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JOURNAL

AND

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

NEw SOULHM WALES

FOR y 4

1934 nion In =
(INCORPORATED 1881) ; Anse Shit,
ioe cn ae 440

3 SLE LLU

VOL. Lexy EET Nyy. |
<Uonal Muse®

Parts I and II [—— "

EDITED BY

THE HONORARY SECRETARIES.

THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN.

SYDNEY

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS

+ Issued as a complete volume, June 11, 1935.

CONTENTS.
VOLUME LXVITII.
Part I.*

Page.

Art. I.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By R. W. Challinor,
Hue. AA.C.1., A:S.T.C., FE.C:S.. (issued October 8,
1934. ) +e Be

Art. II.—The Identity of Darwinol ‘with d-Myrtenol. By
A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.I., G. R. Ramage, M.Sc., Ph.D., and
J. L. Simonsen, D.Sc., F.L.C., F.R.S. (Issued October 23;
1934.) ra

ArT. III.—Some Tetra- Covalent Compounds ‘of Platinum with
Tertiary Arsines. By G. J. Burrows, B.Sc., and R. H.
Parker, M.Sc. (Issued October 23, 1934.) .

Art. IV.—An X-Ray Study of Opals. By F. P. Dwyer, M. Se.,
and D. P. Mellor, M.Sc. (Issued October 23, 1934.)

Part II.i

ArT. V.—The Volumetric Micro-Determination of Ortho-
Nitrophenols with Methylene Blue. By Adolph Bolliger,
Ph.D. (Issued January 15, 1935.)

Art. VI.—The Action of Nitrous Acid on Dimethylaniline.
Part III. By John Campbell Earl, D.Sc., Ph.D., and Alan
William Mackney, B.Sc. (Issued January iS, 1935)

Art. VII—A Theory of Association. By L. W. O. Martin,
B.Se. (Issued February 12, 1935.) j

ArT. VIII.—Some Hydroxy Salts of Secondary ‘and Tertiary
Arsines. By G. J. Burrows, B.Sc. (Issued March 15,
1935.) - we

ArT. I[X.—The Hssential Oils ‘of the Genus Calythrix. ‘Part
II. Calythrix tetragona (Labillardiére), Variety “A”.
By A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.I1., G. R. Ramage, M.Sc., Ph.D.,
and J. L. Simonsen, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Issued March 15,
1935.) is

ArT. X.—The Physiography of ‘the Middle ‘North “Coast
District of New South Wales. (With three text-figures.)
By A. H. Voisey, B.Sc. (Issued March 15, 1935.) ay.

ArT. XI.—A Note on the Occurrence in New South Wales of
Black Chaff of Wheat caused by Bacterium translucens
var. undulosum S§8.J.andR. By J. G. Churchward,
B.Se.Agr., M.Sc. (Communicated by Dr. W. L.
Waterhouse.) (Issued March 15, 1935.)

Art. XII.—Compounds of Palladium with Benzildioxime. By
F. P. Dwyer, M.Sc., and D. P. Mellor, M.Sc. (Issued
March 15, 1935.)

ArT. XIII.—The Fastness of Certain Amino- Azo- Dyes to
Washing. By J. C. Earl, D.Sc., Ph.D., and H. M. Parkin,
B.Se. (Issued March 15, 1935.)

Art. XIV.—The Moisture Equilibrium of Timber in ‘Different
Parts of New South Wales. Part II. Murwillumbah.
By M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C. (Issued March 15, 1935.)

80

88

104

107

110

112

* Published November 21, 1934.
7 Published June 11, 1935.

1V CONTENTS.

Page.

Art. XV.—Stone Scrapers. An Inquiry Concerning a Certain
Conventionalized Type Found Along the Coast of New
South Wales. (With Plates I-VI and seven Text-figures. )
By C. C. Towle, B.A. (Communicated by Assist.-Prof.
W. R. Browne.) (Issued April 16, 1935.) :

ArT. XVI.—Myoporum deserti: A Preliminary Investigation.
By Adrien Albert, B.Sc. (Communicated by Mr. H.
Finnemore.) (Issued April 16, 1935.) yy

ArT. XVII.—A Chemical Examination of Blackfellow’ Ss Bread,
the Sclerotium of the Fungus Polyporus mylitte Cke.
and Mass. By J. C.EHarl, D.Se., Ph.D, and G. HF:
McGregor, B.Sc. (Issued April 16, 1935.) SH

Art. XVIII—A Note on the Decomposition of Cobalt
Amalgam. By J. W. Hogarth. (Communicated by Mr.
F. P. J. Dwyer.) (Issued April 16, 1935.)

ArT. XIX.—Brown Rot of Fruits and Associated Diseases of
Deciduous Fruit Trees. II. The Apothecia of the
Causal Organisms. (With Plate VII and one text-figure. )
By T. H. Harrison, D.Sc.Agr. (Issued April 16, 1935.)

ArT. XX.—The Chemistry of the Constituents of the Wood-
Oil of the “Callitris’”’ Pines. Part II. Guaiol. By
V. M. Trikojus, B.Sc., D.Phil., and D. E. White, M.Sc.
(Issued April 12, 1935.) arise

ArT. XXI.—A Summary of Changes Noted in the ‘Allantoic
Membrane of the Chick in 500 Experiments. By Elinor
S. Hunt, M.B., Ch.M. (Communicated by Prof. O. U.
Vonwiller. ) (Issued April 16, 1935.)

ArT. XXII.—Note on the Determination of Traces of Prussic
Acid in Tissues. (With one text-figure.) By G. Harker,
D.Sc. (Issued April 16, 1935.) sack See se es

Art. XXIII—The Volumetric Micro-Determination of
Picrolonic Acid in Organic Picrolonates with Methylene
Blue. By Adolph Bolliger, Ph.D. (Issued April 16,
1935.) ys weave}.

ART. XXIV. —The Geology of the Cudgegong District. (With
Plate VIII and two text-figures.) By P. M. Game, B.Sc.
(Communicated ea Dr. W. R. Browne.) (Issued April
16, 1935.) occ) | ARR ereaa ale 2

ART. XXV. —Testing ie Lummer- Gehreke Interferometer.
(With Plate IX and one text-figure.) By S. C. Baker,
M.Se:.. (Issued May 1,°1935:) ¢..- (2532.09 =f eee

Art. XXVI.—Notes on Wattle Barks. Part IV. The Tannin
Content of a Variety of Acacia mollissima Willd. (With
Plate X.) By F. A. Coombs, A.A.C.I., W. McGlynn, and
M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C. (Issued May 1, 1935.) ..

Art. XXVII.—The Longitudinal Variation of Timber During
Seasoning. Part II. By M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C.
(Issued May 1, 1935.) ; Fe ae

TITLE PAGE, CONTENTS, NOTICES, PUBLICATIONS . Ae

OFFICERS FOR 1934-1935

List oF MEMBERS, AWARDS OF Mipars, - ETC.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS 4 Si) 8) ee XXvii

7

144

149

153

154

ne

eT

. 189

. 234

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF Tstieeitiece PPM ea Sei = xlvii
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF GEOLOGY .. .. .. .. xIviii

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE ..
INDEX OF VOLUME XLVIII

NOTICE.

THE Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as
the “Philosophical Society of Australasia’; after an interval
of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the
“Australian Philosophical Society”, by which title it was known
until 1856, when the name was changed to the “Philosophical
Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her
Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present
title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New
South Wales in 1881.

TO AUTHORS.

Authors should submit their papers in typescript and in a
condition ready for printing. All physico-chemical symbols and
mathematical formule should be so clearly written that the
compositor should find no difficulty in reading the manuscript.
Sectional headings and tabular matter should not be underlined.
Pen-illustrations accompanying papers should be made with
black Indian ink upon smooth white Bristol board. Lettering
and numbers should be such that, when the illustration or
graph is reduced to 34 inches in width, the lettering will be
quite legible. On graphs and text figures any lettering may
be lightly inserted in pencil. Photomicrographs should be
rectangular rather than circular, to obviate too great a reduc-
tion. The size of a full page plate in the Journal is 4 x 63
inches, and the general reduction of illustrations to this limit
should be considered by authors. When drawings, etc. are
submitted in a state unsuitable for reproduction, the cost of
the preparation of such drawings for the process-block maker
must be borne by the author. The cost of colouring plates or
maps must also be borne by the author.

FORM OF BEQUEST.

I bequeath the sum of £ to the Royat Soctrery
oF New SoutH Wates, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament
of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of
the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall
be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct
to be paid within calendar months after my
decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account
of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my
estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose.

[Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society
of New South Wales by Legacies, are recommended to instruct
their Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest.]

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications of the Society, if in print, can be
obtained at the Society’s Rooms, Science House, Gloucester and
Essex Streets, Sydney.

Transactions of the Philosophical Society, N.S.W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print.
Vols. I-xI Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S.W., 1867-1877 ss

ne XII Journal and Proceedings | ,, AA 1878, pp. 324, price 10s. 6d.
” XIII ” ” 9 B ” 13879, ” 255, ”
” XIV ” ” ” ” ” 1880, ” 391, 9
” XV ” ” ” ” ” 1881, ” 440, ”
” XVI ” ” ” ” ” 1882, ” ails ”
” XVII 9 ” ” ” ” 1883, ” 324, 9
” XVIII ” ” ” 29 9 1884, ” 224, ”
9 XIX ” ” ” ” ” 1885, ” 240, ”
”? XxX ”” ” ” 29 99 1886, ” 396, ”
” XXI ” ” ”» ¥ 5p 1887, ,, 296, se
be) XXII > +B) oH) 39 ” 1888, ” 390, ”
” XXIII ” ” ” 29 ” 1889, ” 534, ”
” XXIV ” ” ” ” ” 1890, ” 290, ”
” XXV ” ” ” ” ” 1891, 9 348, »”
” XXVI ” ” ” ” ” 1892, ” 426, ”
9 XXVII ” ” ” ”» 2 1893, ” 530, 93
” XXVIII ” ” ” ” ” 1894, ” 368, ”
” XXIX ” ” oF) ” ” 1895, ” 600, a6
” XXX ” ” ” ” ” 1896, ” 568, ”
” XXXI ” ” ” ” ye) 1897, ” 626, ae
” XXXII 2%) 5 50) » Ks 1898, ,, 476, #
” XXXII ” ” ” ” ” 1899, ” 400, ”
A XXXIV Hy fe A a a 1900, ,, 484, a
” XXXV ” ” ” ” ” 1901, ” 581, »”
29 XXXVI ” ” a” ” 99 1902, ” 531, ”
” XXXVII ” ” ” ” ” 1903, ” 663, 9
9 XXXVIII ” ” ” ” 9 1904, ” 604, ”
” XXXIX ” ” ” ” ” 1905, ” 274, ”
” XL 9” ”> 99 9 99 1906, 99 368, 9
” XLI 3? ” 9 oe) ” 1907, 9 377, ”
” XLIT ” ” ” ” 9 1908, ” 593, ”
” XLII 9 65 50 PS as 1909, ,, 466, “4
” XLIV 29 ” 5) ” ” 1910, ” 719, ”
2” XLV ) ” ” ” ” 1911, ” 611, ”
” XLVI ” ” ” ” ” 1912, ” 275, ”
” XLVII 9 ” ” ” 29 1913, ” 318, ”
” XLVIII ” ” ” ” 9 1914, ” 584, ”
” XLIX 29 ” ” ” ” 1915, ” 587, ”
a9 L 9 ” ” ” oF) 1916, ” 362, ”
” LI ” ” ” ” ” 1917, ” 786, ”
” Lil 9 ) ” 9 ” 1918, ” 624, oe)
” Lilt ” ” ” ” 29 1919, ” 414, 99
” LIV pe R's op 5 s 1920, ,, 312, price £1 1s
9 LV ” ” ” 9 ” 1921, 9 418, ”
” LVI 3B) 7) ” ” ” 1922, ” 372, ”
” LVII 9 ” ” oe ” 1923, oy) 421, 29
29 LVIII ” ” 9 ” ”9 1924, ” 366, >»
” LIX 29 »” ” ” ” 1925, ” 468, ”
99 Lx 9 9 ” ” ” 1926, ” 470, ”
29 LXI 2” ” ” ” or 1927, ” 492, ”
” LXII ” ” ” ” ” 1928, ” 458, ”
” LXIII ” ” ” ” ” 1929, ” 263, ”
” LXIV ” ” ) ” ” 1930, ” 434, ”
” LXV 99 ” ” 99 9 1931, ” 366, ”
” LXVI ” ” ” ” ” 1932, ” 601, ”
99 LXVI1 29 ” ” ” ” 1933, ” 511, ”
” LXVIII 2 ” ” ” ” 1934 ” 328, ”

Royal Society of New South Wales

OFFICERS FOR 1934-1935

Patron:
HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE

SIR ISAAC ISAACS, pP.c.,

G.C.M.G.

Governor-General of the Guaenec anh of Australia.

Vice-Patron :
HIS EXCELLENCY AIR VICE-MARSHAL SIR PHILIP

WOOLCOTT GAME, G.B.E., K.C.B., D.S.O.
Governor of the State of New South Wales.

President :
R. J. NOBLE, M:.Sc., Ph.D., B.Sc.Agr.

Vice-Presidents :

Prof. O. U. VONWILLER,
B.Sc., F.Inst.P.
EDWIN CHEEL.
* Died 28th August, 1934 ;

Sir EDGEWORTH DAVID,*

K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.0., F.R.S.

R. W. CHALLINOR, F.1.c., F.c.s.
succeeded by C. A. SUSSMILCH, F.a.s.

Honorary Treasurer :
H. G. CHAPMAN,?T m.p.

+ Died 25th May, 1934;

succeeded by A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.1.,

F.C.S.

Honorary Secretaries :

Major EDGAR H. BOOTH,
M.C., B.Sc., F.Inst.P.

Assist.-Prof. W. R. BROWNE,
D.Sc.

Members of Council:

C. ANDERSON, m.a., D.sc.

E. C. ANDREWS, B.a., F.a.s.

Prof. L. A. COTTON, m.a., D.Sc.

Prof. J. C. EARL, p.sc., Ph.p.
(Elected 27th June, 1934.)

Prof. C. E. FAWSITT, p.sc., Ph.p.
JAMES NANGLE, 0.B.z., F.R.A.S.

A. R. PENFOLD, F.a.c.1.,
(Honorary Treasurer
30th May, 1934.)

F.C.S.
from

Assoc.-Prof. H. PRIESTLEY,
M.D., Ch.M.

Prof. J. DOUGLAS STEWART,
B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.

W. L. WATERHOUSE, m.c.,
D.Sc.Agr., D.I.C.

M. B. WELCH, B.S8c., A.1.c.

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LIST OF THE MEMBERS

OF THE

Royal Society of New South Wales

P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s
Journal. The numerals indicate the number of such contributions.

t Life Members.

Elected.

1908 Abbott, George Henry, B.A., M.B., Ch.m., 185 Macquarie-
street, Sydney; p.r. “‘ Cooringa,”’ 252 Liverpool-
road, Summer Hill.

1904 Adams, William John, M.1.Mech.E., 175 Clarence-street,
Sydney.

1898 Alexander, Frank Lee, Surveyor, 21 George-street,

Parramatta; p.r. 154 Willam-street, Granville.

1905 | P 3 | Anderson, Charles, M.A., D.Sc. (Hdin.), c.M.z.S., Director
of the Australian Museum, College-street, Sydney ;
p.r. 17 Towns-road, Vaucluse. (President, 1924.)

1909 | P10 | Andrews, Ernest C., 3B.a., Hon. Mem. Washington
Academy of Sciences and of Royal Society of New
Zealand, 32 Benelong Crescent, Bellevue Hill.
(President, 1921.)

1933 Andrews, John, B.a., Demonstrator in Geography in
the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Avalon,’’ Neret-
street, Hunter’s Hill.

1930 Aston, Ronald Leslie, B.Sc., B.E. Syd., M.Sc., Ph.D.,
Cantab., A.M.1.E.Aust., Lecturer in Civil Engineering
and Surveying in the University of Sydney; p.r.
24 Redmyre-road, Strathfield.

1919 Aurousseau, Marcel, B.sc., 654 Market-lane, Manly.

1923 Baccarini, Antonio, Doctor in Chemistry, Florence, c/o
Dante Alighieri Society, Box 1168, G.P.O., Sydney.

1878 Backhouse, His Honour Judge A.P., m.a., “‘ Melita, ”’

Elizabeth Bay.

1924 | P 1 | Bailey, Victor Albert, M.A., D.Phil., ¥F.Inst.P., Assoc.-
Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney ;
p.r. 12 Cranbrook-avenue, Cremorne.

1919 Baker, Henry Herbert, F.s.M.c., c/o W. Watson & Son
Ltd. Watson House, Bligh-street, Sydney; p.r.
18 Bradley’s Head-road, Mosman.

1894 | P 28 | Baker, Richard Thomas, The Crescent, Cheltenham.

A2

x

Elected.

1934 | P 1 | Baker, Stanley Charles, m.sc., Science Teacher, St.
Paul’s College, Newtown.

1919 Bardsley, John Ralph, 76 Wright’s-road, Drummoyne.

1895 | P 9 | Barraclough, Sir Henry, K.B.E., B.E., M.M.E., M.Inst.C.E.,
M.1.Mech.E., Memb. Soc. Promotion Eng. Education ;
Memb. Internat. Assoc. Testing Materials : Professor
of Mechanical Engineering in the University of
Sydney.

1933 Bedwell, Arthur Johnson, Eucalyptus Oil Merchant,
‘“Kama,’’ 10 Darling Point-road, Edgecliff.

1909 | P 2 | Benson, William Noel, p.sc. Syd., B.A. Cantab., F.G.S.
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the Uni-
versity of Otago, Dunedin, N.Z.; p.r. 14 Maheno-
street, Dunedin.

1926 Bentivoglio, Sydney Ernest, B.Sc.Agr., c/o Tooth & Co.
Limited, Sydney; p.r. 14 Gordon-avenue, Coogee.
1923 Birks, George Frederick, Wholesale Druggist, c/o Potter

& Birks Ltd., 15 Grosvenor-street, Sydney ; p.r. 42
Powell-street, Killara.

1916 Birrell, Septimus, Appian Way, Burwood.

1920 Bishop, Eldred George, Manufacturing and General
Engineer, 7 Knox-street, Sydney ; p.r. 8 Belmont-
road, Mosman.

1923 | P 41] Blakely, William Faris, ‘‘ Myola,’’ Florence-street,

Hornsby.

1905 Blakemore, George Henry, ‘‘ Wawoona,’’ 10 Cooper-
street, Strathfield.

1888 {Blaxland, Walter, F.R.c.s. Hng., L.R.c.P. Lond., “* Ingle-
wood,’’ Florida-road, Palm Beach, N.S.W.

1933 Boan, Robert Farquharson, A.a.c.1., Analyst and

Consulting Chemist, 185 Elizabeth-street, Sydney.

1933 | P 4 | Bolliger, Adolph, ph.p., Director of Research, Gordon
Craig Urological Research Laboratory, Department
of Surgery, University of Sydney.

1926 | P 5 | Booker, Frederick William, B.Sc., ‘‘ Dunkeld,’’ Nicholson-
street, Chatswood.

1932 Boon, Herbert Eril, 10 Murdoch-street, Cremorne.

1920 | P 5 | Booth, Edgar Harold, M.c., B.Sc., F.Inst.P., Lecturer

and Demonstrator in Physics in the University of

Sydney. (Hon. Secretary.)

1922 Bradfield, John Job Crew, C.M.G., D.Sc. Hng., M.E.,
M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.Aust., Barrack House, 16 Barrack-
street, Sydney; p.r. 23 Park-avenue, Gordon.

1917 Breakwell, Ernest, B.A., B.Sc., Dept. of Education,
Box 33a, G.P.O., Sydney.
1891 Brennand, Henry J. W., B.A., M.D., Ch.M. Syd., V.D.,

Surgeon Commander R.A.N. Ret., 223 Macquarie-
street, Sydney ; p.r. 73 Milson-road, Cremorne.

1919 | P 1 | Briggs, George Henry, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.Inst.P., Assistant-
Professor of Physics, University of Sydney; p.r.
13 Findlay-avenue, Roseville.

1906 Brown, James B., No. 1 Maitland-avenue, East Kew,
E.4, Victoria.

1913 | P 20 | Browne, William Rowan, p.sc., Assistant-Professor of
Geology in the University of Sydney. (Hon.
Secretary.) (President, 1932.)

xi

Elected.

1898 t{Burfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.A., M.B., Ch.H., B.Sc. Syd.,
F.R.A.C.S.,. ‘‘ Wyoming,’”? 175 Macquarie-street,
Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Radstoke,’? Elizabeth Bay.

1926 Burkitt, Arthur Neville St. George, M.B., B.Sc., Professor

of Anatomy in the University of Sydney.
1919 | P 12 | Burrows, George Joseph, B.sc., Lecturer and Demon-
strator in Chemistry in the University of Sydney.

1929 Caley, Gilbert Fatkin, Manager, Matthews & Wilson
(1931) Ltd., Manufacturing Chemists, 6 and 8 Cole-
street, Borough, London, S.E.1, England.

1909 Calvert, Thomas Copley, Assoc.M.Inst.c.E., c/o Messrs.
T. Michell & Gee, 92 Pitt-street, Sydney, Box 560 FF,
G.P.O.

1923 Cameron, Lindsay Duncan, Associate of the Ballarat

School of Mines (Metallurgy), Manufacturing Chemist,
Hilly-street, Mortlake.

1934 | . Carruthers, H. L., M.B., B.s., Sydney Hospital, Sydney.

1903 | P 31 Carslaw, Horatio Scott, Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Emeritus
Professor of Mathematics, University of Sydney,
Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge ; Burradoo,
N.S.W.

1913 | P 4 | Challinor, Richard Westman, F.1.C., A.A.C.1I., A.S.T.C.,
F.c.s., Lecturer in Organic Chemistry, Sydney
Technical College ; p.r. 54 Drumalbyn-road, Bellevue
Hill. (Vice-President.) (President, 1933.)

1933 Chalmers, Robert Oliver, A.s.T.c., Assistant (Professional)
in Mineralogy, Australian Museum, College-street,
Sydney.

1913 | P19 | Cheel, Edwin, Botanist and Curator, National
Herbarium, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. (Vice-
President.) (President, 1931.)

1925 | P 1 | Clark, Wiliam E., 24 Cambridge-street, Epping.

1920 Cooke, Frederick, c/o Meggitt’s Limited, Asbestos
House, York and Barrack-streets, Sydney.

1913 | P 5 | Coombs, F. A., F.c.s., Instructor of Leather Dressing
and Tanning, Sydney Technical College; p.r.
Bannerman-crescent, Rosebery.

1928 Coppleson, Victor Marcus, M.B., Ch.M., F.R.C.S., F.R.A.C.S.,
Surgeon, 225 Macquarie-street, Sydney; p.r.
‘“Cravenna,’’ 8 Macleay-street, Potts Point.

1933 Corbett, Robert Lorimer, Managing Director of Robert
Corbett & Co. Ltd., Manufacturing Chemists, Head
Office, 379 Kent-street, Sydney.

1882 Cornwell, Samuel, 3.p., ‘“ Capanesk,’’ Tyagarah, N.S.W.

1919 Cotton, Frank Stanley, bD.sc., Chief Lecturer and

Demonstrator in Physiology in the University of
Sydney.

1909 | P 7 | Cotton, Leo Arthur, M.A., D.sc., Professor of Geology
in the University of Sydney. (President, 1929.)

1892 | P 1 | Cowdery, George R., Assoc.M.Inst.c.E., Strathfield-avenue,
Strathfield.

1886 Crago, W. H., m.R.c.s. Hng., L.R.c.P. Lond., c/o Mrs.
H. L. Tress, 19 Findlay-avenue, Roseville.

xi

Elected.

1921 | P 1 |tCresswick, John Arthur, 4.4.¢.1., ¥F.c.s., Production
Superintendent and Chief Chemist, c/o The Metro-
politan Meat Industry Commissioner, State Abattoir
and Meat Works, Homebush Bay ; p.r. 101 Villiers-
street, Rockdale.

1925 Curry, Harris Eric Marshall, 89 Ridge-street, North
Sydney.

1912 Curtis, Louis Albert, L.s., F.1.S., v.D., Major, Surveyor,
66 Pitt-street, Sydney ; p.r. 59 Albyn-road, Strath-
field.

1890 Dare, Henry Harvey, M.E., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.Aust., 14
Victoria-street, Roseville.

1930 Davies, Harold Whitridge, m.B., B.s. Adel., Professor of
Physiology in the University of Sydney.

1928 Davison, Walter Charles, General Manager, Clyde

Engineering Co. Ltd., Granville ; p.r. 17 Hurlstone-
avenue, Summer Hill.

1919 | P 2 | de Beuzeville, Wilfrid Alex. Watt, s.p., ‘‘ Mélamere,’’
Welham-street, Beecroft.

1921 Delprat, Guillaume Daniel, c.B.z., ‘‘ Keynsham,”’
Mandeville-crescent, Toorak, Victoria.
1894 Dick, James Adam, c.m.a., B.A. Syd., M.D., c.m. Hdin.,

F.R.C.S. Hdin., Col. A.A.M.C., Comr. Ord. St. John,
Medical Practitioner, ‘‘ Catfoss,’’ 59 Belmore-road,
Randwick.
1906 {Dixson, William, ‘‘ Merridong,’’ Gordon-road, Killara.
1913 | P 31] Doherty, William M., F.1.c., F.a.c.1., “‘ Jesmond,’’ 36
George-street, Marrickville.

1928 Donegan, Henry Arthur James, A.S.T.c., Chemical
Laboratory, Department of Mines, Sydney.
1924 Dupain, George Zephirin, A.A.C.1., ¥F.C.S., Director

Dupain Institute of Physical Education and Medical
Gymnastics, Manning Building, 449 Pitt-street,
Sydney; p.r. ‘“‘ Rose Bank,’’ 158 Parramatta-road,
Ashfield. .
1924 Durham, Joseph, Judge-street, Randwick.
1934 | P 6 | Dwyer, Francis P. J., m.sc., Lecturer in Chemistry,
Technical College, Sydney.

1923 | P 16 | Earl, John Campbell, p.sc., Ph.p., Professor of Organic
Chemistry in the University of Sydney.

1924 Eastaugh, Frederick Alldis, 4.R.S.M., F.1.C., Associate
Professor in Chemistry, Assaying and Metallurgy in
the University of Sydney.

1934 Elkin, Adolphus Peter, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of
Anthropology in the University of Sydney.

1916 | P 2| Enright, Walter John, B.a., Solicitor, High-street,
West Maitland ; p.r. Regent-street, West Maitland.

1908 Esdaile, Edward William, 42 Hunter-street, Sydney.

1921 Farnsworth, Henry Gordon, Government Stores,
Harrington-street, Sydney; p.r. ‘“‘ Rothsay,’’ 90
Alt-street, Ashfield.

xiii

Elected.

1910 Farrell, John, A.s.tT.c., Riverina Flats, 265 Palmer-

street, Sydney.

1909 | P 7 | Fawsitt, Charles Edward, p.sSc., pPh.p., Professor of

Chemistry in the University of Sydney. (President,
1919.)
1927 | P 3! Finnemore, Horace, B.sc., F.1.c., Lecturer in Pharmacy
in the University of Sydney.
Fiaschi, Piero, 0.B.E., V.D., M.D. Columbia Univ., D.D.S.
New York, m.R.c.s. Eng., u.n.c.p. Lond., 178 Phillip-
street, Sydney.
Fisk, Ernest Thomas, F.Inst.R.E., A.M.I.E. (Avust.),
Chairman of Directors, Amalgamated Wireless
(Australasia) Ltd., Wireless House, 47 York-street,
Sydney; p.r. 16 Beaconsfield-parade, Lindfield.
Fitzhardinge, His Honour Judge G. H., Mm.a., ‘‘ Red
Hill,’’ Pennant Hills.
Fletcher, Harold Oswald, Assistant Paleontologist,
Australian Museum, College-street, Sydney.
1879 tForeman, Joseph, m.R.c.s. Hng., L.R.c.P. Hdin., ‘‘ The
Astor,’’ Macquarie-street, Sydney.

1932 Forman, Kenn. P., M.1.Refr.E., 13 Market-street, Sydney ;
p.r. ‘‘ Wyreema,”’ Alison-road, Randwick.

1920 Fortescue, Albert John, ‘‘ Benambra,’’ Loftus-street,
Arncliffe.

1905 Foy, Mark, Liverpool and Elizabeth-streets, Sydney.

1933 | P 1 Frost, Herbert John, m.sc. Syd., 20 Aboud-avenue,
South Kensington.

1923

1920

1888

1933

1926 Gibson, Alexander James, M.E., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.Aust.,
Consulting Engineer, 906 Culwulla Chambers,
Castlereagh-street, Sydney; p.r. ‘* Wirruna,’’
Belmore-avenue, Wollstonecraft.

1921 Godfrey, Gordon Hay, M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer in Physics
in the Technical College, Sydney.

1897 Gould, The Hon. Sir Albert John, K.B., v.p., ‘‘ Eynes-
bury,’’ Edgecliff-road, Edgecliff.

1932 - Goulder, Francis, A.S.T.C., A.A.c.I., Manager, Ever-

Ready Works, Marshall-street, Surry Hills.

1934 Hall, Norman Frederick Blake, m.sc., Chemist, Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research (Tobacco
Section), Dept. of Organic Chemistry, University of
Sydney ; p.r. 4 Whatmore-street, North Sydney.

1880 | P 5 | Halligan, Gerald Harnett, L.s., F.a.s., Retired Civil

Engineer and MHydrographer, ‘* Rivenhall,”’
Hastings-road, Turramurra.
1912 Hallman, Edward Francis, B.Sc., Assistant Mathematical

Master, Fort Street Boys’ High School, Petersham ;
p.r. 15 Harrington-street, Marrickville.
1892 Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, L.s., 82 Pitt-street, Sydney.
1919 Hambridge, Frank, Adelaide Steamship Co. Chambers,
22 Bridge-street, Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ The Chalet,’’
Lucinda-avenue, Wahroonga.

X1V

Elected.

1912
1909
1933
1905

1913

1934
1923

1929

1934

1914
1919
1918
1928

1930
1916

1930

1919
1919

1913
1923

1922

Hamilton, Alexander G., ‘‘ Tanandra,’’ 16 Hercules-
street, Chatswood.

Hammond, Walter L., B.sc., High School, Wollongong.

Hancock, Francis Charles, B.Sc. (Hons.), Dip.kd.
(University of Bristol), St. John’s C. of E. Grammar
School, Forbes-street, Darlinghurst.

Harker, George, D.Sc., F.A.C.1., Cancer Research Depart-
ment, University of Sydney ; p.r. 75 Prospect-road,
Summer Hill.

Harper, Leshe F., r.c.s., Government Geologist, Depart-
ment of Mines, Sydney; p.r. 8 Alviston-street,
Strathfield.

Harrington, Herbert Richard, Teacher of Physics and
Electrical Engineering, 4 Epping-avenue, Eastwood.

Harrison, Travis Henry John, D.Sc.agr., D.1.c. (London),
Lecturer in Botany and Entomology, Hawkesbury
Agricultural College, Richmond.

Hawley, J. William, 3.P., Financial Agent, 46 Martin-
place, Sydney; p.r. 12 King’s-road, Vaucluse.
Hayes, William Lyall, a.s.T.c., A.A.C.1., Works Chemist,
c/o Messrs. Wm. Cooper & Nephews (Aust.) Ltd.,
Phillip-street, Concord; p.r. 21 Wandella-avenue,

Roseville.

Hector, Alex. Burnet, ‘‘ Druminard,’’ Greenwich-road,
Greenwich.

Henriques, Frederick Lester, 208 Clarence-street,
Sydney.

Hindmarsh, Percival, M.A.,; B.Sc.Agr., Principal,
Agricultural High School, Yanco.

Hirst, George Walter Cansdell, B.Sc., A.S.T.C. (Sc.),
A.M.LE. (Aust.), A.M.Inst.T., c/o Chief Mechanical
Engineer’s Office, N.S.W. Railways, Wilson-street,
Redfern; p.r. ‘‘St. Cloud,’’ Beaconsfield-road,
Chatswood.

Hodson, John S., Assoc.I.E.E., Electrical Engineer,
H.M. Naval Establishments, Garden Island, Sydney.

Hoggan, Henry James, A.M.I.M.E. (Lond.), A.M.1.E.
(Aust.), Consulting and Designing Engineer, “ Lin-
cluden,’’ 81 Frederick-street, Rockdale.

Holmes, James Macdonald, Ph.D., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.G.S.,
Associate Professor of Geography in the University
of Sydney.

Hoskins, Arthur Sidney, Engineer, Steel Works, Port
Kembla ; postal address, P.O. Box 36, Wollongong.

Hoskins, Cecil Harold, Engineer, c/o Australian Iron
& Steel Ltd., Kembla Building, 58 Margaret-street,
Sydney, Box 3375 R, G.P.O.

Hudson, G. Inglis, g.p., F.c.s., 55 Wunulla-road,
Woollahra Point.

P 2 |tHynes, Harold John, M.Sc., B.Sc.Agr., Senior Asst.

Biologist, Department of Agriculture, Box 36a,
G.P.O., Sydney; p.r. ‘“‘ Belbooree,” 10 Wandella-
avenue, Roseville.

Jacobs, Ernest Godfried, ‘‘ Cambria,” 106 Bland-street,
Ashfield.

Elected.
1929

1925
1909

1924

1930
1911

1932
1934

1924

1887
1934

1896

1920

1919

1924

1934
1920
1916
1909
1929

1906

P15

XV

| Jeffrey, Robert Ewen, 4.4.c.1., Managing Director,
Bardsley’s Ltd. ; p.r. 9 Greycliffe-avenue, Vaucluse.

Jenkins, Charles Adrian, B.E., B.Sc., 2 Ramsgate-
avenue, Bondi Beach.

Johnston, Thomas Harvey, M.A., D.Sc., C.M.z.S., Professor
of Zoology in the University of Adelaide. (Cor.
Mem., 1912.)

Jones, Leo Joseph, Geological Surveyor, Department
of Mines, Sydney.

Judd, William Percy, 49 Hirst-street, Arncliffe.

Julius, Sir George A., Kt.,B.Sc.,B.E.,M.I.Mech.E.,M.I.E.Aust.,
Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street, Sydney.

Keeble, Arthur Thomas, B.sSc., Science Master, Sydney
Grammar School ; p.r. 55 Carlotta-street, Greenwich.

Kelly, Francis de Vere, Pharmacist, The Sydney Drug
Stores, 264 LElizabeth-street, Sydney; p.r. c/o
Masonic Club, 169 Castlereagh-street, Sydney.

Kenny, Edward Joseph, Geological Surveyor, Depart-
ment of Mines, Sydney; p.r. 17 Alma-street,
Ashfield.

Kent, Harry C., M.A., F.R.1.B.4., 491 New South Head-
road, Double Bay.

Kerslake, Richmond, A.8S.7T.c., <A.A.¢c.I., Industrial
Chemist, c/o Australian Paper Mfrs. Ltd., Macauley-
street, Matraville ; p.r. 55 Harold-street, Matraville.

King, Sir Kelso, K.B., Underwriter, 117 Pitt-street,
Sydney ; p.r. “‘ Quambi,’’ Albert-street, Edgecliff.

Kirchner, William John, B.sc., A.a.c.1., Manufacturing
Chemist, c/o Messrs. Burroughs, Wellcome & Co.
(Australia) Ltd., Victoria-street, Waterloo; p.r.
‘“Wanawong,’’ 27 Thornleigh-road, Beecroft.

Kirk, Robert Newby, Company Manager, 25 O’Connell-
street, Sydney; p.r. 8 Lauderdale-avenue, Manly.

Leech, Thomas David James, B.Sc., B.E. Syd., P. N.
Russell School of Engineering, University of Sydney ;
p.r. 57 Clanalpine-street, Mosman.

Leech, William Dale, Director of Research, Australasian
Food Research Laboratories, Cooranbong, N.S.W.

Le Souef, Albert Sherbourne, Curator, Taronga Park,
Mosman ; p.r. 3 Silex-road, Mosman.

L’Estrange, Walter William, 7 Church-street, Ashfield.

Leverrier, Frank, B.A., B.Sc., K.c., c/o Austral Malay
Tin Ltd., Challis House, Martin-place, Sydney ;
p.r. Wentworth-road, Vaucluse.

Lions, Francis, B.Sc., Ph.D., A.1.c., Lecturer in Organic
Chemistry in the University of Sydney; p.r. 31
Chesterfield-road, Epping.

Loney, Charles Augustus Luxton, M.Am.Soc.Refr.E.,
National Mutual Building, 350 George-street,
Sydney.

Xvi

Elected.

1924 Love, David Horace.

1927 | P 1 | Love, William Henry, B.sSc., Ph.p., Cancer Research
Department, University of Sydney.

1921 McDonald, Alexander Hugh Earle, 4.p.A., Director of
Agriculture, Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
1919 McGeachie, Duncan, M.1.M.E., M.1I.E. Aust., M.I.M.M. Aust.,

‘* Craig Royston,’’ Toronto, Lake Macquarie.
1906 | P 2 | McIntosh, Arthur Marshall, ‘“Moy Lodge,’’ Hill-street,

Roseville.

1891 McKay, R. T., L.s., M.Inst.c.zE., Commissioner, Sydney
Harbour Trust, Circular Quay, Sydney.

1930 Mackenzie, William Donald, F.1.c., M.I.Chem.E., F.A.C.I.,

Chairman and Managing Director, Messrs. Lever
Brothers Ltd., Balmain; p.r. 5. Tivoli-avenue,
Rose Bay.

McKie, Rev. Ernest Norman, B.A. Syd., St. Columba’s
Manse, Guyra, N.S.W. ;

McMaster, Sir Frederick Duncan, k&t., ‘‘ Dalkeith,”’
Cassilis.

McQuiggin, Harold G., M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc., Lecturer and
Demonstrator in Physiology in the University of
Sydney.

Madsen, John Percival Vissing, D.Sc., B.E., Professor of
Electrical Engineering in the University of Sydney.
Mance, Frederick Stapleton, Under Secretary for
Mines, Mines Department, Sydney ; p.r. “‘ Binbah,”’
Lucretia-avenue, Longueville.
1 | Manfred, Edmund Cooper, Architect, Belmore-square,
Goulburn. ‘
1920 | P 1 | Mann, Cecil William, m.a., Lecturer, Teachers’ College,
University Grounds, Newtown; p.r. 68 Middle
Harbour-road, Lindfield.
1914 Martin, Alexander Hutton, F.R.A.1.A., Architect and
Lecturer in Charge, School of Architecture, Sydney
Technical College: p.r. ‘“‘ Silverdene,”’ 23 Victoria-
street, Roseville.
1933 | P 2 | Martin, Lyster Waverley Ormsby, B.Sc., Chemical
Engineer, Dept. Public Works, N.S.W.; p.r. 13
Carlos-road, Artarmon.
1929 | P 1 | Matheson, Alexander James, Teacher, the High School,

— — — —
eo} ides) © ve}
bo fons) im bo
rR oOo xa
bg

Dubbo.

1926 Mathews, Hamilton Bartlett, 3B.A., F.1.S., F.C.1.V.,
Surveyor-General of N.S.W., Department of Lands,
Sydney.

1933 Mears, Arthur Cyril Weeks, a.s.4.s.M. (Electrical and

Mechanical Engineering), Engineer Commander,
Royal Australian Navy, Navy Office, St. Kilda-road,
Melbourne, S.C.1, Victoria.

1912 Meldrum, Henry John, B.A., B.Sc., Lecturer, The
Teachers’ College, University Grounds, Newtown ;
p.r. 98 Sydney-road, Manly.

1929 | P 6 | Mellor, David Paver, m.sc., Lecturer and Demonstrator, .
Chemistry Department, University of Sydney ;

| p.r. 35 Oliver-road, Roseville.

Elected.

1928
1926

1931
1922
1924
1934

1879
1932

1915

1923

1893

1930

1932

1924
1891
1920

1903
1930

1913

PJ
P 20

Xvilt

Micheli, Louis Ivan Allan, M.sc., Ph.D., Research
Chemist, c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Pyrmont.

Mitchell, Ernest Marklow, A.M.1.E. Aust., Civil Engineer,
Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board,
341 Pitt-street, Sydney; p.r. 106 Harrow-road,
Bexley.

Moppett, Warnford, m.p., ch.m., Cancer Research
Department, University of Sydney.

Morrison, Frank Richard, 4.A.c.1., F.c.S., Assistant
Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

Morrison, Malcolm, Curator, Mining Museum, Sydney ;
p.r. ‘‘ Tayan,” Herbert-street, Rockdale.

Mort, Francis George Arnot, Chemist, c/o Lewis Berger
& Sons Ltd., Rhodes; p.r. 16 Grafton-street,
Woollahra.

Mullins, John Lane, m.t.c., m.a. Syd., Barrister, 7
Greenknowe-avenue, Potts Point.

Munch-Petersen, Erik, M.sc., Ph.B., Analytical Chemist,
McMaster Laboratory, University of Sydney; p.r.
31 Lytton-street, North Sydney.

Murphy, Robert Kenneth. Dr.Ing., Chem.Eng., A.S.T.C.,
M.I.Chem.E., A.A.c.1., Lecturer in Charge of Chemistry
and Head of Science Department, Sydney Technical
College.

Murray, Jack Keith, B.A., B.Sc.Agr., Principal, Queens-
land Agricultural College, Gatton, Queensland, and
Professor of Agriculture in the University of Queens-
land.

Nangle, James, 0.B.E., F.R.A.S., F.R.A.1.A., Government
Astronomer, The Observatory, Sydney ; Room 706,
Australia House, Carrington-street, Sydney.
(President, 1920.)

Naylor, George Francis King, c/o Australian Institute
of Industrial Psychology, 26 O’Connell-street,
Sydney.; p.r. “‘ Kingsleigh,’’ Ingleburn, N.S.W.

Newman, Ivor Vickery, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.M.S., F.L.S.,
Linnean Macleay Fellow in Botany of the Linnean
Society of N.S.W., Botany Department, University
of Sydney ; p.r. ‘* Whitehaven,”’ 5 Llandilo-avenue,
Strathfield. ;

Nickoll, Harvey, L.R.c.P., L.R.c.S., Barham, via Mudgee,
N.S.W.

tNoble, Edward George, L.s., Local Government Engineer,
8 Louisa-road, Balmain.

P 2 | Noble, Robert Jackson, M.sc., B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., Biologist,

Department of Agriculture, Box 36a, G.P.O.,
Sydney: p.r. ‘‘ Warrah,’’ 51 Boundary-street,
Roseville. (President.)

{Old, Richard, ‘‘ Waverton,’’ Bay-road, North Sydney.
O’Leary, Rev. William J., s.s., Seismologist, St. Ignatius’
« College, Riverview, Sydney.

Ollé, A. D., F.c.s., A.A.c.n., ‘‘ Kareema,’’ Charlotte-
street, Ashfield.

Xvill

Elected.

1932 O’Neill, John Patrick, F.1.1.4., F.c.1. (Eng.), Chief
Timber Inspector, Department of Railways, Bridge-
street, Sydney; p.r. 38 Wilberforce-avenue, Rose
Bay.

1921 | P 3, Osborne, George Davenport, bD.sSc., Lecturer and
Demonstrator in Geology in the University of
Sydney.

1928 Parsons, Stanley William Enos, Analyst and Inspector,
N.S.W. Explosive Department ; p.r. Shepherd-road,
Artarmon.

1920 | P 65 | Penfold, Arthur Ramon, F.A.c.1., F.c.s., Curator and
Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Harris-
street, Ultimo; p.r. 25 Ramsay-road, Pennant Hills.
(Hon. Treasurer.)

1933 Penman, Arthur Percy, B.E. Syd., Mining Engineer, 10
| Water-street, Wahroonga.
1881 Poate, Frederick, F.R.A.S., L.S., “* Clanfield,’’ 50 Penkivil-
street, Bondi.
1919 Poate, Hugh Raymond Guy, M.B., Ch.m. Syd., F.R.C.S.

Hng., L.R.c.P. Lond., F.R.A.C.S., Surgeon, 225 Mac-
quarie-street, Sydney; p.r. 38 Victoria-road,
Bellevue Hill.

1896 Pope, Roland James, B.A..Syd., M.D., Ch.M., F.R.C.S.
Edin., 185 Macquarie-street, Sydney.

1921 | P 2 | Powell, Charles Wilfrid Roberts, F.1.c., A.A.c.I., Company
Executive, c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., O’Connell-
street, Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Wansfell,’’ Kirkoswald-
avenue, Mosman.

1918 Powell, John, Managing Director, Foster Clark (Aust.)
Ltd., 17 Thurlow-street, Redfern; p.r. ‘‘ Elgarth,”’
Ranger’s-road, Cremorne.

1927 Price, William Lindsay, B.E., B.Sc., Teacher of Physics,
Sydney Technical College ; p.r. 60 McIntosh-street,
Gordon.

1918 Priestley, Henry, M.D., Ch.M., B.Sc., Associate Professor
of Physiology in the University of Sydney.

1893 Purser, Cecil, B.A., M.B., Ch.m. Syd., Physician, 185

Macquarie-street, Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ The Astor,”
Macquarie-street, Sydney.

1929 Pyke, Henry George, A.s.T.c., Assistant Works Chemist,
Australian Gas Light Company, Mortlake; p.r.
29 Maple-avenue, Pennant Hills.

1922 | P 5 | Raggatt, Harold George, m.sc., Geologist, c/o Mines
Department, Sydney; p.r. 83 Epping-avenue,
Epping.
1919 | P 3 | Ranclaud, Archibald Boscawen Boyd, B.Sc., B.E.,
Lecturer in Physics, Teachers’ College, The |
University, Sydney.
1931 | P 1 | Rayner, Jack Maxwell, B.sc., A.Inst.P., Physicist to the
| Department of Mines, Sydney; p.r. 125 William-
| street, Granville. .
1928 Reidy, Eugene Nicholas, A.s.T.c., Analyst, Department
of Mines, Sydney.

Elected.

1932
1933
1928

1895
1925

1929

1907

1934

1922
1920
1920

1933
1918

LOT
1900

1933

1922

Wo 8)

1921]
1917

x1x

Richardson, Henry Elmar, Chemist, Chase-road,
Turramurra.

Roberts, Richard George Crafter, Electrical Engineer,
** Redcliffe,’’ Liverpool-road, Ashfield.

Ross, Allan Clunies, B.Sc., F.c.A. (Auwst.), Chartered
Accountant (Aust.), 7 Bent-street, Sydney; p.r.
The Grove, Woollahra. (Member from 1915 to
1924.)

Ross, Herbert E., Govt. Savings Bank Building, 14
Castlereagh-street, Sydney.

Roughley, Theodore Cleveland, B.Sc., F.R.Z.8., Economic
Zoologist, Technological Museum, Sydney; p.r.
Coolong Flats, Coolong-road, Vaucluse.

Royle, Norman Dawson, M.D., Ch.M., 185 Macquarie-
street, Sydney.

Ryder, Charles Dudley, pD.Eng. Vienna, Assoc.I.R.S.M.
Lond., Assoc.A.C.1., F.c.S. Lond., Public Analyst (by
appointment), Box 2263 G.P.O., Sydney; p.r.
38 Copeland-street, Beecroft.

Salter, Keith Eric Wellesley, B.sc., Entomologist,
Curator Macleay Museum, The University of
Sydney; p.r. ‘“‘ Hawthorn,’ 48 Abbotsford-road,

Homebush.

Sandy, Harold Arthur Montague, 268 George-street,
Sydney.

Sawver, Basil, B.E., ‘‘ Birri Birra,’’? The Crescent,
Vaucluse.

Scammell, Rupert Boswood, B.Sc. (Syd.), A.A.C.I., F.C.S.,
c/o F. H. Faulding & Co. Ltd., 98 Castlereagh-street,
Redfern; p.r. 10 Buena Vista-avenue, Clifton
Gardens.

Selby, Esmond Jacob, Dip.com., Sales Manager,
** Marley,’’ Werona-avenue, Gordon.

Sevier, Harry Brown, Chairman of Directors, c/o Lewis
Berger & Sons (Australia) Limited, Box 23, P.O.,
Burwood ; p.r. 7 Albyn-road, Strathfield.

Sibley, Samuel Edward, Mount-street, Coogee.

tSimpson, R. C., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering,
Technical College, Sydney.

Slade, George Hermon, B.Sc., Director, W. Hermon
Slade & Co. Ltd., Manufacturing Chemists, 23
Rosebery-avenue, Rosebery ; p.r. ‘* Raiatea,”’
Oyama-avenue, Manly.

Smith, Thomas Hodge, Australian Museum, College-
street, Sydney.

Southee, Ethelbert Ambrook, 0.B.E., M.A., B.Sc., B.Sc.Agr.,
Principal, Hawkesbury Agricultural College,
Richmond, N.S.W.

Spencer-Watts, Arthur, ‘‘ Araboonoo,’’ Glebe-street,
Randwick.

Spruson, Wilfred Joseph, M.C.1.P.A., F.I.A.P.A., ¢/O
Spruson & Ferguson, Patent Attorneys and Consulting
Engineers, 66 Pitt-street, Sydney ; p.r. ‘“‘ Bengalala,”’
Neutral Bay.

xx

Elected.

1916

1909

1916

1918

1918

1901

1919

1920

1926
1915

1919

1934

Stephen, Alfred Ernest, F.c.s., c/o Box 1158 HH,
G.P.O., Sydney.

Stephens, Frederick G. N., F.R.C.S., M.B., Ch.M., 135
Macquarie-street, Sydney; p.r. Captain Piper’s-
road and New South Head-road, Vaucluse.

P 1 | Stephens, John Gower, m.B., 135 Macquarie-street,
Sydney.

Stewart, Alex. Hay, B.E., ‘‘ Yunah,’’? 22 Murray-street,
Croydon.

P 1 | Stewart, J. Douglas, B.v.sc., M.R.C.v.s., Professor of
Veterinary Science in the University of Sydney ;
Dat: ‘* Berelle,”’ Homebush-road, Strathfield.
(President, 1927.)

Stokes, Edward Sutherland, M.B., ch.m. Syd., D.P.H. Irel.,
Medical Officer, Metropolitan Board of Water
Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street, Sydney ; p.r.
15 Highfield-road, Lindfield.

P 1 | Stone, Walter George, F.s.T.C., A.A.C.I., Senior Analyst,.
Department of Mines, Sydney ; p.r. 14 Rivers-street,
Bellevue Hill.

Sullivan, Herbert Jay, Director in Charge of Research
and Technical Department, c/o Lewis Berger & Sons.
(Australia) Ltd., Rhodes; Box 23, P.O., Burwood ;
p.r. “ Stonycroft,’’? 10 Redmyre-road, Strathfield.

Sundstrom, Carl Gustaf, Managing Director, Federal
Match Co. Ltd., Park-road, Alexandria; p.r. 74
Alt-street, Ashfield.

P 15 |tSussmilch, C. A., ¥F.G.S., F.S.T.C., A.M.1I.E. Aust., Acting
Superintendent, Sydney Technical College; p.r.
11 Appian Way, Burwood. (Vice-President.)
(President, 1922.)

{tSutherland, George Fife, A.R.c.sc. Lond., Assistant
Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the University
of Sydney.

Sutton, Harvey, 0.B.E., M.D., D.P.H. Melb., B.Sc. Oxon.,
Professor of Preventive Medicine and Director,
School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine,
University of Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Lynton,’ 27 Kent-
road, Rose Bay.

Tannahill, Robert William, B.Sc. Syd., M.sc., Romford

Isolation Hospital, Rush Green, Romford, England.

P 3 | Taylor, Harold B., M.c., D.Sc., F.1.C., F.A.C.1., Second
Government Analyst, Department of Public Health,
93 Macquarie-street, Sydney; p.r. 44 Kenneth-
street, Longueville. ;

Thorne, Harold Henry, m.a. Cantab., B.Sc. Syd., F.R.A.S.,
Lecturer in Mathematics im the University of
Sydney ; p.r. 55 Railway-crescent, Beecroft.

Tibbett, John G., A.s.t.c. (Chem.), A.A.c.1., Works
Manager, Soul Pattinson (Labs.) Ltd., 49 Went-
worth-avenue, Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Kalua,’’ Hay-street,
Vaucluse.

Elected.
1923

1923
1879
1932

1925

1890

1921
1892

1933
1903

1910

1910
1919
1903

1913
1921
1924

1919

Xxi

Tindale, Harold, General Manager, The Australian Gas
Light Company, Haymarket, Sydney.

Toppin, Richmond Douglas, A.1I.c., 22 Miller-street,
Hurstville.

Trebeck, P. C., Church-street, Bowral, N.S.W.

Trikojus, Victor Martin, B.Sc., D.Phil., Lecturer in
Medical Organic Chemistry, University of Sydney ;
p.r. ‘‘ Buxton,’’ Tusculum-street, Potts Point.

Tye, Cyrus Willmott Oberon, Director of Development
and Executive Officer of the Unemployment Relief
Council, Treasury Building, Bridge-street, Sydney ;
p-r. 19 Muston-street, Mosman.

Vicars, James, M.E., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E. Aust., F.R.A.1.A.,
Architect and Consulting Engineer, Challis House,
Martin Place, Sydney; p.r. ‘“‘ Narrango,’’ 4 Burns-
road, Wahroonga.

Vicars, Robert, Marrickville Wocllen Mills, Marrickville.

Vickery, George B., 9th Floor, Barrack House, Barrack-
street, Sydney; p.r. “‘ Inveresk,’’ Coventry-road,
Homebush.

Voisey, Alan Heywood, B.sc., Geologist, St. George’s
Hostel, West Kempsey, N.S.W.

Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.Sc., F.Inst.P., Professor of Physics
in the University of Sydney; p.r. “‘ Appenzell,”’
Castle Hill, N.S.W. (Vice-President.) (President,
1930.)

Walker, Charles, F.c.s., A.A.c.1., 802 Culwulla Chambers,
67 Castlereagh-street, Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Lynwood,”’
Terry-road, Ryde.

Walker, Major Harold Hutchison, Vickery’s Chambers,
82 Pitt-street, Box 1723 JJ, G.P.O., Sydney.

Walkom, Arthur Bache, D.sc., Science House, Gloucester-
street, Sydney; p.r. 45 Nelson-road, Lindfield.

Walsh, Fred., J3.p., Consul-General for Honduras in
Australia and New Zealand; For. Memb. Inst.
Patent Agents, Lond.; Patent Attorney Regd.
U.S.A.; Memb. Patent Law Assoc., Washington ;
Regd. Patent Attorn. Comm. of Aust.; Barrack
House, 16 Barrack-street, Sydney; p.r. “‘ Wals-
holme,’’ Centennial Park.

P 41] Wardlaw, Hy. Sloane Halcro, p.sc. Syd., F.A.C.1.,

Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physiology in the
University of Sydney.

tWaterhouse, Gustavus Athol, D.sc., B.E., F.R.E.S.,
F.R.Z.S., Science House, Sydney ; p.r. 39 Stanhope-
road, Killara.

Waterhouse, Leslie Vickery, B.E. Syd., Mining Engineer,
Wingello House, Angel Place, Sydney ; p.r. 4 Bertha-
road, Neutral Bay,

Waterhouse, Lionel Lawry, B.E. Syd., Lecturer and
Demonstrator in Geology in the University of
Sydney.

xxii
Elected.
1919

1910
1911

1920
1920

1933
1921
1881

193]

1922
1909
1928

1921
1920

1891
1906

1916

1917

1921

P 3 | Waterhouse, Walter L., M.c., D.Sc.Agr., D.1.c., Faculty
of Agriculture, University of Sydney; p.r. “‘ Hazel-
mere,’’ Chelmsford-avenue, Lindfield.

Watson, James Frederick, M.B., ch.m., Canberra, F.C.T.

P 1 | Watt, Robert Dickie, m.a., B.sc., Professor of Agriculture

in the University of Sydney; p.r. 64 Wentworth-
road, Vaucluse. (President, 1925.)

P 37 | Welch, Marcus Baldwin, B.sc., A.1.c., Economic Botanist,
Technological Museum, Sydney.

P 1 | Wellish, Edward Montague, m.A., Associate-Professor of
Applied Mathematics in the University of Sydney ;
p.r. 15 Belgium-avenue, Roseville.

Welsh, Arthur Muir, Medical Practitioner and
Demonstrator in Pathology in the University of
Sydney; «p.r. ‘‘ Sherwood,’ Warwilla-avenue,
Wahroonga.

Wenholz, Harold, B.Sc.agr., Director of Plant Breeding,
Department of Agriculture, Sydney.

tWesley, W. H., London.

Wheatley, Frederick William, C.B.E., B.Sc. Oxon., D.Sc.,
B.A. Adel., A.S.A.S.M., 4 ‘* Rhodesia,’’ Macleay-street,
Potts Point.

Whibley, Harry Clement, c/o Box 1860 W, G.P.O.,
Brisbane, Queensland.

P 3 |EWhite, Charles Josiah, B.sc., Lecturer in Chemistry,
Teachers’ College, University Grounds, Newtown.

Wiesener, Frederick Abbey, M.B., Ch.M., D.O.M.S.,
Ophthalmic Surgeon, 143 Macquarie-street, Sydney ;
p.r. Jersey-road, Strathfield.

Willan, Thomas Lindsay, B.sc., Ipoh, Berak, Federated
Malay States.

Williams, Harry, A.1.C., A.A.C.1., Chief Chemist, c/o
The Lanoleen Co., Arlington Mills, Lord-street,
Botany ; p.r. ‘‘ Southerndale,’’ Burke-street, Oatley.

Wood, Perey Moore, u.R.c.p. Lond., M.R.C.S. Hng.,
‘* Redcliffe,’’ Liverpool-road, Ashfield.

P 11 | Woolnough, Walter George, v.Sc., F.G.S., Department
of the Interior, Canberra, F.C.T.; p.r. “‘ Calla-
bonna,’’ Park-avenue, Gordon. (President, 1926.)

Wright, George, Company Director, c/o Farmer &
Company Limited, Sydney; p.r. ‘“‘ Wanawong,”’
Castle Hill, N.S.W.

Wright, Gilbert, Lecturer and Demonstrator in
Agricultural Chemistry in the University of Sydney.

Yates, Guy Carrington, Seedsman, c/o Arthur Yates
& Co. Ltd., 184 Sussex-street, Sydney; p.r.
Boomerang-street, Turramurra.

Elected.
1914

1934
1931

1915
1912
1930
1928

1915

1922

Xxill
HoNORARY MEMBERS.

Limited to Twenty.

Hill, James P., D.sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology,
University College, Gower-street, London, W.C.1,

England.
Howchin, Walter, F.G.s., Erskine-street, Goodwood,
S.A

Lyle, Sir Thomas Ranken, K.B., C.B.E., M.A., D.Sc.,
. F.R.S., “ Lisbuoy,’’ Irving-road, Toorak, Melbourne,
Victoria.

Maitland, Andrew Gibb, F.a.s., ‘‘ Bon Accord,’’ 28
Melville-terrace, South Perth, W.A.

Martin, Sir Charles J., C.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S., Roebuck
House, Old Chesterton, Cambridge, England.

Masson, Sir David Orme, K.B.E.,.M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., 14
William-street, South Yarra, Victoria.

Smith, Grafton Elliot, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P.,
Professor of Anatomy, Institute of Anatomy,
University College, Gower-street, London, W.C.1,
England.

Thomson, Sir Joseph J., 0.M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Nobel
Laureate, Master of Trinity College, Cambridge,
England.

Wilson, James T., M.B., ch.m. Hdin., F.R.S., Professor
of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge; p.r.
31 Grange-road, Cambridge, England.

OBITUARY 1934-35.

Ordinary Members.

1919 Bettley-Cooke, Hubert Vernon.
1891 Carment, David.

1909 Chapman, Henry George.

1886 David, Sir Edgeworth.

1908 Dun, William Sutherland.

1918 Gallagher, James Laurence.
1917 Jenkins, Richard Ford.

1879 Moore, Frederick Henry.

1884 Ross, Chisholm.

1921 Stephen, Henry Montagu.

XXiV
AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL.

Established in memory of
The Revd. WILLIAM BRANWHITE CLARKE, o.a., F.R.8., F.G.S., etc.
Vice-President from 1866 to 1878.

To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the
Geology or Mineralogy of Australia. The prefix * indicates the decease
of the recipient.

Awarded.

1878 *Professor Sir Richard Owen, K.c.B., F.R.S.

1879 *George Bentham, C.M.G., F.R.S.

1880 *Professor Thos. Huxley, F.R.s.

1881 *Professor F. M’Coy, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1882 *Professor James Dwight Dana, LL.p.

1883 *Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.

1884 *Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

1885 *Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, 0.M., G.C.S.1., C.B., M.D., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

1886 *Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p.

1887 *Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.RB.S.

1888 *Rev. Julian E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.s., F.L.S.

1889 *Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

1890 *George Bennett, M.D., F.R.c.s. Hng., F.L.S., F.Z.S.

1891 *Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1892 *Sir Wiliam Turner Thiselton Dyer, K.C.M.G., C.1.E., M.A.,
EE.Dss SCD.) phan Ss. ase

1893 *Professor Ralph Tate, F.L.S., F.G.S.

1895 *Robert Logan Jack, LL.D., F.G.S.. F.R.G.S.

1895 *Robert Etheridge, Jnr.

1896 *The Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, 0.M.G., F.R.G.S.

1900 *Sir John Murray, K.C.B., LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S.

1901 *Edward John Eyre.

1902 *F. Manson Bailey, C.M.G., F.L.S.

1903 *Alfred William Howitt, D.Sc., F.G.S.

1907 Professor Walter Howchin, F.c.s., University of Adelaide.

1909 *Dr. Walter E. Roth, B.a.

1912 *W. H. Twelvetrees, F.G.S.

1914 Sir A. Smith Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of Geology,
British Museum (Natural History), London.

1915 *Professor W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

1917 *Professor Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.0O., M.A.,
Sc.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S.

1918 Leonard Rodway, o.m.c., Honorary Government Botanist,
Hobart, Tasmania.

1920 *Joseph Edmund Carne, F.G.S.

1921 *Joseph James Fletcher, M.A., B.Sc.

1922 Richard Thomas Baker, The Crescent, Cheltenham.

1923 *Sir W. Baldwin Spencer, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

1924 *Joseph Henry Maiden, 1.S.0., F.R.S., F.L.S., J.P.

1925 *Charles Hedley, F.L.s.

1927 Andrew Gibb Maitland, F.a.s., ‘‘ Bon Accord,’”’ 28 Melville
Terrace, South Perth, W.A.

1928 Ernest C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S., 32 Benelong Crescent, Bellevue
Hill.

xxXV

Awarded.
1929 Professor Ernest Willington Skeats, D.sc., A.R.C.S., F.G.S.,
University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria.

1930 L. Keith Ward, B.A., B.E., D.Sc., Government Geologist,
Geological Survey Office, Adelaide.

1931 Robin John Tillyard, M.A., D.Se., Sc.D., F.B.S., F.L.S., F.E.S.,
Canberra, F.C.T.

1932 Frederick Chapman, A.L.s., F.c.s., Melbourne.

1933 Walter George Woolnough, D.sc., F.c.s., Department of the

Interior, Canberra, F.C.T.

1934 Edward Sydney Simpson, D.sc., B.E., F.A.C.1., Carlingford,

Mill Point, South Perth, W.A.

AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE.
Money Prize of £25.
Awarded.
1882 John Fraser, 8.A., West Maitland, for paper entitled ‘‘ The
Aborigines of New South Wales.”’

1882 Andrew Ross, mM.p., Molong, for paper entitled ‘‘ Influence of
the Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of
wool.”’

The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25.

1884 W. EK. Abbott, Wingen, for paper entitled ‘‘ Water supply in the
Interior of New South Wales.”’

1886 S. H. Cox, F.G.s., F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ The Tin
deposits of New South Wales.”’

1887 Jonathan Seaver, F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ Origin and
mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the
associated Minerals.”’

1888 Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.s., F.L.s., Sydney, for paper
entitled “‘The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca
peculiar to Australia.”

1889 Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.M.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ List
of the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port
Jackson and Neighbourhood.”’

1889 Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper entitled
“The Australian Aborigines.”’

1891 Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ The
Microscopic Structure of Australian Rocks.”’

1892 Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for
paper entitled ‘‘ The effect which settlement in Australia
has produced upon Indigenous Vegetation.”’

1894 J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper entitled the ‘‘ Timbers of
New South Wales.”

1894 R. H. Mathews, u.s., Parramatta, for paper entitled ‘‘ The
Aboriginal Rock. Carvings and Paintings in New South
Wales.”

1895 C.J. Martin, D.sc., M.B., F.R.S., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ The
physiological action of the venom of the Australian black
snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).”

1896 Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ The
occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a
description of the Deposits in which they are found.”

A3

OR a, Te" ee As ei ee

XXV1
AWARDS OF THE WALTER BURFITT PRIZE.
Bronze Medal and Money Prize of £50.

Established as the result of a generous gift to the Society by Dr. W. F.
Burritt, B.A., M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc.; of Sydney. Awarded at intervals of
three years to the worker in pure and applied science, resident in
Australia or New Zealand, whose papers and other contributions
published during the past three years are deemed of the highest scientific
merit, account being taken only of investigations described for the first
time, and carried out by the author mainly in these Dominions.

Awarded.

1929 Norman Dawson Royle, M.D., ch.m., 185 Macquarie Street,
Sydney.

1932 Charles Halliby Kellaway, M.c., M.D., M.S., F.R.c.P., The Walter
and Eliza Hall Institute ne Resedech in Pathology and
Medicine, Melbourne.

AWARDS OF LIVERSIDGE RESEARCH LECTURESHIP.

This Lectureship -was established in accordance with the terms of
a bequest to the Society by the late Professor Archibald Liversidge.
Awarded at intervals of two years, for the purpose of encouragement
of research in Chemistry. (This Journat, Vol. LXII, pp. x-xiii, 1928.)

Awarded.
1931 Harry Hey, c/o The Electrolytic Zinc Company of Australasia,
Ltd., Collins Street, Melbourne. —

1933 W.J. Young, D.sc., m.se., University of Melbourne.

ISSUED NOVEMBER 21, 1934.

|) VOL. LXVIII. PART I.
3 \ ;
a |
JOURNAL
| AND ae
; PROCEEDINGS
§ 3
F j : OF THE
:
Niew SOUTH WALES
FOR
: 1934
‘s (INCORPORATED 1881)
of) PART I (pp. 1 to 50)
OF

| VOL. LXVIII
:. Containing Presidential Address and
ie Papers read from June to August.
4 ’ EDITED BY
af THE HONORARY SECRETARIES.
: ; ; THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
‘ STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN.
:
re ; \ 2) j
ie SYDNEY
:. PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
4 GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS
1934

ART.

CONTENTS.
VOLUME LXVIIL. 2-9

Part I. va a

‘Page.

I._PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By R. W. Challinor,
FIC, AACL, AS.T.C, F.CS. (Issued October 8,
SY

IIl.—The Identity of Darwinol with d-Myrtenol. By ~—
A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.1., G. .R. Ramage, M:Se., Ph.D; and. ~
J. L. Simonsen, pee ee FLC., F.R.S. (Issued October 23, os
1934.) ae BP ar), Ee SW ig

Ill.—Some Tetra-Covalent Compounds of Platinum with | Se
Tertiary Arsines. By G. J. Burrows, oe and R. ‘A. Sipe
Parker, M.Sc. (Issued October 23, 1934.) — pi, eee eee

IV.—An X-Ray Study of Opals. By F. P. Dwyer, MSc, __

and D. P. Mellor, M.Sc. (Issued October 23, 1934.) ..

ee a ee ec a eee NE Joye nae ran ee

- PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS -

_ By R. W. CHALLINOR, F.I.C., A.A.C.I., A.S.T.C., F.C.S.

(Delivered to the Royal Society of New South Wales, May 2, 1934.)

Part I.

~ We complete tonight the 78th Annual Meeting as
the Royal Society of N.S.W. and in pursuance of the
time-honoured custom it is my privilege to address you
at the conclusion of my term of office.

I wish to thank fellow-councillors and members
generally for the loyal support and assistance accorded
me upon all occasions. Thanks are especially due to
the Honorary Secretaries, Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, Dr. R. J.
Noble and Major E. H. Booth, and the Hon. Treasurer,
Dr. H. G. Chapman, for the success of the session just
completed.

We are also much indebted to Professor J. C. Earl,
the Honorary Librarian, for his special services in
placing the Society’s library upon a more satisfactory
footing.

The Sections of Geology, Industry and Physics have
held meetings frequently and regularly during the year.
The thanks of Council and members are extended to the
Hon. Secretaries, Mr. H. G. Raggatt, Dr. G. D. Osborne,
Mr. H. V. Bettley-Cooke, Dr. W. H. Love and other
officers who have given so much time and attention to
the activities of these important sections.

Hight general monthly meetings have been held, at
which 21 papers of the usual high standard of quality
have been read and discussed. As the average number of
papers contributed annually during the preceding 10
years was 23, it is evident that the Society’s activities
in this respect are being well maintained.

_ The Society is also indebted to Dr. R. J. Noble and
Messrs. F. R. Morrison and A. 8. Le Souef for lecturettes
given at the August, September and November meetings
respectively.

A—May 2, 1934.

oy R. W. CHALLINOR.

At the invitation of Council, Associate Professor W. J.
Young, D.Sc., M.Sc., of the Department of Biochemistry
of the University of Melbourne, delivered the second
Liversidge Research Lecture on the 8th November, 1933,
the title being “The Function of Phosphates in the
Fermentations of Sugar’. 'The lecture was well attended
by members as well as by representatives of the various
local chemical bodies.

Four Popular Science Lectures were delivered during
the year, as follows:

20th July.— ‘Aborigines of the Australian Desert’, by
Rev. A. P. Elkin, M.A., Ph.D. 3

17th August.—‘Useful Products of the Australian
Bush”, by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.I., F.CS.

21st September.—“The Age of the Earth”, by G. D.
Osborne, D.Sc.

19th October.—“The Effects of Radium Upon Cancers”,
by H. G. Chapman, M.D., BS.

The Society’s thanks are tendered to the lecturers.

The Society’s membership roll now stands at 288; 17
new members have been elected, 14 have been lost by
resignation or default, and the following four members
by death—Edward William Knox, John Taylor Lingen,
David John Thomas and David Carment.

Epwarp WILLIAM Knox was elected in 1877, and prior
to his death was the oldest surviving member of the
Society. He died at his residence, “Rona”, Bellevue
Hill, on the 26th June, 1933, at the advanced age of 86
years. Born in Sydney and educated at the Sydney
Grammar School, he entered the office of the Colonial
Sugar Refining Co. when 17 years of age, at a period
when the output of the refinery was small in comparison
with its present magnitude. He became General
Manager in 1881, and from 1920 up to the time of his
retirement in February, 1933, was General Manager and
Chairman of the Company. Being a sound business man
and a born fighter, he successfully guided the Company’s
destinies through some very difficult periods. By intro-
ducing science into the sugar industry and establishing
the policy of strict chemical control in the factories he
succeeded in placing one of the greatest commercial
activities of Australia upon a sound and economic basis.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3

Mr. Knox was a member of the Senate of the University
of Sydney from 1894 until 1919, a former trustee of the
Sydney Art Gallery and of the Sydney Grammar School,
a member of the Royal Sydney Yacht Squadron for a
number of years, and one of the oldest members of the
Australian Jockey Club. He succeeded his father, the
late Sir Edward Knox, as president of the Union Club, a
position which he retained until he resigned it a few
years ago.

JOHN Taytor Lincen died at the residence of his
daughter, Mrs. E. A. Lamb, Woollahra, on the 6th of
September, 1933, in his 85th year. He was born at
Hereford, England, the son of Dr. C. Leslie Lingen, and
grandson of the Rev. Dr. Charles Taylor. His earlier
education was received at Hereford Cathedral Grammar
School, after which he entered Pembroke College,
Cambridge, graduating as Bachelor of Arts with distinc-
tion in 1870, and later on as M.A. He was called to the
Bar of the Middle Temple in 1872.

Mr. Lingen came to Australia in 1880, where he
continued the practice of his profession at the Equity
Bar in Sydney until 1922. Notwithstanding invitations
to “take silk” as far back as 1894, he refrained from
seeking the honour of K.C. until 1918 owing to a slight
deafness. He was Chancellor for the Diocese of Sydney
in 1894 and for the Diocese of Bathurst from 1907 till
1923. For many years he was a member of the Sydney
Synod, and was elected Lay Canon of St. Andrew’s
Cathedral in 1911. He had been a member of this
Society for 50 years.

Davin JoHn THomaS died suddenly on 7th February,
1934, at the age of 53 years. He became a member of this
Society in 1919. Born at Goulburn, he was educated at
the Sydney Grammar School and the University of
Sydney. After graduating in Engineering (Mining and
Metallurgy) in 1902, he spent a year in the laboratory
of Sir William Ramsay at the London University and
afterwards studied electrolysis under Professor Borchers
at the University of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was Lecturer
in Chemistry for 6 years at the North China Engineering
College at 'Tong-Shan, after which he returned to
England and from there proceeded to the Nigerian Tin-
Fields. He spent some time with the Naraquata Tin

4 .. R. W. CHALLINOR.

Fields Co. and: subsequently became manager of the
Anglo-Continental Mines Ltd., in whose interest he was
able to secure one of the largest hydro-electric power-
sites available at Sha Falls. Leaving Nigeria in 1921
he became a partner in the firm of Thomas and Cameron,
manufacturing chemists, at Mortlake (Sydney). At their
chemical factory the discoveries of the late H. G. Smith
and of A. R. Penfold relative to the conversion of
piperitone into thymol, menthol and menthone were
developed commercially and the products placed upon the
world’s market in a very pure form. Mr. Thomas was a
Fellow of the Geological Society of London and also of
the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.

Davip CarMENT was born at Comrie, Perthshire,
Scotland, where his father, the Rev. James Carment, was
a Free Church minister. He died at his residence, North
Sydney, on 29th April, 1934.

He obtained his early education in the Free Church
School at Comrie, from which he went later to the
Edinburgh Institution and then in 1859 to the Edinburgh
University. Continuing his studies he successfully
passed the final examinations of the Faculty of Actuaries
in Scotland, and was elected a Fellow of the Institute of
Actuaries of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1872 he was
persuaded to take up service with the Australian Mutual
Provident Society, in Sydney, and after filling the
position of actuary to this society for several years, he
remained in their service until his retirement 20 years
ago.

“He was a Fellow of the American Institute of Actuaries
and of the Actuarial Society of N.S.W., and served a
term as President of the latter body.

He was a member of the treasurership committee of
the Presbyterian Church, an active officer of St. Peter’s
Church for the past 50 years, and also a member of the
Highland Society.

- He had always taken a great interest in the affairs
of the Royal Society, having been a member for 42 years,
and had been a vice-president and honorary treasurer.

So recently as 1933 he had regularly attended the visits
arranged by the Industrial Section, and although
prevented at the last from attending had arranged to
be present at the Society’s Annual Dinner a few days

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5

ago. Up till the time of his death he retained the hon.
treasurership of the A.N.Z.A.A.S.

His principal relaxations were sailing and music. He
was a life-member and rear-commodore of the Royal
Prince Alfred Yacht Club in 1919, vice-commodore from
1920 to 1923, a member of the Royal Sydney Yacht
Squadron and the Sydney Amateur Sailing Club. He
was also a member of the Philharmonic Society.

Reference must also be made to two scientific workers
of note, not members of this Society, who have died
during the year.

CuiveE Errou Lorp died on 15th July, 1938, after four
days’ illness, at the age of 44 years. Though an architect
by profession and a Fellow of the Royal Australian
Institute of Architects he was Director of the Tasmanian
Museum and Art Gallery, President of the Royal
Australian Ornithologists’ Union from 1931 to 1932, a
Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, an associate
member of the A.N.R.C., Local Secretary of A.N.Z.A.A.S.,
a member of the National Park Board, Commissioner of
Fisheries under the 'Tasmanian Sea Fisheries Act, and
also Hon. Secretary of the Royal Society of Tasmania
for 15 years. The latter society awarded him its medal
in 1930.

He wrote several handbooks on Tasmanian subjects,
contributed numerous papers to different scientific
societies and was joint author with H. H. Scott of “The
Vertebrate Animals of Tasmania’.

At the July meeting of this Society members present
paid their tribute of respect to the memory of their late
fellow-scientist and colleague.

BERTRAM DILLON STEELE died in Queensland on the
12th March, 1934. A native of Plymouth, England, he
graduated B.Sc. in 1899 and D.Sc. in 1902, at the
University of Melbourne, and was successively acting-
professor at the Adelaide University, lecturer at McGill
University, Montreal, assistant-professor at Heriot-Watt
College, Edinburgh, and _ lecturer at Melbourne
University. From 1910 to 1930 he occupied the chair of
Chemistry at the University of Queensland, after which
he was made Emeritus Professor of Chemistry at that
University. |

6 R. W. CHALLINOR.

He served during the Great War under the Ministry
of Munitions, London, in charge of one of H.M. factories
for the manufacture of synthetic phenol during 1916-
1918. For his distinguished services to chemical science
he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of London
in 1919.

Council is concerned regarding the serious falling-off
of membership since 1924, which was the peak period for
the past 20 years, when 376 members were on the roll.
A steady and continuous decline has set in since then,
until this year we have only 288 members.

Fifty-four years ago the membership was 460. The
Society at this period appeared to be concerned that
the membership would become too great, for it was
resolved in 1880 to limit it to 500.

The average annual loss of membership by death and
resignation in the past 11 years has been 20, whilst the
average addition of new members for the same period
has only been 12. Each year, therefore, we have been
slipping back by an average of 8 members, and the
membership now is 88 less than it was in 1924.

Various known causes have operated to reduce the
number of members. Scientific sections hitherto catered
for by this Society have launched out as independent
scientific societies. The period of financial stringency
has been responsible for the resignation of a number who
find that they are unable to continue their membership.
Names have had to be removed from the roll through
default.

Despite the falling-off from these causes it should be
possible to counteract them, as there are undoubtedly a
considerable number of citizens in this State who have
sufficient interest in scientific progress or who have
directly benefited from the research work published by
this and other scientific bodies, and who would no
doubt readily assist the Society by becoming members if
invited to do so.

The finances which enable the Society to pay its way,
print and distribute the papers of its research workers,
bind its volumes, periodicals and donations to the library
and otherwise increase the usefulness of the Society to
members, are furnished largely from the annual subscrip-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. fi

tions. For some time now income from this source has
become depleted.

If we assume that the subscriptions of all our present
members were paid for the current year, income from
_ this source would be £185 less than it was in 1924, but
as the Government Subsidy has also been reduced from
£400 to £200, the actual loss of income for the year
becomes £585.

Allowing for the average loss of 20 members per
annum we should require to elect 108 new members during
the coming session to bring our income from subscrip-
tions up to the 1924 level.

Realising the seriousness of the position, Council on
the 30th June last appealed to members so to interest
their friends and colleagues in the work of the Royal
Society that they might be induced to fill in the
nomination-forms supplied with the circular. This
appeal, so far, has not borne the fruit which might
reasonably have been expected.

We should each feel conscious that an obligation rests
upon us individually to increase the number of annual
subscriptions as far as we are able, by introducing new
members as early as possible.

We owe our thanks to the Hon. Treasurer for the
capable way in which he hag fostered the financial
interests of the Society in the past, but, as the figures
quoted indicate, he is finding it very difficult to pay
our way from income just now, and has especially drawn
the attention of the President and Council to this fact.

One experiences some reluctance in making these state-
ments in a Presidential Address, but such diffidence is
outweighed by the importance of making every endeavour
possible to stem the present drift by appealing to
members for their earnest co-operation in bringing about
better conditions. .

In December last a special meeting of Council was
called to consider in what way membership might be
made more attractive. Various suggestions were made,
including the restoration of the annual conversazione, a
social function which would be appreciated more
particularly by those members whose interests were not
especially scientific in character. These suggestions

8 R. W. CHALLINOR.

will most probably be given effect to during the new
Session.

~The Rules of the Society have not been revised for

many years, but during the past session Council has
given them a careful and critical scrutiny. The
alterations suggested by Council were submitted to a
committee of members elected at the October general
meeting for the purpose of criticism or further modifi-
cation if thought desirable. This committee has reported
to Council, and in the near future the recommended
revisions will be submitted to a general meeting of
members for approval.

This year the Clarke Memorial Medal hag been
awarded to Edward Sydney Simpson, D.Sc. B.E.,
F.A.C.I., Government Mineralogist and Analyst, W.A.,
as a recognition of his valuable contributions to
Australian Mineralogy.

An informal reception was extended to Dr. Hishashi
Kimura, Director of the Mizusawa Observatory, Japan,
and President of the International Latitude Commission
of the International Astronomical Union, on the 14th
July, 1933, by representatives of the Royal Society, the
Australian National Research Council and the British
Astronomical Association. Dr. Kimura was visiting
Australia in connection with the work on latitude
variation being carried out in Adelaide. On his return
to Japan he forwarded a letter of thanks for the kind
welcome given to him in Sydney.

Your President attended a meeting of the Board of
Visitors at the Sydney Observatory on the 13th May,
1933, when the Government Astronomer, Mr. James
Nangle, laid upon the table the 10th Volume of the
Astrographic Catalogue. Progress with this work is
hampered by deficient finances, but it is gratifying to
know that despite this observations and measurements
in the zone allotted to New South Wales are being
continued, and that we are endeavouring to honour
our undertaking to the other civilised nations that we
will do this portion of the work.

During the year the Society was represented upon a
deputation to the Minister for Education in regard to
instituting enquiries as to the desirability of granting

\

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9

degrees to diploma-holders of the Sydney Technical
College. —

Congratulations are extended to two members who
have been honoured during the year. Sir Frederick
Duncan McMaster has had conferred upon him by the
King the title of Knight Bachelor. To the succession of
honours which have been bestowed upon Sir Edgeworth
David, the University of Sydney has added by conferring
upon him the honorary degree of Doctor of Science.
It has been the lot of few scientists to awaken such
world-wide recognition and appreciation of their
endeavours as has been accorded our esteemed and
worthy past-President. May we not add to our congratu-
lation the fervent wish that he will continue to be
blessed with robust health, so that he may enjoy these
fruits of his labours?

Two important schools within the University of Sydney

celebrated their Jubilees during the year, the Peter Nicol
Russell School of Engineering on the 10th August and
the Medical School on the 28th September. On the latter
occasion the new Medical Building was officially opened
by His Excellency Sir Philip Game. The previous
generous benefaction to medicine from Mr. G. H. Bosch
stimulated the Rockefeller Foundation to provide a
further fund for the erection of this building. Fifty
years ago the infant medical school was accommodated
in a cottage. A splendid record of achievement has been
accomplished since then, but this record should pale into
insignificance in comparison with what may be expected
from the school during the next 50 years, starting as it
does with such ultra-modern accommodation for medical
education and research.
_ At the October meeting of the Society addresses on the
past activities of the Medical Section of the Royal
Society were given by Dr. Cecil Purser and Dr. W. F.
Burfitt, supplemented by remarks from Drs. G. H. Abbott
and J. A. Dick. This Section of the Society was estab-
lished 57 years ago and continued fer 23 years.

The first David lecture, the inaugural lecture of the
David and Masson Lectureships founded by the A.N.R.C.
in honour of its first Presidents, was delivered at Science
House on the 17th November on “Some Founders of
Australian Geology” by Professor Ernest W. Skeats,

10 R. W. CHALLINOR.

D.Se., A.R.C.S., F.G.S. The lecture concluded with a fine
tribute to Sir Edgeworth David’s services to Australian
geology.

A Royal Charter of Incorporation was granted by His
Majesty the King to the Australian Chemical Institute
on the 26th January, 1932.

The fifth Pacific Congress met in British Columbia in
June, 1933. Messrs. E. C. Andrews and EH. Cheel and Dr.
R. J. Tillyard were the official delegates from N.S.W.,
together with Dr. Ida Brown and Mrs. E. C. Andrews
as accredited delegates. Papers upon the various
scientific problems of economic importance and common
interest to the peoples of the Pacific were read and
discussed in the English language. This congress
provided further opportunity for mutual understanding
and harmony between the many countries represented.

We regret to learn that Dr. R. J. Tillyard suffered a
nervous breakdown during his absence abroad, and that
this has caused him to resign his position as Chief of the
Division of Economic Entomology at Canberra, F.C.T.
We wish him a speedy recovery and return to his normal
activity.

At the end of 1933 Mr. Jas. Nangle, a past-president
of the Society, retired from the position of Superinten-
dent of Technical Education in accordance with the
statutory enactments regarding the age-limit of public
servants. It is fitting that we should express our
appreciation of Mr. Nangle’s services to education, the
ereat amount of re-organisation which he has brought
about in Technical Education during the last twenty
years and particularly the successful organisation of the
- system of vocational training for returned soldiers, an
account of which he gave in his Presidential Address to
the Society in 1921.

We offer our congratulations to another of our past-
Presidents, Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, on being appointed
Acting-Superintendent of Technical Education, but at
the same time regret that his extra duties have obliged
him to resign his position as Honorary Secretary and
member of the Council. The Society’s thanks are
tendered to him for the loyal and effective service he has
rendered, particularly during that period preceding the
occupation of Science House, which was a_ very
strenuous one for the executive officers of the Society.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 11

An event of outstanding importance during the new
session of this Society will be the visit of His Royal
Highness Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, to
Australia.

Part II.

THE INFLUENCE OF CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION

UPON, 2 THE CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL AND

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS.

Out of the great number of remarkable developments
that have been taking place in chemistry during recent
years, particularly in the field of organic chemistry, it
has proved difficult to select one which might prove
of general interest and which might, moreover, be placed
before members in the space of time available for a
presidential address. The scope of the subject chosen is
very wide and embraces many important and funda-
mental principles, the application of which has been
responsible for the progress of theoretical and applied
organic chemistry and all that this means to humanity
to-day. Though it will not be possible to deal with the
matter adequately it is hoped that some of the recent
developments will prove of interest to others besides
those who practise chemistry in one or other of its
branches.

The writer of an editorial (Chem. and Ind., 1934, 53,
90) on the growth of chemical theories, interestingly
compares this growth with the steps taken in the solving
of a crossword puzzle. He points out that while the
facts of inorganic chemistry are fewer, and on the whole
simpler in character and easier to explain, than those
of organic chemistry, it has been a slow and laborious
business to understand the structure of organic
compounds. The first of those who worked out a small
item in the puzzle could not see how important this
item was to prove when it was fitted into the scheme
with the items worked out by others. By putting these
items into the right positions in the puzzle small portions
of chaos became reduced to small portions of order.

The independent conception by Kolbe and Frankland,
Kekulé and Couper in 1857 of the tetravalency of the

2 R. W. CHALLINOR.

element carbon and the power of one carbon atom to
link up with another carbon atom so that the new two-
carbon arrangement could still combine with hydrogen,
oxygen and other elements, provided so many more
letters in the puzzle that the filling-in of empty spaces
became easier.

The three-dimensional space-arrangement of the four
carbon valencies, suggested by Pasteur, Kekulé, Van’t
Hoff and Le Bel, brought the solution still nearer to
completion. Step by step a pictorial way of representing
the atomic arrangements in organic molecules has
developed, each molecular structure taking into account
the valency of the component atoms and the chemical
activities of the compound. The structure assigned to
any organic molecule is therefore based upon valency
and the physical and chemical characteristics of the
compound. The correct constitution of a compound
being known, it is possible by chemical methods, which
have become perfected by the experience of years,
correctly to build up this compound artificially from a
selected number of suitable groups or fragments, the
new compound being identical in every way with the
original.

Many thousands of organic compounds have been
synthesised in this way, and indeed the rapid progress
of organic chemistry since the latter half of the last
century is due very ‘largely to the soundness of this
system.

As the molecules become more complex in character,
the naming of them becomes more difficult; each name
used must be a specification in words of the constitution
of the particular compound. Some of these names are
very long, but unavoidably so, and to those who have not
studied them they must sound exceedingly boring. They
are, however, a necessary part of the jargon of organic
chemistry.

One of the simplest examples of the effect of a differ-
ence in the structural arrangement of the atoms in a
chemical molecule is to be found in the two possible
isomeric arrangements for a molecular formula C,H,O.
One of these depicts a structure in which two methyl
groups symmetrically share the valencies of the oxygen
atom, thus: CH,-O-CH;. This substance is a gas, fairly

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13

resistant to chemical action, and behaves physiologically
as an anesthetic; it is called di-methyl ether. The other
possible arrangement represents the 2-carbon group,
ethyl sharing the oxygen valencies with hydrogen, thus:
C.H,-O-H. This substance is a liquid which chemically
is very reactive and physiologically behaves as a
stimulant; it is called ethyl alcohol.

The influence of chemical structure upon such physical
and chemical properties as the melting-point, boiling-
point, optical properties, odour, taste, colour, . physio-
logical activity, etc., are well known for a large number
of compounds, but additions to the known facts are
constantly being made, and it is proposed to draw
attention to some of these.

Acetic acid has the structure CH, . COOH, and has a
pungent, penetrating odour. B. Rothstein (Bull. Soc.
Chim., 1932 [IV], 51, 834) finds that by replacing one
of the hydrogen atoms successively with such groups as
methoxy, ethoxy, isopropoxy and isobutoxy, the odour
of the acid diminishes rapidly in intensity and persist-
ence as the molecular weight of the substituting group
increases. |
: / NH :

Urea, or Carbamide, oO Nae has a saline taste,
but the replacement of one of the hydrogen atoms by the
group phenetole produces the compound p-ethoxyphenyl
carbamide COG ns pec oleh which possesses a

2
sweet taste, 200 times as intense as that of cane-sugar,
and to which the proprietary name “Dulcin’’ has been
given.

Recently E. Wertheim (J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 53, 200)
has investigated the effect of various changes in constitu-
tion upon the sweetness of “Dulcin”. By replacing an
amino-hydrogen atom with the group CONH, p- -ethoxy-
phenyl biuret,

607 NE - Ci OF CoE,
\N NH : CONH,
was obtained, which was tasteless. Substitution of a
sulphur atom for O in the ethoxy enoup produced
p-ethyl-thiol-phenyl carbamide,
7 NH; €,H,* S °- CH
CON NH, ti
also a tasteless compound.

14 R. W. CHALLINOR.

By replacing both oxygen atoms of “Dulcin” with

sulphur p-ethyl-thiol-phenyl thiocarbamide
cg 7 NH , C,H, “4 S 2 C,H;
SOONER |

was obtained; this substance possesses a bitter taste.

It has also been found by B. Oddo and Q. Mingoia
(Gazzetta, 1931, 61, 435) that when certain structural
alterations are made to the molecule of “Saccharin”,

C0
NH
sof

this intensely sweet substance becomes tasteless in the
compounds of altered structure.

A further investigation of the taste-intensity of organic
compounds by S. Michael (Bio-chem. Zeit., 1932, 259,
351) shows that this property varies considerably with
their structures. With saturated dicarboxylic acids it —
increases the nearer the carboxyl groups are to each
other in the molecular arrangement, and is greater for
those acids having an odd number of carbon atoms than
for those with an even number. Of the isomeric
unsaturated dibasic acids it is found to be greater for
the cis than the trans forms. For organic compounds
with substituting groups containing oxygen and nitrogen
the taste-intensity is dependent upon the number of and
the positions occupied by these groups. With compounds
containing the same number of substituting groups it is
found to decrease with the increasing number of carbon
atoms in the molecule, and to increase the more closely
these groups are situated to each other. Taste-intensity
is found to be more pronounced with the meta disub-
stituted benzene compounds than with the ortho and
para compounds.

The relative position of the double linkings in diene
or triene types has an effect upon the properties of the
compound in which they occur, apart from those due to
their unsaturated characters. If these double links are
situated symmetrically between alternate carbon atoms
they are said to: be conjugated, and this structural
arrangement existing in a chemical molecule confers,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15

among other properties, that of greater stability. By
increasing the number of these conjugated linkings R.
Kuhn and M. Hoffer (Ber., 1930, 63, 2164) found that
when a sufficient number of them are present in a
molecule the group assumes a chromophorous character
and the compounds containing such groups become
coloured. They prepared a number of unsaturated
fatty acids and found that aye-octa-trienoic acid,
CH3.CH:CH.CH:CH.CH:CH.COOH, with three con-
jJugated. double linkings, was colourless, but that ayey-
deca-tetraenoic acid,
CH,.CH :CH.CH :CH.CH :CH.CH :CH.COOH,

with four such linkings, was intensely yellow.

In a lecture to Section B., Brit. Ass. Adv. Se.
(Leicester, 7/9/33) on “Natural Colouring Matters
Related to Vitamins” Prof. Kuhn summarises the
researches of himself in collaboration with some of his
associates. They had isolated a number of intensely
coloured carotenoid acids. Of these crocetin, the pigment
derived from Crocus satus (saffron), contained seven
conjugated double links:

ee ©: Be C.C: 6. 0: ©. C: 0. 0: 6. C: 6.
: I Pe er

CH, H noe | west em ae |
CH, CH, CH,
Azafrin, from Hscobedia roots, also had seven conjugated
double linkings:

OH CH,
a OH OH
a
‘ am Saad ee eae a a
Oe a Hw eM a by yO
ea NH, Hs CH, CH,
Ho

and bixin, a dicarboxylic acid from the seeds of Annato
(Bixa orellana) had nine double linkings:

Willstatter has shown that carotene, the colouring

16 R. W. CHALLINOR.

matter of carrots, palm oil, stinging nettle, etc., and
lycopene, the colouring matter of tomatoes and the
berries of a number of plants, are isomeric hydrocarbons
of molecular formula ©,,H,,. In the formule assigned
to these compounds there are thirteen double bonds,
eleven of which are conjugated double linkings, and each
compound is intensely red. Carotene is known in three
isomeric forms: a-carotene, 8-carotene and y-carotene.
To £-carotene, the symmetrical isomer, is assigned the
structure:

CH, _CHs | CH; CH

Pea
We“ o-—C=0-0=¢-0=e-¢-0-020-0=¢ GCC one a
| Ho nH tanh tdaaa han |

He ee et CH, CH, CH, cuz’ ae pis
Ho He
and to lycopene,

Che 0H; CHa CH
y <a
HO CH —C=C-C=C-C=C-C=C-C=C-C=C-C=0 -G=C -C=6— HC »
| l pales | eda se aa |
He SS a meh CH, CH, CH, CH, Cuz aii
Ho Hp

The hydroxyl-containing xanthophylls—lutein of egg-
yolk and the yellow petals of various plants, fucoxanthine
of brown alge, xeaxanthine from yellow maize, flavoxan-
thine from Ranunculus acer, violxanthine from yellow
pansies and horse chestnut leaves, taraxanthine from
dandelions and rhodoxanthine from the seeds of yew— |
are also 40-carbon carotene pigments structurally related
to the carotenes.

Karrer established the formula of vitamin-A, C,,H,,O,

as
fil ct
C
ea “¢—C=C-G=C-C=C-C=C-CH.O!
a I HH LAA e
att a7 oH ce 9 GH CH,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 17

It is a pale yellow, viscous oil, and its biological
activity is found to be associated with a molecular
structure having a ring of the @-ionone type attached to
an aliphatic chain with at least four conjugated double
bonds. Prof. H. V. Euler proved that carotene promotes
growth in rats receiving a diet deficient in vitamin-A,
and T. Moore has shown also that carotene is converted
into vitamin-A in the animal’s body. The experimental
results indicate that two molecules of vitamin-A are
formed from one molecule of the symmetrical carotene,
vig., C,H; + 2H,0 — 2C,,H,,0, the transformation
apparently taking place in the liver (S. H. Tucker,
Chem. Ind., 1933, 967).

When carotene becomes oxidised in the atmosphere -
the sweet-scented violet odour of the f-ionone fragment
of the molecule is apparent.

The first example of a thermo-hardening property
closely connected with the structure of a chemical
molecule is provided by S. Marks, R. S. Morrell and
Samuels (J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 52, 1933, T. 130-132) who,
- during their research on the constitution and properties
of eleostearin, the glyceride present in tung oil, found
that this compound exists in two isomeric forms, alpha
and beta, the a being the cis form and the £ the trans
form; the principal constituent is a-elzostearin, which
constitutes 80 to 85% of the oil. The addition of 0:01%
iodine dissolved in 2 c.c. benzene catalyses the trans-
formation of the a completely into the 8 form, which is
a white solid of m.p. 58°C. On splitting off the fatty acid
from the glyceride the elsostearic acid was found to
have a structure in which three conjugated double
linkings were present in a long-chain aliphatic molecule:
CH,-(CH,)3-CH = CH-CH = CH-CH = CH-(CH.,) ,-COOH.
The a and £8 isomers of this acid were completely
Separated and each converted into its maleic anhydride
addition-product, the reaction being found to take place
at a different position in each of the two isomers, as
shown by the structures:

L 6
CH, —(CH,);—-CH —CH=CH —CH —CH = CH —(CH,), COOH,

CH———————-CH. aye a oye a-form

| |
co——o-———CO

B—May 2, 1934.

18 R. W. CHALLINOR.

vo
CH, (OH), OH = OH — GR O8— 8 CH ee

CH. orm 200) eeeetorin,

| |
cOo—-—O—-—CO

In a similar manner the maleic anhydride derivatives
of the individual a and B glycerides were prepared. They
consisted of syrupy masses in each case, but were found
to respond differently to the action of heat. Fifty per
cent. solutions in benzene of each of the products were
spread on glass plates and stoved in contact with air at
100°C. for 90 mts. The 8-compound produced a film
which was hard, bright, colourless and resistant to the
action of cold benzene, xylene, and alcohol. The
a-compound did not exhibit any thermo-hardening
property even after a longer period of heating.

The authors attribute this thermo-hardening charac-
teristic to the structural arrangement-present in the
B-molecule, which on heating underwent both oxidation
and association—a change they consider to be due to the
pv double bond present in the 8 but absent in the a
structure.

Chemical constitution appears to be very definitely
related to the trypanocidal activity of aryl arsenoxides.
The effectiveness of these aromatic arsenic compounds
prepared and used as specifics for sleeping sickness and
syphilis is shown to be due to the direct action of the
- trivalent arsenic in the molecule. Quinquevalent arsenic
in the compounds is relatively inactive, but in contact
with the parasites (trypanosomes and spirochetes) it
becomes reduced to the trivalent arsenoxide structure
and then exerts a positive lethal action upon them.

That the physiological activity of the vitamins is very
definitely related to their chemical structures has already
been indicated in the case of vitamin-A. We have another
example in vitamin-C or la@vo-ascorbic acid, which was
isolated in a crystalline form from the Red Hungarian
Capsicum by Szent-Gyérgyi. The constitution of this
molecule, C,H,O,, was first determined by Haworth,
Hirst, Percival, Reynolds and Smith (J. Chem. Soc., 1933,
1278) as the enolic form of 3-keto-1-gulo-furanolactone,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19

CO—,
|
HO—C
|| O It was synthesised by Haworth and Hirst,
HO—C =| and is the first vitamin to be built up by
| | the methods of the organic chemist. It
H C— gives detectable physiological effects at
| a dilution of 1 in 1:4x10°.
HO): C.- .
|
CH,OH

Vitamin-D or calciferol, of molecular formula
CogH430H, is an isomer of ergosterol, a sterol that always
accompanies cholesterol in the body-tissues. Ergosterol
structurally is a polycyclic hydroxy-compound with a
substituted aliphatic side-chain containing one double
bond and with two more double bonds in one of the six
carbon rings, thus:

cH, _CH
Sco cu

When acted upon by ultra-violet rays ergosterol
isomerises to vitamin-D, the constitution changing in
regard to the position occupied by one of these double
bonds. This slight constitutional change has an
astounding effect upon its biological activity as the
anti-rachitic vitamin which can be detected physio-
logically in a dilution of 1 part in 2240 x 10°.

The hormone insulin is a complex protein-like
compound of high molecular weight. Its chemical
molecule is built up within the body presumably from
the amino-acids derived from the digestion of proteins
in the food.

20 R. W. CHALLINOR.

Up to the present time 88% of the total amino-acid
radicles in the insulin molecule have been recognised
and their relative proportions determined. In times of
normal health it is secreted by the pancreas into the
blood circulation proportionately to the concentration
of the blood-sugar, which it maintains at about 0:1%
of glucose. Certain disorders of the pancreas result in
an insufficient amount of insulin being discharged into
the blood, the consequence being that the blood-sugar
concentration increases and the person so affected suffers
from diabetes mellitus.

Insulin artificially extracted, by the fine-chemical
manufacturer, from the pancreas of animals slaughtered
for food, and administered to affected persons in amounts
sufficient to make up the deficiency, keeps countless men
and women alive today. One part of insulin will account
for the removal from the blood of 40,000 parts of glucose.
Quantities in excess of the required amount are
dangerous to life. Its physiological effects are detect-
able at a dilution of 1 part in 192 x 10°.

Although the structure of the insulin molecule is not

yet known, it is found that comparatively minor altera-
tions in this structure produced by methylating. or
acetylating the molecule give derivatives which are
physiologically inactive (F. H. Carr, Chem. and Ind.,
1934, 53, 118).

Probably the most universally interesting examples
of the influence of molecular constitution upon the
physiological properties of compounds have been brought
to light by those engaged in the campaign against cancer.

The magnificent work which is being carried on by
the combined efforts of medical, physical, chemical and
biological scientists in all parts of the civilised world
to-day is undoubtedly the greatest example of scientific
team-work the world has ever known. The problems to
be solved are of the greatest complexity.

Reports of the central body for the British peoples, the
British Empire Cancer Campaign, are eagerly read for
information regarding the advances being made towards
the successful control of this mysterious disease, and
humanity patiently looks on waiting for the final results
of the long-continued effort to crystallize out.

I

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 21

Australia is effectively taking her part in this co-opera-
- tive research, and from the published accounts of the
workers of the Cancer Research Committee of the
University of Sydney we must realise how arduously
new fields are being explored by them, in an endeavour
to find new methods for the control and cure of the
disease. An appeal to the community for finances with
which to carry on the local work met with a generous
response, and one feels that, should it ever be necessary
to make a further appeal, so that the efficiency of our
effort might be promoted thereby, public assistance of a
practical character would readily be forthcoming.

The literature does not appear to find a final answer
as to what cancer is. It is stated that the cells of the
body, acting under some unknown influence, appear to
become overactive and grow at an abnormally rapid rate
until ultimately a tumor is produced. Prolonged
irritation at one spot was thought to be one of the
influences responsible for cancer-production, but the
results of the experimental application of various kinds
of chemical products of an irritating character to the
skin of thousands of animals, with negative reactions so
far as cancer production is concerned, indicate that
some additional factor or factors must be looked for.
There are many known examples of industrial skin-
diseases, caused by chemical irritation, which have not
led to the production of malignant tumors. Mustard gas
is very irritating to the skin, so also is acridine from
coal-tar, but they have not produced cancer when applied
experimentally to animals. Workmen who come into
contact with chromium compounds develop ulcers, but
there is no evidence of cancer production from this
cause. Continued application of a solution of potassium
bichromate to mice is irritant, but no tumor formation
has followed upon this experimental treatment.

On the other hand we now have evidence that no
apparent irritating action occurs when the most potent
of the recently-discovered cancer-producing compounds
is applied to the skin.

The road leading to the isolation of the responsible
chemical compounds in many of the known carcinogenic
mixtures took many years to traverse. It had been known
for a long time that many workmen in various industries

22 R. W. CHALLINOR.

who came into contact with certain lubricating oils and
coal-tar products ultimately developed cancer, but the
systematic investigation of experimental cancer-produc-
tion in animals did not begin until after the two
Japanese investigators, Yamagiwa and Ichikawa, found,
in 1915, that cancer could be produced in rabbits by
periodically painting their ears with tar. Since then a
great number of natural and artificially-prepared crude
mixtures have been tested. Positive results were obtained
with crude petroleum, paraffin oils, shale lubricating oils,
hydrocarbon mixtures produced by heating acetylene or
isoprene in hydrogen, and by the action of aluminium
chloride upon acetylene, xylene, naphthalene and
tetralin; commercial tetralin, coal-tar, pitch, and
artificial tars produced from yeast, human skin, muscle
and hair.

K. L. Kennaway found that these cdaiien anette
substances, which could only be hydrocarbons, gave a
strong fluorescence which suggested that they were of a
polycyclic aromatic type (J. Path. Bact., 1924, 27, 234;
Brit. Med. Jur., 1925, 2, 1; Biochem. J., 1930, 24, 497).

Mayneord in 1927 was the first to apply the
fluorescence spectrum in the search for carcinogenic
substances, and subsequently I. Hieger found that tars
and mineral oils which produced cancer also gave a
specific fluorescence spectrum with bands at 4000, 4180
and 4400 A. (Biochem. J., 1930, 24, 505).

At the Cancer Tigenital Research Institute, London,
J. W. Cook started in 1930 to search for an active cancer-
producing hydrocarbon of known structure. With
indications pointing to a polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbon of high boiling-point, Cook synthesised some 50
or more pure polycyclic hydrocarbons containing four,
five, six and eight benzene rings condensed in the systems,
as well as many derivatives of each, to prove the chemical
structures assigned to them. This splendid chemical
work occupied about four years.

All of the pure compounds were tested experimentally
upon animals by E. L. Kennaway for carcinogenic
activity, whilst I. Hieger compared their fluorescence
spectra with the characteristic banded spectrum of tars
and other known cancer-producing mixtures. Their
results are published in the Journals of the Chemical

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ae

Society and the Biochemical Journals. Of these pure
hydrocarbons the compound of the simplest chemical
structure that proved to be carcinogenic was that of
3: 4-benz-phenanthrene,

a colourless crystalline compound of m.p. 68° C., which
is isomeric with chrysene of m.p. 254° C. It possesses
pronounced cancer-producing activity.

The hydrocarbon phenanthrene is not carcinogenic, and
the only other benzene derivative of phenanthrene that
had even a feeble cancer-producing activity was the five-
ring compound 3:4:5:6-dibenz-phenanthrene, crystal-
lizing in colourless needles with a m.p. of 177-178°.

Anthracene and 1: 2-benzanthracene were found to be
non-carcinogenic, but by the addition of another benzene
ring to the 5:6 position the colourless crystalline

24 R. W. CHALLINOR.

1: 2:5:6-dibenzanthracene obtained proved to be the
most active cancer-producing compound of all those
synthesised.

Other derivatives of 1: 2-benzanthracene with proved
cancer-producing activity are:

(CHa)eHC

6-isopropyl—1: 2-benzanthracene,

HC

HaC

6: 7-dimethyl—1 : 2-benzanthracene,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 25

CH

CHo

5: 6-cyclopenteno—1 : 2-benzanthracene, and

6: 7-cyclopenteno-—1 : 2-benzanthracene.

The effect of certain alterations in the constitution of
1:2:5:6-dibenzanthracene upon its cancer-producing
properties showed that by replacing hydrogen atoms at
positions 2’ or 3’ by methyl groups, at position 9 by
amino or methoxy groups and at positions 9 and 10 by
two benzyl groups, the carcinogenic activity of the
molecule was diminished but not destroyed. Catalytic
hydrogenation produced a 9:10 dihydro-derivative with
very much reduced activity, and an octahydro-derivative,
obtained by the reducing action of sodium in amyl
alcohol, possessed no carcinogenic action at all.

- Seeking an explanation of this carcinogenic activity,
J. W. Cook (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1931, 3273) examined
the chemical reactivity of 1:2:5:6-dibenzanthracene in
comparison with that of the parent substance anthracene.
One sensitive test which serves to distinguish qualita-
tively between the different degrees of reactivity of the
meso ring in the anthracene molecule is the readiness

26 R. W. CHALLINOR.

with which maleic anhydride forms an _ addition
compound, thus:

cH cH—co cH—co
e » Ss; meee i | DS:
A
H CH—C CH CH—CO
[ack tal Se ata ay

With anthracene this reaction takes place readily, but
with its benzene derivatives the position occupied by the
added rings influences its reactivity considerably; for
example, with two benzene rings condensed on _ to
anthracene at the 2:3 and 6:7 positions respectively,
i.€., in a “linear” manner, as is the case with 2:3: 6: 7-
dibenzanthracene,

a compound: is produced which reacts instantly with —
maleic anhydride. On the other hand, if the added rings
form an “angular” structure like that found in 1: 2:5: 6-
dibenzanthracene,

fous

the aromatic character of the meso ring is strengthened
and its meso-reactivity suppressed. 1:2:5:6 dibenzan-
thracene and maleic anhydride only react with great
reluctance. Further experimental evidence led Cook to
the conclusion that the cancer-producing property of
1:2:5:6-dibenzanthacene is not primarily due to any
enhanced chemical activity of the anthracene ring-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. mike

system present in the molecule, although it is still
possible that the meso-activity is a contributory factor.

Whatever may be the ultimate explanation of the
activity of these biologically-tested pure hydrocarbons, it
is certainly striking that those which have been proved to
be cancer-producing have their benzene rings situated
structurally in “angular” attachment to the parent
hydrocarbon, a condition which favours the aromatic
state, diminished reactivity and increased stability. A
tricyclic phenanthrene ring-system is also common to
them all.

Phenanthrene does not react with maleic anhydride,
and possesses very little meso-reactivity. Chrysene,
which is a 1: 2-benz-phenanthrene,

is similarly constituted; and so also is 3: 4-benz-
phenanthrene.

Both of these phenanthrene derivatives, however,
possess pronounced cancer-producing activity.

Subsequently to the discovery of these synthetic
carcinogenic compounds J. W. Cook, C. L. Hewett and
I. Hieger (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1933, 395) isolated the
most active of the cancer-producing hydrocarbons yet

28 R. W. CHALLINOR. «

known from a medium soft pitch which had been found
to be carcinogenic and which gave the characteristic
fluorescence spectrum. About 7 grains of crystalline
1: 2-benz-pyrene was isolated from 2 tons of this pitch.
After allowing for loss in the various extractions it
was estimated that the pitch contained not less than
0-:003% of this substance.

A synthetic pure 1: 2-benz-pyrene, like the pitch isolate,
was a pale yellow crystalline substance of m.p. 175°5° to
176:5°, strongly carcinogenic and giving an enhanced
fluorescence spectrum.

The discovery of the hormones which regulate the
sexual functions has provided another link in the
lengthening chain of evidence that may at no very distant
date lead to a clearing up of the mysteries associated
with cancer. Several of these hormones have been
isolated and purified, and their chemical constitutions
determined. As a result we now possess a knowledge of
the chemical structure of molecules that can produce a
condition of cestrus in the animal.

Compounds have also been isolated from a variety of
natural sources such as apples, the pistils and stamens
of the begonia, the female flowers of the willow, palm-
kernels, germinating grain, etc., which, too, have
molecular structures similar to that of the human sex-
hormone cestrin, and are capable of exciting the same
kind of biological activity when applied to animals.

Extracts from brown coal, bituminous coal, asphalt,
petroleum, etc., are also found to produce a sex-response
in animals similar to that of the follicular hormone
cstrin. The presence of these substances in coal and
petroleum, the metamorphosed organic material which -
many ages ago made up the living and growing matter
of the animal and vegetable kingdom, leads one, by the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 29

way, to suggest the possibility that the chemical struc-
tures of the active compounds present in the original
organic material have survived the ravages of time and
change, since after the lapse of millions of years they can,
when extracted, excite in animals biological responses
similar to those of the active substances which have
recently been isolated from living matter.

That there is a close chemical relationship between
sex-hormones, certain cancer-producing compounds, the
sterols and bile acids, is indicated by a consideration of
the following experimentally established facts:

(a) Bituminous extracts applied to animals can
produce cancer and an effect similar to that of the sex-
hormone.

(6) Three of the synthetic cancer-producing com-
pounds—9:10 dihydroxy-9:10 di-n-butyl-9:10 dihydro-
1:2:5:6 dibenzanthracene, 5:6 cyclopenteno 1: 2:5: 6-
benz-anthracene, and _ 1: 2-benz-pyrene—also possess
estrogenic activity (J. W. Cook and E. C. Dodds in
Nature, 19338, 131, 205).

(c) 'The removal of hydrogen from the molecules of
cholesterol, ergosterol and cholic acid by a catalytic
process produces, among other products, the carcinogenic
hydrocarbon chrysene (J. W. Cook and C. L. Hewett, in
Journ. Chem. Soc., 1983, 1098).

(d) The addition of hydrogen, catalytically, to
progynon, a crystalline female sex-hormone, causes it to
lose its specific biological activity (A. Butenandt:
Naturwiss., 1929, 17, 879).

(¢) The addition of eight atoms of hydrogen to
1:2:5:6-dibenzanthracene destroys its cancer-producing
activity.

According to O. Rosenheim and H. King (Chem. and
Ind., 1932, 955; 1984, 91), recent investigations show the

30 R. W. CHALLINOR.

molecules of the sterols, bile acids and estriol to possess
the following similar chemical structures:

Cholesterol C,,H,,OH, SBOhG CH

“Ch i
Ho cHs | |
Get H CHp —_CHg

ee EO
| |

CHe CH

CH,

HOHC eg
Ho He

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 31

Trihydroxy ocestrin cestriol (follicular hormone
hydrate), C,,H,, (OH),

He
CHOH
Hom Oe N\cHOH
e W
ee em) eas?
g e 2
mee 0 th
file 2 I,
H Ho

Each of these structural arrangements includes a three-
ring system of the phenanthrene type, which is common
to the cancer-producing hydrocarbons, and also a four-
ring system structurally related to the carcinogenic
hydrocarbon chrysene. Transformation to chrysene,
however, involves removal of oxygen, modification of the
hydrogen content and conversion of ring IV into a six-
membered ring, a change which is considerable, but one
which has been accomplished in the laboratory. The
possibility of a change of this kind taking place in the
body is probably a remote one under normal conditions,
but it is a possibility to be considered if conditions are
present which may favour it.

There is no evidence at present that carcinogenic
substances are formed from cestrin or its derivatives in
the animal body.

For the performance of the multitude of biological
functions which operate to carry on the life-processes
water is an essential medium. Approximately 65 per
cent. of the body-weight is water. Under favourable
conditions water will give up its oxygen or hydrogen
to bring about oxidation or reduction.

A normal constituent of living tissues, the sulphur-
containing tripeptide glutathione, isolated by Sir
Frederick Hopkins in 1921, undergoes reversible oxida-
tion and reduction in the cells, and acts as a purveyor
of hydrogen and oxygen where these elements are
required.

It may be surmised that an active substance such as
glutathione, suitably catalysed or activated in some way,

32 R. W. CHALLINOR.

may, in the presence of water, cause the hydrogenation
of substances possessing appropriate chemical structures,
like those assigned to the sterols and bile acid, and
change them into structural arrangements which
possess cancer-producing activity. Changes of this kind
have already been carried out artificially with BESe
substances in the laboratory.

It is noteworthy in this connection to mention that
Carl Voegtlin and Dr. Thompson reported at the Second
Annual Cancer Conference at Canberra (26/3/31) that
they had found considerable amounts of glutathione in
malignant tumors. Changes of the nature indicated
~eannot be normal ones, as the precursors of the poten-
tially dangerous substances are ordinary constituents
of the tissues, but, if it be supposed that under some
extraordinary circumstances suitable activators become
available, then the necessary sequence of reactions may
occur and produce, from these normal constituents,
compounds which have proved carcinogenic activity. In
the research papers published from time to time by Dr.
G. Harker one gathers that he and Dr. H. G. Chapman
are searching for some such activating substance.

Though not a parallel example one may quote the
cyanogenic glucoside, which is apparently quite harmless
until it makes contact with an activator such as a
suitable enzyme, in the presence of water; the molecule
then becomes broken up into its constituent parts, and —
lethal effects follow upon such a chemical change, as one
of the constituents set free is the powerful poison,
prussic acid.

We have become accustomed to regard water as a
very simple compound of molecular weight 18, built up
of two hydrogen atoms of atomic weight 1, united to the
atom of oxygen. The recent discovery by Urey, Brick-
wedde and Murphy of an isotope of hydrogen, of atomic
weight 2, for which they suggested the name deuterium
(provisionally named diplogen by Lord Rutherford), and
which is found to be present in ordinary hydrogen to
the extent of about 1 part in 4,000, opens up new and
vast problems with regard to all the hydrogen-containing
compounds, inclusive of water and the other compounds
mentioned in this address.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. oo

Several new compounds containing this heavy
hydrogen atom have been found to occur side by side
with the normal hydrogen compounds. A new form of
water of molecular weight 20 has been found to exist in
ordinary water.

G. N. Lewis and R. T. MacDonald provisionally
estimate the concentration of the heavy hydrogen isotope
in ordinary water to be about 1 in 6,500. They isolated
a small quantity of this heavy water, H3Z0 or D,O,

which contained not more than 0:01% of ordinary hydro-
gen, and found that it had a freezing-point of + 3°8°,
a boiling-point of 101:-42° and a density of 1:1056, and
differed in other physical properties from ordinary water.

Biologically the effect of this heavy water is different
from that of ordinary water. G. N. Lewis (J. Amer.
Chem. Soc., 1933, 55, 3503), found that tobacco-seeds will
not germinate in it. It is also stated that tadpoles
cannot live in it.

The probable presence of heavy water in the body-
fluids thus adds an unexpected factor which undoubtedly
must be taken into consideration, with other factors, in
regard to the causation of cancer. Its significance,
together with that of diplogen, the hydrogen isotope,
must be investigated, particularly as to a possible share
in influencing change in chemical structure of the
molecules of some of the normal body constituents, with
the possible production of compounds structurally
similar to those which have been found to produce
abnormal physiological effects, and also in view of the
remarkable fact that, so far, the only known pure
carcinogenic compounds are hydrocarbons.

With a knowledge of the chemical structures respons-
ible for cancer-production it should now be possible to
build up a chemical structure which will prove equally
potent as an anti-carcinogenic agent. Many substances
have been tested with more or less promising results.
Some of these have been prepared from natural sources,
whilst others are chemical compounds of known constitu-
tion. The compound dichloroethyl sulphide or mustard gas
CI—CH,—CH,\ 4 has given the best results, so
Cl—CH, —CH, far, in retarding the growth of
tumours experimentally produced by tar or by the cancer-
producing hydrocarbon 1:2:5:6 - dibenzanthracene.
C—May 2, 1934.

34 R. W. CHALLINOR.

Mustard gas is a reactive compound, but unfortunately
it is also very irritating to the skin.

The possibility that the inhibiting effect of mustard
gas might be due to a chemical reaction taking place
between it and the carcinogenic substance, whereby this
substance was rendered ineffective through a change in
composition, has been anticipated by the workers engaged
in this research, who carried out a number of the experi-
ments in such a manner that this possibility was
precluded. Its action appears to be a more direct one,
for in the 9th Annual Report of the British Empire
Cancer Campaign it is suggested that mustard gas
exerts a biological effect upon the body cells in some
curious or unknown manner so that the effects of the
cancer-producing substance are counteracted.

With the known chemical structure of mustard gas as
a clue the synthesis of a number of compounds of like
constitution might be anticipated. To find that one or
more of such compounds possessed increased anti-
carcinogenic characters, and at the same time had
decreased or totally eliminated irritant effects, would
provide another step forward in this campaign of mercy.

The universal interest of cancer research and the
contributions being made by chemistry call for a further
concluding remark with regard to the neeessity which
apparently exists for a reliable blood-test for the
condition of malignancy. According to the 10th Annual -
Report of the British Empire Cancer Campaign there is
at present no reliable test available. As a preliminary
step it would be of great value to discover a reliable and
very Sensitive physical or chemical test which is definitely
characteristic for the chemical structures which are at
present known to be cancer-producing. The fluorescent
spectrum of these compounds is of great value in respect
to their detection, but, as the researches of Kennaway
and Hieger show, this method has limitations. They
find that commercial tetralin will produce experimental
cancers in mice, but it is non-fluorescent, and on the
other hand that tars produced from oleic acid and
benzyl oleate give the characteristic fluorescence spectrum
but do not produce cancer.

At the conclusion of this incomplete review of some of
the recently-announced evidence of the importance and

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 35

significance of chemical structure, I should like briefly
to emphasize the part played by chemistry, the eldest
among the sciences, in the solution of the problems that
confront the world from day to day. Many of these
problems require the close co-operation of most branches
of science, but they also depend largely upon the
continued advances which are being made in chemistry
for their satisfactory solution. One example may be
mentioned, namely, the partnership between chemistry
and medical science, which has been responsible for
so many of the recent advances made in medicine.
Newly-discovered substances, in great variety, posses-
sing valuable medicinal and physiological properties,
are handed over to the organic chemist for isolation,
purification, analysis and identification of the active
constituents. By skilful labour the chemical constitu-
tions of these active substances are worked out and
methods for their synthesis are perfected in the labora-
tory. The problems, so far solved, are then passed on to
the chemical staff of the fine-chemical manufacturer,
who in turn adapts the laboratory processes to produc-
tion on the commercial scale; after purification and
standardisation the pure finished article is placed at the
disposal of the medical practitioner to take up his phase
of the work.

Finally it appears that the contributions of organic
chemistry, in co-operation with the other branches of
science, towards the solution of the cancer problem
are likely to prove of the greatest importance. These
contributions also provide further evidence of the
intimate relationship which exists between a particular
molecular constitution and its specific physiological
effect.

36 A. R. PENFOLD, G. R. RAMAGE AND J. L. SIMONSEN.

THE IDENTITY OF DARWINOL WITH
d-MYRTENOL. |

By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.L.,
Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney,
G. R. RAMAGE, M.Sc., Ph.D.,
Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry, University College of
North Wales, Bangor,
and J. L. SIMONSEN, D.Sc., F.I.C., F.R.S.,

Professor of Chemistry, University College of North
Wales, Bangor.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, June 6, 1934.)

Some years ago one of us (Penfold, This Journal,
1923, 57, 237) separated from the essential oil present in
the shrub Darwinia grandiflora an alcohol, C,,H,,O0, for
which the name darwinol was tentatively suggested, and
which was characterised by the preparation of a crystal-
line acid phthalate and a-naphthylurethane. Later the
same alcohol was shown to occur in the oils from the
“Green Leaf” of Leptospermum lanigerum (ibid., 1926, 60,
8), and the shrub Hriostemon coxii (ibid., 331). A con-
sideration of the physical constants of this alcohol,
together with the melting-point of the acid phthalate,

suggested that it was probably identical with the dicyclic —

cH2OH
Cc
HC. CH
H.C. c CHz
HaC 2
CH

alcohol d-myrtenol (I), C,.H,,0, isolated by Semmler
(Ber., 1907, 40, 1363) from myrtle oil. The reactions
of this alcohol were studied later by Rupe and his
collaborators (Annalen, 1915, 409, 344; 1927, 459, 171).
Through the kindness of Professor H. Rupe, who
generously presented us with a quantity of myrtle oil,
we have now been able to prove conclusively that

ei

IDENTITY OF DARWINOL WITH d-MYRTENOL. 3”

darwinol is actually identical with d-myrtenol, as will
be seen from the data recorded in the table. The name
darwinol can therefore be removed from the literature.

Comparison of Properties of d-Myrtenol .and “‘ Darwinol.”’

d-Myrtenol. ‘* Darwinol.”’
b.p. ah eh te 218°/771 mm. ; 218—219°/771 mm. ;
103-104°/11 mm. ae mm.
200 : x
ee, ue ce a 0-9763 al? 0-981
~ +P ce Se 1-49668* 1-4951
D
a oe a ois +45-45°* + 45°
Acid phthalate, m.p... 114-115°* ; 111-113°
111-112°
Phenylurethane, m.p. : 58-59° 58—-59°
«-Naphthylurethane, m. D. 92—93° 92-—93°

*Semmler, Ber., 1907, 40, 1363.

By the oxidation of both d-myrtenol and “darwinol”
with chromic acid d-myrtenal was obtained in poor yield
and was characterised by the preparation of the semit-
carbazone, decomp. 220-221°, and the phenylsemicarba-
zone, decomp. 180°. Semmler recorded a melting-point ca.
230° for myrtenal semicarbazone, but he did not recrys-
tallise his product, and this value is undoubtedly too
high unless he obtained a stereoisomeric form.

EXPERIMENTAL.

The d-myrtenol and “darwinol” used in these experi-
ments were prepared by the hydrolysis of the carefully
recrystallised acid phthalates. Titration with camphoric
acid peracid (Miles and McAlevy, Journ. Amer. Chem.
Soc., 1938, 55, 349) in chloroform solution showed, as was
to be anticipated, the presence of only one ethylenic
linkage. In agreement with Semmler, the acid, probably
d-pinic acid, obtained by oxidation of the alcohol with
potassium permanganate in acetone solution, could not
be obtained crystalline.

The derivatives described below were in all cases
prepared from both d-myrtenol and “darwinol”, the
melting-points and mixed melting-points being identical.

38 A. R. PENFOLD, G. R. RAMAGE AND J. L. SIMONSEN.

The acid phthalate after three crystallisations from
ligroin (100—-120°) was obtained in prisms, m.p. 111—118°.

3°38 mg. gave 889 mg. CO, and 2:12 mg. H,O.
C = 71-7, H = 7-0. ?

C,,H,.O, requires C =72:0, H = 6-7 per cent. |

d-Myrtenol phenylurethane—A mixture of equal
volumes of myrtenol and phenylisocyanate was allowed
to stand at room temperature for three days, the viscid
oil was dissolved in ligroin (40-60°) and filtered from
diphenylurea, and after removal of the solvent the liquid
phenylurethane was kept in the ice-box for two months,
when it crystallised. A crystal nucleus being available,
other preparations of the urethane crystallised imme-
diately on inoculation. The phenylurethane separated
from ligroin (40-60°) in large prisms, m.p. 58-59°.

5:27 mg. gave 0:2548 ce. N, at 24° and 761 mm.
N = 5°5.

C,,H,,0,N requires N = 5:2 per cent.

The a-naphthylurethane prepared in a similar manner
solidified at once on scratching. It was somewhat
sparingly soluble in ligroin (60-80°) and crystallised
from methyl alcohol in well-formed needles, m.p. 92—93°.

3°89 mg. gave 11:25 mg. CO, and 2°67 mg. H,O.
C = 78:9, H = 7-6.

C,,H.,0,N requires C = 785, H =-7-2 per cent.

d-Myrtenol.—d-myrtenol and “darwinol” were oxidised
to the aldehyde under the conditions used by Semmler
(Ber., 1907, 40, 1363), the yield in each case being poor.
The semicarbazone crystallised from methyl alcohol in
fine needles, decomp. 220—221°.

O72 mg. gave 06487 cc. N, at 20° and 769 mm.
N = 20-6.

C,,H,,ON, requires N = 20-3 per cent.

The phenylsemicarbazone crystallised from methyl
alcohol in prismatic needles, decomp. 180°.

o°785 mg. gave 0-4919 cc. N, at 21° and 769 mm.
N = 15-2.

C,,H.,ON, requires N = 14:8 per cent.

The authors are indebted to the Government Grants
Committee of the Royal Society of London and to
Imperial Chemical Industries Limited for grants which
have in part defrayed the cost of this investigation.

THTRA-COVALENT COMPOUNDS OF PLATINUM. 39

SOME TETRA-COVALENT COMPOUNDS OF
PLATINUM WITH TERTIARY ARSINES.

By G. J. Burrows, B.Sce.,
and R. H. PAarkmr, M.Sc.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, August 1, 1984.)

INTRODUCTION.

Tetra-covalent platinous compounds have attracted
considerable attention during recent years on account
of the isomerism almost invariably observed in this type
of derivative. The explanation originally advanced by
Werner, that the occurrence of isomers in the case of
diammine platinous chloride is due to the planar nature
of the molecule permitting cis and trans arrangements
of the chlorine atoms and ammonia groups around the
platinum, was later challenged by Reihlen and Nestle
(Ann., 1926, 447, 211, and 448, 13812). From molecular
weight determinations (in liquid ammonia) these authors
were led to conclude that one “isomer” was in reality a
polymer of the other. Werner’s original view was still
later supported by Hantzsch (Ber., 1926, 59, [B] 2761),
who found that the molecular weights of the two bis-
pyridine platinous chlorides in molten phenol were
practically identical. More recently Angell, Drew and
Wardlaw (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1930, 349), in discussing
the isomeric bis-diethyl sulphide platinous halides,
advanced the view that the differences observed in the
properties of the two forms were capable of a quite
different interpretation. They assigned to the chlorides,
for example, the formule

Ol
~
Bt _Cl : 7 Rts
t
Bast el Se.
aK

Cl
a dichloride. pB dichloride.

40 G. J. BURROWS AND R. H. PARKER.

In a subsequent paper (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1932, 988)
Drew, Pinkard, Wardlaw and Cox recorded the isolation
of a third isomer of diammine platinous chloride, and
assigned the following formule to the three isomers:

NH, NH, CINH, NH EC
SS
See pi Pt
Poe
Oo Na CINH, Cl
a B Y

Further evidence of the coplanar arrangement was
supplied by Cox (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1931, 1089) from
X-ray analysis of tetrammine platinous chloride. On the
other hand, the resolution into optical enantiomers by
Reihlen and Huhn (Ann., 1932, 499, 144) of bis-
isobutylene diammine platinous chloride and of bis-2-
amino-methyl-3-methyl-4-ethyl quinoline platinous chloride
cannot be reconciled with a planar arrangement, and we
are forced to believe that, in these compounds at least,
the arrangement is tetrahedral. |

Still more recently (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1934, 219)
Drew and Head repeated the preparation of isobutylene
diammine platinous chloride, and stated that their
product was a mixture of two isomers with distinctly
different solubilities in alcohol, a result to be expected for

a coplanar arrangement of the two isobutylene diammine ©

groups co-ordinated with the platinum. It is quite
obvious that our knowledge of the stereochemistry of
these compounds is still very obscure.

In view of the remarkable stability of the complex ions
formed by silver with tertiary arsines (Burrows and
Parker, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1933, 55, 4133), it was
decided to prepare and examine the © corresponding
platinous compounds. Cahours and Gal (Journ. Prakt.
Chem., 1870, 110, 460; Compt. Rend., 1870, 70, 897, 1380,
and 71, 208) described compounds formed by trimethyl
arsine and triethyl arsine with salts of platinum, palla-
dium and gold. In particular they recorded the occur-
rence of isomeric bis-trimethyl platinous chlorides and
bis-triethyl platinous chlorides having different solu-
bilities in ether. Mann and Pope (Journ. Chem. Soc.,
1922, 121, 1758) described platinum bis-chlorovinyl bis-

joa| ella

TETRA-COVALENT COMPOUNDS OF PLATINUM. 41

B B’B”-trichloro trivinyl arsine, which they apparently
obtained in one form only.

Phenyl dimethyl arsine and diphenyl methyl arsine
were selected for this investigation in view of their
comparative stability and the ease of obtaining them in a
pure condition. They were found to react readily with
chloroplatinic acid* or with chloroplatinous acid,
yielding fine crystalline compounds having characteristic
melting-points. They are very soluble in cold chloro-
form, are appreciably soluble in acetone, and can be
recrystallised from hot toluene. They are insoluble in
methyl alcohol or ethyl alcohol and are regarded by us
as being non-polar compounds of the type R,PtX,, in
which X is a molecule of the arsine. Quite early in the
investigation we were led to believe that our products
were mixtures of two forms—slight variations in colour
were observed after crystallising from different solvents
—but it was not found possible to effect a separation by
employing different solvents. In this respect our
experience was quite different from that of Cahours and
Gal, who found that one form only of bis-triethyl arsine
platinous chloride was soluble in ether or alcohol.
Furthermore, only slight differences in melting-points
were observed after recrystallising the various compounds
from different solvents. It was observed, however, that
where two different crops of crystals of any one product
were obtained, one being paler than the other, the paler
substance on heating appeared to change into the darker
just before melting. Also, the final products appeared
to be the same when prepared from the arsine by treat-
ment with either chloroplatinic acid, potassium chloro-
platinite or chloroplatinous acid. More definite evidence
of the existence of isomers was obtained by examining
the compounds many months after their preparation. A
specimen of bis-diphenyl methyl arsine platinous
dichloride, for example, melted at 214°C., appeared to
be homogeneous when first prepared, and had a very
pale yellow colour. The same specimen after eleven
months appeared to be a mixture of two substances, one
of which was bright yellow and the other almost colour-

* Portion of the arsine first reduces the chloroplatinic acid
to the platinous condition; unchanged arsine then combines
with the platinous chloride.

42 G. J. BURROWS AND R. H. PARKER.

less. This product had originally been crystallised from
hot toluene, in which solvent it was quite soluble. On
heating the compound in toluene, eleven months after

ef

preparation, portion only was found to be soluble, and —

it was found possible to effect a separation with this
solvent. Repeated extraction with toluene yielded:

(a) a solution from which a yellow crystalline form
was obtained melting at 214°; and

(6) a residue which crystallised from hot chloroform
in pale-yellow needles, melting at 218°C.

Another specimen of bis-diphenyl methyl arsine
platinous dichloride was recrystallised from toluene,
melting at 214°C. It was then carefully heated just to
its melting-point in a tube immersed in sulphuric acid.
It resolidified on cooling to a yellow mass which was
almost insoluble in toluene, but readily soluble in chloro-
form; the pale yellow product from this solvent melted
at 218°C. After crystallisation from chloroform the
compound was insoluble in toluene. No significance is
attached to the difference in melting-points, but the
behaviour towards toluene is considered to indicate that
these compounds are capable of existence in isomeric
forms. When first prepared the compounds are soluble
in toluene, but they appear to change, slowly at the
ordinary temperature and rapidly at the melting-point,
into a form which is practically insoluble in that solvent.
This behaviour has been observed in the case of the three
compounds we have prepared, namely, bis-phenyl
dimethyl arsine platinous chloride, bis-diphenyl methyl
arsine platinous chloride, and bis-phenyl dimethyl arsine
platinous bromide.

Unfortunately we have been unable to obtain accurate.

results for molecular weight determinations owing to the
comparatively low solubilities of these large molecules
in suitable solvents. The behaviour towards heat ig not
incompatible with Reihlen’s results for bis-pyridine
platinous chloride. It is quite possible that one form
may be a polymer of the other and may depolymerise on
long standing or on heating. Further work is at present
in progress with other arsines, and it is hoped that by
isolating more soluble compounds it will be possible to
make accurate determinations of the molecular weights.

TETRA-COVALENT COMPOUNDS OF PLATINUM. 43

EXPERIMENTAL.

Bis-diphenyl Methyl Arsine Platinous Chloride
: (Ph,MeAs),PtCl..

This compound was prepared from chloroplatinic acid,
from chloroplatinous acid and from potassium chloro-
platinite.

(a) Platinum (1 atom) was converted to chloroplatinic
acid in the usual way, and to a concentrated aqueous
solution an equal volume of alcohol was added. Diphenyl
methyl arsine (8 molecules), dissolved in alcohol, was
then added dropwise to this solution with vigorous stir-
ring. The brown solution was then heated on the water-
bath until the colour had almost disappeared. On
standing a yellowish hard mass separated, and this was
extracted with hot toluene, whereby the compound was
obtained in short, thick, pale-yellow prisms melting at
207°C. <A further extraction yielded a second crop of
crystals of the same colour melting at 215°C., the total
yield being 70 per cent. The extra molecule of arsine is
used in reducing the chloroplatinic acid to platinous
chloride. Bis-diphenyl methyl arsine platinous chloride is
insoluble in water, ethyl and methyl alcohols, ether
ligroin and ethyl acetate. It is only slightly soluble in
hot benzene. It may be recrystallised from acetone,
acetic acid, toluene or chloroform, being extremely
soluble in the last. The melting-points after recrystal-
lisation from acetone, chloroform, toluene and acetic acid
were found to be 212°, 218°, 214° and 211°C. respectively.

Found Pt 25-8, Cl 9-2, As 19-6 per cent.

C.,H,,ASeCloPt requires Pt 25-9, Cl 9-4, As 19-9 per
cent.

(6) Platinous chloride (1 atom), prepared according
to the method of Nilson (Journ. Prakt. Chem., 1877, 128),
was treated in aqueous alcohol with diphenyl methyl
arsine (2 molecules). The platinum chloride, however,
did not dissolve, and was recovered and converted into
chloroplatinous acid with warm hydrochloric acid. An
alcoholic solution of the arsine (2 molecules) was then
added with stirring, and on warming a clear solution
was obtained from which the compound separated in
almost colourless needles on cooling, the yield being 80
per cent. This compound melted at 213°C. and resembled

44 G. J. BURROWS AND R. H. PARKER.

that described under (@) as regards its solubility in
different liquids.

(c) Potassium chloroplatinite (1 molecule), prepared
from chloroplatinate and potassium oxalate and dis-
solved in 5 times its weight of hot water, was added to
an alcoholic solution of diphenyl methyl arsine with
continuous stirring. After some minutes a white precipi-
tate began to separate. The stirring was continued for
about two hours, when the precipitate was separated,
washed with alcohol and ether and recrystallised from
hot toluene. The product, pale-yellow needles, melted at
214°C. and was found to contain 25:6 per cent. of
platinum. It was identical with the product obtained by
the other methods.

As Angell, Drew and Wardlaw (Journ. Chem. Soc.,
1930, 349) had found that only one form of bis-diethyl
sulphide platinous chloride reacted readily with moist
silver oxide, it was decided to apply the same treatment
to the arsine derivative. For this purpose an excess of
freshly-prepared moist silver oxide was rubbed with the

se

arsine in a glass mortar for about twenty minutes, after —

which hot water was added and the resulting suspension
filtered. The filtrate on treatment with hydrochloric
acid remained clear, but on evaporation yielded a very
small amount of yellowish solid which on recrystallisa-
tion from chloroform melted at 214°C. The residue from

the above filtration was repeatedly extracted with small.

quantities of absolute alcohol, and the extract on
evaporation in vacuo over phosphorus pentoxide yielded
a product melting at 200°C. This was not analysed, but
was considered to be bis-diphenyl methyl arsine platinous
hydroxide (Ph,MeAs),Pt(OH),. It was converted to
the chloride by treatment with hydrochloric acid, and
this product after drying and recrystallising from
chloroform melted at 214°C.

Reference has already been made in the introduction
to the change which takes place in the compound after
a long period at the ordinary temperature or on melting.
Heating to the melting-point converts the compound into
a form which, although no longer soluble in toluene, is
readily soluble in chloroform and can be recrystallised
from this solvent in the form of pale-yellow needles
melting at 218°C. and containing 25-7 per cent. of

TETRA-COVALENT COMPOUNDS OF PLATINUM. 45

platinum. A specimen, originally crystallised from
toluene, after eleven months was found to have changed
into a mixture, portion of which was soluble in toluene
from which it crystallised in yellow needles (m.p. 214°C.,
Pt 25:6 per cent., As 195 per cent). The remaining
portion, insoluble in toluene, was crystallised from
chloroform, also in yellow needles (m.p. 218°C., Pt 25:6
per cent., As 19-5 per cent.).

Bis-phenyl Dimethyl Arsine Platinous Chloride
(PhMe.As),PtCl.,.

This compound was prepared from phenyl dimethyl
arsine and either chloroplatinic acid or chloroplatinous
acid in the same manner as the previously-mentioned
compound. In the preparation from chloroplatinic acid
the alcoholic solution obtained from the arsine and the
acid was treated with ether to precipitate the phenyl
dimethyl arsine hydroxy chloride formed in accordance
with the equation:

OH
PhMesAs + H,PtCl, + H,O = PtCl, + 3HCl1+ PhMeAs<
Cl

This separated in white needles (m.p. 167°C.). Itisa
coincidence that this compound has the same melting-
point as the platinum derivative of the arsine. The latter
was obtained by concentrating the filtrate from the above,
and separated in beautiful yellowish-green plates melting
at 167°C. It is soluble in toluene, chloroform or acetone,
yielding products from these solvents having the same
melting-point and the same coiour.

Found Pt 31:0, Cl 11-2, As 23-5 per cent.

C,,H,,ASeClePt requires Pt 31:0, Cl 11°3, Ag 23-8 per
cent.

The compound obtained from chloroplatinous acid was
identical with the above. Treatment with moist silver
oxide yields a hydroxide which on extracting with hot
water dissolves only to a very slight extent, yielding
with hydrochloric acid a chloride melting at 166°C.
The residue on treatment with alcohol gives a solution
from which the chloride (m.p. 167°C.) -is precipitated by
the addition of hydrochloric acid. Bis-phenyl dimethyl
arsine platinous chloride changes after some months,
yielding a mixture of two forms, one soluble in toluene

46 G. J. BURROWS AND R. H. PARKER.

(m.p. 166°C.; Pt = 30-9 per cent.), the other insoluble in
toluene but soluble in chloroform (m.p. 165°C.; Pt = 30-9
per cent.). Also on heating to the melting-point the

form originaly soluble in toluene becomes insoluble, but —

is readily soluble in chloroform (m.p. 166°C.; Pt = 30-9
per cent.).

Bis-diphenyl Methyl Arsine Platinous Bromide
(Ph.AsMe).PtBr,.

This was prepared from bromoplatinic acid and excess
of the arsine in alcoholic solution. The solution was
heated on the water-bath for several hours, the colour
becoming considerably brighter, and a yellow crystalline
precipitate separated. This was removed by filtration,
washed with alcohol and ether and air-dried. The
compound resembled the corresponding chloride in solu-
bilities. Portion was recrystallised from chloroform in
yellow needles melting at 196°C.

Found Pt 23:0, Br 18-8 per cent.*

C,,H,,AS82BrePt requires Pt 23:1, Br 19-0 per cent.

A sample of this product from chloroform was found
to change on prolonged exposure to light to a reddish
product melting at 144°C. and containing 22-1 per cent.
of platinum. This has not been investigated further.
Another portion was recrystallised from toluene in
yellow plates melting at 193°C. Found Pt 23-3, Br. 18-7

per cent. On heating to the melting-point this compound.

was rendered insoluble in toluene, although it could be
recrystallised from chloroform, yielding a compound
containing 23-1 per cent. platinum and melting at
196°C. }

Department of Chemistry,
University of Sydney.

*In the analysis platinum was estimated by ignition. For
the estimation of bromine, 0:1 gramme of the compound was
heated with a few e.c. of concentrated nitric acid in the
presence of silver nitrate, giving silver bromide and platinum,
the latter being removed by filtration. The filtrate was treated
with zine dust and then with a little nitric acid to dissolve any
silver precipitated. The resulting platinum was added to the
first residue and, after weighing, the amount of platinum was
subtracted, giving the silver bromide.

sn

AN X-RAY STUDY OF OPALS. 47]

AN X-RAY STUDY OF OPALS.

By F. P. Dwynr, M.Sc.
and D. P. MBELLoR, M.Sc.,

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, August 1, 19384.)

The presence of crystalline material in opals has been
noted by Levin and Ott (J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1982, 54,
828), (Z. Kris., 1933, 85, 305), and ourselves (This
Journal, 1932, 66, 378). Collected data from all three
sources indicate that opals may contain crystallites of
either @- (high) cristobalite, a- (low) cristobalite, or
a- (low) quartz.

The presence in opals of f-cristobalite, which has
presumably existed through geological ages, is so
interesting as to warrant a study of the manner of its
origin. In this connexion the Australian opals afford
excellent material, since it is possible to obtain specimens
which have been formed under the most diverse
geological conditions.* Of particular interest are those
opals formed in association with groundwaters, as at
Lightning Ridge, Coober Pedy and White Cliffs. This
type of occurrence is probably unique.

EXXPERIMENTAL RESULTS.

Employing the usual Debye-Scherrer technique, the
authors obtained powder photographs of two types:
(1) Those showing the lines of £8-cristobalite or
a-quartz, and
(2) Those showing a broad band in the position of
the most intense line of either a- or B-cristobalite.
The demarcation between the two types of pattern was
not sharp. ‘There occurred a gradual variation from
lines of excellent sharpness to the broad lines charac-
teristic of colloidal crystal dimensions, and finally to a
broad diffuse band.

*The authors wish to thank Professor W. R. Browne for
geological data, and also Dr. Ida A. Brown and the Curator of
the Mining Museum, Mr. M. Morrison, for specimens of opal.

souojspues
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SsI0J@MpUNOIy

e a i fr | |

48

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"UOI}BUIIO, JO *XLI} 8]
SPO -SIGeqotd

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= ‘M'S'N ‘ospry Surayysry
pueg bona oe "V's ‘Apog reqoog
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eupeqorstip-g ‘M'S'N “osprig Ayo
Z4IEN()-2 "M'S'N ‘YeuUSOMeBIOOT,
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“ON

AN X-RAY STUDY OF OPALS. 49

The results on all opals examined are summarized in
Table I, the specimens being placed in descending order
of crystal grain-size. Within very approximate limits,
specimens 1 to 5 contain crystallites of average dimen-
sions 10-* to 10-° cm. on edge, numbers 6 and 7 about
10-° cm., while in numbers 8 to 10 the grain-size is below
-° cm.

Further, it is obvious that those opals which have been
intimately associated with lava-flows all show sharp
diffraction lines of either @-cristobalite or a-quartz. The
non-crystallised opals have all been characterised by
absence of exposure to heat during their geological
history. Different specimens taken from the same field
gave the same pattern irrespective of the outward charac-
teristics of the specimen, indicating that a particular
pattern is characteristic of a particular field, and hence
of its geological history.

As indicated previously (This Journal, 1933, 67, 420),
attempts made in the laboratory to imitate this natural
process of crystallisation of £-cristobalite were entirely
successful. Opals of class (c) of Table I readily crystal-
lised at all temperatures between 710°C. and 1000°C. on
treatment with fluxes to give sharp patterns charac-
teristic of (a).

DISCUSSION.

On the basis of the above studies it seems fairly well
established that the presence of crystals of 8-cristobalite
or a-quartz in opals of such a size as to give well-defined
X-ray diffraction patterns depends on their thermal
history. It is considered that silica in the gel from which
opals are formed possesses a pseudo-crystalline structure
—most probably that of a-cristobalite. In the presence
of, or by the agency of, hot magmatic waters, an inversion
of the a-cristobalite to the 8-form, followed by simple
crystal growth, has occurred. Factors such as time of
contact with the magmatic waters and variations in their
temperature would account for the wide range of varia-
tion in grain-size.

The persistence of £-cristobalite in opals seems to be
intimately connected, as we have suggested in a previous
paper, with its low temperature of crystallisation, and
D—August 1, 1934.

taan 4!
bot

50 KF. P. DWYER AND D. P. MELLOR.

not, as claimed by Levin and Ott,* a result of simple
physical strains. This is borne out hy the persistence
of laboratory specimens of 6-cristobalite. -cristobalite
prepared from opals by fluxing at 800°C. persisted up
to six months, while specimens prepared from the same
opals at 1500°C. inverted promptly on cooling. In all
cases the persistence became more marked as the tempera-
ture of fluxing was lowered. It is considered therefore
quite feasible that the cristobalite produced at the rela- |
tively low temperatures of magmatic waters, often as
low as 200°C., should show great stability.

The occurrence of quartz in opals can be accounted
for on two explanations: (1) greater length of contact
with the magmatic waters, in which case the unstable
cristobalite phase would pass to the stable quartz phase,
or (2) slight alkalinity of the waters. In this latter
regard G. Spezia (Journ. Chem. Soc., 76 (2), 300), has
observed that when opal is heated with alkaline silicates,
it becomes a mass of quartz crystals.

SUMMARY.

(1) The presence of cristobalite in opals has been
correlated with their geological history.

(2) The growth of #-cristobalite in non-crystalline
opals can be induced by heating with appropriate fluxes
at all temperatures between 710°C. and 1000°C.

(3) The persistence of cristobalite in the “high” form
is dependent on its temperature of formation.

Department of Chemistry,
University of Sydney.

* See also Greig: Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1932, 54, 2846.

ee Se E

I 25 PART OF VOL. LXVII.
ISSUED JUNE 11, 1935.

°° oe PART IL

Jou R NAL
PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Bat SOCIETY

NEW SOUTH WALES

FOR

1934
(INCORPORATED 1881)

PART I (pp. 51 to fe and pp. i to lv)

VOL. LXVUI

_ Containing Papers read from September to
December. With ten Plates, also List of
ners, Abstract of Proceedings, and Index.

(Plates I-X.)
EDITED BY

THE HONORARY SECRETARIES.

THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED“THEREIN...

SYDNEY

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS

1935

CONTENTS: © = =e =

VOLUME LXVIII.

Part IL. an
; Page. a

Arr. V.—The Volumetric Micro-Determination of Ortho--
Nitrophenols with Methylene Blue. By a WE a
Ph.D. (Issued January 15, 1935. ) Ae =

Art. VI.—The Action of Nitrous’ Acid on Dimetigitie a
Part Ill. By John Campbell Earl, D.Sc., Ph.D., and Alan
William Mackney, B.Sc. (Issued January 15, 1935)

Art. VII.—A Theory of Association. By L. W. Q. ‘Martin,
B.Se. (Issued February 12, 1935.) .. .. Pal

Art. VIII.—Some Hydroxy Salts of Secondary oe Pevkieey
Arsines. By G. J. Burrows, B.Sc. Eo March 15,
DOGR ee OAS See <3 SSS:

Art. I1X.—The Essential Oils ‘of the Benes Calpine: Part
Il. Calythriz tetragona (Labillardiére}), Variety “A”.
By A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.I., G. R. Ramage, M.Sc., Ph.D.,
and J. L. Simonsen, D.Sc., F.R.S. ree March 15,
1935.) ate

ArT. X.—The Phouastegtie: of the ‘Middle North ers
District of New South Wales. (With three text-figures.}
By A. H. Voisey, B.Se. (Issued Mareh 15, 1935.)

Art. XI.—A Note on. the Occurrence in New South Wales of
Black Chaff of Wheat caused by Bacterium translucens
var. undulosum S.J.andR. By J. G. Churchward,
B.Sc.Agr., M.Sc. (Communicated by Dr. W. L.
Waterhouse.) (Issued March 15, 1935.) — ‘=

Art. XII—Compounds of Palladium with Benzilaloxinie: By
F. P. Dwyer, M.Sc., and D. P. ae M.Sc. ee
March 15, 1935.) See ae

Art. XIII—The Fastness of Certain AgitueRenaee ‘i
Washing. By J. C. Earl, D.Sc., Ph.D., and H. M. Parkin,
B.Sc. (Issued March 15, 1935.) nes poe a 7S

Art, XIV.—The Moisture Equilibrium of Timber in ideas?
Parts of New South Wales. Part II. Murwillumbah.
By M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C. (Issued March 15, 1935.)

ArT. XV.—Stone Scrapers. An Inquiry Concerning a Certain eo
Conventionalized Type Found Along the Coast of New ©
South Wales. (With Plates I-VI and seven Text-figures.)
By C. C. Towle, B.A. (Communicated by Assist.-Prof.
W. R. Browne.) (Issued April 16, 1935.)

Arr. XVI.—Myoporum deserti: A Preliminary Invostinatiaa:
By Adrien Albert, B.Sc. (Communicated ei Mr. H.
Finnemore.} (Issued April 16, 1935.) pa une Sue cee a

+ Published June 11, 1935.

VOLUMETRIC MICRO-DETERMINATION. a1

THE VOLUMETRIC MICRO-DETERMINATION OF
ORTHO-NITROPHENOLS WITH METHYLENE
BLUE.

By ApouteH BoLuicEr, Ph.D.*

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Sept. 5, 1934.)

Some time ago it was found that picric acid (Bolliger,
A., Tuis JourNAL, 1933, 67, 240) and 2-4 dinitrophenol
(Bolliger, A., Med. Journ, Austr., Mar. 17, 1934, 367)
could be titrated with methylene blue and possibly other
thiazine dyes by removing with chloroform the sparingly
water-soluble reaction-product. Broadly speaking, this
method can be applied to phenols and other aromatic
acids in general, provided that the reaction-product with
methylene blue or other thiazine dyes is sparingly soluble

in cold water, but considerably more soluble in chloro-

form. The present communication is limited to ortho-
nitrophenols.

In general the procedure is as follows: An alkaline
or alkaline earth salt of the ortho-nitrophenol in aqueous
solution is transferred to a cylindrical separatory funnel
containing chloroform. If dealing with an extract in
an organic solvent or with a watery solution of a free
nitrophenol, one adds a small excess of calcium
carbonate, although, as will be shown later, in some
instances the free nitrophenol in aqueous or chloroform
solution can be used as such. The amount of chloroform
required depends roughly on the amount of the nitro-
phenol present and on the solubility of the thiazine
phenolate formed, and may vary from 10 to 100 c.c. The
standard thiazine dye solution, usually methylene blue,
is practically insoluble in chloroform in the dilution used.
It is added from a burette and the thiazine phenolate
formed is then extracted with the chloroform present.

* Acknowledgments are due to Prof. J. C. Earl and Dr. V. M.

Trikojus, who very kindly supplied some of the chemicals used
in this investigation; also to Miss Dorothy Dark for valuable
technical assistance.

H—September 5, 1934.

52 ADOLPH BOLLIGER. .

With the most suitable nitrophenols, such as picric acid,
the colour of the phenol solution, after extraction with
chloroform, diminishes to an extent which is propor-
tionate to the amount of the thiazine dye added, while
the chloroform—after extraction of the thiazine
phenolate formed—becomes correspondingly more deeply
coloured. On the other hand, under less favourable
conditions the reaction-product will also stain the
aqueous layer. If some of the precipitated thiazine
phenolate remains undissolved in the chloroform, more
chloroform must be added. If the chloroform becomes
very dark in colour it has to be separated and replaced
with fresh chloroform.

Theoretically, the end-point is reached when the
aqueous layer becomes colourless. This, of course, only
occurs when the reaction-product is very sparingly
soluble in water and considerably more soluble in chloro-
form, as, for example, in the case with the picrate of
methylene blue. It is preferable in all cases to consider
as the end-point the first appearance of an unextractable
colour of the standard dye solution. In many instances
the chloroform solution of the thiazine phenolate is of
a colour distinctly different from that of the thiazine
dye used, which facilitates the observation of the end-
point.

In most cases methylene blue was found to be
distinctly superior to other commonly used thiazine dyes,
such as methylene green, toluidine blue and thionine,
which will only require occasional mention.

The following o-nitrophenols have been examined:

A. 0-Nitrophenol and o-Nitro-p-Cresol.—o-Nitrophenol
reacts at room-temperature with thiazine dyes only in
the form of its salts. With methylene blue a compound
is formed which is considerably soluble in water with a
blue colour. This compound dissolves in chloroform with
a purplish-blue colour. 7

On account of the water solubility of the compound
formed, as well as its instability in an aqueous medium,
titration with thiazine dyes is not suitable as a method
for estimating o-nitrophenol.

The salt formed by o-nitrophenol and toluidine blue
dissolves in chloroform with a scarlet-red colour.

.% y

VOLUMETRIC MICRO-DETERMINATION. 53

o-Nitro-p-cresol behaves in a similar way to o-nitro-
phenol in its reaction towards methylene blue.

B.- 2-4 Dinitrophenol.—In connection with some work
on the detection of 2-4 dinitrophenol in urine (Bolliger,
A., Med. Journ. Austr., Mar. 17, 1934, p. 3867), it was
observed that 2-4 dinitrophenol forms with methylene
blue a salt which is almost as sparingly soluble in cold
water as the corresponding picrate. Its solubility in
chloroform, however, is only 0:04%. Therefore, with
- amounts over 1 mgr. of dinitrophenol, it is advisable to
precipitate with a known amount of methylene blue the
greater part of the nitrophenol present. Then one
removes the precipitate by filtration or centrifugation
and completes the analysis on the filtrate, which is trans-
ferred either in toto or in an aliquot part to the
separatory funnel containing chloroform. On titrating
a 0-01N solution of sodium or calcium dinitrophenolate
with 0-001N methylene blue a sharp end-point can be
obtained, and the error does not exceed 15%. An excess
of methylene blue hag to be avoided, because part of it
is absorbed by the precipitated methylene blue dinitro-
phenolate.

2-4 Dinitrophenol forms a more chloroform-soluble
compound with methylene green, but on account of the
water-solubility of this salt and the similarity between
the colour of the reagent and the product of reaction the
observation of the end-point is difficult.

C. 2-6 Dinitrophenol.—_In contrast to 2-4 dinitro-
phenol, 2-6 dinitrophenol forms with methylene blue a
compound which dissolves in water considerably with a
green colour. However, this salt is somewhat more
soluble in chloroform than the 2-4 dinitrophenolate, and
therefore a quantitative estimation, although less satis-
factory, is still possible. The volumetric results with
10 c.c. of a 0:002N solution of the calcium galt 2-6 dinitro-
phenol against a 0-001N methylene blue solution vary
amongst themselves not more than 1%, if near the end
point the aqueous layer is carefully extracted several
times with chloroform. However, the end-point, although
indicated by a fairly sharp change from green to blue, is
delayed, and with the amount mentioned the results are
5% too high. Of course by the use of larger amounts

54. ADOLPH BOLLIGER.

in higher concentration, this error will be made corres-
. pondingly smaller.

D. 2-5 Dinitrophenol_—The salt formed between
methylene blue and 2-5 dinitrophenol dissolves sparingly
in chloroform with a blue colour, but is more soluble
in water. Consequently titration with methylene blue
is not suitable for 2-5 dinitrophenol. With 0-001N
solutions errors up to 10% were encountered.

EK. 2-6 Dinitro-p-Cresol.—This phenol forms with
methylene blue a dark green salt which dissolves in
chloroform with a royal blue colour. The solubility of
this salt in water is somewhat higher than that of the
corresponding picrate, but the solubility in chloroform is
sufficiently great to make a titration possible.

For testing the accuracy of the titration a 0-005N
solution of 2-6 dinitro-p-cresol calcium was prepared.
Quantities of this solution varying from 1 to 10 ¢.c. were
titrated with 0-001N methylene blue. They could be
recovered with an error not exceeding 2%, but near
the end-point intensive extraction with chloroform was
necessary. The end-point is a change from yellowish
green to bluish green.

EF. 2-4 Dinitroresorcinol.—2-4 Dinitroresorcinol can
only be titrated with thiazine dyes in its free form. In
this case it is almost as well suited for titration with
methylene blue as picric acid. It forms a purple mono-
methylene blue resorcinolate which is sparingly soluble
in cold water, but more soluble in chloroform. The
chloroform solution is green. In titrating a 0-001N
solution of dinitroresorcinol with 0:001N methylene blue
the error did not exceed 1%. Ag in the case with picric
acid a colourless stage of the aqueous layer can be
observed.

The mineral salts of dinitroresorcinol form a bluish
compound with methylene blue, probably a di-methylene
blue resorcinolate, which is only sparingly soluble in
chloroform but more soluble in water.

G. Picric Acid—In addition to the previous com-
munication (Bolliger, A., THis JoURNAL, 1933, 67, 240),
it may be mentioned that the alkaline and alkaline earth
salts of picric acid are equally or even more suitable for
titration with methylene blue than the free acid. In this

VOLUMETRIC MICRO-DETERMINATION. 5D

case with 0-001N solutions the error was found noe to
exceed 0°3%.

The solubility of the methylene blue picrate in
chloroform was found to be 0:08% at room temperature.
The solubility in water is below 0:0017%.

The methylene green picrate if precipitated in the
absence of chloroform is, however, as soluble in chloro-
form as the methylene blue picrate. If precipitated in
the presence of chloroform the precipitate tends to form
an emulsion, and is then considerably less soluble in
chloroform.

Thionine picrate is practically insoluble in water, but
also very little soluble in chloroform.

H. 2-4 Dinitro-a-Naphthol.—2-4 Dinitro;a-naphthol, if
added to a solution of methylene blue, forms a dark green
salt which is almost insoluble in cold water, but consider-
ably soluble in chloroform. The colour of the chloroform
solution is green. However, 2-4 dinitro-a-naphthol can
only be titrated successfuly with methylene blue in a
comparatively neutral medium. For this reason it is
recommended to add always some calcium carbonate to
the solution to be titrated, even if 2-4 dinitro-a-naphthol
is already present in the form of an alkaline or alkaline
earth salt.

Under these conditions a very satisfactory end-point
is obtained, as in the case of picric acid. Varying
amounts of 0:001N 2-4 dinitro-a-naphthol calcium titrated
with 0-001N methylene blue could be recovered with an
error not exceeding 0:5%.

I. 7-Sulpho-2-4 Dinitro-a-Naphthol (Naphthol Yellow
S).—Apparently the entrance of a sulpho-group into the
naphthalene ring has deprived to a large extent the
methylene blue compound of the chloroform solubility
of the 2-4 dinitronaphthol, and the titration of the
7-sulpho-2-4 dinitronaphthalene with methylene blue
combined with chloroform extraction of the reaction-
product is impracticable. The methylene blue salt of
7-sulpho-2-4 dinitronaphthol, however, is very sparingly
water-soluble, and it is possible to estimate, within an
error below 5%, the amount of naphthol yellow S present
in a dilute solution, simply by adding 0-001N methylene
blue. Near the end point the solution becomes quite

56 ADOLPH BOLLIGER.

colourless, and after filtering off the precipitate one is
able to complete the titration.

DISCUSSION.

Seguin and Seguin, in a paper on the gravimetric
determination of methylene blue with picric acid
(Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, 1929, Série 8, 10, 5),
assumed the reaction to be a simple addition of picric
acid on to methylene blue chloride, as, for example, the
formation of naphthalene picrate. They gave the methy-
lene blue picrate a molecular weight of 548-5. This,
however, is not the case, and the reaction which takes
place is as follows:

C,,H,.N.8 Cl+HO.C,H,(NO,), =
C,.H,.N.8 OC,H,(NO,),+HCl

and the molecular weight is 512. The hydrochloric acid
liberated can be demonstrated in the filtrate. This
reaction does not take place in the absence of water, and
the acidity of the nitrophenol in question plays an
important part. Only very acid compounds such as
picric acid (K,,,= 1:6 x 10“) give readily and quantita-
tively compounds with methylene blue in their free form.
Nitrophenols of less acidity, such as ortho-nitrophenol
(K,., = 2-7 x 10-*), react with thiazine dyes only in the
form of their neutral salts. Otherwise the hydrochloric
acid liberated prevents the formation of the salt. In
some cases, such as 2-4 dinitronaphthol, the quantitative
determination is only possible in a strictly neutral
medium.

The methods as described are essentially micro-methods
suitable for a few milligrams or less, and with larger
amounts one precipitates most of the nitrophenol to be
determined with methylene blue, the determination
being terminated on the filtrate as described in the case
of the 2-4 dinitrophenol.

As already mentioned in a previous communication,
certain precautions are necessary with the chloroform
extraction of the reaction-product in order to get satis-
factory results. If possible the chloroform should not
be renewed till near the end-point.

VOLUMETRIC MICRO-DETERMINATION., 57

SUMMARY.

The following o-nitrophenols have been examined with
regard to their suitability for titration with methylene
blue:

o-nitrophenol, o-nitro-p-cresol, 2-4 dinitrophenol, 2-6
dinitrophenol, 2-5 dinitrophenol, 2-6 dinitro-p-cresol, 2-4
dinitroresorcinol, picric acid, 2-4 dinitro-a-naphthol, and
7-sulpho-w-4 dinitro-a-naphthol.

The following were found to be suitable to a varying
degree: 2-4 dinitrophenol, 2-6 dinitrophenol, 2-6 dinitro-
p-cresol, 2-4 dinitro-resorcinol, picric acid, and 2-4
dinitro-a-naphthol.

The Gordon Craig Urological Research Laboratory,

Department of Surgery,
University of Sydney.

58 JOHN CAMPBELL EARL AND ALAN WILLIAM MACKNEY.

THE ACTION OF NITROUS ACID ON
DIMETHYLANILINE.

Part III.

By JoHN CAMPBELL EARL, D.Sc., Ph.D.,
and ALAN WILLIAM MACKNEY, B.Sc.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Sept. 5, 1984.)

During a study on the action of nitrous acid on
dimethylaniline, p-nitrosodimethylaniline nitrate was
obtained as one of the products (THis JouRNAL, 19838, 67,
419). Many years previously the same product had been
obtained by Cohen and Calvert (J. Chem. Soc., 1898, 73,
163), but was not identified by them. They observed
also that when the substance was warmed with glacial
acetic acid p-nitrodimethylaniline was formed. |

In the earlier stages of this investigation (THIS
JOURNAL, 1933, 67, 283) another substance was isolated
from the decomposition of p-nitrosodimethylaniline
nitrate in glacial acetic acid, by carrying out the reaction
under conditions more carefully controlled than those
used by Cohen and Calvert. ‘This new product melted
at 86°C., gave a strong Liebermann nitroso-reaction, and
on analysis was found to contain 215% of nitrogen.
A closer study of the decomposition has now been made,
and by operating under controlled conditions described
in the experimental part of this paper, the principal
product formed has been identified as 2.4.dinitrodimethyl-
aniline (m.p. 86°C.), accompanied by smaller quantities
of p-nitrodimethylaniline (m.p. 160-160-5°C.) and p-
nitrophenyl methyl nitrosamine (m.p. 99:5°C.). It was
the presence of small quantities of the last-named
material in the original product which accounted for the
positive nitroso-test. It is of interest to note that in the —
determinations of nitrogen in p-nitrophenyl methyl
nitrosamine, whatever method was used for its prepara-
tion, it was difficult to obtain consistent results; but
there can be no doubt of the identity of the substance.

THE ACTION OF NITROUS ACID ON DIMETHYLANILINE 59

The production of nitro- and dinitrodimethylaniline is
easily accounted for by such nitration and oxidation
processes as one might expect to occur under the
conditions employed, but the mechanism of the formation
of p-nitrophenyl methyl nitrosamine is by no means clear.
The yield of the substance, however, was never great,
whatever the experimental conditions, so that it is prob-
ably to be regarded as a secondary product.

EXPERIMENTAL.
The Decomposition of p-Nitrosodimethylaniline Nitrate in
Glacial Acetic Acid.

p-Nitrosodimethylaniline nitrate (10 grams) and
glacial acetic acid (200 c.c.) were mixed and stirred
vigorously at 33°C. for ninety minutes, when the nitrate
had passed almost completely into solution. The solution
was then filtered, and the filtrate poured into excess of
water (1,000 c.c.). A yellow solid was precipitated and
the mixture allowed to stand overnight. After filtration
the precipitate was washed with water and allowed to
dry in air. Yield, 7-2 grams, melting at 40-50°C. and
giving a strong Liebermann nitroso-test.

The crude product was subjected to an exhaustive
fractional crystallisation from rectified spirit, when there
were obtained:

(A) 2:2 grams of a substance, melting at 86°C.,
which did not give a nitroso-reaction. Nitrogen
found,» 19:6 per cent.; caleulated for
C,H, (NO,),.N(CH;)., 19°9 per cent. A mixed
melting-point of the product with an authentic
sample of 2.4.dinitrodimethylaniline prepared
by treating dimethylaniline with nitric acid at
a low temperature (Mertens, Ber., 1886, 19,
2123), showed no depression.

(B) 0:06 gram of a substance melting at 160-
160-5°C. and identified as p-nitrodimethyl-
aniline. A mixed melting-point with an
authentic sample showed no depression.

(C) 0-03 gram of a substance melting at 995°C.
and giving a strong nitroso-test. Analyses by
the micro-method gave varying results (Found
N, 31-9, 24-8, 27-5, 23-6, 23:9, 30-7, 29-0, 32-2, 26°7

F—September 5, 1934.

60 JOHN CAMPBELL EARL AND ALAN WILLIAM MACKNEY.

per cent.; calculated for C,H,N,0,, 23:2 per
cent.). p-Nitrophenylmethylnitrosamine was
prepared by two different methods (Stoermer,
Hoffmann, Ber., 1898, 31, 2528; Bamberger,
Ber., 1894, 27, 370), the product in each case
melting at 995°C. and showing no depression
of melting-point when mixed with the sample
under examination. Analysis of these products
also gave varying results for nitrogen (Found
N, 24:3, 28-1, 39-0 per cent.).

Department of Organic Chemistry,
University of Sydney.

~ovipoe ll

A THEORY OF ASSOCIATION. 61

A THEORY OF ASSOCIATION.
By L. W. O. MARTIN, B.Sc.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, October 3, 1934.)

Two principal theories are at present advanced to
explain the association of the molecules of fluids to form
polymerised complexes. The _ difficulties are great.
Compounds which are known to be associated show that
the energy of association is small, that the association is
not accompanied by any apparent characteristic chemical
properties, and that the association is very sensitive to its
environment. On the other hand association seems to
be definitely related to the occurrence of hydroxyl groups
within the molecule. This has led to the formulation of
two theories, namely :

(1) The physical theory of dipole attraction, and
(2) The chemical theory of association.

The dipole theory of molecular association postulates
that the forces of attraction due to the dipole moment of
the molecules tend to hold the molecules together, and
thus give rise to loosely bound molecular complexes. ‘)
Though data are incomplete, this seems to occur in many
cases and, indeed, the above forces must induce a tendency
towards association.

The association of benzoic acid varies from solvent to
solvent, when the degree of association is deduced from
distribution coefficients. Some results are shown in
Table I below, in which C,, in all cases, is water.

If the dipole moment was the cause of association,
one would expect to find that as the dipole moment (z)
of the solvent increased the association of the solute
would decrease. This isnot so. Moreover, the association
of many molecules is completely stopped by a small change
in the dipole moment caused by some change in the
chemical structure of the molecule. Results for acetic
acid and esters are shown in Table II.

62 L. W. O. MARTIN,

TABLE I.—Association of Benzoic Acid in Solvents.

Dipole
Concentration Moment Degree
Solvent. Range in of Solvent of
Solvent. x 10m Association.
e.S.u.
C,H,‘ 0-1449 to 5-4851 0-0 Double molecules
C,H, 6:58 to 69:70 0-4 Double molecules
C
C,H,OCH, | 9-42 to111-50 1-2 G,o8 R= 0-15
C
C,H;OC,H; |17-7 to 93-9 1-0 6,08 =K=0-18
C,H;OC,H,"* |53-8 to 354-0 1-12 Sede 7444

It seems difficult to cover these facts by the physical
theory of association, so that attention is focussed on the
chemical theory. Sidgwick'*?) noted that most definitely
associating substances contain a hydroxyl group within
the molecule, and put forward his theory of association
through a co-ordinate link, the hydrogen of one hydroxyl
group being bonded to its “own” oxygen atom by a
covalent bond, and accepting an electron pair from an
exygen atom of another molecule. This theory explains,
so far as it goes, the cessation of association of carboxylic
acids, alcohols, etc., when the hydroxyl hydrogen is removed,
but it gives no reason why this should be so, nor why any
hydrogen atom will not act as the acceptor to form the
co-ordinate bond postulated. Sidgwick does not attempt
to explain the association of hydrogen fluoride on the

TABLE II.—Association and Dipole Moment.

Moment;
Substance. ux 10-** e.g-a: State.

CH,COOH ae Double molecules
CH,;COOCH, ee Single molecules
CH,COOC,H; 1-80 2 ”

ot |

A THEORY OF ASSOCIATION. 63

above theory. In a more recent book‘® he considers the
associating powers of-the various hydrogen bonds, giving
the observed fact, and suggesting a connection between
the magnitude of the moment and the associating powers
of the bond.

In this paper some of the most striking and interesting
facts will be considered, and a theory deduced. A few
examples will then be given to illustrate the application
and accuracy of the theory.

Water vapour is associated,’ and Wrewsky‘” has
shown that the vapours of acetic and formic acids are
associated (at 80° C. the molecular weights are 99-7 and
76-1 respectively). Alcohols are generally regarded as
associated, but esters, ethers, etc., are normal. Table III
gives for comparison the relevant results.

TABLE III.—Association, Physical and Chemical Properties.

Moment
Substance. Formula. Mol. < 10718 133,12. State.
Wt e.S.u. hay“ (01,
Water .. .. | H—O—H 18 1:85 100 Associated
Formic Acid .. Hoe Ca 46 (1:2) 101 as
Hydrogen Fluoride HF 20 — 19-4. 5
Methyl Acetate CHC, 6 on 60 IGE 7/ 51:9 | Normal
eee... | CH,-O—CH,) | 46 1-32 23-6 i
Methyl Alcohol CH,—O—H oe, 1:68 64-7 | Associated
Acetone... ae Cie. C=O 58 2-80 56-5 | Normal
3

It is indeed noteworthy that association ceases with
destruction of the hydroxyl group, but, on the other
hand, Sidgwick’s theory is not satisfactory. It gives no
reason why a paraffin or aromatic hydrogen atom is not
sufficient. It assumes that the hydrogen concerned in
the association has two electron pairs, 7.e. four electrons
and an atomic number one. Sidgwick‘® considers that
in the normal covalent hydrogen bond the electron pair
is in the first, and that the co-ordinate pair is in the second
quantum group. The author) has advanced reasons
why it seems most probable that, except in hydrogen-
hydrogen bond, the hydrogen atom has no electron in the
first quantum group.

64 L. W. O. MARTIN.

Consider the structure of water and ammonia. The
formule may be written as shown in I and II.

H H
ete : *k ek ;
H, N,H H, O/H H,N:'>H,N’ 4H, 0} >H: OfH
**
H H H H
I II III IV
where

_ = an s electron pair,

*
x = a p electron pair.

It is assumed in these formule that the electron pair
bonds are 2p ones. The 2s electrons are paired in the
atom itself, and there are no reasons why this pair should
be broken up on combination of the atom with other
atoms. Thus in ammonia the only unshared pair of
electrons left to form a co-ordinate bond is a nitrogen (N)
28 pair; whereas in the water molecule there are two
pairs, an O 2g pair and 2p pair. Ammonia at ordinary
temperatures and pressures is a gas, whilst water is a
liquid. The physical properties are shown in Table IV,
and these are so close that one would not, at present,
expect this difference in state.

TABLE LV = Prapertics of Ammonia and Water.

Formula
Substance. Wt. Cx Ore: M.P. B.P.
Ammonia .. 17 1°49 —75°5° C. —33-5° C.
Water °.. 18 1-85 O°.C. 100° C.

If we write the formule of the double molecules as in
III and IV, one of the hydrogen atoms of an ammonia
molecule has associated with it one N 2s and one N 2p
pair of electrons, whilst the hydrogen in the water molecule
has associated with it two pairs of electrons, but both
pairs are O 2p pairs, 7.e. similar and corresponding electron
pairs, so that once the double molecule is formed it is
impossible to distinguish between the original covalent
electron pair and the co-ordinate electron pair, except by

A THEORY OF ASSOCIATION. 65

reference to the position of the remaining hydrogen atoms
in the molecule.

Since these electron pairs, in the case of the double
molecule of water, are the same, every condition for
quantum mechanical resonance® %? would seem to be
fulfilled, so that the bond (co-ordinate) would be stabilised
and an attractive force exerted, despite the fact that the
hydrogen nucleus has four electrons associated, in quantum
relations, with it.

In the case of ammonia there is an energy difference
between the two electron pairs associated with the same
hydrogen nucleus (since the energy of a 2s pair =~ that
of a 2p pair), so that quantum mechanical resonance would
not stabilise this association; or, more probably, the
binding force due to the resonance, if any, must be less
than in the case of the water molecules, so that the bond
must be weaker, only stabilising the double molecule of
ammonia at much lower temperatures than in the case of
water. This appears to be so, as liquid ammonia is
believed to be associated.(1)

The faculty of ammonia to form co-ordinate compounds
with salts, which are similar and, indeed, in no way different
from salt hydrates, might perhaps be considered to bear
some relation to the associating power of ammonia. This
seems to be the case, as ammines of salts (ammates) are
much more readily decomposed, i.e. less stable, than the
corresponding salt hydrates, e.g. CuSO,.5NH, decomposes
at 91-5°,4?) whilst CuSO,.5H,O decomposes at much higher
temperatures under the same pressure of water vapour
as of the ammonia over the ammine. In addition the
central atom of the complex is a charged ion, and this
introduces a new and important factor.‘® The author
hopes to consider this in a later paper.

The temperature effect on the stability of the bond in
association may be briefly considered. The bond holding
the associated molecules together is based on resonance
between similar electron pairs associated in quantum
relations with a single nucleus. The energy levels of
electrons only change discontinuously, and these changes
require very large amounts of energy. Consequently, for
the usual changes of temperature the energy of the electron
pairs will not be altered. Therefore we may say that the
binding forces of the double molecule do not change (within
wide limits of temperatures). But the rotational and
vibrational energies do change much more easily than

66 L. W. O. MARTIN.

electron energies, and in fact these may change (increase)
with small increases of temperature above ordinary.

The observed binding strength of a bond is equal to
the sum of the binding forces minus the sum of the
disrupting forces, 1.e.

B= —TA

where 6 = effective (observed) binding force
) = binding forces
A = disrupting forces.

For increases of temperatures, within wide limits above

ordinary, electron energies do not change, so that
ya as

where K = a constant.

But &/ increases with increases of temperature,
2D t= Eh (T = temperature).

Hence 8 = K — f(T),
that is, the binding force decreases with increasing
temperature. Therefore a weak bond will be able to hold
the double molecule together at lower, but not at higher
temperatures.

The theory of association, therefore, which is advanced
in this paper, is that definite chemical association takes —
place, at ordinary temperatures, only when one atom (A), —
which is bonded to another atom (B) by a covalent bond,
can be the acceptor of a pair of electrons donored by an
atom (B) of another molecule, and when the donored
(co-ordinate) electron pair is similar (n and 1 the same)
to the electron pair forming the covalent bond between
A and B.

H H
1 k * x * * KA kay x KA
He H, Bao E HCE RYO 0H
H H
V VI VII VIII

The application of the theory is satisfactory. Consider
hydrogen fluoride (V), in which the hydrogen-fluorine
bond is a F 2p electron pair. The fluorine atom has two
pairs of unshared 2p electrons left, so that a double molecule
(VI) can be formed in which the co-ordinating hydrogen
nucleus has two similar electron pairs associated with it.
If we take methyl fluoride, the formula VII shows that the
only hydrogen atoms with which the fluorine atom can
form a co-ordinate bond are already bonded to carbon

A THEORY OF ASSOCIATION. 67

atoms by C 2p electron pairs. The energies of C 2p and
F 2p electron pairs are very different, hence there is no
association. Table V gives a summary of the properties.

TaBLE V.—Physical Properties of Methyl and Hydrogen Fluorides.

Formula tx HOt
Substance. Wt. €.S.u. BER. Complexity.
HE 20 1-5? LOC: Associated
CH,F 34 1-8? —78° ©. Simple

(u has been estimated in these cases.)

It is to be noted that hydrogen fluoride can form very
complex molecules as each fluorine atom can form two
co-ordinate bonds.

Similarly, alcohols (VIII) have an oxygen-hydrogen link
formed of O 2p electron pair, and the oxygen has an
unshared 2p pair. Resonance can occur, so that complex
molecules can be formed. Ethers, however, have only
O 2p or 2s electron pairs unshared, and the hydrogens
have covalent C 2p or 2s electron pair bond. Resonance
cannot occur, so the ethers are simple liquids. The
reasoning leads one to the conclusion that, provided no
intramolecular re-arrangement takes place, esters, acid
chlorides and anhydrides should be normal. This is found
to be the case.)

Aldehydes and ketones are interesting. They are
sometimes considered as abnormal liquids, but the weight
of evidence does not support this contention. Their
formula may be written as in IX, in which there is
no possibility of chemical association. Taking acetone
a a typical example: uw = 2-80 x 10-8 e.s.u., but
viscosity, *) distribution coefficients and V.Meyer molecu-
lar weight determinations indicate that acetone is a
normal, unassociated liquid and vapour. The distribution
coefficients of acetone between water and various solvents
are given in Table VI.“°

H H H H
eon Poe
er te” « BO © oo

lel

IX xX

68 L. W. O. MARTIN.

TaBLE VI.—Distribution Coefficients of Acetone.

C, V Ce
ci C, C, C,
(in water) |(in benzene)
0-10 0-08 0-80 2-830 |)
0-20 0-12 0:60 1-733 ( at 20°C.
0-30 0-28 0-833 1-665 C, and C, in
0-40 0-34 0-850 1-458 | J gms./1,000 cc.
10 12-0 1-20 0-347
50 41-7 0-834 0-127
100 101-5 1-015 0-101 at 25° C.
150 155-9 1-039 0-083
200 225-0 1-125 0-075
(in carbon
(in water) tetra-
chloride)
0-186 0-0833 0-448 1-55
0-322 0-146 0-453 1:19
1-01 0-514 0-509 0-710 Crs. C12
1-66 0-997 0-601 0-602 mols/litre
2-87 2-10 0-732 0-505
(in chloro-
(in water) form)
0-032 0-168 5:26 12-96 >
0-0781 0-399 5:11 8-09
0-145 0-676 4-66 5:67 C,,,C, in
0-263 iho ly 4-45 4-10 mols/litre
0-493 1-98 4-02 2°79
1-01 3:06 3°03 1-73
(in penta-
(in water) chlor-
ethane)
0-144 0:251 1-74 3°48 i)
0-541 0-859 1-59 1-72 Cz. C, in
0-806 1-275 1-58 1-40 mols/litre
1-149 1-763 1-53 ery

It will be seen on comparing columns 3 and 4 that the acetone is
definitely non-associated in the organic solvents.

It is interesting to note that ketones can form hydroxy
compounds (X) by internal re-arrangement, 7.e. the well-
known keto-enol tautomerism. The occurrence of this tauto-
merism is dependent, in the cases hitherto studied, on the
presence of certain groups within the molecule.“® There
is, however, no reason to suppose that the external environ-
ment of the ketone is unable to affect, in all cases, this
activation, giving an enol form, which would most certainly

A THEORY OF ASSOCIATION. 69

associate. The isolation of the enol aceto-acetic ester at
low temperatures, and its reversal to the keto form above
the low temperatures,'!”) indicate that the above effect
should be looked for at low temperatures. It is interesting
to note that the enol form of aceto-acetic ester is stable at
low temperatures. The ester has a high molecular weight,
and thus association increases as the temperature decreases,
and the association of the enol form should tend to stabilise
it. The author has found indications of an enol and
associating form of acetophenone at its melting point.

Both ketoximes and aldoximes possess the necessary
conditions for chemical association. If, however, the
hydroxyl hydrogen was replaced by an alkyl group, the
association would cease, aS resonance would not then be
possible. Oximes are associated,‘® but the methyl ether
of acetoxime (B.P. 72° C.) would, compared to the acetoxime
(M.P. 59-60°; B.P. 135° C.), appear to be normal.

The nitroparaffins as nitro-paraffins would not associate,
but the form of the tautomeric acid would associate. On
the above reasoning, low temperatures where the tendency
to associate increases should increase the concentration
of the acid form.

The carboxylic acids associate.) It is noteworthy that
formic and acetic acid vapours are much more strongly
associated than water vapour at corresponding tempera-
tures. Each associated acid molecule has two co-ordinate
bonds, as suggested by Sidgwick"®) and Pennycuick.)

The hydrides of sulphur and chlorine families do not
associate at ordinary temperatures. There are unshared
S and Cl electron pairs similar to the S and Cl covalent
electron pair bonds in the hydrides. But the principal
quantum numbers of these bonds are 3p, and this is a large
promotion for the hydrogen. The author has previously
pointed out how this promotion may be used to explain the
weakening of the bonds in the series.“?) The energy of
association is then so weak that at ordinary temperatures
the bond is broken. Liquid hydrogen chloride and sulphide
should be associated. Even in the case of the hydrides
at ordinary temperature there is evidence™) that the
hydrogen nucleus is buried within the kernel of the heavier
atom.

It is, perhaps, not out of place to reiterate‘®) briefly
the author’s reasons for assigning the above quantum
numbers to the electron pair bond between the atoms.
The basis is the London® theory of the covalent bond,

70 L. W. O. MARTIN.

which postulates that the covalent bond is a sharing of a
corresponding pair of electrons between the two atoms,
formed from the unpaired and unshared single electrons
belonging to the separate and free atoms. A corresponding ©
pair of electrons has the quantum numbers n, 1, and m
the same, but the electron spins opposite. It is necessary
that, if a corresponding pair of electrons is to be formed,
the principal quantum numbers must be the same for both
atoms once the bond is formed. If in the single uncombined
atoms the principal quantum numbers are different, since
they must be the same in the bond, then either the free
electron belonging to the atom of lower atomic number
must be promoted to pair off with the free electron of the
atom of higher atomic number, or the free electron belonging
to the atom of higher atomic number must be taken to a
lower level than its normal one. This latter alternative
is impossible, as the levels below the valence one are
complete, so that the electron of the lighter atom must be
promoted.

The methods for determining association have lacked
significance, because workers have really not known what
to look for. Perhaps the most conclusive methods are:

(1) Determination of the molecular complexity in the
vapour state,

(2) distribution determinations under ideal conditions,

(3) molecular weight determinations in solution,

(4) Raman spectra, and

(5) fine structure of X-ray terms.'?!)

It is hoped to consider most of the above methods in a
subsequent paper.

SUMMARY.

(1) Two forms of association can occur, physical and
chemical. In all cases of association considered in this
paper chemical association seems to occur.

(2) In chemical association it is suggested that the bond
is formed by an atom of a molecule donoring a similar
pair of electrons to an atom which is already bonded to an
atom of the same kind as the donoring atom by a similar
electron pair.

(3) This bond is stabilised by quantum mechanical
resonance.

(4) When the electron pairs are such that they are
promoted by more than n =1 for the atom of lower
atomic number the bond is too weak to bind the molecules

A THEORY OF ASSOCIATION. V1

at ordinary temperatures, although it may do so at lower
temperatures.

REFERENCES.

@) Smyth, C. P.: Dielectric Constant and Molecular Structure,
1931, 169 et seq.

(2) Van Arkel, A. E., und De Boer, J. H.: Chemische Bindung als
Elektrostatische Erscheinung, Leipzig, 1931, 194 et seq.

8) Taylor, H. S.: Physical Chemistry, 1931, Vol. 1, 481.

(4) Schilow und Lepin: Zeit. Phys. Chem., 1922, 101, 366.

(5) Sidgwick, N. V.: Electronic Theory of Valence, 1927.

(6) Sidgwick, N. V.: Covalent Link in Chemistry, 1933.

(7) Wrewsky et al.: Zest. Phys. Chem., 1928, 133-4, 366.

(8) Martin, L. W. O.: THis JouRNAL, 1933, 68, 244 et seqg.; C.A.,
1934, 28, 3649.

(9) Hinshelwood, C. N.: Annual Reports, 1930, 27, 13.

@° Taylor, H. S.: Physical Chemistry, 1931, Vol. 2, 1376.

1) Hildebrand, J. H.: Solubility, A.C.S.M., 1924.

(2) Hphraim, F.: Inorganic Chemistry, 1934, 247.

(3) Longinescu, G. G.: Chemical Reviews, 1929, 6, 381 et seq.

4) Hatschek, E.: Viscosity of Liquids, 1928, 106.

5) Seidell: Solubilities, 1919, Vol. 1, 15.

@6) Cohen, J. B.: Organic Chemistry, 1920, Vol. 2, 336.

47) Schmidt, Julius: Organic Chemistry, 1926, 232.

48) Sidgwick, N. V.: Annual Reports, 1933, 30, 115.

@9) Pennycuick: Journ. Phys. Chem., 1928, 32, 1681.

(20) Haas, A.: Theoretical Physics, 1929, Vol. 2, 238.

@) Ruark and Urey: Atoms, Molecules, and Quanta, 1930, 267 et seq.

2 G. J. BURROWS.

SOME HYDROXY SALTS OF SECONDARY AND
TERTIARY ARSINES.

By G. J. Burrows, B.Sc.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, October 3, 1934.)

INTRODUCTION.

A specimen of phenyl dimethyl arsine which had been
prepared from phenyl di-chlorarsine and methyl magnesium
iodide was observed after several years to contain a white
crystalline deposit. This was soluble in water, methyl
alcohol and ethyl alcohol, but sparingly soluble in ether,
chloroform and acetone. The compound was purified
-by dissolving in hot methyl alcohol, adding a few drops
of ether, and allowing the solution to cool. Colourless
needles were obtained, melting at 180° C., giving an aqueous
solution which was acid to litmus and having an equivalent
weight of 196. The substance was naturally thought to
be an oxidation product of phenyl dimethyl arsine. It
was found to combine with acids, such as hydrochloric
and nitric, yielding crystalline derivatives. ‘The product
obtained by the action of hydrochloric acid, however, was
found to have a melting point of 105° C., whereas the
melting point of phenyl dimethyl hydroxy arsonium
chloride is 164° C. This led to a systematic examination
of the compound which had separated from the arsine,
and this was ultimately identified as phenyl methyl arsinic
acid. Meanwhile various related arsine derivatives were
prepared, and these are described in this communication.

The oxidation of phenyl dimethyl arsine to phenyl
methyl arsinic acid is a most unexpected reaction, and
involves oxidation by atmospheric oxygen in the presence
of moisture with the elimination of methyl alcohol in
accordance with the equation :

PhMe,As+0,+H,O—-PhMeAs:0:-OH-+MeOH.

It has since been observed that the rate of formation —
of the arsinic acid is greatly accelerated by free access of
air and moisture, and quite appreciable amounts of the
arsinic acid have been prepared in this way.

HYDROXY SALTS OF SECONDARY AND TERTIARY ARSINES. 73

The usual product of oxidation of a tertiary arsine is
an arsine oxide. Thus diphenyl methyl] arsine in ethyl
alcohol reacts vigorously with 30% hydrogen peroxide to
give a product which on heating on an oil bath at 170° C.
is finally converted to diphenyl methyl arsine oxide.
The mechanism of this reaction is obviously represented
by the following :

Ph,MeAs+H,0O,—Ph,MeAs(OH),—>Ph,MeAs:0 +H,0.

In the case of phenyl dimethyl] arsine it is difficult to
isolate the arsine oxide, but if the oxidation be carried
out in the presence of hydrochloric acid or nitric acid the
hydroxy chloride or nitrate is obtained; ¢.g.,

PhMe,As-++H,0,-++HClPhMe, Asp) + H,0.

Oxidation of a tertiary arsine with bromine results in
the formation of a dibromide which may be converted to
oxide by treatment with silver oxide. Furthermore, a
tertiary arsine may be readily oxidised to an arsine oxide
or dihydroxide by treatment with potassium permanganate.

There would therefore seem to be a fundamental
difference between the mechanism of oxidation of a tertiary
arsine by moist oxygen and its oxidation by reagents
such as hydrogen peroxide and permanganate. In no
case has it been found possible to identify phenyl dimethyl
arsine oxide (or a derivative) in the products of atmospheric
oxidation.

Steinkopf and Schwer (Ber., 1921, 54 [B], 2802) studied
the decomposition of phenyl dimethyl hydroxy arsonium
bromide on heating in vacuo. They found that the
compound could decompose in various ways, but one of
the products was phenyl methyl arsenious acid obtained
in accordance with the reaction :

PhMe, Aso! _. PhMeAsOH +MeBr.

The phenyl methyl arsenious acid could then be oxidised
to the corresponding arsinic acid. It is not likely that
such a reaction would proceed to any extent at the ordinary
temperature. Nevertheless the possibility of some such
decomposition from a corresponding iodo-compound was
considered by the author in the present work, and consider-
able care was taken to prepare phenyl dimethyl arsine
free from all traces of iodo-compounds. But there was
no noticeable effect on its oxidation to phenyl methyl
arsinic acid.

74 G. J. BURROWS.

The amphoteric nature of phenyl methyl arsinic acid
was recorded by Bertheim (Ber., 1915, 48, 350). There
is a progressive variation of acidic properties accompanying
the alkylation or arylation of arsenic acid :

Arsenic acid, O:As(OH)3, is a fairly strong acid with
no basic properties.

Phenyl arsonic acid, O:as Aa, is a weak acid without

basic properties.
OH
Phenyl methyl arsinic acid, O:As Me, is a still weaker
Ph

acid with weak basic properties, neutralising acids to
form derivatives such as the hydrochloride.

Phenyl dimethyl arsine oxide, O:Aspe’ is not acidic,

but weakly basic, combining with acids to form deriva-
tives such as the hydrochloride.

As will be seen in the experimental portion of this paper,
not only will phenyl methyl arsinic acid and p-tolyl methyl
arsinic acid combine with hydrochloric acid to form
hydrochlorides, but the derivatives so formed will react
with silver nitrate or silver sulphate to yield crystalline
nitrates or sulphates. In addition, they are readily
converted to brom-camphor sulphonates.

The constitution of the compounds formed by arsinic
acids and tertiary arsine oxides with acids is by no means
clear. This basic property is apparently associated with
the oxygen atom present in these compounds. Since the
arsenic atom already has an octet of electrons, the constitu-
tion of these compounds may possibly be represented by
the formule :

HO

Me As:0-HCl

Ph
in the case of the hydrochloride of phenyl methyl arsinic
acid dissociating as

and

przAs:0 HCl

<2,

HYDROXY SALTS OF SECONDARY AND TERTIARY ARSINES. 75

in the case of the hydrochloride of phenyl dimethyl arsine

oxide dissociating as
Me OH
AS 0) Gat Oe i cr a B.

Me Ph

The hydroxyl groups in both A and B are acidic and can
be titrated by alkalies, but this property can be ascribed
to secondary dissociation.

EXPERIMENTAL.

Phenyl Methyl Arsinic Acid, PhMeAs:0:OH.—As
mentioned in the introduction, this compound was obtained
by the spontaneous oxidation of phenyl dimethyl arsine
in moist air. This acid was described by Bertheim (Ber.,
1915, 45, 350), who prepared it by methylating sodium
phenyl arsenite and purifying it through its silver salt.
Gibson and Johnson (J.C.8., 1928, 92) converted phenyl
methyl chlor arsine to the oxide, and oxidised with
chloramine-T. For the purpose of the present investigation
it was conveniently prepared and purified as follows :—
Phenyl dichlor arsine (1 mol.) was treated in aqueous
alcohol with sodium hydroxide (4 mols.) and methyl
iodide (1 mol.) and allowed to stand overnight. The
alcohol was removed by boiling, and the methylated product
reduced in hydrochloric acid solution with sulphur dioxide
in the usual way. The phenyl methyl iodo-arsine was then
converted to phenyl methyl arsine oxide by treatment
with sodium carbonate (concentrated solution); the arsine
oxide was separated, dried with sodium sulphate, and
distilled under diminished pressure. It was found to
boil at 199° C. at 13 mm. Steinkopf and Schwer (Ber.,
1921, 54 [B], 1447) gave the boiling point as 94° C. at
11 mm. The arsine oxide was then dissolved in acetic
acid, and heated with excess of 10° hydrogen peroxide
solution. The solution was concentrated on the water
bath, and the acetic acid removed with steam. It
was then evaporated till solid and recrystallised by
dissolving in hot methyl alcohol, adding a small quantity
of ether and allowing to cool. In this way colourless
needles were obtained, melting at 179° C. and giving the

*This formula is consistent with Meisenheimer’s successful attempts
at the resolution of amine and phosphine oxides (Ann., 449, 188 and
mld).

G—October 3, 1934.

716 G. J. BURROWS.

same melting point when mixed with the product obtained
by the atmospheric oxidation of phenyl dimethyl! arsine.

Phenyl Methyl Dihydroxy Arsonium Chloride,
[ PhMeAs(OH),|Cl.—This was prepared by the action of
hydrochloric acid on an aqueous solution of phenyl methyl
arsinic acid. The compound separates from a concentrated
solution in colourless needles melting at 111° C. It was
rapidly prepared in quantity by oxidising phenyl methyl
arsine oxide with chlorine. In carrying out the oxidation
the arsine oxide was covered with water in a flask and a
stream of chlorine passed into the water. (If the chlorine
comes in contact with the arsine oxide itself, the reaction
is accompanied by a flash of light.) On completion of the
reaction the solution was concentrated till it crystallised
on cooling, and the product purified by recrystallising
from acetone containing a little ether. The compound
functions as a dibasic acid, and in addition it reacts
immediately with silver nitrate. Found: Cl, 15:1%.
Equivalent weight by titration with barium hydroxide
solution using phenolphthalein as _ indicator, 1417.
C,H;CH3;As(OH),Cl has a molecular weight of 236-5, and
requires Cl, 15-0%.

Phenyl Methyl Dihydroxy Arsonium Nuirate,
[PhMeAs(OH),|NO,.—This was prepared from phenyl
methyl arsinic acid by treatment with dilute nitric acid
and concentration. The product recrystallised from
ethyl alcohol was found to melt at 151° C. Found:
As, 27-6; NO, 24:1%; equivalent weight, 132.
C,H;CH,;As(OH),NO, requires As, 28-5; NO,, 23-6% ;
mol. wt., 263.

Phenyl Methyl Dithydroxy Arsonium Sulphate,
[PhMeAs(OH),],SO,.—This was prepared by treating the
dihydroxy chloride with the calculated quantity of silver
sulphate, removing the silver chloride by filtration, and
concentrating. Recrystallised from acetone the compound
was obtained in colourless hygroscopic needles melting at
70° C. Found: As, 30-:0%; equivalent weight, 124.
(C,H,CH,As:0:OH),H,SO, requires As, 30-1% ; mol. wt.,
498.

Phenyl Dimethyl Hydroxy Arsonium Chloride,
[PhMe,As:OH ]Cl.—This was prepared by Steinkopf and
Schwer (Ber., 1921, 54 [B], 2791) by the action of
concentrated hydrochloric acid on phenyl dimethyl! arsine
dihydroxide in alcohol. It is readily prepared by oxidising
phenyl dimethyl arsine with perhydrol in the presence of

se/ in

HYDROXY SALTS OF SECONDARY AND TERTIARY ARSINES. 77

hydrochloric acid and concentrating the solution. On
recrystallisation from alcohol it separates in colourless
needles melting at 174° C. Found: Cl, 15-2; equivalent
weight, 232. C,H;(CH;),AsOHCI requires Cl, 15-1; mol.
wt., 234-5.

Phenyl Dimethyl Hydroxy Arsonium Nitrate,
[PhMe,AsOH JNO,.—This was obtained by oxidising the
arsine in alcohol with hydrogen peroxide in the presence
of nitric acid. It crystallises from alcohol in colourless
needles melting at 152° C. It dissolves readily in water
to give an acid solution. Found: As, 28-4; equivalent
weight, 260. C,H;(CH;),ASsOHNO, requires As, 28°7;
mol. wt., 261.

Diphenyl Methyl Arsine Oxide, Ph,MeAs:0.—This was
prepared by adding 30% hydrogen peroxide to an alcoholic
solution of diphenyl methyl arsine. After the vigorous
reaction had moderated it was heated on an oil bath at
170° C. till there was no further action. On cooling it
solidified to a very hygroscopic white solid melting at
142° C. It dissolves in water to give a solution which is
not acid to phenolphthalein. Found: As, 29-0%.
(C,H;),>CH,AsO requires As, 28-9%.

Diphenyl Methyl Hydroxy Arsonuum WNutrate,
[Ph,MeAsOH ]JNO,.—This was prepared from the preceding
compound by treatment in alcohol with dilute nitric acid
and concentration on the water bath. It was recrystallised
from hot water in needles melting at 128° C. Found:
As, 22:9; NO,, 19:0%; equivalent weight, 324.
(C,H;),CH,ASOHNO, requires As, 23:2; NO,, 19°2% ;
mol. wt., 323.

p-Lolyl Dichlor Arsine, C,H,AsCl,.—This was prepared
in the usual way by the Bart reaction from p-tolyl
diazonium chloride and sodium arsenite followed by
reduction of the arsonic acid, in hydrochloric acid solution
containing a little iodine, by sulphur dioxide. The oil
was separated, dried over calcium chloride, and distilled.
It is an almost colourless crystalline solid melting at 42° C.
The melting point given in the literature is 31° C. (Michaelis,
Ann., 1902, 320, 301). Found: As, 31:1%. O©,H,AsCl,
requires As, 31-°6%.

p-Tolyl Arsine Oxide, C,H,AsO.—This was prepared
from the preceding compound by treatment with sodium
carbonate and recrystallisation from acetone, and was
obtained in almost colourless needles having the properties
GG—October 3, 1934.

78 : G. J. BURROWS.

ascribed to it by Blicke and Smith (J.A.C.S., 1929, 3481).
Found: As, 40:8%. C,H,AsO requires As, 41-:2%.

p-Tolyl Methyl Arsine Oxide, (C,H,CH,As),0.—This was
obtained in excellent yield by methylating sodium tolyl
arsenite. For this purpose tolyl arsine oxide (1 mol.)
was dissolved in sodium hydroxide (2 mols.) in aqueous
alcohol (2 litres) and to the cold solution methyl iodide
(1 mol.+10%) was added. After standing overnight
the alcohol was removed by distillation, hydrochloric
acid (1 litre) added, and the solution reduced with sulphur
dioxide. The crude iodo-compound which separated
as an oil was removed and treated with concentrated
sodium carbonate solution on the water bath. The oil
was separated, dried over sodium sulphate, and distilled
under diminished pressure. p-Tolyl methyl arsine oxide
is a colourless, highly-refracting oil boiling at 220° C.
at 12 mm. Like secondary arsine oxides in general, it is
insoluble in alkalies, but is converted by hydrochloric acid
into the chlor arsine. Found : As, 39:4%. (C,H,CH,As),0
requires As, 39°7%.

p-Tolyl Methyl Chlor Arsine, C,H,CH,AsCl.—This was
prepared by treating the arsine oxide with concentrated
hydrochloric acid, drying over calcium chloride, and
distilling under diminished pressure. It is a colourless
oil with a characteristic odour, boiling at 147° C. at 24 mm.
pressure or 138° at 14 mm. Found: As, 33:8; Cl,
16:5%. C,H,CH,;AsCl requires As, 34:6; Cl, 16°4%.

p-Lolyl Methyl Arsinic Acid, C,H,MeAs:0-OH.—This
was prepared by oxidising p-tolyl methyl arsine oxide in
acetic acid with hydrogen peroxide (20%). The product
after oxidation was evaporated to a wax and recrystallised
from toluene, then from acetone, and finally from water.
It was obtained in colourless needles melting at 151° C.
Found: C, 44°6;. H, 5-3; As, 34°87, ;equivalen-
weight, 215. C,H,CH,As-O-OH requires C, 44-9; H, 5-1;
As, 35:0%; mol. wt., 214.

p-Tolyl Methyl Dihydroxy Arsonium Chloride,
[C,H,MeAs(OH), |JCl.—This was prepared from the arsinic
acid by treatment with hydrochloric acid and evaporating
to crystallisation. The same compound was obtained in
quantity by placing tolyl methyl arsine oxide in a flask,
covering with water, and passing in chlorine till the
substance had all dissolved. It was concentrated on the
water bath under diminished pressure till it solidified on
cooling and was recrystallised from acetone in needles

HYDROXY SALTS OF SECONDARY AND TERTIARY ARSINES. 79

melting at 133° C. It was extremely soluble in water,
and reacted immediately with silver nitrate. Found:
me 20°9;. Cl, . 14: “1% 5 equivalent weight, 125.
O,H,CH,As(OH), Cl BOCES ASI 29 See Cle dao
mol. wt., 250.

p- Tolyl Methyl Dihydroxy <Arsonum Nutrate,
[C,H,MeAs(OH),]NO,;.—This may be prepared either from
the arsinic acid and nitric acid or by treating the dihydroxy
arsonium chloride with the calculated amount of silver
nitrate, removing the silver chloride, and concentrating.
It crystallises from acetone in needles melting at 157° C.
Found : pe 1) 20%, 5 equivalent weight, 139.
C,H,MeAs(OH),NO, requires As, 27-0% ; mol. wt., 277.

p-Tolyl Methyl Dihydroxy Arsonium — Sulphate,
[C,H,MeAs(OH),],SO,.—This was prepared in the same
manner as the preceding compound, silver sulphate being
used. It crystallises from acetone in beautiful prisms
melting at 85° C. Found: As, 28:3; SO, 18:5%;
equivalent weight, 131. [C,H,CH,As(OH),],SO, requires
As, 28:5; SO,, 18:3%; mol. wt., 526.

Department of Chemistry,
University of Sydney.

80 PENFOLD, RAMAGE AND SIMONSEN.

THE ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE GENUS CALYTARIX.

PART IIl.—CALYTHRIX TETRAGONA
(LABILLARDIERE), VARIETY “A”’.

By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.L.,
Curator and Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney,

G. R. RAMAGE, M.Sc., Ph.D.,
Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry, University College of North Wales,
Bangor, :
and J. L. SIMONSEN, D.Sc., F.B.S.,
Professor of Chemistry, University College of North Wales, Bangor.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, October 3, 1934.)

The myrtaceous shrub Calythria tetragona, var. “ A”’
was collected first in 1924 by the official collector to the
Technological Museum, Sydney, at Denman, New South
Wales. Its botanical characters have been under investiga-
tion by Mr. E. Cheel, Botanist, National Herbarium,
Botanic Gardens, Sydney, for some considerable time.
Owing, however, to the confused state of the nomenclature
of the genus Calythrix, no definite decision has yet been
reached, although the study of the essential oil points to
the particular plant from Denman being a new species.
Mr. Cheel is making an exhaustive study of the genus,
but his results will not be available for some time. Under
the circumstances it has been deemed advisable to postpone
no longer the results of the chemistry of the essential oil.
The plant has, therefore, been tentatively named Calythrix
tetragona, variety ““A’’, until such time as Mr. Cheel’s
revision of the genus is published.

Calythrix tetragona, var. ‘“‘A’’, grows to a height of
about three to five feet; it has very small dark leaves,
and is characterised by a profusion of very beautiful
flowers, either pink or white, and by the calyx lobes,
which are lengthened into fine hair-like awns. Although
its occurrence has been recorded in several localities, it
has only been found abundantly at Denman, and the
whole of the material used in this investigation was obtained
from there.

ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE GENUS CALYTHRIX. 81

The oil, which was obtained in a yield varying from
0:7% to 1%, was pale yellow in colour and had a fragrant
odour of citronellol and its esters, modified by the
characteristic odour of citronellic acid. The principal
constituents of the oil which have been identified are
d-«-pinene, d-citronellol, d-citronellyl formate and the
methyl esters of geranic and probably citronellic acids,
the ester fraction comprising from 60 to 70%. So far as
_ we are aware this is the first natural occurrence of geranic
acid which has been reported. This is due possibly to the
great difficulty experienced in identifying the acid, for
which no crystalline derivatives are described in the
literature. (See pp. 86-87.)

The liquid acids (see p. 85) were separated by distillation
into three fractions which, although they differed slightly
in their physical constants, were shown by analysis to
have approximately the same composition and to be
mixtures of acids of the formule C,,H,,0, and ©, ,H,,O.,
the latter predominating. This was confirmed by catalytic
hydrogenation, when the hydrogen absorption showed the
mixture to consist of approximately 80° of an acid,
C,,H,,0.; the fully reduced acid being identified as
dl-tetrahydrogeranic acid by the preparation of a number
of crystalline derivatives. These results indicated that
the liquid acids consisted of a mixture of citronellic and
geranic acids, and the presence of the latter was confirmed
by the preparation of the two crystalline esters described
below. Rigid proof of the presence of citronellic acid was
not obtained, but we regard this as almost certain in view
of the facts that the mixture of acids (a) showed slight
optical activity, (b) gave only tetrahydrogeranic acid on
catalytic hydrogenation, and (c) gave citronellic acid on
electrolytic reduction.

Preliminary experiments with geranic acid, prepared
from both citral and geraniol (Tiemann and Semmler,
Ber., 1899, 26, 2716) showed the amide, p-toluidide and
p-bromotoluidide to be oils due possibly to the geranic
acid employed being a mixture of cis-trans-isomerides, but
p-phenylphenacyl geranate and p-bromophenacyl geranate
were obtained crystalline, the former having m.p. 79-80°
and the latter m.p. 67°. The yield of crystalline material
was in each case poor, and it is probable that they were
derivatives of the higher melting trans- form of the acid.
Both these derivatives were prepared from the natural
acid, in a somewhat enhanced yield, and no depression in

PENFOLD, RAMAGE AND SIMONSEN.

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ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE GENUS CALYTHRIX. 83

melting point was observed on admixture. p-Phenyl-
phenacyl citronellate, m.p. 37°, was also prepared, but this
low-melting derivative could not be obtained from any
of the acid fractions from the essential oil.

EXPERIMENTAL.

The leaves and terminal branches of Calythria tetragona,
var. “‘ A ’’, totalling 476 lbs., cut as for commercial purposes,
gave on distillation with steam essential oils possessing
the properties given in Table I.

The oil from each batch was examined separately, but
the results recorded below refer to a mixture of the distillates
obtained during 1928, 1929 and 1931.

The oil (300 cc.), after being washed with aqueous (8%)
sodium hydroxide solution (A), was hydrolysed by digestion
for twenty-four hours with aqueous potassium hydroxide
solution, the neutral oil (B) separated (61 cc.), and the
potassium hydroxide solution diluted with water, when a
further quantity (33 cc.) of a neutral oil (C) separated.

The alkaline solution A gave on acidification a very
small amount (0:4 gm.) of a mixture of phenols and acids
which was not further examined.

Fractions B and C.

The oil (49 cc.) obtained from B by distillation in steam,
which removed resinous impurities, was distilled under
diminished pressure with the results recorded in Table II.

TABLE II.
iBAE: qld | n20” gz”
No. (at 10 mm.). 15 D D Yield.
ce.
1 45-65° 0:8643 1:4691 +20-85° 14
2 65-99° 0:8717 1:4701 +9-4° 5
3 99-120° 0-8829 1:4716 +4-3° 22

From C two fractions having very similar constants

were obtained :
TABLE ITI.

B.P. 15° 20° 20°
No. (at 10 mm.). dis ny a

ono a EEO EEE EE eee

—90° 0:8696 1:4666 +16-6° 6
90—112° 0:8730 1:4624 “375° 22

Ne

8&4. PENFOLD, RAMAGE AND SIMONSEN.
d-a-Pinene.

Fraction 1 (Table IL) was repeatedly distilled over
sodium, when an oil (8-5 ce.), b.p. 155:5-157° (776 mm.),
di>* 0-863, n20° 1-4681, a20° +24-2°, was obtained, which
was identified as d-«-pinene by oxidation to pinonic acid,
the semicarbazone of which melted at 207°.

d-Citronellol.

Fractions 3 (Table II) and 2 (Table III) were digested
separately with equal weights of phthalic anhydride and
benzene on the water bath for two hours and the alcohol
regenerated from the sodium salt of the hydrogen phthalate
in the usual manner. The alcohol (19 cc.) had D.p.
109-110° (10 mm.), di?” 0-8613, n2° 1:4550, a2® =-4°b,
and it was identified as d-citronellol by the preparation
of the silver salt of the hydrogen phthalate, which melted
at 126°. d-Citronellol was isolated also in a yield of 10%
by treatment of the crude oil with phthalic anhydride,
the alcohol regenerated from the hydrogen phthalate
having the constants b.p. 110-112° (10 mm.), d{> 0-8622,

n20° 1-4554, a20° 44-3°,

Isolation of Methyl Alcohol.

The potassium hydroxide solution from which the
neutral oil C had been separated was distilled with a column,
the distillation being repeated until the most volatile
fraction had been reduced to 50 cc. Addition of anhydrous
potassium carbonate separated an oil (32 cc.), which on
distillation was obtained in two fractions: (i) b.p. 66-69°
(766 mm.), d15° 0-8125, n20° 1-3329, a2 +0° (16 ce.), and
(ii) 69-84° (766 mm.), dl3° 0-8388, n2° 1-3377, a2 +0-4°
(9 ec.). A higher boiling residue consisted of d-citronellol.
These two fractions were methyl] alcohol containing a trace
of d-citronellol, the identity of the former alcohol being
established by the preparation of the a-naphthylurethane,
m.p. 120° both alone and in admixture with an authentic
specimen,

Acid Fraction-—Geranic Acid.

The alkaline liquid remaining after the removal of the
methyl alcohol was acidified, when a liquid acid separated
(yield 50-60 cc. from 100 cc. of oil). The acid was isolated,
washed with water to remove soluble acids, dried, and

ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE GENUS CALYTHRIX. 85

distilled. The results obtained with the oils prepared in
1929 and 1931 are given in Table IV.

TABLE IV.
B.P. 1 20° 20
Date. (5 mm.). dis ny ay Yield,
ce.
2/4/29 | 132-132-5° | 0-9508 1:4742 +2-75° 45
13/11/31 | 132-133° 0-9541 1:4782 42° 58

The acids were combined and refractionated, when the
fractions given in Table V were obtained.

TABLE V.
B.P. 15° 20° 99°
No. (6 mm.). dis Dy ay Yield

cc.
1 138-140° 0:9477 14737 +3° 10
2 140-143° 0:9498 1:4754 43° 32
3 143-5-145° | 0-9541 1-4794 4.2-4° 39
4 Residue 0-9603 14852 4+1-25° 5

Analysis of fractions 1, 2 and 3 showed them to have
approximately the same composition :

Fraction 1.—0-1068 gave 0:2746 CO, and 0-:0927
m0 (C, 70-1; H, 9-7).

Fraction 2.—0-1203 gave 0-3129 CO, and 0-:1064 H,O
me 10°S; H, 9-8).

Fraction 3.—0-1046 gave 0-2718 CO, and 0:0919 H,O
Meil-4; H, 9:5).

Pye, requires, C, 71-4; .H, 9-5%. -Ci9H,,02
requires C, 70:6; H, 10°5%.

Each fraction (1 gm.) was reduced separately with
hydrogen in methyl alcohol solution in the presence of
palladium-norite (1 gm., 10%); absorption of hydrogen
was complete in thirty minutes, the following results being
obtained :

Fraction 1: 225 ce.

Fraction 2: 233 ce.

Fraction 3: 251 ce.
(Calculated for 1 gm. of an acid C,,H,,O, with two ethylenic
linkages: 267 cc.)

86 ' PENFOLD, RAMAGE AND SIMONSEN.

_ The reduced acid was converted through the acid chloride
into the amide, m.p. 105° (after crystallisation from ligroin),
and the p-toluidide, m.p. 31°, and these melting points
were unaltered after admixture with the corresponding
derivatives prepared from dl-tetrahydrogeranic acid. The
yields of the amide and of the p-toluidide were quantitative.

Electrolytic Reduction of the Liquid Acids.

43 ce. of the mixed liquid acids having the ns
characters :
B.P. 130-142° (4 mm.) dl?’ 0-9b49 a2 eee

were reduced plecerol rien the anode being a “platinum

spiral and the cathode freshly-etched nickel 2 sq. dem.).
The liquid in the outer (cathodic) cell consisted of a mixture
of the acid (43 cc.), alcohol (95%, 350 cce.), sulphuric acid
(10%, 50 ce.) and nickel sulphate (1-5 gm.), and the inner
(anodic) cell contained sulphuric acid (10%).

During the reduction, which lasted six hours, a further
quantity of acid (50 cc.) was added, the bath being
maintained at 23° C.; C.D. 3-4 amps., E.M.F. 13 volts.

After reduction was completed the contents of the
cathodic cell were poured into a large volume of water
and the acid separated purified by distillation first in steam,
and finally by reduction under reduced pressure. The
reduced acid was found to possess the following characters :

B.P.129-130° (3 mm.), d18" 0-9361, a2 4-2", n20 17-4541,

The amide was obtained in good yield of m.p. 82°.
The electrolytic reduction of the acids, therefore, gave only
d-citronellic acid.

The presence of geranic acid in fraction 3 (Table V)
was established by the preparation of the two crystalline
derivatives described below.

p-Phenylphenacyl Geranate.

‘A mixture of geranic acid (0-3 gm.), p-phenylphenacyl
bromide (0-5 gm.) and aqueous sodium hydroxide (N ;
1-9 ec.) in alcohol (10 cc.) was heated on the water bath for
twenty minutes, the alcohol removed, and the insoluble
oil dissolved in ether; the ethereal extract was dried and
the ether evaporated. The residue partially crystallised
on keeping and was purified by recrystallisation from
methyl alcohol (95%), from which it separated in glistening
plates, m.p. 77°, raised by two further crystallisations to
79-80°. A specimen prepared in a similar manner from

ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE GENUS CALYTHRIX. 87

fraction 3 melted alone and in admixture at this
temperature.

3:80 mgm. gave 11-1 mgm. CO, and 2-35 mgm. H,O
meee. HH, 6-9). C,,H.,0, requires C, 79-6; H, 7-2%.

p-Bromophenacyl Geranate.

By treatment of geranic acid with p-bromophenacyl
bromide under conditions similar to those described above
and recrystallisation of the solid so obtained from methyl
alcohol, the bromo-ester was obtained in glistening
rectangular plates, m.p. 67°, both alone and after admixture
with a specimen prepared from fraction 3.

3:91 mgm. gave 8:58 mgm. CO, and 1:99 mgm. H,O
mm, 59-8; H, 5-6). C,,H,,O,Br requires C, 59-2; 4H,
a1 %,.

p-Phenylphenacyl Citronellate.

d-Citronellic acid gave with p-phenacyl bromide an oil
which solidified when cooled in a freezing mixture. After
two crystallisations from methyl alcohol the ester was
obtained in needles, m.p. 37°. It was very readily soluble
both in methyl alcohol and in lgroin. 4-025 mgm.
gave 11-68. mgm. CO, and 2-71 mgm. H,O (C, 79-2;
mor). ©,,H,,0, requires C, 79-1; H, 7-7%.

The aqueous solution remaining after the removal of
the liquid acids referred to above was distilled in steam,
when formic acid was found to be the principal volatile
acid.

The authors are indebted to the Government Grants
Committee of the Royal Society and to Imperial Chemical
Industries Limited for grants which have in part defrayed
the cost of this investigation. Thanks are due to Mr. F. R.
Morrison, A.A.C.I., Assistant Economic Chemist, Sydney
Technological Museum, for much assistance in the distilla-
tion and chemical examination of the oils.

H—October 3, 1934.

88 A. H. VOISEY.

THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE NORTH
COAST DISTRICT OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

By A. H. VOISEY, B.Sc.

(With three text-figures.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, October 3, 1934.)

INTRODUCTION.

General geological investigations have been carried
out in the Middle North Coast District of New South Wales
since 1928, and it is thought that the physiographic
observations made during that time merit some record.

The quantitative side of this work was limited to the ©
measurement of the most significant heights with the aid
of an aneroid barometer and an Abney level. The bases
of gravel- and shell-deposits were determined, as well
as the heights of river-terraces, and gravel and alluvial
areas were mapped in connection with the geological
structures. The boundary between the recent plain
deposits and the older rock practically coincides with the
20 feet contour-line on account of the abrupt change in
slope. This level has been mapped, otherwise no detailed
contouring has been attempted. The accompanying
relief-map (Fig. 1) shows the chief topographical points,
and will be useful for reference.

The essential physiographic features to be noted are :—

(1) The deeply dissected New England. Tableland
to the west ;

(2) an intermediate area with broad valleys, in which
the rivers have been entrenched ;

(3) horizontal coastal plains of accumulation with
inliers of older rock; and

(4) a coast-line consisting of long, curving beaches
between rocky headlands.

There are two definite breaks in slope. The first is
from the main plateau level at about 2,000 feet on to the
broad valley-floor level between 50 and 300 feet, and the
second from this on to the low-lying sandy coastal plains.

MIDDLE NORTH COAST DISTRICT, N.S.W. 89

RELIEF MAP OF THE
MID NORTH COAST
OF N.S.W.

Pooooo as ee GRASSY. HEAD

(oe 8 : \ IACLEAY ENTRA rf

44

ae

me

eatriMT MT.VARRAHAPINNI (1700 FT

\ TRIAL BAY
EEN RANGE

FCORA Me

SE ey Pp

i. MPSEY

Bek Reser) iy seeeored
Se=_.

LECEND|

APPROXIMATE
HEIGHTS ABOVE

500 To 1000 FEF}
20 To 300, FE
BeLow 20 |__|

HIGH LEVEL GRAVELS

ae

03 ono 60
0% 00060

Lj 7
Lit TTT NN = ee!
CT Al) Ao. A.voisty —27/e/r6

Fig. 1.—Relief Map of the Mid-North Coast of N.S.W.

90 A. H. VOISEY.

Both of the higher levels slope to the east. They are to
be attributed to successive uplifts of the land, followed
by periods of stillstand and erosion.

The coastal plain is wide in the Macleay district, where
soft sandstones and tuffs have been rapidly eroded. The
short Nambucca and Bellinger Rivers flow through slates
and phyllites strengthened by granitic intrusions, while
north of Urunga much harder quartzites and cherts have
been instrumental in restricting the extent of the plain.

The islands, drowned valleys, shell-beds and estuarine
deposits indicate a submergence of at least 70 feet, while
rock-platforms, fossil clifts, high-level sea-worn caves,
raised beaches, sandy plains, land-tied islands, lagoons
and sand-ridges betoken a more recent small movement
of emergence.

PREVIOUS LITERATURE.

Only slight references have been made to any portion of
the Middle North Coast in literature. Halligan'® discussed
the formations about the Macleay River entrance and
described the zeta-curves of the beaches, and Woolnough‘”)
made some general remarks about the coast-line. The
most important papers relating to the coastal formations
are those written by Andrews." ( His work in
New England, and later that of Craft." bear upon the
history of the area. Other minor references are mentioned
in the text.

GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHY.

From the coastal plains on the North Coast, the western
horizon is seen to be bounded by the blue peaks and flat-
topped residuals of the New England Highlands, some of
which, about the headwaters of the Macleay River, reach
5,000 feet. Conspicuous among the higher points are
Kemp’s Pinnacle, Mt. Banda Banda and Anderson’s
Sugarloaf. Basalt-capped projections from the plateau
at somewhat more than 2,000 feet form the Dorrigo and
Hastings ridges separating the Clarence, Macleay and
Hastings basins.

A divide between the north-flowing Orara River and
the short coastal creeks extends from the eastern end of
the Dorrigo Plateau, rising to over 1,000 feet. The North —
Coast Railway takes advantage of a col in this ridge to
cross from the coast at Coff’s Harbour to Coramba in the
Orara Valley. The high land descends suddenly on the

MIDDLE NORTH COAST DISTRICT, N.S.W. 91

east to an undulating area several miles wide, extending
to the coast, and keeping between 150 and 300 feet above
sea-level; from this cliffs drop steeply to rock-platforms
and fringing beaches. Between Woolgoolga and Coff’s
Harbour small sandy flats break into the line of cliffs,
becoming more extensive to the south.

Part of the ridge close to the coast is formed of Mesozoic
sandstones dipping gently towards the Clarence Basin
to the north-west. These overlie hard quartzites and
cherts interbedded with slates and tuffs and striking at
right angles to the coast. The resistance to erosion of
this metamorphic series is responsible for the presence of
high land.

In the vicinity of Coff’s Harbour vertical bands of hard,
siliceous rock give rise to projecting headlands with islands
east of them. The softer tuffs and slates have been worn
away, and beaches link the headlands together. Between
Coff’s Harbour and Boambee, both on hard rock, there is
a plain four miles long and two miles wide.

The Dorrigo Plateau presents a steep southern escarpment
to the Bellinger River, and breaks away towards the coast
in a series of hills. The two arms of the Bellinger meet at
Urunga, where river alluvium covers the coastal flats.

As far south as Nambucca Heads phyllite hills rise to
several hundred feet and approach the coast, forming cliffs
similar to those just south of Woolgoolga. Fringing rock-
platforms abound a little above high-tide mark and protect
the cliffs from marine erosion. Flats with small lagoons
are also conspicuous.

The phyllite series strikes parallel to the coast south of
Urunga, and shows little variation in rock-type. The
intrusive granite at Mt. Yarrahapinni has hardened the
contact-rock, and spurs from the mountain run down to
the coast at Middle Head and Grassy Head.

The great change in topography south of Yarrahapinni
has been caused by the Kempsey Fault, running from
Grassy Head to a point west of Bellbrook ; it has brought
a series of soft tuffs, sandstones and shales into contact
with the phyllite.

The plain about the Lower Macleay extends inland as
far as Kempsey, and covers 250 square miles. It is broken
by older rocks at Smoky Cape, Rudder’s Hill near South-
West Rocks, Richardson’s Hill, Korogoro Point, and
Smithtown. Otherwise it is horizontal, at a height of
about 10 feet above sea-level, over the whole area, save

92 A. H. VOISEY.

for the levées of the Macleay and the sand-ridges near the
coast. The landward limit of the plain is marked by a
very definite break of slope, and low cliffs, generally about
50 feet high, may be traced from Grassy Head 1 in a rough
semicircle to Crescent Head.

In the north the land of the intermediate area is gently
undulating, but it gives way to hills near Mt. Yarrahapinni,
while masses of hard rock stand well above it in the south.
Mt. Dulkoonghi (850 feet) is the most prominent of these,
and forms the eastern extremity of the divide between the
Macleay and Hastings Rivers. At Kempsey the Macleay
emerges from a broad valley in which it has become
entrenched, and flows across a low plain. The level
represented by the floor of the older valley forms the
crest-plane of the 50-feet scarp. On either side of the
valley hills run up towards the plateau. Those to the
south are composed of hard conglomerate, sandstone,
and tuff. Secomb’s Mount at Yessabah is 1,300 feet high,
and many such residuals exceeding 1,500 feet occur in the
much-dissected country on both sides of Dungay Creek.

A soft sandstone series forming part of a northward-
plunging anticlinal structure has an arcuate outcrop
between Bellbrook and Kempsey; this accounts for the
course of the Macleay and for its broad valley. ~

The watershed between the Macleay and Hastings
Rivers is very low to the south of Kempsey, and the
railway-line runs through the gap. The Cooperabung
Mountains and Mount Allen near Telegraph Point scarcely
reach 1,000 feet, but represent the highest points in this
district. The Wilson River has cut quite a broad valley
to the west. This rather broken country gives way towards
the sea to another large sandy plain comparable in size to
that about the Macleay, and stretching from Crescent
Head to the Hastings River.

THE LOWER MACLEAY PLAIN.

To an observer looking east from Gowing’s Mountain at
Dondingalong the Lower Macleay plain seems to be quite
flat. The prominent hills, Smoky Cape and Korogoro Point,
stand up fromitlikeislandsinacalmsea. A thin golden line
between them marks a fourteen-mile beach, beyond which
lie the blue waters of the Pacific. The low chain of hills
to the south-east ends in Mt. Dulkoonghi, while on the
north-east Mt. Yarrahapinni, rising to 1,700 feet, marks
the northern boundary of the plain. In the foreground

; |e

MIDDLE NORTH COAST DISTRICT, N.S.W. 93

Dungay Creek winds towards the Macleay, both streams
entrenched in the wide valley, which can be seen to better
advantage if one looks north-west. Through a gap in the
hills near Anderson’s Sugarloaf the flat-topped Dorrigo
Plateau stands out to the north. 3

The Macleay leaves the rocky country at Kempsey and
meanders through the level plain, collecting Christmas
Creek, Belmore River and Kinchela Creek. Lines of
farmhouses mark the levées on either side of the streams.
During floods most of the plain is inundated, an indication
of its uniformity of level. For a mile or more on either
side of the river there is a veneer of alluvium, which thins
out away from the river and passes into swamp-deposits
of fine clay and black mud. Peaty material from reeds
and grasses is slowly accumulating and aiding in the
building up of the swamps into dry land. Much of the
plain might be described as the lagoon marsh-meadow of
Andrews. The once extensive swampy areas have
been drained and are now covered only after heavy rains.
The swamp and lagoon water is fresh, but coloured brown
by oils from the tea-trees which characterise the marshy
country. .

A special type of swamp is the crescentic lagoon occurring
behind curving sand-dunes which follow the beach and
prevent the water, which is generally a few feet above
high tide, from draining seawards. During storms and
specially high tides waves break through the sandhills
and allow some of the water to escape, while salt water
may mingle with the fresh. At Crescent Head the lagoon
connects up with the sea only during exceptionally high
tide periods. In January, 1934, seaweed was washed a
mile from the entrance into the lagoon. The water here
is generally quite salt or brackish, owing to the influx of
sea-water, though after heavy rains it is fresh and flows
into the sea. .

Some of the plain is covered by wind-blown sand, which
is freely mixed with the black swamp-muds. The sandhills
have been formed through the combined action of wind
and tide, and are held in place by abundant vegetation.
They curve sympathetically with the beaches, and rise
behind them to a height of more than 30 feet, but are
piled up to hundreds of feet against the headlands. The
dunes in the vicinity of Smoky Cape are particularly large.
Between Smoky Cape and Korogoro Point there is a second
line of sandhills at a distance, in places, of as much as

94 A. H. VOISEY.

half-a-mile behind the present-day beach. This shows
that the beach has advanced eastwards during
comparatively recent times.

It is clear that the Lower Macleay plain marks the site
of a former shallow bay.

SHELL DEPOSITS.
(a) Oyster Beds.

A heavy deposit of shells follows the somewhat irregular
line of the old coast almost continuously from Grassy
Head to Collombatti, keeping at about the same general
height of 10 feet above high-tide level. Ostrea cucullata
and Arca trapezia are the most common shells. An
occasional gastropod is found, while human bones and
pieces of flint have been reported from Collombatti. Most
of the Arca shells have been broken at the posterior margin,
a circumstance indicating that the deposit represents
not a raised beach, but an aboriginal kitchen-midden.
Anderson has noted that shell-deposits, probably middens,
follow the margins of bays in the South Coast district of
New South Wales, and it appears probable for the Kempsey
area that the water in which the molluscs lived lapped the
old cliffs during the human period, or, in other words, that
the emergence which drove the sea eastwards occurred
after the advent of the aborigines.

(b) Estuarine Shell-Beds.

Another deposit, quite different from the middens just
described, is exposed by the Clybucca Drains, which cut
through a bed of shells from one to two feet in thickness.
This underlies at least 25 square miles of the plain, and
almost certainly a much greater extent. The chief types
represented are Spistula trigonella and Arca trapezia,
typically estuarine forms. Similar shell-beds were met
in a bore at Smithtown, one at 30 feet, and another at
50 feet below H.w.M. Sand-drift and clay, again
indicating estuarine conditions, were found interbedded
with the shell-beds to a depth of 70 feet, where bed-rock
was struck.

There is thus evidence of a submergence of at least
70 feet, as the beds could not have been laid down under
estuarine conditions at such depths with the sea at its
present level. Without the sedimentary deposit which
now fills the old bay the Macleay River would enter the

MIDDLE NORTH COAST DISTRICT, N.S.W. 95

sea at Kempsey, and Smoky Cape, Korogoro Point, etc.,
would be islands.

The shells, where exposed by the drain, are at about the
level of high tide, but they are several feet above this near
Mr. Plummer’s house at Clybucca. Their presence above
sea-level seems to demand an emergence of small magnitude
following the deposition of the estuarine sediments.

THE OLD MACLEAY GRAVELS.

The gravels at Willawarrin and Sherwood were first
noted by W. G. Woolnough,'®) who thought that they

LEGEND.
ALLUVIAL TERRACES.
ESTUARINE DEPOSITS
COVERED BY ALLUVIUM.

e 750FT 3S SCALE.

MILES,
x \ Iz

Fig. 2.—Macleay River Deposits near Kempsey.

were of Permo-Carboniferous age, probably because they
have been cemented into a hard conglomerate and are
associated with a Permo-Carboniferous limestone at the
latter locality. These deposits, locally known as “ridge
gravels,’ are very extensive around Sherwood, and they
cap most of the hills between it and Bellbrook (Fig. 2).
They consist generally of rounded pebbles of quartz,
Jasper, chert, slate and quartzite set in a sandy matrix.
The level of the base of the gravel varies from 140 to 180
feet at Yessabah, but is only 80 feet near the Sherwood
Bridge, where the Macleay River is 30 feet above sea-level.
At Temagog boulders up to two feet across cover the hills
at heights of over 100 feet above river-level, and at

96 A. H. VOISEY.

Willawarrin they are about 200 feet above. Fine quartz-
gravel is common about Kempsey, and is mixed with
river-silts containing much iron oxide. The height of the
base of the gravel varies greatly here, from about 30 feet
in some localities to 100 feet in others.

These gravels are close to the present coast, but the
coast-line was certainly further east when they were laid
down, though exactly how much further we cannot say.
The gravels are spread out over the floor of a broad valley
in which the river has become entrenched. They have
been cut into by Commong Creek.

The elevated position of these river-deposits is attributed
to an uplift which was insignificant at the coast, but
increased in magnitude to the west, so that the land-surface
received a decided easterly tilt. This uplift took place
at an interval after the main uplift represented by the time
it took the Macleay to cut a broad valley in the plateau.
Even though the river worked in soft rocks this period
must have been considerable. Since then the river has
only eroded a comparatively narrow valley. This valley
has rocky banks which are faced with terraces at various
levels. About Sherwood Bridge these are at heights of
5, 10, 25, and 50 feet above the river. The stream in
places is eroding earlier-formed terraces. It would appear
that the time that has elapsed since the entrenchment of
the river has been small compared with that taken to cut
the earlier broad valley.

Quartz-gravels many feet thick constitute most of the
School Hill at Macksville on the Nambucca River. The
base is 15 feet above river-level.

THE COAST-LINE.
(i) Fossil Cliffs and Rock-Platforms.

Where cliffs border the coast south of Woolgoolga they
are fringed by rock-platforms just above high-tide mark.
These have been worn away in places by the waves, and
sand has covered the remnants, which are thus still
influential in protecting the cliffs behind from attack.
The shape of the cliffs indicates that they were formerly
more exposed to the attack of the sea than they are at
present. Old caves at the base are sand-filled, and the
face of the slope is covered by vegetation.

The broad rock-platform at Nambucca Heads is cut out
of strongly-folded phyllites, and the surface is almost

MIDDLE NORTH COAST DISTRICT, N.S.W. 3%

independent of the structures, showing that the explanation
offered for the formation of some platforms in horizontal
rocks is not applicable here. Furrows are at present being
cut into the platform, indicating that the sea is at a lower
level than it was when the platform was formed.

(ii) Pulpit-Rocks.

Masses of rock are found standing up from the rock-
platforms or beaches along the shore. Wellington Rock
at Nambucca Heads is one of these. It owes its fantastic
shape to interlacing quartz-veins in phyllite. These
puipit-rocks do not seem to be undergoing much erosion
at present. They are remnants of former cliffs which have
been cut off by waves and left standing on the platforms.
This could only have been done when the sea stood at a
slightly higher level.

(ili) Islands.
The Solitary Islands off the coast were once residuals of

hard rock on a coastal plain of denudation; they have
been converted into islands by submergence.

(iv) Land-Tied Islands.

Like the Solitaries, Smoky Cape, Korogoro Point,
Crescent Head, Point Plomer and all the coastal headlands
between Grassy Head and Port Macquarie were formerly
residuals standing on the plains of denudation around the
Macleay and Hastings Rivers, and as a result of drowning
became coastalislands. The area between them and the old
coast, however, was never far below sea-level. Infact, during
the drowning of the land, the accumulation of silts kept
pace with the submergence, and sand-spits forming from
the islands kept them in intermittent connection with
the coast. It may also be that recent emergence helped
to complete the work of currents and to tie the islands
definitely on to the mainland.

(v) Beaches.

The land-tied islands are linked to each other by beaches
which take on a characteristic zeta-curve, as described by
Halligan.‘®) He considers that the fourteen-mile beach
between Smoky Cape and Korogoro Point is perhaps as
good an example of the zeta-curve beach as there is on the
coast. Halligan also states that the current impinging

98 A. H. VOISEY.

upon the headland of Laggers’ Point has scooped out
sufficient land to form Trial Bay. Although the shapes of
beaches are dependent on the currents, Trial Bay is
accounted for by the fortuitous position of the former
islands, Smoky Cape and Point Briner. These were linked
together by sand-bars, thus giving rise to the projection
of the coast which enfolds the bay.

THE LOWER COURSES OF THE RIVERS.

All the North Coast rivers flow through the flats
representing their silted estuaries for some distance before
entering the sea. As they have reached base-level and
the modern estuaries are tidal, their entrances are
dominated by ocean-currents and winds. All of them
pass through salt-water lagoons before they reach the sea.
These lagoons owe their existence in the first place to the
formation of sand-banks isolating bodies of salt water, and
their maintenance is due to their incorporation into the
courses of rivers. The extra flow of water accomplishes
what the lagoons could not do alone, and keeps a permanent
connection with the ocean.

However, the scour of the river, already reduced through
following a winding course across the plain, is not strong
enough to keep a deep channel through the beach, and a
wide, shallow entrance results, with some of the water
flooding back into the lagoon. The Hastings River at
Port Macquarie furnishes a good example. Its entrance
has extended in recent years to about a mile across, with
consequent shallowing, and salt-water lagoons stretch
out to the north.

The Macleay River once had such an entrance near
Grassy Head, after flowing behind the sandhills through
an old lagoon area for several miles. During 1895 flood-
waters broke through the southern end of the lagoon, and
the main river cut across one of its own tributaries, Spencer’s
Creek, and formed a new mouth. The construction of two
breakwaters to restrict the opening has been a successful
project. The flow of the river and the tidal scour keep
the channel deep enough for coastal steamers to enter.

Halligan’s conclusions with regard to currents and the
formation of sand-bars are very relevant when applied
to the North Coast, but it does not seem that currents are
directly responsible for all the curves of the rivers near
the coast. He supposes that the Macleay, for instance,
first entered the sea near South West Rocks, but was

pol

MIDDLE NORTH COAST DISTRICT, N.S.W. oh)

forced to move northward by coastal currents, its mouth
taking up successive positions until Grassy Head was
reached. It may be suggested, however, that the Macleay
first entered a lagoon, this being formed through the building
of a sand-bank by coastal currents. The river happened
to choose the site of the northern end of the lagoon for its
entrance. The Hastings in a somewhat similar position
chose the southern, influenced no doubt by the currents
and the headland of Port Macquarie.

Warrell Creek should enter the sea near Scott’s Head,
but turns north, probably through a lagoon tract, to meet
the Nambucca near its mouth. The main river is certainly
being forced north. It cut into the phyllite headland as
its southern bank advanced until the advance was checked
by a breakwater. Now the entrance has become so
shallow with the accumulation of sand that ships of any
size cannot pass.

The Macleay and Nambucca have north-east trends as
they flow through the plains. This is in all probability
due to the operation of currents during the time when the
strand-line was rising and the bay was silting up. The
river entrances were continually being pushed towards
the north. The present courses are probably very much
the same as they were before the recent small uplift
entrenched the rivers in the older silts.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC HISTORY.

The Pliocene period found Eastern Australia, and in
particular the Middle North Coast District of New South
Wales, at a lower altitude than at present. There was a
Main Divide in somewhat the same position as today.
This rose in places to a little over 3,000 feet, the main
ridges and hills being composed of the most resistant rocks
and solid structures. The hard rocks were mainly the
New England granite massif and Lower Paleozoic schists
and slates. South of the Nambucca River and east of
Bellbrook on the Macleay highly folded Upper Palzozoic
Sediments of variable hardness had been worn down to an
undulating plain. Volcanic activity ensued, thick basalt
sheets covering the plains, filling in the river valleys
and causing some re-organisation of the drainage. Then
came the Kosciusko epoch, marking the close of the
Tertiary Era and involving the slow elevation of the
Main Divide some 2,000 feet with a tilt towards the coast,
which was much further east than at present. The coastal

100 A. H. VOISEY.

rivers rapidly cut downwards in an attempt to keep pace
with the rising land, thus forming deep V-shaped gorges
like that of the Apsley River. Nearer the sea the Macleay ~
River followed a series of soft sandstones and tuffs from
the site of Bellbrook to the coast, widening its valley until
it reached harder units in the Lower Paleozoic phyllites
to the north and the Carboniferous conglomerates and
tuffs to the south. In the soft rocks also it formed a
broad coastal plain of denudation with residuals of the
harder tuffs and intrusive rocks. Brought from the hills,

SS
ITA Fi

Fig. 3—Stages in the Evolution of the Lower Macleay Plain,

I. A coastal plain of denudation with residuals.
Il. Flooding of the plain by the rising sea.
Ill. The development of an internal delta and sandspits.
IV. Final stage, deposition being supplemented by small
uplift.

boulders of jasper, quartzite, slate and sandstone were
strewn out over the valley floor as the river slowed up and
meandered through the broader valley. Nearer the present
site of Kempsey the finer quartz-gravel and silt were
deposited (See Fig. 3).

Later came a further uplift of the land, with a seaward
tilt, which caused the Macleay above Kempsey to be
entrenched in its older broad valley. Streams commenced
to cut down into the older gravels, leaving them capping
low hills, residuals of the valley floor. Much later still a
submergence inundated the coastal plain and turned the
residual hills upon it into islands. However, the sediment
from the river, which now flowed into a shallow protected
bay, built up the floor of the bay, giving rise to an internal

MIDDLE NORTH COAST DISTRICT, N.S.W. 101

delta. Asin the case of Narrabeen Lagoon,‘*) accumulation
balanced subsidence. Thus the estuarine shells Spistula
trigonella and Arca trapezia became buried in sand-drift
and river-silts. Sand-spits extended from island to island
because of the shallowing of the sea-floor, and thus bodies
of salt water were isolated from the sea.

The limit of sea-transgression was in the vicinity of
Kempsey, and after the cessation of the transgression,
since the forces of deposition were still dominant, alluvium
spread over the swampy mangrove-flats. Aborigines by
this time were living on the land behind the lagoons and
swamps, and obtained their food largely from the abundant
shell-fish living therein. Innumerable shells accumulated
round the shores where the coast was not protected by
sand-bars, and the waves cut rock-platforms and caves
into the cliffs. The entrance of the Macleay was now in a
broad lagoon separated from the sea by low sand-banks
joining Grassy Head to Point Briner and Lagger’s Point.
A slight uplift of the land caused further narrowing of the
lagoons and draining of much of the swampy land, while
the rock-platforms were brought to a higher level and
accepted the attack of the waves, which had previously
been expended upon the cliffs behind.

Having incorporated the lagoon into its course, the
Macleay sought an outlet to the sea to the north, influenced
by winds and currents, and this was maintained until the
more southerly entrance was formed in 1895. The
northern entrance has since become completely closed.

A somewhat similar sequence of events has taken place
in the case of the Hastings, Nambucca and Bellinger
Rivers. The Hastings still enters the lagoons, which have
not silted up so much as those of the Macleay.

COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COASTAL AREAS.

It is interesting to note the differences in effect that the
two most recent movements of the sea have had upon
various portions of the Eastern Australian coast.

In the Sydney district the sea flowed into V-shaped
gorges, giving rise to the typical drowned valley shore-line
with the deep harbours of Port Jackson and Broken Bay.
The subsequent small withdrawal did not cause much
change in the form, merely exposing rock-platforms and
aiding in the building up of small flats.

South of Sydney the drowning of less dissected country
gave rise to a less indented shore-line, but owing to the

102 A. H. VOISEY.

lack of large rivers, the slope of the sea-floor and the action
of currents there was little deposition close to the shore.
Hence, again, the effect of the emergence was to give —
elevated rock-platforms and small reclaimed areas and, in
addition, some land-tied islands such as Red Head near
Gerringong.

Next the Queensland coast between the New South
Wales border and Brisbane may be considered. The
drowning here is masked very successfully by the land
which has been reclaimed from the sea. The inner shore-
line may be considered to pass through Brisbane, but
between it and the coast much low land is seen, through
which project hills of older rock. Obviously the sea
covered an undulating coastal plain, giving rise to a shallow
island-studded bay.

Shallow Moreton Bay is little more than a great lagoon
fenced off from the sea by the huge sandhills of Moreton
Island. The rocky extremities of both Moreton and
Stradbroke Islands have provided nuclei from which
crescentic sand-bars project southwards, almost connecting
with the mainland at Southport. If the emergence had
been a little greater it would have caused the complete
infilling of Moreton Bay, moving the outer shore-line from
Sandgate to the eastern sides of Moreton and Stradbroke
Islands.

The coast between the Nambucca and Hastings Rivers
represents the most complete obscuring of the effects of
the drowning owing to the removal of the shore-line to
the outer islands produced through the drowning.

Ultimately the main factor in the evolution of the present
coast-line has been the nature of the rock-material and its
structures. Acting upon these the eroding agencies,
notably running water, determined the degree of denudation
before the drowning took place. Where soft Upper
Paleozoic rocks form the coastal lands, the Nambucca-—
Hastings coast-type is formed, but where phyllites and
schists are present the features which prevail between
Woolgoolga and Nambucca Heads are met. Narooma
and Tathra on the South Coast of New South Wales have
much in common with North Head on the North Coast,
especially in regard to cliffs, rock-platforms and stacks.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

I desire to thank the members of the geological staff of
the University of Sydney for their help in many directions,

MIDDLE NORTH COAST DISTRICT, N.S.W. 103

also Mr. F. A. Craft for valuable advice and discussion.
My thanks are also due to many residents of the Macleay
district for the help which they have given me during the
field-work. Especially would I mention Mr. and Mrs.
J. KE. Gowing, Mr. and Mrs. O. W. Newman, Mr. and Mrs.
T. Snow, Mr. and Mrs. Freer,and Mr. D. McIver for kind
hospitality, the Ven. Archdeacon Tress and Messrs. F.
Leathley, G. Hodgson, senr., G. Christian and P. Richardson
for help in the field, and the Manager of Nestlé & Anglo-
Swiss Milk Coy. for making available the log of the bore-core
at the Smithtown factory.

REFERENCES.

@) Andrews, E. C.: Preliminary Note on the Geology of the Queens-
land Coast, etc., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 27, 146, 1902.
) Andrews, E. C.: The Tertiary History of New England, Rec.
Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 7, Pt. 3, 140, 1903.

8) Andrews, E. C.: Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia in
Late and Post Tertiary Time, Tu1s Journat, 44, 420, 1910.

(4) Craft, F. A.: The Coastal Tablelands and Streams of N.S.W.,
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 58, 437, 1933.

(5) David, T. W. E. and Halligan, G. H.: Evidence of Recent
Submergence of the Coast at Narrabeen, THis JOURNAL,
42, 229, 1908.

(6) Halligan, G. H.: Sand Movement on the N.S.W. Coast, Proc.
Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 31, 619, 1906.

() Jose, A. W., Taylor, T. G., and Woolnough, W. G.: N.S.W.
Historical, Physiographical and Economic.

8} Woolnough, W. G.: Preliminary Note on the Geology of the
Kempsey District, THis Journat, 45, 159, 1911.

I—October 3, 1934.

aii

104 J. G. CHURCHWARD.

A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE IN NEW SOUTH
WALES OF BLACK CHAFF OF WHEAT CAUSED
BY BACTERIUM TRANSLUCENS VAR.
UNDULOSUM 8. J. AND R.

By J. G. CHURCHWARD,* B.Sc.Agr., M.Sc.,
Unwersity of Sydney.

Communicated by Dr. W. L. WATERHOUSE.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Nov. 7, 1984.)

INTRODUCTION.

Black chaff of wheat, caused by Bacterrwm translucens
var. undulosum, was first described in 1917 by Smith!
in U.S.A. Its occurrence has since been recorded in
Canada, South Africa, France, Denmark, Russia and
China. Under certain conditions it is capable of causing
economic loss.

This paper records the incidence, for the first time, of
the disease in New South Wales, and describes experiments
dealing with its identification.

THE DISEASE.

When the plant is half grown the disease becomes
apparent, mainly attacking the more succulent parts.
Water-soaked areas and yellowish stripes first appear,
which may develop later into pale brown necrotic areas,
but the constant and distinctive characteristic of the
lesions is their translucency. Water-soaked areas occur
also on the stems and ears, later developing into more or

*It is desired to acknowledge the excellent work of D. R. L. Steindl,
student in Advanced Plant Pathology, in confirming all the experimental
results, and the generosity of Dr. W. L. Waterhouse in allowing the
publication of his personal experiences with this disease and in correcting
the manuscript. The work was carried out with financial aid from
the Endowment Fund of the Commonwealth Council for Scientifie
and Industrial Research.

1$mith, E. F.: A New Disease of Wheat, Jour. Agr. Res., 1917,
10, 51-54.

2 Jones, L. R., A. G. Johnson and C. S. Reddy: Bacterial
Blight of Barley, Jour. Agr. Res., 1917, 11, 625-644.

THE OCCURRENCE OF BLACK CHAFF OF WHEAT. 105

less sunken dark stripes. Under favourable conditions
slimy drops of bacterial ooze may be seen on the lesions,
sometimes coalescing to form a greyish film on drying.
The bacteria may be carried in pockets in the grain,
resulting in honeycombed and shrivelled kernels which,
with a shortening of the spikes of infected plants, result
in a diminished yield. As the plant matures the disease
makes rapid progress.

For several years Dr. W. I. Waterhouse, of the University
of Sydney, has noted these symptoms in commercial fields
of wheat at Cowra, and in experimental plots at Bathurst,
Cowra, Richmond and the Sydney University. Platings
of similar specimens sent from other wheat areas of New
South Wales have consistently given shining yellow
bacterial colonies. The disease was noted as bacterial
blight, but no attempt was made to identify the causal
organism by the usual tests. It seems reasonably certain,
however, that the yellow colonies were those of Bacterrwm
translucens var. undulosum. If this assumption is true,
then black chaff of wheat has been present for some time
in New South Wales.

Early in 1934 heads of Hope wheat, which showed
typical black chaff symptoms, were received from Glen
Innes. In this year other varieties at the Hawkesbury
Agricultural College, Richmond, showed an abundant
infection of the flag. Further, seedling leaves of Hope
and other varieties of wheat grown in the greenhouse
from seed raised at Cowra, N.S.W., developed disease
lesions. The central part of the leaf, at first water-soaked,
died and collapsed, giving the leaf a scalded appearance,
apparently identical with the “ physiological breakdown ”’
of leaf-tissues recorded by Jobhnston.?

In addition, pinched grains of Hope (Cowra, 1933) were
surface-sterilised with 1/1000 mercuric chloride for seven
minutes, cut in half, and planted on potato dextrose agar.
Over 60% of these gave positive results. Platings of the
material obtained from all these three sources produced
yellow bacterial colonies, which were positively identified
as Bacterium translucens var. undulosum. Stained
microtome sections through grains of wheat suspected of
containing the organism failed to reveal the presence of
any bacteria.

3 Johnston, C. O.: Studies on Physiological Specialisation in
Puccinia triticina, U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 313, 1932.

ssf

106 J. G. CHURCHWARD.

ISOLATION, INFECTION AND CONTROL.

Morphologically and physiologically the organism fits
the description given by Jones, Johnson and Reddy (loc.
cit.) for Bacterium translucens. Cross inoculation experi-
ments show that it is able to infect wheat and rye and is,
therefore, Bacterium translucens var. undulosum. Cultures
of the bacterium are being maintained and the studies
continued.

Cultures were used to inoculate certain varieties of
wheat, viz.: Canberra, Dundee, Emmer, Federation,
Florence, Hope and Nabawa. Twenty seedlings, raised
from sterilised grain, were grown in sterilised soil in each
pot, half being inoculated and the remainder retained as
controls. |

Four methods of inoculation were used :

(i) Spraying a bacterial suspension on to grain
before sowing ;

(ii) Spraying a bacterial suspension on to leaves
which previously had been lightly rubbed;

(iii) Prick inoculation ;

(iv) Hypodermic inoculation.

The plants were grown in cages covered with coarse
muslin, a temperature of approximately 25° C., together
with high humidity, being maintained. The best results
were obtained from the third and fourth methods of
inoculation, typical black chaff symptoms being produced
in all inoculated plants. The organism was re-isolated
from such infected areas and identified.

Little is known concerning the relative resistance of |

wheat varieties to black chaff. Hope, a variety valuable
for certain plant-breeding purposes, is highly susceptible.
In the experience of the writer Federation, grown under
ereenhouse conditions, is less susceptible than Hope.
The organism has been isolated from plants of the following
varieties of wheat growing in the field: Baringa, Bobin,
Canberra, Ceres, Dundee, Federation, Florence, Hope,
Nabawa and a number of Hope hybrids.

Some form of seed treatment, such as steeping in mercuric
chloride or formalin, has been shown by workers abroad
to reduce the amount of black chaff. Preliminary tests
by the writer in the greenhouse at the Sydney University
indicate that the hot water treatment for the prevention
of loose smut in wheat also reduces infection by black
chaff.

COMPOUNDS OF PALLADIUM WITH BENZILDIOXIME. 107

COMPOUNDS OF PALLADIUM WITH
BENZILDIOXIME.

By F. P. DWYER, M.Sc.,
and D. P. MELLOR, M.Sc.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Nov. 7, 1934.)

In marked contrast to the extensive work carried out
on the co-ordination compounds of dioximes with iron,
nickel, cobalt and copper (Thilo: Die Valenz der Metalle
Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, und ihre Verbindungen mit Dioximen,
Sammlung chemischer-technischer Vortrage, begrundet von
F. B. Ahrens, Neue Folge, Heft 13) the published work
relating to palladium is confined to compounds formed
with dimethylglyoxime and benzoylmethylglyoxime. In
connection with experiments dealing with the isomerism
of the palladium bisbenzylmethylglyoximes, it was
considered advisable to investigate the compounds of
palladium with benzildioxime, a dioxime which has been
separated into the three isomers predicted on the basis of
of the Hantzsch-Werner hypothesis. This course became
necessary since there was definite evidence that benzyl-
methylglyoxime was not simple, as suggested by Sugden
(J. Chem. Soc., 1932, 246), but a complex mixture of some,
or all, of its four possible isomers. The object of the
following experiments, therefore, was to ascertain which
form, or forms, of benzildioxime were capable of producing
four-covalent inner complexes with palladium. As regards
the type of compounds produced with the different forms
of benzildioxime, palladium shows some resemblances to,
as well as some differences from, nickel. Thus, it was
found that palladium, like nickel (Atack, J. Chem. Soc.,
1913, 103, 1317) forms a compound (I), in which two
molecules of the dioxime are co-ordinated with the metal,
only in the case of the «-(anti) benzildioxime.* Also,
in analogy with nickel, the y-(amphi) dioxime forms an
orange-yellow compound (II), in which one molecule only
of the dioxime is combined with palladium. No other
compound of palladium with y-benzildioxime, could be
* The dioxime configurations of Meisenheimer, Ber., 1921, 54, 3206,
are used throughout.

108 F. P. J. DWYER AND D. P. MELLOR.

prepared. However, unlike all other metals, palladium,
in neutral and acid solutions, co-ordinates with the
6-(syn) form of the dioxime to form a compound (III).

C, sy jos
O-N N-OH
a7 '
ON) | On | | f
| | O<N O-N N-> Lr0 O-N
Cots —— CCeHs Pd ‘se
(I) UD. (I)

On account of its high specificity, @-benzildioxime may be
used as an analytical reagent for the detection of palladium.

EXPERIMENTAL.
a-Benzildioxime.

This was prepared by the modified method of Brad
and Perry (J. Chem. Soc., 1925, 127, 2874), and melted at
235° C. Owing to the insolubility of the dioxime in organic
solvents, the palladium compound was made with difficulty
by the addition of a boiling alcoholic solution to a boiling
neutral solution of sodium chloropalladite. A certain
amount of reduction by the alcohol took place, and this
palladium could not be removed from the orange-yellow
«-benzildioxime complex.

An alternative method of preparing this compound was
to boil palladium y-benzildioxime with excess of «-benzil-
dioxime, in acetone solution. Excess of «-benzildioxime
and the displaced y-benzildioxime could be removed by
treating with cold dilute caustic soda solution.* The
substance, which was analysed by a micro-method (Pregl,
“Quantitative Organic Microanalysis’’, p. 135), was
heated with two drops of concentrated sulphuric acid, then
strongly heated in a current of hot air in a micro-muffle .
until decomposition to palladium was complete. All
analyses for palladium were made by this method, using
five to six milligrammes of the substance.

Pd(C,,H,,N.0,). requires Pd 18-2% ; Pd found, 18-5%.

* Evidence was obtained of the existence of an intermediate
compound of palladium containing both x and y-benzildioxime. How-
ever, this type of compound will form the subject of a later paper by
one of us (F.P.D.).

COMPOUNDS OF PALLADIUM WITH BENZILDIOXIME. 109

8-Benzildioxime.

This substance was prepared by the method of Brady
and Perry (J. Chem. Soc., 1925, 127, 2874), and was freed
from traces of the «-form by the addition of a boiling
acetone solution to a hot, slightly ammoniacal solution of
nickel sulphate, and melted, after recrystallisation, at
212° C. When added, in acetone or alcoholic solution,
to a solution of sodium chloropalladite and sodium acetate,
it gave the palladium complex as a pale yellow precipitate.

Pd(C,,H,,.N.O.) requires Pd 30-95%; Pd found, 30:9%.

Freshly precipitated palladium (-benzildioxime is quite
soluble in benzene. If, however, after being dissolved in
benzene it is reprecipitated by adding petroleum ether,
and allowed to stand for some time, its colour changes to a
dark brown. The dark brown substance is insoluble in
benzene. The nature of the change is not clear, and it is
intended to investigate this compound further. 6-benzil-
dioxime precipitates palladium quantitatively from dilute
hydrochloric acid solution to which sodium acetate has
been added. Under similar conditions platinum, rhodium,
ruthenium, gold, nickel and all the other common metals
tried, failed to form any insoluble compound with 6-benzil-
dioxime. Thus 6-benzildioxime appears to be quite
specific for palladium, under the above conditions. The
reagent can be used to detect a minimum concentration
of 3y/ml. of palladium. This test is not so sensitive,
therefore, as that employing dimethylglyoxime, which is
also specific for palladium in acid solution (Gilchrist,
Bureau of Standards, Journ. of Research, 1934, 12, 283).

Repeated attempts were made to estimate palladium
quantitatively with 6-benzildioxime by a Gooch crucible
method. Owing to the nature of the precipitate filtration
was extremely slow, and for this reason this reagent is
quite unsatisfactory for quantitative estimations.

y-Benzildioxime.

This was prepared by the method of Auwers and Meyer
(Ber., 1899, 22, 705), and melted at 170° C. The addition
of a cold alcoholic solution to a solution of sodium chloro-
palladite and sodium acetate gave the palladium compound
as a bright yellow precipitate, soluble in acetone and
benzene to an orange-yellow solution.

Pd(C,,H,,.N,.O.) requires Pd 30-95% ; Pd found, 30:5%.

Department of Chemistry,
University of Sydney.

110 J.C. EARL AND H. M. PARKIN.

THE FASTNESS OF CERTAIN AMINO-AZO DYES TO
WASHING.

By J. C. EARL, D.Sc., Ph.D.,
and H. M. PARKIN, B.Sc.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, November 7, 1934.)

In the course of an investigation on the formation of
amino-azo from diazo-amino compounds, it was observed
that N-benzyl-amino-azo-benzene, when dyed on wool
from a dilute hydrochloric acid bath, yielded a dyeing
which was faster to washing that that of some other
amino-azo compounds. A study of this phenomenon on
a roughly quantitative basis was therefore undertaken.

The series amino-azo-benzene, methyl-amino-azo-
benzene, di-methyl-amino-azo-benzene, benzyl-amino-azo-
benzene and benzyl-methyl-amino-azo-benzene was first
Selected for examination. One gram of amino-azo-
benzene, or the molecular equivalent of this in the case of
the other compounds, was dissolved in alcohol (70 ces.),
cone. HCl (7 ces.) and 200 ccs. of water. The solution
was brought to the boil in a beaker covered with a clock
glass and 1 gm. of wool immersed in the solution for eight
minutes. The wool was squeezed out, washed for five
minutes in a 100 ces. cold sodium acetate solution, rinsed
in 100 ces. of cold water, and allowed to dry.

An equivalent small fraction of the wool was removed
in each case, and the remainder boiled for 30 minutes in
100 ces. of water. When cold the wash was made up to
a definite volume, 100 ccs. in most cases, but 250 ces.
in the case of the methyl compound and 500 ces. in that
of the di-methyl compound. The two last-named washes
were pink in colour before dilution, indicating a certain
degree of acidity. |

Standard solutions were prepared by dissolving 0-1 gm.
of each substance in 20 ces. of alcohol and diluting 1 ce.
of this solution to 250 ccs. with water. The standard and
wash solutions were then compared in a colorimeter,
1 ce. of a saturated sodium acetate solution being added to

FASTNESS OF CERTAIN AMINO-AZO DYES TO WASHING. 111

each 10 ccs. of every solution to guarantee approximately
equivalent acidity conditions.

From the comparisons the following results were arrived
at: ;

Mgms. Washed Out. | Mgms. Washed Out
Substance. (Mean of two x 1,000

determinations. ) +M.
Amino .. He ie ake mt 0-255 1
Methyl-amino .. ae ee aie 0:455 2°16
Di-methyl-amino a a Ap 0-605 2°69
Benzyl-amino .. Le i ae 0-560 1-94
Benzyl-methyl-amino .. AO ss 0-083

A similar series of comparisons was made with the
p-sulphonic acids of the last four of the above compounds
with parallel results. Equimolecular quantities of the
sodium salts (corresponding to 0:0250 gm. of the amino
compound) were dissolved in water (150 ces.), 5 ccs. of a
solution of sodium bisulphate (20 gms. in 200 ccs.) added,
and the solution brought to the boil; 1 gm. of wool was
added, the bath being kept at the boil for 45 minutes ;
the wool was squeezed out, rinsed for five minutes in 100
ecs. of cold water, and dried. Small samples of each
were kept, and the remainder boiled for thirty minutes in
100 ces. of water. The wash solutions were made up to
100 ces. and compared with standards containing 0-001 gm.
per 100 ccs. ; sodium acetate was used as before.

Mgms. Washed Out
Substance. Mgms. Washed Out. x 1,000

Wt.
Methyl-amino .. 2°30 7°35
Di-methyl-amino 2°34 7:15
Benzyl-amino .. es 1:67 4-29
Benzyl-methyl-amino . . 0:97 2:40

It is apparent from these results that the substitution of
one of the hydrogens of the amino group by benzyl tends
to give a dye which is faster to washing than the
corresponding methyl substituted compound, while the
substitution of the second hydrogen by methy] results in a
very much greater improvement in fastness to washing.

Department of Organic Chemistry,
The University of Sydney.

112 M. B. WELCH.

THE MOISTURE EQUILIBRIUM OF TIMBER IN
DIFFERENT PARTS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

PART IL—MURWILLUMBAH.*

By M. B. WELCH, B.Sc., A.I.C.,
Technological Museum, Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, November 7, 1934.)

During the latter part of 1930 and in 1931 and 1932 a
timber moisture equilibrium survey was carried out in
various parts of New South Wales, and the results obtained
from a number of centres were published in this Journal,
1933, 67, 364-75. Unfortunately the returns from
Murwillumbah were not forwarded in time for inclusion,
but since the North Coast of New South Wales is an
important timber-producing area it is desirable that the
results of the investigation should be published, since they
may give some indication of the moisture conditions in
air-seasoned timber at different periods of the year. This
station was chosen because it was thought that it would
possibly give the highest humidity conditions experienced
on the North Coast, but no figures are available to enable
a comparison to be made with the Dorrigo plateau.

The general conditions of the experiment have already
been described in the earlier paper, but they can be briefly
summarised as follows: Ten woods were used, each
measuring 6” x3” x 4”, dressed, but without end-coatings ;
all samples were placed in well-ventilated rooms, Nos. 1, 3,
5, 7, 9 with a southerly, and Nos. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 with a
northerly aspect, and were weighed each Tuesday, except
during school vacations. At the completion of the
experiment the timbers were returned to Sydney, oven-
dried to constant weight, and the moisture contents
calculated. The results of the investigation are given
in Table [.

* Grateful acknowledgment is made to the Headmaster of
Murwillumbah High School, who obtained the necessary data for this
paper, and to the Director of Education, who authorized the investiga-
tion at the school.

MOISTURE EQUILIBRIUM OF TIMBER. 113

TABLE I.—Mean Monthly Percentage of Moisture for each Timber.

1930—
October .. | 13-8 | 12-4 | 18-2 | 14-7 | 14-0 14-4 | 138-3 | 12-6 | 12-9 | 13-5
November... | 13:0] 11:9 ; 12-8 | 14:3 | 13-7 | 13-0 | 13-4 | 12-9 | 12-2 | 12-6 | 13-0
December .. | 12:5} 11:6 | 12-7 | 14:0 | 13-5 | 12-8 | 13-0 | 12-6 | 11-9 | 12-3 | 12-7
1931—
March .. | 16°3 | 13-6 | 15-8 | 15-7 | 16-2 | 14:5 | 17-1 | 14-5 | 14-1 | 14-0 | 15-2
April .. .. | 14-6 | 12-5 | 14-3 | 14-5 | 14-7 | 13-5 | 15-0 | 13-2 | 18-7 | 12-9 | 13-9
May .. .- | 15-9 | 13-9 | 15-3 | 15-2 | 15-7 | 14:1 | 16-6 | 14-7 | 15-4 | 18-8 | 15-1
June .. | 14:7 | 12-4] 14-6 | 14-5 | 14-9 | 18-3 | 15-2 | 13-3 | 13-9 | 12-9 | 14-0
July .. .- | 13-4 | 11-1 | 13-6 | 18-8 | 14:1 | 12-8 | 13-7 | 12-0 | 12-6 | 12-0 | 12-9
August -. | 13:0} 10-3 | 13-4 | 13-3 | 13-8 | 12°5 | 18-0 | 11-3 | 12-1 | 11-4 | 12-4
September .. | 13-0} 10-0 | 13-3 | 18-3 | 18-6 | 12-4 | 12-6 | 11-8 | 12-2 | 11-7 | 12-4
Octcber -. | 12°2 | 10-6 | 12°5 | 12-8 | 12-6 | 11-9 | 12-6 | 11-1 | 11-6 | 11-1 | 12:0
November... | 14:3 | 12:6 | 14:2 | 14:2 | 14-6 | 13-4 | 14-9 | 18-3 | 18-8 | 12-9 | 13-8
1932—
Mepmary .. | 13-1 | 11-7 | 13-0 | 18-7 | 18-4 | 12-8 | 13-4 | 12-4 | 12-3 | 12-2 | 12:8
March ..-| 12-9 | 11-5 | 13-0 | 18-5 | 13-4 | 12-6 | 13-4 | 12-3 | 13-4 | 11-9 | 12:8
April .. Pao | dabed | 13°3 | 13-5 | 13-7 | 12°7 | 13-6 | 12-3 | 12-4 | 12-0 | 12-8
May .. .. | 13-7 | 11:6 | 18:6 | 13-6 | 13-9 | 12-7 | 14:0 | 12:3 | 12-9 | 12-1 | 13-0
June -. | 13-6] 11-7 | 13-6 4-13-8 | 13-9 | 13-1 | 14-1 | 12-4 | 18-1 | 12-2 | 13-2
July .. -. | 13-1 | 11-9 | 13-2 | 18-2°| 18-5 | 12-4 | 13-5 | 11-6 | 12-2 | 11-5 | 12-6
August .- | 13-6 | 11-4 | 138-4 | 13-1 | 13-7 | 12-2 | 14-2 | 11-9 | 12-9 | 11-7 | 12-8
September .. | 13-8 | 12:0] 13-7 | 13-7 | 14-0 | 12-8 | 14:4 | 12-1 | 13-1 | 12-3 | 13-2
Mean =. | 13-7 | 12-8 | 138-6 | 18-9 | 14-0.) 12-9) 14-1 | 12-6 | 12-9 | 12-3 | 13-2

1 = Queensland kauri (Agathis Palmerstoni).

2 = Hoop pine (Araucaria Cunninghamit).

3 = White cypress pine (Callitris glauca).

4 = Tallow-wood (Lucalyptus microcorys).

5 = Blackbutt (Lucalyptus pilularis).

6 = Spotted gum (Hucalyptus maculata).

7 = Queensland maple (Flindersia Brayleyana).

8 = Coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum).

9 = Silky oak (Cardwellia sublimis).

10 = Pacific maple (Shorea sp.).

With respect to individual timbers the results are
similar to those previously obtained, e.g. Hoop Pine showed
the lowest mean of 11-:8%, and Queensland Maple the
highest mean of 14:1%. The average equilibrium figures
for Hoop Pine and Pacific Maple appear to be in the vicinity
of 12%, Coachwood, Silky Oak and Spotted Gum about
13%, and Queensland Kauri, Cypress Pine, Tallow-wood,
Blackbutt, and Queensland Maple about 14%.

At several periods during 1931 the average monthly
percentage of moisture for a number of timbers, including
Blackbutt and Tallow-wood, was above 15%, and since
it is to be expected that even higher figures would have
been obtained if the timber had been outside, it seems
obvious that during periods of high atmospheric humidity
it is not possible to air-season certain hardwoods to the

" spe al

114 M. B. WELCH.

maximum content permitted by the Standards Association
of Australia in seasoned flooring.*

The actual maximum and minimum weekly moisture
percentages are given in Table II. }

TABLE II.—Mazimum and Minimum Weekly Moisture Percentages for each Timber.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Maximum .. -- | 16°3 | 14-2 | 15-8 | 15-7 | 16-2 | 14:5 | 17-1 | 15-2 | 15-9 | 14-0
Minimum 11-2] 8-8] 12-0 | 12-3 | 12-5] 11-6 | 11:3 | 9:7 | 10°4/ 10:3
Variation 51) 54) 3-8] 3:4) 3°7] 2-9) 58) 5b) 5:5) oem

As in the previously published results for other centres,
Spotted Gum showed the minimum variation with 2-9%,
whilst Queensland Maple gave the maximum variation of
5:8%. Tallow-wood was next to Spotted Gum with
3:4%, followed by Blackbutt and Pacific Maple 3-7%,
Cypress Pine 3-8%, Queensland Kauri 5-1%, Hoop
Pine 5:4%, and Coachwood and Silky Oak 5:5%. A
minimum of 8-:8% was found in Hoop Pine in July, 1931,
and a maximum of 17:1% in Queensland Maple in March,
1931.

The mean moisture content of all timbers over the whole
period was 13:2%, whereas similar timbers under the
same conditions in Sydney gave a mean of 12-0%.

The combined mean monthly relative humidity
percentages and mean monthly moisture percentages are
given in Table III.

From an examination of the figures given in Table III
there does not appear to be any pronounced seasonal
variation in moisture content. For example, the maximum
figure for 1931 was 15-2% in March, yet in 1932 this
month, with 12-8%, was the second lowest; again in
1931 the maximum was in March and the minimum in
October ; in 1932 the maximum was in June and September
and the minimum was in July. It seems, therefore, that
periods of high moisture content are liable to occur at
almost any period throughout the year. |

The relative humidity figures for Murwillumbah were
compiled from data supplied by the High School, whilst
the Lismore figures were supplied by the Commonwealth

* Technical Standard No. O.3, 1934, ‘‘ Australian Standard Grading
Rules for Milled Flooring,” Standards Association of Australia, Sydney.

MOISTURE EQUILIBRIUM OF TIMBER. 115

TABLE III.—Mean Monthly Moisture Percentages and Mean Relative Humidities at
Murwillumbah and Lismore.

Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May.|June.| July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.) Dec.

1980—

Meo. —_— — — — —_ — — — — |13°5] 13:0] 12-7
r.h.M. — = = = = = = = = — — —
Rh... — — — — — — — — — | 68 56 58
1931—

M% — — |15-2| 13:9) 15-1 | 14-0] 12-9 | 12-4 | 12-4] 12-0} 13-8} —
r.h.M. 72 79 88 81 88 85 81 82 74 70 77 71
r.h.L. 60 77 81 1) 81 78 71 75 67 59 68 69
1932—

M% — | 12-8] 12-8| 12-8 | 13:0 | 18-2 | 12-6 | 12-8 | 138-2} — — —
y.h.M. 68 69 72, 81 86 85 84 78 ot UPA (fal 65
r.h.L. 65 70 76 77 83 75 hi, 71 70 64 59 59
Mean

M% — | 12-8] 14:0] 13-4] 14:1] 13-6] 12-8 | 12-6 | 12-8 | 12-8 | 13-4 | 12-7
Mean

r.h.M 70 74 80 81 87 85 83 80 75 Wal 74 68
Mean

r.b.L. 63 74 79 75 82 ale Wf? 73 69 64 61 62

M%=Mean monthly moisture percentage for all timbers.
y.h.M.=Monthly average of daily relative humidities at 9 a.m. at Murwillumbah.
r.h.L.=Monthly average of daily relative humidities at 9 a.m. at Lismore.

Meteorological Bureau, that being the nearest station to
Murwillumbah for which records were available.

A comparison with the figures given in the previous
paper for Sydney shows that the relative humidity was
considerably higher at Murwillumbah, although at Lismore
the increase was less appreciable. The variation between
summer and winter conditions was considerably less than
that experienced at many inland centres, and is more
comparable with the variation found at Sydney. An
examination of the individual monthly records for both
Murwillumbah and Lismore shows that even during the
winter months mean humidities occur which are even
lower than those found to occur during the summer. In
general, October to January appears to be the driest period,
if the figures given can be accepted as being typical of
conditions experienced during other years.

SUMMARY.

During the period October, 1930, to October, 1932, a
moisture equilibrium investigation was conducted at
Murwillumbah, New South Wales. It has been found that
in general the atmospheric humidity conditions are higher
than at Sydney, and the mean moisture content of ten
different timbers kept indoors over the period was 13:2%,

116 M. B. WELCH.

whereas similar timbers under the same conditions at
Sydney showed a mean of 12:0%. Periods of very high
humidity were found to occur, during which the mean

monthly moisture content for timbers such as Tallow-wood

and Blackbutt was in the vicinity of 16% and that for
Queensland Maple exceeded 17%. During such periods
satisfactory air seasoning of timber for the Sydney market
does not appear to be practicable.

STONE SCRAPERS. 117

STONE SCRAPERS: AN INQUIRY CONCERNING
A CERTAIN CONVENTIONALIZED TYPE
FOUND ALONG THE COAST OF
NEW SOUTH WALES.

By C. C. TOWLE, B.A.*
Communicated by Assistant PRoressor W. R. BROWNE.

(With Plates I-VI and seven text-figures.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Nov. 7, 1984.)

DESCRIPTIVE.
Flaked Types from the Coast.

The flaked stone implements found along the coast of
New South Wales may be placed in the following divisions :

(1) Conventionalized scrapers, to which the name
‘* Hlouera ’’’?6 has been given [Plate I (b)];

(2) unconventionalized flakes showing retouch ;

(3) chipped ‘“ points’—a conventionalized type
[Plate I (a)];

(4) flaked knives.

The implements mentioned in division (1) form the
subject of this paper. They have been described by certain
writers as chipped-back knives.‘?> (9 JT shall show that
they really belong to a whole series of scrapers, and that
they are comparable to the conventionalized scrapers
found along the Darling and Paroo Rivers.

For convenience in the following pages I shall refer to
“ coastal ’ types, flakes, etc., and to “‘ Darling and Paroo ”’
types, flakes, etc. ‘‘ Coastal”’ refers only to that part of
the coast of New South Wales between Port Macquarie
and Bateman’s Bay; and “ Darling and Paroo”’ refers
to the areas along those rivers from Wilcannia northwards
towards the Queensland border. The accompanying

_*TI desire to offer my sincere thanks to Professor A. P. Elkin for
kind assistance, also to Mr. S. Moriarty for making the drawings for
the text-figures, and to Mr. G. C. Clutton for the photographs from
which the plates were made.

|

118 Cc. C. TOWLE.

sketch-map (Fig. I) indicates the positions of the various
areas mentioned.

The unconventionalized flakes showing retouch, which
I have mentioned in division (2), belong to the scraper
family. Similar flakes are found almost everywhere in
Australia. Of the chipped implements they form the
largest class. They exhibit all varieties of shape, and
have been retouched to suit the requirements of the job
in hand—for scraping, planing, graving, and so on.

L. Peery

Wilcannia py
aA i Pt.Macquarie

s Pt.Stephens

NEW SOUTH WALES. we
‘f Newcastle

'
i)
|
‘
'
i)
\
|
|
‘
|
i]
]
}
J
|
}
1
d
1
f
} Sydney

- Illawarra

i/Bateman's Bay

100 Miles.

Fig. 1—Map of New South Wales, showing the districts
referred to in the text.

The separating of the conventionalized scrapers in
division (1) from very many of the unconventionalized
scrapers placed in division (2) is arbitrary. With large
numbers of the implements there is always some doubt
whether they should be placed in the one division or the
other, but for the purposes of classification a separation
is desirable. It is based on the form of the implements
rather than on the method in which they were used.
Those implements which possess in common certain formal
characteristics have been placed in division (1), and treated
as a conventionalized type. They are generally well
developed, and in this paper I shall consider them in
detail. Without any doubt they possess the characteristics
which are common to implements of the scraper family.

STONE SCRAPERS. 119

They are not (as some writers have conjectured) chipped-
back knives. |

The chipped “‘ points ’’ mentioned in division (3) are a
well-developed type. They differ from the elouera in
two ways: they are very slender flakes, their length being
their greatest dimension, and they are usually pointed
at the distal end. They resemble the elouera in general
form (they are asymmetrical), and in marginal retouch.*
Some of the explanations given of the use of the “ point ”’
are quite inadequate. They have been called chipped-back
knives, chipped-back surgical knives, chipped-back
cicatrizing knives, chipped-back scarifying knives. It
would not be difficult to show that none of these descriptions
takes into account the form and the distribution of the
implement. Much further investigation will have to be
made before a satisfactory description can be attempted.

There seems to be no doubt that the “ points’’ were
generally made of the best available material, which would
respond to the finest retouch. There are reasons for
stating that certain materials were used in greater propor-
tions for the “‘ points ’’ than for the eloueras.

The flaked knives mentioned in division (4) are of
importance.” They are unchipped flakes, and for that
reason are not usually taken into account as implements.
According, however, to the evidence of observers in many
parts of Australia, the aborigines used unchipped flakes
freely as cutting implements.) It is not usually possible
to discriminate between the unchipped flakes, as such,
and those which have actually been used as knives, but
the widespread distribution in Australia of implements of
this simple kind must not be disregarded.) Roth”
states that a knife is “‘ always sharper ”’ with an untrimmed
edge. Wherever flake-work has been carried out, the
unchipped flakes greatly exceed the chipped flakes in
numbers.

In addition to the implements already mentioned,
certain conventionalized types (such as the crescent)
_ which occur plentifully in some other areas are occasionally

Ne)

* See Pulleine, R. H.: ‘‘ The Tasmanians and their Stone Culture ”’
(A.A.A.S. Report, Hobart, 1928, p. 304) for the different kinds of
retouch. In this paper I am concerned only with marginal (or scraper)
retouch. I regard this term as being synonymous with marginal or
secondary chipping, or with any other terms used to mean that the
margin of the flake has been “‘ touched up ’’, for the purpose either of
sharpening or of improving its working edge.

J—November 7, 1934.

120 Cc. C. TOWLE.

found along the coast. Because of their scarcity they
should not be regarded as separate coastal types. They
are really variant forms. On a later page I shall deal
with these variations from the type.

Perhaps another division should be added [Plate I (c)].

Pieces of material—usually not more than one inch across,
and somewhat rectangular or square in form—are found
on all the camping-grounds. They are usually stone
scraps—not whole flakes—which have been chipped
to a working edge from both sides. These are the so-called

“button ”’ flakes or scrapers. Many of them would have

been suitable for gouging or graving purposes.

Material Used Along the Coast.

Along the coast the material used for the flaked
implements varied greatly. The aborigines used a hard
felspathic sandstone and a chert of the poorest quality in
the north near Port Macquarie, a coarse-grained porphyry
and a fine-grained chert near Port Stephens, a fine-grained
chert near Newcastle, silicified wood, jasper and chalcedony
in the Illawarra district, and porphyry and quartzite on
the South Coast near Bateman’s Bay. This great variety
of material* produced several interesting variations m
the flakework ; but throughout the area, the implements
were essentially asymmetrical in form. On the whole,
the material was refractory, some of it very refractory.
We shall ignore the several local differences which may
be observed in the flakework from these coastal areas, as
they do not affect the present discussion. However, it
may be well to note that the coastal implements vary
greatly in size. In the Newcastle and Port Stephens
districts, for instance, we find implements ranging from
seven inches—a large and massive form—to very small
specimens of not more than one inch in length [Plate I (d)].
In the Illawarra district we do not usually find implements
greater than two inches in length [Plate I (b)|. On the
South Coast, near Bateman’s Bay, we find implements
slightly larger in size than those from the Illawarra district.
At Port Macquarie, in the north, the stone flaked so poorly
that the implements of the hard felspathic sandstone are
usually large and unconventionalized. The chert flakes
found in the same locality are of inferior material and few,
if any, of them conform to the conventionalized types.

* I have mentioned only the principal materials used in the different
localities.

STONE SCRAPERS. 121

Material Used Along the Darling and Paroo Rivers. |

On the Darling and Paroo Rivers the material used for
flaking does not vary so greatly as that found along the
coast. Nearly all the flakes are of quartzite which, how-
ever, varies greatly in quality from a coarse-grained to a
very fine-grained, porcelain-like material. Some of the
coarser-grained varieties appear in some respects to be
rather refractory for flaking purposes, but the finer-grained
material flakes well. Near Wilcannia, and for some
distance to the northwards, a coarse-grained material was
used almost universally, and the conventionalized type-
implements are very few in number in comparison with the
ereat quantities of chipped flakes which may be readily
collected. Further north, along the Paroo River, as at
Lake Peery, some of the material used by the aborigines
was very fine-grained and of good flaking quality. In
such areas the conventionalized type-implements are
found much more plentifully. We must, however, keep
in mind that even at Lake Peery a large proportion of the
material used for flaking was coarse-grained.

The flaked implements found in this area show clearly
how greatly form depends on material. There is no doubt
that the fine-grained and more homogeneous materials
produced by far the greater number of implements

belonging to the conventionalized types.

Flaked Types from the Darling and Paroo Rivers.

The flaked implements from the Darling and Paroo
Rivers may be placed in the following divisions :

(1) Conventionalized scrapers, to which I shall
compare the coastal conventionalized scrapers
lates: EY (g); V; VI (a), (6));

(2) unconventionalized chipped flakes ;

(3) symmetrical ‘“ points ’’—a conventionalized type
[Plate IV (e)];

(4) crescents—a conventionalized type [Plate IV (f)];

(5) adzes—a conventionalized type [Plate VI (c)];

(6) knife flakes, comparable to those mentioned in
division (4) of the coastal implements.

As with the coastal implements, it is difficult to decide
whether some of the scrapers should be placed in division
(1) or (2). The implements in divisions (3) and (4) are
rarely found along the coast. The adzes, mentioned in
division (5), were hafted for use. They do not occur along
the coast.

122 Cc. C. TOWLE.

Marginal Retouch and its Significance.

Before dealing with the main subject, it is necessary to
mention one important matter. Aiston™) has pointed out
that nearly all the chipped stone tools found on camping-
grounds have been used and discarded. Those who have >
done extensive collecting must endorse this statement.
As an instance, on the Darling and Paroo Rivers I have
collected hundreds of worn-out adzes (those which have
been used in a haft) and relatively few unused or slightly
used specimens {Plate VI (c), (d)|. Describing the scrapers
used by the aborigines near Lake Eyre, Aiston™ has shown
how they were sharpened with a hammer-stone as they
became blunt, and finally, after they had become too blunt
for further use, they were thrown away. Such are the
flaked implements which we usually collect on camping-
grounds, whether they be in Central Australia, in the far
west of New South Wales, along the coast, or elsewhere.

It is important, therefore, to keep in mind that marginal
retouch was done in the process of sharpening the cutting
edge of the implements as they became blunt in use; and,
in this paper, I shall classify the conventionalized scraper
types in accordance with the position of the marginal
retouch on the flakes.

MATERIAL AND ITS INFLUENCE ON TYPE.

In order to understand any of the flaked stone implements
of the aborigines, I believe that it is necessary to commence
with a study of the flakes themselves. In general, the
form of the flake, more than any other factor, controls the
form of the implement: and the retouch, being marginal,
does not usually modify very greatly the original form of
the flake. For this reason it is possible to follow the process
by which the aborigines developed their implements from
the flakes. Spencer and Gillen'??) have remarked that the
implements of the Arunta were “ of a very simple nature ”,
and this statement applies to all the stone implements
found in Australia.

Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Conventionalized Types.

For the purposes of this paper, it is necessary to deal
with the flakes in two ways:
(1) According to their cross-sectional form, and
(2) according to their longitudinal shape.
We have to try to discover the reasons for the occurrence
of asymmetrical implements along the coast (Plates I,

STONE SCRAPERS. 123

Il, I11). Why do they not also occur as normal types
along the Darling and Paroo Rivers? The asymmetrical
form of the coastal flake is further emphasized because the
retouch is usually along the side[Plate II (a), (b), (c) ; Fig. 6
(a)]. What are the reasons for this?

In contrast to the asymmetrical flakes from the coast,
we find that along the Darling and Paroo Rivers the flakes
are generally much more symmetrical in form, and that
the retouch is most frequently at the distal end [Plates V,
VI (a), (b)|. For the purposes of comparison, we may
consider the flakes from this area as representing the
symmetrical type. Perhaps the best examples of
symmetrical implements are the long flaked knives from
Central Australia, as described by Spencer and Gillen‘?”)
[Fig. 2 (d)]. The implements from the Darling and Paroo

¢ ceblfhine

Tas
"ty

Fig. 2.—a, b, c, asymmetrical implement, coastal
conventionalized type; and ai, b1, cl, symmetrical
implement, Darling and Paroo rivers, showing
the idealized cross-sections, the lower (the faceted )
surfaces, the upper (the plane) surfaces; d,
symmetrical knife flake from Central Australia.
Compare with figures 0 and Obi. Size, approxi-
mately half actual.

124 Cc. C. TOWLE.

Rivers possess the characteristics of symmetry, but
frequently the facets on the lower surface have removed
all traces of the median ridge.

In this paper, the term asymmetrical means that the

longitudinal ridge on the lower* surface of the flake,
considered as an ideal form, is not a median ridge[Fig. 2 (b);
Plate I (6); II (a)], and that the bulb of percussion on the
upper* surface is usually not quite medially situated at
the butt end of the flake [Fig. 2 (e); Plate II (b)]. On the

other hand a symmetrical implement, considered as an ideal —

form, is one on which the median ridge on the lower surface
divides the flake into two equal parts longitudinally
[Fig.2 (d)],and the bulb of percussion on the upper surface
is medially situated at the butt end of the flake| Fig. 2 (¢1)].

In these descriptions I am merely attempting to
summarize the essential differences revealed in the ideal
type implements from the two areas. In dealing, however,
with the implements generally, the terms must not be
interpreted too rigidly. Frequently the variations in form
are considerable. Strict adherence to form must not be
expected in the flaked stone implements of the aborigines ;
but, by contrasting the flakes which have been used for the
type implements in the one area with those which have
been used for the type implements in the other area, the
one series is seen to be essentially symmetrical, the other
essentially asymmetrical.

The Differences between the Implements from the Coast and
those from the Darling and Paroo Rivers.

The problem to be dealt with, therefore, may be stated
in the following terms. We have to try to discover why
the flakes along the coast are generally asymmetrical and
why the conventionalized scrapers are principally side
scrapers. We have to consider why they differ from the
flakes from the Darling and Paroo Rivers where the
flakes are more symmetrical in form and_ the
conventionalized scrapers are principally end scrapers.

It seems to me that the two principal reasons for the
differences between the coastal and the Darling and Paroo
implements are :

(1) The kind of material available,?” and
(2) the desire of the aborigines to obtain satisfactory
flakes for use.‘?)

*For the use of the terms, see Roth, W. E.: Bulletin 7, Nth.
Queensland Ethnography, 1904, pp. 16-17. Briefly, the ‘ lower”
surface is the faceted surface of the flake; the “‘ upper” (the plane
surface) is the one on which the bulb of percussion is present.

* | ea

|

STONE SCRAPERS. 125

Weare dealing with a practical problem. The aborigines
used stone implements as their daily working tools. They
well understood the flaking qualities of the different kinds
of stone, and we may be sure that, in so far as they could
control their material, they would flake it in the way
which gave them the most suitable flakes for their
requirements.

The Different Kinds of Material Available.

In Australia there does not appear to have been any
extensive system of bartering siliceous stone for flaking
purposes. Each local group or horde appears to have used
the stone available within or easily accessible to its own
territory, although, in some parts, certain flaked implements
(such as the long flaked knives from Central Australia)
were regular objects of barter. In those areas where they
were not able to obtain sufficient quantities of siliceous
stone suitable for flaking, the aborigines brought other
implements into use to serve the same purposes as the
flakes. Spencer®?) states that “stone implements are
rare amongst the Kakadu and allied tribes, and they
and the Melville Islanders seem to use shells for cutting ’’.
Knut Dahl’) states that the North Australians are
“curiously independent ’”’ of many of their possessions.
“Thus any sharp object will serve as a knife to cut up an
animal for food, or the native will simply bite it open.”
Since there were many objects, such as “ pebble
choppers ’’,*) ground-edge knives and scrapers of basic
material,“*) shells,“ bone,‘®) teeth,49) and so on, which
could be used as implements in place of stone flakes, the
aborigines did not usually go very far afield for supplies of
Siliceous material. In any locality, however, where stone
was available in sufficient quantities for flaking purposes,
the aborigines made extensive use of it; and, in the
different parts of the continent, they used materials which
varied greatly in both kind and quality. In some parts
several kinds of material of varying quality were used ;
in other parts where only one kind of material was available,
it usually varied greatly in quality. Such differences in
the material were of the greatest importance, because they
determined the general form of the flakes found in any
locality.43) 2) 46) Some materials were tractable: they

were fine-grained and homogeneous, and fractured freely in

|
)
|

any direction. Some were very refractory: they were

difficult to flake satisfactorily, they fractured badly, or

eet

126 Cc. C. TOWLE.

were uniformly poor in quality, were coarse-grained or
very tough. Some of the material was so refractory”
that it would not even flake; it was shattered by a blow
from the hammer-stone. Roth” states that ‘“ The
Camooweal blacks maintain that pebbles from _ the
neighbouring Nowranie Creek provide the best gouge
heads, while the stones lying along the bed of the Georgina
River. . . are too short and too full of flaws to manufacture
good knife blades from.”

Not only are the differences in the flaking qualities of
the materials reflected in the flakes themselves, but each
kind of material flaked in a characteristic manner. Some
materials readily produced a proportion of large flakes,
some only small flakes; some produced long tapering
flakes, and so on. Certain implements found in one area
may not occur in another area because the material is
such that it will not readily produce the requisite form of
flake. For instance, on the coastal areas of New South
Wales, seldom, if ever, is it possible to find a flake similar in
shape and size to the long tapering knives of Central
Australia ; the material is of such a kind that it would not
flake satisfactorily in that manner. Spencer and Gillen‘??)
have made it clear that the Central Australian knives
occur in those areas where suitable quartzite was
obtainable. The Central Australians did not possess
a superior knowledge of the technique of flaking.
Try as they would, they could not have produced such
knives in the Illawarra district of New South Wales, where
silicified wood, jasper, and similar kinds of material were
used. On the whole, these are very refractory materials,
and do not usually produce flakes more than two inches
in length. The Central Australians would have had no
better success on other parts of the coast. Further south,
near Bateman’s Bay, a porphyritic material shows similar
flaking characteristics to the material in the Illawarra
district. In the Newcastle district the fine-grained chert
was not nearly so satisfactory for flaking as its appearance
would suggest. It would not normally produce large, thin,
tapering flakes. Its principal defect for flaking purposes
is that it possesses a typical chert fracture along definite
planes. Even on the Darling and Paroo Rivers it is
seldom that a knife flake is found similar to the knives
from Central Australia. Small flakes of this form are
found, but the material generally tends to flake in
symmetrical curves. These examples should be sufficient

STONE SCRAPERS. 127

to show that the aborigines contented themselves with
the kinds of flakes which they were able to obtain readily
from the material at hand. For this reason the formal
differences in the flakework from one locality to another
_ may be noteworthy.

|

The Desire of the Aborigines to Obtain Satisfactory Flakes
for Use.

| The characteristics of the implements, therefore, found
in any locality depend primarily on the kind and quality
of the stone available for flaking. The aborigines did not
attempt the impossible task of trying to secure flakes
which the material would not satisfactorily produce ; but,
in so far as they could do so, they undoubtedly endeavoured
to control the flaking of their material. This was possible
only to a limited extent. Spencer and Gillen'?®) have
described the method employed by the aborigines of
Central Australia to obtain long flaked knives ; and I shall
show that along the coast, because of the refractory
material, a definite method of flaking was also adopted.
The aborigines knew the method required to produce
certain kinds of flakes, although, apparently, they were not
able to control their material sufficiently to be sure that
the kind of flake they required would necessarily come off
at each blow of the hammer-stone. Roth” has stated
that the aborigines could not account for the occurrence of
long and short flakes from the same core, and he added
that if they required a certain kind of flake (e.g. a long
knife blade), they continued to strike off flakes until they
had obtained one suitable for their requirements.
Although, therefore, the aborigines could not exercise
full control over the flake which came off at each blow of
the hammer-stone, they could control the manner and the
direction in which the blow was given. In other words,
by adopting appropriate methods of flaking, the aborigines
had sufficient control of their material to produce either
symmetrical or asymmetrical flakes (Fig. 3). Each of the
diagrams shown in Fig. 3 (a) and (a1) represents the striking
platform of a core, the one prepared to produce a
symmetrical, the other an asymmetrical flake. It may
readily be seen that in order to produce the one or the
other kind of flake the method of treatment slightly
differs. In each diagram the part below the broken line
represents the butt end of the flake as it would appear if it
were detached from the core. In order to produce a

= (ei

128 Cc. C. TOWLE.

symmetrical flake, a part of the core had to be suitably
prepared. The direction of the blow from the hammer-
stone was at right angles to the line of fracture (represented
by the broken line in the diagram) and inclined towards —

Fig. 3—a, b, c, diagram, symmetrical type;
al, 61, cl, diagram, asymmetrical type; a and ai,
striking platform of core, showing the angle
prepared for flaking, and the point of percussion
with the hammer stone; b and bi, lower surface
of flake produced by the method described in the
text; c and ci, upper surface of same flake.
Notice the different positions of the bulb of
percussion.

Note: These diagrams are not intended to
cover all the details of technique. They are drawn
merely to illustrate certain general differences in
the methods of flaking. In actual practice, the
aborigines did not always adhere strictly to
either method.

the longitudinal ridge, the point of percussion being
directly behind the ridge [Fig. 3 (ce); Plates V, VI]. This
is the method described by Spencer and Gillen.‘??) Ag the
diagram indicates, it was slightly modified to produce an

STONE SCRAPERS. 129

asymmetrical flake. A different angle was prepared on
the core, and usually the direction of the blow from the
hammer-stone was inclined diagonally towards the
longitudinal ridge [Fig. 3 (c1)]. Normally the point of
percussion was not directly behind the ridge; it was
nearer the middle of the line of fracture, although usually |
it was not quite medially situated [Fig. 3 (cl); Plate IT (b)].

The Flaking Methods Adapted to the Material.

The aborigines, therefore, could produce either
symmetrical or asymmetrical flakes according to the
manner in which they prepared the core and in which they
struck it with the hammer-stone. But why did they alter
their method of flaking from the core? Why, in other
words, are flakes in one area predominantly asymmetrical,
in another area predominantly symmetrical? The reason
seems to be clear. In order to obtain satisfactory imple-
ments, the aborigines adapted their flaking methods to
their material. They could flake tractable material freely,
but they had to overcome various difficulties in flaking
very refractory material. There is no doubt, for instance,
that the aborigines of the Darling and Paroo Rivers flaked
their material much more freely than the aborigines of
the coast were able to flake the material at their disposal.
In other words, the material available for use along the
coast was of such a refractory kind that by treating it in
one way rather than in any other way the aborigines were
able to obtain flakes—usually asymmetrical—suitable
for their requirements.

Differences in Longitudinal Form.

N ow, if the flakes along the coast are compared with
those from the Darling and Paroo Rivers, we shall under-
stand one of the important reasons which caused the
aborigines to adapt their flaking methods to their material.
For this purpose, let us consider briefly the two kinds of
flakes in longitudinal section. On the Darling and Paroo
Rivers the material is such that the distal end of the flake
usually forms a satisfactory working edge. The flakes do
not tend to taper too rapidly or to curl towards the distal
end, and the conventionalized scrapers are predominantly
end scrapers [Fig. 4 (b); Plate IV (d)]. In comparison,
the flakes from the coast do not generally possess a good
working edge at the distal end; frequently they curl or
fracture badly at that end, or they taper too much [Fig. 4 (a);

130 Cc. C. TOWLE.

Plate IV (e)]. Such flakes cannot be used satisfactorily
as end scrapers. They are, however, suitable for use as
side scrapers. The aborigines appreciated this fact,
because by flaking their material in the manner I have
described they could be reasonably sure of obtaining at
least one good scraping edge along the thick side of the
flake [Fig. 6 (a)].

The method, therefore, adopted by the aborigines to
obtain flakes was based on knowledge of the manner in
which their material would behave. Their aim was not
to invent new types, but to secure the best implements
that the material would produce. Because the implements
of the one area are symmetrical in form, and of the other
area asymmetrical, their nature and purpose arenotaltered,

Fig. 4.—a, implement from the coast; b, implement from
the Paroo River. To show characteristic differences in
longitudinal form. Size, approximately half actual.

and I shall show that the one may be readily correlated
with the other. The difference in form made little, if any,
difference in the flake as a working tool. If the symmetrical
implements from the Darling and Paroo Rivers are scrapers,
it is impossible to assert that the asymmetrical implements
from the coast are not scrapers. I may add that the
marginal retouch is the same on both forms [Plate IV
(a) and (b)]. :

In New South Wales asymmetrical flakes predominate
in several areas where very refractory materials were used
for flaking. In other parts, where the material was more
tractable and could be more freely flaked, the asymmetrical
flakes dwindle rapidly in numbers and importance. Some-
times they persist in certain types of implements side by
side with symmetrical types.

Before developing the subject further, I think that
brief explanations are necessary concerning certain of
the matters already discussed.

STONE SCRAPERS. 131

Local Variations in Form.

Flakes in cross-section tend to vary more or less from
the ideal forms such ag I have shown in Fig. 2 (a) and (a1).
Frequently the lower surface has several facets. Fig. 5,
for instance, shows forms with three facets. The broken
lines indicate the parts which had already been removed
from the core before the flakes were struck off. Further,
_ the variation from the ideal forms may be great enough
for the asymmetrical and the symmetrical implements to
merge into each other. For instance, on the Darling and
Paroo Rivers we find occasionally that asymmetrical
flakes have been used as side scrapers in the same way as
the coastal implements. On the other hand, some of the
few symmetrical flakes which are found along the coast
_ have been used as end scrapers. Such extreme variations
- from the predominant types are important, since they
indicate how closely the one type is related to the other.

a b
Fig. 5.—Idealized cross-sections.

Similar statements may be made concerning the implements
somewhat crescentic in form, which are occasionally
found along the coast. Although they resemble some of
the crescents which are so well developed in Victoria, they
are too scarce along the coast to be regarded as separate
coastal types. It is clear that they have been developed
from flakes which happened to be more or less crescentic
in form. They should, in the circumstances, be dealt
with as variant forms of the conventionalized scrapers.
Similar variations are found amongst the “ points ”’.
Those which are more or less crescentic in form are too
few in numbers to constitute a separate coastal type.

CORRELATION OF SCRAPER TYPES.

Having obtained a supply of flakes, the aborigines, of
either area, would then put them to use. I shall now show
how completely the asymmetrical scrapers from the coast
may be correlated with the symmetrical scrapers from the
Darling and Paroo Rivers.

| i

132 Cc. C. TOWLE.

The following are some of the principal ways in which a
flake may be used as a scraper:

(1) Along one side—side scraper ;

(2) along both sides—side scraper ;

(3) at the distal end—end scraper ;

(4) along one side and at the distal end—end and side
scraper ;

(5) along both sides and at the distal end—end and
side scraper ;

(6) all round—circular or oval scraper.*

Varieties of Symmetrical Scrapers, Darling and
Paroo Rivers.

If this formula be applied to the scrapers found on the
Darling and Paroo Rivers, each variety is represented.
As they are all well recognized scrapers, it does not appear
to be necessary to deal with them in detail. Having a
good material for flaking, the aborigines produced a great
variety of implements. The end_ scraper _ easily
predominated as a type, but frequently one variety merges
into another. Thus we find implements which are both
end and side scrapers, and so on[Plates V, VI (a), (b)|. The
presence of the circular scraper indicates the use of a
superior class of material which could be readily retouched
in that manner [Plate VI (e)].

On the coast the same variety of forms is found amongst
the asymmetrical implements. With the exception of
the circular scraper, each variety given in the formula
is represented, the side scraper predominating. The
shifting of the longitudinal ridge on the lower surface of
the flake from the middle to the side has altered the
appearance of the flake, but the following classification
will show that the implements are essentially the same as
the scrapers from the Darling and Paroo Rivers. As I
have already stated, it is most important to keep in mind
that the retouch on the scrapers in both areas is identical
in every respect [Plate IV (a) and (b)]. The difference is
in the form of the flake.

Varieties of Coastal Asymmetrical Types.

(1) Side Scrapers [Fig. 6 (a); Plate II (a), (0), (e)].

* T am not now taking into consideration those forms (such as the
crescent) on which the bulb or butt end of the flake has been given
marginal retouch.

STONE SCRAPERS. 133

On this form the retouch has been carried along one
edge, invariably on the stronger side of the flake. Those
flakes which are poorly developed at the distal end are
frequently of this form. This is a normal type, the
reasons for the occurrence of which I have already given.

On many of the flakes the opposite side also shows
evidence of use, but it seldom shows very much retouch.

(2) Semi-end Scrapers [Fig. 6 (b); Plate II (e)).
The term semi-end scraper has been adopted to
distinguish between this form and the end scraper proper,

Fig. 6—Some varieties of the coastal conven-
tionalized type. a, side scaper; b, semi-end
scraper; c, end scraper; d, side and end
scraper; e, side and semi-end scraper. Size,
approximately half actual.

which is dealt with in the next section. It is probable
that both forms were used in much the same manner, and
they frequently merge into each other. Probably the
difference is of no practical importance, but it is necessary
in this analysis to make the distinction.

The term semi-end means that the scraping edge was
on the curved part of the implement between the side
proper and the extreme distal end. Asymmetrical flakes
do not usually produce satisfactory end scrapers, but large
numbers of them may produce satisfactory semi-end
scrapers. Because of the form of the flake the curved part

134 Cc. C. TOWLE.

of the implement is generally much more useful as a scraper
than the distal end proper. On some implements the
retouch is confined entirely to this curve. These imple-
ments are accordingly classified as semi-end scrapers.

The curved working edge was a favourite form for
scrapers, and was almost universal where flakework was
carried out by the aborigines. Undoubtedly this is the
reason why so many of the coastal implements show such
definite retouch along this curve.

(3) End Scrapers |Fig. 6 (c); Plate II (d)].

Some flakes have a suitable scraping edge at the distal
end and, although they are asymmetrical in form, they are
true end scrapers.

The end and the semi-end types are of the utmost
importance, because they both reveal clearly the reason
for the retouch, and because they correlate completely the
asymmetrical with the symmetrical types. Asymmetrical
end scrapers do not occur in great numbers, but we must
not under-estimate their significance. As implements
there is clearly no difference between them and the
symmetrical end scrapers from the Darling and Paroo
Rivers. If the one kind is a scraper, the other is also a
scraper.

(4) Side and End Scrapers (Fig. 6 (d) ; Plate III (b)].

This form is quite as important as the end scraper,
because it further emphasizes the completeness of the
correlation. These implements show continuous retouch
along one side, round the distal end, and sometimes well
down the opposite side of the flake. In this form we have
an asymmetrical flake which is a true side and end scraper.
We have seen that there cannot be any question as to the
correlation of the end scrapers from the two areas, and the
continuous retouch on this form must lead to a similar
conclusion. The significance, too, of carrying the retouch
well down the second side of the flake should be noted.
It shows clearly that the scraper retouch was the important
consideration, and not the knife edge. If this side—as
some have asserted—was the cutting edge of a knife,
why has the retouch destroyed the keen edge and reduced
it in length?

(5) Side and Semi-end Scrapers [Fig. 6 (e); Plate III (a)].

The side and end scraper proper is not found in very
ereat numbers, but the side and semi-end scraper is very

STONE SCRAPERS. 1385

plentiful. On this form the retouch is carried along one
side and round the curve towards the distal end of the
flake. It is important to note that on very large numbers
of the implements of this form the retouch is not carried
to the extreme distal end. It ceases where the flake
has become too thin for scraping. This indicates clearly
that the aborigines did not bother to retouch that part of
the flake which they did not require for use.

(6) Two Sides and End Scrapers.

Some flakes are found which show continuous retouch
along both sides and round the distal end. On these forms
there cannot be any doubt as to the purpose of the retouch.
They are quite as definitely scraping implements as the
end and side scrapers already discussed.

(7) Scrapers Retouched along Adjacent Edges.

Owing to the asymmetrical form of the flakes, a further
variety of scraper has been developed along the coast.
Normally, the marginal retouch on the flakes is confined
to the edge or edges where the lower surface meets the
upper surface. Some of the coastal flakes, however, have
two equal plane surfaces, and the aborigines—as we should
expect—have taken advantage of this feature; it gave
them an additional scraping edge. They have retouched
the flake along the two adjacent edges, as shown in Fig. 7.
(See also Plate III (c).] This method of treatment has
given the flake a well-chipped appearance between the two
working edges, but it has no other significance. It is an
entire misinterpretation of the marginal retouch to assert

a a
Na
lee
a <

Fig. 7.—Idealized cross-sections. The arrows show

the edges along which marginal retouch may be

carried out. The longitudinal ridge (@) on the

lower surface, as shown in the two upper diagrams,

has become one of the working edges, as shown in

the lower diagram, the side xX, in consequence,
being well chipped.

K—November 7, 1934.

136 Cc. C. TOWLE.

that this chipped surface is the “ back ”’ of a knife. The
form of the tlake, and the choice of the two adjacent
working edges, indicate clearly the manner in which the
implement has been developed in use. The marginal
retouch on the flake is similar in every respect to that
found on the flakework generally.

The Working Edge Modified for Special Purposes.

I have now shown that the coastal implements consist
of a series of forms belonging to the scraper family. In
order to simplify the matter I have assumed in my classifica-
tion that the retouch on the flakes is always evenly carried
out, but we find that large numbers of the flakes have
apparently been retouched for special purposes, and that
their form has veen modified in such a manner that
projections, serrations, etc., have been produced along
their working edges. Such modifications are common
to implements of the scraper family ; they are significant
and useful, but there could not be any reason for their
presence on chipped-back knives [Plate IIT (d)].

In my analysis I have shown that on some coastal
implements one side only has been retouched, or the distal
end only, the remaining edges being quite sharp and
apparently unused. But this has no unusual significance,
because the same feature is found on the flakes from the
Darling and Paroo Rivers and elsewhere. Many end
scrapers do not show signs of use along the sides. This
evidence does not support the idea that the unchipped side
was left on the coastal flake to be used as a knife. On
any implement of this kind which generally has one edge
with little, if any, retouch we may conclude that that edge
was of less value to the aborigines as a working part.

To this stage our inquiry shows that the aborigines were
not so much concerned with the kind of flakes which they
had at hand; they were more concerned with their
effectiveness in use. They wanted flakes which would
cut or scrape satisfactorily. Having obtained a suitable
supply, they put to use the parts of each flake which would
serve their purpose.

SoME GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE COASTAL
SCRAPERS.
The Significance of Flaked Implements.

Why is it that the coastal flakes have been called chipped-
back knives? It seems to me that the name is a mis-

STONE SCRAPERS. 137

conception of the purposes for which the aborigines used
flaked implements. A flake is not significant in itself,
but it is significant as a tool which, in the hands of the
aborigines, had to produce results. Immediately it failed
to function satisfactorily it was thrown aside and another
flake was brought into use. Why were flakes used?
Were they not used in the process of making things of
permanent value to the aborigines, such as wooden weapons
and utensils, for preparing skins, and so on? These were
the significant things to the aborigines, and the flake
was only ameans toanend. Flakes were so easily obtained
that an expert operator could produce hundreds of them
in a very few hours. Only in those parts where material
was scarce would flakes be kept until they had been used
to the smallest scraps. Where material was plentiful, it
is evident to all who have been on the camping-grounds
that the aborigines were prodigal with them.

Further, a flake showing fine and even retouch is too
frequently given attention out of all proportion to its real
significance. It is not always properly understood that
fine-grained and homogeneous material will produce some
ideal type-specimens.'1® Ags specimens they may doubtless
show admirable symmetry of form and retouch. But why
should this feature be emphasized? Is it not of much
greater importance to deal with implements in relation to
the environment in which they were produced and used ?
Specimens of fine-grained, homogeneous material were
not necessarily of greater value as working tools than those
of coarser material. In the hands of the aborigines they
had to produce the same results as any other flake. Unless
implements, therefore, are dealt with in relation to their
environment misconceptions may arise, and the idea of a
chipped-back knife is one of them.

The chipped-back knife theory, as applied to the coastal
implements, raises many difficulties. JI discussed some of
them in a previous publication, and shall not repeat them.'?®
In the following paragraphs I shall discuss briefly some of
the objections to the theory.

Stone and Shell Knives Used Along the Coast.
There is plenty of evidence that the aborigines along the
coast had a superabundance of knives. They had:
(i) Innumerable sharp flakes ;
(ii) unlimited supplies of shells with sharp cutting
edges. Shells were used very extensively."

138 Cc. C. TOWLE.

If not more important, they were at least as
important as the sharp flakes ;(

(iii) the wommera, in one end of which a piece of
shell was fastened, and this implement, in
Collins’s‘* words, “‘ they use for the same purposes
that we employ a knife’’. Similar implements
were used in Central Australia, except that a
piece of stone was used instead of a piece of shell,
and Spencer and Gillen'?®) have stated that they
were the most important cutting implements
of the aborigines.*

Is it likely, in such circumstances, that the aborigines
would need to develop a type of chipped-back knife? It
would have been in every way a much legs efficient imple-
ment than the shell in the end of a wommera. On every
coastal camping-ground the aborigines had more knives—
im esse or in posse—than they could possibly have used.

It seems to me that the term knife does not mean quite
the same to the white man as it did to the aborigines, who
were also concerned with scrapers. With his steel knife
with its keen edge, the white man thinks in terms of
cutting, not of scraping; but with the material at his
disposal the native thought in terms of scraping as well as
cutting. Roth” has written an interesting sentence on
this difference in the point of view. ‘‘ Amongst aborigines
out of reach of European settlement, even sometimes
amongst civilized ones, an ordinary pocket-knife or table-
knife is employed rather as a scraper than as a cutting
instrument.’’ For the aborigines the scraper had as wide
a range of uses as the knife.) 7

Method of Using Coastal Flakes.

Because we can place our forefinger round the chipped
side (miscalled the “ back ’’) of some of the coastal flakes,
we are not entitled to infer that we are following the

* In his Historical Journal of the Transactions at Port Jackson and
Norfolk Island, 1793, John Hunter has written an interesting sentence :
*“The throwing stick (of an inland native) had a piece of hard stone
fixed in gum instead of the shell which is commonly used by the natives
who live on the sea coast’ (p. 519). There seems to be no doubt that
shell implements were used so frequently by the coastal tribes near
Sydney that the use of stone for the same purpose by an inland native
was a circumstance worthy of record. David Collins (“‘ An Account
of the English Colony in N.S.W.”’, 1798, p. 586) makes a similar
observation respecting spears which had stone flakes fixed in a groove
near the point instead of pieces of shell.

STONE SCRAPERS. 139
practice of the aborigines, or that the implements are
necessarily knives. ‘‘ The human hand is such an adaptable
appendage that it ‘fits’ anything not too angular or too
large.” Interpretations, therefore, based on such
methods are of no value; they do not explain the imple-
ments as the working tools of the aborigines. Further, we
have no reason for assuming that the coastal aborigines
handled flakes so clumsily that they needed to blunt one
edge before using them. Relying on the testimony of
observers in all parts of Australia, I have no doubt that
the few minor cuts which the aborigines may occasionally
have received, would go almost unnoticed. The indifference
of the natives to such mishaps is well illustrated in the
following observation made by Basedow. In making his
spear-head, the native of North-West Australia “ often
_ euts his fingers on the flake or razor-sharp splinters ; the
blood which follows he removes by passing his fingers
through his hair’’.‘?) On the other hand, there is no
reason to deny that, for a special purpose, the aborigines
may have occasionally blunted a part of one edge of an
implement. Roth,‘'” for instance, conjectured that the
chipping near the handle of a small knife from North
Queensland had been done to blunt that part of the edge.
He, however, was not able to give an entirely satisfactory
explanation of similar chipping on a larger implement of
the same kind.

It has sometimes been asserted that in his “‘ Ancient
Stone Implements of Great Britain ’’, Evans‘” figured an
Australian chipped-back knife, and that the coastal
implements are related to it. The implement figured by
Evans is a variant form of the long flaked knives (usually
hafted) found in Central Australia and Queensland. On
the other hand, the small asymmetrical implements from
the Illawarra district [Plate I (b)| belong to the same series
as the large asymmetrical implements [Plate I (d)]from the
Neweastle and Port Stephens districts. This should be
sufficient to indicate how greatly the implement figured
by Evans differs from the coastal implements. They
belong to two distinct series which must not be confused.
It happens that the implement figured by Evans somewhat
resembles in form the coastal types.

The Spear-Head of North-West Australia.

Undoubtedly, the serrated spear-head of North-West
Australia is highly specialized. Some have asserted that

140 Cc. C. TOWLE.

since the aborigines of that part were capable of producing
such a type, there is no reason why the aborigines of the
coast of New South Wales should not produce a chipped-
back knife. This does not quite represent the facts. It
does not follow that a spear-head—a part of a weapon—
should be compared with a working tool, be it chipped-back
knife or scraper. Consider for a moment the long flaked
knives of Central Australia and Queensland. The reason
that the aborigines were so careful of them was not that
they were merely domestic implements. Roth®@” has
pointed out that they were primarily fighting weapons,
and secondarily implements.‘!® (3) 40 In few words,
they possessed a much wider significance than a mere
tool. They took their place amongst the articles of more
permanent value to the aborigines, such as _ spears,
boomerangs, wommeras, and so on. In the same way,
the stone spear-head from North-West Australia had much
more value and significance than a flake. Attached to
a shaft, it helped to provide the native with his food
supply. Articles of permanent value to the natives often
had much time and care spent on their making. On the
other hand, I have yet to learn from the writings of any
authority who has worked amongst the aborigines that.
they spent any time in the preparation of stone tools,
except the time necessary to make the tools suit their
immediate or actual requirements.

With respect to the stone spear-head from North-West
Australia, I may add that the method of making it may
have been borrowed by the aborigines from an alien
people. A similar suggestion has also been made with
respect to the art of that area.‘® In the circumstances
it is not advisable to set up the spear-head as a standard
by which certain implements found on the opposite side
of the continent may be judged.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.

Over a great part of the continent stone flakes were used
as tools. In one locality certain types predominated, in
other localities other types. Because of this diversity,
there is no reason to assume that the aborigines of one part
possessed a knowledge of stone-working not known to
the aborigines of other parts. The different forms cannot
be regarded as separate cultures known only to the
aborigines in whose local areas they are found. The

STONE SCRAPERS. 141

explanation is that the stone available was generally
more suitable for one form than another. I have already
shown this with respect to two areas. The aborigines were
not so much inventors of stone types, as they were adapters
of flakes to their needs. They did not usually chip flakes
to such an extent that the original form entirely disappeared.
Seldom, if ever, is the original flake, although well retouched,
difficult to reconstruct.

In this paper I have endeavoured to deal with certain
coastal flakes as the working tools of the aborigines, and
I have, I believe, shown that they belong to the scraper
family of stone implements. The great variety of forms
in which these implements are found, not only over the
whole area, but also in any one locality, indicates very
clearly that the retouch was not done for the purpose of
reproducing an ideal form such as a chipped-back knife.
The diversity of closely inter-related forms is a sufficient
refutation of the chipped-back knife theory. A chipped-
back knife would be an ideal type. We should expect all
such implements to conform more or less closely to the
ideal which the aborigines would strive to reproduce in
each separate implement. To do this they would have
had to modify considerably the flakes at their disposal, a
proceeding which was not attempted by them. As I
have already shown, marginal or scraper retouch was all
they ever attempted along the coast of New South Wales.

REFERENCES.

() Aiston, G.: Chipped Stone Tools of the Aboriginal Tribes East
and North-East of Lake Eyre, S.A. Papers and Froc.
Foy. Soc. Tas.,. 1928.

(2) Basedow, H.: The Australian Aboriginal, 1925, pp. 364, 370.

(3) _-__ : Anthropological Notes on the West Coast Tribes of the
North. Terr. of S. Aust. Yrans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1907,
31, 51.

(4) Collins, D.: Account of the English Colony in N.S.W., 1798, p. 585.

(5) Dahl, Knut.: In Savage Australia, 1926, p. 15. ,

(6) Elkin, A. P.: Rock Paintings of N.W. Australia. Oceania, 1,
INO Oo, 21).

Evans, J.: The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons and

Ornaments of Gt. Britain, 1897 (2nd ed.), fig. 198, p. 293. .

(8) Fraser, J.: The Aborigines of N.S.W., 1892, p. 77.

(9) Hall, L. D.: Some Aboriginal Flakes from Morna Point, N.S.W.
Rec. Aust. Mus., 1928, 16, No. 5.

(10) Horne, G. and Aiston, G.: Savage Life in Central Australia, 1924.

441) Kenyon, A. 8. : Camping Places of the Aborigines of S.E. Australia.
Vict. Hist. Mag., 1912, 2, 105-7.

12) Kenyon, A. S. & Mahony, D. J.: The Stone Implements of the
Australian Aborigine. Rept. B.A.A.S., 1914, Australia,
p-. 526.

142 Cc. C. TOWLE.

93) Kenyon, A. S., Mahony, D. J. & Mann, S. F.: Evidence of Outside
Culture Inoculations. Rept. A.A.A.S., Adelaide, 1924,
p- 465.

44) Kenyon, A. S. & Stirling, D. L.: Australian Aboriginal Stone
Implements. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., 13 (N.S.), 196 (sub-
divn. CB ITI).

15) Klaatsch, H.: Some Notes on Scientific Travel amongst the Black
Population of Tropical Australia. Rept. A.A.A.S., Adelaide,
1907, p. 585.

So) Ponds |X. W.: Primitive Methods of Working Stone. . Logan
Museum (U.S.A.) Bull., Vol. II, No. 1.

47) Roth, W. E.: Domestic Implements, Arts and Manufactures.
Nth. Queensland Ethnography, Bull. 7, 1904, pp. 16-22
and figs. 136, 139.

448) _______; Ethnological Studies, N.W. Central Queensland
Pome Ines: 1897, <p. lag:

19) Smyth, R. B.: The Aborigines of Victoria, 1878, I, pp. 349, xlv.

(20) Spencer, Baldwin : Wanderings in Wild Australia, 1928, p. 844.

(21) ___ The Aboriginals of Australia. Federal Handbook
B.A.A.S., 1914.

(22) Spencer, Baldwin and Gillen, F. J.: The Arunta, 1927, pp. 540-551,
525.

(28) —: Northern Tribes of Central Australia, 1904, p. 655.

(24) Tench, W.: A Complete Account of the Settlement at Port Jackson,
1793, pp. 56, 182, 185.

(25) Thorpe, W. W.: Ethnological Notes No. 1. Rec. Aust. Mus.,
1928, 16, No. 5.

(26) Towle, C. C.: Certain Stone Implements of the Scraper Family
Found along the Coast of N.S.W., 1930 (privately printed).

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

NOTE: All the implements shown in the plates are approximately
one-half their aciual size.

PuaAte I. IMPLEMENTS FROM COASTAL AREAS.

Tllawarra District :
(a) Ten chipped ‘“ points ”’
(6) Four conventionalized scrapers.
(c) Five “‘ button ”’ flakes (so-called).
Newcastle District :
(d) (On left) Larger sized implement showing the working edge
along the side.
Port Stephens District :
(d) (On right) Larger sized implement showing the working edge
at the distal end.

PLATE II. IMPLEMENTS FROM COASTAL AREAS,

Illawarra District :
(a) Four side scrapers, showing the iower (the faceted) surface.
(6) The same implements, showing the upper (the plane) surface.
(c) Eight side scrapers, showing the working edge.
(d) Four end scrapers.
(¢) Four semi-end scrapers.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXVITT, 1934, Plate

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. DXVIII, 1934, Plate LI,

(¢)

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXVIIT, 1934, Plate LIT,

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXVIIT, 1934, Plate 1V.

Journal Royal Society

of NS.W., Vol. LXVITT,

1934, Plate

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX VIII. 1934, Piate V1.

STONE SCRAPERS. 143

Puate III. ImpLEMENTS FROM COASTAL AREAS.

Illawarra District :
(a) Four side and semi-end scrapers.
(6) Four side and end scrapers,
(c) Eight side scrapers, showing retouch along the two adjacent
working edges. |
(d) Eight scrapers. showing the working edge modified for different
uses.

PuateE IV. (a-d). IMPLEMENTS FROM CoASTAL AREAS COMPARED
WITH IMPLEMENTS FROM THE PAROO RIVER.

Illawarra District :
(a) Four side scrapers, compared with

Paroo River :
(b) Four end scrapers, in order to show the identity of retouch
along the working edges.

INawarra District :
(c) Four side scrapers, compared with

Paroo River :
(d) Four end scrapers, in order to show the characteristic differences
in the form of the flakes. Both sets are shown longitudinally,
the bulb or butt end being on the left.

(e-g). IMPLEMENTS FROM THE DARLING AND PAROO RIVERS.

(e) Six symmetrical “ points ”’.
(f ) Six crescents.
(g) Six small scrapers.

PLATE V. IMPLEMENTS FROM THE DARLING AND PAROO RIVERS.

(a) Ten scrapers, showing the lower (the faceted) surface.

(6) Five of the same scrapers, showing the upper (the plane) surface.
Predominantly end scrapers.

(c) Three scrapers, showing the lower surface.

(d) The same implements, showing the upper surface.

Puate VI. IMPLEMENTS FROM THE DARLING AND PAROO RIVERS.

(a) Three scrapers, showing the lower surface.

(6) The same scrapers, showing the upper surface.
(c) Four adzes (always hafted).

(d) Four adzes (worn down through use).

(e) Four circular scrapers.

L—November 7, 1934.

144 ADRIEN ALBERT.

MYOPORUM DESERTI.

A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION.

By ADRIEN ALBERT, B.Sc.*
Communicated by Mr. H. FINNEMORE.

(Read tefore the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 19384.)

Myoporum deserti is a shrub, from three to twelve feet
in height, occurring, according to published statements,
in all the States of the Commonwealth, Tasmania excepted.
In New South Wales it is confined to the western plains
and slopes. It is known variously as Dogwood Poison
Bush, Ellangowan Poison Bush, a Turkey-bush and
Sweet-fruited Myoporum. It is a somewhat variable
species; for instance the leaves vary in length. It had
long been suspected of being toxic, and came for
reconsideration on account of a request of the C.S.LR.
to the Poison Plants Committee to investigate fatalities
to cattle occurring in Queensland.

The small fruits, which have been reported as less toxic
than the leaves, were found to be free from alkaloids and
cyanogenetic glucosides. They contain an enzyme which
hydrolyses prunasin and sambunigrin but not amygdalin,
and which can therefore be used for distinguishing between
these mono- and di-glucosides. The fruits examined
came from Broken Hill, Temora and Queensland.

The leaves are from one to three inches in length, with
more or less conspicuous oil-glands. The seven specimens
forwarded were from Broken Hill, Cobar, Grenfell, Temora,
Currabubula, Clover Creek (Darling River) and Queensland.
They contained no cyanogenetic glycosides, cyanhydrolytic
enzyme or alkaloids.

* This investigation was made under the Poison Plants Committee
of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Thanks are due
to the University of Sydney for the provision of laboratory facilities,
to Mr. H. Finnemore, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C., for assistance and guidance,
and to Dr. H. R. Seddon, Chief of the Vetermary Research Station,
Glenfield, for forwarding supplies of the plant and for arranging to
have the extracts tested.

MYOPORUM DESERTI. 145

Tests undertaken at Glenfield Veterinary Research
Station by Mr. R. QO. C. King, B.V.Sc., have shown both
air-dried leaves and fruits to be toxic for sheep. The
leaves tested on a calf were also attended with lethal results,
and there is no doubt as to the harmfulness of this shrub
to stock. Actually Mr. King also included in his tests
material from the same source as that with which I have
worked. With this material it was found that 1 jib. of
berries and 1 lb. of air-dried leaves were each lethal for
sheep. |

The work now to be described was done on a 40-lb. lot
of the leaves, collected in Queensland while the plant was
fruiting (reputedly the most poisonous season).

Acetone Extraction.

Dried leaves in powder (9,000 g.) were refluxed with
boiling acetone (16 litres) for six hours. The liquid was
decanted whilst hot, and on cooling deposited crystals
(3-8 g. from 2,000 g. leaves). These were washed free from
colouring matter with ethyl acetate, and after recrystallisa-
tion were identified as mannitol (2-8 g.), m.p. 165° C.
(Hexacetate m.p. 120° C.).

The filtrate was mixed with calcium carbonate, and the
acetone distilled off on the water-bath. The thick paste
remaining was shown to be non-toxic to sheep. No
crystalline substance could be isolated from it, although
concentrates giving glycosidal reactions were obtained.

The mare, which was still toxic, was extracted again
with boiling acetone (16 litres). The solution was decanted
after cooling, and on evaporation as before gave a non-toxic
extract. The marc, however, was still toxic to sheep in
doses of 200 g.

Alcohol Extraction.

The marc (6,000 g.) was exhausted by percolation with
cold alcohol (28 litres industrial spirit). The percolate
was mixed with calcium carbonate, and the alcohol distilled
off from the water-bath. During the process of concentra-
tion sodium chloride (3-5 g.) and a little more mannitol
were deposited. After evaporation on a water-bath a
thin greenish-brown paste remained which was shown to
be non-toxic, and the marc remaining was also non-toxic.
It would appear, therefore, either that the toxic principle
had been destroyed or that the toxic action is due to a

146 ADRIEN ALBERT.

synergistic effect, the constituent agents having become
separated.

Nature of Alcohol Extract.

About half the alcoholic extract, obtained as described
above, was steam-distilled until no more volatile oil passed
over (28 hours). Diacetyl was not present in the faintly
acid distillate. To the oil obtained in this way (11 cc.)
was added a further quantity (3 ce.) obtained by exhausting
the brine-saturated aqueous portion with petroleum ether
(b.p. 40° to 60° C.).

This quantity of oil represented 0:-46% of the dried
leaves, whilst the quantity obtained in a like manner from
the acetone extract represented only 0-002%. As the oil
was miscible with acetone, it is noteworthy that it was not
extracted by the acetone, but appeared instead in the
subsequent alcoholic extract from the marc. It is possible
that a certain amount of terpenes, etc., is common to the
oils from both extracts, but that the large quantity in the
case of the oil from the alcoholic extract is derived from a
glycoside hydrolysed during the extraction.

The Volatile Oil.

The oil was thoroughly dried over anhydrous sodium
sulphate. It was golden yellow in colour, with a cooling,
mint-like taste, and an odour that was mentholaceous and
sweetish, as well as having a slightly unpleasant quality
not unlike that of carrot-water. When freshly distilled
it was, in addition, pungent. It was slightly soluble in
water, and the solution reacted neutral. Neither the
aqueous nor the alcoholic solutions gave any pronounced
reaction with solution of ferric chloride, sodium hydroxide
or Schiff’s reagent. The oil did not reduce Fehling’s
solution even in the presence of alcohol. Ammoniacal
silver nitrate yielded a black precipitate, but no mirror.
One part of the oil dissolved in 30 parts of 70% alcohol.

The specific gravity at 20° C./20° C. was 1-0048, which
indicates the presence of oxygenated bodies. Refractive
index =1-4767 at 24° C., and «2°C-— —14-9°.

The oil was oximated according to the method for
carvone (B.P., 1932); 1-298 grams of the oil required
4-13 cc. N/1 alcoholic potash. This is equivalent to 51%
of a (terpene) ketone (menthone) or 80% of a (sesqui-
terpene) ketone of the formula of ngaione, the ketone
isolated from M. letuwm (McDowall, Jour. Chem. Soe.,

MYOPORUM DESERTI. 147

1925, 127, 1200). The odour of the residual oil was like
that of fresh pine needles.

The oil was examined for phenols in a specially made
cassia flask of capacity 15 cc. with neck graduated in
one-hundredths of a cc. It was found that 1-34 ce.
of oil contracted by 0-02 ce., equivalent at the most to
1:4% phenols v/v. The residual oil smelt more truly
menthol-like, whilst the alkaline solution on neutralisation
deposited an oil soluble in alkali. This oil gave a brown
coloration with very dilute solution of ferric chloride.
It has an odour reminiscent of eugenol, but also of tea.
It gives a purple colour with vanillin in sulphuric acid.

The ester value of the oil, determined by the B.P. 1932
process, is 1-43 (equivalent to 0-5% bornyl acetate).

In the small cassia flask described 0-98 cc. was treated
with 20% sodium bisulphite solution. The flask was
heated at 98° C. for one hour, and the contraction after
cooling observed. This was 0-04 cc., equivalent to 4:1%
aldehydes. The odour of the residual oil was less pungent
and more truly menthol-like. The aqueous layer was
rendered alkaline and extracted with ether. A yellow oil
was obtained with a foul odour similar to that of burnt
fat.

The oil (1:58 cc.) was also examined with normal sodium
sulphite. (Details as cinnamon oil analysis, B.P. 1914.)
A contraction of 0-04 ce. occurred, equivalent to 2:5%
v/v aldehydes.

The results obtained on oximation and with sodium
bisulphite and sulphite indicate that a ketone such as
menthone or ngaione is present rather than one of the
carvone-piperitone type. An attempt was made to prepare
a quantity of the oxime of the ketone. The oil (1-5 cc.)
was treated with 6 cc. of N/1 hydroxylamine hydrochloride,
in 90% alcohol, and the same quantity of N/1 alcoholic
potash added. The product was heated at 70° C. for eight
hours, and cooled. Alcoholic potash (1 cc. of N/1) was
added, and the KCl filtered off. The alcohol was partly
distilled off under reduced pressure, water was added and
the mixture shaken out with petroleum ether to free the
solution from terpenes. The aqueous portion was then
made neutral and shaken out with ether. After evapora-
tion of the ether a thick uncrystallisable lemon-yellow oil
was left. Attempts to prepare the p-nitro phenylhydrazone
led to a similar result.

148 ADRIEN ALBERT.

The following table compares the oil of Myoporum
deserti with that of MZ. letwm examined by McDowall.

Myoporum deserti. Myoporum letum.
Colour ae bis .. | Golden, Reddish-brown.
Odour te ns .. | Mentholaceous, sweetish

and somewhat foul
when first distilled.

Sp. Gr. He ne: .. | 1:0048. 1:0208.
Specific Rotation .. ae —14-93. — 26°54,
Refractive Index .. eer le eeiGre 1-4823.
Yield .. ae BY. oe! | ROP4G9GE 0:12% to 0:30%.
Schiff’s Reagent... .. | No action. No action.
Fehling’s Solution .. .. | No action. Slowly reduces.
Ammon. AgNO, .. .. | Considerable blackening. | No action.
Ester Value .. sie eo ps dtodts3, 17-9 (saponification value)
“ Aldehydes ” Ph Pel 24950 “No trace.”
Phenols a a weet tbaehvon O-4aeee
Ketones (calculated as

Ngaione) ae 45 SOY S | 86%.

SUMMARY.

The isolation from Myoporum deserti of a volatile oil
containing a large percentage of an unidentified ketone
is described.

The toxic effect of this plant has been confirmed, but no
substance to which its poisonous nature may be ascribed
could be isolated. There is evidence of the presence of a
glycoside.

Department of Pharmacy,
University of Sydney.

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF BLACKFELLOW’S BREAD. 149

A CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF BLACKFELLOW’S
BREAD, THE SCLEROTIUM OF THE FUNGUS
POLYPORUS MYLITTH CKE. AND MASS.

By J. C. EARL, D.Sc., Ph.D.,
and G. H. MCGREGOR, B.Sc.*

(Read before the Royal Seaciety of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1934.)

A sample of the sclerotium of the fungus Polyporus
mylitice Cke. and Mass, commonly known as “ blackfellow’s
bread ”’, was obtained through the kindness of Dr. R. J.
Noble. As received it was a roughly spherical mass
weighing 1,772 gms. Most of the chemical work was
carried out on the material after it had been cut into
Slices, dried in a vacuum oven at 50° C. and ground to
a powder which passed completely through a 90-mesh
sieve. A preliminary examination was made, however,
of the moist material.

EXAMINATION OF THE MOIST MATERIAL.

Reducing Substances.—An extract made by boiling the
material with water showed only a faint reducing action
of Fehling’s solution.

Alkali-soluble Substances—When 30 gms. were heated
with 30 cc. of five per cent. sodium hydroxide solution a
slightly coloured extract was obtained, which yielded no
precipitate after neutralisation and addition of alcohol.

Hydrolysis with Sulphuric Acid—To 32 gms. of the
moist material 40 gms. of concentrated sulphuric acid
were added in small quantities. After standing for three
days the material had dissolved completely. The mixture
was then diluted to 400 cc. and boiled under a reflux
condenser for ten hours. The solution was filtered,
neutralised with barium carbonate, again filtered, and
made up to 500 ce. The optical rotation of this solution

* One of the authors (G.H.McG.) is indebted to the University of
Sydney for the grant of a Science Research Scholarship, during the
tenure of which this work was carried out.

150 J. C. EARL AND G. H. McGREGOR

was observed, and the amount of material in solution
determined by evaporating an aliquot part to dryness.
From these data the specific rotation of the dissolved
material was calculated: [«]p=+38°8°.

From the solution by treatment with phenyl hydrazine
and acetic acid phenylglucosazone was obtained (m.p.
204° C.; no depression when mixed with an authentic
sample). Pentoses were absent (phloroglucinol test), but
ketoses were definitely present (diphenylamine test).

Percentage of Moisture.-—On drying at 105° C. the fresh
material lost 75:-4% of its weight.

HXAMINATION OF THE DRIED, POWDERED MATERIAL.

Preiminary Analysis.—Nitrogen: 0°37%, estimated by
the Kjeldahl method. Fats: 19-443 gms. of the material,
extracted with ether in a Soxhlet apparatus, gave 0-437
gm. of ether-soluble material, equivalent to 0:23%.
Ash: 0:38%,.

Solubility in Alkali.—40 gms. were heated in a boiling
water bath with 200 ce. of a 5% solution of sodium
hydroxide. The insoluble material, which was in the
form of gelatinous granules, was filtered off and washed
with 50 ce. of boiling water. The combined filtrate and
washings, which were dark brown in colour, were neutralised
with hydrochloric acid, and an equal volume of alcohol
was added. The white precipitate was filtered off, washed
with alcohol, and dried at 80°C. The weight obtained was
4:14 gms., or 10-3% of the original dry material. This
alkali-soluble substance was free from pentosans (phloro-
elucinol test) and galactosans (no mucic acid being produced
on oxidation with nitric acid), but gave the characteristic
ketose test after hydrolysis.

Acetylation—A sample was acetylated by Irvine’s
variation (J. Chem. Soc., 1922, 121, 1587) of Barnett’s
method. 5 gms. of material were allowed to stand
with 25 cc. of glacial acetic acid through which chlorine
had been bubbled in a rapid stream for thirty seconds.
At the end of half an hour 30 cc. of acetic anhydride were
added, and sulphur dioxide passed rapidly into the mixture
for one minute. After a further hour’s standing the
mixture was heated at 65° C. for six hours. At this stage
the undissolved solid was removed by centrifuging, and
washed with glacial acetic acid, the washings being added
to the main bulk of the liquid. Chloroform (30 cc.) was

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF BLACKFELLOW’S BREAD. 151

then added, and the recovery of the acetate proceeded with
according to the directions given by Irvine. For purifica-
tion it was redissolved in a mixture of chloroform and
alcohol, the solution being shaken with animal charcoal,
filtered and treated in the usual way for the recovery of
the acetate.

The yields of ester and residue in the three experiments
and the specific rotation of the ester in chloroform solution
are given in the following table:

Wt. of

Experiment. Material Wt. of Wt. of Lo].
Taken. Triacetate. Residue.
gms. gms. gms.
A 5 3°5 225 —36°5
B 5 4°9 ikea, —24-9
C 20 21-5 5:0 —24:1

In experiments B and C the chlorine was bubbled into
the acetic acid for one minute instead of thirty seconds.

The percentage of acetyl in preparation B was determined
by the method of Knoevenagel and Konig (Hess, Chemie
der Zellulose, 1928 ed., p. 417). Found CH,CO: 44:8,
45:1%; calculated for cellulose triacetate: 44-8%.

Breakdown of Acetate——The triacetate (3-2 gms. of
preparation B) was heated at 125° C. in a sealed tube with
methyl alcohol (45 cc.) containing 0:75% by weight of
hydrogen chloride, for 68 hours. The resulting pale yellow
solution was neutralised with silver carbonate, filtered
and evaporated to dryness under reduced pressure. The
weight of glycosides was 2-025 gms., corresponding to
94:1% of the quantity of methyl glucoside which could
be obtained from a polyglucosan triacetate. The specific
rotation of the glycosides in methanol was +85:-5°.

On standing in concentrated methanol solution portion
of the glycosides crystallised. After one recrystallisation
the solid material (0-479 gm.) was identified as «-methyl
glucoside by the melting-point (164-5° C.) and the rotation
[a ]p= +156-8° in water.

The syrup remaining, together with that obtained by
evaporating the mother liquors from the recrystallisation,
was equilibrated by heating for three hours at 100° C. with
20 cc. of 0-75% methyl alcoholic hydrochloric acid. The
solution, without neutralisation, was made up to 100 cc.
and the rotation observed. Then it was neutralised and
M—December 5, 1934.

152 J. C. EARL AND G. H. McGREGOR

evaporated to dryness, when 1-128 gms. of syrup were
obtained. The specific rotation of the glycosides in the
acid solution, calculated from these data, was [«]p=+86°,
a value considerably lower than that observed when
a-methyl glucoside is equilibrated under similar conditions,
namely [a]p=-+98:-6°. |

Insoluble Material Recovered from the Acetylation.—
The part undissolved during acetylation (Experiment B)
was examined. It contained 0:30°% of nitrogen and 8-7%
of acetyl. On further acetylation of 1 gm. by the usual
method, 0-84 gm. of acetyl compound and 0-43 gm. of
residue were obtained. The acetylated part, isolated in
the usual way, showed a specific rotation in chloroform of
[a]p=—11-9°, and contained 53-14% of acetyl. The
rotation and the high acetyl content indicate that consider-
able degradation of the original molecular structure had
taken place.

CONCLUSIONS.

It would appear that the material is largely composed of
a substance closely allied to ordinary fibre cellulose.
Associated with the main polyglucosan constituent is
probably a polyfructosan, since the presence of ketosans
is indicated. Such an admixture would probably account
for the divergence of the specific rotation of the triacetate
from the normal value for cellulose triacetate, namely
[x]p=—22°. Fats and proteins are almost entirely
absent.

Department of Organic Chemistry,
University of Sydney.

NOTE ON THE DECOMPOSITION OF COBALT AMALGAM. 153

A NOTE ON THE DECOMPOSITION OF COBALT
| AMALGAM.

By J. W. HOGARTH.
Communicated by Mr. F. P. J. Dwyer.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1934.)

During some experiments with cobalt amalgam, prepared
by the electrolysis of cobalt sulphate solution with a mercury
cathode at a C.D. of 5-8 amps./sq.dcm., it was observed that
the solid phase remaining after the removal of the liquid
mercury by chamois leather underwent an unexpected

change when exposed to the atmosphere. Black spots at
first appeared on the surface of the bright silvery amalgam,
and later droplets of liquid mercury. Eventually, in a
few hours, nothing remained but an intensely black, finely-
divided powder and liquid mercury, the latter containing
only a minute trace of cobalt. The rate of reaction
increased with the concentration of cobalt in the amalgam.
With the cobalt concentration at a maximum ten to fifteen
grams of amalgam changed completely in about two hours.

The black powder was insoluble in water, and was found
to contain cobalt and minute traces of mechanically enclosed
mercury. On treatment with dilute (5E) hydrochloric
or sulphuric acid, hydrogen was evolved and the usual
pink cobalt solution obtained. No chlorine was evolved
with hydrochloric acid. Pure, dry hydrogen passed over
the heated powder (dried over calcium chloride) gave
neutral water, leaving grey metallic cobalt. It thus
appears that the decomposition product of the amalgam
is a suboxide of cobalt.

The amalgam, freed as much as possible from adhering
mercury by pressure, is a brittle, somewhat silvery solid,
apparently insoluble in mercury, and of somewhat lower
specific gravity. It is stable in hydrogen, specimens sealed
in hydrogen for more than thirteen months showing no
evidence of decomposition. The decomposition is also
inhibited considerably by dilute sulphuric acid solution.
A search of the literature has not revealed any information
regarding these observations. Further investigation of
the amalgam and the black substance is intended.

Department of Chemistry,
Sydney Technical College.

154 . - -T. H. HARRISON.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS AND ASSOCIATED
DISEASES OF DECIDUOUS FRUIT TREES.

Il. THe APOTHECIA OF THE CAUSAL ORGANISMS.*

By T. H. HARRISON, D.Sc.Agr.
(With Plate VII and one text-figure.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1934.)

INTRODUCTION.

In Part I of this series'*) the conclusion was reached
that the various strains of “‘ Brown Rot ”’ fungi, occurring
on deciduous fruit trees throughout the world, were
referable to three species, named as follows :—

(1) Sclerotinia fructigena Ader. & Ruh., for the fungus
characterised by large, domed, buff pustules on infected
fruits in Europe and Asia ;

(2) S. lawa Ader. & Ruh., for the fungus producing
small grey pustules on fruits, twigs, and flowers in Europe,
in Asia and on the Pacific coast of North America ;

(3) S. fructicola (Wint.) Rehm, for the fungus producing
fawn pustules on infected parts of fruit trees in North
America, New Zealand and Australia.

For many years it has been recognised that the apothecial
stage of these fungi is very important taxonomically,
and that under certain conditions it may be of the greatest
practical importance, serving to spread the organisms.
For these reasons the author has endeavoured to study all
available type material, to examine critically all records,
and to induce experimentally the production of apothecia
of all species.

Attention has been called to the rarity of apothecia of
S. fructigena Ader. & Ruh. and S. laxa Ader. & Ruh.,

* The laboratory work was carried out in the Plant Pathology
laboratories of the Imperial College of Science, London, while the author,
on leave from the New South Wales Department of Agriculture, held
the Ben Fuller Travelling Scholarship. For the facilities provided the
author expresses his gratitude to the authorities concerned.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 155

and to the abundance of this stage of S. fructicola (Wint.)
Rehm wherever these fungi occur.

Through the generous co-operation of mycologists in
England, Europe, and North America, here gratefully
acknowledged, it has been possible to assemble a collection
of all extant type, or co-type, material. The author also
has obtained apothecia, not hitherto reported, of S. fructi-
gena and of S. lava, and during the past ten years in
Australia large numbers of apothecia of S. fructicola have
been collected. Consequently, for critical comparison
there is at present available a collection of apothecia of
the various species of Brown Rot fungi more extensive
and representative than in the possession of any previous
investigator. It is hoped, therefore, in this paper to
present a more complete picture of the important perfect
stage of each of these fungi than has hitherto been possible.

THe APOTHECIA OF Sclerotinia fructigena ADER. & RUH.
(1) The Original Record, Germany, 1905.

Until Solkina‘*?) in 1931 described apothecia of this
fungus, the only authentic record of Sclerotinia fructigena
was that of Aderhold and Ruhland‘®) in 1905. Woronin'®”
in 1888 had shown that a Monilia occurring on Vaccinium
Vitis-Idea was the imperfect stage of a Sclerotinia, which
he named S. Vacciniw. Following this discovery
mycologists in Europe searched in vain for the perfect
stage of the species of Monilia which caused Brown Rot
of fruits, realising clearly that this was essential to a
solution of both the taxonomic and the pathological
problems involved.

When Norton‘? in North America, in 1902, found
apothecia of the American brown rot fungus he named it
S. fructigena. These apothecia were obtained from
‘* sclerotia ’? which appeared to be more than a year old.

In the autumn of 1902, shortly after the publication of
Norton’s work, Aderhold and Ruhland placed out of doors,
in flower-pots, a large number of apples, peaches, apricots,
ereengages, plums and cherries mummified by Monilia,
each species of fruit being kept separate. The pots were
embedded in the ground between bushes on the experi-
mental field at Dahlem, Germany, were protected by
wire-netting, and had weeds removed from them twice
during the year.

156 T. H. HARRISON.

No apothecia developed in the first spring, but on
April 20, 1904, on two apple mummies Aderhold and
Ruhland found some immature Sclerotinia ascocarps
(three and seven respectively). These apple mummies
were taken indoors, replaced on earth, and covered with a
bell-jar. Six days later they had produced four and
thirteen mature apothecia respectively, and other small
primordia. Cultures obtained from an ascospore cloud
gave a Monilia stage, identical with the common buff-
pustuled fungus on apples.

Aderhold and Ruhland were thus able to publish the
only complete description of S. fructigena. With minor
modifications it is repeated by Saccardo.’?”?) Aderhold
and Ruhland’s description is well supported by adequate
illustrations.

Through the courtesy of Mr. J. Ramsbottom, Keeper of
Botany, British Museum (Natural History), London, and
Dr. O. Appel, Director der Biologischen Reichsanstalt
fur Land-und-Forstwirtschaft at Dahlem, the author
obtained four apothecia from the limited supply of type-
material. T[lustrations of these are shown in Plate VII,
Fig. D. They were very small, the largest having a
diameter of 3 mm., and a stipe, which appeared incomplete,
measuring 4:5 mm. Aderhold and Ruhland gave the
diameter of the fresh apothecia as from 3 to 5 mm.

The asci were of the shape illustrated in the text-figure,
Nos. 1 and 2. The ascospores were arranged in either one
or two rows, the latter being less common. As described
by Aderhold and Ruhland, paraphyses were only slightly
swollen at the apex, pluri-cellular, branched or single,
filiform and slightly longer than the asci. The shape of
the ascospore is quoted by Aderhold and Ruhland as a
cardinal point of difference between S. fructigena and
S. lawa. The ascospores of S. fructigena are described as
‘oval, occasionally somewhat irregular, but always
provided at both ends with distinctly expressed tapering
points ’’ (translation). In the Latin diagnosis occurs the
phrase ‘‘ Sporidiis . . . ovato-fusoideis, utrinque acutis”’.
Aderhold and Ruhland’s illustration is in support of this
as a diagnostic feature.

After examining a number of preparations of the type-
material the author considers that the ascospores are not
always pointed, a few having rounded ends. The majority,
however, are much more pointed than is usual for either
S. lawa or S.. fructicola. Several mycologists, including

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 157

BAMBVOA

:

Nos. 1-7.—Camera lucida drawings of Aderhold and Ruhland’s type
material of S. fructigena. Magnification 1,000, except Fig. 6,
which is <X1,650. Note that the ascospores are pointed at
one or both ends and that both mono- and distichous arrange-
ments occur. The inclusions present in the spores did not
react for oil when tested by the usual chemical and physical
methods.

Nos. 8 and 9.—Camera lucida drawings of asci and spores of Wormald’s
material of S. laxa. The rounded bodies in this case are oil
drops. 1,000.

No. 10.—Ascus and spores from S. fructicola treated similarly to the
S. laxa material. 1,000.

No. 11.—Thickened end of ascus common to both S. laxa and
S. fructicola. 1,650.

158 T, H. HARRISON.

Dr. H. Wormald, who saw some of the author’s prepara-
tions, agreed with the above contention. It is therefore
considered that, although exaggerated somewhat by
Aderhold and Ruhland, the pointed nature of the ascospore
of S. fructigena is a valuable diagnostic character. Asci
and spores of this fungus are illustrated in the text-figure,
Nos. 1-7. With the exception noted, the author considers
that Aderhold and Ruhland’s description of the apothecia
of S. fructigena is verified by an examination of portion
of the type-material.

(2) Occurrence in U.S.S.R.

In 1931 Solkina‘*?) published the second description of
the apothecia of S. fructigena. A translation of the
Russian original, supplied by the Imperial Mycological
Institute, contains the following pertinent facts :

“On 5th June, 1931, apothecia were found on the surface of a
mummified apple, lying on forked earth under an apple tree in the
orchard of the Soviet Farm, Krasnaya, Slavyanka, near the town
Slutzk. The concave face of the sclerotium, turned towards the
earth, bore four immature apothecia, which were champagne-glass
in shape. When placed under a bell-jar in a moist atmosphere the
apothecia developed completely within 23 days, and on the 27th June
they were examined in the systematic section of General Phyto-
pathology of the A. A. Lebedeva Pan-Soviet Institute of Plant
Protection .

The size of the apothecial cups varied from 0-6 to 1 cm. in diameter,
and their colour was dark greyish-brown. The asci are cylindrical,
from 112 to 150 by 9 or 10 to 12 u in diameter. The paraphyses are
threadlike, hyaline, from 130 to 180 u in length by 3 to 4 yu in width,
and protrude over the asci. The ascospores are ovoid, elliptical,
tapering at one or both ends, occasionally almost acuminate at the
tips, one-celled, hyaline, 9 or 10 to 12 yu in length and 5 to
6 uw in width .

In comparing these measurements with those indicated in the
comparative table given in H. Wormald’s paper,®!) in which are
presented the measurements found by different authors of the asci and
ascospores of Sclerotinia, it will be seen that the specimens found by us
stand closest to the data given by Aderhold and Ruhland for S. fructi-
gena. The description given above of the apothecia also agrees with
Schréter’s description of S. fructigena.

Thus the fungus found by us may be correctly identified with
Sclerotinia fructigena Schr. Our specimen is preserved at the General
Pathology Section of the Pan-Soviet Institute of Plant Protection.”

A photograph of the apothecia received from the above
Institute is reproduced in Plate VII, Fig. C. In addition,
the author received a micro-slide, bearing a crushing of
an old apothecium, in which most of the asci were empty.
In a few cases germination of the ascospores within the
ascus had taken place. The germ tube was straight, and

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 159

usually emerged from one end of the ascospore. Most of
the ascospores available for inspection had pointed ends,
and agreed in general conformation with spores from other
S. fructigena material. Solkina’s description of the
ascospores is supported by the limited studies made of her
material.

The measurements of asci and ascospores, upon which
Solkina appears to have relied for determination of her
fungus, are of limited value in determining the species of
Brown Rot fungi. In any case, the table cited does not
support her claim that her specimens stand closest to data
given by Aderhold and Ruhland for S. fructigena. In
the table mentioned the asci of S. fructigena are given as
measuring 120-180 x 9-12 yu, while those of S. laxa are
quoted as 121-5-149-9x8-5-11-8 yu. Solkina’s figures
for her fungus are 112-150 x9 or 10-12 yu, and hence are
closer to those of S. laxa than to those of S. fructigena of
Aderhold and Ruhland. The size of the ascospores given
by Aderhold and Ruhland are: SN. fructigena 11-0-12-5x
5:6-6:8 ws S. laxa 11-5-13-5X5-2-6-9 yu. Solkina’s
figures are 9 or 10-12 x 5-6 uv. It can be seen that, apart
from the length of the ascospore, the figures given by
Solkina do not agree ‘“‘ most closely with those given for
S. fructigena’’.

The reference to Schréter’s description of S. fructigena
is misleading, because Schréter did not describe the
apothecia of S. fructigena, merely recording of this stage
“ Schlauchfrucht unbekannt ’”’. Solkina makes no mention
of the fungus having been obtained in culture. However,
S. fructigena is the only species of “ brown rot” fungus
recorded as rotting apples in Europe. This supports the
conclusion that Solkina’s apothecia were those of
S. fructigena Ader. & Ruh.

(3) Occurrence in Denmark.

Another interesting record dealing with the apothecia
of Sclerotinia fructigena is that of Weber,'®) who in 1926
Stated: ‘The apothecial stage has been found on one
and a half-year-old apples” (translation). Weber was
asked for some of this material, but she replied that the
apothecia referred to were those mentioned in J. Lind’s
“Danish Fungi as represented in the Herbarium of
EK. Rostrup ”’, 1913, p. 112. The following statement is
the only reference there to S. fructigena: ‘‘ Ascomata
have been produced by the mummified apples which had

160 T. H. HARRISON.

been kept for one and a half years in moist sand’”’. Dr.
Christensen, Curator of the Botanical Museum at the
University of Copenhagen, stated that no specimens had
been preserved in Rostrup’s herbarium. Dr. Phil. C.
Ferdinandsen, Professor of Botany at Copenhagen, wrote
on January 5, 1932, that “‘ Lind’s statement is derived
from a source which cannot be traced out. Nothing seems
to be published about the matter, and the late Prof.
EK. Rostrup’s correspondence here in this department is
mute upon the subject.”

The author is of the opinion, therefore, that because
this record of S. fructigena from Denmark cannot be
substantiated it should be discarded.

(4) Occurrence in Italy in 1919.

In August, 1931, the author visited the “ Institutio
Superiore Agrario ’’ at Bologna, Italy, where amongst the
teaching collections of the Plant Pathology Department
was one specimen labelled ‘‘ Sclerotinia fructigena Su Mele,
April, 1919”. This consisted of about one-half of a
mummied apple, upon which there were approximately
twenty-five apothecia in various stages of development.
This specimen was collected in the grounds surrounding
the Institute. An irregular piece of the mummied apple,
approximately 22x17 mm., and from 0-5-2 mm. thick,
bearing six mature and four immature apothecia, was
given to the author by Dr. Mario Sacchetti ; it is illustrated
in Plate VII, Fig. E. These apothecia were dull flesh pink
in colour, crateriform, with glabrous uniform margins,
and measured from 3-5 to 10 mm. in diameter. They
were on stipes which varied in colour from light brown to
black, in length from 3 to 8 mm., and in thickness from
0-75 to 2 mm. The stipes in most cases were without
rhizoids, but in one case rhizoidal tufts were present.

A detailed study of three of the apothecia was made.
They were found to coincide in all important particulars
with Aderhold’s type-material of S. fructigena.

Of 100 monostichous asci the mean length was 152-34u,
and the range 130-184 ». The mean diameter was 8-2u,
and the range 7:0-9-75 wu. Each ascus contained eight
spores, arranged diagonally in either one or two rows
(see text-figure No. 5 and Plate VII, Fig. F). The spores
were mostly pointed at one or both ends. The impression
received upon examination of a slide of this material is
the same as that given by Aderhold’s material. This has

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 161

been confirmed by several mycologists, including Dr. H.
Wormald.

Dr. Sacchetti expressed the opinion that, if attempts to
prove the connection of the apothecia with the Monilia
stage were made, no record was kept. However, on apples
in Italy the only Brown Rot fungus recorded is S. fructi-
gena. This may be regarded as evidence that the apothecia
were those of this fungus. Detailed examination supports
this, and hence the author considers that the apothecia
found at Bologna in 1919 are those of S. fructigena Ader.
& Ruh.

(5) Occurrence in Holland.

The author has previously stated‘*) that, in 1912,
- Westerdijk"*®) reported the occurrence in Holland of a
Sclerotinia arising from mummied sour cherries. No
specific name was given to this fungus, although Westerdijk
thought it different from both S. fructigena and S. laxa
of Aderhold and Ruhland. The author, however, has
examined some of Westerdijk’s material, and presents
evidence to support the conclusion that this fungus must
also be referred to S. fructigena.

Westerdijk’s description of the apothecia is reproduced
hereunder :

““Die Lange der Apothecien ist von 4-6 mm.; der Stiel geht
allmahlich in den Becker tiber. Ein Drittel des ganzen Apotheciums,
und zwar der untere Stielteil, ist dunkelviolett gefarbt ; darauf folgt
eine Hellbraune Zone, wahrend das obere Drittel eine dazwischen
stehende Farbe, namentlich hellbraun-violett, aufweist.

“Die Asci sind 158-4-171-6 lang und 7:9-8:5 breit. Die sporen
messen 13-2-16-8x4-3-5-2. Sie sind also langhch und meistens
zugespitzt. Oceltropfchen kommen vor. Die Paraphysen sind meistens
- etwas langer als die Asci und am Ende schwach angeschwollen.”’

Westerdijk presents a table in which Aderhold and
Ruhland’s measurements of asci and ascospores of S.
fructigena, S. lawa and S. cinerea are compared with the
above dimensions.

Westerdijk apparently considered that the only Brown
Rot fungus occurring on cherry fruits in Holland was the
grey pustuled one, at that time named S. cinerea. Without
connecting her fungus with a Monilia stage she assumed
that, because it arose from mummied cherries, it could not
be S. fructigena. The author has, however, frequently
noticed the large buff pustules of S. fructigena on rotting
cherries in Europe, including Holland. Further, this
fungus has been noted from its earliest records, occurring

162 T, H. HARRISON.

on stone fruits. Westerdijk was also mistaken in regard
to the size of the apothecia of S. fructigena. She stated
that because her apothecia measured only 5 mm. in
diameter, it was unlikely that they were identical with
Aderhold and MRuhland’s apothecia, which measured
10-15 mm. in diameter. Actually the latter apothecia
are quoted by Aderhold and Ruhland as being 3-5 mm.
in diameter.

Westerdijk’s reasons for deciding that her fungus could
not be NS. fructigena, despite her conviction that “‘ sie kommt
der Sclerotinia fructigena am nachsten ’’, are therefore open
to question. Westerdijk also concluded that her fungus
could not be S. laxa, as she believed that this fungus was
restricted to apricots. This reasoning is also now known
to be unsound.

Could her fungus then be S. cinerea? The meagure-
ments given by Aderhold and Ruhland under this heading
were obtained from a study of American material, received
from Norton. They are not only of a different fungus,
but also very low for the fungus actually studied by
Aderhold and Ruhland, who gave the following figures :
Asci 89-3-107-6x5-9-6-8 wu, ascospores 6:2-9-3x3-1-
4-6. Other workers have found figures at least 50% greater
than these for the same fungus. The pointed nature of
the spores, as well as the sizes given for asci and ascospores
of her fungus, convinced Westerdijk that her fungus could
not fit in with Aderhold and Ruhland’s deseription of
S. cinerea. She thus concluded :

‘“*Neben den 3 beschriebenen Obstsclerotinien is dann also eine
spezielle Kerschensclerotinie aufzustellen.”’

In Westerdijk’s description the number of asci and
Spores measured is not stated, nor is an average given.
An analysis of the figures reveals the following: The
asci reproduced were found to measure 68-74 mm.,
which at the magnification quoted (550) represents an
actual size of 123-6-134-5 u. The size quoted by
Westerdijk, however, is 158-4—171-6 yw, hence in reproduc-
tion the plate has been reduced by approximately 22%.
The spores in ascus No. 1 were found to be 6-5-8 mm.
long, representing a length of 11-8-14-54 u, or with 22%
added, 14-4-17-74 uw. In breadth the spores in the same
ascus measured 2:8-3-5 mm., representing a size of
5:1-6:36 uw before adding 22°, which increases it to
6-36-7-76 uw. On applying the same principles to the
isolated ascospores it was found that the length varied from

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. ; 163

17-5 to 20 mm. Ata magnification of 750 this represents
an actual size of 23-3-26-7 u, a length far in excess of that
quoted by Westerdijk, even without the addition of 22%,
which would make the figures 28 -31-32-53 uw. In diameter
the size is from 5 to 6 mm., representing an actual size of
6-66-8 pv, or, with 22% added, 8:-0-9-76 uw. Both these
sets of figures make a striking contrast with those quoted
by Westerdijk, 7.e., 13-2-16-8xX4-:3-5°2 u

The author considers that such serious discrepancies
cast doubt on the reliability of the measurements of asci
and ascospores given by Westerdijk.

An examination of portion of Westerdijk’s material
showed that the few ascospores present were pointed at
one or both ends, and of a size comparable with the type
material of S. fructigena.

Westerdijk’s short reference, viz., “* Oeltrépfchen kommen
vor’, is insufficient evidence to prove the nature of the
inclusions noticed in the spores. In the illustrations
one of the five isolated ascospores is shown without any
inclusions, as also are the ascospores included in the asci.
Moreover, Westerdijk did not make any further reference
to them in a discussion of the distinguishing features of
the various species of Sclerotinia. The author was not
able to demonstrate the presence of oil drops, although
certain inclusions were present in the spores examined.

The above facts have led to the conclusion that
Westerdijk’s record, while imperfect, must be considered
as one of S. fructigena Ader. & Ruh.

THe APOTHECIA OF SNS. laxa ADER. & RUH.

Apothecia of this fungus have been recorded twice, viz.,
by Aderhold and Ruhland in Germany in 1905 and by
Wormald in England in 1921. After discussing these two
records the author will report the occurrence of apothecia
of this fungus in England in 1932.

(1) Occurrence in Germany.

Aderhold and Ruhland®) exposed mummied apricots to
the same conditions which were responsible for the develop-
ment of apothecia of S. fructigena, and on May 1, 1904
found two mummied apricots bearing apothecia. They
wrote :

“Von den beiden am 1 Mai Fruchtkorper zeigenden Aprikosen-

Mumien trug die eine wohlentwickeltes und ein kleineres Apothecium,
die andere 3 unvollkommen ausgebildete Apothecien.”’

164 T. H. HARRISON.

Cultures obtained from ascospores of this material
yielded a Monilia with grey conidial pustules. Believing
that they had the perfect stage of the fungus Ehrenberg
had described as Oideum. lawum, Aderhold and Ruhland
published a complete Latin description of their fungus
under the name Sclerotinia laxa (Ebrenb.) Ader. & Ruh.
It is repeated in Saccardo.'?”

Particular emphasis was placed by Aderhold and
Ruhland upon the details of the ascospore. In the Latin
description the spores are described as “‘ utrinque obtusis-
simus, saepe 2-3 guttulatis, 11-5-13-5 uv longis, 5-2-6-9 u
latis’’. In the text,'?) p. 433, they wrote:

‘“Im Gegensatz zu denen von Sclerotinia fructigena waren sie aber
beidendig stets abgerundet, nicht mit einem Spitzchen versehen und
wiesen vielfach noch 2-3 kleine Oltrépfchen im Innern auf, welche bei
Sclerotinia fructigena fehlten.”’

The description of the apothecial stage of both S. laxa
and S. fructigena shows that, apart from insignificant
differences in measurements of asci and ascospores, the
details of the apothecial stage of one would apply to the
other, except for the two features mentioned. Aderhold
and Ruhland regarded the pointed ascospores, devoid of
oil-drops, as characteristic of S. fructigena, and the rounded
ascospore, with two to three oil-drops, as equally
characteristic of S. lava. They separated their fungi very
definitely, however, by securing the Monilia stage of each.
The small grey pustules produced by S. laxa were very
distinct from the large buff pustules of S. fructigena.

An endeavour was made to obtain some of the type-
material of S. lawa, but Dr. Appel, who was approached,
stated that Aderhold and Ruhland had preserved no
specimens; they had used the whole of their limited
material in their experiments. It is therefore impossible
to check Aderhold and Ruhland’s description.

(2) Occurrence in England.

In March, 1920, Wormald found apothecia arising from
plums collected during the winter of 1918-19, and exposed
from January, 1919, to normal conditions at Wye, Kent,
England. These apothecia were thoroughly described
and illustrated in January, 1921. A critical study of
Wormald’s material, generously made available to the
author, confirmed in detail the published description.

There are several points in the paper of special interest.
First, Wormald proved that single ascospores of his fungus

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 165

gave rise to the grey-pustuled Monilia, identical with
M. cinerea f. prunt (= SN. laxa).

Secondly, Wormald stated in regard to the ascospores :
‘‘ The ends are generally rounded but often narrowed and
almost pointed, occasionally one end mucronate ”’. Illustra-
tions of ascospores, both in and free from the ascus, support
the above statement. The impression received when one
examines a slide containing asci and ascospores of
Wormald’s material is that the spores are rounded at the
ends (see also text-figure, Nos. 8 and 9). The opposite
impression is received when one examines Aderhold and
Ruhland’s material of S. fructigena; the ascospores in
this case are generally pointed.

Wormald does not state the nature of the rounded
bodies shown in the ascospores in his illustration, but the
author is convinced that oil-drops are present. One to
three bright, highly refractive bodies show up clearly in
each spore in preparations stained lightly in cotton blue.

Thirdly, Wormald found that “ the asci, when treated
with iodine, showed a bluish ‘ pore ’ at the apex ’’, whereas
Aderhold and Ruhland stated that in S. lava the thickened
apex did not stain blue with iodine. It is possible that
differences of technique may explain this discrepancy.
It is significant to note, in this connection, that Aderhold
and Ruhland stated that the pore of the ascus of S. fructicola
(Wint.) Rehm did not stain blue with iodine, whereas,
in the fresh condition at least, the opposite holds.

Wormald considered that the differences between his
fungus and Aderhold and Ruhland’s SN. laxa were insufficient
to separate them. He considered that both should be
included within the species S. cinerea (Bon.) Schrot.
The author has recently discussed this conclusion.‘®)

(3) An Additional Record in England.

During the autumn of 1930 the author assembled at the
Biological Field Station of the Imperial College of Science,
situated at Slough, Bucks, England, large quantities of
naturally mummied plums and other fruits, collected from
various fruit-growing districts of England. These
mummied fruits were placed in shallow wooden trays
containing soil so arranged that some of the mummied
fruits were buried to a depth of 25 to 30 mm., others were
half-buried, while others were on the soil surface. Some
of the trays were then exposed to normal winter conditions
in three separate situations. Others were subjected to

166 T, H. HARRISON.

rapid changes in environmental temperature by being
placed for alternating intervals in the refrigerator and in
warm places at the Field Station.

No apothecia were obtained during the following spring
and summer, despite frequent searches for them. The
majority of the mummied fruits had disintegrated by the
winter of 1931-32, when the residue of the material was
left exposed to normal climatic conditions at Slough.

On March 13, 1932, Professor Brown, who had the
material under observation, found some fifteen to twenty
apothecia in various stages of development. One mature
apothecium was forwarded to Dr. H. Wormald who, after
studying asci and ascospores, stated that he thought the
apothecia were those of S. cinerea (= WS. lawva). The
remaining material, together with cultures obtained from
an ascospore cloud, was forwarded to the author at
Richmond, New South Wales.

Morphological Studies.

A total of fifteen apothecia was available for examination.
- They arose from three irregularly shaped remnants of
mummied plums. These remnants were black, tough,
corrugated pieces of pseudo-sclerotium. They consisted
of an external layer of thick, dark hyphe, within which
were some relatively hyaline hyphe, and incorporated
cells of fruit tissue. The thickness of this pseudosclerotium
was variable. In some cases two layers had become
fused during shrivelling of the fruit, but a single layer was
approximately 0:25 to 0-4 mm. thick (see Plate VII,
Fig. G).

The apothecia were stipitate, mostly light brown to
brown in colour, and from 2:5 to 8 mm. in diameter.
The average of fourteen mature apothecia was approxi-
mately 5-5 mm.

The shape varied considerably, but most were concave,
a few were flattened, while a few others were recurved.
The margin was glabrous and uniform except for splits
which apparently developed as the apothecia flattened out.
The hymenial surface of the apothecia was consistently
puckered or foliated, a feature absent from the majority of
the apothecia of S. fructicola found in America and Australia
(see Plate VII, Figs. A and B).

The stipe measured 1 to 10 mm. in length, and was
normally thin, measuring from 0-75 to 2:5 mm. in diameter.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 167

In all cases it tapered from the base of the apothecium to
reach its minimum thickness at about 0-5 mm. from the
pseudoselerotium. In colour it ranged from the black of
the pseudosclerotium to the ight brown at the base of the
apothecium.

The asci were cylindrical, clavate, with rounded ends.
The pore was centrally placed, and was indicated clearly
in some asci from which spores had been ejected. It also
stained blue with iodine. Of 100 monostichous asci
the mean length was 148-2u, with a range from 140-160 w.
In diameter the mean size was 10:32y, and the range
9-2-12:3 u. The material was probably shrunken by
preservation in spirit.

The paraphyses were hyaline, septate, filiform, approxi-
Inately as long as the asci, and usually slightly swollen at
the tips. Both branched and unbranched types were
present, the latter predominating.

The ascospores varied considerably in shape. Some were
ovoid, some pyriform, others elliptical, but all had rounded
ends, in contrast to those of S. fructigena. Both the
monostichous and distichous arrangements of the spores
were present.

Oil-drops were present in the majority of the spores.
Usually two or three spots of a highly refractive nature
could be seen in the preserved material which the author
examined. In some cases these spots did not occur,
Suggesting that perhaps the oil-drops are differentiated
only at certain periods in development of the spores.

A culture, obtained by Professor Brown, agrees with the
stock cultures of S. lava at the Imperial College of Science,
London. It also agrees in cultural characteristics with
many other isolations of S. lawa, made from plum fruits
and twigs in England. The two apothecia, which together
gave the cloud from which the subculture was obtained,
are the same in all features, and have the rounded ascospores
found reliable in separating S. lawa from 8. fructigena.

In culture and on fruits it has behaved as the typical
form of S. lava, hence the author considers that this
record represents the third one of the apothecial stage of
the fungus S. lawa Ader. & Ruh.

APOTHECIA OF A BROWN Rot FUNGUS IN THE
CAUCASUS.

During 1930 Dr. J. G. Dickson, of the University of
Wisconsin, visited the Caucasian region of U.S.S.R. in
N—December 5, 1934.

168 T. H. HARRISON.

search of hardy cereals. In the mountain region inland
from Batum wild plum trees are abundant. The humid
conditions prevailing there during the summer favour the
development of the Brown Rot fungus to such an extent
that each year most of the fruit is destroyed by it. In
May, 1930, under clumps of plum trees growing on the
foothills, Dr. Dickson collected hundreds of apothecia for
use in the Plant Pathology classes at Madison. He did
not then realise the special significance of his discovery,
because apothecia of the Brown Rot fungus in America
are abundant each year. With other material, the
apothecia were despatched to Madison, Wisconsin, U.S.A.,
but unfortunately the whole consignment was lost in
transit.

It would appear that the apothecia were of either S. laxa
or S. fructigena or both. There is no record of S. fructicola
having been found in Europe or in Asia. Balakhanoff‘®
has recorded the effects of both S. fructigena and S. laxa
on fruit trees on the Black Sea littoral, and it is reasonable
to suppose that these fungi are responsible for the rotting
of plums in the foothills east from Batum. If this be so,
apothecia of one or both of the European Brown Rot
fungi appear to have been as abundant in the Caucasian
region in May, 1930, as those of S. fructicola are in favour-
able seasons in North America and Australia.

THE APOTHECIA OF SN. fructicola (WINT.) REHM.

It has been shown by Wormald,‘*?) Roberts and
Dunegan,?® and the author’ that this species is the
Brown Rot fungus widespread throughout North America,
and is the only one present in New Zealand and Australia.
In each country the apothecia are abundant.

The apothecia of this fungus were first found on mummied
peaches, in May, 1883, by Rau at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A.6) (62) The next occasion was in 1902, when
Norton found them in large numbers on mummied peaches
in Maryland. It is fitting that Norton, who taught
pathologists where to look for the apothecia, should assist
in the preparation of a bulletin entitled “‘ Apothecia of
the Brown Rot Fungus,?® which appeared in 1923.
This incorporated Norton’s experience during twenty
years at College Park, Maryland, and the detailed studies
of Ezekiel and Jehle. By means of sketches and photo-
graphs the development of the apothecia is traced from
the first appearance of the primordia to maturity.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 169
Morphological Studies.

Reade, ‘3?) Matheny,‘?®) Pollock,‘ Jehle,‘**) Bartram,‘°®
Barss,‘°>)) Honey,‘t® Roberts and Dunegan,?® have all
made contributions to our knowledge of the appearance
and morphological details of the apothecia in America.
One of the best photographs of the apothecia is that of
-Honey,“® which is reproduced by Heald.'*) The
apothecia have been recorded arising from mummied
apples, apricots, cherries, peaches, pears and plums.

Shape.—The author collected apothecia in several places
in U.S.A. in 1932, and studied large numbers of preserved
Specimens in various herbaria and teaching collections.
He was impressed by the fact that, in the vast majority
of cases, the apothecia were concave at maturity with a
uniform, thin, smooth margin and a relatively smooth
hymenium. They are fairly represented in Plate VII, Fig. A.
McCubbin‘**) has published a photograph illustrating
the occurrence of this same feature in Canada.
Cunningham’s*®) illustrations and description of the
apothecia, as they occur in New Zealand, photographs by
Davies,‘°*) and an examination of specimens from New
Zealand, all support the view that the typical apothecium
in that country is the same as described above. An
examination of large numbers of fresh apothecia collected
in Australia shows that the shape varies considerably.
The majority are crateriform at maturity although, later,
apothecia may become flattened and even reflexed.
Typical specimens are illustrated in Plate VII, Fig. B.

The author feels that, while exceptions occur, the
crateriform apothecium, with fairly even or smooth
hymenium, is a usual feature of S. fructicola. This type of
apothecium was not present in the limited material of
S. laxa so far studied. Examination of more material of
the latter fungus, however, may show that these features
are not of taxonomic significance.

Monospore isolates obtained from apothecia of S.
fructicola exhibiting in one case a much wrinkled and in
the other a smooth hymenium, collected in September,
1932, in New South Wales, showed no differences in culture.
Such differences in external morphology may, however, be
heritable. Efforts are being made to obtain the necessary
evidence.

Size.—Size of the apothecia of S. fructicola is most
variable. Norton?) stated: ‘‘ The expanded disc is

170 T. H. HARRISON.

from 2 to 15 mm. wide, usually about 5-8 mm.” Reade‘???
gave the diameter of the apothecia as 5-30 mm. Most
of those inspected by the author in U.S.A. were 5-10 mm.
in diameter. Cunningham recorded the size as 1/12th to
3/4ths of an inch in diameter. In Australia, also, the
diameter of the cup of this fungus varies enormously.

In 1932 of twenty-three apothecia collected within a
few square yards under one plum tree at Sackville Reach,
New South Wales, the mean diameter was 6-9 mm. and
the range 1-5-25 mm. In 1934, a favourable season for
development of apothecia, 165 collected in the Kurrajong
district, New South Wales, gave a mean diameter of 8-24
mm., with a range of 2:5-30 mm. So many variables
govern the size of apothecia that further statistical
examination of the figures is undesirable. The variables
include the nature, size, productivity and position of the
pseudosclerotium, apart from the influence of atmospheric
conditions and strain variation. It is clear, therefore, that
size alone of the apothecia can be of little taxonomic
significance.

Colour.—The colour of the apothecia is also variable.
Specimens found in Australia have varied from a whitish
fawn through light and mid-brown to dark brown,
depending on age and on moisture present. Usually a
light brown on the edge of the cup will gradually give place
to a dark brown in the centre. When dry the hymenium
is reddish-brown, while the underside of the cup may-be
whitish.

Stipe-—The length and thickness of the stipe show
considerable variation, depending on the conditions of
production. The author has recorded a maximum stipe
leneth of 37 mm., but one of 48 mm. was found in 1932.
Norton stated: ‘‘ The sinuous stipe is 5-30 mm. long and
from 0:3 to 1-5 mm. thick.”’ Roberts‘?® records a stipe
60 mm. long. The diameter of the stipe varies from the
minimum, usually at a point about midway between the
apothecium and pseudosclerotium, to the maximum as it
enters each of these structures. The thickened base is
particularly noticeable in developing apothecia. The stipe
is usually circular in outline and from 0-5 to 2 mm. in
diameter. The colour varies from the black of the sub-
stratum to the light brown of the apothecium.

Hymenium.—The hymenium consists of asei and para-
physes packed tightly together. This is well illustrated

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. Bur (ae

by Matheny,‘?*) by Roberts and Dunegan,”® and by Norton
gl e®)

Asci.—The above workers have described and figured
the asci, which are cylindrical, clavate, tapering below,
rounded at the ends, somewhat thickened and possessed
of a central pore which usually stains blue with iodine.
They contain eight spores arranged in either one or two
rows, depending on stage of development.

The size of the asci varies considerably, as is shown in
the complete table given by Roberts and Dunegan.‘®
The figures given by the various authors, however, may
not be strictly comparable, because Wormald >) has shown
that the asci enlarge prior to the discharge of ascospores.
The author is convinced that normally the monostichous
casei are less mature than the distichous ones, and hence
the arrangement of spores should be stated. Matheny,‘*
who measured 490 asci from peach apothecia, found the
size 135-190 x6:9-10-5 uw, mostly 1638-9 yu, but he
did not state the nature of the asci measured. Ezekiel
found that fresh monostichous asci had a mean size of
146-28-7 uw, while Dunegan‘**) found the size of similar
asci to be 130-186 x5-7-13-3 uw. Reade, after studying
large quantities of fresh apothecia from plums, peaches
and cherries, wrote in an unpublished thesis as follows :

** In size the asci vary somewhat in different lots of material. The
smallest measured were 125-130 x 7-9 microns; the largest were 190-215
x 8-5-10. A common size for medium asci would, perhaps, be 170 or
180 x 8-10 microns.”’

From his statement that the spores were “ obliquely
uniseriate or subseriate ’’, it is inferred that the asci were
measured in the monostichous condition.

Ascospores.—The ascospores have been figured and
described by Matheny,‘??) Roberts and Dunegan,‘?® by
Norton e¢ al.,‘?® and by the author.“ All are agreed
that the great majority of the spores have rounded ends.
The judgment of Roberts and Dunegan may be taken as
one reached after consideration of all relevant facts.
They wrote:

“The eight monostichous hyaline ascospores found in each ascus
are ellipsoid to ovoid in shape with rounded ends. The monostichous
arrangement becomes irregular just before the spores are discharged.
The spores contain oil droplets, and are non-septate while in the ascus,
but many become two-celled prior to germination.”’

The author has paid special attention to the ends of the
ascospores because of the use of this feature to separate
S. fructigena from S. lawa. Preparations from apothecia

4

172 T. H. HARRISON.

obtained from peaches, plums and apples in Australia,
from peaches in New Zealand, from cherries, plums and
peaches in America, and from the co-type material of
S. fructicola, have been examined. His considered opinion
is that the normal ascospores have rounded ends and are
fairly illustrated in the above-mentioned publications.
Oil-drops are present in most spores, being readily
demonstrated with osmic acid. To the above description,
therefore, he would merely add that the ascospores some-
times assume the distichous arrangement in the ascus.
This, occurring just prior to the expulsion of the spores, is
considered to be an arrangement for distending the ascus,
and to have no taxonomic significance.

Paraphyses.—The paraphyses are hyaline, septate,
filiform, with rounded, slightly swollen ends. They are
mostly unbranched, usually slightly longer than the asci,
and 2-4 » in diameter.

Spore Dispersal.—The ascospores are ejected in clouds
from the apothecia when the atmosphere surrounding these
bodies is disturbed, or has its pressure quickly reduced.
The attention of the author has often been directed to a
clump of apothecia by a cloud of spores caused by
disturbance of the surrounding rubbish. Roberts and
Dunegan‘?® have shown that the spores may be discharged
to a height of 4:3 cm. by forces within the asci. The
author has observed clouds of ascospores being wafted,
like thin smoke, through the air for a height of from 2 to
3 metres. The spores are so light that the initial forces
of expulsion start an upward movement sufficient to enable
them to reach the flowers of stone fruit trees, where infec-
tion may result. <A definite correlation between apothecial
production and the occurrence of blossom blight and twig
wilt was established in several districts of New South Wales
in 1932 and 1934.

Germination.—The method of germination of the
ascospore has been discussed and illustrated by Roberts
and Dunegan,‘?® and by the author.“*) Normally a single
germ tube, which usually remains straight and unbranched
for a considerable distance, is produced from the ascospore.

Subhymenium.—The subhymenial layer consists of loosely
interwoven hyphe similar in essentials to those present in
the stipe. The length and diameter of these cells are
most variable. Most are indented at the septa. The
details are fairly represented by Norton et al.@® and by
Roberts and Dunegan. ®

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. te

DISCUSSION.

A careful review of the above descriptions of the
apothecial stage of the three brown rot fungi will show
that, when normally accepted morphological criteria are
used, it is difficult, if not impossible, to separate the two
last species by a study of the apothecial stage. This led
the author to compare critically some of Wormald’s
material of S. lava with material of S. fructicola, preserved
similarly and for the same period. Careful studies of every
feature to which attention has been given in the above
descriptions showed that these two species could not be
separated by this means alone (see text-figure, Nos. 4 and 5).

This result is not surprising if, as Honey"® suggests,
the work of Durand‘®) tended to show that the apothecia
of the genera Ciboria, Sclerotinia and Stromatinia were
identical in both external and internal morphology.

The author therefore tested the value of detailed studies
of the stipes of S. lawa and of S. fructicola as a means of
separating the apothecia of these two species. It was
considered that if there were significant differences in the
size of the vegetative cells of the two species, as stated by
Ezekiel,“ the cells of the stipes might show similar
differences.

Portions of the stipes of one apothecium of each fungus,
preserved in 90% alcohol for about ten years, were treated
as follows: By easy stages the material was transferred
through grades of alcohol to water, where it remained for
three days; it was then fixed in Farmer’s reagent, and
eventually transferred to wax, and both transverse and
longitudinal sections were prepared and stained.

Microscopic examination showed that in S. fructicola
the cell arrangement was clearly defined in the interior of
the stipe, but in S. laxa the cells were discontinuous
except for the first few layers. Whether or not this was
general for the two species could not be determined because
of the author’s limited material of S. lava. Experiments
with the object of producing, under identical conditions,
apothecia of both these fungi have not yet been successful.

Moreover, detailed studies of stipes of other apothecia
of S. fructicola, collected recently in Australia, show that the
internal structure of the stipe is variable. It is therefore
necessary to await adequate supplies of apothecia of both
fungi grown under identical conditions, before this matter
can be further investigated.

174 T, H. HARRISON.

From the studies made, however, it is clear that the
range in diameter of the hyphe is so great in both species
as to make this feature of doubtful taxonomic significance.

The author considers, however, that because of the very
striking differences between S. lava Ader. & Ruh. and
S. fructicola (Wint.) Rehm in the imperfect stage, it is
necessary to retain these two species distinct. In subse-
quent papers the author will present evidence of field and
laboratory studies made in Europe, America and Australia
in support of this conclusion.

SUMMARY.

1. A comprehensive account is presented of the apothecia
of the three common brown rot fungi: (a) Selerotinia
Jructigena Ader. & Ruh., (b) S. lawa Ader. & Ruh. and (c)
S. fructicola (Wint.) Rehm.

2. Aderhold and Ruhland’s record of S. fructigena is
still the most complete available, but apothecia described
by Westerdijk in 1912 and by Solkina in 1931 are referred
to that species.

3. An additional record of this fungus found at Bologna
in 1919 is presented.

4. The record of S. fructigena from Denmark is discarded.

5. The occurrence of apothecia of a brown rot fungus in
the Caucasus is discussed. |

6. The records of Aderhold and Ruhland (1905) of S. laxa
and of Wormald (1921) of S. cinerea are reviewed as two
excellent descriptions of the same fungus for which the
name S. lawa Ader. & Ruh. is preferred.

7. The occurrence of apothecia of this fungus in England
in 1932 is recorded.

8. Existing records of S. fructicola (Wint.) Rehm are
briefly reviewed, and supplemented by critical observations
made of this fungus in Australia.

9. Apothecia of S. lawa and S. fructicola appear to be
morphologically inseparable, but the material of the former
is too limited for adequate study. Attempts to separate
the apothecia by stipe studies are reported.

10. The striking differences between the two species
in the imperfect stage justify their separation. Evidence
in this connection will be presented in subsequent papers.

Hawkesbury Agricultural College,
Richmond, N.S.W., Australia.

Journal Royal Sociely of N.S.W., Vol. LX VIL, 1934, Plate VII.

Hs

1
= 7 X
> ™
- ‘
_ vas
: a as
i ,
? ae

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 175

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Many of the references in this paper are the same as those in Part I
of this series, ‘®?) hence it is considered unnecessary to repeat the details.

The same reference numbers are used in the two papers. Additional
references are detailed. below.

(65) Barss, H. P.: Brown Rot and Related Diseases of Stone Fruits in
Oregon. Oreg. Agr. Expt. Sta. Circ. 53,18 p. Illus., 1923.

66) Bartram, H. E.: A Study of the Brown Rot Fungus in Northern
Vermont. Phytopath. 6, 71-78, 1916.

67) Brooks, C. & Fisher, D. F.: Brown Rot of Prunes and Cherries in
the Pacific North-west. U.S.D.A. Bull. 368, 10 pp. Illus.,
1916.

8) Cunningham, G. H.: The Significance of Apothecia in the Control
of Brown Rot of Stone Fruits. N.Z. Jour. Agr., 25, pp.
225-230, 1922.

(59) Davies, W. C.: Photography as an Aid to Study of Plants and
Plant Problems. Banks Lecture, 1928. Journ. N.Z.

Inst. Hort., 1, June 1929, pp. 5-14.

'60) Durand, E. J.: The Classification of the Fleshy Pezizineew. Bull.

Torrey Club 27, pp. 463-495, pls. 27-32, 1900.

(61) Hzekiel, W. N. : Some Factors affecting the Production of Apothecia
of Sclerotinia cinerea. Phytopath., 11, No. 12, Dec., 1921.

2) Harrison, T. H.: Brown Rot of Fruits and Associated Diseases of
Deciduous Fruit Trees, I. THis JouRNAL, 67, pp. 132-177,
1933.

(63) Heald, F. D.: Manual of Plant Diseases. New York, 1926.

(64) Jehle, R. A.: The Brown Rot Canker of the Peach. Phytopath.,
3, 105-110. Illus. 1913.

(65) McCubbin, W. A.: Fruit Tree Diseases of Southern Ontario.
Dept. Agr. Canada Bull. 24, 2nd Ser., p. 51, 1915.

66) Weber, Anna: in Fidsskr. for Planteaul, 32, 2, pp. 219-318, 1926.

(67) Woronin, M.: Ueber die Sclerotienkrankheit der Vaccinien-
Baeren, ete. Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersburg, Ser. 7
to 36, No. 6, 1888.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.

Fig. A.—Apothecia of S. fructicola from a mummied plum, showing
uniform margin and smooth hymenium. Natural size.
Photograph supplied by H. P. Barss, Corvallis, Oregon,
U.S.A.

Fig. B.—Apothecia of S. fructicola from mummied peach, Colo,
N.S.W., Sept., 1934. Natural size.

Fig. C.—Reproduction of print of apothecia of S. fructigena recorded
by Solkina."?) Three apothecia arise from portion of a
mummified apple. x3.

Fig. D.—Four of the type apothecia of S. fructigena. Note the
relatively small size of these, especially of those on the left.
Photographed in alcohol, in London, 1931. 2-4.

Fig. E.—Apothecia of S. fructigena obtained by the author from
Bologna, Italy, in 1931. Apothecia found on mummied
apple, May, 1919. Photographed in alcohol, Richmond,
INGS.W.., 1934. «2-5:

O—December 5, 1934.

176 T. H. HARRISON.

Fig. F.—Photomicrograph of asci and spores of S. fructigena from
Bologna. Note that one ascus shows the monostichous,
the other the distichous arrangement. The pointed nature
of the spores is evident. X900.

Fig. G.—Apothecia of S. lava Ader. & Ruh. found at Slough, England,
May, 1932. Note puckered hymenial surface of apothecia
and tendency for apothecia to recurve and crack at edges.
Portions of thin pseudosclerotium also shown. Photographed
in alcohol, Richmond, N.S.W., 1933. x2.

WOOD-OIL OF THE “CALLITRIS” PINES. 177

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE
WOOD-OIL OF THE “‘ CALLITRIS ” PINES.

Part I1.—GUAIOL.

By V. M. TRIKOJUS, B.Sc., D.Phil.,
and D. E. WHITE, MSc.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 19384.)

Guaiol, the characteristic crystalline sesquiterpene alcohol
from the wood-oil of the Callitris pines, was first isolated
from this source in 1910 by Baker and Smith (“‘ A Research
on the Pines of Australia ’’, Sydney, 1910, pp. 63, 118).
It had previously been obtained from Guaiacum wood-oil
(Schimmel’s Report, 1892, ii, 42), which has served as the
chief source for constitutional studies by Semmler, and
more recently by Ruzicka and their co-workers.

Guaiol appears to be a bicyclic tertiary alcohol, C,,H,,O,
with one ethylenic linkage or a labile third ring. Since
it yields on dehydrogenation a member of the blue hydro-
carbon series, the azulenes, rather than the naphthalene
derivatives cadalene or eudalene, progress upon its
constitution has been slow, and very little insight has been
obtained into its elusive structure.

The present investigation was undertaken in connection
with the study of the constituents of the wood-oil of the
anti-termitic Callitris genus, as outlined in Part I (THIS
JOURNAL, 1932, 66, 284) and is chiefly concerned with
attempts to degrade the molecule to identifiable fragments
by oxidation.

Semmler and Mayer (Ber., 1912, 45, 1391) obtained a
substance C,,H..0, by permanganate oxidation of guaiol,
and this was later shown to be a dihydroxy ether, m.p.
218°, C,;H,,O3, by Ruzicka and Haagen-Smit (Helv.
Chim. Acta, 1931, 14, 1131), who were able to isolate it also

178 Vv. M. TRIKOJUS AND D. E. WHITE. .

from the products of ozonolysis of guaiol. By exhaustive
extraction of the manganese dioxide sludge with alcohol
we have almost doubled the yield of this substance (4 g.
from 10 g.) and have isolated from the residual oil (about
1 g. from 10 g. guaiol) a product, m.p. 95-97°, for which
analyses and molecular weight determinations suggest a
formula C,,;H.,0;. This substance distils unchanged at
0-5 mm., and is stable, like the dihydroxy ether C,;H.,O,,
towards excess permanganate in acetone; it does not
appear, therefore, to be a secondary oxidation product via
the latter substance. The nature of the oxygen atoms is
as yet undetermined. A small quantity of a sodium
carbonate-soluble product (about 0-8 g. from 30 g. guaiol)
was also obtained in the above oxidation and its acid
character proved by esterification with ethyl alcohol—
sulphuric acid to a fragrant ester, which distilled at about
160° C. at 0-7 mm., but in insufficient quantity for
fractionation. Such an acid by-product was obtained in
only one oxidation, corresponding experiments yielding
only neutral substances.

Criegee’s elegant method of oxidation of glycols with
lead tetracetate (Ber., 1931, 64, 260), was employed upon
the dihydroxy ether, but we were unable to isolate ketonic
products, which are characteristic of the oxidation (by
this method) of substances containing vicinal hydroxyl
groups.

The presence of an ethylenic linkage or labile third ring
is further shown by the ease of oxidation of guaiol with
percamphoric acid, when a quantitative yield of a substance,
C,;H,,O., is obtained. This compound appears to be
capable of partial oxidative degradation and is being
further studied. Dehydration with anhydrous potassium
bisulphate or formic acid gave only small yields of volatile
material.

In studying the action of bromine (1 mol.) on guaiol
dissolved in ice-cold cyclohexane or chloroform, the
purple solution, which already contained much hydrogen
bromide, was decomposed with ice, and a volatile oil, of
narrow boiling range, was isolated in about 40% yield.
Analytical values indicate the presence of an unsaturated
hydrocarbon, probably C,;H., (II), contaminated by a
proportion of an ether, C,;H,,O0 (III). Repeated frac-
tionation in high vacuum, distillation over sodium and
treatment with zine dust failed to remove oxygen com-

WOOD-OIL OF THE “‘CALLITRIS” PINES. 179

pletely. The decomposition may be conceived to have
occurred in the following manner (I represents guaiol):

( —OH —OH

Brz J H,O cc~
OH aa Ci3H25 | ae aaa C,3H2s< eee —- Ci3H 2, aes
LC—Br l bon
C,3Ho; r IIL
: ( —O OH
I Eee | H,O i
ae He — ae — C,3;Ho, ib
C—Br C—OH

Reduction of the product with platinum oxide—hydrogen
yielded a colourless volatile oil which again could not be
separated, and appeared to consist of substances of
formule C,;H,, and C,;H,,O.

Guaiene, the product of dehydration of guaiol (Wallach,
Annalen, 1894, 279, 395; Gadamer and Amenomiya,
Arch. Pharm., 1903, 241, 22; Gandurin, Ber., 1908, 417,
4359; Ruzicka, Pontalti and Balas, Helv. Chim. Acta,
1923, 6, 862), was prepared and submitted to oxidation in
benzene-acetic acid solution, by Kuhn’s method with
deci-normal chromic acid. Guaiene is, however, stable
even on boiling under these conditions. Oxidation of
dihydroguaiene (Gandurin, loc. cit.), with permanganate
in acetone, also failed to yield characterisable material.
The investigation is being continued.

EXPERIMENTAL.
Guaiol.

Isolation of Guaiol.—Callitris species, such as those from
North Australia, are rich in guaiol showing a relative
diminution in the content of the more volatile ‘“ callitrol ”’
(l-citronellic acid; see Part I), whereas in the more
temperate zones the ratio is reversed. Accordingly
C. intratropica, from the neighbourhood of Darwin, was
used in this work. Shavings of the wood were steam-
distilled for about twenty hours, as in the following
example :

Shavings as = a eye .. 24-4 kg,
Yield of oil after 94 hours oe eripeooU:
Yield of oil after 17 hours se -« 490 ¢,
Alkali-soluble bi ae ae a 28 g.
Crude guaiol (filtered from oil) .. ot Og.
Guaiol, m.p. 92-93° .. 2 ei Tite aro areas

fale. |) 29-49 —99-1°

180 Vv. M. TRIKOJUS AND D. E. WHITE.

By distillation of the residual oil in high vacuum, and
recovery from the mother liquors, the yield of pure material
was increased to about 100 g., corresponding to 0:41%.

Oxidation with Permanganate in Acetone (Cf. Semmler
and Mayer; Ruzicka and Haagen-Smit, loc. cit.).—Guaiol
(10 g.), dissolved in acetone (50 ml.) and water (10 ml.)
was gradually treated with powdered potassium
permanganate (15 g.), the temperature being controlled
with a stream of water. Crude dihydroxyether (4:5 g.)
was obtained by exhaustive extraction of the manganese
dioxide sludge with absolute ethyl alcohol, and yielded
4 g. of pure material of m.p. 218°. The residual oil from
three such experiments was distilled at 0-5 mm.

Fraction 1. B.p. 100-105°—1:°5 g.
Fraction 2. B.p. 155-165°—7 g.
Fraction 3. Residual.

On the addition of dry ether to fraction 2 the mass
solidified, and 4-7 g.of crystals, m.p. 82—83°, were obtained.
On recrystallisation several times from benzene, and
finally from ether, this substance was obtained as colourless
hair-like needles, m.p. 95—-97°, being soluble in acetone and
alcohol, and sparingly soluble in ether, benzene and
petroleum ether. The m.p. is depressed somewhat on
keeping, probably owing to slight decomposition, but the
substance is easily repurified from benzene. (Found :
C, 68-3, 68-4; H, 10-8, 10-8. Mol. wt. (benzene) :
225, 225. C,,H,,0, requires: C, 68-4, H, 10-5%. M.w.,
228.) It may be recovered unchanged from a solution in
acetone containing potassium permanganate.

In another experiment the residual oil (from 5 g. guaiol)
was separated, without distillation, to give about 0-5 g.
unchanged guaiol and 0-5 g. of a product (m.p. 90-92°)
which, on repeated crystallisation, proved to be identical
with the substance C,,;H,,0, isolated above.

In one experiment the residual oil (from 30 g. guaiol), '
after removal of the dihydroxy ether, was dissolved in
ether and extracted with dilute aqueous sodium hydroxide.
Of 1-3 g., obtained after acidification, 0-8 g. was soluble
in aqueous sodium carbonate, and was esterified by heating
with ethyl alcohol-sulphuric acid and distilled. B.p.
ce. 160°/0-7 mm.; 0°3 g.

Oxidation of Dihydroxy Ether.—Lead tetracetate was
prepared, according to the method of Dimroth (Ber.,
1920, 53, 484). Dihydroxy ether (7-2 g.) was suspended
in a solution of lead tetracetate (12-4 g.) in acetic acid

WOOD-OIL OF THE “‘CALLITRIS” PINES. 181

(500 ml.), and shaken until solution was complete (about
twenty-four hours). Water and ether were then added,
and the extract washed free from acetic acid, dried, and
evaporated. Some dihydroxy ether was recovered and
about 50% of the residue distilled at 108—-180° (0-5-2 mm.),
but no single product cauld be isolated.

Oxidation with Percamphoric Acid.—A solution of guaiol
(12-4 g.), in the minimum amount of dry ether was added
to a solution of percamphoric acid (11-56 g.; Milas and
McAlevy, J.A.C.8., 1933, 55, 349), in dry ether (340 ml.)
and allowed to stand for seven days at room temperature.
After washing with aqueous sodium carbonate the solution
was evaporated, and the residue distilled at 2-1 mm.
fepe diao-la6:; 11 gs. Found: ©, 75-2, H, 10:9.
@2H5,0,. requires; C, 75:5; H, 10-9%. [o]#/ (in
ethyl alcohol), —33-3°. The product is an extremely
viscous oil which could not be induced to crystallise.
_ Attempted dehydration with potassium bisulphate or
anhydrous formic acid led mostly to resinous products.
It darkens and appears to decompose on standing, since
after a few weeks at room temperature it boils over a
range of about 20°.

Bromination.—The addition of bromine gave better
results in cyclohexane solution than in chloroform. Dry
bromine (10-9 g., 1 mol.) in cyclohexane (100 ml.) was
added gradually to guaiol (purified from cyclohexane,
15 g.) in cyclohexane (500 ml.), cooled in ar. ice-and-salt
mixture and in an atmosphere of dry hydrogen. The
solution first turned red, and after standing about two
hours became purple. It was then decomposed with ice,
_ the cyclohexane layer neutralised by shaking with dilute
aqueous potassium hydroxide and steam-distilled, the
cyclohexane being evaporated from the separated and dried
distillate. Yield: 7 g. of a mobile oil, b.p. 84-94°/0°3
mm. and 113-120°/2-3 mm. After being treated, in
petroleum ether solution, with phosphoric acid (sp. gr.
1-5) it distilled almost entirely at 92-93°/0-3 mm. as a
colourless mobile oil (green to blue if rubber stoppers used),
and was free from halogen. It was redistilled at 13-5 mm.,
and divided into two fractions: (1) b.p. 135-1387°; (2)
b.p. 137-138°. Fraction (1) was distilled twice over
sodium (b.p. 133-135°/14 mm.) and analysed. (Found:
C, 86-2; H,11-6%.) Heating with zinc dust at 20 mm.,
with a bath temperature of 180°, made little difference
to the analytical figures. (Found: C, 86-3, 86-2; H,

182 Vv. M. TRIKOJUS AND D. E. WHITE.

11-5, 11-3%.) Fraction (2) was twice distilled in high
vacuum and analysed. (Found: C, 87:0; H, 11:6.
C,5;H., requires: C, 88:2; H, 11:7. C,;H,,O requires :
C, 82-0; H, 10-9%.) Reduction of a purified product
(6-2 g.), obtained from a bromination in chloroform solution
with platinum oxide—hydrogen, until absorption was
complete, yielded a product, b.p. 97-98°/0-8 mm., and
containing C, 83-5, 83-2; _H, 12-0, 12-0%. After
distillation over sodium the following values were obtained :
C, 83:0; H, 12-1. C,.H., requires: @; s/-47 i oon
C.-H,,O requires: ©, 31-2; Hiatl 7

Guaiene.

The dehydration method of Ruzicka, Pontalti and Balas
(loc. cit.) was found to give the best yield of guaiene, which
had b.p. 100-102°/1-2 mm. and n,;. 1-4965.

Oxidation of Guaiene with Chromic Acid.—Guaiene (5 g.),
dissolved in benzene (50 ml.) and acetic acid (50 mil.),
was treated with deci-normal chromic acid (417 ml.,
equivalent to 5 atoms of oxygen), over a period of two
hours, with vigorous stirring. The mixture was then
refluxed for eight hours and separated with the aid of ether,
washed free from acid, and distilled.

Fraction 1. B.p. 104-105°/1-9 mm.
Fraction 2. B.p. 128-138°/1-4 mm.; 0:3 g.

Practically the whole material was in fraction 1, and
consisted of unchanged guaiene, as indicated by its refractive
index. Fraction 2 failed to give characterisable derivatives.

Reduction of Guaiene.—Guaiene (5 g.) was dissolved in
ethyl acetate and reduced with platinum oxide—hydrogen
until two atoms had been taken up, and then distilled. ©
Bop. 102-2°/1 mm, ; n5.., 174836,

Oxidation of Dihydroguaiene.—The purified product
from the previous experiment (3 g.), dissolved in acetone
(15 ml.) and water (3 ml.), was gradually treated with
powdered potassium permanganate (4:5 g.) at room
temperature with vigorous agitation. After filtration,
and washing of the precipitated manganese dioxide with
ethyl alcohol, the combined extracts were distilled in
steam and the residue extracted with ether. The latter
extract yielded a small quantity of crystals, m.p. 135-140°,
together with 1:5 g. of an uncharacterisable oil. The
steam distillate gave an ether extract, which contained
only a very small quantity of residue.

WOOD-OIL OF THE “‘CALLITRIS” PINES. 183

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

We are indebted to the Executive of the Division of
Forest Products of the Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research for facilitating the supply of C. intratropica,
and to Mr. A. J. C. Hall, B.Sc., for some assistance in this
work. One of us (D.E.W.) held a Science Research
Scholarship whilst engaged in portion of the investigation,
and desires to express his gratitude to the Senate of the
University.

Department of Medicine,

Department of Organic Chemistry,
University of Sydney.

P—December 5, 1934.

184 ELINOR 8. HUNT.

A SUMMARY OF CHANGES NOTED IN THE
ALLANTOIC MEMBRANE OF THE CHICK
IN 500 EXPERIMENTS.*

By ELINoR 8. HUNT, M.B., Ch.M.,
Department of Cancer Research, University of Sydney.
Communicated by Prorressor O. U. VONWILLER.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1984.)

INTRODUCTION.

This work was commenced in order to extend Miss
Goulston’s work dealing with the action of radium on the
allantoic membrane of the chick.t Miss Goulston had
worked chiefly with exposures of a few hours’ duration,
and it was decided to include an investigation of the effect
of much longer exposures, for example one, two, three or
four days, in the hope that something of importance might
be found bearing on the embedding of radium needles or
radon seeds in the cancers of human patients for similar
periods.

RADIUM EXPERIMENTS.
Technique.

It was decided on Dr. Moppett’s advice to expose the
prepared egg face downwards on the radium needle whilst
provision was made for exposing a control egg in the
same manner with the aid of a blank platinum case.
Specimens were prepared, with slight variations according
to the technique originated by Moppett,? and followed by
Goulston. A fertile egg was selected at the eighth or
ninth day of incubation, and a “ window ’’ 1 cm. square
was marked out accurately, a position a little to one side
of the embryo as seen by transillumination being chosen.

* This work was carried out under the control of the Cancer Research
Committee of the University of Sydney and with the aid of the Cancer
Research and Treatment Fund.

1 Goulston, D. L.: Med. Journ. Aust., 1931, Mar. 21, 335, and July 18,
74.

2 Moppett, W.: Proc. Roy. Soc., 1929, B 105, 402.

ALLANTOIC MEMBRANE OF THE CHICK. 185

After sterilisation of the region with 70% alcohol, the
‘“ window ” was raised with a knife which had been dipped
in alcohol and flamed. This operation exposed the intact
shell membrane which overlies the living allantoic
membrane. Irradiation was carried out in a lead box
with walls 5 ems. thick in all directions, which was built
up inside an incubator. Four shallow recesses were
provided, which were covered with a thin layer of cotton
wool and held two 3-milligramme radium needles (with
0-5 mm. platinum screenage) and two blank platinum
cases respectively.

The prepared eggs were then placed with the window in
contact with the needle (or case) and were left untouched
for periods up to four days. The window was then sealed
and the egg incubated a further three days, after which
the specimen was opened for inspection, which was followed
in most cases by a confirmatory microscope examination.

Radiation Results.

Satisfactory reactions occurred on the _ irradiated
membrane, hypertrophy to atrophy depending on the
length of exposure. The size and shape of the reactions
showed considerable variation, and hypertrophic changes
were observed either in a central position or, more
commonly, near the periphery of the window, whilst atrophy
was always central. The results are tabulated below.

TABLE I.—Radiation Results.
(Window downwards on radium needle in lead box.)

Number Hyper-

Exposure. of Number Normal. trophic Atrophic

Eggs. Surviving. Reaction. | Reaction.
2 hours .. 2 i 1 — —
G50 Gas 6 iL — 1 —
4 ” 2 2 — 2, =
ae 2 0 ae a =
Total ae ave 12 4 aL 3 —
1 day 2 2 — 1 1
2 days 2 1 — — 1
Bis, 9 6 — 3 3
4 ” 4 2 —_ —. 9
6 5, 2 0 aes us ae

|
a
sJ

Total ae ait 19 11

186 ELINOR 8. HUNT.

Control Results.
Unfortunately from the start the controls also reacted,
though to a smaller degree, many of the specimens showing
only a slight peripheral hyperplasia. See Table IT.

TABLE II.—Conirol Results.
(Window downwards on blank case in lead box.)

Number Hyper-

Exposure. fe) Number Normal. trophic Atrophic

Eggs. Surviving. Reaction. | Reaction.
2 hours 2 2 2, — —
SY 55 7 3 3 ber ce
ee Uy 2 0 es en, Ein
5 ss 4 1 — 1 —
6 3 1 1 — il pass
Total As ie 16 G 5 2 —
1 day 4 3 2 1 =
2 days 4 2, — 2 —
23-43, 9 3 1 2 —
AD ges 2 2 — 2 —
6/5, 2 1 — 1 —
Total its Le 21 11 3 8 —

|
Discussion.

A pronounced difference will be observed between the
results in Tables I and II. In the case of the short
exposures the controls are mainly normal and the irradiated
specimens mainly hypertrophic, but numbers are
unfortunately scarcely adequate, partly owing to the
accidental loss of some records. In the case of the long
exposures the control reactions are only hypertrophic,
and 27% of the specimens are normal, whilst in the
irradiated series all specimens show reactions, and these
are mainly of the more intense atrophic type. I therefore
consider there is definite evidence that the radium may
produce effects in the case of long exposures. As some of
the controls react I consider that the reaction is not entirely
due to radium, but that some unknown factors associated
with exposure contribute to the production of a reaction.

FURTHER INVESTIGATION OF CONTROLS.

It was considered advisable to attempt to obtain radium
results under conditions in which controls do not react,

ALLANTOIC MEMBRANE OF THE CHICK. 187

and to this end the next part of this paper is concerned
with controls.

In this work eggs were exposed in different positions and
under different conditions in the stock ineubator, and, to
commence with, specimens were placed face up with the
window fully exposed to the air, as in Miss Goulston’s
work. In the first instance long exposures were given,
with the following results :

TABLE III.—Results with Long Exposures.

(Window upwards in stock incubator.)

Number Hyper- }

Exposure. of Number Normal. trophic Atrophic

Eggs. Surviving. Reaction. | Reaction.
1 day 18 7 — 1 6
2 days 15 3 — — 3
ae 12 1 — il —
” 8 0 — eat oa
Total 53 11 — 2 9

As may be seen from the above table, there was a very
heavy mortality, and all the survivors showed reactions
which were mainly of the atrophic type. Accordingly a
thorough investigation of the effect of short exposures
was commenced, continuing with the face up position.
The results are shown in Table IV.

TABLE IV.—Results with Short Exposures.

Number Hyper-

Exposure. of Number Normal. trophic Atrophic

Eggs. Surviving. Reaction. | Reaction.
0 hour 48 18 18 — —
a 40 16 14 2 —
2 hours 71 26 14 1 —
ie 107 50 8 42 —
ae BRR 8 2 5 ik
Total ae AG 299 118 56 61 1

No reactions were obtained when the window was cut
in the egg and closed immediately, indicating that
mechanical injury of the operation had little part in

188 ELINOR 8S. HUNT.

causing the reactions. The proportions reacting were
12%, 46%, 84% and 75% for one, two, three and four
hours respectively, and only one atrophic reaction was
observed. |

Aseptic Technique.

Compared with Table II, Tables III and IV show a large
number of deaths and a high proportion of reactions among
the survivors, and this suggested that an infective process
might be facilitated by the free exposure to the air of the
stock incubator. An aseptic technique was therefore
tried, following a method used by Goulston and Mottram.?
The incubated egg was “ sterilised ’’ by scrubbing with
warm water and soap and swabbing with warm 70% alcohol.
The window was then cut in a sterile enclosure, and exposure
was carried out under a sterile jar with adequate provision
for respiration. Since short exposures may show a high
percentage of blanks, it was decided to test the aseptic
technique in a rigorous manner by exposing for four days.
In order to avoid any further manipulation the specimens
were opened and examined at the end of this period. In
the course of this work slight modifications were made in an
attempt to secure improved results, but without success.
The data obtained are grouped together in Table V below.

TABLE V.—Results of Exposure wnder “* Aseptic’’ Conditions.

Number Hyper- :
Exposure. of Number Normal. trophic Atrophic
Eggs. Surviving. Reaction. | Reaction.
4 days .. #, “i 32 17 — 8 9

On comparing Table V with Table III it will be seen that
results are of the same order, all specimens reacting. This
is in accord with a recent observation by Duthie* to the
effect that an aseptic technique makes no difference.
Even if it is difficult or impossible to secure complete
asepsis in the presence of living hen eggs, the precautions
described should have caused an appreciable diminution
in the number of reactions, particularly if one assumes that
the causal agent is an organism present in the air of the

3 Goulston, D. L. and Mottram, J. C.: Brit. Journ. Exp. Path.,
1932, 13, 175.
‘Duthie, E. 8.: Brit. Journ. Radiol., 1934, 7, 238.

ALLANTOIC MEMBRANE OF THE CHICK. 189

incubator and presumably falling downwards after the
disturbance caused by closing a door.

My suggestion that an infective agent is not involved is
supported by negative attempts to culture bacteria from
pieces of reacting membrane. As Goulston and Mottram
mentioned moulds, I attempted in collaboration with
Dr. Moppett to obtain cultures, but without success. We
also failed to find any microscope evidence of moulds in
the specimens examined, although special staining methods
were employed.

Effect of Sheltering the Windows.

Since the controls in Table II showed much less
abnormality than those exposed freely to the air of the
incubator, it was decided to carry out further experiments
with the window face down on cotton wool; the results
are shown in Table VI.

TABLE VI.—Results of Exposure with Window Face Down on Cotton Wool.

Number Hyper-

Exposure. e) Number Normal. trophic Atrophic

Eggs. Surviving. Reaction. | Reaction.
1 day il 1 — —
2 days 12 3 1 2, —
5 ae 14 6 i 5 —
ay A> 8 0 ais sees me
Total At, ae 38 10 3 i —

The mortality was high, but a sufficient number survived
to confirm the suggestion that partial sheltering of the
window caused a decrease in reaction incidence, whilst the
abnormal specimens were recorded only as slight hyper-
trophies.

In the absence of any positive evidence for infection
it was thought that the above procedure must inhibit
‘abnormal loss of fluid or absorption of irritating substances
at the window, and these factors were postulated as the
cause of reactions in controls.

X-RAY EXPERIMENTS.

The reactions from short exposures recorded in Table IV
have a bearing on Moppett’s (loc. cit.) X-ray work,

190 ELINOR S. HUNT.

particularly as adequate numbers were treated to secure a
reliable estimate.

At this stage 490 experiments had been completed and,
on Dr. Moppett’s invitation, ten exposures were made to
homogeneous X-radiation of wave-length 0-5 A. Two
windows were cut side by side, one to serve as a control,
and the specimen was placed sideways in a small accessory
incubator on the X-ray spectrometer. An exposure of
one hour was employed, so that there would be little chance
of reaction in the control window. Unfortunately, all
specimens died, possibly because this work was carried out
in the middle of winter, when vitality appears to be low.
In one, however, the structures were sufficiently recognisable
to show a difference between the control and irradiated
windows.

The sideways position employed by Moppett should be
intermediate between the face-down and face-up positions
with regard to control reaction, so that results should be
more favourable than those in Table IV. Even in these
experiments the two hours’ exposure showed 54%
unchanged, and the remainder hypertrophic, whilst Moppett
claimed 58 out of 60 atrophic reactions for a two hours’
exposure to the radiation employed in the above attempt.
I do not think that the present experiments justify any
conclusion with regard to Moppett’s work, except to
indicate that factors associated with exposure to the air
may aid in producing the reaction, but not nearly to the
same extent as in the case of the radium exposures lasting
for one or more days.

CONCLUSIONS.

Reaction to Irradiation.

(1) It has been shown that rays from a 3-milligramme
radium needle produce a definite effect in the chorio-
allantoic membrane when exposure is made through a
window for one or more days.

(2) The result is considered to be partly due to injury
associated with exposure which activates the tissues to the
feeble y-rays.

(3) Although indications of effect were obtained with
short exposures, Miss Goulston’s work cannot be supported,
since she used the unfavourable face-up position, and the
peripheral reaction she attributed to scattered radiation
has been observed frequently in controls.

ALLANTOIC MEMBRANE OF THE CHICK. 191

Reaction in Controls.

(1) The abnormalities observed appear to be due to
abnormal drying or some other factor associated with free
exposure to the air, since reactions increased rapidly in
frequency and intensity with exposure period.

(2) There is no evidence of an infective origin, and the
mechanical injury of removing the shell appears to have
no direct association.

(3) When exposure is made face down on cotton wool
the reaction-free time is increased about tenfold, and this
should form the basis of a satisfactory irradiation technique.

I wish to thank Dr. W. Moppett for help in the arrange-
ment of this paper.

Q—December 5, 1934.

192 G. HARKER.

NOTE ON THE DETERMINATION OF TRACES OF
PRUSSIC ACID IN TISSUES.*

By G. HARKER, D.Sc.
(With one text-figure.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1924.)

During the progress of some work being carried out
under the direction of the Cancer Research Committee of
the University of Sydney it became necessary to find a
method for the estimation of very small quantities of
prussic acid in animal tissues. Through the kindness of
Mr. H. Finnemore, Lecturer in Pharmacy, a reference was
obtained to the work of L. Chelle! on this subject. The
method devised by this author appears highly suitable for
the estimation of minute quantities of prussic acid, and
was used by him for determining this substance in the
blood and organs of animals poisoned by administration of
cyanide. Chelle also showed that after death the cyanide
is gradually converted to thiocyanate. This latter can
be readily oxidised in presence of acid to prussic acid and
estimated by an extension of his method.

The usual means of estimating prussic acid in tissues is
to macerate with water, render faintly acid and distil.
Chelle points out that for minute quantities the method is
unsuitable, because the prussic acid does not all come over
in the first portion of the distillate, and the consequent
dilution is unfavourable in the succeeding estimation. His
method is first to distil and then afterwards concentrate
the prussic acid in the distillate by removing it with a
sufficiently large current of air, absorbing in a small volume
of N/10 caustic potash solution. The procedure adopted
by him was as follows: |

The organ to be examined was shredded with scissors,
40 grammes placed in a flask with 75 ml. of water and 5 ml.

* This work was carried out under the control of the Cancer Research
Committee of the University of Sydney and with the aid of the Cancer
Research and Treatment Fund.

iL. Chelle: Comptes rendus, 1919, 169, 726, 852 and 973.

DETERMINATION OF PRUSSIC ACID IN TISSUES. 193

of phosphoric acid and distilled, 50 ml. of distillate being
collected. The distillate was placed in a flask and a rapid
current of air (20-25 litres per hour) drawn through it for
three hours. The prussic acid carried over was absorbed in
1 ml. of N/10 caustic potash placed in a special bubbling
apparatus and determined either by the formation of
prussian blue or by the ammoniacal silver iodide reagent.
The prussian blue test was stated to be capable of
determining 0-01 mg. prussic acid in the solution tested,
and the ammoniacal silver iodide 0-001 mg. For the
latter test the reagent is prepared by taking 10 ml. N/1,000
silver nitrate solution, adding 2 ml. concentrated ammonia
solution and five drops of 10% potassium iodide and
diluting to 100 ml. with distilled water. The test sample
is placed in a test tube and the reagent added until a
permanent turbidity is obtained. Comparisons are made
with known quantities of cyanide in solution treated
similarly. 1 ml. of the reagent corresponds to 0:0054 mg.
prussic acid.

Before the work referred to at the beginning of this
communication was entered on, Chelle’s method was
subjected to rigorous examination. This revealed that the
method underestimates the prussic acid and that in using
it certain safeguards must be taken and allowances made.
A modified and more direct method is also suggested
whereby higher yields can be obtained.

In testing Chelle’s method cyanide solutions of known
Strength were first estimated by the prussian blue and
ammoniacal silver iodide tests described in the papers
quoted above, and found to give the results claimed.
The ammoniacal silver iodide is a particularly delicate
means of estimating small quantities of prussic acid.
Minute quantities of cyanide in solution were then taken,
the solutions slightly acidified, the prussic acid removed
in a current of air and absorbed in 1 ml. of N/10 caustic
potash. Here at first the results were low and irregular,
but it was found that, if the air is first freed from carbonic
acid before passing for two hours through the test solution,
over 90% of the prussic acid present in the test solution
(0-064 mg.) was absorbed and could be estimated in the
1 ml. of liquid in the absorption vessel. With 0-:0016 mg.
the yields were over 80%. That the presence of carbonic
acid has a detrimental effect was shown by bubbling
ordinary air for two hours through 1 ml. N/10 caustic
potash containing cyanide, when a distinct loss of cyanide

194 G. HARKER.

was noticed. This loss does not take place if the air is first
freed from carbonic acid, and is doubtless due to the
displacement of prussic acid in the absorption vessel by
carbonic acid. Small known quantities of cyanide
(0-01 mg. to 0-1 mg.) were next added to animal tissues
which had been ground with sand and water, and the
mixture acidified and distilled, an oil bath being used to
avoid local heating. Here considerable losses were noted
of which Chelle seems to have been unaware. Cyanide
solutions without animal tissue were treated similarly,
but the results were practically identical. Slightly higher
yields were obtained by reducing the proportion of
phosphoric acid used by Chelle to one-tenth, and this
reduced quantity was employed in all succeeding work.
Very weak aqueous solutions of prussic acid on distillation
showed similar losses. In these distillation tests approxi-
mately 9 ml. of liquid with or without tissues were contained
in a 50 ml. flask and distilled at an oil bath temperature of
113-115° C., and 6 ml. of distillate were collected. If
the distillation was carried further so as to give 7 ml.,
the last ml. was found to be nearly free from prussic acid,
so that the loss was not due to the substance being left
in the flask. Under the conditions described and for the
quantities of cyanide mentioned, the yields of prussic acid
found were all between 50% and 60%. By taking 55%
as the average figure, an allowance could safely be made
which would leave but a small margin of error. The loss
is doubtless due to hydrolysis of the prussic acid, and this
explains why the yields were approximately the same
with varying quantities of cyanide. It follows from these ©
results that Chelle’s analytical figures for the animal
tissues examined by him are all definitely low.

Since there is considerable loss of prussic acid on distilla-
tion, it seemed worth while to carry out a few tests to
determine whether this substance could be estimated
directly from the tissue by means of an air current. The
tissue was ground with sand and water as before, known
quantities of cyanide were added, and slightly acidified,
and air was drawn through for three hours.at the rate
above stated, the prussic acid being absorbed in 1 ml.
N/10 caustic potash. The organic material frothed badly,
but this was overcome, on the suggestion of Prof. Priestley,
by the addition of a drop of capryl alcohol. To minimise
the risk of any liquid carrying over, a vessel was constructed

DETERMINATION OF PRUSSIC ACID IN TISSUES. 195

like a large test-tube with a bulb blown in the middle.
The following are the results actually obtained :

Merms. Prussic Acid
Present. Percentage Yield.

These results are shown graphically below. As might
have been expected, the prussic acid was not removed by
the air current so easily from the organic material as
from acidified cyanide solutions. The only objection to
the method is that the caustic potash in the absorption
vessel tends occasionally to become a little turbid, which
renders the estimation with the ammoniacal silver iodide
less definite. Otherwise it has the advantage for minute
quantities that the prussic acid is concentrated in a small
volume at one operation, and for the quantities taken,
except the lowest, the yields were higher than by Chelle’s

Graph showing percentage yield of prussic acid obtained direct
by the air current method from a tissue mixture with known
amounts of added cyanide.

100
80
60

40

Percentage yield.

20

2 4 6 8 10 12X0.008MQsS.

Milligrams prussic acid in tissue mixture.

196 G. HARKER.

original method involving distillation. It is quite likely
that the yields would be improved by drawing the air
through for a longer period.

SUMMARY.

Chelle’s method for the determination of minute amounts —
of prussic acid in tissues has been tested by adding known
quantities of cyanide to different lots of tumour tissue of
about three grams each. The method involves the
distillation of the prussic acid and its subsequent concentra-
tion in a small volume of potash solution, by removing it
from the distillate with a current of air. Owing to
destruction of nearly half the prussic acid in the preliminary
distillation process—a destruction which takes place also
in the absence of tissue—the results were distinctly low.
The percentage loss, however, is fairly constant, and an
allowance can be made for it, leaving but a small margin of
error. The direct removal of the prussic acid from the
tissue by a current of air was tested and found to give
higher yields except when less than 0:01 mg. prussic acid
was present.

MICRODETERMINATION OF PICROLONIC ACID. 197

THE VOLUMETRIC MICRODETERMINATION OF
PICROLONIC ACID IN ORGANIC PICRO-
LONATES WITH METHYLENE BLUE.

By ADOLPH BOLLIGER, Ph.D.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1934.)

Recently picrolonic acid has been used extensively for
the purposes of isolation and identification of organic
bases, particularly in the field of biochemistry. Analytically,
however, these picrolonates have so far been of little
value, more particularly in view of the fact that the
elementary composition of picrolonic acid is similar to that
of many biologically important bases. For this reason
Zimmermann and Cuthbertson (Zischr. f. physiol. Chem.,
1932, 205, 38) prepared a bromopicrolonic acid in the salts
of which the bromine content could be determined. This
acid, however, is not easily available, and in any case a
microchemical bromine determination is necessary.
Schiedewitz (Zitschr. f. physiol. Chem., 1933, 214, 177),
therefore, proposed the determination of picrolonic acid
and organic pircolonates by means of acridin. In this
process picrolonic acid is precipitated with acridin, and the
compound formed, an acridin picrolonate, is determined
eravimetrically.

In continuing my work on thiazine compounds of
o-nitrophenols, however, I observed that picrolonic acid
formed with methylene blue a compound which was very
sparingly soluble in water, but fairly soluble in chloroform.
The solubility of methylene blue picrolonate in chloroform
was 0-16%, the solubility in water less than 0-001%.
These findings show that picrolonic acid is so far the most
suitable o-nitrophenol for titration with methylene blue.
Its solubility in chloroform is almost twice that of picric
acid.

The technique of the titration is the same as that
described for picric acid or other o-nitrophenols (Bolliger, A.,
DHS; SOURNAL, 1933, 67, 240; 1934, 68, 51). The
picrolonic acid solution is transferred to a cylindrical

198 ADOLPH BOLLIGER.

- separatory funnel containing chloroform and some calcium
carbonate. The standard methylene blue solution, usually
0-O001N, is added from a burette. The methylene blue
picrolonate formed dissolves in the chloroform to form a
green solution. Near the end-point, after extraction with
fresh chloroform, the aqueous layer becomes colourless
and the end-point is reached with the first appearance of
an unextractable bluish tinge in this layer. The end-point
is very sharp. Varying amounts of 0-01N picrolonic
acid could be recovered with an error not exceeding 0:2%.

Organic picrolonates are best dissolved beforehand in
hot water, or if necessary in about 0-1N hot hydrochloric
acid. After cooling, and neutralisation of the excess
hydrochloric acid with calcium carbonate, the solution is
transferred to the separatory funnel containing chloroform.

The picrolonates of «-naphthylamin, piperidin and
p-toluidin were prepared and examined for their picrolonic
acid content by the method described, with the following
results :

Picrolonic Acid.

Amount Per Cent.
Picrolonate of Titrated.
(Mgm.)
Found. Calculated.
a-naphthylamin - ae Le 7:06 64-0 64°86
11-4 64-5
p-toluidin as ae Abe ae 12-21 70:3 71-16
18:2 70:6
Piperidin an RE ad oe 10:03 74:28 75°63
15:9 74:9

The Gordon Craig Urological Research Laboratory,
Department of Surgery,
University of Sydney.

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 199

THE GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT.

By P. M. Game, B.Sc.,

Deas-Thomson Scholar in Geology, University of Sydney.

Communicated by Dr. W. R. BROWNE.

(With Plate VIII and two text-figures.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1934.)

INTRODUCTION.

The village of Cudgegong is situated on the Sydney-
Mudgee main road, at a distance of 146 miles from
Sydney. It is, approximately, in the centre of the district
examined and mapped by the author. This district
extends from Mudgee south-eastwards for about 40 miles
and is 10 to 15 miles wide. Little detailed work has
previously been done in this region, although C. A.
Sussmilcht has described and given sections of the
Devonian strata to the east of the area. His work,
however, covers only a small portion of the area in
question, and does not deal with the Silurian rocks, nor
does it discuss the boundary between Silurian and
Devonian strata. It is considered that these features
are of sufficient interest to warrant further descriptions.

Carne and Jones? have described many of the lime-
stone and dolomite deposits in this district, and much
use has been made of their report by the author.

1“The Devonian Strata of the Kandos District, New South
Wales”, THIs JOURNAL, 1933, 67, 206.

2“The Limestone Deposits of New South Wales’, Dept. of
Mines, N.S.W., Min. Res. No. 25, 1919.

R—December 5, 1934.

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P. M. GAME.

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yeas Suormey 2049 UeMS SuosaFpay

200

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 201

The following geological formations are represented
in the district:

Pleistocene and Recent,

Tertiary,

Triassic (Hawkesbury and Narrabeen Series),

Kamilaroi (Upper Marine Series and Upper Coal
Measures),

Devonian (Upper and Middle),

Upper Silurian.

The Silurian and Devonian sediments are contorted
and faulted, and have been abundantly intruded by
plutonic and hypabyssal igneous types, which accom-
panied the Kanimbla orogeny. Upon the upturned edges

_ of the older Paleozoic rocks and upon the igneous intrusive

masses rest the undisturbed and almost horizontal
Kamilaroi and Triassic strata. These, in turn, are over-
lain'in places by Early Tertiary basalts and dolerites,
remnants of former widespread flows and sills, now
largely removed by denudation.

The alluvium of the fertile flats of the chief river
valleys, especially well developed around the town of
Mudgee, is the most recent member in the geological
Sequence.

The general relations of the various units are shown
in the maps and sections (Plate VIII and Figs. 1 and 2).

STRATIGRAPHY:
The Silurian System.

Silurian strata are the oldest rocks in the district,
no Ordovician sediments having been discovered. The base
of the system is not exposed in the region dealt with in
this report. The paleontological evidence furnished by
the limestones in the sequence definitely proves them
to be of Upper Silurian age.

The lowest exposed Silurian beds are tuffs and breccias
with associated altered lavas, and these grade upwards
through felspathic tuffs and tuffaceous slates into clay-
slates and limestones. A good section across the Silurian

Sequence may be examined in the Parish of Wells. Most

of the members are exposed on the Cudgegong-Rylstone
road, beyond the Carwell Creek bridge, from the 7 to the 8
mile peg. However, the best exposures occur about half

202 P. M. GAME.

a mile or one mile to the north of the road, where
several small creeks have cut across the strike of the
beds. The general dip of the Silurian beds in this locality
is to the south-west. The average is 8S. 30° W. at 38°.

The nature and approximate thicknesses of the separate
members in descending order are as follows:

Feet.

(?) Fissile and siliceous clay-slates .. .. 2,000

Limestone wie soe ee es. oe 100

Conglomerates we Gla Ue ey ae ee re 740

Felspathic tuffs Pe eee rier te Li

Limestones and silicified slates gee aes 75
Felspathic tuffs and breccias .. .. .. 550 +
Total rae renege Sm ee TL oe

The basal tuffs and breccias of this sequence have been
intruded by huge masses of late Devonian quartz-felsite,
so that the true base of the series is not seen, and it
may, indeed, be much thicker than is indicated by the
above figure.

The youngest member of this sequence, viz., the fissile
clay-slate, has not been proved definitely to be of Silurian
age, and is queried accordingly. It may belong to the
Middle Devonian series, although the author considers
that it may be correlated with the Silurian clay-slates
of the Green Gully Valley.

The tuffs and breccias at the base of the sequence are
well exposed on the south side of the Cudgegong-Rylstone
road, in Portions 59, 72 and 74, Parish of Wells. A thin
horizon of strongly developed breccias occurs at the side
of this road in Por. 59. This breccia has a hard, pale-grey
matrix, in which are set numerous angular and torn
fragments of other rocks and minerals. The fragments
vary from microscopic dimensions to half an inch or so
in length. Angular quartz and felspar grains are common,
the latter having been largely kaolinized. The remaining
fragments are considerably larger and consist of soft,
dark, slaty rock and of hard, yellowish-white felsite.
The igneous fragments are more abundant than the
slaty ones, which probably represent portions of under-
lying Silurian strata torn from their position by the
violence of the eruptions, and incorporated in the showers
of voleanic dust.

The tuffs, which are more abundant than the breccias,
have a greenish-grey body colour and a fine grainsize.

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 203

This rock is not completely massive, but appears to be
roughly banded on several faces, with elongated streaks
of certain constituents. It is a finely crystalline
felspathic type, with some cherty inclusions. In thin
section this tuff is seen to consist of plagioclase
(andesine), calcite, chlorite, sericite, magnetite and a
little orthoclase. The plagioclase forms the main con-
stituent. It is mostly considerably altered to sericite
and calcite. It is usually in the form of subidiomorphic
prisms, about 4 to ? mm. in length, with terminal faces
undeveloped. The chlorite impregnates the other
minerals, and also forms small allotriomorphic crystals,
which may be pseudomorphs after an original ferro-

Magnesian mineral.

_ The silicified slates which, together with a few
limestone lenses, divide this thick horizon of tuffs,
have a pure white colour and are somewhat hardened.
These altered slates are exposed from the N.W. to the
S.E. of Por. 46, Parish of Wells. Above this very thin
horizon of slates a further considerable thickness of tuffs
is encountered, of character similar to those already
described, but often silicified and cherty.

The next highest member of the sequence is a rather
thick horizon of conglomerate. This type outcrops
strongly on the banks of the Cudgegong River in the
middle of the northern boundary of Por. 149. The bed
is in contact with the underlying tuffs at the extreme
N.E. corner of this portion. The horizon can be traced
almost to the main road, but is cut off by a fault running
parallel to and just to the north of this road, on Pors.
73 and 111. This rock type shows the effects of the
tectonic forces which operated after its deposition. The
pebbles are considerably flattened and elongated. No
recrystallization has occurred, however. The pebbles are
usually less than one inch in length and extremely hard;
they consist of a black chert. A thin section through
one of them showed it to be composed chiefly of quartz
and sericite, with a little interstitial felspar. The matrix
of these conglomerates is dull grey, closely laminated
and rather friable.

Overlying the conglomerates is a limestone horizon.
This does not actually form a continuous outcrop (as
indicated on the general map, in order to clarify it), but
occurs as a number of small lenses, which can be traced

204 P. M. GAME.

along the line of strike for about 14 miles. The belt is
displaced about 400 yards by a dip-fault, which runs
along the northern boundary of Por. 111, cuts across
Por. 154, and is lost under the alluvium of Carwell
Creek, about 300 yards due north of the bridge on the
main road. The limestone on the south side of this
fault shows the effect of the drag to the west, which
has drawn it out in an east-west direction, so that it
tapers out to the east, as shown on the map. :

The limestone, in most outcrops, is recrystallized and
has a medium to coarse grainsize. The outcrops on the
Rylstone road show large, pink hematite patches. Shaly
partings are rather common. It is fossiliferous, but the
fossils are more plentiful in the weathered shales which
are interbedded with the limestone. The following forms
were identified by the late Mr. W. S. Dun:

A ctinozoa—
Favosites
Tryplasma
Heliolites
Arachnophyllum
Cyathophyllum
Murchisonia.

Brachiopoda—
Rhynchonella
Pentamerus knighti.

Crinoidea—

Crinoid stems.

The youngest member of the Silurian sequence in this
district is the fissile slate bed to which reference has
already been made. This clay-slate has undergone some
regional metamorphism, and is siliceous in most places.
It is exceedingly fissile. Usually it is quite soft, but
locally it has been hardened by intrusions of quartz-
porphyry. It has a pale purplish to pale bluish-grey
body colour and weathers to a rusty-brown shade. At
the side of the Cudgegong road, in Por. 40, Parish of
Wells, the slate is interbedded with a pure white, fine-
grained, strongly jointed quartzite. This rock shows
numerous small ridges and furrows, approximately
parallel to each other, and only seen on the bedding-
planes. These are thought to be ripple-marks, indicative
of shallow water conditions during the deposition of this

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 205

horizon. The ripples are symmetrical and appear to
have been formed by wave action, which must, however,
have been very slight to produce such delicate markings.

At the top of this slate horizon a conformable junction
is thought to occur between the Silurian and the Middle
Devonian strata. The nature of this junction will be
discussed in more detail later.

Before passing on to a description of the Silurian
formation in other parts of this district, it may be well
to compare the results obtained by the author with
those given by C. A. Sussmilch. The latter includes all
the beds just described in the Middle Devonian sequence,
whereas the author considers them to be of Silurian age.
The thickness obtained by Sussmilch for each of the
horizons to which reference has been made is consider-
ably less, in most instances, than that given above. The
greatest discrepancy occurs in the thickness of the fissile
slate horizon, for which Sussmilch gives a thickness of
650 feet, whereas, in the author’s opinion, it is 2,000 feet
thick. This is based upon several traverses made across
the strike, both to the north and to the south of the
Rylstone road. One traverse along a creek which flows
through Pors. 65, M.L. 6, 69, 105 and 106, Parish of Wells,
showed the thickness of slate to be actually greater than
that given, and no noticeable change of dip occurs.

In the Limestone Creek region, and along Green Gully,
in the south-west of the area, the lowest member of the
Silurian sequence is a limestone bed, which, however,
is not persistent and only outcrops locally near
Cudgegong, extending north-west from the village for
about 14 miles. This is followed by tuffs and associated
flows, which are succeeded by a thick, persistent lime-
stone horizon. The youngest member is a thick slate
bed. The whole sequence has been intruded by felsites,
porphyries, etc., of the Kanimbla epoch. The lavas
and tuffs form a continuous, wide tract, which extends
almost from Mudgee to the Aaron’s Pass granite, a
distance of more than 20 miles. The Cudgegong-Mudgee
road follows the strike of this band, and the Silurian
strata outcrop chiefly to the south of this road between
the two localities.

The lower limestone is about 300 feet thick, and forms
' several disconnected lenses near Cudgegong, which were
formerly thought to be of Middle Devonian age until

206 P. M. GAME.

Pentamerus knighti was recently obtained from this
band. The following forms have been collected from these
older limestones :

Actinozoa— |
Fawosites, massive sp.
Favosites, dendroid form (2 species)
Cystiphyllum
Heliolites
Cyathophyllum shearsbyi
Cyathophyllum, small sp.
Hydrozoa—
Stromatopora.
Crinoidea—
Crinoid stems.
Brachiopoda—
Small species (indet.)
Chonetes (cf. Ch. hardrensis)
Pentamerus knight.
Trilobita—
Encrinurus.

These species were obtained from the limestone lenses
in Pors. 7, 8 and 92, Parish Arthur; Por. 123, Parish
Dungeree; and Por. 39, Parish Tannabutta. The trilobite
was found in the clay-slates on Por. 7, Parish Tannabutta.

The lavas and tuffs overlie this limestone bed at
Cudgegong. <A well-marked flow makes a bold outcrop
immediately below the Cudgegong bridge, and has been
traced about a quarter of a mile along its strike. The
rock is a dark, greenish-grey, massive hornblende-
augite-andesite. It contains hornblende, augite, both
felspars, olivine and a little chalcedony and calcite. The
hornblende crystals are rudely columnar, up to 4 mms.
long, and often simply twinned. MHornblende also
forms a large part of the groundmass of this rock.
The phenocrysts contain inclusions of idiomorphic felspar
and occasional augite. Many of the hornblende pheno-
erysts have suffered some resorption by the groundmass.
The augite is less abundant, and the phenocrysts are
generally almost idiomorphic. One individual shows a
perfect cruciform twin, the composition plane being
(101). The average size of the pyroxene phenocrysts is —
only about 41-mm. The plagioclase (probably andesine) —
is more abundant than the orthoclase; the idiomorphic

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 207

prisms average ?-mm. in length. No flow-structure occurs
in the groundmass, which consists of a mixture of
cryptocrystalline material and tiny grains of felspar and
ferro-magnesian minerals.

A similar type—probably a continuation of the same
flow—is again seen on the bend of the Cudgegong River
in Por. 72, Parish of Tannabutta. The phenocrysts
consist of hornblende and felspar. There is no augite or
olivine, but some epidote and apatite are present. The
hornblende prisms are somewhat bleached, and average
#mm. to 1 mm. in length, though some reach a length
of 4 mms. The felspar has been completely altered to
kaolin.

To the S.W. of these flows are other altered Silurian
lavas and tuffs. Near Mullamuddy the main types seem
to be lavas, but between Cudgegong and Mt. Bocoble an
extensive band of tuffs outcrops, with but few interbedded
flows. The lavas to the west have been altered and
albitized almost completely, but the texture furnishes
evidence as to their original characters. The flows were
probably originally of an andesitic or trachytic type, but
have now been converted to keratophyres. One micro-
slide from a type outcropping on the northern boundary
of Por. 234, Parish Tannabutta, shows subidiomorphic
and idiomorphic albite phenocrysts about 1 to 2 mm.
long, around which “swirls” the groundmass, composed
mainly of minute idiomorphic needles of felspar, giving
a pilotaxitic texture. Another specimen collected near
the S.W. corner of Por. 227 is an original orthophyric
trachyte, with phenocrysts of plagioclase up to 5 mms.
in length. There is also some orthoclase, but the felspars
have been albitized, converting the rock into a
keratophyre.

One more strongly developed lava outcrops in the
Limestone Creek district; this type forms the northern
boundary of a tributary of Limestone Creek, and can be
traced from Por. 202, Parish Tannabutta, westwards for
about a mile. It is a grey coloured, crystalline type, and
a micro-slide showed orthoclase, oligoclase, calcite,
apatite, magnetite and chlorite. Orthoclase occurs as
large, irregular, altered phenocrysts, and also in small,
fresh, sharply idiomorphic square sections and elongated
prism sections. The oligoclase also forms idiomorphic
phenocrysts, one of which is 4:5 mm. long. The average

208 P. M. GAME.

length is 1 to 2mm. Calcite is very abundant, the felspars
being extensively carbonated. This rock-type appears to
be an oligoclase trachyte. The absence of any ferro-
magnesian mineral is unusual.

Above these lavas is a wide belt of felspathic tuffs.
These outcrop in the south-east part of the Parish of
Bocoble, and as they are traced along their strike towards
Mudgee they become interbedded with the lavas pre-
viously described, until the volcanic types almost displace
the pyroclastic. The tuffs are exposed at numerous
localities in the neighbourhood of the village of Cudge-
gong and on Cudgegong, Bocoble and Four Mile Creeks.
The tuffs make bold, angular outcrops over a belt of
country three miles wide, stretching from the Cudgegong
road to the Silurian limestone belt under Mt. Bocoble.
It seems probable that the great width of outcrop of these
tuffs is due to local folding of the beds and consequent
varying dips. Unfortunately the tuffs are highly jointed
and do not show any bedding-planes, so this speculation
cannot be verified. These Cudgegong tuffs vary but little
in mineralogical constitution. Megascopically the rock
is not unlike the andesites previously described, but has a
paler grey body colour. No visible ferro-magnesian pheno-
erysts occur. It is hard, tough and massive. In thin
sections the following minerals can be distinguished:
orthoclase, plagioclase (andesine), calcite, magnetite,
hornblende, quartz and apatite. The felspars form
by far the greater part. of the rock. Both felspars
are rather extensively altered to sericite and kaolin.
The average grainsize is about ? to 1 mm. The calcite
and quartz are interstitial and probably secondary.
Magnetite and hornblende are sparse, and form small
irregular grains. There are also dark patches, consisting
of small angular fragments of quartz and felspar set in
a dark, fine-grained base; these are probably portions of
other included rocks. This tuff is, therefore, an inter-
mediate felspathic type, which has probably undergone
some resorting after formation.

The belt of country occupied by these tuffs has been
cleared and makes good pasture land. The hills are fre-
quently rather steep, however, where silicified, cherty types
outcrop. The creeks draining this area have a typical
dendritic pattern.

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 209

Overlying the Cudgegong tuffs and the lavas to the
north-west is a thick belt of limestone. This occurs in
lenses, which can be traced from near the G.S.B. quarry,
24 miles S.E. of Cudgegong, to the Cudgegong River near
Mt. Frome, a distance of about 20 miles. Most of the
limestones are fossiliferous, although the variety of forms
obtained is not very great.

The small lenses of limestone and shale which outcrop
on Pors. 30, 68, 46, 101 and 69, Parish Bocoble (7.e., just
to the west of the road to the G.S.B. quarry), are crowded
‘in certain horizons with the brachiopod Pentamerus
knighti. This is proof of the Upper Silurian age of this
belt. The two large lenses of limestone which outcrop
on the N.E. flank of Mt. Bocoble also contain Pentamerus,
which is again found in the Limestone Creek belts,
although here it is very sparse. Again, the long lime-
stone belt which outcrops along the Windeyer road
(“Queen’s Pinch Belt” of Carne and Jones) is fossil-
iferous, and Pentamerus knighti occurs also in this band.

A complete list of the Silurian forms obtained from
these limestone horizons is given below:

Actinozoa—
Favosites (massive and dendroid forms)
Zaphrentis
Rhizophyllum
Tryplasma (liliiformis type)
Cyathophyllum shearsbyi.
Brachiopoda—
Leptena rhomboidalis
Atrypa reticularis
Orthotetes, nov. sp.
Rhynchonella
Pentamerus knighti.
Gastropoda—
A Euomphaloid type.
Cephalopoda—
Orthoceras.
Crinoidea—
Crinoid stems.

(V.B.—Many of these genera were obtained not from
the limestone itself, but from zones of impure, calcareous
sandstones and shales which are associated with the lime-
stone. Two productive localities occur in the Limestone

210 P. M. GAME.

Creek district. One is from a belt of sandstones, near
the source of Limestone Creek, just west of the point
where it crosses the parish boundary fence of Portion 237,
Parish Tannabutta. The other is near the centre of the
northern boundary of Portion 182, where a fossiliferous
tuffaceous horizon occurs. )

Above the limestone is a thick horizon of clay-slates
and quartzites, which is prominent towards the south-
west of the district. These strata outcrop along Green
Gully and continue towards Mudgee to the west of and
almost parallel to the Windeyer road. They are again
encountered on Cudgegong and Bocoble Creeks, where.
however, they are altered by the Aaron’s Pass granite.
No recognizable fossils have as yet been obtained from
this horizon. The slates are soft and vary consider-
ably in fissility and closeness of bedding. They dip S.W.
in conformity with the overlying limestone belt.

It will be seen, therefore, that the general sequence
of the Silurian strata in the centre, south and south-
western areas of the district corresponds with that
obtaining in the Parish of Wells, to the east. The
strongly developed conglomerate bed of the latter area
is absent from the former region. This is not unexpected,
since the conglomerates were probably deposited over a
relatively narrow zone of sea-floor, under shallow-water
conditions obtaining near the shore-line.

The Silurian strata in the north of the district remain
to be described. Such description must necessarily be
brief, because less detailed work has been done in this
region.

The Silurian formation here consists of a_ thick
horizon of tuffs and tuffaceous slates, underlying a thin
limestone horizon. These strata dip to the south-west
under the broad belt of Upper Devonian quartzites, which
form a high and rugged ridge, the Silurian rocks
occupying the broad, mature valley of Lawson’s Creek.
The lowest horizons here consist of clay-slates. The
argillaceous types become tuffaceous as they are traced
upwards, and pass into bedded tuffs. There are also thin
horizons of conglomeratic breccias, which make bold out-
crops in the clay-slate series. These types have all been
more or less altered and are usually schistose in appear-
ance. In addition to this regional metamorphism they

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. Dich

have, locally, been metamorphosed by the Havilah granite
and the adjacent porphyries of the Kanimbla epoch. Good
exposures of clay-slates and tuffaceous slates may be seen
along the Bayly and Wollar roads and also on the
Havilah-Lue road. The bedding is prominently shown in
most places. No fossils have been found in the slates or
in the tuffs, but the limestones at the top of the sequence ©
show a variety of forms. The most productive belt is that
which outcrops along the Buckaroo road. This limestone
horizon can be traced for about 14 miles. It passes
upwards, conformably, into Upper Devonian slates and
quarzites. Also it appears to overlie Upper Devonian
beds, the apparent anomaly being due to a strike-fault,
which follows the road and causes the sequence to be
repeated. There are probably two or three parallel strike-
faults in this area, as the sequence Upper Devonian
sandstones overlying Upper Silurian limestones is
repeated three times in one locality. Both the Upper
Devonian and the Upper Silurian beds furnish direct
paleontological evidence of age, and may be seen
in direct contact just west of the Buckaroo road. They
appear to be completely conformable. If there be any
unconformity it must be very slight. There must be,
however, a considerable disconformity between the two
formations.

The Silurian fossils obtained from this Buckaroo lime-
stone belt include the following forms:

Actinozoa—
Acervularia
Syringopora
Favosites (massive and dendroid forms).

Brachiopoda—

Atrypa
Pentamerus knighti,

Cephalopoda—

Orthoceras.
Crinoidea—
Crinoid stems.

Boundary Between Silurian and Devonian Systems.

Before describing the succeeding Devonian strata it
may be well to discuss the nature of the boundary
between the two formations. By reference to the map

ZA P. M. GAME.

it will be seen that there are two broad tracts of Silurian
country, between which is the high ridge of Devonian
rocks. To the north of this ridge the Silurian system
dips under the Upper Devonian strata, and there is
nothing to suggest an unconformity between the two
series. It has already been stated (p. 211) that in the
neighbourhood of Havilah, along the Buckaroo road, the
Upper Siiurian and Upper Devonian rocks are in direct,
conformable contact. Now the Upper Devonian strata
dip to the south-west, and are followed to the south by
Silurian rocks, which also dip in this direction. This
apparent anomaly can only be explained by a large strike-
fault, running along the Cudgegong valley and separating
the two formations.

Evidence of the presence of this large fault is clearest
near the G.S.B. quarry, Parish Bocoble. <A zone of
Silurian limestone, crowded with Pentamerus knighti,
runs parallel to and just to the west of the Quarry road.
Just to the east of the same road, and immediately
opposite the Silurian belt, is a thin horizon of Upper
Devonian limestone, which also runs approximately
parallel to the Silurian horizon and to the road. The
two formations are separated by a strip about 100 to
300 yards wide, which is occupied by highly silicified
rock-types, such as cherts, etc., and in part by alluvium.
Further to the east the beds of Upper Devonian age,
stratigraphically below the limestone, outcrop. This thin
limestone belt is, therefore, the highest exposed member
of the Upper Devonian Series, and the wider Silurian
limestone across the road is the lowest exposed member
of that system. The fault almost follows the road itself,
and must have a very considerable throw. By reference
to the detailed map (Fig. 2) these points will be made
more clear.

A well-marked belt of silicified types follows the road;
this silicification is no doubt due to the ascent of
siliceous solutions along the fault-zone.

There is little evidence to show whether the fault is
overthrust or normal; however, it is certainly not a true
plane, but gently curved, and the author is inclined to
think that it is overthrust. It can be traced along the
Cudgegong valley past Mullamuddy and Mt. Frome, being
lost under the Mudgee alluvium.

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 2138

There are probably some subsidiary parallel faults,
and the main Cudgegong Fault (as it will be termed) is
thought to branch about 1 mile south-east of Cudgegong

MAP OF OAKEY CREEK DISTRICT

: AK Lec

\\ \\\\ KAMILAROI [*,°;5,°
, e802 0°s Upper Marine Serics
\ |

UPPER DEVONIAN
a
oo} Tuffs (acid)

reok=

—Oakey-

UT ~ ~ Silicified Zon

!
NY Clay-Stone
AN Quarlziles

SHEEN Altered Lavas
vv v4 and Tuffs

ee Limestone

» 2} Quartz-Porphyry

ROAD = ===— =

FAULT F-——~—~PF

MSéq Levels 19730! feel

Fig. 2.

into two parallel faults, with a strip of Middle Devonian
sediments between them.

The fault must be post-Devonian (since it has displaced
beds of this age) and pre-Upper Marine (since the
residual outliers of Upper Marine basal conglomerate are

214 P. M. GAME.

at the same elevation on each side of the fault). The
fault was probably connected with the great orogenic
movements of the Kanimbla epoch.

The boundary between the Silurian and Devonian
strata is seen also on the Cudgegong-Rylstone road, on
the Rylstone side of Carwell Creek, Parish of Wells.
The relationships here are somewhat analogous to those
obtaining near Havilah, as might be expected, since the
Silurian belt is on the same side of the Devonian ridge
in both districts. However, there is one important differ-
ence. In the Havilah area the Silurian strata pass
upwards conformably into Upper Devonian beds, whereas,
in the Carwell Creek region, Middle Devonian sediments
overlie the Silurian rocks, also conformably. Although,
as has already been stated (p. 202), it is not certain
whether the boundary between sediments of the two
periods should be drawn above or below the thick horizon
of fissile slates, there is no doubt that the Silurian tuffs,
conglomerates, limestones and possibly slates are con-
formable with the overlying Middle Devonian limestones,
acid tuffs and clay-slates.

The Devonian System.

The Devonian strata comprise both Middle and Upper
Devonian beds.

Middle Devonian Series.

The best series of Middle Devonian age occurs in the
Parish of Wells. Good exposures are seen on the
Cudgegong-Rylstone road, on Carwell Creek and on the
Cudgegong River. Sussmilch has described these Middle
Devonian strata in this area. The nature and approxi-
mate thicknesses of the horizons in the sequence are:

Feet.

Clay-slates with interbedded quartzite
lenses wig ll ig MASS ee eee ,050
Acid tuffs Pr Mary Seat ie 60
Clay-slates ca eg gle SARS 5 SS eres
Limestones op! leh BRS oR, Cpe ees eee 520

Basal limestone-breccia and _ brecciated
conglomerate ay ay el ose pe oe ee 345

Total Se ye ete, ee. en een

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 215

The series is, therefore, over half a mile thick. The
limestone-breccia or brecciated conglomerate at the base
of the series forms a persistent horizon, which can be
traced from the road just east of the Carwell Creek
bridge to the Charbon limestone quarry, a distance of
about 23 miles. Near the quarry this rock has the appear-
ance of a breccia, but further north it merges into a con-
glomerate with elongated pebbles. The breccia has a
rusty-brown colour, and contains angular pebbles of a
siliceous, pale-grey, hard rock in a porous, sandy-coloured
matrix. The pebbles are very numerous. The largest are
about 14 inches across; some, however, are very small.
They appear to have the character of a felsite or related
type. Many are considerably flattened. In the lower
horizons of this bed the pebbles are not usually highly
angular, and have probably undergone some transporta-
tion before being cemented. In the upper horizons the
fragments are nearly all of limestone or claystone and
much more angular.

The limestone which overlies the breccias is thick and
persistent. It has been traced for over 5 miles—from
the Charbon quarry almost to the Cudgegong river. The
‘outcrop is concealed for a distance of one mile beneath
the Carwell Creek alluvium, but is otherwise unbroken,
except for a small gap on Por. 69, Parish of Wells. This
limestone is being quarried on a large scale for the
Charbon and Kandos cement works. Two large quarries
have been opened at the southern end of the belt, where
it is cut off by a large intrusion of quartz-porphyry. At
this southern end the limestone band is folded. The
Charbon and Kandos quarries lie, respectively, on the
western and eastern limbs of an anticline, whose axis
strikes about N. 25° W. and which pitches to the south.
Several smaller folds are superimposed on this anticline.
This folding causes a very wide outcrop at the Kandos
quarry, where the width of the outcrop does not indicate
the true thickness of the bed.

The limestone has a strike of about N. 33° W., and
dips S.W. at about 53°. It is a dense, blue-black, finely
crystalline variety, and is generally very pure. However,
in its upper horizons it is interbedded with claystones
and hardened sandstones. A thin horizon of clay-slates
immediately overlies it. The middle and lower horizons
S—December 5, 1934.

216 P. M. GAME.

are crowded with organic remains, many of which are,
unfortunately, not well preserved. Sussmilch (loc. cit.,
p. 214) has collected a representative fossil fauna,
identified by the late W. S. Dun as being of Middle
Devonian age. ,

The eastern limb of the anticline, already referred to,
does not make a continuous outcrop as does the western
limb just described. The limestone band appears to have
several small folds, and lenses of limestone occur in the
neighbourhood of the Kandos quarry, on Pors. M.L. 6,
100 and 66, Parish of Wells. There may be small, oblique
faults, and the precise way in which this bed is folded and
faulted in this eastern limb of the Carwell anticline is
not quite clear. Intrusive quartz-porphyry types cut off
the wide outcrop at the Kandos quarry both to the north
and to the south. A thin zone of clay-slate overlies the
limestone, and is exposed on Carwell Creek where it
crosses Por. 108.

Overlying this slate band is a thin but interesting
horizon of acid tuffs, the occurrence.of which indicates
voleanic activity during the Middle Devonian epoch. This
tuff has been described by Sussmilch (loc. cit., p. 210).
Usually it is fine in grainsize, but locally becomes much
coarser. The fragments are highly angular and consist
of abundant quartz and felspar grains, the latter being
much weathered to kaolin. Secondary calcite is abundant
as a result of this decomposition of the felspar. The
matrix of this tuff is black in colour and has a pitchy
lustre.

This horizon is well exposed on Carwell Creek, near
the Charbon quarry, in Portion 32, and can be traced
southwards for almost 14 miles, but is not seen again
to the north.

The tuffs are overlain by a thick horizon of clay-slates,
and these occur to the west of the limestone belt. They
are soft, have a medium grey colour and are thinly
bedded. They are interstratified with numerous narrow
quartzite bands. They merge upwards, without a definite
boundary, into the Upper Devonian quartzites. Two
small brachiopods are the only fossils obtained from
this horizon; they are both probably species of Chonetes.

This clay-slate belt is cut off to the north by a dip-fault
which runs along a tributary of Carwell Creek, flowing

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 217

W.S.W. across Pors. 84 and 85, Parish of Wells. The
horizon has not been found north of this creek, and it
is difficult to see how it has been displaced by the fault.

In the neighbourhood of the village of Cudgegong is
a thick series of clay-slates, which furnish palzontologi-
cal evidence of being of Middle Devonian age. These
are first seen immediately west of the G.S.B. quarry
road. They continue in a north-westerly direction across
the Cudgegong River, through the southern part of the
Parishes of Dungeree and Arthur, and have been traced
as far as Por. 44, Parish of Arthur. They appear to
underlie the Cudgegong Silurian limestone belt, but there
is probably overturning of the strata in this area; an
overturned fold is responsible for the apparent anomalous
relationship. This clay-slate bed may be correlated with
that above the Carwell quarry limestone. It is about
2,060 feet thick.

Sandstone horizons are interstratified with the clay-
stones. On the western bank of the Cudgegong River,
on the boundary of Pors. 22 and 1383, Parish Dungeree,
is a narrow horizon of sandstone crowded with
brachiopods. Two species of Chonetes are the only
forms represented, but they are in _ extraordinary
abundance and confined to this narrow horizon, two or
three feet thick. Sussmilch (loc. cit.) has also collected
from these clay-slates, and records several forms also
from the bank of the river in Portion 132. In each
instance the commonest form is closely related to
Chonetes hardrensis. The brachiopods are somewhat
flattened, but otherwise excellently preserved.

These Middle Devonian sediments have not been found
in the vicinity of Mullamuddy or Mudgee, but in those
districts the Cudgegong fault separates Upper Devonian
and Upper Silurian beds. Also, in the north of the
district, in the Havilah-Lue areas, the Silurian slates
and tuffs pass directly upwards into the Upper
Devonian sandstones and quartzites without the inter-
vention of the Middle Devonian series. What actually
happens to this series in the north-west of the district
is something of a mystery. It is possible that they are
in some way faulted under the Upper Devonian strata,
as they appear to be in the Carwell region, where they
terminate abruptly against the small tributary of Carwell

218 P. M. GAME.

Creek, which flows W.S.W: across Pors. 84 and 85, Parish -
of Wells. In the neighbourhood of Cudgegong the Middle
Devonian series appears to occupy a zone between two
faults, the great Cudgegong fault and a smaller fault
which branches from the main one half a mile north
of the G.S.B. quarry. Both these faults are probably
overthrust.

Upper Devonian Series.

Upper Devonian strata are strongly represented in this
district, and the rock-types, being hard and resistant,
have formed a_ well-defined ridge, trending about
N. 40° W., and curving gently to the north near Mudgee.
The Upper Devonian strata consist mainly of quartzites,
but also include horizons of limestones, claystone, tuffs
and grits. Fossils are abundant almost throughout the
series, and are excellently preserved, although the
variety of genera is not great.

The best section of Upper Devonian strata occurs in
the Parish of Bocoble, along Oakey Creek, upstream from
the Marble quarry. A detailed geographical map of this
area has been prepared from aerial mosaics made by
the R.A.A.F. This has been used for the preparation
of the geological map (Fig. 2). The character and
thickness of the various horizons of this sequence are
as follows:

Feet.
Limestone and marble wie eke 6 Eee One
Acid tuffs and sane sin be theeetgteae ae 770
Limestone Ay ce Sb Pe! 250
Grits ee cabs le BO abe Sa. eee aan 185
Quartzites ; oe ane | nee ee 150
Claystones and sandstones 2 nabs 300
Quartzites (base) .. 0 2.0 ws ‘<7 le ee ee
Total ce Sie eh ea BR ES ie

The quartzites at the base of this series are fairly pure
and fine-grained, being completely recrystallized. The
bed is very thick, but so extensively folded and faulted
that no very accurate determination of its thickness is
possible. It is well bedded and jointed, and tends to
disintegrate into cubical blocks. It forms rough rugged
country, useless for agricultural purposes. :

Stream gullies in the quartzite are usually dry, owing,
probably, to the abundant joint-systems of this rock-

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 219

type. The streams flow below the surface and reappear
beyond the quartzite. Two features of especial interest
are shown by these Upper Devonian quartzites:

1. Many horizons show wonderfully developed,
symmetrical ripple-marks. The ripples appear to
have been developed in the original sands by oscilla-
tory currents, due to wave-action in a shallow sea.
The amplitude of the ripples is commonly about 2
to 3 inches, and the troughs are about half an inch
deep. The ripple-marks occur throughout a great
thickness of quartzites in various parts of the district,
and are by no means attributable to local causes.
It would seem that deposition of the sands kept pace
with subsidence of the sea-floor during this period,
with the maintenance of shallow water conditions.

Two other indications of the extremely shallow
water conditions under which the sandy beds were
originally laid down are worm-tracks and imprints
of rain-drops. Both these features may be observed
on the north bank of the Cudgegong River near the
boundary of Pors. 22 and 133, Parish Dungeree. At
certain times, therefore, during their deposition the
sediments were actually raised above sea-level and
became sand-flats.

2. The quartzite, in many horizons, is crowded
with Crinoid stems, whose axes are always arranged
perpendicularly to the bedding-planes of the strata.
The extraordinary abundance of these stems in
certain horizons produces a remarkable appearance.
The accumulation of sediment must have been suf-
ficiently rapid to engulf the stems in their natural
upright position of growth. There was not time for
them to be broken and drifted into other positions.

In hand-specimens the pure quartzite has an almost
white colour and a subvitreous lustre, and is exceedingly
hard. A micro-slide of this type showed it to consist
of fine quartz grains, with a little altered felspar, biotite
and iron-ore. The quartz grains average 0-2 mm. across.
The grains interlock, but the edges are not sutured, and
there is no evidence of addition of secondary quartz.
Many grains show undulose extinction, and the larger
ones are often granulated. This indicates the strain to

220 P. M. GAME.

which these sediments were subjected in the orogenic
- epoch which followed their deposition.

In this Oakey Creek area these basal quartzites form
the core of a plunging anticline; a section across this
anticline is shown with’ the map of this region. The
quartzites are exposed at the junction of the left and
right hand branches of Oakey Creek on Pors. 81 and 97,
Parish Bocoble. Fossils are scarce, but the occurrence
of Spirifer disjunctus and Rhynchonella plewrodon is
proof of the Upper Devonian age of this horizon.

Overlying these quartzites is a horizon of claystones
and fine-grained sandstones, which are exposed on Oakey
Creek in Por. 81 (western limb of anticline) and in
Por. 97 (eastern limb). The claystones are very fine
and even-grained, and extremely soft, and the joints are
very closely spaced. Harder sandstone horizons occur
with the claystones, the rock consisting of fine, sub-
angular quartz grains, averaging 0:03 mm. in diameter,
set in a finer-grained base, composed of shreds of sericite
and kaolin. Many hematite flakes are present, elongated
in the same direction as the mica shreds; they probably
represent an original ferro-magnesian mineral such as
biotite. This rock is an extremely fine-grained type, in
which the component material has probably been broken
down by mechanical agencies in an arid climate. Little
transportation can have occurred.

Overlying these clay-slates and sandstones, on the
western limb of the Oakey Creek anticline, is a thin
horizon of quartzites. They are fairly pure and well-
bedded, and possess no features of especial interest.
This horizon is not represented on the eastern limb,
having, apparently, thinned out rather rapidly to the
east.

The next overlying bed is a tuffaceous grit. A narrow
sill of quartz-porphyry has been injected between the
quartzite and grit horizons. This grit has a mottled,
pale whitish-grey colour and a medium grainsize. Sub-
angular fragments of quartz are cemented by decomposed,
whitish felspar grains. It is hard, tough and well-bedded.

A rather thick sill of quartz-porphyry separates this
horizon from the overlying marble band. This thick
horizon of marble is of especial interest, since the Com-
monwealth Savings Bank building in Sydney has been

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. vpn

partly constructed from it. The horizon is best seen on
the western limb of the anticline, where it crosses Oakey
Creek in Por. M.L. 4, Parish Bocoble. On the eastern
limb the band is much thinner and more impure, but it
crosses the creek in Por. 97. The marble is a fine-
grained type, and is completely recrystallized. For com-
mercial purposes two varieties are recognized, the Cudge-
gong Golden and the Cudgegong Ivory. Both varieties
are handsome ornamental stones and take a high polish.
The marble owes its commercial value to the presence
of impurities, chiefly iron oxides and silica. Limonite
veins are regularly spaced in the ‘Golden’ variety, and
patches of deep red, recrystallized hematite also occur.
Quartz grains are sometimes seen. In the ‘Ivory’ variety
quartz grains are the chief impurity. Although it has
_ been thoroughly recrystallized the marble is well bedded ;
it strikes N. 30° W. and dips S.W. at 35°. In the eastern
limb the strike is about N. 12° E. The marble forms a
thick convex lens tapering rather rapidly to the north-
west and south-east. It is completely devoid of fossils.

This marble is overlain by a thick horizon of grits,
grading upwards into acid tuffs. This horizon is similar
to the one beneath the marble belt. The acid tuffs
differ remarkably in appearance from the grits, but
are composed of essentially the same minerals. The
tuff is almost black in colour and has a vitreous lustre.
It is rather fine-grained and extremely hard but brittle.
A micro-slide of this rock showed it to be composed
of highly angular quartz grains and decomposed felspar
(both orthoclase and plagioclase) set in a cement of
minute biotite granules, which are closely crowded in the
interstices.

These tuffs cannot have undergone any transportation
before deposition, but must have settled on the sea-floor
immediately after the explosive eruptions which produced
them. They are well-bedded and have the appearance
of a typical sedimentary rock. Oakey Creek is juvenile
in character where it cuts through this tuff band.

The tuffs are overlain by a rather thin horizon of
marble, which is the youngest member of the Upper
Devonian sequence in this region. This belt has a narrow
outcrop near its northern end, but the outcrop widens
considerably to the south, where the marble follows the

222 P. M. GAME.

course of Kurrajong Gully. In the gully the marble is
a pale grey, fine-grained, completely recrystallized
variety. Further north, at the point where the belt
meets the quarry road, a few poorly preserved fossil
corals were found. The species were not identifiable. The
belt pinches out just as it meets the road.

This concludes the account of the detailed section of
Upper Devonian strata in the Oakey Creek area. Else-
where the details of the Upper Devonian System have
not been mapped, but the same lithological characters
have been observed throughout. The strata are mainly
quartzites with thinner horizons of acid tuffs, grits,
limestones and clay-slates. It has already been stated
(p. 212) that Upper Devonian strata have been traced
north-westwards from Cudgegong, parallel with the
Cudgegong River, through the Parishes of Arthur and
Derale, and north of Mt. Frome. In the Parish of Derale
a series of very rugged hills is formed by the Upper
Devonian quartzites. Their summits rise 1,600 feet above
the river and separate the Cudgegong Valley from
Lawson’s Creek valley to the north. These hills were
monadnocks in the Carboniferous Period, and stood
above the surrounding plain of erosion. They were
never covered by the Upper Marine Sea.

Fossils are very abundant and well preserved in a
great many localities where the Upper Devonian series
outcrops. The best localities are the following:

1. Por. 78, Parish Bocoble, on the Cudgegong road,
24 miles from the village.

2. Southern bank of the Cudgegong River, in Por. 5,
Parish of Wells.

3. In the Parish of Derale, throughout the entire thick-
ness of quartzites.

4. In the neighbourhood of Mt. Frome.

5. Along the Havilah-Buckaroo road.

A great many more localities are known, but they
are too numerous to mention. The five given are the
best, and representative specimens may be collected from
them. A complete list of the forms obtained is given
below:

Actinozoa—
Zaphrentis
Cyathophyllum.

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. Zoe

Crinoidea—
Crinoid stems.
Brachiopoda—
Rhynchonella pleurodon
Spirifer disjunctus
Spirifer sp. (not disjunctus)
Orthis (striatula group).
Orthotetes
Chonetes
Strophomenoid, nov. sp.
Atrypa (not A. reticularis)
Pterinea, nov. sp.
Terebratuloid shell.
Spirifer, sp. indet.
Gastropoda—
Loxonema.

Spirifer disjunctus and Rhynchonella Brecon are
the commonest forms.

The Upper Devonian series in this region can be.
correlated, on lithological and paleontological grounds,
with the Mt. Lambie series, which occurs near Rydal,
some 40 miles to the south. The Upper Devonian forma-
tion can be traced southwards to the Kanimbla Valley,
south of which it is covered by the Triassic and Permian
strata of the Blue Mountain tableland.

The Kamilaroi System.

The Kamilaroi strata consist of the Upper Coal
Measures and the Upper Marine Series, the Lower Marine
Series being overlapped. The Upper Coal Measures and
the overlying Triassic beds have been removed over most
of the region, but the basal Upper Marine conglomerates
still survive over a considerable part of the district.

The Upper Marine Series, about 350 feet thick, was
laid down close to the Permian coast-line, which was
mainly composed of Upper Devonian quartzites. Hence
the lowest horizon of the series is a strongly developed
conglomerate, about 100 feet thick. The pebbles consist
dominantly of quartzite, and a few pebbles were found
to contain an Upper Devonian fossil fauna. Some of the
boulders are as much as 4 or 5 feet across, but their
average size is about 3 or 4 inches. Nearly all the pebbles
are well rounded and have obviously been waterworn

224 P. M. GAME.

before cementation took place. Sussmilch considers that
these Kamilaroi conglomerates furnish evidence of the
existence of glacial conditions in this region during their
deposition. He postulates transport of large Devonian
boulders by floating ice, and subsequent deposition some
miles from the shore-line when the ice melted. No glacial
strie were found on a fair number of boulders examined ;
also nearly all the boulders are waterworn. However,
the hypothesis of an Upper Marine ice-sheet or glaciers
reaching the coast cannot be discarded, although the
author contends that it is by no means proved.

This horizon may, tentatively, be correlated with the
Muree glacial horizon of the Upper Marine Series in the
Hunter Valley. Above the basal conglomerates the series
consists of shales and sandstones. Few fossils have been
obtained from the strata. However, several fragments
of Hdmondia were found by L. L. Waterhouse and the
author in an arkosic breccia near the top of Aaron’s Pass.
This breccia has a rather remarkable appearance. It
consists of a hard, dark grey matrix, in which are set
numerous fragments of quartz and orthoclase; the quartz
grains are up to one-third of an inch across, and irregular
in shape, while the orthoclase crystals are up to three-
quarters of an inch in length, some of them being idio-
morphic. The rock has probably been formed by the
disintegration and subsequent cementation of the under-
lying granite. It is thought not to be of pyroclastic
origin.

The Upper Coal Measures consist chiefly of soft, pale-
grey shales with a Glossopteris-Gangamopteris flora.
Sandstones are frequently interstratified with the shales,
and a few thin coal-seams are interbedded.

The Upper Coal Measures are found under the dolerite
sills of Mts. Bocoble, Tongbong, Cargalgong and Boiga,
and under the Triassic outliers which form the eastern
boundary of the district. The series is about 140 feet
thick.

The Upper Coal Measures and the Upper Marine
Series are not absolutely horizontal, but dip very gently
to the north-east. Towards the west of the district the
dip was found to be about 4° in a direction N. 58° E.
In the eastern areas the values obtained were 0° 50’ in

ve

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 225

a direction N. 63° E. The overlying Triassic sandstones
also conform to this gentle dip. ,

The Triassic System.

The Triassic sediments are limited to the eastern part
of the area, where they outcrop under the basalt caps of
Cumbermelon Mountain, Mt. Fitzgerald and the “High
Basaltic Mountain”. The series is thickest on Cumber-
melon Mountain, where a thickness of 520 feet was
measured. Both the Narrabeen and Hawkesbury Series
are present, the former being only about 80 feet thick,
while the latter is 440 feet. The Chocolate Shale horizon
is well marked on Cumbermelon Mountain. The Hawkes-
bury Series has numerous horizons of conglomerates with
pebbles of milk-white quartz; these conglomerates may
possibly represent beach deposits on the shores of a large
freshwater lake. The Narrabeen Series is finer-grained
and somewhat massive in its upper horizons. It forms
a smooth, vertical cliff about 30 feet high, which extends
along the western side of Cumbermelon Mountain.

The Triassic sediments thin rather rapidly to the
south. On Mt. Fitzgerald they are 290 feet thick and
on Cherry Tree Hill only 195 feet. This matter will be
dealt with in connection with the overlying basalts.

It is difficult to say precisely where the western margin
of the Triassic sandstones originally lay. It is probable
that they covered the coal-measures of Mts. Bocoble,
Cargalgong, Boiga and Tongbong, and that the dolerite
sills which now cap these mountains were injected
between the Upper Coal Measures and the Triassic
sandstones.

The Tertiary Group.

There are no Tertiary sediments within the district,
but evidence of the extensive volcanic activity of this
era occurs in several localities. It is thought that both
sill- and flow-remnants are present; post-Tertiary erosion
has removed the greater portions of the once widespread
intrusions and extrusions, and the hills which are now
capped by dolerite and basalt are monadnocks above the
general level of the plateau.

Mts. Boiga, Cargalgong, Bocoble and Tongbong are
capped by dolerite, while Cumbermelon Mountain, High

226 P. M. GAME.

Basaltic Mountain, Mt. Fitzgerald, Bradley’s Head and
Cherry Tree Hill have resistant basalt caps. The four
first-named mountains differ from the others in that the
dolerite covers Upper Coal Measures, whereas the basalt
caps Triassic sandstone.

It will be seen, therefore, that the dolerite occupies a
horizon stratigraphically below the basalt, as might be
expected if both sill and flow were produced at the same
period. However, owing to the gentle N.E. dip of the
Coal Measures and the overlying Triassic strata, the
height above sea-level of the bases of the sills and flows
is, approximately, the same.

It will now be well to set forth the evidence for
assigning an intrusive nature to some of these occurrences
and an extrusive origin to others.

It was originally thought that all the monadnocks
were capped by basalt flows. Quite recently, however,
the author found Upper Marine sandstones and grits
above the igneous rock on Tongbong Mt. This rock,
therefore, must be intrusive, and the internal evidence
obtained by megascopic and microscopic examination
tends to support this contention. Now the igneous sheets
of Mts. Bocoble, Cargalgong and Boiga occupy the same
stratigraphical horizon as that of Tongbong Mountain,
and are petrologically identical with the dolerite of this
hill. Since no evidence in opposition to an intrusive
origin for these remnants has been found, they too will
be classified as sills. Turning now to the remaining
monadnocks, we find stratigraphical evidence to suggest
that they are capped by flows and not sills. The igneous
sheets are found to transgress the bedding-planes of the
underlying Triassic sandstones. Thus the thickness of
Triassic strata on Cumbermelon Mountain is 520 feet,
on Mt. Fitzgerald 295 feet, and on Cherry Tree Hill only
195 feet. It is unlikely that the Triassic measures are
thinning in a south-east direction (as might at first be
inferred from the figures given above) ; it is much more
probable that the Triassic beds were gently tilted before
the Tertiary era, and that a true peneplain was then
cut out of the gently dipping sediments during the
Tertiary Era, but before the Oligocene Period. Thus the
almost horizontal surface of this Early Tertiary pene-
plain would not be quite accordant with the bedding-

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 227

planes of the sandstones. The outpouring of Oligocene
basalts over the peneplain, and subsequent uplift, would
produce precisely the relationship observed to-day.

Both flows and sills are thought to be of Early
Tertiary age (probably Oligocene). Erosive agencies
have removed the greater portion of the igneous sheets,
and have also cut down more than 1,700 feet into the
underlying strata. Broad, mature valleys now exist at
this level below the summits of the sills and flows. It
is demanding rather much of erosion to presume that it
could accomplish this amount of denudation since the
Pliocene Period. Furthermore, basalts are found at
Gulgong, in the Cudgegong Valley, 2,000 feet below those
which cap Cumbermelon Mt., etc. This indicates that a
considerable time elapsed after the Early Tertiary out-
break, during which erosion exposed the old Carboni-
ferous peneplain and carved the U-shaped valley of the
Cudgegong River in the Paleozoic rocks. This mature
valley then became filled with the Late Tertiary
(Pliocene) basalts. hg

This argument requires a considerable uplift after the
outpouring of the Oligocene basalts and before the close
of the Tertiary Era, i.c., before the Kosciusko uplift.
Several periods of uplift and peneplanation are known
to have occurred during the Tertiary Era, although the
amount of each uplift and the period in which it occurred
are still unknown.

The thickness of the respective igneous cappings and
the height of their bases above sea-level are given below
(all figures only approximate) :

Height of Base

Sills— Above S.L. Thickness.
- Mt. Bocoble tte Ghee ne. Os SUL LEn aces 340 ft.

Mt. Cargalgong Pie Moss or lOOmntae Ay. 335 ft.
Tongbong Mt.

Flows—
Cumbermelon Mt. .... 3,250ft. .. 155 ft.
High Basaltie Mt, .. .. 3,275ft. .. 120 ft.
Cherry Tree Hill .. .. 3,300ft. .. 200 ft.

There has been no magmatic differentiation in any of
the flows or sills examined; the types are simple dolerites
and basalts. They vary in grainsize and in fabric, but
there appears to be no method of distinguishing, by
purely petrological means, between the intrusive and
extrusive types. The dolerite from Mt. Bocoble is typical

228 P. M. GAME.

of the sills. It contains plagioclase (about AbsoAngo),
augite, olivine and magnetite. There is a well-developed
ophitic fabric, and the order of crystallization appears to
be: olivine, labradorite, magnetite, augite. The Tongbong
Mt. dolerite contains a. little interstitial analcite, and
this mineral is probably present in the other dolerites
also.

The basalt from Cumbermelon Mt. is somewhat similar
in appearance; it contains the same four minerals, but
there is no typical ophitic fabric. This basalt is quite
strongly magnetic and polar, due to the abundance of
magnetite. There is no flow-structure. The plagioclase
is close to Abs7Ans3. A little biotite occurs in this rock,
and the occurrence of this mica is admittedly unusual in
flows. However, in the centre of a thick flow conditions
may approximate to those obtaining in sills.

‘ Pleistocene and Recent.

Deposits of alluvium occur along the valley of the
Cudgegong River and its tributaries; also fertile alluvial
flats are found along Lawson’s Creek valley and its
tributaries. Both streams have reached the stage of
maturity along the greater portions of their courses. In
their lower reaches, towards Mudgee, both valleys become
senile in character, and very extensive fertile alluvial
flats have been developed around this town. Since the
streams have cut their channels through a great variety
of rock-types, the alluvial soil deposited is rich in plant
foods. The alluvium of both valleys contains traces of .
gold and other precious minerals. Diamonds were first
recorded from this State in the Cudgegong valley. Other
non-metallic minerals include topaz and barytes, while,
of the ore minerals, cinnabar, cassiterite and magnetite
are the most important. The depth of the alluvium is
considerable in many places. Prospecting shafts have
been sunk 45 feet through unconsolidated sediment
without reaching bedrock.

IGNEOUS INTRUSIVES.

The intrusions are all of the Kanimbla epoch; no
synchronous bathyliths occur in the district. Two bosses
of granite have been mapped, and a great many intrusions
of quartz-porphyry and allied types occur. These are

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 229

of various shapes and dimensions. Many of them are
irregular in plan, although some are typical sills and
dykes. They are intruded into the folded Silurian and
Devonian strata and underwent peneplanation during the
Carboniferous and the early part of the Permian periods.

The larger of the two granite intrusions is the boss
which outcrops to the south of Cudgegong. The Ilford-
Cudgegong road crosses the granite, which is seen from
the 24- to the 30-mile peg. Outcrops are not very numer-
ous except near the margin of the granite. The granite
itself is a rather acid type, and is generally somewhat
weathered, due to its long exposure to atmospheric
weathering agencies. It is medium-grained, with a
general light grey body-colour. At the margins it is
locally porphyritic with phenocrysts of pink orthoclase,
some of which are 2 inches long and 1 inch broad. In
thin sections the following minerals can be distinguished:
quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase (acid andesine), biotite,
apatite, ‘magnetite, muscovite, zircon, chlorite and
cassiterite.

The muscovite and chlorite have been formed from the
alteration of the felspars and of biotite. Magnetite is
very scarce. Apatite is mostly present as idiomorphic
inclusions in the biotite. Cassiterite is an interesting
accessory mineral; it is present as small, idiomorphic
prisms with a pale yellowish-brown colour.

The Havilah granite boss is smaller, but exposures
are more numerous and the rock is fresher. It is a
_porphyritic variety with phenocrysts of pink orthoclase.
Biotite is abundant; and zircon and apatite are acces-
sory minerals. The plagioclase is found to be albite. This
granite is therefore a porphyritic biotite type.

These two granite bosses have well-marked contact-
metamorphic aureoles. That surrounding the Cudgegong
intrusion is wider than might be expected from a com-
paratively small intrusive mass, being a mile wide in
places. It is probable that the granite dips gently away
from the ground surface, and would be found at no great
distance below the surface over much of the surrounding
country.

- The intrusions of porphyry types are exceedingly
numerous throughout the district. They are of varied
Shapes and of all dimensions. One of the commonest

230 P. M. GAME.

petrological types is a quartz-porphyry, with a deep
purplish-black body colour and numerous phenocrysts of
quartz and orthoclase. It is hard, but extremely brittle.
It is regularly jointed, the joints giving the appearance
of bedding-planes when seen at some little distance. This
rock forms the sills which intrude the Upper Devonian
series in the Oakey Creek area. Some of the types show
a well-developed flow-structure locally. One such type
occurs to the north-east of Limestone Creek, in the Parish
of Tannabutta, and forms a high ridge between the creek
and the Cudgegong-Mudgee road. In several places this
rock might be mistaken for a typical rhyolite, but it
is a quartz-porphyrite grading into a quartz-felsite. It
sometimes has a rather curious greenish-grey body-colour
with a somewhat greasy lustre, but most specimens are
light coloured and highly siliceous in appearance.

The porphyry which has been dissected by Carwell
Creek above the limestone quarries is also a somewhat
uncommon type. It has a light green colour, and is not
completely massive, but contains some elongated streaks
of a dark green cherty type. Phenocrysts of quartz, but
no felspar phenocrysts, can be seen. The groundmass
is dull green and stony in appearance. In thin section
small, corroded phenocrysts of quartz and numerous
elongated patches of a fibrous mineral, which may be
an amphibole or bleached biotite, are seen. The original
felspars have been completely altered, and are not recog-
nizable in the slide. The groundmass is extremely fine-
grained and rich in sericite, which forms parallel bands,
giving the impression of a flow-structure.

One more igneous type may be mentioned, since it
occupies very large areas in parts of the district. It is
a quartz-felsite, which intrudes the Silurian formation —
on the Cudgegong-Rylstone road. Good outcrops occur
along the road where it crosses Pors. 13, 12, 51, 52, 55
and 58, Parish of Wells. The small tributary of the
Cudgegong River, which flows across Por. 3 in a north-
west direction, has carved a vertical bluff about 150
feet high through this resistant rock-type.

This felsite has a dull white body-colour and numerous
small, angular inclusions of hematite, which forms
pseudomorphs after pyrites. Also negative crystals of
pyrites are common. The green patches seen in most ©

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GEOLOGICAL MAP
OF THE

UDGEGONG DISTRICT

LEGEND

POST - TERTIARY
~~ 4 Alluvium

TERTIARY

Basalts and Dolerites
TRIASSIC an Hawkesbury and

Narrabeen Series

KAMILAROI =
Upper Coal Measures

o°0 0 @
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00°90
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| Upper Marine Series

UPPER DEVONIAN \| Quartzites, Conglomerates,
\\ Acid Tuffs and Clay-Slates

| Limestones

MIDDLE DEVONIAN 7
SSM) Clay-Slates

Limestones

’64) Limestone Breccia and
aa 4) Limestone Conglomerate

bal Tuffs (acid)
bien Limestones

Conglomerates

Felspathic Tuffs
Clay-Slates and Quarizites

Granile
Quartz- Porphyry,

Quartz -Felsite
and Quartz - Porphyrite

Journal Roya

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2323334

1 Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX VIII, 1935, Plate VIII.

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GEOLOGICAL MAP
OF THE

_CUDGEGONG DISTRICT

LEGEND

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Au

Basin Al
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POST - TERTIARY

Alluvium

TERTIARY

Basalts and Dolerites
TRIASSIC fe Hawkesbury and

Narrabeen Series

KAMILAROI =
Upper Coal Measures

Upper Marine Series

UPPER DEVONIAN | Quarizites, Conglomerates,
\\\ Acid Tuffs and Clay-Slates

Limestones
ays MIDDLE DEVONIAN -
Ae
uy Clay-Slates
a
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aN Limestones

Limestone Breccia and
Limestone Conglomerate

30
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Conglomerates
Felspathic Tuffs

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GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 231

specimens are thought to be chloritized pyroxene. The
groundmass appears to consist chiefly of fine-grained
quartz and some secondary sericitic fibres.

Space does not permit of further descriptions of other
Kanimbla intrusive rocks. All the types are acid and
hypabyssal in character. The area occupied by these
rocks is very considerable, as may be seen by reference
to the general map of the district.

This epoch of igneous activity has been responsible
for the introduction of several metallic ore-minerals, such
as gold, molybdenite and chalcopyrite. The deposits have
been worked in various parts of the district, but an
account of their occurrence cannot be given here.

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY.

In the Silurian Period the sea covered this district.
Vigorous volcanic activity produced fragmental material
and lava flows; both products accumulated on the sea-
floor together with re-sorted volcanic products, which
were washed down by streams from the land-surface. The
sea-floor underwent slow subsidence, allowing the
accumulation of a great thickness of tuffs and lavas.
All traces of the Silurian volcanic vents have now been
obliterated. Later in Silurian time deposition tempor-
arily ceased, and limestone-making conditions occurred.
The Upper Silurian sea was shallow, clear and warm,
and small coral reefs existed in it. Some lime was also
precipitated by chemical reactions. Towards the end of
the Silurian Period the old land surface had been largely
worn down, until it had little relief. The old streams
could only transport the finest material to the sea, and
this deposition of silt continued uninterruptedly for a
long time.

No orogenesis took place at the close of this period,
but the land-surface may have been uplifted, rejuvenating
the streams, which once more transported coarse material
to the oceans, fragmentary volcanic material and gravel
intermixed. |

The waters again became clear, and extensive coral
reefs grew upwards from the shallow, subsiding sea-floor.
A brief period of vulcanism followed; this gave place to
another long interval of quiescence, during which the
mature streams deposited mud and finer material not
far from the shore-line.

T—December 5, 1934.

232 P. M. GAME.

At the close of Middle Devonian time either:

1. Erosion became more vigorous, due to some climatic
change or to an uplift of the land surface, or

2. A general uplift of the sea-floor occurred, with an
advance of the Devonian shore-line.

As a result much coarser material was deposited con-
formably on the finer sediments beneath. Deposition
of this coarse material, mixed with some volcanic frag-
mental material, kept pace with subsidence of the sea-
floor. The water was often extremely shallow, and the
sands were even exposed at intervals. The water was
warm and brachiopods dominated the life of these
Devonian seas.

The widespread orogenesis of the Kanimbla epoch
closed the Devonian Period, and this earth-movement was
followed by a very long period of quiescence, in which
erosive agents formed an extensive peneplain from the
uplifted land-surface. In Upper Marine time the sea
encroached upon this peneplain and covered it except
for some isolated resistant hills, which had not been
reduced to base-level, and remained as islands. Shingle
followed by sands and muds was deposited in the Upper
Marine sea, which was cold and inhospitable to organic
life in this district. Glacial conditions may have pre-
vailed at the beginning of the epoch. At the close of
Upper Marine time the sea became excluded from the
area by a rise of the sea-floor, and the region was occupied
by a shallow, marshy lake, in which decaying vegetation
accumulated, the climate being warm and humid. A
time of stillstand then occurred, followed by a deepening
of the lake. In Triassic time vigorous deposition of
coarse sandy material took place in this lake. The region
then underwent elevation and very slight tilting.

A long period of erosion followed, and, at the beginning
of the Tertiary Era, a peneplain once again existed. In
Oligocene time extensive igneous activity occurred, and
basalts were outpoured upon this peneplain, and sills of
dolerite were injected below the surface. Several periods
of uplift and peneplanation followed; finally, at the

close of the Tertiary Era, the great epeirogenic Kosciusko ~

uplift took place and the region was raised some 3,000
feet. Since this uplift, denudation has proceeded

——

GEOLOGY OF THE CUDGEGONG DISTRICT. 2a

uninterruptedly, and has exposed the surface of the old
uplifted Carboniferous peneplain.

SUMMARY.

The oldest strata in the district are of Upper Silurian
age, but the base of this system has not been found. The
Silurian sequence comprises a thick horizon of tuffs and
lavas, passing upwards through conglomerates and lime-
stones into slates.

There is no unconformity between the Silurian and
the overlying Devonian strata. At Havilah Upper
Devonian beds rest conformably on Upper Silurian. At
Cudgegong and Carwell Creek a Middle Devonian

- sequence intervenes.

The Silurian and Devonian strata are intruded by acid
plutonic and hypabyssal types of the Kanimbla epoch, and
these older Palseozoic rocks are contorted and faulted.
A well-developed peneplain was cut out of the older
series during the Carboniferous and the early part of the
Permian periods. The Upper Marine Series, Upper Coal
Measures and Triassic sandstones are almost horizontally
bedded, and rest, with a high angular unconformity, on
the bevelled, upturned edges of the older, tilted strata.
The Triassic rocks are covered by thick basalt flows;
thick sills of dolerite have intruded the Kamilaroi strata.
Both basalts and dolerites are believed to be of Early
Tertiary age. The hills capped by these basic igneous
Sheets are all of the monadnock type.

Fertile alluvial plains occur along the main river
valleys, which are now at a mature stage of their
development.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The author is deeply indebted to the officers of the
R.A.A.F., who prepared the aerial photographs from
which the large-scale map of part of the district has been
prepared. He also wishes to record appreciation of the
help given by the late W. S. Dun, whose determinations
of the fossil fauna were of the greatest value. His sincere
thanks are due to Mr. L. L. Waterhouse and Dr. W. R.
Browne for their invaluable help and advice, and to all
those residents of Cudgegong who helped to make his
visits so pleasant. Finally, he is extremely grateful to
Mr. and Mrs. White, of Havilah, whose warm hospitality
he deeply appreciates.

234 S. C. BAKER.

TESTING A LUMMER-GEHRCKE |
INTERFEROMETER.

ITs USE IN A SEARCH FOR ABNORMALITY IN THE RELATIVE
ABUNDANCE OF THE ISOTOPES OF A SPECIAL SAMPLE
OF MERCURY.

By 8S. C. BAKER, M.Sc.
(With Plate IX and one Text-figure.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 19384.)

THE INTERFEROMETER.

In the investigation a Hilger Constant Deviation
Spectrograph, type D, was used; in this type one arm is
extended in order that the Lummer-Gehrcke plate‘)
or other interference apparatus may be mounted between
the collimator and the prism. The parallel faces of the
L.G. plate are horizontal, so that the spectral lines are
broken into a system of horizontal lines—the interference
pattern.

The ordinary spectrum is viewed through a horizontal
slot 2 em. wide, but only a few fringes of the interference
pattern of each line can be seen through it. If the camera
be rotated until this slot is vertical then the whole of the
vertical interference pattern of one line or two close lines
can be seen through it. The prism is rotated to bring the
desired line into view. With this arrangement, however,
the magnified image of the slit is curved (Plate IX, Fig. 1)
because the angle of incidence of the light issuing from the
L.G. plate on to the prism varies.“° Because of this the
collimator and camera were interchanged. The light was
now dispersed before entering the L.G. plate, that is to say,
the light passed from the prism into the L.G. plate and
thence to the camera lens, by which it was focussed on
the photographic plate ; the fringes were now in a vertical
line. This arrangement of the apparatus is illustrated
by the diagram. A collimator slit which could be opened
to a width of 2:5 mm. was used, giving a wide interference
pattern which was easier to photometer.

TESTING A LUMMER-GEHRCKE INTERFEROMETER. 235

An interference pattern could be seen with almost any
adjustment of the plate, but it was found necessary, if
the fringe system was to be measured, to have the central
plane of the camera lens perpendicular to the L.G. plate
and its principal axis directed along the central plane of
the latter, otherwise the relation (7) below did not hold.
This arrangement rendered the fringes from the top and
bottom of the L.G. plate symmetrical about a centre which
was now easily found, there being no central ray from an
L.G. plate.

Before using this instrument for new work it was desirable
to test it and find out to what extent the actual performance

PLAN. ELEVATION.

R

Diagram illustrating arrange-
ment of Interferometer. LG

=" Cadmium: lamp.
E = Electrode tubes.
= Colour filter.
Nicol. prism. J
Slit.
Collimator.
Prism M
L L.G. plate.
= Photographic plate.
M = Camera.

of the plate coincided with what it was theoretically capable
of doing. Much depends on the plane-parallelism of the
faces, the slightest trace of dust affecting the sharpness of
the fringes to an extent easily seen with the eye. Again,
the plate had to be placed in position some time before
taking a photograph, because the warmth and moisture
from the hand distorted the fringes. Many early workers
found hyperfine lines in their photographs which were
really “ ghost’ lines due to irregularities in the plate.
The cadmium red line was used to test the plate.

I

HE I TH

HRAQAnRNMY

THE CADMIUM LAMP.

The type of lamp used by Michelson‘® was troublesome.
Lummer and Gehreke have described a quartz-cadmium

236 S. C. BAKER.

amalgam lamp‘ in which the amalgam has to be heated
with a blow-lamp to melt it, being then run like an ordinary
mercury vapour lamp. A similar lamp was made from
Pyrex glass, tungsten wire being used as electrode. (The
special glass made for sealing tungsten wire into Pyrex
was unprocurable.) When the wire was cleaned, by
repeatedly warming and then plunging it in a sodium
nitrite solution, and finally polishing with the thumbnail
(to avoid bubbles in the seal), the Pyrex did not adhere
to the glass very well, and a slightly leaky joint resulted ;
but it was found that if, after cleaning, the wire was held
in a broad oxygen-coal gas flame until it became biscuit-
coloured or purple, a good seal could be obtained if the
wire was sealed in quickly.

The lamp was of the H type in shape; the diameter of
the legs was 1-7 cm., and their length 10 cm. ; the diameter
of the cross-piece was 0-8 cm., and its length 10 cm.
The large size of the legs compared with the cross-piece
allowed the latter to carry an intense discharge without
melting. Connection to the amalgam within the lamp was
made through two tungsten-to-Pyrex joints which were
put in two short arms at the bottom of each leg of the lamp
so that they would not get very hot ; it was also convenient
to make the tungsten seals separately in these tubes before
joining to the lamp. Outer connection was made through
mercury caps over the ends of the tungsten joints. These
side-tubes were placed at right angles to the plane of the
H, so that when the tube was tilted to strike the lamp,
the amalgam remained in contact with the tungsten
electrodes.

The amalgam contained 10 gm. of cadmium to 100 gm.
of mercury, and was liquid at the room-temperature, so
that no preliminary heating was necessary. When
evacuated and sealed off, this lamp carried 5 amperes D.C.
when 100 volts were applied. It was struck by tilting,
like a Cooper-Hewitt mercury vapour lamp. When first
lighted only the mercury lines appeared, but after it had
been running a minute or more the cadmium lines appeared.
To the eye the cadmium red line appeared quite as strong
as the mercury green line, though the photographic plate
is far more sensitive to the latter. A small inductance
placed in the circuit had the effect of steadying the current.
The strongest lines in the visible spectrum of this lamp were :

The cadmium lines: 644, 509, 480, 468 mu.
The mercury lines: 599, 577, 546, 436 mu.

TESTING A LUMMER-GEHRCKE INTERFEROMETER. 237

THE RELATIVE INTENSITY OF THE INTERFERENCE FRINGES.

The cadmium-amalgam lamp was placed so that the
cross-piece of H was in the line of sight of the spectrograph
collimator. A nicol prism, placed before the collimator
slit, with its long axis vertical, polarised the light and
made the fringes very much sharper. A red colour-filter
was placed before the slit to eliminate a continuous back-
ground of the pattern. There were no lenses between the
lamp and collimator slit. Ilford Special Rapid Panchro-
matic Plates were used. The arrangement of the apparatus
is illustrated by the sketch, and a photograph of the
cadmium red line fringes for a two-minute exposure is
shown in Plate IX, Fig. 2.

The relative intensities of the fringes were measured by
taking on the same plate as the fringes a set of photographs
of a continuous spectrum, each for a different collimator
slit width but same time of exposure. (An incandescent
lamp was placed one metre from the slit, all interference
attachments of the spectrograph having been removed.)
From the measurements of the Moll recording micro-
photometer records of these spectra at the wavelength
of the cadmium red line, a curve of relative blackness
against slit-width was constructed (on logarithmic paper,
for convenience). The relative blackness of each fringe
having been worked out from its photometer curve, the
slit-width corresponding to this blackness was read off
the relative blackness slit-width curve. The ratio of these
slit-widths gives the relative intensity of the fringes.
This is the method worked out by Ornstein.‘®) In Table II,
columns 6 and 7, are the slit-widths found in the above
manner for the first five fringes of the cadmium red line
from two different plates. In the next two columns these
intensities are given as a percentage of the fifth fringe.
Thus the values given in columns 8 and 9 are the relative
intensities of the fringes in the interference pattern (based
on the fifth fringe 100, for convenience), and are to be
compared with the theoretical values in column 5, the
derivation of which is given below.

THE THEORETICAL INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION.

The intensity of a ray transmitted through a medium,
after multiple reflection, is given by Airy’s formula:
1 —~2)2
Fa ee eee ae ow ea (1)
(1 —a?)?+40? sin? =

238 S. C. BAKER.

where « is the coefficient of reflection and : the phase-

difference between an emergent and a reflected ray, the
intensity of the emergent ray being taken as unity. In
practice the number of reflections is not infinite, as equation
(1) assumes ; if the number of reflections be N, then that
equation becomes :

t= {a —2)!-44a* sin? (3) }—_C—* _
| (1 —a?)?++4a? sin? >

This correction makes the curve for I as a function of 5

less sharp, both diminishing the maximum intensity and
broadening the curve and introducing small secondary
maxima.
The coefficient of reflection « is given by the Fresnel
formula :
sin (r—i)
eae @a) 0100 (3)
the polariser being so oriented that this was the appropriate
one; iis the angle of emergence from and r the angle of
incidence within the plate; i is calculated by measuring
the distance between the same order fringe on either side
of the interference pattern with a travelling microscope.
Half this length is the distance of that fringe from the
centre of the pattern. In Table I the values x,, x,, eéfc.,
are the distances of the fringes p, p —1, etc., from the centre.
The ratio of these distances to the focal length of the camera
lens (53:5 cm.) is the tangent of the grazing angle (9)
of emergence from the plate (the values of » are given in
Table II), i is the complement of ¢, and r is found from
the relation |
SIN G==p, SID Toye cs. oe ee (4)
where wu is the refractive index of the glass. The values
of « can now be calculated from equation (3), and are
given in Table II. o and the length of the plate (13 cm.)
being known, the number of reflections (N) within the
plate is 17 for all fringes of the red line.
The maximum value of I is at 5 =0, hence
Timax) =U —a)? a (5)
The values of I(max.) for the first five fringes are given in
the fourth column of Table II. In the next column they

TESTING A LUMMER-GEHRCKE INTERFEROMETER. 239

are expressed as a percentage of the fifth, taken as 100,
and are to be compared with the observed values in columns
8 and 9. The agreement is within the experimental error

of 5%.

TABLE I.
Diterence
Distances of Fringes from Centre. V1
e (x; x1)

X,=0°678 cm. x,2=0-461 cm.

X,=0:945 ,, ~ Xgh=0r 911 *:,; 0-450
SUE 59 Xo OO ass 0-449
X,=1-:347__,, x,2=1-811 _,, 0-451
MeO 5, =O PAK 5, 0-449
Na -641 73, xe 2 OY ee 0-450

TABLE II.—Observed and Calculated Intensities.

Calculated Observed
Intensity. Intensity. % of 5th.
Order of Fringe. 0) od ee eit Frere
% of

I(max.)| 5th. (i) (ii) (i) (ii)
Dels:s etary | Ow 46-" | 0-974 | 0-348 53 | 0:120 | 0-175 | 50-7 | 50:0
p-1 be See de © 150-969). 0-430 65 | 0°157 | 0-232 | 66-3 | 66:3
p-2 a .. | 1° 15’ | 0-964 | 0:510 Ce WOO O27 la for onl var
p-3 Ate eae Gr | J02959) 10586 89 | 0-202 | 0-316 | 85-2 | 90°3

p-4 as -. | 2° 36’ | 0-952 | 0-660 | 100 | 0-237 | 0-350 |100 100
1 2 3 4 5 6 it 8 9

A further check on the reliability of the L.G. plate is
obtained from a consideration of the values of x in Table I.
The retardation q between two successive transmitted
rays from the plate of thickness t and refractive index p
is given by

ee UV A(ee Sin? 1) = Pp... co. + see eo os (6)
where pn is the order. If 2x,, 2x,---2xy be the distances
between the centres of the fringes taken in pairs, one being
on either side of the centre of the photograph, and b the
focal length of the camera lens, we have:

2
ee el)

De aAy/, u2—1
so that the quantity (x? x? ,) should be constant over the

whole fringe pattern, since » was actually a small angle,

240 S. C. BAKER.

as was assumed in deducing this formula. The values of

x?, x3... x? are given in Table I; it will be seen that

they are in arithmetical progression, and that the quantities
(x2—x?_,) are constant over the range measured; this

was not the case if the L.G. plate was n10e carefully
adjusted as previously described.

THE HALF-VALUE WIDTH.

The width of the photometer-curve at half the maximum
intensity is the experimental half-value width. The height
of the curve corresponding to half intensity must be read
off the relative blackness slit-width curve. The half-value
widths of the fringes p, p—1, etc., are given in Table III,
together with the distances between the adjacent fringes.
In order to compare with theory the half-value width of
p—1 is expressed as a ratio to the distance between the
centres of p and p —2, that of p—2 to the distance between
p—l and p—3, and soon. ‘The first fringe has only one
adjacent fringe, and so it is not given in the table. The
measurements for three different plates are given; the
third was obtained immediately after the cadmium lamp
had been lighted and when it was carrying a larger current
than for the other two, but with a stream of cold water
playing on it. In this case the ratios are consistently less
than the others, which shows that the width of the lines
was influenced by the treatment of the lamp.

The theoretical half-value width ratios were. obtained

by a graphical method from the curve: I against ;
[equation (2)]. They are given in Table III, and in the
fourth column are expressed as a ratio to 27, the distance
between the two adjacent maxima, for comparison with the

TABLE III.—Calculated and Observed Half-Value Widths.

| | iene:
etween
idths Maxima Ratio.

Order of 5 3/2 in Cm. ar Cin ERS SS ee

Fringe. a — a (ne Se A day E
2 2m a ee a

(i) | (ii) | Gi) | Gi) | (ii) | Gii)

p-l .. 10°969]10° 97/0:0303/0-18!0-18/0-16/3- 29/3: 32/3-31/0-055 0-054 0-048
p-2 .. 10°964/11° 1’/0-0308/0-17.0-17/0-15/2-91|2-89/2-88/0-058 0-059 0-052
p-3 .. |0°959]11° 3’/0-0314/0-14 0-°15)0-13)/2-53)2-55)2:54/0-056 0-059 0-051
p-4 ..- |0°952)11° 5’/0-03819)/0- oh 12/0:11/2:00/2-02/2-02/0-060 0O- Cae 055

TESTING A LUMMER-GEHRCKE INTERFEROMETER. 241

experimental ratios. Although the experimental maxima
are not evenly spaced, it can be shown that the comparison
is a fair one by plotting the curve ordinal number of fringe
against its distance from a fixed zero.

When it is remembered that the sharpness of the photo-
meter curves is limited by the width of the photometer
thermopile slit,“*) that the cadmium lamp was a very hot
one, on which cooling produced a measurable effect, and
that there may be spreading of the lines in the photography,
it must be considered satisfactory that the experimental
half-value width ratios are less than double the theoretical
values.

THe MERCURY GREEN LINE.

An approximate expression for the resolving power of
an L.G. plate is given”! by

Ou.

| ialng Pel pa

R.p -(v 1 russe] PUR aia Me (8)
where | is the length of the plate, and y its refractive index
at the wavelength 4. & was found to be —520 from a

dispersion curve, 1 being 13 cm. and uw 1-5107 at A 5461,
the resolving power is 334 x10%, according to which the
smallest change in wavelength which could be observed
at this wavelength is 0-016 A.

The mercury green line came out strongly in the cadmium
amalgam lamp. Its interference pattern consisted of a
set of wide mainline fringes, between each consecutive
pair of which were four fainter satellites (Plate IX, Fig. 3).
The wavelengths of the latter were measured by a method
due to McLennan,‘ which identified them as the

positive satellite No. 1 (0-079 A)
positive satellite No. 2 (0-120 A)
negative satellite No. 4 (—0-107 A)
negative satellite No. 3 (—0-075 A)

moving outwards from the centre. These wavelengths
differ from those of many modern workers, but are almost
identical with those given by McLennan.‘ It is known,
of course, that there are other satellites of this line, and that
the mainline consists of four close lines‘? ; in all the green
line has been resolved into twelve hyperfine lines. There
may have been some overlapping with this particular
L.G. plate.

242 S. C. BAKER.

ISOTOPES AND HYPERFINE STRUCTURE.

There have been many attempts to explain the hyperfine
structure of spectral lines in terms of the isotopes of the
emitting element. Schiller and Keyston have found it
possible so to control the temperature and pressure of a
mercury are lamp that the relative intensities of the
hyperfine lines are proportional to the relative abundance
of the isotopes as given by Aston.“ They assume the
mainline to be the sum of the effects of the even isotopes,
the satellites being assigned to the odd isotope 199 or 201.
Thus positive satellite No. 1 of the green line would be
due to isotope 199, positive No. 2 and negative Nos. 3 and
4 to isotope 201. In the case of the green line some of the
satellites due to the odd isotopes coincide with the mainline,
which makes its analysis more difficult.

A few grammes of mercury of Australian origin were
available for investigation ; owing to the nature of the
origin of this mercury it is possible that the proportions
of the isotopes differ from those of ordinary mercury.
If such is the case it might be possible to detect a difference
in the relative intensity of the hyperfine lines and hence
discover an irregularity in the isotopes of this mercury.
Even if the lamps were not adjusted to give Schiiler’s
‘“‘ theoretical intensity distribution ’’ it might be possible
to detect a difference. A search for such a different
intensity distribution was made.

There was not sufficient Australian mercury available
to make an arc lamp. The final method of excitation used
was the high frequency external electrode discharge
obtained from a Hartley oscillator operating at a wave-
length of 50 metres. The oscillator was coupled to a coil
which was in parallel with a large condenser and the
discharge tube. External electrodes of tin-foil were used.
The tube was 40 cm. long and 4 cm. in diameter. (In a
long tube the weaker satellites are relatively strengthened)
and it does not become so hot.) The pressure was
maintained at 0-1 mm. during an exposure. The same
tube was used for both types of mercury. Three-hour
exposures were necessary to obtain the fainter satellites.

The relative intensities of the satellites were measured
in the same way as described above for the cadmium red
line fringes. A collimator slit width-relative blackness
curve was constructed for each plate. From this a slit-
width corresponding to its relative blackness was read off
for each satellite. The slit-widths thus obtained from

TESTING A LUMMER-GEHRCKE INTERFEROMETER, 243

three different plates are given in Table IV under the |
heading “‘ Intensity ”. They are expressed as a percentage
of the first positive satellite in the last three columns for
comparison. Similar measurements are given from two
plates of the Australian mercury. It will be seen that there
is no consistent difference between the relative intensities
for the two types of mercury, the difference between the
mean percentage for any satellite being less than 2% ;
hence there is no difference between the two samples of
mercury within 2°%, so far as these satellites are concerned.

TABLE IV.
Order. Satellite. Intensity. Percentage.
_ Ordinary Mercury.
Dp... as af +1 0:375 | 0:250 | 0-310 | 100 100 100
+2 0-197 | 0:132 | 0-165 52-6 52-8 58-1
—4 0:202 | 0°135 | 0-169 53°9 54:0 54:6
—3 0:324 | 0:215 | 0:260 86:4 86:0 84-0
p-1 +1 0:480 | 0:350 | 0-411 | 100 100 100
+2 0:270 | 0:179 | 0-216 56:3 51:2 52°5
—4 0:278 | 0:186 | 0-222 57-9 53:2 54-0
—3 0-407 | 0:290 | 0:342 84°7 82°8 83:2
Australian Mercury.
Diaie:s mn ae +1 0:238 | 0°347 100 100
+2 0:130 | 0:195 54-7 56-2
—4 0-133 | 0-200 55-8 57-6
—3 0-207 | 0-290 87-0 83:6
p-l +1 0:350 | 0-460 100 100
+2 0-18 0-248 52-3 54-0
—4 0:185 | 0:253 52°8 5-0
—3 0:286 | 0:370 | 81°8 80°5

The first positive satellite and mainline were next
compared ; since the intensity of the latter was much
greater than that of the former, an intensity reducer was
placed before the wide collimator slit. This reducer was a
photographic plate having several panels, each of different
blackness, on it. The appropriate panel was placed half
across the slit so as to divide it vertically into a lighter and
darker half, so that now each fringe of the interference
pattern was also divided into a lighter and a darker half.
In the lighter half the blackness of the mainline was
comparable with the blackness of the satellite in the
lighter half (see Plate IX, Fig. 4).

In Table V the slit-widths for this satellite (unreduced)
and the mainline (reduced) read off a slit width-relative
blackness curve, are given under the heading “‘ Intensity ”

244 S. C. BAKER.

without regard to the reduction factor of the reducer ;
it was unnecessary to make this correction, as a difference
only between the two types of mercury was sought in the
first instance. The intensity of the satellite is expressed
as a percentage of the mainline under the heading
“Percentage ’’. The first two sets of readings are for
ordinary, the third for Australian mercury ; again there
is not a consistent difference.

TABLE V.
Order. Satellite. Intensity. Percentage.
D. ae Ae Mainline. 0-144 | 0-185 | 0-177 | 100 100 100
spl 0-110 | 0:137 | 0-132 76:5 74:1 74:5
p-1 ae a Mainline. 0-163 | 0-199 | 0-188 | 100 100 100
pal 0-124 | 0°146 | 0-148 76°3 73°5 76°1

On the spectroscopic evidence obtained by this study of
the green line it is concluded that there is no difference
to within 2% between the two types of mereury. In
Schiler’s theory this would indicate that the relative
abundance of the isotopes of the Australian mercury is
normal to within the same limit.

SUMMARY.

An account is given of the use of the cadmium red line
to test the Lummer-Gehrcke plate. No ghost lines were
found. The cadmium lamp is described. The relative
intensities and half-value widths of the interference fringes,
measured by a photographic method, are compared with
the theoretical values calculated from data of the apparatus.
In the former case the agreement is within the experimental
error (5%), in the latter the actual half-value widths are
nearly twice the theoretical ; this discrepancy is accounted
for by the experimental limitations. The resolving power
of the L.G. plate is found to be 334x103, the mercury
green line being resolved into five components.

A comparison of the relative intensities of the satellites
of the green line emitted by the two samples of mercury—
one Australian, the other foreign—when excited by a
high-frequency discharge, is made. ‘There is no difference
to within 2%. This is taken as an indication that there is
no difference in the relative abundance of the isotopes of
the two samples.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX VIII, 1954, Plate LX.

WNT | 1

MM

HINT LY TTIII

OMNIA

CLES -

SY IIS ES -
SS
ee

a no :
a :

ANIL LL | 11 141111010
Ti] 4

TESTING A LUMMER-GEHRCKE INTERFEROMETER. 245

In conclusion the author wishes to express to Professor
O. U. Vonwiller his sincere appreciation of ever-ready
advice and constant encouragement throughout this
investigation, and to acknowledge his indebtedness to the
Cancer Research Committee of the University of Sydney
for the use of their microphotometer.

This work was carried out in the Physics Laboratory of
the University of Sydney.

REFERENCES.

™ Aston: Proc. Roy. Soc., 1154, 1927.

(2) Housekeeper: Journ. Amer. Inst. Elect. Eng., 42, 954, 1923.
8) Lummer & Gehrecke: Ann. der Phys., 10, 1903.

(4) ________; Zeit. fur Instrumentenkunde, 24, 1904.

(5) McLennan: Proc. Roy. Soc., 904A, 1914.

(6) Michelson: Trav. et Mem. du B. Int. des Poids et Mes., II, 1894.
(7) Nagaoka: Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond., 25, 1912; 29, 1917.

(8) Ornstein: Proc. Roy. Soc., 37, 1925.

(9) Schiller & Keyston: Zest. fur Phys., 72, 1931; 73, 1932.

0) Searle: Experimental Optics.

41) Simeon: Journ. of Sci. Inst., 10, 1924.

42) Tolansky : Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Lond., 42, 1930.

(13) White: Phys. Rev., Ser. 2, Vol. 34.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. 1—The mercury green (upper) and yellow (lower) interference
patterns showing curving.

Fig. 2.—The cadmium red line pattern.

Fig. 3.—The mercury green and yellow lines showing satellites.
(In the original the satellites were stronger relative to the mainline
than reproduced here.)

Fig. 4.—A full plate with density marks and the mercury green and
yellow with reducer across.

246 ¥F. A. COOMBS, W. McGLYNN AND M. B. WELCH.

NOTES ON WATTLE BARKS.

Part IV—THE TANNIN CONTENT OF A VARIETY
OF ACACIA MOLLISSIMA WILLD.

By F. A. Coomss, AACL,

W. McG Lynn,
Tanning School, Sydney Technical College,

and M. B. WELCH, B.Sc., A.I.C.,
Sydney Technological Museum.

(With Plate X.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1984.)

INTRODUCTION.

About twelve years ago an investigation was commenced
to determine the tannin content of various wattle barks by
modern analytical methods, attention being directed
particularly to the pinnate-leaved species of the Acacia
decurrens group.

It has generally been accepted, both in Australia and
abroad, that the Black Wattle, A. mollissima Willd.,
yields one of the most valuable tan-barks, and a number
of samples were collected and analysed.t

It was soon found that certain trees occurring in the
Bargo district, about sixty miles south of Sydney, were
not typical A. mollissima and could readily be separated
on taxonomic grounds from that species. As the investiga-
tion progressed other localities were found, many being
widely separated, in which this form occurs. In the Bargo
district the variety is associated with A. decurrens and
A. mollissima ; in the Goulburn district with A. decurrens
only ; at Cockwhy Creek, a few miles north of Bateman’s
Bay, with A. mollissima and A. irrorata (pauciglandulosa),
and in certain other areas with A. irrorata only. In its
flowering period it is similar to A. mollissima, and the pods

1 Welch, Coombs and McGlynn: Notes on Wattle Barks, Part III.
THIS JOURNAL, 1931, 65, 207-231.

NOTES ON WATTLE BARKS. 247

also take some twelve months to mature. The trees are
similar in general appearance, but the leaves of the variety
are typically shorter, more glabrous, and paler in colour,
and the pinnules are considerably coarser than those of the
species. The variety has been found growing on sandstone,
shale and limestone soils (though it appears to reach its
maximum distribution on the last formation), and from
sea-level to an elevation of a little over 2,000 feet. Whilst
the distribution has been found to be chiefly in areas south
of Sydney, this is possibly because these have been examined
more thoroughly, and the range will no doubt be found to
be more extensive.

Since the tannin content is reasonably high and there
are undoubted affinities between this form and A. mollissima
it is considered that no useful purpose would be served by
increasing the multiplicity of species, and it is therefore
proposed to call it Acacia mollissima var. A.

ACACIA MOLLISSIMA VAR. A.
Description.

A medium-sized tree up to 15 m. in height and 45 cm.
diameter.. Bark usually smooth, brown in colour, rossed
in old or diseased trees.

Leaves, branchlets and pods tomentose when young,
becoming glabrous, or almost so; young shoots golden
yellow ; branchlets occasionally slightly glaucous. Leaves
up to 150 mm. in length. Pinnez usually opposite, broad
linear, usually 5 to 10 mm. in width, but in luxuriant growth
up to 15 mm. in width ; 3 to 11 pairs; length usually not
exceeding 60 mm. Glands 1 to 4 between each pair of
pinne, variable in size and shape; secondary glands
rarely present at the base of the pinne.

Pinnules usually crowded, rarely overlapping, and often
spaced, the gap as much as twice the width of the pinnule,
length 4-10 mm. ; 0-5-1-2 mm. in width; larger pinnules
frequently strongly curved, a character not found in A.
mollissima.

Flowers 5-merous, 20 to 40 in head ; calyx shortly lobed,
ciliate ; petals glabrous, usually in racemes or occasionally
in small panicles. Pods usually under 5 mm. in width
and 120 mm. in length, sometimes constricted between
seeds. Flowering period December and January, pods
taking twelve months to ripen.

U—December 5, 1934.

248 ¥F. A. COOMBS, W. McGLYNN AND M. B. WELCH.

Distribution.

Narrabeen, Whale Beach, Kingswood, Bass Hill,
Burragorang, Bargo, Belanglo, Windellama, Gurrundah,
Towrang, Bungonia, Marulan, Cockwhy Creek.

Tannin Analyses.
Moisture 11:5%.

Bark Non-
Thickness, Tannin. Tannin. Height. Girth. Locality.
(mm.) (m.) (cm.)
4:°6-4°8 51°5 9:5 oO 46 Bargo.
5:-0-5:3 45-4 9-9 8 65 Bargo.
5-5-5-8 45-1 8-6 7 50 Bargo.
4:-7-5:°3 43-7 10:4 7 58 ° | Gurrundah.
5-2-5-4 ‘40-7 2, 6 135 Gurrundah.
4°5 40-4 9-5 a 52 Marulan.
4:2-5:0 39°8 9:2 8 45 Bargo.
4-5-5-0 39°6 {33 7 58 Gurrundah.
3:8-4:2 38°8 10-0 ou 41 Bargo.
3:°6-5°5 OD Los a 47 Bungonia.
3:2-3°9 34-0 PAST 8 40 Belanglo.
3°4-3:°5 32°5 6:8 8 107 Windellama.
4°8-5:-2 ByAOa 8-3 6 47 Windellama.
4-7-6°6 28-0 6-9 7 47 Bungonia.
3:°4-5:°5 26°5 lad) 6 40 Towrang.
3-7-6:0 23°6 8-2 4 35 Windellama.
4-0 22-9 6-9 5 37 Towrang.

The ratio of tannin to non-tannins is 4:8 in the case
of A. mollissima,2 whereas in variety A the ratio is 4-4.
Whilst some of the lowest tannin values are lower than any
yet recorded by us for A. mollissima, it will be noted that
they are from rather small trees, although the bark is not
abnormally thin. The results show that the variety may
yield a very useful bark, similar in colour and general
properties to that of A. mollissima, but the wide variation
in the results indicates that caution should be exercised in
stripping this form until the tannin value of average
samples from the locality has been proved.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Acacia mollissima var. A. For comparison a typical leaf of
A. mollissima is included. Each square is 25 x 25 mm.

2 Welch, Coombs and McGlynn, loc. cit.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX VIII,

!

Acacia mollissima var. A.

1934, Plate

ae
Ml >
;
:
;
nes :
ot
~~
a
‘
Se ee
> N
k
.
t
t
:

VARIATION OF TIMBER DURING SEASONING. 249

THE LONGITUDINAL VARIATION OF TIMBER
DURING SEASONING.

PART a:

By M. B. WELCH, B.Sc., A.I.C.,*
Technological Museum, Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1934.)

In 1932 the results of a number of measurements of the
longitudinal variation of timber during seasoning were
published and it was noted that whilst most timbers
showed a normal shrinkage, others actually increased in
length. It was found that in the same species both
shrinkage and swelling could occur.

Since the date of that publication further measurements
have been made, and it is of interest to compare the density
of the woods with the length-variation during seasoning.
Koehler? has recorded that Redwood (Sequoia semper-
virens) of low density, which consisted almost entirely of
early wood, shrank appreciably, whereas wood of the
same species with a high density and consisting of late
wood shrank very little and even elongated.

A comparison is made between the movement from the
green condition to the fibre-saturation point (approximately
30% moisture), from fibre-saturation point to the air-dry
condition (13°), and from the green to the air-dry condition.
The discrepancies between the total number of test pieces
in each case is due to the fact that in some test pieces the
original moisture content of the “‘ green ’’ wood was too
close to the fibre-saturation point, and these were not
included in the “ green ’’ class. Again, in a number of the

' * Acknowledgment is made to Messrs. F. B. Shambler and J. Hodges
of the Museum staff, who assisted very materially during the investiga-
tion, and to the Forestry Commissioners of N.S.W., who kindly arranged
for their field-staff to obtain the necessary wood samples.

1M. B. Welch: The Longitudinal Variation of Timber During

Seasoning. THis JouRNAL, 1932, 66, 492-7. Experimental details

are given, and need not be repeated.
2A. Koehler: Longitudinal Shrinkage of Wood. Trans. Amer,
mee. Mech. Lng., 1931, 53, WO!, 53, 2.

250 M. B. WELCH.

earlier measurements insufficient. records were made to
enable the length to be determined accurately at the fibre-
saturation point; these are included, however, in the
‘green to air-dry ”’ class.

The comparison of density and movement is een in
Table I.

TABLE I.—Comparison of density of wood and percentage of samples for each density
range which showed shrinkage or swelling, or was stationary during seasoning.

Green to f.s.p. f.s.p. to air-dry. Green to air-dry.

Wt. per

Cub. Ft.
in Lbs. Sh.|Sw.| 8. | No. | Sh.|Sw.} S. | No. | Sh. | Sw.| S. | No.

Yo. % Ye | (oaieedo Ya} Yon %

20-30 25 | 75 0 4 |100 0 0 4 | 67 | 33 6
30-40 31 |} 50 | 19 26 | 94 0 6 82 | 78 | 12 | 10 51
40-50 44 | 25 | 31 G1 | 6G e227 eee 64 | 61 | 32 7 66
50-60 34 {| 39) 27 | 1380) 73) Ub | aah) ABE GG ale25 9} 142
60-70 ee po | PAS | Bes Ih aL 39 || 44 | 86.1920 39 | 47 | 40 3 47
70-80 af ao | ay |b Pay OR 8 0 |100 0 11 0 | 87 | 138 8
Total .. | 84 | 86.) 30 | 268 | 67_| 21.) 125 281s 63Rie28 9 | 320

f.s.p.=fibre saturation-point.
Sh. = Shrinkage.

Sw. =Swelling.
S.=Stationary.
No.=Number of samples.

NoTE.—AIl densities are based on air-dry volume and weight (approximately 13%
moisture.

For the sake of convenience the densities have been
grouped in classes of 10 lbs., although unfortunately only
a few timbers were available in the lowest and highest
classes, and the results may not be representative.

An examination of the movement from a green condition
to the fibre-saturation point indicates that for all woods
approximately one-third shrank, one-third swelled and
one-third remained stationary. Woods with a density of
20 to 40 lbs. showed least tendency to remain stationary
and the greatest tendency to swelling, whereas from 60 to 80
Ibs. there was the greatest tendency to remain stationary.
With one exception, namely the 40-50 lbs. class, the number
of samples which swelled was greater than the number
which shrank.

From the fibre saturation-point to an air-dry condition
67% of all samples shrank, 21% swelled, and only 12%
remained stationary. In the 20-40 lbs. classes none of the
samples swelled, whereas in the 70-80 lbs. class all swelled.

VARIATION OF TIMBER DURING SEASONING. 251

With the exception of the 50-60 Ibs. class there is a
progressive decrease in the number of samples which
shrank and an increase in the number which swelled, as
the density increases.

During seasoning from a green to an air-dry condition,
swelling increased, in general, with density, with the
exception of the 20-30 lbs. and the 50-60 lbs. classes.
In the former only six samples were measured, and two of
these, of the same species, swelled ; it is obvious that many
more woods of this density should be examined. Although
only eight samples were measured in the 70-80 lbs. class,
none showed shrinkage.

The results suggest that from the green condition to the
fibre saturation-point the tendency is for the wood to
swell or remain stationary (66%), whilst from the fibre
saturation-point to the air-dry condition the tendency is
for shrinkage to occur (67%). It should be understood
that the swelling from green to f.s.p. was in many instances
minute, amounting to only 0:01%, the mean for all timbers
being 0:023%. The maximum swelling was 0-:10% in a
~ species of Sterculia with a density bringing it into the lowest
class. Whilst lack of space obviously forbids any attempt
to give the individual behaviour of each timber, it is of
interest to follow the movement of one piece of Sterculia
with an initial moisture content of 109% ; at 50% moisture
the swelling amounted to 0-:12%, at the f.s.p. it was
reduced to 0-10%, and in the remaining stages of drying
the swelling was successively 0:06%, 0:08% and, at the
air-dry state, 0:07%. Several woods with densities
varying from 30 to 60 lbs. per cu. ft. showed a swelling of
about 0:04%, but in the densest group the mean swelling
was only 0:015% from green to f.s.p.

Irregular movement was also observed in a number of
other woods. Thus in cases where shrinkage occurred from
green to f.s.p. greater shrinkage or actually swelling took
place at an intermediate point; again, timber which
swelled from green to f.s.p. occasionally showed a greater
swelling or even shrinkage before the f.s.p. was attained.
Similar variations were noted during seasoning from the
f.s.p. to the air-dry condition. Out of a total of 192
samples, 22°% showed a tendency to swell and 6% shrank
at an intermediate point between green and f.s.p., and 6%
swelled and 33% shrank at some point between the f.s.p.
and the air-dry condition. In other words, longitudinal

252 M. B. WELCH.

movement during seasoning is not always a function of
the moisture content of the wood.

It has already been mentioned that 34% of the timber
samples shrank from green to the f.s.p., and, as with
swelling, many of the readings were minute (0:01%),
the actual mean for all timbers being 0-:042%. Certain
of the eucalypt hardwoods which collapsed showed
shrinkage movements of as much as 0:22%, although in
every case collapse was not associated with excessive
shrinkage. The actual maximum, minimum and mean
percentages of longitudinal movement for the different
density classes during seasoning from a green to an air-dry
condition are shown in Table II.

TABLE II.—Percentages of maximum, minimum and mean longitudinal shrinkage or
swelling for each density class during seasoning from a green to an air-dry condition.

Shrinkage %. Swelling %.

Wt. per ip pete Oe ot ee ee

Cub. Ft.

in Lbs. Max. | Min. | Mean. | No. | Max. | Min. | Mean. | No.
20-30 0:13 | 0-01 | 0:063 4/10:-0 05 | 0:060 2
30-40 0-14 | 0-01 | 0-067 | 40 | 0:06 | 0-01 | 0:028 6
40-50 0-31 | 0-01 | 0-090 | 40 | 0-12 | 0-01 | 0-086 21
50-60 0:42 | 0-01 | 0-093 | 94 |} 0-10 | 0-01 | 0-081 35
60-70 0:27 | O-O1 | 0-046 | 22 | 0-13 | 0-01 | 0-038 19
70-80 _ — — — | 0-0 0-041 7

It is obvious that in the classes of 30-60 lbs. density the
mean percentage of shrinkage is much higher than the
mean swelling percentage ; the discrepancy in the lowest
density class can be discounted, since too few samples
were measured. In the 60-70 lbs. class the difference
between the shrinkage and swelling figures is comparatively
small, and in the highest density class absence of shrinkage
prevents any comparison being made. Although it is
evident that many more observations are required before
any generalisation can be made, on the actual material
examined the greatest mean shrinkage occurred in the
40-60 Ibs. classes, and the greatest mean swelling in the
70-80 lbs. class, the apparent anomaly of the two light-
weight Sterculia samples being again neglected.

In some. samples of the same species the maximum
movement occurred during seasoning to the f.s.p., the
subsequent variation in length being negligible ; in other
samples of the same species the movement was chiefly
after the f.s.p. had been reached. In some species all the

VARIATION OF TIMBER DURING SEASONING. 253

samples were consistent in their behaviour, but no doubt
anomalies would have been found if a larger range of
material had been examined.

The maximum shrinkages for each density class were
much higher than the maximum swelling, and in general
high shrinkages amounting to as much as 00-42% were
associated with collapse.

Whilst longitudinal shrinkage can be explained by the
theory that water is removed trom the interstices between
the spirally arranged longitudinal fibrils of the cell walls,
longitudinal swelling cannot be accounted for in this way.
In Part I the view was expressed that possibly internal
stresses produced during seasoning are responsible for the
elongation. A piece of apparatus was designed whereby
it was possible to measure the movement of wood in three
planes, and small blocks of green and air-seasoned Blue
Gum, Hucalyptus saligna (approx. 13°% moisture) measuring
4 in. X 4 in. X 2 in. were subjected to compression at
right angles to the grain. The wood was free to expand
in a plane at right angles to the direction of the application
of the load. It was found that elongation occurred within
the proportional limit, the ratio of longitudinal extension
to compression varying from 1:8 for green timber to
1:5 for air-dry timber, at the proportional limit. The
lateral expansion was approximately equal to the compres-
sion. Beyond the proportional limit there was a tendency
for the amount of longitudinal extension to decrease in
green timber.

That severe internal stresses may be produced in timber
during seasoning is well known, and it seems obvious that,
due to surface drying, if the moisture gradient is steep, a
compressive stress may occur within the green timber
before the fibre saturation-point is reached. This stress
apparently may result in an elongation, or may possibly
counterbalance any shrinkage so that the length remains
stationary, since it was found that out of 268 samples 66%
did not shrink during the transition from a green condition
to the f.s.p. After the fibre saturation-point is passed,
timbers of medium and low density (20-60 lbs.) showed a
greater tendency to shrink, possibly due to a redistribution
or even reversal of the internal stresses, whereas the denser
woods, together with a smaller proportion of the woods
of medium density, continued to elongate; in such cases
the internal compressive stress evidently persists. Since
the test samples are being used in connection with other

254 M. B. WELCH.

investigations it has not been practicable to cut them up to
determine whether case-compression is present.

Several samples of air-seasoned Tallowwood and Black-
butt measuring 10 in. X 4 in. X.1 in. were accurately
measured, and planed on both sides until the thickness
was reduced to $in. It was thought that possibly internal
stresses which might be present would be released, and so
longitudinal movement would occur. Although the results
were negative, the experiment might be repeated on wood
showing severe internal stresses.

It was thought that by increasing the rate of drying
internal compressive stresses would be increased, resulting
in greater elongation. However, a comparison between
green Tallowwood air-dried and dried at 140° F. did not
give conclusive results.

SUMMARY.

An examination was made of the longitudinal variation
of some 300 samples of a large number of different woods in
relation to their densities. It was found that whilst 66%
of the total samples swelled or remained stationary during
drying from a green condition to the fibre saturation-point,
only 33% behaved similarly from the fibre saturation-
point to an air-dry condition. In general, woods of low
density showed the greatest tendency to swell, and heavy
woods were: more prone to remain stationary during the
initial drying period. Below the fibre saturation-point
light timbers showed the greatest liability to shrinkage,
and heavy woods were inclined to remain stationary or to
swell. In anumber of timbers the longitudinal movements
were irregular, expansion and contraction occurring several
times during seasoning, an indication that length is not
always a function of the moisture content of the wood.

It is suggested that severe internal compressive stresses
resulting from the shrinkage of the outer part of the wood
may be responsible for the elongation or longitudinal
swelling during seasoning.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Royal Society of New South Wales.

May 2nd, 19354.

The Annual Meeting, being the five hundred and
twenty-fourth General Monthly Meeting of the Society,
was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester and
Essex Streets, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m.

Mr. R. W. Challinor, President, was in the chair. Forty-
two members were present. The minutes of the general
monthly meeting of 6th December, 1933, were read and
confirmed.

The President announced the deaths of David Carment,
who had been elected a member in 1891, served as Honorary
Treasurer between 1901 and 1912, was Vice-President
in 1913 and 1914, and was a member of Council from 1915
to 1919 ; and of David Thomas, who was elected a member
in 1923.

The certificates of two candidates for admission as
ordinary members were read for the first time, and Professor
Walter Howchin was elected an honorary member of the
Society.

The following gentlemen were elected officers and
members of Council for the coming year :

President :
R. J. NOBLE, M.sc., Ph.D., B.Sc.Agr.

Vice-Presidents :

Prof. O. U. VONWILLER, | Sir EDGEWORTH DAVID,
B.Sc., F.Inst.P. K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.O., F.R.S.

EDWIN CHEEL. R. W. CHALLINOR, F.1.c., F.¢.s.

Hon. Treasurer :
H. G. CHAPMAN, m.p.

Hon. Secretaries :

Major EDGAR H. BOOTH, Assist.-Prof. W. R. BROWNE,
M.C., B.Sc., F.Inst.P. D.Sc.

‘4

XXVili ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Members of Council :

C. ANDERSON, .a., D.Sc. Assoc. eps H. PRIESTLEY,
E. C. ANDREWS, B.aA., F.G.S. M.D.,
Prof. L. A. COTTON, M.A., D.Sc. Prof. ap DOUGLAS STEWART,
Prof. C. E. FAWSITT, D.sc., Ph.v. B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.
JAMES NANGLE, 0.B.z., F.R.A.S. | W. L. WATERHOUSE, o.c.,
A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.1., F.C.S. D.Sc.Agr., D.I.C.

M. B. WELCH, B.Sc., havo:

The Annual Financial Statement for the year ending
31st March, 1934, was submitted to members and, on the
formal motion of Major Booth, seconded by Mr. Penfold,
was unanimously adopted. The Honorary Treasurer
was absent.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Statement of Receipts and Payments for the Year
ended 31st March, 1934.

GENERAL ACCOUNT.

RECEIPTS.
6) \gchialn aay s. d.
To Balance—3lst March, 1933 Se ee S452
», Revenue—
Subscriptions sie the us si 400) 2 a0
Sundry Receipts as ae va LETS ae
Government Subsidy .. a= 200) (OTRO
Interest—Government Bonds and Stock
and Loan oe ae oe .. 282 14796
Donation .. it, a vis ~ 3 FO" 105 20
————— 1,010 14 0
», Royal Society’s Fund—Interest added 210 3 8
»» science House se a 730 0 0O
», Repayment—Institution of Engineers ae 1,000 0 0O
», Building Investment Loan Fund es 269 2 6
£3,364 8 8
PAYMENTS.

By Administrative Expenses—
Salaries and Wages—

Office Salaries and Accountancy Fees 344 15 0
Caretaker (Cleaning) ee 24 0 O
368 15 0
Printing, Stationery, Advertising and
Stamps—
Stamps and Telegrams >» 4419 10
Office Sundries and Stationery oo a ORG
Advertising .. ‘ Js 10 Lao
Printing eas aie ae .. 174 16) %

232 19 11

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xxix

Rents, Rates, Taxes and Services— £ s. d Sr ss.0
Rent ee aes Se Oot ema.
Electric Light and Gas ee 2. 4 ot
Insurance ar ess coe 20 eT 2en
Telephone fe - hs oo LO 1.6 NG
; 209 5 10
Printing and Publishing Society’s
Volume—
Printing, etc. .. oy a as 135 6 10
Library—
Bookbinding .. oe Be ee 100 9 6
Sundry Expenses—
Repairs as 8 Be owe came ayaa |
Bank Charges .. a Bhs x 0 5 6
Sundries a a ee eet. Sous aay 0
—_—__—__—. 26 2 10
,, Interest—
Royal Society’s Fund .. or: sepia Oued) 'O
Loans a we a Sci WE On io! °° O
———._ 348 14 0
», Bonds 2 we ae aS 737 10 0O
», Liversidge Bequest. . Bs nee ake 37 10 O
,, Clarke Memorial Fund a aA ane 011 6
,» Balance—3lst March, 1934—
Cash on Hand .. Pe a Sil 8e
Union Bank of Atetralia * 1,158 15 2
IAG TESS
£3,364 8 8

Compiled from the Books and Accounts of the Royal Society of
New South Wales, and certified to be in accordance therewith.
(Sgd.) HENRY G. CHAPMAN, m.p.,
Hon. Treasurer.
(Sgd.) W. PERCIVAL MINELL, F.c.a. (Aust.),
Auditor.
Queensland National Bank Chambers,
27 Hunter Street,
Sydney, 28th April, 1934.

BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31st MARCH, 1934.

LIABILITIES.
2 s. d. Ss s. d.
Investment Fund—
Clarke Memorial Fund Be “eo uiwo4o 16)
Walter Burfitt Prize Fund .. ibe 615 10 9
Investment Fund We ue Sh PAU ees pea |
Liversidge Bequest .. ae cou G00 15) 24
—_——_—#— 6,988 10 3
On Loan one ae es a on 1,898 0 1
Sundry Liabilities .. an a Bs 43 5 5
Accumulated Fund.. ar a a 29,943 10 5
538: 873d 16.2

xxx ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

ASSETS.
£
Cash—
Union Bank of Australia Ltd. ~~ dS
Cash in Hand 3 As 8
Government Bonds and Stock—
Nominal Value—£7,200
Science House Management Committee—
Payments to date
Sundry Debtors—
Institution of Engineers o§ .: op2oe
Sundries ‘ Me 21
For Subscriptions in Arrears: Lie 864
Library—
Balance—3lst March, 1933 .. .. 9,746
Add Expenditure during year .. 100
Office Furniture
Pictures
Microscopes
Lantern

14
11

£38,873

4,169

9,847
1,741
180
120
40

18 6

12 6

al oqoooww
ie | See

Compiled from the Books and Accounts of the Royal Society of New
South Wales, and certified to be in accordance therewith.

(Sed.) HENRY G. CHAPMAN, ..,

Queensland National Bank Chambers,
27 Hunter Street,
Sydney, 28th April, 1934.

INVESTMENT FUND.

Statement of Receipts and Payments for the Year

ended 3lst March, 1934.

RECEIPTS.
Dr. £ Musi
To Balance—3lst March, 1933 AI
», Interest—
Clarke Memorial Fund .. a oe 150.
Walter Burfitt Prize Fund a .» . 23) TSG
Liversidge Bequest oe oie ovoiy aoe La ae
Investment Fund be a -- 164 5 8

Hon. Treasurer.
(Sgd.) W. PERCIVAL MINELL, F.c.a. (Aust.),
Auditor.

270

5 0

£7,026 ll 9

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xxx

PAYMENTS.
Cr. £ suds
By Expenditure—
Clarke Memorial Fund a A oes oe 011 6
Liversidge Bequest .. ve ws a5 a 37 10 O
s, Balance—3lst March, 1934 .. ee Fae .. 6,988 10 3
£7,026 1l 9

On the motion of the President, seconded by Mr. Andrews,
Messrs. W. P. Minell & Co. were duly elected Auditors for
the coming year. Professor Stewart asked for information
with regard to the payment of auditors, and was informed
that they received £15 15s. per annum. Mr. Penfold
recommended that it be a suggestion to the incoming
Council that the auditors should be changed every four
years, and Mr. Finnemore suggested that the Council
should consider the practicability of publishing on the
General Account and Balance Sheet the corresponding
figures for the previous year.

It was recommended by Professor Stewart and supported
by Mr. Finnemore that the Council should consider the
‘ form of the certificate to be provided by the auditors, as —
the statement provided was inadequate.

The Annual Report of the Council was read and, on the
motion of Mr. Challinor, seconded by Mr. Sussmilch, was
adopted.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1933-34.
(Ist May to 24th April.)

We regret to report that we have lost by death three
ordinary members. By resignation we have lost twelve
members and, in addition, two members have been struck
off the roll for non-payment of subscriptions. On the
other hand, seventeen ordinary members have been elected.
To-day (24th April, 1934) the roll of members stands at 288.

During the Society’s year there have been eight general
monthly meetings and fourteen council meetings.

Twenty papers were read at the general monthly meetings
and covered a wide range of subjects.

Lecturettes were given at the general monthly meetings
in August, September and November by Dr. R. J. Noble
and Messrs. F. R. Morrison and A. S. Le Souef respectively.
At the October meeting addresses on the past activities
of the Medical Section of the Royal Society of New South
Wales were given by Drs. Cecil Purser and W. F. Burfitt.

Xxxil ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

For the afternoon of Friday, 14th July, 1933, a reception
was arranged conjointly with the Australian National
Research Council and the Royal Society of New South
Wales to enable members to meet Dr. Kimura, Director
of the Misusawa Observatory, Japan. Dr. Kimura
addressed the members present.

Popular Science Lectures.—Four popular science lectures
were given, namely :

July 20: ‘* Aborigines of the Australian Desert ’’, by Rev. A. P.
Elkin, M.A., 1.

August 17: “ Useful Products of the Australian Bush ” 5 ON
A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.1., F.C.S.

September 21: ‘‘ The Age of the Earth’’, by G. D. Osborne, D.Sc.

October 19: ‘“‘ The Effects of Radium upon Cancers’’, by H. G.
Chapman, M.D., B.S.

Second Liversidge Research Lecture.—Under the terms of
the Liversidge Bequest the second Liversidge Research
Lecture was delivered before the Royal Society at Science
House, Sydney, on Wednesday, 8th November, 1933, by
Professor W. J. Young, D.Sc., M.Sc., of the University of
' Melbourne, entitled: “The Function of Phosphates in
Fermentations of Sugars ”’

Clarke Memorial Medal.—At its meeting on Wednesday,
28th March, 1934, the Council awarded the Clarke Memorial
Medal to Edward Sydney Simpson, D.Sc., B.E., F.A.C.L.,
of South Perth, Western Australia.

Annual Dinner.—The Annual Dinner will be held on
Thursday, 26th April, 1934, at 6.45 p.m., at the University
Club, Phillip Street, Sydney.

Member Honoured by His Majesty the King.—The
honour of knighthood was conferred on Mr. F. D. McMaster.

Science House.—During the year additional tenants
have been obtained for Science House, which is reported
to be in good repair and condition ; additional ventilation
on the ground floor has been provided.

Institution of Engineers, Australia.—Some difficulty
having arisen in connection with the interpretation of the
agreement between the Institution of Engineers, Australia,
and the Royal Society of New South Wales in respect to
the moneys lent by the Royal Society to enable the
Institution of Engineers to take a one-third interest in
Science House, Sydney, a new agreement has been prepared,
based on an interest charge at the rate of 5% per annum.
on all moneys on loan to the former body, initiating with
the first loan made (1930), and taking into account moneys

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XxXxlll

already returned to the Society as principal. This new
agreement has been ratified by the council of the Institution
of Engineers, Australia, and by the Royal Society of New
South Wales.

It may be noted that the payments by the Institution of
Engineers, Australia, to the Royal Society of New South
Wales in connection with the loan had already returned
almost 5°% per annum.

Resignation of Honorary Secretary. At the Council
meeting of 14th March, 1934, the resignation of Mr. C. A.
Sussmilch as one of the Honorary Secretaries was received
with regret. Mr. Sussmilch had been an Honorary
Secretary since 1929, but now found that the burden of
his other public duties compelled him to seek relief.

By order of the Council, an appreciation of the valuable
services rendered by Mr. Sussmilch to the Society was
put on record in the Minutes of the Council.

Major Edgar H. Booth was elected unopposed to fill the
temporary vacancy thus caused, and Mr. Sussmilch was
then elected to fill the new vacancy on the Council.

The Library.—The donations to the library have been as
follows : 71 volumes, 1,326 parts, 97 reports and 1 calendar.

During. the year the catalogue of periodical literature
has been brought up to date, and with it has been
incorporated a location index, so that reference to any
periodical in the library is now possible for users. It is still
necessary to introduce satisfactory cross-references, but
this will be done when the catalogue is transcribed on to
new cards.

Binding has been proceeded with up to the limit of the
finance available, and in this connection acknowledgment
is made of a gift of £10 from Dr. H. G. Chapman for this
purpose.

All duplicates have now been removed from the shelves,
and will be used as opportunity offers as exchanges for
volumes which are missing from our sets. A number of
missing parts and volumes have been received following
on requests to the various publishers.

The Library Committee has considered all outstanding
requests from other societies and institutions for exchanges.
A number of new exchanges have been sanctioned, and
others discontinued for various reasons. A few additional
important periodicals are now being purchased.

The non-periodical literature in the library is now in
the course of classification and arrangement.

XXXIV ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

A gift of eighty volumes was received from the
Pharmaceutical Society of New South Wales early in the
year.

On behalf of the Council,
R. W. CHALLINOR,
President.

The President announced that the following popular
science lectures would be delivered during the session :

July 19: “ Television’, by Mr. E. T. Fisk.

August 16: ‘“‘ Old Coins and Some Ancient Men of Science ’’,
by G. H. Abbott, B.A., M.B., Ch.M.

September 20: ‘Tick Paralysis in Men and Animals”, by
I. Clunies Ross, D.V.Sc.

October 18: ‘“‘ Infra-Red Spectroscopy ’’, by Professor O. U.
Vonwiller, B.Sc., F.Inst.P.

The following donations were received: 776 parts, 42
volumes, 45 reports and 1 calendar.

The President, Mr. R. W. Challinor, then delivered his
address.

Mr. Challinor, the outgoing President, then installed
Dr. R. J. Noble as President for the ensuing year, and
the latter briefly returned thanks. On the motion of
Professor Earl a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to the
retiring President, both for his valuable address, and for
his services during the year. Mr. Challinor briefly
acknowledged the compliment.

June 6th, 1934.

The five hundred and twenty-fifth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester
Street, at 7.45 p.m.

Dr. R. J. Noble, President, was in the chair. Fifty-two
members were present. The minutes of the general
monthly and annual meeting of 2nd May, 1934, were read
and confirmed.

The President reported the deaths of Frederick Henry
Moore, who had been a member of the Society since 1879 ;
Dr. Henry George Chapman, a member since 1909; and
Richard Ford Jenkins, who had been a member since
1917.

The following donations were laid upon the table:
volumes, 5; parts, 153; reports, 14; reprint, 1.

The certificates of three candidates for admission as
ordinary members were read, one for the first, and two

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXV

for the second time. The following gentlemen were duly
elected ordinary members of the Society : Francis Devere
Kelly and George Arnot Mort.

The Council communicated the information that Mr.
Penfold had been elected as Honorary Treasurer until the
next annual general meeting of the Society.

The President then briefly announced the position
arising out of the sudden death of Dr. H. G. Chapman,
the late Honorary Treasurer, and asked Major Booth,
Honorary Secretary, to read to the meeting the report
submitted by him on behalf of the Council. In the report
the information was made available that the Balance Sheet
adopted at the Annual General Meeting had not been signed
and released by the auditors, and that Dr. Chapman had
permitted the Balance Sheet to be presented to the Annual
General Meeting as a properly audited statement, knowing
both previously and subsequently that it had not been
signed by the auditors.

The action of the Council to obviate possibilities of
misappropriation of funds in the future was also set out in
the report.

Major Booth then formally moved that the motion
adopting the Balance Sheet of 31st March, 1934, passed
at the Annual General Meeting of 2nd May, 1934, be
rescinded.

This motion was seconded by Sir Edgeworth David.

Mr. Ollé, speaking to the motion, suggested that the
Council should consider the appointment of an honorary
assistant-treasurer. Dr. Harker asked for information
as to whether the bonds of the Royal Society had been
sighted in 1932 because, if such were the case, they would
then be able to believe that all was well until a year ago,
and they knew that Dr. Chapman had been a sick man
during this last year.

Mr. Finnemore suggested that the Council should
consider the formation of a finance committee. Dr.
Wiesener suggested that it would be preferable to keep the
liquid assets of the Society in inscribed stock in future,
rather than in bearer bonds.

Mr. Mellor desired to know if the bonds represented the
only loss from the assets of the Society. Mr. Stephen
endorsed the suggestion that liquid assets should be in
inscribed stock, because the possession of bearer bonds
gave opportunities for a double presentation on behalf
of different societies.

XXxvil ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Dr. Harker was informed that the bonds had been sighted
at the 1932 balance, and Mr. Mellor that the bonds repre-
sented the only loss from the assets of the Society. The
other gentlemen speaking to the motion were informed
that the whole matter was under review by the Council,
and that their suggestions would be attended to.

The motion was carried unanimously.

Mr. Ollé congratulated the Council on its activities on
the Society’s behalf, and offered them his sympathy in their
unpleasant task. He begged to thank them for what they
had done for the benefit of the members.

Professor Stewart also spoke to the subject and asked
that the services of Major Booth should be specially
noted in this connection.

Mr. Penfold then presented, and moved the adoption of,
a duly audited Balance Sheet as at 25th May, 1934. Mr.
Cheel seconded the adoption.

Mr. Finnemore asked whether the Council was satisfied
with the present form of the Auditors’ certificate. He was
informed that the Council was not satisfied, and was
considering the form of certificate to be used in future.

Dr. Wiesener commented on the large amount, included
as an asset, representing subscriptions in arrears, and
suggested the inclusion of a separate account for doubtful
subscriptions. Mr. Penfold replied, stating that the
matter was being attended to, and that he hoped that the
next balance sheet would be in a better form. Professor
Cotton asked whether the £1,190 Subscriptions in Arrears
included subscriptions for the current year which had just
commenced. On being informed that such was the case,
he asked that members should bear in mind that that
represented a very considerable sum, aS most members
did not pay their subscriptions during the first month
of a new financial year.

Sir Henry Barraclough spoke as Chairman of the
Executive of the Institution of Engineers, Australia, and
offered his sympathy to the Royal Society on behalf of the
Institution of Engineers, Australia. He appreciated the
difficult task that the Council had had, and congratulated
them on the way they had met the situation.

Dr. Anderson, speaking on behalf of the Linnean Society,
as its immediate past president, expressed the sympathy of
that Society towards the Royal Society of New South
Wales.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXVil

The President then thanked Sir Henry Barraclough and
Dr. Anderson for what they had said, and asked them to
convey to the Institution of Engineers, Australia, and to
the Linnean Society, respectively, the thanks of the Royal
Society for their sympathy at the present time.

The new Balance Sheet, as at 25th May, 1934, was
adopted unanimously.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 25th MAY, 1934.

LIABILITIES.
af Sv Ga. | os s.. d.
Investment Fund—
Clarke Memorial Fund a as whsb4e: 4°07
Walter Burfitt Prize Fund .. ae 615 10 9
Investment Fund Sf ae ee Tle Shad
Liversidge Bequest .. a .. 657 15.4
| — 6,987 18 9
On Loan—
Australian National Research Council 815 12 7
C. A. Sussmilch be on ae 50 0 O
H. G. Chapman ae Rie ats 30 7 6
896 0 1
Sundry Liabilities—
As per list attached ae ute 206 3 7
Accumulated Fund.. sve oe om, 27,058 4 1
£35,148 6 6
ASSETS.
£ s. d £ sd
Cash—
Union Bank of Australia Ltd. Se 20d owt
Petty Cash on Hand 4 5 0
Cash on Hand (Unbanked Receipt). . Zt Zi
235 10 11
Government Bonds and Stock—Nominal
Value... 3,940 0 O
Science House Management Committee—
Payments to date... a aN 14,533 18 4
Sundry Debtors—
Institution of Engineers cA -- 3,283 6 8
Sundries, as per list attached a 16 0 6
For Subscriptions in arrears ew LOOK Aur O
4,489 8 2
Library—
Balance—3Ist March, 1934 .. oe BO SA yee Oo
Add Expenditure during period .. 20 15 6

9,867 19 3

XXXVlil ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
Suh Bo vad
Office Furniture... si ate as 1,741 910
Pictures ~ ay; Ae 23 we 180 0 0
Microscopes .. a: a A ate 120 0 0
Lantern ats Bs we ME oe 40 0 0
£35,148 6 6

Compiled from the Books and Accounts of the Royal Society of
New South Wales and certified to be in accordance therewith, subject
to the non-inclusion of accrued Interest on Liabilities and Assets.

(Sgd.) W. PERCIVAL MINELL, F.c.a. (Aust.),

Auditor. |

Queensland National Bank Chambers,
27 Hunter Street,
Sydney, 29th May, 1934.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
SUNDRY DEBTORS—25th MAY, 1934.

fi) tet id pies? es Hee
Shoalhaven Co-op. Milk and Ice Co. Ltd. .. 0 15 10
Reprints—

Technological Museum 10: “6-"9
David Nutt 0 710
Faxon & Co. 015 8
Stevens & Brown ; : 0 7 10
Oregon State Agricultural College 010 6
Stechert & Co. atte ; 2. | YOR
Dawson & Sons ds hs aise se 0 710
Wheldon & Wesley Ait Be iky

— Le), a

£16 16 11

Less Credit Balance—Dawson & Sons.. 016 5

£16 0 6

SUNDRY CREDITORS—25th MAY, 1934.

Ls 8. 1s

Australasian Medical one Co., Ltd. eh. ‘i 199 8 8

Periodicals .. i Pee “he 6 14 11

£206 3 7

The following paper was read :

‘“The Identity of Darwinol with d-Myrtenol’’, by A. R. Penfold,
F.A.C.1., G. R. Ramage, M.Se., Ph.D., and J. L. Simonsen,
D.Se., F.1.C., F.R.S.

In thanking Mr. Penfold for the paper which he had
presented, the President commented on the fact that it

was the sixty-fourth paper presented to the Society by
him, either individually or in collaboration with others.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXx1x

The following exhibits were shown :

Specimens and cultures of Polyporus mylitte, the so-called ‘‘ Black-
fellows’ Bread ’’, by Dr. R. J. Noble.

The solubility in water of the saponin from the poisonous plant
Sarcostemma australe, by Professor J. C. Earl.

July 4th, 1934.

The five hundred and twenty-sixth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester
Street, at 7.45 p.m.

Dr. RK. J. Noble, President, was in the chair. Thirty-one
members and five visitors were present. The minutes of
the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

The President announced that Dr. W. H. Love, B.Sce.,
Ph.D., had been awarded a special prize in the Garton
Prize Essay Competition by the British Empire Cancer
Campaign, and offered the Society’s congratulations to
Dr. Love.

The certificates of three candidates for admission as
ordinary members were read, two for the first and one for
the second time. The following gentleman was duly
elected an ordinary member of the Society: Stanley
Charles Baker.

The following donations were laid upon the table:
parts, 131; volumes, 15; reports, 4; and reprints, 2.

The President then introduced the speakers for the
evening: Mr. Max Henry, M.R.C.V.S., B.V.Se., Dr.
Ida A. Brown, D.Sc., and Mr. M. 8. Benjamin, D.I.C.,
A.A.C.I., who discussed ‘‘ The Relation Between Diseases
in Livestock, Geological Formations and Soil Composition ’’.

Dr. G. H. Briggs, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.Inst.P., delivered a
short talk on “‘ New Units of Matter and New Atoms’.
This was the first of a series to be given from time to time,
under a general heading of ‘“‘Short Talks on Current
Topics ’’.

The following exhibits were shown :

A brick from the Great Wall of China, by A. E. Stephen, F.C.S.
A copy of a work entitled ‘“‘ Toadstools and Mushrooms and other

larger Fungi of South Australia ’’, by J. B. Cleland, exhibited
by E. Cheel.

August Ist, 1934.

The five hundred and twenty-seventh General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester
Street, at 7.45 p.m.

xl ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Dr. R. J. Noble, President, was in the chair. Twenty-
five members and five visitors were present. The minutes
of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

The President announced that Mr. E. C. Andrews had
been elected an honorary member of the Royal Society of
New Zealand, and offered him the Society’s congratulations.

The certificates of five candidates for admission as
ordinary members of the Society were read, three for the
first and two for the second time. The following gentlemen
were duly elected ordinary members of the Society:
Herbert Richard Harrington and H. L. Carruthers.

The following donations were received: parts, 336;
reprints, 14; reports, 12; and volumes, 15.

The following papers were read :

‘““Some Tetra-covalent Compounds of Platinum with Tertiary
Arsines ’’, by G. J. Burrows, B.Sc., and R. H. Parker, M.Sc.

“An X-ray Study of Opals’’, by F. P. Dwyer, M.Sc., and D. P.
Mellor, M.Sc.

A short talk on ‘“‘ Chemiluminescence ” was delivered
by D. P. Mellor, M.Sc., and a Blinker Moisture Meter was
exhibited by M. B. Welch, M.Se., A.I.C.

September dth, 1934.

The five hundred and twenty-eighth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester
Street, at 7.45 p.m.

Mr. R. W. Challinor, Vice-President, was in the chair.
Thirty members and thirty-five visitors were present.
The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and
confirmed.

The Chairman announced the death of Sir T. W. Edge-
worth David, K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.O., M.A., D.Se., F.B.S.,
F.G.S., who was elected a member in 1886, and who had
been President in 1895 and 1910. The members and
visitors standing, a resolution carried by the Council, as
follows, was read :

‘“'The members of the Council of the Royal Society of New
South Wales record their profound sorrow at the death of their
beloved colleague, Sir T. W. Edgeworth David, K.B.E., C.M.G.,
D.S.O., F.R.S., Vice-President. The Council records its apprecia-
tion of his innumerable services rendered to the Society over a
period of forty-eight years of membership, including many terms
as a member of Council and two terms as President.

‘His contributions to the cause of scientific research, both
directly through his own labours and indirectly through the
inspiration of his work and personality, have been incalculable.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xli

By his colleagues he was justly held in honour for his pre-eminence
in the scientific field, and no less for his tact, ripe wisdom, sound
judgment and scrupulous fairness ; and to all he endeared himself
by his unfailing courtesy and kindly consideration, and by the
spirit of selflessness and service that marked his whole life.

‘* Among the scientific workers of Australia his name will ever
be had in grateful and affectionate remembrance.”

On the motion of the Chairman, the meeting endorsed
and adopted the resolution.

The certificates of four candidates for admission as
ordinary members of the Society were read, one for the
first and three for the second time. The following gentle-
men were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :
Francis P. J. Dwyer, William Dale Leech, and John G.
Tibbett. |

The following donations were received: parts, 278;
reports, 2; and volumes, 12.

The following papers were read :

“The Volumetric Micro-Determination of Ortho-Nitrophenols
with Methylene Blue ’’, by A. Bolliger, Ph.D.

“The Action of Nitrous Acid on Dimethylaniline. Part III”’,
by J. C. Earl, D.Sc., Ph.D., and A. W. Mackney, B.Sc.

The following exhibits were shown :

An ornamental chimera in Cavendish banana, by H. J. Hynes,
B.Se.Agr., on behalf of Dr. R. J. Noble.
Some examples of broaching Bakelite moulds, by E. G. Bishop.
Professor Cotton gave a short talk on the life and work
of the late Sir Edgeworth David, illustrating his remarks
by lantern slides, and covering the activities of our late
Vice-President, in brief, up to the period of the Great
European War. Professor Browne continued from that
stage, referring very briefly, owing to the lateness of the
hour, to the Professor’s activities during the war and
subsequently.

October 3rd, 1934.

The five hundred and twenty-ninth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester
Street, at 7.45 p.m.

Dr. R. J. Noble, President, was in the chair. Thirty
members and four visitors were present. The minutes
of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

The certificate of one candidate for admission as an
ordinary member of the Society was read for the second
time. The following gentleman was duly elected an
ordinary member of the Society: William Lyall Hayes.

xhi ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

The following donations were received: parts. 242:
volumes, 13; reports, 4; and reprints, 16.

Notice of Motion.—The Honorary Secretary gave notice
of motion for the next general meeting, with regard to
proposed alterations to the Rules.

The following papers were read :

‘A Theory of Association ”’, by L. W. O. Martin, B.Se.

‘“Some Hydroxy Salts of Secondary and Tertiary Arsines”’,
by G. J. Burrows, B.Sc.

‘“ The Essential Oils of the Genus Calythrix. Part II. Calythrix
tetragona (Labillardiére), variety ‘A’’’, by A. R. Penfold,
F.A.C.1., J. L. Simonsen, D.Sc., F.R.S., and G. R. Ramage,
M.Se.,) Ph.D,

‘“* The Physiography of the Middle North Coast District of N.S.W. ”’,
by A. H. Voisey, B.Sc.

A short talk on “Some Aspects of the Biological Control -
of Insects and Weeds’ was given by N.S. Noble, M.Sce.,
B.Se.Agr., D.I.C.

November 7th, 1954.

The five hundred and thirtieth General Monthly Meeting
was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street,
at 7.45 p.m.

Dr. R. J. Noble, President, was in the chair. Twenty-
five members were present. The minutes of the preceding
meeting were read and confirmed.

The certificates of four candidates for admission as
ordinary members of the Society were read for the first
time.

The following donations were received: parts, 225 ;
reports, 57; volumes, 14; reprints, 7; calendar, 1.

Motions from the last Meeting.—Major Edgar Booth
moved that certain alterations to the Rules of the Society,
submitted in printed form to members, as follows, be
approved :

PROPOSED ALTERATIONS TO RULES:

Rule V.—Fourth paragraph, page xii, the words “or of new
members ”’ to be deleted.

Rule VII.—The words ‘“‘ of Management ’”’ in the first line to
be deleted and a similar deletion to be made of the same
words wherever they occur in other Rules.

Rule VIII.—Second paragraph, page xiii, the sentence ‘“ The
date of birth is to be stated in the case of candidates claiming
a reduced subscription as being under twenty-eight years of
age,” to be added after the word “candidate,” and in the

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlili

fifth paragraph the words “‘and immediately after such
reading ’’ in the last line to be deleted and the following
clause to be added: ‘‘ No ballot for the election of new
members shall be valid unless twenty members at least shall
record their votes.”

Rule IX.—A third paragraph to be added as follows: ‘‘ Members
who have paid the annual subscription for forty years or more
may be elected by the Council to life membership without
payment of further subscriptions.”’

Rule X.—The first annual subscription shall accompany the
prescribed form of admission.

Rule XI.—To be amended to read as follows :—‘* Composition
fees shall be treated as capital and invested.”

Rule XIV.—Second sentence to be deleted.

Rule XV.—Everything following the word “ year” in the third
line to be deleted.

Rule XVI.—In the fourth line the words “ paid his first annual
subscription and have”’ to be deleted.

Rule XVII.—The last paragraph to be deleted.

Rule X XI.—To be amended to read as follows :—‘* The Honorary
Members of the Society shall be persons of eminent scientific
attainments or persons who have been eminent benefactors
to this or some other of the Australian States or distinguished
patrons or promoters of the objects of the Society. Every
person proposed as an Honorary Member must be recommended
by the Council and approved by the Society at a General
Meeting. Honorary Members shall be exempted from
payment of fees and contributions; they may attend the
meetings of the Society and they shall be furnished with
copies of the publications of the Society but they shall have
no right to hold office, to vote or otherwise take part in the
business of the Society.

‘““'The number of Honorary Members shall not at any time
exceed twenty and not more than two Honorary Members
shall be elected in any one year.”’

Rule XXII.—To be entirely deleted.

Rule XXIII.—‘‘ 8 p.m.” in the second line to be altered to
“7.45 p.m.” and “ eight ’’, in the third line, to be altered to
~~ galnayeiees

Rule XXIV—Section 12 to read ‘‘ Papers to be read and

discussed ”’.
Section 13 to read “ Exhibits ’’.
Section 14 to read “‘ Lecturettes ”’.

Rule XXXII.—Section 4 to be eliminated.

Section 5, the word ‘“‘ Transactions ”’ to be altered
to “‘ Journal and Proceedings ’’.

Section 6, the words “‘ arrangement and ”’ in the
first line to be deleted.

Section 10, the word ‘‘ cause ’”’ to be altered to
“give”? and the words “‘to be given” to be

Section 11 to be deleted.
Section 12, all words after ‘‘ Council Meetings ”’
to be deleted.
Rule XXXIII.—The word “ Contributions” in the heading of
this Rule to be altered to ‘‘ Communications ”’.

Ww

xliv

T

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Rules XX XIII, XXXIV and XXXV to be redrafted as follows:

Rule XX XITI.—‘“ Papers offered by members for communication
to the Society must be sent, for submission to the Council,
to one of the Honorary Secretaries at least fourteen days
before the date of the General Monthly Meeting at which the
paper is proposed to be read. It shall be the duty of the
Council to decide which of the papers offered are suitable
for communication to the Society, and/or for publication
in the Society’s Journal, and to arrange for the promulgation
and discussion of those papers accepted at an ordinary
monthly meeting of the Society.”

Rule XXXIV.—‘ The original copy of every paper offered for
communication to the Society, together with its illustrations,
drawings, etc., shall become the property of the Society.
Papers which have been offered to the Society, but not
accepted for publication in the Journal, shall be deposited
in the Society’s archives, so as to meet any claim with regard
to priority.”

Rule XXXV.—‘“ The author of a paper which has been accepted
for communication and publication shall not be at lberty,
save by permission of the Council, to publish such paper
elsewhere until the paper or an abstract thereof shall have
appeared in the Journal, or other publication of the Society.”

Rule XXXVII.—To be redrafted as follows :—“ At the beginning
of each year the Council may invite applications for grants
of Funds for scientific purposes.”’

Rule XXXVIII.—To read ‘‘ Such grants of money shall be for
one year only but if not expended at the end of the year may
at the discretion of the Council be revoted.”’

Rule XXXIX.—To be amended as follows :—The words “an
Ordinary ”’ in the second line to be altered to “* the Annual ’’.

Rule XL.—The present heading to disappear and the Rule to be
amended as follows :—‘‘ The Council shall have control over
the disbursements of the funds and the management of the
property of the Society.”

Rule XLI.—The last two lines to be amended as follows :—
‘* Sections or Committees may be established in such branches
of pure and applied sciences as the Council may decide.”’

Rule XLII.—The words “‘ of four ’’ in the third line to be altered
to ‘‘if deemed necessary ”’.

Rule XLIX.—Under the heading ‘‘ The Library ”’ the following
new Rule to be added :—

‘*The Council shall appoint an Honorary Librarian
who shall be responsible for the care and arrangement
of the books, maps, etc., and who shall present an Annual
Report to the Council as to the condition of the Library.”’

Rule L.—Existing Rule XLIX is now Rule L.

Rule LI.—Rule L, which becomes Rule LI, to be amended as
follows :—

The word ‘‘ Annual ’”’ in the third line to be altered to
‘* Ordinary ’’? and the last two words ‘“‘ be present ’’ to
be altered to “‘ vote”’’.

his was seconded by Mr. Penfold and carried

unanimously.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlv

Major Booth then moved, and Mr. Ollé seconded, that
two additional alterations to the Rules, as follows, be
approved :

Rule XX XII.—The heading of this Rule to be altered to ‘‘ Duties
of Honorary Secretaries and Treasurer ’’.

To be added after the last paragraph :—‘‘ The duties of
the Honorary Treasurer shall be to receive all moneys paid
to the Society, and to pay such moneys immediately into the
current account of the Society ; to make such disbursements
as shall duly be authorised by warrant from the Council ;
to keep all financial books and financial records of the Society ;
to arrange for a regular and periodic audit of the Society’s
accounts as required by Rule XX XIX and on such other
occasions as the Council may require; and to prepare and
present a duly audited annual balance sheet and statement
of accounts.”

Rule IX.—To be added after the last paragraph :—‘‘ The Council
shall have the power to suspend from membership temporarily,
for a period not exceeding two years, any member who may
in writing make such application to it on the grounds of
financial difficulties.”

This was carried unanimously.

The President announced that these alterations would
require to be confirmed at the next Annual General
Meeting.

The following papers were read :

‘‘ A Note on the Occurrence in N.S.W. of Black Chaff of Wheat
caused by Bacterium translucens var. undulosum 8. J. and R.”’,
by J. G. Churchward, B.Sc.Agr., M.Se. (Communicated by
Dr. W. L. Waterhouse.)

‘‘Compounds of Palladium with Benzildioxime’’, by F. P. J.
Dwyer, M.Sc., and D. P. Mellor, M.Sc.

‘‘The Fastness of Certain Amino Azo Dyes to Washing’’, by
J. C. Earl, D.Sc., Ph.D., and H. M. Parkin, B.Sc.

‘* The Moisture Equilibrium of Timber in Different Parts of New
South Wales. Part II. Murwillumbah’’, by M. B. Welch,
Bde. ALC.

‘*Stone Scrapers. An Inquiry concerning a certain type found
along the coast of N.S.W.’, by C. C. Towle, B.A.
(Communicated by Dr. W. R. Browne.)

December 5th, 1934.

The five hundred and thirty-first General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester
Street, at 7.45 p.m.

Dr. R. J. Noble, President, was in the chair. Forty
members and three visitors were present. The minutes
of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The
President announced the death of Mr. Henry Montague
Stephen, B.A., LL.B., a member since 1921.

The President announced that three members of the
Society, Dr. Cecil Purser, Dr. J. J. C. Bradfield, and

xlvi ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Mr. A. J. Gibson, had been elected as members of the
University Senate, Dr. Purser and Dr. Bradfield having
been re-elected. The President said he felt sure that
the members joined with him in offering their congratula-
tions to these gentlemen.

The certificates of five candidates for election as ordinary
members of the Society were read, one for the first and
four for the second time. The following gentlemen were
duly elected as ordinary members of the Society : Norman
Frederick Blake Hall, Adolphus Peter Elkin, Keith Eric
Wellesley Salter, and Richmond Kerslake.

The following donations were received: parts, 272;
volumes, 10; reports, 13; map, 1; and calendars, 2.

The following papers were read :

‘* Myoporum deserti. A preliminary Investigation’’, by Adrien
Albert, B.Sc. (Communicated by H. Finnemore, B.Sc., F.I.C.)

‘* A Chemical Examination of Blackfellow’s Bread, the Sclerotum
of the Fungus Polyporus mylitte Cke. and Mass.”’, by J. C.
Earl, D.Sc., Ph.D., and G. H. McGregor, B.Sc.

‘* A Note on the Decomposition of Cobalt Amalgam ’’, by J. W.
Hogarth. (Communicated by F. P. J. Dwyer, M.Sc.)

‘‘Brown Rot of Fruits and Associated Diseases of Deciduous
Fruit Trees. II. The apothecia of the causal organisms ’’,
by T. H. Harrison, D.Sc.Agr.

‘The Chemistry of the Constituents of the Wood-Oil of the ‘ Callitris’
Pines. Part II. Guaiol”, by V. M. Trikojus, B.Sc., and
D. E. White, M.Sc.

‘* A Summary of the Changes noted in the Allantoic Membrane of
the Chick in Five Hundred Experiments ’’, by Elinor 8. Hunt,
M.B., Ch.M. (Communicated by O. U. Vonwiller, B.Sc.,
F.Inst.P.)

‘* Note on the Determination of Traces of Prussic Acid in Tissues ”’,
by G. Harker, D.Sc., F.A.C.I.

‘* Volumetric Micro-Determination of Picrolonic Acid in Organic
Picronolate with Methylene Blue’’, by Adolph Bolliger,
Ph.D.

‘‘ Geology of the Cudgegong District”’, by P. M. Game, B.Sc.
(Communicated by W. R. Browne, D.Sc.)

‘* Testing a Lummer-Gehrcke Interferometer ’’, by S. C. Baker,
M.Sc.

‘* Notes on Wattle Barks. Part IV. The Tannin Content of a
variety of Acacia mollissima Willd.”’, by F. A. Coombs, A.A.C.L.,
W. McGlynn, and M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C.

‘“The Longitudinal Variation of Timber during Seasoning.
Part II’, by M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.1.C.

A Hanovia Analytical Quartz Lamp (lent by Messrs.
W. Watson & Sons) was exhibited by D. P. Mellor, M.Sc.

At the conclusion of the meeting the President wished
the members the compliments of the season.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlvil

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
OF THE SECTION OF

INDUSTRY.

OFFICERS :

Chairman: A. D. Ollé, F.C.S., A.A.C.I.
Hon. Secretary: H. V. Bettley-Cooke, F.C.8., A.A.C.1.

———_________..

During the year the following works were visited by the
members :

Tuesday, 15th May.—Reckitts (Oversea) Ltd., 145
Bourke Street, Redfern.

Tuesday, 19th June.—Amalgamated Wireless (A/asia)
Ltd., Parramatta Road, Ashfield.

Tuesday, 17th July.—The New Cambridge Delicacies
Ltd., Bourke and Phillip Streets, Redfern.

Tuesday, 18th September.—Sydney Morning Herald
Office, Pitt and Hunter Streets, Sydney.

Tuesday, 16th October.—Cinesound Productions Ltd.,
65 Ebley Street, Waverley.

xlviii ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

OF THE SECTION OF

GEOLOGY.

OFFICE-BEARERS FOR THE YEAR 1934.

Chairman: Professor L. A. Cotton.

Honorary Secretaries: Dr. G. D. Osborne and Mr.
R. O. Chalmers.

Hight ordinary meetings and one special meeting were
held during the year, the average attendance being nine
members and nine visitors.

April 20th.—(a) ‘‘ Twenty-five Years of the Geological Section—
A Retrospect ’’, by Dr. G. D. Osborne. (b) ‘‘ Notes on Possible
Modes of Extrusion and Intrusion of some Tertiary Acid-Alkaline
Rocks of East Australia’’, by Mr. C. A. Sussmilch.

May 18th.—‘‘ Geology of the Trunkey-Tuena District’, by Mr. H. G.
Raggatt, illustrated by specimens. Exhibits: (1) By Prof.
L. A. Cotton : Oligocene limestone from Malta. (2) By Dr. G. D.
Osborne: Quartz-calcite geode in basalt inclusion from Hornsby
voleanic neck.

May 30th.—Special joint meeting with the Geographical Society of
N.S.W.—‘‘ Some Geographical and Other Problems of Central
Australia and Western Queensland ’’, by Dr. F. W. Whitehouse.

June 15th.—‘‘ A Geochronology of the last 17,000 Years”’, by Dr.
C. C. Caldenius, of Stockholm.

July 20th.—(a) ‘‘ Some Aspects of the Geology of the Upper Paleozoic
Rocks of the Currabubula District ’’, by Mr. S. W. Carey. (b)
‘“The Upper Palxzozoic Rocks of the Kempsey District’’, by
Mr. A. H. Voisey. Exhibits: By Mrs. Sherrard: Monograptus
colonus (Barrande) var. compactus (Wood), and Monograptus cf.
nilssont (Barrande), from Parish of Derrengullen, Yass district.

August 24th.—‘‘ Notes on Sub-surface Waters in N.S.W.’”’, by Mr.
L. F. Harper. Exhibits: (1) By Mr. G. F. K. Naylor: Upper
Silurian fossiliferous limestone from Chatsbury, N.S.W. (2)
By Mr. C. A. Sussmilch: Water-worn pebbles of obsidian, from
New Guinea. (3) By Dr. G. D. Osborne: Glaciated pebble of
Lower Marine (Kamilaroi) chert from Upper Marine beds of
Paterson district. (4) By Mr. L. F. Harper: Ore from Tullamore
goldfield. (5) By Mr. H. O. Fletcher: Trilobite specimens from

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlix

Templeton River, Queensland, and Lingulella from Northern
Territory. (6) By Mr. R. O. Chalmers: (a) Photographs of
‘‘fossil forest’? exposed at Arapuni Dam, New Zealand. (6)
Sphero-cobaltite from Cobar.

September 21st.—‘‘ Notes on the Palzwozoic Rocks of the Upper
Wollondilly Valley near Marulan’’, by Mr. G. F. K. Naylor,
illustrated by specimens.

October 19th.—‘‘ Marshall’s Theory Concerning the Extrusion of Acid
Volcanic Products, with Special Reference to the Formation of
*TIgnimbrites ’.”’ Discussion introduced by Dr. G. D. Osborne,
and illustrated by specimens.

November 16th.—Exhibit and description by Dr. G. D. Osborne of a
series of contact-metamorphosed limestones including rare
monticellite-custerite-spinel-vesuvianite rocks from Carlingford,
Co. Louth, Ireland.

] ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
OF THE SECTION OF

PHYSICAL SCIEN

OFFICERS.

Chairman: Professor J. P. V. Madsen.
Hon. Secretary: Dr. W. H. Love.

Committee: Professors O. U. Vonwiller, V. A. Bailey
G. H. Briggs, Major E. H. Booth, Mr. G. Hurst and
Mr. G. H. Godfrey.

Ten meetings were held during 1934, the average
attendance being about 20.

April 18th.—Dr. G. Builder: ‘‘ Thermionic Voltmeters.”’

May 2nd.—Prof. V. A. Bailey and Dr. F. Martyn: ‘‘ The Influence
of Electric Waves on the Ionosphere.”’

June 6th.—Prof. V. A. Bailey: ‘ A Solution of Algebraic Equations
by Means of Logarithm Tables.”

June 20th.—Prof. V. A. Bailey and Mr. Healy: ‘* On the Motion of
Electrons in Chlorine.”’

July 4th.—Prof. G. H. Briggs: ‘‘ Recent Work on Induced Radio-
Activity.”’

July 18th.—Mr. F. J. P. Wood: ‘‘ Heavy Hydrogen.”’

August Ist.—Mr. J. H. Scarr: ‘“ Isotopes and the Constitution of the
Atomic Nucleus.”’

September 5th.—Dr. G. Builder: ‘* Transients in Electrical Circuits.”

September 19th.—Prof. V. A. Bailey: ‘“‘ An Alternative Method for
the Study of Electron Attachments to Molecules.”

October 3rd.—Prof. O. U. Vonwiller: ‘‘On the Duration of the
Excited States in Atoms.”

October 17th.—Dr. Martyn: ‘‘ Recent Developments in the Technique
of Ionospheric Research.”’

INDEX.

A

PAGE

Abstract of Proceedings XXVli

Section of Geology .. xIvili

Section of Industry xlvii
Section of Sage

Science ]

Acacia mollissima var. A. . 247

Albert, Adrien—

Myoporum deserti. A

Preliminary Investigation 144
Allantoic Membrane of the
Chick, Changes noted in

ie A oe fr 4
Alterations to Rules, Pro-

posed. ; xlii
Amino-Azo Dyes, Fastness of

to Washing .. 110
Apothecia of the Causal
Organisms of Brown Rot

of Fruits .. 154

Arsines, Some Hydroxy ‘Salts
of Secondary and Tertiary 72

Arsines, Some Tetra-covalent
Compounds of Platinum
with Tertiary .. . 7 oo

Association, A Theory or i) Gl

Awards of Clarke Memorial

Medal XXIV, XXXll

» 5, Liversidge Research
Lectureship
» 55 society’s Medal and
Money Prize 5.0.4
Walter Burfitt Prize
XXvl

XXVvl1

29 99

B

Bacterium _ translucens
undulosum. .
Baker, S. C.—
Testing a Lummer-Gehrcke
Interferometer Seas:
Balance Sheet ; XXVIII
Balance Sheet as at 25th May,
HOSAS ioe; << ’ XXXVll
Benzildioxime, Compounds of

var.
. 104

Palladium with wap LOW
Black Chaff of | Wheat,

Occurrence in N.S.W. .. 104
Blackfellow’s Bread, A

Chemical Examination of 149
x

PAGE
Bolliger, Adolph—

The Volumetric Micro-deter-
mination of Ortho-nitro-
phenols with Methylene
Blue ... .. 51

The Volumetric Micro- deter:
mination of Picrolonic

Acid in Organic Picro-
lonates with Methylene
Blue .. od No eee nee On
Booth, E. H,, ‘elected Hon.
Secretary XXxill
Brown Rot of Fruits 154

Burfitt Prize, Walter, Awards
of the
Burrows, G. J.,
Parker—
Some Tetra-covalent Com-

pounds of Platinum with

XXvl

Soran. H.

Tertiary Arsines .. .. 39
Burrows, G. J.—

Some Hydroxy Salts of
Secondary and _ Tertiary
INTGITOS. Uke eka aise Mee og het

C
** Callitris’’ Pines, Wood-oil
of the 177
Calythrix seinagones fiapie
lardiére) var. BOA as
Essential Oils of .. .. 80
Cancer Mceeldtes DP intsnesh weer 0
Carment sir ne 4
Challinor, R. W.—
Presidential Address =o 1
Chemical Constitution, In-

fluence of upon Chemical,
Physical and Physiological
Activities of eens
Compounds) — 2... 11

Chemistry of the Gonetitonts
of the Wood-Oil of the

** Callitris’’ Pines. Part

II. QGuaiol 177
Chick, Allantoic Vane of

the . 184

hii
PAGE
Churchward, J. G.—

A Note on the Occurrence
in N.S.W. of Black Chaff
of Wheat caused by Bac-
terium translucens var.
undulosum §.J. and R.

Clarke Memorial Medal ©
Awards | (025. (ad sexily, Bex Xl
Cobalt Amalgam, A Note on
the Decomposition of .. 153
Conventionalized Type of Stone

104

Scraper from N.S.W.
Coast ; Thi
Coombs, F. A., Ww. “McGlynn
and M. B. “Welch—
Notes on Wattle Barks.
Part IV. The Tannin

Content of a Variety of

Acacia mollissima Willd... 246
Council 1934-35 vii, XXVvil
Council, Report of XxXxl
Cudgegong District, The

Geology of the - 199

D
Darwinol, The Identity of with

d-Myrtenol os 36
David, Death of Sir ‘Edge-

worth. ae xl
Decomposition of Cobalt

Amalgam . 153
Devonian System .. . aaa het
Dimethylaniline, The Action of

Nitrous Acid on 58
Discussion a XKKIX
Diseases of Deciduous Fruit

Trees, Brown Rot of

Fruits and Associated .. 154
Dwyer, EF.) 2. and > D. xe.

Mellor—

An X-Ray Study of Opals.. 47

Compounds of Palladium
with Benzildioxime lO

E
Haclivid2 —aOe4 and "Ge En:

McGregor—

A Chemical Examination of
Blackfellow’s Bread, the
Sclerotium of the Fungus
Polyporus ee. Cke. and
Mass. . 149

INDEX.

PAGE

Karl, J. (CS and Aew W-
Mackney—

The Action of Nitrous Acid

on Dane Part

Til . oR
Earl, J. C., and H. M. Beans
The Basins: of Certain
Amino-Azo thes to
Washing : 110
Essential Oils of tie ‘Gena
Calythriz. Part II. C.
tetragona (Labillardiére)
Var: — Al post tia ta) call eae
Exhibits Xxxix, xli, xlvi

F

Fastness of Certain Amino-

Azo Dyes to Washing .. 110
Financial Statement XXVIII
Fund, Investment . .. xe
Fungus Polyporus mylittee . 149
Fungus Sclerotinia .. . 154

G
Game, P. M.—
The Geology of the

Cudgegong District.. . 199
Geology, Section of xlvill
Guaiol .. Lia

H
Harker, G.—

Note on the Determination
of Traces of Prussic Acid
in Tissues . 192

Harrison, T. H.—

- Brown Rot of Fruits and
Associated Diseases’ of
Deciduous Fruit Trees. II.

The Apothecia of the
Causal Organisms . 154
Hogarth, J. W.—
A Note on the Decomposition
of Cobalt Amalgam . 153

Honorary Members XxX

Howchin, Professor Walter,
elected an Honorary
Member XXVli

a

INDEX.

PAGE
Hunt, Elinor S.—

A Summary of Changes
noted in the Allantoic
Membrane of the Chick in
500 Experiments 184

Hydroxy Salts of Secondary
and Tertiary Arsines,
Some ns Sa eae 4

Hyperfine Structure | 242

I

Identity of Darwinol with
d-Myrtenol : cei apa 6.00

= eel Section of xlvil

Influence of Chemical Con-

stitution upon the
Chemical, Physical and
Physiological Activities of
Organic Compounds eae a!
Institution of Engineers,
Australia, Loan to XXXI11
Interferometer, Lummer-
Gehrcke . 234
Investment Fund aap: 0.0.<
Isotopes . 242
K
Kamilaroi System .. jy eee
Kempsey District .. .. .. .88
Knox, EK. W. Re at 2

L

Lectures, Popular Science
XXXIl, XXXIV

Lectureship, Liversidge Re-
search, Awards of .. XXV1
Lecturettes MxKi, xl xl
Library BA Beer 8s 20.640
Minmecterd Wes 2s ea OB
Longitudinal Variation of

"Timber during Seasoning 249
Lord, C. E. oe ° 5

bammer: Gehrcke meron:
meter, Testing a .. . 234
M
McGlynn, W., F. A. Coombs
and M. B. Welch—
Notes on Wattle Barks.
Part IV ee AG

liti
PAGE
McGregor, G. H., and J. C.

Earl—
A Chemical Examination of

_ Blackfellow’s Bread . 149
Mackney, A. W., and J. C.
Earl—
The Action of Nitrous Acid
on Dimethylaniline. Part
1 9 Sa ee dae 58
Macleay Ser Physiography
of oS 92, 95, 98
Martin, L. W. (0) =
A Theory of Association .. 61
Mellorj22D:, Py, and: i... 2:
Dwyer—

An X-Ray Study of Opals.. 47
Compounds of Palladium

with Benzildioxime . 107
Members, Honorary xxii
Members) uiste@k |. s, wastes ix
‘Mioemalbersio) tn Vest oe: , reee pO
Methylene Blue, The _ Vol-

umetric Micro-determina-

tion of Ortho-nitrophenols

WAU eee moat aes, shen) SOL

Methylene Blue, The Vol-
umetric Micro-determina-
tion of Picrolonic Acid in
Organic Picrolonates with 197

Moisture Equilibrium of
Timber at Murwillumbah 112

Motion, Notice of . ey ex
Motions : 5d baw dled hig
Myoporum deserti, Investiga-
tion of ; 144
d-Myrtenol, The Identity of
Darwinol with . 36

N

Nitrous Acid on Dimethyl-
aniline, The Action of .. 58
North Coast (Middle) District
of N.S.W., carapace
of 3 5 88

O

Obituary—
Carment, D...
Knox, E. W.
Lingen, J. T.:
Lord, -Cy Eii:..
Steele, B. D.
Thomas, D. J.

WO ore bo

liv INDEX.
PAGE PAGE
Occurrence in N.S.W. of R
Black Chaff of Wheat . 104

Officers.and Council, 1934-35
vill, XXVii

Opals, An X-Ray Study of 47
Organic Compounds, The In- -
fluence of Chemical
Constitution upon the
Chemical, Physical and
Physiological Activities of
Ortho-nitrophenols, Volumetric
Micro-determination of ..

11
51

P

Compounds’ of
2 107
and G. J.

Palladium,
with Benzildioxime
Parker, R. H.,
Burrows—
Some Tetra-covalent Com-
pounds of Platinum with
Tertiary Arsines..
Parkin, H. M., and J.C. Earl—
The Fastness of Certain
Amino-Azo Dyes to
Washing 110
Penfold, A. R., elected: Hon.
Treasurer XXXV
Penfold, A. R., G. R. Ramage
and J. L. Simonsen—
The Essential Oils of the
Genus Calythrix. Part II.
C. tetragona (Labillardiére)
Var. Aye aeh « tabidae EE
The Identity. of Darwinol
with d-Myrtenol 36
Physical Science, Section of. ]
Physiography of the Middle
North Coast District of

39

80

N.S.W. Siireas 4 rune tau ot 88
Picrolonie Acid in Organic
Picrolonates, Volumetric
Micro-determination of .. 197
Polyporus mylitte Cke. and
Mass., Sclerotium of . 149

Popular Science Lectures
XXXll, XXXIV
Presidential Address by R. W.

Challinor Ta SS ee
Prize, Awards of Society’s

Medal and Money... .. xxv
Prize, Awards of Walter

Burfitt 3 XXv1
Proceedings, Abstract of — XXVIl
Prussic Acid in Tissues .. . 192

Radium Experiments on the
Allantoic Membrane of the

Chick f 184
Ramage, G. R., A. R. Penfold
and J. L. Simonsen—
The Essential Oils of the
Genus Calythriz. Part II.
C. tetragona (Labillardiére)
Vare VA a a TE re. |
The Identity of Darwinol
with d-Myrtenol . 36
Report of Council for year
1934-35. XxXxl
Rules, me Alterations
to : xii
S
Salts of Secondary and
Tertiary Arsines, Some
Hydroxy .. 72
Science House : : XXXll

Science Lectures, Popular
XXXll, XXXiV
Sclerotinia oof, sage ne eee ner
Seasoning, The Longitudinal
Variation of Timber during 249

Silurian System .. «2: QO
Simonsen, J. L., A. R. Periialal
and G. R. "Ramage—
The Essential Oils of the
Genus Calythrix. Part II.
a ee Wegner «ss
66 A be) 890
The. "deat of “Darwinol
with d-Myrtenol .. 36
Simpson, E. 8., awarded Clarke
Memorial "Medal Xxx
Steele, B. DY 22. 2. ees 5
Sterculia . 251, 252
Stone Scrapers 2) pe
Sussmilch, C. A., Resignation
of as Hon. Secretary XXX1i1
T
Tannin Content of a Variety
of Acacia mollissima
Willd., The oe ee eee
Tertiary Arsines, Some Tetra-
covalent Compounds of
Platinum with ase

—

lv

PAGE

INDEX.
PAGE
Tertiary Group Bs . 225 | Volumetric Micro-determina-
Tetra-covalent Compounds of tion of Picrolonic Acid in
Platinum with Tertiary Organic Picrolonates with
Arsines Metso. hes. sO Methylene Blue
Thomas, D. J. sp 3
Tissues, Prussic eid in . 192 Ww
ee | Wattle Barks. Part IV. Notes
Stone Scrapers: An Inquiry a
concerning a _ Certain Welch, M. eee oe i
aaa Coast The Longitudinal Variation
N.S.W. 8 117 of Timber during Season-
Triassic S stem o 225 rales ea oe
y : The Moisture E quilibrium
Trikojus, V. M., and D. E. of Timber in Different
White— Parts of N.S.W. Part IT.
The Chemistry of the Con- Murwillumbah :
stituents of the Wood-oil Welch, M. B., F. A. Cognaie
of the ‘‘ Callitris’’ Pines. and W. McGlynn—
Part II. Guaiol 177 Notes on Wattle Barks.
Parte LV ge.
Wheat, Black Chafi ‘of ;
V Wihites (De whe. “and x4 M.
ae Trikojus—
Variation of Timber during The Chemistry of the Con-
Seasoning, Longitudinal 249 stituents of the Wood-oil
Voisey, A. H.— of the “ Callitris’’ Pines.
The Physiography of the Part il) Guaiol .. |...
Middle. North Coast Wood-oil of the “ Callitris ”
District of N.S.W... 88 Pines Se Rago oe
Volumetric Micro-determina-
tion of Ortho-nitrophenols os
with Methylene Blue 51 | X-Ray Study of Opals, An..

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AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY LIMITED

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JOURNAL
PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

OYAL SOCIETY

NEW SOUTH WALES
1935
(INCORPORATED 1881)

VOL. LAXALX
Parts I and II

EDITED BY

THE HONORARY SECRETARIES.

THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARH ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN.

SYDNEY

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS

Issued as a complete volume, June 24, 1936.

CONTENTS:

VOLUME LXIxX.

Part [.*
Page.
Art. I.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By R. J. Noble, Ph.D.,
M.Sc., B.Sc.Agr. (Issued July 12, 1935.) .. 1

Art. II.—A Detailed Regional Magnetic Survey as an Aid to
Geological Interpretation. District: Mittagong-Bowral. By
Edgar H. Booth, M.C., B.Sc., F.Inst.P. (Issued July 19,
1935.) es x a a3 . - xe .. (35

Art. III.—The Constitution of Matairesinol. By L. H. Briggs,
M.Sce., D.Phil., D. A. Peak, M.Sc., and J. L. D. Woolloxall,
M.Sc. (Communicated by Dr. F. Lions.) (Issued July 16,
1935.) oy: a ~ = ne a - os OL

Art. IV.—The Volumetric Microdetermination of Magnesium
with Methylene Blue following its Precipitation as Magnesium
Picrolonate. By Adolph Bolliger, Ph.D. (Issued August 12,
1935.) Ge “ se ve as ie 2 08

Art. V.—Note on the Geology of the Goulburn District, with
Special Reference to Paleozoic Stratigraphy. By G. F. K.
Naylor, M.A., M.Sc. (Issued August 12, 1935.) 53 75

ArT. VI.—Vegetative Reproduction in New Zealand Mosses.
By G. O. K. Sainsbury, F.L.S8. (Issued October 28, 1935.).. 86

Part II.
Art. VII.—The Oxidation of Cobalt Amalgam. By F. P. Dwyer,
M.Se., and J. W. Hogarth. (Issued November 8, 1935.) .. 105

ArT. VIII.—The Essential Oils of Hucalyptus Australiana (Baker
& Smith) and its Physiological Forms. Part I. By A. R.
Penfold, F.A.C.I., F.C.S., and F. R. Morrison, A.A.C.I.,
F.C.S. (Issued November Se 930.) a . lll

Art. IX.—The Paleozoic Sediments near Bungonia: Their
Field Relations and Graptolite Fauna. By G. F. K. Naylor,
M.A., M.Sc. (Issued November 8, 1935.) - oe ees

ArT. X.—The Endogenous Contact-Zone of the Magnesian
Limestones at Ben Bullen, N.S.W. By Germaine A. J one
B.Sec., Ph.D. (Issued January 22, 1936.) .. 135

Art. XI.—The Effect of Chemical Solutions on Some Woods.
By M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C. (Issued January 10, 1936.).. 159

* Published November 11, 1935.
+ Published June 24, 1936.

1V CONTENTS.

Page.
Art. XII.—The Birefringence of Potassium Chloropalladite and
Potassium Chloroplatinite. By D. P. Mellor, M.Sec., and
Florence M. Quodling, B.Sc. (Issued January 10, 1936.).. 167

Art. XIII.—The Occurrence of Linalool in the Essential Oil of
Melaleuca ericifolia. By A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.1., F.C.S., and
F. R. Morrison, F.C.S., A.A.C.I. (Issued February 11, 1936.) 171

Art. XITV.—Notes on the Shrinkage of Wood. PartII. By M.B.
Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C. (Issued February 11, 1936.).. Ate

ArT. XV.—Compounds Formed from Copper Salts and Tertiary
Arsines. Part I. By G. J. Burrows, B.Sc., and E. P.
Sanford, B.Sc. (Issued February 24, 1936.) .. ie se BZ

Art. XVI.—Initiation in the Bard Tribe, North-West Australia.
By A. P. Elkin, M.A., Ph.D. (Issued February 24, 1936.).. 190

Art. XVII.—Cyanogenetic Glucosides in Australian Plants.
Part III. Hucalyptus cladocalyx. By H. Finnemore, B.Sc.
(Lond.), F.I.C., S. K. Reichard, B.Sc. (Syd.); and oD:
Large, B.Sc. (Syd.). (Issued June 00, 1936.) .. ae .. 209

Art. XVIII.—A Bacterial Disease of Snake Beans. By R. D.

Wilson, B.Sec.Agr. (Issued June 00, 1936.).. 215
Art. XIX.—On a New Reaction for the Determination of

Creatinine. By Adolph Bolliger, Ph.D. (Issued June 00,

1936.) Bes bs mA > oe ae .. 224
TITLE Pace, CONTENTS, NoTIcES, PUBLICATIONS 28 y 1
OFFICERS FOR 1935-1936 2a ae we ws be Wai itt
List oF MEMBERS, AWARDS OF MEDALS, ETC. ae ot a
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS .. at ae ap he xxi
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF INDUSTRY ae Fe .. xiii
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF GEOLOGY be ae Bete a 82
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE .. a wal

INDEX OF VOLUME LXIX a a A He at .. xlvil

CORRIGENDUM.

In the Contents to Part II, which appears on page iv, the
date of issue of Articles XVII, XVIII and XIX should read
June 10, 1936, in each instance.

NOTICE.

THE Royat Sociery of New South Wales originated in 1821 as
the “Philosophical Society of Australasia’; after an interval
of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the
“Australian Philosophical Society”, by which title it was known
until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘Philosophical
Society of New South Wales’; in 1866, by the sanction of Her
Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present
title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New
South Wales in 1881.

TO AUTHORS.

Authors should submit their papers in typescript and in a
condition ready for printing. All physico-chemical symbols and
mathematical formule should be so clearly written that the
compositor should find no difficulty in reading the manuscript.
Sectional headings and tabular matter should not be underlined.
Pen-illustrations accompanying papers should be made with
black Indian ink upon smooth white Bristol board. Lettering
and numbers should be such that, when the illustration or
graph is reduced to 84 inches in width, the lettering will be
quite legible. On graphs and text figures any lettering may
be lightly inserted in pencil. Photomicrographs should be
rectangular rather than circular, to obviate too great a reduc-
tion. The size of a full page plate in the Journal is 4 x 63
inches, and the general reduction of illustrations to this limit
should be considered by authors. When drawings, etc., are
submitted in a state unsuitable for reproduction, the cost of
the preparation of such drawings for the process-block maker
must be borne by the author. The cost of colouring plates or
maps must also be borne by the author.

FORM OF BEQUEST.

I bequeath the sum of £ to the Royat Socrery
or NEw SoutH Watss, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament
of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of
the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall
be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct
to be paid within calendar months after my
decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account
of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my
estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose.

[Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society
of New South Wales by Legacies, are recommended to instruct
their Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest.]

The following publications of the Society, if in print, can be
obtained at the Society’s Rooms, Science House, Gloucester and
Essex Streets, Sydney.

PUBLICATIONS.

Transactions of the Philosophical Society, N.S.W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print.
I-xI Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S.W., 1867-1877

Vols.

xiI Journal and Proceedings

XII
XIV
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
XIX
xX
XXI
XXII
XXIII
XXIV
XXV
XXVI
XXVII
XXVIII
XXIX
XXX
XXXI
XXXII
XXXII
XXXIV
XXXV
XXXVI
XXXVII
XXXVIII
XXXIX
XL
XLI
XLII
XLII
XLIV
XLV
XLVI
XLVII
XLVIII
XLIX

9)

be)

1878, pp.

1879,
1880,
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1885,
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600,
568,
626,
476,
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484,
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274,
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377,
593,
466,
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611,
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786,
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366,
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470,
492,
458,
263,
434,
366,
601,
511,
328,
238,

9

5

+f,

Royal Society of New South Wales

OFFICERS FOR 1935-1936

Patron:

HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE
SIR ISAAC ISAACS, p.c., G.c.mM.a.

Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia.

Vice-Patron:
HIS EXCELLENCY BRIGADIER-GENERAL THE HON.
Sui ALEXANDER HORE-RUTHVEN, V.c.,-K.C.M.G., C.B., D.S.0.,
Governor of the State of New South Wales.

President:
Ava PRINE OLD, F:AcC.1., F.G.S.

Vice-Presidents :

R. J. NOBLE, M.sc., Ph.D., B.Sc. Agr.
C. A. SUSSMILCH, r.a.s.

R. W. CHALLINOR, F.1.¢., F.c.s.
E. C. ANDREWS, B.A.

Honorary Treasurer:
EDWIN CHEEL.

Honorary Secretaries :

Major EDGAR H. BOOTH,
MeO. D.Scs, E.IMst.P.
* Resigned October, 1935 ;

Assist.-Prof. W. R. BROWNE,*
D.Sc.

succeeded by C. ANDERSON, M.A., D.Sc.

Members of Council:

C. ANDERSON, M.a., D.Sc.
(Honorary Secretary
October, 1935.)

Assist.-Prof. W. R. BROWNE,
D.Sc. (Elected October, 1935.)

rot. J. C. EARL, D.se., Ph.D.

Prof. C. E. FAWSITT, D.sc., Ph.p.

H. FINNEMORE, B.sc., F.I.c.

Assoc.-Prof. H. PRIESTLEY,
M.D., Ch.M.

from

Prof. J. DOUGLAS STEWART,
B.V.Sc., M.B.C.V.S.

L. L. WATERHOUSH, B.E£.

W. L. WATERHOUSE, o.c.,
D.Sc-Agr., D.1.C:

Prof. R. D. WATT; M.A., B.Sc.
Me Bo WELCH,“ B.Sc., “A.1.C;

LIST OF THE MEMBERS

OF THE

Royal Society of New South Wales

P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s
Journal. The numerals indicate the number of such contributions.

t Life Members.

Elected.

1908 Abbott, George Henry, B.A., M.B., Ch.M., 185 Macquarie-

street, Sydney; p.r. “‘ Cooringa,’’ 252 Liverpool-
road, Summer Hill.

1935 Albert, Michel Francois, ‘‘ Boomerang,’ Billyard-
avenue, Elizabeth Bay.

1898 Alexander, Frank Lee, Surveyor, 21 George-street,

Parramatta; p.r. 154 William-street, Granville.
1905 | P 3 | Anderson, Charles, M.a., D.Sc. (Hdin.), C.M.z.s., Director
of the Australian Museum, College-street, Sydney ;
p.r. 17 Towns-road, Vaucluse. (Hon. Secretary.)
(President, 1924.)

1909 | P10 | Andrews, Ernest C., B.A., Hon. Mem. Washington
Academy of Sciences and of Royal Society of New
Zealand, 32 Benelong Crescent, Bellevue Hill.
(Vice-President.) (President, 1921.)

1933 Andrews, John, B.A., Demonstrator in Geography in
the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Avalon,’’ Neret-
street, Hunter’s Hill.

1935 Ash, Perey Arthur, p.p.s., University Lecturer, 135
Macquarie-street, Sydney.
1930 Aston, Ronald Leslie, B.sc., B.E. Syd., M.Sc., Ph.D.,

Cantab., A.M.1.E.Aust., Lecturer in Civil Engineering
and Surveying in the University of Sydney; p.r.
24 Redmyre-road, Strathfield.

1919 Aurousseau, Marcel, B.sc., ‘‘ Dirrilong,’’ 54 Park View-
road, Manly.

1935 Back, Catherine Dorothy Jean, M.sSc., Demonstrator in
Geography, University of Sydney.
1878 | Backhouse, His Honour Judge A. P., m.a., ‘“‘ Melita, ”’

Elizabeth Bay.

1924 | P 1) Bailey, Victor Albert, M.A., D.Phil., ¥F.Inst.P., Assoc.-
Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney ;
p-r. 12 Cranbrook-avenue, Cremorne.

1919 Baker, Henry Herbert, F.s.m.c., c/o W. Watson & Son
Ltd. Watson House, Blhgh-street, Sydney; p.r.
18 Bradley’s Head-road, Mosman.

1894 | P 28 | Baker, Richard Thomas, The Crescent, Cheltenham.

A2

x

Elected.

1934

1919
1895

1935
1933

1909

1926
1923
1916
1920
1923
1905
1888
1933
1933

1926
1932
1920
1922

RONG,
1919

1935
1906
1913

Parl
eae
iP2
P 4
P 6
P 5
P 6
Ped
P 20

Baker, Stanley Charles, m.sc., Science Teacher, High
School, Mudgee, N.S.W.

Bardsley, John Ralph, 76 Wright’s-road, Drummoyne.

Barraclough, Sir Henry, K.B.E., B.E., M.M.E., M.Inst.C.E.,
M.I.Mech.E., Memb. Soc. Promotion Eng. Education ;
Memb. Internat. Assoc. Testing Materials : Professor
of Mechanical Engineering in the University of
Sydney.

Bayley, Arthur, 6 Martin-road, Centennial Park.

Bedwell, Arthur Johnson, Eucalyptus Oil Merchant,
‘“Kama,’’ 10 Darling Point-road, Edgecliff.

Benson, William Noel, p.sc. Syd., B.A. Cantab., F.G.S.
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the Uni-
versity of Otago, Dunedin, N.Z.; p.r. 14 Maheno-
street, Dunedin.

Bentivoglio, Sydney Ernest, B.Sc.Agr., c/o Tooth & Co.
Limited, Sydney; p.r. 14 Gordon-avenue, Coogee.

Birks, George Frederick, Wholesale Druggist, c/o Potter
& Birks Ltd., 15 Grosvenor-street, Sydney ; p.r. 42
Powell-street, Killara.

Birrell, Septimus, 74 Edinburgh-road, Marrickville.

Bishop, Eldred George, Manufacturing and General
Engineer, 7 Knox-street, Sydney ; p.r. 8 Belmont-
road, Mosman.

Blakely, William Faris, ‘‘ Myola,’’ Florence-street,
Hornsby.

Blakemore, George Henry, ‘* Wawoona,’’ 10 Cooper-
street, Strathfield.

{Blaxland, Walter, F.R.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., “* Ingle-
wood,’’ Florida-road, Palm Beach, N.S.W.

Boan, Robert Farquharson, 4.A.c.1., Analyst and
Consulting Chemist, 185 Elizabeth-street, Sydney.

Bolliger, Adolph, ph.p., Director of Research, Gordon
Craig Urological Research Laboratory, Department
of Surgery, University of Sydney.

Booker, Frederick William, B.sc., ‘‘ Dunkeld,’’ Nicholson-
street, Chatswood.

Boon, Herbert Eril, 10 Murdoch-street, Cremorne.

Booth, Edgar Harold, M.c., D.sc., F.Inst.P., Lecturer
and Demonstrator in Physics in the University of
Sydney. (Hon. Secretary.)

Bradfield, John Job Crew, C.M.G., D.Sc. Hng., M.E.,
M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.Aust., Barrack House, 16 Barrack-
street, Sydney ; pt. 23 Park-avenue, Gordon.

Breakwell, Ernest, B.A., B.Sc., Dept. of Education,
Box 33a, G.P.O., Sydney.

Briggs, George Henry, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.Inst.P., Assistant-
Professor of Physics, University of Sydney; p.r.
13 Findlay-avenue, Roseville.

Brown, Ida Alison, D.Sc., Lecturer in Paleontology,
University of Sydney.

Brown, James B., No. 1 Maitland-avenue, East Kew,
E.4, Victoria.

Browne, William Rowan, D.Sc., Assistant-Professor of
Geology in the University of Sydney. (Hon.
Secretary.) (President, 1932.)

—

XI

Elected.

1898 \{Burfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.A., M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc. Syd.,
F.R.A.C.S., ‘“ Wyoming,” 175 Macquarie-street,
Sydney; p.r. “ Radstoke,’’ Elizabeth Bay.

1926 Burkitt, Arthur Neville St. George, M.B., B.Sc., Professor

of Anatomy in the University of Sydney.
1919 | P13 | Burrows, George Joseph, B.Sc., Lecturer and Demon-
strator in Chemistry in the University of Sydney.

1909 | Calvert, Thomas Copley, Assoc.M.Inst.c.E., c/o Messrs.
T. Michell & Gee, 92 Pitt-street, Sydney, Box 560 FF,
(Cele Or

1923 Cameron, Lindsay Duncan, Associate of the Ballarat

School of Mines (Metallurgy), Manufacturing Chemist,
Hilly-street, Mortlake.

1934 Carruthers, H. L., M.B., B.s., Sydney Hospital, Sydney.

1903 | P 3 | Carslaw, Horatio Scott, Sc.p., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Emeritus
Professor of Mathematics, University of Sydney,
Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge ; Burradoo,

N.S.W.

1913 | P 4} Challinor, Richard Westman, F.1.C., A.A.C.1I., A.S.T.C.,
F.C.S., Lecturer in Organic Chemistry, Sydney
Technical College ; p.r. 54 Drumalbyn-road, Bellevue
Hill. (Vice-President.) (President, 1933.)

1933 Chalmers, Robert Oliver, 4.s.T.c., Assistant (Professional)
in Mineralogy, Australian Museum, College-street,
Sydney.

1913 | P19 | Cheel, Edwin, Botanist and Curator, National
Herbarium, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. (Hon.
Treasurer.) (President, 1931.)

1935 Churechward, John Gordon, Assistant Lecturer,
University of Sydney.

1935 Clark, Reginald Marcus, Central Square, Sydney.

1925 | P 1 | Clark, William E., 24 Cambridge-street, Epping.

1920 Cooke, Frederick, c/o Meggitt’s Limited, Asbestos

House, York and Barrack-streets, Sydney.

1913 | P 5 | Coombs, F. A., F.c.s., Instructor of Leather Dressing
and Tanning, Sydney Technical College; _p.r.
Bannerman-crescent, Rosebery.

1928 Coppleson, Victor Marcus, M.B., Ch.M., F.R.C.S., F.R.A.C.S.,
Surgeon, 225 Macquarie-street, Sydney; p.r.
*“Cravenna,’’ 8 Macleay-street, Potts Point.

1933 Corbett, Robert Lorimer, Managing Director of Robert
Corbett & Co. Ltd., Manufacturing Chemists, Head
Office, 379 Kent-street, Sydney.

1882 Cornwell, Samuel, 3.p., ‘‘ Capanesk,’”’ Tyagarah, N.S.W.

1919 Cotton, Frank Stanley, p.sc., Chief Lecturer and
Demonstrator in Physiology in the University of
Sydney.

1909 | P 7 | Cotton, Leo Arthur, m.a., D.sc., Professor of Geology
in the University of Sydney. (President, 1929.)

1892 | P 1 |{Cowdery, George R., Assoc.M.Inst.c.E., Strathfield-avenue,
Strathfield.

a2

xl

Elected
1921

1935
1912

P 1 |fCresswick, John Arthur, 4A.A.C.1., F.c.S., Production

Superintendent and Chief Chemist, c/o The Metro-
politan Meat Industry Commissioner, State Abattoir
and Meat Works, Homebush Bay ; p.r. 101 Villiers-
street, Rockdale.

Culey, Alma Gertrude, M.Sc., 37 Neirbo-avenue, Hurst-
ville.

Curtis, Louis Albert, L.s., F.1.S., v.D., Major, Surveyor,
66 Pitt-street, Sydney ; p.r. 59 Albyn-road, Strath-
field.

Dare, Henry Harvey, M.E., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.Aust., 14
Victoria-street, Roseville.

Davison, Walter Charles, General Manager, Clyde
Engineering Co. Ltd., Granville; p.r. 17 Hurlstone-
avenue, Summer Hill.

de Beuzeville, Wilfrid Alex. Watt, 3.p., ‘‘ Mélamere,”’
Welham-street, Beecroft.

Delprat, Guillaume Daniel, c.B.E., ‘‘ Keynsham,”’
Mandeville-crescent, Toorak, Victoria.

Dick, James Adam, c.M.G., B.A. Syd., M.D., C.M. Hdin.,
F.R.c.S. Hdin., Col. A.A.M.C., Comr. Ord. St. John,
Medical Practitioner, ‘‘ Catfoss,’’ 59 Belmore-road,
Randwick.

{Dixson, William, ‘‘ Merridong,’’ Gordon-road, Killara.

P 31] Doherty, William M., F.1.c., F.a.c.1., “‘ Jesmond,”’ 36

George-street, Marrickville.

Donegan, Henry Arthur James, A.S.T.C., A.A.C.I.,
Analyst, Department of Mines, Sydney; p.r. 18
Hillview-street, Sans Souci.

Dunbabin, Thomas, 25 Musgrave-street, Mosman.

Dupain, George Zephirin, 4A.A.c.1., F.c¢.S8., Director
Dupain Institute of Physical Education and Medical
Gymnastics, Manning Building, 449 Pitt-street,
Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Rose Bank,” 158 Parramatta-road,
Ashfield.

Durham, Joseph, c/o Pacific Manufacturing Co. Ltd.,
121 Mullens-street, Rozelle.

Dwyer, Francis P. J., m.sc., Lecturer in Chemistry,
Technical College, Sydney.

Earl, John Campbell, pD.sc., Ph.p., Professor of Organic
Chemistry in the University of Sydney.

Eastaugh, Frederick Alldis, A.R.S.M., F.I.c., Associate
Professor in Chemistry, Assaying and Metallurgy in
the University of Sydney.

Elkin, Adolphus Peter, M.A., Ph.».., Professor of
Anthropology in the University of Sydney.

Ellis, Leon Macintosh, B.se.F. Toronto, Union Buildings,
Bond-street, Sydney.

England, Sidney Willis, 29 Queen-street, Mosman.

Enright, Walter John, B.a., Solicitor, High-street,
West Maitland ; p.r. Regent-street, West Maitland.

Esdaile, Edward William, 42 Hunter-street, Sydney.

Evans, Silvanus Gladstone, 4.1.4.A. Lond., A.R.A.1.A.,
6 Major-street, Coogee.

xiii

Elected.

1921 Farnsworth, Henry Gordon, Government Stores,
Harrington-street, Sydney; p.r. ‘“‘ Rothsay,’’ 90
Alt-street, Ashfield.

1910 | Farrell, John, A.s.tT.c., Riverina Flats, 265 Palmer-

street, Sydney.

1909 | P 7 | Fawsitt, Charles Edward, p.sc., Ph.p., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Sydney. (President,
1919.)

1923 Fiaschi, Piero, 0.B.E., V.D., M.D. Columbia Univ., D.D.S.
New York, M.R.c.s. Eng., L.B.c.P. Lond., 178 Phillip-
street, Sydney. |

1927 | P 4 | Finnemore, Horace, B.Sc., F.1.c., Lecturer in Pharmacy
in the University of Sydney.

1935 Firth, Francis Williamson, Elliotts and Australian
Drug Ltd., O’Connell-street, Sydney.
1935 | Wirth, John Clifford, B.sc., ‘‘ Avoca,”’ Huntley’s Point-
road, Gladesville.

1920 Fisk, Ernest Thomas, F.Inst.R.E., A.M.LE., (Aust.)

Chairman of Directors, Amalgamated Wireless
(Australasia) Ltd., Wireless House, 47 York-street,
Sydney; p.r. 16 Beaconsfield-parade, Lindfield.

1888 Fitzhardinge, His Honour Judge G. H., m.a., ‘“‘ Red
Hill,’’ Pennant Hills.

1933 Fletcher, Harold Oswald, Assistant Paleontologist,
Australian Museum, College-street, Sydney.

1879 tForeman, Joseph, m.R.c.s. Hng., L.R.c.P. Hdin., “‘ The
Astor,’’ Macquarie-street, Sydney.

1932 Forman, Kenn. P., M.1.Refr.E., 13 Market-street, Sydney ;

p.r. ‘‘ Wyreema,’’ Alison-road, Randwick.

1920 Fortescue, Albert John, ‘‘ Benambra,’’ Loftus-street,
Arncliffe.

1905 Foy, Mark, c/o Geo. O. Bennett, 133 Pitt-street, Sydney.

1935 Fraser, Lilian Ross, m.sc., 25 Bellamy-street, Pennant
Hills.

1935 Garretty, Michael Duhan, B.sc., c/o J. H. H. Millett,
Suva, Fiji.

1926 Gibson, Alexander James, M.E., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.Aust.,

Consulting Engineer, 906 Culwulla Chambers,
Castlereagh-street, Sydney ; p.r. ‘* Wirruna,’’
Belmore-avenue, Wollstonecraft.

1935 Goddard, Roy Hamilton, ¥F.c.a. Aust., Royal Exchange,
Bridge-street, Sydney.

192] Godfrey, Gordon Hay, M.a., B.Sc., Lecturer in Physics
in the Technical College, Sydney.

1897 Gould, The Hon. Sir Albert John, K.B., v.p., ‘‘ Eynes-

bury,’ Edgecliff-road, Edgecliff.

1934 Hall, Norman Frederick Blake, m.sc., Chemist, Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research (Tobacco
Section), Dept. of Organic Chemistry, University of
Sydney; p.r. 4 Whatmore-street, North Sydney.
1880 | P 5 |tHalligan, Gerald Harnett, us. ¥.¢.s., Retired Civil
Engineer and Hydrographer, ‘‘ Coniston,’’ Marian-
| street, Kuillara.

Xiv
Elected.
1912 |

1892
1919

1909
1933

1905

1913

1934
1923

1929

1934

1919

1935
1918

1928

1930

1916

1930

1919

1919

1935

Hallman, Edward Francis, B.sc.. Assistant Mathematica
Master, Fort Street Boys’ High School, Petersham ;
p.r. 15 Harrington-street, Marrickville.

Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, L.s., 82 Pitt-street, Sydney.

Hambridge, Frank, Adelaide Steamship Co. Chambers,
22 Bridge-street, Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ The Chalet,”
Lucinda-avenue, Wahroonga. ‘

Hammond, Walter L., B.se., High School, Wollongong.

Hancock, Francis Charles, B.sc. (Hons.), Dip.Ed.
(University of Bristol), St. John’s C. of E. Grammar
School, Forbes-street, Darlinghurst.

Harker, George, D.Sc., F.A.C.1., Cancer Research Depart-
ment, University of Sydney ; p.r. 75 Prospect-road,
Summer Hill.

Harper, Leshe F., r.c.s., Government Geologist, Depart-
ment of Mines, Sydney; p.r. 8 Alviston-street,
Strathfield.

Harrington, Herbert Richard, Teacher of Physics and
Electrical Engineering, 4 Epping-avenue, Eastwood.

Harrison, Travis Henry John, D.Sc.Agr., D.1.c. (London),
Lecturer in Botany and Entomology, Hawkesbury
Agricultural College, Richmond.

Hawley, J. William, g.p., Financial Agent, 46 Martin-
place, Sydney ; p.r. 12 King’s-road, Vaucluse.

Hayes, William Lyall, A.s.T.c., A.A.c.I., Works Chemist,
c/o Messrs. Wm. Cooper & Nephews (Aust.) Ltd.,
Phillip-street, Concord ; .p.r. 30 Cormiston-avenue,
Central Concord.

Henriques, Frederick Lester, 208 Clarence-street,
Sydney.
Hewitt, Frank Rupert, 45 Shirley-road, Wollstonecraft.

Hindmarsh, Percival, ™M.A., 3B.Sc.Agr., Principal,
Agricultural High School, Yanco.

Hirst, George Walter Cansdell, B.Sc., A.S.T.C. (Sc.),
A.M.L.E. (Aust.), A.M.Inst.T., c/o Chief Mechanical
Engineer’s Office, N.S.W. Railways, Wilson-street,
Redfern; p.r. ‘“‘St. Cloud,’’ Beaconsfield-road,
Chatswood.

Hodson, John S., Assoc.1.E.E., Electrical Engineer,
H.M. Naval Establishments, Garden Island, Sydney.

Hoggan, Henry James, A.M.I1.M.E. (Lond.), A.M.I.E.
(Aust.), Consulting and Designing Engineer, “ Lin-
cluden,’’ 81 Frederick-street, Rockdale.

Holmes, James Macdonald, Ph.D., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.G.S.,
Associate Professor of Geography in the University
of Sydney.

Hoskins, Arthur Sidney, Engineer, Steel Works, Port
Kembla ; postal address, P.O. Box 36, Wollongong.

Hoskins, Cecil Harold, Engineer, c/o Australian Iron
& Steel Ltd., Kembla Building, 58 Margaret-street,
Sydney, Box 3375 R, G.P.O.

Howarth, Mark, Grange Mount, Bull-street, Mayfield,
Newcastle, N.S.W.

XV

Elected.

1936 Howie, Archibald, 7 Wynyard-street, Sydney.

1923 | P 2 |t{Hynes, Harold John, mM.sc., B.Sc.agr., Senior Asst.
Biologist, Department of Agriculture, Box 364,
G.P.O., Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Belbooree,’’ 10 Wandella-
avenue, Roseville.

1935 James, Hugh, A.c.1.s., Australian Essential Oils Ltd.,
115 Pitt-street, Sydney.
1929 Jeffrey, Robert Ewen, 4A.A.c.1., Managing Director,

Bardsley’s Ltd.; p.r. 9 Greycliffe-avenue, Vaucluse.

1909 | P15 | Johnston, Thomas Harvey, M.A., D.Sc., C.M.z.S., Professor
of Zoology in the University of Adelaide. (Cor.
Mem., 1912.)

1924 Jones, Leo Joseph, Geological Surveyor, Department
of Mines, Sydney.

1935 | P 1 | Joplin, Germaine Anne, B.Sec., Ph.p., Curator of the
Geological Department Museum, University of
Sydney; p.r. 18 Wentworth-street, Eastwood.

~1930 Judd, William Perey, 123 Wollongong-road, Arncliffe.

1911 Julius, Sir George A., Kt.,B.Sc.,B.E.,M.1I.Mech.E.,M.1.E.Aust.,
Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street, Sydney.

1932 Keeble, Arthur Thomas, B.Sc., Science Master, Sydney

Grammar School ; p.r. 55 Carlotta-street, Greenwich.

1935 Kelly, Caroline Tennant (Mrs.), ‘“‘ The Old Parsonage,”’
Castle Hill, N.S.W.

1935 Kelly, Francis Angelo Timothy, ‘‘ The Old Parsonage,”’
Castle Hill, N.S.W.

1934 Kelly, Francis de Vere, Pharmacist, The Sydney Drug

Stores, 264 LElizabeth-street, Sydney; p.r. c/o
Masonic Club, 169 Castlereagh-street, Sydney.

1924 Kenny, Edward Joseph, Geological Surveyor, Depart-
ment of Mines, Sydney; p.r. 17 Alma-street,
Ashfield.

1887 Kent, Harry C., M.A., F.R.1.B.4., 491 New South Head-
road, Double Bay.

1934 Kerslake, Richmond, A.S.T.c., <A.A.C.I., Industrial

Chemist, c/o Australian Paper Mfrs. Ltd., Macauley-
street, Matraville ; p.r. 55 Harold-street, Matraville.

1896 King, Sir Kelso, K.B., Underwriter, 117 Pitt-street,
Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Quambi,’”’ Albert-street, Edgecliff.
1920 Kirchner, William John, B.sc., A.A.c.1., Manufacturing

Chemist, c/o Messrs. Burroughs, Wellcome & Co.
(Australia) Ltd., Victoria-street, Waterloo; p.r.
‘“Wanawong,”’? 27 Thornleigh-road, Beecroft.

1919 Kirk, Robert Newby, Company Manager, 25 O’Connell-
street, Sydney; p.r. 8 Lauderdale-avenue, Manly.

1935 Lawrence, Elizabeth Frances, B.A., Demonstrator in
Geography, University of Sydney.

1936 Leach, Stephen Laurence, 8B.A., B.Sc., A.A.C.I., 69
Lithgow-street, Crows Nest.

1924 Leech, Thomas David James, B.sc., B.E. Syd., P. N.

Russell School of Engineering, University of Sydney ;
| p.r. 57 Clanalpine-street, Mosman.

Xvi

Elected
1934

1920 |
1916
1909
1929
1906

1927

1933

1929

P 10
Jeg el
P 2

1

1
Poe
Pit

Leech, William Dale, Director of Research, Australasian
Food Research Laboratories, Cooranbong, N.S.W.

Le Souef, Albert Sherbourne, Curator, Taronga Park,
Mosman; p.r. 3 Silex-road, Mosman.

L’Estrange, Walter William, 7 Church-street, Ashfield.

Leverrier, Frank, B.A., B.Sc., K.c., c/o Austral Malay
Tin Ltd., Challis House, Martin-place, Sydney ;
p.r. Wentworth-road, Vaucluse.

Lions, Francis, B.Sc., Ph.D., A.1.c., Lecturer in Organic
Chemistry in the University of Sydney; p.r. 31
Chesterfield-road, Epping.

Loney, Charles Augustus Luxton, M.Am.Soc.Refr.E.,
National Mutual Building, 350 George-street,
Sydney.

Love, William Henry, B.Sc., Ph.p., Cancer Research
Department, University of Sydney.

McDonald, Alexander Hugh Earle, H.D.A., Director of
Agriculture, Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
McDonald, Charles Mylne, ‘‘ The Astor,’? Macquarie-

street, Sydney.

McIntosh, Arthur Marshall, ‘“Moy Lodge,’’ Hill-street,
Roseville.

tMcKay, R. T., L.s., M.Inst.c.—., Commissioner, Sydney
Harbour Trust, Circular Quay, Sydney.

Mackenzie, William Donald, F.1.C., M.I.chem.E., F.A.C.I.,
Chairman and Managing Director, Messrs. Lever
Brothers Ltd., Balmain; p.r. 5 Tivoli-avenue,
Rose Bay.

McKie, Rev. Ernest Norman, B.A. Syd., St. Columba’s
Manse, Guyra, N.S.W.

McMaster, Sir Frederick Duncan, kt., ‘‘ Dalkeith,”’
Cassilis, N.S.W.

McQuiggin, Hareld G., M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc., Lecturer and
Demonstrator in Physiology in the University of
Sydney; p.r. 114 Frenchman’s-road, Randwick.

Mance, Frederick Stapleton, Under Secretary for
Mines, Mines Department, Sydney ; p.r. “‘ Binbah,”’
Lucretia-avenue, Longueville.

Manfred, Edmund Cooper, Architect, Belmore-square,
Goulburn.

Mann, Cecil William, m.a., Lecturer, Teachers’ College,
University Grounds, Newtown; p.r. 68 Middle
Harbour-road, Lindfield.

Martin, Alexander Hutton, F.R.A.1.A., Architect and
Lecturer in Charge, School of Architecture, Sydney
Technical College: p.r. “‘ Silverdene,’’ 23 Victoria-
street, Roseville.

Martin, Lyster Waverley Ormsby, B.sc., Chemical
Engineer, Dept. Public Works, N.S.W.; p.r. 13
Carlos-road, Artarmon.

Matheson, Alexander James, Teacher, the High School,
Dubbo.

Elected.

1926 |
1935
1933
1912
1929
1928

1926

1922
1924
1934

1879
1915

1923

1893
1930

1932

1924
1935

P 22

XVil

Mathews, Hamilton Bartlett, B.A., F.1.S., F.C.I.V.,
Surveyor-General of N.S.W., Department of Lands,
Sydney.

Maze, Wilson Harold, B.sc., Demonstrator in Geography,
University of Sydney.

Mears, Arthur Cyril Weeks, 4.s.4.s.mM. (Electrical and
Mechanical Engineering), Engineer Commander,
Royal Australian Navy, Navy Office, St. Kilda-road,
Melbourne, 8.C.1, Victoria.

Meldrum, Henry John, B.A., B.Sc., Lecturer, The
Teachers’ College, University Grounds, Newtown ;
p.r. 98 Sydney-road, Manly.

Mellor, David Paver, M.sc., Lecturer and Demonstrator,
Chemistry Department, University of Sydney ;
p.r. 35 Oliver-road, Roseville.

Micheli, Louis Ivan Allan, M.sc., Ph.p., Research
Chemist, c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Pyrmont.

Mitchell, Ernest Marklow, A.M.1.E. Aust., Civil Engineer,
Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board,
341 Pitt-street, Sydney; p.r. 106 Harrow-road,
Bexley.

Morrison, Frank Richard, A.A.c.1., F.c.S., Assistant
Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

Morrison, Malcolm, Curator, Mining Museum, Sydney ;
p.r. “‘ Tayan,’’ Herbert-street, Rockdale.

Mort, Francis George Arnot, Chemist, c/o Lewis Berger
& Sons Ltd., Rhodes; p.r. 16 Grafton-street,
Woollahra.

Mullins, John Lane, M.t.c., M.A. Syd., Barrister, 7
Greenknowe-avenue, Potts Point.

Murphy, Robert Kenneth, Dr.Ing., Chem.Eng., A.S.T.C.,
M.I.Chem.k., A.A.C.1., Lecturer in Charge of Chemistry
and Head of Science Department, Sydney Technical
College.

Murray, Jack Keith, B.A., B.Sc.agr., Principal, Queens-
land Agricultural College, Gatton, Queensland, and
Professor of Agriculture in the University of Queens-
land.

Nangle, James, 0.B.E., F.R.A.S., F.R.A.I.A., Government
Astronomer, The Observatory, Sydney ; Room 706,
Australia House, Carrington-street, Sydney.
(President, 1920.)

Naylor, George Francis King, M.A., M.Sc., Dip.Ed.,
Assistant Director, Australian Institute of Industrial
Psychology, 12 O’Connell-street, Sydney; p.r.
‘** Kingsleigh,’’ Ingleburn, N.S.W.

Newman, Ivor Vickery, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.M.S., F.L.S.,
Linnean Macleay Fellow in Botany of the Linnean
Society of N.S.W., Botany Department, University
of Sydney ; p.r. ‘* Whitehaven,”’ 5 Llandilo-avenue,
Strathfield.

Nickoll, Harvey, L.R.c.P., L.R.c.S., Barham, via Mudgee,
N.S.W.

Nicol, Phyllis Mary, m.sc., Sub-Principal, The Women’s
College, Newtown.

XVill
Elected.

1891 tNoble, Edward George, L.s., Local Government Engineer,
8 Louisa-road, Balmain.

1920 | P 3 |tNoble, Robert Jackson, M.sc., B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., Biologist,
Department of Agriculture, Box 364, G.P.O.,
Sydney: p.r. ‘* Warrah,’” 51 Boundary-street,
Roseville. (Vice-President.) (President, 1934.)

1935 O’Connell, Daniel J. K., s.3., M.Se., F.R.A.S., Riverview
College Observatory, Sydney.

1903 tOld, Richard, ‘‘ Waverton,’ Bay-road, North Sydney.

1930 O’Leary, Rev. William J., s.z., Seismologist, St. Ignatius’
College, Riverview, Sydney.

1913 Ollé, A. D., F.c.s., A.A.c.1., | ‘* Kareema,’’ Charlotte-
street, Ashfield.

1932 O’Neill, John Patrick, F.1.1.4., F.c.1. (Hng.), Chief

Timber Inspector, Department of Railways, Bridge-
street, Sydney; p.r. 38 Wilberforce-avenue, Rose
Bay.

1921 | P 3 | Osborne, George Davenport, ov.sc., Lecturer and
Demonstrator in Geology in the University of

Sydney.

1928 Parsons, Stanley William Enos, Analyst and Inspector,
N.S.W. Explosive Department ; p.r. Shepherd-road,
Artarmon.

1935 Payne-Scott, Ruby Violet, Assistant Physicist, Cancer

Research Department, University cf Sydney.

1920 | P 67 | Penfold, Arthur Ramon, F.A.c.1., F.C.Ss., Curator and
Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Harris-
street, Ultimo; p.r. 25 Ramsay-road, Pennant Hills.
(President. )

1933 Penman, Arthur Percy, B.E. Syd., Mining Engineer, 10
Water-street, Wahroonga.

1935 Phillips, Orwell, ‘‘ Linlithgow,’’ 4 Wentworth-street,
Point Piper.

1919 Poate, Hugh Raymond Guy, M.B., ch.m. Syd., F.R.C.S.

Eing., L.8.c.P. Lond., F.R.A.C.S., Surgeon, 225 Mac-
quarie-street, Sydney; p.r. 38 Victoria-road,
Bellevue Hill.

1896 Pope, Roland James, B.A. Syd., M.D., Ch.M., F.R.C.S.
Edin., 185 Macquarie-street, Sydney.
1935 Potts, Charles Vickers, 28 O’Connell-street, Sydney.

1921 | P 2! Powell, Charles Wilfrid Roberts, F.1.C., A.A.C.I., Company
Executive, c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., O’Connell-
street, Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Wansfell,’ Kirkoswald-
avenue, Mosman.

1918 Powell, John, Managing Director, Foster Clark (Aust.)
Ltd., 17 Thurlow-street, Redfern; p.r. ‘‘ Elgarth,”’
Ranger’s-road, Cremorne.

1927 Price, William Lindsay, B.E., B.Sc., Teacher of Physics,
Sydney Technical College ; p.r. 60 McIntosh-street,
Killara.

1918 Priestley, Henry, M.D., Ch.M., B.Sc., Associate Professor

of Physiology in the University of Sydney.

Elected.
1893 |

1929

1935
1922
1919

1936
1931

1935
1935
1928
1932
1933
1935
1935
1928

1895
1925

1929
1907

1934

1935

Xix

Purser, Cecil, B.A., M.B., Ch.m. Syd., Physician, 185
Macquarie-street, Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ The Astor,”
Macquarie-street, Sydney.

Pyke, Henry George, A.s.T.c., Assistant Works Chemist,
Australian Gas Light Company, Mortlake; p.r.
29 Maple-avenue, Pennant Hills.

Quodling, Florrie Mabel, Demonstrator in Geology,
University of Sydney.

Raggatt, Harold George, M.sc., Geologist, c/o Mines
Department, Sydney; p.r. 83 Epping-avenue,
Epping.

Ranclaud, Archibald Boscawen Boyd, B.sc., B.E.,
Lecturer in Physics, Teachers’ College, ‘The
University, Sydney.

Randall, Harry, 7 Selbourne-street, Burwood.

Rayner, Jack Maxwell, B.Sc., A.Inst.P., Physicist to the
Department of Mines, Sydney; p.r. 125 William-
street, Granville. ;

Reid, Andrew, ‘‘ Neringah,’’ Wahroonga.

Reid, Cicero Augustus, 11 Robertson-road, Centennial
Park.

Reidy, Eugene Nicholas, 4.s.T.c., Analyst, Department
of Mines, Sydney.

Richardson, Henry Elmar, Chemist, Chase-road,
Turramurra.

Roberts, Richard George Crafter, Electrical Engineer,
** Redcliffe,’ Liverpool-road, Ashfield.

Robinson, Albert Jordan, Managing Director, S. T.
Leigh & Co. Ltd., Raleigh Park, Kensington.

Room, Thomas G., Professor of Mathematics in the
University of Sydney.

Ross, Allan Clunies, B.Sc., F.c.A. (Aust.), Chartered
Accountant (Aust.), 544 Pitt-street, Sydney; p.-r.
The Grove, Woollahra. (Member from 1915 to
1924.)

Ross, Herbert E., Govt. Savings Bank Building, 14
Castlereagh-street, Sydney.

Roughley, Theodore Cleveland, B.Sc., F.R.Z.S., Economic
Zoologist, Technological Museum, Sydney; p.r.
Coolong Flats, Coolong-road, Vaucluse.

Royle, Norman Dawson, M.D., ch.M., 185 Macquarie-
street, Sydney.

Ryder, Charles Dudley, pD.Eng. Vienna, Assoc.I.R.S.M.
Lond., Assoc.A.0.1., F.c.S. Lond., Public Analyst (by
appointment), Box 2263 G.P.O., Sydney; p.r.
17 Chorley-crescent, Cheltenham.

Salter, Keith Eric Wellesley, B.sc., Entomologist,
Curator Macleay Museum, The University of
Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Hawthorn,’? 48 Abbotsford-road,
Homebush.

Savage, Clarence Golding, Director of Fruit Culture,
Department of Agriculture, Sydney.

xx

Elected.
1920

1933
1936
1918
1917
1900
1933

1922

1919

1921

1917

1916

1914

1920

1913

1900

1909

1916

1918

1918

Scammell, Rupert Boswood, B.sc. (Syd.), A.A.C.1., F.C.S.,
c/o F. H. Faulding & Co. Ltd., 98 Castlereagh-street,
Redfern; p.r. 10 Buena Vista-avenue, Clifton
Gardens.

Selby, Esmond Jacob, bDip.com., Sales Manager,
** Marley,’’ Werona-avenue, Gordon.

Sellenger, Brother Albertus, Marist Brothers’ College,
Randwick.

Sevier, Harry Brown, Chairman of Directors, c/o Lewis
Berger & Sons (Australia) Limited, Box 23, P.O.,
Burwood ; p.r. 7 Albyn-road, Strathfield.

Sibley, Samuel Edward, Mount-street, Coogee.

tSimpson, R. C., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering,
Technical College, Sydney.

Slade, George Hermon, B.sc., Director, W. Hermon
Slade & Co. Ltd., Manufacturing Chemists, 23
Rosebery-avenue, Rosebery; p.r. “‘ Raiatea,”
Oyama-avenue, Manly.

Smith, Thomas Hodge, Australian Museum, College-
street, Sydney.

Southee, Ethelbert Ambrook, 0.B.E., M.A., B.Sc., B.Sc. Agr.,
Principal, Hawkesbury Agricultural College,
Richmond, N.S.W.

Spencer-Watts, Arthur, ‘‘ Araboonoo,’’ Glebe-street,
Randwick.

Spruson, Wilfred Joseph, M.C.1.P.A., F.I.A.P.A., C/O
Spruson & Ferguson, Patent Attorneys and Consulting
Engineers, 66 Pitt-street, Sydney ; p.r. ‘‘ Bengalala,”’
Neutral Bay.

Stephen, Alfred Ernest, F.c.s., c/o Box 1158 HH,
G.P.O., Sydney.

Stephens, Frederick G. N., F.R.C.S., M.B., Ch.M., 135
Macquarie-street, Sydney; p.r. Captain Piper’s-
road and New South Head-road, Vaucluse.

Stephens, John Gower, M.B., 135 Macquarie-street,
Sydney.

Stewart, Alex. Hay, B.E., “‘ Yunah,’’ 22 Murray-street,
Croydon.

Stewart, J. Douglas, B.v.Sc., M.R.C.v.S., Professor of
Veterinary Science in the University of Sydney ;
Der: ‘** Berelle,’’ Homebush-road, Strathfield.
(President, 1927.)

Stokes, Edward Sutherland, M.B., ch.m. Syd., D.P.H. Irel.,
Medical Officer, Metropolitan Board of Water
Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street, Sydney ; p.r.
15 Highfield-road, Lindfield.

Stone, Walter George, F.S.T.C., A.A.c.I., Senior Analyst,
Department of Mines, Sydney ;: p.r. 14 Rivers-street,
Bellevue Hill.

{Sullivan, Herbert Jay, Director in Charge of Research
and Technical Department, c/o Lewis Berger & Sons
(Australia) Ltd., Rhodes; Box 23, P.O., Burwood ;
p.r. ‘‘ Stonycroft,’’ 10 Redmyre-road, Strathfield.

Sundstrom, Carl Gustaf, Managing Director, Federal
Match Co. Ltd., Park-road, Alexandria; p.r. 74
Alt-street, Ashfield.

xxl

Elected.

1901 | P15 |{Sussmilch, C. A., F.G.s., F.S.T.C., A.M.I.E. Aust., Acting
Superintendent, Sydney Technical College; p.r.
11 Appian Way, Burwood. (Vice-President.)
(President, 1922.)

1919 tSutherland, George Fife, a.R.c.sc. Lond., Assistant
Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the University
of Sydney.

1920 Sutton, Harvey, 0.B.E., M.D., D.P.H. Melb., B.Sc. Oxon.,

Professor of Preventive Medicine and _ Director,
School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine,
University of Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Lynton,’ 27 Kent-
road, Rose Bay.

1915 | P 3 Taylor, Harold B., M.c., D.sSc., F.1.c., F.A.c.1., Second
Government Analyst, Department of Public Health,
93 Macquarie-street, Sydney; p.r. 44 Kenneth-
street, Longueville.

1935 Tennant, Thomas Henry, Manager, Government Stores

| Department; p.r. 2 SBorrodale-road, South
Kensington.

1919 Thorne, Harold Henry, m.a. Cantab., B.Sc. Syd., F.R.A.S.,

Lecturer in Mathematics in the University of
Sydney ; p.r. 55 Railway-crescent, Beecroft.

1923 Tindale, Harold, General Manager, The Australian Gas
Light Company, Haymarket, Sydney.
1935 Tommerup, Eric Christian, M.Sc., A.A.c.1., 4 John-street,
Ashfield.
1923 Toppin, Richmond Douglas, 4.1.c., 22 Miller-street,
Hurstville.
1879 Trebeck, P. C., Church-street, Bowral, N.S.W.

1932 | P 7 | Trikojus, Victor Martin, B.se., pD.Phil., Lecturer in
Medical Organic Chemistry, University of Sydney ;
p.r. “‘ Buxton,’’ Tusculum-street, Potts Point.

1925 Tye, Cyrus Willmott Oberon, Director of Development
and Executive Officer of the Unemployment Relief
Council, Treasury Building, Bridge-street, Sydney ;
p.r. 19 Muston-street, Mosman.

1921 Vicars, Robert, Marrickville Wocllen Mills, Marrickville.

1892 Vickery, George B., 9th Floor, Barrack House, Barrack-
street, Sydney; p.r. ‘“‘ Inveresk,’’ Coventry-road,
Homebush.

1935 Vickery, Joyce Winifred, M.sc., Demonstrator in Botany,
University of Sydney; p.r. 6 Coventry-road,
Homebush.

1933 | P 1 Voisey, Alan Heywood, B.sc., Geologist, Northern
Australia Survey, Alice Springs, N.T.

1903 | P 7 | Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.sc., F.1Inst.P., Professor of Physics

in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Appenzell,”

Castle Hill, N.S.W. (President, 1930.)

Xxil

Elected.

1910

1910
1919
1903

Pea
ipa 4
Jeeta)
Asa |
P 39
Pal
P 3

Walker, Charles, F.c.s., A.A.c.1., 802 Culwulla Chambers,
67 Castlereagh-street, Sydney ; p.r. ‘* Lynwood,”’
Terry-road, Ryde.

Walker, Major Harold Hutchison Vickery’s Chambers,
82 Pitt-street, Box 1723 JJ, G.P.O., Sydney.

Walkom, Arthur Bache, D.sc., Sticaee Hence: Gloucester-
street, Sydney ; p.r. 45 Nelson-road, Lindfield.

Walsh, Fred., 3.p., Consul-General for Honduras in
Australia and New Zealand; For. Memb. Inst.
Patent Agents, Lond.; Patent Attorney Regd.
U.S.A.; Memb. Patent Law Assoc., Washington ;
Regd. Patent Attorn. Comm. of Aust.; Barrack
House, 16 Barrack-street, Sydney; p.r. ‘* Wals-
holme,’’ Centennial Park.

Wardlaw, Hy. Sloane Halcro, p.sc. Syd., ¥F.A.C.1.,
Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physiology in the
University of Sydney.

tWaterhouse, Gustavus Athol, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S.,
F.R.Z.S., Science House, Sydney; p.r. 39 Stanhope-
road, Killara.

Waterhouse, Leslie Vickery, B.E. Syd., Mining Engineer,
Wingello House, Angel Place, Sydney ; p.r. 4 Bertha-
road, Neutral Bay.

Waterhouse, Lionel Lawry, B.E. Syd., Lecturer and
Demonstrator in Geology in the University of
Sydney.

Waterhouse, Walter L., M.c., D.Sc.Agr., D.I.c., Faculty
of Agriculture, University of Sydney ; p.r. ‘‘ Hazel-
mere,’ Chelmsford-avenue, Lindfield.

Watson, James Frederick, M.B., ch.m., Canberra, F.C.T.

Watt, Robert Dickie, M.A., B.sc., Professor of Agriculture
in the University of Sydney; p.r. 64 Wentworth-
road, Vaucluse. (President, 1925.)

Wearne, Harold Wallis, 6 Collingwood-street, Drum-
moyne.

Welch, Marcus Baldwin, B.Sc.. A.1.c., Economic Botanist,
Technological Museum, Sydney.

Wellish, Edward Montague, m.a., Associate-Professor of
Appled Mathematics in the University of Sydney ;
p-r. 15 Belgium-avenue, Roseville.

Wenholz, Harold, B.Sc.Agr., Director of Plant Breeding,
Department of Agriculture, Sydney.

Wentworth, William Charies, 17 Wentworth-street,
Point Piper.

tWesley, W. H., London.

| Wheatley, Frederick William, C.B.E., B.Sc. Oxon., D.Sc.,

B.A. Adel., A.S.A.S.M., 4 *‘ Rhodesia,’’ Macleay-street,
Potts Point.

Whibley, Harry Clement, c/o Box 1860 W, G.P.O.,
Brisbane, Queensland.

tWhite, Charles Josiah, B:sc., Lecturer in Chemistry,
Teachers’ College, University Grounds, Newtown.

Wiesener, Frederick Abbey, M.B., Ch.M., D.O.M.S.,
Ophthalmic Surgeon, 143 Macquarie-street, Sydney ;
p.r. Jersey-road, Strathfield.

Elected.
1921

1920

£935 | P 1

1935
1891
1906 | P11

1916

1917

1921

Elected.
1914
1934
1931

1915
1912
1930

1935

1928

XXill

Willan, Thomas Lindsay, 3.sc., Field Office, Bhamo,
Upper Burma.

Williams, Harry, A.1.C., A.A.c.1., Chief Chemist, c/o
The Lanoleen Co., Arlington Mills, Lord-street,
Botany ; p.r. “‘ Southerndale,’’ Burke-street, Oatley.

Wilson, Ralph Dudingston, B.sc.agr., Department of
Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wis., U.S.A.

Wolstenholme, Edmund Kay, ‘“‘ Petarli,’’ New South
Head-road, Double Bay.

Wood, Percy Moore, w.R.c.p. Lond., M.R.c.s. Eng.,
** Redcliffe,’ Liverpool-road, Ashfield.

Woolnough, Walter George, D.Sc., F.G.S., Department
of the Interior, Canberra, F.C.T.; p.r. ‘‘ Calla-
bonna,’’ Park-avenue, Gordon. (President, 1926.)

Wright, George, Company Director, c/o Farmer &
Company Limited, Sydney; p.r. ‘‘ Wanawong,”’’
Castle Hill, N.S.W.

Wright, Gilbert, Lecturer and Demonstrator in
Agricultural Chemistry in the University of Sydney.

Yates, Guy Carrington, Seedsman, c/o Arthur Yates
& Co. Ltd., 184 Sussex-street, Sydney; p.r.
Boomerang-street, Turramurra.

HonoRARY MEMBERS.

Limited to Twenty.

Hill, James P., D.sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology,
University College, Gower-street, London, W.C.1
England.

Howchin, Walter, F.c.s., Professor, ‘‘ Stonycroft,”’
Goodwocd Park, S.A.

Lyle, Sir Thomas Ranken, K.B., C.B.E., M.A., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., “* Lisbuoy,”’ Irving-road, Toorak, Melbourne,
Victoria.

Maitland, Andrew Gibb, F.a.s., ‘“‘ Bon Accord,’ 28
Melville-terrace, South Perth, W.A.

Martin, Sir Charles J., c.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S., Roebuck
House, Old Chesterton, Cambridge, England.

Masson, Sir David Orme, K.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D.,
F.R.S., 14 William-street, South Yarra, S.E.1,
Victoria.

Murray, His Excellency Sir John Hubert Plunkett,
K.C.M.G., B.A., Lieutenant-Governor of Papua,
Government House, Port Moresby.

Smith, Grafton Elliot, m.a., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P.,
Professor of Anatomy, Institute of Anatomy,
University College, Gower-street, London, W.C.1,
England.

>

XXiv

Elected.
1915

1922

| Thomson, Sir Joseph J., 0.M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Nobel

Laureate, Master of Trinity College, Cambridge,
England.

Wilson, James T., M.B., Ch.m. Hdin., F.R.S., Professor
of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge; p.r.
31 Grange-road, Cambridge, England.

OBITUARY 1935-36.

Ordinary Members.

1904 Adams, William John.

1891 Brennand, Henry J. W.
1886 Crago, W. H.

1932 Goulder, Francis.

1913 Hudson, George Inglis.
1881 Poate, Frederick.

XXV
AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL.

Established in memory of

The Revd. WILLIAM BRANWHITE CLARKE, M.a4., F.B.S., F.G.S., otc.

Vice-President from 1866 to 1878.

To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the
Geology or Mineralogy of Australia. The prefix * indicates the decease
of the recipient.

Awarded.

1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885

1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892

1893
1895
1895
1896
1900
1901
1902
1903
1907
1909
1912
1914

1915
1917

1918

1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1927

1928

*Professor Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S.

*George Bentham, C.M.G., F.R.S.

*Professor Thos. Huxley, F.R.S.

*Professor F. M’Coy, F.R.S., F.G.S.

*Professor James Dwight Dana, LL.D.

*Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.

*Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

*Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, 0.M., G.C.S.I., C.B., M.D., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

*Professor L. G. De Koninck, Mm.p.

*Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S.

*Rev. Julian E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.S., F.L.S.

*Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

*George Bennett, M.D., F.R.C.S. Hng., F.L.S., F.Z.S.

*Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.S., F.G.S.

*Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, K.C.M.G., C.I.E., M.A.,;
heey Sc.D). F.R.S., 8.0.8.

*Professor Ralph Tate, F.L.S., F.G.S.

*Robert Logan Jack, LL.D., F.G.S.. F.R.G.S.

*Robert Etheridge, Jnr.

*The Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, ©.M.G., F.R.G.S.

*Sir John Murray, K.C.B., LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S.

*Edward John Eyre.

*F. Manson Bailey, C.M.G., F.L.S.

* Alfred William Howitt, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Professor Walter Howchin, F.c.s., University of Adelaide.

*Dr. Walter E. Roth, B.a.

*W. H. Twelvetrees, F.G.S.

Sir A. Smith Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of Geology,
British Museum (Natural History), London.

*Professor W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

*Professor Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E., ©.M.G., D.S.0., M.A.,
S¢e.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Leonard Rodway, c.m.a., Honorary Government Botanist,
Hobart, Tasmania.

*Joseph Edmund Carne, F.G.s.

*Joseph James Fletcher, M.A., B.Sc.

Richard Thomas Baker, The Crescent, Cheltenham.

*Sir W. Baldwin Spencer, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

*Joseph Henry Maiden, 1.S.0., F.R.S., F.L.S., J.P.

*Charles Hedley, F.L.s.

Andrew Gibb Maitland, F.c.s., ‘‘ Bon Accord,” 28 Melville
Terrace, South Perth, W.A.

Ernest C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S., 32 Benelong Crescent, Bellevue
Hill.

Xxvl

Awarded.

1929 Professor Ernest Willington Skeats, p.Sc., A.R.C.S., F.G.S.,
University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria.

1930 L. Keith Ward, B.A., B.E., D.Sc., Government Geologist,
Geological Survey Office, Adelaide.

1931 Robin John Tillyard, M.A., D.Sc., Sc.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.E.S.,
Canberra, F.C.T.

1932 Frederick Chapman, A.L.s., F.G.s., Melbourne.

1933 Walter George Woolnough, D.sc., F.c.s., Department of the
Interior, Canberra, F.C.T.

1934 Edward Sydney Simpson, D.Sc., B.E., F.A.C.1., Carlingford,
Mill Point, South Perth, W.A.

1935 George William Card, 4.R.Ss.m., 16 Ramsay-street, Collaroy,
N.S.W.

1936 Sir Douglas Mawson, Kt., 0.B.E., F.R.S., D.Sc., B.E., University

of Adelaide.

AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE.

Money Prize of £25.

Awarded.

1882

1882

1884

1886

1887

1888

1889

1889

1891

1892

1894

1894

John Fraser, B.A., West Maitland, for paper entitled ‘ The
Aborigines of New South Wales.”’

Andrew Ross, M.D., Molong, for paper entitled ‘* Influence of
the Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of
wool.”’

The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25.

W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper entitled ‘‘ Water supply in the
Interior of New South Wales.”

S. H. Cox, F.a.s., F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘“* The Tin
deposits of New South Wales.”

Jonathan Seaver, F.G.s., Sydney, for paper entitled “‘ Origin and
mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the
associated Minerals.”

Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.S., F.L.S., Sydney, for paper
entitled ‘The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca
peculiar to Australia.”’

Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.M.s., Sydney, for paper entitled “ List
of the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port
Jackson and Neighbourhood.”’

Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper entitled
“The Australian Aborigines.”’

Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled “‘ The
Microscopie Structure of Australian Rocks.”

Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for
paper entitled ‘‘ The effect which settlement in Australia
has produced upon Indigenous Vegetation.”

J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper entitled the “‘ Timbers of
New South Wales.”’

R. H. Mathews, u.s., Parramatta, for paper entitled ‘‘ The
Aboriginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South
Wales.”

XXVil

Awarded.

1895 C.J. Martin, D.sc., M.B., F.R.S., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ The
physiological action of the venom of the Australian black
snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).”’

1896 Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ The
occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a
description of the Deposits in which they are found.”’

AWARDS OF THE WALTER BURFITT PRIZE.
Bronze Medal and Money Prize of £50.

Established as the result of a generous gift to the Society by Dr. W. F.
Burritt, B.A., M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc., of Sydney. Awarded at intervals of
three years to the worker in pure and applied science, resident in
Australia or New Zealand, whose papers and other contributions
published during the past three years are deemed of the highest scientific

merit, account being taken only of investigations described for the first
time, and carried out by the author mainly in these Dominions.

Awarded.

1929 Norman Dawson Royle, M.D., ch.m., 185 Macquarie Street,
Sydney.

1932 Charles Halliby Kellaway, M.c., M.D., M.S., F.R.c.P., The Walter
and Eliza Hall Institute of Research in Pathology and
Medicine, Melbourne.

1935 Victor Albert Bailey, M.A., D-.Phil., Associate-Professor of
Physics, University of Sydney.

AWARDS OF LIVERSIDGE RESEARCH LECTURESHIP.

This Lectureship was established in accordance with the terms of
a bequest to the Society by the late Professor Archibald Liversidge.
Awarded at intervals of two years, for the purpose of encouragement
of research in Chemistry. (This Journat, Vol. LXII, pp. x-xiii, 1928.)

Awarded.

1931 Harry Hey, c/o The Electrolytic Zinc Company of Australasia,
Ltd., Collins Street, Melbourne.

1933 W.J. Young, p.sc., u.sc., University of Melbourne.

- FOR a ae a
vE oh pe av es *
~GNconPORATED 1881)

~ pare I, (or. 1 to > 104)

Te Presidential Madoc: and—
_ Papers: read from June to August,

with Plates I- IIT.

EDITED BY

3 < HE HONORARY SECRETARIES.

= “STATEMENTS | ‘MADE. AND heap OPINIONS EXPRESSED ‘THEREIN.

a ro

ART.

ART.

ART.

ART,

CONTENTS.
VOLUME LXIx.

“ Part I.

M.Se., B.Sc.Agr. (Issued July 12, gee ae ik 3

TI.—A Detailed Regional Maghebic Survey as an Aid to

Geological Interpretation. District: Mittagong-Bowral. By
EpGar HH: menial M. ah B. are F Inst.P. Pa ote July 19,
1935) Ge 4 ee ax: iy as

III.—The Constitution of Matairesinol.
M.Se., D.Phil., D. A. PEaK, M.Sce., and J. L. D. WooLLOxALL,
M.Sc. (Communicated by Dr. F. Lions.)

IV.—The Volumetric Microdetermination of Magnesium with —

Methylene Blue following its Precipitation as Magnesium
Picrolonate. By Apotex Botuicer, Ph.D.
August 12, 1935) A ay j A

V.—WNote on the Geology of the Goulburn District, with Special
Reference to Paleozoic Stratigraphy. By G. F. K. NAYLOR, .

M.A., M.Sc.. (Issued August 12, wee) Eee ewe Hey ae

VI.—Vegetative Reproduction in New Zealand Mosses. By

G. O. K. Satnssury, F.L.S. (Issued October 28, 1935) —

F gc fee ps

fe. Pago”
I.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By R. J. Nope, Ph.D.,

35 Ss
By la: H. Briaes,
lation ayy Gre,
1935) A Se Re eee acne |

Pecaaer : e

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS

By R. J. NOBLE, Ph.D., M.Sc., B.Sc.Agr.,
Biologist, Department of Agriculture, Sydney.

(Delivered to the Royal Society of New South Wales, May 1, 1935.)

ParT I. GENERAL.

Gentlemen, it has been customary for your President
at this meeting to comment on matters which have been
of interest to us as members of the Royal Society of N.S.W.
during the past twelve months, and on this occasion, at
the risk of slight reiteration, it is proposed to follow the
course set by so many of my predecessors.

The year was one of the most eventful in the long
history of the Society. Reference has been made this
evening to the financial situation which confronted your
Council within a few weeks of its election to office, a
situation which, it is hoped, will never occur again. We
have recorded appreciation of the services of our Hon.
Secretary, Major E. H. Booth, who was our representative
in the proceedings which became necessary and were
initiated in accordance with the powers conferred by our
Act of Incorporation, and who has devoted so much of
his time and energy to the conduct of the general business
of the Society. To him also we owe a further debt of
gratitude for the reorganisation of the Society’s office,
which is now in such a satisfactory condition.

To our Hon. Treasurer, Mr. A. R. Penfold, we are
specially indebted for the energetic and efficient manner
in which he has carried out the duties of his position. I
wish, also, on your behalf, to express our appreciation to
Dr. W. BR. Browne, Hon. Secretary, who, in addition to
his other duties, has devoted long hours of service to the
editorial work associated with the publication of the
Journal; some of us know just what is involved in this
connection.

No position on Council can be regarded as a sinecure,
and all members this year once again have been most
A—May 1, 1935.

4 o% Pn [= 4QRR%

2 R. J. NOBLE.

strenuously engaged in the consideration of the affairs of
the Society ; to them all I am personally most deeply
indebted for their active and helpful co-operation on all
occasions.

Members will have gathered from the report on the
Library some idea of the work which has been done for us
by our Hon. Librarian, Professor J. C. Earl. This work
was done at much personal inconvenience, and I wish to
record our grateful appreciation of his services. The Library
has never been in a better condition, and its usefulness
to members and other accredited persons is now apparent.
The exchange position is very satisfactory and our
Proceedings are now most widely distributed to scientific
organisations throughout the world ; in addition, arrange-
ments have been made for the purchase of a certain number
of periodicals of general as well as of specialised scientific
character, which, it is hoped, will be of very real interest to
members.

It is considered, however, that there is still great need
for a complete examination of the situation existing in the
scientific libraries of various departments and other
scientific organisations in the city of Sydney. Better use
might be made of existing resources if our efforts were
more closely co-ordinated, and I venture to suggest that
we shall need to devote much more time to the formulation
of a definite policy to meet our own requirements. Our
library space is not unlimited, and our very wide interests
in the field of science will intensify a position which must
be met within a very few years. We read of such possible
developments as that of the photomicrographic reproduc-
tion of documents,! enabling selected papers to be filed in
card series, but such a possibility may not have any
material effect on the shelving space requirements of a
library.

I feel also that we should give some consideration to
the permanency of the papers which are published in
our Journal. Some which may not appear to be of extra-
ordinary merit at the time of presentation may contain
records of exceptional interest to investigators in subsequent
generations. Certain scientific organisations elsewhere
now issue special limited editions of their publications

1 Seidell, A.: The Photomicrographic Reproduction of Documents.
Sci., 80, 184-185, 1934.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3

on rag paper,? in view of the fact that the average life
of the wood-pulp edition is little more than fifty years,
and I feel that our Society and other scientific bodies in
Australia might give some thought to the possibility of
thus extending the period of usefulness of the publications
for which they are responsible.

To revert to more general matters, I believe, in spite of
early misadventure, that our work has gone forward
satisfactorily. Our membership is still much smaller
than it should be, possibly for the reason that so many
members of the community do not realise that our
proceedings are not the dull and incomprehensible affairs
which might be expected from the mere perusal of titles of
technical papers presented at each meeting. It is perhaps
becoming more difficult for one specialist to speak in any
language other than that of his chosen branch of science,
but that this is not an impossible achievement has been
demonstrated by the fact that we have had many interesting —
presentations during the year. I am reminded, in this
connection, of some of the ideals discussed by Dr. W. G.
Woolnough in his Presidential Address in 1927, and more
recently by Professor O. U. Vonwiller, and the increased
attendances at our monthly meetings would appear to
indicate a measure of appreciation of the arrangements
which were made during the year in connection with the
presentation of papers, exhibits, demonstrations and short
discourses on topics of current scientific interest.

I had hoped that more would have been possible in the
way of short explanatory notes on the notice paper, and
I have suggested to Council that this is a matter which
might be considered more closely. Some members may be
unable to attend meetings and others may wish to know
just a little more, in advance, concerning the papers,
lecturettes and exhibits which are to be presented to us.

It is regretted that we were able to arrange for only
one symposium, aS members will remember the interesting
session provided for us on that occasion. The meeting
was memorable, also, for the fact that this was the first
occasion on which a voice other than that of the mere
male was heard in our assemblies. So far as I am aware,
no one has suggested publicly that, in spite of our rules,
women should not be elected to membership in the Society ;

4¥Farquhar, 8S. T.: The Use of Permanent Paper in Scholarly
Publishing. Sci., 79, 522-523, 1934.

4 Reid: NOBER:

they are members of even more august organisations
elsewhere, and the question is one which is entirely in the
hands of members themselves.

Reference has been made in the Council’s report to the
action of our Society in initiating proposals for the provision
of an appropriate memorial to our distinguished teacher,
colleague and friend, the late Sir Edgeworth David.
This action has been endorsed by many representative
sections of the community, and it is hoped not only that
still further support will be provided by citizens of this
State, but that the truly national character of the appeal
will be more generally recognised. I feel sure that members
of scientific organisations and of the community generally,
in this as well as in the other States, will wish to ensure
that there is an adequate recognition of the value of his
work as a scientist and as a man, and of the place which he
held in our esteem and affection. May we not hope that
the memorial which will enable work to be continued in
his chosen branch of science will be worthy of the man
whom we are so proud to honour?

We record our grateful appreciation of the action taken
by the Premier, the Hon. B. S. B. Stevens, and Cabinet
in arranging for the purchase of the manuscript of Sir
Edgeworth David’s monumental work on the geology
of Australia, and for the provision of facilities for its
ultimate publication.

At our meeting in August reference was made to the
fact that it was the 50th anniversary of the presentation
to our Society of the first paper of Lawrence Hargrave’s
series of pioneering researches in aeronautics. <A few days
later, in co-operation with other bodies, we participated in
celebrations at the University of Sydney to commemorate
this event. It is a coincidence that the year was marked
by a record aeroplane flight from Mildenhall, England,
to Darwin in the almost incredible period of fifty- two and
a half hours, a flight which, when continued, made
Melbourne only seventy-one hours distant from the heart
of the Empire.

The year was notable, also, for the very successful
meeting of the Australian and New Zealand Association
for the Advancement of Science, held in Melbourne last
January, and it is. perhaps not inappropriate to record
that seven members of our Society occupied presidential
chairs at sectional meetings of the Association. This is
not only an indication of the wide interests covered by the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5

Society, but also a very definite testimony to the scientific
status of many of our members in this community.

During the course of the Association meeting delegates
from the Society attended a conference of representatives of
scientific societies called by the Australian National
Research Council to consider proposals for the federation
of scientific bodies in Australia. At a somewhat similar
meeting held in 1932 our representatives supported the
view that some type of federation was desirable, and on
this occasion a similar principle was endorsed, provided
that adequate safeguards were adopted to preserve the
autonomy of the societies concerned. Detailed proposals
are to be formulated by the Executive Committee of the
Australian National Research Council in collaboration
with representatives of other scientific bodies, and we may
expect further information in respect of these at an early
date.

In closing this portion of my address I wish to refer to
the very severe losses which we have suffered in the death
of ten of our members during the past year.*

HUBERT VERNON BETTLEY-COOKE, F.C.8S., A.A.C.L.,
died on 29th October, 1934, in his 50th year. He was
technical chemist on the staff of Messrs. Abel, Lemon & Co.,
and was actively interested in the chemistry of oils, waxes
and dyestuffs. He joined this Society in 1919, and was
Hon. Secretary of the Industrial Section for seven years.

HENRY GEORGE CHAPMAN, M.D., B.S., died at Sydney
on 25th May, 1934, in. his 54th year. He was born in
England and was educated in Melbourne, where he had a
distinguished academic career. Dr. Chapman was
appointed acting professor of physiology at the University
of Adelaide in 1901, he was demonstrator in pathology at
the University of Melbourne in 1902, and was lecturer
and demonstrator in physiology at the University of
Sydney during the period 1903-1912. He was subsequently
appointed to the Chair of Physiology at the University of
Sydney, and this position he held until he was appointed
Director of Cancer Research, Sydney. He was chairman
of the Commission on Miners’ Diseases in 1920, and was
for a long period lecturer on the technology of bread-
making at the Sydney Technical College. He became a

* For statements in respect of Sir Edgeworth David and Mr. W. 8.
Dun I am indebted to Dr. W. R. Browne and Dr. C. Anderson.

6 R. J. NOBLE.

member of this Society in 1909, and was Honorary Treasurer
for twenty-two years.

TANNATT WILLIAM EDGEWORTH DAVID, K.B.E., C.M.G.,
D.S.O., M.A., D.Sc., Se.D., F.R.S., Professor Emeritus of
Geology in the University of Sydney, and a Vice-President
of this Society, died on August 28, 1934, at the age of
76 years. Born near Cardiff, in South Wales, he was
educated at New College, Oxford, where he distinguished
himself as a classical scholar and an athlete. He studied
geology at Oxford and later at the Royal School of Mines,
London, came to New South Wales in 1882 as a geological
surveyor in the Department of Mines, and for nine years
was engaged principally in economic geology, his most
important investigations being in regard to the very
extensive and valuable Greta coal-measures of the Lower
Hunter Valley. In 1891 he was selected to fill the Chair
of Geology and Physical Geography in the University of
Sydney, and under his guidance what had been a very
small department grew to be one of the most important
and progressive schools in the University. In addition
to teaching he engaged extensively in research and published
many important papers dealing with various aspects of the
geology of this State and of Australia generally. In 1897 at
the request of the Royal Society of London he successfully
undertook the task of putting down diamond-drill bores
at the atoll of Funafuti with the object of throwing light
upon the origin of coral islands. He was a member of
the British Antarctic Expedition of 1908 under Shackleton,
and his exploratory work included an ascent of Mt. Erebus
and an epic sledge journey to the South Magnetic Pole,
ending with a providential rescue of the exploring party.
A large quantity of geological and other scientific data
was accumulated during the course of the expedition.

On the outbreak of the Great War he was instrumental
in raising a mining corps, with which in 1915 he proceeded
to Europe as geological expert. Eventually he became
Chief Geological Adviser to the whole of the British armies
on the Western Front, an onerous and arduous post which
he filled with characteristic thoroughness and conspicuous
success. He was very seriously injured in an accident at
Vimy Ridge, from the effects of which he never fully
recovered. For his military services he was awarded the
D.S.O., and in 1921 received the honour of knighthood.
After the War he resumed his work at Sydney, but at the
end of 1924 resigned from the Chair of Geology to devote

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. fe

himself to the writing of his book on the geology of the
Commonwealth. In spite of failing physical powers he
continued steadily at this gigantic task, but at the time of
his death it was still incomplete, though a first instalment,
in the shape of a New Geological Map of the Commonwealth
with Explanatory Notes, was published in 1932. His
last, and perhaps most important, contribution to geological
science was the discovery a few years ago of evidence of
animal life in the strata of the pre-Cambrian Adelaide
Series of South Australia.

The influence of Sir Edgeworth David upon geology,
and indeed upon science generally, in Australia is beyond
allreckoning. As a teacher he had the rare gift of gripping
the imagination of his students and of imbuing them with
some of his own glowing enthusiasm. His personal
- researches, extending over more than half a century, are
monumental, and cover nearly every branch of geological
science, while his indirect contributions, through the
workers he inspired, cannot adequately be told. Science
was to him the eager quest for truth, a joyous adventure
in which fresh wonders and delights were ever appearing
to reward the diligent searcher, and one of the secrets of
his success was the unwearying patience and tenacity
of thought and effort he brought to bear upon all his work.
To the advancement of science he gave unsparingly of
his time and energy, and he was a prominent member of
many scientific bodies. In 1892 and again in 1895 he was
president of Section C of the Australasian Association for
the Advancement of Science, and he presided over the
Association’s meetings in 1904 and 1913. He was a
foundation member and first president of the Australian
National Research Council, and was on its Executive till
the time of his death. He was for many years on the
Council of the Linnean Society of N.S.W., and was President
in 1893 and 1894. He joined this Society in 1886, served
many terms on the Council, and was President in 1895 and
again in 1910.

In recognition of his labours for science, academic
degrees, medals and other honours were conferred upon
him from time to time by universities and scientific bodies
both in Australia and outside it. Notable among these
were the Conrad Malte-Brun Prize (1905) of the
Geographical Society of France, the Mueller Memorial
Medal (1909) of the A.A.A.S., the Wollaston Medal (1915)
of the Geological Society of London, and the Clarke

8 R. J. NOBLE.

Memorial Medal (1917) of this Society. He was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society in 1900, and was a
Corresponding Member of the Geological Society of America
and an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of South
Australia.

But it is not. merely as a scientist that Sir Edgeworth
David will be remembered. Never has man deserved
better of his country and his colleagues and his friends,
for honour and duty were his watchwords, and service
and the love of his fellowmen were to him as the very
breath of life. With his death there passed from among
us one of earth’s rarest and noblest souls.

WILLIAM SUTHERLAND DUN died on 7th October, 1934,
after an illness extending over some months. Born at
Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, in 1868, he arrived in
Australia when about a year old, and was educated at
Newington College and the University of Sydney, where
he studied geology under Professor Stephens and later
under Professor David. Entering the service of the
Department of Mines in 1890, he was made Asgsistant
Paleontologist to the Geological Survey three years
afterwards, and Paleontologist and Librarian in 1899.
In 1902 he was also appointed Lecturer in Paleontology
at the University of Sydney, a position which he held
till the time of his death. He resigned from the Geological
Survey in 1933.

Gifted with much natural ability and with a phenomenal
memory Dun profited greatly by his very thorough, not
to say rigorous, training under his chief, Robt. Etheridge,
Jun., the foremost paleontologist of his time in Australia,
and as a result he acquired an unrivalled knowledge of
paleontology generally, and in particular of the fossil
fauna of this State, on which he became a recognised
authority, and of Australia as a whole. His knowledge
was not merely accurate, it was very extensive, since the
duties of his position required his investigations to range
over a wide field. Palazontologically his chief interest
was perhaps in the lamellibranchs and brachiopods, and
on the stratigraphical side he had devoted particular
attention to the fauna of the Permo-Carboniferous
(Kamilaroi) System. His studies also embraced the fossil
floras of Australia. He was the author of several papers,
particularly in the Records of the Geological Survey of
N.S.W., and was constantly being consulted by fellow
geologists in this and other States. Many of his views were

a

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 7)

communicated in personal discussion with other workers,
and in this way his influence in shaping stratigraphical
thought was very considerable. A loyal colleague and
a warm-hearted friend, he was always ready to place
his extensive knowledge both of paleontology and of
geological literature at the disposal of all inquirers. He
was for a number of years on the Council of the Linnean
Society of N.S.W., and served as President in 1913 and
1914. He joined this Society in 1908, and occupied the
presidential chair in 1918. He took a prominent part
in the activities of the Section of Geology from the time
of its revival in 1909, and acted as Hon. Secretary, and
later as Chairman.

JAMES LAURENCE GALLAGHER, M.A., A.A.C.I., died in
January, 1935. He was born in Sydney in 1885, and was
educated at St. Joseph’s College. He was appointed
chief chemist and manager of the glycerine department of
Lever Bros. in 1911, and in 1917 became manager of the
edible fats department. In 1934 he was appointed
production manager, and at the time of his death was
acting works manager. He conducted research on the
hardening of oils, and was a member of various sub-
committees of the N.S.W. branch of the Australian
Chemical Institute.

RICHARD FORD JENKINS, who died on 22nd of January,
1934, was born at Yass in 1866. He joined the Public
Works Department in 1891 and subsequently occupied
positions as road superintendent and district works officer
in several country districts. He was recognised as an
authority on all matters relating to artesian and shallow
boring. He was associated with the sinking of many trust
bores which furnished water for stock throughout large
areas in the north-west of this State, and was responsible
for suggesting the inauguration of a scheme of shallow
boring which has been of great value to many settlers on
small holdings. He was a member of Australian conferences
on Artesian Water held during the period 1912-1928,
and when the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commis-
sion was inaugurated in 1913 he was appointed Engineer
for Boring, a position which he held until his retirement
m, 1932.

FREDERICK H. MooRE, who died in 1934, was one of our
oldest members, as he joined the Society in 1879. He
was born near Perth, W.A., in 1839. He completed his
early education in England, and joined the staff of Dalgety

10 R. J. NOBLE

& Coy. in London. He was sent to New Zealand in 1864,
and in the following year became manager of the Inver-
cargill branch of Dalgety, Rathay & Coy. A few years
later he was transferred to Launceston, and the firm
subsequently became Dalgety, Moore & Coy. After
another short period in New Zealand he was sent. to open
the Sydney branch of Dalgety, Blackwood & Coy., in which
he subsequently became a partner. He was a director of
the Imperial Insurance Coy., and was the last Australian
director of the Union Bank of Australia. He was a
member of the Union Club of Sydney from 1877, and of
the Melbourne Club from 1881.

CHISHOLM Ross, M.D. (Syd.), M.B., Ch.M. (Hdin.),
died in October, 1934. He was a native of Inverell, N.S.W.,
and received his early education at Armidale and at The
King’s School. He left for Edinburgh in 1879 and on
his return ‘accepted a position on the Lunacy Board of
N.S.W. He was associated with the mental hospitals
at Gladesville and Newcastle, and founded the institution
at Kenmore. He was Medical Superintendent at Callan
Park for some time, and after twenty years of service to
the State entered into private practice at Sydney. He
was an eminent nerve specialist, and was regarded as a
leader in his profession. His abilities as a psychiatrist
were recognised when he was offered the Chair of Psychology
and Psychological Medicine at the University of Sydney.

Henry Montacu STEPHEN, B.A., LU.B., died on 4th
November, 1934, in his 56th year. He was a member
of a family traditionally associated with the N.S.W. Bar,
at which he also practised for a number of years. He had
been a member of this Society since 1921.

Part II.

SOME ASPECTS OF PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
THE PRESERVATION OF HEALTH IN PLANTS.

A. GENERAL.

Introduction.

As far as I am aware, this is the first occasion on which
your President was one whose major interests were
concerned with that branch of science known as plant
pathology, and in this address it is not proposed to present
a technical discussion of any specialised phase of the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. alg

subject, but rather to deal in a somewhat general manner
with certain aspects of some of the problems in which we
are interested.

We are all aware of the main objective of our Society,
which is that of receiving “ original papers on Science,
Art, Literature and Philosophy ’—an indication, perhaps,
that these subjects are not entirely unrelated, or at least
were of interest to members at one stage in our history—
but, furthermore, that the Society is concerned with
papers “especially on such subjects as tend to develop
the resources of Australia and to illustrate its natural
history and production ’”’. Our rules, it is true, do not
contain any instruction to the effect that the President
Shall deliver an address, but such a practice is hallowed
by precedent and tradition throughout the years. There
is, however, a very practical, economic significance
associated with the reference to the development of our
natural resources. We may, at times, appear to take a
merely academic interest in the papers which are presented
and discussed at our ordinary meetings, but behind it
all there is the belief, subconscious or otherwise, that the
added knowledge will have some direct or indirect bearing
on our existence and that it will contribute in some way to
the welfare of mankind.

Science has bestowed many gifts on agriculture ; many
former difficulties have been removed, but great as the
need is still for the practical solution of many existing
problems, a solution which may be expected from the
application of existing knowledge or the utilisation of
established principles, there is perhaps an equally great
need for studies of a more fundamental character. It is
true, unfortunately, that we need very much more informa-
tion on the actual character of plant processes and on the
principles underlying plant relationships. Although
academic research or fundamental research may perhaps
be best pursued in cloistered seclusion, so many questions
arise during the investigation of a problem of economic
importance and have to be disregarded temporarily, if
not entirely, by the investigator, that one feels that the
economic problem itself might be used more frequently
as a basis for the academic research.

Some eight years ago our President, Professor R. D.
Watt, spoke of the influence of science on the progress of
the land industries in Australia, and indicated the very
practical benefits which had resulted from this association.

12 R. J. NOBLE.

To many of us the practical aspects of an agricultural
problem are very real, even though it is realised that
epoch-making discoveries are made when the investigator,
in some glorious intuitive flight of imagination, forgets
all save his interest in the purely technical aspects of the
problem itself. It is still true, however, that our very
existence is dependent on the living plant, or one may go
further and agree that “all human life and consequently
all human thought depends in the last resort upon
agriculture ”’.

The modern philosophers inform us that some of the
secrets of nature may be withheld until we are able to
develop entirely new conceptions, but it is felt also that
many practical problems may be solved by the adoption
of existing technique and by the utilisation of such mental
processes as form part of the equipment of the present-day
investigator.

During these critical years there have been an increased
realisation of the national importance of our agricultural
industries and some increased measure of appreciation
of the problems which are being faced by our primary
producers. It is not proposed to attempt even a brief
survey of these problems, but they are such as to have
resulted in the development of various forms of State
assistance in the interests of the national welfare. Special
emergency measures have been enacted here as elsewhere,
and have been subjected to a more or less well-informed
criticism, but it may be accepted as a tribute to the
efficiency, resource, and independence of our primary
producers that the assistance now provided was not
urgently needed in the past. |

In this delicately balanced, or unbalanced, world of ours
we are struggling for some measure of stability ; without
it we can hope for little. Crop production will continue
to be affected directly or indirectly by weather conditions,
but at least we can hope, by a greater measure of control
over some of the other factors in production, to make our
primary industries more secure and less a speculative
gamble than they are so frequently at the present time.

Appalling losses result each year from the incidence of
plant diseases alone, but perhaps even more appalling,
in view of existing conditions, is the fact that many of
these losses result from diseases for which adequate control
measures are available, and although the producer suffers
directly, the whole community eventually is affected.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LS

Furthermore, while it may be agreed that a relatively
high degree of efficiency is evident in our production
methods as judged by the volume and type of production
and the small percentage of our population which is actively
engaged in primary industry, this efficiency is relative
only to that of other countries. While most primary
producers today know infinitely more than their pre-
decessors of fifty years ago, still too small a proportion
of them is in a position to take full advantage of modern
methods.

Not only do plant diseases constitute formidable hazards
throughout the growing period of the crop; they are also
of considerable importance during the period of trans-
portation and distribution of many perishable agricultural
products to local and overseas markets. Market demands
are changing and, contradictory as it may seem, competent
observers state that standards of living are improving;
é.g., there is a gradually increasing demand for fresh
fruit in satisfactory condition. This may appear strange
in view of some of our Australian fruit export experiences :
these to a very large extent have resulted from the fact
that it is not generally recognised that fruit is still part of
a living organism, that its metabolism continues after
picking, and is profoundly affected by the storage environ-
ment, and that its diseases of parasitic and non-parasitic
character also depend on the previous history of the fruit
as well as on the conditions to which it is subjected during
storage. Until there is such an appreciation of these
aspects of this problem our growers cannot expect to
receive the reward that should be theirs. It is realised
that the plant pathologist must play an increasingly
important part in the elucidation of problems associated
with this phase of production, and it is gratifying to learn
that more attention is to be given to such problems in
Australia.

Our present knowledge of plant diseases, remarkable
as it is when compared with the blackness and the super-
stitions of the past, but yet so incomplete according to
our present needs, is merely the development of much
less than a century, yet we know that the incidence of
disease was a matter of very deep concern to the ancients,
that it had the most profound effects on past civilisations,
and that it has resulted in bankruptcy and ruin to many
an unfortunate farmer struggling for existence in the
present century.

14 R. J. NOBLE

Although recently we have surveyed the plant disease
situation in this State, our records on the first occurrences
of individual diseases are in many cases incomplete. The
early records of colonisation in Australia may contain
more information than is apparent at the moment, but
for the most part they appear to contain references only
in the most general terms. Geo. Caley, who was employed
by Sir Joseph Banks as a botanist and collector, wrote
in 1803 that “ potatoes were very bad and stinking on my
coming here. . . but if the seed is exchanged often, they
will improve’. <A definite diagnosis on such meagre
data is not possible, but as the symptoms so closely
approximate those of the bacterial rots which follow
infection by the Late Blight fungus, one may speculate as
to whether the Late Blight disease was actually present in
this country at that early period. Evidence to the contrary
is provided by the fact that this destructive disease was
not widespread in Europe until the 40’s of last century,
and our first official record of its occurrence in N.S.W.
was obtained only in 1909.

Our early agricultural literature contains numerous
references to the occurrence of smut and rust in barley
and wheat, which are recorded as causes of “ disaster
and disappointment ”’ to our early cultivators. Incidentally,
it is of interest to note that Atkinson, in a discussion of
agricultural methods in vogue in 1822, reports that he
always “‘ steeped any seed wheat in strong brine and had
never had smut’*. The first use of brine as a seed treat-
ment dates back to the time of Jethro Tull (1650), even
though the method was not strongly endorsed, but as
indicated previously the first reliable facts concerning
the nature of plant disease were not secured until about
the middle of last century.

Health and Disease.

Today, as in the past, we recognise with ease the
obviously diseased plant. We believe, also, from our
general experience, that we have a very good idea as to
what constitutes the healthy plant and as to what its
growth and development should be under normal environ-
mental conditions. For all practical purposes this is
true for most plants and for the many thousands of plant
diseases which are now on record, but academically we

cannot differentiate sharply the conditions of health and.

disease. Marshall Ward, some thirty-five years ago,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15

in a discussion of this aspect of the subject, stated that
‘* disease, like health, is an extremely complex phenomenon,
involving many reactions and interactions between the
plant and its environment ’’, and while disease may be
specified as ‘‘a variation in directions dangerous to the
life of the plant ’’, in health there is “‘a variation more
or less about a mean . . . the normal in all cases being
the state of the plant characteristic of the species ”’.
Today we are more inclined to agree with the physicians
who say more precisely that “ disease is the correlative
of health and is incapable of a more penetrating definition ”’
and that ‘‘the healthy are really invalids unaware of
their illness ’’.

The normal or the healthy is what we choose to designate
as such in the absence of knowledge to the contrary, yet
we know now, from carefully controlled experiments,
that plants may suffer from “ submerged infections ”’,
as in the case of at least some of the cereal smut diseases ;
we may see no development of the symptoms usually
associated with the specific disease, yet appropriate
tests may demonstrate that yield is affected adversely
as a result of the unseen, and, under ordinary circumstances,
undetected infection. Citrus fruits harvested when
relatively low temperatures are experienced towards the
end of the maturity period may show no indication of
Black Spot (Phoma citricarpa) and at the time of picking
may appear to be completely normal and healthy, yet at
a later period, perhaps in some distant market, under the
influence of higher temperatures, the fruits may suddenly
develop the blemishes which owe their origin to infections
of the young fruits in the previous spring or summer.
We know that certain tulip varieties owe their prized
characteristics to the presence of a virus infection—
one named variety may actually be turned into another
at will merely by the addition of the appropriate virus.
We know, too, that that which we considered normal in
the variegated leaves of many abutilons and other
ornamental shrubs, and which moved taxonomists to
provide them with varietal and even specific rank, is, in
fact, abnormal in so far as the distinguishing characteristics
are again the result of virus infection.

Still more disturbing to our sense of security is the
much more recently determined fact that many plants
are apparently normal in every respect, resemble their
close relatives in all general foliar characteristics, and in

16 R. J. NOBLE.

the main conform to our standards of normality for plants
in general, but are nevertheless diseased. Such plants
are represented by the symptomless virus carriers now
recognised in certain widely grown potato varieties and
other plants, which may yet constitute plant pathological
problems of the first importance. We may no longer
assume that such plants are healthy simply because we
do not detect in them any of the usual symptoms of disease.

Apart from such considerations as the foregoing,
obviously diseased conditions in plants have been so
striking in appearance, and have been so important
economically, that they have long been the subject of
observation and study. Concepts have changed
considerably as.new facts have become available, and the
history of the development of the science of plant pathology
is itself of absorbing interest.

While we realise now that the health of the plant may be
affected directly and adversely by an unfavourable environ-
ment, it is accepted that most diseases result from the
operation of various pathogenic fungi, bacteria, or other
infective agencies. Environment, however, still plays
an all-important part in the development of such diseases.
The importance of climatological factors was appreciated
long before there was any knowledge of the xtiological
significance of the fungi, and even now we may speak of
wheat-rust weather, potato-blight weather and so on,
but modern studies are providing us with more adequate
data on which we may evaluate the relative importance
of the major and minor variables represented in the
complex of host, parasite and environment.

Physiological Forms.

Variability and plasticity of the host plant have enabled
marked progress to be made in the development of disease-
resistant varieties, and this progress has been perhaps
most conspicuous in those instances where variation in
the associated parasitic fungus has been recognised and
adequately determined, as, for example, in the cereal
rusts.

As is the case with higher plants, the Linnean species
concept is no longer tenable; mycologists will continue
to have their taxonomic difficulties, but the plant
pathologist is more than ever concerned with the
physiological, and particularly the parasitic, capabilities
of the various entities which for convenience are included

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 17

in the morphological species. The use of the term entity
at times may be misleading, for its determination depends
so much on the criteria which for the moment are considered
as being adequate for the purpose. The recognition of
the existence of physiological forms or strains of parasitic
fungi in ever-increasing numbers in an ever-increasing
multitude of genera and species, however, is a feature of
modern plant pathological activity. Furthermore, as a
result of developments in the very recent past, we know
now that new forms may originate by mutation and, even
more significantly, by hybridisation; new fverms have
been synthesised and previously known forms have been
reconstituted by this means. The demonstration of the
manner in which hybridisation may occur constitutes a
very real achievement in plant pathological research ;
the facts are of intense academic interest and of considerable
practical significance, but on this occasion it is proposed
only to touch very briefly on certain practical aspects of
the phenomenon.

While current thought is to the effect that the
physiological entity itself is stable—it is not subject at
least to influences which enable it to change readily its
parasitic. capabilities—yet there is ample evidence that
variability may be a feature of many groups of parasitic
fungi which we recognise as species.

In our discussions on the antiquity of disease we are
accustomed to state that plant diseases are probably as
old, or at least almost as old, as the plants in which they
are now known to occur. While, generally speaking,
this may be true, in the more restricted sense we have to
recognise that some diseases may be new in that they have
resulted from the development of new physiological forms
of a pathogen. On the other hand, although new forms
are being recognised and recorded from time to time,
fortunately all are not more virulent than those with which
we are already acquainted ; in fact, the variants in some
species may be non-pathogenic, and the phenomenon
apparently is one which is more characteristic of some
Species and genera than of others. For instance, there
may be many variants of such genera as Puccinia, Ustilago,
Helminthosporium, Fusarium and Fusicladium, whereas
in a species such as Urocystis occulta, as suggested by
Stakman? and others, there may be relatively few, if

3 Stakman, E. C., Cassell, R. C., and Moore, B. M.: The Cytology
of Urocystis occulta. Phytopath., 24, 889, 1934.

B—May 1, 1935.

18 R. J. NOBLE.

any—no such variants have been demonstrated as yet—
possibly because of the few opportunities which exist for
development of new associations of sex nuclei. This
probably is also the position in respect of the flag-smut
fungus, Urocystis tritici, and, if so, a complication is removed
from the plant breeder’ S programme.

Furthermore, there is evidence to the effect that circum-
stances may not favour the persistence of forms. Stak-
man*2, > has shown that the prevalence of forms of Puccinia
graminis, the cereal black stem rust fungus, may vary in
different years in the United States, and Waterhouse*@ »
has recorded a similar phenomenon in this country. Not
only is this the case for the rusts, but it is recorded also
in the case of some cereal smuts, and it is probable that
examples have yet to be noted in respect of other parasitic
fungi.

The position can only be accounted for in the most
general terms by suggesting that it is dependent on the
operation of factors in the environmental complex, although
the significance of the individual variables which are of
importance in this connection has yet to be elucidated
more completely.

Such a situation, however, indicates some of the
difficulties which have to be faced by plant breeders, but
these difficulties are perhaps not so serious aS appears to
be the case at first sight ; variability may be characteristic
of the pathogen, but significant variations in many instances
apparently do not occur with great frequency in nature,
or the plant breeder would not have been able to achieve
his present measure of success in the synthesis of disease-
resistant varieties.

Environment and Plant Disease.

Although there may be a tendency from time to time to
over-emphasise the importance of one factor or another

4a Stakman, E. C.: Physiological Specialisation in Pathogenic
Fungi. Proc. Int. Congr. Pl. Sciences (1926), 2, 1320; 1929)

4b Stakman, E. C. et. al. : Population Trends of Physiologic Forms of
Puccinia graminis tritici, 1930 to 1934. Phytopath., 25, 34, 1935.
(Abstract.)

5a Waterhouse, W. L.: Some Aspects of Cereal Rust Problems in
Australia. Proc. Fifth Pacific Sci. Congr. (1933), 3169-3176, 1934.

5> Waterhouse, W. L.: Australian Rust Studies. 5. On the
Occurrence of a new Physiologic Form of Wheat Stem Rust in N.S.W.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 60 (in press), 1935.

a

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19

in any discussion of plant-pathological relationships,
there is little danger of over-emphasis of the importance
of factors which are, or are to be recognised as,
environmental influences. The development of the host
plant may be so affected by external conditions, e.g., by
soil or climatic influences, that it becomes predisposed to
disease of parasitic origin, although such a statement is
subject to qualification in accordance with the particular
disease under consideration. Environmental factors may
affect viability and distribution of the pathogen and may
have a very direct influence on infection phenomena
and the subsequent development of the pathogen in the
host. The plant-pathological literature of our period
contains the record of many investigations on these
ecological or, more _ precisely, epidemiological or
epiphytological relationships. Difficulties are experienced
in the correct assessment of the importance of critical
factors, since it is so difficult in experimental work to
modify one factor without influencing others, but many
positive correlations have been determined and have
contributed in no small measure to our knowledge of the
phenomena associated with the development of disease in
plants.

Not only is this true for such diseases as the rusts and
mildews, in which infection and development of disease
may be closely correlated with climatological factors, but
it is increasingly true for diseases of the root-rot type in
which infection and development are so closely associated
with environmental conditions in the soil.

Although, literally, environment may be considered to
comprise “ all the external circumstances of an organism ”’,
we have tended to restrict our conceptions largely to the
meteorological influences of moisture and temperature,
but there is now an added appreciation of the fact that
many other factors may be considered in this connection.
Not the least important of such factors are those represented
by other organisms. Intensification of disease may result
from the combined effects of several organisms in the well-
recognised phenomenon of synergism, whereas on the other
hand antagonistic or antibiotic effects may result in
reduction in intensity of disease. Somewhat analogous
conditions are encountered in certain virus diseases,
although, as will be indicated later on, we are not yet
certain whether the viruses are living organisms or not.

20 R. J. NOBLE.

There are many records of synergism among the fungi,
and additional data are being accumulated in respect of
some of our Australian problems. Two of these at least
possess some features of interest. Geach® has reported
on the importance of flag. smut infections in accentuating
damage caused by root-rots in wheat, and in our laboratories
we have noted, on occasion, the extremely close association
of Alternaria and Gleosporium in the development of lesions
of the Brown Spot disease of passion-fruit. In the latter
instance exceedingly small lesions, little more than 1 mm.
in diameter, have frequently yielded cultures of both
organisms even at this early stage in the development
of the disease.

Antagonistic effects are of considerable practical
significance in the development of a number of soil-borne
diseases and are well exemplified in cereal root-rots which
now have assumed an economic importance exceeding
such formerly devastating diseases as the rusts and smuts.
One of the aims of the agriculturist now is to ensure, in
the absence of the host plant, that the root-rotting
organisms may fight a losing battle in their competition
with other organisms.

Reinking’? has recently discussed the influence of soil.
type in relation to the development of the Fusarium
diseases of the banana, and although the exact nature of
the environmental influence in this case has not yet been
elucidated completely, significant correlations have been
established between soil type and the development of
disease. The relationship is such, as he has pointed out,
that one may now assess the suitability or otherwise of
areas proposed for new plantings and determine the
rotational period required before replanting may be
undertaken in old areas.

Adequate data on the nature of environmental relation-
ships may have a very important bearing on such questions
as the need or otherwise for protective measures. The
farmer himself may decide that his soil-moisture conditions
are such that he may sow his grain without treatment for
prevention of smut, although he may or may not realise

6 Geach, W. L.: Foot and Root Rots of Wheat in Australia. The
Influence of the Combined Action of Fusarium culmorum (W.G.Sm.)
Sacc. and Urocystis tritici Koern. on the Occurrence of Seedling Blight.
Jour. C.S.I.R. Australia, 6, 269-278, 1933.

7 Reinking, O. A.: Soil and Fusarium Diseases. Zentralbl. fir
Bakt. etc., Abt. II, 31, 243-255, 1935.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. yal

the risks that are run in this connection in the absence of
any reliable meteorological forecast covering the whole
critical period up to the time of seed germination. His
action may thus represent the exercise of good judgment
or may be purely a speculative gamble according to one’s
point of view.

Spray-forecasting programmes have been of some value
in certain favourably situated localities in which the
circumstances permit of suitable organisation for the
collection of essential data and broadcasting notification
of the need for immediate and appropriate action, and
where suitable facilities and equipment are available for
adoption of the recommendations. Pierstorff* has recorded
the success of such measures in the control of apple scab
(Black Spot—Venturia inaequalis) in areas of eastern
United States, in which economies up to 50%, of spraying
costs have been effected. In spite of comparative failures
of spray-forecasting services in other parts of the world in
the past, it is considered that conditions in some of our
eastern mainland apple-growing areas are now such that
a service of this type would prove of value in reducing
costs of protection against our Black Spot disease.

Plant Quarantines.

A knowledge of the factors which are of importance in
the establishment and development of disease is of the
utmost value in an even more difficult phase of crop
protection, viz., the development of appropriate quarantine
measures. The pathologist may find it difficult enough to
attempt any forecast of the possibilities of development of
disease in crops at the commencement of a season, but it
is more difficult still to indicate the type of restrictive
measures which are considered necessary to prevent the
introduction of diseases which, as yet, have not been
established in a new country.

All too frequently, however, we are receiving first-hand
information to the effect that new and serious diseases,
particularly those of seed-borne character, have found a
congenial environment in Australia. We believe that
such diseases as Potato Wart, Fire Blight of apples and
pears and Citrus Canker, although not present in this
country, could result in losses if once introduced and

® Pierstorff, A. L.: A Centralised Scab-spray Service. Phytopath.,
22, 759-766, 1932.

22 R. J. NOBLE.

established here. Our data in respect of the means of
distribution of Fire Blight, however, appear to justify
the opinion that risks of introduction of disease might be
quite real if stocks were imported indiscriminately from
affected areas overseas, but that there is no sound basis
for assuming that there is a real risk of introduction of
the disease by means of the fruit.

Although citrus growers need not anticipate any
suggestion that there should be relaxation of existing
measures for prevention of the introduction of Citrus
Canker, one may suggest with some justification, on the
basis of the world survey of the present distribution of
the disease in relation to climatic conditions,® that it
would not be so serious in N.S.W. as some of our existing
citrus troubles. If the unexpected should occur, eradica-
tion might be effected more readily than has been the case
in more tropical areas such as those of Florida, U.S.A.

As time has gone on, more and more information has
become available, so that the plant pathologist is able to
make even sounder assessments of the risks of introduction
of new diseases and is able to formulate regulatory measures
on a more _ satisfactory basis. Misunderstandings,
inadequate as such a term may be as an expression of the
situation, have given rise to serious repercussions in
Australian trade relationships in the recent past and, as
expressed at the recent Australian and New Zealand
Association for the Advancement of Science meeting,!°
have again emphasised the still further need for the very
close study of the technical and economic bases which
may guide us in the future. Plant pathologists elsewhere
are amazed that implications of restraint of trade should
still be matters for reference to our courts when the
questions involved are essentially those of technical
character, which are capable of adequate determination
by the technical specialists.

Control of Disease.

It is not proposed on this occasion to deal in any detail
with the measures which are adopted to control disease in
plants, beyond stating that they are of the type designed
mainly for preservation of health in the plant. The health

® Peltier, G. L. and W. F. Frederick: Effects of Weather on the
World Distribution and Prevalence of Citrus Canker and Citrus Scab.
Jour. Agr. Res., 32, 147-164, 1926.

10 Plant Quarantine. Jour. Austn. Inst. Agric. Sct., 1, 21-26, 1935.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 23

of the plant, and even more particularly the preservation
of health in massed populations of plants, is the major
concern of the pathologist. Control of diseases of parasitic
origin depends on many features of the plant, pathogen
and environmental relationship, but for the most part the
Measures aim at destruction of the pathogen by means
appropriate to the circumstances of any particular instance.
In its simplest form this is expressed by sanitation
procedures which involve destruction of diseased plants
or plant parts, and the value of such measures even in the
more complicated control programmes sometimes tends
to be overlooked. The amount of inoculum or original
spore-load may have a most important bearing on the
efficacy of measures subsequently adopted for protection
of the plant.

Therapeutical measures play an inconspicuous part in
most plant disease control problems at the present time.
Interesting possibilities in the development of immunity
are envisaged by investigations such as have been conducted
by Leeman" with parasitic fungi, and by Kunkel!? in his .
studies on acquired immunity to virus infections, but in
this latter group of diseases we are still mostly concerned
with the unspectacular methods of control represented
by sanitation or eradication measures.

B. VIRUS DISEASES.

In the studies on fungi and bacteria the investigator at
least has had the satisfaction of knowing that he is working
with some tangible entity, something which can be readily
observed and measured and, furthermore, in most cases,
which can be cultivated and still further studied apart
from the host plant itself.

Important as fungi and bacteria still are in relation to
the development of disease in plants, we are perhaps at
the moment even more concerned with yet another group
of infectious conditions—the virus diseases. Various
positive and negative characterisations have been suggested
for the infectious agencies themselves but, as suggested by
K. M. Smith, it is agreed that we might, for all practical
purposes, accept Gardner’s definition that they are “‘ agents

11 Leeman, A. C.: The Problem of Active Plant Immunity. Zentralbl.
fir Bakt. etc., Abt. IT, 85, 360-376, 1932.

22 Kunkel, L. O.: Studies on Acquired Immunity with Tobacco and
Aucuba Mosaics. Phytopath., 24, 437-466, 1934.

24 R. J. NOBLE

below or on the border-line of microscopical visibility
which cause disturbance of the function of living cells
and are regenerated in the process ’’.

Virus diseases are of widespread occurrence throughout
the animal kingdom, and many of them cause serious trouble
in man, but we have not yet a full realisation of their
distribution and importance in plants; however, since
the investigations of Iwanowski and Beijerinck—who
demonstrated that the infectious qualities of the sap were
not removed by passage through a porcelain filter—the
latter’s prediction that these conditions would indeed be
found to be of very general occurrence has been more than
amply justified.

Such is the importance of the group, and so intensely
interesting are the relationships which are involved, that
the past decade particularly has seen the publication of
an enormous volume of literature on the subject. Also,
as in other cases where the frontiers of knowledge are
rapidly advancing but in which a full and satisfactory
explanation of observed phenomena cannot yet be provided,
the existing position has been reviewed from time to time
in some detail.

When a plant pathologist speaks of virus diseases,
possibly his first thoughts are concerned with the
symptomatic picture. One thinks of such obvious features
as the mosaics and chloroses, of stunted development of
plant parts, reduced leaf-size, shortening of internodes,
of malformations such as irregularly-shaped leaves, curling
and puckering of the leaf-blade, gall formations, prolifera-
tion of shoots or production of so-called witches’ brooms,
of necrotic spots or streaks on leaves and stems, and so
on. One of more of these symptoms we associate with a
disease which, under field conditions, may be transmitted
from plant to plant by an appropriate insect vector or by
other means.

Although symptoms of this character may frequently
be accepted as diagnostic, it is true that some of them are
of the type which may result from causes other than that
of virus infection. Certain chloroses, leaf-spot symptoms,
leaf-malformations, lignification of tissues, gall-production,
or witches’ broom developments may be induced by one
or other of such agencies as insect injury, mineral deficiency,
abnormal climatic factors, fungous or bacterial infection—
symptoms which from their very nature are also plant
responses to destructive, inhibitory or stimulatory forces.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 25

While one may remark on the inherent capacity for
variation in plant tissues!*in response to many apparently
different agencies, one may conjecture whether the plant
is indeed limited in its response to what are essentially
different fundamental causes, or whether there is some
basic activating cause of the same physiological character
in all cases of any particular group. Are the witches’
brooms, for example, which result from one or another of
the virus infections on tomato, potato, lucerne, or other
plants, and the witches’ broom conditions caused by
fungous attack comparable in any way physiologically
with the bushy type of twig growth associated with some
types of cell starvation or lack of an essential mineral
nutrient ?

Economic Importance of Virus Diseases.

The economic position which has resulted from the
incidence of virus diseases in N.S.W. in the past has been
the cause of considerable alarm. Mosaic and Fiji disease
from time to time have caused very severe losses in our
sugar-cane areas. The former disease is now known to
have occurred here in 1904, and the latter was observed
prior to 1885. Both diseases may be controlled by drastic
eradication of affected plants as soon as the early signs of
infection are observed. More recently, however, difficulties
have arisen because of the fact that some of the cane
varieties now in favour on account of their resistance to
bacterial gumming are more susceptible to, or are more
severely affected by, these virus troubles than was the
case with the older varieties.

Our banana industry furnishes another example of the
destructive effects of a plant virus in the history of the
Bunchy Top disease. Although the disease itself
undoubtedly occurred here more than twenty years ago,
it reached epidemic proportions during the great expansion
of planted areas in the early post-war years. Peak
production of more than 650,000 bushels of bananas was
reached in the 1921-22 season, but it fell rapidly to
approximately 91,000 bushels in 1924-25. The outlook
was apparently hopeless, and many plantations were
deserted.

18 Butler, E. J.: Some Aspects of the Morbid Anatomy of Plants.
Ann. Appl. Btol., 17, 175-212, 1930.

26 R. J. NOBLE.

Spectacular losses are still incurred as a result of the
incidence of the Spotted Wilt disease of tomatoes, a disease
which first became prominent in this State in 1920 and
which now not only seriously affects many commercial
areas but is also very prevalent in the home garden.

Other instances of this type are on record, but the forty
virus diseases or suspected virus conditions which we have
recorded on so many different plants of economic
importance in this State are by no means an indication
of the position, nor do they indicate the number of distinct
viruses which may be operative, because of the difficulties
associated with the determination of the specific agency
in each case.

As is the case elsewhere, rarely do any of these diseases
cause complete destruction of the affected plant. Although
the diseases may appear to vary in intensity from season
to season—just as the intensity of symptoms may be
correlated to a certain extent with prevailing climatic
influences—productivity of vegetatively propagated stocks
and of plants which are of perennial character is frequently
reduced to a certain basic level which tends to be maintained
year after year. This is particularly true of some of the
potato diseases which are so largely responsible for the
low yields in many of our potato areas. If these virus
diseases had been more completely destructive in the
past, our growers would not only have appreciated the
position more readily, but would automatically have been
denied the possibility of continued propagation of low-
quality infected ‘ seed ’’.

More precise information is available in connection
with the passion-fruit virus disease known to us as
Woodiness or Bullet. As reported to this Society" in
1928, the disease was in evidence in this State prior to
1893, but for many years nothing was known of its true
character. Passion-fruit production figures supplied by
the records of the N.S.W. Government Statistician are
illuminating and distressing. Commencing in 1913 the
average yield per vine during each subsequent five-yearly
period has been 0:4, 0-46, 0-31 and 0:27 bushel per vine
in bearing. In 1933 there were approximately 256,000
vines in bearing, more than twice the number recorded in
1916, yet production of 59,000 bushels was the same. During

14 Noble, R. J.: Some Observations on the Woodiness or Bullet
Disease of Passion Fruit. THIs JourNnan, 6?, 79-98, 1928.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 271

the past two years the annual average yield has been only
0-23 bushel per vine. This is an exceedingly low figure,
and surveys of our passion-fruit areas in recent years have
shown that this low level of production is closely associated
with the widespread distribution of the Woodiness disease.

The extension of planted areas and the perennial nature
of the vine appear to have resulted in a condition similar
to that in crops propagated by cuttings, and if this disease
also had been immediately and consistently destructive
in character the economic position of most passion-fruit
growers probably would not be so serious as it is at the
moment.

Antiquity of Virus Diseases.

The question sometimes arises as to whether the plant
virus diseases are of relatively recent origin or not. To a
certain extent this question is associated with the problem of
the living or non-living character of the virus itself; from
the pathological standpoint, however, there is no doubt as to
the infectious qualities of the virus, whether or not it is an
extremely small organism fundamentally of the same type
as other forms of life, or whether it is an agency derived
de novo from the protoplasm of the cell as a result of
appropriate stimulatory forces, as is occasionally suggested
in such a challenge to existing thought on the subject of
spontaneous generation.

Apart from such considerations, however, diseases now
known to be caused by distinct viruses were on record for
many years prior to the accumulation of any knowledge
as to their true character. Quite recently it has been
determined that definite symptoms of the Tulip Mosaic
or Tulip Break were present in tulips introduced into Europe
from Turkey in the middle of the 16th century, and a
similar situation may have existed with respect to many
other plant virus diseases but, since these conditions were
not recognised as diseases comparable with the smuts
and rusts of cereals, there is but little information of
diagnostic value concerning them in the literature of the
past.

During the past fifty years particularly, however, not
only has there been an enormous increase in the volume of
trade in plants, plant parts and seeds throughout the world,
but there have been considerable extensions of areas planted
to one crop in individual countries. Whereas isolation
was characteristic of our own production areas in the past,

28 R. J. NOBLE

such a condition is no longer in existence. Many of the
virus diseases known here were once present in other parts
of the world and have been introduced in infected plant
parts and subsequently widely distributed in this country.
The relative importance of the development of appropriate
insect vectors is not yet known completely, but it.is possible
that there have been also introductions of new vectors
which have facilitated distribution of some of these diseases
under our conditions.

It is far more difficult to attempt any assessment of the
importance of one crop in its relationship to the
development of virus diseases in other crops. Although,
for example, tobacco production has had a rather chequered.
history in this country, the crop was under cultivation
as far back as the 20’s of last century. Tomatoes, on
the other hand, although referred to in at least one Herbal
of the 16th century, were grown for many years purely
as ornamental plants, and it was not until the latter part
of last century that there was any beginning of an apprecia-
tion of the food value of the fruit, with a resultant increase
in the areas devoted to production of this crop. The
tomato Spotted Wilt disease may now be carried over under
our conditions in tomato plants which are to be found in
growth practically throughout the year or in virus reservoirs
such as are provided by infected nasturtiums and a number
of other garden plants. Although the tomato may not
have been the original host for the Spotted Wilt virus,
it has directly and indirectly facilitated its distribution in
this country, and appears to have made possible the
occasional serious development of the Spotted Wilt
infections in tobacco and other plants.

There is thus evidence to the effect that virus diseases
as a group are not necessarily new diseases, but that
modern conditions have enabled them to become more
widespread and have made possible the development of
new manifestations of such diseases in crops previously
not known to be affected.

Control of Virus Diseases.

At one time it was thought that when symptoms of virus
infection were observed in a plant all portions of the plant
soon became infected. This is actually the case in many
instances, and an appreciation of the fact has made it
possible for success to be achieved in the control of several
of our major virus diseases by the adoption of field sanita-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 29

tion measures involving the roguing or eradication of plants
at the first sign of disease. These measures, however, are
effective only when the disease is of the type which spreads
slowly in a crop, or in which the situation is not seriously
complicated by the existence of other host plants. They
are measures which, as a rule, are particularly applicable
to stud plots or areas devoted to the production of certain
types of seed or vegetative parts used for plant propagation,
and have been very successfully adopted in potato improve-
ment work, but at the same time they are of little value in
commercial crops when the extent of infection exceeds
some 5% or 10% of the total number of plants in the
crop.

Even in those instances which respond to treatment by
roguing, as is the case with Bunchy Top of bananas, where
the virus is restricted, so far as we know, to the banana
plant itself, it is doubtful whether existing methods will
ever eliminate the disease entirely. A certain low level of
incidence of the disease may be expected through the
exercise of existing measures which involve only removal
of plants as soon as symptoms of disease are noted.

There are a number of factors which operate against the
practical application of eradication measures in many
cases. The insect vector phase cannot be completely
controlled, and although insect infestation may be reduced
by climatic and other environmental influences or by
artificial means, diseases may be spread from plant to
plant before symptoms of infection become obvious, and
environmental influences may even result in the masking
of symptoms of disease in infected plants. Difficulties
such as these have resulted in the intensive examination of
means which might be of practical value in detecting the
presence of infection in plant parts before they are used
for propagation purposes. Folsom! has reviewed this
position with particular reference to the potato diseases,
and has indicated that in spite of the effects of the virus
on the physiological condition of the tissues as judged by
staining reactions, viscosity of the sap, _ electrical
conductivity, X-ray patterns, fluorescence and luminescence
with ultra-violet light, tests based on such reactions are
not applicable for determinative purposes. Plants must
still be grown under appropriate environmental conditions
to determine whether virus diseases are present or not.

15 Folsom, D.: Potato Virous Diseases in 1933. Amer. Potato Jour.,
11, 235-236, 1934.

30 R. J. NOBLE.

One realises, however, that the development of suitable
tests for detection of diseased tissues could not fail to be of
great practical value.

Although individual viruses cause diseases of more or
less serious character in.a specific host plant, even more
serious symptoms frequently result from mixed virus
infections. In such cases the plant already affected with
one disease is subjected to additional infection by another
virus which itself may have been evident as a disease or
may have been carried in a masked condition by another
variety of the same plant or in an entirely unrelated plant.
Under appropriate conditions this synergic effect may be
maintained by the transference of both viruses from plant
to plant within a crop as though they constituted a single
entity. On the other hand, the presence of one virus may
confer some protection against the effects of other virus
infections. In such cases the reduction in severity of
symptoms, which is accepted as an expression of acquired
immunity in the plant, may be considered as a form of
antibiosis, although as indicated by Kunkel (loc. cit.,
p. 464) the exact nature of the phenomenon is not yet
established.

The possibilities for development of new types of disease,
the presence of disease in related or unrelated plants in a
masked or unmasked condition, the generally systemic
nature of infection, the impracticability of control of insect
vectors or of the development of usual protective measures,
have made the problems of control the despair of many
plant pathologists. While such difficulties are realised
we may, however, take heart from the fact that it so
happens that there are no serious complicating factors to
be considered in some cases, as local eradication measures
fortunately have shown in the commercial control of such
diseases as Bunchy Top of bananas and Leaf Roll of
potatoes. There is a basis for optimism also in the fact
that although a disease such as Spotted Wilt of tomatoes
has such a wide host range, some plants affected by the
specific virus respond only by the production of local
lesions and the disease does not become systemic.

It is a most fortunate circumstance, also, that true seeds
are so rarely infected. Even in the Leguminose, where
infection is common, rarely more than 50% of the seed
from diseased plants carries any infection ; in other cases
the phenomenon apparently does not occur, or else the
percentage of infected seed is extremely low. Finally,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. al!

in cases where systemic infection is the rule and where
plants are propagated by vegetative parts, environmental
influences may so check the progress of infection that
certain portions of the plant may escape infection.

Investigation of Virus Diseases.

Satisfactory reasons cannot yet be offered in explanation
of such phenomena. No plant virus has yet been isolated
in the pure condition, although for all practical purposes
this has been effected in certain infection experiments,
nor has any plant virus been cultivated in vitro. There
is evidence only of its multiplication in the living plant
and in certain tissue culture experiments. Although
successful cultivation in the absence of plant tissues has
been reported, the results have not been confirmed by
subsequent tests, and if the virus is indeed a living entity,
and even if it does not differ fundamentally from the
forms of living matter with which we are acquainted,
difficulties of propagation 7m vitro may be as real as those
associated with the attempted culture on artificial media
of such obligate parasites as the rust and mildew fungi.

Purification of virus suspensions is providing useful
information in cases where the virus is of the type which
can be transferred readily in infection experiments.
Precipitation methods and still further improvement in
technique in filtration may yet provide a virus free from all
trace of extraneous plant protein or other plant products,
and will enable more critical studies to be completed.
Skilful preparation and utilisation of membranes have
enabled. calculations to be made of the probable size of
virus particles associated with specific diseases, although
one cannot yet be certain that the particles have indeed
been free from the protective action of other colloids, and
still more critical studies have yet to be made on the effects
of controlled environmental conditions on the viruses
themselves. Thus the data already accumulated for the
viruses in respect of such phenomena as ageing, resistance
to temperature and chemicals, electrical conductivity,
and reaction to high frequency sound radiation are of
comparative value only, and do not provide us with data
on the exact nature of the infective agency.

Perhaps at the moment even still further from solution
are the problems associated with the nature of the real or
apparent resistance to infection. The specificity which is
characteristic of certain viruses can be appreciated in view

a2, R. J. NOBLE.

of our conceptions of obligate parasitism, but it is harder
to account for the fact that so many unrelated plants
may be affected by such a virus as that of tomato Spotted
Wilt. Certainly in the case of the wide host range virus |
there are differences in the type of reaction—the local
lesion and the type of local lesion in some hosts seem to
represent evidence of the existence of a certain degree of
incompatibility between host and virus as compared with
the systemic reaction itself. We may for long have to be
content with the evidence of observation alone, just as
in the case of such a fascinating phenomenon as that of
hetercecism in the rust fungi.

Masking of Symptoms and the Metabolism of
Affected Plants.

Apart from the specificity or otherwise of the insect
vector phase, of intense academic interest and practical
importance is the phenomenon of masking as it occurs in
so many instances of virus infection. This may be of
either the high or the low temperature type, although
light intensity is of importance in some cases. As reported
on a previous occasion, our Woodiness disease of passion-
fruit is typically a low temperature disease—tfruit lignifica-
tion and leaf abnormality symptoms may be non-existent
in the new growth which develops on diseased vines during
the warmer months. We cannot conjecture whether the
environment in such a case exercises a greater effect on the
virus than it does on the host.

Studies have been made on the metabolism of many
plants affected with one or other of the virus diseases.
Physiological changes are recorded and, although
characteristic of an individual virus infection in some
instances, they are not of the type which may be
attributable to the activities of a specific group of infective
agencies. Variations are recorded in respect of respiration
and transpiration rates, in the quantities and types of
photosynthetic products within the cell and, as in other
cases of endophytic infection or in malnutrition, proteolytic
processes frequently are more in evidence.

The development of inclusion bodies in such infections as
those of Fiji disease of sugar-cane and in many mosaic
diseases is not known except in association with virus
infections, and although the bodies have been examined
in some detail no more precise designation can be provided

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. oo

for them than that they are products of cytoplasmic
condensation.

In view of the fact that no plant virus has yet been
studied in the pure condition, no data are available in
respect of the metabolic activities of the virus itself
‘although, indeed, it is a question as to whether such
information can ever be obtained by such direct means.
Whatever the nature of the virus, it is accepted that it is
of colloidal character, and this feature may yet be correlated
even more closely with such reactions as are found to occur
within the cell.

Conclusion.

Difficult as it is at the moment to form any satisfying
picture of the fundamental features of the plant host and
virus relationship, it is clear from the purely practical
standpoint that there is much yet to be done to clarify the
position in respect of some of the diseases which are known
to exist in this country. Time and again investigators
throughout the world have stressed the need for
systematisation of reports which record the occurrence
of plant virus diseases. Existing criteria are admitted
to be inadequate for the complete characterisation of all
known viruses and the diseases with which they are
associated, but with few exceptions most of the plant virus
diseases recorded in this country are incompletely
designated, even in accordance with such standards as are
of value at the moment. Apart from a more or less
complete description of external and internal symptoms,
and in some cases records of transmission, we have few
data on the associated insect vectors and, where several
appear to be involved, on the relative importance of those
which are operative. It is hoped that few of our viruses
have such a wide host range as that already indicated for
the tomato Spotted Wilt, but more exhaustive examinations
may show whether present difficulties in control are
associated with the existence of virus reservoirs other than
those of the infected hosts themselves.

More information is desirable in respect of varietal
responses under controlled environmental conditions, and
more extensive use might be made of “ purified ’’ virus
suspensions in cases where artificial transmission of the
disease is practicable. Not only are observations of
routine type desirable in respect of the Australian virus
disease situation, but it is conceivable that more intensive
C—May 1, 1935.

34 R. J. NOBLE.

examination may be of value in an interpretation of the
problem of the nature of virus infections generally.

Some biologists claim that the mere accumulation of
facts by adoption of a generally accepted routine procedure
may tend to dull the perceptions to such an extent that
fundamental principles are obscured or overlooked. It
is difficult enough to be sure of facts in any case, particularly
when one is dealing with complex relationships of one or
more organisms in an environment which is recognised as
being infinitely more complex than was ever anticipated
in the past, but established technique in plant disease
investigation, with all its limitations, has contributed
definitely to the development of some measure of stability
in agricultural production, and its possibilities are not yet
exhausted.

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY. 35

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY AS
AN AID TO GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION.

DISTRICT: MITTAGONG-BOWRAL.

By EpGAR H. Boots, M.C., B.Sc., F.Inst.P.,
University of Sydney.

(With Plates I and IT and four text-figures.)

(Manuscript received, March 20, 1935. Read, June 5, 1935.)

INTRODUCTION.
Objects of the Survey.

The research covered by this paper originated in an
endeavour to assist geologists in an interpretation of the
igneous intrusion forming Mt. Gibraltar or “The Gib ”’,
situated between Mittagong and Bowral, in the parish of
Mittagong, County of Camden, N.S.W. It was not
definitely known whether it was a volcanic plug or a
subhorizontal intrusion, and the author considered that a
magnetic survey, occupying a relatively short time, might
indicate the true nature of the mass. It was soon found,
however, that the surrounding country included such a
complexity of magnetic formations, mostly not apparent
from the surface, that a detailed survey of the entire
Mittagong-Bowral district would be required before a
definite statement could be made ; also, that such a survey
would be valuable, in that purely local anomalies would
fall into place in the general district survey, so that the
superposed effects might be observed and noted for
comparison and use in other areas.

Whereas simple and uncomplicated anomalies may be
considered as problems in mathematics, a consideration
of a given region as a whole and of experimental results
in other regions forms the only practicable basis for inter-
pretation where there are many unknown quantities
affecting the field strengths and gradients.

This district is particularly rich in “negative
anomalies ’’, a fact likely to enhance the value of the
_ results to be obtained from a regional survey ; consequently

36 EDGAR H. BOOTH.

particular attention has been paid to localities where these
features appear.

The author has established a private geophysical research
station, ‘“‘ Hills and Dales ’’, in a ten-acre area covering
portions of X33, X34, X41, X42, X43, X44, X49 and X50.

Map Co-ordinates.

The district included in this survey is shown in Plate I,
and covers an area of some twelve square miles, The Gib
itself being towards the centre. In this map each side of
a large square (A, B, C, 2A, ete.) represents half a mile,
so that the side of a small square represents five chains.
In the text a large square is referred to by its letter, as
A, 2B, «; a small square by the appropriate letter followed
by a numeral, as Al, B3, 2N26. When it is desired to fix
a position to the nearest chain, a map-reference such
as A1.32, or 2N26.24 is given. The origin of co-ordinates
of each small square being its south-western corner, the
first reference above is to a position in square Al, three
chains east and two chains north of its south-western
corner ; the second reference is to a point two chains east
and four chains north of the south-western corner of
square 2N26. The map is orientated to magnetic north.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The Gib trig. station is at W57.00, the feature forming
The Gib rising as much as 800 feet in the general area V,
W, 2D, and 2H, above the surrounding country.

The area K, L, T, U is occupied by a hill of sandstone
rising from Gibber-Gunyah Creek on its east, falling to
the main Berrima-Mittagong road (in the extreme north
of Plate I), and through J and 8 to the continuation of that
road to the west (not shown).

Running approximately north-and-south in 2J and 2A
up to the east-west road is a basalt-capped ridge which
falls to the west off the map, and to the east into 2K and
2L towards Mittagong Creek.

The Gib itself rises, almost perpendicularly in parts,
along the line 2E33.00, V63.00, V40.00; thence it rises
fairly steeply from a line running north-east from that
last point, falls fairly steeply on its north-eastern face into
the creek running north in W, and falls more gently
towards the east and south-east. The altitudes of certain
points (by aneroid) are given on p. 44.

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY. oul

Three accepted altitudes are those of Mittagong railway
station (2,070 ft.), The Gib trig. station (2,830 ft.), and
Bowral railway station (2,210 ft.). The general slope of
the country is to the north.

The north-to-south roads (King Street and Earl Street)
in W and 2E exist only as tracks on the ground; they
run into precipices. The same applies to the western
portion of Count Street in W. Cliff Street in 2D runs
into a precipice at the quarry in 2E33.10 (about its junction
with Ellen Street), and has no existence to the east. Though
The Gib itself is a tourist feature, the roads to the top from
both Bowral and Mittagong are very rough, and at present
impassable for cars in wet weather.

The area 2F, 2G, 2H, 21 is high land, falling towards the
east from The Gib, and is mostly basalt-capped in the
southern halves of those sections.

Plate II will help to make clear the nature of the
topography

GEOLOGY OF THE DISTRICT WITH NOTES ON MAGNETIC
INTENSITIES.

The geology of this district has been studied in part by
several writers, the most complete descriptions being those
of Jaquet! and Taylor and Mawson.?

Syenite.

The eruptive mass of The Gib itself is of fine-grained
syenite (popularly referred to as ‘‘ Bowral trachyte ’’)
probably of Middle Tertiary age.? According to Taylor
and Mawson this is the denuded plug of an old volcano ;
those authors consider it improbable that it represents a
denuded laccolith, though that is the conclusion drawn from
the results given in this present paper. The stone varies
in colour, in general darker stone being quarried from the
Mittagong end, the stone from the south-eastern quarries
being light grey to green-grey. It has been assumed by
Taylor and Mawson that the light-coloured (leucocratic)
syenite is the marginal rock, whilst the dark (melanocratic)

1 Jaquet, J. B.: The Iron Ore Deposits of N.S.W. Mem. Geol.
Surv. N.S.W. Geology No. 2, 1901.

2 Taylor, T. G., and D. Mawson: The Geology of Mittagong. THIs
JOURNAL, 1903, 37, 306.

3 Browne, W. R.: Presidential Address, Roy. Soc. N.S.W. THIs
JOURNAL, 1933, 67, 49.

38 EDGAR H. BOOTH.

syenite represents the more. central portion. Analyses
of both types are given in the work ot Taylor and Mawson.

Browne® describes The Gib as ‘“ composed of xgirine-
microsyenite with pneumatolytically-altered phases, inter-
sected by narrow segregation-veins of pegmatitic aspect ”’.

Intensity of Magnetisation of the Syenite.

Tests for susceptibility showed a wide variation,
undoubtedly due to the difficulty of obtaining small
specimens that were not weathered. Tests of small
blocks recently quarried gave the same discrepancies,
it being apparent that the edge material is far from uniform
so far as intensity of magnetisation is concerned, even for
specimens within a few yards of one another; but it
must be remembered that all specimens available were
either marginal rock, or from exposed rock surfaces up on
The Gib itself where the degree of leaching is unknown.
In many cases the stone quarried is taken from very large
blocks separated from the main body by decomposed
rock.

It is apparent, however, from readings taken on the mass
itself, that in places the field is uniform over large areas of
the flat, exposed rock-surface, so that either the mean value
of intensity of magnetisation thus presented is uniform, or
the intensity of magnetisation is fairly uniform away from
the peripheral zone of leached and fallen material. (This
does not apply to a length of about ten chains along an
east-west line through The Gib trig. station itself; see
De ole)

Specimens, picked for apparent freshness, gave values
for intensity of magnetisation (I) ranging from 10-° to
10-* c.g.s. units. An average value for I for freshly
quarried specimens was 3 X10-° c.g.s. units; this may be
taken as the value in the magnetic field, the vertical
component of which is 0-6 gauss. If we assume that the
intensity of magnetisation is that due to the specimens
being magnetised in a field of that order (the magnetic
dip is 65° S.), the susceptibility may be taken as being of
the order 5000 x 10-§ c.g.s. units. Since the rock-content
so varies from zone to zone that the applied geophysicist
is generally working on mean values, and since the history —
of the magnetisation of the rock is quite unknown, it is
very doubtful if laboratory determinations of the suscepti-.
bility of specimens gives results which can be applied to
the interpretation of magnetic surveys. We are presented

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY. 39

with rocks in situ, and can calculate the intensity of
magnetisation (taken as a surface polarity of o per sq. cm.)
over extensive plane areas; we can collect samples of
rock, and determine their magnetic moments, and hence
their intensity of magnetisation. These values the author
has found in good accord over a wide diversity of conditions.
It seems that values of I are of much greater interest than
values of uw (permeability) or of K (susceptibility), usually
quoted. Determinations of values of K for different fields
in the laboratory, for comparison with values of K for
specimens in situ, are of definite interest in discussions
of the magnetic history of the rocks; but that subject,
particularly with regard to permanency of magnetic effects,
is still extremely controversial. The applied geophysicist
is generally concerned with mapping geological formations,
etc., in terms of variations in existing intensities of magnet-
isation of the materials in position in the earth’s crust.

The approximate area occupied by the syenite outcrop
is enclosed within crosses (xxx) on Plate I. To the north,
west and south the actual boundary is masked by syenitic
talus-material, but to the east it is quite distinct, as there
is no abrupt change of level.

Triassic Shales and Sandstones.

To the south and west the syenite of The Gib intrudes
Wianamatta shales; to the north and east, Hawkesbury
sandstone. The shales have their greatest known local
thickness of about 80 feet near the northern end of the
railway tunnel (V50). According to Taylor and Mawson,
the sandstone is 600 feet thick.

Both these series of strata may be regarded as the main
non-magnetic rocks of the district, the intensity of magnet-
isation being negligible in all specimens examined. Excep-
tions to this are in places where the soil appears of a
definite red colour, possibly due to some small local
occurrence of superficially decomposed igneous rock
(see p. 56).

Basalt.

Probably the whole of this district has been covered
by one or more extensive flows of late Tertiary basalt.
This rock is found abundantly in the south-east of the area
surveyed, overlying both sandstone and shale, with a line
of contact through 2F, 2G, 2H and 21; also to the south-
west through 2A and 2K. Another, though smaller, area

40 EDGAR H. BOOTH.

occurs in W and X, overlying sandstones; this portion is
dealt with in greater detail on p. 49.

Small basalt caps are found in K10 and vicinity, and in
M34 (this latter is thin and leached). Two little knolls
protected by thin basalt caps stand up in 2F5 and 2F51.

All the basalt which could be collected for examination
was considerably weathered. Small specimens, broken
out of the central portions of larger boulders, gave values
for I of the order 3 x 10-3 ¢.g.s. units. This is high compared
with values found for larger boulders removed to Base
and examined under the magnetometer; they displayed
definite polarity, north-seeking polarity being associated
with the upper surfaces as found in situ. These boulders
were surrounded by and separated from their neighbours
by decayed basalt, and probably have never moved from
their original positions. Browne (loc. cit.) considers that
the basalt is of later date than the syenite, which had been
laid bare by erosion prior to the effusion of the basalt.

Volcanic Necks.

A volcanic breccia-neck lies in V58; this has been cut
through by the railway tunnel, so that the highest value
found above it (1,874y) represents the effect after sub-
tracting a mass of material removed during the excavation
of the tunnel. No good specimens of this material were
found to test for intensity of magnetisation. A tuff-neck
of some interest occurs in 2C and 2D; it is described in
detail on p. 57.

Minor Features.

The above represent the major rock-features of the area ;
smaller occurrences of trachyte, dolerite, limonite, etc.,
will be dealt with under the appropriate section of the
magnetic summary.

According to Jaquet (loc. cit.) layers of Tertiary material,
‘“ sandstones and shales for the most part highly ferruginous,
with bands of concretionary iron ore ’”’ underlie the basalt
flows. This material crops out on the lower slopes of the
geophysical research area, “‘ Hills and Dales’’; it is non-
magnetic, so that its presence is not of interest in this
survey. It is of interest to note in passing that specimens
of limonite collected from the vicinity of a chalybeate
spring at E40 acted as nearly non-magnetic material
(see p. 58). Taylor and Mawson say of these Tertiary
deposits: ‘“‘ The drifts and gravels occur almost invariably

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY. 41

wherever the basalt caps have protected them from
denudation. They consist of rounded fragments of quartz
and basalt cemented together by ferruginous material so
as to form a conglomerate, which usually occurs as rounded
blocks around the edges of the overlying basalt. The
contained basalt indicates that the drift was partially
derived from lavas earlier than the basalt capping. The
iron cement was either leached out from the later covering
of basalt or, as at the time of deposition these gravels
occupied the river beds, it may have been derived from
contemporaneous chalybeate springs.”’

THE MAGNETIC SURVEY.
Instruments, Corrections, Bases.

Observations were made of the variations in the vertical
component of the earth’s field. The apparatus used*
was a vertical field balance of the Adolf Schmidt type,
constructed by the Askania-Werke Coy. The instrument
is No. 88057, and the sensitivity on its present adjustment
(checked regularly during the survey) is 40y per division.
The temperature correction is 8-5y per centigrade degree.

The Main Base for the area was established at 2D61.24,
a point on the shales (which there dip gently west) being
pegged and sgpit-locked. Readings over several square
yards in this vicinity, and with varying reasonable heights
of magnets above ground level, were practically identical,
varying by less than 4y. ‘This spot is referred to as Base
Luxembourg in all records, from the private hotel ‘‘ Luxem-
bourg ’’ conveniently situated up the slope on the opposite
side of Clarke Street. Sub-bases were established as
required, and were locked in with Base Luxembourg
by repeated check readings. Much of the work was carried
out under very difficult conditions; many traverses had
to be repeated on the western face of The Gib, as it was
feared that unavoidable slight shocks to the instrument
during work on the steep, and in parts nearly precipitous,
slopes might have caused an error. Readings, and check
readings on later occasions, agreed very well, and it is
considered that the important readings out to the west
and east of the outcrop of The Gib syenite are correct to
within 5y.

4The apparatus used and its method of emplovment are described
in many books and articles. Reference may be made to Edge and
Laby: ‘‘ Geophysical Prospecting ’’, Camb. Univ. Press, 1931.

42 . EDGAR H. BOOTH.

Where big magnetic anomalies occur the readings are
more accurate than the determined positions ; the relative
magnetic values, on which are based the closed curves, are
correct to within 5y.

The temperature correction was checked regularly, the
observed variation from the mean value taken (8-5y per
centigrade degree) being less than 0-5y per centigrade
degree over twenty centigrade degree changes. Pre-
cautions were taken to protect the instrument from direct
sunlight, and as far as possible from rapid changes of
temperature.

To allow for variations in the vertical field due to diurnal
changes or atmospheric magnetic disturbances, reference
was continuously made to the sub-base concerned, at which
generally at least four sets of readings a day were taken.
On sections of the work where the variation from station
to station was small, the sub-base was locked in with Base
Luxembourg at the beginning and end of each traverse.

The interlocking of intersecting traverses was in all cases
within 5y of the previous reading, or of the interpolated
reading, except over zones of big differential variation.

The observations have been corrected to allow for the
normal northward gradient of 8y per mile over the area.

INTERPRETATION OF OBSERVATIONS.

The Main Anomaly.

Base Luxembourg is recorded arbitrarily as 600y, and
is on shale, just off the talus from The Gib, on ground
sloping gently to the west; its altitude is 2,280 feet.

Values over a large area to the north in Section E, in the
vicinity of the Berrima-Mittagong Road, are uniform at
535y. This is the lowest uniform value over a large area,
which is thus considered to be that under which the
magnetic rocks are at greatest depth; so that 535y may
be taken as the value over “‘ non-magnetic ”’ areas of the
district.

According to Jaquet a bore sunk in 1887 in a position
about F9.22 passed through 650 feet of sandstone to the
coal-seams immediately underlying and conformable with
the Hawkesbury sandstones. He reports the upper
formation as being ‘“ coarse-grained sandstones and
occasional narrow bands of shale’’. The sandstones there
are either horizontal or dipping at a low angle. Jaquet
adds: ‘‘ The coal-measures would seem to have a thickness

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY. 43

of about 650 feet, having regard to observations which we
made lower down the valley, where the Upper Marine
formation can be seen cropping up from underneath
them’. The small magnetic fluctuations over this area
are due to igneous intrusions which are known to have
penetrated the coal-measures as sills and dykes. The
country here is flat.

To the east of the area (see Plate I) values fall below
6007 in Section « (on shale) and continue to drop further
east; actually readings have been taken far to the east,
the value decreasing to 5537 at the station three and
one-eighth miles on a magnetic bearing 71° E. of N. from
The Gib trig. station. (This station is at the position shown
on parish maps as the junction of the old Bong Bong Road
and the old Main Southern Road.) Even out here there is
evidence of volcanic activity ; for example, volcanic breccia
is exposed in the grounds of the Marist Brothers, in a
position about 20 chains east of the 553y-station first
mentioned. A chalybeate spring is found some 50 chains
further east again. Readings were taken up the old
Southern Road (running generally north-east, and approxi-
mately along the same 71° line from The Gib trig. station)
for a further mile. They fluctuated very slightly (under
107) as far as the last station, where the reading was
5287; half a mile further on (now a total distance of
four and a half miles on 62° from the trig. station) another
chalybeate spring exists. It would, however, require a
detailed survey of this far-eastern area to correlate minor
fluctuations with the main features dealt with in this
paper. To avoid extending the map unnecessarily these
eastern stations are not shown.

Isodynamic lines are drawn on Plate I at intervals of
1007 ; the 600y-lines are of greatest interest, because the
Spaces between 600y-lines associated with different systems
of closed curves represent zones of greatest depth of
magnetic rock, and the areas where boundaries possibly
exist at depth between different types of igneous forma-
tions. The 600y-curve in «, Q, P, O, N, etc. (which would
presumably be closed if the basalt cover were stripped off
in the south-east portion in 2I, 2H, 2P) indicates the
configuration of the magnetic body associated with The
Gib itself; and since values are dropping slowly to the
east, the material causing this magnetic disturbance
presumably continues still to drop deeper, or to become
gradually thinner, for at least a further three miles.

44 EDGAR H. BOOTH.

The creek running north in W has cut its way through
the syenite; the sandstone begins within 50 yards of
that creek on its right bank. In the vicinity of the
junction of Whinstone Road and Duke Street (2E5) there
is no abrupt change in surface slope, but, to judge from
the isodynamic lines, the syenite passes below the sand-
stone, falling fairly steeply in 2E5 and 2K6; beyond that
it continues to fall gradually to the east.° Sandstone
encountered in a shaft in W62 dips at about 45°.

The whole of the eastern and north-eastern sandstones
have been tilted by the intrusion, the effect being noticeable
on strata in X2, 2G29 and as far out as Z26. The intrusion
falls, or thins, beyond the 600y-line, gradually to the north
and to H and G, and much more gradually, as has already
been noted, to the east. In the north-east matters are
complicated by the proximity of an intrusive mass of
dolerite in H, which is surrounded by trachytic or syenitic
material. A house has been built on the higher portion
of the outcrop, so that it cannot be surveyed completely.
A reading on rock, northern slope, gave 532y; five chains
further south from this up slope, 861y ; five chains further
south, nearer crest, 1,209; on the far side of the house
(““ Drumeevin ’’), highest ground, about eight chains on,
back to 517y. Die

The ground to the south-east of the area is high (2G, 2H,
21); unfortunately it is covered by basalt, and this cannot
be mathematically “‘ skinned ’’ from the surface without
carrying the survey over a very much bigger area to the
south and south-east, on to lower ground ; it is considered
that this would involve undue expenditure of time.

Immediately to the north of The Gib trig. station, and
along the western side of The Gib, the ground falls pre-
cipitously into zones of negative anomalies ; these negative
anomalies lie on the lower slopes on talus, and are probably
associated with big inverted and jumbled masses of
magnetised material in juxtaposition to the cliffs of
magnetised material in situ. The isodynamic lines are
crowded together on the steep slopes. The syenite has a
steeply plunging contact with the shales to the west and

> Actual altitudes in this area are: The Gib trig. station, 2,830
feet; 2E2.22, 2,765 feet: 2E3.20, 2,730 feet; 2K4.41, 2,695 feet ;
W55.24, 2,615 feet ; 2F10.02, 2,615 feet ; 2F3.14, 2,515 feet ; 2F52.12,
2.565 feet (the hill drops fairly steeply down the road to Merrigang
Street beyond this point); X36.20, 2,405 feet; X38.02, 2,290 feet
Mittagong railway station, 2,070 feet.

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY. 45

with the sandstones to the immediate north ; indications
are that it falls fairly steeply to the south also, but readings
could be taken for a short distance only, owing to the
proximity of the town of Bowral.

The negative anomalies are discussed in more detail
below.

Whilst the country has not been contoured, a large
number of altitudes have been taken. Attention should
be drawn, in this connection, to two points as examples :
W55.24 and 2F10.02 are places separated from one another
by the dropping hill crest running west to east between
them, but are at the same altitude; they are both also
just within the 800y-curve.

In general, decreasing values are associated with
decreasing altitudes ; exceptions are in creeks and valleys.
It should here be noted that the bulge in the 800y- and
700y-curves (towards the north-west) in the north-eastern
portion of W is in a deep depression between the basalt-
capped ridge in the east of W and the main mags of the
syenite to the west; the main creek and its three chief
branches occupy this depression. Values rise from 800y
to 941y in the descent of 280 feet (aneroid) from W55.24
to the creek junction at W14.10, a horizontal distance of
some 20 chains; in a continuation of the traverse down
the creek to the north, along the edge of the syenite
(probably talus), a descent of 160 feet is accompanied by a
drop in values from 941y to 503y in 16 chains ; in a further
11 chains to the final station (six chains off the railway
line) there is a fall of 15 feet only, with a rise to 567y,
an expected value for that position.

Figure 1 is an isodynamic graph from F64.00 to 2064.00,
the readings on the basalt which caps portion of 2F and 20
being neglected. This section from north to south across
the country to the east of The Gib is seen to give values
rising from 590y to 780y in about a mile, and falling to
5907 again in another mile. There seems no reason to
doubt that this magnetic anomaly is due to the same
igneous intrusion that is exposed about a mile to the west
as The Gib itself.

The Anomalies on the Western and Southern Side of the Gib.

The irregular shape of the area bounded by the 600y-
contour will be noticed on the map. The author believes
that it is in accord with corresponding irregularities of
shape in the intrusive mass. A valley eroded through

EDGAR H. BOOTH.

46

"UOTYVYS *B114

S74 Ff

qty eu, jo ‘q eTIUI oUO ‘oTyorg oouseyy :

SN

VV 2 -

"T ‘Si

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY. 47

sandstone runs from 2E into 20. The tongue of (pre-
sumably) syenite running from 2E into 2N has caused the
tilting of the shales exposed at 2N20.33.

The eastern edge of the main syenite mass in Section 2E
has risen to a much greater height through the surrounding
material than has the still concealed rock further east ;
Taylor and Mawson postulated that the magma had actually
been erupted at the surface, though, as it is a micro-
syenite, and for other reasons, Browne believes that it
remained covered by ‘Triassic deposits through which
it did not break, and that this covering, in part, has
subsequently been denuded. Whichever happened, the
magnetic readings suggest that the syenite welled up to a
greater height and extends down to greater depths in the
area bounded by the more congested isodynamics.

Nature of the Gib Intrusion.

The igneous mass appears to be somewhat like a partially
buried lion lying on its side, portion of the syenite head
being now uncovered and the body, still covered, sloping
back therefrom some three or more miles to the east. It
has forepaws (buried) protruding down through 2E into
2N and down through 2F into 20 and 2N; whether hind
paws exist we do not know.

A consideration of all the facts set forth above leaves
little room for doubt that, if minor irregularities be
neglected, The Gib intrusion is essentially of the nature of
an asymmetrical laccolith having its greatest thickness,
and probably an elongated feeding-channel, to its west,
thinning rapidly to north and south, and having its greatest
extension to the east.

The Major Anomaly to the West.

To the west of The Gib, after the steep fall to the 600y-
curve and the zone occupied by negative anomalies, there
is an area with values generally around 550y, and in small
localised zones below 500y. Then begins another magnetic
feature, with a 600y-line running approximately north-
and-south in M, V, 2D, and 2M; this line swings back to
the north-west through L and B. The 700y-line is nearly
a mile further west, with a small area rising to 900y
immediately behind this, in S. An investigation of this
locality led to the discovery of an outcrop of quartz-
dolerite in the vicinity of S24, S32, and S40, not yet
recorded by geologists. Just south of this point is the

48 EDGAR H. BOOTH.

peak of a positive anomaly, a closed curve with an observed
enclosed maximum of 928y ; no rock outcrop is seen there,
but the soil is a very bright red where rabbits have excavated
it from beneath the darker surface soil and humus.

To judge from the magnetic features, this anomaly to
the west should be referred to a different geological feature
from The Gib itself. Sandstone in A and C respectively
has dips of 25° and 30°, and the dip directions at these
points and in K33 and T64 indicate that the strata have
been tilted from the direction of the quartz-dolerite in S.
The general conclusion to be drawn from the tilting of
the strata is that this western anomaly is due to magnetic
disturbances associated with the outcrop of dolerite
referred to above. There can be no doubt, however, that
the whole of the area is underlain by an assortment of
intrusive igneous rocks of varying magnetic content and
at varying depth, forming superimposed minor anomalies
which would require detailed survey ; an instance of such
(exposed in this case) is the isolated patch of trachyte in
C, breaking through a small patch of shale. The whole
district abounds in such minor problems, which should
present small difficulty in observation and interpretation
when the survey of the whole area is considered.

Some few readings were taken well to the north-west,
and to the west of this western anomaly, along the Berrima
Road where it runs south-west again off the map. A
reading at the sharp road-turn one mile ten chains on a
magnetic bearing N. 19° W. from the basalt at K10.00
was 564y. Southwards down the road, and thus at an
approximately constant distance from that same reference
position, readings ranged rapidly up to 670y in the first
half mile, and up to 674y by the end of the next half mile.
The 700y-contour would be crossed about 15 chains on,
the reading at the junction of this road with the road out
from Bowral (one mile 15 chains about W. 20° S. from the
basalt at K10.00) being 7607. From these few readings
out to the far west the general positions of the 600y- and
700y-curves, continued, can be visualised.

Special Anomalies.

Basalt Flows.—Reference has already been made bs the
basalt flows; remnants of these, probably of considerable
thickness in ‘places, appear on the high ground, the only
exception being the cap in M34. A reading of 1,326y
was recorded on solid basalt in 2K57, in the vicinity of

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY. 49

Mt. Oxley ; the highest value on the knoll (rock) in the
grounds of “ Hopewood ”’ (2A40) was 884y; the basalt-
covered ridge slopes down from the first position (highest
altitude) to the second, which is near the northern limit
of this basalt; readings just north, off the basalt, are
about 750y.

A reading of 1,158y was made on the small cap in K10
(not necessarily the highest value there).

The small cap in M34 is leached, and no reading taken
in the vicinity showed an increase of as much as 10y above
the adjacent sandstone values.

The outcrop of basalt to the south-east of The Gib was
not examined, traverses ceasing aS soon as the basalt
boundary was crossed; crossing the boundary resulted
in increases in the vertical component by amounts varying
from 200y to 4007 in a few chains; surface indications
were the red soil, strewn with small basalt boulders.

A considerable number of readings were taken on and
about the basalt knoll in 2F51, in a search for a high
reading, but this feature persisted in being a negative
anomaly, all readings being far below that of the surrounding
sandstone; a value as low as 60y was obtained. There
is the surrounding sandstone, the values on which are
6607 to 6807; on this is perched the small basalt cap,
which forms a definite knoll some three chains by two;
it is an outlier from the larger basalt sheet, from which it
is well isolated; and it is a negative anomaly. This is
not merely a reversal effect at an edge. In spite of argu-
ments advanced by other writers that structures must be
magnetised in the direction of the existing field and that
“reverse ’’ effects due to invasion of magnetised masses,
for instance, cannot persist, here definitely is a reversed
polarity. The author would suggest that it may be a
reversal due to strong local currents, the basalt (possibly
then a cap standing up above the surrounding ground)
having been struck by lightning. A similar explanation
is suggested below for other negative anomalies. In this
isolated feature the lower surface of the basalt would be of
positive polarity ; possibly a positive anomaly originally
existed in its immediate vicinity.

The Basalt in W and X.—The remaining basalt in
Sections W and X is difficult to map by surface indications,
as much of the area that appears to be basalt, to judge by
red soil and stones, is wash from higher areas. As it is
possible in the general scheme to “strip off’ the basalt
D—June 5, 1935.

50 EDGAR H. BOOTH.

flow by calculation, this has been the subject of a more
detailed survey, to be shown later. Solid rock in situ
runs along the ridge in an east-west direction in 2K7 and
2H8, and in 2F1 and 2F2. Thence it runs towards the
north, ending in a cap in X9 and X17, which has resulted
in the preservation of a ridge falling steeply into X1 and
X2 (‘Green Hills ’’). |

Notes on Water Supply, etc.—Readings indicate that
there is still some unleached basalt in situ in W32, W40,
and W48. There are isolated patches of basalt in the
vicinity, and considerable thicknesses of clay underlie
the basalt and crop out around its margins, as marked on
the map. The geophysical research station (“‘ Hills and
Dales ’’) is situated at X 41.23, and.many excavations have
been made in the vicinity to check the observations. The
layer of sandy soil and basalt wash between the more
impermeable basalt and the clays forms a temporary
reservoir for water flowing from higher up the hill, so
that water seeps out continuously from springs just north
of Whinstone Road in W47 and W48. A number of pits
dug in X41 to a depth of three feet disclose springs in wet
weather, and during periods of heavy rain the water-level
rises, and water pours out freely over the eastern side of
this basalt barrier. The author has had a large dam dug
in the impervious clay (found, as expected, about two
feet below the surface) in X34, on the eastern slope of the
anomaly ; this is filled by water pouring down the water-
shed and by seepage.

On the higher levels south of Whinstone Road, in W62,
W63 and W55, there are two clay layers, the water being
trapped and flowing north and east between them. A
shaft sunk in W62 (“ Perry’s ’’) down about 66 feet passes
through: (i) 28 feet of clay and rotten basalt; (ii) eight
feet of very soft sandstone, white to yellow, iron-stained
in bands, and dipping at about 45° away from the trig.
station ; (iii) 30 feet of white clay; (iv) what is possibly
an igneous rock, leached, and fairly rotten. The sandstone
was moist, and could readily be cut with a knife. It is
apparently Triassic, so that no basalt can be expected
underneath it.

A shaft sunk many years ago at X44.11 (for diamonds,
not found) passed for 100 feet, so the author is informed,
through sands and sandstone.

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY. 51

The Anomaly on the Summit of The Gib.

The readings along and near the line east from the trig.
station seem to be inexplicably erratic. The area is a
large, flattish surface of broken rock gently sloping towards
the east: there is nothing from surface indications to
suggest that such irregularities should exist as are shown
m Figure 2. ~
The magnetic gradients are quite what are expected to
the west of this, and also beyond a point some eight chains
to the east; but readings along that eight chains range
from 3,596y just clear of the trig. cairn to the west, through
fluctuating high positive values down suddenly to 658y
at 25 yards to the east; some 30 yards of these relatively
low values lead to another peak of 3,26ly, and so on, as
may be seen from the figure. The biggest change is from
+4,559y to —991y, a variation of 5,550y, in a distance of
five yards; ten yards further on the value has dropped
to —1,128y, after which it rises steadily for 25 yards to a
reasonably expected value for that position, 1,156y.
Further fluctuations occur for the next two chains, after
which no such erratic readings are found.

This all occurs across exposed rock surface.

Four hypotheses are presented: (i) There might be a
very localised concentration of magnetite close to the
surface at positions of maximum intensity, the corres-
ponding negative anomalies being corollary effects. This
is quite improbable, and is rejected ; there is no apparent
change in the surface of leached syenite, which must be
weathered (to judge by rocks broken on the area) to a
depth of several feet. The effects are very sharply defined,
and it is not reasonable to suppose that just at the summit
of an intrusion and nowhere else there should be a sharp
division into small zones very rich and others very poor in
magnetic material. Nowhere is there any sign of mineral
banding in the rock. In the circumstances it is not thought
that the effect might have been due to differential cooling,
giving local concentrations of magnetite, as suggested by
Heiland® in his article on abnormal polarisation. The
area is nearly plane, the effect is very local, and the
distances involved between positive and negative anomalies
are very small. It does not seem reasonable to suggest
differential cooling here. (ii) The effect may be due to

6 Zeitschrift fiir Geophysik, Jahrb. 6, Heft 4-7 (Ad. Schmidt-Fest-
chrift).

BOOTH.

EDGAR H.

52

*UOTFeIS ‘BI1} qty eG%L 04 queoe[pe Aqisueyuy [BvIqFAG A UL SUOTIVIIVA “MOL

N

N
q

‘% Sly

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY. 53

mechanical stresses; but when the magnitude of the
anomalies and the sharpness of the changes are considered,
the formation of ‘poles’? due to mechanical stresses
produced either during or after crystallisation does not
seem a tenable hypothesis. (iii) The rock might have
been fissured, and leached to a considerable depth by water
passing down the fissures, whilst leaching occurred only
to a very small depth in the rock mags on either side of the
fissures; but there are no surface indications of such
fissures (the rock is bare, though broken) and the anomalies
are again considered too large and too sharply defined to
be in accord with this hypothesis. (iv) The effect may be
due to lightning; this is the hypothesis that commends
itself. The area is exposed rock surface, at the highest
altitude in the district. Abnormally big positive and
correspondingly big negative anomalies in the immediate
vicinity are to be expected, if the magnetic material has
been traversed by big currents. The Gib is reported to
be struck by lightning frequently, and the author has had
personal experience of thunderstorms on top, and has
seen the effect of lightning striking the earth on two
occasions during the two years of these observations—
once on the syenite surface, and once on a tree growing on
soil on the eastern slope in X49. Unfortunately, the
author was several hundred yards away, and could not
find the exact spot where the lightning appeared to strike
the rock. It seemed to pour on to the surface and run out
in all directions ; no effects of the lightning could later be
found, except that leached surface rocks were cracked
and seattered round. This occurred before the anomaly
had been observed, so little attention was paid to the
matter, the place of striking not even being sought until
six months later ; it is hoped that some more observations
may be made here. Heiland considers the lightning
hypothesis also in the article referred to above, and a
similar case ig examined by Levings.’

In view of the greater uniformity of magnetisation over
lower and less exposed surfaces, and the sharpness of the
variation here considered, it seems far more reasonable to
account for the effect by magnetisation through such
abnormal means as lightning, than by simple induction

? Levings, Wm.S.: A Magnetic Survey of the Ralston Dyke, Jefferson
Co., Colo. Colorado School of Mines Quarterly, 27, No. 3, 38, July,
1932.

54 EDGAR H. BOOTH.

due to the earth’s field, with or without subsequent
‘* folding in ’’ and inversion of earlier cooled portions.8

The Anomalies in 2N.

There is an interesting negative anomaly shown on the
map with its centre (867) in area 2N5. Associated with
this is a positive anomaly (maximum reading 1,171y)

J5Z8.

-/63 , Jo7 ek: Jes

ee

Pies = G27 |v ae 257
tps za? es Saee -—2ie
nea ag ee

°* I/D "STS

308

Fig. 3. Map of Anomaly in 2N.

in 2N23 and vicinity, which is illustrated in Figure 3;
isodynamics in that figure are drawn at 200y intervals.
Unfortunately, it has not been possible to complete the

8 Tt is of interest to note here that although the magnetometer (with
one auxiliary magnet only in one case, and complete in its box in the
other case) has twice been within 300 to 400 yards of a lightning
discharge to earth, the sensitivity has not been changed, and the
auxiliary magnets have merely increased slightly in magnetic moment
at an unchanged rate, as seems to be their habit.

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY. 55

survey of this anomaly, as houses occur to the immediate
south and west ; but it is ringed to the north and east with
low values, the lowest observed (at about 2N23.44) being
—412y. These anomalies are placed well down the
southern slope of The Gib; they are not associated with
any apparent surface abnormalities, the slope continuing
to fall to the south, but not steeply. The position is
such as to warrant its rejection as a “‘ terrain anomaly ”’
due to steeply rising cliffs, etc. The positive anomaly
might well be due to a plug of magnetic material which has
welled up close to the surface in 2N23 ; it may have broken
through, though now weathered or covered by material
fallen from the high land to the north. It is interesting
to compare the tuff-neck (dealt with later, Figure 4)
with this. The negative anomaly with its centre in 2N5
is, then, a “relative low’’, an area covered with non-
magnetic material, or rather with magnetic material
which, magnetised in the first instance by induction in the
earth’s field, subsequently fell in disorderly fashion to form
the present hill slope, and is now surrounded by positively
magnetised bodies.

The Anomalies at the Quarry (2E33) and on the Near Western
; Side of the Gib.

At the junction of Cliff Street and Ellen Street the
syenite has been quarried, leaving a practically vertical
wall of rock. Readings on the steep slope immediately
down to the west from the quarry pit are all negative,
giving the lowest values recorded for the area (excluding
The Gib crest-line shown in Figure 2). Values decrease
from —274y to —608y as the steep slope is climbed.
The original form of the isodynamics in this vicinity has
undoubtedly been considerably altered by the removal of
great masses of the magnetic material from 2E33 and the
north of 2H41; it is an exaggerated case of ‘‘ terrain ”’
effects which account for abnormally low values immediately
below the cliffs on the western face of The Gib.

The other relatively negative anomalies along the western
side of the syenite intrusion are in accord with observations
in other districts. There exists here a trough-like depres-
sion or valley between the igneous masses, which is cut
through shale intersected in places by narrow dykes and
by small volcanic necks. The negative anomalies cover
relatively big areas on the lower slopes of The Gib, the
magnetic contours here being widely separated. The

56 EDGAR H. BOOTH.

surface valley (through which run the railway and the
Mittagong Road) passes over isodynamic “ flats ’’.

Red Soil Anomalies.

At the junction of Soma Avenue and Cliff Street (2D39.00
and vicinity), just off the eastern boundary of the exposed
shale, there is a patch of red soil, showing out clearly
against the surrounding grey of the syenite soil. This
patch is some four chains in diameter; unfortunately the
presence of cottages in the vicinity prevents a more
detailed survey, but a weak local anomaly is associated
with it, with a maximum of 882y and a minimum of 377y,
observed. The natural value for that zone is about 550y.
The anomaly is possibly associated with a neck.

There is a similar anomaly in 2125, where the ground
is definitely magnetic. Handfuls of the wet soil picked at
random and moulded into balls had an intensity of magnet-
isation of approximately 2x10-° c.g.s. units. The area
of red soil here covers several acres, extending into 2K ;
but the magnetic anomaly itself is associated with a very
small zone of less than two chains diameter, the maximum
value being 8837 and the minimum 685y, where the
expected uniform reading would have been slightly over
7007. The surrounding surface is Wianamatta shale ;
it is possible that the magnetic material marks the site of
a volcanic neck, or of portion of a sill.

It is probable that the adjacent positive and negative
anomalies in S and T are not associated with the quartz-
dolerite to the north, but are in the same category as the
other ‘‘red soil’? anomalies. Further, considering the
large number of such isolated eruptions, the author merely
suggests the association of the major western anomaly with
the exposed quartz-dolerite, which is apparently portion
of a flattish laccolith.

A small anomaly occurs in V36 and V44, extending over
an area about 10 chains across. The maximum value
observed here is 818y, and the minimum 323y, the high
zone being of some hundred square yards only (within an
apple orchard) and being surrounded by low readings.
This is associated with a spring, constantly running ;
another spring exists on slightly higher ground across
the road in V37; apparently soakage is directed here by
the underground contours of The Gib itself.* There is

* The road shown on Plate I is the old, or lower road.

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY. 57

no evidence here of aneck. It is too far from the precipices
of The Gib to make a large fallen, slanting, inverted,
magnetised mass a rational explanation, though much
stone fallen and rolled from The Gib lies about. There is
material in the immediate vicinity which appears to be
voleanic breccia. The road here crosses a ridge.

Tuff Neck, Vicinity of 2C32 and 2D25.

The isodynamics in the vicinity of the tuff-neck in the
general area 2032 and 2D25 are illustrated in Figure 4.

!

Wears, - ry hey

363 590 907 |. = b ag oe Ns6r 45a
wil

v 27

Fig. 4. Map of Tuff Neck Anomaly near Bowral Tunnel.

The lines shown are the 600y-line of the main map, and
the 500y, 1,000y, 1,500) and 2,000y-lines of this anomaly.
The neck forms a little hill, the top of which is fairly
flat and about 100 feet above the ground level to the south ;
the general slope of the country from which it emerges
is to the north.

The neck is composite ; on the eastern slope the material
is (Taylor and Mawson, loc. cit.) ‘‘ decomposed syenitic
breccia and vesicular lavas in which the steam-holes have
been filled with calcite’. The rock on the south is darker,

58 EDGAR H. BOOTH.

and is “‘composed largely of fragments of trachyte ”’

The south-west end is “ a light-coloured rock of a tuffaceous
character ’’, whilst on the north-west slope “‘ more vesicular
lava (much decomposed) occurs’”’. Jaquet gives a section
of this neck, in which the eastern slope is shown as consisting
of trachytic lava, whilst the bulk of the hill is of volcanic
breccia.

The zone in Figure 4 has two strong positive centres,
one at the north-east end (2,332y), and one at the southern
end (2,19ly). There is also a little knoll on its top at
2D25.03 approximately, where occurs another magnetic
peak, of 1,927y.

A dyke of trachyte is exposed by the railway cutting
just to the west of the neck (at 2D26.40), and runs towards
it.

The neck as a whole is a positive anomaly, with three
peaks. There is a re-entrant low on the eastern slope,
practically the whole of the eastern face being occupied by
a negative anomaly, the lowest recorded value being
113y; there is also a small negative anomaly to the
immediate south. There is no need to seek for further
explanation here than lies in the diversity of materials,
and the unequal leaching, in different parts, of the
magnetite-bearing trachyte.

Attention has already been directed to the similarity
between the isodynamics here and those of Figure 3.

Dykes.

The district abounds in dykes, mainly trachytic, running
in all directions for considerable distances.

They have in general been avoided during this survey
so far as detailed observations are concerned, as they are
very local in their magnetic effects, and can easily be picked
out against the surrounding magnetic values.

Limonite.

The chalybeate spring (Lady Fitzroy’s Spring) in E40
and E48 comes up through the limonite masses it has
produced. The limonite itself is very feebly magnetic,
a large lump close to the magnetometer being required to
produce an observable movement. A reading taken on
top of the rock, twenty yards west of the Spring, gave a
value of 736y, some 150y higher than a “ non-feature ”’
value for that position; the reading is slightly affected
by the proximity of a small iron hut. A reading on

60 EDGAR H. BOOTH.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The author is indebted to Assistant Professor W. R.
Browne, D.Sc., of the University of Sydney, for assistance
in geological interpretation and for the identification of
rock specimens.

Acknowledgments are also gratefully made to the Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research and to the Australian
and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of
Science, for placing at the disposal of the author the
magnetometer owned by those two bodies, which was
used throughout this survey ; and to the latter organisation
for research grants, part of which has assisted in covering
the expenses of this survey.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE I.

Map of the Mittagong-Bowral district, showing the isodynamic
lines of the vertical components of magnetic intensity, superposed on a
general outline of geological areas. An explanation of the grid system
is given on page 36.

PLATE II.

Fig. 1.—The Gib, and the country to the east, north, and west of it,
taken from a position on the hill slope in the sector to the immediate
north of G, off the map. Reference points are indicated by arrows.
The high land in 2G, 2H and 2I can also be seen, and part of the sand-
stone hill west of The Gib.

Fig. 2.—The Gib from a position about E57, looking south.

Fig. 3.-—The Gib from a position in C, looking south-east.
The elevated sandstones to the east of The Gib are also seen, the valley
in N and W being in shadow. This figure also shows the precipitous
nature of the eastern face of The Gib, better seen in the next figure.

Fig. 4.—The cliff face on the north-eastern portion of The Gib. It
is taken from V37, looking east.

Fig. 5.—The volcanic neck in 2C and 2D, photographed from 2D35.

Fig. 6.—Mainly the area in the western half of X, being the elevated
ground on ‘‘ Green Hills’’ protected by the basalt cap, described on
page 49. The geophysical research station is also seen. The view
is from X50.00, looking north-north-west.

Fig. 7.—From X42, looking east across the lower land in Y, Z and «,
and including portion of the basalt-capped high land in 2H and 21.

A DETAILED REGIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY. 59

limonite on the northern slope of the small mound was
2927, so that variations of over 400y total are associated
with the phenomenon, of which no detailed survey was
made.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY.

1. The isodynamics having been mapped over a wide
area, this can be extended as required over the surrounding
fields of geological interest. Moreover, local anomalies
within the area can readily be examined against the
background of the general district anomalies.

As an instance of the possible economic value of the
regional magnetic survey, it should be practicable to select
areas under which the coal-seams have probably not been
ruined by igneous intrusions.

2. The whole district is underlain by igneous intrusions,
which are probably more than 2,000 feet below the surface
in parts. There are two main disturbances :

(a) that due to The Gib itself, an asymmetrical
laccolith which :

(i) falls steeply for over a thousand feet under
the surface on its western side,

(ii) falls steeply at first and then gradually
back for several miles on the eastern side,
and

(iii) falls less steeply on the north and south,
though of a total extent of slightly over a
mile in that direction ;

(b) that due to an intrusion to the west, of which the
quartz-dolerite exposed on _ the boundary of
T and 8 probably forms a part.

3. Even where the magnetic rock lies at greatest depth,
the overlying strata have been intruded by dykes, sills,
and voleanic necks, which in many cases are not apparent
from surface geological indications; some of the visible
necks have ejected voleanic breccia and others may
have been outlets for the lava flows over the district.

4. The whole district seems to have been covered by
one or more lava flows subsequent to the main intrusions ;
most of the lava has now been eroded, being represented
in places by caps (in some parts, just off this area, up to
400 feet in thickness). It is possible to allow for the
magnetic effects due to this ; it may mask local anomalies.

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Journal Royal Sociely of N.S.W., Vol. LXIX, 1935, Plate I,

tes
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{l

“a wes V33

THE CONSTITUTION OF MATAIRESINOL. 61

THE CONSTITUTION OF MATAIRESINOL.

By L. H. BricGs, M.Sc., D.Phil., D. A. PEAK, MSc.,
and J. L. D. WOOLLOXALL, M.Sc.,*
University College, Auckland, N.Z.

Communicated by Dr. F. Lions.

(Manuscript received, May 7, 1935, Read, June 5, 1935.)

In the heart shakes or cracks of the wood of Podocarpus
spicatus (Maori name—matai) a resinous but often
crystalline substance occurs which has been isolated and
characterised by Hasterfield and Bee (Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
1910, 43, 54; J.C.S., 1910, 97, 1028). The pure substance,
to which the name of matairesinol was given, has a m.p.
of 119° and was shown to have the molecular formula
Cy 9H 20.

Of the six oxygen atoms two were shown to be present
as hydroxyl groups by the formation of a monoacetyl
derivative, m.p. 110°, and a dibenzoyl derivative, m.p.
133°. <A Zeisel determination indicated two methoxyl
groups. The remaining two oxygen atoms were present
in a lactone ring which underwent fission on solution in
dilute sodium hydroxide from which the free hydroxy
acid, matairesinolic acid, C,,H,.O,, was precipitated by
acidification with dilute acetic acid. A disulphonic acid
derivative was also prepared. From their investigations
matairesinol possessed the partial formula

C16H3(0 CO)(OH).(O CHs)»
and was assumed to be of the phenanthrene type.

With Professor Easterfield’s kind permission we have
continued the investigation of this resin, and we are now
able to present a full formula.

Further analyses of matairesinol supported by analyses
of derivatives have shown it to possess the formula
C,,H,.0,.¢ It is thus isomeric with pinoresinol which

* One of the authors (D.A.P.) is indebted to a Duffus Lubecki
Scholarship, which has enabled him to take part in the investigation.
+ Professor Easterfield, in a private communication, intimated that

Mr. McClelland had found the original molecular formula to be
incorrect.

Os

62 BRIGGS, PEAK AND WOOLLOXALL.

also has now been shown to have the formula C,,H..O,,
and not C,,H,,O, as previously supposed (Erdtman :
Svensk. Kem. Tidskr., 1934, 46, 229). The analysis of
the acetyl compound agrees for a diacetyl derivative on
the new formulation instead of a monoacetyl derivative.

The benzoyl compound also gives an analysis still in
agreement with a dibenzoyl derivative. Strange to say,
it is precipitated from the alkaline solution with the lactone
group still intact. Methylation with dimethyl sulphate
and alkali yields a dimethyl ether, m.p. 126-5-127°, which
still retains a lactone group since dimethyl matairesinolic
acid may be obtained similarly to the free resinolic acid. |
The two free hydroxyl groups must therefore be phenolic
and the lactonic hydroxyl aliphatic. |

Matairesinol contains no aliphatic double bonds and is
recovered unchanged from attempts to hy dnegenate it
with Pd-norite and hydrogen.

Dimethylmatairesinol on oxidation with alkaline
permanganate yields veratric acid in over 50% yield.
Since a compound containing one veratryl residue could
only give a theoretical yield of 47% of veratric acid, it is
apparent that two veratryl residues are present in the
methylated resin. No trace of the stable veratroyl formic
acid could be obtained from the oxidation mixture or in
other oxidation experiments using smaller quantities of
oxidising agent. It is clear therefore that the groups
adjoining the veratryl residues are methylene groups and
not attached to the lactonic oxygen. Compounds like
olivil give good yields of veratroyl formic acid on similar
oxidation (Vanzetti: Monats., 1929, 52, 163). The
substance shows all the properties of a y lactone, so that
on the above evidence supported by phytochemical
considerations matairesinol may be formulated as :

CrH40 CH—CH2
‘
Lieoe
HO Zou-co
CW
OcHs

On

THE CONSTITUTION OF MATAIRESINOL. 63

A similar formulation has been given by Emde and
Schartner (Naturwiss., 1934, 22, 743) to sulphite liquor
lactone which is identical with tsugaresinol (Kawamura :
Bull. Imp. Forestry Exp. Stat. Tokyo, 1932, No. 31, 73),
but this substance has since been shown to possess the
molecular formula C,,H,,O, and the following structural
formula (Erdtman: <Ann., 1934, 513, 229):

CH2

CH30 SeH=cHs
‘XN
9
HO AH=co
CH
OCH3
OH

The carbon skeleton of matairesinol is also the same
as that of guairetic acid (I) (Schroeter, Lichenstadt and
Irineu: Ber., 1918, 51, 1587; cof. Haworth, Mavin and
Sheldrick: J.C.S., 1934, 1423), olivil (II) (Vanzetti and
Dreyfuss : Gazzetta, 1934, 64, 381), podophyllotoxin (III)

CN
sk NS
cW30 Re cus CH30 Bi oauit
no Fors HO | /CH-CH20H
cChKh2 CH
I
II
Ochs OCH;
On OH
CH2 c-o-
70 co-cH cCn,0
ce © | CuHg
@) Ae CH2 0H HO
Cc C—O
III
IV
CH30 OCH3 OCH3

CH3 OH

64 BRIGGS, PEAK AND WOOLLOXALL.

(cf. Borsche and Niemann: Ann., 1933, 499, 59; Spath,
Wessely and Nadler: Ber., 1932, 65, 1773; Robertson
and Waters: J.C.S., 1933, 83), and probably pinoresinol
(LV) (Erdtman, loc. cit.). '

Some of the above substances are active physiologically
due probably in the main to the lactonic grouping. The
physiological activity of matairesinol is being investigated
while further degradative work is in progress. From the
mother liquors of the purification of matairesinol a second
resinol has been isolated, m.p. 212-5-213°, but it has not
yet been fully investigated.

EXPERIMENTAL.

Matairesinol—The chips from the heart shakes containing
the crystalline and amorphous material were twice extracted
with hot alcohol. On cooling or after concentration
the resin separated in needles. Recrystallisation from
alcohol gave a product, m.p. 78°, containing alcohol of
crystallisation which is lost on warming in vacuo. From
60% acetic acid it crystallised in large anhydrous rhombic
crystals, m.p. 119°. For analysis a sample was recrystal-
lised three times from alcohol and three times from 60%
acetic acid. Found: C=66-7,° 66-7; BH—=60) 6°07):
Calculated for C,,H,.0,: C=67-0, H=6-1%; calculated
for C,,H,,0,¢: C=66-3, H=5-3%,.

Matairesinolic Acid.—Matairesinol (2 grams) was
dissolved in just sufficient 5% sodium hydroxide to dissolve
it, diluted to 50 cc. and dilute acetic acid (1:3) added
until faintly acid. Matairesinolic acid crystallises almost
immediately in hexagonal plates. After recrystallisation
three times by solution in alcohol and precipitation with
water, the crystals shrank at 78° and melted imperfectly
at 81°, due to lactone formation. Found: C=55°9,;
H=6-9%. Calculated for C,,H,,0, .3H,O, C=55°8, H=
6-9%; calculated for C,,H,.0,.3H,0, C=54°8, H=
6-7%. The lactone is regenerated by heating or by
precipitation with mineral acids from its solution in alkali.

Diacetyl Matairesinol (ef. Easterfield and Bee, loc.
cit.) —Found (E. and B.): C=65:-4; H=5-8%. Caleu-
lated for C,,H,,O, . (CO CH;).: C=65-2, H=5:9%.

Dibenzoyl Matairesinol.—Matairesinol (5 grams) was
dissolved in sodium hydroxide solution (7 mols.), and
benzoyl chloride (5 mols.) added and shaken. The only
product which separated from the alkaline solution was
twice washed with water and dried on a porous tile im

Fine ta

ee ee ee eee ee

THE CONSTITUTION OF MATAIRESINOL, 65

vacuo. After two crystallisations from alcohol the needles
shrank at 133° and melted at 134-5°, unchanged on further
recrystallisation (Easterfield and Bee, loc. cit., m.p. 133°).
Found in dried material: C=71-4; H=5-3%. Calculated
fonts O.(COC.H:),: C=—72-1; H=5-3%. (BE. and
Se cha 71-8 ; 3 Aer as 50%.)

It is remarkable that the benzoyl derivative is precipi-
tated from the alkaline solution,.a fact which would appear
to be due to the opening of the lactone ring and the forma-
tion of a benzoic acid anhydride by the action of benzoyl
chloride on the sodium salt of the resinolic acid. Such is
not the case, however, since the dibenzoyl derivative,
although insoluble in cold dilute aqueous potassium
hydroxide, is soluble in cold alcoholic or aqueous alcoholic
potassium hydroxide (compare the similar properties of
dimethylmatairesinol especially in attempted ester forma-
tion).

Dimethylmatairesinol.—Matairesinol (1 gram) was
dissolved in sodium hydroxide solution (25 cc. of 10%,
21 mols.), shaken in the cold with dimethyl sulphate
(5:3 grams, 15 mols.) and finally heated for five minutes
at 100°. The cooled solution was acidified with hydro-
chloric acid and the sticky precipitate crystallised from
alcohol in double wedged crystals. After three recrystal-
lisations from alcohol it had m.p. 126-5-127°, not raised
by further recrystallisation. A less pure product was
obtained by using smaller quantities of dimethylsulphate.
The substance lost no weight on drying in vacuo at 100°.
Found: C=67:38; H=6:8; OCH,=32°8%. Calculated

for C,,H,,0.(O0CH,),: C=68-4; H=6-8; OCH,=32-1%.

The substance is still a lactone, being insoluble in
sodium carbonate, but slowly soluble on boiling with
aqueous sodium hydroxide, easily soluble in alcoholic
sodium hydroxide. Its alcoholic solution is neutral to
litmus, and no coloration is given with ferric chloride or
concentrated sulphuric acid. The molecular weight was
estimated by solution in excess standard sodium hydroxide
solution and back titration with standard hydrochloric
acid, phenolphthalein being used as indicator. Found :
mol. wt.=383. Calculated for C,.H,.O,: mol. wt.=386.

Dimethyl Matairesinolic Acid.—Dimethyl matairesinol
(1 gram) was dissolved in excess of sodium hydroxide
solution and neutralised with dilute acetic acid. The
colourless crystalline precipitate was recrystallised by
solution in cold alcohol and precipitation with water,
E—June 5, 1935.

66 BRIGGS, PEAK AND WOOLLOXALL.

yielding needles, m.p. 80-84°, indefinite due to lactone
formation. The m.p. rises on standing. When the
alkaline solution was made acid with hydrochloric acid the
lactone was regenerated. The free acid dissolves easily
in sodium hydroxide and slowly in sodium carbonate
solution, while its alcoholic solution is acid to litmus.

Attempts to form the methyl ester of dimethyl matai-
resinolic acid by solution in a minimum amount of sodium
hydroxide or sodium carbonate solution and treatment
with excess of dimethyl sulphate gave only the lactone,
even in the presence of a large excess of sodium carbonate.

Oxidation of Dimethylmaturesinol with Permanganate.—
Dimethylmatairesinol (1 gram) was dissolved in sodium
hydroxide solution (20 ce. of 1%), heated to 100°, and
potassium permanganate solution (120 cc. of 3%, i.e.,
slight excess over 12 atoms of oxygen) run in slowly.
The cooled solution was saturated with sulphur dioxide,
when a clear yellow solution was obtained which gradually
deposited clusters of needles homogeneous under the
microscope (0°51 g.), m.p. 173-178°. After several recrystal-
lisations from benzene it had m.p. 178-5-179-5° (veratric

acid m.p. 179-5°). Found: no loss of weight on drying

at 100° in vacuo. Found: C=59:2; H=5:5%. Caleu-

lated for C,H,(OCH,),COOH : C=59'3; H=5-6%.
Attempt to Hydrogenate Matairesinol.—Matairesinol

(1 gram) dissolved in glacial acetic acid (10 cc.) was shaken

in an atmosphere of purified hydrogen in the presence of

Pd-norite. Only a small amount of hydrogen was absorbed,
probably by the norite. The catalyst was filtered off and
the filtrate concentrated and diluted with water, when the
unchanged resin crystallised out, giving no depression of
m.p. of the pure resin.

Tetrabromo Mataresinol.—Matairesinol (2 grams) was
dissolved in chloroform (20 cc.) in a stoppered bottle and
bromine (1:77 grams, 8 atoms) in chloroform (35 ce.)
gradually added. The reaction was complete after standing
for thirty-six hours. The chloroform solution was washed.
with dilute sodium carbonate solution, again with water,
and dried over calcium chloride. After removal of the
solvent the gummy mass was recrystallised from alcohol
and then from chloroform to give colourless needles,
m.p. 169-0-169-5° (yield nearly theoretical). The bromo-
derivative was recovered unchanged after treatment with
alcoholic potash. The recovered product after recrystal-

:
‘

>, do eprint esting icbee:

THE CONSTITUTION OF MATAIRESINOL. 67

lisation from alcohol had m.p. 171°, but a m.p. 169-169-5°
after a further crystallisation from chloroform, unchanged
on mixture with the untreated material. Found on
material dried at 70° in vacuo: C=35:7; H=2:8%;
Br (Robertson’s method)=48:1, 46-7%. Calculated for
CH wOebr,: C=30:6; H=2-7; Br=417-5%.

68 ADOLPH BOLLIGER.

THE VOLUMETRIC MICRODETERMINATION
OF MAGNESIUM WITH METHYLENE BLUE
FOLLOWING ITS PRECIPITATION AS
MAGNESIUM PICROLONATE.

By ADOLPH BOLLIGER, Ph.D.*

(Manuscript received, June 18, 1935. Read, July 3, 1935.)

Magnesium, as well as calcium, forms a sparingly soluble
picrolonate which, however, in contrast with calcium
picrolonate, is not precipitated from dilute solutions at
room temperature. In the following experimental study,
the question is examined as to whether it is possible for
magnesium to be precipitated quantitatively as magnesium
picrolonate and then determined volumetrically.

The analytical principle applied is as follows: A known
excessive amount of lithium picrolonate is added to the
aqueous solution containing the magnesium, precipitation
is brought on by heating and evaporation, and the excess of
picrolonate added is determined by titration with methylene
blue.

REAGENTS.

1. 0-05N lithium picrolonate. 6-6 gm. of picrolonic acid
are dissolved in 500 cc. of a 0-05N solution of lithium
carbonate. The solution must be neutral or slightly acid.
It is filtered after standing overnight and is then
standardised against methylene blue.

2. 0-01N methylene blue. This is best prepared by
dissolving 3:74 gm. of methylene blue, chemically pure
(Merck), in water and diluting to a volume of one litre.
It is standardised against a picric acid solution of known
titre, as described in a previous communication (Bolliger, A.,
Tas JournaL, 1933, 67, 240).

PROCEDURE.

The solution to be analysed should be neutral or of slightly
acid reaction. The presence of large amounts of alkali

* Acknowledgments are due to Miss Dorothy Dark for valuable
technical assistance.

es

RT SP ET oa

Sie eB

VOLUMETRIC MICRODETERMINATION. 69

salts should be avoided, if possible. Barium, strontium
and heavy metals should be absent.
The samples to be analysed have to be treated somewhat
differently, according to whether :
A. No calcium is present, or calcium and magnesium
are precipitated together ; or
B. Calcium and magnesium are determined separately
on the same sample.

A. Where calcium is absent or calerwm and magnesium are
precipitated together.

In this group one has to differentiate further, according
to whether :

(1) The concentration of the alkali salts present does not
exceed 0:01N approximately. Under these circumstances
no alkali metals are precipitated with the alkaline earth
metals.

(2) The concentration of alkali salts present ranges from
approximately 0-01N up to O-1N. In these samples,
according to the amount of alkali salts present and
according to the excess of lithium picrolonate added,
alkali metals are precipitated together with the magnesium
in varying amounts.

(3) The concentration of alkali salts present is above
0-1N. In these cases most of the excess picrolonate is
precipitated as alkali picrolonate.

(1) Where concentration of alkali salts present does not
exceed 0-01N.

A measured amount of the solution to be analysed is
transferred to a test tube or centrifuge tube graduated in
tenths of a cubic centimetre. A known excessive amount of
the standardised lithium picrilonate solution is added. The
tube is then transferred to a boiling-water bath. As soon as
evaporation of the mixture takes place, precipitation occurs
on the top of the fluid in contact with the wall of the vessel
in the form of a ring. This precipitate is pushed down
into the hot fluid with a glass rod; at the same time the
mixture is stirred vigorously for a few seconds. ‘This
procedure, if repeated several times, will bring on abundant
flocculent precipitation of magnesium picrolonate if the
fluid does not contain magnesium below a concentration
of approximately 0:01N. If there is considerably less
magnesium present, further evaporation will be necessary

70 ADOLPH BOLLIGER.

till a marked precipitation is permanently present in the
hot fluid. However, as with more concentrated solutions,
precipitates formed on the wall of the tube, on the surface
of the mixture, have still to be pushed down into the fluid.
One then allows the mixture to cool at room temperature,
with occasional stirring, then—noting the total volume of
the mixture when it has reached room temperature, or
making up to a certain volume with a small amount of
water—lets it stand in the ice-box for at least three hours.
The precipitate is then filtered off and afterwards an aliquot
part of the filtrate is transferred to a conical separatory
funnel containing chloroform and some calcium carbonate.

The titration of the picrolonic acid present in the filtrate
is the same procedure as that described for organic picro-
lonates (Bolliger, A., Tus Journar, 1934, 68, 197), and
calcium picrolonate (Bolliger, A., Austral. J. Exp. Biol.
WMed= Sci... 0935, 13. 75).

The determination may also be executed as described
in the next paragraph. Alternatively, one may also
determine the picrolonic acid content of the precipitated
magnesium picrolonate. In this case the precipitate
collected in a small fritted glass plate funnel is washed
several times with small amounts of water. The precipitate
is then dissolved in a small amount of hot pyridine and the
pyridine solution transferred with water to a separatory
funnel containing chloroform. The _ titration with
methylene blue is the same as that for the excess of
picrolonate.

(2) Where the concentration of alkali salts ranges between
0-01N and 0-1N, and alkali picrolonates have been
precipitated.

In these cases one preferably evaporates the sample to
be analysed, together with a known excessive amount of
lithium picrolonate, in a short wide tube. The technique
for precipitation is the same as that described in the
previous paragraph. Thorough stirring is essential, and
sufficient of the volume should be evaporated to lead to a
heavy permanent precipitate in the hot fluid. One should,
however, be careful not to be misled by a precipitate of
alkali picrolonate which may appear before the magnesium
has been precipitated, but a naked-eye examination of the
more or less thick precipitate will usually reveal the pale
yellow clumps and flakes of magnesium picrolonate besides
the darker yellow crystals of the alkali picrolonates.

VOLUMETRIC MICRODETERMINATION. 71

After letting the mixture stand in the ice-box, one pours
the entire contents into a separatory funnel containing
- dry chloroform. The particles of the precipitate clinging
to the wall of the tube are washed into the separatory
funnel with minimal amounts of water and finally with
chloroform. Since any excessive dilution has to be
avoided, one titrates with 0-01N methylene blue.
Immediately after every addition of portions of methylene
blue from the micro-burette one shakes vigorously. The
methylene blue picrolonate, formed from the action of the
picrolonate and present in solution with the methylene
blue, dissolves in the chloroform to form a green solution.
Following the removal of the picrolonates in solution, the
alkali picrolonates which have been precipitated dissolve
in the aqueous layer. Magnesium picrolonate, on account
of its small solubility, hardly reacts with the methylene
blue so long as more soluble picrolonates are present.
The titration has to be stopped as soon as a greenish-blue
tinge appears in the aqueous layer. However, the
appearance of a bluish-green tinge in the aqueous layer
depends on the total amount of chloroform present for
extraction, but one will hardly be misled if one increases
the amount of chloroform simultaneously with the amount
of methylene blue added during the titration. As a
working rule it may be said that for every cc. of 0-01N
methylene blue at least 15 cc. of chloroform are required.
If the titration has reached this point one removes the
chloroform and filters by suction the aqueous layer which
contains the magnesium picrolonate in suspension. One
finally terminates the titration on the whole or an aliquot
part of the filtrate with 0-01N or 0-001N methylene blue.

(3) Where the concentration of alkali salts present is above
O-1N.

With an alkali concentration approximating 0-1N the
observation of the preliminary end-point, as mentioned in
the previous paragraph, requires considerable care. With
higher alkali concentrations, the precipitated alkaline
picrolonates dissolve slowly and incompletely, and the
methylene blue is salted out into the chloroform. It is
therefore necessary to remove the greater part of the alkali
salts present in the concentrated fluid before the titration
can be executed.

The contents of the test tube in which the precipitation
has taken place are poured on a small filter in a Buchner

a2 ADOLPH BOLLIGER.

funnel, as completely as possible. However, the mixture
should not touch the wall of the funnel. The yellowish
precipitate, consisting of. alkaline earths and alkali picro-
lonates, together with the filter, is transferred to the
separatory funnel containing dry chloroform. The titration
with 0-OLN methylene blue is the same as that described
under (2) above. The filter paper present does not interfere,
inasmuch as it is broken up into fibres with vigorous shaking
of the mixture. After reaching the preliminary end-point,
one separates the aqueous fluid from the chloroform and
filters it as described previously. For the final titration,
however, one combines with this filtrate the first filtrate
containing the alkali salts and a small amount of picrolonate.

B. Where calcium and magnesium are determined separately
on the same sample.

In a previous communication the precipitation of calcium
with lithium picrolonate and the limitations of this method
have been discussed (Bolliger, A., Austral. J. Hap. Biol.
Med. Sci., 1935, 15, 75). Lithium picrolonate is added
till a distinct excess, but not large in relation to the calcium
present, is present, and then the solution is kept in the
ice-box for at least five hours. The precipitate of calcium
picrolonate formed is then filtered off. Immediately
afterwards an aliquot part of the filtrate is transferred to a
conical separatory funnel containing chloroform and the
picrolonate present is titrated with standardised methylene
blue. The remaining filtrate is then used for the deter-
mination of magnesium. However, the excess lithium
picrolonate remaining in the solution is usually not
sufficient for the precipitation of the magnesium, and more
of the reagent has to be added.

In order to have the whole of the filtrate at one’s disposal
for the magnesium estimation, one may determine the
picrolonate content of the calcium precipitate. For this
purpose the precipitate of calcium picrolonate is washed
with as little water as possible, and the wash-water is
combined with the filtrate. The precipitate on the filter
is then dissolved with small amounts of hot pyridin, and
the pyridin solution of calcium picrolonate diluted with
water is titrated with methylene blue.

DISCUSSION.

The solubility of magnesium picrolonate is slightly
smaller than the solubility of calcium picrolonate, a —

VOLUMETRIC MICRODETERMINATION. es

compound whose analytical usefulness has already been
mentioned by several authors. According to Robinson
and Scott (Ztschr. Anal. Chem., 1932, &8, 417) the solubility
of magnesium picrolonate in water at 25° C. is only 0:3
mgm. per cent. At 10° C. I found the solubility to be
approximately 0-1 mgm. per cent. As in the case of
calcium picrolonate, the titration of dissolved magnesium
picrolonate or the titration of an excessive amount of
picrolonate added to a solution of magnesium salts 1s
accurate. Also the precipitation of magnesium with
lithium picrolonate is satisfactory if the alkali salts present
do not exceed 0:01N in concentration. If more alkali
salts are present, the method loses in accuracy and also
simplicity when the concentration of alkali salts exceeds
0-1N in concentration. But in any case the amount of
alkali salts should not exceed a maximum concentration
of 0-5N. With higher concentrations the methylene blue
added is salted out before it reacts properly with the
picrolonates present. These remarks apply primarily to
the presence of sodium salts. Potassium picrolonates
and ammonium picrolonate are less soluble than sodium
picrolonate, and consequently the difficulties are increased
if the alkali salts present consist chiefly of potassium and
ammonium salts. If calcium is precipitated together with
the magnesium one has to keep in mind, as already
mentioned in a previous communication, that alkali salts,
if present in a concentration above 0-:01N, may inhibit to
a certain extent the precipitation of calcium picrolonate.

Therefore it is quite evident that the method described
for the determination of magnesium is limited in its
application. It will be found useful in problems where the
amount of alkali metals present is smaller than the amount
of alkaline earth metals, such as the determination of
magnesium in feces. Results with an error not exceeding
2% were obtained on known magnesium solutions
containing 0:2 to 1-0 mgm. of magnesium when the
amount of alkali salts present did not exceed 0-01N.
If one uses the method as described in A (2) above, results
are invariably somewhat too low. However, if one avoids
an excessive dilution, the error will not exceed 4%. In
the presence of alkali salts exceeding 0-1N in concentration,
a larger error up to 6% was frequently encountered.

Picrolonic acid in its analytical properties resembles
oxalic acid, and like it is not very selective. Picrolonic

acid has the further disadvantage that its alkali salts are

74 ADOLPH BOLLIGER.

considerably less soluble than those of oxalic acid. On the
other hand, salts of picrolonic acid important in analysis
are easily distinguished by the appearance of their respective
crystals, and on microscopic examination of a precipitate
of picrolonates its composition will be revealed. Magnesium
picrolonate forms pale yellow needles which are in marked
contrast to the deeper yellow and highly refractive prisms
of calcium picrolonate. The crystal form of sodium
picrolonate is that of long hair-like needles which are
frequently bunched together in irregular clusters. The
other alkali picrolonates also form needles which may be
distinguished from magnesium picrolonate by their shape
and their deeper yellow colour.

SUMMARY.

A method has been described for the volumetric micro-
determination of magnesium as magnesium picrolonate.
The limitations of the method have been discussed.

The Gordon Craig Urological Research Laboratory,
Department of Surgery,
University of Sydney.

GEOLOGY OF THE GOULBURN DISTRICT. 15)

NOTE ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE GOULBURN
DISTRICT, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
PALAOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY.

By G. Fk. K. NAYLOR, M.A., M.Sc.

(With Plate III and three text-figures.)

(Manuscript received, June 19, 19385. Read, July 3, 1939.)

INTRODUCTION.

The area dealt with in the present paper may be described
as that surrounding the city of Goulburn, but extending
further towards the north and east than to the south and
west.

It is the writer’s intention that this paper shall form the
first of a series dealing progressively with various aspects
of the geology of this district but having special relation
to the Paleozoic stratigraphy. In this first paper an
attempt will be made to suggest the probable structure of
the Paleozoic rocks in this area and to outline briefly
the evidence which has come to hand concerning the ages
of the different series. Except where relevant to the above
object, detailed descriptions of a paleontological and
lithological nature will be omitted. They will be more
adequately treated in future papers of a more specific
nature.

The writer would like here to express his indebtedness
to many friends who have assisted him in the field and
laboratory, and to many residents who have supplied
much useful local information ; also to the various members
of the University Geological Staff with whom the substance
of this paper has been discussed from time to time.

PHYSIOGRAPHY.

The area is situated largely in the basin of the Upper
Wollondilly River, but in the south extends across the
watershed of the Shoalhaven. The country is approxi-
mately 2,000 feet above sea-level and is in the main mature.
On the north the steep hills of the Cookbundoon Range

76 G. F. K. NAYLOR.

rise to a height of about 800 feet above the valley-floor ;
to the south the plateau is incised by the steep gorges of
the Shoalhaven and its tributaries. Minor relief is presented.

by numerous isolated hills and ranges representing cappings ©

of Kamilaroi (Permian) rocks in the northern and eastern
margins of the area, and resistant masses of older Paleozoic
rocks further to the south and west.

Special reference is made to the Cookbundoon Range
by Craft.1 He is of the opinion that this range represents
a fault scarp or a fault-line scarp. The present writer has
found no direct evidence for the existence of a fault, and
is satisfied that differential erosion as determined by
geological structure is quite adequate to account for the

Fig. 1. Alternative Interpretations of the Cookbundoon Scarp.

feature. Cookbundoon Mountain is composed in its upper
part entirely of Devonian strata, lying unconformably on
older Paleozoic rocks. If the eastern slope of the Cook-
bundoon Range were the locus of a fault throwing to the
east, as suggested by Craft, then one would naturally
expect to find the younger rocks at a lower level on the
eastern side of the fault plane, as in Fig. 1 (a). However,
as the actual state of affairs approximates more nearly
that indicated in Fig. 1 (b), it seems much more probable
that the scarp is purely erosional.

IGNEOUS ROCKS.
Only brief mention will be made of the various igneous
units.
A. Marulan Batholith.
This is by far the most important of the igneous masses.
It is a somewhat complex intrusion injected into Palzozoic

1 Craft, F. A.: Physiography of the Wollondilly River Basin, Proc.
ITinn. Soc. N.S.W., 1928, 58, 618.

GEOLOGY OF THE GOULBURN DISTRICT. (wi

sediments, and having an outcrop definitely elongated in a
meridional direction. It stretches northwards from a good
deal south of Bungonia, and is practically unbroken in its
course as far as the Cookbundoon River. It crosses this,
and is apparently continuous with the huge igneous mass
occurring in the vicinity of Wombeyan Caves and the
Upper Burragorang Valley. The principal rocks are
granites, granodiorites and fairly acid porphyritic types.
Some of these have been described by Woolnough.? It
is generally assumed that the various phases are
comagmatic. So little is definitely known, however, that
some may ultimately prove to have been injected at a
much later period than others. The contact effects of
such a huge mass are naturally very considerable and will
be mentioned in connection with each series which the
bathohth intrudes.

B. Tertiary Basic Rocks.

The only other important igneous rocks in this district
are the Tertiary basic series, which occur for the most part
as considerably eroded lava-flows. They are chiefly
olivine-basalts, such as have been described by Browne.?
At one or two points, notably at Billyrambija, occur the
remains of what must have been originally sills, laccoliths
or plugs. In these the rock is of a much coarser texture,
and would be described as an olivine-dolerite.

C. Other Intrusions.

South and south-west of Goulburn on the Gundary
Plains is an extensive outcrop of what appears to be a
plutonic igneous rock of intermediate composition, which,
so far as the writer is aware, has not yet been investigated.
To the north of Goulburn also igneous rocks of the nature
of dolerite are known to occur.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
Ordovician.
There is no evidence that rocks of Lower Ordovician
age occur in this district. It must be recognised, however,
that the belt to which at the present time an Upper

2 Woolnough, W. G.: The General Geology of Marulan and Tallong,
N.S.W., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1909, 34, 782.

* Browne, W. R.: An Account of Post-Paleozoic Igneous Activity
in N.S.W., Tus JouRNAL, 1933, 67, 9.

73 G. F. K. NAYLOR.

Ordovician age is assigned is so extensive as to render it
quite possible that part may be of Lower or Middle
Ordovician age. Rocks of Upper Ordovician age have
long been known to occur near Tallong in and near the
Shoalhaven Gorge. A collection of graptolites obtained,
amongst other places, from Ballanya Hill were figured and
described by Hall*; these rocks are also referred to by
Woolnough (loc. cit.). More recently the present writer
has found graptolites at numerous other localities in the
area under consideration. These localities are indicated
in the accompanying map (Plate III) and serve to extend
very considerably the boundaries of the known Ordovician
rocks in this district. For the most part the Upper
Ordovician series consist of quartzites and claystones,
but in many places there are slates and phyllites. Where
these have been intruded by the Marulan batholith very
considerable metamorphism has taken place, in some
instances with the production of chiastolite crystals over
an inch in length. It is interesting to note that even in
the rocks resulting from such contact metamorphism
graptolite remains are often comparatively well preserved,
so that it is by no means unusual on the margins of the
batholith to find specimens showing both graptolites and
chiastolites.

The Upper Ordovician strata dip steeply and are all
rather altered by regional metamorphism. The strike is in
general meridional; the dip is more often westerly than
easterly. There is very considerable folding of the softer
types where they appear to have been crushed between
more competent bands of quartzite.

The rocks from which the graptolites have been collected
are mainly grey and bluish slates, claystones and shales.
There is no doubt whatever that the fauna is typically
Upper Ordovician. The dominant genera are of a scandent
biserial type including Climacograptus and Diplograptus,
with subordinate Dicranograptus and Dicellograptus.

Though no definite zones have yet been worked out, it
is important to note that the types mentioned above vary
in abundance according to the locality. Thus to the south
of the Cookbundoon Mountain near Towrang Dicranograptus
(probably D. zic-zac) is comparatively abundant, the

4Hall, T. S.: Notes on a Collection of Graptolites from Tallong,
N.S.W., Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 1909, 8, 339. Idem: On a Further
Collection of Graptolites from Tolwong, N.S.W., Rec. Geol. Surv.
N.S.W., 1920, 9, 63.

GEOLOGY OF THE GOULBURN DISTRICT. 79

remainder of the fauna being large biserial forms. At
another locality near the Greenwich Park-Towrang road,
the forms collected were all of a minute type, being
principally leptograptid forms, such as Dvcellograptus.
Further east, near Brayton, the graptolites are anos
exclusively scandent biserial forms.

There is every hope, therefore, that work in the near
future will result in the determination of zones, and that
the correlation of these will reveal the general structure
of the Upper Ordovician strata.

Silurian.

Until recently no rocks of Lower Silurian age had been
discovered in New South Wales. About a year ago the
writer collected numerous graptolites at a point on the
Bungonia-Goulburn road about three miles west of
Bungonia, which appeared to be types of Monograptus
and of Silurian, not Ordovician, age. <A detailed study
of the thecal development of these forms showed that they
were closely allied to forms occurring near the base of the
Silurian system in England. The thece were generally of
an isolate and lobate nature, to the exclusion of almost
every other type. Since it is recognised that forms having
thece of this variety are almost entirely restricted to the
base of the Silurian system, this study rendered the writer
confident that a Lower Silurian age should be assigned to
these types. This view has recently been confirmed by
Mr. D. E. Thomas, of the Victorian Government Geological
Survey. He has assured the writer that the forms collected
here are without doubt Lower Silurian, probably Mono-
graptus barrandei and M. exiguus, and suggests that the
zone represented is that of Monograptus crispus, i.e., the
lower horizon at Keilor and at Sydenham in Victoria.
The relation of the beds to the Upper Ordovician strata
on the one hand and the Upper Silurian on the other has
not yet been determined, but the writer is inclined to the
belief that they are more likely to be conformable with the
former than with the latter.

The presence of rocks of Upper Silurian age has been
known for some considerable time. Woolnough has
described an unconformable junction between the Upper
Silurian limestones and the Ordovician slates near the
Limekilns south of Marulan. Woolnough’s discovery was
recently confirmed by Dr. G. D. Osborne, who found the
exact junction between these two series. The time-

30 G. F. K. NAYLOR.

break represented by this unconformity may be accounted
for by the deposition of the Lower Silurian rocks previously
described. In earlier work elsewhere in this area the
presence of Upper Silurian rocks was suspected by the
writer but was not confirmed by paleontological evidence.
However, more recently graptolites were discovered in
bluish claystones on the main Sydney road near the
Towrang turnoff. These proved to be a variety of Mono-
graptus which appeared to be of an Upper Silurian type.
Subsequently this supposition was verified in two ways.
In the first place Pentamerus knighti was collected from the
associated beds, and secondly the graptolites were deter-
mined as Upper Silurian types by Mr. Thomas. He
suggests that the fossil referred to him was WM. bohemicus,
which is confined to the zone of M. nilssoni, and that the
beds are probably contemporaneous with those at
Melbourne. This is interesting because another form
collected more recently by the author was tentatively
determined by him independently as M. nilssoni, so that
mutual confirmation is afforded. The junction between
the Upper Silurian and the Upper Ordovician rocks in this
particular area is sharply defined by a belt of intense folding
and shearing. This the writer assumes to represent a
special phase of an unconformable junction, though it is
difficult to demonstrate a precise angular unconformity.
It is safe to remark, however, that the folds in the
Ordovician strata closed before the deposition of the Upper
Silurian sediments. Folding of the latter could then only
be accomplished by considerable shearing of the former.
The distance between the point at which the Upper
Ordovician graptolites have been discovered and the locality
where Pentamerus knightt occurs is approximately 100
yards, while Monograptus occurs about 100 yards further
on in the Silurian series. These distances do not represent
stratigraphical thickness. In general there is a definite
lithological difference between the Silurian and Ordovician
strata. The former include large quantities of greenish
and fawn-coloured slates, whereas the prevailing colours
in the Ordovician are shades of grey and blue. Never-
theless, where graptolites occur the prevailing colour is a
bluish-grey, whether in Ordovician or Silurian. The
Silurian series are in general more argillaceous than the
Ordovician. This lithological difference is sufficiently
definite to enable one to extend the boundary determined
paleontologically, as just described, in a northerly direction

GEOLOGY OF THE GOULBURN DISTRICT. 81

for some miles, to the point where it is concealed by
overlying Devonian rocks.

Associated with the Silurian rocks in this part of the
area are a series of lamprophyric rocks and _ breccias.

Similar rocks occur in association with the limestone at —

Brayton, which appears to be good evidence for the Silurian
age of the rocks of that locality. A little to the west of
Goulburn, at Baw Baw, occur limestones from which
Pentamerus knighti has been collected. At Kingsdale
also the limestone appears to be of Upper Silurian age.
Fifteen miles further north, near the Chatsbury slate
quarries, is another prominent bed of limestone, highly
fossiliferous, and containing Pentamerus knighti. The
relation of these to the Chatsbury slate beds is such as to
suggest strongly the possibility that the latter are Upper
Silurian instead of Upper Ordovician, as previously
supposed. This suggestion, however, can scarcely be
regarded as proved.

Devonian.

No rocks of definite Lower or Middle Devonian age have
so far been recognised. Near Goulburn, however, a heavy
conglomerate similar to that which marks the base of the
Upper Devonian further to the north appears to occur
above the base of the Devonian series. Should these two
conglomerates prove, as seems likely, to be one and the
same horizon this would indicate that the series overlaps
to the north-east. If this heavy conglomerate is really
basal to the Upper Devonian series proper, then some of
the beds near Goulburn must necessarily be a little older.
No fossils have yet been obtained from these doubtful
beds.

The Upper Devonian rocks throughout the district are
essentially quartzitic. Conglomerates occur, principally
in the basal stages, but also with finer texture and less
frequency at higher horizons. There is some evidence
for assigning a thickness of about 2,000 feet to the whole
series.

The great mass of the Cookbundoon Mountain represents
the most characteristic and dominant phase of the Devonian
outcrop. The steep southern and eastern slopes are
crowned with cliffs of massive white quartzite, silicified
grit, and conglomerate. The lower slopes are covered
mostly with talus, or with the outcrop of Upper Silurian
and Upper Ordovician strata, but at several points,
F—July 3, 1935.

82 G. F. K. NAYLOR.

notably on the bank of the Cookbundoon River near
Emerton’s farm, the unconformable junction between the
Upper Devonian and Upper Ordovician is exposed on a
grand scale. At other places the relations are equally ©
clear, though less spectacular. Towards the south-
western end of the range a definite unconformable junction
between the Devonian and the underlying Upper Silurian
has been observed.

Beyond the stratigraphical considerations described
above there is also direct paleontological evidence for
assigning an Upper Devonian age to this series of strata.
From the white quartzites on top of the Cookbundoon
Mountain near Towrang specimens of Lepidodendron
australe have been collected. Further, brachiopods
including Spirifer disjunctus were pronounced by the late
Mr. W. 8S. Dun to be unquestionably of Upper Devonian
(Lambian) age.

The main structures of the Upper Devonian strata of
the Cookbundoon district appear to be fairly gentle folds
pitching to the north. Dips of 25° to 35° are most common,
though in some cases the latter figure is exceeded by as
much as 10° or 15°, while in others the beds are so nearly
horizontal as to be mistaken at first sight for the Kamilaroi
strata that occur abundantly further east.

There is as yet no direct evidence as to whether the
Marulan batholith is intrusive into the Upper Devonian.
The rocks of that series are highly silicified, but suggest
regional rather than contact metamorphism.

Paleozoic Rocks of Uncertain Age.

North and east of Marulan, separated from the main
outcrop of Palzozoic sediments by the Marulan batholith,
are considerable outcrops of old sedimentary rocks from
which no fossils have been collected. They include
tuffaceous types, as well as claystones and quartzites. As
yet one can only surmise that they may prove to be of
Silurian or Ordovician age. They are marked on the
map as Ordovician.

Kamilaroi.

The only other Paleozoic formations in the district
are the Kamilaroi strata which overlie the older rocks in
the eastern part of the area. Their age has been determined
beyond doubt by the presence of Glossopteris. In the
main they are composed of heavy conglomerates, breccias

GEOLOGY OF THE GOULBURN DISTRICT. 83

and sandstones representing shoreline deposits along the
margin of the area of sedimentation. In part they may be
fluvio-glacial. No marine fossils have been found except
near Tallong.

In most places these beds have a definite initial dip to
the east, but as this rarely exceeds two or three degrees,
the outcrops appear in general horizontal. From their
form and composition, the constituent fragments seem to
have been derived from rocks outcropping in the immediate
locality.

Tertiary.

There are no extensive Tertiary sediments in this area.
Minor occurrences of ferruginous rocks bearing Tertiary
leaves have been noted, as at Billyrambija; these are
usually associated with the basalts. In many places the
terrace gravels of the Wollondilly, which may be Tertiary,
are cemented into a hard conglomerate.

GENERAL RELATIONS AND STRUCTURE OF THE
PALZOZOIC ROCKS.

The general structural relations of the rocks of the area
are illustrated by the sketch-sections (Fig. 2).

The Paleozoic group is represented by rocks of Upper
Ordovician, Lower and Upper Silurian, Upper Devonian
and Upper Kamilaroi age. On the _ paleontological
evidence this much appears beyond doubt. The principal
missing strata are those of the Lower and Middle Devonian,
and the entire Carboniferous.

The general disposition of the outcrops of these strata
seems to suggest a broad syncline with axis trending
meridionally through Goulburn. This structure is indicated
in the accompanying sketch-section A-B. On the eastern
margin of this syncline lies the Marulan batholith, and,
eastward again, what might well be a. downfaulted
continuation of the eastern limb of the folded zone. The
elongation of the Marulan batholith seems to suggest that
the magma may have been injected along a zone of weakness,
which might well have been associated with heavy faulting.
While there is as yet no direct proof of such faulting, there
is certainly no evidence to the contrary, and this assumption
seems to offer a possible explanation of the pbenomena
so far observed.

It appears that extensive marine sedimentation occurred
over the whole of the district during Upper Ordovician

G. F. K. NAYLOR.

34

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GEOLOGY OF THE GOULBURN DISTRICT. 85

time. This was followed, in some parts at least, by
continued marine sedimentation in Lower Silurian time.
Then, perhaps, followed a period of folding, uplift and
erosion, so that when submergence again occurred at the
beginning of the Upper Silurian period, the sediments then
deposited assumed unconformable relations with the
underlying Ordovician strata. One cannot yet say for
certain whether this break in sedimentation occurred before
or after the deposition of the Lower Silurian strata, as the
relations of these to Upper Ordovician and Upper Silurian
are not known.* ‘The sea had temporarily retreated, but
advanced again to permit of the subsequent widespread
deposition of Upper Silurian strata.

At the close of the Silurian period there was a very
considerable amount of orogeny followed by extensive
peneplanation. A further transgression of the sea occurred
at the close of the Middle Devonian, so that extensive
marine and estuarine deposits of Upper Devonian age were
laid down with pronounced unconformity upon the older
Paleozoic strata. Again there followed a period of folding,
but not of such an intense nature as that marking the close
of the Upper Silurian. This folding produced the series of
comparatively gentle anticlines and synclines characteristic
of the Devonian rocks at the present day, as distinct from
the intensive closed folding of the Ordovician and Silurian.
It was probably in association with this orogeny that the
Marulan batholith was injected.

After the deposition and folding of the Upper Devonian
sediments the sea retreated, and the area remained dry
land throughout the whole of Carboniferous and early
Kamilaroi time. Extensive, though by no means perfect,
peneplanation took place before the next transgression of
the sea, this time to deposit the Upper Kamilaroi strata
on a somewhat irregular land surface.

* The fact that there is a marked unconformity between Upper Silurian
and Ordovician strata near Marulan, whereas Lower Silurian beds occur
a few miles away, west of Bungonia, is a matter that has not yet
been satisfactorily explained.

86 G. O. K. SAINSBURY.

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION IN NEW ZEALAND
MOSSES. |

By G. O. K. SAINSBURY, F.LS.

Communicated by E. CHEEL.

(Manuscript received, July 12, 1935. Read, August 7, 1935.)

From time to time there have been brought to my notice
unreported instances of asexual reproduction in New
Zealand mosses or additional facts about already known
cases which deserve record. This method of reproduction,
i.e. by means of buds, protonema, etc.,is especially common
amongst the mosses, and its study, whether from a
morphological or a physiological standpoint, is full of
interest. In a work of the highest excellence on the
subject Correns® occupies himself mainly with the
morphology of the various organs of asexual reproduction,
and also describes numerous cultural experiments made by
him to ascertain the manner of their development. Correns
was strongly of opinion that the organs in question could
be turned to account in systematic bryology, but
systematists generally show little inclination to do so.
In the following notes the bracketed words in inverted
commas are part of the terminology employed by Correns
to describe the organ or tissue mentioned. The distribution
of the species dealt with is according to Brotherus”
and Dixon,'*) supplemented by my own observations and
records. The following notes do not pretend to furnish a
full and accurate account of the brood-organs mentioned
or of their development.

CAMPYLOPUS CLAVATUS (R.Br.) H.f. & W.
Distribution. —Common in Australia and New Zealand.
Material examined.—Leg.: G.O.K.S.; October, 1933 ;
on earth, near Wairoa, Hawkes Bay, North Island ;
fruiting.

This species is dioicous, but fruits freely. Asexual
reproduction where present is brought about by brittle
buds (‘‘ bruchknospen ”’) at the end of a stem or branch.

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION. 87

Each annual growing period ends with the production of
such a bud, the next year’s growth being provided for by
an innovating shoot which commences usually immediately
under the break in the stem or branch. When the plant
fruits the terminal cluster of shoots consists of branches or
branchlets ending either in female flowers or in bruch-
knospen. It appears therefore that fertility in this species
does not influence the asexual propagation one way or
the other. Where the bruchknospen are present the young
innovations form the club-shaped branches from which
the specific name is derived; where they are absent we
have the form known as C. appressifolius Mitt. In some
seasons the bruchknospen are very plentifully produced,
and the detached buds can be seen in the spring
conspicuously scattered over the surface of the tufts.
Vertical sections through the bud and stem show that the
brittle tissue at the place of fracture (‘‘ trennschicht ’’)
consists, as is usual, of an area of short cells which in this
particular instance are dark in colour. The bud consists
of from ten to twenty leaves, and from its basal part
rhizoids freely germinate in contact with the soil, a new
plant resulting by continuation of the growing point.
The leaves of the bud do not differ in size or structure from
those of the ordinary branches. The inner tissue of the
bud is rich in oil-drops; this is a common occurrence in
brood-organs, and is a provision for the storage of nutri-
ment. The shortening of the cells is explained as a device
for mitigating the loss of living substance from the stem
when the break takes place.‘), Pp. 372. Often, also, these
cells are thinner walled, thus facilitating the fracture, but I
have not noticed that they are so in C. clavatus.
Occasionally the brittle bud, though broken off, escapes
displacement from the parent branch, and in this case it
puts out rhizoids and grows epiphytically, forming a
pseudo-branch which is very easily detached. A similar
method of reproduction apparently takes place in the
Kuropean C. schimperi Milde,‘ P. 38 which, unlike our
Species, practically never fruits.

CAMPYLOPUS TORQUATUS (Mitt.) Jaeg.

Disiribution.—Tasmania and New Zealand.

Material examined.—Leg.: K. W. Allison; No. 555;
October 18, 1932; on Sphagnum mound in swamp near
Atiamuri, North Island ; fruiting. Leg.: E. A. Hodgson ;
No. 673; October 10, 1932; on old burnt-out Totara

88 G. O. K. SAINSBURY.

stump, in remnant of bush, near Wairoa, North Island ;
barren.

The brood-organs present here are deciduous leaves of
simplified structure (‘‘ brutblatter’’). I have not found
them in situ in Mr. Allison’s specimen, though they are
present in small quantity in the detritus. In Mrs.
Hodgson’s gathering the detached brutblatter are strikingly
numerous, and the material throughout provides but few
stems bearing only normal leaves, as against a vast majority
where brutblatter or leaves of intermediate structure are
present in abundance. The brutblitter are borne on thin
branches which are either produced singly here and there
from the stem or terminate it in a cluster of three or four.
The branches themselves are not deciduous, but the leaves
are extremely so. The detritus furnishes brutblatter of
all lengths from 0-5 mm. or less to about 3 mm., the normal
leaves being about 4 mm.in length. Apart from structural
differences the brutblatter are readily distinguishable by
being conduplicate, much more shortly pointed, and more
or less bent forward at the middle in the shape of a
boomerang. The supra-basal part of the lamina in this
Species consists of a small area of oblong hyaline cells,
which soon gives place above to shorter and more obscure
ones. In the brutblitter the area of oblong cells is
continued far up the leaf, and the cross walls of the cells
are conspicuously thickened. This renders more striking
still the difference in its appearance. Oil-drops are
abundant in the tissue of the nerve, and sections through
it show that its development has been arrested at an early
stage, in the same way as that described‘), P. 3° in two
European species, C. fragilis B. & S. and C. turfaceus
(Bry. eur.). The undivided branches which bear the
brutblatter, the thickening of the cell walls mentioned
above, and the structure of the nerve are all interesting
points of resemblance between the New Zealand species
and, in particular, CU. turfaceus. In the European mosses
mentioned the reproduction is effected by the further
development of special thin-walled cells (‘‘ initials ’’)
which are present on the surface of the nerve of the brood-
leaf and which produce a protonema from which new plants
arise. These initials which, as they function specially
for the propagation of new plants, are called nematogones
are reported by Correns to be rare and difficult to find in
the species investigated. I have failed to find them in
C. torquatus, but have little doubt that they are present.

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION. 89

Rhizoid initials, i.e. those that develop from the nerve or
lamina of the ordinary leaves the rhizoids which are so
common on moss stems, are present plentifully on the
nerve surface of the ordinary leaves of the New Zealand
species, as they are in the case of the two European species.
I have failed to find in the detritus any brutblatter showing
germinating nematogones. In C. fragilis germination is
infrequent, and confined to the large brutblitter.‘), P. 41
Apparently the production of young plants from the
resulting protonema has not been observed.

PLEURIDIUM NERVOSUM (Hook.) Par.
Mstribution.—Australasia.

Material excamined.—lLeg.: G.O.K.S. ; October 23, 1927 ;
on bare earth in open pasture, near Wairoa, Hawkes Bay,
North Island; barren.

The exact taxonomic position of this plant is doubtful.
The habit indicated an Anomobryum, but a stem that I
found (and subsequently mislaid, unfortunately) showed a
lateral perichetium of typical P. nervosum character,
and as this species also grows abundantly near Wairoa in
an exactly similar habitat it is probable that our plant
belongs there. As in Campylopus clavatus, the adaptation
for reproduction is here a deciduous terminal bud. The
very slender julaceous stems are usually simple, but in the
rare cases where a single branch is produced it, as well
as the stem, ends with a bud and is then incapable of
further development. The stem leaves for the greater
part are bluntly acute and entire, tightly packed round
the slender stem. The nerve vanishes below the leaf
apex, and the cells of the lamina are subquadrate and
thin-walled. At the apex of the stem, i.e. immediately
under the deciduous terminal bud, and on the bud itself,
the leaves are more sharply acute, mostly nerveless, with
the cells longer, somewhat sinuate, and distinctly incrassate.
The axis of the bud is appreciably thickened, and this,
with the yellowish tinge of its leaves, makes it quite
conspicuous. The moss is only about 5 mm. long, and
longitudinal sections through the stem and bud are
Somewhat difficult to make, but I have been able to
ascertain from a fairly satisfactory section that there is a
distinct trennschicht consisting of a decrease in the diameter
of the stem with an area of short cells. The thickening
of the axis of the bud is obviously an adaptation for
storage of nutriment, and the lax internal cells contain a
G—August 7, 1935.

90 G. O. K. SAINSBURY.

strikingly large number of oil-drops. Rhizoid initials are
present at the base of the bud, and though I have not
observed it there can be no doubt that a new plant originates
by growth of rhizoids at the base and further development
of the apical growing point, as in Campylopus clavatus.
If this plant really belongs to P. nervosum, it furnishes
an interesting case of dimorphism in the fertile and brood-
plants respectively, because the leaves of the latter, as
already mentioned, are bluntly acute and weakly nerved,
whilst in the former it is only the lowest rudimentary stem
leaves that exhibit these characters, the other leaves being
ovate-lanceolate with a strong excurrent nerve.

HOLOMITRIUM PERICHATIALE (Hook.) Brid.
DMstribution.—Australasia, and some Pacific islands.

Material ecamined.—Leg.: G.O.K.S.; January 1, 1932 ;
Ketetahi, Mt. Tongariro, North Island; barren. Leg.:
O. Buchanan; March, 1935; on bark, Tangiwai, near
Mt. Ruapehu, North Island; fruiting sparingly.

Flagellate shoots (‘* bruchaéste ’’), which often terminate
the stem and the innovating branches in clusters of three
or four or more, are present in these specimens, and occur,
too, on some of the fruiting stems of Mrs. Buchanan’s
gathering. The shoots are brittle throughout their length,
and usually break just above the insertion of a leaf. The
brittleness is not greatly pronounced, however. The
leaves of the bruchaste are very small, and being unaltered
when dry and appressed to the stem of the shoot, contrast
strongly with the larger curled leaves of the normal
branches. Correns'*), ©. * cites several authors from whose
statements it would appear that brittle flagellate branches
occur in other species of Holomiirium, but no plants of the
genus were examined by him. Another dicranaceous
moss, however (Dicranum flagellare Hedw., a European
Species), was investigated and the bruchaste and leaves
fully described. In D. flagellare the bruchaste are clothed
with leaves which, though thickened in the middle, have
no differentiated nerve, and which contain oil as reserve
nutriment. The leaves, unlike the ordinary ones, are
conspicuously distichous. The shoot breaks readily into as
many fragments as there are leaves, and reproduction is
brought about by the outgrowth of protonemal filaments
from nematogones on the surface of the internodes. The
young plants arise on the protonema at some distance from
the broken-off fragments. There is a defined trennschicht

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION. 91

at the place of fracture. In Holomitrium perichetiale
the process of differentiation bas not gone nearly so far
aS that above described by Correns. As a corollary with
the decreased brittleness of the shoot a defined trennschicht
is not present. The arrangement of the leaves on the
flagellate shoot, instead of being distichous, is the same as
that of the ordinary leaves. In the latter the deuter cells
of the nerve are usually six in number, and there
is a layer of three to four stereid cells above and
below them. In the leaf-nerve of the brittle shoot
the deuter cells have usually on each side one row only
of sub-stereid cells, and, corresponding to the decrease in
size of the leaf, its nerve is reduced to about half the
width of that of the ordinary leaf. The leaves of the
bruchaste are not adapted for storage of nutriment ;
they contain no oil, and are merely reduced in size and
structure without acquiring any special properties for the
furtherance of reproduction. Initials are plentiful on the
surface of the internodes, and are readily distinguishable
by the colourless and thin outer wall, the other peripheral
cells having the same wall thicker and red-brown in colour.
The detritus shows numerous cases where these initials
have produced protonemal threads, and they can often
be seen on flagella in situ. Cultural experiments would
be required to show whether the development proceeds
further to the formation of new plants on the protonema,
or whether on the other hand the reproductive process is
not yet sufficiently evolved to allow of this. In D. bonjeani
De Not. there is a somewhat similar approach to the
bruchaste of D. flagellare.), Pp. 18

DICRANOLOMA MENZIESII (H.f. & W.) Par. var rigidum
(H.f. & W.) Par.
Distribution.—Australasia, Chile, Norfolk Island,
Chatham Islands and subantarctic islands.

Material examined.—Leg.: Simpson and Thomson ;
No. 232; August 5, 1933; on tree-fern, Morrison’s Creek,
near Dunedin, South Island; barren.

In D. robustum (H.f. & W.) Par. var. setosum (H.f. & W.)
Sainsb., broken-off portions of the leaf subula occasionally
produce a protonema of rhizoid nature as an outgrowth
from the deuter cells at the broken end.” The same thing
happens in the above variety of D. Menziesvi, and, as in
D. robustum, the capacity to produce a protonema is
practically confined to the basal end of the fragment.

92 G. O. K. SAINSBURY.

The leaves in the variety rigidum are more or less brittle,
and are very finely setaceous. They are evidently
‘¢ pruchblatter ’’, i.e. brittle leaves which serve to propagate
the moss by the formation of young plants on the
protonema. The species is usually fertile, but I have
never seen any but barren plants of the variety, so presume
that the capacity to form fruit has been totally suppressed
here in favour of asexual reproduction.

DICRANUM TRICHOPODUM Mitt.
Distribution.—New Zealand and Tasmania.

Material examined.—Leg.: G.O.K.S.; April, 1931;
on bark of subalpine scrub, Waiopehu, Tararua Mountains,
ca. 3,000 ft., North Island; barren.

In this specimen there are present very striking bruchaste
which probably generate new plants. The upper part of
the stem bears numerous exceedingly long and very brittle
branchlets whose leaves have long filiform prolongations
of the nerve. The branchlets are readily broken into
small fragments, the place of fracture, as in Holomitrium
perichetiale, being usually just above a leaf insertion.
There does not appear to be any consistently defined
trennschicht, but the superficial cells of the stem are often
shortened just above the leaf insertion where the break
takes place, and this points to a stage of evolution towards
a specialised tissue. Initials are plentiful on the surface
of the internode, and can be found developing protonemal
threads both on the plants and on the broken-off fragments.
It is probable that young plants germinate on the protonema
as in other species of Dicranum. In addition to the long
prolongation of the nerve the leaf of the brittle branch
differs from the ordinary leaf in being narrower and having
a narrower nerve, but there is no adaptation for storage
of nutriment.

FISSIDENS ASPLENIOIDES (Sw.) Hedw.

Distribution.—Sub-tropical parts of the Southern
Hemisphere. Common throughout north island of New
Zealand.

Material examined.—Leg.: J. H. McMahon; 1928;
Marlborough, South Island. Comm.: E. A. Hodgson ;
No. 264; fruiting.

According to Correns,), P. 54 adaptations for asexual
reproduction are, in the Fissidentacex, either unreported
or very rare. Multicellular bodies borne on rhizoids from

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION. 93

the stem (‘‘ wurzelknollchen ’’?) are mentioned as having
been observed by him on one occasion in the European
F. taxtfolius Hedw., and he cites Lorentz") as having
described them from that species. I have not had access
to the latter’s account, and am unable to say in what
respect the bulbils there dealt with differ from those I
have found in the Marlborough plant. At any rate they
have in common the somewhat significant character of
being produced above the ground, and not as a subterranean
organ, as is usually the case with wurzelknollchen. In
Correns’s opinion), P. 33” the subterranean variety at any
rate can only be considered as a food reservoir, and not
aS an organ of reproduction; he expresses, moreover,
the view that even where the bulbils are produced above
the ground it is only those of Bryum erythrocarpum
Schwaegr.—which are homologous with reduced moss-
plants themselves—that can be definitely recognised as
being capable of functioning as true’ brood-organs.
Obviously, therefore, it would be unsafe to draw any
conclusion about the wurzelknollchen in F. asplenioides
without clear evidence of their function. They are
produced on long, plentifully-branched stem rhizoids which
mat the plants together for a great part of their length. The
Marlborough plant is the only gathering that I have seen
from the mainland of the South Island, and in none of
the numerous North Island specimens examined are the
stems at all densely beset with rhizoids. The bulbils are
about 0-1 mm. long, oval or obovate or sub-globular,
narrowed at the base to a stalk consisting of two thin-
walled cells, the upper of which is much shorter than the
lower. The bulbils, like the rhizoids, are ruby red in
colour. The surface is boldly reticulated. Here and there
one or two cells at the apex have the outer wall nearly
colourless, and this is usually also the case with the basal
cell surmounting the stalk. I have occasionally found
that these cells have commenced to germinate with the
protrusion of the outer wall, but whether the germination
would result in the formation of a reproductive protonema
or merely in the multiplication of the cells of the organism
is quite uncertain. The facts that differentiated outer
cells occur and that the bulbils are readily detached from
the rhizoids go to show that reproduction from them is a
possibility, but until something more is known of them it
would be unsafe to form any definite opinion. I have
found starch and oil present at times in the bulbils, but

94. G. O. K. SAINSBURY.

this is as consistent with the nature of a food-reservoir as
with that of a brood-organ.

LEUCOBRYUM CANDIDUM (Brid.) H.f. & W.
Distribution.—Australasia.

Material examined.—Leg.: K. W. Allison: April 4,
1931; on forest floor, Mt. Messenger, Taranaki, North
Island; fruiting. Leg.: G.O.K.S.; January, 1935;
near Dawson Falls, Mt. Egmont, North Island; fruiting.

In the mosses not only specialised deciduous leaves
( brutblatter ’’), but also the ordinary leaves, or portions
of them, can often reproduce the plant by functioning as
slips or cuttings. Such detached leaves or fragments
produce, from the lamina or nerve, rhizoid growth on which
young plants are subsequently formed by direct budding
on the filaments. The stimulus to reproduce, however,
is furnished by separation from the stem, and although
the leaf, when still attached, often produces a protonema,
the resultant growth rarely generates new plants except
indirectly through the prior formation of brood-bodies.
The family of Leucobryacez supplies some interesting
exceptions to this general rule. Correns‘), P. °° describes
in Ochrobryum Gardnerianum Mitt. the formation on the
leaf apices of a rhizoid mat on which appear rudimentary
plants that simultaneously produce multicellular brood-
bodies. Dixon'® says of Leucobryum glaucum Sechp. that
‘the apical leaves often produce at their tips a tuft of
radicles, whence are developed a cluster of minute plants,
these subsequently falling off and giving rise to new
colonies ’’. Something resembling the latter form of
propagation takes place in L. candidum, though I think
quite infrequently, because I have only seen evidence
of it in the two specimens above mentioned, and even
there in but a few stems. What happens is that young
plants are produced on rhizoid growth from the inner
(ventral) surface of leaves borne on short branchlets. The
leaves in question were of normal shape and structure
and not at all deciduous, as they sometimes are in the
species. The rhizoids on which the new plants germinate
usually, but not invariably, have their origin in the lower
part of the leaf. In Leucobryum the leaf consists almost
entirely of a modified nerve formed by layers of hyaline
cells which enclose a central layer of individually isolated -
and narrow chlorophyllose cells. In LZ. candidum some of
the latter often run out to the surface towards the tip

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION. 95

of the leaf on the inner face, and then function as initials
which develop a rhizoid growth that can usually be seen
on leaves of the older part of the stem. A similar extrusion
of chlorophyllose cells also frequently occurs towards the
base of the leaf on the same face. One would expect,
therefore, that the rhizoids on which the young plants are
formed would originate only from these exposed chloro-
phyllose cells, but I cannot feel sure as to this, because the
rhizoid filaments penetrate the hyaline cells in every
direction and it is difficult to trace them to their starting
points. With regard to the deciduous leaves that are
occasionally met with in this species, I have not found
that they differ from the ordinary leaves in any way, and
do not know whether they are capable of generating a
reproductive protonema when detached.

TORTULA ABRUPTINERVIS Dixon.
Mstribution.—New Zealand.

Material examined.—Leg.: E. A. Hodgson; October,
1928 ; on bark, near Wairoa, Hawkes Bay, North Island.

This species has never been found in fruit. The
remarkable brood-body present here is stated in the
diagnosis‘®, P. 15° to be axillary, but Mrs. Hodgson ascer-
tained that it originates at the apex of the nerve. It
' has been described and figured by her.‘®) The brood-
body is evidently a metamorphosed nerve arista, and I
find that nematogones are numerous on its surface. They
are sunk below the level of the other superficial cells and
are readily distinguishable, especially in transverse section,
by their outer walls being colourless and only slightly
papillose. The only germinating brood-body found in the
detritus showed two embryonic plants budding directly
out from the surface, one near one end and the other
near the other. The protonemal outgrowth from the
nematogones has evidently been reduced here to one or
two cells. The method of propagation in this species—
by means of a modified nerve arista—is quite different
from anything hitherto observed in the genus Tortula,
or indeed in any other moss, except certain species of
Macromitrium.

MACROMITRIUM CADUCIPILUM. Lindb.
Distribution.—New Zealand.

Material ecamined.—Leg.: G.O.K.S.; December, 1934 ;
on bark, Tangiwai, near Mt. Ruapehu, North Island.

96 G. O. K. SAINSBURY.

Leg.: Simpson and Thomson; No. 189; July, 1933
on bark, Otago, South Island.

As in the last-mentioned species, there is here a striking
adaptation of the leaf arista as a brood-organ.
Correns), P. 121 describes and figures it from the original
material. The deciduous arista, which is often even
longer than the leaf itself, breaks off at the leaf apex through
a trennschicht of small, thin-walled cells. Correns found
the arista to be frequently brittle throughout its length,
but I suspect that this may be due to the age of the material
examined, which was at least fifty years old. In my
specimens the great majority of detached aristas are entire,
and there is no marked fragility. Examination of fresh
material also supplements his observations by showing
that the tissue of the arista (when the latter is im situ)
is green and chlorophyllose, in fact strikingly so, and that
starch is present in it. Nematogones are plentiful on its
surface, and Correns’s confident assumption that rhizoid
protonemata would be produced from these cells is borne
out by the commencements of such growth that I have
found in the detritus. In each case the only nematogones
to germinate were situated in the lower central part of
the arista. M. caducipilum has not been found in fruit.

MACROMITRIUM RETUSUM Hf. & W.

Distribution.—New Zealand.

Material ecamined.—Leg.: O. Buchanan ; March, 1935 ,;
on bark, Tangiwai, near Mt. Ruapehu, North Island.

This species is close to M. caducipilum, though separable
by fairly satisfactory characters. The same peculiar
thickened arista is present, and here, as in that species,
it is quickly shed by all but the youngest leaves, so that the
end of the branch usually shows a characteristic penicillate
tuft. As in the last species, the arista breaks off at the
leaf apex (where there is a similar trennschicht), and in
all other respects I have found an exact agreement between
the two species so far as the brood-body is concerned.
Also in the only germinating arista found in the detritus
there were several short rhizoid filaments situated in its
lower central part. MUM. retusum has not been found in
fruit, but it is doubtful whether it is specifically distinct
from the fertile UM. gracile (Hook.) Schwaeg.‘®), P. 36?
So far as the brood-body is concerned there is a closer
connection with M. caducipilum.

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION. 97

MACROMITRIUM GRACILE (Hook.) Schwaegr.

Distribution.—New Zealand.

Material ecamined.—Leg.: G.O.K.S.; September, 1931 ;
on bark, Lake Waikaremoana, Hawkes Bay, North
Island; var. proboscidewum Dixon; barren. lLeg.: R.
Mundy; Ohakune, near Mt. Ruapehu, North Island ;
fruiting.

In the two last-mentioned species of Macromitrium
there is no pronounced fragility of the leaf lamina, and the
term ‘“ bruchblatter ’’ is not so fitly applicable to their
leaves as it is in the present species. Here the nerve is,
except in the variety proboscidewm, seldom very far
excurrent. The leaf is brittle, especially in its upper
portion, and the detritus usually contains a varied assort-
ment of leaf fragments. Initials are present both in the
excurrent nerve and also, more frequently, adjacent to it
in the upper part of the leaf subula. The cells in question
are distinguishable by their colourless outer walls, less
papillose than those of the ordinary cells. I have not been
able to find any trace of outgrowth from the initials in
any of my specimens, so am unable to say whether the
leaves are true bruchblatter or not.

BRYUM INCURVIFOLIUM C.M.

Distribution.—South Island.

Material examined.i—Leg.: J. H. McMahon; Marl-
borough. Comm.: E. A. Hodgson. Det.: H. N. Dixon:
No. 617 in Herb. G. O. K. Sainsbury.

I submitted this interesting plant to Mr. Dixon, who
determined it as above somewhat doubtfully, so its
systematic position must be considered as uncertain.
The species may in any event come within the scope of the
variable B. levigatum H.f. & W.), P. 226 Amongst the
leaves, especially in the upper part of the stem, are conspicu-
ously long brown filaments which in the terminal tuft
nearly reach the leaf apices. It will be found that these
brood-filaments (‘‘ brutfaden ’’) are borne on single or
branched stalks which are produced from the leaf axils
throughout the length of the stem. The cylindrical
brood-filaments consist of up to twenty or more cells,
which are divided by transverse walls. They are dark
brown, papillose and obscure, and contain oil-drops.
The terminal cell is rounded and colourless, but, being
papillose too, is somewhat obscure. The cells usually
vary in length from one and a half times to twice their

98 G. O. K. SAINSBURY.

thickness, but towards the apex of the filament they become
shorter and relatively wider. The filament is connected
with the stalk by a very short brittle cell (“‘ brachytmema ’’)
whose function is to bring about the dehiscence of the
filament. This disc-like cell is only about one-sixth the
length of the adjoining basal cell of the filament. When
the fracture takes place the remnants of the wall of the
brachytmema remain attached to the adjoining cells of the
stalk and filament respectively. Occasionally a filament
can be found in the detritus showing an internal cell
conspicuously shorter than its neighbours, but I am
doubtful whether such a cell is a brachytmema or the
dormant foundation cell of a branch. The cells of the
stalk usually resemble those of the filament, being also
brown and papillose, with transverse walls. They are,
however, somewhat longer, and often show forms of
transition to the ordinary stem rhizoids which are much
thinner, faintly papillose only, and composed of much
longer cells with slanting walls. Owing to the earlier
dehiscence of the filaments in the lower and older part of
the stem they are only to be found in situ in the upper
part. I have not found any trace of germination in the
filaments, but there can be no doubt that the terminal
rounded cell can function as a nematogone, and probably
the basal cell also, to judge by what happens in the European
species B. capillare L.,‘), P. 185 where the form and develop-
ment of the brutfaden are, in the main, very similar. In
that species either one or both of the terminal cells of the
filament were found to be capable of developing protonemal
erowth on which young plants arose. In the detritus of
Mr. McMahon’s specimen there are numerous rudimentary
buds (‘‘ bruchknospen ’’) and also red multicellular bodies
resembling the wurzelknollchen before described in Fissidens
asplenioides. Unlike the latter, however, they often show
traces of development at the apex, in the shape of what
appear to be leaf-foundations. Ojil-drops are plentiful in
their tissue. These bodies have evidently been produced
on a protonema, but the remnants of the threads, where
present, are in too bad a condition to show whether the
bodies have originated on ordinary stem rhizoids or on a
protonema of a reproductive nature. In any event their
appearance indicates that they are wurzelknollchen of the
kind produced by B. erythrocarpum Schwaegr., and capable
of development into new moss plants. If, then, they
originated in the specimen itself, we should have in this

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION. 99

plant the occurrence of two forms of asexual reproduction,
which could only be matched by the bryoid moss Lepto-
bryum pyriforme (L.) Wils., where brood-filaments and
bulbils have been found on the same plant.'), P.15° The
bruchknospen, which are in the form of bulbils 0-3 mm.
to 0-4 mm. long and crowned by more or less well-developed
leaves, are of the type often met with in bryoid mosses.
They must have been produced from leaf axils to which
they were attached by a very brittle basal tissue. They
contain starch as reserve nutriment, and would evidently
develop into new plants by an extension of the growing
point coupled with the outgrowth of rhizoids from the
initials that are clearly visible at the base. The occurrence
of three forms of asexual reproduction in a moss plant (and
fertile at that) would be too remarkable to justify such a
conclusion from the presence in the detritus of the organs
in question, but it must be conceded that their being found
loose in the packet is very puzzling, more especially as
both kinds of brood-organ are practically confined to
bryoid mosses. A careful search failed to reveal either
bruchknospen or wurzelknollchen in organic attachment
to the plant. It is possible that the knollchen have been
formed on a protonema originating from the germination
of nematogones in the brood-filaments. In that case they
would be ‘ secondary ’’ brood-bodies, i.e. those that are
occasionally produced directly from other brood-
bodies, ‘*), P. 348 but nothing resembling this particular
case seems to have been recorded. It is perhaps too much
to hope that further material will be found to throw light
on this interesting specimen.

ERIOPUS CRISTATUS (Hedw.) Jaeg.
Distribution.—New Zealand, and possibly Tasmania.

Material examined.—Leg.: G.O.K.S.; October, 1934 ;
on damp rock in dense shade, Marumaru Caves, near
Wairoa, Hawkes Bay, North Island; fruiting.

The vegetative plant of this species consists of a dorsi-
ventral flattened shoot, the leaves being closely imbricated
as in many other Hookeriaceous mosses. I have not found
brood-organs in any gathering other than the above. They
are present here in the form of brood-filaments which
dehisce by typical brachytmema from long branched
virgate stalks that spring in dense tufts from the dorsal
side of the stem. Some of the plants are densely beset
with the stalks, whilst others have but few, and others

100 G. O. K. SATNSBURY.

again none at all. The stalks are coloured light brown,
except in their lower part, where they tend to become more
red. The outer walls are thin, and the cell division walls
all more or less transverse. The brood-filament has a
peculiar appearance, being always approximately L-shaped.
When mature it attains 0-3 mm. or more in length. When
it is not strictly L-shaped the lower limb slopes down at an
obtuse angle. The main limb consists of five or six cells,
which are long in relation to their breadth. The lower
limb or branch is developed from the cell on the main limb
next above the brachytmema when the brood-body is
still attached to the stalk. Probably the branch does not
always attain its full growth, i.e. three to four cells, before
the brood-body breaks off, but the greater part of its
development certainly takes place before separation. <A
further interesting and curious extension of the brood-
filament consists of the outgrowth from the first cell of
the branch (next to the angle cell of the “L’’) of yet
another branch which grows out vertically to the plane of
the filament and thus forms a second “ L ”’ with the original
branch as its main limb. I have not been able to ascertain
whether this secondary development ever commences
when the brood-body is attached to the stalk. The remains
of the wall of the brachytmema can be seen attached to
the somewhat truncate basal cell of the filament in the
form of a projecting rim or collar. The cells are usually
densely packed with chloroplasts, and contain large
quantities of starch grains but no oil. The apical cells
of the main limb and branches are bluntly tapered and
much more translucent. No further development was
observed. A somewhat similar L-shaped brood-filament
is shortly described by Correns®), P. 235 in the case of an
East Indian species HL. remotifolius C.M., where the method
of reproduction on stalks from the stem appears to be
exactly the same, but where the branch of the filament
constantly slopes down at a wide angle from the limb,
and, moreover, frequently equals the latter in length.
No particulars of the number of cells are given, but it is.
mentioned that they too are long for their width. Nothing
is said of the formation of a secondary ‘‘ L’”’ which takes
place not only in EF. cristatus but also in the Hookeriaceous
moss Pterygophyllum dentatum next dealt with. Correns.
states that he has observed no trace of germination of
the filament, but that probably the apical cells of both
limbs are capable of development.

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION. 101

PTERYGOPHYLLUM DENTATUM (H.f. & W.) Mitt.

Distribution.—Australasia, southern parts of South
America, and subantarctic islands.

Material examined.—Leg.: V. D. Zotor ; September 3,
1933; Tararua Mountains; No. 6914 in Herb. New
Zealand Plant Research Station; barren. Leg.: K. W.
Allison; No. 92; August 23, 1928; very rotten logs and
earth, Puaiti Bush, near Rotorua, North Island ; fruiting.
Leg.: E. A. Hodgson; No. 533; September, 1930;
Puketitiri, Hawkes Bay, North Island; fruiting.

The brood-organs in this species were first mentioned
by Colenso® in the publication of his Hookeria obtusata
which is not separable from Pterygophyllum dentatum.
He refers to them as follows: ‘* Leaves often fringed at
or within the margins on the under side with minute
jointed cylindrical cellular bodies’’. From the context
it might seem that he considered them to be foreign
bodies. Their true nature is recognized by Dixon,'‘®?, P. 289
who mentions that they stand out on the leaf usually round
the margin, and are frequently so abundant as to form
a perfect cheval de frise. I find that they are produced
on either surface of the leaf from initials that are separated
from the margin by only one or two cells, and that they
occur on fruiting as well as on barren plants. The initials
are readily recognisable by their small size, the diameter
being only about one-half of that of the adjoining cells of
the lamina. When present in the leaf at all they may be
in any number from a few scattered groups towards the
apex to a continuous band within the margin. From the
initials are produced short brood-filaments of the L-shape
of those of Eriopus cristatus, an interesting point of
resemblance in two species of related genera. The likeness
is accentuated by the lower limb of the filament being
often set on at a similarly wide angle, and still more so
by the later development of a subsidiary limb. The main
limb consists of a cylinder of four to six cells, whilst the
lower limb has one to three. The cells are if anything
rather broader than their length, instead of being narrower
as in Hriopus cristatus, so although the number of cells is
approximately the same as there, the brood-body in
Pterygophyllum dentatum is much shorter, i.e. scarcely
2mm., with a proportionately far wider diameter, and its
appearance is altered accordingly. It tends to be short
and squat rather than long and slender. The cells contain
chloroplasts and oil-drops, but only a trace of starch.

102 G. O. K. SAINSBURY.

The organism grows directly out of the initial from the
surface of the leaf, cuts off the brachytmema from its
base by a dividing wall, and ultimately dehisces by rupture
of the brachytmema, the remains of whose walls can be
seen as a collar or ridge on the outside of the initial and of
the basal cell of the main limb. The lower limb is
apparently often fully developed, by lateral outgrowth of
the basal cell, before dehiscence. Where it is seen to
consist of but one cell this is probably due to immaturity.
The basal cell of the main limb is somewhat truncate, but
the apical cells of both limbs are bluntly tapered, contain
fewer chloroplasts, and are more translucent. They are
capable of functioning as nematogones, but nevertheless
do not germinate at once in the further development of the
brood-filament, because the first cell to bud is nearly always
the angle cell of the lower limb adjacent to the basal cell,
and the commencement of this growth often takes place
before the filament dehisces. The same peculiar double
L-form results from this process as has been described in
Eriopus cristatus. Subsequent commencements of pro-
tonemal growth in a straight line from the apical cells of
either limb were noticed here and there in detached brood-
bodies in the detritus. The only embryonic plant seen
appeared to have developed on the branch of the secondary
“TL”, and there was in this case a very short extension of
both limbs by protonemal growth. In the specimens
examined the older leaves sometimes showed quite a
vigorous rhizoid growth from the initials, but I cannot say
whether the same initials had already produced brood-
filaments which had broken off when the plant was younger.
The brood-bodies are evidently therefore metamorphosed
rhizoids which in their phylogenetic development have
retained the distinctive shape of the modified stem-
rhizoids that form the brood-filaments in Hriopus eristatus.

GLYPHOTHECIUM ALARE Dix. & Sainsb.

Distribution.—New Zealand.

Material ecamined.—Leg.: G.O.K.S.; November, 1933 ;
on bark of small trees, Panikeri Range, Lake Waikare-
moana, Hawkes Bay, North Island; barren. January,
1935 ; on bark of twigs and small branches ; near Dawson
Falls, Mt. Egmont, North Island ; fruiting.

The position of this interesting moss is very doubtful,
and it may have to form the type of a new genus.‘”) The
brood-filaments present are densely tufted in great

|

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION. 103

quantities in the axils of the upper leaves. They are
borne on short stalks, formed of two to four cells, which
are either simple or branched at the base. The stalks in
the lower section of the gemniferous part of the stem tend
to be of rhizoid character, with thickened and coloured
outer walls and oblique inner walls. They resemble there
the short axillary rhizoids that sometimes appear still
lower down. Higher up the stem, however, towards the
apex, the stalks have their outer walls thinner and more
faintly coloured, and their cells approximate, both in
structure and contents, to those of the brood-filaments.
The latter are separated from the stalks by a disc-like
brachytmema about 4yu long. The filament is slightly
tapered from the middle to both ends. Mature filaments
are composed of from twenty to twenty-five cells which
vary from 45y to 90u in length by 20u to 30u wide. Their
walls are transverse or slightly oblique and quite colourless,
contrasting strongly with the green chlorophyllose cell
contents. The apical cell is as a rule nearly hyaline, and
its tapered distal end has a thickened wall. Treatment with
suitable reagents discloses the presence of oil-drops in the
cells. In the detritus, especially that of the Lake Waikare-
moana specimen, a number of germinating filaments were
found. In one case a long branch consisting of similar
cells had grown out from about the middle. In other cases
a colourless and thin rhizoid protonema had been produced
from cells in various parts of the filament. Although the
apical cell had sometimes put out two or three such
protonemal threads, it did not seem that the capacity to
produce them was accentuated in this part of the filament.
No doubt cultural experiments would show that young
plants arise on the protonema.

TETRAPHIDOPSIS PUSILLA (H.f. & W.) Dixon.
Distribution.—New Zealand.

Material examined.—Leg.: K. W. Allison; No. 155;
January 21, 1929; Puaiti Bush, near Rotorua, North
Island ; on dead trunks; fruiting.

This remarkable moss was described and figured by
Dixon™ as ZT. nove-seelandie Broth. & Dix., but later
it was found to be the same thing as Meteoriwm pusillum
H.f. & W., so the specific name reverted accordingly.
The short brood-filaments present are densely crowded on
a capitulum terminating the stem or branch, and are
sometimes also axillary in the upper leaves. As the

104 G. O. K. SAINSBURY.

description states, they are fusiform or narrowly clavate,
and consist of four to six chlorophyllose cells. I can add
from my observations that the filament, which is often
slightly curved, is borne on a stalk consisting of a single
thin-walled colourless cell from which it dehisces by a
brachytmema. Reserve nutriment is present in the
form of oil-drops. As is often the case where a brood-
filament separates by the rupture of a brachytmema,
the stalk here appears to be capable of growing up through
the broken wall of the brachytmema and forming another
brood-organ. The filaments are evidently metamorphosed
stem-rhizoids, as are those of Glyphothecium alare, and this
is an interesting link between the two mosses, which belong
to related genera. The only germinating filament found
in the detritus had put out the commencement of pro-
tonemal growth at a right angle from the apical cell.

LITERATURE CITED.

(1) Brotherus, V. F.: 1924. Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien, 2nd
Edn., Vol. 10, Musci.
(2) Colenso, W.: 1885. Description of new Cryptogamic Plants,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol.. 18, p. 233.
8) Correns, C.: 1899. Untersuchungen uber die Vermehrung der
Laubmoose durch Brutorgane und Stecklinge.
‘4) Dixon, H. N.: 1912. On some Mosses of New Zealand, Journ.
Linn. Soc., Vol. XL, p. 451.
1914-1919. Studies in the Bryology of New Zealand,
Bull. No. 3.. Trans. N.Z. Inst.
1924. The Student’s Handbook of British Mosses, 3rd
Edn., p. 122.
and Sainsbury, G. O. K.: 1933. New and Rare Species
of New Zealand Mosses, The Journal of Botany, p. 246.
(8) Hodgson, E. A.: 1929. Notes on the Apical Gemme of Tortula
abruptinervis, Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. 60, p. 544.
(9) Lorentz, P. G.: 1864. Moosstudien.
(0) Sainsbury, G. O. K.: 1931. The Moss Dicranoloma setosum
(H.i. & W.) Par., The Bryologist, Vol. XXXIV.

(5)

(6)

(7) __

OF

(INCORPORATED 1881)

Sas = =

; oe
oo

PART II (pp: 105 to 227 and pp. i tol)

xt os OF ‘ :

| : VOL. LXIX :

oe » as

Zee ‘ontaining Papers: read from September, 1935,
to April, 1936. With Plates IV and V, also List
of Members, Abstract of Proceedings, and Index.

~ >

: ee = EDITED BY — 7 : =

THE HONORARY SECRETARIES.

a as x ge Te

- HE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE.
_ S§TATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN,

ie

oo Gane “SYDNEY aa ie %:
SA. ISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HQUSE

ge ae _ ‘ es

1936

~
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*

CONTENT 5 s — Sage

VOLUME AS

~ Part IL*

Art. VII.—The Oxidation of Cobalt Amalgam. By EF. P. Dwyer,
M.Se., and J. W. Hogarth. (Issued November 8, 1935.)

. 105

Art. VIII.—The Essential Oils of Hucalyptus Australiana (Baker —

& Smith) and its Physiological Forms. Part I. By A. R.
Penfold, F.A.C.1; F.C.S., and F. R. Morrison, A.A.C.I.,
F.C.S. (Issued November 18; 31945.) 43

Art. IX.—The Palzxozoic Sediments near Bungonia : Their
Field Relations and Graptolite Fauna. By G. F. K. oe
M.A., M.Sc. (Issued. November 8, 1935.)

ART, X:—The Endogenous Contact-Zone of the Wacnosinng
Limestones at Ben Bullen, N.S.W. By Germaine A. J bie:
B.Sec., Ph.D. (Issued January 22, 1936.)

Art. XI.—The Effect of Chemical Solutions on sia Woods.
_ By M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A-I.C, (Issued January 10, 1936.) ..
ArT. XII.—The Birefringence of Potassium Chloropalladite a

Potassium Chloroplatinite. By D..P. Mellor, M.Se., and

Seri

123

135.

Florence M. Quodling, B.Sc. (Issued January 10, 1936.) 67

Art. XIII.—The Occurrence of Linalool in the Essential Oil of

Melaleuca ericifolia. By A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.1., F.C.8., and

F. R. Morrison, F.C.S., A.A.C.I, (Issued February 1; 1936. )

Arr. XIV.—Notes on the Shrinkage of Wood. Part II. By M.B.
Welch, B:Sc., A.I.C. (Issued February 11, 1936.) ..

ArT, XV.—Compounds Formed from Copper Salts and Tertiary

171 com

. 174

. Arsines. Part I. By G. J. Burrows, BSe,, and Ea. ¥ 2.

Sanford, B.Sc. (Issued February 24, 1936.) .

ArT. XVI.—Initiation in the Bard Tribe, North- West Australia.
By A. P. Elkin, M.A., Ph.D. (Issued. February 24, 1936.)..

. 182

Art. XVII.—Cyanogenetic Glucosides in Australian oe
Part III. Hucalyptus cladocalyx. By H. Finnemore, B.Se. -

(Lond.), F.I2C., 8. K. Reichard, B.Se. (Syd.), and D. K.
Large, B.Sc. (Syd.). (Issued June 10, 1936.) .. :

Art. XVIII.—A Bacterial Disease of Snake Beans. By a 1B
Wilson, B.Se.Agr. (Issued June 10, 1936.) ..

Art. XIX.—On a New Reaction for the Detewesiaken of
Creatinine. By ee ee Pha}. aa June 10,

1936.) 204
TITLE Pace, Sees. Nemec! Poaeae at
OFFICERS FoR 1935-1936 ; _ vii
List oF MemMBERS, AWARDS OF Sas ces, ETC, é a ie
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS... me Ree aac
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF Tears . xh -
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF GEOLOGY 7 ee
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION. OF PHYSICAL ScrencE adv

INDEX OF: VOLUME EXIxX

* Published June 24, 1936. =e Hae a

~ 209

215

ge Sexi: sam

a ag
ge te ot
Sa Bat

he aie a aa Mera oc

ager k

Ste 3
. Page. ; .

manned

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Sep iad YR

ae st

THE OXIDATION OF COBALT AMALGAM. 105

THE OXIDATION OF COBALT AMALGAM.

By F. P. DWYER, M.Sc.,
and J. W. HOGARTH.

(Manuscript received, August 20, 1935. Read, September 4, 1935.)

The rapid atmospheric oxidation of cobalt amalgam,
leading to the production of a fine, intensely black, powder,
which was suggested tentatively to be a suboxide of cobalt,
was noted by Hogarth (Tuts Journar, 1934, 68, 153).

Considerable doubt exists as to the authenticity of the
suboxides of many metals, notably lead, silver and copper,
the last two of which are claimed to have the form M,O
(H. Rose, Pogg. Ann., 1863, 120, 1; Van Arkel, Rec.
Trav. Chim., Pays Bas, 1935, 44, 652; Ferrari, Gazzetta,
1926, 56, 630; Darbyshire, J.C.S., 1932, 211; e al.).

Since a preliminary analysis showed that the decom-
position product of the amalgam was of the form M,O,
it seemed of interest to investigate the substance further.

In the series of experiments described below the
composition and conditions of oxidation of cobalt amalgam
are set down. It was found that, although the chemical
analyses leading to the formula Co,O were reasonably
consistent in view of the ease of oxidation of the substance
to higher oxides, X-ray powder photographs showed the
lines of cobalt metal, indicating a mixture of metal and
oxide.

The decomposition product was found to be a powerful
reducing agent, converting the nitrites and nitrates of
metals into ammonia in neutral or even alkaline solution.
It could be caused to reamalgamate with mercury by
treatment with dilute acids or ammonium salts, although
simple shaking or grinding with mercury failed to make it
do so. This result is interesting in that claims for the
existence of lead suboxide were substantiated by the
failure of the alleged suboxide to give any lead amalgam
on rubbing with mercury (P. Bolley, Dingler’s Journ.,
1850, 116, 358; et al.). By removal of the oxide with
ammonium salts in an inert atmosphere an extremely
H—September 4, 1935. !

106 DWYER AND HOGARTH.

active, spontaneously inflammable form of cobalt metal
was isolated.

EXPERIMENTAL.
Cobalt Amalgam. :

The amalgam was prepared from a slightly acid solution
of purified cobalt sulphate by electrolysis, a purified mercury
cathode being used. It was freed from adherent mercury
by pressure, and preserved under dilute (N) sulphuric acid.
The analyses were carried out by distillation of the mercury
at red heat in a current of hydrogen, the distillate being
collected under water.

Co,Hg, requires Hg: 83:6%; Hg found: 83:8%.
Tests on the cobalt residue after distillation showed it
to be free from mercury.

In the hope of isolating other forms of cobalt amalgam
a large number of experiments were carried out. Specimens
were prepared at 350, 200, 150, 90, 20 and 10 amps./sq. ft. ;
the cobalt was preoxidised to the cobaltic state, then
electrolysed at different current densities, and finally the
cathode was isolated with a porous membrane to keep
the cobalt in the cobaltous state. In all cases the only
compound isolated was the substance Co,Hg,. It seems
therefore that the compound Hg,,Co, recorded by other
workers contained excess mercury (J. Newton Friend,
‘‘ Textbook of Inorganic Chemistry ’’, Vol. III, Pt. 2, 221).

Owing to the difficulty of freeing the amalgam completely
from adherent mercury before decomposition set in, the
mercury figures were consistently a little high.

The amalgam as prepared is a brittle, crystalline solid
which decomposes without melting. It is magnetic.
Exposure to the atmosphere leads to rapid oxidation, the
temperature of the mass rising in 10 to 15 minutes to
50-60° C., while a black powder separates. The decom-
position does not occur in vacuo, nor with the dry amalgam
in dry air, nor under water free from air. It is stable
also in hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide, and under
dilute acids.

Analyses of the Oxidised Amalgam.

The oxidation product, freed as completely as possible
from mercury by levigation with water, was stirred
vigorously with amalgamated copper strips, washed with
alcohol and dried over phosphorus pentoxide. Tests on

THE OXIDATION OF COBALT AMALGAM. 107

the substance after three days showed that it still contained
water and traces of mechanically enclosed mercury.
Special methods of analysis were therefore necessary.

The substance was heated in a porcelain boat in nitrogen
and the adherent water removed at 300-400° C. The
nitrogen was then replaced with hydrogen and the oxide
reduced to the metal at dullred heat. The gas after passing
over a long spiral of silver gauze to trap mercury vapour
was collected in weighed absorption tubes.

O (found): 6-°55% (mean of 11 determinations* on
different preparations). Co,O requires O: 6:°35%.

The percentage of adherent water after drying varied
from 4-07 to 2-81. Very freshly prepared specimens
gave results close to Co,O.

A gradual oxidation by the air took place in this
substance, so that after some months it was a mixture of
cobaltous and cobaltic oxides, and evolved chlorine with
hydrochloric acid.

The oxide is in an extremely fine state of division, part
of it passing in alcohol into a greenish colloidal suspension.
It burns easily in air on being heated to about 200°. It
is magnetic, and decomposes hydrogen peroxide vigorously.
On treatment with dilute acids hydrogen is evolved readily,
but in the presence of mercury no hydrogen is given off
and part of the substance reamalgamates, the remainder
forming a cobalt salt. The re-formed amalgam has the
same composition as the original, and decomposes in the
same way.

Solutions of nitrites and nitrates are vigorously reduced
in neutral or alkaline solution. If the temperature of the
mixture is kept for about two minutes at 80° C. the whole
suddenly boils, the temperature rises to 90-100°, and
volumes of ammonia are liberated. The residue contains
cobalt ammines, and is strongly alkaline. In the same
way mercuric, stannic, cupric and ferric salts are reduced in
the cold to the lower valency state or to the metal. Further
work on the reduction of nitrites and nitrates is intended
with a view to isolating intermediates.

X-Ray Examination.

In view of the striking properties of the substance
Debye-Scherrer powder-photographs were taken, the

* 6-66%, 6-53%, 594%, 6:00%, 6-15%, 6-28%, 7-21%, 6-60%,
673%, 7:09%, 6-85%.

108 DWYER AND HOGARTH.

filtered radiation from an iron target at 30 kv. being used.
Owing to the state of division of the powder and the
presence of traces of mercury, considerable difficulty was
experienced. Eventually with a specimen prepared by
the slow oxidation of the amalgam, under reduced pressure,
a number of faint lines were obtained, which were identified
as corresponding with the most intense lines of « (low)
cobalt. The analysis of the photograph is shown in
Table I, with the spacings of « cobalt for comparison
(Hull, Phys. Rev., 1921, 17, 577). Lines due to cobaltous
oxide were probably obliterated by the heavy background
due to general scattering from the mercury impurity.

TaBLE I.—Analysis of Powder-photograph.*

Cobalt Suboxide. a Cobalt. Index.
ACU: | A.U. ts
VACA Wee Ba ie hen ae 2-176 1010
2-041... eh on BM, Be 2-051 0001 (2)
192). ae aoe Bee me 1-920 1011
1-260). 2. re Me: ee al 1-257 1120
LO 2 qe sid a ae 1-072 1122

* Lines produced by the CoO calibrant are omitted.

The decomposition product is therefore a mixture of
cobalt metal and oxide in the ratio of 3:1. This ratio
was directly determined by separation of the constituents
of the mixture. The oxide was treated with ammonium
sulphate and ammonia in an atmosphere of nitrogen, and
mercury added. In this way the cobaltous oxide dissolves
as an ammine and the metal passes into an amalgam. The
ammoniacal solution and the amalgam were then analysed
for cobalt.

Co(Hg) DOLD. or lee
Co(NH,CH) -1762 1

The ratio is a little high owing to inclusion of a little

of the oxide in the amalgam.

Pyrophoric Cobalt.

This was prepared from the oxidation product of the
amalgam by removal of the oxide. The oxidation product
(5 g.) was freed as completely as possible from mercury

‘

THE OXIDATION OF COBALT AMALGAM. 109

with amalgamated copper, then stirred vigorously with a
mixture of ammonium sulphate (30 g.) and ammonium
hydroxide concentrated (10 ml.) in 100 ml. of air-free water
in an atmosphere of nitrogen for 15 minutes. The reddish
ammoniacal solution was drawn off and replaced with
fresh solution until no further colour was given. The black
powder remaining was washed with ammonium sulphate
solution, water, alcohol and ether and dried im vacuo.
On coming in contact with air the powder spontaneously
ignites, burning with a dull red glow. Even damp
specimens are quite active, while traces of alcohol on the
surface are oxidised to acetaldehyde. The metal is
magnetic, and is readily soluble in mercury, re-forming the
original amalgam, and in acids. Like the oxidation
product it reduces nitrites and nitrates to ammonia.

DISCUSSION.

From a consideration of the properties of the oxidation
product of cobalt amalgam, the ease with which an amalgam
is re-formed, and the consistency over many experiments
of the cobalt/cobalt oxide ratio, it is suggested that the
suboxide is the primary product of oxidation. The
mechanism is most probably a reaction between the
condensed film of oxygen on the surface of the amalgam
and the compound Co,Hg, to form the insoluble Co,0,
which separates out, decomposing to form the insoluble
CoO and cobalt metal. Rapid surface oxidation of the
cobalt metal prevents its reamalgamation. This is shown
by the fact that the decomposition of the amalgam can be
slowed down by rubbing or stirring. Separation of cobalt
metal as such, followed by oxidation, is unlikely in view of
the stability of the amalgam in an inert atmosphere over
nearly two years.

The reducing properties of the oxidation product are
due no doubt to the fine state of division of the powder,
which should make it catalytically active for hydrogenation.
It is hoped to investigate this point.

The period of induction in the reduction of nitrites and
nitrates is probably caused by the small initial cobalt
metal surface until sufficient ammonia is formed to dissolve
the oxide film, since the reaction seems to be accelerated
by traces of ammonium salts. The reduction is then caused
by reaction of thé cobalt with the water, forming hydrogen
and cobaltous hydroxide.

110 DWYER AND HOGARTH.

SUMMARY.
(1) Cobalt amalgam has the composition Co,Hg;.

(2) The decomposition product is a mixture of metal
and oxide in the ratio 3:1.

(3) The latter substance is a powerful reducing agent,
and on treatment with ammonium salts gives a pyrophoric
form of cobalt.

The authors wish to thank the Chemistry Department
of the University of Sydney for the use of the X-ray plant,
also Dr. R. K. Murphy of the Chemistry Department of
this College for some of the apparatus necessary for the
research.

Department of Chemistry,
Sydney Technical College.

ESSENTIAL OILS OF EUCALYPTUS AUSTRALIANA 111

THE ESSENTIAL OILS OF HUCALYPTUS
AUSTRALIAN A (BAKER & SMITH) AND
ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL FORMS.

ART. |.

By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.L, F.CS.,
Curator and Economic Chemist,

and F. R. MORRISON, A.A.C.I., F.C.S.,
Assistant Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

(With Plate IV.)
(Manuscript received, September 25, 1935, Read, October 2, 1935.)

This species and its essential oil were first described by
Messrs. Baker and Smith in a paper read before this
Society in 1915.* Itis known vernacularly as the Narrow-
leaved. Peppermint or Black Peppermint, and is found
erowing in the southern districts of N.S.W. (Nerrigundah,
Nelligen, Eden, etc.), and the Bathurst district (Black
Springs, Burraga, Tarana, Oberon, etc.).

The authors of this species referred to the morphological
and other characters which differentiate it from Hucalyptus
amygdalina of Labillardiére, a name which is now confined
to the Narrowleaved Peppermint of Tasmania. Messrs.
Baker and Smith, on p. 280 of their publication issued in
1920 by the Sydney Technological Museum, entitled
‘‘ A Research on Eucalypts and Their Essential Oils ”’,
described another species of Narrowleaved Peppermint
from Braidwood and other southern districts of N.S.W.
as H. phellandra. They stated that the species was
morphologically difficult to distinguish from HL. amygdalina
and H. Australiana, and also that ‘it is one of the few
species that has been founded almost entirely on the
chemical constitution of the oil ”’.

One of us (A.R.P.) was consulted by Messrs. Baker and
Smith at the time H. phellandra was described. Their
decision was supported because it was desirable at that

* THis JOURNAL, 1915, 49, 514.

112 PENFOLD AND MORRISON.

time to distinguish the two kinds of Eucalyptus oils for
commercial purposes.

The oil of LH. Australiana was much in demand on account
of its high content of cineol (70%) and absence of
phellandrene when examined by the B.P. test. 4H.
phellandra contained only about 35% to 50% of cineol
and much phellandrene (about 40%), consequently it
could be used only for industrial purposes as it did not meet
the requirements of the various pharmacopeceias, which
demanded a minimum of 70% of cineol.

The essential oils of H. Australiana from Nerrigundah
and Yowrie districts have, since their discovery, been noted
for their constancy of composition. Many hundreds of
tons have been distilled from material from the South
Coast and Bathurst districts, and there is no record of the
terpene phellandrene having been detected, although
Messrs. Baker and Smith in their original paper (p. 519)
referred to the variation in the content of both cineol and
phellandrene in the oil obtained from trees grown in
different districts. They also stressed the necessity for
keeping the first-hour distillate separate (p. 518) in order
to keep the content of phellandrene at a minimum.

The investigation described in this paper shows that
the variable content of phellandrene in H. Australiana
oil referred to by Messrs. Baker and Smith was apparently
due to admixture of variants shown to be rich in
phellandrene and relatively low in cineol content. The
oil obtained in commerce contains invariably 70% of cineol.
The terpene phellandrene is not detected by the B.P. test.

Since 1920 we have studied intensively the physiological
forms of such well-known species as H. dives, E. radiata
Baker & Smith, #. hemastoma and E. micrantha.

In the course of studying H. dives, the Broadleaved
Peppermint, we availed ourselves of the opportunity of
studying the Narrowleaved Peppermint which occurred
in many instances in close proximity to EL. dives. We have
made reference to the study in some of our writings and
in the Annual Reports of the Technological Museum for
the years 1928-1934 inclusive. We have, during the past
three years, made a very close study of the Narrowleaved
Peppermints of N.S.W. in conjunction with Mr. E. Cheel,
Curator and Botanist, National Herbarium, Sydney, and
Mr. M. 8B. Welch, Economic Botanist, Technological
Museum, Sydney. The results of the investigation will
be published at an early date. Meanwhile, we have deemed

ESSENTIAL OILS OF EUCALYPTUS AUSTRALIANA 113

it advisable to summarise the chemical data in order to
pave the way for the subsequent critical discussion of the
botanical classification.

As a result of the chemical investigation of the essential
oils of the Narrowleaved Peppermints we have come to
the conclusion that there are several physiological forms of
EH. Australiana and that EH. phellandra is one of them.
The evidence in support of this contention is given in
Tables I and II.

A special search was conducted in September, 1934,
for the purpose of ascertaining if physiological forms of
KH. Australiana yielding phellandrene in traceable amounts
could be found in the Moruya district, which is noted
for the absence of this terpene in the commercial oil. No
difficulty was experienced in picking out variants by
crushing the leaves of many trees and observing the odour.
These observations were confirmed by collecting small
quantities of leaves from selected trees and examining the
essential oils, full particulars of which are given in Table IT.

The essential oils of the type, Nos. 1 and 4, were almost
water-white in colour, with a pronounced camphoraceous
odour of cineol modified by small quantities of citral. The
variants, Nos. 2, 3, 5 and 6, varied from a water-white to
a pale lemon-coloured oil and possessed a pronounced odour
of phellandrene and alcoholic bodies of the terpineol-
terpinenol type. Similar observations were made in the
Tumut district during the year 1933.

The distillation of medicinal Eucalyptus oil rich in cineol
and free from the terpene phellandrene had never been
successful in the Tumut district. On practically every
occasion the oils were found to be low in cineol and high in
phellandrene. We were very surprised, therefore, to
observe large numbers of magnificent trees of H. Australiana
type in the Bago State Forest, the essential oils of which
were found to be identical in cineol content and freedom
from phellandrene with those obtained from the Moruya
district. (See Table I, Nos. 1, 5, 54 and 9.)

The variant now called Variety A was usually considered
to be the preponderating tree. Large areas of this variety
still exist, although it is being cut out at a very rapid rate
for utilisation of the timber. The essential oils of this
variety are pale to dark lemon-yellow in colour and contain
very little cineol. The composition of the essential oil
is quite different from that of other Eucalyptus oils in this
series which have so far been described.

PENFOLD AND MORRISON.

114

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116 PENFOLD AND MORRISON.

EL. phellandra occurs in a very luxuriant condition in the
Tumut district, notably at Batlow, Laurel Hill and
Tumbarumba. It was probably this factor and the better
quality of timber obtained from trees grown in that district
that impelled Mr. W. H. Blakely to describe it as a new
species.*

The composition of the essential oil showed that it
differed considerably from the oil of HL. phellandra grown in
other districts. It was found to contain in addition to
phellandrene, y-terpinene and the alcohol terpinenol-4
in quantity (about 20%). Cineol was found to occur in
comparatively small quantities from traces to approxi-
mately 10%. The ordinary H. phellandra oil contains
from 35% to 50% cineol and the principal alcohol appears
to be «-terpineol. Terpinenol-4 has not yet been shown to
be a normal constituent of this oil.

We have made a very intensive study of this tree in the
field and have come to the conclusion that it cannot be
differentiated from H. Australiana type. Wide variations
in foliage and fruits were found to exist in the type and all
varieties ; this phase of the subject will be dealt with more
fully in a paper to be published in conjunction with Messrs.
Cheel and Welch, who have made a very exhaustive study
of the trees. Meanwhile, we are able to state that it is not
possible to separate the varieties from the type in the field
except by crushing the leaves and determining the odours
of the respective essential oils.

As a result of this intensive study we are convinced that
the new species described by Mr. Blakely under the name
of Hucalyptus Robertsoni is merely a physiological form of
EH. Australiana ; it is called by us H. Australiana variety A.
The naming of this new species was criticised in a paper
read at the meeting of the Australian and New Zealand
Association for the Advancement of Science held in
Melbourne, Jan., 1935, and published in The Australasian
Journal of Pharmacy, Feb., 1935, pp. 168-171.

At Laurel Hill, opposite Kopsen’s boat-oar factory (see
Plate IV), we found Variety A growing less than 3 {t. away
from the type and Variety B. Soil or climatic conditions
could not, in the circumstances, be responsible for the
wide variation in the chemical composition of the essential
oils.

* Tuts JOURNAL, 1927, 61, 167.

ESSENTIAL OILS OF EUCALYPTUS AUSTRALIANA Ey

Conclusive evidence of the physiological nature of
Variety A was obtained when the leaves and terminal
branchlets of a cultivated tree of H. Roberisoni were
examined. This tree had been raised from seed of #.
Robertsoni collected at Tumbarumba. We are indebted
to Mr. W. L. Fox, of Bowral, for supplying 134 lbs. weight
of the leaves referred to, which were received on April 20,
1933. |

The leaves on distillation yielded 3° of a pale lemon-
yellow oil with a pronounced odour of cineol and
phellandrene. This oil on examination gave the following
chemical and physical constants :

Specific gravity a a .. 0:9078
Optical rotation > Net eed Ook
Refractive Index at 20° C. 1-4696
Solubility in oe alcohol (Py weight) 1-3 vols.
Cineol 50%
Phellandrene a he .. Present in
quantity
Saponification No. .. (or

Saponification No. after acetylation 65-3

The result of the examination of this essential oil shows
that it resembles most closely the oil of Hucalyptus
phellandra, now called Variety B, and that it bears little
resemblance to the oil of Variety A (H. Robertsoni), although
it probably contains a percentage of the alcohol terpinenol-4.

The examination of the essential oils supported by field
experience brings very forcibly under notice the fallacy of
describing new species of closely allied Kucalypts on very
slender evidence. Our illustration (Plate IV) demonstrates
this beyond question. The leaves from the clump of trees
shown on the right-hand side of the illustration were cut for
distillation purposes. Whilst one operator on the leit
side of the bush gathered leaves of Variety A, another was
cutting foliage of Variety B from the opposite side.

The present position in regard to H. Australiana and its
various forms may be summarised as follows :

Eucalyptus Australiana type. Hssential oil contains
cineol, 70°; phellandrene not detected by B.P. test ;
principal alcohol «-terpineol with small quantities of citral.

Eucalyptus Australiana var. A. Essential oil contains
phellandrene and y-terpinene with very little cineol,

118 PENFOLD AND MORRISON.

usually under 10%; principal alcohol terpinenol-4 (about
20.°7,):

Hucalyptus Australiana var. B. Essential oil contains
cineol 35% to 50% ; phellandrene 35% to 40% ; principal
alcohol «-terpineol.

Although the essential oils of H. Australiana and LE.
phellandra (now Variety B) have been very closely examined
by Baker and Smith and others, there is still need for a
critical examination of the constituents occurring in small
quantities. This work is proceeding, but some time must
elapse before it is completed. Similar remarks apply to
the very interesting essential oil obtained from Variety A.
So far the terpene fraction has been found to consist
essentially of an unidentified terpene with large quantities
of S-phellandrene and y-terpinene. The principal alcohol
is §-terpinenol-4 which, so far, has not been found to
occur to the same extent (20%) in any other Eucalypt.

Messrs. Schimmel and Co. of Miltitz, near Leipzig,
Germany, showed the presence of this alcohol to the extent
of 3% to 4% in the commercial oil of H. dives.

Advantage was taken of the foliaceous nature of a very
beautiful and large tree of H. Australiana growing in the
Tumut district (see Table I, No. 9), a district in which the
type was thought not to occur, to secure collections of
foliage every month during one year with a view to
determining any variation in yield and quality of oil.
The results are set forth in Table III.

We wish to thank the Forestry Commission of New South
Wales, and particularly the officers of the Field Staff, as
well as Messrs. C. W. Slater of Quaama, and W. EH. Guest
of Nerrigundah, for assistance rendered to us in our field
investigations. We are indebted to Mr. G. Boyd of the
Forest Office, Tumbarumba, for collecting and dispatching
the monthly supplies of H. Australiana from the Tumut
district and to Mr. Martin Kinstler, also of Tumbarumba,
for supplies of oil and leaves of H. Australiana var. A.

EXPERIMENTAL.

The various collections of leaves and terminal branchlets
cut as for commercial purposes were subjected to steam
distillation in the usual manner. The chemical and
physical constants of these various distillates are set forth -
in Tables I, II and III.

A very sharp line of demarcation is provided in the
chemical composition of the oils from the type and

AC)

ESSENTIAL OILS OF EUCALYPTUS AUSTRALIANA

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120 PENFOLD AND MORRISON.

Variety A. Although the chemical composition of the
essential oils of most Eucalyptus oils is comparatively
well known, particularly those of the Narrowleaved
Peppermints, it was deemed advisable definitely to identify
the principal constituents of #. Australiana var. A.

Essential Ou of Eucalyptus Australiana var. A.

The essential oil of this species varies from a pale straw
to a deep yellow in colour, and possesses a distinctive odour
of terpinene and terpinenol-4 ; it was thus readily distin-
guished from the oils obtained from H. Australiana and
its Variety B.

Mr. Kinstler kindly supplied one gallon of this oil for
investigation as far back as December 15, 1932. The oil
was of a clear, pale-yellow colour, with a characteristic
fragrant odour, and gave the chemical and physical
constants shown in Table IV. It was decided to confirm
the results by securing a parcel of leaves from Mr. Kinstler,
which he collected from a locality known as Nichol’s
Country, near Tumbarumba. The result of the distillation
of the oil is also given in Table IV.

Although the oil supplied on December 15, 1932, was
exhaustively investigated, it was deemed advisable for the
purpose of this paper to record the results obtained by the
examination of the oil distilled by ourselves on January 14,
1935. 400 ce. of crude oil distilled at 10 mm. gave the
results shown in Table V.

TABLE V.—Distillation of Crude Oil, Jan. 14, 1935.

Volume ils 20° 20°
No. Fraction. in cc. qe OD 1D
i 50 — 53° Ie 0-8465 +1° 1:4645
2 53 — 55° 13 0-8477 —13:°6° 1-4703
3 554-— 594 21 0-8501 —17:1° 1:4723
4 60 — 65 100 0-8603 —20°-6° 1-4793
5 654-— 67 25 0-8586 —17:2° 1:4813
6 674- 79 25 0:8822 —17-8° 1-4799
df 80 —88° | 23 0:9036 —20-25° 1-4796
8 88 —100° 83 0-9355 —23-1° 1-4810

(Principally 92-96°)

9 100 -113° 4 0-9392 —14° 1-4866
10 113 -—130° | 14 0-9560 +-5°5° 1-5008

Unidentified Terpene.

Fraction No. 1 was thought to contain «-pinene, but this
terpene, sabinene and @-pinene could not be identified.

ESSENTIAL OILS OF EUCALYPTUS AUSTRALIANA 121

Many attempts have been made to identify this terpene,
but up to the present without success on account of the
relatively small quantities obtainable. It is of interest
to record that on oxidation with potassium permanganate
it yielded a liquid acid very closely resembling pinonic
acid. A number of preparations of the semicarbazone,
recrystallised from methyl alcohol, melted at 194°. The
semicarbazone of pinonic acid melts at 207°.

Determination of ® Phellandrene.

The chemical and physical constants of the first four
terpene fractions are those of the terpenes distilled over
metallic sodium. ‘This accounts for the difference of 75 cc.
between the total volume shown in Table V, 325 cc., and
the volume of the oil taken for examination, 400 ce.

All the terpene fractions, viz., Nos. 2, 3 and 4, were
examined for sabinene, 6-pinene and 36-4-carene, but with
negative results.

Fraction No. 3 gave a nitrosite of m.p. 102°; [alo

—46-9°.

a and y Terpinene.

eeachons 2, 3 and 4 were oxidised by potassium
permanganate according to the method described in
Tus Journat, 1925, 49, 310, and yielded a 38-dihydroxy-
a-methyl-3-isopropyladipic acid, of m.p. 189-190°. A
good yield of the erythritol, C,,H,,(OH),, of m.p. 237—238°
was also obtained. The isolation and identification of
both these substances is conclusive evidence of the presence
of « and y terpinene.

Cymene.

This hydrocarbon was found to be present in traces
only in all the terpene fractions examined by us.

Determination of Terpinen-4-ol.

Fraction No. 8 on redistillation was found to have a
b.p. of 93-96° at 10 mm. The alcohol was definitely
identified as terpinen-4-ol by the preparation of the
naphthylurethane of m.p. 104-105°. Its identity was
confirmed by oxidising the alcohol to the glycol, 1, 2, 4,
trioxyterpane, C,,H,,(OH),, according to the procedure
described in Tuts Jovrnat, 1925, 59, 315.

I—October 2, 1935.

122 PENFOLD AND MORRISON.

The glycol on repeated purification from a mixture of
chloroform and ether in which it was sparingly soluble in
the cold, but dissolved readily on heating to boiling, was
obtained in white rosettes of m.p. 114-115°. 0-3296 gm.

in 10 ce. absolute alcohol gave a reading of 0-65° ; [alo

—19-81°. The fluffy crystals obtained by sublimation
melted at 128°.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.
Eucalyptus Australiana, varieties A and B, Laurel Hill, N.S.W.

Journal Royal Society of N.S

We VOU NING 1935. Plate LY.

A and B, Laurel Hill, N.S.W.

1es

t

vana, Varie

Eucalyptus Austral

PALEHZOZOIC SEDIMENTS NEAR BUNGONIA. 123

THE PALAOZOIC SEDIMENTS NEAR BUNGONIA:
THEIR FIELD RELATIONS AND GRAPTOLITE
FAUNA.

By G. F. K. NAYLOR, M.A., M.Sc.*
(With three text-figures.)

(Manuscript recewed, September 20, 1935. Read, October 2, 1935.)

INTRODUCTION.

In a recent paper dealing in outline with the geology
of the Goulburn district,! the writer referred to the
identification of a group of Lower Silurian strata about
three miles west of Bungonia. Though the age then
assigned to them appeared beyond doubt, no evidence as
to the relation between them and the other Paleozoic
sediments had been obtained, nor was the writer in a
position fully to figure and describe the graptolite fauna
upon which the determination of geological age was based.
In view of the absence of other recognised strata of Lower
Silurian age in this State it was felt that a short paper in
which, as a result of recent field work, these matters could
be more definitely discussed, would be of general interest.

FIELD RELATIONS.

In 1934 the writer, endeavouring to trace southward
a belt of Upper Ordovician rocks which had been observed
to outcrop along the main road between Marulan and
Goulburn, collected graptolites from thin blue bands in a
series of greenish-grey clay-shales outcropping on the
Bungonia-Goulburn road between the third and fourth
mile-posts from Bungonia. These were provisionally
regarded as Ordovician, but subsequent laboratory
examination showed that the forms were younger than the
Upper Ordovician types. Mr. D. E. Thomas of the

* The author wishes to acknowledge valued assistance rendered in
field and laboratory by Miss A. Stewart.

1“ Note on the Geology of the Goulburn District, with special
reference to Paleozoic Stratigraphy ’’, THis JoURNAL, 1935, 69, 75.

124 G. F. K. NAYLOR.

Victorian Geological Survey, after examining the specimens
then available, was positive as to their Lower Silurian age
and suggested that the forms included Monograptus
exiguus and M. barrandei, an association common in the
zone of Monograptus crispus of the British ee
Stage (the Keilorian of Victoria).

Since then more material has been obtained, and, in
addition to the two forms mentioned by Mr. Thomas,
others, including M. undulatus, M. cf. decipiens and
M. cf. tortilis, have been noted. (See below, pp. 132-134
and Figures 2 and 3.)

It will be noted that the horizon represented by these
fossils is by no means at the base of the Llandovery Stage,
but as only a very small portion of the series contains
eraptolites there seems no reason to doubt that the
equivalents of lower (and possibly higher) horizons are
also present, though not here fossiliferous.

The outcrop of the Jerrara Series;—as it is proposed
provisionally to denominate the Lower Silurian shales
referred to above, extends along the main road between
Bungonia and Goulburn for about a quarter of a mile,
a little to the east of the fourth mile-post from Bungonia.?
The road here runs approximately east-west, and the
strike of the series varies about the meridian. Good
sections are therefore given in the road-cuttings, which,
however, are not extensive. The series can be traced
along the strike for at least half a mile on either side of the
road. Throughout the dip is westerly, ranging from 60°
to 70°, but in some of the cuttings there is direct evidence
of isoclinal overfolding. One can do little more in the way
of measurement, therefore, than assign a maximum
thickness of about 1,000 feet, while bearing in mind that
this may well be an ‘overstatement.

On the western margin the shales appear to dip under a
more arenaceous formation of Upper Ordovician age.
The age of these rocks is deduced beyond doubt from a
relatively abundant graptolite fauna. Many of the
Diplograptid forms occurring here appear to have strong
affinities with Lower Llandovery types, but the presence
of well-preserved specimens of Dvzplograptus quadri-
mucronatus and D. calcaratus var. tenuicornis is sufficient to
show that these rocks cannot be later than the upper zones

2 The position is shown approximately in the map given with the
previous paper.

PALZOZOIC SEDIMENTS NEAR BUNGONIA. 125

of the Ordovician. This conclusion is further strengthened
by the presence of generically identifiable forms of Dvicello-
graptus, a genus which is not known to occur in the Silurian
system.

So far as the writer is aware the exact junction between
the Jerrara Series and the Ordovician beds is not exposed,
but it is undoubtedly marked in part by the course of a
small gully a little to the north of the road. Here the
Silurian shales outcrop on the eastern and the Ordovician
beds on the western slopes. The bed of the gully is
occupied by talus derived from both series. The variation
in strike between the two series at this point (amounting
only to a few degrees) is certainly not great enough to
suggest unconformable relations between them. Nor is
there any evidence of faulting to account for the rather
unusual inversion of the sequence. One can only suggest
that the two series are conformable, their apparently
inverted position being brought about by overtfolding.
There is, indeed, further evidence of such an overfolded
structure. The graptolite-bearing horizon in the Jerrara
Series has been found to outcrop only near the eastern
margin of the belt, i.e. away from the Ordovician boundary.
As previously pointed out, this horizon would appear on
paleontological grounds to be considerably removed from
the base of the series, a position which would be more
naturally explained on the assumption of inversion.

East of the Jerrara Series, and separated from it by a
band of quartzites, are three isolated outcrops of limestone
occurring in portion 46, parish Jerrara, at a point about
half a mile north of it in por. 160, and about a mile and a
half south in por. 18. These limestones obviously belong
to the same horizon, though each outcrop is lenticular in
itself. They are mentioned in the report on Limestones
by Carne and Jones.* These writers suggest a Devonian
age, but give no paleontological evidence, and may have
been influenced by the occurrence near by of fossiliferous
quartzites which are rather like recognised Devonian
strata found elsewhere. The writer has recently examined
these limestones closely. The northern one is highly
marmorised, and shows little in the way of fossils, while
the southern one is very limited in extent, and its fossil
content appears to be limited to Favosites, crinoid remains,

3 “The Limestone Deposits of N.S.W.’’, by J. E. Carne and L. J.
Jones. Dept. of Mines, N.S.W., Min. Res. No. 25, 1919.

126 G. F. K. NAYLOR.

and an unusually large specimen of Orthoceras. The
middle and most extensive outcrop, however, is more
fossiliferous, and several examples of brachiopod remains
were noted. Nearly all of these were quite indefinite, but
one specimen, weathered out into partial relief, bore such a
strong resemblance to Pentamerus knighti that the writer
is provisionally classing these limestones as of Upper
Silurian (Ludlow) age. The fact that, though limestones
are fairly common in the Bungonia district, none has been
shown conclusively to be Devonian, while most are
undoubtedly Silurian, is further evidence (though
admittedly circumstantial) for assigning an Upper Silurian
age to those now under consideration. These limestones
dip to the west along with all the other series in this part
of the district. They therefore appear to underlie the
Jerrara Series, and though the latter has not yet been traced
so far north as por. 46, the overlying Upper Ordovician
belt has been identified (both lithologically and paleonto-
logically), in portions 270 and 271, ph. Jerrara, a little
to the west of the most northerly outcrop of limestone.

East of this limestone horizon there is a thick series of
Shales, sandstones and tuffs, dipping west, which has been
regarded by Mr. Garretty as of Upper Devonian age.*
Nevertheless, one can hardly offer this as further evidence
of a complete inversion of sequence, for the dip of this
series is rather more gentle than that of those previously
mentioned, and the upward sequence from conglomerates
through sandstones to shales appears the normal rather
than the inverted one. The writer feels that if they are of
Devonian age a Strike-fault of considerable magnitude
must be postulated satisfactorily to account for their
presence. The position with regard to the age of these
rocks does not yet appear to be quite definite. Mr. Garretty
is understood to have based his conclusion on the occurrence
of marine fossils within the series. The writer has recently
collected and examined what are presumably the same
fossils from the locality indicated by Mr. Garretty, and it
is his present opinion that the faunal assemblage does not
correspond exactly either with that of the Upper Devonian
type area at Mt. Lambie, or with that occurring nearer at
hand in association with the Lepidodendron-bearing
quartzites on the Cookbundoon Mountain. It is just
possible, then, that this series may ultimately prove to be

* Verbal communication.

PALZOZOIC SEDIMENTS NEAR BUNGONIA. Bre

older than Upper Devonian, but the writer is prepared
to accept provisionally the view that it is Devonian.
It will be recognised that the presence of a strike-fault
tending to displace the Bungonia limestone series to the
east would support rather than contradict the conception
of structure here suggested.

In the vicinity of Bungonia itself the Paleozoic sediments
are intruded by the Marulan batholith, whose outcrop is
here about three miles in width. East of this are the
numerous bands of limestone mapped and recorded by
Carne and Jones in the report referred to above. There
is no evidence of the presence of Lower Silurian strata here,
as the limestones have a distinctly Upper Silurian fauna,
and appear to overlie graptolite-bearing Upper Ordovician
rocks with some approach to unconformity. In at least
one case, it is true, a large outcrop of Silurian limestone
on the eastern margin of the belt dips steeply to the east
in the direction of, instead of away from, the Ordovician
strata, but this limestone is certainly not the basal member
of the Upper Silurian series, as would appear to be the
case at Marulan. It is separated from the Ordovician
strata by a band of dense, grey cherts some few hundreds
of feet in thickness, which are conformable with the
limestone but apparently not with the Ordovician graptolite-
bearing series.

West of the outcrop of the Ordovician rocks which
appear to overlie the Jerrara Series, the cuttings on the
Goulburn-Bungonia road reveal a succession of slates,
quartzites and cherts of considerable apparent thickness.
Careful search has failed so far to reveal any fossils, but
the presence of a band of black cherts, such as are elsewhere
associated with Ordovician strata, would indicate that at
least some of this series is of that age. Near Goulburn for
the last few miles the rocks are mostly igneous, so that the
sedimentary structure of what may well be a critical zone
is obliterated. However, it is only reasonable to assume
that the sequence noted in the previous paper as occurring
on the Main Southern road, about five or six miles to the
north, would be substantially repeated but for the intrusion
of the igneous mass.

The foregoing considerations suggest as a general
structure for the whole area something akin to that
indicated in Fig. 1, while the table on p. 129 may be
regarded as a first attempt at a provisional correlation with
sequences elsewhere. It will be noted that the biggest

128 G. F. K. NAYLOR.

gaps in our local record are due to the absence of the
Arenig and Llandeilo divisions of the Ordovician and the
Wenlock division of the Silurian.

SS
=|
D> =
oY =

IG, Vs 5
AN :
Upper Oras ES], lower Silt | Upper Silt ES, Upper Dev? EE) ons AS.

Ord2 and Siln folds shown thus:---— Base of Dev sedimentation: ++ +++

Fig. 1.—Sketch-section to show the geological structure in the
Goulburn-Bungonia area.

‘ THE GRAPTOLITE FAUNA.

Graptolite-bearing beds are comparatively numerous in
the Bungonia-Goulburn district, but on account of the
regional and contact metamorphism to which the rocks
have been in most places subjected, the degree of preserva-
tion is for the most part poor. In this section of the paper
only those forms will be described which can be recognised
with some certainty and which present direct evidence in
support of the structure suggested in the preceding section.

The specimens have been studied in the usual manner
by means of a specially constructed low-power microscope
with universal stage, and the drawings (Figs. 2 and 3)
have been rendered exact in proportion by the use of a
camera lucida.

It should be noted that in one or two cases there has been
some difficulty in assigning a specific name to the form,
and while the writer fully believes that the determinations
here given are correct, he would emphasise that in such
cases it has only been a question of differentiating between
species of exactly the same recognised zonal range. Hence
this element of doubt cannot invalidate the stratigraphical
arguments deduced from the identifications.

129

PALMHOZOIC SEDIMENTS NEAR BUNGONIA.

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(‘Qo114sIq UInqNo4)) “BILOPOTA (‘eory edfT)
| “Soe@M YNOG MIN “Urey “49

130 G. F. K. NAYLOR.

SS

“Xen

oF,
@m.
~

=~

~

Fig. 2.

(a) Monograptus bohemicus, showing sicula and virgella.

(6) M. exiguus.
1 Usual mode of preservation without detail.

2 Proximal portion.
3 Good specimen showing lobing, sicula, etc.

(c) M. undulatus.
All drawings six times natural size.

PALEZOZOIC SEDIMENTS NEAR BUNGONIA. 131

Fig. 3.

(a) Monograptus decipiens.
1 Recurved distal thece.
2 Isolate proximal thece.
(b) M. cf. tortilis.
1 Proximal end showing sicula.
2 Distal thece.
(c) M. barrandei, distal thece isolate and lobate.
(d) Diplograptus (Orthograptus) calcaratus var. tenutcornis.
1 Distal thece.
2 Proximal end showing end of sicula and spines.
(e) Diplograptus (Orthograptus) quadrimucronatus.
1 Biprofile view.
2 Sub-scalariform view.
All drawings six times natural size.

132 G. F. K. NAYLOR.

Monograptus bohemicus Barrande.

Polypary uniserial, short, and ventrally curved. Thecee
simple subcylindrical tubes, overlapping for about half
their length, apertural margins somewhat introverted but
not introtorted. Thecze about twice as long as wide,
ventral walls straight, inclined at 30° to general direction
of polypary, about 10 in 10 mm. Sicula and virgella
conspicuous.

This form has been collected from road-cuttings on the
Main Southern road between its junctions with the Carrick
and Towrang roads.

Monograptus exiguus Nicholson.

Polypary flexed, slender, with proximal portion showing
marked ventral curvature, maximum width less than 1 mm.
Thecz small and closely set, 16 to 12 in 10 mm. barely in
contact, with apertural portion coiled into a conspicuous
lobe which occupies about one-half of the breadth of the
polypary. The sicula is slender but conspicuous Th.
1 originates a little above its base and terminates within
its length, Th. 2 arising at about the same level as the
apex.

This is by far the most abundant form in the Jerrara
Series, where it is not uncommon to find a hundred
polyparies on one small slab. Owing to the extensive
collection and examination of well-preserved specimens,
there seems no doubt at all about this identification.

Monograptus barrander Lapworth.

Polypary very slender, straight or slightly flexed, width
not exceeding 0-6 mm. Thece straight and_ slender,
9 to 8 in 10 mm., not overlapping and not inclined to the
direction of the polypary except at the apertural margin,
which is retroverted into a conspicuous lobe occupying
more than half the breadth of the polypary. The only
specimens examined were distal fragments, but since the
Species was first described from similar material, the
absence of proximal portions does not place the
identification in any doubt.

Collected from the Jerrara Series.

Monograptus . decipiens Tornquist.

Polypary short and rather slender, with strong dorsal
curvature. Maximum width about1 mm. Thece biform,

PALZOZOIC SEDIMENTS NEAR BUNGONIA. 133

about 12in 10mm. Proximal thece markedly isolate and
slender, of Rastrites type. More distally the thece are in
contact but do not overlap. They are also more robust
and. the apertural margin is somewhat reflexed in the form
of a barb. The thece appear to be somewhat more
‘numerous than in the typical M. decipiens, for which
reason the determination is queried. In the general form
of the polypary and thece, however, the specimens appear
to agree more closely with this form than with any other of
which the writer is aware.

Only two or three fragmentary proximal portions have
been collected, all coming from the Jerrara Series.

Monograptus undulatus Elles & Wood.

Polypary about 2 cm. in length, very slender, very thin
at the proximal end, not more than 1 mm. in width at
distal extremity. Thece about 10 in 10 mm. with
practically no overlap, ventral walls straight at first then
retroverted aperturally. Straight portion of ventral wall
conspicuously inclined outward from the main axis of the
polypary at an angle of 30°. Retroverted portion of thece
constitutes about three-quarters of the total width of the
polypary. Sicula slender and slightly more than 1 mm.
in length.

There seems no doubt that this form should be referred
to M. undulatus described by Elles & Wood. The form
which they figure has a recurved proximal extremity,
whereas this is incurved in one of the specimens here
described; but the agreement in all other respects is
perfect and the difference just mentioned would scarcely
appear to be of specific value.

The general form of the polypary is somewhat like that
of M. exiguus, but the thece are less numerous and markedly
different in shape. Three specimens only have been
collected, in one of which the proximal extremity is missing.

Collected from the Jerrara Series.

Lo
Monograptus ct. tortilis Perner.

Polypary with ventral curvature at proximal end,
straight distally (?). Thece about 13 to 11 in 10 mm.
scarcely overlapping, more than half the thecal length free
and reflexed. Lower part of ventral wall straight and
inclined at 50°-60° to the direction of polypary. Slight
lobing in apertural region, but not always marked. Sicula

134 G. F. K. NAYLOR.

short and stout, rather less than 1 mm. in length, virgella
absent.

The width of the polypary increases, but as only relatively
proximal parts have been collected, the maximum may be
greater than that indicated in the drawings, i.e. about
1mm. Ignorance of the distal breadth causes some doubt
as to the identification, but in the proximal portion the
characters appear to agree more closely with those of
M. tortilis than those of any other known form.

Collected from the Jerrara Series.

Diplograptus (Orthograptus) quadrimucronatus Hall.

Polypary biserial, straight and tapering proximally.
Maximum width about 3 mm. Thece 10 in 10 mm., of
simple prismatic type, overlapping for about one-half of
their length, ventral margins inclined at 20°-30° somewhat
concave, with the apertural extremity furnished with a
short, stout lip and spines. An examination of both profile
and sealariform views seems to place this identification
beyond doubt.

Collected from the Ordovician series immediately to
the west of the junction with the Jerrara Series.

Diplograptus (Orthograptus) calearatus var. tenwicornis
Elles & Wood.

Polypary biserial, straight length several cm., maximum
width about 2-5 mm. Thece simple tubes about 10 to 8
in 10 mm. inclined at an angle of 30°, overlapping to about
one-half their length. Virgula produced distally. Proximal
end blunt, with short but conspicuous virgella projecting
from an almost concealed sicula and two slender basal
Spines originating from the ventral margins of Th. 11
and Th. 1?.

The characteristic proximal end seems to remove any
doubt as to the identity of the species. The spines at first
sight suggest Clumacograptus bicornis, but the character
of the thecze shows that it is not referable to that genus.

Collected from the Ordovician beds immediately to the
west of the Jerrara Series.

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES AT BEN BULLEN, N.S.W. 135

THE ENDOGENOUS CONTACT-ZONE OF THE
MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES AT BEN
BULLEN, N.S.W.

By GERMAINE A. JOPLIN, B.Sc., Ph.D.,
Geology Dept., University of Sydney.

(With five text-figures.)

(Manuscript received, October 17, 1935. Read, November 6, 1935.)

INTRODUCTION.

Ben Bullen is situated on the Mudgee-Wallerawang
railway line at a distance of 121 miles from Sydney.

The general geology of the area has been described by
Carne and Carne and Jones,‘?) and they have shown that
a small boss has invaded a sedimentary series consisting
of quartzites, tuffs, shales and limestones. The plutonic
complex shows a range from quartz-mica-diorite to olivine-
norite, and the limestones contain magnesian and non-
magnesian types.

The writer® has recently described contaminated rocks
which have been formed by reaction between the non-
magnesian limestones and the intrusive diorite. In the
present paper the types produced by the assimilation
of magnesian limestones are described.

FIELD RELATIONS.

Magnesian limestones occur in the Main Quarry in
Portions 45, 46 and 47, Parish of Ben Bullen. Non-
magnesian types are often interbedded. The limestone
mass is somewhat lenticular in shape and the longer axis
measures 441 chains. On the north, south and west it is
surrounded by quartz-mica-diorite, and on the east alluvium
and quarry débris obscure all field relations.

A wide zone of contaminated rocks surrounds the
limestone mass (see Fig. 1), and gradually merges into the

136 GERMAINE A. JOPLIN.

diorite. Quarrying has extended into the inner margin
of this zone, and the section (Fig. 2) shows that the field

MAIN QUARRY.
PORTIONS - 45, 46, 47, PARISH OF BEN BULLEN

ww a Ty?
ee
ay a ar |

ea |
St UGAUG

\ l LY? test
Ye fhe Sk a
< { m1 1 vw
Ne Lo le te i eat
x \ aS =< =
yy yey a. ¢ Spinel_& Serpentine TON ae tes
N

LA
[\s

SAS
ys

Quartz-mica-diorite. a Me tasomatized [ —~_|Atteviam
Limestone , A
Dene = FY
NEN Diorite
0. 2. 4.

— — — Quarry SS

Chains

Marble.

Fig. 1.

relations are very complicated within this area. Numerous
sills and tongues of contaminated igneous rock pierce the
limestone, and it is impossible to measure distances from

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES AT BEN BULLEN, N.S.W. 137

any one contact. It is obvious that the contaminated
zone may be divided roughly into an inner and an outer
ring. The inner part is essentially a metasomatized
limestone, and in this serpentine-, chlorite-, prehnite- and
actinolite-bearing types occur as veins and irregular masses.
The outer zone has the appearance of a light-coloured,
coarse-grained diorite, and is characteristically a
contaminated igneous rock. Veins of calcite and serpentine
often occur in the outer zone.

The boundaries of the limestone mass are more
complicated than shown in the map (Fig. 1), but in a
general way this indicates the disposition of what can be
recognised in the field as a contaminated igneous rock
and a metasomatized limestone.

if / Z
70 90 1710 15°45"
N. | | eed oe | is
oN) | | Ree ag (ate 2 :
Diorite with rae el Reda
Limestone with Soe x)
occasional patches 382. 4
sill of diorite . . 3
of unabsorbed L-s &
Ste
limestone . Q rs
8
3

Big. «2:

Section of the face of the Main Quarry. This was drawn about twenty
years ago when quarrying was in operation. (From Geol. Surv. N.S.W.,
Min. Res. 25, p. 316.)

To the north of the quarry the limestones are less
magnesian, and on the northern slope of the hill veins of
andradite skarn and nodular masses of hematite have
been noted.

PETROGRAPHY.
(i) The Magnesian Limestones.

Calcite-dolomite-marbles, brucite-marbles and forsterite-
marbles occur in the Main Quarry, and in these the magnesia
content is very variable.‘®) No true dolomites are known,
but it is possible that they occur in restricted bands.

Analyses of the magnesian limestones from this locality
are given below.
J—November 6, 1935.

138 GERMAINE A. JOPLIN.

ly II. III.
CaCO, is ofs 96-76 95-60 85°85
MgCO, i ee 2-46 3-42 12-10
MnCO,; a =e — 0-06 0-07
Fe,0,+ Al,0; i 0-22 0-18 0-58

P.O; ie ie -—— 0-03 —
Gangue us has 0-50 0-96 1-34
99-94 100-25 99-94

I. Forsterite-spinel Marble, Pors. 45, 46 and 47, Ph. Ben Bullen,
Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Min. Res. 25, p. 378.
II. Forsterite Marble, Top Quarry, Por. 47. Ibid.
III. Sampled Specimen (mixture of Brucite-forsterite-spinel Marble
and Calcite-dolomite Marble), Main Quarry, Por. 45-46. Ibid.

(ii) The Quartz-Mica-Diorite.

This will be dealt with more fully when the plutonic’
complex is described in a later publication. The rock is
hypidiomorphic granular, subophitic to poikilitic, with a
grainsize averaging 2 mm. The constituent minerals
are plagioclase, hornblende, biotite, quartz, iron ores and
apatite. Small quantities of epidote, prehnite, chlorite
and white mica may occur as _ alteration-products. The
plagioclase varies from Ab,;,An,, fo Ab sg 4041, and occasional
zoned phenocrysts show a range from Ab,,An;, to
Ab,3;An3,. Green hornblende has a mean _ refractive
index of about 1-670. The chemical composition is:

SiO, ah Me -. 55:30
Al,O3 ae ae oa, (20587
Fe,0, os ae ae) foie,
FeO 5:20
MgO 2°75
CaO 7-44 Norm.
Na,O 2-49 Quartz «. whe .. 16°44
K,O 0-82 Orthoclase =e ae 5°00
H,O+ 0-76 Albite .. ne so) “LOHOE
H,O— 0-08 Anorthite ie .. .04-19
TiO, 0-90 Corundum io niu teat
P,O; 0-41 Hypersthene.. .. 12°05
MnO 0-10 Magnetite ae .. Bod.
Ilmenite .. By. ae 1-67
100-74 Apatite .. ai ae 1-01
Sp. Gr 2°83

Anal. G. A. Joplin. 7

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES AT BEN BULLEN, N.S.W. 139

(iii) The Contaminated Rocks.

It has already been shown that the field evidence gives
no clue as to the degree of contamination, and that the
relations between some of the types are unknown. The
petrography, however, provides some evidence, and in the
following section the various assemblages are described in
the order which is believed to represent a gradually
increasing lime-magnesia content.

(1) Diopside-bearing Quartz-aiorite and Included Xenoliths.

Rocks of this type occur above the N.W. end of the
Main Quarry in Portion 47. The xenoliths vary from
4” to 6” in diameter and have sharply defined outlines.
They are fine-grained, greyish-green rocks with a high
density. The rock-mass in which they are included
usually has the appearance of a normal diorite, but may be
coarser grained, with large hornblende individuals in a
ground mass of felspar, quartz and sage-green diopside.

The xenoliths are granoblastic rocks consisting either of
a mosaic of diopside and plagioclase or of diopside alone.
Occasional patches of quartz occur, and around these the
diopside forms slightly larger subidioblastic prisms.
“Pools ’’ and veins of plagioclase grains and large poikilitic
crystals of hornblende are not infrequent, and their
occurrence suggests mechanical introduction from the
magma (Fig. 3). Apatite and sphene are usually abundant,
and a little iron ore may occur.

The diopside grains average 0:2 mm. The mineral is
very pale green, with a’—1-692, y’=1-717 and Z Ac=43°.
This indicates Di,,He;,. Plagioclase occurs in small
laths or in minute xenoblasts which form a granular mosaic.
Twinning is not well developed. The extinction on 010
is 344°, a’ =1-558, y’=1-568, and the composition would
thus appear to be Ab, Ang.

The smaller xenoliths show a great deal of breaking up
and veining by quartz and felspar. Resorption is evidently
effected by the mechanical invasion of a quartz-plagioclase
magma (see p. 150).

The diopside-bearing quartz-diorite, which surrounds
the xenoliths, consists of plagioclase, hornblende, diopside,
quartz, apatite, sphene and iron ores.

The plagioclase forms tabular crystals which may measure
up to 1-5 mm. It is often zoned, and oscillatory zoning
is sometimes developed. The bulk of the felspar has an
extinction angle of 26° on 010, with «’=1-552, y’=1-560.

140 GERMAINE A. JOPLIN.

The composition is, therefore, Ab,;,An,,. Plagioclase
may show alteration to epidote or clino-zoisite, and small
veins of white mica sometimes occur.

The hornblende is rather poikilitic and may include
plagioclase, iron ores, apatite and diopside. X=—light
yellowish green, Y=olive green, Z=olive green;
ZAc=14°; «'=1-660, y’=1-683.

Fig. 3.

A. Diopside-plagioclase xenolith enclosed in diopside-bearing quartz-
diorite. x 12.

Note diorite at top left with larger crystals of diopside bordering
the margin of the xenolith. A poikilitic crystal of hornblende is
shown at the bottom of the figure, and just above it an irregular
*“pool’”’ of plagioclase is fringed with larger crystals of diopside.

B. Diopside-bearing quartz-diorite. x 12.

Note diopside crystals fringed with amphibole and also
independent crystals of hornblende. At the top of the figure
amphibole and pyroxene are in parallel intergrowth. Note also
large crystal of plagioclase with the centre entirely altered to
clinozoisite.

The amount of diopside present is very variable. In
one slice it is very abundant and in another, at the same
distance from a xenolith, it is but poorly developed. It
may form the core of a hornblende crystal, it may show
parallel intergrowth with hornblende, or it may arise as

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES AT BEN BULLEN, N.S.W. 141

independent prisms measuring about 0°8 mm. It is
pale green, with Z A\c=44°.

As in the parent quartz-mica-diorite, quartz is inter-
stitial.

(2) Diopside-zoisite-plagioclase Rocks with White Mica.

These rocks occur above the quarry at a short distance
south of the diopside-bearing diorite. They are also met
with amongst the quarry débris.

In the hand specimen they resemble igneous rocks, but
are lighter coloured and slightly coarser grained than the
normal diorite. White mica may usually be detected in
the hand specimen.

Under the microscope they are seen to consist of diopside,
B-zoisite, plagioclase, white mica, albite, sphene and a little
apatite and actinolite. Small quantities of calcite, chlorite
and serpentine are often present in veins.

Diopside forms subidiomorphic prisms measuring about
1-5 mm. and is often twinned. Z A\c=438°, «’=1-688,
y'=1-710. This indicates Di,,He,,. Actinolite and calcite
are often developed along cracks in the pyroxene.

The labradorite (Ab,,An;,) forms large tabular crystals
which measure about 2 mm. In the less altered types it
shows flecking with white mica, and a little granular
zoisite and albite is often associated. In the more altered
types the felspar is entirely replaced by white mica and
the felspar areas are now occupied with criss-cross flakes
which measure about 0-2 mm. The mica is biaxial and
negative, with a fairly small 2V. The elongation along
the cleavage is positive ; «’=1-562, y’=1-600. According
to Kunitz this indicates an aluminous mica with about
2-5% of iron. The analysis given below is of a completely
altered rock very rich in white mica, and the percentage of
alkalis would indicate that both muscovite and paragonite
are present.

The zoisite forms short subidiomorphic prisms which
are aggregated into clusters. These often fringe the
diopside crystals (Fig. 44), but they may occur as isolated
masses within the areas of white mica. The zoisite is
biaxial and positive, the elongation is negative and the
extinction is straight. The birefringence is very low, but
the mineral does not show anomalous interference tints.
It is therefore 8-zoisite which, according to Winchell(®
may contain up to 5% of iron. A little clinozoisite is
sometimes associated.

142 GERMAINE A. JOPLIN.

Sphene occurs in fairly large idiomorphic crystals or as
minute granules ; it is usually well developed. Actinolite
is present in small amount and may fringe the diopside
crystals or occur as small independent prisms. It is
usually crowded with granular sphene. Sometimes it
occurs in veins. Apatite occurs as small idiomorphic
inclusions but is not abundant.

An analysis of the most completely altered rock of this
type is given below.

Si0, ee eg Rie 47-62
Al,O; a a ” 18-21
Fe,0, : ae 0:72
FeO 6-46
MgO 5:47
CaO 13-67
Na,O 2-49
K,O 1-16
H,O+ 1°81
H,O — 0-12
iO; 1-36
P.O. 0:23
MnO 0:12
CO, 0-43
Cl 0:03
99-90
Less O for Cl .. AN 0-007
99-89
Sip: (Gry ae : 3:00

Anal. G. A. Joplin. —

(3) Actinolite-albite-clinozoisite Rocks.

These rocks occur sporadically at various places within
the endogenous contact-zone. In the hand specimen
they have the appearance of light coloured rather felspathic
diorites. Carbonates are usually present in thin sheets
along joint-planes.

Under the microscope the rock is hypidiomorphic granular
and the grainsize averages about 2mm. The constituent
minerals are albite, diopside, actinolite, clinozoisite,
calcite, sphene, apatite and traces of iron ore. Calcite,
acicular actinolite and prehnite occur in veins, and the
latter often replaces the albite in the vicinity of the vein.
Small patches of spherulitic chlorite may also occur.

Albite forms irregular grains measuring from 0-8 to
3mm. It is optically positive, with «’=1-530, y’=1-540,
and the extinction on 010 is —13°. The composition is

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES AT BEN BULLEN, N.S.W. 143

therefore Ab,,An,. The mineral is rather brown and
turbid, and encloses granular masses of clinozoisite and
occasionally a little epidote. When adjacent to veins of
prehnite it is often replaced by clear subidiomorphic
crystals of that mineral. Alteration to chlorite is some-
times noted.

Diopside forms subidiomorphic prisms averaging
2-5 mm., and these are often fringed with actinolite.
The amphibole may entirely replace the pyroxene and also
may arise as independent crystals in the contaminated
rock. When primary it occurs in slender prisms measuring
about2mm. Itis optically negative, Z Ac=19°, «a’=1:628,
y’=1-655. The colour shows a peculiar patchy distribu-
tion and may vary from colourless to green in a single
crystal. X=pale yellowish green, Y=pale yellowish
green, Z=—pale bluish green (Z:> YS xX). This corresponds
fairly closely to an actinolite described by Ford®) which
has a mean BR.I. of 1-637 and contains about 2-:7% of
alumina. When the actinolite occurs in veins it is developed
in acicular crystals.

Clinozoisite occurs in small granular masses within the
albite, but is not abundant. Sphene forms subidiomorphic
crystals up to 0:8 mm., and often contains a core of iron
ore. In the larger crystals a good cleavage on 110 may be
developed.

(4) Actinolite-chlorite-epidote Rocks.

These rocks are essentially similar to those described
above, but diopside is absent, actinolite is well developed,
epidote is far more abundant than clinozoisite and the
place of albite is taken by spherulitic chlorite.

It has already been stated that albite shows incipient
alteration to chlorite, and it would appear that this mineral
has arisen directly from the felspar. The chlorite has a
very low birefringence and shows ultra-blues. It is
optically negative and the elongation of the small
spherulitically arranged needles is positive. It therefore
appears to be pennine.

The actinolite occurs in subidiomorphic prisms from
1 to 3mm. It is optically negative and the elongation is
pasitive: ~o@ 1-622, °v’—1-647; A==0-025; X=—very
pale yellowish green, Y=pale yellowish green, Z—bluish
green (Z>Y>X); ZAc=16°. According to Ford‘>)
this would indicate a small percentage of alumina.

144 GERMAINE A. JOPLIN.

The epidote is well developed in subidiomorphic crystals
and a fairly well-marked pleochroism indicates a moderately
high iron content. Epidote and actinolite are sometimes
intergrown in a mosaic and form small skarn-like patches.
A little calcite and sphene may be associated with these
patches.

Sphene, apatite and iron ores are accessory, but the first
is often well developed.

(5) Actinolite-serpentine-epidote Rocks.

This type appears as veins and irregular dark, fine-
grained patches in the actinolite-albite-clinozoisite rocks.

&

sp
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we L, Wy

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>}

Fig. 4. :
A. Diopside-plagioclase-zoisite rock with plagioclase entirely replaced
by white mica. xX 9.

Zoisite builds prismatic crystals about diopside and also forms
larger isolated masses. White mica occurs in criss-cross flakes
and sphene surrounds iron ores. Inclusions of apatite occur in
the diopside and zoisite.

B. The lower half of the figure represents an actinolite-albite-clino-
zoisite rock showing turbid albite and small granular clusters of
clinozoisite.

The upper part of the figure shows the adjacent actinolite-
serpentine-clinozoisite rock occurring as a wide vein in the albite-
bearing assemblage. Clear plates of serpentine enclose granules of
clinozoisite.

Ragged prisms of actinolite and crystals of sphene occur in
both rocks. x 9.

C. Diopside-chlorite-spinel rock. x 9.
Note large area of chlorite with some sections showing one
cleavage. The remainder of the rock consists of a mosaic of diopside
and spinel with some apatite. The vein consists of clinozoisite.

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES AT BEN BULLEN, N.S.W. 145

It is obvious that the serpentine is taking the place of
albite, and at the junction of the two assemblages plates
of clear serpentine enclose small, turbid remnants of the
felspar. The serpentine has a very low birefringence,
it is optically positive, and «’=1-562, y’=1-567.

Actinolite occurs as in the other assemblages and may
show polysynthetic twinning. «’=1-628, y’=1:650;
Z/Ac=19°; X-=yellowish green, Y=yellowish green,
Z=bluish green (24> YS X).

Epidote forms granular masses and stout subidiomorphic
prisms. It is yellowish green and markedly pleochroic,
a’=1-732. According to Winchell this indicates
Fe,0,=25%. Clinozoisite is sometimes associated but
is not abundant. Near the junction of the albite
assemblage, however, it occurs in small granules and
epidote is rare (Fig. 4B).

(6) Prehnite-bearing Rocks.

This type occurs in a wide dyke-like mass associated
with serpentine. It is also met with in smaller veins.
In the hand specimen it is a streaky pink-and-green rock,
and white mica is clearly visible.

Under the microscope the rock shows considerable
variation in texture and in the relative proportions of the
minerals present. The constituent minerals are prehnite,
diopside, serpentine, white mica, sphene, zoisite and
sometimes a little albite, chlorite and iron ore. Garnet
has been noted in one slice. The prehnite usually forms
fairly large interlocking grains, which are brown and
turbid and sometimes appear rather fibrous. When the
prehnite surrounds areas of serpentine it often develops
clear subidioblastic crystals.

The other minerals show characters similar to those in
the assemblages described above.

(7) Pyroxene-chlorite-spinel Rock.

Only one example of this type is recorded. It occurs
near the edge of the quarry above its north-west end
(Fig. 1). In the hand specimen it might be mistaken for
an igneous rock, but closer examination shows an abundance
of spinel and small areas of calcite. The density is far
above that of a normal igneous rock.

Under the microscope the rock shows considerable
variation in the distribution of the constituent minerals,

146 GERMAINE A. JOPLIN.

and a mineral which may be very abundant in one slice
may be scarcely represented in another cut from the same
hand specimen.

The structure is granoblastic and initenderial and the
constituent minerals are pyroxene, spinel, chlorite, calcite
and apatite. Small grains of iron ore sometimes occur,
and a little clinozoisite may be present.

Pyroxene occurs in small xenoblasts, but when it
surrounds areas of chlorite or calcite it may develop large
subidioblastic prisms. It is very pale green, Z Ac=40°,
a“ =1-700, y’=1-720. Its association would suggest that
it contained alumina.

Spinel is well distributed throughout the rock, but may
show local segregations. It often occurs in large arc-shaped
aggregates of small grains, or several large crystals may
form a compact mass measuring about 3 mm. across.
The usual occurrence is as small xenoblasts in a mosaic
of pyroxene. When adjacent to areas of chlorite or calcite
subidioblastic outlines may be developed and the spinel
often shows a narrow rim of serpentine which separates
it from calcite. The spinel is bright green, but the depth
of colour is variable; n=1-750. The spinel sometimes
shows a separation of finely-divided iron ores. Larsen
and Berman") quote a green spinel with a R.I. of 1-730;
this contains ferric iron and some alkalis.

Two varieties of chlorite are developed, but one is much
more abundant than the other. It is usually interstitial,
and single crystals may measure up to 4mm. One good
cleavage is developed (Fig. 4c) and the extinction is parallel
to this. The well-developed chlorite is optically negative,
with a fairly small 2V. The elongation is positive; X=
pale brown, Y=pale green, Z=pale green (X>Y=Z);
a’=1°630, y’=1-645. According to Winchell@ this
indicates a ferroantigorite with about 20° daphnite and
20% of antigorite.

The less well-developed chlorite is optically positive,
the elongation is negative and the R.I. is lower than the
above. It is evident that it contains more alumina and
less iron and magnesia.

Calcite is developed in large irregular grains and is
usually interstitial. In some of the slides it is not repre-
sented, and in others it is very abundant. It may occur
in small grains in a granular mosaic with diopside. Apatite
is also sporadic in its distribution. When present it usually
forms subidioblastic crystals up to 0-5 mm. These have a

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES AT BEN BULLEN, N.S.W. 147

lard

somewhat stout prismatic habit and may form small

clusters of two or three crystals.

An analysis of this rock is given below.

Si0,
Al,O,
Fe,O,
FeO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
K,O
H,O+
H,O—
TiO,
POF
MnO
Co,

Sp. Gr--... :
Anal. G. A. J

oplin.

29

_ 24:
3-
3-
14-
18-

OS) SOS) S&S

-66
51
99
27
56
05
-14
-13
°02

-05

-90
“31
O51 bef
91

A. Actinolite Skarn. x 12.

Note radiating needles of actinolite which pierce large irregular
grains of calcite, and vein-like occurrence of iron ore.

B. “ Pegmatite.”” x 12.

Large allotriomorphic grains of quartz and calcite with inclusions
of actinolite, diopside, sphene and iron ores.

chlorite are interstitial.

Small masses of

148 GERMAINE A. JOPLIN.

(8) Actinolite Skarn and Associated “‘ Pegmatite ’’.

This type oceurs both in the Main Quarry and in the
quarry on Cleared Hill. The “ pegmatite ”’ is ore-bearing
and occurs aS a coarse-grained dyke rock. The skarn
forms a border about three inches wide on either side of
the dyke, and crystals of actinolite penetrate the adjacent
limestone.

The skarn consists of actinolite, quartz, calcite, sphene,
iron ore and a trace of epidote. The actinolite is very
abundant and forms large fan-shaped masses of radiating
crystals which may measure up to 1” in length (Fig. 54).
Calcite and quartz are developed in large (6 mm.) grains,
and no reaction is apparent at the junction of the two
minerals.

Both calcite and quartz enclose needles and radiating
mats of actinolite. Granular sphene, epidote and iron
ores are also included.

Actinolite is optically negative; the elongation is
positive ; X=colourless, Y=Z=yellowish green;
a’=1-631, y'’=1-660. According to Ford‘ this indicates
about 4:-4% of alumina. Actinolite and iron ores often
form intergrowths from which quartz and calcite are
absent.

Tron ores consist of both magnetite and pyrites, and the
former shows alteration to hematite.

The ‘‘ pegmatite ’’ consists of large (6 mm.) grains of
calcite and quartz (Fig. 5B). These contain inclusions of
actinolite, sphene, iron ore, diopside and epidote. Chlorite
is sometimes interstitial.

PETROGENESIS.

(i) The Circulation of Hydrothermal Solutions.

It is evident from the field occurrence and from the
petrography that some of the rocks have suffered alteration
after having reached a certain stage of contamination.
Thus the actinolite-serpentine-epidote assemblage occurs
in veins and irregular patches in the actinolite-albite-
clinozoisite rock, and the latter has the appearance of
having been permeated by serpentine-bearing solutions.
From the petrography it is evident that the serpentine
replaces albite, and it is possible that the resulting
serpentine contains a trace of alumina. Some of the
alumina of the albite may join with lime and iron to
form epidote, a mineral which is very well developed in

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES AT BEN BULLEN, N.S.W. 149

this rock. The hydrothermal solutions would, therefore,
appear to have contained magnesia, iron, silica and lime.
Syromyatnikov') has shown experimentally that silica
and iron may be transferred by water vapours, and he
concludes that not only are these oxides transferred in
solution, but also there is a molecular migration in the
gaseous medium. In the case of the late-hydrothermal
stage at Ben Bullen it is likely that water vapour played a
very important part.

The vein-like occurrence of the _ prehnite-bearing
assemblage suggests that it has had a similar origin, and
in this instance the solutions contained less magnesia and
more lime. It is also possible that the initial contamination
was brought about by a less magnesian limestone.

The status of the actinolite-chlorite-epidote rock is rather
uncertain, but its texture suggests that chlorite represents
the hydrothermal alteration of albite, and this suggestion
is strengthened by the occurrence of veins and small
patches of chlorite in the actinolite-albite-clinozoisite
rocks.

The spinel-bearing assemblage contains interstitial calcite
and chlorite, and this mode of occurrence suggests
deposition from solution, but the genesis of this rather
unique type is dealt with more fully on page 153.

These hydrothermally altered rocks represent extreme
cases of contamination, and the solutions responsible for
their alteration have been derived in part from the magma
and in part from the limestone. The rocks are thus allied
to metasomatized limestones, but their origin is indirect.
Metasomatized limestones are formed by the action of
late-magmatic solutions upon solid limestone. These
assemblages appear to have arisen by the action of late-
magmatic solutions plus limestone solutions upon rocks
that have been contaminated by limestone.

(ii) Mineralogical Interpretation of Magnesian Limestone
Assimilation.

In the case of the endogenous contact of the non-
magnesian limestones®) the field relations are such that
each stage in the contamination process can be traced.
In this contact-zone, however, the field evidence gives no
clue to the degree of contamination, but the petrography
indicates that the various assemblages have arisen by
gradual increments of magnesia and lime to the quartz-
mica-diorite magma. It is shown above that these

150 GERMAINE A. JOPLIN.

increments have not been brought about by a direct
increase in the amount of solid limestone, and that
contamination is partly due to the action of late hydro-
thermal solutions. |

Regardless of how these changes have been brought
about, it is of interest to trace the mineralogical response
to a gradually increasing magnesia content.

As the amount of dolomite present in the magnesian
limestones is very variable, further’ complications arise
with regard to this contact-zone.

The first stage in the contamination of the quartz-mica-
diorite is the formation of a diopside-bearing quartz-diorite
in which biotite is not developed. Diopside-plagioclase
xenoliths are enclosed in this contaminated diorite, and
it is evident that they represent metasomatized limestones.

No true dolomites are known at Ben Bullen, and most
of the marbles have a low alumina content. It must be
assumed, therefore, that the excess lime has passed out
to the magma, and that the plagioclase of the xenoliths
has been mechanically derived from the igneous rock.
This is supported by the petrography (see page 139).

C. E. Tilley“ has shown that masses of pure diopside
rock may be formed by the simple addition of silica to
dolomite, and it is probable that the diopside of the Ben
Bullen xenoliths and of the contaminated rocks enclosing
them arose in this way. The excess lime from the
magnesian limestone further reacted with the magma and
inhibited the formation of biotite.

In the endogenous contact-zone of the non-magnesian
limestones the disappearance of hornblende preceded that
of biotite, and at a later stage biotite gave place to ortho-
clase. In this contact-zone, however, hornblende persists
for a time, magmatic potash and alumina rapidly decrease
and no orthoclase occurs. A little potash and alumina
may enter the hornblende molecule, and it is possible that
lime combines with part of the potential biotite molecule
to form hornblende.

With a further increase in lime and magnesia and a
concomitant decrease in potash and alumina, hornblende
passes to actinolite, and at the same stage in the contamina-
tion process diopside passes to actinolite by the addition
of magnesia, silica and water.

At the initial stage of contamination the plagioclase
becomes more calcic, but at the stage when hornblende
gives place to actinolite the felspar also suffers a change,

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES AT BEN BULLEN, N.S.W. 151

and with addition of lime, breaks up into clinozoisite (or

epidote) and albite. Later by reaction with magnesia,

the albite passes to chlorite according to the following

equation :

2{Na[AISi,O, ]}-+5Mgo0 +4H,O =(OH) Mg; Al[A1S8i,0,, |
+3810, +Na,0.

Finally magnesia displaces alumina and the resulting
rock is an actinolite-serpentine-epidote assemblage.

In the chlorite- and serpentine-bearing assemblages the
excess lime possibly combines with the displaced alumina to
give a further quantity of epidote, which is abundant in
these rocks. The prehnite-bearing rocks also indicate
addition of lime.

In the following table the entry of magnesia and/or
lime from the right is assumed.

TABLE I.
Actinolite- Actinolite-
Quartz-mica- Diopside-bearing albite- chlorite- Actinolite
diorite. Quartz-diorite. clinezoisite epidote Skarn.
Rock. Rock.
Biotite -— —Hornblende — Actinolite —-—— Actinolite —-——> Actinolite
—Hornblende ————>Actinolite —-——~-Actinolite —-—-—>-Actinolite
Hornblende
!___+Diopside ——-——-—> Diopside —Actinolite ———— Actinolite
Quartz —-—-—— Diopside ——-—-_—> Diopside ——-—_—> A cctinolite ————>-Acttinolite
——Sphene ———-——_->Sphene
Iron Ore
——>Iron Ore —___>—_____—__—__—__

Y
|———>Clinozoisite ———>Epidote
Andesine —-——>Labradorite |

'____> A ]bite —Chlorite

(iii) The Genesis of the Exceptional Types.
(1) Diopside-plagioclase-zoisite Rock with White Mica.

The calculated analysis (column III of Table II) suggests
that there has been but little selective diffusion during the
formation of this contaminated rock, and that it has
arisen by the simple addition of magnesian limestone
to the quartz-mica-diorite magma.

Brucite-marble occurs abundantly in the Main Quarry
and the density (2-64) indicates a mixture of 24% brucite
and 76% calcite. Actually there is a little dolomite and
iron ore in the rock, so it is probable that calcite is slightly

152

GERMAINE A. JOPLIN.

lower in the actual rock, and this is confirmed by the excess
of lime in the calculated analysis.

TABLE II.
i iL i,

SiO, 55-35 48-84 48-95
Al,0; 20-89 18-67 18-45
Fe,0, 3°62 0-74 . 3°20
FeO... 5-22 603 ye ~~ fe uh
MgO 2-75 5-61 5-68
CaO... 7-45 14-03 14-95
Na,O 2-49 2-55 2-20
K,O 0-82 1-18 0-73
TiO, 0-90 1-39 0-79
P.O; 0-41 0-24 0-35
MnO 0-10 0-12 0-07

100-00 | 100-00 100-00

I. Quartz-mica-diorite, corrected to 100% with water omitted.
II. Diopside-zoisite-mica rock corrected to 100% with water omitted.

IIf. Calculated contaminated rock consisting of 9 parts of I and 2 parts
of (MgO/CaO= 16-56/42-56) and corrected to 100%. The
MgO/CaO ratio is equivalent to 24% brucite and 76% calcite.

From the analyses it would appear that there has been a
little selective diffusion of the alkalis, particularly of
potash, but it is difficult to interpret this mineralogically,
as the conversion of felspar to mica implies an addition
of alumina or a subtraction of alkalis.

It is evident that in some cases plagioclase has crystallized
from the contaminated magma and has been altered to
white mica at a later stage, but in other cases the white
mica appears to have crystallized directly. The first
stage seems to be the splitting of the actual or potential
plagioclase molecule into albite and anorthite, and the
subsequent conversion of anorthite into zoisite by the
addition of lime and water. The albite molecule then
joins with the potential hornblende molecule to give white
mica (possibly paragonite and muscovite) and diopside.
The resulting rock is, therefore, a diopside-zoisite-white
mica assemblage.

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES AT BEN BULLEN, N.S.W. 153

The fundamental mineralogical changes thus appear to
have been brought about by the addition of lime, and the
added magnesia simply implies a higher diopside content.
These changes may be represented by the equations :

(1) Plagioclase + Water + Lime = Zoisite + Albite.
(2) Hornblende + Albite + Water + Lime =
White Mica -+Diopside.

(2) Pyroxene-spinel-chlorite Rock.

The intersertal texture of this rock would suggest that
chlorite (with perhaps some of the calcite) has been derived
from hydrothermal solutions, and that the original rock
consisted of a granoblastic mosaic of pyroxene and spinel
with large areas of calcite against which the other minerals
show idioblastic outlines.

It has been shown that the chlorite is a highly ferruginous
type and that it contains only small amounts of alumina
and magnesia, so it is evident that the hydrothermal
solutions carried iron, silica and water. It is therefore
necessary to postulate that most of the alumina (24-51%)
was contained in the original rock. It is difficult to see
how a spinel-pyroxene assemblage could have arisen by
contamination, as the quartz-mica-diorite magma itself
contained only about 20% of alumina. It is possible that
alumina may have been segregated, but the body of the
rock does not suggest crystallization from an aqueous
solution or melt.

The association spinel-diopside is characteristic of the
high-grade thermal metamorphism of magnesian lime-
stones which contain alumina and a little silica,’® and
though no such sediments are known at Ben Bullen, the
very restricted occurrence of this type suggests that there
may have been one seam of this composition.

The assemblage may therefore be regarded as a
metasomatized limestone.

(iv) The Absence of Certain Silicate Minerals.

Hatch and Rastall'” and du Toit‘) have described the
endogenous contact of magnesian limestones with granite
at Port Shepstone, Natal, and certain differences between
the mineral assemblages of this contact-zone and that of
Ben Bullen are noteworthy.

At Port Shepstone phlogopite is abundantly developed,
and scapolite is also prominent. At Ben Bullen neither
K—November 6, 1935.

154 GERMAINE A. JOPLIN.

of these minerals occurs. It is evident that halogens were
almost lacking in the Ben Bullen magma and the absence
of these common lime and magnesian minerals may be
ascribed to this deficiency. The absence of vesuvianite
from the non-magnesian limestone contact may be similarly
accounted for.

(v) Reciprocal Reaction and Prevailing Physical Conditions.

In the case of the endogenous contact of the non-
magnesian limestone tongues of diorite have given rise to
definite contaminated zones. In dealing with a single
tongue, therefore, it was possible to trace the stages of
contamination of that tongue alone. The limestones of
this contact, moreover, had a fairly constant composition,
and it was obvious that the final stage in the contamination
process was the production of a metasomatized limestone,
which probably represented a volume-for-volume change.
There was thus some basis upon which a series of analyses
might be compared.

In the contact-zone of the magnesian limestones,
however, it is useless to make a series of analyses. First,
the field relations are such that the contaminated rocks
cannot be collected about a single igneous mass, and it is
uncertain whether two different mineral assemblages
represent different admixtures of the same limestone and
the same igneous rock. Secondly, the limestones vary in
their CaO/MgO ratio. Thirdly, there are further complica-
tions brought about by hydrothermal solutions carrying
ingredients from the limestones themselves, and it is
doubtful whether the interchanges have been volume
replacements.

Reciprocal reaction, therefore, cannot be deduced from
chemical analyses, but it may be inferred from the
mineralogical discussion and from Table I. It is evident
that the limestones have contributed lime and magnesia
to the igneous rock, and that during the first stages of
contamination all the common oxides of the igneous rock
have played a part. At a later stage there is a marked
diminution of alumina and alkalis, and finally there has
been selective diffusion of silica, iron and water from the
igneous rock. It is probable that the actinolite-skarn
has a small alumina percentage, so the final solution
probably carried a little alumina as well.

The physical conditions prevailing during assimilation
in this contact-zone are much the same as those of the

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES AT BEN BULLEN, N.S.W. 155

non-magnesian limestone contact. It has been pointed
out in connection with the latter that the occurrence of
microperthite indicates a fairly high temperature.)
This mineral occurred in the least contaminated rocks,
and it is obvious that high-grade conditions also prevailed
at the initial stage of assimilation on the magnesian
limestone. The mineralogical response to this was the
production of a more basic plagioclase, and splitting of the
plagioclase molecule into albite and clinozoisite did not
occur until the next stage was reached, when temperatures
were obviously lower and water more abundant. The
presence of actinolite is also indicative of such conditions.

Pyrites and magnetite occur in the skarn and its
associated pegmatite, and these minerals indicate a
moderately low temperature—a temperature low enough
to inhibit the reaction between quartz and calcite.

The prehnite-, serpentine- and chlorite-bearing rocks
probably belong to a slightly later stage, when the
temperature was still lower and water vapour was more
concentrated.

It is thus evident that contamination took place at low
temperatures and in the presence of volatiles, of which
water was the most active. Halogens were entirely
absent.

(vi) Comparison of the Endogenous Contacts of the
Magnesian and Non-Magnesian Limestones.

It has already been pointed out that the field relations
are not well defined in the contact of the magnesian
- limestones, and that matters are further complicated by
the variability of the magnesian content, and by the
action of hydrothermal solutions. It must also be pointed
out that the igneous rock at the contact of the magnesian
limestones is a quartz-mica-diorite, whilst that responsible
for altering the non-magnesian limestones is a little more
basic and contains pyroxene.

In a general way, however, certain similarities are
brought out by a comparison of the mineral assemblages
of the two contact-zones. Both have arisen under some-
what similar physical conditions. In the one case
contamination is brought about by the assimilation of
lime, in the other by increasing magnesia and lime; and
it is possible to compare the degree of contamination in
each case, as is done in Table IIT.

156

GERMAINE A. JOPLIN.

TABLE ITI.
Degree
of Con- Increasing Lime. Increasing Lime
tamination. and Magnesia.
I Diorite Core. Diopside-bearing Quariz-
Diopside, plagioclase, diorite.
orthoclase, iron ore and | Diopside, plagioclase,
some quartz. hornblende, iron ore and
quartz.
II Clinozoisite Zone. Actinolite-albite-
Diopside, clinozoisite, and clinozoisite Rock.
albite.
TEL Prehnite Zone. Actinolite-chlorite-
Diopside, prehnite, clino- epidote Rock.
zoisite. (Soda of albite replaced
(Soda of albite replaced by magnesia.)
by lime.)
IV Garnet Zone. Actinolite Skarn.
(Sometimes skarn.) Actinolite (with some
Garnet, diopside, wol- alumina), quartz,
lastonite, quartz, calcite. calcite.

SUMMARY.

It has been shown that a mass of limestone of variable
magnesia content has been invaded by a quartz-mica-diorite
magma, and that a certain amount of assimilation has
taken place.

The parent rocks and the contaminated types are
described in detail, and it is concluded that all the
contaminated rocks may be accounted for by a gradual
increase in the amount of MgO and CaO added to the
magma. :

It is shown, however, that these gradual increments do
not take place directly, but that certain rocks have been
contaminated first by the assimilation of solid limestone
and then by solutions derived from the sedimentary rock
as well as from the magma.

Two somewhat exceptional types have been analysed and
their genesis is discussed in some detail.

It is pointed out that the absence of certain silicate
minerals may be accounted for by the deficiency of halogens -
in the magma, and it is concluded that the prevailing
physical conditions were those of low temperature and

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES AT BEN BULLEN, N.S.W. 157

an abundance of water. Reciprocal reaction is believed
to have taken place, but some of the primary interchanges
have been masked by later reactions.

Finally, the endogenous contact-zones of the magnesian
and non-magnesian limestones are compared with regard to
the degree of contamination that each assemblage
represents.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The writer gratefully acknowledges financial assistance
from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
London, from Newnham College, Cambridge, and from the
Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advance-
ment of Science. She also thanks Prof. C. E. Tilley, of
Cambridge, for reading the manuscript, and Mr. M.
Morrison, Curator of the Mining Museum, Sydney, for
supplying examples of analysed limestones. For the field
results upon which Fig. 1 is based she acknowledges the
help of Misses A. Melvaine and N. Robards, third-year
students of Sydney University, 1933.

The laboratory work was done in the Department of
Mineralogy and Petrology, University of Cambridge.

REFERENCES.

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Coalfields, Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Geol. 6, 1908.

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Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Min. Res. 25, 1919, 315, 379.

8) Du Toit, A. G.: The Geology of the Marble Delta (Natal), Q.J.G.S.,
1919, 75,127.

‘) Eskola, P.: On Contact Metamorphism between Gneiss and
Limestone in Western Massachusetts, Journ. Geol., 1922,
30, 292.

(5) Ford, W. E.: A Contribution to the Optical Study of the Amphi-
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(6) Harker, A.: Metamorphism, 1932, 87.

(7) Hatch, F. H., and Rastall, R. H.: Dedolomitization in the Marble
of Port Shepstone (Natal), Q.J.G.S., 1910, 66, 513-514.

(8) Joplin, G. A.: Diorite-Limestone Reaction at Ben Bullen, N.S.W. :
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(9) ________: The Exogenous Contact-Zone at Ben Bullen, N.S.W.,
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10) Kunitz, W.: Die Beziehungen zwischen der chemischen Zusammen-
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158 GERMAINE A. JOPLIN.

(1) Larsen, E.S., and Berman, H.: The Microscopic Determination of
the Nonopaque Minerals, U.S.G.S., Bull. 848, 1934, 246.

(1a) Syromyatnikov, F. V.: The Problem of the Transfer of Silica by
Water Vapour, Hcon. Geol., 1935, 30, 92.

43) Tilley, C. E.: The Metamorphism of the Pre-Cambrian Dolomites
of Southern Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, Geol. Mazq.,
1920, 57, 496.

(144 Winchell, A. N.: Elements of Optical Mineralogy, Pt. II, 1927,
Bod, OOo:

EFFECT OF CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS ON SOME WooDs. 159

THE EFFECT OF CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS ON SOME
WOODS.

By M. B. WELCH, B.Sc., A.I.C.,*
Economic Botanist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

(Manuscript received, October 24, 1935. Read, November 6, 1935.)

For many purposes such as vats, pipe lines, impellers,
scrubbers, hoppers, trucks and battery separators, wood
is required to resist chemical action, and it has long been
known that all timbers are not equal in this respect. Thus
for many purposes, especially vats, Kauri is preferred,
whilst for battery separators Port Orford Cedar is largely
used.

In order to gain some knowledge of the resistance of
certain Australian timbers compared with that of Port
Orford Cedar (Cupressus Lawsoniana), twenty-five local
woods, all being commercially available, were selected,
and one board of each was cut into twenty-four thin slats
measuring approximately 2”x0-15"x10" long. The
timbers used were: Celery Top Pine (Phyllocladus
rhomboidalis), Huon Pine (Dacrydium Franklinu), Port
Macquarie Pine (Callitris Macleayana), Hoop Pine
(Araucaria Cunninghami), Queensland Kauri (Agathis
Sp.), Radiata Pine (Pinus radiata, P. insignis), Tallowwood
(Eucalyptus microcorys), Blue Gum (Hucalyptus saligna),
Spotted Gum (Hucalyptus maculata), Blackbutt (H.
pilularis), Turpentine (Syncarpia laurifolia), Brush Box
(Tristania conferta), Rosewood (Dysoxylum Fraseranum),
Teak (Flindersia australis), Coachwood (Ceratopetalum
apetalum), Red Carabeen (Geissois Benthami), Crab Apple
(Schizomeria ovata), Corkwood (Ackama Muelleri), Bolly
Gum (litsea reticulata), Silver Sycamore (Cryptocarya
glaucescens), Beech (Gmelina Leichhardtii), Yellow Carabeen
(Sloanea Woolsii), Sassafras (Doryphora sassafras), N.S.W.
Maple (Villaresia (Chariessa) Moorei), and Port Macquarie
Beech (Euroschinus falcatus).

* Acknowledgment is made to Messrs. F. B. Shambler and J. Hodges,
of the Museum staff, who assisted very materially during the
investigation.

160 M. B. WELCH.

The timbers were weighed, measured to 0-001", and
immersed in water and in the following aqueous solutions,
all at atmospheric temperatures : 10, 25 and 50% sulphuric
acid; 5, 10, 25, and 50% nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42); 10,
25, 50 and 100% hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1:16); 5, 10,
20, and 40% caustic soda; 50 and 100% ammonia (sp. gr.
0-880); 50 and 100% glacial acetic acid; saturated
solutions of sodium carbonate, ammonium sulphate,
sodium chloride, and 35% sodium sulphite. The
experiment was commenced in February, 1933, and the
slats were examined at intervals. The majority were left
until August, 1935, when they were again weighed and
measured.

The percentage swellings given in Table I were calculated
on the original air-dry size with a moisture content of
approximately 13%, and the results obtained with the
different solutions can be compared with what may be
regarded as the normal figures, namely those obtained by
soaking in water. No measurements were made of the
timbers immersed in 50% nitric acid, and in a number of
other instances measurements were not _ practicable.
Many of the figures obtained appear to be irregular ;
thus with varying concentrations of, for example, sulphuric
acid, swelling may vary directly or indirectly with acid
strength, or the intermediate strength may produce a
Maximum or minimum swelling. Working with certain
American timbers Hauser and Bahlman! also found
irregular swelling at different concentrations with sulphuric
acid and caustic soda. Caustic soda (40%) caused an
increase of over 29% in the width of several woods, whereas
with other timbers the swelling was under 2%.
Consistently low swelling figures were obtained with
ammonium sulphate.?

In comparing the figures for the different timbers it
should be noted that they were not all cut in the same
vertical plane ; the normal shrinkage and swelling of wood
is approximately twice as much tangentially or ‘* backed-

1§. J. Hauser and C. Bahlman: ‘‘ Effect of Chemical Solutions on
Various Woods Used in Tanks’’, Chem. and Metall. Hng., 1923, 28,
159-162.

2A. J. Stamm (‘‘ Effect of Inorganic Salts upon the Swelling and
Shrinkage of Wood ”’, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., 1934, 56, 1195) has shown
that the degree of swelling varies with different salts, depending largely
upon their solubility, but in no case is any reduction of swelling between
water and inorganic salt solutions indicated.

TABLE I.

Percentage Lateral Swelling Based on Air-dry Size, Obtained by Immersing Slats in Different Aqueous Solutions.

EFFECT OF CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS ON SOME WOODS. 161

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162 M. B. WELCH.

off’? as it is when quarter-cut. The direction of cut is
shown in the table.

Apart from caustic soda, the highest mean figure was
obtained with glacial acetic acid.

In Table II are given the various degrees of firmness
of the woods after different periods of immersion. This
determination was purely empirical, and was based on the
resistance of the slats to bending in the fingers, but it can
be regarded as affording an EDI a of the relative
rigidity of the woods.

It is obvious that in general the ‘‘ pine ”’ timbers showed
the greatest resistance to chemical action, and compare
very favourably with Port Orford Cedar, whilst the
majority of the ‘‘ non-pine ’’ woods were definitely inferior,
notably Port Macquarie Beech, which failed lamentably.?
The rigidity or otherwise of the slats as shown in the table
does not tell the whole story ; many woods, including the
Eucalypt hardwoods, and especially Tallowwood, which
might have been expected to possess some resistance,
became cracked and warped, particularly in caustic soda.
Apart from the “ pines ’”’, Teak, Sassafras and Sycamore
seemed to be generally most satisfactory. The effect
of ammonia, acetic acid and the various inorganic salts
was so little that it was not possible to discriminate between
the different woods; the results have therefore been
omitted from the table. Any of the woods could be used
satisfactorily in contact with these solutions, at any rate
at atmospheric temperatures.

The effect of the more corrosive solutions can be
summarised as follows, based on an examination of the
slats after washing and drying:

Sulphuric Acid, 10%. Very little alteration notice-
able ; all woods stiffened up and appeared to be strong.

Sulphuric Acid, 25%. Little external effect apparent,
except that all woods darkened; some of the hardwoods
inclined to check.

Sulphuric Acid, 50%. All woods discoloured, and
had appearance of being partially carbonised; the
‘pines ’’, together with Teak, Sassafras, Coachwood,
Beech, and Corkwood affected least in shape, others
more or less warped. Tallowwood also badly split

°C. S. Robinson (‘‘ Wood as a Chemical Engineering Material ”’,
Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem., 1922, 14, 607) states that in general coniferous
woods are most resistant ‘to hy drochloric and other acids.

163

EFFECT OF CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS ON SOME WOODS.

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164 M. B. WELCH.

and to a smaller extent Rosewood, Yellow Carabeen,
Blue Gum, Blackbutt and New South Wales Maple.

Nitric Acid, 5%. All timbers bleached to a yellow
colour; Port Macquarie Beech and Yellow Carabeen
seriously warped, others scarcely affected and all
appeared rigid, although some were inclined to be
brittle.

Nuric Acid, 10%. Blue Gum and Spotted Gum
roughened and checked ; Bolly Gum badly corrugated ;
Port Macquarie Beech, Yellow Carabeen and New
South Wales Maple considerably warped; remainder
not altered in shape.

Nitric Acid, 25%. Practically all timbers cracked
and distorted, with excessive shrinkage evident in Port
Macquarie Beech, Blackbutt and Brush Box. All woods
dried out rigid and stiff, but were brittle.

Nitric Acid, 50%. After three months the majority
of the woods were so weak, when wet, that they were
unable to support their own weight when held at one
end horizontally, and they were removed. The coniferous
woods and Sycamore were still firm, whilst timbers such
aS Tallowwood, Blue Gum and Crab Apple were so soft.
and spongy that they could not be handled without
falling to pieces. All woods were bleached to a pale
yellow. On drying all woods were more or less distorted
and cracked.

Hydrochloric Acid, 10%. Uittle apparent effect except
in Blackbutt, which was warped and cracked. All
woods hard and rigid.

Hydrochloric Acid, 25%. Little alteration except
Blue Gum, which showed slight corrugations.

Hydrochloric Acid, 50%. Most woods inclined to be
brittle. Bolly Gum showed excessive shrinkage; Blue
Gum and Blackbutt checked and warped; all timbers
darkened and the majority became brittle, especially
Port Macquarie Beech.

Hydrochloric Acid, 100%. All woods darkened
considerably and appeared carbonised. Tallowwood
and Blackbutt badly checked and warped, and Blue
Gum and Spotted Gum to a somewhat less degree.
The conifers, together with Sassafras and Corkwood,
seemed to be least affected in shape.

Caustic Soda, 5%. The conifers and Teak were in
best condition, whilst Rosewood, Port Macquarie Beech
and Crab Apple were worst, being badly warped. Bolly

EFFECT OF CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS ON SOME WOODS. 165

Gum and Brush Box showed excessive uneven shrinkage,
amounting to over 32% and 20% respectively. All
the timbers appeared tough and strong.

Caustic Soda, 10%. The conifers, with the exception
of Celery Top Pine, which was warped, and Port
Macquarie Pine, which showed considerable uneven
shrinkage, appeared in fair condition. Port Macquarie
Beech and Bolly Gum had shrunk badly, the latter
by 46%, on the air-dry size. Rosewood, Corkwood
and Coachwood were much warped and the remainder
to a greater or less extent.

Caustic Soda, 20%. Practically all woods showed
excessive shrinkage, especially Port Orford Cedar, Port
Macquarie Beech, Bolly Gum and Huon Pine; all
distorted and more or less warped, especially Tallowwood.

Caustic Soda, 40%. Excessive shrinkage evident in
the majority of the woods, particularly in those
mentioned previously. Queensland Kauri and Sassafras
appeared to be least affected, but all were more or less
distorted. Tallowwood was the worst of all, the surface
being extremely broken and ragged, whilst Rosewood,
Teak and Corkwood were not quite so roughened.

Ammonia, 50%. All woods darkened, but not other-
wise seriously affected. Bolly Gum and Port Macquarie
Beech showed excessive shrinkage and these, together
with Rosewood, Crab Apple, Beech, Spotted Gum and
Yellow Carabeen, were also warped.

Ammonia, 100%. As for 50% except that Bolly Gum
was also corrugated. All woods appeared to be rigid
and strong.

Acetic Acid, 50%. Woods practically unaffected
except for slight corrugating of Bolly Gum and the
‘* grain ’’ being raised in Blue Gum and Spotted Gum.

Acetic Acid, 100%. Woods apparently unaffected
and appeared to be even better than in 50%.

No special comment appears to be necessary for the
other solutions, except that sodium sulphite had a moderate
bleaching action, whilst ammonium sulphate ebonised
some of the woods, especially Turpentine, Blackbutt,
Tallowwood and Yellow Carabeen. Sodium carbonate
in a few instances caused the wood surface to lift in small
areas, particularly where the surface was cut with the
stamps used for marking the slats. It has been noted on
other occasions that where wood has been exposed to

166 M. B. WELCH.

washing soda under alternately wet and dry conditions it
has become frayed and woolly.

SUMMARY.

A number of woods, Australian with one exception, were
immersed in various acids, alkalis and inorganic salts.
In general the coniferous woods proved to be the most
resistant to chemical action, whilst many of the hardwood

and brush timbers were very inferior.

BIREFRINGENCE OF POTASSIUM CHLOROPALLADITE. 167

THE BIREFRINGENCE OF POTASSIUM CHLORO-
PALLADITE AND POTASSIUM CHLORO-
PLATINITE.

By D. P. MELLOR, M.Sc.,
and FLORENCE M. QUODLING, B.Sc.

(Manuscript received, October 24, 1935. Read, November 6, 1935.)

Within the last few years increased attention has been
paid to the relation between optical properties and crystal
structure, and sufficient has been done in the way of
correlating the two to enable optical properties to be used
as a valuable check on structure-determinations (W. A.
Wooster, Zeit. f. Krist., 1931, Bd. 81, 495). For example,
all crystals of the type Ry MX, in which X-ray analysis
has shown that the MX, ion has a tetrahedral configuration
exhibit little or no birefringence. The origin of the low or
zero birefringence is to be sought in the optical isotropy
of the tetrahedral MX, ion. On the other hand crystals
of the type Rx MX, in which the MX, ion is planar are
strongly birefringent and optically negative. When a
ray is so polarised that its electric vector lies in the plane
of the MX, ion it travels more slowly than one polarised
at right angles.

The object of this note is to present optical data relating
to those unique structures of the Rx, MX, type in which
the MX, ion is planar, viz. K,PdCl, and K,PtCl,. These
structures are of special interest in view of their bearing
on the stereochemistry of 4-covalent palladium and
platinum. If the atomic arrangements deduced for
K,PdCl, and K,PtCl, by Dickinson (Journ. Am. Chem.
Soc., 1922, 44, 2404) are correct the crystals should be
optically negative and strongly birefringent. Measure-
ments described below show this to be the case for both
compounds.

EXPERIMENTAL.

Refractive index measurements on the crystals were
made in sodium light by the usual immersion method.

168 MELLOR AND QUODLING.

Those liquids whose refractive indices lay outside the range
of the Abbé refractometer were measured by the method
of minimum deviation. Crystals of K,PdCl, were prepared
by slow evaporation of solutions containing PdCl, and
KCl in the proper proportions, while crystals of K,PtCl,
were prepared from K,PtCl, by reduction with K,C,Q,.

K,Pdacl,.

Thin sections parallel to ¢ are light brownish-yellow and
show strong pleochroism (Groth: Chem. Kryst., 1, 351).
O=cinnamon brown; E=greenish yellow; absorption :
O> E.

Wp=1-710+0-001, ep=1-523+0-001.

Double refraction=0-187 (negative).

Molecular refraction, R K,Pac, = 44 °6.

Using Wasastjerna’s values (Soc. Sci. Fenn. Comm.
Phys.-Math., 1922-3, 1, 37, 1) for the ionic refraction of

K+ and Cl- we find Roaci, to be 38-9 and Ray 5-1.

Ke PiCl,.*

Very small (0-7 mm.) pale wine-red tapering crystals
were examined. Their pleochroism is distinct but less
marked than in K,PdCl, O=light pinkish brown ;
E=pale wine-red.

@p=1-683 40-001, en=1-553 40-001.

Double refraction=0-130 (negative).

Molecular refraction R ==44 +2,

K,Ptc
Roig, 384 5 Rp,=

From the optical data relating to K,PtCl,t (Winchell :
The Optic and Microscopic Characters of Artificial Minerals,
p. 26) BR is found to be 60-84, R,,,, =55-1 and R,,
AA

K,PtCl, PtCl,

DISCUSSION.

Such strong birefringence as is found could not arise
from a tetrahedral configuration or from the bisphenoidal

* The optical measurements listed by Winchell under K,PtCl, and
stated to have been made on ‘“‘ potassium platinum chloride’”’ of
unknown formula cannot refer to potassium chloroplatinite.

+ The value of n used in this calculation refers to 577uu, but the
difference introduced by assuming this value of n to be the same as
for 5894 will not seriously affect the values of R.

BIREFRINGENCE OF POTASSIUM CHLOROPALLADITE. 169

arrangement proposed by Hermann, Rosenheim and
Gerb (Zeit. f. anorg. Chem., 1933, 215, 289). While the
optical resolution of meso-stilbenediamino-isobutylene-
diamino platinous salts by Mills and Quibell (J. Chem.
Soc., 1935, 839) has definitely eliminated the possibility of
a tetrahedral orientation of electron pair bonds about
4-covalent platinum, a pyramidal configuration is not
excluded. These authors consider, however, that there
are no reasons for inferring a pyramidal rather than
the more symmetrical planar configuration. If the optical
resolutions of bis-isobutylenediamine platinous salts
(Reihlen and Huhn, Ann., 1931, 489, 42) and other
4-covalent compounds of palladium and platinum are
valid and a tetrahedral configuration is excluded, a
pyramidal configuration does satisfactorily account for all
‘types of isomerism observed in 4-covalent platinum and
palladium compounds (Dwyer and Mellor, J. Amer. Chem.
Soc., 1934, 56, 1551). A small displacement of the Pd
(or Pt) atom out of the plane of the four chlorine atoms
in the structure deduced by Dickinson would produce a
structure in which marked birefringence should still be
found and at the same time would introduce a polar axis.
The forms observed for K,PdCl,—{110} and {111} or {110}
and {001}—and the absence of pyroelectric properties,
for which a search was made by the liquid-air method due
to Martin (Min. Mag., 1931, 22, 519), show that the crystal
does not possess a polar axis. All the evidence points,
therefore, to a planar arrangement of the chlorine atoms
about platinum and palladium in K,PtCl, and K,PdC],.
It is not clear why the birefringence of K,PtCl, is less than
that of K,PdCl,. The figures for the atomic refractivity
of Pt and Pd show that in calculating the birefringence of
these crystals (K,PtCl, and K,PdCl,) it will not be
permissible to neglect the refractivity of the central atom
of the planar ion as was done by Bragg when calculating
the birefringence of calcite.

One other similar but rather complicated structure,
MgPt(CN),7H,O, has been analysed by Bozorth and
Haworth (Phys. Rev., 1927, 29, 223). These authors state
that :

‘* Possible arrangements for the C and N atoms include those placing
them at the corners of squares of undetermined sizes which lie in planes
parallel to the 001 planes and which have platinum atoms at their
centres.”

“L—November 6, 1935.

170 MELLOR AND QUODLING.

The crystals are uniaxial positive! and very strongly
birefringent «—w=—0°35 (Gaubert, Bull. Soc. Fr. Min.,
1917, 40, 177). It seems reasonable to suppose that the
strong birefringence of MgPt(CN),7H,O, of monoclinic
RbLIPt(CN),3H,O and orthorhombic KNaPt(CN),3H,O
is largely due to the planar Pt(CN), ions. With the
suggested orientation of the square Pt(CN), ions parallel
to 001 planes one would expect the crystals of
MgPt(CN),7H,O to be optically negative. The optical
properties suggest that the Pt(CN), groups are parallel
to the ¢ axis.

Since completing the above investigation two gold
compounds of the type RMX, [N(CH,),AuCl, and KAuBr,]
have been examined. Both are very strongly birefringent,
and this suggests that AuCly and AuByj ions are planar as
predicted by the quantum mechanical calculations of
Pauling [J. Amer. Chem. Soc. (1931), 53, 1367]. Further
work on these compounds is being carried out.

SUMMARY.

The optical characteristics of potassium chloropalladite
and potassium chloroplatinite accord qualitatively with
those expected from the structures assigned by X-ray
analysis. For a ray polarised so that its electric vector
lies in the plane of the MX, ion the refractive index is
much higher than for the ray whose electric vector is
perpendicular to the plane of the ion.

Department of Chemistry,
Department of Geology,
The University of Sydney.

1 These crystals were examined and the positive optical sign as well
as the strong birefringence were confirmed.

OCCURRENCE OF LINALOOL. CE

THE OCCURRENCE OF LINALOOL IN THE
ESSENTIAL OIL OF MELALEUCA ERICIFOLIA.

By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.1., F.CS.,
Curator and Economic Chemist,

and F. R. MORRISON, F.C.S., A.A.C.L.,
Assistant Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

}

(Manuscript received, November 8, 1935. Read, December 4, 1935.)

Messrs. Baker and Smith (Tis Journaz, Vol. 56, 1922,
p. 115) published the results of an investigation imto the
chemistry of the essential oil of Melaleuca ericifolia. : They
showed the principal alcohol to be «-terpineol.

The wide distribution of this “‘Tea Tree’? has caused
Many enquiries to be made about the economic possibilities
of its essential oil. The occurrence of so common an alcohol
as «-terpineol, obtainable in commercial quantities at an
extremely low price, has precluded any attention! being
given to the exploitation of the essential oil of Melaleuca
ericifolia. The extensive areas of this shrub and the
various enquiries received caused us to re-examine the
principal odoriferous constituent, for on crushing the
leaves between the fingers the pleasant odour of linalool
was detected. |

The influence of this alcohol upon _ the probable
commercial exploitation of the shrub renders it advisable
for a preliminary note of its occurrence to be cored as
soon as possible.

Leaves and terminal branchlets were first sah aitted
by Mr. 8. J. Gaw of Laughtondale, and it was from the
consignment received on 6th August, 1934, that the alcohol
linalool was isolated and its identity confirmed. Further
supplies of material were collected at Narrabeen and
Kogarah, the last-named locality being the one from: which
Messrs. Baker and Smith obtained their material ini 1922.
The presence of terpineol has not been detected in any of
the oils examined by us.

PENFOLD AND MORRISON.

172

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OCCURRENCE OF LINALOOL 173

EXPERIMENTAL.

The leaves and terminal branchlets were collected from
the various localities enumerated above and the essential
oils obtained therefrom by steam distillation. These oils
gave the chemical and physical constants shown in Table I.

The essential oils were brownish yellow in colour, and
varied from very mobile to viscous liquids according to
the percentage of sesquiterpenes present. The odour of
the crude oils was particularly pleasant, due to the presence
of linalool.

Determination of Linalool.

All four lots of oil were examined by distillation at
10 mm. and the fractions distilling at 80° to 90° at 10 mm.
separated and examined. These fractions gave the
following chemical and physical constants. (See Table IT.)

Linalool of a high degree of purity is very difficult to
obtain by the ordinary methods of fractional distillation.
The high specific gravity of the various fractions was
found to be due to admixture of the linalool with sesqut-
terpenes.

On further distillation fairly pure linalool was obtained
possessing the following characters :

Boiling point at 10 mm. 84° to 86°, a? 0-8760,
20 Se
a, +15-5°, at 1-4645.

The identity of this alcohol was confirmed by the
preparation of the «-naphthyl urethane, melting point
53° to 54°, the phenyl urethane, melting point 65° to 66°,
and citral by oxidation, melting point of semicarbazone,
135°. On recrystallisation the melting point was raised
to 164°.

The chemistry of the other constituents, particularly
the sesquiterpenes, will be dealt with in a subsequent
communication. |

Our thanks are due to Mr. 8S. J. Gaw, Laughtondale, for
providing two consignments of material.

174 M. B. WELCH.

NOTES ON THE SHRINKAGE OF WOOD.
PART II.

By M.B. WELCH, BSc... Aces
Economic Botanist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

(Manuscript recewed, November 20, 1935. Read, December 4, 1935 )

The results of a number of shrinkage and density
determinations were published a few years ago.! Since
then, chiefly through the courtesy of the Forestry Com-
mission of New South Wales, further samples of green
timber have been received for examination. In general
the. procedure was similar to that already described,
except that the small sections measuring 1 inch along the
grain, 4 inches in width and 1 inch in thickness were
allowed to air-season before oven-drying, and the air-dry
and oven-dry shrinkages were determined from the same
section, whereas in the earlier paper the air-dry and oven-
dry shrinkages were measured from separate sections cut
from the same board. The moisture content of the air-dry
material was approximately 13%.

No attempt was made to eliminate collapse, and whilst
such a condition is evident in timbers such as Brush Box,
Turpentine, Murray Red Gum, in the majority it is
apparently absent or occurs only to a minor degree.

It is sometimes assumed that the shrinkage, green to
air-dry, is half the green to oven-dry shrinkage, but an
examination of the figures in columns 4 and 5 indicates
that the ratio is usually much greater, the air-dry shrinkage
being commonly from 0-6 to 0-8 times the oven-dry
shrinkage. A shrinkage factor of 0-5 for an air-dry
moisture content of 13% presupposes a fibre saturation
point of about 26%, and if the factor is greater than this,
it indicates either that the fibre saturation point is above

* Acknowledgment is due to Messrs. F. B. Shambler and J. Hodges
of the Museum staff, who assisted very materially during the progress
of the work.

1M. B. Welch, Notes on the Shrinkage of Wood, Jour. Roy. Soc.
N.S.W., 1932, 65, 235-250.

175

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6 8 L 9 g b g z T

NOTES ON THE SHRINKAGE OF WOOD. 181

26% or that collapse has occurred during the initial
seasoning.

Although the results are too few for any attempt to be
made to correlate density and shrinkage (in general in the
Same species shrinkage should vary directly as density),
it is evident that many anomalies occur. Again, in a
number of species the tangential is greater than the radial
shrinkage for different samples, although collapse may
have influenced the results in some instances. It is
recognised that shrinkage may be modified, apart from
density, by the conditions of drying and by the size and
shape of the material, and is undoubtedly so variable that
mean results must be used with great caution.

Whilst the ratio of radial to tangential shrinkage is
usually less than 2:1, Sassafras again shows a high ratio
of approximately 3}:1, a result which might have been
anticipated when the warping tendencies of this wood are
known, yet quarter-cut material should be quite suitable
for jomery. The tangential shrinkage of Cedar was again
shown to be as little as 3%. The tangential shrinkage of
Cypress Pine also ranges between 3% and 4%, indicating
the value of this wood for flooring, since even when it is
used in a partially seasoned condition shrinkage is not
excessive.

The figures given in the table are self-explanatory, and
apart from shrinkage give some indication of the moisture
content in freshly sawn timber, and also of the weight per
cubic foot of green and air-dry timber.

The volumes of the sections were determined by the
displacement of mercury, a method which has given very
satisfactory results ; in the most open textured wood used,
no penetration of mercury could be detected by weighing
before and after immersion.

EXPLANATION OF TABLE.

. Weight per cubic foot, air-dry volume and we'ght.

. Weight per cubic foot, green volume and weight.

. Weight per cubic foot, green volume and oven-dry weight.

. Lateral shrinkage green to air-dry.

Lateral shrinkage green to oven-dry.

. Volumetric shrinkage, green to air-dry.

. Volumetric shrinkage, green to oven-dry.

. Moisture % on oven-dry weight.

. Direction of cut. Q=radial or quarter cut, B=tangential or

‘* backed off ’’, O=oblique (45° to rays). 15° tolerance permitted.
* Possibly below fibre saturation point.

OWIAMP whe

182 BURROWS AND SANFORD.

COMPOUNDS FORMED FROM COPPER SALTS AND
TERTIARY ARSINES.

Parr I.
By G. J. BURROWS, B.Sc.,
and E. P. SANFORD, B.Sc.

(Manuscript received, November 19, 1935. Read, December 4, 1935.)

The tendency of arsenic to pass from the tervalent
to the 4-covalent condition is well shown by the ease of
formation and the stability of compounds of tertiary
arsines with salts of platinum, gold and silver (Cahours
and Gal, Jour. prakt. Chem., 1870, 110, 460; Mann and
Pope, J.C.S., 121, 1758; Burrows and Parker, J.A.C.N.,
1933, 55, 4133; Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1934, 68, 39).
The formation of addition compounds of tertiary arsines
with the iodides of phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, tin and
bismuth, and with compounds such as methyl diiodo
arsine (Burrows and Turner, J.C.S., 1920, 117, 1373;
1921, 119, 1448) is to be attributed to the same tendency.

Ehrlich and Karrer (Ber., 1915, 48, 1634) obtained
addition compounds of salvarsan with two molecules of
cupric chloride. These authors concluded that in
compounds formed by salvarsan and other arseno-
derivatives with metallic salts, the metal is attached to the
arsenic atom, and is not coordinated with amino or hydroxyl
groups.

The present communication contains a report on
compounds obtained by acting on cuprous and cupric
salts with phenyl dimethyl arsine and diphenyl methyl
arsine. It was observed that cuprous iodide could be
dissolved in a hot alcoholic solution of phenyl dimethyl
arsine, and that on cooling the solution colourless prisms
separated. Recrystallisation from acetone yielded two
products, containing one and two molecules of arsine
respectively to one of cuprous iodide. The other cuprous
derivatives of this arsine that were isolated were bis-phenyl
dimethyl] arsine cuprous chlorideand pheny! dimethylarsine
cuprous bromide; only in the case of cuprous iodide were

COMPOUNDS FORMED FROM COPPER SALTS. 183

both types obtained. The cuprous chloride compound
was obtained from cuprous chloride itself, and also from
cupric chloride ; presumably by reduction with excess of
the arsine. The cuprous bromide compound was obtained
from cupric bromide. No _ coordination compound
corresponding to a cupric halide could be isolated. With
diphenyl methyl arsine similar compounds were obtained
from cupric chloride, cupric bromide, and also from cupric
nitrate.

The three derivatives isolated are all cuprous derivatives
with one molecule of arsine combined with one of the
cuprous salt. When freshly prepared all of the above
derivatives are white crystalline substances with
characteristic melting points. On long standing in the
atmosphere they slowly become light blue in colour. On
treatment with sodium hydroxide they yield cuprous
oxide, indicating that they are cuprous derivatives. They
have a distinct odour of the arsine, and in most cases on
boiling a solution of the compound for some considerable
time it decomposes, with the separation of the cuprous
halide. These facts led to the belief that these compounds
were of the types [R.Cu]X and [R,Cu]X, where BR repre-
sents a molecule of the arsine and X an atom of halogen.
On the other hand these derivatives are insoluble in
water but soluble in alcohol, acetone, benzene, and chloro-
form, which would indicate that they are non-polar
compounds rather than salts, and correctly formulated as

| Ou | and | Cu< {2 respectively. In solution in

benzene they have molecular weights agreeing fairly
closely with those calculated from the formulz, but their
behaviour on heating or towards reagents can be attributed
to the fact that they are not very stable in solution.

In addition to the above, a third type of derivative has
been isolated. If cupric chloride in alcoholic solution is
treated with excess of arsine a cuprous chloride derivative
rapidly separates as mentioned above. The filtrate on
standing exposed to the air slowly deposited crystals,
which on analysis were found to contain two atoms of
copper, three of chlorine, and three molecules of arsine
(Cu,R,Cl,). In the case of phenyl dimethyl arsine the
derivative was blue in colour, did not melt sharply, but
could not be separated into two compounds. With
diphenyl methyl arsine, however, a mixture of brown and
blue crystals separated. Subsequently it was found

184 BURROWS AND SANFORD.

possible to prepare these derivatives separately by varying
the conditions. Both the blue and the brown compound
are crystalline, and have the same composition,
Cu,(Ph,MeAs),Cl,. They both melt at 245° C. to deep
green liquids, and the melting point of a mixture is the
same. Unfortunately they are almost insoluble in the
ordinary solvents, being only slightly soluble in hot acetone
and alcohol. It has not been possible to carry out a
molecular weight determination. On treatment with
sodium hydroxide the crystals appear to become coated
with cuprous oxide. There is little doubt that these
compounds are formed by the oxidation of the simple

cuprous derivatives, | ou ce and valency considera-

tions lead to the conclusion that one of the copper atoms
is in the cuprous condition and the other in the cupric.

It is interesting to note that Ritthausen (Journ. prakt.
Chem., 1853, 59, 373) obtained a white crystalline compound
of CuCl.NH, by the action of a solution of ammonia on
copper. This corresponds to the compounds of the type

C R
| E> Ol
author also observed that a solution of this cuprous
compound in aqueous ammonia, on standing exposed to
the air, deposited blue crystals of a compound to which he
assigned the formula Cu,Cl.NH,.CuClNH,;.HO. From
the analytical data actually published in that paper the
atomic ratio Cu: Cl: NH, is 1:1-34:1-37, which would
suggest the formula Cu,Cl,(NH,;),H,O, one of the copper
atoms being in the cuprous and the other in the cupric
condition. Such a compound would be analogous to the
arsine derivative Cu,Cl,(Ph,MeAs), isolated during the
present investigation.

As regards the constitution of the two compounds
Cu,Cl,(Ph,MeAs), it is possible that one may be a polymer
of the other. As mentioned above, it has not been possible
to decide this point by determining molecular weights,
owing to the insolubility of the compounds. The very
marked difference in colour cannot be attributed to the
presence in one of a small quantity of impurity, as crystals
of both substances separate together from the same
solution, and very fine crystals of the blue form appeared
to change very slowly to the brown when kept in specimen
bottles for many months. Furthermore, the two forms

described in the present communication. This

COMPOUNDS FORMED FROM COPPER SALTS. 185

apparently become identical on heating to the melting
point.

As pointed out above, valency considerations require
that one of the copper atoms is cuprous and the other
cupric, and the behaviour of the compounds towards
reagents is consistent with this. Assuming that the
compounds are monomolecular, three formule suggest

themselves: (1) [Cu(Ph,MeAs),] | cuté eek (2)

Cl,
| cuff DeMeAs)s |) [CuCl] and (3) Cul Cu'EPeMeAs)s|_ ty
3

the first the cuprous atom loses an electron to the cupric
atom and is coordinated with two molecules of arsine,
becoming a univalent positive ion, the cupric atom becoming
a 4-covalent ion. In the second the cupric atom loses
one electron to the cuprous and at the same time is attached
covalently to three molecules of arsine and one chlorine
atom. In other words that compound may be regarded
as a derivative of H[CuCl,] in which the H is replaced by
the complex 4-covalent cupric ion. In the third the
cuprous atom becomes a simple cuprous ion, and the cupric
atom is coordinated with the three molecules of arsine,
passing into the 6-covalent state. In most complex cupric
compounds the copper has a covalency of four, but several
six-covalent derivatives have been described, such as
[Cuen,|Cl,. The six-covalent groups in such compounds
would be arranged octahedrally, and Wahl (Acto. Soe.
Sci. Fennica, 1928, 14, 1) prepared from cupric halides and
ethylene diamine, compounds of the type [Cuen,(H,O),]X,.
The tartrate of this complex ion was separated into two
different optically active fractions, and these in turn were
converted into active iodides.

The formula Cu | ou |
insoluble nature of the compounds, and furthermore it
would explain the isomerism. In one form the three
arsine groups are in the 1, 2, 3 positions, whilst in the other
they are in the 1, 2, 6. It is interesting to note that

the isomeric cobalt triammines | coals usually
= 3 Aa

is consistent with the

show a marked difference in colour.

Further experiments are in progress with other tertiary
arsines, and it is hoped that they will enable us definitely
to establish the constitution of these compounds.
M—December 4, 1935.

186 BURROWS AND SANFORD.
EXPERIMENTAL.

Phenyl dimethyl arsine cuprous iodide : | outa |

was obtained by boiling an alcoholic solution of phenyl
dimethyl arsine with excess of cuprous iodide for about
half an hour. After removing the excess of cuprous
iodide, the filtrate was concentrated on the water bath
until crystallisation commenced, a few c.c. of hot alcohol
were added, and the solution allowed to crystallise in the
air. Pale yellow crystals separated, and after drying in
the air were found to melt at 127°C. The compound
is readily soluble in cold alcohol, benzene, carbon tetra-
chloride and acetone, and sparingly soluble in ether. It
could be crystallised (without change of the melting point)
by dissolving in cold ether and allowing the cold solution
to concentrate at the ordinary temperature. The solution,
unless very dilute, was found to decompose on heating,
with the precipitation of cuprous iodide and formation .
of bis-phenyl dimethyl arsine cuprous iodide.

Found: Cu=17-0, I1=33:-8 per. cent:

C,H,,AsCul requires Cu=16-9, I=34-1 per cent.

Bis-phenyl dimethyl arsine CUPTOUS iodide :

| cule D Mess): | was prepared by digesting an alcoholic

solution of the arsine with a slight excess of cuprous iodide
on the water bath for a few minutes. The solution was
decanted into a dish and allowed to crystallise. White
prisms were obtained, and these were dried on porous
plate and then recrystallised from acetone. The compound
melts at 94° C. It is soluble in alcohol, benzene, ether,
ethyl acetate, carbon tetrachloride, and acetone. After
keeping for a few weeks a specimen had a strong odour of
the arsine, but the melting point and composition remained
unchanged after many months.

Found: Cu=11-5, [=22-7, As=27-0 per cent.

C,gH.,As,Cul requires Cu=11-4, I=22:9, As=27-1
per cent.

Bis-phenyl dimethyl arsine CUproUs chloride :

(on | was prepared from the arsine and cuprous

chloride in the same manner as the corresponding iodide.
The cuprous chloride was freshly precipitated and was
dried as quickly as possible by washing with alcohol and
ether. The compound separated in white prisms, melting
at 127° ©. On keeping for a few days the colour changed

COMPOUNDS FORMED FROM COPPER SALTS. 187

to a pale green, but on long standing it becomes definitely
blue. It is soluble in methyl or ethyl alcohol, acetone,
benzene, and chloroform, but decomposes on heating in
solution.
Found: Cu=13-6, Cl=7-9, As=32:0 per cent.
C,gHo,As.CuCl requires Cu=13-5, Cl=7-8, As=32-4
per cent.

Phenyl dimethyl arsine cuprous bromide : [ora

When cupric bromide was treated in alcoholic solution
with phenyl dimethyl arsine it underwent reduction,
giving a cuprous derivative. For the preparation of this
compound freshly prepared cupric bromide (1 mol) was
dissolved in alcohol, and to the warm solution phenyl
dimethyl arsine (2 mols) was added. The solution became
colourless, and white prisms separated. The air-dried
compound melted at 106° C. The compound appears to
oxidise slowly on exposure to air, changing to blue, and
ultimately to deep green. It is readily soluble in benzene
and chloroform, and also in alcohol, but is insoluble in
water.

Found: Cu=19-8, Br=24-7, As=22-8 per cent.

C,H,,AsBrCu requires Cu=19-4, Br=24-6, As=23-1
per cent.

era

INO;
was obtained in the form of white prisms melting at
107° C. by adding an alcoholic solution of the arsine
(1 mol) to a concentrated aqueous solution of copper
nitrate (1 mol) and recrystallisng from alcohol. This
compound is readily soluble in benzene and insoluble in
water. The molecular weight in benzene, determined
eryoscopically was found to be 378.

Found: Cu=17:-0, As=20-0 per cent.

C,3H,,0,ASNCu requires Cu=17-2, As=20°-3 per cent.
M.wt., 370.

Diphenyl methyl arsine cuprous bromide : cues mer

was prepared by adding excess of arsine (4 mols) to a hot
alcoholic solution of cupric bromide (1 mol) and cooling,
the compound separating in white prisms melting at
133° C. Like the corresponding nitrate, it is readily
soluble in benzene and insoluble in water.

Found: Cu=16-1, As=19:0, Br=20°4; m.wt. in
benzene, 399.

Diphenyl methyl arsine cuprous nitrate : | Ou

188 BURROWS AND SANFORD.

C,3H,,AsBrCu requires Cu=16-4, As=19-4, Br=20-6
per cent. M.wt., 388.

Ter-diphenyl methyl arsine cuprous eupric bromide :

(Gu | was obtained by modifying the procedure
3

adopted for the previous compounds. Cupric bromide
was dissolved in alcohol and the arsine added drop by drop
with stirring until the solution became colourless. More
cupric bromide was then added to the solution (heated
on the water bath) until a permanent brown colour was
obtained. The liquid was filtered and the filtrate allowed
to crystallise exposed to the air. After many hours the
crystals which had separated were removed by filtration
and air-dried. In the finely divided state the crystals
were dark green, but large crystals appeared to be black.
The substance melted at 202°C. Itis very slightly soluble
in hot acetone, but insoluble in all other liquids.

Found: Cu=11:5, As=19:1, Br=21:5 per cent.

Cz,Hz,As83Br,Cu, requires Cu=11-5, As=20-5, Br=
21-9 per cent.

Diphenyl methyl arsine cuprous chloride : | Gules |
was prepared by adding the arsine (4 mols) to a
concentrated hot alcoholic solution of cuprie chloride (1
mol) and allowing to cool. The compound separated in
white prisms melting at 116° C. It is soluble in benzene
but insoluble in water.

Found: Cu=18-0, Cl=10-3, , As==20-6: “per” ‘cent:
M.wt. in benzene, 350.

C,3;H,,AsClCu requires Cu=18-5, As=21-8, Cl=10-4
percent. M.wt., 343.

Ter-diphenyl methyl arsine cuprous cupric chloride:
| Cu eee

2C]
and blue crystals by treating a warm alcoholic solution of
cupric chloride with the arsine and allowing to stand
overnight. Subsequently the two forms were prepared
separately as follows :

Brown Form.—Diphenyl methyl arsine (1 mol) was
added slowly with stirring to cupric chloride (1 mol)
dissolved in the minimum quantity of hot alcohol, and the
solution allowed to stand for 12 hours. The brown
crystals which had separated were removed, and after
being dried in the air were found to melt at 245° C. The
compound is practically insoluble in all solvents; it is

was first obtained as a mixture of brown

COMPOUNDS FORMED FROM COPPER SALTS. 189

decomposed by mineral acids and by sodium hydroxide
solution.

Found: Cu=13-2, As=22-6, Cl=10-9 per cent.

C,,H,,A8,Cl,Cu, requires Cu=13-1, As=23°3, Cl=
10-9 per cent.

Blue Form.—The brown solution was prepared as before
and allowed to stand for an hour. Water was then added
until a green solution was obtained, which was allowed to
stand overnight. The substance separated in the form
of blue crystals having the same melting point as the brown
form, and resembling it in its insolubility in all solvents.

Found: Cu=13-1, As=22-1, Cl=10°-8 per cent.

C395H,,A8,C01,Cu, requires Cu=13-1, As=23-3, Cl—10-9
per cent.

A mixture of the two forms containing a trace of arsine
was found to change slowly to the brown form on long
standing. |

Department of Chemistry,
University of Sydney.

190 A. P. ELKIN.

INITIATION IN THE BARD TRIBE, NORTH-WEST
AUSTRALIA.

By PRoressor A. P. ELKIN, M.A., Ph.D.

(Manuscript received, November 21, 1935. Read, December 4, 1935.)

INTRODUCTION.

The Bard tribe occupies the northern portion of Dampier
Land Peninsula, commencing from Pender Bay on the
west and Cunningham Point on the King Sound side.
The rest of the Peninsula was formerly, for the most part,
the territory of the Nyul-Nyul tribe; three small tribes,
the Djabera-Djaber, the Ngormbal and the Djukan
occupied the coast between Beagle Bay and Broome.
The Bardi have been in contact with whites for forty
years, though not very intensively until about twenty-five
years ago. They usually live in five local groups, each of
which is associated with a small centre of white settlement.
These groups are at Pender Bay and Cygnet Bay, at each
of which there is, or was in 1928, a white settler; at
Lombardina, where there is a Roman Catholic mission ;
at Bulgin just north of Cape Levéque Lighthouse, the
headquarters of a capable “ half-caste’’ who employed
the natives on luggers; and finally at Sunday Island,
which is occupied by a Protestant mission—a branch of
the United Aborigines’ Mission. This island, one of the
Buccaneer Archipelago, really belonged to the Irwundjun
or Djaui-speaking tribe, but there were very few Djaui
left, and they mixed freely with the northern group of the
Bardi; the members of the latter spent a lot of their time
at the mission or working on its luggers.

The Bardi retained their kinship system as an effective
social mechanism, and also remained faithful to the
dictates of the secret life, with its rites, symbols, and
myths. I was taken to a secret ground at Bulgin, and
with due caution and reverence was shown the bullroarers
which were stored there. The myths about the culture-
hero who is symbolised by the bullroarer, were narrated
to me, and other matters connected with this symbol,

INITIATION IN THE BARD TRIBE. 191

such as the rules governing its making and revealing, were
explained. Finally, I was presented with a bullroarer.

INITIATION.

I received accounts of the stages and details of initiation
from several informants, all of which agreed, the one with
the other. But, in addition, I had the good fortune to
witness on Sunday Island one series of ceremonies which
included the operations of tooth-knocking and circumcision.
These ceremonies lasted from Monday night, February 20,
to Friday morning, March 2, 1928. They must always be
performed in Hrelp, the wet season.

The Bardi and Djaui natives concerned were “ civilised ”’
and were in close touch with the Sunday Island Mission,
being camped only a short distance from the mission
buildings. But this did not prevent them from following
their old customs, though only a few discarded their
European clothes and painted themselves in the old fashion.
These few had special parts to play in the ceremonies, and,
moreover, stood in significant relationships to the novice.
Those in control, too, raised no objection to inviting the
missionary to be present at the circumcision, and even
asked him to perform the operation, knowing that he
would have a better instrument for the purpose than they
possessed. He declined to be the surgeon, though he did
witness the operation.

Initiation consists of a number of stages or degrees, each
with its rites and distinctive status designation. <A special
term is also usually applied to the candidate while passing
through the principal stages.

Preliminary Ceremonies.—I did not see, nor was I told
of any rite by which the youth was formally taken from
the general camp, but as he was attending the mission
school this was hardly practicable. But I was definitely
informed that in this tribe it was not the custom to send
the candidate round with the messengers who summoned
the various groups to the ceremonies. The messengers,
who are sent out by the oldest headman, do not even carry
a token, but simply announce to each group angut inlandjen
amba, “‘ ceremony to make man ”’, that is, “an initiation
is to be held ”’.

The ceremonies on the first eight nights, which were of
a preliminary nature, were held on the camp corroboree
ground. They are called Kundaldja. The novice was
painted each evening with charcoal and turtle-oil by his

192 A. P. ELKIN.

alabel (tribal sister’s husband), who acted as his guardian,
adviser, and supporter throughout the rites and operations.
The proceedings were very monotonous. The orchestra
sat in a ring in the middle of the dancing ground, singing
songs taught by the culture-hero Mino and tapping their
boomerangs in even measure at the rate at which the
dancers ran round them. One musician blew into a drone
pipe. This formerly consisted of a piece of hollow wood,
but on this occasion a two-inch iron pipe was used. Hach
song lasted only about five minutes or a little more. As
soon as it was begun, the women and girls came from their
corner of the corroboree ground and ran round the singers.
Most of them carried a bunch of twigs in each hand and
ran with their elbows bent up so that the twigs were
shoulder high. The novice’s mother was always prominent.
Young boys, not yet old enough for initiation, generally
formed a second ring and ran round the women,
carrying toy shields and boomerangs. ‘Then, on the
average, about every third song, the men with the
novice formed an outer ring and ran round twice, after
which they went to their part of the ground. Sometimes
they mingled with the small boys. They did not all bother
to paint themselves during the preliminary corroborees ;
it was a matter of personal feeling, but some did so in the
manner to be described later. They all carried their
shields in their left hands but held across their chests
so that one end of the shield was under the right arm ;
they held boomerangs in their right hands. The novice,
who is called Neminem until his teeth have been knocked
out, always carried two bushes about four feet long, one
in each hand, in such a manner that with his two arms
extended straight out in front the bushes swept the ground ;
as he ran his arms would fall to his side and then be quickly
extended again.

Joking formed a marked feature of the intervals between
the dances, especially on the part of the women, some of
whom danced and jumped about. The novice’s mother
and father’s sister were especially prominent in this.
On two nights, two women dressed as men and carrying
spears imitated the men, to the great amusement of the
women. The men apparently took no notice of their
antics, and the singing would sometimes begin in the midst
of the joking and laughing. A most interesting means of
diversion consisted of the persons who stood to each other
in the relation of son-in-law and mother-in-law, sneaking

| bocca

INITIATION IN THE BARD TRIBE. 193

up and throwing water over one another, to the delight of
all present. Normally, persons so related must avoid each
other. Jokes of the kind mentioned may only be performed
at this ceremonial time.

The only other noteworthy incident during these
preliminary days was that on one occasion (Monday, 27th)
a number of men, including the novice’s father, father’s
brother, mother’s brother, and guardian, went to the
circumcision ground and drew blood from their subincised
penes. This blood must run down their thighs and on to
their calves before it touches the ground.

Tooth Avulsion.—At about 4.30 p.m. on Tuesday,
the 28th, the men gathered on the corroboree ground one
by one in quite an unconcerned manner, as though it was
just by accident that they were passing that way and
happened to stop there. Some of the women also gathered
near by. The novice, having been painted black by his
guardian, arrived next and was encouraged by his father.
Three parallel lines were marked on the ground about
two feet apart, while a rug, instead of the bushes of former
days, was placed about the same distance in front of the
third line. The novice knelt at the first line and at a given
signal, consisting of a shout and the crack of a waddy on
the ground, hopped on his hands and knees to the
second line, and, at two similar signals, to the third line
and then on to the rug. He knelt up there, holding his
forearms bent up to his shoulders. His guardian clasped
him round his bent arms and chest and supported him.

The operator, the novice’s tribal mother’s brother and a
djungagor (medicine-man), who had been kneeling in front
of the rug all this time, then came up to the novice. He
first of all tied some cotton, instead of the native opossum
twine, round the two central incisors, working it up into
the gum as he did so. Then taking a piece of pointed
pearl-shell, the bindji-bindj, or ornament worn in a man’s
forehead-band or hanging from his upper-arm band, he
pushed the cotton further up, at the same time separating
the gums from the teeth. He next took a round stick
about six inches long and three-quarters of an inch thick,
and placed one end of it on the teeth and hit the other
end four times with a piece of stone just large enough to
be comfortably gripped. The knocks appeared to be
quite hard.

During the various parts of the operation the men had
been shouting, one droning in the pipe, and the women,

194 A. P. ELKIN.

who were quite near, rattled stones in tins. This was
done to heighten the effect and also to drown any eries the
novice might make. He, however, never whimpered.
After the fourth knock one tooth was loosened enough to
come out, and at the first sign of the blood from this wound
the boy’s mother picked up a boomerang which had been
placed on the ground near him for her use, and hit her head
several times until blood came. She then dropped the
boomerang and ran off the ground, crying loudly; the
other women at once threw down all the stones which they
had been rattling and rushed away with her, crying.
This all seemed to happen in the space of half a minute.

The operator then completed his work; he had to dig
out the second tooth with his shell. The two teeth came
out without being broken. Unfortunately a third tooth
was snapped off at the gums. The root of this was extracted
the next day by the missionary.

The teeth, string, and blood were spat into a little hole
that had been made between the novice and the operator.
The mother now returned to the ground with a small
firestick, which one of the men took and dropped on top
of this hole. The boy warmed his thumb and pressed it
on his gum. His guardian then assisted him to pick up a
boomerang and hit the proffered head of his operator ;
the hits were very light.

Soon after this a man who stood to the novice in the
relation of kalingord, father’s father, painted him ‘all over
with red ochre and added white vertical stripes on his
chest and abdomen, and black ones on his back. His
appearance was very ghostly. His father, father’s brother,
and father’s father then took him away some distance and
had a meal. These three men then cut their subincised
penes again. In the meantime the boy’s mother and
another woman had cleared the stones off the corroboree
ground ready for the night’s ceremony. Although this
had a special name, ker-ker, it was just the same as those
held on the previous nights, except that the men took
more trouble over painting themselves, almost all discarding
their European clothes. The novice still carried his
bushes. He was now called Lainyar.

Ceremonies between Tooth-Avulsion and Circumcision.—
On the afternoon after the tooth-avulsion, the novice’s
father, father’s brother, guardian, and two mother’s
brothers, painted themselves with red and white paint on
their chests and round their eyes, and put on their fore-

INITIATION IN THE BARD TRIBE. 195

head-bands, arm-strings, and human hair waist-belts,
from which pearl shells hung in front and behind. further
adornment was procured by making tassels of wood
shavings; a stick, six inches in length, was very finely
shaved, or rather split, for about three-quarters of its
length, and the shavings fluffed out like a tassel. The
novice now had a big human hair belt, and carried a fire-
stick. The latter showed that he was being distinguished
as @ man and had his own fire. The five men and the novice
then moved away slowly from the camp and separated as
though they were going to different places. When well
out of sight and in a part where circumcision is performed,
the boy sat down at his own fire, while the men stood a
little distance off with their backs to him and again cut
their subincised penes. Neither on this nor on any of the
previous occasions could the novice see this cutting.
The men say that they must hurt themselves because they
are hurting the boy. They state that there is no rule as
to who must thus cut themselves, but certainly the father,
father’s brother, and mother’s brother did it on several
occasions, and the guardian and father’s father once each.
One of the older men was very loath to tell me about this
cutting, fearing that there would be great trouble for him
if it became known that he had spoken about it. He did
not go out himself on this occasion, and was not aware
that I knew all about it. The five men and the novice
returned to the camp for tea.

The ceremonies on this night were of a special nature,
they are called mitjo. All the men were fully painted and
adorned with their hair-belts and shells. The novice wore
his hair-belt with pointed pieces of pearl-shell hanging from
it. The women were present. The ceremonies can be
divided into several parts :

(a) All the young men from the higher stages of
Djiaminayga to Buyin inclusive, five in this case, knelt
down one behind the other. Each one extended his arms
on to the shoulders of the one in front of him, and, when
the singing commenced, the mother of each one caught
hold of her son by one shoulder. A similar row was
formed of fully initiated men. As soon as the singing
commenced the novice was lifted up in such a position
that his legs were round the neck of his guardian, who was
kneeling in front of him, while his head was supported
by the man behind him. He held his two bushes erect in
the air. At this instant his mother ran in and took hold

196 | A. P. ELKIN.

of him by one shoulder, and it was then, too, that the women
already referred to ran in and grasped their sons’ shoulders.
The action suggested that the mothers, who cried loudly,
were endeavouring to prevent their sons being taken away
by the men. The men in both rows swayed from side
to side during the singing, which continued for about five
minutes. The following are the words of the song:
no meaning could be obtained for them, nor for the words
of the other songs sung on this night: Mitdjomi djdgdra
djo kudat.

(b) A few minutes later the young men, together with
the novice and his guardian, stood up one behind the other.
The guardian stood behind the boy and held in one hand
the bushy ends of the two bushes, the other ends of which
were passed between the novice’s sides and arms and were
held in his hands. A number of women, mothers, sisters
and cross-cousins, got as close as they could on one side
of the particular young man who was related to them, and
touched his arm. After the singers had sat down in the
centre of the corroboree ground and commenced the
following song: Kundoro male bdpai djonai batinain, this
procession moved slowly round and round the singers.
The novice’s guardian turned his head in the direction of
the singers and held his shield over his face. Hach of the
young men held a shield across the back of his neck. The
mother of the novice kept one hand on his shoulder, and
with the other hand held some leaves on his head. The
women wailed. This doleful procession continued for
about fifteen minutes, after which the other women and
the children ran round them, and, later, a few men did the
same. The ceremony then ended.

(c) The next half hour was occupied in running round the
Singers as on the previous nights.

(da) The final ceremony on this night consisted of carrying
the young men round and round the singers and moving
them up and down. This is called kundubel. There were
two groups in each procession, a group consisting of two
fully initiated men with a young man, in one case the
novice, between them, and with the mother of the young
man or novice concerned alongside. They commenced by
walking slowly and dolefully round, the mother wailing.
Then at a given moment each pair of men hoisted their
particular young man on to their shoulders, his thighs being
round the neck of the man in front and his head being
supported by the other. They carried him round in this

INITIATION IN THE BARD TRIBE. 197

position, and, quickening their pace to a run, they moved
him up and down as they ran. The two groups sometimes
ran in opposite directions. The novice was carried by
his guardian and a man who stood to him in the relation of
mother’s father. Each of these acts lasted about five
minutes or so. The night’s ceremonies were concluded
at about 11.30. The song for this ceremony was babau
alerrma gulganyar.

The Night before Circumcision.—The ceremony commenced
with the young men—as before, those belonging to the
stages from Djaminayga to Gambel—the novice and, next
to him, his guardian, all standing in a line facing west.
They stretched out their arms from their sides and gripped
each other’s hands. Their mothers stood behind them.
On their left a similar line of fully initiated men was
formed and linked up with the young men. When the
singing commenced the young men and novice pulled, as
it were, against the older men, and succeeded, by arrange-
ment, in pulling the latter around the singers. All then
joined in a circle and proceeded round in a slow walk, the
mothers hanging on to their sons and crying.

After a few minutes the fully initiated men broke away
to their own corner, while the young men and the novice
formed up behind one another as on the previous night,
their mothers, sisters, and cross-cousins standing on the
outside and hanging on to their shoulders. These then
proceeded round and round with little cessation in a slow
and doleful manner, for about fifteen minutes, after which
the running-round type of ceremony, like that before tooth-
avulsion, was carried on until almost midnight.

Circumcision, Bria, and making the Novice Palil.—This
same running-round ceremony was commenced about an
hour before sunrise. All the men and women gradually
gathered on to the camp corroboree ground. A little before
sunrise all the fully and partially initiated men and the
novice went off in two files, one of which was led by the
novice, up a hill not far from the camp. The women
returned to the camp crying.

On arriving on top the men lined up along the edge of the
hill, waiting for the first rays of the sun to appear above the
hill on the opposite side of the valley. The novice was made
to sit facing the east, on an upturned shield which was
placed on a rock. A man in the relation of cross-cousin
sat behind him and supported him. The novice put his
arms back behind his head and around the neck of his

198 A. P. ELKIN.

supporter who, in his turn, put one arm across the novice’s
chest and the other across his chin and mouth. The
operator, who was the same person who had knocked out
the teeth, was kneeling opposite the boy. As soon as the
sun was considered to have arisen—it was a very cloudy
morning—he commenced by pulling the foreskin ag far
forward as possible and then making a cut across the top
of the penis almost back at the base, continued this slit
right round the organ, just cutting the skin of the scrotum.
He then worked the skin forward, cutting under it all the
time, and in a few minutes had removed it in a single
piece. All his actions were deliberately carried out. He
used two flakes from a glass bottle, which were prepared
just before the operation; stone knives were formerly
used. The operator then hit his own head hard a few times,
and the assistant who held the boy tapped himself lightly
on the head. Only about eight of the men had stood near by
during the operation ; the others remained in silence along
the brow of the hill. The reason they gave for this was
that they were too sorry for the boy to come up close.
The boy never whimpered, a fact which pleased his father
very much.

As soon as the skin had been removed it was put on the
ground between the boy’s feet, and a small sandalwood
smoke fire was placed on top of it. The smoke was believed
to aid the healing. After a little while the boy, now a
Palil, was led to an ordinary camp fire, a few yards from
the scene of the operation, and left there.

The men then descended the hill, the operator leading,
followed by the man who held the boy. Ags soon as the
camp was sighted these two threw boomerangs, the sign
that all was over; the women immediately set up a wailing
which lasted for about ten or fifteen minutes.

Seclusion of the Candidate-—On the night following the
circumcision the men go out to the new Palil and, sitting
down, sing the tooth-song which was taught by Mino:

Kumberi midjera Bena sities os

Knocking out tooth, ‘sing ” , hit
and then the special circumcision song called Larabik,
taught by Maral :

Marala inara bulgarinya mida

Maral sings bulgarinya mida.
These two words were used by Maral, but have no meaning
for the present-day natives. The singing is repeated each

INITIATION IN THE BARD TRIBE. 199

night during the seclusion of the novice, which lasts for
two or three weeks until the next new moon, by which
time his wound is properly healed. During this time his
father provides him with food from which all fish is excluded.
This tapu on fish commenced at the time of the tooth-
knocking, and continues until he is made Djaminayga.

He is now taught a few secret names which the initiates
use amongst themselves. I give the ordinary names in
parentheses: Women, didjigalin (oray); married men,
korada (amba); young fellows who are Palil, budjeda
(wolalay) ; dogs, nindjagin (ial).

This period of seclusion is brought to an end at the next
new moon with two ceremonies, which, like circumcision,
form part of the angui and were instituted by the culture-
hero Mino:

(1) A post ceremony: A straight tree is chosen and its
bark and limbs are removed. The Pali sits at the foot of
what is now a post, while the younger boys climb up, the
men singing a special Larabik: Didji malaybernanya.
The women see neither this nor the second ceremony.

(2) A fire ceremony: One afternoon, near sundown, the
Palil is made to sit close to a big fire away from the camp,
while all the men stand round holding long sticks in the
fire until these light, when they point them towards the
west, at the same time singing a Larabik: Djui bangarna
ubala. This is performed away from the camp.

After this all get ready to return with the novice to the
general camp. The young men who are already
Djaminayga, but not yet Mambayaya, wear special bark
belts called munk, which were first made by the culture-
hero Maral, the composer of the Larabik. The belt is
from two to four inches in width and covered with human
blood. Although the women see the belt after the blood
is dry, they do not know how it is fastened round the boys.
The belts are worn for two or three weeks and then buried
in the ground or put in a tree, the spot becoming tapu to
the uninitiated.

On the return to the camp corroboree ground the novice
is painted red. The women receive him with crying, and
then all partake of a meal prepared by them. The crying
is on this occasion an expression of joy comparable to that
shown by a mother on the return of her son after a long
absence.

I did not see these two ceremonies nor the ritual
reageregation of the novice. Nor did I witness the later

200 A. P. ELKIN.

stages of the initiation rites. I was invited to be present
at the Djaminayga ceremony, but I could not arrange my
Kimberley journeyings so as to make this possible. But
the various accounts which I received agree and can be
relied upon.

Djaminayga.—The most important initiation ceremony
is held a few weeks after circumcision, in the south-east
or cold season, known as Pargan; the time is fixed by
“law ’’. It does not follow, however, that the same
youth is both circumcised and made Djaminayga the same
year, though this does sometimes happen, especially these
days when it is hard to get hold of the boys for circumcision
as young as before the advent of whites and missions.
The principal features of this ceremony are the use of
human blood for anointing and drinking, and the making
and showing of sacred bullroarers. It is not held at the
place where circumcision is performed. The Djaminayga
ground is called Kundjerty and is tapu to all uninitiated
persons. The bullroarers are kept on this site, just lying
uncovered on the ground

The ceremony is called Ulaloy. It was instituted by the
culture-hero Djamar, who came out of the ground in the
northern part of the Bard territory at Swan Point. The
coals of his camp-fire and the hole out of which he came
can be seen there, and there is a similar site on Jairi, or
Jackson Island, near by. A Bard headman informed me
that he was told by a Port Darwin black that Djamar
really started from the latter’s country.

When Djamar first came out of the ground in the north
he knew nothing. After remaining at Swan Point for some
years he travelled south. He made some kalakor, bull-
roarers, but did not put a hole in their ends. He carried
them in a bundle. He camped for about a month on a
creek just south of Cape Levéque. When fishing one
morning he took hold of a black fish, the spine of which
pierced his hand, causing the blood to flow. He went on
to a level stony place and let the blood run on to
it. Noticing a little later that the blood had dried there,
he decided to taste it; finding it agreeable he ate it all.
His appetite being whetted, he decided to follow the
accidental example set by the fish. He tied a ligature on
his upper arm, and, when the veins were swollen up, he
pierced the biggest one with a pointed kangaroo bone and
let the blood flow into a gurndu or wooden dish. When it

SF ai.

INITIATION IN THE BARD TRIBE. 201

had dried he cut it into blocks and ate it all. It was so
good that he decided to make this blood-eating an initiation
law, and so his performance is repeated at every Djaminayga
time. He did it, and therefore it must now be done.
Djamar then went into the bush and made some bDull-
roarers, this time putting the holes? in them and swinging
them. The noise proving satisfactory, he made the law
of making new Kalakor and swinging them _ every
Djaminayga time. Djamar walked on to the sandhills
just north of Lombardina, where he swung his bullroarers,
but his further movements are not known.

After preliminary corroborees for a couple of nights,
two or three of the older men who stand in the relation of
mother and mother’s brother and mother’s father to the
novice, tie their upper arms very tightly, thus causing the
veins of the lower arm to swell up. They then pierce a
vein, generally the main one, with a kangaroo bone point,
and let the blood spurt over the novice’s head and chest.
His eyes are closed, for he is not yet allowed to see this
sacred blood which is called wolb.2 Women do not know
this word. The ordinary word is grudr. He holds a bark
dish, gurndu, close to his abdomen to catch the blood as
it flows down. When the blood first spurts out the following
song is sung: Wolba nymbalbala, wolba djulyabana (Wolba,
sacred arm-blood, nymbalbala, splash all over, wolba
djulyabana, blood drop down). This is followed by
another song: Bininiy mamara bininiy wongurbaguna.
The first two words of this signify the squirting of the
blood from the pierced arm. The last word has no meaning
for the present-day natives.

1 One informant said that Djamar also tasted the blood obtained
by cutting his subincised penis, but found it ‘‘ no good’’.

One informant said that Djamar made his arm blood spurt
through the hole in the bullroarer.

3 If the bleeding continues too long, the hole is plugged with a
stick, the name of which, banyan, is tapu to the uninitiated. I met one
case in which the main vein is no longer visible. The native says that
it burst; he had severe headache after it. A couple of the veins in
the upper arm now look rather swollen. One black is said to have bled
to death. Generally, the bleeding stops of its own accord. Human
blood is sometimes given to weak men to strengthen them. Every
man has several marks of punctures in his arms. The blood is not used
as a gum with which to stick decorative material on to the body as in
Central Australia, nor is it put on to the ground or on to any objects as
a ground for decoration. I am told that old men might pierce the
upper arm instead of the lower.

N—December 4, 1935.

202 A. Po ELEN;

After the blood-letting which takes place on the Kundjeriy
ground, the novice comes out some distance from it and
kneels down, holding the gurndu in his two arms next to
his abdomen, within sight of the women who have been
lying down covered up... An old woman* now comes up
behind the novice and puts a fire stick between each of his
upper arms and his sides. She returns to the women, and
he gets up and goes again to the Kundjeriy, still holding the
gurndu and the fire sticks. The novice is then given some
of the congealed blood to eat, the remainder being eaten
by the old men present. The dish is buried in the ground,
after which all go out of the sacred ground to partake of a
meal which the women have prepared.

They then return to the Kundjeriy and the candidate
casts a throwing stick at a tree, hitting it amidst the
approbations of themen. His spirit is believed to be thrown
at the tree along with the stick, and one or more medicine
men then catch it again with movements of their hands,
and restore it to the new man, who as a result will not get
sick again. Only the old men get sick.

Having thus been made a man by eating, and being
anointed with, blood, and having been given a strengthened
spirit, the young man can be shown the bullroarer. He is
now called Djaminayga, instead of Djurdu, the term applied
to him during the ceremony.

The bullroarers symbolise Djamar, who is also known
as Maratj, their first maker. Some must be freshly
made for each occasion, but at no other time, or else
sickness would follow. Further, only a fully initiated man,
a Mambayaya, may make them. An initiated man,
previous to reaching that stage, is permitted to go on to
the ground and see or whirl them, but not to make them.
He does not know the song and the ritual attitude which
must be observed when making them. The latter, like
the showing, is a social and not an individual matter.

The bullroarer is from twelve to eighteen inches long and
from two to four wide. It is either painted all over with
red ochre, or else has about five red stripes, half an inch
broad, across it. No carving of any sort may be made on
it. Whenever the bullroarers have been used or handled,
they must be left pointing north and south, with the ends,
the ‘“‘ eyes’ or holes for the string, all placed in the one

4 Only an old woman can approach this sacred blood which is in
the gurndu.

INITIATION IN THE BARD TRIBE. 203

direction. The latter appears to be generally, if not always,
south, though one of the men says the eyes could all point
north. The reason for the orientation of the buliroarers is
that Djamar came from the north and travelled to the
south. Thus the bullroarer itself and the position in which
it is placed serve as a record and symbol of the culture-
hero. This is true also of its making.

Making the Bullroarer.—This is done on Djaminayga
day. After the blood ritual a number of fully initiated
men, Mambayaya, generally three, are selected by the
general consent of the old men, to go out into the bush and
make some bullroarers. The tree from which they are
made is described as a black one, and is called both yvalyora
and kadga. No one may visit, under penalty of sickness
and death, the tree, or the place where the bullroarers are
made, except at Djaminayga time, and then only for the
purpose of making them. From the moment that the tree
is cut and all the time that the bullroarers are being shaped
and completed, two special Ulaloy or ceremonial songs,
composed by Djamar, must be sung alternately without
ceasing. The words of these, to which no meaning can be
given, are: (1) Milya elyara wianwiayga wianiaygara
and (2) Kormaniyan waibandjo. When finished, the bull-
roarers are laid on some bushes and carried on to the
Kundjeriy ground. The ceremony then proceeds as
described.

The bullroarers are shown to the novice, who is first
warned not to tell any woman or child anything of what he
sees or learns. The various names of this symbol are told
to him, namely kalakor, kudi kudi, ramadjer bilibil,
bangoridjak, and naldja; the noise made by it is called
bibu bibu, the real nature of which he now learns for the
first time. The connection of the bullroarer with Djamar
is explained to him, after which he is made to swing it
until he is very tired.

The ceremony is now over and the “‘ new man ”’ has to
remain in the bush for some weeks along with some other
young fellows who are already Djaminayga, but are not yet
Mambayaya. The tapu on fish is lifted, and he is taught
about Kalalong, a sky culture-hero.

Subincision.—This operation, called lardj, may be
performed either before or after Djaminayga. It is not a
separate ceremony, but is done at a circumcision meeting.
It is more correct to say that the cut is only commenced
on the first occasion, and is extended a little at each

¢

204 A. P. ELKIN.

circumcision meeting until by the time a man is Mambayaya
the cut extends for the whole length of the organ. The
important thing is to have the full extension of the cut
complete by that time. The operation is in the first
instance performed on a human table Saree of several
men lying on the ground.

Cicatrisation.—The cicatrices, bauer, are made in camp,
the women, however, not looking, by a man’s mother’s
mother’s brother, after he has reached the Djaminayga
stage. They are made across the abdomen and chest
and on the shoulders in the order mentioned. There are
usually three or four in each place. It is exceptional for a
Bardi or Sunday Islander to have any on the back; the
latter is a Nyul-Nyul practice. The places to be cut are
first marked with charcoal. The scars are frequently
half an inch in width. The tapu on the women in this
instance is no doubt associated with the sacredness of
man’s blood when ritually drawn.

Gambel.—Some time, weeks or months, after having
been made Djaminayga, the young man is taken to the
Kundjeriy ground, where his guardian ties ligatures of
human hair string very tightly on his arms. When the
veins are sufficiently swollen blood is taken from the novice
and caught in a gurndu and then drunk by him and all
those present. If the young man is in much pain, his
guardian loosens the ligatures after a few hours. They
must be left on for at least several days. The ligatures are
called gangul, a word which is not secret. The young
fellow is now called Gambel, and has the privilege of wearing
arm ligatures at corroborees and also of giving blood at
ceremonies.

Rungor.—Some time later his guardian puts the wing of
a bird in the Gambel’s head-band, after which the latter is
called Rungor. This is done openly in camp.

Buyin.—On a later occasion, again openly in camp, a
pearl-shell pubic pendant is hung on the young man’s hair-
belt by his guardian, after which he is called Buyin. This
shell must bear the peculiar key pattern or ram called ris,
of the Karadjeri tribe, south of Broome, or else the person
is not a proper Buyin. Shells can be obtained on the coast
of the Bard territory, but they will not do without the
Karadjeri pattern, which means that the required shells
must be obtained from the south.

Mambayan.—Finally, at some time decided on by the
senior men, that is when they think the young man is old

INITIATION IN THE BARD TRIBE. 205

enough to marry, he is made Mambayan, after which he is
a complete man. The simple ceremony is carried out
openly in camp. His guardian paints him with red ochre
and fat, gives him a plain shell, korn, to wear, and puts a
stick adorned on both ends with white feathers through his
hair on the back of his head. He now looks, and is, a man.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RITES.

There is very little variation between the Bard rites and
those of other Kimberley tribes which I was able to study,
namely, the Karadjeri in the La Grange district, Nyul-Nyul
at Beagle Bay, Ungarinyin at Walcott Inlet, the Yeidji
on the Forrest River, and the Wolyamidi and Lunga of
East Kimberley.® This identity of pattern and remarkable
similarity of detail is quite natural, for two or more tribes,
or groups of several tribes, often meet for initiation rites
and assist one another in them; moreover the secret life
of the aborigines, like that of the great secret societies of
our own culture, is inter-tribal, or as we should say with
reference to the latter, is inter-state and even inter-national.
Thus, whether a man witnessed the initiation rites in
South or Central or North-West Australia, he would have
no difficulty in following the general pattern and in
interpreting the significance of the various rites. He would,
however, find some important differences in Hastern
Australia, such as the absence of circumcision and an
insistence on the belief in a sky-being, an all-father ;
but even though this might be referred to as an eastern
“use ’’’ as distinct from the western and central “ use ”’,
our aboriginal traveller would still recognise that he was
taking part in a ritual passing to manhood as from death
to life, and to union with the hero or heroes of the tribe.

To return to the Bard rites. There are three series ;
the first is denoted by the terms Neminem-Lainyar-Palil,
the second, Djurdu-Djaminayga, and the third Gambel-
Rungor-Buyin-Mambayaya. The first series, which includes
the operations of tooth-knocking and circumcision, clearly
serves to separate the youth from his previous life, and
indeed, it is the prelude to a period of seclusion from the

5 My research work in the Kimberley division was carried out in
1927-28 for the Australian National Research Council. Mr. R.
Piddington continued my work amongst the Karadjeri, and Miss P.
Kaberry amongst the Forrest River and East Kimberley tribes. Some
reports of their work have appeared in Oceania.

206 A. P. ELKIN.

general camp. This is the obvious meaning of the
ceremonies between these two operations. The youths
are carried in mournful procession, while the mothers wail
and cling on to their sons, as though loath to let them go
to their ritual death; the wailing after the operations
points the same way. And so the novice passes into
seclusion, during which, in former days before the mission
and its school intervened, he lived dead to the “ world ’’,
at least to the general camp. He is forbidden to eat certain
foods, and is taught the secret words which belong to the
life apart. At the end of the time, about a month, the
novice is painted red, the symbol of life, and ceremonially
received into ordinary life again. It would be interesting
to know the meaning of the post and fire ceremonies which
immediately precede this, and why the sticks in the latter
are pointed towards the setting sun.

In the Ungarinyin, on the north of King Sound, the
newly circumcised youth, before returning to the camp,
jumps through the smoke arising from a number of smoke
fires. The men do likewise. The probable significance
is one of purification, that is, to make sure that nothing
of the sacred world is brought into the profane. In the
same tribe the tree or pole ceremony, which takes place
a stage later than in the Bard tribe, is described as follows :
The novice and any men who are not yet subincised, have
to sit touching the base of a tall thin green tree which is
called by a secret name, uryanyin, and must not be seen
by the uninitiated. The young fellows have to remain
there with their heads bowed from early morning until
sundown; one informant told me that he thought his
neck would have broken. During the day all the subincised
men climb up the tree, and while there cut their subincised
penes to make them bleed. The blood runs down the tree
on to the youths. If any of the latter notices a man
approaching the tree, he calls out krada or kuradi, that is,
flying fox, the term which is also applied to the novice.
While the men are up the tree they whisper ye. ..ye.. .
ye, and after they have come down they stand in a line
and sing kuradi djabinbai kuradi ambana djabinban. This
song was imported from the south, and the meaning of the
words is not known. Whatever be the significance of
this tree, the rite as awhole serves to give life to the newly
initiated and to aggregate them into full male membership
of the tribe by a sacramental application of sacred blood.
Such tree and fire ceremonies are widespread in Australia,

INITIATION IN THE BARD TRIBE. 207

and a comparative study would no doubt give us much
insight into their meaning. The difficulty, however, is
to get reliable and full descriptions of them with the
aborigines’ own interpretations.

In the Bard tribe the significant blood rite is that which
makes a candidate Djaminayga ; this not only unites him
to the full members by sharing their sacred blood, but also
gives him strength to receive the supreme revelation which
is about to be given. Through this, namely, the bullroarer,
he realises his fellowship with the tribal culture-hero,
and in it he sees the symbol of the sacred world, from which
this world has derived its culture and on which it still
depends for life. During the period of seclusion he is
taught much of the tribal mythology.

The casting of the throwing stick is a most interesting
ceremony, for it gives a ritual interpretation of the aboriginal
belief that sickness is unnatural and is always caused by
magic. Medicine men naturally play a part in the rite,
but once again, why the tree?

I have grouped the remaining operations and rites
together in one series, for, with the occasional exception of
subincision, they all occur after Djaminayga, and serve to
add what might be called the finishing touches to, and
signs of, a man’s initiation. The account shows that
subincision is not a rite in itself, but finds its significance
in the letting of blood from the organ of generation at
circumcision ceremonies. The tying of arm ligatures at
the Gambel stage is likewise a preparation for parts to be
played in later blood rites, more particularly in the
Djiaminayga. It is interesting that cicatrices are not made
on the back, for in many tribes, from the Great Australian
Bight up to the Timor Sea, the pattern on the back is a
sign that the person is fully initiated—a “ pass-sign ’’.
The fastening-on of the pearl-shell pubic pendant is

robably not the casual action that the account suggests ;
details were no doubt omitted. Amongst the Forrest
River tribes, for example, the young man is asleep, while
a number of men tie the human hair girdle and shell on
him. He is then awakened and goes off to camp by himself.
He makes gifts of food to the men who invested him with
the shell, and stays in seclusion for a few days during which
he uses a secret term for the shell, namely, yagaula instead
of djagala. He then returns to ordinary life. This use
of the pearl-shell as a kind of “ lodge ”’ apron is widespread

208 As P.V ELKIN,

in the circumcision area of Australia, and is not found out-
side of that area.

There is no need here to emphasise the function of
initiation. It is a series of rites which form a transition
from boyhood to manhood and to full membership of the
tribe, with its privileges and responsibilities. It provides
a valuable method of controlling, guiding, impressing, and
inspiring the young fellow during adolescence and the years
that follow. And, finally, it is the door to the secret
world of myth, symbol, and rite, in which is found the
sanction and inspiration for daily life.

Department of Anthropology,
University of Sydney.

CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 209

CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES IN AUSTRALIAN
PLANTS.

PART 3.—EUCALYPTUS CLADOCALYX.
By H. FINNEMORE, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.L.C.,

Miss 8. K. REICHARD, B.Sc. (Syd.),
and Miss D. K. LARGE, B.Sc. (Syd.).

(Manuscript received, February 26, 1936. Read, April 1, 1936.)

Eucalyptus cladocalyx, syn. H. corynocalyx, a Sugar Guin,
is a large tree, native to Victoria and South Australia and
cultivated in New South Wales. It belongs to the group
of eucalypts which yield the smallest amount of volatile
oil, Baker and Smith having recorded the extremely low
yield of one part of oil from 1,000 parts of fresh leaf.
Perhaps this may account for the fact that the branches
are sometimes lopped for fodder in times of drought,
although it has long been recognised that the leaves evolve
hydrocyanic acid when they are crushed.

During 1928 one of the present writers (H.F.), with
C. B. Cox, published the figures for the analysis of a single
South Australian sample which yielded 0:17 per cent. of
hydrocyanic acid (Tuts Journat, 62, p. 369). Nine other
specimens gave positive tests when examined qualit-
atively ; eight of these were herbarium specimens of
varying age, the other was a fresh specimen grown at
Ashfield, N.S.W., for which we were indebted to the
courtesy of Mr. Edwin Cheel, Government Botanist.
The existence of a cyanogenetic substance in a species of
eucalyptus, associated as we now show with the presence
of benzaldehyde, seems to be unique, although Baker and
Smith suspected, but did not prove, the presence of
benzaldehyde in the oil from Hucalyptus viminalis. This
point is dealt with at a later part of this paper.

In February, 1929, through the kindness of Mr. Cheel,
a quantity of the Ashfield material was obtained. It
consisted of the loppings from the youngest branches of an
ornamental grove. In the fresh condition it gave 0-32
per cent. of hydrocyanic acid, or calculated on the material

210 FINNEMORE, REICHARD AND LARGE.

dried at 100° C., approximately 0-50 per cent. This
amount was obtained by merely macerating the cut leaves
in water ; the fact that no additional quantity was obtained
when enzyme from sweet almonds was added seemed to
show that the fresh leaves contained sufficient enzyme
to decompose the whole of the glucoside present. This
sample was dried in the air and used for the experiments
described in Section A of this paper. When the leaves are
stored there is a gradual diminution in the hydrocyanic
acid, and to ascertain its extent the leaves were recently
re-examined, that is, after a lapse of seven years. Without
additional enzyme they now yield 0-06 per cent., with
added enzyme, 0-105 per cent. of hydrocyanic acid,
showing that the glucoside has been reduced to one-fifth
its original amount. It is also shown that the enzyme,
under the conditions of our quantitative experiment, is
now able to hydrolyse only two-thirds of this reduced
amount of glucoside.

During 1929 Dr. H. R. Seddon, Director of the Veterinary
Research Station at Glenfield, in supplying four samples
for trial, brought to the notice of the Poison Plants Com-
mittee of the C.S.I.R. information to the effect that this
plant had on several occasions been definitely proved to be
responsible for losses in stock—cows, horses and sheep
having all been fatally poisoned. Dr. Seddon pointed
out that particular care should therefore be taken when
lopping these trees that the branches be collected and burnt
as soon as they are dry enough, and that stock should not
have access to them.

A. THE IDENTIFICATION OF PRUNASIN.
(With Miss Reichard.)

It seemed desirable that in addition to studying the
quantitative aspect of this problem an attempt should be
made to identify the glucoside. In order to extract it,
two methods were tried, one using boiling acetone, the
other extracting with alcohol. As the acetone method
was not successful in the first instance, and as a modification
of it was used in the experiments described in Section B
of this note with striking success, it is only. proposed to
give here an outline of the extraction with alcohol, by
which a small amount of crystalline glucoside was isolated
in the pure condition.

CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 21a

Extraction with Alcohol.

An alcoholic extract was prepared from 2-9 kilos of
the crushed leaves by three successive macerations of
thirteen hours each. After distillation of the alcohol
the residual extract was treated with water, which caused
the separation of a fairly large amount of waxy material.
Gummy and other indefinite matter was then precipitated
from the aqueous solution with lead acetate in the usual
way ; after removal of the excess of lead the cyanogenetic
substance was extracted from the aqueous liquid by
shaking out repeatedly (23 times) with amyl alcohol.
This solvent was then removed by distillation under
reduced pressure, and the residual extract was treated with
acetone, which left undissolved a small amount of sticky
matter. After the acetone solution had deposited some
colourless non-cyanogenetic material, it was concentrated
and mixed with a small quantity of benzene, whereupon
a syrup was precipitated which, after re-solution in acetone
and re-precipitation with benzene, gradually became
crystalline. In order to purify this it was extracted with
dry ethyl acetate, the solution allowed to cool, and mixed
with a small quantity of chloroform, when 0:35 gram
of crude glucoside was obtained. After purification this
amounted to 0:126 gram. It melted at 148° C., and was
identified as prunasin (d-mandelonitrile glucoside) by
comparison with an authentic sample and by the mixed
melting point method.

B. THE RAPID EXTRACTION OF PRUNASIN.
(With Miss Large.)

During July, 1935, further cases of the poisoning of
sheep in the Wagga district were brought to the notice
of the Poison Plants Committee by Dr. Seddon, who was
good enough to send an ample supply of the suspected
material. This consisted mostly of young sucker growth
with ovate leaves and coloured tips; some separate dried
leaves were also sent. The results of the analyses are
given in the following table. It should be noted that
Seddon and King consider a plant potentially poisonous
if the quantity of hydrocyanic acid available from it
amounts to 50 milligrams per 100 grams. The sucker
leaves of this eucalypt contain a fatal dose for a sheep in
20 grams, or slightly more than two-thirds of an ounce.

212 FINNEMORE, REICHARD AND LARGE.

Amount of Hydrocyanic Acid from Eucalyptus cladocalyx.

HON per Cent.
Ref. No. Date. Percentage Loss in Calculated on the
Weight at 100°. Leaves Dried at 100°.

3393, air-dried a 18/7/35 8-1
3394, fresh suckers 18/7/35 Byeead 0-59
3395, air-dried suckers 11/11/35 (5) 0°53
3395, re-examined 11/2/36 6:2 0°48
3395, with added

enzyme an 11/2/36 622 0-41

The usual process of estimation by titration with
iodine was modified by a second steam distillation of the
sodium cyanide solution in order to remove the small
trace of volatile oil which would otherwise interfere.

Sample 3395 was used in the following experiments.
It had been found in this laboratory that prunasin, which
occurs to the extent of nearly 10 per cent. in the leaves of
Eremophila maculata, the native fuchsia, could be extracted
from it by means of ether. We have now found that
acetone may be more economically used as a solvent.
It has the advantage over alcohol that its solvent action is
more limited, and therefore sugars, which may interfere
with the subsequent purification of the glucoside, are not
extracted to any great extent. Three methods of extraction
were used: (a) extraction in a Soxhlet apparatus, (b)
cold percolation, and (¢) boiling under reflux. Cold
percolation is very convenient, and need only be described.

Extraction with Acetone.

One kilo of the sucker leaves ground to No. 20 powder
was packed in a percolator and covered with acetone.
After standing for two days the solvent was allowed to
percolate slowly until the solution no longer gave a
significant test for glucoside when incubated with crushed
sweet almonds. The solvent was then distilled off and the
residual soft green extract washed repeatedly with
petroleum ether to remove material of the nature of fixed
oils, etc. The insoluble residue, which was at first plastic,
became somewhat powdery. The petroleum ether removed
in suspension a greenish solid which gave the reaction for
the phytosterols and seemed to be of the same nature as
the product which had been separated from the alcoholic
extract previously mentioned in this paper.

CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 23

The Glucosidal Fraction.

After washing with petroleum ether the insoluble residue
contained practically the whole of the extracted glucoside
uncontaminated with reducing sugars. When it was
extracted with boiling ethyl acetate and the solution
cooled and filtered, crystals of prunasin separated at once.
The weight was 29-5 gram, and a further 7-0 gram was
obtained by re-extracting the residue with boiling ethyl
acetate. The crystals were purified by first washing with
petroleum ether, which removed the green mother liquor
containing chlorophyl, and then dissolving in the minimum
quantity of boiling ethyl acetate, adding a little chloroform
to the hot solution and allowing to cool. Two recrystallisa-
tions gave a pure product.

Its identity was established by analysis (C—57-0,
H=5:9; theory requires C=56-95, H=5-76), and by the
mixed melting point method. Its tetracetyl derivative
was prepared by boiling one hour with acetic anhydride
in the usual way and recrystallising from diluted alcohol.
Melting point 136° to 137° (C=57-:0, H=5-40; theory
C= 51-0, El5-5):

Eucalyptus viminalis.—In their account of this species
Baker and Smith describe two variants: variety A from
the Crookwell district of New South Wales, and Manna
or White Gum, widely distributed in all the States except
West Australia. These workers suspected the presence of
benzaldehyde in the volatile oil distilled from the former
of these and obtained a crystalline compound with sodium
hydrogen sulphite, but they were unable to prepare benzoic
acid from it by oxidation. As it appeared to us that
benzaldehyde, if present, might have arisen from the
decomposition of a cyanogenetic glucoside, it was decided
to test the leaves for the presence of hydrocyanic acid.
Application was therefore made to Mr. A. R. Penfold,
Curator of the Technological Museum, who kindly supplied
an authentic specimen of the leaves from the Braidwood
district. These were found to be negative for hydrocyanic
acid, nor could any evidence of the presence of benzaldehyde
be obtained from the oil or the aqueous distillate from them.
Application was simultaneously made to the Secretary of
the Forestry Commission, by whose courtesy a sample of
leaves from the Tumbarumba district was supplied.
These, with their accompanying flowers and fruits, were
submitted to Mr. E. Cheel, the Government Botanist, who
reported that some uncertainty existed as to their identity.

214 FINNEMORE, REICHARD AND LARGE.

He was inclined to believe that they resembled Z£.
Dalrympleana, a closely related species. A second supply
from the same district, with juvenile leaves, was pronounced
by Mr. Cheel to consist of H. viminalis. Both these samples
were positive for hydrocyanic acid. The former, examined
quantitatively, gave 0-09 per cent. of hydrocyanic acid,
calculated on the material dried at 100°, and is therefore
to be considered a potentially poisonous leaf. It is
intended to examine further samples.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

Our thanks are due to Professor J. C. Earl for the
facilities for the above combustions ; to Mr. J. T. Tippett
for the many estimations of hydrocyanic acid involved in
these experiments. The work was begun under the
auspices of the Poison Plants Committee of the C.S.I.R.
and continued under the Poison Plants Committee of the
University of Sydney and the State Department of
Agriculture, the members of which agree to the publication
of this note.

Department of Materia Medica and Pharmacy,
The University, Sydney.

A BACTERIAL DISEASE OF SNAKE BEANS. 215

A BACTERIAL DISEASE OF SNAKE BEANS.

By R. D. WILSON, B.Sc.Agr.,

Walter and Eliza Hall Agriculture Research Fellow,
University of Sydney.

With Plate V.

(Manuscrint recewed, March 17, 1936. Read, April 1, 1936.)

INTRODUCTION.

Gardner and Kendrick,‘*) in their account of a bacterial
spot disease of cow-pea (Vigna sinensis (L.) Endl.) caused
by Bacterium vigne Gardner and Kendrick, state that a
bacterial disease of asparagus bean (Vigna sesquipedalis
Wight, known also as snake bean and yard-long bean)
was observed in Indiana and was probably caused by
B. vigne. Burkholder recorded a bacterial disease on
the same host and determined the causal organism as a
strain of Phytomonas (Bacterium) vigne var. leguminophila
Burkholder.

In Australia there is no previous record of the occurrence
of a bacterial disease of snake bean, although a bacterial
disease was recorded on cow-pea at Glen Innes, N.S.W.,
in 1932.‘ The causal organism was on the basis of
symptoms assumed to be B. vigne.

OCCURRENCE, DISTRIBUTION, AND SYMPTOMS.

In January, 1935, snake beans grown near Mudgee,
N.S. Wales, came under notice on account of a condition
associated with considerable leaf damage. Microscopic
examination of affected leaves showed large numbers of
bacteria in the leaf spots. On plates of beef-extract
peptone agar prepared from dilutions of macerated tissue
in sterile water, numerous bacterial colonies, creamy white
in colour, made their appearance. Needle-prick inocula-
tions of the stems of snake bean seedlings with cultures
from these colonies resulted in the collapse and death of
the seedlings within four days. Re-isolations were made
from the stems of infected seedlings about one inch above
the point of inoculation. The re-isolated organism was
also pathogenic to snake beans.

216 R. D. WILSON.

In the field the disease was evident as reddish-brown
spots of varying size on the leaves (Plate V, A). Similar
lesions were observed on the petioles, stems, and pods. A
narrow zone of yellowish-green leaf tissue frequently
occurred around these leaf spots, in the centre of which the
tissue later became thin, dry, and brittle, and often fell
out. On the underside of the leaf the disease sometimes
caused a blackening of the veins or portions of the veins.

IDENTITY OF THE CAUSAL ORGANISM.

These symptoms agree closely with those described and
illustrated by Gardner and Kendrick‘ in the case of the
bacterial spot disease of cow-pea caused by B. vigne.
Clara’) in a recent study of some of the green fluorescent
bacterial plant pathogens concluded that B. vigne was
synonymous with Bacterium syringe (Van Hall) E. F. Smith,
the cause of the lilac blight and citrus pit diseases.

For purposes of comparison with the locally isolated
organism, the following cultures were obtained :

(i) A culture of B. vigne, from Dr. M. W. Gardner,
of the University of California.

(ii) A culture of B. syringe, isolated from lilac, from
Dr. W. H. Burkholder, of Cornell University.

(iii) Two cultures of B. syringe, isolated from citrus,
from Mr. A. T. Pugsley, Department of Agriculture,
Victoria. One of these had been isolated from lemon and
the other from orange.

These four cultures were used for the inoculation of young
snake bean seedlings and were recovered from the inoculated
plants about one inch above the point of inoculation.
The original and re-isolated cultures of these organisms
were used in morphological, cultural, and host range
studies in comparison with the locally isolated snake bean
pathogen.

Morphological and Cultural Characteristics.

Morphologically and culturally the various cultures of
B. syringe, B. vigne, and the locally isolated organism did
not differ significantly from each other except in the
fermentation of raffinose. The results obtained by the
writer were similar to those recorded by Clara‘®) for B.
syringe and B. vigne except in the reduction of nitrate.

Clara?) recorded no reduction of nitrate to nitrite,
using the «-naphthylamine and dimethyl-«-naphthylamine

A BACTERIAL DISEASE OF SNAKE BEANS. 2G,

tests, but the writer found a very slight production of
nitrite within two days at 30° C. in the case of all the
organisms studied. This nitrite could be detected by the
use of «-naphthylamine and sulphanilic acid but not by
the use of Tromsdorff’s reagent. Bryan") recorded
similar results in the study of B. syringe from lilac. Most
of the other workers on these organisms used Tromsdorff’s
reagent and recorded no nitrate reduction.

In these studies perceptible differences were noted in the
ability of the various organisms to ferment raffinose. A
synthetic peptone-free medium was prepared according
to the slightly modified formula of Ayres, Rupp and
Johnson in the Manual of Methods for the Pure Culture
Study of Bacteria. One per cent. of raffinose was added to
this basic medium. Brom cresol purple was used as the
indicator. The raffinose medium was sterilised by filtration
through a Berkefield filter and by heating in the autoclave
at 15 pounds pressure for five minutes. After inoculation
the tubes were kept at 30° C. The action of the organisms
on raffinose is shown in Table I.

TABLE I.

The Action of the Organisms Studied on Raffinose.

Effect on Medium Sterilised by

Organism Used.
Filtration. Heat.
B. syringe from citrus ne te he Be = F
B. syringe from lilac ep _ +
B. vigne 56 a set = ae
Local snake bean organism .. = Se

NotTe.—Al] media were kept at 30° C. after inoculation.
+ =acid reaction (a bright yellow colour) within seven to ten days.
+=acid reaction in some cases within fifteen to twenty days. In other
cases, growth, but no acid reaction within twenty days.
— =growth, but no acid reaction within twenty days.

No differences were noted between the various organisms
in their action on starch, dextrose, sucrose, maltose,
lactose, galactose, arabinose, xylose, levulose, rhamnose,
glycerol, mannitol, dulcitol, salicin, acetic acid, formic
acid, succinic acid, lactic acid, and tartaric acid. The
results obtained by the writer agreed with those obtained
by Clara.'®) In dulcitol, which was not used by Clara, no
growth was noted in the case of any of the organisms.
O—April 1, 1936.

218

R. D. WILSON.

Host Range Studies.

Inoculations were made with cultures of the various
organisms into stems, shoots, pods, or fruits of a number
of different plants (see Table IT).
tion consisted of puncturing the stem, fruit or other plant

The method of inocula-

TaBLE II.
Comparison of Results of Inoculating Various Plants with the Organisms
Studied.
Host. Pathogen.
B. syringe.
Part of Local B. vigne.
Plant Used. Plant Snake From From From
Inoculated. Bean California. | Victoria Cornell
Organism. from from
Citrus. Lilac.
Snake bean (Vigna V. St. oP Sr stats siete a ar
sesquipedalis) a m. st = ot + +
Dp. ar Ar ae
Cow-pea (V. sinensis) y.. st. + + ++ +
Lima bean (Phaseolu y. st ++ ++ ++
lunatus) a ne p. + + +
French bean (P. vulgaris) y. st. = aE ar
p. =f aI ar ae
mi, =p a a
Scarlet runner bean
(P. multiflorus) SH Vaastu: + ar +
Soy bean (Soja maz.) . .’ y. st. ++ Se +
Tick bean (Vicia faba.) y. st. ap ae aE AF
Lucerne (Medicago
sativa) AS a y. sh. — +— +
Pea (Pisum sativum) Vests — — —
Lemon (Citrus limonia) m. f. _ — a
eet + + *
Orange (C. sinensis) m. f a = Pe
Mandarin (C.. nobilis var.
deliciosa) a, m., f. _ = + =
Lilae (Syringa vulgaris) y. sh + — ap = qF iF
Cabbage (Brassica
oleracea var. capitata) y. St. —_ ~- =
Cauliflower (B. oleracea
var. botrytis) Y y. st. — — _

Notr.—Abbreviations are as follows:
Dp.

st.=stems; sh.=shoots;

=pods:

y.=young ;
f.=fruits ;

m.=mature ;
1, =leaves.

++ jndicates death of plants in the case of stem inoculations.

+ indicates infection.

+— indicates slight infection.

— indicates no infection.

i. =immature

All inoculations made by needle puncture under comparable conditions.

A BACTERIAL DISEASE OF SNAKE BEANS. 219

part with a sharp needle, flame-sterilised before use, and
dipped in an agar slope culture so as to cover the point
of the needle with a mass of bacteria. In every case
adequate control plants or plant parts were pricked with a
sterile needle. The Cornell culture of B. syringe from
lilac was used for the inoculation of only a few of the
plants.

The results of these inoculation studies are summarized
in Table II. The results obained with the organisms from
lemon and orange from Victoria were very similar and are
grouped together.

Discussion.

The only differences noted between the various organisms
were in the fermentation of raffinose and their pathogenicity
to various hosts. The snake bean organism agreed entirely
with B. vigne except in the degree of pathogenicity to
tick bean, soy bean, and lucerne. If the citrus pit and
lilac blight organisms are both designated B. syringe,
Clara‘) is justified in placing the cow-pea organism in the
same species. If B. vigne is to continue as a separate
species, the citrus pit organism should also be regarded
as a distinct species and should be designated Bacterium
cuiriputeale Smith. The differences between these
organisms is slight, however, and, for the present, the
writer is of the opinion that the citrus pit, lilac blight, and
cow-pea spot organisms, and the snake bean pathogen
should all be designated Bacterium syringe (Van Hall)
E. F. Smith.

THE OCCURRENCE OF A ** ROUGH ’’ STRAIN OF THE LOCALLY
ISOLATED ORGANISM.

In the cultural and morphological studies of the snake
bean organism, it was observed that, after repeated sub-
culturing on agar slopes, the cultures had altered somewhat
in appearance. Dilution plates of both beef-extract
peptone agar and potato dextrose agar were prepared
_ from these cultures. On these plates, the majority of the
colonies had a rough-contoured surface (Plate V, B)
raised above the surrounding medium. A few of the
colonies, however, were of the original smooth type, smaller
in size, with a non-contoured surface, only very slightly
raised above the surrounding medium (Plate V, C).
Dilution plates prepared from the “rough” colonies
OO—April 1, 1936.

220 R. D. WILSON.

showed all rough colonies, whilst dilution plates prepared
from the ‘‘ smooth ”’ colonies showed all smooth colonies.

At the same time, dilution plates made from three
relatively old beef-extract peptone agar slope cultures
each showed all smooth colonies. These were sub-cultures
of the re-isolated organism five and twelve weeks old
respectively, and one from the original isolation which
was three weeks old. This suggested that the ‘‘ rough ”’
organism had made its appearance during the almost
daily sub-culturing of the preceding three to five weeks.
It seemed that the ‘‘ rough ”’ type must be either a ‘‘ rough ”’
mutant of the snake bean pathogen or a contaminant
introduced in the sub-culturing operations.

The occurrence of ‘“‘rough’’ mutants of bacterial
organisms has been recognised for a considerable time.
Link‘® has reviewed some of the most important contribu-
tions relating to the occurrence of this phenomenon in the
case of several bacterial plant pathogens. It is of interest
to note that Bryan") has recorded a ‘‘ rough ”’ strain of
the lilac blight organism (B. syringe).

Single cell isolations of both the ‘‘ smooth ”’ and “ rough ”’
organisms were made, using the method recommended by
Orskov.‘®) Cultures derived from these single cells were
used for stem inoculations of snake bean seedlings. The
‘“ smooth ”’ strain was more virulent than the ‘“ rough ”’,
although the latter was definitely pathogenic and caused
wilting and death of the inoculated plants. Dilution
plates prepared from the stems of infected seedlings one
to two inches above the point of inoculation showed either
all rough colonies or all smooth colonies, depending on the
nature of the initial culture used for inoculating the plant.
Cultures derived from rough and smooth colonies in these
plates and the cultures derived from single cells were
studied morphologically, culturally, and in their reaction
to various plants.

The four cultures agreed entirely in the following
characteristics: size, staining reactions (including the
Gram stain), action on milk, litmus milk, gelatin, and
starch, ammonia production in beef-extract peptone
broth, indol production, nitrate reduction, and in the
fermentation of 19 sugars, alcohols, and acids.

The * rough ”’ and ‘*‘ smooth ”’ strains differed in motility,
the appearance of the growth on agar and in beef-extract
peptone broth, and in pathogenicity to various hosts.

A BACTERIAL DISEASE OF SNAKE BEANS. 221

The “rough” strain showed only slight motility
compared with the active motility of the ‘‘ smooth ”’
strain. In contrast with the one or two flagella of the
‘¢ smooth ”’ strain, no flagella were observed in the case of
the “rough” strain, although this may possibly have
been due to the technique rather than to entire absence of
flagella.

The character of ‘‘ roughness ’’ was much more marked on
potato dextrose agar than on beef-extract peptone agar.
In beef-extract peptone broth and in most liquid media
in which the ‘‘ smooth ”’ and “‘ rough ”’ strains were grown,
a much denser precipitate was produced by the ‘ rough ”’
Strain.

The “rough” strain was pathogenic when used for
inoculating stems of those leguminous plants listed in
Table II to which the ‘ smooth ” strain was pathogenic.
The virulence was, however, perceptibly less.

After repeated sub-culturing of the ‘“ rough’”’ strain
derived from a single cell, it was found that the culture
lost its homogeneous ‘‘rough”’ nature and became a mixture
of “smooth” and ‘rough’ types. No evidence was
obtained concerning the factors which influenced the
changes from the “‘rough”’ to the ‘‘ smooth” form or
vice versa.

TRANSMISSION, ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE, AND CONTROL.

The crop of snake beans in which the disease occurred
was grown on land which had not, as far as could be
ascertained, grown any snake beans or other species of
Vigna, or, indeed, any cultivated leguminous crop within
the preceding four or five years. Consequently there was
good reason for believing that the disease had been intro-
duced with the seed. The seed used had been obtained
from a Sydney firm of seed merchants, who stated that
practically all their snake bean seed was imported from
the United States. Seed harvested from the diseased
crop was planted in previously sterilised pots of soil in the
_ glasshouse. On some of the resulting plants, leaf lesions,
similar to those observed on plants of the preceding
generation, were evident. From these lesions an organism
was isolated which proved to be identical with the original
isolation. It is considered that this is fairly conclusive
evidence that the disease can be seed-borne. It is probable
that this is the main method of transmission from one
Season to the next.

222 R. D. WILSON.

In the crop in which the disease was observed, the leaf
damage would probably result in an appreciable reduction
in yield. Snake beans are grown only as a garden crop by a
relatively small number of growers in this country, but the
wide host range of the causal organism suggests that it
may become an important disease of other cultivated
crops.

Measures suggested by Gardner and Kendrick‘® for the
control of the bacterial spot disease of cow-pea and by
Tisdale and Williamson‘®) for the control of the disease
caused by the same organism on lima beans, include the
use of disease-free seed as the most important means of
combating the disease. Clayton™ found that the spread
of the bacterial spot disease of lima bean was materially
reduced by spraying the plants with Bordeaux mixture
and other fungicides. However, in the absence of
knowledge of resistant types, the use of disease-free seed
is suggested as the most effective method of control.

SUMMARY.

A bacterial disease was recorded on snake beans (Vigna
sesquipedalis) in New South Wales in 1935.

Comparative studies of the causal organism and cultures
of the cow-pea spot, the lilac blight, and citrus pit organisms
were carried out. Culturally and morphologically the
snake bean organism and the other organisms were identical,
except in the fermentation of raffinose. Slight differences
were recorded in the degree of pathogenicity to various
plants. None of the differences were considered sufficient
to warrant placing the various organisms in separate
species. The locally isolated organism is_ therefore
designated Bacterium syringe (Van Hall) E. F. Smith.

A “rough ”’ strain of the snake bean pathogen arose as a
mutant and comparisons were made with the normal
‘¢ smooth ” form.

The disease was shown to be seed-borne.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to
Dr. W. L. Waterhouse and Dr. R. J. Noble for helpful
suggestions and criticism concerning the investigation ;
to Mr. A. T. Pugsley, Department of Agriculture, Victoria ;
Dr. M. W. Gardner, University of California; Dr. W. H.
Burkholder, Cornell University, New York; and Dr.

NS , NON oon Plate.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX

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A BACTERIAL DISEASE OF SNAKE BEANS. 223

Charlotte Elliott, United States Department of Agriculture,
for the provision of cultures.

REFERENCES.

) Bryan, Mary K.: Lilac Blight in the United States. Jour. Agr.
Res., 36, 225-235, 1928:

(2) Burkholder, W. H.: The Bacterial Diseases of the Bean, a Com-
parative Study. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Mem.,
127, 88 pp., 1930.

8) Clara, Feliciano M. : A Comparative Study of the Green Fluorescent
Bacterial Plant Pathogens. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.
Mem., 159, 36 pp., 1934.

(4) Clayton, E. E.: Spraying Experiments with Bush Lima Beans.
New York State Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul., 558, 24 pp., 1928.

(5) Gardner. Max W., and James B. Kendrick: Bacterial Spot of
Cow-pea and Lima Bean. Jour. Agr. Res., 31, 841-863,
1925.

(6) Link, George K. K.: Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases.
Chapter XLIV. The Newer Knowledge of Bacteriology
and Immunology. Edited by E. O. Jordan and I. 8S. Falk,
pp. 590-606, 1928.

7) Noble, R. J.. H. J. Hynes, F. C. McCleery and W. A. Birmingham :
Plant Diseases Recorded in New South Wales. N.S.W.
Dept. Agr. Sci. Bul., 46, 47 pp., 1934.

(8) O@rskov, J.: Method for the Isolation of Bacteria in Pure Culture
from Single Cells and Procedure for the Direct Tracing of
Bacterial Growth on a Solid Medium. Jour. Bact., 7,
537-549, 1922.

(9) Tisdaie, W. B., and Maude Miller Williamson: Bacterial Spot of
Lima Bean. Jour. Agr. Res., 25, 141-153, 1923.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

A. Natural infection of snake bean leaf. Plants grown in the glasshouse
from seed harvested from the originally observed crop.

6

B. Two weeks old colonies of the ‘‘ rough ’’ strain of the snake bean
pathogen on potato dextrose agar. (X14.) (Photograph by
P. R. Maguire.)

C. Two weeks old colonies of the ‘‘ smooth ”’ strain of the snake bean
pathogen on potato dextrose agar. (x14.) (Photograph by
P. R. Maguire.)

‘

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Te

ADOLPH BOLLIGER.

ON A NEW REACTION FOR THE DETERMINATION
OF CREATININE.

By ADOLPH BOLLIGER, Ph.D.*

(Manuscript received, March 17, 1936. Read, April 1, 1936.)

INTRODUCTION.

In 1886, Jaffe (Zischr. f. physiol. Chem., 10, 391),
discovered the colour reaction of creatinine with picric
acid, which in 1904 was elaborated by Folin (Ztschr. f.
physiol. Chem., 41, 223) into a colorimetric method for the
determination of creatinine. This method up till now, in
spite of its shortcomings, remained the only convenient
reaction for the qualitative and quantitative determination
of this important biological constituent.

In connection with some work on the mechanism of the
Jaffe reaction for creatinine, a large number of other
o-nitrophenols besides picric acid were tested for their
ability to form typical coloured compounds with creatinine.
Substances such as o-nitrophenol, di-nitrophenols, di-
nitrocresols, di-nitro and tri-nitroresorcinol, mono- and
di-halogenated mono-nitrophenols, and mono-halogenated
di-nitrophenols were investigated. The general observation
was that practically all the o-nitrophenols investigated
(15 specimens) gave, under suitable experimental conditions,
a colour reaction with creatinine similar in nature to that
of picric acid. But all these o-nitrophenols were found to
be in a varying degree inferior to picric acid. In the
investigation were then also included nitrated benzoic
acids, and it was found that 3-5 dinitro-benzoic acid in the
presence of creatinine in alkaline solution gives a purple
colour reaction which was found to be analytically useful.

THE REACTION OF CREATININE WITH 3-5 DINITRO-BENZOIC
ACID.

In 1894 Victor Meyer (Ber. d. chem. Ges., 27, 3159)
observed that solutions of 3-5 dinitro-benzoic acid in
alkali show colour variations according to certain experi-
mental conditions.

* Acknowledgments are due to Miss Dorothy Dark for valuable
technical assistance.

DETERMINATION OF CREATININE. 225

1. Nearly colourless, if dissolved in a dilute solution of
the equivalent amount of alkali or less.
2. Yellow-red, when excess of dilute alkali is present.

3. Deep purple, but for a short period only, in
concentrated alkali solutions.

4. Nearly colourless again, if one lets the solution
prepared under 3 stand for a short time, because the
purple colour formed at first fades quickly.

5. Fuchsin red, if solution as prepared under 3, stands
for more than an hour.

As already mentioned, 3-5 dinitro-benzoic acid forms
with creatinine in the presence of alkali a markedly coloured
solution. This reaction, however, may be strongly
influenced by the colours formed between 3-5 dinitro-
benzoic acid and alkali in the absence of creatinine.
According to the observations of V. Meyer, experimental
conditions as mentioned under 1 or 4 (see above) would
not interfere. Condition 1, however, is out of question,
because an excess of alkali is necessary for the reaction
with creatinine. But if the excess of alkali is present in
sufficient dilution, viz., 0-2N—0-5N, at first a practically
colourless mixture is obtained by using a dilute solution
of the sodium salt of dinitro-benzoic acid. This solution
remains practically colourless for about 5-10 minutes,
then it turns into canary-yellow, which in the case of more
concentrated alkali is reddish-yellow (see experimental
conditions as under 2). However, the formation of the
yellow colour may be retarded for almost an hour by
keeping the mixture near freezing temperature. On the
other hand, in spite of the low temperature in the presence
of creatinine, a purple colour is produced which gains in
intensity for the next 5 to 20 minutes, according to the
concentration of the creatinine present. Then it becomes
reddish respectively pinkish, and after several hours it
ultimately turns yellow. If, however, a similar mixture
is kept at room temperature the interfering reaction between
dinitro-benzoic acid and alkali will be noted much sooner,
particularly in the case of very dilute creatinine solutions.

THE DETERMINATION OF CREATININE WITH 3-5 DINITRO-
BENZOIC ACID.
Reagents.
1. A 10% solution (approx.) of 3-5 dinitro-sodium-
benzoate. This is prepared by adding slowly under

226 ADOLPH BOLLIGER.

constant stirring 20 cc. 0-5N sodium hydroxide to 2:2 gm.
of 3-5 dinitro-benzoic acid. Most of the dinitro-benzoic
acid goes into solution, which, after some standing, changes
from orange to yellow. Then filter.

2. Normal sodium hydroxide.

3. Creatinine standard. A stock solution is prepared
by dissolving one gramme of creatinine in one litre of water.
Suitable standards containing 20, 10, 5, and 2-5 mgm.
per cent. of creatinine are prepared by diluting with
water.

A. Qualitative-—Transfer about 2 cc. of the fluid to be
examined, which preferably should be colourless and of
neutral reaction, to a test tube, and add 0-2 ce. of a 10%
solution of 3-5 dinitro-sodium benzoate and 0-4 cc. of
normal sodium hydroxide. If the creatinine is present in
a concentration of more than 5 mgm. per cent., immediately
after adding the sodium hydroxide, a purple colour will
appear, which deepens considerably on further standing.
After about 15 minutes the colour will change towards
red or pink, depending on the concentration of the creatinine
present, and will ultimately become yellow.

If, however, on adding the sodium hydroxide no purple
colour appears, one immediately cools the tube in ice and
observes the contents for about 10-25 minutes. If the
concentration of creatinine is less than about 3 mgm. per
cent. a pinkish colour will be obtained, whilst stronger
concentrations show an outspoken purple shade. By this
test the presence of 0-5 mgm. per cent. creatinine will still
be detected.* With such small amounts the colour of the
mixture will be a pinkish-yellow. It takes about 25
minutes to develop fully.

B. Quantitatiwwe.-—The solution whose creatinine content
has to be determined should if possible be colourless and of
approximately neutral reaction. Best results are obtained
with concentrations ranging from 5 to 15 mgm. per cent.
of creatinine, and solutions containing more than about
20 mgm. per cent. have to be diluted accordingly.

2 ce. of the fluid to be examined as well as 2 cc. of the
standard solutions are each transferred into a test tube
and 0-2 ec. of the dinitro-sodium benzoate solution are
added to each tube. Then the tubes are cooled in an ice-

* In a subsequent publication it will be shown that better results
will be obtained by using thoroughly purified dinitro-benzoic acid.

DETERMINATION OF CREATININE. 227

water mixture for a few minutes. Afterwards 0-4 cc. of
normal sodium hydroxide are added and then the tubes in
the cooling mixture are immediately transferred into the
ice chest. After letting stand in the ice chest for 15
minutes the unknown is compared against the standard in
the colorimeter, which is equipped with non-transparent
cups. If the colour of the unknown is faint one lets stand
in the ice chest for 25 minutes.

DISCUSSION.

The reaction of creatinine with 3-5 dinitro-benzoic acid is
probably of a similar nature to that with picric acid. But
in both instances nothing definite can yet be said with
regard to the mechanism of the reaction. They both,
that with dinitro-benzoic acid as well as that with picric
acid, take place only in an alkaline medium, and they are
about. equally specific for creatinine. Both reagents
give also a marked colour reaction with acetone,
acetophenon, ethylmalonate, etc. Therefore, such ketone
bodies have to be absent in a solution to be examined.
On the other hand, the dinitro-benzoic acid as applied in
the present test described is only slightly coloured, while
the deep yellow-orange colour of the picric acid in alkaline
solution makes the detection and estimation of small
amounts of creatinine difficult. The purple colour, as
produced with dinitro-benzoic acid and creatinine, is very
marked, but, however, as in the case of picric acid, is not
perfectly uniform in the different concentrations. Small
creatinine concentrations give a more reddish colour than
concentrated solutions. In order to obtain a good match
of colours between standard and unknown, the creatinine
content of standard and unknown should not differ more
than 50%.

The application of this test to some specific biological
problem such as determination of creatinine and creatine
im urine will be dealt with on another occasion.

SUMMARY.
Creatinine gives with 3-5 dinitro-benzoic acid in an
alkaline medium a purple colour reaction which is useful
for the detection and colorimetric estimation of creatinine.

The Gordon Craig Urological Research Laboratory,
Department of Surgery,
University of Sydney.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
OF THE

Royal Society of New South Wales

May Ist, 1935,

The Annual Meeting, being the five hundred and
thirty-second General Monthly Meeting of the Society,
was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester and
Essex Streets, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m.

Dr. R. J. Noble, President, was in the chair. Forty-
four members were present. The minutes of the general
monthly meeting of the 5th December, 1934, were read
and confirmed.

The President announced the death of James Laurence
Gallagher, M.A., who was elected a member in 1918.

The certificates of two candidates for admission as
ordinary members were read for the first time. The
following gentleman was elected an ordinary member of
the Society : John Gordon Churchward. His Excellency
Sir John Hubert Plunkett Murray was elected an honorary
member of the Society.

The following gentlemen were elected officers and
members of Council for the coming year:

President :
A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.c.1., F.c.s.

Vice-Presidents :

R. J. NOBLE, M.sc., Ph.p., B.Sc.Agr. | R. W. CHALLINOR, F.1.C., F.C.s.
C. A. SUSSMILCH, F.a.s. | EK. C. ANDREWS, B.a.

Honorary Treasurer:
EDWIN CHEEL.

Honorary Secretaries :

Major EDGAR H. BOOTH, Assist.-Prof. W. R. BROWNE,
M.C., B.Sc., F.Inst.P. D.Sc.

Members of Council :

C. ANDERSON, .a., D.Sc. Prof. J. DOUGLAS STEWART,
Prof. J. C. EARL, p.sc., Ph.p. B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.
Sige es a "oh p, | L: L. WATERHOUSE, 5.5.

art as 7D SC. FD. | Ww. LL. WATKRHOUSE,: 316);
H. FINNEMORE, B.Sc., F.1.C. D.Sc.Agr., D.I.C.
Assoc.-Prof. H. PRIESTLEY, Prof. R. D. WATT, M.A., B.Sc.

M.D., Ch.M. M. B. WELCH, B.sc., A.t1.c.

xxx

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

The Annual Balance Sheet and Revenue Account were
submitted to members by the Honorary Treasurer and,
on the motion of Mr. Penfold, seconded by Mr. Sussmilch,

were adopted.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31st MARCH, 1935.

LIABILITIES.

Trust Funds—
Clarke Memorial Fund :
Walter Burfitt Prize Fund..
Liversidge Bequest .. ar

Sundry Liabilities
Accumulated Fund

ASSETS.

Cash—
Union Bank of Australia Ltd.—
Credit balance after
allowing for unpresented
cheque A bi
Cash on Hand ..

Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed
Stock—

Bonds (nominal value £3,140)

Inscribed Stock (nominal
£1,000)

Science House Management Committee—

Payments to date

Sundry Debtors—
Institution of Engineers
Sundries

Subscriptions unpaid | £635 16 0

Less—
Bad Debts Reserve

Library :
Office Furniture
Pictures
Microscopes
Lantern

value

466 19 4

£ s. d. £

1,604 18 11
640 3 2
580 1 6

2,825

15

30,562

£33,403

poems i | £
458." S06
2 12a

461
3,089 15 0O
; 990 10 O

ee

14,533
2.283 6- 8
8 543
168 16 8

2,460

9,979

1,582

162

108

36

£33,403

16
12

18

on oe an io? 2)

for) anon

pe

for) ooonos+l

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXxl

I have examined the beoks and vouchers of the Royal Society of
N.S.W. for the period ended the 31st March, 1935, and certify that the
above Balance Sheet and attached Revenue Account are in agreement
therewith. I certify that to the best of the information given me the
above Balance Sheet correctly exhibits the position of the Society’s
funds at this date.

(Signed) W. PERCIVAL MINELL,
Chartered Accountant (Aust.).
Queensland National Bank Chambers,
27 Hunter Street,
Sydney, 23rd April, 1935.

REVENUE ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED
3lst MARCH, 1935.

£ s. d.
To Office Salaries and Accountancy Fees _.. sae 2 Sween 39
“3 pvent-, .. ae ae age fe Be ok 2325, 2-80
», Printing oe a, see) oy a a O80 lone
» Advertising .. e me ae ie 2 19) 0
», Stamps and Telegrams ihe oe sas ie 51 0 O
,, Office Sundries and Stationery be BA i 43 6 O
», Electric Light and Gas as ot i ae OF Sal
», Insurance me: if on ay he 2112 9
», Telephone oad Is 5 8
», Printing and Publishing Society’ Ss Volumer a 228. Lite 0
», Repairs ah ef aa =i 6 0 0
», Miscellaneous Expenses ae es ss as ayo sid Be /
», Cleaning as ue ee oe age am PAN aie aK)
», Interest Ls) 32.8
», Depreciation of Furniture, Pictures, Microscopes,
and Lantern—10% iS es 208 3 O
», Balance, being Net Revenue for the year a 88 011
£1,434 2 0O
By Members’ Subscriptions es ah aa oa 545 12 8
», Government Subsidy Sas a ua Sn 200 0 O
», Interest Received .. at a 5, ne 322, 16783
», Science House Receipts av ae abe ee 270 O O
», Miscellaneous Receipts oe a oo sie 8 5S Fea
£1,434) 27730

This is the Revenue Account referred to in my certificate of even date.

(Signed) W. PERCIVAL MINELL,
Chartered Accountant (Aust.).
Sydney, 23rd April, 1935.

Mr. Clunies Ross asked how the shortage of funds had
been shown, and Mr. Penfold replied that the balance
Sheet drawn up on the 25th May last had shown the
corrected value of the bonds. Mr. Finnemore queried the
amount shown under the heading Office Furniture, and

XxXxll ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

asked how this asset was valued. It was stated that the
amount shown for this item was the purchase price, on
which a 10 per cent. depreciation had been allowed this
year, for the first time. In answer to a question, Mr.
Penfold stated that the statement signed by the auditor,
at the foot of the balance sheet, had been altered at the
request of the Society.

The only nomination received for the position of Auditor
was that of Mr. C. F. Horley, of Messrs. Horley & Horley,
public accountants. Mr. Penfold proposed, and Mr.
Welch seconded, that he be elected, and this motion was
carried.

The Annual Report of the Council (1934-1935) was read
and, on the motion of Major Booth, seconded by Mr.
Challinor, was adopted.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1934-35.
(Ist May to 24th April.)

We regret to report that we have lost by death ten ordinary members.
By resignation we have lost seven members, and, in addition, eleven
members have been struck off the roll for non-payment of subscriptions.
On the other hand, thirteen ordinary members have been elected.
Today (24th April, 1935) the roll of members stands at 273.

During the Society’s year there have been eight general meetings
and ten council meetings.

Twenty-seven papers were read at the general monthly meetings,
and covered a wide range of subjects.

A new series of short lectures on current topics was begun, and the
following talks were given:

4th July: ‘‘ New Units of Matter and New Atoms’”’, by G. H.
Briggs, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.Inst.P.

Ist August: ‘*‘ Chemiluminescence’’, by D. P. Mellor, M.Sc.

3rd October: ‘‘ Some Aspects of the Biological Control of Insects
and Weeds.”’’, by N.S. Noble, M.Sc., B.Sc.Agr., D.I.C.

At the July meeting there was a discussion on the subject of “‘ The
Relation between Diseases in Livestock, Geological Formations, and
Soil Composition ’’, the principal speakers being Mr. Max Henry,
M.R.C.V.S., B.V.Sc., Dr. Ida A. Brown, and Mr. M. S. Benjamin,
DE C.; PACAS CAL.

Four popular science lectures were given, as follows:

19th July: ‘“‘ Television ’’, by Mr. E. T. Fisk.

16th August: ‘‘ Old Coins and some Ancient Men of Science ”’,
by G. H. Abbott, B.A., M.B., Ch.M.

20th September: ‘‘ Tick Paralysis in Man and Animals’’, by
I. Clunies Ross, D.V.Sc.

18th October: ‘‘ Infra-Red Spectroscopy ’’, by Professor O. U.
Vonwiller, B.Sc., F.Inst.P.

The Annual Dinner was held on Thursday, the 11th April, 1935.

Death of the Honorary Treasurer.—Following the death of Dr. H. G.
Chapman, the Honorary Treasurer, on the 25th May, 1934, a shortage

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XxXXill

of £3,260 was found in the funds of the Society, and it was discovered
that the balance sheet presented at the annual meeting had not been
released by the auditors. Steps were taken to have Dr. Chapman’s
estate administered in bankruptcy, and to prevent any such discrepancy
occurring in the future.

Mr. A. R. Penfold was elected as Honorary Treasurer, and action
taken to place the Society’s finances again in a sound position.
Professor J. C. Earl was elected a member of Council to fill the vacancy
caused by Mr. Penfold’s election as Honorary Treasurer.

Alterations to Rules—A sub-committee consisting of Dr. Noble,
Major Booth, Dr. Browne and Messrs. Penfold, Challinor and Sussmilch
was appointed to consider recommendations for the alteration of the
Rules of the Society. A draft of the proposed alterations was submitted
to the Council for approval, and later approved at a general monthly
meeting. The alterations have still to be ratified at the next annual
meeting.

Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Gloucester.—On the 24th November,
1934, an Address of Welcome was presented to the Duke of Gloucester
by the President (Dr. Noble), Dr. Brown and Mr. Penfold, on behalf
of the Society.

In January, 1935, the Society’s Vice-Patron, His Excellency Air
Vice-Marshal Sir Philip Woolcott Game, G.B.E., K.C.B., D.S.O.,
relinquished his position as Governor of New South Wales and returned
to England. The President, on behalf of himself and the Council,
presented a farewell letter to him, to which Sir Philip graciously
replied.

Science House.—The Society has regularly been represented at the
Science House Management Committee meetings. Accounts, which
have been tabled regularly, show that there are still considerable
possibilities of increased revenue to this Society as one of the owner-
bodies, provided that space at present unoccupied can be let. The
building and fittings are in good order and condition and a depreciation
account has been opened.

Clarke Memorial Fund.—The question of the capital and the interest
on the Clarke Memorial Fund and its allocation having been raised, the
matter was referred to the Society’s solicitors, Messrs. Allen, Allen
& Hemsley, who state that, in their opinion, the moneys now repre-
senting the Clarke Memorial Fund cannot be lawfully applied except
for the purpose of defraying the expense of the award from time to
time of a medal for distinction in geology and mineralogy, and of the
provision from time to time of free lectures on geology. The Council
decided that a permanent advisory committee should be formed to
advise as to the disbursement of income from the Clarke Memorial
Fund. This committee is to consist of the Executive Officers of the
Society for the time being, together with Professor L. A. Cotton,
Dr. W. R. Browne, Mr. E. C. Andrews and Mr. C. A. Sussmilch.

Clarke Memorial Medal.—At its meeting on the 29th March, 1935,
the Council awarded the Clarke Memorial Medal to George W. Card,
A.R.S.M.

On the 28th August, 1934, the Society suffered the loss by death of a
Vice-President, Sir Edgeworth David. The Royal Society was
instrumental in forming a committee to consider proposals for the
formation of a memorial fund, and the President (Dr. Noble) presided
over several meetings of a general and an executive committee, which
resolved ‘‘(1) that a fund to be known as the David Memorial Fund

XXXIV ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

be raised, that it be handed over to the University of Sydney, and that
the income from it be applied in such manner as the Senate thinks will
best aid in the advancement of the science of geology: and (2) that
the Senate be requested to associate the name of Sir Edgeworth David
permanently with the Chair of Geology’’. A committee, of which
Dr. Noble is chairman and Dr. A. B. Walkom honorary secretary,
was entrusted with the direction of the raising of the fund.

Mr. C. A. Sussmilch was elected as a Vice-President to fill the vacancy
caused by the death of Sir Edgeworth David.

The Library.—The donations to the library from December, 1935,
to March, 1935 (inclusive), have been as follows: 3,650 parts, 151
reports, 177 volumes, 62 reprints, and 7 calendars. In addition, a
number of periodicals have been purchased at a cost of £81 15s. 3d.
This amount is unusually large, as no payments had been made for
subscriptions for the year 1933-34, and in some cases subscriptions
for previous years were overdue. £48 18s. 6d. has been spent on
binding periodicals, the grant for this purpose being £50.

The work of transcribing the catalogue on to new cards, following
the system adopted by Pitt’s “‘ Catalogue of Scientific Periodicals in
Australian Libraries’”’, has now been completed.

During the year a revision of the exchange list has been undertaken.
A number of additional exchanges have been entered into and others
have been discontinued. The number of societies and institutions
receiving the “‘ Journal and Proceedings ’”’ on an exchange basis now
stands at 328, compared with 320 on 3lst March, 1934. It has been
the policy to complete, as far as possible, the library’s sets of periodicals
and, in response to requests made during the year, approximately
850 back numbers have been received. Duplicates have been disposed
of in exchange for some of these parts, and in only a few cases has it
been necessary to purchase missing numbers.

An extension telephone connection has been made to the library ;
this facilitates the work of the staff, and enables better service to be
offered to members.

Four meetings of the Library Committee were held during the year,
and a report was submitted to the Council for approval in September,
1934. The report adopted was as follows:

‘“The question of the use of the library by non-members was
considered and it was decided to recommend to the Council the adoption
of the following policy :

‘‘(a) Issue of reader’s tickets at a fixed annual charge to persons
known to the executive officers as fit to make proper use of the library,
such tickets to be valid for one year only, and to be personal to the
holder. The current charge is fixed at 10s. 6d. per ticket.

‘*(b) Issue of reader’s tickets in bulk at a reduced charge by special
arrangement to other approved societies, for re-issue as personal
tickets to their members.

‘*(c) Free use of the library by members of the Linnean Society of
N.S.Wales and the Institution of Engineers, Australia, under a reciprocal
arrangement.

‘* (d) No volumes to be lent to non-members except through another
approved library, of which they are members or ticket-holders.

‘*(e) Occasional free use of the library to non-members vouched for
individually in writing on each occasion by a member of the Society.

‘It was decided to adhere strictly to the existing rule (No. 4)
regarding the removal of unbound parts from the library.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XxXXV

‘‘The Honorary Librarian called the attention of members of the
Committee to the unsatisfactory arrangements for filing of current
periodicals, and it was decided to ask Council to provide, if possible,
a suitable piece of furniture for the Reception Room, in which most of
the current periodicals could be filed and made available to members
of the Society for consultation.

‘“The question of opening the library on some evenings was also
considered, and it was decided that the experiment might be made at
any convenient time after the completion of the catalogue.”’

An agreement with the Australian Chemical Institute, to operate
under clause (6) of these recommendations, has been completed.

At present current numbers of the more popular periodicals are
displayed on tables in the library. This method is not wholly satis-
factory, but other arrangements are to be made in the near future.

On behalf of the Council,

R. J. NOBLE,
President.

The President announced that the following popular
science lectures would be delivered during the session :

July 18th: ‘‘ Recent Advances in Veterinary Research in
Australia ’’, by Dr. H. R. Carne.

August 15th: ‘‘ Study of Growth in the Human Being’’, by
Professor Harvey Sutton.

September 19th: ‘‘ Measuring the Stars ’’, by Rev. W. J. O'Leary.
October 17th: ‘‘ Volcanoes of the Pacific ’’, by Mr. C. A. Sussmilch.

The following donations were received: 1,396 parts,
103 volumes, 3 calendars, 23 reprints and 1 map.

On the motion of Major Booth, seconded by Mr. Penfold,
the alterations to the Rules of the Society, approved by the
general meeting of the 7th November, 1934, were approved
by the Annual Meeting.

The President, Dr. R. J. Noble, then delivered his
address.

Dr. Noble, the retiring President, then installed Mr.
A. R. Penfold as President for the year 1935-36, and the
latter briefly returned thanks. On the motion of Professor
Watt, a vote of thanks was enthusiastically accorded to
the retiring President for his valuable services to the
Society during his term of office. Dr. Noble briefly
thanked the members for their expression of appreciation.

June doth, 1935.

The five hundred and thirty-third General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester
Street, at 7.45 p.m.

XXXVl1._ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Mr. A. R. Penfold, President, was in the chair. Fourteen
members were present. The minutes of the general
monthly and annual meeting of 1st May, 1935, were read
and confirmed.

As there was not present a sufficient number of members
to make an election valid, the election of two proposed
members, Hugh James and Michael Duhan Garretty,
was not held.

The Council communicated the information that Room
514 in Science House had recently been made available as
a common room for the use of the members of the societies
and institutions which are tenants of the building.

The following donations were received: 787 parts, 55
volumes, and 13 reprints.

The following papers were read :

‘““A Detailed Regional Magnetic Survey as an Aid to Geological
Interpretation. District: Mittagong-Bowral’’, by Edgar H.
Booth, MCs BSc. 4 slnstee:

‘The Constitution of Matairesinol’’, by L. H. Briggs, M.Sc.,
D.Phil., D. A. Peak, and J. L. D. Woolloxall. (Communicated
by E. Lions, B:Ses Phi) AlKe:)

July 3, 1935.

The five hundred and thirty-fourth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester
Street, at 7.45 p.m.

Mr. A. R. Penfold, President, was in the chair.
Thirty-two members were present. The minutes of the
preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

The President announced the death of William John
Adams, M.I.Mech.E., who had been a member since 1904.

The certificates of three candidates for admission as
ordinary members of the Society were read, one for the
first, and two for the second time. The following gentlemen
were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :
Hugh James and Michael Duhan Garretty.

The Council communicated the information that, in the
opinion of the Society’s solicitors, women were eligible
to become members of the Society.

The President announced that the third award of the
Walter Burfitt Prize would be made in November, 1935,
and that nominations should be submitted to the Society
not later than 31st August, 1935. It was also announced
that a Conversazione would be held on Monday, 12th
August.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXVii

Members were informed that the Society’s library would
be open until 7.45 p.m. on the first Wednesday in each
month, this arrangement to be continued until the Council
decided whether it was justified by the use made of the
library on these evenings.

The following donations were received: 259 parts,
18 volumes, 2 reprints.

The President introduced the speakers for the evening,
Professors L. A. Cotton and R. D. Watt and Mr. J. C. Firth,
who each gave a short talk on ‘‘ Sulphur ”’, dealing with
the subject from the point of view, respectively, of Geology,
Agriculture, and General Industry. Mr. R. F. Boan, who
was to have dealt with the subject from the point of view
of Pigments, was absent owing to illness, and his contribu-
tion to the discussion was read by the President.

The following papers were read :

“The Volumetric Micro-determination of Magnesium with

Methylene Blue, following its Precipitation as Magnesium
Picrolonate ’’, by Adolph Bolliger, Ph.D.

‘A Note on the Geology of the Goulburn District, with special
reference to Paleozoic Stratigraphy ’’, by G. F. K. Naylor,
M.A., M.Sc.

August 7th, 1935.

The five hundred and thirty-fifth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester
Street, at 7.45 p.m.

Mr. A. R. Penfold, President, was in the chair. Seventeen
members were present. The minutes of the preceding
meeting were read and confirmed.

The certificates of sixteen candidates for admission as
ordinary members of the Society were read for the first
time.

As there was not present a sufficient number of members
to make an election valid, the election of the proposed
member, Daniel J. K. O’Connell, was not held.

The following donations were received: 447 parts, 58
volumes, 11 reprints.

The following paper was read :

** Vegetative Reproduction in New Zealand Mosses’’, by G. O. K.
Sainsbury, F.L.S. (Communicated by E. Cheel.)

A short talk on ‘‘ Chemical Warfare’’ was delivered
by Mr. H. Finnemore, B.Sc., F.1.C.

P

XXXViii ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

September 4th, 1935.

The five hundred and thirty-sixth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester
Street, at 7.45 p.m.

Mr. A. R. Penfold, President, was in the chair. Thirty-
two members were present. The minutes of the oe
meeting were read and confirmed.

The certificates of twenty-two candidates for admission
as ordinary members of the Society were read, five for the
first time, and seventeen for the second time. The following
persons were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :
Catherine Dorothy Jean Back, Ida Alison Brown, Alma
Gertrude Culey, Francis Williamson Firth, John Clifford
Firth, Lilian Ross Fraser, Frank Rupert Hewitt, Germaine
Anne Joplin, Elizabeth Frances Lawrence, Wilson Harold
Maze, Phyllis Mary Nicol, Daniel J. K. O’Connell, Ruby
Violet Payne-Scott, Florrie Mabel Quodling, Erie Christian
Tommerup, Joyce Winifred Vickery, and Edmund Kay
Wolstenholme.

The following donations were received: 286 parts, 27
volumes, 1 reprint, 1 map.

The following paper was read:

‘*The Oxidation of Cobalt Amalgam’”’, by F. P. Dwyer, M.Sc.,
and J. W. Hogarth.

A short talk, entitled ‘‘ Aerogels’’, was given by D. P.
Mellor, M.Sc.
The following exhibits were shown:

** An illustration of Vernalisation, a new method of activating
seeds’, by J. G. Churchward.

‘* The essential oil of Myoporum deserti’’’, by H. Finnemore, B.Sc.,
F.I.C.

October 2nd, 1935.

The five hundred and thirty-seventh General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester
Street, at 7.45 p.m.

Mr. "A. R. Penfold, President, was in the chair. Forty
members were present. The minutes of the preceding
meeting were read and confirmed.

The certificates of nineteen candidates for admission as
ordinary members of the Society were read, fourteen for
the first time and five for the second time. The following
gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the
Society : Sidney Willis England, Charles Mylne McDonald,

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. :O:0:410.6

Cicero Augustus Reid, Albert Jordan Robinson, and
Ralph Dudingston Wilson.

The following donations were received: 283 parts, 32
volumes, 1 reprint, and 1 map.

The following papers were read :

‘“*The Essential Oils of Hucalyptus australiana (Baker & Smith)
and its Physiological Forms. Part I’’, by A. R. Penfold,
HA C.1., £.C.S., and F. R. Morrison, A.A.C.1., F.C.S.

‘“The Paleozoic Sediments near Bungonia. Their field relations
and Graptolite Fauna ’’, by G. F. K. Naylor, M.A., M.Sc.

A short talk on ‘ Plant Genetics ’’ was given by Edwin
Cheel.

November 6th, 1935.

The five hundred and thirty-eighth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester
Street, at 7.45 p.m.

Mr. A. R. Penfold, President, was in the chair. Sixty
members were present. The minutes of the preceding
meeting were read and confirmed.

The certificates of eighteen candidates for admission as
ordinary members of the Society were read, four for the
first time, and fourteen for the second time. The following
persons were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :
Michel Francois Albert, Percy Arthur Ash, Arthur Bayley,
Reginald Marcus Clark, Thomas Dunbabin, Leon Macintosh
Ellis, Silvanus Gladstone Evans, Roy Hamilton Goddard,
Mark Howarth, Caroline Tennant Kelly, Francis Angelo
Timothy Kelly, Andrew Reid, Clarence Golding Savage,
and William Charles Wentworth.

The President announced that the Walter Burfitt Prize
for 1935 had been awarded to Associate-Professor V. A.
Bailey, M.A., D.Phil., for his research work in Physics,
Radio, and the application of mathematical and statistical
methods in Biology.

It was announced that Dr. W. R. Browne, D.Sc., had
resigned from the position of an Honorary Secretary, and
that the Council had elected Dr. C. Anderson, M.A., D.Se.,
to fill this position. It was also announced that Dr.
Browne had been elected as a member of the Council to
fill the vacancy caused by the election of Dr. Anderson
as an honorary secretary.

The following donations were received: 413 parts and
23 books.

Q

xl ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Notice of Motion.—The President gave notice that, at the
next General Meeting, he would move that certain altera-
tions to the Rules, regarding the date of the Annual General
Meeting, be made, to permit the Annual General Meeting
to be held in April in 1937 and subsequently.

The following papers were read :

““The Endogenous Contact-zone of the Magnesian Limestones at
Ben Bullen, N.S.W.’’, by Germaine A. Joplin, B.Sc., Ph.D.

‘The Effect of Chemical Solutions on Some Woods’’, by M. B.
Welch, B.Sc.

‘“The Birefringence of Potassium Chloropalladite and Potassium
Chloroplatinite ’’, by D. P. Mellor, M.Sc., and F. M. Quodling,
B:Se.

A symposium, entitled ‘‘ A Discussion on the Upper
Atmosphere ”’ then took place, the speakers being Dr.
D. F. Martyn, Ph.D., Professor O. U. Vonwiller, B.Sc.,
F.Inst.P., Dr. T. Iredale, D.Sc., Associate-Professor
V. A. Bailey, M.A., D.Phil., Dr. J. EH. Mills, M.Se., Ph. :,
and Mr. G. H. Godfrey, M.A., B.Sc.

December 4th, 1935.

The five hundred and thirty-ninth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester
Street, at 7.45 p.m.

Mr. A. R. Penfold, President, was in the chair. Sixty-
one members were present. The minutes of the preceding
meeting were read and confirmed.

The President announced the death of Frederick Poate,
F.R.A.S., L.S8., who had been a member since 1881.

The certificates of nine candidates for admission as
ordinary members of the Society were read, five for the
first time, and four for the second time. The following
gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the
Society : Orwell Phillips, Charles Vickers Potts, Thomas G.
Room, and Thomas Henry Tennant.

The Council communicated the information that a Clarke
Memorial Lecture had been arranged, to be delivered by
Dr. W. G. Woolnough, the date being tentatively fixed for
Friday, 20th March, 1936, and the title to be “ Aerial
Survey as an Assistance in Geology ’’.

The President presented to Associate-Professor Victor
Albert Bailey, M.A., D.Phil., the Walter Burfitt Prize
and Medal for 1935. Professor Bailey briefly thanked the
Society for the honour done him in awarding him this
prize.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xli

The following donations were received: 288 parts, 7
books, and 1 calendar.

Motions from the Last Meeting.—Mr. Penfold’s motion,
“That certain alterations to the Rules be approved ”’,
was withdrawn.

The following papers were read :

‘““The Occurrence of Linalool in the Essential Oil of Melaleuca
ericifolia’’, by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.1., F.C.S., and F. R.
Morrison, A.A.C.I., F.C.S.

‘* Notes on the Shrinkage of Wood. Part II’’, by M. B. Welch,
ip-oe., ALC.

‘Compounds Formed from Copper Salts and Tertiary Arsines.
Part I’’, by G. J. Burrows, B.Sc., and E. P. Sanford, B.Sc.

** Tnitiation in the Bard Tribe, North-West Australia ’’, by A. P.
Elkin, M.A., Ph.D.

An exhibit of ‘‘ crystalline boron ’’ was made by D. P.
Mellor, M.Sc.

At the conclusion of the meeting the President wished
the members the compliments of the season. Mr. Ollé,
on behalf of the members, expressed appreciation of the
work done by the Council during the past year, and wished
the President and Council the compliments of the season.

April Ist, 1936.

The five hundred and fortieth General Monthly Meeting
was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street,
at 7.45 p.m.

Mr. A. R. Penfold, President, was in the chair. Forty
members were present. The minutes of the preceding
meeting were read and confirmed.

The President announced the death of W. H. Crago,
M.R.C.S. (Eng.), L.R.C.P. (Lond.), a member since 1886.

The certificates of seven candidates for admission as
ordinary members of the Society were read, two for the
first time and five for the second time. The following
gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the
Society : Archibald Howie, Stephen Laurence Leach,
Harry Randall, Brother Albertus Sellenger, and Harold
Wallis Wearne.

The President announced that the Clarke Memorial
Medal for 1936 had been awarded by the Council to Sir
Douglas Mawson, Kt., O.B.E., F.R.S., D.Sc., B.H., of the
University of Adelaide.

The following donations were received: 117 books and
1,056 parts.

xlil ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

The following papers were read :

“* A Bacterial Disease of Snake Beans ’’, by R. D. Wilson, B.Sc.Agr.

‘“Cyanogenetic Glueosides in Australian Plants. Part III.
Eucalyptus cladocalyx’’, by H. Finnemore, B.Sc., F.1.C.,
Miss S. K. Reichard, B.Sc., and Miss D. K. Large, B.Sc.

‘*On a New Reaction for the Determination of Creatinine ’’, by
Adolph Bolliger, Ph.D.

A short talk, entitled ‘‘ Ergot in Paspalum ’’, was given
by R. J. Noble, M.Sc., Ph.D., B.Sc.Agr.

A demonstration of ‘‘ The Presence of Alkaloids in the

Ergot of Paspalum ”’ was given by H. Finnemore, B.Sc.,
HEC:

-
——

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xliii

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
OF THE SECTION OF

INDUSTRY.

OFFICERS :

Charman: A. D. Ollé, F.C.S., A.A.C.I.
Hon. Secretary: E. G. Bishop.

A number of industrial and other establishments were
visited during the year, and the management in every
case went to considerable trouble in explaining their
processes and entertaining the visitors. The following
places were visited :

Tuesday, 21st May.—Deaf Aids Ltd., Watson House,
Bligh Street, Sydney.

Tuesday, lJ1ith June.—Bradford, Kendall Ltd., 340
Botany Road, Alexandria.

Tuesday, 9th July.—Metters Ltd., Alexandria.

Tuesday, 13th August.—Goodyear Tyre and Rubber Co.
(Australia) Ltd., Granville.

Tuesday, 10th September.—Taronga Zoological Gardens,
Mosman.

Tuesday, 8th October.—Colonial Sugar Refining Co.
Ltd., Bowman Street, Pyrmont.

Tuesday, 12th November.—Slazengers (Australia) Ltd.,
496-512 Crown Street, Sydney.

xliv ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
OF THE SECTION OF

GEOLOG®

OFFICERS :

Chairman: Dr. C. Anderson.

Hon. Secretaries: Dr. G. D. Osborne and Mr. R. O.
Chalmers.

Hight meetings were held during the year, the average
attendance being eleven members and ten visitors.

Dr. C. Anderson was elected Chairman, and Dr. G. D.
Osborne and Mr. R. O. Chalmers were elected Hon.
Secretaries for the year 1935.

April 26th.—Mr. C. A. Sussmilch addressed the Section on “* The
Cainozoic Volcanic Rocks of Victoria, with special reference to the
Western District.”” Exhibits: By Miss F. M. Quodling and
Dr. G. D. Osborne: Comprehensive set of specimens from the
Western District of Victoria to illustrate the address.

May 17th.—Exhibits: (1) By Miss F. M. Quodling: Crystals of
selenite from Tertiary sediments, Baleombe Bay, Victoria, showing
interesting habit variation. Some crystals were strongly flattened

parallel to (001), and some twinned on (103). (2) By Mr. R. O.
Chalmers: (a) Rutilated quartz from Tingha, N.S.W. (6)
Tobacco tin, encrusted by iron oxide, from Sawtell Ck., North
Coast, N.S.W. (3) By Mr. G. F. K. Naylor: (a) Hydroid ancestors
of graptolites from Lancefield District, Victoria, formation being
Upper Mid-Cambrian. (6) Graptolites from the base of Lower
Ordovician, 30 miles N.W. of Melbourne. (c) Typical Lower
Silurian graptolites from three miles west of Bungonia on road to
Goulburn. (4) By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse: (a) Collapsed brick
made from pyritic shale, Thornleigh Brick Works. (6) Pyritic
shale (Wianamatta) used in making of the bricks. (c) Vesicular
glassy olivine basalt, from Rabaul. (d) Actinolite schist which
is the country of low-grade copper ore, and represents a metamor-
phosed impure limestone. Locality, Cow Flat, near Bathurst.
(e) Malachitic and azuritic gossan, also cupriferous iron pyrites
from Cow Flat Copper Mine. (jf) Pebbles of ‘“ Older’’ basalt
cemented by Bryozoal Miocene limestone from “ The Clyde ”’,

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlv

Russell’s Bridge, Moorabool River, Victoria. (5) By Dr. G. D.
Osborne: Comprehensive suite of mica specimens from Central
Australia, Madagascar, India, Africa and Canada. Also
**Micanite ’’, used in the electrical industry.

June 2lst.—Mr. H. G. Raggatt addressed the Section on ‘‘ Recent
Investigations in the N.W. Division of Western Australia, with
special reference to the stratigraphy of the Kamilaroi System ’’.

July 19th.—Exhibit: By Dr. G. D. Osborne: Geode in dolerite from
Prospect, N.S.W., the constituents comprising analcite, quartz,
and a collcidal mass consisting of sodium, silica, aluminium, and
water, thus probably being of analcitic composition.

Discussion: Subject, “‘ Intrusive Tuffs’’. This was opened
by Professor L. A. Cotton, and continued by Professcr Browne,
Drs. Anderson and Osborne, and Messrs. Naylor, Sussmilch,
Andrews, Raggatt and Chalmers.

August 23rd.—Exhibits: By Prof. W. R. Browne: (a) Hawkesbury
sandstone with inclusion of phyllite from Woronora River. (b)
Recent sandstone with pumice fragments from a bench a little
above sea-level at Garie Beach. (c) (Collected by Major Booth)
pisolitic iron ore underlying basalt with lignite forming the nuclei,
from Mittagong.

Discussion: Subject, ‘‘ Earth movements and sedimentation
in N.S.W. from the close of the Silurian to the close of the Palaeozoic,
with special reference to the development of geosynclinal conditions
in the eastern part of the State’’. This was opened by Dr. G. D.
Osborne and continued by Dr. Brown, Professor Browne, Dr.
Walkom, and Mr. Andrews.

September 20th.—Exhibits: (1) By Dr. C. Anderson: Large fossil
insect wing in beautiful state of preservation, from Brookvale,
N.S.W. (2) By Mr. W. E. Clark: (a) Fossil seed-pod in laterite
underlying Tertiary basalt, from Armidale. (b) Tertiary con-
glomeratic ironstone containing large fossil leaves of late Tertiary
age. Locality, Armidale. (c) ‘Grey Billy”’ with fossilised
rootlets from underneath basalt in Armidale district. (3) By
Dr. G. D. Osborne: Radial aggregates of molybdenite from Cairns
District, Queensland. Mr. C. A. Sussmilch gave a hrief address
on the Canoblas District, near Orange.

October 18th.—Dr. Germaine A. Joplin addressed the Section on
‘The Ring-Dyke Complexes of Ardnamurchan, Scotland’’, .
illustrating her remarks by an excellent model showing the geology
and physiography of the Ardnamurchan Peninsula. Mr. G. A. V.
Stanley read a letter recently received from New Guinea giving an
account of a very severe earthquake which occurred in the Torricelli
Ranges on September 20th.

November 15th.—Exhibits: (1) By Mr. W. E. Clark: Lignite with
fossil resin in portion of 40 ft. log from Tertiary Deep Lead, 40
miles N.E. Armidale. (2) By R. O. Chalmers and G. F. K.
Naylor: Photographs of peculiar bare ring-like structures observed
on the ground in the neighbourhood of Bylong, N.S.W. Mr.
K. C. Andrews addressed the Section on ‘‘Some Fundamental
Conceptions Concerning Geosynclines ”’.

xlvi ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
OF THE SECTION OF

PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

OFFICERS :

Chairman: Assistant-Professor G. H. Briggs.
Hon. Secretary: W. H. Love, B.Se., Ph.D.

Ten meetings were held during 1935.

April 10th.—‘‘ Our Recent European Experiences of Interaction of
Radio Waves ’’, by Professor and Mrs. V. A. Bailey.

May Ist.—‘‘ The Pulse Method of Ionospheric Investigation’’, by
O: 0: Pulley, Bisc.,, B.E., PhD:

May 8th.—‘‘ Methods of Investigation of Atmospherics’’, by G. H.
Munro, M.Sc., A.M.I.E.E.

June 26th.—‘‘ The Absolute Velocities of 8 Particles from Radium
B+C”’, by A. Harper, B.Sc.

July 3rd.—(1) ‘‘ A Note on the Absolute Determination of the Ampére ”’
by Dr. G. H. Briggs. (2) ‘‘ The Influence of the Radiation Field
of a Lightning Flash on the Ionosphere ’’, by R. H. Healey, M.Sc.

July 17th.—(1) ‘ iP pelcauone of Negative Resistances”’, by R. E. B.
Makinson, B.Se. (2) ‘‘ Demonstration of a Method ‘of Obtaining
Response Curves of Radio Receivers by Means of the Cathode
Ray ’’, by W. G. Gordon, B.Sc.

August ith. A New Basis for Electrodynamics ”’, by | RH B.
Makinson, B.Sc.

September 18th.—‘‘ Temperature Effects in the Upper Atmosphere ”
by D. F. Martyn, Ph.D.

October 9th (at the Works of Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia)
Ltd., Ashfield, at 8 p.m.).—‘‘ Frequency Control with Piezo-
electric Crystals’’, by G. Builder, Ph.D. This address was
followed by an inspectidn of the laboratories.

October 16th.—‘‘ The Search for Invariants in Geometry ”’, by Professor
T. G. Room.

INDEX.

A

PAGE
Abstract of Proceedings .. XX1x
Section of Geology .. xliv
Section of Industry xlil

Section of Physical
Science sd . xiv
Aerogels, Lecturette on .. xxxvill

Alteration to Rules XXXlll, XXXV
Amalgam, Oxidation of Cobalt 105
Anderson, C., elected Hon.
Secretary ES XX KK
Arsines, Tertiary, Compounds
formed from eae Salts

and > 182
Authors, fe rcuctions con ae Vv
Awards of Clarke Memorial

Medal xxv, xxx, xli
a », Liversidge Research

Lectureship XXVll
a » Society’s Medal and

Money Prize Sox |

» 9, Walter Burfitt Prize
LVI, XXX, Xl
B

Bailey, Victor A., Award of
Walter Burfitt Prize to

XKKIX., x
Balance Sheet as at 3lst
March, 1935 i Xxx
Bard Tribe, North-west
Australia, Initiation in .. 190
Ben Bullen, N.S.W., Endo-
genous Contact-zone of
the Magnesian Limestones
at Mee ae), es a, EBSD
Bequest, Form of .. Vv

Bettley-Cooke, H. V., Obituars 5
Bolliger, Adolph—
The Volumetric Micro-deter-

mination of Magnesium
with Methylene Blue .. 68

On a New Reaction for
the Determination of
Creatinine 224

Booth, E. H.— PAGE
A Detailed Regional Mag-
netic Survey as an Aid
to Geological Interpreta-
tion. District : Mittagong-
Bowral
Boron, Crystalline, Exhibit of ah
Briggs, Li. H. BD. A. Peak,
and J. L. D. Woolloxall—
The Constitution of Matai-
resinol ree one eC)! |
Browne, W. R., Resignation
as Hon. Secretary .. xxXxix
Bungonia, Paleozoic Sediments
near fe ee
Burfitt Prize, evade ae

Seach. x
Burrows, G. J., and E. P.
Sanford—

Compounds formed from
Copper Salts and Tertiary
Arsines 182

Cc

Card, G. W., Award of Clarke

Memorial Medal to.. SOCK
Chapman, H.G., Obituary .. 5
Chemical Warfare, Lecturette

on 2 xx
Clarke Memorial Medal, Awards

of : : XXV, XXXII, xli

Cobalt Amalgam, Oxidation of 105
Conversazione ..

XxXxvi

Copper Salts and Tertiar y
Arsines, Seembone:
formed from 182

Council, Report of, for year
1934-35 _ ae 6-40

Creatinine, A New Reaction for
the Determination of end

Cyanogenetic Glucosides in
Australian Plants. Part
III. Eucalyptus cladocalyx 209

D

David, Sir ye aac
Obituary ia he tele 6
Memorial (24 SEX

xlvili INDEX.

PAGE PAGE

Demonstration: The Presence Geological Section, Proceedings
of Alkaloids in the Ergot of re, ; xliv
of Paspalum .. . xlu | Goulburn District, Note on the

Discussion : Sulphur XXXV1l Geology of, with Special

Duke of Gloucester, Visit of xxxili Reference to Paleozoic

Dun, W.S., Obituary .. 8 Stratigraphy 75

Dwyer, E> P., ard. "ds: W. Graptolite Fauna of the Sedi-
Hogarth— ments near Bungonia . 128

The Oxidation of Cobalt
Amalgam . = 105 H
Health in Plants, Some Aspects
E of Problems associated
: with the Preservation of.. 10
Elkin, A. le ; Hogarth, J. W.—see Dwyer,
Initiation in the Bard Tribe EF Pp
of North-west Australia 190
Ergot in Paspalum, Lecturette I
on po, ocbbl
ie ma Ze ae Ag f ene Proceedings of the ic
aa Wei ection of xhii

Essential Oils of Hucalyptus ees se Bard Tribe of 190
Australiana and its Physi- Ce Se aad :
ological Forms. ye 111

Essential Oil of Myoporum i
deserti Be e.6.o-4iaiih

Eucalyptus cladocalyx, Cyano- : .
genetic Glucosides in . 209 arian F., ae rh 9

Beotahiee °B ae ermaine A.—

Crystalline Boron... .. xii e Endogenous Contact-
y zone of the Magnesian
ESIC Ge ge One Limestones at Ben Bullen
desertt XXXVI N.S.W ‘ 135
Illustration of Vernal- gene ;
isation XXXVIi1
L
F Large, Miss D. K.—see Finne-
4 ; more, H.

Finnemore, H., Miss S. K. Lectures, Popular Science
Reichard, and Miss D. K. xxxii, xxxv
Large— : ‘ Lectureship, Awards of

Cyanogenetic Glucosides of Liversidge Research XXVll
Australian Plants. Part Lecturettes :
III. Hucalyptus cladocalyx 209 Aerogels XXXVIli
Chemical Warfare XXXV1l
Ergot in Paspalum .. mone. < lh
G Plant Genetics .. XXX1x
Library 2, XXXIV
Gallagher, J. L., Obituary .. 9 | Linalool, @Oeonmcnee oe. in
Game, Sir Philip, Departure of Essential Oil of Melaleuca
Xxx ericifolia a i

Geological Interpretation, A List of Members Baa 1X
Detailed Regional Mag- Liversidge Research Lecture-
netic Survey as an Aid to 35 ship, Awards of XXv1

INDEX. xlix

M O
PAGE | Obituaries— PAGE
Magnesian Limestones at Ben H. V. Bettley-Cooke . 5
Bullen, N.S.W., The H. G. Chapman .. 5
- Endogenous Contact-zone T. W. E. David 6
of the we aye Segoe £345) W. 8S. Dun 8
Magnesium, Micro-determina- J. L. Gallagher fe See)
tion of with oe iiacE ee enikims. GF), 1 art 9
Blue: 3.) 68 F. H. Moore Se ae 9
Magnetic Survey, a Detailed Chisholm Ross 10
Regional, as an Aid to ~ H. M. Stephen 10
Geological Interpretation 35 | Officers for 1935-36 SOXEX

Mawson, Sir Douglas, Award
of Clarke Memorial Medal

to ton ats TT
Medal and Money Prize,

Awards of ea xxv
Melaleuca ericifolia, Linalool

in the Essential Oil of .. 171
Mellor, D. P., and Miss Florence

M. Quodling—

The Birefringence of

Potassium Chloro-palladite

and Potassium Chloro-

platinite . 167
Members, Honorary XX1ll
Members, List of .. .. . 1X
Membership XI
Mittagong-Bowral " District,

Regional Magnetic ervey.

of 35
Moore, F. ial. Obituary .. a 9
Morrison, F. R.—see Penfold,

A. R.
Mosses, Vegetative Reproduc-

tion in New Zealand Be Behe
Myoporum deserti, Essential

Oil of : XXXVI
Motion, Notice of .-~ .. .. xl

N

Naylor, G. F. K.—

Note on the Geology of the
Goulburn District, with
Special Reference to the
Paleozoic Stratigraphy .. 75

The Paleozoic Sediments near

Bungonia: Their Field
Relations and eee
Fauna els
Noble, R. J.—
Presidential Address .._.. 1
Morice of Motion ... ... .. , xl

Oxidation of Cobalt Amalgam 105

Pp
Palzozoic Sediments near
Bungonia, N.S.W. . 123

Paleozoic Stratigraphy, Goul-
burn District, N.S.W. .. 75

Paspalum, Ergot in.. .. xlil

Peak, D. A.—see Briggs, L. H.

Penfold, A. R., and F. R.
Morrison—

The Essential Oils of
Hucalyptus Australiana
(Baker and Smith) and its
Physiological Forms fll

The Occurrence of Linalool
in the Essential Oil of
Melaleuca ericifolia LT

Physical Science, Proceedings
of Section of . xlvi

| Plant Genetics, Lecturette on

SEXO
Plants, Health in, Some
Aspects of Problems
associated with the Pre-
servation Of 2 7.) 7 kO
Popular Science Lectures
SX KS KY,
Potassium-Chloropalladite and
Chloroplatinite, Bire-

fringence of _.. 167
Presidential Address by R. I
Noble. oP: il
Prize, Award of. " Society’s
Medal and Money XXvl
Proceedings, Abstract of XX1X
is Section of Geology
xliv
ae Section of Industry
xh
~ Section of Physical
Science Hex
Prunasin, Identification of . 210

Publications, List of Wet Seer

Q
PAGE
Quodling, Miss Florence M.—
see Mellor, D. P.

R

Reichard, Miss S.
Finnemore, H.
Report of the Council for the
year 1934-35 XKXM
Revenue Account for year
ended 3lst March, 19385 xxxi
Ross, Chisholm, Obituary 10
Rules, Alterations to
XxX, XXXV, xh

K.— see

S

Sainsbury, G. O. K.—
Vegetative Reproduction in

New Zealand Mosses 86
Sanford, E. P.—see Burrows,

G. J.
Science House > 2 ex
Shrinkage of W ood, N otes on. |

Part II : 174 |
Snake Beans, A Bacterial

Disease of . a 215
Stephen, H. M., “Obituary 10
Sulphur, Discussion on XXXVII
Symposium on the Upper

Atmosphere yo Aeon mol

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY LIMITED

INDEX.

| Woolloxall,

ie

PAGE
Tertiary Arsines and Copper
Salts, Compounds formed

from . 182
Vv
Vegetative Reproduction in
New Zealand Mosses 86
Vernalisation, A new Method
of Activating Seeds.. xxxvill
Virus Disease in Plants .. 23
Volumetric Determination of
meee with denver
Blue 68
WwW
Warfare, mene Lecturette
on : Re XXXVI11
Welch, M. B. —
The Effect of Chemical

Solutions on Some Woods 159
Notes on the Shrinkage of

Wood. Part II . 174
Wilson, R. D.—
A Bacterial Disease of Snake"
Beans 215
Women Eligible for. Member-
ship == XXXV1
Wood, Shrinkage ap, i ela.
Woods, The Effect of Chemical
Solutions on Some . 159

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Briggs, L. H.

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