-existing peneplain which had been differentially uplifted. The zones which connected the various units were of the nature of either faults or warps. Thus the D’Aguilar was considered a horst. The evidence for faulting on the E. and N.E. of the Toowoomba Tableland was considered in some detail. In conclusion, Mr. Sussmilch drew an analogy ketween the Sydney Basin with its associated warped and faulted highlands and the lowland of the Middle Brisbane River and its surrounding highlands. The paper was discussed by Professor Browne and Dr. Osborne. August 13, 1930. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch was in the Chair, and eight members and two visitors were present. Professor Cotton was elected to act as Hon. Secretary for the remainder of the year, on account of the resignation of Dr. Osborne, in view of his intended departure for Europe. XXVill ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS On the motion of Sir Edgeworth David it was resolved to place on record the Section’s appreciation of the service rendered by Dr. Osborne as Hon. Secretary. EXHIBIT: 1. By Sir Edgeworth David: Specimens of Pre-Cambrian rock from South Australia containing Arachnid fossil remains. These remains, Sir Edgeworth explained, could be definitely regarded as portions of the thorax and swimming-appendages of ancient Eurypterids, and thus were of great interest in connection with the problem of the ancestry of vertebrate faunas. DISCUSSION: Professor L. A. Cotton presented a summary of his Presidential Address, recently given to the Royal Society of N.S.W., entitled ‘‘ An Outline and Suggested Correlation of the Pre-Cambrian Formations of Australia.’’ The address was then thrown open for discussion. Professor Cotton gave an outline of the general classifi- cation of the Pre-Cambrian of the Pilbarra region of W.A., and compared the formations of the other parts of Australia with those of this type-area. He showed that the broad features of the geological history to the close of the Pro- terozoic were analogous to those of the Pre-Cambrian history of Canada, the essential facts being the occurrence of two great diastrophic revolutions separating the three systems, which, in order of decreasing antiquity, are the Warrawoona Series, the Mosquito Creek Series, and the Nullagine Series. He then discussed the structural relations of the various areas, and suggested that four massifs or shields existed in early Pre-Cambrian time, these being separated by geosynclinal areas in which later sediments were deposited. The four massifs were named Yilgarnia, the Kimberley Massif, Tasmantis, and the Carpentaria Massif. The areas of deposition became elevated and folded from time to time by the crushing effect of the movements towards one © another of the great stable areas—the sea generally retreating during such crustal revolutions. With this conception, a basis for the later tectonic history of Australia during Palaeozoic time is furnished. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXix,. The discussion was continued by Sir Edgeworth David, Professor Browne, Professor Holmes, and Dr. Osborne, and Professor Cotton replied to certain points raised. September 19, 1930. Mr. Sussmilch was in the Chair, and eight members and seven visitors were present. EXHIBITS: 1. By Mr. Morrison: (a) Crystals of gold upon quartz erystals. (b) Shales showing cone in cone structure. (c) Sandstone from Arneliffe showing remarkable irridescent colours. (d) White and pink felspars from Tarana; the former is used for Bon Ami powder and the latter for ceramic work. 2. By Mr. Dun, on behalf of Mr. Kenny: (a) A group of fossils from Tibboburra, including Modiola eyrensis, Macoyella barkleyt, Lissulunia clarkei and Belemnites sp. The rocks in which they occur are shales having a thickness of from 150 to 200 feet and are the equiva- lents of the Roma Series. The basal beds of the Tibbo- burra Strata contain abundant erratics. Beneath these are fresh water beds of Walloon age about 50 to 60 feet in thickness. These contain Taxites and Taeniopterrs. 3. By Professor Browne: Fenestella and Orthotetes from near the Limekilns south of Marulan. He suggested that possibly the lower limestone belt may be of Ordovician age. 4. By Professor Cotton: (a) Natural clinker from the upper surface of the Mittagong coal seam and under a large sill of syenite. (b) A bituminous vein from the Bowral Quarries on the south-west side of the Gib. 5. By Mr. Waterhouse: (a) Purple quartzite of probable Devonian age from the irrigation area near Griffith. (b) An alkaline basalt containing fayalite, nepheline, XXX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, leucite and analcite from a spot eleven miles north-west of Griffith. (ce) Ice serateched pebbles from the Permo-Carboniferous rocks on Badgery’s Track south- east of Tallong. October 17, 1930. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch was in the Chair, and six members. and one visitor were present, EXHIBITS: 1. By Professor W. R. Browne: A collection of Tectites. recently received from Professor Lacroix. 2. By Mr. A. J. Matheson: A collection of rocks and fossils illustrating his paper on the Wellington District. PAPERS: Mr. G. F. K. Naylor gave a résumé of his paper dealing with the probable evolution of the Wollondilly-Shoalhaven River System, and illustrated his remarks with lantern slides. The paper was discussed by the Chairman, Professor Sir Edgeworth David, and Professor Browne. Mr. A. J. Matheson gave an account of his paper on the Wellington District, which was read at the last General Meeting of the Society. The paper, which dealt particularly with the sequence and relationships of the Silurian and Devonian Systems, was illustrated by lantern slides, photographs and specimens. General discussion followed. November 21, 1980. Mr. Sussmilch was in the Chair, and five members and. four visitors were present. There were no exhibits. | PAPERS: 1. Mr. H. G. Raggatt gave an abstract of his paper, recently yead at the General Meeting of the Society, on some over- thrust faults in the neighbourhood of Grasstree. His remarks, which were illustrated by lantern slides, were discussed by Mr.. Andrews, Dr. Browne, and Sir Edgeworth David. 2. One of the visitors, Mr. G. Smith, presented portions of his paper on the Mineralogy of the Barrier Ranges, recently | read before the Society. Remarks were made by Mr. Andrews. and Sir Edgeworth David. > a’ a ee ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXI1. ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF INDUSTRY o Officers—Charrman: A. D. Olle, F.C.S. Honorary Secretary: H. V. Bettley-Cooke. During the year the following works were visited by the members :— May 13th—The Alexandria Spinning Mills, Alexandria. June 10th—Messrs. Tooth & Co.’s Brewery, City. July 8th—Messrs. Farmer & Co.’s Establishment, City. Aug. 12th—Messrs. Michael Nairn’s Linoleum Works, Auburn. Sept. 9th—Messrs. Wrigley’s Works, Rosebery. Oct. 14th—The Metropolitan Meat Works, Homebush. Nov. 18th—The Australian Gaslight Co.’s Works, Mort- lake. : December—wNpo visit. XXXIL ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF PHYSICAL SCIEN Eleven meetings were held during the year, the average attendance of members and visitors being seventeen. The election of officers for the year was held on 11th June, and the following were elected :— Charman: Assistant-Professor Briggs. Honorary Secretary: J. Bannon. Council: Professor Vonwiller, Professor Madsen, Asso- ciate Professor Wellish, Major E. H. Booth, Mr. Godfrey. April 9, 1930. Professor O. U. Vonwiller read a paper on ‘‘Intensity Comparisons of Spectral lines.’’ April 30, 1980. Mr. A. L. Green gave an address dealing with the activities of the British Radio research board. June 11, 1930. Dr. L. Huxley read a paper entitled ‘‘A sketch of some Physical Investigations which are being carried out at Oxford.’’ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXill. July 2, 1930. Professor G. H. Briggs read a paper entitled ‘The passage of 8 rays through gases.’’ July 16, 1930. Major Booth read a paper entitled ‘‘Local Magnetic anomalies, their detection and interpretation.’’ August 6, 1930. Dr. T. Iredale read a paper entitled ‘‘ Dissociation of Molecules by Light.’’ September 17, 1930. Professor O. U. Vonwiller read a paper entitled ‘‘ Dis- persion of Rontgen Rays.”’ October 1, 1930. Professor E. M. Wellish read a paper entitled ‘‘The motions of Ions in Gases.’’ October 15, 19380. Mr. R. L. Aston read a paper entitled ‘‘Recent deter- minations of the Velocity of Light.’’ November 5, 1930. Mr. 8. E. Williams read a paper entitled ‘‘The Raman Effect.’ Notice of Motion: Professor Vonwiller gave notice of the following motion:—‘‘That the time of meeting of the Section be altered from 4.30 to 4 p.m.”’ XXXiV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. November 12, 1930. Professor Vonwiller moved—‘ That the time of meeting of the section be altered from 4.30 to 4 p.m.’’ Mr. Bannon seconded the motion. The motion was put to a vote and was carried. Mr. J. Herlihy read a paper entitled ‘‘Cosmie radiation and theories of its Origin.’’ INDEX. Paae A Review of some of the Permo- Carboniferous Productidz of New South Wales, with a tentative Reclassification... 65 Abstract of Proceedings 1.-xxx. Geology : Mo o-ahik Industry és XXXi. Physical Science .., xxXXii, Acacia sp... ee ae Acid in glacial “Acetic Acid. Oxidation of the prea bon by chromic 93 » in the presence of mercuric sulphate. Oxidation of the hydrocarbon by sulphuric... 93 », Action of acetic anhydride on the ails 94 » with alkaline permanganate. Oxidation of the ees) Acids on Diazoaminobenzene, The action of 76 Action of Acetic Anyhydride on on the Acid . Action of Acids on [einzenmino- benzene, Part II. 96 Alkali Soluble is Removal of 291 Alkali Soluble — Constituents (Phenols and B- ao Determination of Alkaline basic sills An Outline and suggested Corre- lation of the Pre-Cambrian formations of Australia Analyses of Rocks from the Transition Series ... Angle of repose and angle of 105 79 10 friction 164 Annual Dinner ... vil Annual Financial Statement . li. Application of the strain n ollip- soid . 165 Archaeomenidae . ss i, .. 181 Armit, Henry William . bead 2 Aromatic Aldehydes (Cuminal, Phellandral, etc.), Deter- mination of . 106 Australian Fossil ‘Fiahas which have been described to date (1930), Notes on 120 Australian Mesozoic Beds ... 118 Australian Mesozoic Rocks. The Fossil Fishes of the sae LIS Australian Palaconiscidae ve 125 PAGE Award of the Clarke Memorial Medal a see Will, » of Walter Burfitt Prize . Vil. Azulene, Determination of ... 283 B Backhousia augustifolia ... 104, 106 Balance Sheet ... wae Pee Balsille, George ... eae Soa Ve Belonorhynchidae... . 128 Benzene - diazoaminoazobenzene from Diazoaminobenzene, Formation of ; 98 Bi-nuclear Isomerism “of Di- phenyl Type, Part I. . 320 Booker, F. W. A Review of some of the Permo- Carboniferous Productidz of New South Wales, with a tentative Reclassification... 65 Broken Hill oe The Outerop of the.. ea . 250 Bunt Fi . 807 Bunt in a cross Werween Plor: ence x Hard Federation Wheats. Studies in the In- heritance of resistance to . 298 Burfitt Prize are ote vii., 9 Cc Catopteridae tes hy bok Central and South Australia ve 29 Cerargyrite aes 252 Chalmers, A. J., F. Lions, and A. O. Robson— Bi-nuclear Isomerism of Di- phenyl Type, Part I. . 320 Churchward, J. G.— Studies on the Inheritance of Resistance to Bunt in a cross between Florence x Hard Federation Wheats... 298 Cineol Estimation Re woe 222 Cineol, Determination of ... 110 Clarke Memorial Medal awarded to L. K. Ward vlii., 9 Coastal Belt nee wee hi) 12 Cobalt Minerals ... . 261 Codrington, John Frederick vee ee, Coelocanthidae ... oe ae Correlation of the Pre-Cambrian Formations of Australia. An Outline and suggested,,. 10 XXXVI. PAGE Cotton, L. A. Presidential Address ... Council’s Report .. cad: Ege Wi. Cretaceous . 144 Cretaceous Fish Fossils... ... 133 Crude Oil, Examination of high- boiling portion of second lot of .. Crystallisation of Mixtures of 111 Diazoaminobenzene and Renae ep aD area amare zene .,.. 99 Cultivated Eucalypts, Part IL., Notes on the Essential Oils from some ... lO Cymene, Determination of . 109 D Dacrydium Franklini 107, 108, 109 Description of Faults and Joints 155 Determination of Alkali Soluble Constituents (Phenols and B-Diketones) : 105 », Aromatic Aldehydes (Comi- nal, Phellandral, BO) . 106 ,» Azulene ee ,, Camphene 273, 291 ,, D-4-Carene with traces of B-Pinene ... .. 108 », Cineol - LO », Cymene wan LOD » Free Acid “and Phenolic bodies . 285 » Hydrocarbon ; . 281 », Limonene and Dipentene... 275 », Linalool . 283 » sesquiterpene Alcohols Pelle », Sesquiterpenes 83, 111, 276, 284 s (-Phellandrene 360 (LOT s sa Dime- thyl Ether.. . 277 ,, @-Pinene ... ... 106 », d-a-Pinene 86, 221, 270, 291 , Principal Terpenes... . 270 Devonian Series, The . 178 Diazoaminobenzene and Ben- zene-diazoaminoazobenzene. Crystallisation of mixtures of 99 Diazoaminobenzene Formation of Benzene-diazoaminoazo- benzene from 23) a. 98 Diazoaminobenzene, Part IL, The Action of Acidson ... 96 Dibrucine Salt .., fai . 336 INDEX. PaGE aa-Dimethyl-@-Phenylindene... 90 Preparation of 92 Diphenyl Type, Part I., Bi- nuclear Isomerism of ... 320 Dipnoi 121, 146 Distillation of Acid with baryta’ 94 Distribution of Mesozoic Rocks in Australia .. . 116 Distrychnine Salt a 336 Drainage System in the Marulan District, with special refer- ence to river capture, The History of the mi sas of the present hi ret) Dykes and small sills ... et OU Karl, J. C.— The Action of Acids on Diazo- aminobenzene, Part II. ... 96 Karl, J. C., and C. A. Smythe— aa-Dimethyl-§-Phenylindene 90 Eastern Province 27 Effect of force due to weight of overlying beds 163 Effect of Meteoric Waters upon Ore Deposits 241 Elasmobranchii 120, 121, 146 Elliott, Edward . 2 Essential Oils from Leaves for- warded by Nyngan Experi- ment Farm, 24/5/28 278 Essential Oils from some Cultiv- ated Eucalypts, Part II., Notes on the 210 Essential Oils of Eucalyptus rariflora (Bailey) 101, 114 Essential Oils of three Species of Geijera and the Occurr- ence of a new Hydrocarbon, Part 1. , 264 Essential Oils of Tieria “Smithii (Andrews) and its various forms... 83 Eucalypts. ‘Notes on the Essen- tial Oils from some cultiv- ated ... BE ws 210 Eucalyptus australiana 14 . “211 5» bicostata 218, 223 »» cibriodora . 214 »» dives ... . 216 »» macarthuri . 212 yy smith J ; 213 Eucalyptus rariflora ( Bailey), The Essential Oils of . 101 Eudesmol .., oe gee 222 a Ts a INDEX. XXXVil. PAGE Pagan Examination of High Boiling Geological Section ase 34 Portion of Second Lot of Crude Oil oe a Experiments on Moisture in Timber F Factors controlling formation of Faults and Joints ... Fairfax, Geoffrey E. 4 Be Faults and Compression Joints in the Muree Beds. Thrust Financial Statement na Fish-bearing Beds one Fishes in Australian Rocks, Geological distribution of.. Flindersia, The Occurrence of Intercellular Canals in the Wood of some Species of ... Formation of Benzene-diazo- aminoazobenzene from Dia- zoaminobenzene ‘ Fossil Fishes of the Australian Mesozoic Rocks. The te Fossil Fish of the Hawkesbury Series at Brookvale, N.S.W. Foundation Stone of Science House set... Free Acid and Phenolic bodies, Determination of G Game, Sir Philip Woolcott, Vice-Patron of the Society Geiera muelleri (Bentham) », parviflora (Lindley) », parviflora from Queensland » parviflora, variety ‘A” (New South Wales) », salicifolia (Schott)... ,, Lhe Essential Oils of three Species of, and the oc- currence of a new Hydro- carbon, Part I. Genetics of Resistance . Genera of the ae Palaeonis- cidae ... : Genus Terrakea, gen. nov. : Geological and Geographical Distributions in general of Australian Mesozoic genera Geological Distribution of Fishes in Australian Rocks Goldfields of Central Western ... 268 » 111 Australia yo NO Grass Tufts 308, 313 . 337 H Hargrave, Lawrence x. Hawkesbury Series at Brook- 157 vale, N.S.W., Fossil Fish of 3 the siers 5 37. Henson, Joshua Binnington 3 148 Honorary Members Gt ij, | Hour of General Meeting ie > 119 | Hydrocarbon, Determination of the ... 281 140 | Hydrocarbon by. ‘Chromic Acid in Glacial Acetic Acid. Oxidation of the 93 352 95 Nitration of .. es, OD Hydrocarbon by Sulphuric Acid in the presence of Mercuric 98 Sulphate. Oxidation ofthe 93 . 115 i Industry, Section of... XXXIi. 137 | Inheritance of Kesistance to Bunt in a cross. betwoen Sul Florence x Hard Federation Wheats, Studies in the . 298 . 285 | Intercellular Canals in Woods of some species of Flinder- sia, The occurrence of 352 Intrusive Igneous Rocks of the Muswellbrook - ee x. District 78 289 | lodyrite 255 _ 264: Isomerism of Diphenyl Type 279 | (bi-nuclear), Part I. . 820 292 | Johnson, Miss Amy Xs, 01, Jurassic... ‘ee 141, 144 K 264 | Kimberley District . 39 304 | King, Sir Kelso, honoured vii. 124 66 | Leaves and Branches collected from other parts of Queens- land, Determination of 5 Pasi) Leptolepidae : 4. 182 142 | Letting Space in Science House xvii. Limonene and Dipentene, De- . 140 termination of oo 275 Pace XXXViii. INDEX, PAGE Linalool, Determination of . 283 | Muswellbrook - Singleton Dis- Lions, F., A. J. Chalmers, and A. O. Robson— Bi-nuclear Isomerism of Di- phenyl Type, Part I. ... 320 List of Members ; .. (ix.) List of Officers and Council vii. Lower [riassic . 140 M Maiden Memorial Pavilion _... viii. Marulan District, '‘he History of the Development of the present Drainage System in the, with special refer- ence to River Capture —I9t Masson, David Orme . 115 Matheson, A. J.— The Geology of the Welling- ton District, N.S.W., with special reference to the origin of the PPE Devon- ian Series ‘ me eh McKinney, HughG. ... DEA Member honoured vii. Members, List of f ix. Mesozoic Beds, Australian 118 Mesozoic Fishes, Table showing the Classification of Aus- tralian 140, 146, 147 Mesozoic Genera, Geological and Geographical distributions in general of Australian ... 142 Mesozoic Rocks in Australia, Distribution of ae (2,216 Mesozoic Rocks, The Fossil Fishes of the Australian ... 115 Methyl Eugenol, Determination of 87 Mineralogy ‘of the Silver-Lead- Zinc Deposits of N.S.W., with special reference to the Barrier Ranges Silver Field, Notes on the 224, Moisture in Timber, Experi- ments on ... 337 Morrison, F. R., and A. a Pon fold— Notes on the Essential Oils from some Cultivated Euc- alypts, Part IT. . 210 Mosquito Creek Series ... 15 Motion, Notice of 14 (Ry ws, XVil,; X1X. trict, The Intrusive Igneous Rocks of the Muree Beds, near Grasstree, New South Wales, Thrust Faults and Compression Joints in the a N a-Naphthquinoline Naylor, G. F. K.— The History of the Develop- ment of the present Drain- age System in the Marulan District, with special re- ference to River Capture .., Nitration of Hydrocarbon North Western Province Northern Territory a Notes on Australian Fossil Fishes which have been described to date (19380) Notes on the Essential Oils from some Cultivated Eucalypts, Part IT. vk Notes on the Mineralogy of the Silver-Lead-Zinc Deposits of New South Wales, with special reference to the Barrier Ranges Silver Field Nullagine Series.. ee Nyngan Experiment ‘Farm, Essential Oils from Leaves forwarded by O Obituary— Armit Henry William Balsille, George is Bishop, Joseph Eldred i Codrington, John Frederick... Elliott, Edward a ae Fairfax, Geoffrey E. ... Faithfull, R. L.... Be 5 Henson, Joshua Binnington... McKinney, a Giffen Ormsby, Irwin .. Palmer, Joseph ! Pigot, Edward Francis Poole, William ee Spencer, Baldwin Sir... Thompson, Joseph . White, Edmond Aungur 78 . 148 . 334 191 95 23 41 . 120 210 224 15 . 278 Le) fete . a He m & 09 7" OO bo bo aI). % oO: iNDEX, Xxxix. PAGE ation, A Review of some Objections to the internal Fric- of the.. a we 65 ae Theory of sliding 5 p- Phellatideene: Devermination a allure : : evs of 0 Officers and Council ‘ .. 1x. | Phenol ania Tree. Acid, Woter: Oil of Eucalyptus rarijflora. The mination of . bie x 685 Essential 101 Phloracetophenone Dimethyl Oils from some cultivated Euc- Ether, Determination of ... 277 alypts. Notes on the Es- Pholidophoridae ... 5) 121 sential 210 | Physical Science, Section of xxvii. >», Of Zieria Smithii ‘and its Pigot, Edward Francis.. 6 eae forms, P ee Ks- a-Pinene, Determination of 86, 106 sentia 83 5 4-Carene with traces of ... 108 », of three species of ‘Geijera £-Pinene, Determination of D-4- and the occurrence of a new Ganee a NG - 108 Hydrocarbon, Part I. The d-a-Pinene, Determination of ... 86 Essential 264 | Pleuracanthus parvidens 120 Ormsby, Irwin 41 Plugs "96 Outline and suggested Correl- Poole, Watliaw eae ation of the Pre-Cambrian Popular Science Lectures vi., viii. F ormations of Australia ... 10 res Cambrian Formations of Oxidation of Acid with Alkaline Australia, an Outline and Permanganate 95 suggested Correlation of the 10 Oxidation of the Hydrocarbon PkecCanibiten general Features by Chromic Acid in Glacial Berrie vo" 11 ad 93] Pre-Cambrian in Australia, Oxidation of the Hy drocarbon Structural Relations of the 49 by Sulphuric Acid in the : : presence of Mereuric Sul- Preparation of aa- ea phate .. 93 Phenylindene : 92 Oxidation with Alkaline Potas- Preparation of Hy drobromide... 272 sium Permanganate 273 ci ioe of the Hydrochlor- ee eee ( 2 Presidential Address by Tie ke Cotton 1 Palaeoniscidae ... ... 124 | Prize, Walter Burfitt. Awarded Australian . 125 to Dr. N. D. Royle... me Ti Penfold, A. R.— Productus brachytherus ... .. 65 The Essential Oils of three 1, carbonarius ... 75 Species of Geijera and the 1, cylindricus 76 occurrence of a new Hydro- »» scabriculus Pek 18 carbon, Part I. me 264 ,, brachytherus, var. Elon- The Essential Ouls of Zieria gata 74, 75, 76 Smith (Andrews) and its fragilis, Dana tee various forms 83 | Pyromorphite 256 Penfold, A. R., C. B. Radcliffe, and W. F, Short— The Essential Oils of Eucalyp- Q tus rariflora (Bailey) . 101 ; Penfold A. B., and F. Sa ae Morrison— Notes on the Essential Oils from some Cultivated Euc- R alypts. Part IT. .. 210 | Radcliffe, C. B., A. R. Penfold, Permo-Carboniferous Producti- and W. F. Short— de of New South Wales, The Essential Oil of Eucalyp- with a tentative Reclassific- tus rariflora (Bailey) . 101 75 4 xl. PaGE Raggatt, H. G.— Thrust Faults and Compres- sion Joints in the Muree Beds, near Grasstree, New South Wales ner ... 148 Raggatt, H. G., and H. F. Whitworth— The Intrusive Igneous Rocks of the Muswellbrook-Single- ton District .. Relation of Minerals to Lode Ganque Relationship of Faults to Prin- cipal Thrust Faults of Area Removal of Alkali Soluble Bodies 201 Report of the Council for the Year 1929-30 Resistance to Bunt in a cross between Florence x Hard Federation Wheats, Studies in the Inheritance of Robson, A. O., A. J. Chalmers, and F. Lions— Bi-nuclear Isomerism of Di- phenyl Type, Part I. ... 320 Royle, N. D_ First Award of the Walter Burfitt Prize...9, vii. 78 231 167 vi. 298 =) Safrol, Determination of 86 Samples of Oil from Dalby, Queensland ., 288 Sample of Oil from Rockhamp- ton material, arlety . 287 Science House Vil. Letting Space ooXVIl, Foundation Stone set ex. Sennronotidae + ... 129 Sesquiterpenes, Determination of .... 88, 111, 276, 284, 291 Sesquiterpene Alcohols, Deter- mination of . 113 Short, W. F., is R. Penfold, and C. B. Raenne The Essential Oils of Eucalyp- tus rariflora ( Bailey) 101 Silurian, The 172 Silver Content of Galena in re- lation to external characters 228 Silver Haloids, The ‘ aw 20 Silver - Lead - Zinc Deposits of New South Wales, with special reference to the Bar- INDEX. Page rier Ranges Silver Field, Notes on the Mineralogy of 224 Smith, G.— Notes on the Mineralogy of the Silver - Lead- Zine De- posits of New South Wales, with special reference to the Barrier Ranges Silver Field . 224 Smythe, C. A., and J. C. Earl— aa - Dimethyl - (Bez Phenylin- dene ... 90 Some Characteristics Of Silver Lodes and Minerals in New South Wales 226 Spencer, Baldwin, Sir ... 7 Steeply-inclined Joints, The 167 Statement of Receipts and Ex- penditure il. Studies in the Inheritance of Resistance to Bunt in a cross between Florence x Federation Wheats ... 298 Structural Relations of the Pre- Cambrian in Australia 49 Summary of conditions existing at the time of Compression 154 =i Table showing the Classification of Australian Mesozoic Fishes 140, 146 147 Tasmania... 37 Tasmantis ein Teleoster . 182 Teleostomi .. ... 146 Terrakea brachythaera ais Oct, FL fragilis ... 67,69, 70, 71, 73, 74 levis ... val 69, 70 elongata F tan AM Tertiary Rocks, The ie 89 Tetrahedrite 2 228 The Action of Acids on Dae aminobenzene, Part II. . 96 The Essential Oil of Eucalyptus rariflora (Bailey) woe SOL The Essential Oils of three Species of Geijera and the occurrence of a new Hydro- carbon, Part I. 264 The Essential Oils of Zion, Smithit (Andiews) and its various forms 83 The Fossil Fishes of the Aus- tralian Mesozoic Rocks ... 115 INDEX. xli. PAGE PaaE The Geology of the Wellington V District, New South Wales, VaristaleBosistance 302 with special reference to the origin of the Upper Devon- ian Series... The History of the Develop- ment of the present Drain- age System in the Marulan District, with special re- ference to River Capture... The Intrusive Igneous Rocks of the Muswellbrook-Single- ton District . The Occurrence of Intercellular Canals in the Wood of some Species of Flindersia ‘ The Occurrence of Upper Palae- ozoic Fishes in New South Wales Upper Triassic rocks The Outcrop of the Broken Hill Lode . ; - The Silver “Haloids ; Thrust Faults and Compression Joints in the Muree Beds, near Grass Tree, N.S.W. ... Timber, eee on Mois- ture in Tip Beardedness... Transition Series, Analyses of Rocks from the Triassic, ; Lower Upper U Upper Coal Measures ss Upper Devonian Series. The Geology of the Wellington District, New South Wales, with special reference to the Origin of the Upper Marine Series Upper Palaeozoic Fishes in New South Wales Upper Triassic Rocks, The Occurrence of ... . 141 Upper Triassic 171 191 78 352 133 250 251 148 ee OST 308, 312 aw 80 .. 148 .. 140 . 141 150 sccm 150 133 Wade, R. T.— The Fossil Fishes of the Aus- tralian Mesozoic Rocks Walter Burfitt Prize awarded to Dr. N. D. Royle Warrawoona Series Welch, M. B.— Experiments on Moisture in Timber : The Occurrence of Intercellu- lar Canals in the Wood of some Species of Flindersia Wellington District, N.S.W., The Geology of the, with special reference to the origin of the Upper Devon- ian Series... Wheats, Studies in the TInheri- tance of Resistance to Bunt in a cross between Florence x Hard Federation.. Whitworth, H. F. and H. G. Raggatt— The Intrusive Igneous Rocks of the Muswellbrook- Single- ton District . Wuuluman Granite, The ~ Yonge, C. M. Great Barrier Reef Expedition ae vA Zieria Smithvi (Andrews) and its various forms, Part I., The Essential Oils of Zieria Smithu from Queensland Zine Ores ... . 115 9 14 337 352 171 298 78 . 188 8 83 89 . 257 3 ; y is i a } Ny ; Ae ( . y a i b A me ip" F Mi SYDNEY: Frep. W. Waitt, Printer, 344 Kent STREET. 1931. XI The Heder tial Oils of three species of Gekjons aud _ the oceurrence of a new Hydrocarbon. Part I. By A. BR. 101 , F. A. C.PE.CS. “(Issued a 28rd, 1931,) ate Pecuwino, B.Sc.Agr. bite nc aa by Pratecdos . Wart), (With one text figure,) (Issued April 30th, yh eos aoe bes see aoe eos eos RT. VI. ae Isomerism of pibeny PyDes Part I. Crea Rosson. (Issued"April 30th, 1981.).... se ase ae 320 Aer XVIT.—Experiments on Moisture in Timber. By M. B. » | Weticu, BSc., A.I.C. (With two. text figures.) (ipaes pions May 4th, oe eae veh ey dg sah at wes «(O87 : “ART. XVIII.—The occurrence of Enter oul lular Canals in the Wood : of some species of Flindersia. By M. B, Weucu, B.Sc., ee eA 1.C. Se Plate IX. and seals teat tien: (Issued May ‘ _ 5th, 1931.) be : coe : = ie vk oOg Ss Apsrracr OF PROCEEDINGS oa es as fies wee) «1 — XXXIV. es ‘ProceEpinGs OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION ... out vs XXil. — XXX, 3 ie ‘PROCEEDINGS OF THE SEcTION oF INDUSTRY i uid st. REESE. 4 Procrepines OF THE SECTION OF PHysIcaL SCIENCE XXXll. — XXxXiv. * 4 Tr7LE Pace, Contents, Noricrs, PUBLICATIONS, ... Bea (i. — vi.) _ Orricers FoR 1930-1931 he a a; ne vb vee (Vii. ¥ Last or Members, &. ... ee & ees fe act (ix.) _Inpex TO Votume LXIV. 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