titania pes aed batthe Sditealls rath te itt a Nadal ft alg ito i is) nt i Heteaged (i) 2 a | sy ir lteel habit atin ia ih il, Nhs i Vandi laraMalitabet Te yaniiaas iodah Beet oe oa fared ia i t Wait Pala Gl eetiat bi (aat tHiNets) gts atenlet a a) ; i ae Y Me nu nati u mn 4 ', ; i 7 {| bY a nae ae vig ren ait Tb int nin ry 4 arate} ee Iria sli the - HPT Latta tad aisy\t ies ary a ta a if eth Lg tet diated uae sea shah Nok Mier ; md it ai 4 i { tidaiies rele iain Sid ie Y Cate 4 rill te he i Ne ‘ a hea ue ! ce hit ( f WET aNitehare ‘it i ‘ i . Hl an lias ae ae ct Ese pee = es Hi ytge a te cn; i jahaits oe oe La Mal Maa det ‘ ‘ 4 FE ritalin Huei beh, 4 ‘ithal uy Healt baile Eee =e a a we eae a Pi he ae ‘ ah, #4 i nia Nite ai ‘ae ae sa Be ss tad ab at sin esa | Nan why Shes pete a “ vance ts ede He ct oe itil i i innit es Ayn Aucie a aad Cree ny 4043 B Ad Sed isi " ri sas ai Me ait vie Rin wie Hee an ; ts C eo aniae “tf i Bh hea i i picid Pg Aa Wi) eee o " j tii hites Ny ea “Y he ee : ISSUBD AUGUST 26, 1953 “| VOL. LXXXVIT POR > PARTI JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 2 ee OF THE | ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 1953 (INCORPORATED 1881) PART L_ OF VOL. LXXXVII ~ Containing List of Members, Report of Council, Balance Sheet, Obituary Notices, Presidential Address and Papers read in April, 1953. EDITED BY G. D. OSBORNE, D.Sc., Ph.D. Honorary Editorial Secretary _ THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN SYDNEY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS 1953 CONTENTS + > - EMBERS . AAD EVA “ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Counci ae 3° Ps EA ig o OF. He ee ia oe Te a on ¥ "f Seeieh aera WSs - Rerort or Suction or Geonocy .. . PUAN Ge erage tna OBITUARY |... e. es “ge : o- ae oe oe vi wee basen Je) 5 ArT. I.—Presidential Address. - By C. J.-Magee— Peet) eae Pe = ; ree fo I. Work of the Society —.. See A ce ears Bee xe aah ae of Seismic Rays. By K. BE: Bullén 47S” TY. —A Note on the Sooprece of the Essential Oil of Eucalyptus ede Hook. ge | ave JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 1953 (INCORPORATED 1881) VOLUME LXXXVII Part I EDITED BY G. D. OSBORNE, D.Sc., Ph.D. Honorary Editorial Secretary THES AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN SYDNEY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS PUAN a py i TY, Royal Society of Nem South Wales OFFICERS FOR 1953-1954 Patrons : His EXcELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, FIELD-MARSHAL Str WILLIAM SLIM, G.c.M.G., G.C.B., G.B.E., D.S.O., M.C. His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SouTH WALES, LIEUTENANT-GENERAL Sir JOHN NORTHCOTT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.V.O. President : IDA A. BROWNE, D.sc. Vice- Presidents : R. C. L. BOSWORTH, m.sc., D.sc. (Adel.), | PHYLLIS M. ROUNTREE, pD.sc. (Melb.), Ph.D. (Camb.), F.A.C.1., F.Inst.P. | Dip.Bact. (Lond.). C. J. MAGEE, D.sc.agr. (Syd.), M.Sc. (Wis.). | H. W. WOOD, M.sc., A.Inst.P., F.R.A.S. Honorary Secretaries : G. BOSSON, .sc. (Lond.). | G. D. OSBORNE, bD.sec. (Syd.), Ph.D. | (Camb.), F.G.S. Honorary Treasurer : H. A. J. DONEGAN, A.8.1.c., A.A.C.1. Members of Council : J. P. BAXTER, B.sc., Ph.D., A.M.I.Chem.E. F. D. McCARTHY, Dip.anthr. H. B. CARTER, B.v.sc. P. R. MCMAHON, .agr.sce. (N.Z.), Ph.D. A. R. DARVALL, M.B., B.s., D.O. (Leeds), A.R.I.C., A.N.Z.1.C. N. A. GIBSON, M.sc., Ph.D., A.R.I.C. T. IREDALE, D.sc., F.R.1.c. A. V. JOPLING, B.sc., B.E. R. S. NYHOLM, p.sc., Ph.p. (Lond.), M.Se. (Syd.). O.U. VONWILLEBR, B.sc., F.Inst. iv NOTICES. NOTICE. THe Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the “ Philosophical Society of Australasia’’; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the ‘* Australian Philosophical Society ’’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the “* Philosophical Society of New South Wales ”’; in 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. TO AUTHORS. Particulars regarding the preparation of manuscripts of papers for publication in the Society’s Journal are to be found in the “ Guide to Authors’, which is obtainable on appli- cation to the Honorary Secretaries of the Society. FORM OF BEQUEST. 4s bequeath the sum of £ to the Royat Socrery or New Sourn WA tEs, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within calendar months after my decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose. [Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society of New South Wales by Legacies are recommended to instruct their Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest. ] The volumes of the Journal and Proceedings may be obtained at the Society’s Rooms, Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney. Volumes XI to LIII (that is to 1919) B TV) LXVI (1920 to 1932) a LXVIII (1936) © oy LXX ,, LXXXII (1938 to 1948) A LXXXIIT and LXXXIV Volumes I to X (to 1876) and LX VII and LXIX (1935 and 1937) are out of print. Reprints of papers are available. LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE Royal Society of New South Wales as at April 1, 1953 P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s Journal. The numerals indicate the number of such contributions. + Life Members. Elected. 1944 Adamson, Colin Lachlan, Chemist, 36 McLaren-street, North Sydney. 1938 P 2 |fAlbert, Adrien, D.Sc., Ph.D. Lond., B.Sc. Syd., F.R.1.C. Gt.B., Professor of Medical Chemistry, The Australian National University, 183 Euston-road, London, N.W.1. 1935 tAlbert, Michael Francois, ‘“‘ Boomerang,” Billyard-avenue, Elizabeth Bay. 1950 Alexander, Albert Ernest, B.Sc., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry, N.S.W. University of Technology; p.r. 178 Raglan-street, Mosman. 1898 tAlexander, Frank Lee, Surveyor, 5 Bennett-street, Neutral Bay. 1941 tAlldis, Victor le Roy, 1.s., Registered Surveyor, Box 57, Orange, N.S.W. 1948 Anderson, Geoffrey William, B.sc., c/o Box 30, P.O., Chatswood. 1948 Pe Andrews, Paul Burke, 5 Conway-avenue, Rose Bay. 1948 Arnold, Joan W. (Mrs.), 202 Separation-street, Northcote, Victoria. 1930 1B sil! Aston, Ronald Leslie, B.sc., B.E. Syd., M.sc., Ph.D. Camb., A.M.1.E. Aust., Senior Lecturer in Civil Engineering and Surveying in the University of Sydney ; p.-r. 24 Redmyre-road, Strathfield. (President, 1948.) 1919 | canes | Aurousseau, Marcel, B.sc., c/o Royal Geographical Society, Kensington Gore, London, S.W.7. 1949 Pe Backhouse, James Roy, m.sc. Syd., Lecturer, Sydney Technical College ; p.-r. Fowler-avenue, Bexley North. 1924 2 Bailey, Victor Albert, M.A., D.Phil., F.Inst.P., Professor of Experimental Physics in the University of Sydney. 1934 2 Baker, Stanley Charles, M.sc., A.mnst.P., Head Teacher of Physics, Newcastle Technical College, Tighe’s Hill; p.r. 8 Hewison-street, Tighe’s Hill, N.S.W. 1937 Baldick, Kenric James, B.sc., 19 Beaconsfield-parade, Lindfield. 1951 Banks, Maxwell Robert, B.sc., Lecturer in Geology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania. 1946 P Barclay, Gordon Alfred, Chemistry Department, Sydney Technical College, Harris-street, Broadway, Sydney; p.r. 78 Alt-street, Ashfield. 1919 Bardsley, John Ralph, 29 Walton-crescent, Abbotsford. 1951 Basden, Kenneth Spencer, 4.s.1T.c., Technical Officer, Department of Mining and Applied Geology, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney. 1950 Baxter, John Philip, B.sc., Ph.D., A.M.I.chem.E., The Director and Professor of Chemical Engineering, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney. 1947 Beckmann, Peter, a.s.t.c., Lecturer in Chemistry, Technical College, Wol- longong. 1933 Bedwell, Arthur Johnson, Eucalyptus Oil Merchant, ‘“‘ Kama,” 10 Darling Point-road, Edgecliff. 1926 | Bentivoglio, Sydney Ernest, B.sc.agr., 42 Telegraph-road, Pymble. 1937 P 7 | Birch, Arthur John, M.sc., D.Phil. Oxon., Professor of Organic Chemistry, University of Sydney, Sydney. 1920 {Bishop, Eldred George, Manufacturing and General Engineer, 37-45 Myrtle- street, Chippendale ; p.r. 264 Wolseley-road, Mosman. 1939 IPOS Blake, George Gascoigne, M.I.E.E., F.Inst.P., 6 Wolseley-road, Lindfield. 1948 Blanks, Fred Roy, B.sc. (Hons.), Industrial Chemist, c/o Australian Depart- ment, I.C.I. Ltd., London, 8.W.1, England. 1946 Blaschke, Ernest Herbert, 6 Illistron Flats, 63 Carrabella-street, Kirribilli. 1933 | P 29 | Bolliger, Adolph, pPh.v., F.R.A.c.1., Director of Research, Gordon Craig Urological Research Laboratory, Department of Surgery, University of Sydney. (President, 1945.) vi Elected. 1951 1920 1951 1939 1938 1946 1952 1919 1942 1945 1941 1935 1913 1952 1947 1940 1946 1898 1952 1950 1950 1938 1903 1945 1950 1944 1933 1940 1952 1951 1935 1935 1938 1941 1940 1940 1940 1948 1940 Pete P 26 Pook Pian P 10 P 23 (Pel PZ P 5 Bae2 Ba Pea Booker, Frederick William, m.sc., c/o Geological Survey of N.S.W., Mines Department, Sydney. Booth, Edgar Harold, M.c., D.sc., F.Inst.p., “‘ Hills and Dales,’’ Mittagong. (President, 1936.) Bosson, Geoffrey, M.Sc. Lond., Professor of Applied Mathematics, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney. Bosworth, Richard Charles Leslie, m.sc., D.sc. Adel., Ph.D. Camb., F.R.A.C.1., F.Inst.p., c/o C.8.R. Co. Ltd., Sydney ; p.r. 52 Beechworth-road, Pymble. (President, 1951.) Breckenridge, Marion, B.Sc., Department of Geology, The University of Sydney ; p.r. 19 Handley-avenue, Thornleigh. Breyer, Bruno. M.D., Ph.D., M.A., F.R.A.C.I., Senior Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, The University of Sydney. Bridges, David Somerset, Schoolteacher, 14 Mt. Pleasant-avenue, Normanhurst. Briggs, George Henry, D.sc., Ph.D., F.Inst.p., Officer-in-Charge, Section of Physics, National Standards Laboratory of Australia, University Grounds, Sydney ; p.r. 13 Findlay-avenue, Roseville. Brown, Desmond J., M.se. Syd., Ph.D. Lond., D.1.c., Department of Medical Chemistry, Australian National University, 183 Euston-road, London, N.W.1. Brown, Norma Dorothy (Mrs.), B.sc., Biochemist, 2 Macauley-street, Leich- hardt. Brown, Samuel Raymond, A.c.a. Aust., 87 Ashley-street, Chatswood. Browne, Ida Alison, p.sc., Geology Department, The University of Sydney. tBrowne, William Rowan, D.sc., 51 Nelson-street, Gordon. (President, 1932.) Bryant, Raymond Alfred Arthur, .s.T.c., Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering, N.S.W. University of Technology ; p.r. 32 Bruce-street, Brighton-le-Sands. Buchanan, Gregory Stewart, B.Sc. (Hons.), Lecturer in Physical Chemistry, Sydney Technical College; p.r. 19 Ferguson-avenue, Thornleigh. Buckley, Lindsay Arthur, B.sc., 29 Abingdon-road, Roseville. Bullen, Keith Edward, M.A., Ph.D., Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathe- matics, University of Sydney, Sydney, N.S.W. tBurfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.A., M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc. Syd., F.R.A.C.S., “* Radstoke,”’ Elizabeth Bay. Burke-Gaffney, Rev. Thomas Noel, s.s., Director, Riverview College Observatory, Riverview, N.S.W. | Burton, Gerald, B.sc. Syd., Geologist, c/o Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra, A.C.T. Caldwell, John Henry, B.sc. Syd., 63 Arthur-street, Homebush. tCarey, Samuel Warren, D.sc., Professor of Geology, University of Tasmania, Tasmania. tCarslaw, Horatio Scott, Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Emeritus Professor of Mathe- matics, University of Sydney, Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge ; Burradoo, N.S.W. Carter, Harold Burnell, B.v.sc., Officer-in-Charge, Wool Biology Laboratory, 17 Randle-street, Sydney. Carver, Ashley George, 234 Shell Cove-road, Neutral Bay. Cavill, George William Kenneth, m.sc. Syd., Ph.D. Liverpool, Senior Lecturer, Organic Chemistry, N.S.W. University of Technology ; p.r. “ Alwilken,”’ Coral-road, Cronulla. Chalmers, Robert Oliver, a.s.t.c., Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. Chambers, Maxwell Clark, B.sc., c/o Coty (England) Ltd., 35-41 Hutchinson- street, Moore Park; p.r. 58 Spencer-road, Killara. Chapman, Dougan Wellesley, Surveyor, 3 Orinoco-street, Pymble. _ Charlwood, Joan Marie, B.sc., Biochemist, 184 Queen-street, Concord West. | Churchward, John Gordon, B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., 1 Hunter-street, Woolwich. | Clark, Sir Reginald Marcus, K.B.E., Central Square, Sydney. Clune, Francis Patrick, Author and Accountant, 15 Prince’s-avenue, Vaucluse. | Cohen, Max Charles, B.Sc., 9 Richmond-street, East, Toronto 1, Ontario, Canada. Cohen, Samuel Bernard, M.Sc., A.R.A.C.1., 74 Boundary-street, Roseville. Cole, Edward Ritchie, B.sc., 7 Wolsten-avenue, Turramurra. Cole, Joyce Marie, B.sc., 7 Wolsten-avenue, Turramurra. Cole, Leslie Arthur, Company Executive, 21 Carlisle-street, Rose Bay. Collett, Gordon, 8.Sc., 27 Rogers-avenue, Haberfield. Vil Elected. 1948 | Cook, Cyril Lloyd, M.sc., Ph.D., c/o Propulsion Research Laboratories, Box 1424H, G.P.O., Adelaide. 1946 Cook, Rodney Thomas, 4.s.T.c., 10 Riverview-road, Fairfield. 1945 Coombes, Arthur Roylance, A.s.T.c. (Chem.), 14 Georges River-road, Croydon. 1913 P 5 ‘{Coombs, F. A., F.c.s., Instructor of Leather Dressing and Tanning, Sydney Technical College ; p.r. Bannerman-crescent, Rosebery. 1933 Corbett, Robert Lorimer, Scot Chambers, Hosking-place, Sydney. 1940 Cortis-Jones, Beverly, M.sc., 62 William-street, Roseville. FOLD) | Cotton, Frank Stanley, p.sc., Professor in Physiology in the University of Sydney. 1909 P 7 |{Cotton, Leo Arthur, M.a., D.Ssc., Emeritus Professor of Geology, Sydney Uni- versity ; 113 Queen’s Parade East, Newport Beach. (President, 1929.) 1941 P 1 | Craig, David Parker, ph.p., Professor of Physical Chemistry, University of Sydney. 1951 Crane, Roslyn Ann, B.se., Librarian, Australian Leather Research; p.r. 6 Chesterfield-road, Epping. 1921 P 1 |tCresswick, John Arthur, A.R.A.0.1., F.c.S., Production Superintendent and Chief Chemist, c y. o The Metropolitan Meat Industry Commissioner, State Abattoir and Meat Works, Homebush Bay; p.r. 101 Villiers-street, Rockdale. 1948 Cymerman-Craig, John, Ph.D., D.I.C., A.R.C.S., B.Sc., A.R.1.C., Lecturer in Organic Chemistry, University of Sydney. 1940 | Dadour, Anthony, B.sc., 25 Elizabeth-street, Waterloo. 1951 | Darvall, Anthony Roger, M.B., B.s., D.o., Medical Practitioner, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Missenden-road, Camperdown. 1952 | Davies, George Frederick, a.m.1.E.T. Britain, Engineer, 57 Hastern-avenue, Kingsford. 1952 | Davison, Clem Newton, A.s.T.c., B.E. (Mining Engineering), ¢/o Territory | Enterprises Pty. Ltd., Rum Jungle, N.T. 1952 Day, Alan Arthur, 8B.sc., c/o Department of Geophysics and Trinity College, Cambridge, England. 1919 Pac? de Beuzeville, Wilfred Alex. Watt, 3.P., ‘‘ Melamere,’’ Welham-street, Beecroft. 1952 Debus, Elaine Joan, Chemist, 62 Tarrant’s-avenue, Eastwood. 1928 Donegan, Henry Arthur James, A.S.T.C., A.R.A.C.I., A.R.I.M.M., Senior Analyst, Department of Mines, Sydney ; p.r. 18 Hillview-street, Sans Souci. 1947 Downes, Alan Marchant, B.sc. 1950 Drummond, Heather Rutherford, B.sc., 15 Watson-street, Neutral Bay. 1943 Dudgeon, William, Manager, Commonwealth Drug Co., 50-54 Kippax-street, Sydney. 1937 P15 | Dulhunty, John Allan, D.sc., Geology Department, University of Sydney ; p.r. 40 Manning-road, Double Bay. (President, 1947.) 1948 Dunlop, Bruce Thomas, B.se., Schoolteacher, 77 Stanhope-road, Killara. 1951 Dunn, Thomas Melanby, B.sc., c/o Chemistry Department, University College, Gower-street, London, W.C.1. 1924 Dupain, George Zephirin, A.R.A.0.1., F.c.S., Director Dupain Institute of Physical Education and Medical Gymnastics, Manning Building, 449 Pitt-street, Sydney ; p.r. 15 Calvert-parade, Newport Beach. 1934 Pros Dwyer, Francis P. J., D.se., Senior Lecturer in Chemistry, University of Sydney, Sydney. 1945 | Eade, Ronald Arthur, B.sc., 21 Steward-street, Leichhardt. 1951 Edgar, Joyce Enid (Mrs.), B.sc., 16 Cooper-street, Cessnock. 1950 Edgell, Henry Stewart, 8 Barkly-crescent, Forrest, Canberra, A.C.T. 1946 or El Nashar, Beryl, B.sc., Ph.D., Dip.Ed., 9 San Francisso de Sales 50 C, Moncloa, | Madrid, Spain. 1934 xi? Elkin, Adolphus Peter, M.a., Ph.D., Professor of Anthropology in the University of Sydney. (President, 1940.) 1949 Ellison, Dorothy Jean, m.sc. (Hons.) N.Z., Science Teacher, Abbotsleigh, Wahroonga; p.r. 51 Tyron-road, Lindfield. 1940 Emmerton, Henry James, B.Sc., 37 Wangoola-street, East Gordon. 1944 Erhart, John Charles, Chemical Engineer, c yh o ‘‘ Ciba ” Coy., Basle, Switzerland. 1908 tEsdaile, Edward William, 42 Hunter-street, Sydney. 1935 Evans, Silvanus Gladstone, a.1.a.a. Lond., A.R.A.1.A., 6 Major-street, Coogee. 1949 | Everingham, Richard, 3 The Bastion, Castlecrag. Vili Elected. 1950 1909 1940 1940 1933 1949 1932 1943 1950 1951 1940 1944 1945 1952 1935 1939 1926 1942 1947 1947 1948 1945 1951 1947 1949 1936 1949 1948 1952 1952 1952 1938 1946 1948 1947 1934 1892 1949 1940 1905 Piatt Pa 2 4 PP. 6 Poa 1 8 P 14 PEG Fallon, Joseph James, B.Ec. Zurich, Photographer, 1 Coolong-road, Vaucluse. {Fawsitt, Charles Edward, D.sc., Ph.D., F.R.A.C.I., Emeritus Professor of Chemistry, 144 Darling Point-road, Edgecliff. (President, 1919.) Finch, Franklin Charles, B.sc., Kirby-street, Rydalmere, N.S.W. Fisher, Robert, B.sc., 3 Sackville-street, Maroubra. Fletcher, Harold Oswald, Palaeontologist, Australian Museum, College-street, Sydney. Flinter, Basil Harold, B.sc., Colonial Geological Survey, Federation of Malaya, Batu Gajah, Malaya. Forman, Kenn P., M.1.Refr.E., Box 1822, G.P.O., Sydney. Frederick, Robert Desider Louis, B.E., 1540 High-street, Malvern, Victoria. Freeman, Hans Charles, m.sc., 43 Newcastle-street, Rose Bay. French, Oswald Raymond, Research Assistant, University of Sydney; p.r. 66 Nottinghill-road, Lidcombe. Freney, Martin Raphael, B.sc., 27 Wycombe-road, Neutral Bay. Friend, James Alan, m.sc. Syd., Ph.D. Camb., Biochemistry Unit, Wool Textile Research Laboratories, 343 Royal parade, Parkville, N.2, Victoria. Furst, Hellmut Friedrich, B.p.s. Syd., p.mM.p. Hamburg, Dental Surgeon, 158 Bellevue-road, Bellevue Hill. Garan, Teodar, Geological Professional Officer, | / 22nd Street, Warragamba Dam, N.S.W. Garretty, Michael Duhan, D.sc., ‘“‘ Surry Lodge ’’, Mitcham-road, Mitcham, Victoria. Gascoigne, Robert Mortimer, Ph.p. Liverpool, Department of Organic Chemistry, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney. Gibson, Alexander James, M.E., M.Inst.C.E., M.1I.E.Aust., Consulting Engineer, 906 Culwulla Chambers, 67 Castlereagh-street, Sydney ; p.r. “‘ Wirruna,”’ Belmore-avenue, Wollstonecraft. Gibson, Neville Allan, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.1.C., 103 Bland-street, Ashfield. Gill, Naida Sugden, B.sc., Ph.D., 45 Neville-street, Marrickville. tGill, Stuart Frederic, Schoolteacher, 45 Neville-street, Marrickville. Glasson, Kenneth Roderick, B.sc., Geologist, 70 Beecroft-road, Beecroft. Goddard, Roy Hamilton, F.c.a.aust., Royal Exchange, Bridge-street, Sydney. Goldstone, Charles Lillington, B.agr.sc. N.Z., Lecturer in Sheep Husbandry, N.S.W. University of Technology, c/o East Sydney Technical College, Darlinghurst. Goldsworthy, Neil Ernest, M.B., ch.m. Syd., Ph.D., D.T.M. & H. Camb., D.T.M. & H. Eng., D.P.H. Camb., 65 Roseville-avenue, Roseville. Gordon, William Fraser, B.sc. Syd., Industrial Chemist ; p.r. 176 Avoca-street, Randwick. Goulston, Edna Maude, B.sc., 83 Birriga-road, Bellevue Hill. Gover, Alfred Terence, M.com., 32 Benelong-road, Cremorne. Gray, Charles Alexander Menzies, B.sc., B.E., 75 Woniora-road, Hurstville. Gray, Noel Mackintosh, B.Sc. W.A., Geologist, Research Sub-Branch, M.W.S. and D. Board, 341 Pitt-street, Sydney. Griffin, Russell John, B.sc., Geologist, c/o Department of Mines, Sydney. Griffith, James Langford, B.A., M.sc., Dip.Ed., Senior Lecturer in Applied Mathematics, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney. Griffiths, Edward L., B.Sc., A.R.A.C.I., A.B.1.c., Lot 7, Kareelah-road, Hunters Hill. Gutmann, Felix, Ph.D., F.Inst.P., M.I.R.E., N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney. Gyarfas, Eleonora Clara, m.sc. Budapest, Ph.D. Syd., Research Assistant, Chemistry Department, University of Sydney. Hall, Lennard Robert, B.sc., Geological Survey, Department of Mines, Bridge- street, Sydney. Hall, Norman Frederick Blake, m.sc., Chemist, 154 Wharf-road, Longueville. tHalloran, Henry Ferdinand, L.s., A.M.1.E.Aust., F.S.I.Eng., M.T.P.I.Eng., 153 Elizabeth-street, Sydney ; p.r. 23 March-street, Bellevue Hill. Hampton, Edward John William, a.s.T.c.; p.r. 1 Hunter-street, Waratah, N.S.W. Hanlon, Frederick Noel, B.sc., Geologist, Department of Mines, Sydney. tHarker, George, D.Sc., F.R.A.C.1. ; p.r. 89 Homebush-road, Strathfield. 1943 1942 1951 1951 1949 1951 1935 1948 1935 1940 1924 1948 1943 1920 1952 Beta Bes 1X Harper, Arthur Frederick Alan, M.sc., A.Inst.p., National Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City-road, Chippendale. Harrington, Herbert Richard, Teacher of Physics and Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Harris-street, Ultimo. Harris, Clive Melville, B.sc., A.s.T.C., A.R.A.C.I., Lecturer in Inorganic Chemistry, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney ; p.r. 12 Livingstone- road, Lidcombe. Harris, Henry Maxwell, B.sc., B.E., Assistant Engineer, W.C. & I.C., 25 Prospect- road, Summer Hill. Harrison, Ernest John Jasper, B.sc., Geologist, N.S.W. Geological Survey, Department of Mines, Sydney. Hayes, William Lyall, a.s.T.c., A.R.A.c.1., Works Chemist, c/o Wm. Cooper & Nephews (Aust.) Ltd., Phillip-street, Concord ; p.r. 34 Nicholson-street, Chatswood. Heard, George Douglas, B.sc., Maitland Boys’ High School, East Maitland, N.S.W. Henriques, Frederick Lester, Billyard-avenue, Elizabeth Bay. Hewitt, John William, B.sc., Geologist, Main Roads Department; p.r. 31 Wetherill-street, Narrabeen. Higgs, Alan Charles, Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Ltd., Pyrmont; p.r. 29 Radio-avenue, Balgowlah. Hill, Dorothy, v.se. Q’ld., Ph.D. Cantab., Department of Geology, Uni- versity of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland. Hirst, Edward Eugene, A.M.1.e., Vice-Chairman and Joint Managing Director, British General Electric Co. Ltd. ; p.r. “‘ Springmead,”’ Ingleburn. Hogarth, Julius William, B.sc., 8 Jeanneret-avenue, Hunters Hill. Holm, Thomas John, Engineer, 524 Wilson-street, Redfern. Holmes, Robert Francis, 15 Baden-street, Coogee. Howard, Harold Theodore Clyde, B.sc., Principal, Technical College, Granville. Hughes, Gordon Kingsley, B.se., Department of Chemistry, University of Sydney. tHynes, Harold John, D.sc.agr., M.Sc., Assistant Director, Department of Agri- culture, Box 36a, G.P.O., Sydney ; p.r. “‘ Belbooree,” 704 Pacific-highway, Kallara. Iredale, Thomas, D.sc., F.R.1.c., Reader, Chemistry Department, University of Sydney; p.r. 96 Roseville-avenue, Roseville. Jaeger, John Conrad, M.A., D.sc., Professor of Geophysics, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. Jamieson, Helen Campbell, a.s.t.c.; p.r. 3 Hamilton-street, Coogee. Johnson, William, Geologist, c/o The Supervising Engineer, Warragamba Dam, N.S.W. Joklik, Gunther F., B.Sc., ¢ /0 Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra, A.C.T. Jones, Roger M., Laboratory Assistant, Sydney Technical College; p.r. 69 Moore Park-road, Centennial Park. Joplin, Germaine Anne, B.A., Ph.D., D.sc., Geophysics Department, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. Jopling, Alan Victor, B.sc., B.E., Geology Department, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney. Kelly, Caroline Tennant (Mrs.), Dip.Anth.; p.r. ‘“‘ Avila,” 17 Heydon-avenue, W arrawee. Kennard, William Walter, 9 Bona Vista-avenue, Maroubra. Kenny, Edward Joseph, Under Secretary of the Department of Mines, Sydney ; p.r. 17 Alma-street, Ashfield. Kimble, Frank Oswald, Engineer, 16 Evelyn-avenue, Concord. Kimble, Jean Annie, B.Sc., Research Chemist, 383 Marrickville-road, Marrick- ville. Kirchner, William John, B.sc., A.R.A.c.1., Manufacturing Chemist, c/o Messrs. Burroughs Wellcome & Co. (Australia) Ltd., Victoria-street, Waterloo ; p.r. 18 Lyne-road, Cheltenham. Kirkpatrick, Colin Bruce, m.sc. Syd., Senior Lecturer in Applied Mathematics, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney. P 56 kd Fd ws Knight, Oscar Le Maistre, B.E. Syd., A.M.1I.C.E., A.M.I.E.Aust., Engineer, 10 Mildura-street, Killara. Koch, Leo E., Dr.Phil.Hrabil Cologne, Research Lecturer, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney; p.r. ‘‘Shalford,’ 21 Treatt’s-road, Lindfield. Lambeth, Arthur James, B.sc., ‘‘ Naranje,’”’ Sweethaven-road, Wetherill Park, N.S.W. Lancaster, Kelvin John, B.sc., 43 Balfour-road, Rose Bay. Langley, Julia Mary, B.sc., 17 Clifford-street, Gordon. Lawrence, Laurence James, B.sc., Lecturer in Geology, N.S.W. University of Technology ; p.r. 28 Church-street, Ashfield. Leach, Stephen Laurence, B.A., B.Sc., A.R.A.C.I., British Australian Lead | Manufacturers Pty. Ltd., Box 21, P.O., Concord. | Le Fevre, Raymond James Wood, D.sc., Ph.D., F.R.1.C., Professor of Chemistry, | University of Sydney. Lemberg, Max Rudolph, D.Phil., F.R.s., Institute of Medical Research, Royal | North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards. tLions, Francis, B.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.1.C., Reader, Department of Chemistry, Uni- versity of Sydney ; p.r. 160 Alt-street, Haberfield. (President 1946-47.) Lions, Jean Elizabeth (Mrs.), B.Sc., Dip.Ed., 160 Alt-street, Haberfield. Livingstone, Stanley Edward, a.s.T.c. (Hons.), A.R.A.C.1., B.Sc., Lecturer in Organic Chemistry, N.S.W. University of Technology ;_ p.r. 5 Parker-street, Rockdale. Lloyd, James Charles, B.sc. Syd., N.S.W. Geological Survey, 41 Goulburn-street, Liverpool. Lockwood, William Hutton, B.sc., c/o Institute of Medical Research, The Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards. tLoney, Charles Augustus Luxton, M.Am.Soc.Refr.E., National Mutual Building, | 350 George-street, Sydney. Loughnan, Frederick Charles, B.sc., “‘ Bodleian,’’ 26 Kenneth-street, Longue- ville. Lovering, John Francis, B.sc., Assistant Curator, Department of Mineralogy and Petrology, Australian Museum, College-street, Sydney. Low, Angus Henry, B.Ssc., 74 Turnbull-street, Merewether. | Lowenbein, Gladys Olive (Mrs.), B.sc. Melb., F.R.1.c. Gt.Brit., A.R.A.C.1., 9 ‘** Churchill,’’ Botany-street, Bondi Junction. tLuber, Daphne (Mrs.), B.sc., 98 Lang-road, Centennial Park. Luber, Leonard, Pharmacist, 80 Queen-street, Woollahra. Lyons, Lawrence Ernest, B.A., M.Sc., Chemistry Department, University College, Gower-street, London, W.1. Lyons, Raymond Norman Matthew, m.sc., Biochemical Research Worker, 84 Marine-parade, Maroubra. Maccoll, Allan, m.sc., Department of Chemistry, University College, Gower- street, London, W.C.1. McCarthy, Frederick David, pip.anthr., Curator of Anthropology, Australian Museum, Sydney; p.r. 10 Tycannah-road, Northbridge. McCoy, William Kevin, Analytical Chemist, c/o Mr. A. J. McCoy, 39 Malvern- avenue, Merrylands. McCullagh, Morris Behan, Inspecting Engineer, 23 Wallaroy-road, Edgecliff. McElroy, Clifford Turner, B.sc., 147 Arden-street, Coogee. McGregor, Gordon Howard, 4 Maple-avenue, Pennant Hills. McInnes, Gordon Elliott, B.sc., Ewan House, Billyard-avenue, Wahroonga. McKenzie, Hugh Albert, B.sc., 52 Bolton-street, Guildford. McKern, Howard Hamlet Gordon, A.8S.T.C., A-R.A.C.1., Senior Chemist, Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Harris-street, Broadway. | McMahon, Patrick Reginald, m.agr.sc. N.Z., Ph.D. Leeds, A.R.1.C., A.N.Z.1.C., Professor of Wool Technology, N.S.W. Univer sity of Technology, Broadway. | McMaster, Sir Frederick Duncan, xkt., “‘ Dalkeith,’ Cassilis, N S.W. | McNamara, Barbara Joyce (Mrs.), M.B., B.S., Yeoval, 7.W. | McPherson, John Charters, 14 Sarnar-road, Greenwich. Magee, Charles Joseph, p.sc.agr. Syd., M.Sc. Wiss., Chief Biologist, Department | of Agriculture ; p.r. 4 Alexander-parade, Roseville. (President, 1952.) | Mahoney, Albert John, B.sc., Industrial Chemist, 112 Archer-street, Chatswood. _ Males, Pamela Ann, 13 Gelding-street, Summer Hill. Elected. 1947 1951 1940 1947 1949 1946 1935 1949 1912 1929 1950 1940 1951 1922 1941 1934 1950 1948 1944 1946 1915 1951 1950 1930 1943 1932 1950 1935 1945 1920 1947 1940 1951 1947 1921 1950 eae P 25 xi Maley, Leo Edmund, M.sc., B.sc. (Hons.), A.R.A.C.I., A.M.A.IL.M.M., 116 Maitland- road, Mayfield. Mallaby, Hedley Arnold, B.Sc. (For.), Dip.For. Canberra, 114 Kurrajong-avenue, Leeton. Malone, Edward E., 33 Windsor-road, St. Marys. Mapstone, George E., M.Sc., A.R.A.C.I., M.Inst.Pet., Coal Research Section, C.S.1.R.O., Chatswood. Marshall, Charles Edward, Ph.D., D.sc., Professor of Geology, The University of Sydney. May, Albert, Ph.pD., m.a., 94 Birriga-road, Bellevue Hill. Maze, William Harold, M.sc., Registrar, The University of Sydney, Sydney. Meares, Harry John Devenish, Technical Librarian, Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Ltd., Box 483, G.P.O., Sydney. tMeldrum, Henry John, B.a., B.Sc., Lecturer, The Teachers’ College, University Grounds, Newtown; p.r. 98 Sydney-road, Fairlight. Mellor, David Paver, D.Sc., F.R.A.C.I., Reader, Department of Chemistry, Uni- versity of Sydney ; p.r. 137 Middle Harbour-road, Lindfield. (President, 1941-42.) Millar, Lily Maud (Mrs.), 4 Waratah House, 43 Bayswater-road, King’s Cross. Millership, William, m.sc., Chief Chemist, Davis Gelatine (Aust.) Pty. Ltd. p.r. 18 Courallie-avenue, Pymble. Minty, Edward James, B.sSc., ‘“ Roseneath,’’ Lynch-street, Parkes, N.S.W. Morrison, Frank Richard, F£.R.A4.C.1., F.C.S., Deputy Director, Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Harris-street, Broadway, Sydney. (President, 1950-1951.) Morrissey, Mathew John, B.A., F.S.T.C., A.B.A.C.I., M.B., B.S., c/o Residents’ Quarters, Sydney Hospital, Macquarie Street, Sydney. Mort, Francis George Arnot, A.R.A.C.1., Chemist, 110 Green’s-road, Fivedock. Mortlock, Allan John, m.sc., Research Officer, Division of Physics, C.8.1.R.O. ; p.r. 28 Stanley-street, Chatswood. Mosher, Kenneth George, B.Ssc., Geologist, ¢ if o Joint Coal Board, 66 King-street, Sydney. Moye, Daniel George, B.sc., Chief Geologist, c/o Snowy Mountains Hydro- Electric Authority, Cooma, N.S.W. Mulholland, Charles St. John, B.sc., Government Geologist, Department of Mines, Sydney. tMurphy, Robert Kenneth, Dr.Ing:Chem., A.S.T.C., M.I.Chem.E., F.R.A.C.1., 68 Pindari-avenue, North Mosman. Murray, James Kenneth, B.sc., 464 William-lane, Broken Hill, N.S.W. Murray, Patrick Desmond Fitzgerald, M.A., D.sc., Professor of Zoology, Uni- versity of Sydney. Naylor, George Francis King, M.a., M.Sc., Dip.Ed. Syd., Ph.D. Q’ld., Senior Lecturer in Psychology and Philosophy, University of Queensland, Brisbane. tNeuhaus, John William George, 32, Bolton-street, Guildford. Newman, Ivor Vickery, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.M.S., F.L.S., ; p.r. 1 Stuart-street, Wahroonga. Ney, Michel, 3.sc. Nicol, Phyllis Mary, mM.sc., Sub-Principal, The Women’s College, Newtown. Noakes, Lyndon Charles, Geologist, c/o Mineral Resources Survey, Canberra, A.C.T. tNoble, Robert Jackson, M.Sc., B.Sc.agr., Ph.D., Under Secretary, Department of Agriculture, Box 36a, G.P.O., Sydney; p.r. 324 Middle Harbour-road, Lindfield. (President, 1934.) Nordon, Peter, A.S.T.C., A.R.A.C.I., Chemical Engineer, 42 Milroy-avenue, Kensington. Nyholm, Ronald Sydney, m.sc. Syd., ph.D., D.sc. Lond., Associate Professor of Inorganic Chemistry, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway. tO’Dea, Daryl Robert, a.s.t.c., Box 68, P.O., Broadway. Old, Adrian Noel, B.sc.agr., Chemist, Department of Agriculture ; p.r. 4 Spring- : field-avenue, Potts Point. Osborne, George Davenport, D.sc. Syd., Ph.D. Camb., F.G.S., Reader in Geology in the University of Sydney. (President, 1944.) Oxenford, Reginald Augustus, B.sc., 9 Cambridge-street, Singleton, N.S.W. Xi ailogted: 1951 1920 1949 1948 1938 1935 1946 1943 1919 1949 1921 1938 1945 1927 1918 1945 1935 1922 1919 1947 1931 1951 1947 1946 1950 1947 1947 1939 1939 1940 1949 1951 1940 1948 1945 1952 Poul 17h) 1 lee) fe: iP. 2 Pe Pins 6 3 Pt Pl Pug Pyias PG | Packham, Gordon Howard, B.sc., 61 Earlwood-avenue, Earlwood. Penfold, Arthur Ramon, F.R.4.C.1., F.c.S., Director, Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Harris-street, Broadway, Sydney. (President, 1935.) Penrose, Ruth Elizabeth, s.sc., 92 Baringa-road, Northbridge. Perry, Hubert Roy, B.sc., 74 Woodbine-street, Bowral. Phillips, Marie Elizabeth, B.sc., 4 Morella-road, Clifton Gardens. Phillips, Orwell, 55 Darling Point-road, Edgecliff. Pinwill, Norman, B.A. Q’ld., The Scots College, Bellevue Hill. Plowman, Ronald Arthur, 3B.sc., Ph.D. Lond., A.S.T.C., A.R.A.C.1., Chemistry Department, University of Queensland, Brisbane. Poate, Sir Hugh Raymond Guy, M.B., ch.m. Syd., F.R.c.S. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., F.R.A.C.S., Surgeon, 225 Macquarie-street, Sydney ; p.r. 38 Victoria-road, Bellevue Hill. Poggendorff, Walter Hans George, B.sSc.Agr., Chief of the Division of Plant Industry, N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, Box 364, G.P.O., Sydney. Powell, Charles Wilfrid Roberts, F.R.1.C., A.R.A.C.I., Company Executive, c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., O’Connell-street, Sydney ; p.r. ‘‘ Wansfell,’’ Kirkoswald-avenue, Mosman. Powell, John Wallis, A.s.T.c., A.R.A.C.I., Managing Director, Foster Clark (Aust.) Ltd., 17 Thirlow-street, Redfern. Prescott, Alwyn Walker, B.Eng., Lecturer in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering in the University of Sydney ; p.r. Harris-road, Normanhurst. Price, William Lindsay, B.E., B.sc., Teacher of Physics, Sydney Technical College; p.r. 8 Wattle-street, Killara. tPriestley, Henry, M.p., ch.m., B.Sc., 54 Fuller’s-road, Chatswood. (President, 1942-43.) Proud, John Seymour, B.E. (Mining), Mining Engineer, Finlay-road, Turra- mutra. tQuodling, Florrie Mabel, B.sc., Lecturer in Geology, University of Sydney. Raggatt, Harold George, D.sc., Secretary, Department of National Develop- ment, Acton, Canberra, A.C.T. Ranclaud, Archibald Boscawen Boyd, B.sc., B.E., 57 William-street, Sydney. Ray, Reginald John, Plastics Manufacturer and Research Chemist; p.r. *“* Treetops,’ Wyong-road, Berkeley Vale. Rayner, Jack Maxwell, B.sc., F.Inst.P., Deputy Director, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, 485 Bourke-street, Melbourne, Vic. Rector, John, B.sce., Research Officer, Engineering Production, Metrology Division, C.8.I.R.O.; p.r. 46 Sir Thomas Mitchell-road, Bondi Beach. Reuter, Fritz Henry, ph.p. Berlin, 1930, ¥.R.A.c.1., Associate Professor of Food Technology, N.S.W. University of Technology; p.r. 94 Onslow-street, Rose Bay. Rhodes-Smith, Cecil, 261 George-street, Sydney. Rickwood, Frank Kenneth, Senior Lecturer in Geology, The University of Sydney. Ritchie, Arthur Sinclair, 4.s.t.c., Lecturer in Mineralogy and Geology, New- castle University College ; p.r. 188 St. James-road, New Lambton, N.S.W. Ritchie, Bruce, B.Sc. (Hons.), c/o Pyco Products Pty. Ltd., 576 Parramatta- road, Petersham ; p.r. 249 West Botany-street, Rockdale. Ritchie, Ernest, m.sc., Senior Lecturer, Chemistry Department, University of Sydney, Sydney. Robbins, Elizabeth Marie (Mrs.), M.sc., Waterloo-road, North Ryde. Robertson, Rutherford Ness, B.sc. Syd., Ph.D. Cantab., Senior Plant Physiologist, C.S.I.R.O., Division of Food Preservation, Private Bag, P.O., Homebush ; Robertson, William Humphrey, B.sc., Astronomer, Sydney Observatory. Sydney. Roheion Dana Hugh, 4.s.T.c., Chemist, 21 Dudley-avenue, Roseville. Rosenbaum, Sidney, 23 Strickland-avenue, Lindfield. Rosenthal-Schneider, Ilse, Ph.D., 48 Cambridge-avenue, Vaucluse. Rountree, Phyllis Margaret, D.sc. Melb., Dip.Bact. Lond., Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney. Rutledge, Harold, B.sc. Dunelm, Ph.p. Hdin., Geology Department, University of Sydney. Elected. 1945 1920 1948 1940 1950 1949 1933 1950 1948 1936 1945 1948 1943 1950 1933 1952 1940 1947 1919 1949 1916 1914 1948 1951 1900 1942 1916 1951 1918 1919 1920 1941 1948 1915 1944 1952 | Sampson, Aileen (Mrs.), Sc.Dip. (A.Ss.T.c., 1944), 9 Knox-avenue, Epping. Scammell, Rupert Boswood, B.sc. Syd., A.R.A.C.I., F.C.S.; p.r. 10 Buena Vista- Avenue, Clifton Gardens. Schafer, Harry Neil Scott, B.sc., C.S.I.R.O., Coal Research Section, P.O. Box 3, Chatswood; p.r. 18 Bartlett-street, Summer Hill. Scott, Reginald Henry, B.sc., 3 Walbundry-avenue, East Kew, Victoria. Searl, Robert Alexander, B.sc., Geologist, c/o Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra, A.C.T. See, Graeme Thomas, Technical Officer, School of Mining Engineering and Applied Geology, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway; p.r. 9 Fairlight-street, Manly. Selby, Esmond Jacob, Dip.com., Sales Manager, Box 175D, G.P.O., Sydney. Sergeyeff, William Peter, Mining Geologist and Engineer, c/o P.O. Yerranderie, via Camden, N.S.W. tSharp, Kenneth Raeburn, B.sc., c/o 8.M.H.H.A., Cooma, N.S.W. Sherrard, Kathleen Margaret Maria (Mrs.), m.sc. Melb., 43 Robertson-road, Centennial Park. Simmons, Lewis Michael, B.sc., Ph.D. Lond., F.R.A.C.1., Head of Science Depart- ment, Scots College; p.r. The Scots College, Victoria-road, Bellevue Hill. Simonett, David Stanley, M.sc., Geography Department, The University of Sydney ; p.r. 14 Selwyn-street, Artarmon. Simpson, John Kenneth Moore, Industrial Chemist, ‘‘ Browie,’’ Old Castle Hill-road, Castle Hill. Sims, Kenneth Patrick, B.sc., 13 Onyx-road, Artarmon. Slade, George Hermon, B.sc., Director, W. Hermon Slade & Co. Pty. Ltd., Manufacturing Chemists, Mandemar-avenue, Homebush ; p.r. “ Raiatea,”’ . Oyama-avenue, Manly. Slade, Milton John, B.sc., New England University College, Armidale, N.S.W. Smith, Eric Brian Jeffcoat, 1 Rocklands-road, Wollstonecraft. Smith-White, William Broderick, m.a. Cantab., B.sc. Syd., Department of Mathematics, University of Sydney ; p.r. 28 Canbrook-avenue, Cremorne. Southee, Ethelbert Ambrook, 0.B.E., M.A., B.Sc., B.Sc.Agr., Principal, Hawkes- bury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W. Stanton, Richard Limon, m.sc., Lecturer in Geology, The University of Sydney, Sydney; p.r. 42 Hopetoun-avenue, Mosman. tStephen, Alfred Ernest, F.c.s., c/o Box 1158HH, G.P.O., Sydney. tStephens, Frederick G. N., F.R.c.S., M.B., Ch.M., 135 Macquarie-street, Sydney ; p.r. Captain Piper’s-road and New South Head-road, Vaucluse. Stevens, Neville Cecil, B.sc., Mining Museum, Sydney ; p.r. 12 Salisbury-street, Hurstville. Stevens, Robert Denzil, 32 Menangle-road, Camden. tStewart, J. Douglas, B.v.Sc., F.R.C.vV.S., Emeritus Professor of Veterinary Science in the University of Sydney; p.r. Gladswood House, Gladswood Gardens, Double Bay. (President, 1927.) Still, Jack Leslie, B.sc., Ph.p., Professor of Biochemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney. tStone, Walter George, F.S.T.cC., F.R.A.C.I.; p.r. 26 Rosslyn-street, Bellevue Hill. Stuntz, John, B.sc., 511 Burwood-road, Belmore. tSullivan, Herbert Jay, Director in Charge of Research and Technical Depart- ment, c/o Lewis Berger & Sons (Australia) Ltd., Rhodes ; Box 23, P.O., Burwood; p.r. “‘ Stonycroft,’’ 10 Redmyre-road, Strathfield. tSutherland, George Fife, a.r.c.sc. Lond., 47 Clanwilliam-street, Chatswood. Sutton, Harvey, 0.B.E., M.D., D.P.H. Melb., B.sc. Oxon.; p.r. “ Lynton,” 27 Kent-road, Rose Bay. Swanson, Thomas Baikie, M.sc. Adel., c/o Technical Service Department, Icianz, Box 1911, G.P.O., Melbourne, Victoria. Swinbourne, Ellice Simmons, Organic Chemist, A.S.T.C., A.R.A.C.I., 1 Raglan- street, Manly. tTaylor, Brigadier Harold B., M.c., D.Sc., F.R.1.C., F.R.A.C.1., Government Analyst, Department of Public Health, 93 Macquarie-street, Sydney ; p.r. 12 Wood-street, Manly. Thomas, Andrew David, Squadron Leader, R.A.A.F., M.sc., A.Inst.P., 26 Darebin-street, Heidelberg, N.22, Victoria. Thomas, Penrhyn Francis, A.s.T.c., Optometrist, Suite 22, 3rd Floor, 49 Market- \ street, Sydney. X1V Elected. 1946 | 1935 1923 1940 1949 1951 1943 1952 1949 1921 1935 1933 1903 1948 1919 1948 1913 1919 1919 1944 1911 1921 1951 1949 1943 1951 1951 1949 1949 1943 1936 1906 1916 1946 1952 1950 P 2 | Thompson, Nora (Mrs.), B.sc. Syd., c/o Mines Department, Wau, T.N.G. Tommerup, Eric Christian, M.sc., A.R.A.C.I., Queensland Agricultural College, Lawes, via Brisbane, Queensland. Toppin, Richmond Douglas, A.R.1.c., 51 Crystal-street, Petersham. Tow, Aubrey James, M.Sc., M.B., B.S., Manning River District Hospital, Taree. Trebeck, Prosper Charles Brian, A.C.1.s., F.com.A. Hng., F.F.1.A., A.A.A., J.P., P.O. Box 76, Moree. | Tugby, Mrs. Elise Evelyn, B.sc.; p.r. 76 Bream-street, Coogee. Turner, Ivan Stewart, M.A., M.Sc., Ph.D.; p.r. 120 Awaba-street, Mosman. Ungar, Andrew, Dipl.Ing., Dr.iIng., 6 Ashley Grove, Gordon. Baal Vallance, Thomas George, B.Sc., F.G.S., Geology Department, University of Sydney; p.r. 57 Auburn-street, Sutherland. Vicars, Robert, Marrickville Woollen Mills, Marrickville. Vickery, Joyce Winifred, m.sc., Botanic Gardens, Sydney; p.r. 17 The Promenade, Cheltenham. P 6 Voisey, Alan Heywood, D.sc., Lecturer in Geology and Geography, New England University College, Armidale. P10 |f£Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.sc., F.Inst.P., Emeritus Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘“ Avila,” 17 Heydon-avenue, Warrawee. (President, 1930.) Walker, Donald Francis, Surveyor, 13 Beauchamp-avenue, Chatswood. P 2 |tWalkom, Arthur Bache, D.sc., Director, Australian Museum, Sydney; p.r. 45 Nelson-road, Killara. (Member from 1910-1913. President, 1943-44.) Ward, Judith, B.sc., c/o 68 Upper-street, Bega, South Coast, N.S.W. 5 |tWardlaw, Hy. Sloane Halcro, p.sc. Syd., F.R.A.C.1., c/o Kanematsu Institute. Sydney Hospital, Macquarie Street, Sydney. (President, 1939.) iL Waterhouse, Lionel Lawry, B.E. Syd., ‘“‘ Rarotonga,’’ 42 Archer-street, Chats- wood. i Waterhouse, Walter L., M.c., D.Sc.Agr., D.I.C., F.L.S.; p.r. ‘‘ Hazelmere,”’ Chelmsford-avenue, Lindfield. (President, 1937.) Watkins, William Hamilton, B.sc., Industrial Chemist, ¢ jo Cablemakers (Aust.) Pty. Ltd., Illawarra Road, Liverpool, N.S.W. P 1 |tWatt, Robert Dickie, M.a., B.sc., Emeritus Professor of Agriculture, Sydney University, ‘“‘Garron Tower,’ 5 Gladswood Gardens, Double Bay. (President, 1925.) tWatts, Arthur Spencer, “‘ Araboonoo,”’ Glebe-street, Randwick. Weatherhead, Albert Victor, F.R.M.S., ¥F.R.P.S., Technical Officer, Geology Department, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway ; p.r. 3 Kennedy- avenue, Belmore. Westheimer, Gerald, B.Sc., F.S.T.C., F.1.0., Optometrist, 727 George-street, Sydney. Whiteman, Reginald John Nelson, M.B., Ch.M., F.R.A.C.S., 143 Macquarie-street, Sydney. Whitley, Alice, B.sc., Teacher, 39 Belmore-street, Burwood. Ped Whitworth, Horace Francis, M.sc., Mining Museum, Sydney. Williams, Benjamin, A.s.T.c., 18 Arkland-street, Cammeray. Williamson, William Harold, Hughes-avenue, Ermington. Winch, Leonard, B.Sc. PA Wood, Harley Weston, M.sc., A.Inst.P., F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer, Sydney Observatory, Sydney. (President, 1949.) P12 |{Woolnough, Walter George, D.sc., F.G.S., 28 Calbina-road, Northbridge. (President, 1926.) tWright, George, Company Director, c/o Hector Allen, Son & Morrison, 7 Wynyard-street, Sydney ; p.r. 22 Albert-street, Edgecliff. Wyndham, Norman Richard, m.p., mM.s. Syd., F.R.C.S. Eng., F.R.A.C.S., Surgeon, 225 Macquarie-street, Sydney. Wynn, Desmond Watkin, B.sc., Geologist, c/o Department of Mines, Sydney. Zehnder, John Oscar, B.sc., Geologist, c/o Australasian Petroleum Coy.. Port Moresby, Papua. Elected. 1949 1951 1952 1949 1914 1946 1912 ‘1935 1948 1948 1946 xv, HONORARY MEMBERS. Limited to Twenty. Burnet, Sir Frank Macfarlane, M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Research Institute, Melbourne. Fairley, Sir Neil Hamilton, C.B.E., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., 73 Harley-street, London, Wel: Firth, Raymond William, M.a., Ph.D., London School of Economics, Houghton- street, Aldwych, W.C.2, England. Florey, Sir Howard, M.B., B.S., B.Sc., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology, Oxford University, England. Hill, James P., D.sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, University College, Gower- street, London, W.C.1, England. Jones, Sir Harold Spencer, M.a., D.Sc., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal, Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, 8.E.10. Martin, Sir Charles J., C.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S., Roebuck House, Old Chesterton, Cambridge, England. O’Connell, Rev. Daniel, 5.K., S.J., D.Sc., D.Ph., F.R.A.S., Director, The Vatican Observatory, Rome, Italy. Oliphant, Marcus L., B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics, The Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. Robinson, Sir Robert, M.a., D.Sc., F.C.S., F.I.C., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, Oxford University, England. Wood-Jones, F., D.Sc., M.B., B.S., F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. Lond., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Professor of Anatomy, University of Manchester, England. OBITUARY, 1952-53. 1906 William Dixson. 1906 Arthur Marshall McIntosh. 1896 Roland James Pope. 1893 Cecil Purser. THE REV. W. B. CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND. The Rev. W. B. Clarke Memoriai Fund was inaugurated at a meeting of the Royal Society of N.S.W. in August, 1878, soon after the death of Mr. Clarke, who for nearly forty years rendered distinguished service to his adopted country, Australia, and to science in general. It was resolved to give an opportunity to the general public to express their appreciation of the character and services of the Rev. W. B. Clarke “as a learned colonist, a faithful minister of religion, and an eminent scientific man.’ It was proposed that the memorial should take the form of lectures on Geology (to be known as the Clarke Memorial Lectures), which were to be free to the public, and of a medal to be given from time to time for distinguished work in the Natural Sciences done in or on the Australian Commonwealth and its territories; the person to whom the award is made may be resident in the Australian Commonwealth or its territories, or elsewhere. The Clarke Memorial Medal was established first, and later, as funds permitted. the Clarke Memorial Lectures have been given at intervals. CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURES. Delivered. 1906. ‘The Volcanoes of Victoria,” and ‘“‘The Origin of Dolomite’’ (two lectures). By Professor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc., F.G.S. 1907. ‘Geography of Australia in the Permo-Carboniferous Period ’”’ (two lectures). By Professor T. W. E. David, B.A., F.R.S. ‘“‘ The Geological Relations of Oceania.”” By W. G. Woolnough, D.Se. ‘** Problems of the Artesian Water Supply of Australia.”’ By EK. F. Pittman, A.R.S.M. “The Permo-Carboniferous Flora and Fauna and their Relations.’’ By W. 8S. Dun. 1918. ‘“‘ Brain Growth, Education, and Social Inefficiency.” By Professor R. J. A. Berry, M.D., F.R.S.E. 1919. ‘*‘ Geology at the Western Front,’ By Professor T. W. E. David, C.M.G., D.S.O., F.R.S. 1936. ‘‘ The Aeroplane in the Service of Geology.” By W. G. Woolnough, D.Sc. (THs JOURN., 1936, 70, 39.) 1937. ‘*‘ Some Problems of the Great Barrier Reef.’’ By Professor H.C. Richards, D.Sc. (Tus JOURN., 1937, 71, 68.) 1938. ‘‘The Simpson Desert and its Borders.” By C. T. Madigan, M.A., B.Sc., B.E., D.Sc. (Oxon.). (THIs Journ., 1938, 71, 503.) 1939. ‘‘ Pioneers of British Geology.” By Sir John 8S. Flett, K.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (THis JouRN., 1939, 73, 41.) 1940. ‘‘ The Geologist and Sub-surface Water.” By E. J. Kenny, M.Aust.I.M.M. (Tuis JourRn., 1940, 74, 283.) 1941. ‘* The Climate of Australia in Past Ages.” By C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S. (THis Journ., 1941, 75, 47.) 1942. ‘* The Heroic Period of Geological Work in Australia.’’ By E. C. Andrews, B.Sc. 1943. ‘‘ Australia’s Mineral Industry in the Present War.” By H. G. Raggatt, D.Sc. 1944. ‘‘ An Australian Geologist Looks at the Pacific.” By W. H. Bryan, M.C., D.Se. 1945. ‘‘ Some Aspects of the Tectonics of Australia.’’ By Professor E. 8. Hills, D.Se., Ph.D. 1946. ‘“‘ The Pulse of the Pacific.”” By Professor L. A. Cotton, M.A., D.Sc. 1947. “The Teachers of Geology in Australian Universities.”” By Professor H. 8. Summers, DSe. 1948. ‘‘ The Sedimentary Succession of the Bibliando Dome: Record of a Prolonged Proterozoic Ice Age.”? By Sir Douglas Mawson, O.B.E., F.R.S., D.Sc., B.E. 1949. ‘* Metallogenetic Epochs and Ore Regions in Australia.”” By W. R. Browne, D.Sc. 1950. ‘‘ The Cambrian Period in Australia.” By F. W. Whitehouse, Ph.D., D.Sc. 1951. ‘‘ The Ore Minerals and their Textures.”” By A. B. Edwards, D.Sc., Ph.D., D.I.C. AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL. Established in memory of The Revd. WILLIAM BRANWHITE CLARKH, M.a., F.R.S., F.G.S., etc. Vice-President from 1866 to 1878. The prefix * indicates the decease of the recipient. Awarded. 1878 *Professor Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S. 1879 *George Bentham, C.M.G., F.R.S. 1880 *Professor Thos. Huxley, F.R.s. 1881 *Professor F. M’Coy, F.R.S., F.G.S. 1882 *Professor James Dwight Dana, LL.D. XVil Awarded. 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1895 1895 1896 1900 1901 1902 1903 1907 1909 1912 1914 1915 1917 1918 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 194] 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 *Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.C.M.G., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. *Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. *Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, 0.M., G.C.S.I., C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. *Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p. *Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.B.S. *Rev. Julian E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.S., F.L.S. *Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. *George Bennett, M.D., F.R.C.S. Eng., F.L.S., F.Z.S. *Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.S., F.G.S. *Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, K.C.M.G., C.I.E., M.A., LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. *Professor Ralph Tate, F.L.s., F.G.S. *Robert Logan Jack, LL.D., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. *Robert Etheridge, Jnr. *The Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, C.M.G., F.R.G.S. *Sir John Murray, K.C.B., LL.D., Sc.D., F.RB.S. *Edward John Eyre. *F, Manson Bailey, C.M.G., F.L.S. *Alfred William Howitt, D.Sc., F.G.S. *Professor Walter Howchin, F.c.s., University of Adelaide. *Dr. Walter E. Roth, B.A. *W. H. Twelvetrees, F.G.s. Sir A. Smith Woodward, LL.D., F.R.s., Keeper of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), London. *Professor W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc., F.B.S. *Professor Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.0., M.A., SC.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. *Leonard Rodway, c.mM.c., Honorary Government Botanist, Hobart, Tasmania. *Joseph Edmund Carne, F.G.s. *Joseph James Fletcher, M.A., B.Sc. *Richard Thomas Baker, The Crescent, Cheltenham. *Sir W. Baldwin Spencer, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.B.S. *Joseph Henry Maiden, 1.s.0., F.R.S., F.L.S., J.P. *Charles Hedley, rF...s. *Andrew Gibb Maitland, F.a.s., ‘‘ Bon Accord,’’ 28 Melville Terrace, South Perth, W.A. *Krnest C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S., 32 Benelong Crescent, Bellevue Hill. *Professor Ernest Willington Skeats, D.Sc., A.R.C.S., F.G.S., University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria. L. Keith Ward, B.A., B.E., D.Sc., Government Geologist, Geological Survey Office, Adelaide. *Robin John Tillyard, M.A., D.Sc., Sc.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.E.S., Canberra, F.C.T. *Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.S.N.Z., F.G.S., Melbourne. Walter George Woolnough, D.sc., F.G.s., Department of the Interior, Canberra, F.C.T. *Edward Sydney Simpson, D.Sc., B.E., F.A.C.I., Carlingford, Mill Point, South Perth, W.A. *George William Card, 4.R.S.M., 16 Ramsay-street, Collaroy, N.S.W. Sir Douglas Mawson, Kt., 0.B.E., F.R.S., D.Sc., B.E., University of Adelaide. J. T. Jutson, B.Sc., LL.B., 9 Ivanhoe-parade, Ivanhoe, Victoria. *Professor H. C. Richards, p.sc., The University of Queensland, Brisbane. *C. A. Sussmilch, F.a.s., F.s.t.c., 11 Appian Way, Burwood, N.S.W. Professor Frederic Wood Jones, M.B., B.S., D.Sc., F.R.S., Anatomy Department, University of Manchester, England. William Rowan Browne, D.sc., Reader in Geology, The University of Sydney, N.S.W. Walter Lawry Waterhouse, M.C., D.Sc.Agric., D.I.C., F.L.S., Reader in Agriculture, University of Sydney. ater, Wilfred Eade Agar, 0.B.E., M.A. D.Sc., F.R.S., University of Melbourne, Carlton, ictoria. Professor William Noel Benson, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.N.Z., F.G.S.Am., University of Otago, Dunedin, N.Z. Black, J. M., a.u.s. (honoris causa), Adelaide, S.A. *Hubert Lyman Clark, a.B. D.sc., ph.D., Hancock Foundation, vu.s.c., Los Angeles, California. Walkom, Arthur Bache, D.sc., Director, Australian Museum, Sydney. Rupp, Rev. H. Montague, 24 Kameruka-road, Northbridge. Mackerras, Ian Murray, B.Sc., M.B., Ch.M., The Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane. Stillwell, Frank Leslie, p.sc., C.S.I.R.O., Melbourne. Wood, Joseph G., Ph.D. Cantab., p.sc. Adel., Professor of Botany, University of Adelaide, South Australia. XViil AWARDS OF THE JAMES COOK MEDAL. Bronze Medal. Awarded annually for outstanding contributions to science and human welfare in and for the Southern Hemisphere. 1947 Smuts, Field-Marshal The Rt. Hon. J. C., P.c., C.H., K.C., D.T.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Chancellor, University of Capetown, South Africa. 1948 Houssay, Bernado A., Professor of Physiology, Instituto de Biologia y Medicina Ex- perimental, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 1949 No award made. 1950 ~=— Fairley, Sir Neil Hamilton, C.B.E., M.D., D.sc., F.R.S., 738 Harley-street, London, W.1. 1951 Gregg, Norman McAlister, M.B., B.s., 193 Macquarie-street, Sydney. 1952 Waterhouse, Walter L., M.c., D.sc.Agr., D.1.C., F.L.S., “‘ Hazelmere,’”’ Chelmsford-avenue, Lindfield. ° AWARDS OF THE EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL. Bronze Medal. Awarded annually for Australian research workers under the age of thirty-five years, for work done mainly in Australia or its territories or contributing to the advancement of Australian Science. 1948 Giovanelli, R. G., m.se., Division of Physics, National Standards | Tent Sydney. Award. Ritchie, Ernest, M.sc., University of Sydney, Sydney. 1949 Kiely, Temple B., D.sc.agr., Caroline-street, East Gosford. 1950 Berndt, Ronald M., 8B.A., Dip.Anthr., University of Sydney. , Joint Berndt, Catherine H., M.A., Dip.Anthr., University of Sydney. J Award. 1951 Bolton, John G., B.a., C.S.I.R.O., Division of Radiophysics, Sydney. 1952 Wardrop, Alan B., ph.p., C.S.I.R.O., Division of Forest Products, South Melbourne. AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE. Money Prize of £25. Awarded. 1882 John Fraser, B.A., West Maitland, for paper entitled ‘‘ The Aborigines of New South Wales.”’ 1882 .Andrew Ross, M.D., Molong, for paper entitled ‘* Influence of the Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.” The Society’s Bronze Medal. 1884 W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper entitled ‘‘ Water supply in the Interior of New South Wales.” 1886 8S. H. Cox, F.G.s., F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘“‘ The Tin deposits of New South Wales.” 1887 Jonathan Seaver, F.Gc.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ Origin and mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated Minerals.” 1888 Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.s., F.L.S., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.” 1889 ‘Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.M.s., Sydney, for paper entitled “‘ List of the Marine and Fresh- water Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and Neighbourhood.” 1889 Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper entitled “‘ The Australian Aborigines.” 1891 Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘“‘ The Microscopic Structure of Australian Rocks.”’ 1892 Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper entitled ‘“ The effect which settlement in Australia has produced upon Indigenous Vegetation.”’ 1894 J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper entitled the ‘“‘ Timbers of New South Wales.”’ 1894 R. H. Mathews, L.s., Parramatta, for paper entitled “‘ The Aboriginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales.” 1895 C. J. Martin, D.sc., M.B., F.R.S., Sydney, for paper entitled “‘ The physiological action of the venom of the Australian black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).” 1896 Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ The occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of the Deposits in which they are found.”’ 1943 Edwin Cheel, Sydney, in recognition of his contributions in the field of botanical research and to the advancement of science in general. 1948 Waterhouse, Walter L., M.s., D.Sc.Agr., D.I.C., F.L.S., Sydney, in recognition of his valuable contributions in the field of agricultural research. xix 1949 Elkin, Adolphus P., M.a., Ph.D., Sydney, in recognition of his valuable contributions in the field of Anthropological Science. 1950 Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.Sc., F.Inst.P., Sydney, in recognition of his valuable contributions in the field of Physical Science. 1951 Penfold, Arthur Ramon, F.R.A.C.1., F.c.S., Director, Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Sydney. 1952 No award made. AWARDS OF THE WALTER BURFITT PRIZE. Bronze Medal and Money Prize of £75. Established as the result of a generous gift to the Society by Dr. W. F. Burrirt, B.A., M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc., of Sydney, which was augmented later by a gift from Mrs. W. F. Burritt. Awarded at intervals of three years to the worker in pure and applied science, resident in Australia or New Zealand, whose papers and other contributions published during the past six years are deemed of the highest scientific merit, account being taken only of investigations described for the first time, and carried out by the author mainly in these Dominions. Awarded. 1929 Norman Dawson Royle, M.D., ch.m., 185 Macquarie Street, Sydney. 1932 Charles Halliby Kellaway, M.c., M.D., M.s., F.R.c.P., The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Research in Pathology and Medicine, Melbourne. 1935 Victor Albert Bailey, M.a., D.phil., Associate-Professor of Physics, University of Sydney. 1938 Frank Macfarlane Burnet, m.v. (Melb.), ph.p. (Lond.), The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Research in Pathology and Medicine, Melbourne. 1941 Frederick William Whitehouse, D.sSc., Ph.D., University of Queensland, Brisbane. 1944 Hereward Leighton Kesteven, D.sc., M.D., c/o Allied Works Council, Melbourne. 1947 John Conrad Jaeger, M.A., D.Sc., University of Tasmania, Hobart. 1950 Martyn, David F., p.sc. (Lond.), F.R.s., Radio Research Board, c/o Commonwealth Observatory, Mount Stromlo, Canberra, A.C.T. AWARDS OF LIVERSIDGE RESEARCH LECTURESHIP. This Lectureship was established in accordance with the terms of a bequest to the Society by the late Professor Archibald Liversidge. Awarded at intervals of two years, for the purpose of encouragement of research in Chemistry. (THis JouRNAL, Vol. LXII, pp. x-xiii, 1928.) Awarded. 1931 Harry Hey, c/o The Electrolytic Zine Company of Australasia, Ltd., Collins Street, Melbourne. 1933. W. J. Young, D.sc., M.sc., University of Melbourne. 1940 G. J. Burrows, B.sc., University of Sydney. 1942 J.8S. Anderson, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., D.1.c., University of Melbourne. 1944 F. P. Bowden, Ph.D., sc.D., University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England. 1946 Briggs, L. H., D.Phil. (Oxon.), D.Sc. (N.Z.), F.N.Z.LC., F.R.S.N.Z., Auckland University College, Auckland, N.Z. 1948 Ian Lauder, M.sc., Ph.D., University of Queensland, Brisbane. 1950 Hedley R. Marston, F.R.s., C.S.I.R.O., Adelaide. 1952 A. L. G. Rees, D.sc., C.S.I.R.O., Division of Industrial Chemistry, Melbourne. BB wey Royal Society of New South Wales REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDING 3lst MARCH, 1953. PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL AND GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING OF THE SOCIETY, ist Aprit, 1953, IN ACCORDANCE WITH RULE XXVI. The membership of the Society at the end of the period under review stood at 382. Twenty- one new members were elected during the year, nineteen members were lost by resignation, and one member was removed from the register. Four members have been lost to the Society by death since 2nd April, 1952 : William Dixson (elected 1906). Arthur Marshall McIntosh (elected 1906). Roland James Pope (elected 1896). Cecil Purser (elected 1893). During the year nine General Monthly Meetings were held, the average attendance being thirty-six. Thirteen papers were accepted for reading and publication by the Society, six less than the previous year. Lecturettes given during the year were as follows: 7th May : ‘* Chemical Weed Control.’’ The speakers were B. Cortis-Jones, M.Sc., and Kelvin Green, B.Sc. Agr. 2nd July : ‘‘The Heat Pump ’”’, by R. C. L. Bosworth, D.Sc. (Adel.), Ph.D. (Camb.). ‘* Soil Conditioning Problems with particular reference to “‘ Krilium ”’, by T. H. John, M.Sc. 3rd September : ‘** Aboriginal Rock Carvings: Their Techniques and Significance’’, by F. D. McCarthy, Dip. Anthr. Two meetings were devoted to Symposia, at which the following addresses were given : 4th June: ‘* Symposium on Sulphur ”’— ‘* The Occurrence and Commercial Sources of Sulphur ”’, by G. D. Osborne, D.Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D. (Camb.), F.G.S. ‘“The Present Industrial Position of Sulphur ’’, by T. G. Hunter, D.Sc., Ph.D. (Bir- mingham). ‘** The Biological Production of Sulphur ’’, by E. J. Ferguson-Wood, M.Sc., B.A. 6th August : ‘* Symposium on Time ’— ‘** Cosmological Time ’’, by K. C. Westfold, M.A., B.Sc., D.Phil. ‘** Geological Time ”’, by A. V. Jopling, B.Sc., B.E. ‘* Measurement of Time ’’, by H. Wood, M.Sc., F.R.A.S. The meeting devoted to the Commemoration of Great Scientists was held on Ist October. The following addresses were given : ‘“The Curies”’, by Dr. D. P. Mellor. ‘* Emil Fischer ’’, by Professor A. J. Birch. ‘* Leonardo da Vinci’”’, by Dr. I. Rosenthal-Schneider. A Film Evening was held on 5th November and, through the courtesy of the Department of External Affairs (Antarctic Division) and the Sydney Scientific Film Society, two very interesting films were shown : ‘** Macquarie Island’, with an address by Mr. J. Bunt. “Science and Cinematography ’’, with an address by Dr. A. R. Michaelis. Five Popular Science Lectures were delivered during the year : 15th May: “ Science of Washing ’”’, by Professor A. E. Alexander. 19th June: “‘ Electrons and Arithmetic ’’, by Professor D. M. Myers. 18th September: “Science versus Waste: Food Storage and Transport for a Hungry World ’’, by Dr. R. N. Robertson. Xx REPORT OF COUNCIL. 16th October: ‘‘ Queer Fish ”’, by Mr. A. N. Colefax. 20th November: ‘“‘ The Enjoyment of Architecture ’’, by Mr. A. A. Gamble. The thanks of the Society are due to the five gentlemen who gave these lectures. The Annual Dinner of the Society was held in the Withdrawing Room of the University Union, Sydney, on 26th March, 1953. There were present forty-seven members and friends. The Section of Geology had as Chairman Mr. R. O. Chalmers and as Hon. Secretary Mr. T. G. Vallance. The Section held eight meetings during the year, including a symposium, lecturettes, notes and exhibits. The average attendance was twenty members and seven visitors. The Council of the Society held eleven ordinary meetings and one special meeting during the year. The average attendance at the meetings was twelve. On the Science House Management Committee the Society was represented by Mr. H. A. J. Donegan and Mr. F. R. Morrison ; substitute representatives were Dr. R. C. L. Bosworth and Mr. H. O. Fletcher. The representatives of the Society on Science House Extension Committee were the pei ee Dr. C. J. Magee, and the Hon. Treasurer, Mr. H. A. J. Donegan. During the year one of our Vice-Presidents, the Rev. Dr. D. J. K. O’Connell, was appointed Director of the Vatican Observatory. Mr. H. Wood was elected to fill the vacancy caused by Father O’Connell’s departure, at the Council meeting held on 24th September. Following a request from the Conservator of the Muogamarra Sanctuary for representation of this Society on the proposed Trust, Miss Joyce Vickery, M.Sc., was appointed to occupy this position. Raymond William Firth, M.A., Ph.D., was elected an honorary member of the Society at the Annual and General Monthly Meeting held on-2nd April, 1952. The Liversidge Research Lecture for 1952 was delivered by Dr. A. L. G. Rees on 17th July in the Chemistry School of the University of Sydney. The title of the lecture was “ Electron Diffraction in the Chemistry of the Solid State ” The Clarke Medal for 1953 was awarded to Dr. A. J. Nicholson, Chief of Division of Entomology, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra, for his distinguished contributions to Australian entomology, particularly his studies on mimicry and insect populations. The Edgeworth David Medal for 1952 was awarded to Dr. Alan B. Wardrop for his out- standing contributions in the field of botany, particularly his work on cell-wall organization of timbers. The James Cook Medal for 1952 was awarded to Professor W. L. Waterhouse for his out- standing contributions in the field of agricultural science, particularly his work on the breeding of rust-resistant wheats. During the year the Council entertained the distinguished scientist Professor E. A. Guggenheim, of the University of Reading, on the occasion of his visit to this city. The financial position of the Society, as disclosed in the annual audit, is still difficult. Despite Council’s efforts to keep expenditure within income, the deficit for the current year is £212 8s. 8d. This, however, is a great improvement on the deficit of £736 incurred in the previous year. An important factor in the improvement has been the generous grant of £400 from the Rural Credits Development Fund of the Commonwealth Bank of Australia, for which the Society is deeply grateful. The second main factor in the relative improvement is the increase made in members’ subscriptions. Although the outlook is distinctly better than in recent years, the financial position is one that demands constant attention. A new typewriter for the office has been purchased, and the old one traded in. At the General Meeting held on Ist October, the following clause was added to Rule IX : ‘““ The Council shall have the power to reduce to one and a half guineas the annual subscription of any member who is absent from Australia and who makes application in writing for a reduction. Such reduction may be granted for a period not exceeding two years.” The Society’s share of the profits from Science House for the year was £495, an increase of £65 on the previous year. The grant from the Government of New South Wales of £400 continues, and the Society appreciates very much the Government’s continued interest in its work. At the Special Meeting held on the 11th November, 1952, Council appointed a standing committee to advise the Council on library matters. It is with regret that I have to report the resignation of Mrs. M. Golding, who has rendered such valuable service as library assistant. She has been succeeded by Mrs. B. Sommerville, who has had previous library experience in New Zealand and the McMaster Laboratory. The Library. The amount of £60 15s. 5d. has been spent on the purchase of periodicals and £107 18s. 6d. on binding. A wash-basin has been installed in the library. Exchange of publications is maintained with 420 societies and institutions, an increase of three. REPORT OF COUNCIL. Xx The number of accessions entered in the catalogue during the year ended 28th February, 1953, was 2,654 parts of periodicals. The number of books, periodicals, etc., borrowed by members, institutions and accredited readers was 336. Among the institutions which made use of the library through the inter-library scheme were : National Standards and Radiophysics Laboratory, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Fisher Library, Colonial Sugar Refinery, McMaster Laboratory, Sydney Technical College, Forestry Commission of N.S.W., Sydney Hospital Library, Department of Health, N.S.W., Department of Public Works, N.S.W., Food Preservation Laboratory, Homebush, Standard Telephones and Cables, Department of Agriculture, N.S.W., Bureau of Mineral Resources, M.W.S. and D. Board, N.S.W., C.S8.I.R.O. Division of Industrial Chemistry, Division of Fisheries, Division of Entomology, Building Research, Highett, Plant and Soils Laboratory, Brisbane, Wool Textile Research Laboratory, Regional Pastoral Laboratory, Snowy Mountains Hydro- Electric Authority, Taubman’s Ltd., University of Melbourne, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Kraft Walker Cheese Co., Melbourne, Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Sydney County Council, Australian National University, Canberra, National Museum, Victoria, Hydro-Electricity Commission, Tasmania, University of Western Australia, University of Queens- land, State Library of Tasmania, Timbrol Ltd., N.S.W. University of Technology, Australian Leather Research Association, Wollongong Technical College, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Sydney. C. J. MAGEE, President. XXiv 7,428 24,088 £31,922 24 5 £31,922 BALANCE SHEETS. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. BALANCE SHEET AS AT 28th FEBRUARY, 1953. LIABILITIES. Accrued Expenses : Subscriptions Paid in Advance Life Members’ Subscriptions—Amount ‘carried forward Trust and Monograph Capital Funds (detailed below)— Clarke Memorial Walter Burfitt Prize Liversidge Bequest : Monograph Capital Fund ACCUMULATED FUNDS Contingent Liability (in connection with Perpetual Leases. ) ASSETS. Cash at Bank and in Hand Investments— Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock, etce.— at Face Value— Held for— Clarke Memorial Fund Walter Burfitt Prize Fund Liversidge Bequest : Monograph Capital Fund General Purposes Debtors for Subscriptions .. Less Reserve for Bad Debts _ Science House—One-third Capital Cost . Library—At Valuation Furniture—At Cost—less Depreciation Pictures—At Cost—less Depreciation Lantern—At Cost—less Depreciation 1,896 10 1,111 13 700 0 3,752 10 a s. 1,800 1,000 700 3,000 2,860 ooooo 122 11 122508 1953. oo et £ Ss. 11ers 34 13 135 12 7,460 13 d. 3 0 0 11 23,851 4 6 £31,593 6 8 aOna!looocooe 9,360 0 14,835 4 £31,593 6 6,800 0 402 15 23 (0 4 0 BALANCE SHEETS. XXV TRUST AND MONOGRAPH CAPITAL FUNDS. Clarke Walter Burfitt Liversidge Monograph Memorial. Prize. Bequest. Capital Fund. £.., 8. d. si. Gs fae Sa id: £ s. d. Capital at 29th February, 1952. .. 1,800 0 0 1,000 0 0 700 0 0 3,000 0 0 Revenue— Balance at 29th February, 1952 141 16 9 81 16 8 44 5 1 659 18 4 Income for Twelve Months .. 53 15 2 DO lien yok 20 18 1 92 11 8 195 11 11 Li is 9 65 3 2 752 10 O Less Expenditure eos = yo) i 9 — 65 3 2 — Balance at 28th February, 1953 £96 10 2 £11113 9 — £752 10 0O ACCUMULATED FUNDS. £ s. d. Balance at 29th February, 1952 Bs a .. 24,088 1 2 Less— Increase in Reserve for Bad Debts.. £20 4 0 Deficit for twelve months (as shown by Income and Expenditure Ac- count) are a3 es ee elie oS 28 Bad Debts written off 4 4 0 236 16 8 £23,851 4 6 The above Balance Sheet has been prepared from the Books of Account, Accounts and Vouchers of The Royal Society of New South Wales, and is a correct statement of the position of the Society’s affairs on the 28th February, 1953, as disclosed thereby. We have satisfied ourselves that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are properly held and _ registered. HORLEY & HORLEY, Per Conrad F. Horley, F.C.A. (Aust.), | Chartered Accountants. Prudential Building, 39 Martin Place, Sydney, llth March, 1953. . (Sgd.) H. A. J. DONEGAN, Honorary Treasurer. Xxvl BALANCE SHEETS. INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT. Ist March, 1952, to 28th February, 1953. 1951-2. 1952-53 £ £ +s: ad: £ sod. To Annual Dinner— Expenditure ae oa , 7 ats 70 16 6 20 Less Received .. i er ae aye 68 12 0 -= 2 4 6 32 ~=«gy:~Audit a ays A a ee 48 a 3110 O 41 ,, Cleaning .. ae ye ee he ns oe 70 10 O 19 ,, Depreciation an ae ae ne we ie 18 3 0 11 —s,,_~ Electricity atte ie te ne 22 12 4 6 ,, Entertainment Expenses. ms ua rs mi A inBie oS 12, Insurance . aN Ay at Li 43 92 66 = ,, Library Purchases and Binding Eis abe ae 64.7% 2 100 ~=S,,_~‘Miscellaneous i ee oe Ra us 87 18 3 76 ,, Postages and Telegrams aft oe ss 939 4 , Printing and Binding Journal— Vol. 85 4 ns es an a 700 8 3 Vol. 86, Parts I and 1B ose ae - * 293 8 7 755 ee 993 16 10 145, ~Printing—General oe 116; 8. 5 107 + +,, Rent—Science House Management Committee es 74 16 2 Less Receipts from Subletting .. a5 Ls 47 16 8 26 19 128 ~,, Reprints .. a a Sai ap ie a —- — ,, Repairs... at £. Ais Ei sa Le 46 14 6 783 ,, Salaries... ra ae Biss Ks if a 886 13 3 25 ,, Telephone re Je ie ns a sis 31 ll 4 £2,326 £25505. 15. 73 1951-2 1952-53 Be 5S.) 'd. 633 By Memberahip Subscriptions ae ae vs bas a 973 17 6 i0 _,, Proportion of Life Members’ Subscriptions i ce a 11 ll 0 400 ,, Government Subsidy .. ae As a ae 200 O O — ,, Commonwealth Bank—Special Grant ae a a Ae 400 0 0 430 ., Science House—Share of Surplus ae a ie Lh Ane 495 0 0O 117 ~«,,.~* Interest on General Investments ae ae ote sis ad 109 5 7 — ,, Other Receipts—Sale of Reprints .. Ue ae Mi a 103 2 6 1,590 2,292 16 7 736 ,, Deficit for Twelve Months ie oe a ne ou ee 212. 8) 18 £2,326 £2,505 5 3 XxvVil ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF GEOLOGY Chairman: R. O. Chalmers, A.S.T.C. Hon. Secretary: T. G. Vallance, B.Sc., F.G.S. Meetings. Eight meetings were held during the year, the average attendance being twenty members and seven visitors. April 18th.—Address by Dr. G. D. Osborne on “ Spilites of New South Wales and the Spilite Problem ’’. The speaker reviewed the occurrence of Paleozoic true spilites and spilitoid rocks in N.S.W., and dealt with the serpentine-spilite association. Tectonic, petrological and environmental implications of spilite lavas were mentioned and it was concluded that there is no justification for the conception of a primary spilitic magma. The idea of a close connection, in space and time, between invasion of peridotites and the irruption of spilites was questioned. May 16th.—Short talks, illustrated by Kodachrome slides, on the following areas of geological interest : (a) Victorian Alps (Mr. N. C. Stevens) ; (b) Northern Queensland (Dr. H. Narain) ; (c) Hart’s Range, Central Australia (Mr. G. F. Joklik); (d) Braidwood district, N.S.W. (Mr. G. E. McInnes). June 20th.—Contributions to Geology from the N.S.W. University of Technology. Short talks by (a) Prof. D. W. Phillips on “ Structures Produced by Mining Operations”; (b) Dr. L. E. Koch on “ Observations on the So-called ‘Sunburn’ of Basalts and its Technical Implications’; (c) Mr. L. J. Lawrence on the “ Petrology and Ore Deposits of the Mole Tableland ”’ (northern N.S.W.) ; (d) Mr. A. V. Weatherhead on ‘“‘ Some Recent Observations in the Micro-Petrology of Clays as Revealed by a New Technique ”’. July 18th.—Address by Dr. H. Rutledge on ** The Petrology of the Southern Part of the Loch Doon (Galloway, Scotland) Plutonic Complex ”’. An abstract of this work is given in Proc. Geol. Soc. London, No. 1484, 1952. August 15th.—Short address by Dr. L. E. Koch entitled “* On the Adhesiveness of Minerals and Rocks and its Technical Applications ’’. The speaker mentioned such phenomena as desert varnish and the ‘ streak’ produced on polished glass surfaces by certain minerals, as well as the utilization of this physical property of ‘ adhesiveness’ in such operations as froth flotation. September 19th.—Symposium on Some Aspects of the Geology of the Sydney District. (a) ‘‘ Sub- division of the Triassic’, by Dr. W. R. Browne. (b) “‘ The Volcanic Necks’, by Dr. G. D. Osborne. (c) ‘ Observations on the Wianamatta Group ”’, by Mr. J. F. Lovering. Dr. Browne believed that the usually recognized divisions of the Triassic (Narrabeen, Hawkesbury and Wianamatta) in the Sydney district were true series established on the evidence of the contained fossils by David in 1932. Dr. Osborne referred especially to the breccia masses which display evidence of tilting or downward-drag of the well-bedded tuff or breccia and to the pleonaste-pyroxene symplectites in gabbroic cognate xenoliths in the basalt of some necks. Mr. Lovering presented a suggested stratigraphical sequence of eight formations (based on lithological features) which comprise the Wianamatta Group. October 17th.—Address by Mr. F. K. Rickwood on “ The Structure of the Central Highlands of New Guinea ”’. November 2lst.—Address by Mr. E. O. Rayner entitled ‘“‘ Some Geological Observations in Central and Northern Australia’’. The speaker gave an account of the geological field investigations of the Australian Museum Expedition to Northern Australia in April-August, 1952. XXVIili Obituary WiuuiamM Dixson, who was elected a member of the Society in 1906, was born at Sydney on the 18th April, 1870, and received his education at All Saints’ College, Bathurst. Leaving Sydney in 1889, he served his time m Scotland as an engineer, and returned to Australia in 1896 and took a position within the family business of Dixson and Sons, Ltd., tobacco merchants. He soon rose to important executive positions in the firm. He was created a Knight in 1939. He had a very deep interest in the materials of Australian history, of which he made, during his lifetime, a great collection, second only to that of David Scott Mitchell on the bibliographical side; on the pictorial side Dixson’s was the greater. His books, manuscripts and pictures are bequeathed to the Trustees of the Public Library to form a Dixson Library, for which he has provided a generous endowment, the full extent of which will not be known until the bequest is handed over to the Trustees of the Public Library. The Dixson Wing of the Public Library, opened in 1929, contains the magnificent pictures and other material which he presented during his lifetime. He died at the age of 82 on the 17th August, 1952. ARTHUR MARSHALL McINTOSH was elected a member of the Society in 1906, shortly after he was registered, in 1905, as a dentist for New South Wales. He practised until his retirement in 1949, his registration being terminated, at his request, in 1950. He died on the 7th March, 1952, at the age of 72. ROLAND JAMES PopE, who joined the Society in 1896, and died on the 27th July, 1952, aged 88 years, was an ophthalmic surgeon. He ceased practising some twenty-five years ago, and thus was not well known in his profession in recent decades. During his career he was an Honorary Ophthalmic Surgeon for a considerable period. CrcrIL PuRSER, one of the greatest physicians this State has known, died on the 13th January, 1953, aged 90 years, full of honour and profoundly respected by a host of friends in the medical and academic worlds. He was born on the 13th January, 1862, at Castle Hill, and educated in that district. He entered Sydney University and graduated as follows: B.A. 1885, M.B., Ch.M. 1890. He did his medical courses in those historic days when Sir Thomas Anderson Stuart was establishing the Sydney Medical School. Soon after his graduation he gained such experience, and made such a mark on his contemporaries, that he was soon occupying positions of trust and responsibility. A full list of his appointments would take too much space, but we record his appointment as Resident Medical Officer at Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, and later (1891-93) a most successful Medical Superintendent. He was Hon. Assistant Physician, 1896-1898, Hon. Senior Physician, 1898-1912, Hon. Consulting Physician from 1912 until his death. His great administrative ability displayed itself in his election as a Director of the Board of Management of R.P.A. Hospital, followed by being Vice-Chairman 1920-23 and finally Chairman 1924-33. In addition to these great services, he contributed much effective work upon various boards and committees of medical institutions. Th other great field of his honorary service was the University of Sydney. He was elected to the Senate in 1909, retiring in 1929 after twenty years as a Fellow, during which time he was Vice-Chancellor (under the old scheme) in 1917, 1918 and 1923, and Deputy-Chancellor 1924—25. He was a great supporter of the College Scheme of University residence, and entered St. Andrew’s College as a student, later being elected to its Board of Trustees. He also helped in the foundation of Wesley College, and was appointed a Foundation Trustee. The latest extension at Wesley has been named the Cecil Purser Wing. Purser was truly a great man, full of sympathy for the under-privileged. In spite of his many official commitments, he developed a very great practice and was the ‘“‘ family doctor ” to numbers of folk who drew from him understanding and sympathy in their illnesses, both of body and of spirit. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS By C. J. MAGEE, D.Sc.Agr. (Syd.), M.Sc. (Wis.). Delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales, April 1, 1953. PART [. WORK OF THE SOCIETY. The Annual Report of Council records a year of useful activity. The programme of meetings has been of fairly wide interest, but considering our membership of 383, average attendance at meetings continues to be poor. This is doubtless largely due to the high degree of specialization that exists in Science today and the many other societies members also now support. It has been my observation, however, that when our business paper includes an item of wider interest than usual, either as a contributed paper or lecturette, attendance improves. Symposia are regarded by members with favour and the two symposia which were held during the year were well attended. So was the film evening. Improvement in the design of meetings should continue to be a special consideration for the incoming and future Councils, since it is most desirable that our Society, besides its other activities, remains a meeting place for scientists of all disciplines. Special attention was given during the year by Council to the Society’s Library, which is fast exhausting its filing capacity. A sub-committee consisting of Messrs. F. N. Hanlon, A. V. Jopling and H. Wood was appointed in May to enquire into the composition of the library, the amount of use made of it, and to estimate its storage life. The sub-committee presented a valuable report, which influenced Council in calling a special meeting in November to discuss the present-day function of the library and to formulate a policy to be adopted for its development. A Standing Committee was appointed, consisting of the President, Professor K. E. Bullen (Hon. Sec.), Mr. F. N. Hanlon (Hon. Librarian), Mr. H. Wood, Mr. A. V. Jopling, Dr. D. P. Mellor and Dr. G. H. Briggs, to advise Council during the next few years on library matters. Council also recommended that the Library Standing Committee be reviewed each year to ensure that each branch of science retains representation. It is clear that there are many engineering, medical and other journals in the library which are no longer received by the Society and could appropriately be disposed of by gift, loan or sale to other libraries, and that there is still unnecessary duplication of filing with the library of the Linnean Society of New South Wales. The present day purpose of the library was defined by Council, and with the assistance of the Standing Committee it will be possible to institute a number of improvements and greatly extend the storage life of our existing premises. It is of interest that about 38 per cent. of the publications received by the Royal Society library are not available elsewhere in Sydney. It is gratifying to record that the financial position of the Society remains sound during this difficult period of inflation, in which all costs have risen steeply, particularly publication costs and salaries. Although our Income and Expenditure Account for the year shows a deficit, it is the smallest deficit the Society has had for several years and payment was made for the printing of six parts of our Journal instead of the usual four. The action taken at the end oO 2 Cc. J. MAGEE. of the previous financial year of increasing members’ subscriptions has greatly assisted the Society this year, and the grant of £400 received from the Rural Credits Development Fund of the Commonwealth Bank of Australia has been of special value. I wish to record my thanks to the Governor of the Bank for the Support given to our Society in a very difficult period. The Government of New South Wales has again given generous help and made a grant of £400 towards our activities, but an amount of £200 only appears in our Balance Sheet, as this year the grant was made in quarterly instalments. Council has practised numerous economies, but it has adhered to the Society’s policy of not declining to publish any scientific paper of merit because of cost alone. This policy over the last few difficult years has, without doubt, been the main contributor to the fall in value of the accumulated funds of the Society from £26,081 in 1949 to the present figure of £23,851. Nevertheless, it is considered that the financial position of the Society is still secure enough for maintenance of the policy. The Liversidge Research Lecture for 1952, sponsored by this Society, was delivered on 17th July at the University of Sydney by Dr. A. L..G. Rees, Division of Industrial Chemistry, C.S.I.R.O., Melbourne. He chose as his subject ‘‘ Electron Diffraction in the Chemistry of the Solid State’. The Royal Society of New South Wales co-operated with the University of Sydney in arranging the Pollock Memorial Lecture, which was held on 15th September at the University of Sydney. The lecture, entitled ‘‘ Post-War Physics ”’, was given by Professor H. 8S. W. Massey, Quain Professor of Physics, University College, London. I presided at both meetings, which were well attended, particularly by young scientists, and I could not help feeling how perfectly the lectures fulfilled the wishes of Liversidge and Pollock in being lectures ‘“ to encourage research and draw attention to research that should be done’”’. There has been much public and scientific interest during the year in the discovery of substantial deposits of uranium ore in Northern Territory. These appear to be of sufficient importance to influence strongly Australia’s future. An Atomic Energy Commission has been appointed by the Commonwealth Government, and we take pride in the fact that Professor J. P. Baxter, a valued member of Council, is one of the three members of this Commission. The year was notable in that the 29th Meeting of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science was held in Sydney from 20th to 27th August, and many members of our Society participated actively in its proceedings. The meetings of the fifteen sections of the Association, which were open to the press and members of the public, could not have failed to widen the appreciation of science in this State. The tenth General Assembly of the Union Radio-Scientifique Internationale was also held in Sydney, for the first time in Australia, from 11th to 23rd August. The A.N.Z.A.A.S. and U.R.S.I. meetings, in addition to their main functions, were of special benefit in that they brought to Sydney many eminent overseas scientists. Many members of the Society took part also in the Centenary Celebrations of the University of Sydney, which were held on 26th to 31st August. The University of Sydney was founded in 1852 and early members of our Society, particularly Dr. Henry Gratton Douglass and Dr. Charles Nicholson, played a prominent part in its foundation. The Annual Dinner of the Society was held again this year and was attended by 47 members and guests. The function was a most enjoyable one. The original minute book of the Philosophical Society of Australasia, from which the Royal Society of New South Wales stems, was exhibited at the dinner. This historical relic was discovered in 1921 (see THIS JOURNAL, Vol. LV), but its whereabouts in recent years has been unknown. It is a pleasure to record that it is now filed under call number D.142 at the Mitchell Library, Sydney. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 I wish to take this opportunity to thank members of Council, and indeed. the general membership of the Society, for the co-operation I have received during the year. In particular I wish to thank members of the Executive Committee for their help and guidance and the Hon. Librarian for his attention to the library. This Society is indebted, too, to a wide circle of friends in this and other States who have assisted during the year in the refereeing of con- tributed papers, in serving on selection committees, in helping with symposia and popular science lectures, and I wish to make grateful acknowledgement to them. It.is with regret that I have to record the deaths of the following members : Sir William Dixson, who was elected a member of the Society in 1906. Arthur Marshall McIntosh, who was elected to membership of the Society in 1906. Dr. Roland James Pope, who was elected a member of the Society in 1896. Dr. Cecil Purser, who was elected a member in 1893. PART II. SOME ASPECTS OF THE BUNCHY TOP DISEASE OF BANANA AND OTHER MUSA SPP. (Plates I-VL.) Our rules do not contain any instruction that the President shall deliver ar address, but it has become traditional for him to do so. It has become traditional, too, for your President to take the liberty of occupying this portion. of the Annual General Meeting with a consideration of scientific matters in which he has a special interest and to invite members to join him in appreciating their significance. For almost 30 years I have maintained an interest in one of the plant virus diseases, namely the bunchy top disease of bananas and other Musa spp., and as I have had the opportunity of observing it in a number of countries besides Australia, it is thought that this would be a suitable occasion to present a review of some of my observations. Tonight I will deal with its history and distribution, and since the establishment of its distribution rests on recognition of symptoms, I will discuss the variability of its symptoms and the confusion which exists regarding identity of the disease in certain species. The genus Musa is one of the most important groups of plants in tropical regions and provides a staple food, bananas and plantains, for several hundreds of millions of people. These plants surpass all other food crops in yields per acre and possess the special advantages that they are perennials and with their aid areas of land can be brought into food production in a comparatively short time. The food they supply also is non-seasonal in its harvest, obviating the need for storage and lessening the risk of famine. During the last century or so, peoples living in temperate climates have also come to regard bananas with favour, and there are now large industries based on their culture in the tropics and sub-tropics and their shipment to regions or countries with temperate climates. Bananas and plantains are plants of great antiquity, and some philosophers consider that they were one of the first foods of man and among the first crops to be cultivated by him (Reynolds, 1951). All scientific evidence (Sands, 1925 ; Hill, 1926; Harland, 1928; Howes, 1928) points to the banana and plantain. being indigenous to the Indo-Malayan region, whence they have been distributed. to Africa, the Americas and to the Pacific region. Linnzeus, who named two of the most important species of the genus, has perpetuated legends which surround these important food plants. The legend reached Europe that the sages of India. reposed in the shade of the banana tree and refreshed themselves with its fruit. 4 C. J. MAGHE. Linnzus has preserved this myth in his Musa sapientum. An eastern legend also held that the banana flourished in the Garden of Eden, being in fact the tree of knowledge (a more acceptable supposition than the apple tree, although neither is mentioned in Genesis) and this legend is believed to have influenced Linneus in naming his Musa paradisiaca. All the most important varieties of bananas and plantains appear to belong to these species and to one other species, erected by Lambert in 1836, M. cavendishii. The classification of Musa spp. is, however, still rather tentative but is being proceeded with at the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad, a most worthy task in view of their importance in food production and commerce. All the species of Musa producing edible seedless fruit, and all the fertile or seed-bearing species which have been examined, are subject to attack by the bunchy-top virus. I will refer especially tonight to symptoms of the disease on two of the seed-bearing species: the Abyssinian banana, M. ensete Gmel., a tall-growing ornamental and shade plant, and M. textilis Née, from which abaca or manila hemp fibre is extracted. An important industry in the Philip- pines is based on this latter species. EARLY HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE. Lye. : The bunchy top disease of the banana first attracted notice in the islands of the Fiji Group, where it seriously interfered with the development of an important export industry. Several references to the disease were published in the Fiji Times during 1889. Short accounts of the early efforts which were made to determine its cause are given in the Kew Bulletin of 1890 and 1892. Two interesting letters have been preserved at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and extracts of these are worthy of quotation because of their bearing on the early history of the disease. These quotations are made with the permission of the Director. Under date December 6, 1890, the Governor of Fiji, Sir John Thurston, reported as follows to the Colonial Office: ‘In or about 1879, M. cavendishit growing in the island of Moturiki were attacked with a disease. In time all the bananas were killed off and the disease attacked the more robust indigenous plantains and killed them. From Moturiki it spread all over the group to leeward. Then by careless transporattion of plants it got to windward and the disease is now everywhere. No such disease was ever known before. Its attacks appear capricious for in a banana plantation the individuals do not suffer from propinquity or apparently not; healthy and apparently healthy plants growing among those diseased. There appears to be no difference between plants in old plantations, new plantations, virgin soil, forest land, littoral or inland districts 7 ‘¢ Tn 1878 our first coolie ship came from India and landed at depots built on a small island close to Moturiki, named Yanuca, and it is opined that all bananas were there and then attacked and that the disease was blown across the few yards of water that divided the one island from the other. Is it possible that some pest came with Indian rice, curry stuffs and baggage generally ? ” In February, 1891, Sir John wrote as follows to the Colonial Office : ‘‘ Perhaps the most singular character of the disease is its capriciousness. It does not and has not (Moturiki excepted) attacked all plants in contiguity but only some of them. Healthy and unhealthy plants may sometimes be seen rising from the same stool. The state of the land whether old or new, virgin soil or well exhausted is not in question. The disease in its capricious way attacks plants in every condition as regards soil, and here and there even individuals of the order Musa growing wild in the forest...” PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5 ‘‘ The disease, whatever it may be, causes both plants to appear constricted or choked at what may loosely be described as the junction of the leaves and the stem. The stem of the banana is really nothing more than the strong sheathing bases of the petioles and it is just where the petioles rise from these bases that appearance of constriction presents itself. I enclose a photograph of a half- grown plant and its sucker showing the leaves crowded and compressed together in the centre or line of growth. Also another showing the manner in which suckers finally grow. They attain no height, bear narrow, lanceolate leaves, fail to flower and ultimately decay and rot away...”’ ‘‘T also find that as the disease increases the petioles of the leaves become dry and brittle and will snap or break off shortly and show the inner cellular structure dry and almost entirely wanting in sap or moisture. The conclusion at which I have arrived is that the seat of the disease is below the surface of the ground—that the root feeders are in some way affected and the plant rendered unable to elaborate the sap necessary to the formation of healthy cells and cell contents. The plant so affected therefore grows feebly, abnormally in habit, and soon dies. Planters cut down and root out every plant as soon as the least sign of disease appears, and this plan has the effect at least of retarding the spread of the disease...” ‘* It is not likely that the banana export will be seriously affected or brought to an end by this disease, but it is needless to say that the cost of production and the anxiety of the planters are much increased. At the suggestion of the Kew authorities I am sending them the roots, stem and leaves of a diseased plant preserved in a clear pickle of salt and water, and it is not improbable that the highly trained intelligence at Kew may detect that which is beyond our observa- tion here.”’ Reproductions of the photographs enclosed by Thurston in his second despatch are shown in Plate I, Figs. 1 and 2, and together with his description they leave little doubt of the identity of the Fijian disease. Further confirmation of this was obtained by me in discussions with old residents of the Colony during a visit to Fiji in 1937. The specimens Thurston sent to Kew Gardens were examined in August, 1891, by Arthur E. Shipley, of Christ College, Cambridge, who reported! that there was ‘‘ no evidence of any foreign organism ”’ in the specimens. Thurston somewhat underestimated the dangers of the disease as a few years later it reached epiphytotic form and seriously upset the industry.2, Some idea of the disastrous effects of the disease is obtained from a study of the export figures® for bananas about this time. The banana industry in Fiji dates back _ to 1877, in which year 3,100 bunches were shipped. Within ten years exports had grown to 359,000 bunches, and by 1892 a peak of 788,000 bunches was reached. During the next three years, primarily as a result of floods and the rapid spread of bunchy top, production steeply declined and in 1895, 114,000 bunches only were exported, about one-seventh of the 1892 total. Then, from 1896 onwards an improvement occurred, 463,000 bunches being shipped in 1899, although by 1905 exports had fallen to the low figure of 147,000 bunches. The reasons for the temporary recovery of the industry around 1896 have never been chronicled, and a search I made of Fijian official records in 1937 brought to light only one likely contributory factor, namely the introduction in 1892 by the Fijian Government of two cases of suckers of the Gros Michel ee 1 Fiji Despatches from the Secretary of State, 1891. At Colonial Secretary’s Office, Suva, iji. * Minute Paper No. 1069 of 1893. At Colonial Secretary’s Office, Suva, Fiji. ? Council Paper No. 23. Legislative Council, Fiji, 1906. 6 Cc. J. MAGEE. variety from Jamaica, in the hope that this variety would prove resistant to the disease. It is probable that the gradual distribution of this variety, which we now know to be highly resistant to bunchy top, was partly responsible. The tall growing Gros Michel, however, did not prove the most satisfactory for Fijian conditions owing to its greater liability to hurricane damage than the dwarf Cavendish and it did not entirely displace the latter variety. The Gros Michel also was found to be more susceptible to Sigatoka disease or leaf spot (Cercospora muse) than the Cavendish. The revival of banana growing in Fiji from 1912 to 1916, when exports of 14 millions of bunches were the rule, does not appear to have been caused by any organized attempt to control bunchy top by eradicatory measures, but to the extension of plantations into new districts and islands. In 1918 the industry received a new check because of shipping difficulties and later tariff changes on the Australian market, and has not since recovered. The disease is still widespread in Fiji, and surveys I made in 1937 showed that at that time from 5 to 30 per cent. of plants in all plantations and gardens were infected, depending on the care and supervision of the owners. It is remarkable, however, that no plantings which were 100 per cent. infected were then seen and it is thought this must be attributed to the use of the Gros Michel and Veimama varieties. There is a special feature about the resistance of the Veimama variety. This is thought to be of an acquired type following recovery or partial recovery from an attack of the disease (Magee, 1948). Although bunchy top first came into prominence in Fiji, it is improbable in view of the history of its gradual spread there and its known wide geographical range, that it had its origin in that colony. Thurston’s suggestion that the disease was imported with the baggage of early immigrants from India has not received any support from recent studies on its distribution in that region. These immigrants would have been recruited in south-western India, probably in Bombay, but there is no very early record of bunchy top in this part of India. The disease is now known to be present in Travancore-Cochin and also in the State of Bombay, but it has attracted attention there only during the past ten years. Simmonds (1931), who had much experience in Fiji, has suggested that the disease was imported into Fiji from Tanna in the New Hebrides with an ‘‘immune ”’ strain of suckers in 1886. There have been no reports in recent years of the presence of the disease in the New Hebrides, but no authoritative surveys have been made. Mediterranean Region. Bunchy top occurred in Egypt at least as early as 1901 (Fahmy, 1924) and has since been a limiting factor in banana production. While returning from England in 1928 I made an inspection® of banana plantations in Lower Egypt on behalf of the British Government and was able to identify the disease with the one I had previously studied in Australia. Recent correspondence (Soliman, 1951) indicates that bunchy top is still a disease of major importance in Egypt. The origin of the disease in Egypt is not known. There were reports some years ago that bunchy top had been introduced into Israel from Egypt but the disease is now stated not to be present there (Reichert, 1952). *Council Paper No. 107. Legislative Council, Fiji, 1917. 5 Report on bunchy top in Egypt. To Director, Commonwealth Mycological Institute, London, 1928. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. bs Ceylon. Bunechy top first appeared in Ceylon about the middle of 1913 (Petch, 1913 ; Bryce, 1921). It was confined to the Colombo district for some time but gradually spread to neighbouring districts and became well established in the Central and Western Provinces, destroying most of the banana plantings and a plot of manila hemp at Peradeniya. Surveys® I made in Ceylon in 1928, on behalf of the Government of Ceylon, showed that, while the disease was widespread in these two Provinces, it was absent from other parts of the island visited, suggesting that the introduction into the Colombo district or Peradeniya was the primary focus for its distribution. An investigation of the disease by Hutson and Park (1930) demonstrated that its vector (the banana aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq.) in Ceylon is the same as that in Australia. The source from which the disease reached Ceylon is not known, although it has been stated (Harland, 1928) that it was probably introduced from Fiji. Australia. The early history of the bunchy top disease in Australia is recorded in reports by Darnell-Smith (1919), Darnell-Smith and Tryon (1923), Darnell-Smith (1924) and Magee (1927). The disease was introduced into New South Wales in 1913 in infected banana suckers from Fiji at a time when the foundations of the industry were being laid in this State. Rapid expansion of banana planting occurred towards the end and after World War I, primarily as a result of disruption in the continuity of supplies of Fijian bananas to Australian markets brought about by shipping difficulties, and the encouragement given to repatriated soldiers to adopt banana growing as a livelihood. Several soldiers’ settlements were established in banana areas. Further impetus to development came in 1921 when the Commonwealth Government imposed a heavy duty on the importation of bananas as a protection to soldier settlers. As planting progressed, the disease gradually spread, this being facilitated, as we now know, by the distribution of infected planting stock. Production reached a peak in 1922, but two years later the industry had collapsed. The hardship caused by the disease was intense and led to special Commonwealth and State action. An investigation of the disease was made and its virus nature and its vector were discovered. A scheme of control based upon eradication and replanting with disease-free stock was instituted and as a result of the co-operative efforts of banana growers and the Departments of Agriculture of New South Wales and Queensland over the past twenty years, the industry has been completely rehabilitated (Magee, 1936 ; Eastwood, 1946). The area over which the disease originally spread has been progressively reduced, the industry has greatly expanded and in most districts at the present time bunchy top affected plants can be found only by searching for them. Paetfie Islands. In the Pacific region, in addition to the occurrence of the disease in Australia, and almost all the inhabited islands of the Fiji group, bunchy top has been recorded from the Ellice Island (Campbell, 1926), Wallis Islands (Simmonds, 1933) and Bonin Island (Gadd, 1926). A complete survey of the Pacific would doubtless show a wider distribution, although it is of interest that Samoa has apparently so far escaped the disease (Simmonds, 1933) and also the Hawaiian Islands (Jensen, 1946). During 1951 I carried out a survey of virus diseases of plants in the Territory of Papua and New Guinea on behalf of the Commonwealth Government, paying particular attention to bananas, without seeing any evidence of bunchy top in this plant. It seems likely that these islands, too, in which * Report on visit to plantain areas of Ceylon. To Director of Agriculture, Ceylon, 1928. 8 Cc. J. MAGER. bananas are such an important item in the diet of the natives, have not yet had the disease introduced to them. There have been newspaper reports of the occurrence of the disease in the neighbouring Solomon Islands, but these have never been fully investigated. In the Philippine Islands, there is a disease of abaca or manila hemp (Musa textilis), which is very similar to or identical with banana bunchy top. This disease has been present in the Philippines at least since 1910, although it did not cause serious losses until 1923. (Ocfemia, 1926, 1930.) The identity of this disease with banana bunchy top will be discussed later. In 1946 and again in 1950 the opportunity was given me of examining an outbreak of a destructive disease in a number of large abaca estates on the Semporna Peninsula of North Borneo. The disease presented a number of puzzling features in relation to symptoms (Reinking, 1950) and the pattern of its spread inwards from the margin of the estates bordering the jungle which I was unable to interpret fully. The disease was affecting bananas as well as abaca and I formed the opinion that the virus was the same as that which has caused losses in Australia, or a closely related strain. The estates in which the disease occurred were planted by a Japanese company prior to World War II with planting stock which it is presumed came from Mindanao, Philippine Islands. I was unable to establish how the disease originated in North Borneo, but it is probable it was introduced along with the planting stock. It spread throughout the estates during and after the war and has since led to their eradication and replanting. Malaya. Whether the disease occurs in Malaya is uncertain. It is my opinion, however, that certain foliar symptoms I saw in a plot of abaca at Serdang Agricultural Experiment Station, near Kuala Lumpur, during a one day’s visit in 1950 were caused by a mild chronic infection of the bunchy top virus. The foliage was upright and narrow, isolated chlorotic areas occurred in the leaves, and as leaves matured their margins became chlorotic and later brown and parchment-like. The abaca plants were named varieties of Philippine origin and some local hybrids. India. An endeavour has been made by correspondence during the past year to determine the distribution of bunchy top in the Indian sub-continent. Reports have been received of the occurrence of the disease in Travancore-Cochin State, Bombay State, Western Hyderabad and in Orissa, Assam and Hast Pakistan. The worst outbreak has occurred in Travancore-Cochin State in the Cochin, Kottayam and Quilon districts. The disease is believed to have been introduced about 1940 from Ceylon and is now known to occur over some hundreds of square miles (Samraj, 1952). Photographs received from Travancore show typical symptoms of the disease. In Bombay, the worst affected areas have been observed in east Khandesh at Shendurni, Jalgaon and Nasirabad (Vasudeva, 1952). An outbreak in the Aurangabad district of Hyderabad State is reported to have originated from planting stock introduced from east Khandesh and to have been dealt with by eradication. In Assam, Orissa and East Pakistan the disease is reported as occurring in many gardens, but there is still some doubt about its identity. I have received official reports from the respective govern- ments that the disease is not present in United Provinces, Central Provinces, Madras, Mysore, Rajasthan and West Pakistan. The disease position in West Bengal and Bihar is uncertain but there have been unconfirmed reports of its occurrence in both States. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9 No full investigation of bunchy top appears to have been carried out in India, and it is possible that in some States there is confusion between it and the less serious mosaic disease. Nevertheless, the importance of the disease is generally realized and in several States there is legislation against the introduction of planting stock from areas in which it is known or thought to occur and also for its eradication (Mehta, 1952; Ramachandran Nair, 1944). Regions not so far Invaded. The important banana exporting countries such as the West Indies, Central and South America, the Canary Islands and most parts of Africa appear to have escaped bunchy top. It is known that surveys have been made in some of these countries in search of the disease, without success. There have also been no reports of the disease from Java, Sumatra, Formosa, Burma, Siam, Indo-China or China. Where bunchy top originated is uncertain, although it is clearly a disease of the Eastern Hemisphere, the accepted place of origin of the banana and plantain. VARIABILITY OF SYMPTOMS OF BUNCHY TOP IN DIFFERENT MUSA SPECIES. The present published descriptions of symptoms of the bunchy top disease of bananas only inadequately cover the range the virus is capable of causing and consequently there occur opportunities for error in its diagnosis in different Musa spp. and varieties. Further detailed investigations of the symptoms caused by this virus are clearly necessary. Such studies should include field Symptoms, as well as those normally observed under glasshouse conditions, as there is already evidence of the existence in mature plants of some varieties and species of a mild chronic form of the disease. It is proposed, however, merely to indicate how the symptoms described for some varieties and species cannot be accepted for all. When the symptoms of bunchy top were first described (Darnell-Smith, 1924; Magee, 1927) much reliance was placed on the occurrence of dark green streaks, either continuous or morse code-like in pattern in the petioles and along the main and subsidiary veins of the lamine of leaves, as a crucial symptom in deciding whether or not the plant was infected with the virus. The need to refer to a well-defined symptom of this type arises frequently in field work because congestion of leaves at the apex of plants, which is a field symptom that gave the disease its name, or another constant symptom, chlorosis of the last emerged leaves, may also be caused by unfavourable environment or mal- nutrition. When it was shown (Magee, 1939) that the green streak symptom was caused by tissue alterations in the phloem and adjacent regions of vascular bundles and that the derangement of the phloem was primarily the cause of upset in health of plants, its value in diagnosis seemed undisputed. In the Cavendish and Gros Michel groups of banana varieties (Cheesman, 1934) the usefulness of the green streak symptom is still unquestioned. In these varieties of edible bananas green streaks are the first symptom of infection both in field and in glasshouse studies and they generally persist throughout the life of infected plants. In some of the fertile or seed-bearing species of Musa to which bunchy top has been transmitted experimentally, this symptom is also a reliable diagnostic one, but in certain others, e.g. M. ensete and M. textilis, the green Streak symptom occurs so rarely as to lose nearly all its value as an aid in diagnosis. Further, in at least one variety in the Cavendish group, namely the Veimama of Fiji, there is an acute and a mild chronic phase of the disease (Magee, 1948), and plants in the latter phase (partially-recovered) display the green streak symptom only in some leaves, and when present, in a much reduced 10 C. J. MAGEE. distribution. Thus, in deciding the health of such partially-recovered plants, the green streak symptom is useful when present, but in practice close study of the plants throughout their growth becomes necessary. Symptoms of Banana Bunchy Top in Musa ensete Gmel. In this species bunchy top takes the form of a ‘‘ yellows ”’ disease, and when observed for the first time its identity with bunchy top of edible bananas could easily be doubted. Green streaks have been observed only twice in several hundreds of plants of WM. ensete which were successfully inoculated under glass- house conditions and then only to a minor extent in the petioles. Following infection, the first-symptom leaf shows either a general or localized chlorosis and the youngest (right) half of the lamina fails to unroll completely after emergence from the pseudostem (Plate II, Fig. 1). The base of this half of the leaf usually shows a water-soaked or membranous area which later collapses, resulting in malformation. Whether further leaves emerge from the pseudostem or not depends on the severity of the disease, and in a high percentage of cases rotting (‘‘ heart rot’) occurs in the central cylinder. This is the result of a general collapse of the young developing leaves within the pseudostem. In other cases one or more leaves may emerge after the first-symptom leaf, but these are usually small and malformed (Plate II, Fig. 2). The symptoms shown by WU. ensete are of interest in view of their close resemblance to those described for the bunchy top disease of abaca (Ocfemia, 1930). | Symptoms of Banana Bunchy Top in Abaca (M. textilis) Née. Transmission of the banana virus to abaca results in slightly different symptoms, depending on whether seedlings or vegetatively propagated material is employed. The variation is a difference in the extent of chlorosis in the first-symptom leaf and the compactness of the rosette of leaves subsequently formed ; a difference apparently conditioned by the relative robustness of the plants. The first symptoms shown by young abaca seedlings very closely resemble those I have described for M. ensete seedlings. The disease can be first detected from 29 to 42 days in the third or fourth leaf that emerges from the pseudostem after inoculation. The young furled heart leaf, when about half emerged, shows white streaks or areas towards its base. Sometimes the whole basal portion is white in colour. On unfurling, the leaf shows marginal chlorosis and indefinite chlorotic areas or chlorotic bands extending from the margin of the lamina towards the midrib, and varying degrees of upward rolling of one or both sides of the lamina (Plate II, Fig. 3). Sometimes the chlorosis is confined to the right side of the leaf only when viewed from its adaxial surface. Examina- tion of the leaf in transmitted light reveals a translucency or clearing of some or many of the main and sub-main veins which is visible from both sides of the leaf. As the leaf matures portion of the chlorotic areas may collapse, becoming membranous and later light brown in colour. There is considerable variation in the degree of abnormality shown by the first-symptom leaf depending apparently on the stage of development at which the leaf comes under the influence of the virus. The first symptoms shown by some seedlings are very mild, consisting merely of a slight marginal chlorosis of the leaf and the appearance of faint yellowish streaks in the lamina (Plate I, Fig. 4), while others early show a severe reaction to infection. In the latter cases chlorosis is pronounced ; most of the veins are cleared, white and then membranous areas appear in the leaf and when these collapse the leaf is badly deformed (Plate III, Fig. 1). In still other cases an intermediate reaction is shown by the first-symptom leaf in which chlorosis is restricted to the margin of the lamina and vein clearing is the most definite sign that infection has occurred. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. a fab The leaf which emerges after the first-symptom leaf is usually shorter, narrower and highly chlorotic, with one or several membranous areas near the margin of the lamina (Plate III, Fig. 2). Both sides of the lamina may be rolled upwards. The next three or four leaves, which emerge slowly, may be of similar type but without the extreme chlorosis and membranous areas and if cultural conditions are good, slightly larger leaves then appear. The general effect of this restricted growth is to produce a rosette of narrow leaves, but the rosette is of a looser type than that observed in banana varieties. The course of the disease in a vegetative offset of abaca is illustrated in Plate IV. The effect of the virus in the variety studied is less marked than in young seedlings, but this would be expected to vary with the variety. Following an initial check in growth in which one to three shortened leaves with chlorotic margins, cleared venation and chlorotic areas are formed subsequent leaves tend to increase in length as though a tolerance to the virus has been built up. This prevents the formation of a tight rosette, but all leaves are narrower than normal and show a characteristic upturning of their margins. Green streaking of the vascular traces of the leaf, the most important diagnostic symptom of bunchy top in bananas, is observed to a very minor extent in abaca, and then usually in the petiole and midrib only of some of the first infected leaves. Green streaks are occasionally observed also along a few of the veins of the lamina. In abaca the clearing or translucency of the main and some of the subsidiary veins of the first-symptom leaf and most subsequent leaves is, however, almost as useful diagnostically as the green streak symptom in the case of the banana, particularly in glasshouse studies (Plate III, Fig. 3). Cleared venation is an associated symptom also of bunchy top in banana varieties (Magee, 1927 ; Plate IV, Fig. 1), but is not an early symptom, and because of the prominence of the green streaks has been overlooked in descriptions of the disease. A comparison of the symptoms just described in M. ensete and M. textilis with published descriptions of the bunchy top disease in edible bananas reveals many variations, and in the absence of transmission studies it would be easy to conclude that more than one virus is involved. There is no single symptom or group of symptoms on which a definite diagnosis could be based in all cases. The characteristic green streaks or cleared venation are reliable criteria for diagnosis when present, but the symptoms of chlorosis shown by M. ensete and M. textilis are too indefinite for a firm decision to be made without clinical study, unless the observer has had much experience with the disease. The position is complicated, too, by the fact that there is at least one other virus disease of Musa spp. which is relatively common in tropical and sub-tropical countries, namely mosaic or infectious chlorosis (Wellman, 1934; Ocfemia and Celino, 1938; Magee, 1940a) caused by the widespread cucumber mosaic virus. Although this is clearly a mosaic type rather than a yellows type disease, rosetting or bunching of the leaves may be associated, leading sometimes to the disease being wrongly diagnosed as bunchy top. Symptoms of the chronic mild form of this disease consisting of bands of mosaic tissue extending from the mid-rib to the margin of otherwise apparently normal leaves could also be mistaken for chronic symptoms of bunchy top in certain varieties of bananas and abaca. The high percentage of infected M. ensete seedlings which develop heart rot in glasshouse inoculations is of particular interest since this symptom has been one of the barriers against accepting the identity of banana and abaca bunchy top. Heart rot is a well recognized secondary symptom of bunchy top in abaca in the Philippines (Ocfemia, 1930 ; Ramos, 1933) but is less frequently observed in bananas, its incidence fluctuating with climatic conditions. 2 C. J. MAGEE. The tendency of infected abaca plants to show at first a severe and later a milder reaction to the virus (Plate IV) was strikingly different from the behaviour of the Cavendish and other varieties of bananas I had previously studied. It was not, however, until a few years later, when the remarkable behaviour of the Veimama variety in making a partial recovery from bunchy top was examined (Magee, 1948), that the importance of the tendency of abaca to grow out of the disease especially attracted my attention. The significance of this was further emphasized in 1950 when I was commissioned to report’ on the health status of abaca planting stock in a series of estates in North Borneo. Here it was observed that suckers of the Tangongon and Bangkura varieties of abaca could be selected from stools which were badly affected with the disease and if replanted under favourable conditions would make fairly vigorous growth, giving rise to stools of generally healthy appearance (Plate V, Figs. 1 and 2). During this field survey I formed the opinion that some varieties of abaca at least are able to tolerate a chronic infection in much the same manner at the Veimama banana. There was no opportunity of making a clinical study of the partially-recovered abaca plants while in Borneo, but I will briefly refer to two of the symptoms which | they showed. Many stools were seen which were of normal habit of growth, but close examination showed the presence of chlorotic bands of a characteristic type in the lamina of some of the leaves (Plate V, Fig. 3). Also, if a search were made, dark brown streaks or stripes were occasionally to be found in the mid-rib and petioles of some leaves (Plate V, Fig. 4). These stripes are quite different in nature from the green streaks referred to earlier, but like them are associated with modification of the phloem and adjacent tissues. A histological examina- tion of the stripes reveals that they are caused by the phloem and neighbouring tissues of some of the more superficial vascular bundles becoming partially or wholly impregnated with brown gum. Gum stains are to be seen also in some epidermal and hypodermal cells in many superficial fibre bundles. Other pathological changes of the type normally associated with the bunchy top disease (Magee, 1939) are also present in the phloem of the gum-blocked vascular bundles. The effect of the gum accumulations is to give an external display of dark brown stripes in the mid-rib and petiole. The green streak symptom, on the other hand, is caused by the development of abnormal chlorophyll- bearing tissue adjacent to deranged phloem tissues. THE QUESTION OF IDENTITY OF BANANA AND ABACA BUNCHY TOP. The successful transfer of bunchy top from banana to abaca (Magee, 1927) confirmed the observation made by Bryce in 1918 on the susceptibility of this plant in the field in Ceylon. During the banana investigation, reports were received of a serious disease which was destroying the abaca crop in Cavite Province, Philippine Islands. The symptoms of the malady corresponded so closely to those of banana bunchy top that the opinion was expressed that the diseases were identical. About the same time, Ocfemia (1926, 1927, 1930) was successful in transmitting the abaca disease in the Philippines by means of Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq., the vector also of banana bunchy top, and concluded that the same virus was causing destruction in both Australia and the Philippines. Later, however, doubt arose regarding the identity of the diseases. Ocfemia and Buhay (1934) observed that Philippine varieties of banana growing in proximity to diseased abaca did not contract bunchy top and that experimental attempts to transmit abaca bunchy top to several banana varieties were unsuc- cessful. In a series of communications with Professor Ocfemia, the identity or otherwise of the two diseases was discussed without finality. In addition to the apparent non-transmissibility of abaca bunchy top to banana, there was the ? Report to Colonial Development Corporation, Singapore, 1950. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13 symptom of heart rot associated with a high percentage of infected abaca plants which was not then an accepted symptom of the banana disease. During 1936, 1937 and again recently, I made further studies on the trans- mission of banana bunchy top to abaca, using both seedling and vegetatively- propagated material, and confirmed that the banana virus could be transmitted at will from banana to abaca and back to banana. This transmission was performed several times by using groups of 20 apterous aphids (P. nigronervosa) which had fed during their nymphal stages on recently infected plants. The variety of banana used was the Cavendish. Young and vigorous plants only of each species were employed. During these transmissions a further study of the symptoms of banana bunchy top in abaca was made. 1 with the usual order, the ‘sum ” of two elements a,b being given by a». (II) is false, as (a?)eAaP® ; the other axioms are easily verified. Example 3. Let S={2, 3, 4,.. .} with the usual addition and order. All axioms hold except (IIT) (the equation 2-+-#=3 has no solution). Example 4.2 Let N={1, 2, 3,.. .} and let a be any transformation which maps WN in a one-one-manner on a subset Na=N’ of N whose complement N—WN’ is infinite. Let 7 ={a, b, c,. . .} be the set of all such transformations. The product ab of two transformations is obtained by first applying a then b. Multiplication clearly satisfies the associative law (i) (ab)e=a(be). Moreover, the following two properties hold : (ii) z~v implies a4 a” ; for, by the definition Nat-+1 is a proper part of Nat so that Na, Na?, Na®,. . . and hence a, a, a3,. .. are all different. (iii) The equation ax=b has a solution for any a, b. @ is found thus: Let a map x on xa=x’, and let b map x on xb=x"; defining x'x=x", we get xax=xb; «x is then defined for all x’ in N’=WNa, its range being N"=Nb; the definition of x on N—WN’ is arbitrary provided its values lie in N—N" and omit an infinite part of N—N”. axv=b thus has an infinity of solutions ; a special one can be singled out and called the special quotient b/a. From T an enumerable subset S={a,, do, a3, . . .} satisfying (i), (ii), (iii) can be selected by starting with any element a, and constructing the subset generated from a, by the multiplication and special quotient operations. Defining Oy SYNCLINES Cc SCALE Miles 210 2 4 6 Toxt-fig. 1. Explanation of Map : Distribution and structure of Early and Middlo Tertiary formations i i in. it; Fy, Eden-Burnside Fault; F;, Clarendon (Moana) Fault; F,, Willunga Fault, tertiary formations in part of the Adelaide Basin. Fy, Para Fault ; F,, Eden-Burnsi Explanation of Section : A, Croydon Bore (Adelaide) ; B, 1} miles south of Sellick’s Beach ; C, south of Myponga. 1, Recent and Pleistocene ; 2, Pliocene ; 3, Port Willunga Beds including subsurface Miocene strata; 4, Blanche Point Marls, Tortachilla Limestone and equivalents ; 6, North and South Maslin Sands. pensetahoea relations of sediments adjacent to Willunga Scarp at the end of the deposition of the Port Willunga Beds. Precambrian and Paleozoic basement a I | i ' i | i} So a SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 35 over 100 feet of predominantly bryozoal beds, calcarenites and clays with nodules and pellets, with pronounced current-bedding at the base and intermittently at higher levels. These are the Port Willunga Beds. All these Tertiary formations are cut off up-dip by about 20 feet of partly fossiliferous sandy limestones, sands and sandy clays. The marine fauna in these beds is of Pliocene age. There is an angular unconformity between the Pliocene which shows a dip of 1° and the underlying formations which dip at 2° in a general direction to the south-south-west. As the dips are very regular, the unconformity becomes very pronounced over the great length of coastal exposures. It was recognized as such by early observers, though not fully appreciated in its general significance. MARGINAL BASINS. The next step following upon the detailed mapping of the coastal traverses and construction of stratigraphic columns was the mapping of the inland extension of the different formations. This was carried out at the scale of two inches to one mile by B. Daily and G. Woodard (unpublished). In the available time only the Tertiary formations could be mapped, and neither the pre-Tertiary nor the post-Pliocene could be studied closely. Obviously, the more detailed the stratigraphic subdivision of the standard section into mappable formations, the greater the structural detail which can be revealed by areal mapping. Tate’s original stratigraphic division into ‘‘ Eocene ’’ and ‘‘ Miocene ”’ produced no recognizable structural picture. The later division into ‘‘ Oligocene freshwater beds ’’, ‘‘ Miocene limestones ”’ and, along the coast, a strip of uncon- formable marine Pliocene led to the picture of tilted fault blocks which was developed gradually by Benson, Howchin, Mawson, Fenner and Sprigg. It was known that at the southern end of the fault blocks which revealed the standard sections the beds were tilted up to dip north-westward, but this was explained as ‘‘ drag on the faults ’’.. When the southern margin of the Noarlunga Basin was mapped the oldest instead of the youngest beds of the Tertiary sequence were found exposed and the structure was recognized as a syncline instead of a tilted block. It is, however, very asymmetric, with a very narrow southern limb and considerable thinning of strata towards the southern edge. There are no drag effects such as distortion of fossils or sliding on bedding planes. The southern margin of the Willunga Basin has pre-Pliocene strata exposed only in the sea cliffs south of Sellick’s Beach. This is six miles south of the point where the pre-Pliocene unconformity disappears below sea level. As it has a fall of 25 feet per mile between this point and the northern edge of the basin (Reynolds, 1953), it should be 150 feet below sea level at its southern end, according to the concept of tilted blocks. Instead, outcrops of marine fossiliferous Pliocene have now been found there above sea level, overlying Port Willunga beds. When next seen, above the Cambrian basement of the southern margin of the basin, these beds rise steeply, with dips increasing to vertical and then moderating upwards to about 40°. These magnificent exposures were described by Howchin (1911). But instead of the expected drag effects and faulted contact we found a flexure in the well-bedded Port Willunga Beds, sigmoidal in vertical plane, with a transgressive basal breccia. Even the most fragile fossils are virtually undistorted. The most impressive proof of undisturbed transgressive contact is supplied by the occurrence of infillings of fossiliferous Tertiary limestone in fissures in the underlying Cambrian, which are up to 15 feet deep. The Port Willunga Beds occur also as isolated remnants in the higher country to the south, at Myponga and above Hindmarsh Falls, where they were found by Madigan and Howchin (at an elevation of about 900 feet). Here they rest either on pre-Cambrian or on Permian beds. As the 36 MARTIN F. GLAESSNER. older members of the Tertiary sequence occur neither here nor on the southern edge of the Willunga Basin, they must wedge out somewhere under the Basin. We shall see that there is evidence for a shoreline in this position, over which the Willunga Beds transgressed, as they transgressed in the coastal sections over the preceding non-marine Chinaman’s Gully Beds. Marine Pliocene is found outcropping only within a short distance of the present coastline. The most distant surface occurrence is probably in the grounds of the University of Adelaide, about six miles from the coast. Litho- logically similar deposits found further inland are unfossiliferous and probably non-marine. They are mostly quartz sands and well-rounded quartz gravels, with sandy limestones occurring nearer to the shoreline. These deposits were laid down on a peneplaned surface which probably had acquired a gentle seaward slope by the time of the Pliocene transgression. This surface and the covering Marine and non-marine Pliocene deposits were further disturbed by gentle warping and strong faulting. SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS. The variations in thickness of strata in different bores proved puzzling from the earliest days of exploration. Variations in facies were recognized more recently. These conditions call for detailed stratigraphic analysis. In this work, micropaleontological examination of samples from bores provides very valuable data. It is fortunate that some samples from the Croydon bore, the only bore in the Adelaide Plains area which reached bedrock, have been preserved. The study of the foraminifera from these samples is being carried out together with the study of surface samples taken from the measured coastal sections and of selected other bore material. It is not yet completed, but data obtained have enabled us to make a rough correlation of strata in the Croydon bore and to compare them with bores on the next higher fault block, across the Para Fault. Combining paleontological data and correlations with the litho- logical descriptions we find that the missing thickness of pre-Pliocene marine strata on the upthrown block represents an erosional interval on an unconform- able contact, corresponding to that which is so well exposed along many miles of coastal cliffs. As the pre-Pliocene marine Tertiary beds preserved in the Kent Town bore contain the foraminiferal fauna which is found near the base of the marine section of the Croydon bore, we find that about 1,300 feet of strata were removed from this site on the upthrown block. This was the amount of pre-Pliocene or early Pliocene movement on the fault in this vicinity, as the surface of Pliocene deposition was almost level (peneplaned). That this level surface was further disturbed in late or post-Pliocene time is shown by the fact that in the Croydon bore it is about 600 feet deep (550 feet below sea level), while in the Kent Town bore it is approximately at sea level. This indicates the later faulting in this cross-section. Subsurface investigations provide information not only of structural but also of facies development. Sores in the Adelaide Basin at some distance from the coast have encountered lignites which do not outcrop in the coastal clifis. In some bores two lignitic series were found, separated by fossiliferous marine rocks. A bore put down to a depth of 680 feet in the Willunga Basin produced. a log which seemed to have little resemblance to the columnar section of the coastal cliffs only three or four miles to the west. It is obvious that facies changes are greater from west to east than in a meridional direction, where there is little change in ten miles of section. It is not surprising that the plant- bearing deltaic North Maslin Sands become lignitic inland, but it is interesting that in several instances the proven lignite areas end abruptly against faults, without reappearing as expected in the upthrown continuation of the same SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 37 formation. This means that during the deposition of the lignite a scarp formed the boundary of the swampy basin. It was probably a fault scarp formed by earlier movement, as Sprigg (1942, 1945, 1946) has shown clearly that Late Tertiary to Recent movements occurred on earlier, probably Paleozoic faults. A revival of movement would then turn the boundary scarp again into a fault. A study of bore records from the Adelaide and Willunga Basins and outcrop observations suggest that the upper lignites (which do not seem to be of economic importance here) are related to the Blanche Point Marls. This may seem surprising as along the coast this formation is not only entirely marine but also rich in sponges and free from coarse clastic material suggesting uniform still-water conditions. But still water is not necessarily deep water, and even deep water is not necessarily farfromland. In outcrops we see unfossiliferous fine micaceous sands appearing in this formation, and in bores the same sand with gravels and lignite occurs in equivalent positions, above the glauconitic beds with the Hantkenina-fauna and either above or below the Twrritella and sponge-spicule fauna of the Blanche Point Marls. The glauconitic beds overlap the basement, cutting out the Maslin Sands. This is taken as evidence of a shoreline in the eastern part of the basins or, in other words, at the foot of the present Ranges. A reflection of a more widespread regressive phase is seen on the coast in the development of the thin non-marine Chinaman’s Gully Beds above the Blanche Point Marls, and this regression also provides the explanation of the absence of Tertiary strata older than the Port Willunga Beds south of the Willunga Basin, in the Myponga area. Pre-existing structural lines influenced sedimentation in the basins not only as shoreline trends but also as boundaries of relatively high or less subsiding areas. Evidence for this is seen in thinning against these highs which were wrongly interpreted as subsequently upthrown basement blocks. The Blanche Point Marls are less than 100 feet thick in the coastal sections which were measured down the flanks of two of these blocks, while they are over 200 feet thick in the Willunga bore, which is in the axial part of the basin. We have seen that the Port Willunga Beds are transgressive. Their sub- surface distribution in the basins under the cover of soil, alluvium or Pliocene has been traced with the aid of bore records. Erosion has confined them to the axial portions of the basins near the coast, confirming synclinal folding in pre- Pliocene time. There is no evidence of these beds having ever covered the whole of the Mount Lofty Ranges, and the suggestion has been made that the transgression followed structurally low zones. A lignite band was found in this formation in the Myponga bore. Under the conditions here described, shoreline, lignitic, non-marine, and particularly conglomeratic formations of different ages, must be expected to occur and to be so similar in composition and appearance that their dating becomes an exceedingly difficult and in some instances impossible task. In the subalpine Tertiaries of Europe much of the diastrophic history of the mountains can be worked out from the evidence of such formations. Their dating is often assured by abundant vertebrate fossils. As the vertebrate population of the Australian continent must have been extremely poor in numbers throughout the Tertiary these methods cannot be applied here, but it is hoped that meticulous field and subsurface stratigraphic studies together with investigations of sedi- mentary petrology and paleobotany will supply some of the missing clues. ‘TIME STRATIGRAPHY. Stratigraphy, from its beginnings in history, means the study of the succes- sion of strata and their dating in terms of the geological time scale. Neither of these aspects is sufficient in itself. A study of the rocks alone is bound to 38 MARTIN F. GLAESSNER. overlook gaps in the succession and the influence of contemporaneous events in other areas, and the naming and dating of fossil collections without regard to the full sedimentary record does not produce a statement of geological history. If properly collected, identified or described, and interpreted, the fossils provide a framework of time data which is indispensable for the study of Tertiary geology. Much work on our own collections and those of our predecessors, particularly Tate and Howchin, remains to be done, and I do not propose to discuss here paleontological or ‘biostratigraphic problems. Paleontological work to date has provided some fixed points for an outline of geological history of the area. They are Mawson and Chapman’s discovery of a flora of Tertiary aspect in the North Maslin sands, Parr’s discovery of the Eocene Hantkenina-fauna at the base of the Blanche Point Marls which showed that the flora cannot be younger than Eocene (and may be older), and the discovery of Austrotrillina, of Lower Miocene age, by Miss Crespin in bryozoal limestones in the upper part of the pre-Pliocene Tertiary section of bores near Adelaide. This fossil was also found in similar limestones from Yorke Peninsula by Howchin. The Myponga bore shows Lepidocyclina, of the same age, occurring in a bryozoal limestone overlying 242 feet of similar strata which can be cor- related with the Port Willunga Beds of the type section. There is little doubt that the fossiliferous zone of Lower Miocene age is missing from the coastal sections because of later Miocene denudation. No index fossils of similarly world-wide significance have been found in the upper part of the Blanche Point Marls or the lower part of the Port Willunga Beds. I have stated (Glaessner 1951) that I consider these parts of the sequence as Oligocene (including equi- valents of the Aquitanian) and I have not materially altered my opinion. The subject will remain controversial until the succession of faunas which have been found is fully described and analysed. GEOLOGICAL HISTORY. The observations made in the Adelaide area can now be summarized in an outline of geological history of Tertiary time in ten stages. Some of the stages and events in the geological history of the area which we have studied in detail are also apparent throughout southern Australia, and we shall briefly review the more significant points. 1. At the beginning of Tertiary time there was an eroded land surface composed of folded pre-Cambrian and Cambrian strata and in some places also of essentially unfolded remnants of unconsolidated Permian glacial deposits. There is evidence of lateritization of the surface of the olderrocks. The difference in resistance to erosion between them and the glacial deposits in South Australia must have had a considerable influence on the configuration of the land surface. The contribution made by later erosion of the soft sands to Tertiary sediments must be considered when the distribution of the glacial strata before the Tertiary is reconstructed. Under these conditions the nature of the pre-Tertiary land surfaces is doubtful and it would be premature to make assumptions, such as ’ complete peneplanation, on local evidence alone. 2. The beginning of deposition of angular, often coarse and gravelly current- bedded sands indicates rejuvenation of the land surface in early Tertiary time. Lignites were formed in structural lows adjacent to fault scarps. There is evidence of deltas laid down in proximity to the sea shore and of a lateritized surface of these beds. 3. The next phase is characterized by marine ingression, by the appearance of glauconite and of detrital limonite which occurs in a form suggesting denuda- tion of earlier laterites from highs, Sedimentation, still deltaic with strong SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 39 cross-bedding, seems to have been confined to low areas. Lateritization may have continued during this time. This is the last phase of laterite formation which can be proved to have occurred prior to the end of the Pliocene. The events leading up to the appearance of the first widespread marine transgression of Upper Eocene age have undoubtedly influenced large areas of south-eastern Australia. The deposition of angular gravels and coarse sands on an old land surface, and of lignites in structural lows with thicknesses varying according to rates of subsidence, the occurrence of marine ingressions and the formation of glauconite are features commonly found throughout southern Australia. There is a long span of time available for this paralic phase, from the beginning of Cainozoic time or even earlier (depending on whether the flora is really Tertiary or Late Cretaceous), to the end of the Hocene or, where the Late Eocene marine phase is missing, even Oligocene. The dating of the Pebble Point fauna of western Victoria as Paleocene or Lower Eocene does not fix the age of similar facies elsewhere within this range. One might point to possible correlations between the North Maslin Sands, in which the Noarlunga lignites occur, the Pebble Point beds of western Victoria, the Eastern View Coal Measures .and the Lower, if not the Lower and Upper, Latrobe Valley Coal Measures, which contain the Yallourn coals, but there is as yet no paleontological proof of these correlations. Similarly, one would be inclined to think of the South Maslin Sands as possible equivalents of the Demon’s Bluff Formation, formerly known as Anglesean, and its equivalents, but again there is no decisive paleontological evidence though its stratigraphic position was clarified by Raggatt and Crespin (1952). There is clearly a long pre-Upper Eocene period of paralic deposition including coal formation. It begins usually with a series of coarse clastics. 4. A pronounced marine phase follows. It transgresses in the Adelaide Basin over the sands on to the basement rocks on the margins of the highs. The sediments are glauconitic and calcareous, with a rich shelly fauna preserved in deposits of the sublittoral zone. This is the first distinctive fauna of foraminifera, mollusca and echinoderms in the Basin. It indicates Upper Eocene age. The small number of planktonic foraminifera compared with that of similar deposits on the open coasts of Victoria suggests deposition in a basin with restricted access to the open sea. The Upper Eocene marine transgression can be traced on the evidence of its marine fauna, as yet largely undescribed, westward through the northern part of Kangaroo Island and part of Yorke Peninsula to the lower limestones of the Nullarbor basin, and eastward into the Cape Otway area. This raises two questions: What corresponds to it in the south-east of South Australia and western Victoria? Why has it not been found west of Cape Otway? These - questions will be left undecided. I have collected in both areas marine rocks containing a younger marine fauna resting on paralic (and in Victoria also on - voleanic) facies. Whether these facies extend upwards to include equivalents of the marine Upper Eocene or whether marine Upper Eocene is missing on unconformities such as those observable at Knight’s quarry near Mt. Gambier, Airey’s Inlet and elsewhere, cannot yet be decided. 5. Conditions become more uniform throughout the Adelaide Basin, with still-water deposition of dark, less glauconitic calcareous muds rich in sponge remains. This brings to mind Woolnough’s interesting speculations (Woolnough 1942) on the influence of the denudation of a lateritized peneplaned continent on composition of the surrounding seas and on life and sedimentation in them. Woolnough suggested that radiolarites would be formed, but it appears that less extreme conditions in early to mid-Tertiary time favoured the growth of FE MARTIN F. GLAESSNER. 40 | ‘Ioyeg ‘4) Joqye uumMjoo uMOJeoULIg ‘oSesn Jo suoTyenjony oyeorpul 07 uMBIP Arepunog ,, e3e3g ,, uerynfuss-usose[suYy ‘speg AT[NH s.ueureury) “g'O'O “UOryezIgIIE4B] Pearosqo Jo suoztIOF] “YT *(4X0} 908) Ar04sTY [BoISoToeS [euotSer Jo sesvyg ‘OI-T ‘suolyeuLI0,, ArTetyoy, Jo suoyepy orpdeisyeyg—zZ “317 SSYNSVAN WOD MIJIA NYdLSV4 ‘SS HVNOOU AWVILY3L- Jud 5 IN3II0I 1d QNVS NIISWA HLYON ‘NAA id 319883d é 1 NV3SIIONV VISJIONV ‘NW4 AV 19 dNOU9 GNVS LOISIGAV 4jN1d NAM 110 LHOINY NIISWW HILAOS SNOW3G JN39043 é1 ‘S71 VTIHOVLYOL MOOHVONY THVN ‘Ld JHONV 1d (G4auNdS8O) JNI909110 S17 YsIGNVS NVIMAPNYE dNOYD AVNOYOL $diq | AWD GIYNOY ‘Ld | G1VNOU ‘Id VONATIIM Ld dnOud AYNGS ALASH ‘S71 du04S31VE NVIGYO4S 31Vd INIIOIN 3N3901I1d INIIOLSIF 1d VITIWYLSAv HLNOS “4S VIYOLIIA NMOLJONIYd YN VIYOLIIA MWMLO D9 40 3 POOLS. NISV@ JdIV130V SHI0d3 SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. AT siliceous sponges. The marine sediments grade inland into deposits of sandy lagoons and swamps where some lignites were formed, and there is evidence of regression of the sea. Equivalents of the Blanche Point Marls of the Adelaide Basin can be traced. in both shell- and plant-bearing facies to Yorke Peninsula, but not definitely beyond. In Western Australia a careful comparison with the Plantagenet beds which are similarly rich in sponges has yet to be made. The observed relations. between the Blanche Point Marls and the upper lignites of the Adelaide Basin is. significant. It is possible that favourable conditions for the formation of lignites younger than those formed during the basal Tertiary paralic phase extended over a large area. 6. A second very widespread marine phase follows. It transgresses over some of the highs, with the development of a thin bed of basal breccia.. The muds are still glauconitic and calcareous but organic sedimentation dominates. Bryozoa which made a brief appearance at the beginning of the first marine phase are now the main rock-forming organisms, but mollusca, echinoderms,, brachiopods and foraminifera are common and form a distinctive marine assemblage. 7. The upper part of this bryozoal limestone and clay stage contains the well-known Lower Miocene fauna with Austrotrillina and Lepidocyclina and associated smaller foraminifera constituting the third distinctive marine fauna of the basin. The marine phase which transgresses as Port Willunga Beds over the margins of the Adelaide Basin can be recognized over large areas. Faunal correlations can be made between them, the Gambier Limestones and parts of the Torquay Group (formerly known as Janjukian). Paleontological work on these faunas and their correlations is now in progress. What is significant: geologically is not the exact age of these beds in terms of the general strati-. graphic time scale but the fact that the marine transgression does not appear: to have reached all areas at the same time. In other words, it appears to be a. progressive overlap affecting various fault-bounded or warped basement blocks at various times. At Mt. Gambier the exposed base of the Gambier Limestone resting unconformably with a nodule bed on the exposed paralic series may correspond with the base of the Port Willunga Beds where they overlie the Chinaman’s Gully Beds, but elsewhere it may be older. On the Gellibrand’ River near Princetown in Victoria a phosphate deposit marks a break in deposition followed by strata which are slightly older than the first appearance of the Lower Miocene foraminiferal fauna (Parr, in Baker, 1944). On the Aire Coast the Calder River limestones and clays (Singleton, 1941, p. 75) are similarly transgressive. From the Nullarbor area complete sections are not yet available, but Lower Miocene limestones which are widespread overlie 110 feet of lignitic ‘*‘ lacustrine ”’ strata near Pidinga (King, 1951). In the Murray Basin the base of the limestones overlying the paralic deposits previously assigned to the Oligocene is not likely to be an exact time-stratigraphic horizon. 8. After the deposition of these beds the entire area, highs as well as lows, is affected by regression and mild diastrophic movements. There is considerable movement on normal faults which have since become the major boundary faults of the Mount Lofty Range, and there is gentle folding movement in the basins. following lines indicated by old faults. The subsiding areas in which greater thicknesses of sediment accumulated become now more definite synclines and the relatively rising areas with thinner sedimentary cover become anticlines.. Erosion strips the sedimentary cover from the anticlinal cores and reduces the entire observable area to a peneplain. There is, however, no renewed lateritization. 42 MARTIN F. GLAESSNER. The widespread Middle to Late Miocene regression and phase of slight movement which affected the Adelaide Basin has regional significance over the greater part of southern Australia, though possibly not in east Gippsland. Throughout the Murray Basin the Pliocene rests disconformably on Miocene, as it does at Hamilton in western Victoria. Some of the folding of the Tertiary may be older, as on the Aire Coast. We have seen that some is younger. But the regression appears to have been general, starting in Middle Miocene time, and deposition and subsequent removal before the Pliocene transgression of any great thickness of Middle or Upper Miocene is unlikely. The ‘‘ Cheltenhamian ”’ Upper Miocene may have been confined to the Port Phillip area and Gippsland. 9. Deposition takes place again in the Adelaide area on a peneplaned surface. It is marine in the vicinity of the present coast, grading into non- marine sands and gravels landward. The marine fauna indicates Pliocene age, but its position within the Pliocene is still undecided. In accordance with the concept of peneplanation the gravels consist of well-rounded quartz pebbles ‘Text-fig. 3.—Block diagram showing structural relations of basement and Tertiary cover in the area between Adelaide (left) and Myponga (right). Not to scale. indicating transport from a distant and possibly preformed source. The Pliocene sea extended to Eyre Peninsula and possibly to the Nullarbor Plain and also through the Murray Basin. 10. Movements continue, more or less along the old lines. The surface on which the Pliocene deposits rest subsides further along the boundary fault of the main Adelaide basin and in the vicinity of the axes of the pre-Pliocene synclines, and the anticlinal highs continue to rise. The faults which run in parallel curves from the Mt. Lofty Ranges southward and then westward towards the coast show near the coast either no displacement or a minimum amount of displacement. In the ranges where the uplifted pre-Pliocene surface is recogniz- able, it is displaced by these faults up to at least 600 feet. This type of hinge faulting requires compression near the coast, where gentle up- and down-warping is observed, and tension in the Ranges, where normal faulting occurs in a number of pronounced steps. To some extent the movement was rotational, following the curved structural trend from the Mt. Lofty Ranges towards Kangaroo Island. This concept explains the observed southward tilting of each of the blocks in the hills which was the basis for the hypothesis of tilted fault blocks. It accounts equally well for the observed stratigraphic and structural relations of the Tertiary formations in the coastal zone including the synclinal nature of the basins and the flexured transgressive contact at Sellick’s Beach, which are contrary to the tilting hypothesis. A further advantage of the new concept is SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 43: that it eliminates the need for the postulated graben-type faulting of St. Vincent Gulf, for which there is no geological evidence. The time of inception of the strong scarp-forming movements is marked by the appearance of the remarkable fanglomerate or outwash gravel and breccia which forms cliffs up to 200 feet high at the foot of the Willunga scarp at Sellick’s Beach, resting on fossiliferous Pliocene without apparent break, and by scattered patches of boulder beds along the foothills. There is also evidence that the movement continues, in a less violent form, to the present day. The ultimate deformations of the Tertiary rocks resulting from movements. . during and after the Tertiary, have not been studied elsewhere in so much detail as in South Australia. Complex fault patterns are now being revealed in south- western Victoria (Boutakoff, 1952), in the Port Phillip area and in Gippsland. Folding can be clearly seen on the east coast of Yorke Peninsula, where at Port Julia a large anticline in equivalents of the Port Willunga Beds shows dips of 8° on both flanks and at Meninie Hill south of Ardrossan, where another anticline exposes Blanche Point Marls dipping similarly north-east and south-west. Both anticlinal axes pitch south-eastward under St. Vincent Gulf. Anticlinal folding with dips of 10—20° is clearly seen east of Castle Cove on the Aire Coast (Victoria), and four anticlines are visible in 20 miles of coastline from Airey’s Inlet to Torquay. This folding is comparable in intensity with that south of Adelaide, where three faulted anticlines occupy 24 miles of coastline. The recent account of the brown coals of Victoria by Thomas and Baragwanath (1949-1950) shows folding (Morwell anticline, Baragwanath anticline) and faulting in Gippsland. Post-Pliocene faulting on Hyre Peninsula was recently described .by Miles (1952a). Tertiary and post-Tertiary folding, similar in different areas in amplitude and in the spacing of fold axes, is widespread, but there are also unfolded or very weakly folded Tertiary strata. There has been in the past some reluctance to admit the occurrence of ‘‘ genuine ”’ folding in the Tertiary. This should now be recognized and the significance of its distribution determined. There has also been a tendency to consider all disturbance of Tertiary strata as basically due to faulting and to refer the movements to the Kosciusko epoch. This term refers to post-Pliocene movements. Its application to the deformation of pre-Pliocene strata which may have occurred either during their deposition or in the Late Miocene is bound to confuse the record and should be discontinued. In the Adelaide area there were “ Kosciusko ’’ movements in the sense defined by Andrews (1910) and followed by David and Browne, but there were also earlier and later movements. The nature and significance of these movements and their relation to sedimentation will be the final topics in this discussion. BASEMENT AND TERTIARY SEDIMENTARY COVER. The relation of deformations of sedimentary rocks at the surface to move- ments of crystalline or metamorphic basement rocks at depth is one of the fundamental problems of geology. Obviously an area where contacts between pre-Cambrian or Cambrian rocks and Tertiary sediments are exposed over miles of coastal cliffs can provide valuable information for the discussion of this problem. While these investigations were in progress, the Presidential Address. to the Geological Society of London, entitled ‘‘ Foreland Folding ’”’, by G. M. Lees, was published (Lees, 1952). This fundamentally important paper states the problem clearly. Lees, on the basis of his great experience and penetrating analysis, comes to the conclusion that ‘‘ the cover of sedimentary rocks plays a passive role and accommodates itself to movements of the basement beneath ”’ and that ‘‘ a crystalline basement complex can flexure and form the cores of anticlines with, in some cases, little or no faulting ’’. He gives an example of A4 MARTIN F. GLAESSNER. compression in a flexured shield area in Nigeria where anticlines with basement cores were formed in a sedimentary basin, and concludes that in rift valleys compression is dominant. In the Gulf of Suez area ‘‘ the basement is deformed in a pattern of anticlines and synclines, complicated by faults it is true, but nevertheless showing a behaviour very different from the rigid pattern of tilted fault-blocks usually ascribed to rift-valley tectonics ’’. In the sections described by Lees the sedimentary cover is about ten times thicker than in southern Australia. I do not think this affects the validity of the comparison. The Australian examples confirm the statements quoted here and add to the picture the important observation that Tertiary and post-Tertiary movements occurred on lines of weakness which, as Sprigg has shown, date back to the original deformation of the Adelaide Geosyncline, that is, to Paleozoic time. The persistent control of structural development by such lineaments was recently postulated in Victoria by Boutakoff (1952). We are at present unable to explain the apparent inactivity of these lineaments during the long span of Mesozoic time and the sudden resumption of activity at the beginning of the Tertiary. The results of recent work in the Leigh Creek Triassic coal basin (Parkin 1953) indicate folding of a similar nature to that in the Tertiary. It may well be that when detailed stratigraphic and structural studies are extended to other Mesozoic areas the periods of complete quiescence will be shortened and the varying intensity of movement may be found to reflect normal cycles. We have answered the question of the nature of the Tertiary structure by stating that it indicates essentially a revival (or a continuation) of compressive Stresses acting on old lines of weakness. The movement of the basement may be either flexuring or fracture, to which the sedimentary cover adjusts itself. What is the nature of the resulting sedimentation? Sedimentation over a large area is comparable with that of a continental terrace (Nullarbor, Gambier Sunklands, Gippsland), with inland extensions (Adelaide Basin, Murray Basin, Port Phillip Sunkland) which may be compared with intermontane basins as their structures conform at least in part with folded mountain zones. Both the continental terrace and the inland basins show unusual features which are due to the fact that their inception does not follow in the usual manner soon after the formation of the mountain zones on the continent. Theirs is not the relation of the Molasse and the attached Vienna and Pannonian Basins to the Alps, or of the Northern European basins to their Saxonic and Variscan background. Neither is it comparable to the history of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal terrace of North America which commences in the Jurassic or Lower Cretaceous, not so very long after the Late Paleozoic folding. The long time during which the folded mountains were worn down, the Late Paleozoic and the Mesozoic, reduced the amount of terrigenous material available for sedimentation in the Tertiary. The only significant amounts of coarse clastics are found at the beginning, when much weathered material was available on the old eroded surface, and at the end when renewed uplift had formed a relief which was possibly somewhat more prominent than that seen to-day. It is interesting that the only really thick Tertiary section found, reaching in the Nelson bore a depth of over 7,000 feet, is thick in the Lower Tertiary portion, which corresponds probably only to the first paralic phase. Later sedimentation is starved of detrital terrigenous material, because of low relief on the continent. During Middle Tertiary time it is dominantly organic, with bryozoa as the main rock- building organisms. In the intermontane basins the foraminiferal plankton, which at that time could have been rock-forming (Globigerina marls), is poor owing to restricted access to the open ocean. The main contribution from the continent is clay, which often becomes glauconitic, and at an earlier stage silica which is used by sponges. Subsiding areas, on downfaulted blocks of the terrace and in downwarps in the basins, collect greater thicknesses of these sediments. - SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 45 The area of Tertiary deposits in southern Australia is essentially a ‘‘ mobile shelf ’’ in the sense of Bubnoff, which makes it a miogeosyncline in Stille’s terminology. These terms and others which could be equally well applied to the area, are useful for general orientation, but its peculiarities must not be over- looked under the cover of a convenient geotectonic label. They are firstly the intense fracturing of some areas, which follows old lineaments, the fact that apparently only the “‘ hinge belt ’’ of the basin is visible while its greater part is under the waters of the Southern Ocean, and secondly the poor supply of terrigenous sediment which is due to the enormous time lag between the last mountain building on the continent and the beginning of paralic sedimentation. These unusual conditions make the problem difficult, but they also make the study of Tertiary geology a worthwhile contribution both to the history of the continent and to fundamental geological knowledge. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was made possible through grants from the General Research Funds of the University of Adelaide. The participation in this work of the following graduates and Research Scholars of the University of Adelaide, whose contributions are being prepared for publication elsewhere, is also gratefully acknowledged: B. Daily, M. A. Reynolds, M. J. Wade and G. D. Woodard. I wish to thank also Mr. R. C. Sprigg, Senior Geologist of the Mines Department of South Australia, for helpful discussions, and the Departments of Mines of South Australia (Director, Mr. 8. B. Dickinson) and Victoria (Chief Government Geologist, Dr. D. E. Thomas) for their co-operation. REFERENCES. Andrews, E. C., 1910. Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia in late-Tertiary and post- Tertiary Time. THis JOURNAL, 44, 420. Baker, G., 1944. The Geology of the Port Campbell District. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 56, n.s., 77-108. ——-—-— 1953. The Relationship of Cyclammina-bearing Sediments to the Older Tertiary Deposits South-east of Princetown, Victoria. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne, No. 18, 125-134. Boutakoff, N., 1952. The Structural Pattern of South-west Victoria. Min. Geol. Journ., 4, No. 6, 21-29. David, T. W. E. (ed. W. R. Browne), 1950. The Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1. London. Glaessner, M. F., 1951. Three Foraminiferal Zones in the Tertiary of Australia. Geol. Maq., 88, 273-283. Howchin, W., 1911. Description of a Disturbed Area of Cainozoic Rocks in South Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 35, 47-59. King, D., 1951. Geology of the Pidinga Area. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 74, 25-43. Lees, G. M., 1952. Foreland Folding. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, 108, 1-34. Miles, K. R., 1952. Geology and Underground Water Resources of the Adelaide Plains Area. Geol. Survey S. Aust. Dept. Mines, Bull. 27. 1952a. Tertiary Faulting in North-eastern Eyre Peninsula, South Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 75, 89-96. Parkin, L. W., 1953. The Leigh Creek Coalfield. Geol. Surv. S. Aust. Dept. Mines, Bull. 31. Raggatt, H. G., and Crespin, I., 1952. Geology of Tertiary Rocks between Torquay and Eastern View, Victoria. Aust. Journ. Sct., 14, 143-147. Reynolds, M., 1953. The Cainozoic Succession of Maslin and Aldinga Bays, South Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 76. Singleton, F. A., 1941. The Tertiary Geology of Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 53, n.s., 1-125. Sprigg, R. C., 1942. The Geology of the Eden-Moana Fault Block. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 66, 185-214. —-——————_ 1945. Some Aspects of the Geomorphology of Portion of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, 2777-307. —-——————— 1946. Reconnaissance Geological Survey of Portion of the Western Escarpment of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 70, 313-347. -—— 1952. The Geology of the South-east Province, South Australia, etc. Geol. Surv. S. Aust. Dept. Mines, Bull. 29. Thomas, D. E., and Baragwanath, W., 1949-1950. Geology of the Brown Coals of Victoria. Min. Geol. Journ., 3, No. 6, 28-55; 4, No. 1, 36-52; No. 2, 41-63; No. 3, 36-50. Woolnough, W. G., 1942. Geological Extrapolation and Pseud-abyssal Sediments. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., 26, 765-792. A NEW AMMONOID FROM THE EASTERN AUSTRALIAN PERMIAN PROVINCE. By Curt TEICHERT. Unwersity of Melbourne and New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology. (Communicated by F. K. Rickwoop.) With Plate VII and two Text-figures. Manuscript received, May 19, 1953. Read, July, 1, 1953. Abstract.—Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense, n.sp., is described from the upper part (Farley Formation) of the Lower Marine Group of New South Wales. The evidence of this species points towards an Artinskian age of these beds. STRATIGRAPHICAL OCCURRENCE. Ammonoids are so rare in the Eastern Australian Permian province that every new find must be regarded as something of a sensation. The only pre- viously described Permian ammonoid from eastern Australia is Adrianites (Neocrimites) meridionalis Teichert and Fletcher (1943) from the lower part (‘‘ Branxton Stage ’’) of the so-called ‘‘ Upper Marine Group ”’ of New South Wales. Two additional specimens of ammonoids have recently come to light during a reorganization of the palaeontological collections in the Geology Department of the University of Sydney, and I am greatly indebted to Messrs. F. K. Rickwood and P. J. Coleman for making these important finds available to me for study. The specimens which represent a new species of Pseudo- gastrioceras, here described as.P. pokolbinense, were collected not later than in 1932. The specimens come from micaceous sandstones of the Farley Formation, probably not more than a few hundred feet below the top of the ‘‘ Lower Marine Group ’’.1 The type locality is situated near the southern extremity of the structure known as Lochinvar Dome, only 17 miles south-west of the locality where Adrianites (Neocrimites) meridionalis was found on the east flank of the same structure (Fig. 1). Stratigraphically the two species are separated by the Greta Coal Measures, which are only 200 feet thick, but the exact vertical distances of the occurrences of the ammonoids in relation to the coal measures are unknown. The two species may, therefore, be several hundred feet, perhaps even more than 1,000 feet, apart stratigraphically. For exact map references, the reader is referred to David (1907), and more particularly to the more recent work of L. J. Jones (1939). The latter has given a detailed description of the Greta Coal Measures of the Lochinvar Dome. The general stratigraphy of the area was described by Walkom in 1913, and the detailed sequence of the Lower Marine Group by Osborne (1949). SIGNIFICANCE FOR CORRELATION OF NEW SouTtTH WALES PERMIAN. A detailed comparison of Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense (see below) with other species of the same genus suggests that its affinities are with Artinskian 1 Formerly this was known as ‘“ Lower Marine Series’ and its subdivisions, which have formational rank, were called ‘‘ Stages ’’. It is proposed to follow Voisey (1952) in his tentative reclassification of the Permian rocks of New South Wales. NEW AMMONOID FROM EASTERN AUSTRALIAN PERMIAN PROVINCE. AT and younger forms. Pseudogastrioceras, in the more restricted sense here applied, does not seem to appear before the Artinskian. Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense belongs to a group of ammonoids which presents taxonomic difficulties (see Miller and Furnish, 1940; Teichert and Glenister, 1952), because its members represent an almost completely inter- grading morphological series ranging from openly umbilicate shells with depressed whorl section and strong transverse ribs on the umbilical wall (Paragastrioceras) to involute shells with compressed whorls and weak longutidinal ribs (Altudoceras, Pseudogastrioceras), and finally to keeled forms in which the ribs are practically restricted to the ventral and ventro-lateral regions (Strigogoniatites). It is possible that this morphological series also represents a succession in time. LOCALITY PLAN eDubbo Bathurst =n ame Kurs WAY y bee NY Gein. ly VL INME CLL ti Wy vi wy Le rn mem ee Cet Li a) Me2sures % Py Se A oy WMe2SUlES = Lower Marine Series (lYgner Marine Series |_| Triassic § | Te Text-fig. 1.—Geological sketch-map of the country west of Newcastle, New South Wales. The numbers indicate the occurrences of (1) Adrianites (Neocrimites) meridionalis Teichert and Fletcher, (2) Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense Teichert, n.sp. Typical broad-whorled, evolute Paragastrioceras appears in the Sakmarian (Maximova and Ruzhencev, 1940; Ruzhencev, 1950), whereas compressed and involute Pseudogastrioceras and keeled Strigogoniatites are characteristic of the Sosio Limestone of Sicily and the Basleo beds of Timor. Intermediate forms represented by Altudoceras and more openly coiled species of Pseudogastrioceras are perhaps more typical of the Artinskian and equivalent beds, although they continue into younger strata. Uraloceras, which occurs both in the Sakmarian and Artinskian, is probably outside this lineage, because of the different course of the growth-lines and constrictions of its shell. Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense represents an advanced stage along the line from Paragastrioceras to Pseudogastrioceras. It is similar to typical Pseudo- gastrioceras in the absence of transverse ribs and in the compressed whorl section, but differs from advanced species of the genus in the weakness of the longitudinal ribs and the less involute coiling of the shell. On the whole, the morphological characters of Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense agree most closely with those of a majority of Artinskian species of that genus. This trend of evidence is in harmony with that derived from the detailed study of the Upper Marine 48 CURT TEICHERT. ammonoid, Adrianites (Neocrimites) meridionalis Teichert and Fletcher (1943) and both the upper part of the Lower Marine Group and the lower part of the Upper Marine Group are placed in the Artinskian. There is now complete unanimity of opinion among Australian strati- graphers that all the rocks between the base of the Lower Marine Group and the top of the Newcastle Coal Measures, together with their equivalents elsewhere in Australia and in Tasmania, should be placed in the Permian System. In David’s ‘‘ Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia ’’ (1951) the section below the Farley ‘‘ Stage ’’ is correlated with the Sakmarian, which most geologists include in the Permian. In recent years several South American geologists have published correlation tables in which not only the Lower Marine Group, but also the Upper Marine Group of New South Wales are placed in the Carboniferous, sometimes rather low in that system. Thus Fossa-Mancini (1944) places the Lower Marine in the Viséan and the Upper Marine in the Moscovian, but his discussion of the significance of the occurrence of ‘‘ Agathiceras’’ and of ‘‘ Paralegoceras”’ in Australia is not in harmony with present knowledge. Frenguelli (1946) seems to accept the same correlations. More recently, Maack (1952), without discussing the matter in detail, places in the Upper Carboniferous the whole of the Lower Marine as well as the basal Upper Marine, that is, those beds in which, as we now know, Artinskian ammonoids occur. DESCRIPTION. Pseudogastrioceras Spath. Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense Teichert, n.sp. (Plate VII, Figs. 1-4, Text-fig. 2.) Description of Holotype.-—The holotype is an internal cast of a complete specimen. It is discoidal and moderately evolute. About one and a half whorls are preserved. One-third of a whorl is taken up by the body chamber, which - seems to be preserved in its entirety. The maximum diameter of the specimen is 57-5 mm. The umbilicus is 15 mm. wide. At the aperture the shell is 23-5 mm. wide and 27 mm. high and the height of the venter above that of the last whorl is 16 mm. The ventral side is evenly rounded and the flanks are slightly convex. The umbilical shoulder is narrowly rounded and smooth and the umbilical wall is steep. The shell is not preserved, but the surface of the internal cast, especially on the body chamber, shows fine lirae, spaced about half a millimetre apart. No umbilical ribs or nodes or other transverse orna- mentations are present. Quite close to the aperture the cast is very slightly constricted. The constriction is relatively broad (about 3 mm. wide) and quite shallow and the aperture is slightly flared. Across the flanks the course of the constriction is gently concave ; it runs across the ventro-lateral zone, swinging slightly forward and forming a shallow ventral lobe. The septa are closely spaced. The mature sutures form a broad ventral lobe, divided by a large ventral saddle. Hach of the two prongs of the ventral lobe is slightly wider than the adjoining lateral lobe, which is situated in the middle of the flanks. There is a small pointed umbilical lobe. The internal suture has not been studied, but is known from the paratype (see below). Paratype.—The second specimen is a smaller fragment of a phragmocone of which nearly two whorls are preserved. Its maximum diameter is 27-3 mm. the width of the umbilicus 6-5 mm. At the adoral end the width of the conch is 14 mm. and the height of the whorl 12-5 mm. The surface of the shell is Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXViI, 1953, Plate VII Dh i = , ‘ rf al - bs, o j : a ’ ‘ a ee ‘ ‘ — ¢ - ' ts roe to + NEW AMMONOID FROM EASTERN AUSTRALIAN PERMIAN PROVINCE. “49 smooth. Where the height of the whorl is 11 mm., the whorl is constricted by a narrow transverse groove whose course is slightly concave across the flanks and curved slightly backward across the venter. | Repository.—Holotype: No. 866. Paratype: No. 867. Both in the Department of Geology, University of Sydney. Localitya—In Portion 74 of the Parish of Pokolbin, New South Wales. This locality is about three miles south-west of Cessnock and 29 miles almost due west of Newcastle. Horizon.—Farley Formation of the Lower Marine Group. Judging from L. J. Jones’ map (1939) the beds within Portion 74 should range from about 370 to about 950 feet below the top of the Lower Marine Series. The total thickness of the Farley ‘‘ Stage’ is given as 800 feet, so that the possibility cannot be altogether excluded that the specimen may have come from the top beds of the next lower Lochinvar ‘‘ Stage ’’. Text-fig. 2.—Suture of Pseudogastrioceras pokol- binense, n.sp. (The exact shape of the internal lateral lobes has not been accurately determined.) Affinities.—The Australian species is very close to the genotype of Pseudo- gastrioceras, P. abichianum Moller (see Miller, 1944, pl. 44, figs. A and B). Since the umbilicus of P. pokolbinense is slightly wider, this species is somewhat inter- mediate between the genotype and P. roadense Bose. The latter was referred to Aliudoceras by Teichert and Glenister (1952), but may with equal right be included in Pseudogastrioceras s. str. Gastrioceras altudense Bose (1917), on which Ruzhencev (1940) established the genus Altudoceras, has a still wider umbilicus than Gastrioceras roadense and it has prominent transverse ribs on the umbilical shoulders. The scope of Altudoceras is more or less identical with Bése’s ‘* Group of Gastrioceras zitteli’’, which Plummer and Scott (1937) referred to Paragastrioceras. However, the only figures of Gastrioceras zitteli reproduced by them (pl. 22, figs. 10-11) are those of an immature individual taken from Gemmellaro’s monograph (1887, pl. 6, figs. 22, 23). Mature specimens are almost three times as large and the last one and a half to two whorls lack ribs on the umbilical shoulders. Also the longitudinal ribs become strongest in the ventral and ventrolateral regions and almost disappear from the flanks. The venter becomes quite narrowly rounded and on the whole, mature specimens of Gastrio- ceras zitteli are quite similar to forms which Miller (1944) included in Strigo- goniatites (e.g. S. kingi Miller). These conditions, previously overlooked, further emphasize the many transitions which connect all the ‘“‘ genera ’”’ concerned. Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense is undoubtedly quite close to the true Pseudogastrioceras end of this morphological series. Closely related species are Pseudogastrioceras karpinskit Frédérix and P. suessi Karpinsky, from the Artinskian of the Urals, from both of which it differs by a somewhat narrower umbilicus. Pseudogastrioceras goochi Teichert (1942) from the Permian of Western Australia is a much bigger species, has flat flanks, and its whorl-section is broadest near the umbilical shoulder. 50 ; CURT TEICHERT. REFERENCES. Bose, E., 1917. The Permo-Carboniferous Ammonoids of the Glass Mountains, West Texas, and Their Stratigraphical Significance. Univ. Texas Bull., No. 1762, pp. 5-241, pls. 1-11. David, T. W. E., 1907. The Geology of the Hunter River Coal Measures, New South Wales. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Mem. No. 4, pp. 1-273, pls. 1-43. —-—-——————.., 1951. The Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia. Edited by W. R. Browne. Vol. 1, 747 pp. London. Fossa-Mancini, E., Las transgressiones marinas del Antracolitico en la America del Sur. Riv. Mus. La Plata, N.S., Sece. Geol., Vol. 2, pp. 49-183. Frenguelli, J., 1946. Consideraciones acerca de la ‘‘ Serie de Paganzo ”’ en las Provincias de San Juan y la Rioja. Rw. Mus. La Plata, N.S., Sece. Geol., Vol. 2, pp. 313-376. Frédérix, G., 1915. La fauna Paléozoique superiéure des environs de la ville de Krasnoufimsk. Mém. Comité Géol., N.S., Livr. 109, pp. 105-117, pls. 1-10. Gemmellaro, G. G., 1887. La Fauna dei Calcari con Fusulina della Valle del Fiume Sosio nella Provincia di Palermo. Gorn. Sci. Nat. Econ., Palermo, Vol. 19, pp. 1-106. Jones, L. J., 1939. The Coal Resources of the Southern Portion of the Maitland-Cessnock- Greta Coal District (Northern Coalfield). Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Min. Resources, No. 37, pp. 1-225. Karpinsky, A. P., 1891. Von den Ammoneen der Artinskschen Etage und von einigen denselben verwandten Carboniferen Formen. Kais. mineral. Gesellsch. St. Petersburg, Verhandl., Ser. 2, Vol. 27, pp. 15-208, pls. 1-4. Maack, R., 1952. Die Entwicklung der Gondwana-Schichten Siidbrasiliens und ihre Beziehungen zur Karru-Formation Stidafrikas. XIX Congr. Géol. Intern., Sympos. Séries de Gondwana (ed. C. Teichert), Alger, pp. 341-372. Maximova, S. V. and Ruzhencev, V. E., 1940. On the Distribution of Ammonites in the Lower Permian of the Urals and the Resulting Stratigraphic Conclusions. Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S., Doklady, Vol. 28, pp. 160-163. Miller, A. K., 1944. Geology and Paleontology of the Permian Area North-west of Las Delicias, South-western Coahuila, Mexico. Part 4, Permian Cephalopods. Geol. Soc. Amer., Spec. Pap., No. 52, pp. 71-172, pls. 20-45. Miller, A. K. and Furnish, W. M., 1940. Permian Ammonoids of the Guadalupe Mountain Region and Adjacent Areas. Geol. Soc. Amer., Spec. Pap., No. 26, pp. 1-242, pls. 1-44. Osborne, G. D., 1949. The Stratigraphy of the Lower Marine Series of the Permian System in the Hunter River Valley. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. 74, p. 205. Plummer, F. B. and Scott, G., 1937. The Geology of Texas, Volume 3, Part 1, The Paleozoic Ammonites in Texas. Univ. Texas Bull., No. 3701, pp. 13-516, pls. 1-41. Ruzhencev, V. E., 1938. Ammonoids of the Sakmarian Stage and Their Stratigraphic Sig- nificance. Probl. Paleontol., Vol. 4, pp. 187-285, pls. 1-7. , 1940. On the Question of the Taxonomic Position of Some of the Upper Paleozoic Ammonites. Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S., Doklady, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 285-288. , , 1950. Type Section and Biostratigraphy of the Sakmarian Stage. (In Russian.) Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S., Doklady, Vol. 71, pp. 1101-1104. Teichert, C., 1942. Permian Ammonoids from Western Australia. Jour. Paleont., Vol. 16, pp. 221-232, pl. 35. Teichert, C. and Fletcher, H. O., 1943. A Permian Ammonoid from New South Wales and the Correlation of the Upper Marine Series. Aust. Mus. Rec., Vol. 21, pp. 156-163, pl. 11. Teichert, C. and Glenister, B. F., 1952. Lower Permian Ammonoids from the Irwin Basin, Western Australia. Jour. Paleont., Vol. 26, pp. 12-23, pls. 3-4. Voisey, A. H., 1952. The Gondwana System in New South Wales. XIX Congr. Géol. Intern., Sympos. Séries de Gondwana (ed. C. Teichert), Alger, pp. 50-55. Walkom, A. B., 1913. Stratigraphical Geology of the Permo-Carboniferous System in the Maitland-Branxton District, with some Notes on the Permo-Carboniferous Palaeogeography in New South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. 38, Pt. 1, pp. 114-145, pls. 8-13. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII. Figs. 1-4.—Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense Teichert, n.sp. 1-3. Lateral and apertural views of holotype (No. 866). 4. Lateral view of paratype (No. 867). All natural size. ON THE INTERPRETATION OF CERTAIN LAPLACIAN OPERATOR FUNCTIONS. By J. L. GRIFFITH, B.A., M.Sc. School of Mathematics, New South Wales University of Technology. Manuscript received, January 22, 1953. Read, August 5, 1953. SUMMARY. Assuming that the operator \V is defined by _ 0w(x, y) , Ow(a, Y) VY 2w(x, y= Ox2 ale oy2 then expressions of the following type are determined : 1 9 a ba 2 sane ae eae ele sw(x%—is a 0, y—ts sin A Pas sag, —sg?)2 2m cr. J o(2V )w(a, aa w(%—iz COS —, y—22 SIN ¢—E)dg. 0 Section 7 is devoted to a brief discussion of the algebra of the operator V . PREFACE. In the determination of the solution of Laplace’s equation o2 ae +V #0 =0 (where Wit mae ter and similar equations, especially the equation of elasticity, one of the most popular methods is to use the two-dimensional Fourier transformation (equations (1.5) and (1.6) of this paper). The use of this method demands that the functions considered should be small at infinity. In particular, the adoption of this method immediately eliminates all those functions 9(#, y) for which the equation V **o(a, 4) —0 (7 INGO OTA mec Ne ie wei ees (P.1) holds. We may proceed to solve the equations using the symbol VV as a differential operator. The use of this method demands that at every step the functions considered must be expressed in the form n=0 where w(x, y) is a suitably restricted function. The method will certainly not prevent discussion of functions which are solutions of equation (P.1). In fact, it will be seen that the V/ -method is particularly suited for the treatment of such functions. Section 7 of this paper presents some remarks on types of functions which may be introduced. 52 J. L. GRIFFITH. Now it is obvious that, in certain cases, a problem may be solved by the V -method and by the two-dimensional Fourier method. A means of identifying the results is necessary and this is provided by equation (1.11). In this paper the author has determined some definite integral expressions for some of the more elementary expressions of the type (P.2). I. INTRODUCTION. If we consider the two-dimensional operator VV defined by V Soatoy? lee ates he's) «eee (1.1) we observe that Laplace’s oe ee 2 +V ee possesses formal solutions of the type sin 2 3 -| y Y | (HY) [COS CV eos a) ie eee (1.2) where the symbolic expressions in square brackets are defined by the formal power series sin 2VV & (—1)rgtntly 2n = Ys __—",n. eee 1.3 Yo ee ae and ms 00 (—1)"22"\7 2n cos 2\/ Fa, SR 6 6 he On (1.4) In aa paper, integral expressions are found for certain functions defined by f(V )w(a, Y). ne methods of finding the results will involve the use of the two dimen- sional Fourier Transform defined in the form F,[w(a, y)]=w(&, ») ==) ee eSe+nyw(a, ydady, ........ (1.5) which has the inverse transformation By foe, D=we, =| | eerie, main... (16) Corresponding to equation (1. My we have the convolution formula Fe '(f(E ng nls ae i i B— yy Y —Y3)9(@1, yi)da,dy, eM i (1.7) 1 + co =a,[ [fen nole—ay, yi ndosdy, oe = w(x, y)=w(k) where hk? =x? +y? (ie. w is a radial function) then w(é, n)=w(e) (where p2=82+7?) (i.e. w is also a radial function [B.C. p. 167] nd a eeticss (1.5) and (1.6) reduce to Hankel Transforms of order zero. Thus w(o)= | “Rw(R)I(eR)@R=H,[w(R)] .........--- (1.8) 0 and w(R)= | : eW(o)s (pak Hg [eo(e\e 2). cs ae (1.9) INTERPRETATION OF CERTAIN LAPLACIAN OPERATOR FUNCTIONS. 53 Assuming that w(x, y) and its derivatives are suitably restricted, equation (1.5) gives i PAV ?w(x, y) = —(6? +n?) w(8.n) or more generally, if then EN PETA 00 Lien) =F 07 )00 (Gaur) tomnageies oe os 3 (1.10) In this paper we will treat only those functions which may be expressed aS &@ power series involving even powers of \/, so equation (1.10) may be written as F.[o(V )w(a, y)]=glip)w(E, n) occ. cece eeaee (ellie) where g(V )=f(V ’), i.e. WV Joa, y)=P>"[g(te) Pow, y)] «1. (1.12) 2. INTEGRAL EXPRESSIONS FOR [(sinh 2V )/V w(x, y) AND [(sin 2V )/V ]w(a, y). Using equation (1.11) we obtain vee 2V/ tam Zo— F 2 g |vte Yy) 5 UE (See) ofp isktae Ostet secu (2.1) Since (sin ze)/e is radial, equation (1.9) gives 1 0 (2—R2)-? 2>R O00). (A being the interior of a circle with centre the origin and radius 2.) 270 == as 1 lt sw(x&—s COS o, Y—S SIN asd 9) J)(fe) sin zede 0 eel l. : (?—9%)i He. pn em (2.3D) (z>0) __ & [2% 71 sw(%@—zs COs ¢, y —%s Sin o) “2, 0 i? (1 —s*)? ial SRE) otk nage eee (2.3¢) (all real 2). 54 J. L. GRIFFITH. Equation (2.3b) follows from equation (2.3a) by an obvious change of variable. Equation (2.3c) also follows by change of variable, but, in addition, obviously holds over the extended range of z. We now proceed formally from (2.3c) and derive an integral expression for [(sin 2V )/V Jw(a, y) by replacing 2 by 27. Stated fully, the new result is Theorem (2.2). If (a) w(u, v) is analytic in both uw and v in the region h=lmu=—h, : h=Imv=—h, where h>| z| and (b) w(u,v)—+0 uniformly, as Rew and Rev—>-+oo in such a way that F[w(@+ta,, y+ty,)] exists (absolutely) for O<|a,|0 ae W(%— thy, Y —1Y)3) = oe ; eye M04) ) cadens (2.4¢) for 2>0. (where A is the area described after equation (2.3a)). Clearly equations (2.4b) and (2.4¢c) are obtainable from equation (2.4a) by change of variable. Proof.—Since F'2 ‘T(sinh zo)/o] does not exist, the results cannot be obtained directly from the convolution theorem. Proceeding from a right side of equation (2.4c) : x —in,, y—iy,) L=F | a5 li cases e492 — TAL diay, | Baa Bake L—W, Y—4 eel nh ‘f Be ea i elem dar, dy dady aes wee G—Iix PAE eae on We (the ntechange Ba the ze of He eeilen being justified by absolute con- vergence), a +ny1) +o0-iy,s (+0 Page =F. ere gre yey [Poa]! da, dy, | | v)eiEu+mdudv —-oO-iy,d) —o—in, (by change of vas U=x“—ivn, and v=y —ty;,). Since w is analytic in the region quoted in the hypothesis, we can change the path of integration to the real axes. i * e-(Ea +n) Dua [im ( (7 {" +f" iv: —— er ace an rid y An? al [24 gene p, 9,7, S>+ 0 —O— Wi) —p )| $—12, ( res [ - I ye (u, vjeiSutmdudo. Tada yh ears INTERPRETATION OF CERTAIN LAPLACIAN OPERATOR FUNCTIONS. 55 Since w(u, v) +0 as Reu and Rev ++ 0, the first and last integrals in the curved brackets vanish so e-(En +N) +0 +00 ’ ae vel. lle Ca aa yey dx,dy, : | w(u, veut dudy 27f#p—pt cos _ | ee il ERS ¥ + (by an ao change of Bae where tana = —7/6). vad by a change of origin in the 0-integral, we obtain we eee | aoa 008 0 9 et 2 t1,(ot) =w(&, 7) @-ay aE ne SEE EE Es ne (2.5) (by [W.B.F., p. 79] where I,(¢) is the Bessel function of the first kind with imaginary argument). Using the series expansion for the Bessel function ite Zz © opel ead L=w(§, »f 3 pa (2B) XT (n +1 ypagan Mt =w(é, 7) S auro Fup | sina (by the substitution 1=0) ie et te , Ow(x%—z2s COS Y, y—es SiN ¢) 40 (0, Ya A ia —s?)3 a « dis a oe aks ere (3.3D) (all real 2). Proceeding from equation (2.3b) analogously we have Theorem (3.2). Under the assumptions of Theorem (2.2) [cos 2V/ ]w(x, y) L (27 e’ 2 Ow(“% —is COS o, y—is sin ¢) (t, ¥) +5 } =r Var rered oS oo Clare Viet h CE Eee (3.4a) (2>0) 1 (4m (til 0w(x —iz8 COS o, y —izs sin ®) ag +: steun\eijen 0 etek ee (3.4b) (all real 2). 4. REMARKS ON THE RESULTS OBTAINED IN SECTIONS 2 AND 3. The equation of Theorems (2.1), (2.2), (3.1) and (3.2) have been derived with the assumption that w(x, y) has a two-dimensional Fourier transform. It will be seen that this is not necessary. We will assume that w(u, v) is an analytic function in the neighbourhood of u=x and v=y. That is to say that for certain positive P and Q LAG Kd 7) w(xt-+a, yo) = (ag, tbg,) ele y) rete eee eees (4.1) for all a and b so that | a|

Oa, optim pee) pete (— 1)"8n22" Q2n iL Wot) SATO MA a oe aes ont ey t ==, rep +1)0(2n —2p +1) aarwayen— 20's y) | (1 —s?)-4ds INTERPRETATION OF CERTAIN LAPLACIAN OPERATOR FUNCTIONS. 5T where the order of integration and summation has been inverted (the convergence being uniform). In the integration with regard to ¢ it has been observed that terms involving odd powers of sino or of cos » disappear after integration. After simplification we have oO 2n1'(n+1) o2n =e __] \ne2n ‘ BS pad) T@a FIT @ +L —p Hl) | darray—wi 9) (ce) Qn Nn 2n n=1 (2n)!, ol (p +1) P(n—p +1) BaP dyn ap" y) =2n 3 (—1y oil gga tage) 9 =2n{[cos zV ]w(a, y)—w(a, y)}. So [eos 27 Jw(a, 9) =wlmr, y)+ | Jo(oR)RAR=84(c2). 0 Then referring back to equations (1.8) and (1.9) we obtain formally Pe" [J o(e2) ] =H 5 "LJ o(92)] oleae) ee) Oe eee (5.1) From equation (1.9) FA [Ip(2V ) ro(a, y)} =Fo(@o)wlE, 1). Thus from the convolution theorem 1 (2 (an __ Pp [Tol2V )W0(0, 9) =o { | w(a—R’ cos 9, y—R’ sin ore HO) Raga? TOO fr 27 == w(e—z COS 9, y—zZ8IN p)dp. .......... (5.2); POUEO Replacing z by 2 in the equation (5.2) we have 27¢ [Jo(2V ) Jw(a, N=52| w(%—tz COS Oo, y—tz Sin —)dp .... (5.3) 0 58 J. L. GRIFFITH. As in section 4, we may prove equations (5.2) and (5.3) by using the Taylor expansion and obtain Theorem (5.1). If w(u, v) satisfies the conditions of Theorem (4.1), then equations (5.2) and (5.3) hold. Now the formula sin ee sJ 9 oH where k is a constant can be easily obtained. So formally aa (a, y) = =| aoa i[Jo(sV ) w(a, y)ds °z sds 2 : ce Mt =| “| w(x —is Cos 9, y—ts sin o)do 0 0 as previously obtained. Considering (5.4) as an identity in power series we may write sin aa =|" 2sJ ,(sV ) (Z2 —s?)2 Equations (5.2) and es are extremely important theorems in the develop- ment of the theory of the V -operator. 6. THE PREVIOUS RESULTS SPECIALISED FOR RADIAL FUNCTIONS AND HANKEL TRANSFORMS OF ORDER ZERO. If we assume that w(a, y) is radial, the formulae we have derived may be simplified. If the Hankel transform exists, then the result may be expressed in this form. sinh 2V/ 20 (1rw(R,)drdd ee ae eee | ce “ol eile (2.31) with Bh? 2 2972 2her COS @. \\..- «gleam (A) sin zV/ 2m (lyw(R,)drdd Po |e mie), Jae ae ee i; Oe es ky 2.49 i : (0) j (2.49) with R2=—R* —29r? —2iRer cos0. ..... +. ee (B) [cosh 2V Jw(k) =w(R) + { ‘ | fal Sa: ae Vara6 0 J0 {=H [cos 2p, WG) Tain ceeds «ot: a ules s) seen (3.17) 1 fn ft 1 R [cos aV/ ]w(#) =w(k) oz : ee —z, arab {=H ‘Teosh zp.w(e)]}.) ea Le (3.2r) INTERPRETATION OF CERTAIN LAPLACIAN OPERATOR FUNCTIONS. 59 TeV oR) = ae), oe PB Muacavinipy i fesc fo eee eae << ce (5.2r) with R2=F* ie DS COB ue Go tue woe esate 45 (C) [Jol2V )w(R) = = i cae Aree 10 ae (5.37) {=H 5 1[Lo(Ze) - et with R ets —DURZ COS ei ets ots, ts a. (D) It is clear that equations (2.37) and (formally) (5.27) are direct consequences. of the Hankel Convolution formula ; et Ses 2 (2 H(fle\slell =5,.| "| rfBadolryarad 0 0 1 pon = [om rf(r)g(Ry)Ord® we. eee eeeeee (6.1) with R2=k?-+-r?—2kr cos0 These last formulae may be derived easily from formulae (1.7) by change of variable. 7. SOME REMARKS ON THE ALGEBRA OF THE OPERATOR \. Suppose that we have two series f(V)= E a,¥ See on Ree (7.1) and and a set of functions w(«, y) which are to act as operands. In order to obtain the unique hae TA GON 20 (25 Y) =a (V7 IF (YW we, Y) |) wn ae ee ies nee (7.3a) =[9(V )f(V ae U's Teen ets ia i ac iereee (7.3b) -| x) e p> ae ye peo (OO Vi kee aire scsi-= (7.3e) we will assume the sufficient condition: the double series DO DIN A8t PIO W) iia ele. Miata sue wk a (7.4) n, p is absolutely convergent. This condition will be assumed to hold whenever we write FV )g(V Jw, y)- Now in order to obtain a meaning for [f(V )]-! we will proceed as follows : If we assume that we are given f(V)= % a, a 1h Ee TS a (7.5) then we can derive the unique power series g(V )= BDV 2n, Dy a hee (7.6) ©0 yh J. L. GRIFFITH. with the property n . IN WHO VRS ee (7.7) p= Thus if the double series (7.4) is Cone convergent then LAY a (V7 )l wa, y)=w@, 7)... eee (7.8) or for the set of functions mn : HV gH 1.. 2 eee (7.9) Thus we define Definition (7.1). If * fV)=2 4,V%, G40 n=0 and g(V ad ~ Pav 2n, b= — 5 0 where 3 nes p=9, n+4~0 Ba then g(V )=Lf(V )]—? is defined to be the inverse of f(V ). As a simple example of an inverse as defined above we see that (L—V *#)-4=:, 7 7%. 2k. eee (7.10) n=0 This inverse can be used to demonstrate the necessity of examining the operand before applying the definition (7.1). If the operand is e* then (1—V 2)e*=0, xv 2n)[(1—V 2)er] =0 Le*. But tg (1—V %)e = Tel" (Eyed —v jel = Ey 2y7e n=0 Stee oe Jet =¢?, Now it is clear that in special cases there may be alternative power series which could act as inverses. For example, if w(x”, y) is any biharmonic function then 1+V2+ 55,7 n=2 for arbitrary b, is an inverse for 1—\?. We may then state Definition (7.2). If . HV SF (V ole, Y) =LI(V I-F(V Jw(a, y) =(@, Y) .-- ee (7.11) for a set of functions a y) then g(V ) is defined to be a particular inverse of f(V) for the set of functions w(z, y). INTERPRETATION OF CERTAIN LAPLACIAN OPERATOR FUNCTIONS. 61 As a result of the foregoing analysis we are able to solve N/a) (EE) TOF 5 YO ee rh ao ns a ssi asia (7.12) where f(\/ ) is a aes of Es type (7.5). oe have simply LAV )ITF(V ola, y) =LF(V )-7*h(@, 9) W(x, W=T(V ]-th( (x, y) or we may replace [f(V )]-! by any other eae inverse. It is to be emphasised that if aj=0, then f(V ) does not possess an inverse, in the sense here defined. We now proceed to derive formally some integral formulae. Taking K,(t) to be the Bessel function of the second kind with imaginary argument and understanding that the integral represents a power series, we have oe) 2nb { sK,(as)I (bs yas = “eel 8) geo eam Sete a0 0 ee (n 1)222n 2n 2n = _geut- K,(as)s2"+1ds n= o( “2 27 2n 22n(n!)2 m ao(ml)2o2" gan +2 - : [W.B.F., p. 388] 1 fo) n a NG / 270 FAM » tr OO i a ee ahh a (7.13) (a> b2V/ ys Similarly, | | Sih (G8) (USN NOS EUAN) Ar tes oe ns scl vine (7.14) 0 Thus using the results of section 5 we obtain [a*—b°V7 2] -1w(a, y Fall ie sK,(as)w(%—sb cos 2, y —sb sin o)dods Be RENO Sere TE TR (7.15) [a? +b2V 2]-1w(a, y) = a [e sK,(as)w(x%—1sb cos ~, y —isb sin ~)dods. BO eee oe eae (7.16) Now from [W.W., p. 135] we obtain 1 ey. U U a Uw COSeC Zu Tis 2 le ae cal (—1) oe) aT \n 2 yi a emia As (7.17) 2 n—1U?2" — n* 7? where &’ indicates that the term in n=0 is omitted from the sum. Considered as a function of uw, the series (7.17) can be rearranged to give a power series. If now wu is replaced by VV we have the formal inverse of (sin 2V )/V. However, the form of the series in equation (7.17) allows us to proceed to V cosec 2\/ ="+ > 2eV7 2(—1)"+1 | " sK,p(nms)Io(82V )ds n=1 0 62 J. L. GRIFFITH. 1.e. 1 [V cosec 2V7 }eo(a, y)=—w(@, y) tad Tv (oe) co (27 x (—1)"+1 | | SK o(n7s)w(x —sz COS —, y —8z Sin ~)deds. fie oJ 0 wee tele gsc o (7.19) An interesting form occurs when we adopt the same procedure for (sin 2V )/(sin cV ), | 2| , fies | . , i 5 10 a bea ol ‘i + 4 \ % ' . 1 4) ; ae a of . 5 a y R j ; ; Ch Lab percpaene f : ; ; ——— i COUERRLACT I mre ; meh ; Bese ee ii) AER be eer thet te ane Gi) MERE Ee RRR Sten og < uw j of a ee De Oe ws a Path thee 2 sae ‘ / i 1 f . ) é THE ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES By KatTHureN M. SHERRARD With Plates X and XI and two Text-figures. Manuscript received, July 15, 1953. Read, October 7, 1953. CONTENTS. Page Introduction and Acknowledgements =o - eis 73 Geographical Distribution of Graptolite- bearing 1 Rocks ae es de 74 Lithology of Graptolite- Crane Rocks ue a cs ‘iis 74 Graptolite Zones Ea ss “3 oh ets és 75 Graptolite Assemblages ae bf: be ae ae . me 78 Ordovician is ae Se kts £2 we ite hips 78 Arenig oe ee auf oe i - hs 78 Zone of Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus a vat a 78 Llandeilo a's as ay os oe ie me sie 79 Zone of Glyptograptus teretvusculus ae os as 79 Zone of Nemagraptus pertenuis Ae aie Be ae 80 Caradoc ees sis ait sss se ae ne 81 Zone of Climacograptus peltifer Sa ays we ie 81 Zone of Clumacograptus wilsoni ie 84 Zone of Orthograptus calcaratus and Plegmatograptus neti 84 Zone of Orthograptus quadrimucronatus and Pleurograptus linearis 2s - a be ae ate: 85 Other Ordovician Oceutrences os 3% Av sie os 89 Silurian. . as -. md a a a - we) Llandovery .. a ee ee e 90 Zone of M negra pts gregarius o os 2. ms 90 Zone of Monograptus crispus ss fe sy us 90 Wenlock ate he = ae Ef a8 7 he 90 Zone of Cyrtograpius insectus a3 5 oe - 90 Zone of Monograptus testis .. By, ie ae as 91 Ludlow be oy ie ae ae oes ve om oul Zone of Monograptus nilssoni sue As ss ae ot Zone of Monograptus scanicus Ag a sh on Stratigraphical Relationship between Graptolite Zones i 92 Structural Relationship between Ordovician and Silurian Graptolite- bearing Rocks... : as ee re ae ne 93 Graptolite-bearing Localities an ae i site sei ae 93 Systematic Descriptions - ors a: ae sits ok ae 94 Summary bE: ar ae bs he Ae Ee Se Mey BOO References 5 ae nes ae a ae a oe a LOO Explanation of Plates =e 5 ane ye ae ss eld INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. In New South Wales, as in other countries, it has become apparent that Similar suites of graptolite species or ‘assemblages of graptolites” occur repeatedly in the various localities where graptolite-bearing Ordovician and Silurian rocks outcrop. The graptolites making up the assemblages in New South Wales are not always the same, however, as those which are found in assemblages in other places such as Victoria, New Zealand, Great Britain, Bohemia, Sweden and North America. I 74 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD. It has been found elsewhere that different assemblages correspond to differences in age, constituting “zones” within the Ordovician and Silurian sedimentary rocks. In a few cases in New South Wales the different assemblages of graptolites occur in a series where by superposition their age relations can be observed directly in the field, but in general, the age of the rocks containing graptolites, often steeply folded, has to be determined by correlation of their graptolites with those of known age from other places. In carrying out the work described in this paper, it was possible through the courtesy of Professor W. B. R. King, F.R.S., to conduct some of the correlations by means of direct comparison with the graptolite collections of the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, where Miss G. L. Elles kindly advised me in the work. Professor C. E. Marshall, D.Sc., Ph.D., of the University of Sydney; Mr. H. O. Fletcher, Palaeontologist to the Australian Museum; Mr. H. F. Whitworth, Curator of the Mining Museum, Sydney; Dr. N. H. Fisher, of the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra; and Mr. D. G. Moye, Senior Geologist to the Snowy Mountains Authority, have been good enough to allow me to examine graptolites in collections in their charge. Mr. N. C. Stevens has been particularly generous in allowing me to study graptolites from his extensive collecting, and Mr. R. A. Keble, F.G.S., Mr. G. H. Packham, Mr. H. W. Williamson, Mr. K. Crook and Mr. M. MacKellar have also kindly made available others, all of which have extended greatly the collections I have made myself. As a result, assemblages typical of different zones have been selected for New South Wales and are given in this paper. Graptolites from over one hundred localities within the boundaries of the State and excluding the Australian Capital Territory are correlated with these typical assemblages. A list of these localities not otherwise referred to is given on page 93. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF GRAPTOLITE-BEARING ROCKS. Keble and Benson (1939) referred to all localities in New South Wales from which graptolites had been recorded when they wrote. Those localities and others in which graptolites have been found since that time lie mainly within three areas in the State. (1) The Southern Highlands where both Silurian and Ordovician graptolites occur at numerous places within a broad strip running south-south- west from Tallong, Goulburn and Crookwell to Tumbarumba, Geehi and the County of Wellesley ; (2) an area in the Central West where both Silurian and Ordovician graptolites occur in a strip running north from Mandurama to Tomingley and Wellington ; (3) a narrow strip running north from Wagga through Ariah Park to Yalgogrin and Weja, in which Ordovician graptolites have been obtained. Lying away from these three areas are occurrences on the South Coast near Cobargo and Bermagui (Brown, 1981). The oldest known Ordovician graptolites occur near Narrandera. There is little doubt that more graptolite- bearing localities remain to be discovered. LITHOLOGY OF GRAPTOLITE-BEARING Rocks. Graptolites of Ordovician age from New South Wales are generally preserved as chitinous or pyritic films in a highly compressed condition in strongly folded slates, usually dark-blue or greyish in colour, but occasionally bleached white as at Geehi and Woodstock. Metamorphism has sometimes ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 75. caused the development of chiastolite in the slate. Dr. G. A. Joplin (1945) made chemical analyses of a number of graptolite-bearing slates, finding an unusually high percentage of silica (about 80%) in them. It may or may not be significant that the slate with the highest percentage of silica (87%) among those analysed, is also one of the slates (Loc. 17, Yass River) with the oldest eraptolites in the analysed group. However, the correlation cannot be carried further, since the slate from Yalgogrin, placed in a high graptolite zone, has a higher silica percentage than some of the slates with older graptolites, for example that from Gygederick Hill, Berridale. Although the majority of Ordovician graptolites in New South Wales are preserved as films on slates, there are a few instances of casts of graptolites preserved in quartzites from which they stand out in slight relief, for example in the Shoalhaven Gorge (Sherrard, 1949) and in the Malongulli Formation near Mandurama (Stevens, 1952). Finally, some Ordovician graptolites occur in a calcareous matrix (Stevens, 1950) and some in a leached limestone in the Mandurama district. Silurian graptolites are found generally in New South Wales in gently dipping sandy rocks, sometimes in slight relief and sometimes as compressed films. More rarely they occur as films in strongly folded argillaceous rocks, as near Goulburn. GRAPTOLITE ZONES. Certain assemblages of graptolites have long been recognized in Britain as typical of strata of a definite age and have enabled the recognition of graptolite zones each “characterised by a special association of Graptolites ...and... that form in this association which apparently combines restricted vertical range with wide horizontal distribution is most conveniently selected as the index of the zone” (Elles and Wood, 1914, p. 515). However the typical species or index graptolite selected in other places to name the zone cannot always be recognized in the assemblages examined from New South Wales, so that other types have had to be chosen. It is noticeable that a few distinctive species characterize each group, but these may be accompanied by other species persisting from older groups. New species can be observed to make their appearance in the new group and though the old species persist, they have often changed materially in size or other character. Miss G. L. Elles of the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, has frequently insisted that this “coming in of new species marks an advancement in graptolite development only to be accounted for by the passage of time” (1925). By comparison of the graptolite assemblages found in rocks in New South Wales with those in other places the following zones are recognized in this State: Silurian. Ludlow. Zone of Monograptus scanicus. Zone of Monograptus nilssoni. Wenlock. Zone of Monograptus testis. Zone of Cyrtograptus insectus. Llandovery. Zone of Monograptus crispus. Sub-zone of Monograptus triangulatus. Zone of Monograptus gregarius. 76 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD Ordovician. Caradoc. Zone of Orthograptus quadrimucronatus and Pleurograptus linearis. Zone of Orthograptus calcaratus and Plegmatograptus nebula. Zone of Climacograptus wilsoni. Zone of Climacograptus peltifer. Llandeilo. Zone of Nemagraptus pertenuis. Zone of Glyptograptus teretiusculus. Arenig. Zone of Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus. ff ba IMJIMS ay N 6 me P44 \ Text-fig. 1. Monograptus exiguus (Nich.), Four Mile Creek. Climacograptus antiquus Lapw., Digger’s Creek, Cadia (F.3417, Mining Museum). . Cyrtograptus aff. insectus Boucek, Four Mile Creek. Monograptus marri Perner, Four Mile Creek. M. dubius (Suess), Four Mile Creek. . Amplexograptus arctus Elles and Wood, Cadia (F.29896, Australian Museum). (Nos. 1, 3, 4, 5 collected by Messrs. Stevens and Packham.) > OUR 09 bo Equal importance cannot be attached to all the zones selected for New South Wales; for example only one occurrence of the Tetragraptus quadri- brachiatus zone is known so far. In the Caradoc all zones but that of Climacograptus wilsont are widely distributed. That zone is included with some doubt, as is explained below. Orthograptus calcaratus and Plegmato- ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. UE graptus nebula selected as joint index fossils for one zone are not restricted to that zone, as is desirable for an index fossil. These graptolites are, however, particularly well developed in assemblages assigned to their zone. The Nemagraptus zone is included in the Caradoc in Britain (Pocock and Whitehead, 1948) and in Sweden (Hede, 1950), and in Czechoslovakia, the zone with Glyptograptus trubinensis (related to G. teretiusculus) is included in the Caradoc (Kettner and Boucek, 1936; Pribyl, 1951). However, since in New NEW SOUTH pom snaiey Wallingten Peak Hill se pone rk Narrandera Yass a oa eee NG ‘ O bu tain's > Y O 20 40m as Strike and Dip | ~~~. Delegate Text-fig. 2 Sketch-map showing position of localities from which graptolites have been obtained and direction of fold axes of Ordovician strata at some localities. South Wales, Didymograptus caduceus survives into the Nemagraptus pertenuis zone, this zone is retained in the Llandeilo. Glyptograptus teretiusculus is very wide-spread in this zone, but Dicranograptus and Nemagraptus occur with it in the Walli district and indicate the coming in of a later zone than that of Glyptograptus teretiusculus. In the cases of two of the Silurian zones, those of M onograptus testis and Cyrtograptus insectus, their nearest counterparts occur in Czechoslovakia 78 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD. and accordingly zones set up there have been selected for New South Wales (Kettner and Boucek, 1936). The graptolite zones recognized in this paper correspond approximately to only seven of the fifteen Ordovician zones recognized in Britain and to six of the twenty Silurian zones set up there. In Victoria, the extensive occurrence of Lower Ordovician graptolites has enabled the division of the rocks of that age into more zones than have been recognized in Britain. In general the trend of the strike in Victoria is sub-meridional, which means that the same beds may be expected to crop out to the north in New South Wales. However, north of a line running east and west approximately from Elmore to Charlton in Central Victoria, the Lower Palaeozoic rocks are covered by Post-Tertiary deposits which extend to the boundary of the State and continue further north into New South Wales masking older rocks. So far the outcrop near Narrandera of the Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus zone is the only representa- tive of a low zone in the Ordovician known in the State. Except for the record from Tallebung on about the same longitude this is to the west of other graptolite-bearing strata in New South Wales but to the east of the main Lower Ordovician localities of Victoria. It seems not unlikely that further inliers of low Ordovician age will be found in the future in this part of New South Wales. The zones from that of Nemagraptus pertenuis to that of Plewrograptus linearis approximate fairly closely to the zones making up the Gisbornian, Eastonian and the lower part of the Bolindian of Victoria. Dr. Ruedemann (1947) has pointed out similarities between high Ordovician graptolites of Western America and of Australia. In the Silurian, the instructive sections at Yass and Cadia, where several zones are found in superposition, have enabled a more satisfactory zoning of this period than has yet been possible in Victoria (Thomas, 1947). Similarities between the Wenlock of New South Wales and Bohemia and between the Ludlow of New South Wales, Oklahoma and Sweden are also apparent. GRAPTOLITE ASSEMBLAGES, For each of the zones, a typical locality has been selected and its assemblage of graptolites is given. The assemblages from any other localities placed in the zone follow or are given in Tables I-IV. It will be seen that in most cases graptolites occur in the corresponding table which have not been identified in the typical locality. The localities are arranged in the tables in the order of decreasing variety in their assemblages. Assemblages with only one or two species such as that from Tumbarumba in the Cl. peltifer zone and those from Trunkey and Taralga in the O. quadrimucronatus zone are included with some doubt. Ordovician. Arenig. Zone of Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus. Graptolites of this zone, the oldest so far found in New South Wales, occur in a chiastolite slate inlier in Portions 56 and 57, Par. Corobimella, 15 miles S.S.W. of Narrandera. Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus (F 39696-7, Australian Museum) from this locality is in a state of fair preservation and has been described and figured (Keble and Macpherson, 1941). The accom- panying graptolites are incomplete. Most are wide forms, some with a ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 79 well-marked central tube, some with spines. They can be identified only approximately. The assemblage may be: Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus, ef. Glossograptus acanthus ef. Trigonograptus ensiformis ? Amplexograptus confertus | ? Glyptograptus dentatus This zone is equivalent to either zone 3, 4 or 5 of the British succession, to the Middle Ordovician as recognized in Victoria (Harris and Thomas, 1938), to the lowest graptolite horizon of the Pittmann Formation of the Ordovician in the Australian Capital Territory (Opik, 1954) ; and to the Lower Didymograptus zone of Sweden (Hede, 1950). Llandeilo. Zone of Glyptograptus teretiusculus. This zone occurs typically in siltstone in several localities in the Parish of Clarendon in the Cadia District (Locs. 12, 12a, 18, 18a, gi, go). Apart from traces of dendroids, the only graptolite found after wide collecting is Glypto- graptus teretiusculus or its affiliates (Stevens, 1954). It often occurs in slight relief when its dimensions vary from those seen in the compressed state. Glyptograptus teretiusculus seems generally the best attribution, but its dimensions under some conditions link it with Orthograptus apiculatus or with Mesograptus foliaceus (sensu stricto, HUes and Wood, 1907, p. 259) which is also generally recorded without associates. For example from locality g:, Portion 118, Par. Clarendon (south-west corner), near Cadia, have been obtained numerous specimens up to 4 cm. long though generally incomplete, and up to 3 mm. wide, though usually 2°5 mm., gradually tapering to 0-7 mm. There are 12 thecae in 10 mm. almost invariably, which are inclined at 40 degrees to the vertical. These are best called Mesograptus foliaceus (s.s.). The rhabdosomes are seen in differing aspects, the thecae changing from the shape of a leaf with both apertural and ventural margins convex, to the shape of a cup or bracket with the apertural margin concave and the ventral margin sigmoidally curved. Sometimes scalariform aspects of the rhabdosome are seen so that it appears as an almost bare stipe with very faint outlines of thecae on one side only. This “monograptid” aspect was Seen in Glyptograptids from Badgery’s Crossing, Shoalhaven Gorge, and its true nature pointed out by Miss G. L. Elles (Sherrard, 1949). Collections from Locs. 12, 18 and 19 Shoalhaven Gorge, from Mandurama Ponds Creek and from Junction Reefs, Belubula River, between Mandurama and Lyndhurst are also placed in this zone. Graptolites from the last locality were described by T. S. Hall (1900) as Diplograptus manduramae and Climacograptus affinus, both new species which Hall explained he was erecting with some doubt. Comparison of the holotypes of these species, now in the Mining Museum, Sydney, with descriptions and plates in “British Graptolites” published after T. S. Hall’s paper, enables the correlation of D. manduramae and Cl. affinus with G. teretiusculus, which name has priority. The assemblage for this zone is therefore: Glyptograptus teretiusculus G. rostratus Mesograptus foliaceus s.s. Dendroids. 80 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD. Zone of Nemagraptus perténuis. The type area for this zone is Licking Hole Creek, 500 yards south-west of Malongulli Trig, between Mandurama and Walli (Stevens, 1952), where graptolites are piled in profusion on dark, calcareous slate. The assemblage is: Isograptus (Didymograptus) caduceus var. tenuis (rare) Nemagraptus explanatus var. pertenuis (common) Clumacograptus cf. antiquus (rare) Dicellograptus cf. divaricatus ilyptograptus teretiusculus Retiograptus geimitzianus Thamnograptus sp. Since it is commonly found on a much lower horizon (Castlemainian), the occurrence of a variety of [sograptus caduceus is noteworthy. Only one specimen has been identified. It occurs on the same slab as Nema. pertenuis. It is recorded from one locality in the Gisbornian division of the Ordovician in Victoria (Harris, 1924; Thomas, 1932) with a somewhat similar assemblage. A rather different assemblage occurs at “Trilobite Hill”, near Walli (Grid reference 845468), also in the Malongulli Formation: Dicellograptus cf. divaricatus Dicranograptus zie zac var. minimus Glyptograptus teretiusculus (very common) Jlimacograptus cf. antiquus ? Thamnograptus sp. Bryozoa, sponge spicules, brachiopods, gasteropods and trilobites are associated with graptolites at both these localities. Similar assemblages and associates are recorded from Llandrindod, Wales (Elles, 1940), and Sweden (Hadding, 1918). The puzzling assemblage at Captain’s Flat railway station is included in this zone. It may be: Mesograptus cf. multidens cf. Orthograptus calcaratus var. acutus Cryptograptus tricornis Nemagraputs pertenuis The first member of this assemblage is of different dimensions from those of any graptolites seen elsewhere in New South Wales or known at the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge. The first collection from this locality was made by Messrs. H. W. Williamson and Glasson and consisted of fragments of diplograptid forms from 3:5 to 5:°3 mm. wide with a very broad virgular tube (0°6 mm.). Thecae were 8-10 in 10 mm. up to 3°5 mm. long with two- thirds overlap. These were tentatively correlated with Orthograptus calcaratus var. vulgatus. Later collections made for the Bureau of Mineral Resources contained diplograptids up to 11 mm. wide and 4°5 cm. long (Plate XI, fig. 13) and obviously related to the earlier collections. There was in addition in the later collections a form up to 10 cm. long with an almost non-existent periderm. It has been suggested that this may be a scalariform view of the first. It is hard to imagine such a wide graptolite coming to rest on its side. Like the Mesograptus it is too poorly preserved to be the holotype of a new Species and it is compared with Orthograptus calcaratus var. acutus. Ruedemann (1947, p. 111) commenting on another species says “it has in its large size a peculiarly Australian character”. The country rock is a highly compressed blue slate which dips west at about 85 degrees. The Captain’s Flat — area is strongly folded, heavily faulted and highly mineralized and the rolling ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 81 out to a greater width of a convexo-concave graptolite such as a Mesograptus ean be visualized. The increase in length of a graptolite contained in folded strata to one and a half times its usual length is recorded from Victoria (Hills and Thomas, Geol. Mag., 1944, p. 218). The collection from Tomingley (Dun, 1898; Hall, 1902), is remarkable for its wealth of dendroids. These also occur sparingly in other collections placed in this zone. Though the Tomingley assemblage has many species charac- teristic of the Climacograptus peltifer zone of Britain, it has been retained in the Nemagraptus pertenuis zone because of the complete absence in a large, well-preserved collection of any member of the Climacograptus bicornis family including Cl. peltifer. Slates with ? Nemagraptus pertenuis from Portion 169, Par. Talagandra, Nanima-Bedulluck district, to the east of Loc. 63 may indicate this zone. The Kiandra Beds (Opik, 1952) at their outcrop about 1700 feet above the Tumut Pond Camp of the Snowy Mountains Authority contain graptolites of this zone. They were also found in the core from a hole drilled not far from the outcrop, which after passing at an angle of 45 degrees for 235 feet through unfossiliferous rocks penetrated graptolite-bearing Kiandra Beds. Caradoc. Zone of Climacograptus peltifer. The type area for this zone is in the Shoalhaven Gorge at its junction with Bungonia Creek (Loc. 11, Sherrard, 1949). Various collections from other parts of the Gorge fall into this zone, while the collection from the Tolwong Mine described by T. S. Hall in 1902 seems to belong here also. The assemblage at Bungonia Creek mouth is: Dicranograptus nicholsoni (very common) Climacograptus bicornis Cl. peltifer (very common) Cl. tridentatus Corynoides calicularis Orthograptus calcaratus O. pageanus var. abnormispinosus O. apiculatus Glossograptus hincksu Cryptograptus tricornis Mastigograptus sp. Climacograptus bicornis shows spines of most diverse form, ranging from very stiff and straight hairs to a pitchfork shape. In one case the two long, thick, stout, straight spines and the rhabdosome together make a figure like the Three Legs 0’ Man. The rhabdosome may be as long as 4:5 cm. but is usually shorter. Cryptograptus tricornis is up to 1:5 cm. long, which is unusual in this species in New South Wales. The variations in the appendages to Cl. peltifer have been commented on before (Sherrard, 1949). This eraptolite is not common elsewhere in New South Wales. This assemblage has many species in common with the total assemblage from Balclatchie, Scotland (Bulman, 1947) but it does not correspond precisely with any of the separate bands. The assemblage collected by Mr. R. A. Keble from near Tumbarumba occurs in a blue-black micaceous mudstone which is intruded by granite. The rock does not cleave parallel to the bedding and though graptolites are 82 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD. TABLE I. Localities in Zone of Nemagraptus pertenuis. Column hes ba es 1 2 3 4 5 6 a 8 9 10 Isograptus caduceus var. tenuis Harris : x cf. Leptograptus validus Lapw.. ef. ef. (Loc. | L. sp. Nemagraptus eee (Lap- worth) : Xx N. eaplanatus var. pertenuis (Lapw.) 2. x x ? x Dicellograptus divaricatus Hall of cf. D. divaricatus var. salopiensis E. & W. ah D. patulosus Lapw.. . D. angulatus E. & W. : D. sextans Hall a 3 x Dicranograptus ziczac var. minimus Lapworth a x x x Climacograptus scharenbergi Lapw. Bs we x Cl. antiquus Hall ae cal pees x x cf. cf. (rare) Cl. brevis E. & W. .. Ma Xx Mesograptus multidens aca) 1S he Se x M. sp. cf. M. foliace.u (Murchison) be x x Xx Orthograpius apiculatus (EK. & W.) .. aye O. whitfieldi Hall O. calcaratus var. acutus Lapw. eile Ls - Glyptograptus teretiusculus (His.) Xx Amplexograptus arctusE. &W. A. perexcavatus Lapw. : Retiograptus geinitzianus Hall x Lasiograptus mucronatus (Hall) a3 Xx Xx L. mucronatus var, bimucro- natus (Nich.) she Xx Cryptograptus tricornis (Carr. ) x x Dendroids.. ie Sie x V.c, Xx x x cf. cf. var. D. sp. IK OS aX x PR SK ek OR vV.c.= very common. Column 1 Mandurama-Walli, Licking Hole Creek, Cliefden Caves. 2 ‘Tomingley. 3 Tumut Pond. 4 Cadia. Australian Museum Collection. 5 Mandurama, “ Trilobite Hill ’’. 6 Mandurama, Localities 7 and 9. 7 Greenwich Park-Towrang Road. (Naylor, 1950.) 8 Parish of Lawson, County of Wellesley. 9 Cargo. 10 Captain’s Flat. Railway Station. common, they are difficult to determine and the assemblage may not belong to this zone. The Yass River assemblages in this zone are rich in email dicellograptids which are identified as D. angulatus and small climacograptids, taken as Cl. ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 83 brevis. Small dicellograptids, such as D. pumilus and small examples of Cl. minimus are common in higher zones in the Yass River district. The assemblage from Loc. 62, near Piccaree Hill, Nanima-Bedulluck, has been placed in the Orthograptus calcaratus zone, but at this locality there TABLE II. Localities in Zone of Climacograptus peltifer. Column de a ] 4 3 4 5 6 A 8 9 10 Dicellograptus morrist Hopk. ME Se GE. ef. D. caduceus Lapw. .. Xx D. angulatus KE. & W. x Dicranograptus nichol- sont Hopk. Se ult Vac, cf. x Xx x cD: sp. D. ramosus var. hians (T. S. Hall) Be Xx Xx x De ramosus ‘var. spinifer Lapw. D. zczac Lapw. Climacograptus bi- cornis (Hall) ay x x x x Xx Xx Xx x Cl. peltifer (Lapw.) .. | v.c. Cl. tridentatus (Lapw.) x x x ? Cl. caudatus Lapw. x x Cl. brevis HE. & W. .. Xx x Cl. scharenbergi Lapw. ? Orthograptus calcaratus x X x ~D SD Lapw. ce ay Xx var. O. sp. O. pageanus Lapw. .. x Xx cf. O. pageanus var. ab- NOTMUSPINOSUS mie go W. ... 25 x x O. apiculatus (E.&W.)| x x x Ch cf. Cryptograptus tri- cornis (Carr.) x x Xx V.c Glossograptus hincksii (Hopk.) .. me Xx Xx Plegmatograptu nebula K.& W. .. Xx Lasiograptus hark- nesst (Nich.) ie x : var. Corynoides calicularis Nich. ae We x Mastigograptus Sp. indet. Ruedemann cf. Column 1 Shoalhaven Gorge, Loc. 11. 2 Shoalhaven Gorge, Locs. 16, 17. 3 Shoalhaven Gorge, Tolwong Mine. 4 Yass River, Locs. 17, 24, 34. 5 Snowy Mountains, Por. 95, Par. Bullenbalong. 6 Gygederick Hill, Berridale. 7 Tumbarumba-Jingellic. 8 Molong (a). 9 Molong (bd). 10 Grabben Gullen. seems to be a passage down from a typical O. calcaratus assemblage to one in which small Climacograptus bicornis, Cryptograptus tricornis and Lasio- graptus harknessi predominate, that is down to the Cl. peltifer zone. 84 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD. Zone of Climacograptus wilsoni. Graptolites occur in a slate dipping east at 80 degrees which has been quarried on Wagga Common, 20 chains west of Moorong Trig, Parish of Uranquinty, about three miles west of the town of Wagga. Graptolites, all diplograptids, are so prolific that in one case 50 can be counted in a space of four square inches. They are obscured, however, by the development of chiastolite, which frequently masks thecal character and proximal ends. In addition the slate does not cleave evenly. All diplograptids increase in width very gradually to a maximum of 3 mm., and are up to 6-5 cm. long. In many cases the rhabdosomes are not preserved in true profile, thecae on one side being climacograptid and on the other orthograptid in shape. Of a large number examined, only one is complete proximally with a thread-like virgella 3 mm. long. The assemblage is considered to be best described as: cf. Climacograptus wilsont var. tubularis Orthograptus calcaratus var. The horizon may be somewhere about that of Cl. wilsom. This attribution is supported by the wealth of diplograptids and absence of other families. The assemblage of diplograptids poorly preserved in andalusite slate from Mt. Tallebung, 47 miles north-west of Condobolin (Raggatt, 1950) may belong to this zone. Zone of Orthograptus calcaratus and Plegmatograptus nebula. The assemblage in the lower beds on the eastern side of Wambrook Creek, Portion 40, Par. Lake, 11 miles west of Cooma, has been selected as the type for this zone. This assemblage is comparable with that of the British zone of Dicranograptus clingani, though no dicranograptid has been found at the type locality. Dicranograptus ramosus occurs in a collection in the Australian Museum made from this vicinity where graptolites are prolific. The assemblage 1S: Dicellograptus caduceus D. morrisi Climacograptus bicornis Cl. peltifer (very rare) Cl. caudatus Orthograptus calcaratus O. cf. apiculatus Plegmatograptus nebula, though not found at the type locality, is common in other outcrops of this zone, for example at Stockyard Flat Creek, County of Wellesley in the remote south-east of the State on the Victorian border (Dun, 1897; T. S. Hall, 1902). Dr. Hall described a new species, Climaco- graptus hastata from this locality. The holotype is in the Mining Museum, Sydney (F 3400). It is 8 em. long, including virgula and a virgella of 1:2 cm. of which 0:5 cm. is covered by a membrane. The rhabdosome is 0-6 mm. wide proximally, increasing to 1:7 mm. after 1 cm., then to 2-2 mm. and no more. There is a very wide virgular tube (0-5 mm.) which can be seen within the rhabdosome before it emerges at the distal end to continue 1:1 cm. to the edge of the slab. Thecae are 9 in 10 mm. with their ventral walls convex at first and then pressed in their lower part into a concave curve. Thecal apertures usually ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 85 show a sinuous curve. Four strong spines are attached to the basal thecae. Cl. hastata seems more satisfactorily placed in Orthograptus calcaratus (Plate XI, fig. 17). This species had not been raised above the rank of a variety of Diplograptus foliaceus when Hall wrote in 1902. Hall also erected Dicellograptus affinus from material at Stockyard Flat Creek (Holotype F 3402, Mining Museum). Two dicellograptids are on the slab (Plate X, fig. 7) of which the right-hand one is that figured by Hall in Plate XIII, fig. 1 (Hall, 1902). The holotype carries a paper label between the stipes of the right-hand specimen “Dicell. affinus Type fig.”. Hall gave no dimensions with his description other than “thecae ... about 10 in 10 mm.”, and he noted that the hydrosome resembled D. morrisi Hopk. The graptolite on the left-hand side of the slab has a hand-written paper label ‘fig. specn. F 3402”. It is apparently the original of Plate XIII, fig. 3; Dicellograptus cf. divaricatus. However, its dimensions correspond with D. morrist. In 1909 in referring specimens from Tolwong Mine to D. affinus, Hall wrote (p. 340) “the differences between Dicello. elegans and D. affinus are very slight, and I am not sure whether D. affinus is more than a variety with longer basal spines”. A new description of D. affinus was issued by Keble and Harris in 1925 which showed that in the absence of dimensions in Hall’s original diagnosis, new attributions to D. affinus differed considerably from Hall’s holotype. The new description, for instance, gave maximum width for stipes of 0-6 mm. and their total length as usually less than 1 cm., whereas both graptolites on Hall’s holotype have stipes more than 5 cm. long and the width of the stipes of the right-hand specimen increases from 0°6 cm. to 0°83 mm., which, with its other dimensions, shows that Hall was right in 1909 when he wrote that D. affinus was but a variety of D. elegans. Hall (Plate XII, fig. 1, 1902) figured Pleurograptus(?) from Stockyard Flat Creek. On this slab (F 3412, Mining Museum) this graptolite is entangled in the long, drooping spines (1:2 em. long) of Cl. bicornis (Plate X, fig. 1). It may be Amphigraptus divergens var. radiatus. Four very thin stipes (0-4 mm. wide) radiate from nearly the same point, 10 thecae occur in 10 mm., each being about 1-5 mm. long and overlapping for half its length. The associa- tion of this leptograptid with Cl. bicornis recalls the conditions at Wambrook Creek, Cooma, where Plewrograptus linearis occurs 25 feet stratigraphically above Cl. bicornis in the type locality of this zone, and a zonal boundary has _ been drawn between them. It may be that in New South Wales, leptograptids of the Plewrograptus and Amphigraptus type occur in lower strata than else- where and that no zonal boundary should be placed in Wambrook Creek. Other leptograptids, such as Leptograptus capillaris occur in association with Orthograptus pageanus and Climacograptus bicornis at Loc. 13, Shoalhaven Gorge, placed in this zone. Zone of Orthograptus quadrimucronatus and Pleurograptus linearis. Both index graptolites do not occur in all assemblages of this zone. Orthograptus quadrimucronatus is more widely distributed than Pleuro- graptus linearis. The assemblage at the Municipal Quarry, Portion 42, Par. Queanbeyan, 145 chains south of the Queanbeyan railway station, has been Selected as the type for the zone. The graptolites occur in a blue-grey slate dipping west at 85 degrees and splitting along the bedding to almost paper- thin layers. Harris and Keble (1929) described a small collection from this locality which was erroneously stated in that paper to be within the Australian KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD. 86 Lt “ICA ‘ds ‘q 91 ‘ds ‘a GT XxX Lai xX XX x ca XXX Ke xX X a xo xX X IT xxx xxe or xX 6 “787 8,ureydep Jo yynos ‘elefurr Jo ysieq LT ‘Agisdy = OT. ‘PL ‘EL “s007T ‘esI0yg UsABy][Voys “uoysUTTTeEM GT ‘oyesoloq, WOIj so[lul oA =o FT. Saitatar oe 8 “g ‘g ‘sooyT ‘Su0TTe@L &1 *YOOFSPOO M ‘P9 “9 ‘Z9 “IQ “SOOT “HOnT[Npeg-veulUeN ZT ‘eUL00D ‘ayRT “Ie : i ‘gp ‘I0d 1T "G6P ‘98h ‘OZE'd ‘SOOT ‘suIvyunOy, AMOUG OT Ki REX 26 8 ‘efnqou snjdeisoyeulse[q puny snyeleoreo snydeiz0yyIOQ fo auozg ur savyvo0T *AQTSOTIOM JO AQuNOD ‘IsulTesUry, ‘Ag[SoTIoM JO AJUNOD “4RLT YeLA PIVAyI04g °6 ‘0077 ‘esI0 UsAvYTRVOYys ‘SS ‘83 ‘OL ‘ET ‘IL ‘LT ‘soo ‘IOAN ssex ‘UOTJOITIODN UWinosny, uUelpemsny ‘yoolQ YyoorquieM ‘ayVT ‘eq ‘Lh “10d ‘(spoeq IaMO]) opIs ysom SYooIQ Yoorqure Mm ‘ayeT ‘ied ‘Op “10g ‘(Speq JoMO]) opts ysvo ‘YooIQ YOOICUIeM uuinj[og uuinj[og TaN 69 HH 19 6 ECO x ae plorpueq oe oe oe oe "+ ‘qYopurl ‘ds saprouhisog CUSIN) wsauytoy snzdv.bors0T "MX °H vINQau snjdvibowwwUsbalqd 4 Be (‘IIVQ) svusooi4 snydvibodhs1p x a ss ue ( ydoH) wsyoury snjydv.1bossoj yp ae = Ser 4 CM 3 "H) snywjnoidy *O x ro xe “MBO Snyosadnnd “ItA snywoaUunly *O zo “MM 9 ‘a snsourdsiuougn “IVA snuvabod °O : ‘mMdeT snuvabnd °C “MdBT snznb)na *IeA 8nzp109109 *O ‘* *MdeT snoyisng “IeA snjp100109 *O ma 28 Sint “MdeT snyo1vajyp9 snjydvsboyj40 cas oe Ee (‘ITeQ) snwmeum 10 ‘madey snzopnva 10 (MdeT) sngnjuaprita 10 ow * (mdeyq) vafiyad 70 ee (eH) svusong snidviboovUryo a3 ‘ydoH 2wosjoyou ‘g@ (eH ‘O'T) sunrvy *IeA snsoumps °C x ee ce : (II@H) snsoums srnygdvibouvindg ae “dey snsosnxalf "IVA UaWUMUNYyILof °C “7 -mdeyT snnuund .¢ “11eQ suvnbaja .¢ g ‘mMdeT snaonpyva 00H wrilou snjdvi60]109° (TT x BS sae as oS "1IVQ Sswojypradva T x Xx x = ee Be (II@H) snprwonp,f snidv.b0j}d‘aT ; ‘MadeT snzoipps “Tea Ssuahiaarp snidvibiydup xX Xe Sa x X xX X x X XxX x SPS eS eS x x x x xxx xX X L 9 G a e Z I ae ae a5 Ac 50 ae uumnto9 TIL @TaviL ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 87 Capital Territory. Collections from this locality in the Australian Museum provide a representative assemblage, which is: Leptograptus flaccidus Dicellograptus caduceus D. morrisi (very common) D. elégans D. pumilus Climacograptus tubuliferus (very common) Orthograptus quadrimucronatus O. calcaratus | Mesograptus ingens Each of these species except Mesograptus ingens and Dicellograptus caduceus occurs in Zone 13 of the British succession. Much the same assemblage is found in the Eastonian of Victoria, and the Mt. Peel beds, New Zealand (Keble and Benson, 1929) are also perhaps comparable. The very large diplograptid, Mesograptus ingens (T. S. Hall) is confined to this horizon. Its development is probably related to that of large diplo- graptids found in other countries on high Ordovician horizons. Orthograptus calcaratus var. basilicus from the Hartfell Shales (A 19916, Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge) in the zone of Pleurograptus linearis is 12 em. long and 4 mm. wide, with 10 to 8 thecae in 10 mm. The virgula is over 1 mm. wide and 2°5 cm. long. The thecae are long tubes with everted apertures but without visible spines. Glossograptus quadrimucronatus var. paucithecatus Decker from Arkansas (Decker, 1935; Ruedemann, 1947) is of the same great width and length, and occurs in uppermost Ordovician with Dicellograptus complanatus and D. anceps. as associates. Pribyl (1951) records Diplograptus vulgatus up to 3-5 mm. wide and Boucek (1937) notes from the same uppermost Caradoc of Bohemia (Bohdalec Beds) a Mesograptid whose thecae resemble Diplo- graptus multidens and whose general form is like Meso. modestus. This zone is also found on the Hume Highway in various road cuttings 8 to 10 miles east of Goulburn and near the intersection of the road to Brayton, where the assemblage is: Pleurograptus linearis, Climacograptus tubuliferus Cl. supernus Orthograptus quadrimucronatus. These graptolites occur in steeply dipping bleached shales, which are in close proximity to shales with Silurian graptolites of the Monograptus nilssoni zone or Zone 33 of the British succession. Naylor (1939, 1950) records from Ordovician outcrops in the same vicinity, assemblages of species which, though somewhat different from those given here, also belong ,to the O. quadrimucronatus zone. P. linearis has also been collected at Wambrook Creek, 11 miles west of Cooma (Opik, 1952), in dark-blue slate dipping north at 50 degrees. Its only associate is a small Dicellograptus caduceus with stipes 1-5 cm. long which do not always cross. The slate at this locality conformably overlies slate with an assemblage belonging to the Orthograptus calcaratus zone. It has already been pointed out that the advent of Plewrograptus here may not indicate passage to a higher zone. KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD. 88 "Jo ey 81 ‘ ‘osIVQqOD = SL ‘oy’T “Ivd ‘OF “10g ‘(speq Jeddn) opts ysvo ‘yoorQ YoorqUIeM 6 “es[eley, LT “BuryqnO AvMTIeY JO 4svo [IU JTey-ouo ‘ueWIeA 8 ‘AOyYUNIT, Of ‘peoy uozyAvIg UJIM uoToUNL ‘AemysIR ouINF, = 2 “led Ye GT ‘uINQ[noH jo 4sva saflu G6 ‘ABMYSIET ouUN_, 9 ACMYSI COUN JO Y}OU a[IU ouO ‘peoy uoyAVIg FT ‘IOAIY TyaoH 386 G : ‘esUeY sIqUIOIOIEqWY I ‘Pp ‘OOT ‘SUOT[R, P *eUL0O(D) JO JSAM ‘“UOJSULI[OOD “IV ‘TIT ‘Gg SUOINIOg OL Ge SOG Apel lS, Sie et, ‘SoO0'T ‘IOATYT SSVA € “L9L°'d “00T ‘sureyunoyw, AMoug- [TT ‘UlISOS[eAR OG ‘WovAT “eq ‘6p “IO ‘o[epliieg jo 4som so[lur Fey-au0 pue 0u9-SCés«éOOWL ‘uekoquvong =f uuIn[op UUINOs) x "MH vyngau snjidviboyoubagd x “ITBO 82uU.t00v snidnwbodhig A[UoO z aqoy pue plVlloyg sisuassvh -yW Xx r ‘HY 'M Ssnunrssayand snydvibovyey yuo ‘jo é x Au ‘ydoH wsyoury snjgdvsbossozy [uo é x x Xx xX os x x (IPH “S \L) suabur srydénsbosap é x se oe “* “mdeyT snuvabod ‘CO x x : “M 8 OH Snywsadnvd “IeA snynoun °C x x ‘MdvT sniabrurds ‘IVA snynuomnurspond °C x< é x x jo x x x x ‘jo x x ‘OTA x =P ** (T@H) snqwuowonurspond °C “IVA | “IVA x x ‘MdVT snyoipajno snydn.6oyj40 x x x Xx ee “* "mdeT snzopnyo 19 x “MX 'W snusedns 10 ‘po x x x x a * (IIV@Q) snumum 79 x x |*ds"9 x x ae) x x x oA ‘mMdeT snuafyngn snadviboonmyy x oe “ydoH wuosjoyou -@ AjTuo o1Bl x IP x AOA (II@H “S°L) Sumy ‘IVA snsowns -g Ayuo ‘ds *q 1é (IIG@H) snsowns snadvsbounwrug x x x ma) x x x a8 ‘* -mdeyT snpuwnd -q x ‘jo ‘jo x x x x x x , : ‘IIeQ sunbaja °C x ‘jo x ue as Ulex) UwawMwMnyrtof *T [[eus ATUO x Ig x ovA be SS “* “mMdey snaonpno -(7 ‘ds ‘q ‘ds ‘q ‘po x x x x x x “OA ee ‘ydoH rsr1sowm sngdvsboyja0g é x Xx “IIVD SrunaUuy snjidniboined 6 x ‘ds *'T x x 0S ‘Z x (II@H) snpwonf sngdv.boidaT ZT 9T GT ial €I él IL Or 6 8 Z 9 g Pp g jG I uUInyo) ‘SHvoul] snjdevisoine[q pup snyeuoronwiipend snydvisoyyIQ fo auozy ur sayynoot “AI GTEV iL ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 89 Other Ordovician Occurrences. In addition to the graptolites whose state of preservation has enabled them. to be allotted to one of the zones in the Ordovician recognized in New South Wales, poorly preserved graptolites have also been obtained from a number of other localities. The following occurrences can probably be assigned to a zone in the Caradoc: 1. Site of Adaminaby Dam, Snowy Mountains Authority, Parishes of Nimmo and Eucumbene, 8 miles south-south-west of Adaminaby. Diplograptus sp., Climacograptus sp., Dicellograptus sp., ?Lepto- graptus sp. 2. Localities near the Murrumbidgee River, about 13-14 miles east of Adaminaby; Portion 79, Par. Brest; Portion 64, Par. Backalum. Diplograptus sp. or Climacograptus sp. 3. Between the Murrumbidgee River and Adaminaby; Portion 87, Par. Bolaira. Diplograptus sp. (broad). 4, About 5 miles south-south-east of Berridale; Portion 28, Par. Bobundara. Diplograptus sp., Climacograptus sp. and Dicellograptus sp. 5. About 8 miles west of Cooma; Portion 158, Par. Coolringdon. Diplograptus sp. and Climacograptus sp. 6. Headwaters of Bundara Creek. Diplograptus sp. (broad). 7. Quaama; Por. 17, Par. Cadjangarry, 8 miles east of Quaama. Diplograptus sp. 8. About # mile north-west Narira Trig, North of Cobargo. Diplograptus sp., Climacograptus sp. and Dicellograptus sp. 9. Weja, 3 miles north of railway station. Diplograptus sp. 10. 30 miles north-west of Crookwell, on road to Bigga between Markdale and Blanket Flat. Dicranograptus sp. | The following occurrences can probably be assigned to a zone in the Llandeilo: 1. North-west corner Portion 1389, Par. Carlton, Cadia District Diplograptid. 2. Cadiangullong Creek, Grid: 937547, Canowindra sheet, Military Map. Glossograptus cf. hinckstui Diplograptus or Climacograptus. 3. Belubula River near junction with Merrimalong Creek, Grid: 911496, Canowindra sheet, Military Map. 3 ef. Glyptograptus teretiusculus. 4. North of Forest Reefs, 6 miles west of Millthorpe 2Glyptograptid. Probable graptolite traces have been obtained from Buddong Falls, near Batlow. Ordovician graptolites are reported from the following localities but have not been examined: Cox’s River, south-west of Katoomba (David and Browne, 1950, p. 156). East of Braidwood (verbal communication). 90 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD Silurian. Six graptolite zones can be recognized in the Silurian of the State. These correspond to Zones 19, 23, 28(?), 31(?), 33 and 34 of the British Silurian succession. In spite of the gaps in the zonal succession as recognized in Britain, the first four have been found in a conformable series dipping west at from 30 to 70 degrees at Four Mile Creek near Cadia (Stevens and Packham, 1953), and near Hatton’s Corner, Yass, the last three zones occur in a conformable sequence (Brown and Sherrard, 1952). Llandovery. Zone of Monograptus gregarius. The oldest zone in the Silurian recorded in New South Wales until the present is that of M. gregarius occurring at the bottom of the Four Mile Creek sequence, where the assemblage is: M. gregarwus Climacograptus sp. Sub-Zone of Monograptus triangulatus. A collection made by Mr. N. C. Stevens (1954) on Angullong Property in Portion 112, Par. Carlton, several miles south of Four Mile Creek village, belongs either to the M. triangulatus sub-zone of the M. gregarius zone or possibly to a slightly higher zone. It contains: Climacograptus hughesi Glyptograptus tamariscus G. sinuatus Mesograptus sp. Petalograptus sp. Orthograptus insectiformis Monograptus intermedius M. triangulatus ? Rastrites longispinus R. aff. approxivmatus Zone of Monograptus crispus. Twenty feet stratigraphically above the zone of M. gregarius at Four Mile Creek the zone of M. crispus is well represented with the following: M. exiguus M.marri M. cf. variabilis M. cf. nodifer M. (?) galaensis Retiolites geinitzianus. The same zone is recorded from Bungonia (Naylor, 1935) with WM. exiguus and M. barrendei. This zone is widely represented in Victoria (Keble and Harris, 1934; Thomas, 1947). ‘ . Wenlock. Zone of Cyrtograptus insectus. Some hundreds of feet of conformable strata separate ‘he last zone from that of Cyrtograptus insectus at Four Mile Creek, where the following assemblage is recorded: Cyrto. aff insectus, Monograptus priodon, Monograptid of vomerinus group. ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 91 The zone of Cyrto. insectus is recognized in Bohemia (Kettner and Boucek, 1936) between the British zones of Cyrto. murchisoni and M. riccartonensis. Cyrto. insectus, while similar to Cyrto. symmetricus and Cyrto. rigidus, is differentiated by the conspicuous thecal spines seen in some aspects under strong magnification. Zone of Monograptus testis. This zone, characteristic of beds at the top of the Wenlock in Bohemia, is represented in the Bedulluck area by the following assemblage (Sherrard, 1952) : | Monograptus flemingw var. elegans M. flenungu var. compactus M. vomerinus M., testis var. nornatus. M. vomerinus has also been collected in other parts of the Yass District (Brown and Sherrard, 1952), notably at the bottom of the Hatton’s Corner sraptolite sequence. The beds at the top of the conformable series at Four Mile Creek must be equivalent to this zone, since they contain the following assemblage: M. dubius M. cf. vulgaris. M. flemingui var. primus found in Portion 184, Par. Carlton, to the south of Four Mile Creek, denotes the same zone. Ludlow. Zone of Monograptus nilssoni. Shale with graptolites of this zone outcrops more or less persistently round the asymmetrical trough into which the Silurian at Yass is folded. It forms the middle member of a conformable series of three graptolite zones (Brown and Sherrard, 1952). Brachiopods, lamellibranchs and eurypterids are associated with the graptolites. An association with similar shelly fossils is recorded for this graptolite zone in Sweden (Hede, 1918). The assemblage at Yass is: Monograptus nilssoni (including “Linograptus” ) M. bohemicus M. roemert M. crinitus Dictyonema sp. A similar graptolite assemblage is described from Oklahoma (Decker, 1935). The assemblage at Yass is found in a greyish-brown sandy shale dipping west-south-west at 7 degrees, but much the same assemblage is found in a very different facies at the junction of the Hume Highway with the Brayton road, 8 miles east of Goulburn, where M. nilssoni and M. bohemicus occur in white shale with an almost vertical dip (Naylor, 1939). IM. bohemicus has also been recorded from near the town of Goulburn (Naylor, 1950) and with M. chimaera from east of Taralga (Naylor, 1938). Zone of Monograptus scanicus. The type area for this zone is Silverdale, Portion 34, Par. Derrengullen, 2 miles east-north-east of Bowning. The first record of graptolites from New JI 92 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD. South Wales was from Bowning (Mitchell, 1886), but it is not known if they were from this locality. The assemblage at Silverdale is: Monograptus salweyi M. cf. twmeéescens Dictyonem«a sp. M. salweyi has also been found about 9 miles to the south-south-east at the junction of Taemas and Good Hope roads, Portion 15, Par. Hume, 13 miles south-south-west of Yass railway station, where sandstone containing it conformably overlies shale with graptolites of the M. nilssoni zone. It is also found in other localities near Yass (Brown and Sherrard, 1952). In all cases, small brachiopods and crinoid stems occur on the same slabs as the graptolites. M. salweyi has not been recorded from Victoria, but varieties of the Swedish form, M. wncinatus, to which it is closely related (Tullberg, 1882), occur widely (Thomas, 1947). STRATIGRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GRAPTOLITE ZONES. A conformable passage from slates with graptolites of the Orthograptus calcaratus zone up to slates with those of a higher zone can be observed in Wambrook Creek, 11 miles west of Cooma, as has been explained. Elsewhere stratigraphical relationships are not so clear. The Yass River localities Nos. 2 and 24 with graptolites of the Orthograptus quadrimucronatus zone and the Climacograptus peltifer zone respectively are less than a quarter of a mile apart (Sherrard, 1943). The slates containing them are not in contact, but both dip at 40 degrees to the north-west and must be quite conformable. Apart from minor faults which are frequent within the series, all the Ordovician slates in the Yass River region appear conformable, although containing graptolites of three different zones. In the Shoalhaven Gorge, graptolites of the zone of Glyptograptus teretiusculus have been collected recently by Messrs. K. Crook and M. Mackellar in quartzite at locality 18 on the right bank of Barber’s Creek at its junction with the Shoalhaven River. Graptolites of the zone of Ortho- graptus calcaratus were collected almost immediately opposite on the left bank of the same creek in a cliff of blue-black slate dipping east (downstream) at 75 degrees (Loc. 9, Sherrard, 1949). These slates must overlie the quartzite with Glyptograptus. The junction is probably hidden by the great load of debris, mostly granite boulders 6 to 8 inches in diameter brought down by Barber’s Creek, and dropped at its mouth. Near Berridale, two zones have been recognized in outcrops about 33 miles apart. Graptolites of the O. quadrimucronatus zone occur in spotted shales striking north-north-east and dipping almost vertically, which outcrop 14 miles west of the town, while 23 miles north-east of the town on Gygederick Hill, silicified slate dipping nearly west at 60 degrees, with graptolites probably of the Climacograptus peltifer zone has been collected. The structural relation between these slates has not been determined. Dr. W. R. Browne has pointed out (1944) that a record of Didymograptus and Tetragraptus from Berridale was an error. | } In the Mandurama-Canowindra district, beds with graptolites of the Glyptograptus teretiusculus and Nemagraptus zones are widespread, but their relationship to slates with graptolites of younger zones at Woodstock and Wellington is not known. Conformable relations are pictured between strata in the Goulburn district which contain Ordovician graptolites from more than one zone (Naylor, 1950). ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 93 STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORDOVICIAN AND SILURIAN GRAPTOLITE-BEARING ROCKS. In a number of places, such as Nanima-Bedulluck (Yass District), near Cadia and near Bungonia, rocks with Ordovician graptolites outcrop in fairly close proximity to rocks with Silurian graptolites, but the relations between the rocks of the two periods are never plain. At Piccaree Hill in the Nanima- Bedulluck area (Sherrard, 1952) steeply folded and denuded Ordovician slates occur as “islands” whose stratigraphical relation to the nearest Silurian rocks has not been determined after careful search. Locality 64 in this neighbourhood with Ordovician graptolites is about 5 miles north-north-west of locality 71 with Silurian graptolites of the Monograptus testis zone. The dips and strikes of the sedimentary rocks between them, where not hidden by igneous rocks or alluvium, seem quite concordant. The relation between Ordovician and Silurian graptolite-bearing rocks is apparently also obscure near Cadia (Stevens and Packham, 1953). A faulted junction has been recognized in one place (Stevens, 1954). In the district east of Goulburn, Naylor (1950) has postulated an over- folded anticline involving Ordovician and Silurian sedimentary rocks and apparently causing the Silurian to dip beneath the Ordovician in exposures near the intersection of the Hume Highway with the road to Brayton and on the Goulburn to Bungonia road. The structure, whatever it is, has to account for the close proximity of shales with Ordovician graptolites of Zone 13 to Shales with Silurian graptolites of Zone 33 at the first locality and of Zone 23 at the second. GRAPTOLITE-BEARING LOCALITIES. Details of some localities have been given in the paper, others were listed in previous publications (Sherrard, 1943, 1949, 1952; Brown and Sherrard, 1952). Particulars of others referred to in the paper are as follows: Apsley: near railway station, Portions 109, 281, Par. Wellington. Ariah Park: 5 miles south-west of railway station, Portion 29, Par. Windeyer, Co. Bourke. Cadia: Localities near Orange-Angullong road, near turn-off to Four Mile Creek Post Office: Loc. 12: 14 miles east of P.O.; Loc. 12a: 14 miles north-east of P.O.; Loc. 13: 1% miles south-east of P.O.; Loc. 18a: 14 miles south-east of P.O.; Loc. g1: south-west, Portion 114, Par. Clarendon; Loc. go: north-west, Portion 160, Par. Clarendon. Cargo: Portion 98, Par. Cargo. Cobargo: 7 miles east of Cobargo, on Bermagui road, Portion 176, Par. Bermaguee. Geehi River: between Geehi River and Bogong Creek, Portion 15, Par. Hume, Co. Selwyn. Grabben Gullen: Portion 152, Par. Grabben Gullen; Portion 194 or 195, Par. Lampton. Jinjera, Parish of: 64 miles south of Captain’s Flat on Cooma Road, Portion 34. Mandurama-Walli: (a) Licking Hole Creek: Grid reference, Military Map, Canowindra Sheet: 818450. (b) “Trilobite Hill”: Grid reference, same sheet: 845468. (c) Loc. 7: south of Belubula River, west of Cliefden Caves: Grid 856481, 94. KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD. (d) Loc. 8: north bank of Belubula River, north of Cliefden Caves: Grid 865487. ; Molong: (a) half-way between Molong and Euchareena, Parish of Copper Hill. (6) 5 miles north-west of Euchareena, Portions 4, 10, 84, Par. Nubrigyn. Quaama: 3 miles east of Quaama, on Pipeclay Creek, Portion 17, Par. Cadjangarry. Shoalhaven Gorge: (Locs, 1-12 in Sherrard, 1949) Loc. 18: Barber’s Creek, about 1 mile upstream from junction with Shoalhaven River. Loc. 14: about 100 yards downstream from Loc. 138. Loc. 15: Barber’s Creek (not in sitw). Loc. 16: Shoalhaven River, about 200 yards downstream from mouth of Bungonia Creek. Loc. 17: Shoalhaven River, about 100 yards downstream from mouth of Bungonia Creek. Loc. 18: right bank of Barber’s Creek, in quartzite, near mouth. Loc. 19: Bungonia Creek, upstream almost to limestone. Snowy Mountains : Loc. P.495. Centre of C.P.L. 85, Par. Backalum, Co. Wallace, about 34 miles north of Backalum Creek. Locs. P.486, 326, north-east corner, Portion 84, Par. Backalum. Loc. P.767, right bank Snowy River, north, Portion 118, Par. Beloka, Co. Wallace. Taralga: 6 miles from Taralga on Bannaby road. Tomingley: mine dump in village. Trunkey: near Wilson’s Reef, between Trunkey and Newbridge. Tumbarumba: Carboona Gap, in road cutting, 18 miles south-west of Tumbarumba and 10 miles north-east of Jingellic. Tumut Pond: south of Tumut River, south-east of camp, 1700 feet above it. Grid Reference: Military Map, Toolong Sheet: 295168. Wellington: Res. 6, Par. Nanima, 13 miles north-west of Wellington on Wuuluman Road. Woodstock: 1 mile north of Woodstock. Grid Reference: Military Map, Canowindra Sheet: 810305. Yalgogrin: 3 miles north of Yalgogrin North, Portion 30, Par. Murrengrew (S.E.) and Portion 11, Par. Brolga (N.E.). SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS. Order GRAPTOLOIDEA. Family IsocrapTip™. Genus Isograptus Tsograptus caduceus var. tenuis Harris, 1933. Plate X, fig. 5. Graptolites (Didymograpsus) caduceus (Salter), McCoy, 1874, Prod. Pal. Vic. Dec. 2; 30, Pl. XX, figs. 3-5. Tsograptus caduceus var. tenuis Harris, 1933, 93, figs. 53, 54. Horse-shoe shaped rhabdosome, stipes diverging downward first at 115 degrees, then upward at 300 degrees; stipes up to 1 mm, wide, Thece almost ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 95 conical, 0-5 mm. wide at aperture but 0:25 mm. initially; 10 thece in 10 mm. 2-2 mm. long, inclined at 15 degrees, overlap one-fifth, apertures everted with strong denticle. Sicula stout and blunt. Associates: Nemagraptus explanatus var. pertenuis, Dendroid. Locality: Licking Hole Creek, Mandurama. Family LeproGrapPripa. Genus Leptograptus. Leptograptus capillaris (Carruthers). Plate XI, fig. 8. Leptograptus capillaris (Carr.), Elles and Wood, 1908; 112; Pl. XV, figs. 4, a-d. Stipes crowded and interlocked on slabs. Curved into almost complete circles. Stipes 0-4-0-6 mm. wide. Thece 10 in 10 mm., about 15 mm. long, overlap one half, ventral walls sigmoidally curved; apertures with denticles sometimes forming semi-circular excavation, sometimes introverted. No sicula seen. No associate on same slab. Locality: Public Reserve, Long Point, Tallong (Loc. 5, Sherrard, 1949). Leptograptus flaccidus (Hall). Plate X, fig. 3. Leptograptus flaccidus (Hall), Elles and Wood, 1903, 106; Pl. XIV, figs. 1, a—g. Stipes diverge at 215 degrees then after horizontal development of first theca, bend till 140 degrees between stipes, which may be over 8 cm. long when broken on edge of slab. Width 0°6 mm. proximally, 1:2 mm. distally. Sicula 2mm. long. Thece, 8-10 in 10 mm., proximal thece being more widely spaced, each 2 mm. long, overlap one-third. Ventral margins, sigmoidally curved. Apertures often introverted, forming semi-circular excavation. Locality, Associates: Orthograptus calcaratus, Climacograptus bicornis (at Yass River, Loc. 1); none at Barber’s Creek, Shoalhaven River. Nemagraptus explanatus var. Der tenins (Lapworth). Plate X, fig. 2 Nemagraptus explanatus var. pertenuis eee Elles and Wood, 1903, 134; Pl. XIX, figs. 7, a-f. habdvsomes Ecomplete: Very slender, gracefully curved stipes, dorsally flexed describing almost semi-circles, 0:25-0:35 mm. wide Angle of divergence 60 degrees, square axil. Stipes about 1-5 cm. preserved. Thece 9-11 in 10 mm. Thece 15-2 mm. long, almost no overlap, apertures apparently introverted. Thin branches about 1 cm. long rarely project from a theca. Associates: Retiograptus geinitzianus, Glyptograptus teretiusculus. Locality: Licking Hole Creek, Mandurama. Family DicrANoGRAPTID®. Genus Dicranograptus. Dicranograptus ramosus var. spinifer Lapworth. Plate X, fig. 4. Dicranograptus ramosus var. spinifer Dapwoutl Elles and Wood, 1904, 176; Pl. XXIV, figs. 8, a—c. Biserial section 2 cm. long, fusiform in alveepe 1:0 mm. wide proximally, 3 mm. wide at 6 mm., decreases to 2°5 mm. near bifurcation, All biserial 96 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD. thece spined, 14 thece in first 10 mm. Virgella 0-5 mm. long. Spines generally appear apertural, sometimes mesial, up to 1 mm. long. Thece with curved ventral wall, 2 mm. long, overlap one-half, apertures generally slightly intro- verted. Uniserial stipes enclose angle of 40 degrees, they are 2 mm. wide, 11 thece in 10 mm., each 2 mm. long, overlap one-half, ventral walls curved, introverted apertures, no spines. Uniserial stipes broken at 3-5 cm. Associates: Dicranograptus ramosus var. hians, Plegmatograptus nebula, Locality: Shoalhaven River, 100 yards downstream from mouth of Bungonia Creek (Loc. 17). Dicranograptus ramosus var. hians (T. S. Hall). Dicranograptus hians T. S. Hall, 1905, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. (n.s.), XVIII; 24; Pl. VI, fig. 6. Biserial section 3 mm. long, 15 mm. wide, with four thecz on each side, each with rounded ventral walls. Uniserial stipes enclose angle of 110 degrees, they are 0-8 mm. wide and curve back towards one another slightly in 5 cm. or more of length. Thece 10 in 10 mm., each 2 mm. long, with ventral wall curved, overlap one-quarter. Well-marked septum in biserial section. Spines seldom seen. This species is identical with specimens A 19567 a, b in the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, labelled Dicranograptus ramosus var. deflexus Elles ms. and regarded as equivalent to Dicranograptus spinifer var. geniculatus Ruedemann, 1908. T. S. Hall’s published name takes precedence. Associates and Locality: as for D. ramosus var. spinifer. Family DiPpLoGRapTip™®. Genus Climacograptus. Climacograptus wilsont var. tubularis Elles and Wood. Plate XI, fig. 18. cf. Climacograptus wilsont var. tubularis Elles and Wood, 1906, 199; PI. XXVI, fig. 138. Rhabdosome up to 65 cm. long, not including virgula. Width, 0-5 mm. proximally, 2-5 mm. distally, virgella thread-like 3 mm. long, though seldom retained. Basal spines sometimes seen. Thecz 14-12 in 10 mm. each 1:5—2 mm. long, 0:4—0°6 mm. wide. Thece impressed below, aperture concave, denticle at apertural angle, overlap one-half. Exvacation marked, Septum incomplete. Thece alternate. Associates: Diplograptids. Locality: Wagga Common. Genus Diplograptus. Sub-genus Orthograptus. Orthograptus pageanus var. abnormispinosus EWes and Wood. Plate XI, fig. 11. Orthograptus pageanus var. abnormispinosus Elles and Wood, 1907, 226; Pl. XXVITI, fig. 5a. | Rhabdosomes about 3 cm. long, width 1 mm. proximally, increasing to 4 mm. distally. Thece 12 in 10 mm., each 2-5 mm. long, ventral walls sigmoidally curved, each with fine spines but 9th and 10th or 13th and 14th thece have spines 5 mm. long. Basal spines also pronounced. Broad tube within rhabdosome. Virgula 5 mm. long where broken. Localities: Shoalhaven Gorge, Locs. 11, 13, 15, Associate; Climacograptus bicornis, ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 97 Orthograptus calcaratus var. acutus Lapw. Plate XI, fig. 14. Orthograptus calcaratus var. acutus Lapw., Elles and Wood, 1907, 242, Pl. XXX, figs. 3, a—c. Rhabdosomes up to 6 cm. long and 4 mm. wide. Proximal end blunt. Thece 11-9 in 10 mm. normally, but 5 in 10 mm. in distorted forms. Each theca 3-5 mm. long, many with pronounced flange at angle of apertural and ventral walls. The long, thin forms from Captain’s Flat seem best compared with this species. At this locality rhabdosomes up to 10 cm. long where broken distally. Complete proximally, 1-5 mm. wide proximally, 3:3 mm. wide at 2 cm., 4-0 mm. at 3°5 cm., which width is maintained. Short faint virgella in one specimen. Two curved basal spines, basal theca 1 mm. long with ventral wall horizontal for half length then curved vertically downward ending in basal spine. Later thece with half ventral wall vertical then bent in right angle and curving sigmoidally downward. LHarly thece 2 mm. long. Overlap about one- third. Apertures slightly everted. Proximal thece 10 in 10 mm. Periderm very thin but visible. At 3-5 cm. from proximal end, thece 45 in 10 mm. At this distance the periderm is absent, lists outline thece. A very strong parietal list, ogee in shape, which is thicker on one side of rhabdosome than other, is joined to a fainter but distinct pleural list marking outer ventral wall and hour-glass-like in shape. Faint septal strands, apparently zig-zag can also be discerned. At this distance from proximal end, all thecz at least 3 mm. long, overlap apparently slight. Where parietal and pleural lists meet a denticle is formed. In spite of its greater length and tenuous periderm it bears comparison with normal specimens of O. calcaratus var. acutus from Tomingley. The greater length may be due to distortion. It also suggests Retiograptus. Associate: Mesograptus cf. multidens. Localities: Tomingley, Captain’s Flat. Sub-genus ‘‘ Mesograptus ”’. Mesograptus ingens (T. S. Hall). Plate XI, fig. 9. Diplograptus ingens T. 8S. Hall, 1906, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., 1, 276; PI. XXXIV, fig. 7. Glossograptus quadrimucronatus var. paucithecatus Decker, 1935, 708; figs. 2, i-k. Mesograptus ingens (T. 8S. Hall), Keble and Benson, 1939, 81. Rhabdosomes large, F 30418, Aust. Mus. from Queanbeyan, 6 cm. long where cut off at edge of slab. Width at broad proximal end is 3 mm., 3:3 mm. at 1 cm., 45 mm at 3 cm. Thin virgella produced 4 mm., two mesial spines, curved, on basal thecze, each 2 mm. long. Ventral edges of basal thece arranged horizontally. 11 thece in 10 mm., each 2 mm. long, ventral walls Sigmoidally curved, apertures introverted, overlap one-half. Specimen from Loc. 50 Yass (Pl. XI, fig. 9), 2 cm. long, 2 mm. wide at blunt proximal end, increasing to 7 mm. wide at 1 cm. and decreasing to 6 mm. distally. Thece 9 in 10 mm., each straight tube with everted apertures and suggestion of short Spine on some. Curved basal spines 2 mm. long. Virgula broken off at edge of slab. Another specimen from Queanbeyan shows a fragment of M. ingens, 9 cm. long, crossing a slab of slate from side to side with neither proximal nor distal 98 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD. end visible. It is 3 mm. wide throughout and is traversed by a broad, virgular tube. Thece of typical undulate shape are 9 in 10 mm. with faint spines. Associate: Dicellograptus morrisi. Localities: Queanbeyan; Loc. 50, Yass River; Yalgogrin. Mesograptus multidens Elles and Wood. Plate XI, fig. 18. cf. Mesograptus multidens Elles and Wood, 1907, 261; Pl. XX XI, figs. 9, a—d. Rhabdosomes up to 4:5 cm. long, complete proximally but not distally ; from 4°5 to 11 mm. wide with the average 8-9 mm. wide. Rhabdosomes widen rapidly from initial breadth of 2 mm. at the broad proximal end. Short, basal spines. Thece 8 in 10 mm., each about 4 mm. long and 0°5 mm. wide, overlap one-third. Test very attenuated, graptolite preserved as network with strongly developed parietal lists. Central virgular tube conspicuous, which is typical of M. multidens, though width of rhabdosomes too great and thece per 10 mm. too few for typical MW. multidens. However, the slate at Captain’s Flat in which cf. M. multidens occurs, has suffered intense pressure, which could have caused a graptolite which is convexo-concave in cross-section (as all Mesograpti are) to roll out to a great width. The dimensions of this graptolite under description agree more closely with those of J/. ingens, but M. ingens does not occur with Cryptograptus tricornis and Nemagraptus explanatus var. pertenuis (of more or less normal width) which have been collected from the same locality though not on the same slabs as the Mesograptus. Associate (on same slabs): cf. Orthograptus calcaratus var. acutus. At the same locality on different slabs Cryptograptus tricornis, Nemagraptus explanatus var. pertenuis. Locality: Railway station, Captain’s Flat. Sub-genus Glyptograptus. Glyptograptus tamariscus Nicholson. Plate XI, fig. 19. Glyptograptus tamariscus Nicholson, Elles and Wood, 197, 247; Pl. XXX, figs. 8, a-—d. Rhabdosome 5°5 mm. long of which virgella, which is complete, occupies 0:5 mm., increases in width from 0:6 to 1:4 mm., then slightly decreases. Thece alternate, 9 on each side, ventral wall with flowing sigmoidal curvature, thecze up to 155 mm. long, overlap one-quarter to one-third. Excavation one- quarter width of rhabdosome. Apertural margins concave. Associate: Monograptus intermedius. Locality: Cadia district. Glyptograptus teretiusculus (Hisinger). Plate XI, fig. 16. Glyptograptus teretiusculus (Hisinger), Elles and Wood, 1907, 250; Pl. XXXI, figs. 1, a-e. | Rhabdosomes up to 3 cm. long, seldom complete but one or two with conspicuous virgella 2 mm. long, and short basal spines. Virgula sometimes conspicuous, up to 25 mm. long. Well marked septum. Proximal width 0:5 mm. increasing to not more than 2 mm. Thece up to 16 in 10 mm., alternate, 1:5 mm. long, overlap one-sixth to one-third, ventral wall sigmoidally curved, drawn out to denticle. Excavation pouch-like, taking up one-half ventral margin and one-third width of rhabdosome, This graptolite differs from ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 99 Glyptograptus teretiusculus var. euglyphus in having far more thece per 10 mm. Associates: Isograptus caduceus, Nemagraptus explanatus var. pertenuis, Dicranograptus zic zac. Localities: Mandurama District, Cadia, Tumut Pond. Family GLOSSOGRAPTID. Genus Retiograptus. Retiograptus geinitzianus Hall. Plate XI, fig. 20. Retiograptus geinitzianus Hall, Elles and Wood, 1908, 316; Pl. XXXIV, figs 7, a-d. Rhabdosomes up to 8 mm. long and 2 mm. wide, exclusive of spines. Longest spines are 1:5 mm. long, occurring in central part of rhabdosome, where they are twice as long as others. Rhabdosomes devoid of test, except for slight indications in proximal portions up to about 3rd theca. Each rhabdosome formed of clathria of horizontal and vertical lists outlining thecze which are diplograptid in shape and measure 15 in 10 mm., overlapping about three-fifths of length. Thece about 15 mm. long and 0-75 mm. wide, with two spines at intersection of apertural and ventral margins of thece, one stiff and straight, one drooping. Along mid-line of rhabdosome appears another set of thecz as though the cross-section were cruciform. Stout virgella visible. Associates: Glyptograptus teretiusculus, Nemagraptus explanatus var. pertenuis. Localities: Licking Hole Creek, Mandurama, Tomingley. Genus Lasiograptus. Lasiograptus mucronatus var. bimucronatus (Nicholson), Elles and Wood. Lasiograptus mucronatus var. bimucronatus (Nicholson), Elles and Wood, 1908, 328; Pl. XXXITI, figs. 8, a-e. Rhabdosome up to 4 cm. length revealed, increasing in width from 1:5 mm. to 45 mm. Thece 14 in 10 mm., about 3 mm. long, apertural margins concave, apertural angles slightly introverted, slender spines visible on some. Very pronounced excavation, one-third width of rhabdosome. In one case a membrane connects many of the elongated spines giving the appearance of a flag 25 mm.-long and 0:6 mm. wide flung out from either side of the rhabdosome. These represent the scopulate processes seen in this variety. The rhabdosome has a lax appearance. Locality: Tumut Pond. | Family Monocraprip. Genus Monograptus. Monograptus triangulatus (Harkness). Plate XI, fig. 22. Monograptus triangulatus (Harkness), Elles and Wood, 1918, 471; Pl. XLVII, figs. 4, a-f. Rhabdosome incomplete, convexly curved, 7 mm. long, width including thece 15 mm. 9 triangular thece, scarcely in contact, each about 2 mm. long, with ventral (lower) edge crescentic, very slightly recurved at tip. Greatest width of theca 0-5 mm. Associates: M. intermedius, ?Rastrites longispinus. Locality: Portion 112, Par. Carlton. Cadia district. 100 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD. Monograptus intermedius (Carruthers). Plate XI, fig. 21. Monograptus intermedius (Carr.), Elles and Wood, 1913, 485; Pl. XLIX, figs. 3, a-c. Rhabdosomes incomplete, 1-5 cm. long; 0-6 mm. wide including barb, ventral curvature, thece 10 in 10 mm., each about 1:5 mm. long, overlap one-half, ventral margin sigmoidally curved with recurved barb. Associates and locality: as for M. triangulatus. Rastrites longispinus (Perner). Plate XI, fig. 21. ?Rastrites longispinus (Perner), Elles and Wood, 1914, 489; Pl. L, figs. 2, a—g. Distal fragment 5 mm. long, shows slight convex curve and is not more than 0-25 mm. wide. Thece 4 in 5 mm., on convex side of rhabdosome, each 4 mm. long with reflexed apertural termination. Associates and locality: as for M. triangulatus. SUMMARY. Rocks from over one hundred localities in New South Wales containing graptolites have been placed in seven zones of Ordovician age and six zones and one sub-zone of Silurian age on the basis of the assemblages of graptolites they contain. Correlations with graptolite-bearing strata in other countries are suggested. Some of the localities have not been recorded previously as possessing graptolite-bearing strata, and some of the graptolites are recorded and described for the first time for New South Wales. Lists of assemblages of graptolites identified from each locality are given. The localities are shown on a sketch-map, on which is shown also, where possible, the direction of the general fold axes of the Ordovician strata. REFERENCES. Boucek, B., 1937. Bull. Soc. Geol. France, 5th Ser., 7, 456. Brown, I. A., 1931. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 56, 468. Brown, I. A., and Sherrard, K. M., 1952. Tuis Journat, 85, 127. Browne, W. R., 1944. THis JoURNAL, 77, 156. Bulman, O. M. B., 1947. Mon. Pal. Soc., 101, 7. David, T. W. E., and Browne, W. R., 1950. Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia. Arnold. Decker, C. E., 1935. Journ. Pal., 9, 434, 703. Dun, W. S., 1897, 1898. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 5, 124, 179. Elles, G. L., and Wood, E. M. R., 1901-1918. Mon. Pal. Soc., 55-70. Elles, G. L., 1925. Geol. Mag., 62, 337. 1940. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 95, 383. Hadding, A., 19138. Lunds Uni. Arsskr. N.F., Afd. 2, 9. Hall, T. S., 1900, 1902. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 7, 16, 49. —-——— 1909. JIbid., 8, 340. Harris, W. J., 1924. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), 36, 103. —_—_—— 1933. Jfbid., 46, 93. Harris, W. J., and Keble, R. A., 1929. Ibid., 42, 27. Harris, W. J., and Thomas, D. E., 1938. Min. and Geol. Journ. Vict., 1, 62. Hede, J. E., 1918. Geol. Unders. Arsbk., 12, 8, Ser. C, 291. —-_-__— 1950." Lamds Uniw. Arsskr. NF ., Afd. ‘46, 7. Joplin, G. A. 1945. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 70, 158. Keble, R. A., and Benson, W. N., 1929. Trans. Proc. N.Z. Inst., 59, 842. eee 6D Mem. Nat: Moss clo UY, Keble, R. A., and Harris, W. J., 1925. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., 4, 515. $e EI em.” Nate Minis, Melb S ton: Keble, R. A., and Macpherson, J. H., 1941. Rec. Aust. Mus., 21, 47. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVII, 19538, Plate X. 4 3, Plate XI. 5) CYS Of ENS. W., Vol. DX XMVAT, 19: ve Journal Royal Soc wieate ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 101 Kettner, R., and Boucek, B., 1936. Prague Univ. Geol. Pal. Trav., 18. Mitchell, J., 1886. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1, 577, Naylor, G. F. K., 1935. Tuis JourRNAL, 69, 123. —_—_____—__—_——. 1938. Jbid., 71, 45. —__—_—_—_—__—_—__——— _ 1939. Ibid., 72, 129. —__—___—_—_—— 1950. Ibid., 83, 279. Opik, A. A., 1952. Commonwealth of Aust. Bur. Min. Res. Records, 1952/12. (Unpubl. t) —— 1954. Geology of the Canberra City District in Canberra, A Nation’s Capital. Pocodk. R. W., and Whitehead, T. H., 1948. Welsh Borderland (2nd ed.) Geol. Surv. and Mus. London. Pribyl, A., 1951. Bull. Internat. Acad. Tcheque des Sciences. 1. Raggatt, H. G., 1950. Min. Dept. N.S.W. Geol. Rept. 1939-45, 57. Ruedemann, R., 1947. Geol. Soc. America, Mem. 19. Sherrard, K., 1943. THis JourRNAL, 76, 252. —_—__—__—_——- 1949. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 74, 62. —___—_—_—_——. 1952. Tuis JOURNAL, 85, 63. Stevens, N. C., 1950. Aust. J. Sci., 13, 83. —-——__—_—_—— 1952. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 77, 114. —-——_—__—__—_—— 1954. Jbid., 78, 262. Stevens, N. C., and Packham, G. H., 1953. Tuis JourNAL, 86, 94. Thomas, D. E., 1932. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 44, 268. —_—_—_—_—__—_—_——— 1947. Mem. in relation to Geol. Surv. Vict., No. 16. Thomas, D. E., and Keble, 1933. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 45, 50. Tullberg, S. A., 1882. Sver. Geol. Undersok., Ser. C, 50. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE X. Fig. 1.—Cf. Amphigraptus divergens var. radiatus Lapw. and Climacograptus bicornis (Hall), Stockyard Flat Ck. (F.3412, Mining Museum). Mag. x4. Fig. 2.—Nemagraptus explanatus var. pertenuis (Lapw.), Licking Hole Ck. Mag. x3. Fig. 3.—Leptograptus flaccidus (Hall), Barber’s Ck., Shoalhaven Gorge. Mag. x 2. Fig. 4.—Dicranograptus ramosus var. spinifer Lapworth, Loc. 17, Shoalhaven Gorge. Mag. x1. Fig. 5.—Isograptus caduceus var. tenuis Harris, Licking Hole Ck. Mag. xl. Fig. 6.—Diucellograptus elegans Carr., Loc. 31, Yass River. Mag. x1. Fig. 7.—Dicellograptus elegans and D. morris, holotype of ‘‘ Dicellograptus affinus”’ T. 8. Hall, Stockyard Flat Ck. (F.3402, Mining Museum). Mag. xl. PuateE XI. Fig. 8.—Leptograptus capillaris (Carr.), Long Point Lookout, Tallong. Mag. x2. Fig. 9.—Mesograptus ingens (T. S. Hall), Loc. 50, Yass. Mag. x2. Fig. 10.—Dicellograptus morrist Hopk., Wambrook Ck., Cooma. Mag. x1. Fig. 11.—Orthograptus pageanus var. abnormispinosus E. & W., Barber’s Ck., Shoalhaven Gorge. Mag. x2. Fig. 12.—Mesograptus foliaceus (Murch.), Loc. gl, Cadia. Mag. x3. Fig. 13.—Mesograptus cf. multidens or ingens, Captain’s Flat. Mag. x2. Coll. Bureau of Mineral Resources. Fig. 14.—Cf. Orthograptus calcaratus var. acutus Lapw., Captain’s Flat. Mag. x1. Fig. 15.—Hallograptus mucronatus (Hall), Tumut Pond. Mag. x1. Fig. 16.—Glyptograptus teretiusculus (His.), as for Fig. 2. Mag. x3. Fig. 17.—Orthograptus calcaratus (‘‘ Climacograptus hastata’’, T. S. Hall, holotype), F.3400, Mining Museum. Mag. x1. Fig. 18.—Climacograptus wilsoni var. tubularis E. & W., Wagga. Mag. x1. Fig. 19.—Glyptograptus tamariscus Nich., Portion 113, Par. Carlton, Cadia. Mag. x3. Fig. 20.—Retiograptus geinitzianus Hall, Loc. as for Fig. 2. Mag. x3. Fig. Sie onograptus intermedius (Carr.) and ? Rastrites longispinus (Perner), Loc. as for Fig. 19. ag. x3. Fig. 22.—Monograptus triangulatus (Hark.), Loc. as for Fig. 19. Mag. x8. Note.—Nos. 2, 5, 8, 12, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22 collected by Mr. N. C. Stevens. Nos. 3, 4, 11 collected by Messrs. M. MacKellar and K. Crook. THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF BACKHOUSIA MYRTIFOLIA HOOKER HT HARVEY. Part II. THE OCCURRENCE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL FORMS. By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.L, H. H. G. McKERN, A.A.C.1., and (Mrs.) M. C. SPIES, A.A.C.I., Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Sydney. Manuscript received, July 23, 1953. Read, November 4, 1953. SUMMARY. The essential oils from foliage of four trees of Backhousia myrtifolia Hooker et Harvey from Fraser Island, Queensland, have been examined. One of the oils corresponded to the form originally described by Penfold (Part I, 1922) in containing elemicin as the major constituent. Two oils contained iso-elemicin as major constituent, whilst the fourth consisted principally of methyl iso- eugenol. The detection of methyl eugenol in substantial amount, together with the foregoing phenol ethers, in an oil distilled from a “ bulk-cut ”’ of foliage from the same population indicates the probable existence of a third physiological form within this species. A biosynthetic mechanism appears to be in operation in this species, similar to that in Melaleuca bracteata F. Muell. (Penfold et al., 1950). The occurrence of iso-elemicin in nature is recorded for the first time. INTRODUCTION. In Part I, Penfold (1922) showed that the essential oil obtained on steam- distillation of the foliage of Backhousia myrtifolia Hooker et Harvey collected from the vicinity of Sydney and southwards to Currowan, N.S.W., consists of 75 to 80 per cent. of elemicin (1,2,6-trimethoxy-4-allylbenzene), no other phenol ether being detected. Recently, however, a consignment of mixed foliage collected from several trees of the same species from Fraser Island, Queensland, was steam-distilled, and the essential oil was found to differ markedly from the elemicin form previously described, which is now designated the Type. The essential oil from this bulk cut of foliage (Part A in the Experimental section), like that from the Type, was heavier than water ; but, in addition to elemicin, it contained methyl zso-eugenol as a major constituent, together with methyl eugenol and iso-elemicin. The presence of the asarones was suspected from the high refractive index of the iso-elemicin fraction, but the quantity of material available did not permit separation. Associated with the phenol ethers are small amounts of terpenes (principally «-pinene), unidentified esters, paraffins, and an alkali-soluble substance. In order to determine whether these trees all produce the above mixture of compounds, or whether the population is made up of a number of physiological forms, samples of leaf from individual trees were secured, and the oils submitted to separate examination (Part B of the Experimental section). It was found that it is highly probable that individual trees produce oils containing as a major ESSENTIAL OIL OF BACKHOUSIA MYRTIFOLIA. 103 constituent a single phenol ether only. The occurrence of different but closely related compounds aS major constituents in individual trees of the same species is very interesting from the biogenetic point of view, particularly as a similar series of compounds has been found in Melaleuca bracteata F. Muell. (Penfold et al., 1950). Apparently a similar biosynthetic mechanism is in operation in both species. The occurrence in nature of iso-elemicin is of interest, since this is the first instance of which the authors are aware. Further work on this species is in progress, since the presence of further forms in other localities is suspected. | HXPERIMENTAL. (All melting points are uncorrected.) (A) Mixed Foliage. The foliage used consisted of air-dry leaves and terminal branchlets weighing 184-5 lb., which on steam-distillation yielded 0-359% of an amber-coloured heavier-than-water oil, possessing the following characteristics : Specific gravity at 15°/15° .. us - seleO3i Refractive index at 20°C. . 1-5368 Optical rotation, 100 mm. tube .. Too dark to read Do., after NaOH wash +0-29° Solubility in 70% (W/W) alcohol ; .. 1-0 volume Acid number, mg. KOH/g. .. a ie Re hay Ester number, mg. KOH/g. .. Bs Sa -- 16°6 Do., after acetylation ae Me mA 81049 The crude oil (160 ml.) was shaken twice with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution (10% ; 100 ml.), twice with brine (15% ; 100 ml.) and finally with water (50 ml.). The pale amber- coloured oil had dae 1-031, ney 1-5372 and «, +0-29°, after drying with anhydrous magnesium sulphate. From the alkaline extract was obtained 0-665 g. of a viscous liquid of phenolic odour and giving a fugitive dirty violet colour with alcoholic FeCl, solution. Its identity could not be: determined. Fractional Distillation (see Table 1). 135 ml. of the alkali-washed oil were fractionally’ distilled at 10 mm., using a dry-ice and acetone trap between the fraction take-off and the vacuum. pump. KK TABLE 1. Boiling qis 20 Ln Fraction. Range. Volume. 15 2D Trap —— 1-6 ml. 0- 8664 1-4742 Inactive. ] 42°— 60° 8-6 ,, 0-8590 1-4743 Inactive. 2 60°— 80° 2-0 ., 0- 8584 1-4792 +2-6° 3 80°-115° Ascites 0-9104 1-4775 +3:1° 4 115°-126° Ora. «55 0:-9747 1-5110 —1-6° 5 126°-136° ZBOeO.,, 1-040 1-5444 Inactive. 6 136°-140° 43-5 ,, 1-060 1-5544 Inactive. 7 140°-144° Loe bars, 1-069 1-5436 Inactive. 8 144°-151° SOuilass 1-074 1-5391 Inactive. 9 151°-157° LOO «5, 1-083 1-5519 +0-21° Residue — 48. 5, —- 1-543 — (approx.) 104 PENFOLD, McKERN, AND SPIES. Determination of x-pinene. The 1-6 ml. from the trap was mixed with fraction 1 and the first 7 ml. (b.p. 156°-165°) slowly distilled off at 760 mm. This yielded a nitrosochloride, m.p. 103°-104° (decomp.), undepressed on admixture with an authentic specimen of «-pinene nitro- sochloride of m.p. 103°. Each was then recrystallized to 107° and 107-5° respectively, and no depression of m.p. of the mixed product was noted. A final recrystallization to m.p. 110° and 109° respectively showed a mixed m.p. of 109-5°. A further portion of this fraction (4 ml.) was oxidized in the usual way with permanganate to furnish an acid which failed to crystallize, and which was converted directly to a semicarbazone of m.p. 207°, undepressed by admixture with an authentic specimen of dl-pinonic acid semi- carbazone. Other Terpenes. Fraction 2, terpenic in nature, failed to yield either a nitrosite or a bromide. Limited quantity of material prevented further investigation. Determination of Methyl Eugenol. From fraction 5 was prepared, on re-fractionation, a fraction having dae 1-028, ne 1-5348, a, +0°. The fraction (2 ml.) when brominated by the method of Underwoeal Baril, and Toone (1930) yielded white needles, m.p. 77° from absolute alcohol, undepressed on admixture with an authentic specimen of bromoeugenol methyl ether dibromide. Another portion of the fraction (7 ml.), oxidized with aqueous potassium perman- ganate according to Wallach and Rheindorff (1892), yielded veratric acid, m.p. 181-5°, since on admixture with an authentic specimen. Determination of rae Ree eugenol. Fraction 6 was re-fractioned to give a main fraction by) 139°-140°, dae 1-058, me 01-5589, a1, +0°, also yielding veratric acid on permanganate oxidation as just described, but in addition yielding by Underwood, Baril and Toones’ (loc. cit.) procedure a dibromide, m.p. 102° from dry ether, undepressed on admixture with an authentic specimen of methyl iso-eugenol dibromide. Determination of Elemicin. Fractions 7 and 8 were combined, and on re-fractionation a traction was obtained by, 143°, qi? 1-070, ney Lists ew Pes oan +0°. Seven ml. were oxidized with alkaline aqueous potassium permanganate solution (KMnO,, 15-4 g.; KOH, 2-1 g.; H,O, 490 ml., and ice 490 g.). From the reaction mixture, after removal of MnO, and acidification, was isolated trimethyl gallic acid, m.p. 169° from alcohol, undepressed on admixture with an authentic specimen. Ether extraction of the mother-liquor from the precipitation of this acid yielded trimethyl homogallic acid, m.p. 118-5°-119°, undepressed by an authentic specimen. Determination of Iso-elemicin. Fraction 9 (5 g.) was oxidized with KMnO, according to Fabinyi and Széki (1906). A good yield of trimethyl gallic acid was obtained, m.p. 170°, unde- pressed on admixture with authentic material. 0-4092 g. required 19-2 ml. 0-1 N NaOH. Neutralization equivalent, 212-7. Calculated for C,)H,,0;, 212-2. No trimethyl homogallic acid could be found among the products of oxidation. Fraction 9 (1-2 g.), brominated by the procedure of Semmler (1908), yielded 1-0 g. of a white crystalline dibromide, m.p. 91° from petroleum ether. A duplicate preparation gave a product m.p. 90-5°. Found: C, 39-37, 39°14%; H, 4:35, 4-48%; Br, 43-0, 43-2%. Calculated for C,,.H,,O,;Br.: C, 39-15%; H, 4°38%; Br, 43-42%. Occurrence of Paraffins. From the residue (4:8 ml.) in the still-pot a small quantity of a light waxy deposit precipitated which could not be purified to constant melting point. It appeared to be a mixture of higher paraffins. (B) Individual Trees. Four trees, forming part of the population from which the mixed foliage described in (a) was collected, were selected at random and the foliage therefrom steam-distilled to furnish the oils shown in Table 2. Phenol ether contents, calculated as the major phenol ether subsequently found, were determined by the Zeisel method for alkoxy groups. On fractional distillation in vacuo, each of the above oils gave a major fraction of fairly constant boiling point. Data for this fraction only are given in each case. Tree No. 1. by, 148°-144° ; ai 1-054 ; ne 1-5659; «ap, imactive. Bromination as previously described for methyl iso-eigenol yielded a bromide, m.p. 102°, undepressed by methyl ESSENTIAL OIL OF BACKHOUSIA MYRTIFOLIA. 105 iso-eugenol dibromide. Oxidation by permanganate gave a white crystalline acid, m.p. 182°, undepressed on admixture with veratric acid. Tree No. 2. DWyo.5 142°-150° ;s die 1-067 ; mee 1-5312; a, mactive. Seven grammes of the fraction, oxidized by alkaline permanganate, gave two solid acids, m.p. 170° and m.p. 118°-119°, undepressed by trimethyl gallic acid and trimethyl homogallic acid respectively. Neither the fraction nor the still-residue could be induced to give a solid bromide. Tree No. 3. by) 153°-160° ;s die 1-079 ; ma 1-5474 ; o, inactive. Seven grammes oxidized by alkaline permanganate gave a solid acid m.p. 170-5°, undepressed by trimethyl gallic acid- No trimethyl homogallic acid could be found. Bromination yielded a dibromide m.p. 91°, unde- pressed by iso-elemicin dibromide. TABLE 2. Tree Number. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 Weight of leaf .. ae a cei. boelbal. | e2oeomlbs, “44 Ib. 35-5 Ib. Yield of oil : ee cf esl Or hn |. | ORAS 028°, 0-10% Sp. gr. at 15°/15° es Ae i l028 1-027 1-047 1-045 Refr. index, 20°C... ee te 1-5489 1-5181 1-53832 | 1-5411 Opt. rot., 100 mm... Ma +1-0° | Se ue Inactive. Inactive. Solubility in 70% W/W alcohol mA 0-8 vol. | O=Bevol. | 0:8 vol. 0-7 vol. Phenol ether content .. a 80:7% 12ALG, 78°4% 77°5% (cale. as (calc. as (cale. as (cale. as methyl iso- | elemicin). | 180- 180- eugenol). | elemicin) elemicin) Tree No. 4. Only six grammes of oil were obtained from this tree, and this could only be roughly resolved into a main fraction, b,, 148°—156° ; die 1-066 ; ney 1-5449; ap, inactive. It gave, however, a copious yield of a white crystalline dibromide, m.p. 91°-91-5°, undepressed. by 2so-elemicin dibromide. Insufficient material prevented oxidation from being carried out, but this was done for the material from tree No. 3. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. We wish to acknowledge the assistance given us in this work by the Queens- Jand Sub-Department of Forestry, in particular Mr. D. A. Markwell, Forester, Fraser Island ; and by Mr. R. O. Hellyer, A.S.T.C., in many of the analytical determinations. Combustion micro-analyses are by the C.S.I.R.O. Division of Industrial Chemistry. We are indebted to Mr. J. L. Willis, M.Sc., for botanical determinations and much helpful advice and criticism. REFERENCES. Fabinyi and Széki, 1906. Ber., 39, 3680. Penfold, A. R., 1922. Tuis Journat, 56, 125. Penfold, Morrison, McKern and Willis, 1950. Res. Ess. Oils Aust. Flora, Mus. Tech. Appl. Sct., 2, 8. Semmler, F. W., 1908. Ber., 41, 2186. Underwood, Baril and Toone, 1930. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 52, 4090. Wallach and Rheindorff, 1892. Liebig’s Ann., 271, 306. NAR RABEEN GROUP: ITS SUBDIVISIONS AND CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE SOUTH COAST AND NARRABEEN-WYONG DISTRICTS. By F. N. HANLON, B.Sec., Dip.Ed? G. D. OSBORNE, D.Sc., Ph.D.” and H. G. RAGGATT, D.Sc.* With one Text-figure. Manuscript received, August 26, 1953. Read, October 7, 1958. INTRODUCTION. The nomenclature of the Mesozoic rock units in the Cumberland Basin has been dealt with by Hanlon, Joplin and Noakes (1952), the revised nomen- clature being as follows : Wianamatta Group. Hawkesbury Sandstone. Narrabeen Group. These beds are probably of Triassic age.* The present paper deals with the further subdivisions of the Narrabeen Group. It is not proposed to review the literature in detail, as this has already been done in the paper referred to above. However, one point which needs clarifying arises from doubts which have been expressed as to whether the ‘‘ Upper Narrabeen ”’ of Raggatt (1938) should be included in the Narrabeen Group, or whether all the beds above the so-called ‘‘ Chocolate Shales ’”’ should be regarded as part of the Hawkesbury Sandstone. As long ago as 1885 Wilkinson (1885) referred to fossil plants found by himself and David in ‘“ the shale beds immediately underlying the Hawkesbury Sandstone on the coast at Narrabeen ’’. The fossiliferous shale beds are above the so-called ‘‘ Chocolate Shales ’’ and Wilkinson would have included the Upper Narrabeen of Raggatt in the Narrabeen Group. Most authors have followed this procedure in recent years. The authors of this paper have been or are interested mainly in different areas. One (H.G.R.) has worked mostly from the Hawkesbury River north- wards through Gosford and Wyong to the Broke-Denman area. The results of this work were embodied in a thesis (Raggatt, 1938) presented to Sydney University for the degree of Doctor of Science. In the thesis the Narrabeen Group was referred to as the Narrabeen Series and subdivided into Upper, Middle and Lower Narrabeen. Another author (F.N.H.) has been concerned with the stratigraphy of the Narrabeen Group mainly in the Southern Coalfield, where he is conducting a geological re-survey, and neighbouring areas, as well as in the North-western Coalfield to the north-west of Murrurundi. The third author (G.D.O.) has worked in the Pittwater area south of the Hawkesbury 1 Geological Survey, Department of Mines, N.S.W. Collaboration in paper by kind per- mission of the Under Secretary, Department of Mines. 2 Reader in Geology, Sydney University. 3 Secretary, Department of National Development, Canberra. * The possibility that the upper part of the Wianamatta Group may be Jurassic needs to be envisaged. NARRABEEN GROUP. 107 River and in the National Park-Clifton district (Osborne, 1948), his work thus serving, to some extent, as a link between that of the other authors. The present subdivisional names do not accord with the principles laid down in the Australian Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature. The purpose of the present paper is to revise the nomenclature and to indicate the probable cor- relation between the rock units of the South Coast and the Narrabeen-Wyong districts. PROPOSED NOMENCLATURE. The proposed nomenclature and the correlation between the Narrabeen- Wyong and South Coast districts are set out in Table I. Comparative sections from the South Coast through Sydney to the Wyong district are shown in Figure 1. From this it will be seen that there is a general thinning from north to south which applies particularly to the Gosford Formation. TABLE I. Subdivisions of the Narrabeen Group, showing Correlation between the Narrabeen-Wyong and South Coast Districts. Narrabeen-Wyong District. South Coast District. Mangrove Sandstone Member. No members named at this Gosford Formation. Ourimbah Sandstone Member. stage. Wyong Sandstone Member. Bald Hill Claystone. Collaroy Claystone. | Bulgo Greywacke. Tuggerah Formation. Stanwell Claystone. Clifton Sub-Group. | Scarborough Greywacke. Munmorah Conglomerate. Wombarra Shale. Otford Greywacke Member. | ee Coalcliff Greywacke. It will be noted that in the above table the rock unit name of ‘‘ Sub-Group ”’ has been used. The use of this term in cases where no alternative is practicable was approved recently by the A.N.Z.A.A.S. Standing Committee on Styrati- graphic Nomenclature (Raggatt, 1953). In this case the necessity to use the term arises from the desire to alter accepted terminology as little as possible. Present knowledge indicates that the lower part of the Triassic System along the Central Coast of N.S.W. comprises one rock grou» from the top of the Newcastle Coal Measures to the top of the so-called ‘‘ Upper Chocolate Shales ”’, Separated in many areas from the overlying Hawkesbury Sandstone by a forma- tion which in most places at least is lithologically distinct from both. As the term ‘‘ Narrabeen Shale Beds ”’ (Wilkinson, 1887) includes the top beds of the ‘“ Upper Chocolate Shales ”’ and the overlying fossiliferous shales ; and the term ‘* Narrabeen ”’ is generally accepted as including all beds down from the base of the Hawkesbury Sandstone as exposed at Narrabeen to the top of the Newcastle Coal Measures, considerable confusion would probably be caused if the term ‘* Narrabeen ”’ were restricted to either the basal group or the overlying forma- tion. Under these circumstances it is considered advisable to classify the basal unit as a ‘‘ Sub-Group ” and include it and the overlying formation in the Narrabeen Group. 108 HANLON, OSBORNE AND RAGGATT. GOSFORD FORMATION. The formation is typically developed in the Gosford District and is named after the town of Gosford, located in latitude 8. 35° 25’ and longitude HE. 151° 21’. It comprises mainly shales, shaley sandstones and sandstones and was referred to by Raggatt (1938) as the Upper Narrabeen. This author (H.G.R.) was principally concerned with structural geology and, for this reason, only the prominent members in the Gosford Formation which were used as horizon markers for structural control were named. The difference between the Gosford Formation and the overlying Hawkesbury Sandstone in the Gosford District will be apparent from the detailed descriptions given below. Generally speaking, the sandstones contain a much larger proportion of matrix than in the typical Hawkesbury Sandstone and tend towards greywackes in composition. The Gosford Formation crops out in the Narrabeen-Pittwater area, along the lower reaches of the Hawkesbury River to the coast near Gosford, and thence through Ourimbah and to the west of Wyong. It forms the bold coastal cliffs from Box Head to the Skillion at Terrigal. On the near South Coast in the Stanwell Park-Bald Hill area, the upper part of the steep, talus- covered slopes below the mural escarpment formed by the Hawkesbury Sandstone and above the top of the Clifton Sub-Group, comprises sandstones, underlain by shales and siltstones. The maximum thickness of these beds is about 100 feet. The sandstones are typically quartzose and are being mapped by one of us (F.N.H.) as the Undola Sandstone Member at the base of the: Hawkesbury Sandstone. The shales and siltstones are probably the equivalent of the Gosford Formation. Further along the coast towards Sydney, to the north of Garie Beach, the section is so similar in many respects to that at the base of the Gosford Formation in the Pittwater District, that there can be little doubt the beds are equivalent. However, to the west of Sydney in the Warragamba area the lithology of the Gosford Formation closely resembles that of the Hawkesbury Sandstone (Browne, Waterhouse and Moye, 1951) and it is difficult to separate the two formations. It is proposed to give five sections for comparative purposes, namely a generalized section of the beds in the Gosford District, a natural section measured partly at Kangy and partly on the Lisarow-Mt. Elliott Rd., the section recorded in the log of Windeyer’s Hawkesbury River Bore, a section from the Pittwater District, and one from north of Garie Beach on the South Coast. Generalized Section—Gosford District (Raggatt, 1938). Thickness : in Feet. Shale and shaley sandstone. Fossil plants common : 120-150 Mangrove Sandstone Member. Commonly well-bedded and with pebbly base, yellow in colour; cavernous Vane sie 20— 30 Shaley sandstone and shale .. bs 65-— 70 Ourimbah Sandstone Member. Fine to medium sandstone. 30 In places mainly shale with abundant plant impressions, chiefly i in lower half; also shaley sandstone a 70— 80 Wyong Sandstone Member. Medium to coarse sandstone, passing into grit. Usually makes bold Oren ee ae 60-100 Shale and shaley sandstone .. é a4 Lies Le 75-100 Total ae Age ea Be bs ras .. 500-600 The Wyong Sandstone Member forms a most useful horizon for geological mapping. It is a massive coarse to pebbly sandstone which usually makes bold outcrops, rendered all the more conspicuous by the shaley lithology of the underlying strata. It forms the cap to the reservoir hill in Wyong township and thence to the south-west, west and north. 109 NARRABEEN GROUP. 0OO€ V3A371 VIS ooo! 740d ONOAM ‘SJOILISIQ. SUOAMA PUB AOUPAS ‘jSBOD YINOG w9s9M}0q UOT}el[IIION NO11935 O3Sl1VUINID aYuossod 30d VYIAIONIM NONBSIAMVH ‘dnoixy uweeqelleNn Eb Tels) TON JNYOW3IY9 C00€ s2u0jske/) UMoLg-YSIppP2y 232 S2/EYS ayzemhkoun § aucgspues 27 eu7Uo/Suocs Wivd WNOILWN NOLITI9 44119 1VOO PIEUS ELusegioy ey2EM AID YSNOLOGA EDS 2Uu07sKID YAGI [[PMUCIS ayrem beg ofjng 2ucgshElD [Lt PLE ooogt coool BYPEMKIID, FIUD (POD 7 3K31 VAS c/I0AD -F/1S NOLIFITI NOLVWHOL TYOISOD ooo! 110 HANLON, OSBORNE AND RAGGATT. The Ourimbah Sandstone Member forms a small cliff in the type locality and on the catchment of Ourimbah Creek, but is not a persistent horizon like the Wyong and Mangrove Sandstones. The Mangrove Sandstone Member is also a rather distinctive bed and has been used for geological mapping along Mangrove Creek and its tributaries, the headwaters of Wyong Creek, and along Murray’s Run Creek. This sand- stone is usually well-bedded, commonly yellow in colour, and weathers into caverns. Natural Section measured partly at Kangy and partly on the Lisarow-Mt. Hlliott Road. (Raggatt, 1938.) Thickness in Feet Base of renee ey Sandstone. Shale ae = Bi ae a she as om 50 Shaley sandstone sie ae Bas Me aye BS as 100 Shale a a 25 Mangrove Sandstone Member. Shaley_ sandstone, pebbly | base .. 30 Shale ae af 15 Sandy and ferruginous ‘shale with some sandstone ans ik 50 Ourimbah Sandstone Member .. sits si Bie ee Wr 30 Shaley sandstone and shale .. oe ae ie ae ng 60 Hard white sandy shale re tes AS hes we a 20 Wyong Sandstone Member. Sandstone, coarse to pebbly.. as 60 Total one fe ae a sie she ie 440 Section from Windeyer’s Hawkesbury Rwer Bore. (Depth 214 ft. 6 in. to 776 ft.) Thickness Ft... Tn. Shaley sandstone ve ae as ol sh aN e 2. 6 Shale oe . By sb ae ae ie oes 3. 0G Shaley sandstone : Bu es Br a ee at iy i, Broken shaley sandstone ae Bs Be By Me Be 13 3 Sandstone and shale .. ae a ie te ing kee 14 O Sandstone Se a Le we si ue le it. 6 Shaley sandstone | i a ae a an ae oe 3 66 Shale oe : = a3 ee Be be A ae 2.3 Shaley sandstone a wily a a a ars sis Bs seve Sandstone sie ae a ae ate - Be se 10 3 Shaley sandstone hg hes As she am ae ae 6 Chocolate shale fF oe eo ae SI bh So Las Shaley sandstone ore Ene ay ae ae a ae Oe ag Shale : Suge Shale and cacletone 5 9 Sandstone : 3. «6 Shaley sandstone - 2) ie Chert 9 Shaley sandstone 9 Shale . ae 28 use ae a ray 6 Shaley sandstone oat i ae ae a a rsiciagt ag lg Chocolate shale Ex ae a Ps ees a An 4 10 Sandstone and shale .. ae aie 126 Sandstone (probably Mangrove "Sandstone Member. Tee. oa 22) 0 Sandstone, shale and conglomerate .. 3 a ae es 12. cs Sandstone and conglomerate .. ae ae hs B 12.3 Shaley sandstone ae ae me he BS ae sis 12 2 Chocolate shale a on oe re ke a ie D PUaT Shaley sandstone ul is aes S3 de eo a0 Dh 9 Sandstone and shale .. Je Me xe oe Re oF 25 0 Sandstone : os Ae at ae we me ae 12 ye Shaley sandstone ei a si ae Be oe ae 13 (OO Sandstone nee ie se At TO "gg Shaley sandstone and sandstone layers ihe ne =e id 10 2 Shale : : te Be, 6 NARRABEEN GROUP. 111 Thickness Hts in; Shaley sandstone and sandstone layers = Ht ae St; 15 10 Sandstone ie re Br oh ‘8 * a ne 4 0 Grey shale t whe $i: 10 «6 Fine grey sandstone (Ourimbah Sandstone Member (2 ). H.G.R.) oo no Shale and sandstone .. me aes Re Re if. a4 ey) Sandstone : a es a ae a Ses Bie 225 9 Shaley sandstone as as ye as a xt i 3. «0 Shale a3 ie a es Sr ae beg os 4 9 Shale and sandstone es se ae a ws ae on 330 Grey sandstone | 6 0 Ba aiciats + (Probably one Sandstone Member. H.G.R.) Sandstone 5) 30.6 Shale, sandstone and as Sol as oh i es 4 6 Conglomerate... : 5:6 as sie ae Ss ua a Hard shaley sandstone : ne Pe ee ee ll 2 Shaley sandstone and sandstone layers a ae ae es 12 3 Sandstone ; ae ve oF ne 12 6 Shaley sandstone ‘and sandstone layers e aes ss an 12 6 Grey shale as ss ae oe Bie a sae a 6 3 Shale and sandstone .. ~ us aan ue =p as 10 +O Sandstone ae ape Ss - os 7 a ae 7 3 Total me in a ve ae ie =. ~ 06L- <6 Section, Pittwater District. (Osborne, 1948.) Thickness in Feet Sandy shales and flaggy sandstone .. ee bs ae 90 Sandstone, massive (Bilgola Sandstone Member) aes ee ae 46 Shales and sandstones, Sea ee banded a = a 35 Sandstone, brown , a 36 ae 15 Conglomerate lenses... ee = Me i a ss 12 Shale Sandstone Shale Sandstone Shale Sandstone Shale : Pebbly ironstone om a Sandstone, finely laminated, current- bedded, z “slump ” and “ rill ”’ structure, honeycomb weathering = = me ahs 9 Shale ess Sandstone Shale Sandstone Shale Sandstone Shale Sandstone Shale Sandstone : Sandy shale, finely laminated, “with plant remains. Sandstone, purplish, with odd shale fragments and swirl marks Sandstone, purplish, alternating with shale : Sandstone, coarse, with washouts and pockets of carbonaceous shale : Sandstone, fine, with little purplish * shale breccia. Ripple marks well developed ‘ ot Clayshale Shales, fine, black, ‘with good ripple marks and plant 1 remains Sandstone, fine, shaley with ripple marks Sandstone, red, climatically banded Shale, flaky, sandy Shale, swirl-marked 15 LO ell eel ell SOO) bole bole eee) —/, 24 HB Re bo OB bo & bb bo non DO Oo Oo ey ke OU — 112 places cross-bedded. HANLON, OSBORNE AND RAGGATT. Sandstone, shaley, fine current-bedded Shale, black Sandstone, laminated, ripple- marked _ Shale, sandy, fine, with plant remains Sandstone, black and ironstone nodules Worm tracks in quartzitic sandstone Shale, sandy, pe suiaically bedded Ironstone shales Sandstone and shales Sandstone, fine, laminated ie, Sandstone, shaley, with cylindrical sand-casts Ironstone Sandstone Shale Sandstone Shale with siderite ; sis Sandy shale, current- bedded .. Sandstone He Shale Sandstone Shale Sandstone : Sandstone, purplish, fine, ripple- marked Total kt =) Thickness in Feet 3 1 2 3 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 7 10 2 12 3 9 6 4 4 2 8 10 10 350 —— 1 The Bilgola Sandstone Member is evenly bedded, finely laminated and in It commonly crops out in large freestone beds and is exposed in the quarry just above and to the south of Bilgol a Beach. It is a very useful key horizon for mapping and will probably be found to be equivalent to the Mangrove Sandstone Member. Section on the coast about two miles north of Garie Beach. Greywacke, fine, interbedded with shales as below ; slump bedding in band near middle ae Shale, dark grey to black, being finely laminated in places, abundant plant remains 5 Claystone, grey, grading up into siltstone Siltstone, light grey, indurated oe Claystone, grey to dark grey Siltstone, rhythmically bedded : Greywacke, fine to siltstone, indurated, honeycomb weathering | Shale, dark grey, rhythmically interbedded with fine greywacke. Abundant reed casts on some horizons Siltstone, grey to reddish-brown, two thin pebbly bands composed mainly of quartz and chert ‘ Greywacke, fine, Epyvnrolostlyg interbedded with shale—proportions vary laterally a Siltstone, grey .. Greywacke, coarse grey, similar to topmost bed of Bald Hill Claystone A : Bi Claystone, grey, indurated, sideritic Total CLIFTON SUB-GROUP. comprise the Middle and Lower Narrabeen of Raggatt (1938). has been named after the town of Clifton (latitude S, 34°16’; longitude (Hanlon, 1952). Thickness Ft. In. Pe 8 0 1 6 9 7 Re 8 0O 1 0 6 6 5-6 3.62.0 9 O 1 6 5 0 60 6 The beds are well developed in both the northern and southern areas and The sub-group NARABEEN GROUP. 113 BE. 150° 58’) on the South Coast because the best complete natural sections are exposed in the cliff faces in this area between Clifton and Bulgo Headland. It is proposed to describe and name the formations which make up the sub-group in the South Coast district first and then in the Narrabeen-Wyong area, pointing out probable correlations. South Coast District (Hanlon, 1952). A generalized section of the Clifton Sub-Group in the Clifton District is included in Figure 1. Preliminary examination of bore logs indicates that the formations named will generally be recognizable as far south as Mt. Kembla, but beyond that area identification may not be possible everywhere. The beds comprise greywackes, claystones, shales and greywacke con- glomerates. The pronounced rhythmical character of the sedimentation, on both a major and minor scale, has previously been pointed out by one of the authors (Osborne, 1948). The most outstanding feature of the sediments is the reddish-brown colour which characterizes many of the claystones and shales, and to a lesser extent some of the greywackes. Claystones and shales in various shades of green are alsocommon. In the Gosford District green beds are almost as common as those coloured reddish-brown. The tuffaceous nature of these beds has been referred to by several authors and, at least in part, they appear to represent redistributed tuffs. The beds referred to as greywackes have always been described previously as sandstones. However, recent work by one of the authors (Hanlon, 1952) has caused him to conclude that greywacke is a preferable designation, because the quartz content of these sediments in the Clifton-Bulgo area is less than 50% and generally in the range 10%-20%. Grains of chert, jasper and chalcedonic material are abundant, but claystone, felspar and volcanic rock fragments are also common. The matrix is generally siliceous and clayey and the colour characteristically grey or greenish grey, although to a lesser extent it may be yellowish-grey, green or reddish. Southwards, and particularly westwards, the arenaceous sediments become more quartzose, and in the Burragorang area the Clifton Sub-Group is represented by sandstones with certain beds tending towards arkose or greywacke in composition. In the northern area also the arenites appear to be greywackes rather than sandstones. However, in the absence of any recent collection and examination of the complete sequence the old ter- minology has been retained. The term greywacke is used purely in a descriptive sense and not in a genetic sense as implying any particular mode of origin for. the sediments. Bald Hill Claystone.—This formation has been previously referred to as the ‘* Chocolate Shales ’’, ‘‘ Upper Chocolate Shales ’”’ and ‘*‘ Upper Red Beds’’. It comprises mainly reddish-brown claystones, with some mottled claystone and reddish-brown greywacke bands in places. A detailed section is given below. The colour is hard to describe exactly—a reddish-brown being perhaps the best general description. It is certainly not a true chocolate colour. Comparison of Specimens with the ‘‘ Rock-Colour Chart ’’ distributed by the National Research Council, Washington, D.C., shows that the colour lies between very dusky red (10R2/2) and greyish-red (10R4/2), the numerical designation 10R3/2 probably being the closest approximation to the normal colour. This is also the colour of the equivalent beds at the top of the Clifton Sub-Group in the Narrabeen District. The thickness of the formation is about 50 feet in the type area at Bald Hill, to the north of Stanwell Park, after which it has been named and where it forms conspicuous outcrops. Under the microscope some bands appear to be tuffaceous and the formation as a whole may represent redistributed tuffs. L 114 HANLON, OSBORNE AND RAGGATT. Section Bald Hill Claystones and upper portion of Bulgo Greywacke—above Bulgo Headland. Thickness Et.) Tm: Breccia, grey and cream, lower part indurated along joints 6 60 Claystone, reddish-brown, numerous small solution cavities 3 66 Claystone, reddish-brown, few cavities, occasional sBromish reat areas up to about 6 inches diameter .. 6 O Claystone, mottled, reddish-brown and light grey 2) GG Claystone, reddish-brown, slightly mottled, represents. gradual transition between zones above and below 6 ,.;0 Claystone, reddish-brown, oa grey mottling, ‘sudden lateral colour changes Be ip : ais, |) Claystone, reddish-brown : £2) 0 Claystone, light reddish- brown, mottled ae ae Claystone to fine greywacke, reddish-brown. tT 8 Base of Bald Hill Claystone—Top of Bulgo Greywacke. Thickness of Bald Hill Claystone, 52 feet. Greywacke, fine to medium, hens grey, pare: reddish-brown in places ae §: : : es es 8 Breccia, medium Greywacke, fine to medium, ‘light Brey, pale reddish- brown i in places : ut a : : Fs oe es 2 Shale, reddish- biotin Greywacke, fine to medium, ‘light grey, pale reddish-brown in places, laterally shows pee mea) with reddish- brown shale : : Claystone, reddish- brown, mottled in ‘part . Greywacke, fine, greenish-grey, odd reddish- brawn Toone Shale, reddish-brown .. = ; Greywacke, greenish-grey, finely bedded Shale, reddish-brown .. Greywacke, fine to medium, light grey Shales, reddish-brown .. Greywacke, fine to medium, light grey : Claystone, reddish-brown, few grey and greenish- -grey bands Greywacke, fine, light greenish-grey Greywacke, rhythmically interbedded reddish-brown and greenish: grey Greywacke, fine to medium, greenish- -grey . Greywacke, fine, a apie interbedded reddish- brown and greenish-grey Greywacke, fine, light grey xe Shale, reddish-brown with odd greenish bands : Greywacke, fine, light grey, up to 18 inches at base softer and shaley Greywacke, fine to medium, irregular breccia band about 1 foot from base . Greywacke, reddish-brown and greenish- _grey Claystone, silty, grey, erey wae bands near centre Greywacke, medium ... ae Claystone, silty, greenish- “grey Greywacke, medium .. — bo Ge WO OnWD > CO SD Bm bo 1c bo — CoCo CoOoooOo OOOO OO OOOO OWAWOOW bo Owwb 0 — =I Total — oo | oO (o.2) In the Burragorang Valley area the beds which are equivalent to the Bald Hill Claystone differ considerably from those on the coast and in many places there are no reddish-brown claystones in the Narrabeen sequence. Bulgo Greywacke.—The Bulgo Greywacke comprises approximately 390 feet of sediments consisting mainly of greywacke and has a somewhat banded appearance due to the weathering of soft greywacke and claystone bands. It forms very prominent outcrops in the Bulgo area, after which it has been named, and northwards towards National Park and southwards in the Coal Cliff-Clifton area. NARRABEEN GROUP. 115 Down to 40 feet particularly, and to almost 100 feet from the top in places, there are a few intercalated beds of reddish-brown claystone and greywacke. However, as these beds would only be mappable in restricted areas, and as they appear to die out in a southerly direction, they have been included in the Bulgo Greywacke and not in the Bald Hill Claystone, which has been restricted so as to include only the main reddish-brown beds which are readily mappable as a unit. It appears likely that the proportion of reddish-brown beds in the upper part of the formation increases northwards and their lower limit may extend further down the sequence. It is for this reason that in the correlation shown in Table I and Figure I the Collaroy Claystone is regarded as equivalent to the upper part of the Bulgo Greywacke as well as the Bald Hill Claystone. A detailed section of the upper part of the Bulgo Greywacke has been given above. No useful purpose would be served by giving a detailed section of the lower part of the formation because it consists of a number of lenticular beds of somewhat different lithology, but generally similar to the overlying and underlying beds. Stanwell Park Claystone.—This formation has been previously known as the ‘‘ Cupriferous Tuffs ’’, ‘‘ Lower Chocolate Shales’? and ‘‘ Lower Red Beds ’’. It outcrops at Stanwell Park and along the bed of Stanwell Creek. It has been named after this locality, although the best natural sections are exposed at Bulgo (see below) and between Coal Cliff and Clifton (see below), which has been taken as the type section. The formation comprises reddish-brown and greenish-grey claystones, greywackes and tufts, the ratio of claystones to the other rock types being in general about three to one. Greenish and bluish calcareous tuffs have been described by one of the authors (Osborne, 1948). Type Section of Stanwell Park Claystone—between Coal Cliff and Clifton. Thickness Ft. In. Claystone, reddish-brown, ies and grey ate a ms ms 18 6 Greywacke, greenish - oy a ; 3 0 Claystone, reddish-brown, green and grey : 330 Greywacke, greenish ; : : 3. 0 Claystone, reddish-brown ie ne 6 0 Greywacke, greenish-grey Bee : as 7 O Claystone, green and reddish- pron 6 O Greywacke, greenish-grey 2 6 Claystone, reddish-grey 4 0 Greywacke, greenish a 1 0 Claystone, grey, green and reddish-brown .. 6 0 Greywacke, fine, speckled ; 1 6 Greywacke, fine, grey and reddish- brown, much speckled 6 O Claystone, reddish- brown and grey with greywacke bands 16 «6 Greywacke, argillaceous, grey with reddish-brown speckling on weathered surface . ue bes af as bs ove 1 0 Total Bie ie se - ne ne or 121 0O Section, Stanwell Park Claystone at Undola. Thickness Ft. In. Claystone, greenish-grey to reddish-brown ; 207 +0 Greywacke, coarse and pebbly at base, grading to medium at top.. 13 OO Claystone, reddish-brown and greenish- Brey a ae ie he 50 Greywacke, medium, fawnish-grey ate Ra a ae o Claystone, reddish-brown and queens -grey Ee bs i 3. («6 Greywacke, medium to fine, greenish and fawn .. 4 0 Claystone, reddish-brown and ene -grey, with thin greywacke bands ; 9 N0 Greywacke, fawn, greenish- -grey, iron-stained 6 0 LL 116 HANLON, OSBORNE AND RAGGATT. Thickness Ft, ine Claystone, reddish-brown, green and grey, grading upwards into fine greywacke .. 14 O Greywacke, medium, greenish- -orey, with reddish- brown claystone 6 60 Greywacke, fine, greenish-grey 7 sks eS A 1 @ 10 =O Greywacke, medium, greenish-grey a we ate ries Claystone, fawn, grey, green and reddish- brown .. one Je 41 0 Claystone, green, grey and reddish-brown, iron-stained .. oe £5.90 Shale, grey, starchy fracture ah 320 Greywacke (6 to 9 inches thick) and alternating shale bands is 9 0O Total sy 8 sis ae sa rs Pa 174 0 Scarborough Greywacke.—The name of the formation is taken from Scar- borough Station, above and north of which it forms prominent outcrops. The formation consists essentially of greywackes and greywacke conglomerates (see section below). It is approximately 80 feet thick and forms prominent cliffs in the Clifton, Coal Cliff, Stanwell Park and Bulgo areas. Section, Scarborough Greywacke—between Coal Cliff and Clifton. Thickness Ft. In. Greywacke, medium to coarse, with pebbly bands : 24 O Greywacke conglomerate, fine, multi-coloured pebbles, grades inbo greywacke above ... 15 6 Greywacke, medium to Coanee, irregular ‘conglomeratic bands, particularly basal 4 feet a3 bie is SA ae 44. 0 Total Ey Pa Pa gs: a ae ae 83 6 Wombarra Shale.—This formation has been named after the village of Wombarra, through which it passes above and to the west of the railway line. It is generally obscured by soil and talus cover. Good natural sections can be seen in the Coal Cliff-Clifton area and the type section given below is taken from this area. It comprises shales, claystones and siltstones with intercalated grey- wackes and ranges in thickness from 100 to 120 feet. About 20 feet from the top there is a bed of greywacke which forms prominent outcrops from Scar- borough northwards through Clifton to Coal Cliff and which can be readily identified in bores at Stanwell Park and Otford. It has been named the Otford Greywacke Member. 'The thickness averages about 20 feet, but varies somewhat due both to lenticularity of individual beds and sharp lateral facies changes of the upper and lower beds to shales. It tends to become conglomeratic in places. Section, Wombarra Shale—between Coal Cliff and Clifton. Thickness Ft. In. Shale, light grey : ate ae ae ate a sie a .08 Greywacke, greenish- _grey a a oe os on BS ligase Shale, grey, starchy fracture 13-0 ( Greywacke, medium, with few pebbly bands, greenish, Otford | grey, soft PP 6 Greywacke <~ Greywacke, medium to ¢ coarse, ‘with pebbly bands. EOS Member Greywacke conglomerate, fine, mostly greenish, multi-coloured pebbles .. ee te Leer d Shale, grey, reddish-brown in places, starchy fracture .. oe 44 0O Greywacke, argillaceous rs bis aa) Shale, grey, starchy fracture, ‘few greywacke bands ay are BD ringed Shale, grey, with numerous greywacke bands ay ne se Lance Total aid We ve +3 vtes aa .. (ADS es NARRABEEN GROUP. di er The beds described as shales comprise also claystones, laminated siltstones and very fine greywackes. It is probable that the basal 19 feet of the section given above may pass laterally into greywackes, and these beds could be the stratigraphical equivalents of the top portion of the Coal Cliff Greywacke at points where the latter is thickest. The shales and claystones are generally greyish in colour, but reddish-brown beds are present in some places. This could lead to incorrect correlations between sections in the Illawarra district and those of adjoining districts in places where the Stanwell Park Claystone is not recognizable. Coal Cliff Greywacke.—This formation consists essentially of medium to coarse greywacke with pebbly bands and forms prominent outcrops in the Scarborough-Clifton-Coal Cliff area. The basal section immediately overlying the Bulli Coal Seam commonly consists of fine to very fine greywacke, indurated in places, and passes into shales in some localities. The thickness ranges from 30 feet at Coal Cliff to over 50 feet at Scarborough, partly due to variable thick- ness of individual beds and partly due to lateral facies changes similar to that referred to in the description of the Wombarra Shale. Section, Coalcliff Greywacke—between Coalcliff and Clifton. Thickness Ft. In. Greywacke, light grey, medium to fine ‘ e ae ‘ 3. «(OO Shale, silty, light grey, indurated bands* .. : : 6 6 Greywacke, medium to coarse, pebbly bands, ironstone con- cretions in places .. 22 «60 Greywacke, very fine, argillaceous, indurated, dark near " under- lying coal seam _ .. ae ae re sis hs i: i Total Ae me Be a Be oat! Pina 32 = «8 * This band passes laterally into greywacke in a southerly direction. Narrabeen-Wyong District (Raggatt, 1938). A generalized section of the Clifton Sub-Group in the Gosford area is given below. Thickness Formation. in Feet. Lithology. Collaroy Claystone .. 400-550 Mainly red and green shales with sandstone beds up to 10 feet thick. 100-150 Sandstone and fine conglomerate. Tuggerah Formation 45-100 Red and green shales. 75-100 Sandstone and fine conglomerate. 40-100 Mainly red and green shales. ( 280 Sandstone and fine conglomerate with some green shales. Munmorah Conglomerate 500 Red, green and grey shales and sandstone with fine conglomerate. Continuous complete natural sections, such as those around Clifton on the South Coast, are not available and therefore it has been necessary to take sections: from bores as types for the formations comprising the Clifton Sub-Group in the Narrabeen-Wyong area. Collaroy Claystone.—The Collaroy Claystone includes the original ‘‘ Chocolate Shales ’’ described from Long Reef in the Collaroy area, previously included as part of the Narrabeen District. However, only the uppermost beds are exposed in this area and it is proposed to take the type section from the log of Windeyer’s Hawkesbury River Bore, given below. 118 HANLON, OSBORNE AND RAGGATT. Section, Collaroy Claystone—Windeyer’s Hawkesbury River Bore. (Depth 1776 ft. to 1,224 tite 6 in.) Thickness Ft... In. ‘“ Chocolate’? and grey shale .. nA ie ee wks e 26 ‘* Chocolate ”’ shale mr Be ih ba me Bae OF 12 Grey shale sf Shale and sandstone Sandstone 1 “* Chocolate ”’ shale ** Chocolate ’’ shale and sandstone ‘* Chocolate ”’ shale Grey shale and sandstone Sandstone ee Soft grey shale .. ‘* Chocolate ”’ shale i “Chocolate ”’ shale and sandstone “* Chocolate ”’ shale Grey shale ae ‘* Chocolate ”’ shale Fine grey sandstone ‘* Chocolate ”’ shale Sandstone Me ** Chocolate ”’ shale tr ‘““Chocolate ’? and grey shale .. Grey shale and sandstone Ou — > KH OUWeEWOWWOR ED Sandstone a: ok os ot = = Rs My 10 ‘“Chocolate ’’ and grey shale .. ay ee ve ae ne 35 ‘* Chocolate ”’ shale a a6 fn ce A oe ie 1 Grew shale ae a ae =e if, sar he se + Sandstone ts =. ae as at fe Be 10 ‘““ Chocolate ’’ and grey shale .. o mae a ee an 14 Sandstone th ae a are Lie ee a ut ] Grey shale ae ee Be Be a os a as 9 Sandstone ay ee Be ae as ae a 14 “* Chocolate ”’ shale on Ae be: oe me et eo: 4 Grey shale and sandstone ae ar 2% sis a. Be 15 Sandstone Se ne a a hy ae x. 10 Shale and sandstone a7 one Se she a oa oe 3 Sandstone afte 7 im 9 “ Chocolate” and grey ‘shale and sandstone on “i oe 10 — = bo — H 00 bo CO GO bo WH =r) WADTCODOORDCOAOHRDOHOSOAOAWWBSDSOHRGOAGHGGCGCONOSaSEDS Total ve re a ed 1887. Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N.S.W., 137. A NEW SPECIES OF HADROPHYLLUM FROM THE GARRA BEDS AT WELLINGTON, N.S.W. By G. H. PACKHAM. Unwersity of Sydney. With one Text-figure. Manuscript received, September 24, 1953. Read, October 7, 1953. This species of Hadrophyllum occurs in richly fossiliferous shale of the Garra Beds in Por. 50, Parish Curra. The locality is on the east bank of Curra Creek three hundred yards south of where the Wellington-Arthurville road crosses Curra Creek. Hill (1942) described a number of corals from the same portion. They are Eddastrea expansa Hill, Phillipsastrea aperta Hill, P. sp. cf. P. speciosa Chapman and P. linearis Hill, Favosites bryant Jones and Lf. allani Jones. In addition Basnett and Colditz (1945), who described the general geology of the area, record Stromatopora sp., Atrypa sp., Leptena sp. Brachiopods are the most common fossils at the point from which Hadrophyllum was collected. The genus Hadrophyllum, which has not yet been recorded from Australia, is widely distributed ; it occurs in the Devonian rocks of North America, Europe and south-east Asia and in the Carboniferous rocks of North America. Family Hadrophyllide Stumm, 1949. Genus Hadrophyllum Edwards and Haime, 1850. The genus is described by Bassler (1937, p. 197) as follows: ‘‘ Cushion or top-shaped, short thick coralla, with calyx restricted to convex upper surface and extended into a peduncle terminating sharply or bluntly beyond the centre, opposite the counter fossula. The calyx shows a broad excavated cardinal fossula, a distinct but narrow counter fossula, two less conspicuous alars, all of which delimit four groups of smooth septa with several of each group united to the one outlining the fossula. Minor septa short, generally united to the major ; cardinal and counter septa well developed. The thick elevated corallum with the calyx presenting four well developed fossule and the base a conspicuous peduncle of attachment, characterize this genus.”’ Hadrophyllum wellingtonense N.sp. Material. Holotype 7100, paratypes 7101-7104. All specimens are in the collection of the Department of Geology, University of Sydney. Diagnosis. Discoid Hadrophyllum lacking peduncle of attachment. Counter septum flanked on either side by a major septum which has no associated minor septum. Description. Coral slightly elliptical, elongated in the counter-cardinal direction. Mean diameter about sixteen millimetres and maximum thickness two and a half millimetres. Upper surface slightly convex, base flat with well developed growth lines of varying size. Scar of attachment small and eccentric, lying on the counter side of the geometrical centre. 122 G. H. PACKHAM. There are fifty-two to fifty-six smooth septa in the mature individual varying in degree of development ; both major and minor septa are large in the region of the counter septum, while on the cardinal side of the alar septa the major and minor septa are strongly differentiated. All the minor are joined to the major septa at their axial ends. On the third to sixth major septa from the counter septum there are slight prominences at the junction of the major and minor septa. Reduction in the size of septa occurs in the fossule. In the alar fossule on the counter side of the alar septa one of the septa is reduced in size to that of its associated minor septum. The next major septum is less reduced and the third is not reduced at all. A similar phenomenon occurs on either side of the cardinal septum in the cardinal fossula. A counter fossula is not developed. The first four to six septa of these fossular regions are pinnate and further away become radial. The alar septa are the best developed in the coral and have a minor septum associated with each of them on the counter side. The cardinal septum is long and slender. The counter septum is shorter and stouter. On either side next to it is a stout but slightly shorter major septum which has no associated minor septum. These are possibly the counter laterals. A. Upper surface of holotype (specimen slightly distorted). a, Alar septum. c, Cardinal septum. k, Counter septum. B. Profile of section along cardinal septum (on left) raised axial area and counter septum (on right). C. Lower surface of paratype (7101) showing eccentric growth lines. All drawings twice natural size. The major septa on the cardinal side of the alar septa are long and merge into an axial raised area separated from the septa on the counter side of the alars by a slight depression. The raised area is not in the geometrical centre of the coral but on the counter side of it. The microstructure of the septa is poorly preserved but appears to be entirely fibrous. The fibres are apparently normal to the base of the coral radiating upwards and outwards to the top of the septa. Remarks. H. wellingtonense has affinities with two species, H. brancat (Frech) and Microcyclus intermedius Bassler. This group of three species is intermediate in characters between the two genera. All of them have the flat discoid form of Microcyclus and all have alar fossule; that of M. intermedius is better developed than any other species in the genus. The two species of Hadrophyllum have eccentric growth lines on the base, and lack a large smooth axial area, H. wellingtonense has a small raised axial area in a broader axial depression. Some specimens of H. brancai from Indo-China figured by Mansuy (1916) show this feature, but those of Yin (1938) from China show no sign of any axial structure. WM. intermedius, on the other hand, has concentric growth lines and a large smooth axial area occupying nearly half the width of the coral. A NEW SPECIES OF HADROPHYLLUM. 123 A counter septum flanked on either side by a major septum which has no associated minor septum occurs in H. wellingtonense, M. intermedius, M. discus, M. lyrulatus and possibly in H. pauctradiatum. Another type of septal arrange- ment where the counter septum has a minor septum adjacent to it on either side then alternating major and minor septa further away occurs in H. brancat, and is the most common in the two genera. H. wellingtonense has been placed in the genus Hadrophylium because of the three well developed fossule, the absence of a large smooth axial region and the presence of eccentric growth lines on the base. The microstructure, although not well preserved, seems to be a simple arrangement of fibrous material. This suggests the possibility of some relation to the Streptelasmide of Wang (1950). Age. The closely related species H. brancat occurs in south-east Asia associated with the Spirifer tonkinensis fauna which Yin (1938) considers to be at about the Lower and Middle Devonian boundary. Such an age for H. wel- lingtonense is probable, since Hill (1942) says: ‘‘ The fauna in Por. 50, Parish of Curra, is comparable with that of the Loomberah limestone of the Tamworth district which is possibly early Couvinian.’’ REFERENCES. Basnett, E. M., and Colditz, M. J., 1945. Tuis Journat, 79, 37-47. Bassler, R. 8., 1937. Jour. Paleont., 11, 189-201. Hill, D., 1942. THis Journat, 76, 182-189. Mansuy, H., 1916. Mem. Serv. Geol. Indochine, Vol. V, fase. IV, 1-24. Wang, H. C., 1950. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., (B), 23, 175-246. Yin, T. H., 1938. Bull. Geol. Soc. China, 18, 33-66. ovata Bie Rk tee F see ace ; ge, Nee: AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY ake | . Arundel and Seamer Streets, Glebe, N.S.W. | Bi. PT hs i 1954 ihe a Sage f y — . a 4 { Ca a: s ~ 7 - f y ti : ‘ 5 " Z * N ° # . \ » Moar OURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS. OYAL SOCIET OF NEW SOUTH WALES 1953 (INCORPORATED 1881) PART IV (pp. 124-170) OF VOL. LXXXVII Containing Papers read in December, with — Plates XII-XV and Index ; EDITED BY : , F. N. HANLON, B.Sc., Dip.Ed. Honorary Editorial Secretary THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE i STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN | SYDNEY. PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS 1954 red at the General Post Office, Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical ~ fe c aes Seige ge oe age Sat Magee barre 4 a j : hag XIV.—Measures . ART. X OE ee Me Me ce VOLUME LXXXVII | ae oh he Pt i oy Double Stars on Sydney Astrographic_ Plates, ‘ Pehl) to —58°. y W. H. Robertson — Bt s nh hae OLyar “Armidale District, N.S.W. Part I. The Puddledock Area. By Alan Spy XVII. Ee olory and Sub- Surface Waters 0 _ XVII .—Mineralisation of the Ashfield Shale, Wianamatta Group. ‘By JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 1953 (INCORPORATED 1881) VOLUME LXXXVII Part IV EDITED BY F. N. HANLON, B. Sc., Dip. Ed. Honorary Editorial Secretary THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN SYDNEY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS MEASURES OF DOUBLE STARS ON SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC PLATES, DECLINATIONS —52° TO —58°. By W. H. ROBERTSON. Manuscript received, September 30, 1953. Read, December 2, 1953, The stars in the following lists were measured on plates taken for the Sydney Section of the Astrographic Catalogue. The object was to improve knowledge of past positions, and only stars having satisfactory and reasonably separated images have been included. Rectangular coordinates were measured in a machine having a short screw micrometer which could be rotated to deal with the coordinates in turn. Secale and orientation were defined in the first place by the reseau lines on the plate. Adjustments in accordance with the plate con- stants were used whenever these had been determined. In other cases a mean value for the scale correction was assumed and the orientation correction was found by measuring two stars, separated widely in the field but differing little in declination, on two plates, the one with determined plate constants and the other for which the orientation was required. Then if X,, Y,, X,, Y, are the measures of the two stars on one plate, X,, Y2, X,, Y, those on the other, and D,, D, the corresponding plate constants the approximate relation is (Y {2 ey.) ve) X,—X, DD) Let «, 5 be the equatorial coordinates of the primary star, &, y its standard coordinates on a plate centred at Ay, Do, and Aa, Ad, AE and Ay the corresponding differences between the coordinates of the secondary and the primary. Then differentiating the usual relations Aa cos §=A&(1 —&? sec? Dj +42? tan? D)—4?) +An(& tan Do+&y tan? Do)+. « 4; 1 AS=An(1 38? sae? Dy?) (1) —A&(E tan Dy +&n sec? Dy) +... Equation (1) is in radians and in the notation of the Sydney Astrographic Catalogue 3 &=—{X —14—A(X —1)—B(Y —30) —C}300 sin 1’, 4 ={Y —43 —D(X —1) —H(Y —30) —F}300 sin 1”. By substituting this in (1) and expressing the result in seconds of arc we obtain Aa cos 8= —300AX (1 — A) + AR (3008 “0 -4363(X —14) tan De A3=300AY(1 —E) —AX{300D +0-4363(X —14) tan Dj}+. . . Tables including also terms of second order in X and Y, which in practice were found negligible, were used to assist computation in accordance with (2), after which the position angle and distance were calculated. MEASURES OF DOUBLE STARS ON SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC PLATES. TaB_e [. Name C.P.D. R.A. 8. Dec. Epoch P d Mags h m ° 4 ° 4 Hul551 53°9 003-7 52 53 94-72 122-6 8-28 8-3, 11-0 h3360 53°72 +3 016-7 53 05 20-74 33°5 14-48 9-5, 10-2 h3383 54°153 0 35:6 53 56 92:87 217-6 7-18 9-8, 10-5 h3388 54°159+0 0 38:0 5440 93-61 238-9 16-70 S-1, 8-3 h 398 52°90+1 042-2 52 33 25:96 131-6 28-28 SoSi5 9-3 h3402 54°186 045-1 54 43 94-78 60-9 12-74 eer 1 | h3412 56°198-+9 0 56:9 5642 94-76 142-3 27-70 8-7, 10-9 20-80 137-6 28-20 h3422 56°256 t 10-9 +5610" 92-73 56:6 13-88 7-6, 11-6 A4 54°358 1 34:9 53 57 92-87 104-2 10-46 7:6, 8-2 Hul554 54°369 1 39:2 54 44 27-87 280-2 5:74 970, 998 h3514 56°444 2 30-7 56 34 94-71 21:0 30-82 9-4, 10-3 Corl4 53°462 235-5 53 23 20°56 128-6 9-32 8-8, 9:3 Al10 51°361-+3 3 01-4 5143 92-70 69-2 37-65 UO ets} 3) h3571 [53°674 | 316-3 53 28 21-16 94:4 20-09 11-5, 12-1 h3575 51°404 3 21-6 5125 94-75 45-0 35-64 6-6, 10-2 B49 54°556 322-4 5407 92-97 70-0 4-47 9-6, 11-4 Cor22 56°679 425-4 5608 92-97 139-4 6-44 9233. 9 h3669 53°728 433-2 53 04 93:95 312-4 13-92 9°6, 9-9 h3680 52°551 438-1 5205 92-85 210-9 10-19 Or 4 9b A43 53°777 455-5 53 33 93-46 309-3 8-32 8:4, 9-4 h3731 56°787 5 06-2 5601 92-79 303-8 10-04 9:2; 110 h5450 56°811 5 12-1 .56 55 25-95 268-2 6-90 9-3, 9-4 h3777 54°853 5 31:8 5458 26-09 104-0 11-30 10-0, 12-7 h3786 53°904 5 35-6 53 33 94-03 96-0 13-44 9-6 ie h3787 54°867 +6 5 35:8 54 37 94:00 248-2 23-82 8-0, 10°3 24:02 248-0 24-91 h3802 55°864 5 43:4 55 46 92-97 305-0 7-74 8-4, 10-3 h3808 57°894 5 47-9 5740 94-84 306-8 6-43 Dey h3828 53°990 5 58:1 53 55 94-038 124-4 13-48 oN) tb, 25:21 118-8 13-48 h3837 55°940 6 04:2 55 57 94:05 293-8 11-52 8:0, 12-0 h3854 54°1020 GLIS-4 rot 28" 25-215 1269 — E39 9:3, 11-6 h3898 56°1181+0 649-1 5607 93-12 309-9 16-73 ol dete te) h3906 55°1102+1 6 54-0 55 28 96-98 223-0 19-28 92D. 29-9 24°98 223-3 19-41 Cor47 52°1074 703-0 52 28 23-16 90-34) 2-08 8-0, 10-4 Hul421 55°1162 706-2 55 14 94-04 31-9 599 921 Or O h3952 53°1302 714-0 53 52 92:06 276-1 16-13 A 2 ella? h3961 57°1195 718-5 57 30 93-96 254-2 13-58 JO =O R75 55°1222 7) 19°44 55 09)-) 93512" 270-6 5:05 10-0, 10-8 §5°1222+-1 93-12 261-0 31-25 10-0, 10-4 h3971 57°1220 722-7 5744 92-56 190-2 16-89 9-2, 10-4 LP110 57°1263 adil? 82-9733" 20°99 . 192-2" 113° hl 9-2, 10-8 h4016 §1°1312+3 749-1 5109 92-05 169-4 16-95 979 10a 20°15 169-4 17-00 Gls77 53°1480+9 7 52:9 53 20 93-11 340-6 33-84 7:4, 7-9 h4065 53°1567+9 8 10°5 53 45 92-56 44-6 10-90 oS 57°1484+3 817-8 57 21 94:05 337-9 15-75 S27, 9-0 Cor78 53°1998 8 53-5 53 25 93-19 142-6 10-56 8-1, 8-3 h4177 55°1924 901-7 55 56 00-07 262-2 13-96 6-9; 8-8 LP117 52°1957 904-6 5246 00-12 354-0 8-72 9-0, 10-2 LP119 56°2039 908-7 56 36 24:22 246-1 5-56 SAO oe h4189 53°2209 9509-0" ds 3a) Ios" “LOT 2) 19+ 77 7-9, 11-0 R107 57°1966 9113-8) dT 09." | (937426 27978 9-55 9-0, 10-4 Rill 56°2109 917-9 5650 24-038 212-5 9-36 eee aso) 55°2129 9) 20-Me Sb 840 °° 93509) 9220-71. 11+32 9-5) (OT 93-08 176-6 18-97 97, Allies h4207 §4°2238+9 9 20:5 54 28 92-83 128-2 16-14 Weve | i )iore: Cor83 52°2346 9 22-4 5249 94-04 150-5 19-36 The Ea, LP120 53°2397 9 22-7 53 28 93:05 174-4 4-35 9-8, 10-2 1830 56°2212 925-0 56 54 93-05 56-8 17-74 (his ete, R120 55°2269 9 28:8 55 35 23:39 215-6 9-28 82.0 Go -2 Syd 56°2300 9 29-7 56 39 95-08 23-1 11-24 7:4, 10-4 M 125 Weight 2a 2a 2b 2b 2b 2b BC 2b 2b AB 2a AC 2b 2b 2a 2b AB 2b 5a AB 4a BC 126 Name Cor86 h4221 Cor88 h4234 h4260 Cor93 R137 h4266 Cor98 h4297 h4319 Cor103 h4328 LP132 h4401 h4411 h4417 R172 h4446 h4492 LP133 h4508 h4511 h4534 R205 R206 h4546 A127 Cor146 h4564 h4573 LP138 h4615 Cor162 Al51 A155 h4673 h4675 h4691 LP148 h4709 h4747 h4754 p58 h4778 h4789 C.P.D. §2°2512 52°2515 56°2383 51°2496+-5 57°2367 52°2885 54°2821 42 51°2761 53°3177 54°3269 53°3793 51°3322 51°3358-+0 53°4311 54°4294 52°425] 54°4397 55°4402+4-3 51°4266 54°4812 54°4935 54°5046 55°4936--7 54°5108 57°5607-+6 57°5611-+0 55°5203-42 52°5847 55°5316-+7 57°5852-+1 55°5343 55°5439 54°5516 57°6313-+4 57°6347 55°5793-+-4 53°5879-+0 51°6793 54°5998 56°6723 55°6094 54°6102 55°6233 54°6260 55°6451-+-0 57°7024 54°6559 52°8475+4 55°6624 54°6599 54°6603 51°8448 54°6705 55°7659 52°10471 54°8105 56°8154-++5 ObadewhwwHww HR ena WNW SHAHKRONWANRISAA WOWDORHOAWDOWDDONAWOND OH S. Dec. ° 53 53 56 ol 57 52 54 ol 54 54 53 52 51 53 54 52 54 315) dl 54 54 54 55 54 57 57 55 52 55 57 55 55 54 57 57 55 53 51 54 57 55 54 55 54 55 57 54 52 55 54 55 51 54 55 52 54 56 4 01 00 30 50 45 43 33 37 17 38 23 03 22 24 42 27 53 24 54 23 09 47 14 58 34 43 21 13 22 36 08 44 17 34 56 33 13 58 21 19 16 57 48 34 21 38 23 32 20 10 01 31 27 59 16 18 19 Epoch W. H. ROBERTSON. TABLE I.—Continued. MD CO CD OLD LOW DODOWORWDOONORODROSUWHOSARNNERANWAWHANDORODONSHOHHPDANWUIRPWDHAAGS 05 -20 —_ Cor M0OCHOUKUMHAGCUOMDOWDOOMNO OI — = — No) OO 0 co ~1 fe eee) & Nos » WN OD DOD 7 v_ eo . 7 vv v v . ~y v mM AIDDWOWODEFOPN EAP 7 <) i) See Ss v_ Vw a DNDN HDODOP SONNE OPO .y = © a9 M i — = a HOCH ke) OMOWTwoOoonwmnDmwo or OOS : SOoeeooes : i fos owe HK RR OAARAWOROWAHDHWADTEH CD FMAM |W OSD CLD WWD CLD H © 1 WO © He bo © ee bo bo > OO S Oi 00 CO > — oi ooo oO AB BC AB AC MEASURES OF DOUBLE STARS ON SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC PLATES. 127 TABLE I.—Continued. Name C.P.D. R.A. S. Dec. Epoch Pp d Mags Weight h m ° / e) aM h4950 57°8577 17 21:5 57 28 94-35 307-4 10-46 9-6, 10-4 4b h4959 55°8221+2 17 27-8 55 34 23-48 294-9 19-56 9-2, . 9-3 6a h4994 52°10927+6 17 49-3 52 11 95-42 209-0 13-80 9-9, 10-1 2a h5027 54°8761 18 05-5 54 23 94:46 102-4 12-24 8-0, 9-2 2a h5050 57°9126 18 30-8 5729 23-438 107-0 12-12 9-0)" 95 2b h5447 54°9530 19 48-4 54 22 92-62 267-2 9-56 9-3, 11-0 «2a h5193 57°9677 20 182201057. 08*) 94-52 1 °332°0). 17-91 9-0, 10-2 2b h5239 55°9506+5 20 56:8 55 44 92-70 212-0 12-80 8:6, 9:4 a h5241 55°9515 20 59°5 5553 92-70 40-1 12-41 10-0, 10-4 2a h5290 54°9934 21 37:6 54 36 92-62 291-3 11-10 9-5, 10-8 2a Hul542 54°10019 22 00-4 5416 92°76 119-0 5-70 985, 12-7 2a 56°9854+5 22 10:0 5613 94-54 13-2 16-86 11-2, 12-0 2a h5364 57°10150 22 44:3 57 01 94-54 98-0 10-52 92, 9-7 2a h5379 56°9991+0 22 57-6 5650 20-61 328-6 12-00 10-3, 10-7 2a h5424 56°10166 23 45:0 56 26 26-82 Dio! Te 28 9597 tie7 2b NOTE. The position angles of the following stars conform to the Southern Double Star Catalogue but uppeared different by 180° on the plates. Star R.A. Star R.A. h4016 7 49-1 A155 14 O1-1 h4401 11 00-4 h4754 1d 139 R205 12 33-5 h4959 17 27-8 TABLE II. Barton CoE). R.A. 8. Dec. Epoch p d Mags. Weight h m ° / 1?) 4 2018 54°364 138-2 54 28 92°84 137-2 5-15 11:4, 12-0 2b 21381 ~ 136-7 5-39 lb 2019 . §2°306 2 24:3 52 28 92°85 220-0 5:58 # 10-5, 11-8 2b ; 19:76 219-0 5:30 2b. 2025 52°1082 704-8 52 32 23-33 200-8 3:75 11-0, 11-5 lb 3115 7 25-3 ("57 32 91-97 228-4 3-72 11-8, 11-8 2a 2028 53°1388 7 35:7 53 22 23:34 249-8 3-90 10-9, 11-5 2b 3116 738-0 5610 92-08 68-0 4-48 11-6, 12-2 2a 2537 54°1424 7 50:4 5440 26-18 151-0 4:58 11-9, 12-7 lb ivent Li 58°1043 8 02-1 58 04 94-05 301:6 4-36 11-7, 12-3 2b 3118 8 07-2 58 08 93:12 354-0 3-638 12-0, 12-2 lb 2029 53°1668 8) 22"2 153,33 © 94:03). 159-2. 4°88 11-2,°11-7 2b 24-02 157-4 4-72 2a 3119 $: 29°6), 56UE7" | 25208 Le Or 93-90) Vliet 1-8 2b 3122 8 33:0 5650 25-08 294-6 3:52 11-8, 11-8 la 2541 54°1814 8 44:0 54 44 94-04 120-1 3-93 11-0, 11:8 la 2542 54°1818 8 44-6 54 38 94-04 TO .4019) | El-4y 1-4 la Rst 57°1883 905°3 57 44 24:22 348-6 3:42 11-4, 12-2 2b 3125 914-5 55 52 26-10 323-7 4:84 11-8, 12-2 la 2546 D212 D6 is. 93508) (15929) 4°39 12-4, 12-6 la 2037 9 26-8 5403 92-08 155-9 4-35 11-4, 12-2 la 2039 OSE 30) 52), 26 20215 1 2292-6). 5°29 11-0; 11-6 2a 2550 56°2417 9 36-8 5612 94:27 234-8 4-06 12-0, 12°4 1 3127 58°1632 941-6 58 09 24-30 249-2 4-13 11-3, 11-9 la 3130 56°2614 950-0 56 28 24-12 199°5 4-61 12-0, 12-5 3a 2042 952-1 52 11 92°05 2385-2 4:49 12-3, 12-5 2a 24-36. 23775 , 3-95 3a 2555 56°2680 953-5 5641 24-14 19-8 3:41 12-3, 12-5 4a 2557 9 54-2 5753 24-10 227-4 4-36 12-2, 12-6 la 2044 53°3131 955-5 53 30 24°35 238-8 3:78 11-7, 12-1 2a 2045 53°3136 9 55°8 53 23 24-35 32°9 4-92 12-0, 13-0 2a 128 W. H. ROBERTSON. TaBLE II.—Continued. Barton (Des gen DH R.A. 8. Dec. Epoch Pp d Mags Weight h m ° / ° uM 2558 57°2523 9 56-6 5728 24-10 114:4 3-54 12-0, 13-0 lb 2046 54°3002 956-8 5419+ 92:08 145°3 4:96 12-1, 12-7 2b 2047 9 57-0 54 06 (792-08 119°6 3:02 (12525 12"4 > 2a 2559 57°2535 9 57-2) ' (57 48 993-15 9135-2 4:13 Ties eS a or) 53°3192 9 583. 53 55 9792-08 —§165:5 5:82 Ulta as-35 2a 3133 55°2829 959-3 5519 24-16 72°3 4:32 12-2, 12-2 2a 3134 959-4 58 08 93-15 203-7 4:48 11-8, 12-2 lb 2562 56°3268 10 20°8 56 26. 94-27 299-0 4-91 10-7, 10-9 la 2052 53°3817 10 23-3 53 59 92-08 54:8 4:03 11:6,12:2 2b 2053 10 25-9 (54 04 7792-08 167-2 3:20. 4252, 02-2 ~ 2h 2563 54°3751 10 26-6 54 57 93-19 26-2 4:22 Jl-6, A1-7 2a 26-09 27-6 4-03 2a 2564 10 30-8 55 36 26-09 240-7 3-27 11-8, 12-4 la 3146 58°2530 10 37-0 58 42 9.24-30. 219-5 4°97 . 2S 2a 2055 53°4192 10 47-1 53 59 92-08 162-5 3-43 iD eite2 la 3153 56°3923 10 47:3 56 58 24-16 68-3 4°65 11-2, 12-2 lb 3154 10 48-8 57 51. 93-15 127-4 4-49 12-0, 12-2 la 2569 54°4161 10 51-3 54 56 196-67 320-9 5-32 10-8, 11:3. “2a 25-15 323-2 5:06 la 3156 10 51:4 5637 24-16 235-6 4-86 11-6, 12-2 2a 2062 11 10-5 53 47 92-08 1-9 5°24 i)-8, i228 2a 2064 11 14-0 54°08 . 92-08 76-9 4-83 12-0, 12-4 2b 2065 54°4455 11 14:0 (54 22 92-08: 357-8 4°70 JieGo ATG 2p 2577 54°4486 1] 16-6 (54 59 9920-21, (939-73 4:26 9 TOS Rl se 3166 1] 49-7 1°55 47° 994-25 (179°8 3:98 “S122 selo 2s 2075 53°5827 13: 53:7 53 21, 918-41 210-6 3-96) View es 2a 2077 52°7207 14 18-0 52 22 18-40 54°8 5-24 11-4, 11-6 2a 2814 14 41-2 57 01 94-18 142-8 4-938 12-0, 12-2 la 2815 15 05-6 56 38 24-27 120-1 4-06 11-8, 12-2 2a 2083 52°8744 15 34:3 52 22 94-53 190-9 5-47 | Dl-2) 1-3 eb 2819 57°8006 16 18-3 57 39.9 24-44 214-5 3-53 11270) 112-2 lb NOTE. Attention is drawn in the case of the following stars to the C.P.D. identification which was incorrect or marked as doubtful in Barton’s lists. No. R.A. No. R.A. 3117 8 02-1 2042 9 52-1 2037 9 26-8 3134 9 59-4 2550 9 36°8 3154 10 48-8 The stars in Table I were chosen from Innes’ Southern Double Star Catalogue, and those in Table II from among the doubles discovered by S. G. Barton in published Sydney catalogues. Column 1 gives the name of the star or Barton’s number, column 2 the C.P.D. number, and columns 3 and 4 the position (1900-0). The C.P.D. numbers given by Barton have been altered in a few cases noted at the end. Columns 5, 6 and 7 give respectively the epoch, position angle and distance ; in cases where two or more plates differed in epoch by only a few years the results have been combined. Column 8 gives the magnitudes of the stars. In Table I these are taken from Innes’ Catalogue. In Table II they were estimated from the plates adjusted in the case of C.P.D. stars, so that the combined magnitude equalled the C.P.D. magnitude with the corrections given in Harvard Annals, Vol. 80, No. 13. Column 9 gives the number of images measured and an estimate of the quality of a single measure depending on the size and shape of the images and the separation and magnitude difference of the components. The probable error in distance was 0”-13 for a measurement of a single image pair of quality a and 0”-17 for quality Db. THE THERMAL METAMORPHISM OF PORTIONS OF THE WOOLOMIN GROUP IN THE ARMIDALE DISTRICT, N.S.W. Part I. THE PUDDLEDOCK AREA. By ALAN SPRY, M.Sc. With Plate XII and two Text-figures. (Communicated by S. WARREN CAREY.) Manuscript received, September 28, 1953. Read, December 2, 1953. ABSTRACT. A portion of the intrusive contact between the New England batholith, and the eugeosynclinal Woolomin Group occurs near Puddledock, in northern New South Wales. The igneous complex comprises mainly quartz monzonite with subordinate hypersthene diorite, pyroxene granite, biotite porphyrite and dolerite. The sedimentary group originally consisted of greywacke, quartzite and basic lava, which are now represented by biotite hornfels, saccharoidal quartzite and a group of rocks rich in ecalc-silicate minerals. INTRODUCTION. The great New England batholith is a multiple intrusion of subsequent type which extends for over two hundred miles through the eastern highlands of northern New South Wales and southern Queensland as a meridional belt. It is chiefly acid in character, although there are variations from basic to ultra-acid types. The intruded rocks around Armidale consist of a thick and broadly folded eugeosynclinal series consisting of greywackes (as defined by Pettijohn, 1949), polymictic breccias, sub-greywackes, quartzites, jaspers and basic lavas which has been named the Woolomin Series by Benson (1918) and Voisey (1942). These rocks are referred to here as the Woolomin Group, rather than the Woolomin Series, in accordance with the Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature (Raggatt, 1950) because the length of time involved in their deposition is at present unknown, hence the ‘‘ rock ’’ term growp is preferred to the ‘‘ time-rock ”’ term series. Due to the lack of diagnostic organic remains, the age of these rocks is not known, but they are regarded as probably Silurian-Devonian. Regional metamorphism is lacking unless the silicification which gave rise to the widespread jaspers can be regarded as a low-grade regional metasomatic process. Thermal metamorphism by both the Epi-Silurian (?) and Permian batholiths is rather slight, and restricted to fairly narrow contact aureoles. Metasomatism associated with the intrusions is uncommon, although scapolitization of the basic lavas has been found in two localities. These rocks are well shown in the area described, which is about half a mile north-east of the Puddlecock Dam and 10 miles north-east of Armidale. A portion of the intrusive contact is exposed in an area of about two acres, which is entirely surrounded by flat-lying Tertiary basalts. Mapping was done by plane-table on a scale of 200 feet to 1 inch, and the contours shown on Figure 1 are taken from a purely arbitrary 1,000 feet datum level. 130 ALAN SPRY. THE IGNEOUS ROCKS. The main body is a quartz monzonite with a chilled margin and a steeply dipping sharp contact with the sediments. The other igneous rocks are found in small bodies and their mutual relations are somewhat obscured by soil cover and consequently the intrusive sequence could not be established definitely. The probable order is as follows: (1) Biotite porphyrite. (2) Hypersthene diorite. (3) Quartz monzonite. (4) Pyroxene granite. (5) Dolerite. The biotite porphyrite occurs as an elongated, dyke-like body about 30 feet wide and 800 feet long. It appears to be cut off at one end by the hypersthene diorite and consequently is regarded as the earliest intrusive. It is a light grey LEGEND : [aa ALLUVIUM PAL AEOZOIC WOOLOMIN GROUP Ej BIoTITE HORNFELS (GREYWACKE) QUARTZITE AY BASIC HORNFELS IGNEOUS ROCKS TERTIARY BASALT PERMIAN Hil eal iT} > ee eT Is Hose I Ke BIOTITE PORPHYRITE AK MONZONITE (CLOSER HACHURING INDICATES CHILLED MARGIN) SCALE /N FEET (6) 200 400 600 ee eed Text-fig. 1—A geological map showing the relations of the igneous and metamorphic rocks at Puddledock. porphyritic rock with a very fine-grained groundmass rich in poorly twinned albite crystals and contains phenocrysts of biotite, hornblende and andesine (Abgs). The hypersthene diorite is a coarse-grained brownish rock consisting of almost equal amounts of felspars and ferromagnesian minerals. The relative amounts of orthoclase and plagioclase are variable and the rock might be termed diorite in some specimens and monzonite in others. Plagioclase is most abundant (35%) aS subhedral crystals which are often. strongly zoned (oligoclase Ab,, to andesine Ab,,) and twinned on combinations of the Albite and Carlsbad laws. Orthoclase is present in quantities up to 30% and appears as slightly perthitic crystals which are frequently moulded on plagioclase giving 3 monzonitic fabric. The dark minerals are augite, hypersthene, hornblende and biotite. The pyroxene is chiefly augite, accompanied by quite abundant hypersthene, and THERMAL METAMORPHISM OF PORTIONS OF THE WOOLOMIN GROUP. 1S 8b the two may be intergrown or surrounded by a corona of hornblende or biotite. There is about 5% quartz occurring as tiny intergranular crystals or as blebs and myrmekitic growths in the orthoclase. A striking feature is the presence of about 2% of apatite which occurs as aggregates of rod-like prisms frequently radiating outwards from the pyroxene. As this intrusion is early in the sequence, the coronas of hornblende and biotite and also the growths of apatite could be interpreted as being due to the thermal metamorphism of the rock by later intrusions, but it is thought they are most probably the result of deuteric crystal- lization. The quartz monzonite is a light coloured, medium-grained rock becoming dark coloured and fine-grained in the chilled marginal zone. Near the contact the rock is a micro-monzonite, generally even grained, or slightly porphyritic with larger plagioclase phenocrysts set in a slightly finer grained matrix con- taining felspar with biotite, augite, hornblende and occasional hypersthene. It is usually a mid-andesine, but may be zoned from oligoclase Ab,, to andesine Ab;,. Dusty orthoclase is present in amounts up to about 20% and quartz may be almost absent or up to 15%. The most abundant ferromagnesian mineral is biotite. Green augite and hypersthene are usually fringed with biotite or pale green hornblende. The normal quartz monzonite differs from the border phase in its coarser grain and lack of pyroxene. It is a medium to coarse grained rock containing plagioclase, orthoclase and biotite with a little hornblende and quartz, and shows a monzonitic fabric. The plagioclase is well formed and is andesine, but shows zoning from Ab,, to Ab;;. Orthoclase is anhedral and dusty and surrounds the plagioclase. Quartz is present up to 20% as grains or vermiculate growths with felspar. Biotite is abundant and often intergrown with pale hornblende. The pyroxene granite occurs as a few small outcrops located between the monzonite, diorite, porphyrite and hornfels. It does not show any significant relation towards them and there is nothing to indicate whether it was intruded before or after the neighbouring rocks. It is only about 50 feet by 30 feet in area. It is a coarse-grained, leucocratic rock containing perthitic orthoclase (65%), quartz (24%), augite (8%), sphene (3°) and a very little plagioclase (oligoclase Ab,y). The augite is green and slightly pleochroic while sphene is remarkably abundant as brown prisms and grains. The dolerite is a fine-grained greenish-grey rock which occurs in a very small outcrop in the east end of the central basic hornfels mass. It occurs only a few feet from the monzonite and intrudes the Group B hornfelses. It has an intergranular texture with laths of albite up to 0-1 mm. long forming an imperfect mesh enclosing the ferromagnesian minerals. These are entirely secondary and consist chiefly of pale green, almost isotropic chlorite, tiny needles of tremolite (?) and a very little brown hornblende. Epidote occurs as scattered small grains, and ilmenite is very abundant with a great deal of finely granular sphene. This dolerite has many affinities with the spilites and was at first considered to have been a pre-granite intrusion associated with the Woolomin volcanism. However, as it occurs within basic rocks which have been strongly metamorphosed and which contain garnet, pyroxene, wollastonite, etc., it is unlikely, in view of its unmetamorphosed character, that it could have been in position prior to the emplacement of the monzonite, and consequently it is placed at the end of the intrusive cycle. The texture, composition and dyke-form of the biotite porphyrite are more in keeping with the later phases of emplacement of the batholith, and it was at first considered to be part of the widespread system of dykes of porphyry and lamprophyre which are a feature of the last phases of this intrusive cycle. The field evidence appears to preclude this view, and indicates that the dyke invaded 132 ALAN SPRY. the sediments first, and was followed and partly obliterated by the later hypersthene diorite. The diorite was followed by the major intrusion of quartz monzonite which cuts across all the other rocks. This has a chilled margin and the mineralogical differences from the edge inwards indicate the trend of crystallization. The micro-monzonite has less quartz, less hornblende and a more basic plagioclase and contains augite and hypersthene, which are absent from the quartz monzonite. The position of the rather basic pyroxene granite in the sequence is not known, but from the abundance of quartz and orthoclase it has been tentatively regarded as the last plutonic unit toform. The abundance of such minerals as pyroxene (augite and hypersthene) apatite and sphene in the hypersthene diorite and pyroxene granite suggests that they may have been contaminated by absorbing some spilite, but no field evidence was found to support this hypothesis. THE METAMORPHIC ROCKS. The rocks which have been altered by the intrusion were originally fine grained greywacke, quartzite and spilite. These have been altered to varying degrees, but because of their widely different chemical compositions it was not possible to find zones of decreasing grade of metamorphism away from the intrusion. Both greywackes and spilite attained the amphibolite facies of Turner (1948), but the latter may have reached the pyroxene hornfels facies in one place. THE BASIC HORNFELSES. The most interesting of the thermally altered rocks are those derived from the basic lava flow. It has been observed in several localities around Armidale that basalts have been altered to rocks of spilitic nature prior to the intrusion of the batholith and that the thermal metamorphism operated on the spilitic mineral assemblage. There are two major groups which have different mineralogical and textural characteristics and each of these groups is subdivided into varieties. A. Those showing original igneous texture. (1) Hornblende rich. (2) Diopside rich. (3) Seapolite or prehnite rich. B. Those not showing original igneous texture. (1) Calcite quartz bearing. (2) Wollastonite bearing. Group A. The spilite which occurs as the narrow band shown in the upper central part of Figure I is less altered and still retains some of the original igneous (amygdaloidal and intergranular) texture. The three varieties show differing original composition and degree of alteration with the typical associations hornblende-albite, diopside-andesine and diopside-scapolite (or prehnite). The hornblende rich variety is a dense green rock which appears to show least alteration. Blasto-intergranular texture is shown by radiating laths of original poorly twinned albite with fresh pale yellowish-brown to dark brown hornblende and colourless diopside crystallizing between the felspar. Secondary plagioclase (andesine Ab,,) occurs only in amygdales, where it may be accom- panied by diopside and sphene. The diopside-rich variety is pale greenish grey in the hand specimen and it is common to find the diopside and hornblende rich varieties together, even in one hand specimen. The intergranular texture is not shown so well as in the THERMAL METAMORPHISM OF PORTIONS OF THE WOOLOMIN GROUP. 133 previous variety, but the albite laths form radiating growths with diopside granules between. Secondary fresh plagioclase (albite to basic andesine) is sporadic and is usually found in amygdales, although in parts the original basaltic texture is replaced by a granoblastic aggregate of plagioclase and diopside. The amygdales were probably originally filled with calcite, and during metamorphism there has been a migration, chiefly of lime out from the amyegdale and alumina, silica, etc., into the amygdale from the surrounding rock. This resulted in a zone of grossular ringing the amygdale, with a central zone containing one or more of the following minerals: calcite, plagioclase, scapolite, prehnite, diopside or apatite, as shown in Figure 2. The texture is often Text-fig. 2.—Sketches of some amygdales in the basic hornfelses of group A showing a rim of grossular in each case with a filling of (a) prehnite, (b) plagioclase, calcite and prehnite, (c) calcite, scapolite, prehnite and garnet, (d) plagioclase, diopside and garnet. x46 approximately. diablastic with growths of calcite and andesine, calcite and grossular, diopside and andesine, etc. Some of the grossular is birefringent. Scapolite and prehnite are restricted to amygdales in this variety but become abundant in the mass of the rock in the third type. . Where seapolite or prehnite become very abundant, they replace original albite laths over large areas. The primary basaltic texture is obliterated as the scapolite envelops the plagioclase and forms comparatively large crystals with sutured margins. These areas contain unaltered diopside granules whose mutual relations still show the intergranular texture to some extent. Growth of other minerals from the amygdales outward tends to give a coarse granoblastic texture. 134 ALAN SPRY. The amygdales contain similar assemblages to the diopsidic variety mentioned previously, untwinned or poorly twinned plagioclase being notable. The scapolite and prehnite both form from plagioclase and the scapolite may alter to prehnite. The scapolite is a mizzonite Ma,; with N-=1-546, N,=1:-574, D.R.=0-028. These values were measured by immersion methods on fragments of a large crystal from an amygdale, but measurements with a Berek Compen- sator on the groundmass scapolite in thin sections indicated generally a more sodic dipyre Ma,, with D.R. averaging 0-012. In one specimen where calcite was abundant, a lime-rich scapolite occurred and was greatly altered to wollastonite suggesting that the scapolite and wollastonite may not be stable together, the latter mineral representing a higher grade of metamorphism. The three varieties probably do not indicate differing grades of metamorphism, but rather differing compositions which may be original or due to metasomatism. The mineral assemblages indicate that equilibrium has not been established, thus enabling a series of metamorphic changes to be recognized. Group B. The mineral assemblage of this group is quite different from that of the preceding one, both because the original basic rock was much richer in calcite and also because the metamorphic grade is higher. This richness in calcite has been observed in unmetamorphosed spilites which contain closely packed amygdales filled with calcite so that the rock contains at least 50° of that mineral. Calcite also has replaced plagioclase by a premetamorphic process. Rocks of this group occur in a small patch surrounded by quartz monzonite, pyroxene granite and biotite porphyrite and their elevation to at least the cordierite-anthophyllite sub-facies of the amphibolite facies and possibly to the pyroxene hornfels facies is a reflection of the proximity of igneous rock almost completely surrounding the hornfels. Complete recrystallization has taken place and no vestige of the igneous structure remains. The structure is coarse and irregular with diablastic and poikiloblastic textures common. The minerals present include calcite, quartz, wollastonite, diopside-hedenbergite and grossular. Members of this group are divided into two classes, depending on the presence of calcite plus quartz or wollastonite, and thus a division is made between rocks of different metamorphic grade. The lower grade hornfels is typically light coloured with large bladed crystals of both plagioclase and calcite up to 3 ems. long, containing pyroxene or garnet poikiloblastically. The garnet, which is pale brown and probably grossular, sometimes constitutes up to about 90% of a dark, heavy garnet-rock. The pyroxene is deep greenish-brown in colour with a relief close to that of grossular and a D.R. of 0-027, and thus is an iron-bearing diopside as distinct from the colourless diopside in the group A _ hornfelses. Calcite and quartz grow diablastically without any tendency to form wollastonite. Sphene and scapolite or prehnite occasionally occur, while a greenish-brown fibrous amphibole replaces the pyroxene as a retrograde product in some rocks. The plagioclase is a basic andesine. Those hornfelses which contain wollastonite instead of calcite plus quartz usually have a coarse and irregular texture or are granoblastic aggregates of wollastonite, pyroxene, garnet and plagioclase (as basic as labradorite Ab,)). Some hornfelses of this group are indistinguishable from calc-silicate rocks derived from lime-rich sediments. They are presumed to be the products of metamorphism of calcite rich basic igneous rocks rather than sediments for the following reasons : | ° (a) No limestones have been found in the Woolomin Group. (6) They occur in the line of strike of the basic lava. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVII, 1953, Plate XII a ea ay THERMAL METAMORPHISM OF PORTIONS OF THE WOOLOMIN GROUP. 135 They are frequently porphyroblastic with large grossular crystals set in a decussate growth of wollastonite with abundant tiny pyroxene crystals. Calcite “may occur where there was not sufficient silica to allow the complete change to wollastonite. SEDIMENTARY HORNFELSES. The metamorphosed sediments found here are regarded as having been derived from fine-grained greywackes and quartzite. The most common hornfels is a black, saccharoidal, rather soft rock which is spotted with biotite flakes growing along the bedding. The texture is porphyroblastic with large flakes or aggregates of biotite set in a very fine granoblastic aggregate of quartz, felspar and biotite. Each of the large biotite crystals is surrounded by a zone barren of mica, from which the ferromagnesian material has been derived. Quartz and felspar are usually equally abundant and each constitutes about 40% of the rock. The felspar is quite fresh and is chiefly untwinned plagioclase varying in composition from oligoclase to andesine (Abgy_.). The freshness and range of composition suggest that the plagioclase is metamorphic and has been derived from the cloudy felspar common in the unaltered Woolomin greywackes. A few erystals which have a cloudy core and a fresh peripheral zone represent partially recrystallized felspar. A little chlorite and poorly crystallized muscovite may occur with apatite as accessories. One hornfels contains abundant tiny granules of diopside in groups with quartz and oligoclase. The coarse white saccharoidal quartzite is very pure and has a granoblastic to sutured texture. It contains only minute amounts of minerals other than quartz; tiny crystals of muscovite, epidote, apatite, pyrite, magnetite and rutile occur. DEGREE OF METAMORPHISM. The rocks show the impress of a moderate grade of thermal metamorphism with a higher grade where there has been repeated intrusion. Metasomatism appears to have been restricted to a little introduction of halogen and water to the basic rocks where scapolite and prehnite were formed from plagioclase. The spilite was much more susceptible to both metamorphism and metasomatism than the sediments. There was a distinct period of retrograde metamorphism when pyroxene altered to hornblende. The mineral assemblages of the basic lava are typical of thermal metamorphism of such rocks. The basaltic rocks of group A originally contained the assemblage augite plus labradorite and this was changed to the spilitic assemblage albite plus hornblende, epidote, calcite and actinolite prior to the thermal metamorphism. The original minerals are not found here but the first process was presumably an alteration of actinolite to hornblende, while the albite was unchanged. At a further stage the albite recrystallized. In rocks which were richer in epidote or calcite, diopside appeared with albite and hornblende. At higher temperatures the assemblage diopside plus andesine was accompanied by grossular. The scapolite and prehnite which earlier were restricted to the amygdales then replaced the groundmass plagioclase over large areas. The processes have been arrested at various stages of com- pletion, and the failure to achieve equilibrium between the minerals is typical of these rocks. The group B rocks probably originally contained calcite, albite, chlorite, actinolite and a little quartz. The first stage was the production of the assemblage andesine-pyroxene-grossular with calcite plus quartz. The second Stage was marked by the combination of calcite plus quartz to give wollastonite with garnet, pyroxene and plagioclase. The hornblende rich members of group A contain hornblende-diopside-albite, which is an unstable assemblage arrested in its trend to hornblende-diopside-plagioclase probably representing the cordierite-anthophyllite sub-facies of the amphibolite facies. Amphibole 136 ALAN SPRY. is not found in the other basic hornfelses, which may extend up into the pyroxene- hornfels facies. The assemblages diopside-plagioclase, diopside-plagioclase- scapolite (prehnite)-grossular, diopside-grossular or diopside-grossular-wol- lastonite are not critical and may indicate the upper part of the amphibolite or the lower part of the pyroxene hornfels facies. The presence of plagioclase as basic as labradorite Ab,) would indicate that some at least of the wollastonite bearing rocks of group B lie in the latter facies. The change from an assemblage in which calcite and quartz occur together to one in which wollastonite is stable marks a definite step in the metamorphic processes and Turner (1948) states that calcite plus quartz is stable over the lower part of the cordierite-anthophyllite sub-facies, while wollastonite is stable over the upper half, thus calcite plus quartz does not extend into the pyroxene-hornfels facies. In the greywackes, the assemblage quartz plus oligoclase or andesine plus biotite with or without diopside indicates that the sediments reached the same approximate level of metamorphism as the basic rocks in the cordierite-antho- phyllite sub-facies. However, some biotite hornfelses contain albite or acid oligoclase with a little muscovite and chlorite, and possibly represent a stage as low as the actinolite-epidote hornfels sub-facies of the albite-epidote-amphibolite facies. The presence of abundant potash which is represented by biotite prevented the appearance of such minerals as cordierite, andalusite or almandine, ete. There is a moderately close relation between the degree of metamorphism of the spilite and the greywackes, but in general the basic rocks contained a mineral assemblage which is susceptible to metamorphism and were permeable, thus suffering considerable alteration, whereas the fine-grained massive grey- wackes were both structurally and mineralogically more resistant. Somewhat similar rocks have been found in similar environments at Tilbuster and Dumaresq, some miles to the west, and a description of these other areas will be presented in the second part of this paper. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. This work was undertaken while the author was on the staff of the New England University College, Armidale, and the author wishes to thank Dr. A. H. Voisey for making this research possible. Appreciation must be particularly expressed to those students who assisted in the field mapping. The work was. completed at the University of Tasmania, where Professor 8S. Warren Carey and his staff have assisted by criticism of the manuscript. REFERENCES. Benson, W. N., 1918. ‘‘ The Great Serpentine Belt of New South Wales”’, Part III. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Pettijohn, F. J., 1949. ‘‘ Sedimentary Rocks.” University of Chicago Press. Raggatt, H. G., 1950. ‘‘ Stratigraphic Nomenclature.”” Aust. Journ. Science, 12, No. 5. Turner, F. J., 1948. ‘‘ Structural Evolution of the Metamorphic Rocks.” Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 30. Voisey, A. H., 1942. ‘‘ Geology of County Sandon, New South Wales.” Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 67. 1945. ‘‘ North Coast and New England Districts.” D.Sc. Thesis, University of Sydney. EXPLANATION OF PLATE. PLATE XII. Fig. 1.—Apatite prisms surrounding biotite and pyroxene as radial growths in the hypersthene diorite. x60. Fig. 2.—Hornfels of group A containing diopside and plagioclase with the intererants texture almost destroyed. x60. Fig. 3.—Hornfels of group B showing a decussate aggregate of wollastonite with pyroxene and garnet. x60. Fig. 4.—Hornfels of group B showing a granoblastic aggregate of diopside and plagioclase. x 60. SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES IN THE SINGLETON-MUSWELLBROOK COALFIELD: AN INTRO- DUCTORY STUDY.* By F. W. Booker, M.Sc., C. BURSILL, M.A. M.Sc., and C. T. McELRoy, B.Sc. With Plates XIII and XIV and three Text-figures. Manuscript received, October 14, 1953. Read, December 2, 1953. I. INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. For the past few years the authors have studied, both independently and collaboratively, several aspects of the stratigraphy, lithology, petrology, sedi- mentation and sedimentary tectonics of the Tomago Coal Measures in the Singleton-Muswellbrook Coalfield, Central Hunter Valley, New South Wales. This paper discusses these matters briefly, and is intended to be the first of a series on sedimentation in certain areas of N.S.W., in which it is hoped the collaboration of field geologist and petrologist will continue. In this paper the sections on stratigraphy, lithology and sedimentation are the work of Booker. Bursill is responsible for the petrological study of the Bayswater Bore, and McElroy for the petrology of the rocks from the surrounding area. The authors desire to express their grateful appreciation of the assistance of Mr. H. F. Whitworth, M.Sc., Dr. Paul and Mr. R. O. Chalmers in the prepara- tion of microscopic sections and plates for this paper, of Dr. H. Rutledge for his meticulous reading of the paper and valuable comments thereon, and of Mr. P. McKenzie for his able co-operation during the field investigations. Helpful discussion by Dr. G. D. Osborne is also acknowledged. II. GENERAL STRUCTURE. The Singleton-Muswellbrook Coalfield of Upper Permian Age is situated in the Central Hunter River Valley of New South Wales, embracing the region between these two towns, which are on the Great Northern Railway. Sediments referable to the Tomago Coal Measures occupy an area of approxi- mately 300 square miles in this field. They occupy a synclinal area between the Muswellbrook Dome on the west, and the Loder and Darlington Domes on the east ; they are bounded on the north by the Hunter Overthrust and on the south by the Newcastle Coal Measures, which are in turn overlain by the Triassic, as Shown in Fig. 1. The structure in the Tomago Coal Measures of this field is not a simple syncline. Rather there is a series of anticlines and synclines with more or less meridional axes. The axial planes all appear to dip westerly and are generally arcuate. In the southern part of the area the convexities of the ares are directed to the east, but in the north there is a tendency to reversal. The axis of the * Published by permission of the Under Secretary, Department of Mines, N.S.W. 138 BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY. eet LEGEND Post Tertiary, Alluvium VA GE GHZ NY SANE Sf Triassic | BNE Upper Coal Measures Upper Marine Series Permian Mulbring Beds Branxton Beds Carboniferous Igneous UPPER COAL MEASURES OF SINGLETON~ MUSWELLBROOK COALFIELD S mites 4 Scale mites 2 SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES. 139 Muswellbrook Dome is an exception to this generalization. On the north the fold structures are truncated by the Hunter overthrust and its subsidiary, the Hebden Thrust. To the south the intensity of the folding decreases rapidly, and the folds are barely reflected in the Newcastle Coal Measures and the over- lying Triassic. III. GENERAL STRATIGRAPHY. In the Singleton-Muswellbrook Coalfield the Tomago Coal Measures consist of some 1,600 to 1,700 feet of sediments, which can be subdivided into two formations : (1) The Bayswater Formation. Transition beds between the underlying marine Crinoidal Shales or Mulbring Beds of the Upper Marine Group and the Coal Measures proper. They consist of about 200 feet of dark shales containing occasional fragments of Glossopteris, and a few pyritic concretions, grading downwards into similar marine shales containing numerous foraminifera and an occasional macro-fossil. The Bayswater Formation or Bayswater Shales, which are readily recogniz- able, can be traced over the whole length of both margins of the basin, and have been identified in every bore deep enough to penetrate them. They can only be separated from the underlying marine shales on paleontological evidence, and in this connection the authors here desire to record the valuable work of Miss I. Crespin, B.A., of the Bureau of Mineral Resources, whose micro-palzeont- ological work has been a major contributing factor in delineating these beds. (2) The Rix’s Creek Formation. 1,400 to 1,500 feet thick, mainly greywacke, sandstone, shale and siltstone with numerous coal seams. In the north-eastern part of the area there occurs a distinct conglomerate facies. In the vicinity of Liddell, Ravensworth and Rix’s Creek the Rix’s Creek Formation consists of a rhythmic succession of greywackes, sandstones, shales, siltstones, claystones and coal seams. Conglomerate is a minor rock type, and when it does occur, is generally as a component of graded bedding in greywacke. As the massive greywackes of the Rix’s Creek Formation are traced northwards they pass into conglomerates. The first indication of the change in sedimentation is the occurrence of lines and small irregular lenses and wedges of pebbles in the grey wacke, a relationship which at this stage appears to resemble graded bedding (Plate XIII, Fig. 1). The pebbles become larger and more numerous, the lenses and wedges thicken, and the next stage is a series of interlocking lenses of ereywacke and greywacke conglomerate. Further north there is a transition from a massive greywacke with only occasional pebbly bands to a massive conglomerate with minor lenses of grey- wacke. At this stage the pebbles are relatively small, up to a maximum of two inches in diameter. Still further north, the size of the fragments increases until the conglomerate contains small boulders up to a foot in diameter. This change takes place in a distance of less than four miles. Excellent exposures of the early stages of the facies change may be seen in the railway cuttings between Nundah and Rix’s Creek. The medium and fine conglomeratic stages are exposed in Glennies Creek to the east and north from Glennies Creek Railway Station ; the’coarser phases occur in Reedy Creek and Stony Creek, tributaries of Glennies Creek, east of the Singleton-Goorangoola Road. The conglomerate facies of the Rix’s Creek formation occupies a sector of a circle bounded by the Hunter Overthrust and extending as far south as Nundah and Glennies Creek, and as far west as Coal Hole Creek, east of Antienne. The coarsest phases lie to the east, grain becoming finer to the south and west. 140 BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY. The conglomerate pebbles comprise a heterogeneous assemblage of the harder and more resistant sedimentary types, such as chert, jasper and chal- cedony, aS well as resistant igneous rocks. Petrological examination of a number of pebbles from these conglomerates, carried out by Mr. H. F. Whitworth, M.Sc., suggests that all could have been derived from rocks of Carboniferous age outcropping to the north. Raggatt (1938) made a comprehensive study of the facies of the Muree in this part of the Hunter River Valley, and found a comparable and parallel facies change. He failed, however, to recognize the facies change of the Rix’s Creek Formation and referred its conglomerate facies to the Newcastle Coal Measures, under the name of Fal Brook Conglomerates. LV. SEDIMENTATION. The Bayswater Bore displays the most complete section of the Tomago Coal Measures in the Singleton-Muswellbrook Coalfield so far available. Thus it may be regarded as typical of the Tomago sedimentation in the Liddell-Ravens- worth-Rix’s Creek area. In this bore a thickness of approximately 1,170 feet of strata belonging to the Rix’s Creek Formation is made up of the following : Feet Jo Greywacke ae a ys 594 equivalent to 51 Greywacke conglomerate... bestia mentee 9 ‘tas Shale, siltstone and mudstone .. 404 i aD) Coal ts ihe te igs 33 LOO 3 Af tiadc, Several of the members included above under the heading of greywacke contain minor amounts of conglomerate, as components in the graded bedding. The sediments represented in the bore are referred to five groups: (1) Rudites. (2) Arenites : (a) Epiclastic. (b) Pyroclastie. (3) Lutites. (4) Rocks containing siderite in characteristic form. (1) Rudites. In hand specimen all of these are very similar, varying from pebbly greywacke through gritty greywackes with scattered pebbles to fine conglomerate of the greywacke type. The overall colour is light to medium grey. The phenoclasts are polygenetic and much the same in all specimens examined, the commoner being : 1) Very weathered green (?) volcanic rock. ) Grey-brown quartzite. ) Light brown porphyry. ) Various grey to brown cherty rocks. ) Rare vein quartz. ) Blackish quartzite. ) Basalt (?). ) Brownish altered sandstone. Most are commonly rounded to sub-rounded, but a few are sub-angular. ‘They are often well weathered, though indurated in the process of cementation, SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES. 141 the rocks thus formed being hard, firmly cemented and not very porous. The diameters of the phenoclasts vary from 0-9to3:5em. The following specimens selected over a fairly considerable depth range may be regarded as representative of this class of sediment : Specimen Approximate Phenoclast Number. Depth. | Diameter. (Feet.) (Centimetres. ) R.W. 24 520 3°5 23 520 2-0 it 184 1:9 22 514 1-6 8 158 1-0 7 146 O38) Quartz grains, mostly euhedral, are common, but few accessory minerals have escaped alteration. Most of the rock fragments are fine-grained, cherty or quartzose. Specimen R.W. 7 contains a small pebble with a micrographic inter-growth of quartz and felspar. Cementation occurs by four methods which appear in all specimens : (1) (a) Reaction. The boundaries of the grains, particularly between the quartzites and some less easily recognizable grains, are seen to merge into each other indefinitely at their contact. (b) Recrystallisation (or Enlargement). This is well developed in specimen R.W. 7, in which a chalcedonic cement has formed round and _ between chalcedonic pebbles. (c) Degradation. This is probably the main cause of cementation. The weathered surfaces of pebbles and grains have become homogeneous with a clay-based matrix which has invaded the less resistant grains, particularly the plagioclase felspar. (d) Carbonation. This is the normal interstitial infilling by carbonates, and it is found in the more porous specimens. The carbonates may be calcite or siderite or mixed carbonates of iron and lime (ankerite). Frequently they are impure, due to the presence of the clay fraction. They are reactive and occasionally replace entire detrital grains which retain some of their original shape, or invade them, leaving, as in specimen R.W. 23, a curious skeleton-crystal or scopulitic structure. There seems to be no evidence of pressure welding. (2) Arenttes. (a) Hpiclastic. The epiclastic arenites in hand specimen are whitish-grey to medium grey in colour. All are hard, compact and not very porous. They have a “ pepper-and-salt ’’ appearance, due to the presence of dark rock fragments and carbonaceous material, as well as light-coloured quartz and rock fragments. The more finely grained varieties are very tough. Bedding is rarely apparent, but when present, is irregular. Graded bedding is fairly common in the coarser arenites (Plate XIII, Fig. 1). Under the microscope the grains are seen to consist of much the same rock types as the rudite phenoclasts with quartz and very few ferro-magnesian or other accessory minerals. The grains vary in shape from elongate to equant, but rarely show the high sphericity of many of the rudite pebbles. Many of the grains are angular to sub-angular, the angularity varying inversely as the size. The quartz grains are fresh and more or less euhedral. These grains are commonly fractured but frequently retain several perfect faces and N 142 BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY. undamaged coigns. Cherty, chalcedonic and quartzitic fragments are dominant in the rocks. There is much interlocking of grains, the interstices being filled with smaller grains, thus reducing porosity. The fraction below arenite grain size, say 0-12 mm., is quite small, generally under 10% if sideritic material is excluded. Approximate estimates of the detrital quartz fractions in specimens of arenites from the Bayswater Bores are as follow : Estimated Specimen Detrital Number. Quartz. R.W. 6 1% 20 T% 15 5% 30 8% 3 aN 18 10% 14 10% The felspar fraction in these rocks is always less than 5° and comprises plagioclase (common) and orthoclase (less common). The felspars, while retaining their euhedral shape, are usually weathered to some extent. The cementation of the arenites is the same as that of the rudites discussed above. The carbonate cementation, however, takes two forms : (i) A brown granular cementing material probably composed of clayey ferrous carbonate. (ii) A crystallised form of the material referred to above, almost invariably consisting of small crystals of mixed carbonates of calcium and iron, and probably magnesium. (b) Pyroclastic. Tuffs are relatively common in the section of the Bayswater Bore. They are most conspicuous when they are intercalated with coal or carbonaceous shales. Specimens R.W. 111 from 1,412 feet (Plate XIV, Fig. 6) is an excellent example of a crystal tuff occurring between layers of carbonaceous Shale. Carbonaceous shale containing scattered plagioclase crystals breaks off sharply and is replaced by a band of crystal tuff which is perfectly graded upward from incoherent crystals to fine bentonitic clay. The tuff band is only one and a half inches thick. No quartz is present ; about 25% of the rock consists of euhedral plagioclase, cracked, embayed and stained ; 10% consists of macerated woody material with well preserved cellular structure, and 15% of fine-grained cherty angular rock fragments. The residue is clayey material. A remarkable rock from a depth of about 1,342 feet, specimen R.W. 104, has the appearance of black welded crystalline ash with its upper surface pitted with circular depressions two to four millimetres in diameter. It is about three inches thick, and has a curious pitted fracture throughout (Plate XIII, Fig. 5). Under the microscope the groundmass is brownish and indeterminate. The rest consists of quartz fragments, often deeply embayed, which could not possibly have survived water transport. Many of the fragments are completely shattered. Some primary calcite, mica and pieces of woody tissue are present (Plate XIV, Fig. 5). The ashy rock of specimen R.W. 104 may be a form of ignimbrite deposited by a nuée ardente, and the shattering and surface vesiculation may have been | SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES. 143 caused by cooling in shallow water. The vesicule are filled with laminated shale. The presence of woody tissue seems to eliminate any possibility of it being a stringer from a sill. It is possible that the fresh plagioclase found in the rudites and arenites is derived from pyroclastic material transported by water, but crystal tuffs of the type represented by specimen R.W.111 could only have been deposited from the air. (3) Lutites. The following specimens chosen over a wide vertical range in the Bayswater Bore are typical of this group of rocks. Maximum Average Approximate Specimen Grain Size. Grain Size. Depth. Number. (Millimetre.) | (Miullimetre.) (Feet.) R.W. 12 0-63 0-10 186 2 0-20 0-12 48 13 0-50 0-26 336 38 0-25 0-09 1,148 37 0-35 0-10 | hae! Dil) 0-30 0-07 204 5 = 0-04 113 19 0-70 0-09 | 488 103 ! 0-15 | 0-04 1,342 100 | = | a 1,339 Except in grain-size most of these specimens differ little from the arenites. The higher proportion of carbonate cement in some cases reduces the cohesion of the grains, but in others it may produce a uniformly well-cemented and non- porous rock. There is a tendency for the coarser lutites, as well as the finer arenites, to be jointed, but jointing appears to be reduced as the clay fraction increases. The quartz fraction of the lutites consists of very angular grains, and the proportion increases inversely as the grain size, except in the more clayey specimens. The following table shows the estimated quartz content of selected specimens of lutites from the Bayswater Bore. Specimen Estimated Quartz Number. Content. R.W. 12 15% 2 27% 13 30% 38 50% 37 50% 21 40% 19 30% 5 15% 103 Mainly non-detrital 100 Mainly non-detrital Plagioclase felspar, biotite, sericite and chlorite are present in all specimens ; potash felspar and olivine are rare, The more clayey varieties contain much mica. 144 BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY. It is often difficult to distinguish the clay from the carbonate cementing material. The following are very approximate estimates of the carbonate content of selected specimens. Specimen Estimated Carbonate Number. Content. % R.W. 12 5 2 70 (including clay) 13 7 38 Less than 1 37 5 (excluding veinlets). 2] 5 19 | 5 5 ' Less than 5 103 80 (carbonate and clay) 100 100 (calcium carbonate with devitrified glassy shards) As in the arenites, the carbonate cementing material is usually complex and present either in a minutely crystalline form or in a granular clayey form. Specimen R.W. 2 is almost a limestone with a fairly large clay fraction and scattered quartz grains. Specimen R.W. 103 is a marl, and R.W. 100 a limestone, possibly containing some tuffaceous material as there are traces of the presence of devitrified glassy shards in it. (4) Rocks Containing Siderite in Characteristic Form. Few of the rocks from the rudites to the clays are without some proportion of siderite. The following specimens consist mainly of siderite and they are arranged in order of the grain size of the small detrital fraction they contain. Approximate Specimen Depth. Form of Siderite. Number. (Feet.) R.W. 31 861 Equal siderite and clay with scattered quartz and rock fragments. 26 743 As above. 35 L1ts As above. 32 948 Spherosideritic ironstone. 25 728 Clay ironstone. The mixed silty or sandy carbonate rock contains ferrous carbonate either as small, ill-defined crystals or as irregularly shaped flocculi, which are finely eranular and reticulate, showing a fine network structure. In carbonaceous rocks these floceculi may coalesce into irregular globose masses along the bedding planes, often surrounded by woody tissue, suggesting an origin between layers or within vegetable tissue. These flocculi can also occur scattered along the bedding planes of the arenites. Specimen R.W. 32, a dense black ironstone, is a beautiful example of spherosiderite, containing perfect zoned spherulites of siderite. Clearly the invasion of some of the siderite into arenites is, and some nodules are, diagenetic ; some of the flocculi are deposited as such along with the detritus, possibly by a co-precipitation process, and others, particularly SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES. 145 the globose material and spherulites, are formed authigenically. The reticulate structure may substantiate a flocculous, precipitated origin. The above summary of the petrology of the Tomago Coal Measures is based almost entirely on the section proved in’ the Bayswater Bore, but numerous samples collected over a very wide lateral and vertical range only serve to confirm it. | Of the many samples taken from bore cores and outcrops in the area, thirty specimens were selected for microscopic study. The specimens were taken from localities within a zone approximately 13 miles long by five miles wide, the long axis of which trends north-westerly and south-easterly through the Bayswater Bore, which is four miles from the north-western end of the zone. The majority of the specimens were taken from the cores of diamond drill bores situated from 14 to 24 miles west of the Bayswater Bore. They were taken over a maximum vertical range of 630 feet, and the stratigraphic equi- valents of the specimens are represented in the Bayswater Bore. Specimens taken from outcrops of wider lateral distribution than those from the bore cores are representative of beds stratigraphically equivalent to practically the whole vertical range of the Bayswater Bore. The specimens studied included rudites, arenites and lutites, but the arenites, being the most abundant, received the closest attention. The arenites from the core of the Bayswater Bore contained up to 55% of rock fragments, the dominant assemblage being cherts, siltstones and quartzites with very subordinate amounts of the igneous rocks. The dominance of this siliceous assemblage, which justifies the use of the term ‘‘ oligomictic,”’ is main- tained in the specimens collected from the zone referred to above. Micrographic intergrowths similar to that recorded in specimen R.W. 7, from the Bayswater Bore, were observed in several localities. As in the Bayswater Bore, cementation has taken place by the processes of carbonation, and also by a siliceous cement and interstitial primary clay. The siliceous material is in the form of chalcedony and micromosaics of quartz, while the clay minerals form well-defined interstitial, scaly aggregates, sometimes clouded by sideritic material. Specimen M.S. 66, from an outcrop 23 miles north-east of the Bayswater Bore, exemplifies the skeletal sideritic cementation recorded in specimen R.W. 23 from that bore. The mineral grains in the rocks are angular to sub-angular, and the rock grains are sub-angular to sub-rounded. The fragmental constituents of the arenites range from 0-1 to 1-0 mm. in diameter and are fairly well sorted. The estimated percentage of quartz in the arenites from surrounding localities are higher than those in the Bayswater Bore, up to 31% having been determined. The felspar content of the rocks is somewhat higher, up to 12% having been determined. Over the whole of the zone studied, the great majority of the rocks of any particular class show similarity of texture and composition, both laterally and vertically. In summing up prevailing views, Pettijohn (1949) concluded that induration and dark colour were necessary for the correct use of the term ‘‘ greywacke.”’ Large, very angular detrital grains, mainly quartz, felspar and rock fragments in a Sericitic and chloritic matrix, were also requisite. The rocks from the Tomago Coal Measures are classed as greywackes as defined by Condon (1952), but it is felt by the authors that it would be preferable to erect a new name for these mildly indurated, light-coloured arenites. Such a name must imply sandy texture and composition dominantly quartz and rock fragments, but it must not convey previously accepted implications 146 BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY. not applicable to these rocks. In the meantime the use of the term greywacke to describe these rocks merely implies that they are arenites having the mineral composition of greywackes. From the above description it will be seen that the log of the Bayswater Bore represents superficially a very uniform example of sedimentation. In reality the keynote of the sequence is restless instability, alternating with long periods of quiescence. The greywackes which constitute the major part of the sequence show every sign of having been rapidly removed from the source area and rapidly poured into the area of deposition with little or no winnowing. The heterogeneity of the constituent rock types, the comparative freshness of the felspar and the occurrence of inclined or foreset bedding are all evidence of rapid deposition and quick burial. The occurrence of graded bedding in rocks deposited under such conditions is somewhat difficult to explain in view of the generally accepted theories as to its origin (Pettijohn, 1949) and its occurrence can merely be recorded in a paper of this nature (Plate XIII, Fig. 1). The rapid change of facies from conglomerate to greywacke, siltstone and shale in a matter of four miles may be accepted as proof of proximity to high, rapidly rising source areas, and the affinities of the constituent rock fragments are strong evidence that the source areas were composed of rocks comparable with those of the Carboniferous outcropping immediately to the north. The greywackes of the area have been deposited in a series of interlocking lenses, of which the horizontal axes are not always parallel to the true bedding, and there is frequently an angular difference of as much as 30 degrees between the true bedding as represented by a shale bed or a coal seam and that of the _ greywacke lenses. Examples of this may be seen in Foy Brook Open Cut and Pyke’s Gully Open Cut at Liddell. In Pyke’s Gully Open Cut the junction of the overlying greywackes with the Liddell Seam is exposed. The photograph shown in Plate XIII, Fig. 2, was taken before extraction of the coal had begun, and the floor of the cut is virtually the roof of the seam. Here the foreset beds of the Liddell Sandstone (Grey- wacke) are inclined at an angle of about 30 degrees to the bedding of the coal seam. Above the seam is a few feet of shale, on to which the greywacke detritus has been poured. The weight of the material and the forward slumping of the great bulk of rapidly introduced sediment has crumpled the shale overlying the seam and even the topmost plies of the coal itself. Lenticular sedimentation of this nature is the rule in the Singleton-Muswell- brook Coalfield and applies equally to the Greta as to the Tomago Coal Measures. Consequently wide variations of interseam thicknesses are everywhere in evidence, making it impossible to accept interseam thickness or lithology as reliable criteria in seam correlation. Cone-in-Cone Structure. The lenticulation of the coarser sediments occurs also in the argillaceous deposits. An interesting form of cone-in-cone structure is apparently associated with this feature and with the presence of tuffaceous clays and recrystallising carbonates. The structure is always associated with bentonitic clays or shales, and generally with clay ironstones. It consists of thin calcareous bands up to one foot thick, of no great lateral extent. The bands themselves comprise a succession of minutely plicated veins and veinlets of calcite, often traversed by secondary veins. The small plications imprison lenticles of clay. Both the clay and the calcite may be partially sideritized. The bands usually rest upon grey, blue-grey, or white bentonitic clay or shale, and are frequently overlain by a band of clay ironstone. The plicated veins may be contorted to such an extent that they form conical structures which may be associated with slickensiding or apparent chatter marks in the clay, Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVII, 1953, Plate XIII o t 2 INCHES SERRE SS LEANER Mitre Z INCHES “he \ Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVITI, 1953, Plate XIV ee rT \ a ‘ ’ va ue SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES. 147 This type of structure, which has not hitherto been described in detail from this area, may have been referred to by David (1884) when he described a portion of a bore core from East Maitland as follows: ‘‘ Five inches of soapy clay shale with fibrous calcareous veins ’’ and “ eight inches of clay shales, soapy, with irregular calcareous veins one-eighth to one and one-half inches thick.” During a boring campaign by the Commonwealth Bureau. of Mineral Resources in the Newcastle District, the phenomenon was noticed in several bores, particularly in the Buchanan-Maitland area, but always in sediments referable to the Tomago Coal Measures, never in the Newcastle Coal Measures. The fact that the structure is found in almost every stage of development may throw some light on _the growth of cone-in-cone structure. It is suggested that the conditions necessary for the formation of the initial plicate structure depend on minute lenticulation of alternate sideritic and possibly ashy clay that becomes altered to bentonitic clay in time. The lenticles of siderite above and below the clay layer meet from time to time, forming nodes which act as centres of crystallization of the siderite. The outward growth of crystalline siderite will then naturally have a conical tendency, as nodes further and further from the centre become incorporated, while the clay lenticles are isolated entirely. It seems likely that at an early stage the siderite may be replaced by calcite, which may be contributed in part at least from the clay. Stages in the development of cone-in-cone structure ranging from slight sideritic plications to elaborate calcite cones have been observed (Plate XIII, Figs. 3 and 4). The “ chatter marks ”’ may result from movement of the clay as crystallisation alters the volume, or they may be merely small isolated lenticles of clay which simulate the effects of movement. The association of slickensiding does, however, substantiate to some extent the occurrence of movement, probably of the ‘‘ stick-slip ”’ type. It should be noted that lenticles of bentonitic clays are found in which the lenticle boundaries are coated with secondary carbonate (ankerite), and this may suggest an alternative method of growth. CYCLic SEDIMENTATION. The sedimentation of the Rix’s Creek Formation as a whole presents a picture of alternating instability and quiescence. The numerous and thick coal seams must be deemed to have required long periods of stability under conditions favouring the prolonged existence of coal swamps for their formation. In contrast, the interseam sedimentation, with its thick, lenticular greywackes and conglomerates, foreset bedding and rapid lateral variation, suggests rapid accumulation and rapid burial of the deposits. This occurred under conditions requiring the abrupt rejuvenation of the source areas and rapid sinking of the depositional areas, possibly accompanied by water level variations, between each period of coal formation. The log of the Bayswater Bore (Text-fig. 2) shows a rhythmic sequence of greywackes, mudstones, siltstones, shales and coal seams forming a cyclic suite. Four major cycles of sedimentation can be identified in a depth of 1,250 feet, and on these are superimposed many minor cycles. Similar cycles can also be identified in most other bores in the area. Cycles or rhythms in sedimentation are a world-wide phenomenon. Text-figure 3 (a) (Raistrick and Marshall, 1939), illustrates a cycle or coal measure ‘unit’? from the Carboniferous Coal Measures of England. It is described as ‘‘a unit cycle of sedimentation related to depth of water and Supply of sediment in a deltaic area,”’ and is the result of the shoaling and filling of the depositional area and the formation of coal swamps. The section might well have been taken from the log of almost any bore in the Singleton-Muswell- 148 BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY. brook Coalfield, except that the marine phases of the cycle are not there represented. Cyclic sedimentation in the Pennsylvanian of America was recognized by Udden as early as 1906. In 1912 he described cyclic sediments in the Pennsyl- vanian of the Peoria Quadrangle of Illinois. The study of cyclic sedimentation in the Pennsylvanian has since been developed by Weller, Wanless, Shepard and others until to-day the literature on the subject is extensive. In the Pennsylvanian of America the equivalent of the coal measure ‘ unit ”’ is the cyclothem, defined by Weller (1930) in the following terms: ‘ A series of beds deposited during a single sedimentary cycle of the type that prevailed during the Pennsylvanian Period.”’ Under ideal conditions the cyclothem contains ten members, five fresh- water and five marine. The concept of the “ideal ’’ cyclothem was developed to represent the optimum succession of deposits during a complete sedimentary cycle. Weller defined an ideal cyclothem for the State of Illinois, which is reproduced in Text-fig. 3 (b). ) A comparison of the figures reproduced will demonstrate the essential similarity of the coal measure ‘“ unit’’ and the cyclothem.. Variations in tectonic intensity and periodicity and its relationship to both source and depositional areas must influence the nature and succession of cyclic deposits, and the relationship of the area of deposition to the source area alone can be responsible for major variations in the sedimentation of a cycle. Text-fig. 3 (c) after Wanless and Shepard (1936), shows three types of cyclothem ranging from near-source to shallow marine conditions. Text-fig. 3 (d) shows a cycle from the Tomago Coal Measures of the Singleton-Muswellbrook Coalfield and a comparison of this section with those shown in Text-fig. 3 (c) suggests a strong similarity between it and the piedmont type of cyclothem. Although the cycles of sedimentation in the Tomago Coal Measures have many features in common with the coal measure ‘“‘ units ’’ of the Carboniferous of England and the cyclothems of the Pennsylvanian of America, there are, however, differences which cannot be overlooked in any comparison. First, while the English and American cycles range in amplitude from marine to fresh-water, the examples from the Tomago Coal Measures are restricted to fresh-water conditions. Secondly, the English and American examples commence and terminate with unconformity. So far intraformational unconformity has not been found in the Tomago Coal Measures. Thirdly, the complete coal measure ‘‘ unit ’’ or cyclothem is nowhere represented in the Tomago Coal Measures, or for that matter in any of the coal measure sediments in New South Wales. Fourthly, in the Pennsylvanian of America individual cyclothems have been identified over wide areas and have been suggested as a basis of coal seam correlation (Weller, 1930). The cycles in the Tomago Coal Measures of this area have not yet been established as continuous over any great area. Fifthly, Weller assigns the rank of formations to the cyclothems of the Pennsylvanian, but similar ranking of the Tomago cycles does not appear to be warranted. It will be appreciated, therefore, that although the cyclic sedimenta- tion of the Tomago Coal Measures has much in common with that of the Carboniferous of England and the Pennsylvanian of America, there are so many points of difference that it would be unwise at this stage to draw more than general inferences from a comparison. Numerous hypotheses have been advanced from time to time in explanation of the phenomena of cyclic sedimentation. In 1936 Wanless and Shepard 800 f 00 — 100 400 400° 500 600! Too’ _ 800 goo'_ 1000" 100° _ 1200'_ 1300" es 1400' _ 1500'_ SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO GOAL MEASURES, BAYSWATER LOG GRAINSIZE INDICATION ONLY 149 BMR. Nl BORE 0” Sandstone 0° Shales and mudstone, grey to yellow > silt 0° Sandstone 4 0” Greywacke , frequent siltstone and shale bands. 0" Shale~grey, silty. 0” Coal 0. Shale, calcareous. G Mudstone, grey, with silty and sandy bands. 0 Greywacke 0” Coal 0 Sandstone-grey, with shale bands. 3° Coal 0" Grey tvacke comglomerate. Siltstone, grey. "Coal aay 0" Sandstone, grey, medium. 0 Shale, gr J : Shale, $7 ey stity on fop. 6 Coal 6 Siltstone—grey, with shale bands. Shale -~grey with siltstone bands. Coal Col. " Sannstane, white. 36" 5; re 0” Grey wackefine, grey Dole 296 ELV oe 0” Shale and siltstone-grey. Greywacke with tivo Ift. Coal bands and 3'6" Shale band Shale and siltstone, grey. Sandstone, fine, light grey. Mudstone, grey, silty, Greywacke, grey, medium, a)a 22.9.0, Shale and _miutdstone - grey. _ Sandstone, fine, calcareous 3° Coal 2" Coal 6" Siltstone , ardillaceous « — 26) SEY, ATS 10" Coallpistributed with bands oF Crane = Shale at base 3" Vbetween 340'10"— 344" oa, 6° Siltstone, grey. 0” Sandstone - wacke, mudstone at base. Coal Cha en 368—370', separated a fey 13" band Siltstone, grey. eS GA 0" Greywacke 0° Shale, grey, silty 6 White greywacke, pebbly between 432'- 434! occasfonal shale bands. Coal Siltstone ~ grey, sandy, shale at base. i CELLO PEE ef DR 5 ) O 6 8 0 Sandstone, fine, grey, silty. 0° Siltstone, grey, with shale bands. 0” Greywacke conglomerate. 0 Sandstone, fine, argillaceous. 6" Mudstone and shale, grey. oe Coal G Sandstone, fine, grey 0” Mudstene-grey, silty, with shale bands from 558 = 592 containing coal. 0" Siltstone~ grey, argillaccous, sandy at top. 0" Sandstone ~grey, argillaceous. 0 Siltstone- grey, argiflaceous, 6° Mudstone — grey 40" Coal 6" Mudstane 0 Greywacke-white, with siltstone and clay tronstone, Distributed, with bands, between 687'4°—697's” Mudstone grey Coal » & { ° of ria Mudstone and shale, grey, silty in places. 0” Greywacke-white to green, scattered pebbles. conglomerates at 740-753, 784-7387 1189 ~ 793 and’ at base. 6" Shale, grey. G 2 5 2" Distributed, with bandas, , Coat " 3. between 5056" —§211'5” 7 Shale, grey 2" 2. Distributed with bana's Coal 5” between 823° §29' +” 0" Sandstone, grey, silty. o" Greywacke, white 6" Siltstone grey. 6" Mua'stone, grey 2. Coal 0" Shale and mudstone, grey 0" Siltstone~ argillaccous, grey, with bands of shale and clay 0 Greywacke, white oa" Siltstone, grey with sandy /enses. Mudstone, grey, siity, grading to shale at base. fs Mudstone- silty and shale with coal bands. Greywacke -white (e] De 2 5 " o" Muadstone-silty, grey 6 Greywacke, light grey. 3° Coal 0 Grey wacke-white, coarse, with conglomerate bands, 0” Greywacke~ grey, fine, silty °" Mudstone, silty, grey. 0" Greywacke ~ grey, coarse grained with 2° conglomerate at tap, @ Mudlstone , grey, with sandy lenses. 0° Greywacke, grey, medium, 0” Greywacke, fine, grey, with siltstone and shale bands. 0 Greywacke-medium, grey, with siltstone bands 0° Greywacke, grey, mecium. 0” Siltstone ~grey, with greywacke from 1178 ~ 178° 9" BASE OF TOMAGO BEDS TRANSITION OR BAYSWATER BEDS 0 =Mudstfone ais grey with occasional shale and siltstone hands. o' Siltstonc, grey, argillaceous. 0" Mudstone, dark grey, silty fo sandy. 0" Siltstone, grey. TOP OF UPPER MARINE BEDS 0 Mudstone-grey to black, pyritiferous ? 0 Shale - light blue Ammodiscus Mulficinckus of 1330’, 0" Mudstone-dark grey, pyrttic, siliceous, Basslerdila sp. at 1346 Oo Shale, dark grey, pyritic. Mudstone, grey. Shale, blue, with some mudstone 0" Mudstone - grey to black, with shale partings and bands of crystal tuffs. Nodosaria Serocoldensis at 1428’ 5437. 0" Shale - black with 1'6" black mudstone. 0” Mud'stone, black - 0" Shale, black, 0" Mudstone, black 4 Text-figure 2. Coal Seam Seat Earth Sana'stone Bind or Shale ‘ussel Band oal Sanalstone Bind Jronstone Nodules Coal Flagsy Sandstone Sandstone Jronstone Flagstone Black Bind Coal Seam Seat Earth Detail of Coal Measure Unit (after Raistrick § Marshall) Fig, ae Piedmont Deltaic Neritic Three tynes of cyclothems showing cha near-source areas to shallow fluctuating marine conditions. 150 Coal & undercley may bs present. ge from (Adapted from Wanless §& Shepard Geol Soc.Am Bull 1938) Fig.“c” BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY. Member 10. Member 9. Member 8. Member 7. MemberG. Member 5, Member 4. Member 3. Member 2. Member |. Grey shale sandy at top marine fossils § ironstone concretions tn lower part. Limestone; marine fossils. Black laminated shale,large marine fossils. 3 Limestone -marine fossils. Grey shale, pyritic nodules, ironstone concretions at base, marine fossils rare Coal Underclay, med. light grey, lower part calesreous Freshwater limestone ngaules, disc beds, usully CE peratl liscontinuous Grey sandy shale. Fine gr micaceous sanaistone and siltstone, massive @ thin bedded plant remains, The ideal cyclothem (adapted from Wilman § Payne ///, Geol. Survey Bull, G6. /942.& other sources. Fig. “bp” Sand-—loose Conglomerate Soft Sandstone & Shale Shaly Sandstone Grey Shale Coal & two 3” bana's Shale-some coal bands at top. Shale with bands of sandstone Shaly Sandstone Sandstone Grey Shale Shaly Sandstone Detail from N21 Bore Ravensworth State Coal Mine Reserve. Text-figure 3. Fig.'da° 150 idercley esent. m ‘ conditions. BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY. Member 10. Grey shale sandy at top marine fossils & Member 9. Member 8. Member 7. MemberG. Member 5, Member 4. Member 3. Mamber 2. Mamber [. ironstone concretions in lower part. Limestone; marine fossils. Black laminated shale, large marine fossils. Limestone -marine fossils. Grey shale, pyritic nodules, ironstone concretions at base, marine fossils rare. Coal. Underclay, med. light grey, lower part calcareous. Freshwater limestone nodules, discontinuous beds, usully non-fossiliferous, Grey sandy shale. Fine gr micaceous Sandstone ana siltstone, massive @ thin bedded plant remains, The ideal cyclothem (adapted from Wilman § Payne //1, Geol. ‘Survey Bull, G6. /942.& other sources. Fig. “fp | HHH nil | LL | | | | | | | Sand—loose Conglomerate Soft Sandstone & Shale Shaly Sandstone Grey Shale Coal & two 3° bands Shale-some coal bands at top. Shale with bands of sandstone Shaly Sandstone Sandstone Grey Shale SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES. 151 examined the various hypotheses which may be summarized as (1) the hypothesis of intermittent subsidence, and (2) the hypothesis of alternate subsidence and uplift, and proposed a third hypothesis of sea-level fluctuations. Included in their hypothesis is a postulation of glacial control of sea-level fluctuations as a factor in cyclic sedimentation. As this is the first record of cyclic sedimentation in the coal measures of New South Wales, it is considered premature at this stage to attempt to theorize as to its causation. Any or all of the hypotheses referred to above might be applicable. The suggestion of glacial control of sea-level fluctuations is, however, of more than passing interest in view of the widespread glacial conditions known to have existed in the Permian of the Hunter River Valley of New South Wales. REFERENCES. Condon, M. A., 1952. Aust. Jour. Science, 15, 53-55. David, Sir T. W. E., 1907. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W. G4, p. 211. Govt. Printer, Sydney. Krumbein, W. C., and Sloss, L. L., 1951. ‘‘ Stratigraphy and Sedimentation ”’, p. 377. W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco. Pettijohn, F. J., 1949. ‘*‘ Sedimentary Rocks ’’, p. 137. Harper & Brothers, New York. Raistrick, A., and Marshall, C. E., 1939. ‘‘ The Nature and Origin of Coal Seams ’’, p. 23. English Universities Press Ltd., London. Raggatt, H. G., 1938. D.Sc. Thesis, University of Sydney, pp. 42, 43, 62. Unpublished. Udden, J. A., 1912. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bulletin 506, p. 26. Wanless, H. R., and Shepard, F. P., 1936. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 47, 1177-1206. Willer, J. M., 1930. Jour. Geol., 38, 101-110. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Purate XIII. Fig. 1.—Graded bedding in greywacke, No. 6 Bore, Ravensworth State Coal Mine Reserve. Fig. 2.—The Liddell Sandstone resting on shales overlying the Liddell Seam, Pyke’s Gully Open Cut. The shales overlying the seam and the topmost plies of the seam itself have been crumpled by the weight and the forward slumping of the overlying sediments. Fig. 3.—Minute lenticles in shale, Bayswater Bore. Fig. 4.—Well developed cone-in-cone structure, Bayswater Bore. XI. Fig. 5.—Surface pitting on ignimbrite(?), Bayswater Bore. The pitting may be due to deposition in shallow water or, more probably, rain prints. Xl. PLATE XIV. Fig. 1.—Arenite from No. 6 Bore, Ravensworth State Coal Mine Reserve. x40. Specimen No. M.S8.6. Fig. 2.—Arenite from No. 8 Bore, Ravensworth State Coal Mine Reserve. x40. Specimen No. M.S. 160. Fig. 3.—Arenite from the Bayswater Bore. 40. Specimen No. R.W.20. Fig. 4.—Lutite from the Bayswater Bore. x40. Specimen No. R.W. 37. Fig. 5.—Ignimbrite (?) from the Bayswater Bore. 40. Specimen No. R.W. 104. Fig. 6.—Crystal tuff from the Bayswater Bore. x40. Specimen No. R.W. 111. GEOLOGY AND SUBSURFACE WATERS OF THE MOREE DISTRICT, NEW SOUTH WALES. By J. Rapr* With four Text-figures. Manuscript received, October 23, 1953. Read, December 2, 1953. INTRODUCTION. The Moree district is situated in the north of New South Wales immediately south of the Queensland border and forms part of the area included in the eastern lobe of the New South Wales section of the Great Artesian Basin. It has been selected for description on account of its impor- tance in regard to the stratigraphy and structure of the Great Artesian Basin. It occupies an area of approximately 6500 square miles between Goondiwindi, Mungindi and Narrabri. Previous references to the artesian water of this district are to be found in Symmonds (1912), Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission’s Artesian Investigations (19389, 1940) and David (1950). In compiling the present paper full use was made of bore data collected by the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission of N.S.W. The boundaries of the Cretaceous series were determined from the data obtained by Miss Irene Crespin of the Mineral Resources Bureau, Canberra, during an examination of microfossils from samples taken from several bores in the area between 1940 and 1946. The writer made a number of visits to the district for purposes of field investigation. The country contains but few rock outcrops, being mostly covered by Pleistocene and Recent black soil and waste; the surface is very flat with a slight slope to the west and the rivers traversing it have very shallow and meandering courses. Henee all the information as to the geology has been gained from the logs of artesian and subartesian bores. Since these are numerous it has been possible to obtain a fairly accurate idea of the strata below the surface, though the boundaries shown in the maps and section can only be regarded as tentative. It has been more difficult to determine the depth of bedrock because many bores were not carried down to it, and in the compilation of the bedrock map (Fig. 1) only the most significant bores were taken into account. However, though there may be errors of detail, it is considered that the countours obtained help to throw some light on the structure of the basement complex. Some trouble was taken to determine as exactly as possible the boundary between Cretaceous and Jurassic beds because of the probability that the variations in this surface reflect variations in the bedrock surface. Less importance was attached to the Cretaceous Roma and Winton Series. * Geologist, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Sydney. GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS. 153 STRATIGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. Apart from some Tertiary basalts and a probable thin cover of Tertiary freshwater sediments overlying the Winton series near the Queensland border, the rocks in the Moree district are Palaeozoic and Mesozoic. As shown by the bores the bedrock consists of Palaeozoic shales, conglomerates, felspar- porphyries and granites. Partly as the result of a study of the Warialda Intake Area, now under investigation by the writer, it is thought that the beds underlying the main aquifers may be chiefly Triassic, Permian, Carboni- ferous and Devonian, and partly Silurian and Ordovician. The granites inter- . sected by bores in the south-western part of the district are Palaeozoic and are referred tentatively to the Kanimblan orogeny, but the possibility must not be excluded that late Permian intrusions are present in the extreme east. In the Warialda Intake Area, some 50 miles east of Moree, are Triassic beds consisting of conglomerates, sandstones and shales resting on the Palaeozoic basement and overlain by sandstones of the Jurassic Walloon Series. In shales interbedded with sandstones and bituminous shales on the banks of Warialda Creek N.W. of Delungra, the writer recently found a well-preserved flora including Thinnfeldia odontopteroides, and Johnstonia sp., plants characteristic of the Triassic Ipswich Series of Queensland. From the available bore logs it would appear that the Triassic beds occur only on the eastern margin of the district and thin out quickly towards the west, so that the Walloon strata rest directly on the older rocks. The Walloon Series varies considerably in thickness from place to place because of its deposition on an irregular surface not far from the shoreline, and changes in lithological facies are observed within the limits of the district. The lower part of the series is composed of shales which are correlated with the Purlawaugh Beds of Mulholland (1950), while the upper part consists of the porous sandstones known as the Pilliga Beds. With these through change of facies some shales are interstratified and gradually they assume a Shaly character. The thickest shale intercalations are found in the deeper parts of the basin, as for example in Boronga No. 2 bore 58 miles N. of Moree. The maximum thickness about 1500 feet of the Walloon Series was disclosed in the Dolgelly bore, 40 miles N. of Moree, and the minimum recognized thickness of about 170 feet was found in the Coonal bore, 31 miles W. of Moree. The average thickness of the series is estimated to be about 700 feet. Apart from some indeterminable plant-remains, no fossils have been found in the beds. According to David (1950, p. 459) the Marburg and Bundamba beds of Queensland and the soft Upper Coal-measures of the Walloon Series are not represented in the New South Wales part of the Great Artesian Basin. Of great interest is the transition from the Walloon Series to the Lower Cretaceous. David (1950, p. 484) correlates outcrops in the far north-west of N.S.W. with the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale Series of Queensland, which is regarded as lacustrine. In several bores in the Moree district there are sandy shales with lignite and coal and intercalations of sandstone between Jurassic sandstones and Cretaceous marine shales; these beds, which have yielded no microfossils, the writer regards as equivalents of the Blythesdale Series. In the Walloon bore 20 miles N.W. of Moree a coal-seam 1’ 3” thick between beds of shale was recorded at a depth of 1650 feet. In the Talmoi bore, 26 miles N.W. of Moree, at a depth of 2640 feet 8 feet of shale were found with small seams of coal, associated with sandy shale, white shale, PP 154 J. RADE. erey sandstone and clay. The average thickness of the series is thought to be about 600 feet. The Blythesdale Series in N.S.W. has yielded plant-remains. Walkom (1918, p. 58) refers to fragments of Taeniopteris spatulata obtained at 1630 feet in the Walloon bore. This plant has a considerable vertical range, and according to David (1950, p. 502) reaches its highest stratigraphical level in the Upper Cretaceous Styx River beds of Queensland. The Blythesdale beds are overlain by the marine Roma Series, consisting of light bluish-grey shales or shaly mudstones. The lithological character is very persistent, and intercalations of sandstone and sandy shale are but few.: The series may attain a considerable thickness, estimated to be about 13800 feet in the Boronga No. 2 bore and 1095 feet in Neargo No. 2 bore. The average thickness is approximately 700 feet. In the Roma beds a rich foraminiferal fauna has been found (Crespin, 1944, 1945, 1946). Many of the forms are identical with those of the Lower Cretaceous of Western Australia (Crespin, 1937), and some are found in the Upper Cretaceous of the North-west Basin (Crespin, 1938). According to Miss Crespin the sandstones and gravels in Boronga No. 2 bore between 25 and 75 feet are Tertiary. From 100 to 250 feet clay was reported, containing fine angular quartz grains, imonite and fragments of Bryozoa referable to genera characteristic of Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary, as, for example, Hornera, Cribrilina, Retepora beaniana and Filisparsa. At 275 feet the bore passed into sediments of definitely Cretaceous age, in which fossils were found from 752 to 2054 feet. From 902 feet down a persistent assemblage of foraminifera was encountered, dominated by arenaceous genera including Ammobaculites, Haplophragmoides, Trochammina and Arenobulimina together with the following: Anomalina sp., Arenobulima puschi, Cassidulina cf. subglobosa, Cibicides lobatulus, Crithionina, Globigerinoides trilobus, Globi- gerina sp., Glomospira, Gyroidina winbilicata, Haplophragmium aequale, Heronallenia sp., Hyperamminoides sp., Lagena globosa, Lenticulina cf. gibba, L. cf. rotulata, Marginulina bullata, Nodosaria subtertenuata, Reophax, Rzehakina, Spiroplectammina cf. scott, Spiroplectoides, Textularia sp., Ver- neuilina polystropha. The writer would place the boundary of the Winton and Roma Series in Boronga No. 2 bore at 752 feet, and the boundary of Roma and Blythesdale Series at approximately 2195 feet. Another bore of the Moree district examined by Miss Crespin for microfossils was Neargo, in which a typical assemblage of Lower Cretaceous foraminifera was present from 355 to 1450 feet. According to Walkom (1918, p. 58) Lower Cretaceous rocks with marine fossils were encountered to 1500 feet in the Walloon bore; this depth approxi- mately determines the boundary of Roma and Blythesdale Series. Above the Roma Series lies the Upper Cretaceous Winton Series, repre- senting a return of freshwater lacustrine conditions following the disappear- ance of the Roma sea. Into the Winton Lake flowed rivers from the highlands of New England bringing sand and mud, and at frequent intervals the occurrence of swampy conditions resulted in deposits of lignite. The town of Moree iS approximately on the old shore-line of the Winton Lake. In the Moree artesian bore carbonaceous shale 29 feet 6 inches thick was encountered at 673 feet, and at 806 feet lignite alternating with dark shale, clay and sand- stone, to a total thickness of 116 feet. The sequences begin with sandy layers, which pass up into clay and shale, reflecting the conditions prevailing in GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS. 155 CONTOUR PLAN OF BASEMENT COMPLEX OF THE MOREE DISTRICT _ Scale —— | (Miles 43200 4 8 2 0 e20oMiles z ee | | oe ; Byer: : OGGABILLA & | i! °Z 8INSY-}X9,L S0I@_ WHTIA ae FLMeSO (22, ae SHWIIS NOOTIVM Ssvypr JO SVT “rt uv Ei: ~ ; NOLLVNAOS SNOTIVLISI SO ISVI mm seacaeieeee SWSTS TIVOSTHLATE — INOIJWUAIS) JIMOT = = = oe SO NOLISOH YI1VM at 7 GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS. 155 ‘gr BASEMENT COMPLEX OF CONTOUR PLAN | THE MOREE DISTRICT ™. GOONDIWINDI® Text-figure 1. 156 J. RADE, GEOLOGICAL SECTION A-B HORIZON?) wee TAL SCALE | rep re HLL, SOLE say N BY RY 8 8 = ag Re af § w g rs OOH AAAI iit I HNN Il ON AAA = Sey WATER. HORIZON OF ANDY SHALE = -—— LOWER CRETACEOUS SAND BLYIMESDALE SERIS iS [E554 SANDSTONE =.=: BASE OF CRETACEOUS FORMATION (MM) ¥¢A7e erseh, BASE OF HURAC, WALLOON SERIES Tr GRAMTE Text-figure 2. J. RADE. GEOLOGICAL SECTION A-B 156 eee ee AA vg = a “N Siw Sop 88 x | ls g NIN Zev sitog snag Wistiniisiii'l Nx 8 Mies Fji2:/10 Reef mabaaee FI0G Srenpresnies / OW 7TIFJAC oe Oo fee Met te GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS. 157 CONTOUR PLAN OF THE BASE OF THE LOWER CRETACEOUS BLYTHESDALE SERIES =e. Text-figure 3. 158 J. RADE. MAP OF THE MOREE DISTRICT | SHOWING BORES. FLOW LINES. GEOLOGICAL SECTION LINES SCALE GOONDIWINDI=. Ygep te 6 20 yy, i jeg ea ae fOVeEF Macityre BOGGABILLA @20RONGA @&4°080RA 200M! ea ® 20RONGA No2 $ yy: Te hia ye | Al C @ULLOONA No2 DOLGELLY ® q §) COUB CURRUMENG | | Sv i CaS Qyleloone mas 82 Me/ 4 OM ©» MUNGINDI 90 fw v7 Se ae LR o ecunay | CAREUNGA ¢ WIRRAH ee, 5 gO Noe Ry . @ @'@ AROMA Nod ) GY VAZPAWA KIGA Nal ¢ en @SRYANUNGRA SS —= 9 MMO! orccor| @% ou Ay S FOUR PURE Moz MIN Nez @COGAMILDI No.2 KR) D) YOUR POSTS No! ° eee & f OQMIUN M3 a9) deities @ 22% 20R00 SO MEROLE COOLL EARLE SS COLLYMPNELE A ® flan 4 a rs MOREE ) Gwltez” 9 (OOWAL (ait ® @MOREE Lie, QVAREO MEAREO No.2 aN Bo LLERAGA Wo TYGANNAH a / oe @keu/ @SOMUCKLEDI FLORIDA Wo! ae ‘ URANBAL, Veni, ; GLENMROY oe URLEY SIOING 0. YP OADOAH Nas @u2 ® QIN ® @ CURLEY Nad pp Ornor Ps LH GRAD OU @ BUNA BUNNA No.2 QO" | UNA (i ne ROEe @% WS icieay BELLATA Noe om oa \ DOBIKIN @ @BELLATA Ne/ XQ oi ee” LEROY \ aon Bae ore @LLANO BURREN WNo/ 4° NARRABRI Y Text-figure 4. GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS. 159 Winton time, the lignite and carbonaceous shale having been deposited in a much more tranquil environment than the coarser sediments. The car- bonaceous shale beginning at 673 feet is underlain by 1’ 6” of sand and eravel, possibly deposited by rivers in a shallow lake. It is suggested that the lignite layers beginning at 806 feet were laid down in the deltaic region of a river entering the Winton Lake; they are underlain by 40 feet of sandstone with streaks of lignite, and these may have been laid down in a tranquil part of the delta occasionally inundated by floodwaters. As time went on the conditions changed and the deposits were more of a swampy lacustrine character with very fine deposits of clay and shale. According to David (1950, p. 489) Winton beds to a thickness of 900 feet and consisting of shale, carbonaceous shale and shaly sandstone with plant- fragments, were found in the Walloon bore, resting on the marine Cretaceous beds. On the bore-data available the thickness of the series in the Dolgelly bore north of Moree may be placed at about 800 feet. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY. It is not proposed to consider the structure of the bedrock in detail here as the author hopes in a later paper to deal with this question for the whole area of the Great Artesian Basin within New South Wales. From the contour-map (Fig. 1) it would appear that in the Moree district a number of trends are expressed as valleys and ridges in the bedrock, the most prominent being north-east and north-north-west respec- tively. Some of the structures, possibly due to faulting, were apparently imposed in post-Cretaceous time, since they are shown not only in the bedrock contours but also in those of the base of the Lower Cretaceous, as in the S.W. and N.E. parts of the district. A fault striking W.N.W. is shown west of Bellata, evidence for which was found in the Karinga bore, 4 miles S.W. of Bellata, where signs of strong shearing were detected in shale samples recovered from the boring. GROUNDWATER Hyprouocy. Some salt water aquifers are met at depths between 60 and 200 feet, but these are of no practical value. The first artesian flows are found in the Blythesdale Series ,and the highest flow is at approximately 2400 feet in the western part of the district; for example in the Wirrah bore 53 miles N.W. of Moree it was struck at 2435 feet. In the northern part this flow was at its greatest known depth of 2844 feet in Boronga No. 2 bore. The second flow in the Blythesdale Series is often small and may be only a trickle. In many places, particularly in the western part of the district, it is really two separate flows. The aquifers are in the sandstone beds. That from which the highest flow is derived is between 30 and 100 feet thick, while the aquifer from which the second flow comes varies considerably but averages between 40 and 50 feet in the western part of the district. This is split by a bed of shale into two aquifers, as is seen on the geological section forming Fig. 2, in Four Posts No. 2 bore, 43 miles N.W. of Moree, where the shale is 79 feet thick. In the west the interval between the aquifers of the highest and the second flows is between 170 and 340 feet. The waters of these two flows differ greatly from those of the flows in the Walloon Series in containing a markedly greater percentage of total solids. The composition of the Blythesdale waters is illustrated in the J. 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The average depth of the first aquifer below the deepest Blythes- dale aquifer is between 200 and 400 feet. Since from the practical point of view it is important to know the depth to the first main flow, a contour-map of the base of the Blythesdale Series has been prepared (Fig. 3). The contours are, of course, only tentative, but the error cannot be very great because the top of the Walloon Series is marked fairly distinctly by the occurrence of sandstones containing small intercalations of shale. The first main aquifer is further below the base of the Blythesdale Series in some places than in others, being overlain by some thickness of sandstone: in the Boomi bore 53 miles N.W. of Moree this overlying sandstone is about 100 feet thick, in the Midkin No. 3 bore 21 miles N.W. of Moree it is about 160 feet, and the greatest known thickness of 300 feet is found in the Roma bore, 42 miles S.W. of Moree. The: Walloon sandstone is very porous, and therefore very favourable for the accumulation and movement of underground water. To judge from MulhoHand’s (1950, p. 126) investigations in the Coonamble area, only some of the sandstones belonging to the Pilliga beds are permeable—usually friable sandstones separated by relatively impermeable beds of harder sandstone and sandy shale. The water in the Walloon Series is softer than that in the Blythesdale Series. Its chemical composition is illustrated in the table above. It is of interest to note the relation between the chemical composition of the artesian waters in the Moree district and the structural features of the basement complex. For this purpose we may take Plan No. 11 accom- panying the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission’s Artesian Investigations, 2nd Interim Report (1940), which shows total mineral content in grains per gallon in the bores east of the Narran River; this may be compared with the contour-plan of the basement complex of the Moree district forming Fig. 1 of the present paper. On both maps it is possible to recognize at once the main thalweg of the artesian water, stretching from southern Queensland into the eastern part of the Moree district. It is characterized by water containing from 40 to 45 grains per gallon of total solids, which moves from the deeepest part of the basin in the vicinity of Boronga No. 2 bore, south past Moree to the bores of Bellata and Fairview, where, to the N.W. of Bellata, it is blocked by the Bellata fault. Areas whose waters have a higher content of total solids are situated west of the main thalweg, and the water with highest content of mineral matter is found in the N.E. part of the district just at its boundary with the Warialda intake beds, as in Currumbah, Marlow, Baroma No. 2 and Coolleearlee bores. Since the move- ments of the water are indicated by the differing content of total solids from place to place, we may infer that the Warialda intake beds have only subordinate significance in regard to the supply of water to the Moree district. These intakes yield water containing 61 grains per gallon and upwards of total solids, and it is thought that these high figures may be related to a possible thin cover of Blythesdale overlying the Walloon beds on the western margin of the Warialda intake beds; if the beds were strongly fractured the solution products of the calcareous layers might well leak down into the Walloon sandstones and affect the chemical composition of the main flows. However, the water with the high content of mineral matter 162 J. RADE. very soon joins the main body of water coming from Queensland, so that its content of total solids is much reduced. The water derived from the intake beds about Narrabri and to the west of it moves in a N.W. direction, as shown in Fig. 4. SUMMARY. The strata in the Moree district are mainly Mesozoic and Palaeozoic. Palaeozoic trends are dominant in the structure of the basement complex. The highest artesian flows are in the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale Series, but the main flows come from the Jurassic Walloon Series. In chemical composition the waters of the Blythesdale Series differ greatly from those of the Walloon Series, the latter having a smaller content of total solids. The chemical composition of the main flows is related to the movements of the water, which in turn are governed by the geological structure of the basement complex. REFERENCES. Crespin, I., 1937. ‘‘ Lower Cretaceous Foraminifera in Perth Bores.’’ J. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., 24, 71. (In paper by W. J. Parr.) 1938. ‘‘ Upper Cretaceous Foraminifera from N.W. Basin.” J. Palaeont., 12, 391. 1944. ‘‘ Some Lower Cretaceous Foraminifera from Bores in the Great Artesian Basin, Northern New South Wales.’’ THis JouRNAL, 78, 17-24. 1945. ‘*‘ A Microfauna from Lower Cretaceous Deposits in Great Artesian Basin.”’ Commonwealth Miner. Res. Surv. Rept., 1945/16. —— 1946. ‘‘ Lower Cretaceous Fauna in N.W. Basin.’ J. Palaeont., 20, 505. David, Sir T. W. Edgeworth, 1950. ‘‘ The Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia.’”” Edited by W. R. Browne, London. Mulholland, C. St. J., 1950. ‘* Review of Southern Intake Beds, New South Wales, and Their Bearing on Artesian Problems.” Rep. Dept. Mines N.S.W., 125-127. Symmonds, R. S., 1912. ‘“‘ Our Artesian Waters.” Sydney. br ee A. B., 1918. ‘‘ Lower Mesozoic Rocks of Queensland.’’ Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Sion. Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission. Artesian Investigations. Ist Interim Report, 1939. 2nd Interim Report, 1940. MINERALIZATION OF THE ASHFIELD SHALE, WIANAMATTA GROUP. By JoHN F. LOVERING, M.Sc. Department of Mineralogy and Petrology, The Australian Museum, Sydney. With Plate XV and one Text-figure. Manuscript received, October 30, 1953. Read, December 2, 1953. CONTENTS. : Page Abstract .. 2, Bes Ae ai is ue a As .. 163 Introduction i. : he De oa ate oe .. 163 The Lithological Favitonniont ad = si ais i .. 164 Mineral Paragenesis : Barite a8 Fa a ae ae he .. 164 Pyrite and Marcasite ae bs ie WA 4 -< Lovering, John F. AS Niawer nieatibn of te Ashfield Shale, Wianamatta Group.. 163 M McElroy, C. T.—See Booker, F. W., etc. 137 McIntosh, Arthur Marshall.—Obituary xxviii McKern, H. H. G., and Spies, (Mrs.) M. C.—A Note on the Composition of the Essential Oi of ae aa citriodora Hook. Type : 24 McKern, H. H. G.—See Penfold, A. R. se etc. sh 102 Magee, C. J. Ue eeibniiel ee ae ] Measures of Double Stars on Sydney Astrographic Plates, Declinations —52° to —58° a a .. 124 Members, List of ah ws thas GV Mineralisation of the Ashfield Shale, Wianamatta Group... a8 7+ 168 N Narrabeen Group: Its Sub-divisions and Correlations between the South Coast and the Narrabeen- ens Districts sie 106 New Ammonoid ae oe “Raster n Australian Permian Province. 46 New Species of Hadrophyllum aon ai Garra Beds at Wellington, N.S.W. .. 121 Note on the Composition of the Essential Oil of ee eae citriodora Hook. Dy penis: ; 23 .. 24 O Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1952 as Bee eee) Officers for 1953-54 an aad wa On the Interpretation of Certain Laplacian Operator Functions yan Od Osborne, G. D.—See Hanlon, F. N., etc. 106 Xxx INDEX P Page q Society's Medal and Money Prize, Page Awards of the .. bs XVili Packham, G. H.—A New Species of Some Aspects of the Bunchy Top Hadrophyllum from the Garra Beds _ Disease of Banana and other Musa at Wellington, N.S.W. Wn . 121 spp. 5 Penfold, A. R., McKern, H. H. G., and Some Peoples of tertiaey Geology i in Spies, (Mrs.) "M. C.—The Essential Oil Southern Australia eg of Backhousia myrtifolia Hooker et A\uth Harvey. Part II. The Occurrence of pps ibe) ee iy Physiological Forms a0 FOZ See McKern, H. H. G., 24 Pope, Roland ffog Umea Riary XXVill See Penfold, A. R., oy 102 Presidential Address, by C. J. Magee .. 1 Spry, Alan.—The Thermal Metamor- P he ee ee phism of Portions of the Woolomin ben eiaea awh hing Group in the Armidale District, N.S.W. Part I. The Puddledock Area 129 R System of Independent Axioms for Magnitudes he 27 Rade, J. — Geology and Subsurface Waters of the Moree District, N.S.W. 152 Raggatt, H. G.—See Hanlon, F. N., etc. 106 x nee H a es M re D ble ac Teichert, Curt.—A New Ammonoid from obertson, Pie ee oe Oe. OUR the Eastern Australian Permian Stars on Sydney Cee ak Provinces 4G g —52° a 2 ' TeR RUA Ls boinc M6 Thermal Metamorphism of Porhiens of the Woolomin Group in the Armidale Ss District, N.S.W. Part. 4... ihe Puddledock Area ek ia, Loe Sedimentation of the Tomago Coal Measures in the Singleton-Muswell- brook Coalfield: An LaaNeC ae Ww Study : 137 Sherrard, eethiven, ithe Assemblages Wade, R. T.—Jurassic Fishes of N.S.W. of Graptolites in N.S.W. 73 (Macrosemiide) with a Note on the Sims, K. P.—Occultations Observed at Triassic Genus Promecosomina 63 Sydney Observatory during 1952 .. 19 Walter Burfitt Prize, Awards of the xix * AUSTRALASIAN MrpicaL Pusiisuinc Company Arundel and Seamer Streets, Glebe, N.S.W. 1 oe os hee ee eae He pods pisy ance reo ey elke eee af beach tates b in a 2 nee ra Weed fim “ O se Paty JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 1954 (INCORPORATED 1881) VOLUME LXXXVIII Parts I-IV EDITED BY F. N. HANLON, B.Sc., Dip. Ed. Honorary Editorial Secretary THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN SYDNEY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS Issued as a complete volume September 27, 1955, a 7 CONTENTS VOLUME LXxXXxVIII Part 1* OFFICERS FOR 1954-1955 NOTICES List OF MEMBERS AWARDS ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL BALANCE SHEET REPORT OF SECTION OF GEOLOGY Art. I.—Presidential Address. By Ida A. Browne I. The Society’s Activities During the Past Year II. A Study of the Tasman Geosyncline in the Region of Yass, New South Wales es side as = ssi os - a Arr. II.—Note on a Paper by J. L. Griffith. By G. Bosson Art. III.—The Essential Oil of Hucalyptus maculata Hooker. Part I. By H. H. G. McKern, (Mrs.) M. C. Spies and J. L. Willis Art. IV.—Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1953. By K. P. Sims.. Art. V.—Geology and Sub-surface Waters of the Area North of the Darling River between Longitudes 145° and 149° E., N.S.W. By J. Rade Part II} Art. VI.—Organ Transformation Induced by Cistrogen in an Adolescent Marsupial (Trichosurus vulpecula). By A. Bolliger .. Art. VII.—Warialda Artesian Intake Beds. By J. Rade ArT. VIII.—The T-Phase from the New Zealand Region. By T. N. Burke-Gaffney vi xii 12 15 22 24 33 40 50 * Published November 24, 1954. + Published December 10, 1954. CONTENTS. Part III* Page Art. 1X.—The Palsozoic Stratigraphy of Spring and Quarry Creeks, West of Orange, N.S.W. By G. H. Packham and N. C. Stevens eas Ae ae a ig 55 Art. X.—A Theorem Concerning the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel Transforms. By J. L. Griffith HS te oe ns ays a a oe ie even Ok Art. XI.—Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory During 1953. By W. H. Robertson ar 3 a om ae ae vs es is ik ane 66 Part IV+ Art. XII.—On the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel Transforms. By J. L. Griffith .. 71 Art. XIII.—Geology and Sub-surface Waters of the Coonamble Basin, N.S.W. By J. Rade ais ash ae ze Sat ie a BI ae se ee LG Art. XIV.—Quartzite Xenoliths in the Tertiary Magmas of the Southern Highlands, N.S.W. By R. D. Stevens ae che ne he ae = ae ahs 89 Art. XV.—Petrology of the Greywacke Suite Sediments from the Turon River-Coolamigal Creek District, N.'S.W. By K. A. W. Crook .. iG ie of sh sie igi ArT. XVI.—The Permian Coal Measures of the Stroud-Gloucester Trough. By F. C. Loughnan abs is ic i bea os ri. 106 Art. XVII.—Liversidge Research Lecture. Chemical Structure and Biological Function of the Pyrrole Pigments and Enzymes. By R. Lemberg .. of we .. 114 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS = iy sis be he a sf a4 Bae <1 | Sympostum,—Oil, Australia and the Future. Search for Oil in Australia and New Guinea: The Geological Background. By H. G. Raggatt Be a a Hie ae ae a oe ob es oni) oa Oil Products and Their Utilisation. By Professor Hunter os ae ae -. | eee Petroleum Chemicals. By R. F. Cane i a ANA he a ig oo See The Economic Effects of an Oil Industry on the Australian Economy. By Professor C. Renwick ie Us whe sie bite = oe ae a Me .. 837 * Published May 10, 1955. + Published September 27, 1955. INDEX A | : Page Abstract of Proceedings. . : Xili Annual Report of the Council vi Awards Vv B Balance Sheet x Bolliger, A.—Organ Transformation In- duced by Cstrogen in an Adolescent Marsupial (Trichosurus vulpecula) Bosson, G.—Note on a igi 2 J. L. Griffith . Browne, Ida A. Br dential aie: Burke-Gaffney, T. N.—The T-Phase from the New Zealand Region Cc Chemical Structure and_ Biological Function of the ae pene and Enzymes Clarke Medal, The Crook, K. A. W.—Petrology of ie aes wacke Suite Sediments from the Turon River-Coolamigal Creek District, N.S.W. a o ae : E Edgeworth David Medal Essential Oil of Hucalyptus maculata Hooker. Part I ue we G Geology and Sub-surface Waters of the Area North of the Darling River between ae 145° and 149° E., N.S.W... Geology and Sub- ae Waters of the Coonamble Basin, N.S.W. Geology, Report of Section of Griffith, J. L.— A Theorem Concerning the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel Transforms On the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel Transforms Griffith, Note on a Paper by .. J James Cook Medal 50 114 oF 15 . xu L Page Lemberg, R.—Liversidge Research Lecture—Chemical Structure and Bio- logical Function of the ae me ments and Enzymes . List of Members .. Liversidge Research Lemberg, R. Lecture.—See Loughnan, F. C.—The peenian Coal Measures of the Stroud-Gloucester Trough M McKern, H. H. G., Spies, (Mrs.) M. C., and Willis, J. L.—The Essential Oil of Hucalyptus maculata Hooker. Part I Members, List of Minor Planets Obsdeved at “Sydney Observatory During 1953... N Note on a Paper by J. L. Griffith Notices O Occultations Observed at eyaney. Obser- vatory During 1953 Officers for 1954-1955 On the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel Transforms Organ meee eatin Tn aticed - Cistrogen in an Adolescent Marsupial (Trichosurus vulpecula) P Packham, G. H., and Stevens, N. C.— The Paleozoic Stratigraphy of Spring and Quarry Creeks, West of Cee N.S.W. : Palzeozoic ee Givens: of amine and Quarry Creeks, West of aac N.S.W. Permian Coal eer of the Sino Gloucester Trough Petrology of the Greywacke Suite Sediments from the Turon River- Coolamigal Creek District, N.S.W. .. Presidential Address, by Ida A. Browne Proceedings, Abstract of 15 12 iv 22 ill 71 33 55 .. Xi XVIII INDEX Q Page c Hae Page Society’s Medal .. ‘ Be, Se uartzite Xenoliths in the Tertiary M M. O= Magmas of the Southern pe aie poe ee See McKom, 15 IES oe ox Stevens, N. C. Suge Packie a. is ie 55 Stevens, R. D.—Quartzite Xenoliths in R the Tertiary Magmas of the Southern Radoen = Highlands, N.S.W. .. 89 Geology and Sub-surface Waters of Study of the Tasman Geosyneline i in this the Area North of the Darling River Region of Yass, N.S.W. . 3 between Longitudes 145° and 149° E., N.S.W. : 24 Geology and Sub- surface Waters of T the Coonamble Basin : eng, : : Warialda Artesian Intake Beds 40 Theorem Concerning the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel Transforms 61 Robertson, W. H.—Minor Planets : Observed at Sydney Observatory T-Phase from the New Zealand Region.. 50 During 1953 66 WwW S Section of Geology, Report of See ct Walter Bardi. Paz i Sims, K. P.—Occultations Observed at Warialda Artesian Intake Boas 40 Sydney Observatory During 1953 22 Willis, J. L.—See McKern, H. H. G. 15 OF NEW SOUTH WALES 1954 (INCORPORATED 1881) PART I (pp. 1-32) _ eels OF VOL. LXXXVIII Containing List of Members, Report of Council, Balance Sheet, Obituary Notices, Presidential Address and Papers read in April, 1954. EDITED BY F.N. HANLON, B.Sc., Dip.Ed. Honorary Editorial Secretary THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE _ STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN SYDNEY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS 1954 % in a ny A . ee s Bs : ; a ota Mei = CONTENTS “ 9 te VOLUME LXXXVITI Part I OFFICERS FOR 1954-1955 ae wie as TSE he i 2 © _ NotTIcEs i bis a of we as A re os ate as List or MEMBERS .. we ie i 3 i Ss ne oe ri ™~ AwaRps.. bat is e. f ag a Bese a Me ANNUAL REPORT OF THE CoUNCIL ay BS a be a3 “a Ne BALANCE SHEET .. .., .. a ie hen co % ema ReEportT OF SECTION OF GEOLOGY os af - a ve Hes . Art. I.—Presidential Address. By Ida A. Browne : ‘ I. The Society’s Activities During the Past Year a xe eee II. A Study of the Tasman u Goce? in the > Regie of Yass, Sow South Wales NS: Bs ‘ BL hae eee | Arr. Il.—Note on a Paper by J. L. Griffith. By G. Boson .. <.. .. Arr. III.—The Essential Oil of Eucalyptus maculata Hooker. Part I. By H. H. G. McKern, (Mrs.) M. C. Spies and J. L. Willis’... AS re tN ee Art. IV.—Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1953. By Ke Sims. . mp ge Art. V.—Geology and Sub-surface Wane ne the Area North of the Dares River borers _ _Longitudes 145° and 149° E., N.S.W. As J. Rade... os 4 et = te JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 1954 (INCORPORATED 1881) VOLUME LXXXVIII Part I EDITED BY F. N. HANLON, B.Sc., Dip. Ed. Honorary Editorial Secretary — THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN SYDNEY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS Royal Society of Nem South Wales OFFICERS FOR 1954-1955 Patrons: His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, FretpD MarRsHALL Sir WILLIAM SLIM, G.c.B., G.c.M.G., G.C.V.0., G.B.E., D.S.O., M.C. His ExcELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SoutTH WALES, LIEUTENANT-GENERAL SiR JOHN NORTHCOTT, K.c.M.G., K.C.V.0., C.B. President : R. S. NYHOLM, D.sc., Ph.p. (Lond.), M.sc. (Syd.). Vice-Presidents: R. C. L. BOSWORTH, m.se., D.Sc. (Adel.), | C. J. MAGEE, v.sc.agr. (Syd.), M.se. (Wis.). Ph.D. (Camb.), F.A.C.1., F.Inst.P. | PHYLLIS M. ROUNTREE, p.se. (Melb.), IDA A. BROWNE, D.sc. | Dip.Bact. (Lond.). Hon. Secretaries: G. BOSSON, m.sec. (Lond.). | F. N. HANLON, B.sc. Hon. Treasurer : H. A. J. DONEGAN, A.s.1.¢., A.A.C.1. Members of Council: J. P. BAXTER, B.se., Ph.D., A.M.I.Chem.E. | F. D. McCARTHY, pip.anthr. Rev. T. N. BURKE-GAFFNEY, s.3. | P. R. MeMAHON, m.agr.se. (N.Z.), Ph.D. D. P. CRAIG, pPh.p. | (Leeds), A.R.I.C., A.N.Z.I.C. N. A. GIBSON, mM.sc., Ph.D., A.R.I.C. | G. D. OSBORNE, op.se. (Syd.), Ph.D. J. L. GRIFFITH, B.a., M.sc., Dip.Ed. | (Camb.), F.G.S. M. R. LEMBERG, D.Pphil., F.R.S. | J. S. PROUD, B.£. (Mining). iv NOTICES. NOTICE. Tar Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the “ Philosophical Society of Australasia’; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the ‘‘ Australian Philosophical Society ”’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the “‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales ’’ ; in 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. TO AUTHORS. Particulars regarding the preparation of manuscripts of papers for publication in the Society’s Journal are to be found in the “ Guide to Authors”, which is obtainable on appli- cation to the Honorary Secretaries of the Society. FORM OF BEQUEST. fd) benueath the sum of £ to the Royaut Socrery or New SovurH WaAzgs, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within calendar months after my decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose. [Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society of New South Wales by Legacies are recommended to instruct their Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest.] The volumes of the Journal and Proceedings may be obtained at the Society’s Rooms, Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney. Volumes XI to LXVIII (1877-1934) LXX (1936) LXXIT (1938) and subsequent issues. Volumes I to X (to 1876) and LXIX and LXXI are out of print. NOTICES. vi LIST OF MEMBERS. A list of members of the Royal Society of New South Wales up to Ist April, 1953, is included in Volume LXXXVII. During the year ended 31st March, 1954, the following have been elected to membership of the Society : Christie, Thelma Isabel, B.sc., 181 Edwin-street, Croydon. de Lepervanche, Beatrice Joy, 560 Homer-street, Earlwood. Golding, Henry George, 4.R.c.S., B.Sc., Technical Officer, School of Minmg Engineering and Applied Geology, N.S.W. University of Technology, Sydney. McKenzie, Peter John, B.Sc., Geologist, Geological Survey of N.S.W., Mines Department, Bridge Street, Sydney. Phillips, June Rosa Pitt, B.sc., c/o Geology Department, the University of Sydney. Rade, Janis, M.sc., Geologist, P.O. Box 70, Alice Springs, N.T. Veevers, John James, B.Sc., c/o Geology Department, Imperial College, London, England. During the same period resignations were received from the following : Arnold, Joan W. (Mrs.). Barclay, G. A., Ph.D. Breckenridge, Marion, B.Sc. Carver, Ashley George. Clune, Francis Patrick. Gillis, R. G. Kennard, William Walter. Lederer, Michael. Martin, Cyril Maxwell. Nicol, A. C., A.S.T.C., A.R.A.C.I. Still, Jack Leslie, B.Sc., Ph.D. Warner, Harry, A.S.T.C. Webb, Gordon Keyes, A.F.1.A., A.C.1.S. Wogan, Samuel James. Obituary. 1898 Frank Lee Alexander. 1935 Reginald Marcus Clark. 1919 Wilfred Alex. Watt de Beuzeville. 1938 Edward L. Griffiths. 1892 Henry Ferdinand Halloran. 1952 Harold Rutledge. 1946 Cecil Rhodes-Smith. 1919 Harold Henry Thorne. 1943 Reginald John Nelson Whiteman. AWARDS. . The Clarke Medal. 1953 Nicholson, Alexander J., D.sc., Chief of the Division of Entomology, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra. The James Cooke Medal. 1953 Rivett, Sir David, K.c.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., 11 Eton Square, 474 St. Kilda-road, Mel- bourne, S.C.2. The Edgeworth David Medal. 1953 No award made. The Society’s Medal. 1953 Walkom, Arthur Bache, D.se., Director, The Australian Museum, Sydney. The Walter Burfitt Prize. 1953 Bullen, Keith E., .a., Pb.D., Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathematics, the University of Sydney. Koyal Society of New South Wales REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDING 3lst MARCH, 1954. PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL AND GENERAL MontHLY MEETING OF THE SOCIETY, 7TH Aprit, 1954, IN ACCORDANCE WITH RULE XXVI. The membership of the Society at the end of the period under review stood at 361. Seven new members were elected during the year, 14 members were lost by resignation, and five members were written off. Nine members have been lost to the Society by death since Ist April, 1953: Frank Lee Alexander (elected 1898). Reginald Marcus Clark (elected 1935). Wilfred Alex. Watt de Beuzeville (elected 1919). Edward L. Griffiths (elected 1938). Henry Ferdinand Halloran (elected 1892). Harold Rutledge (elected 1952). Cecil Rhodes-Smith (elected 1946). Harold Henry Thorne (elected 1919). Reginald John Nelson Whiteman (elected 1943). During the year nine General Monthly Meetings were held, the average attendance being 36. Seventeen papers were accepted for reading and publication by the Society, an increase of four on the previous year. Addresses given during the year were as follows: 6th May: ‘‘ Recent Researches on the Earth’s Interior’’, by Professor K. E. Bullen. ‘** Some Factors Affecting Health and Safety in Mines ’’, by the visiting English scientist, Professor Ivon Graham. Ist July: ‘‘ The Chemistry of Ants”, by Dr. G. W. K. Cavill. 5th August: “‘ The Application of Science to Leather Manufacture ’’, by Dr. H. Anderson, of the Australian Leather Research Association. 2nd September: ‘‘ Recent Advances in the Fields of Linguistics, Chemistry and Geology.”’ The speakers were Dr. A. Capell, Professor A. E. Alexander and Dr. J. A. Dulhunty. As part of the Coronation celebrations, the meeting held on 3rd June was devoted to a Symposium on “ Science in the Time of the First Elizabeth’’. The following addresses were given : ** Physical Science’, by Mr. J. B. Thornton. ‘“* Medical Science and Health’’, by Professor Harvey Sutton. The meeting devoted to the Commemoration of Great Scientists was held on 7th October, and the following addresses were given: “Wilhelm Ostwald ’’, by Emeritus Professor C. E. Fawsitt. ‘Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, Administrator, Statesman and Natural Philosopher’, by Dr. G. H. Briggs. ‘* Anton de Bary, the Founder of Plant Pathology and Modern Mycology ”’, by Dr. N. H. White. A Film Evening was held on 17th September and, through the courtesy of the South Pacific Commission and the N.S.W. Film Council, the following films were shown : b) ‘“* Kapingamarangi ”’, “The River ”’, and at the meeting held on 4th November films of general scientific interest were shown. Two Popular Science Lectures were delivered during the year: 2lst May: ‘‘ The Conquest of the Air’, by Professor A. V. Stephens. 15th October: ‘‘ Northern Australia’s Prospect ’’, by Professor J. Macdonald Holmes. In place of the Annual Dinner, a Sherry Party was held in the Society’s rooms on Thursday, 25th March. There were present 80 members and friends. ANNUAL REPORT. Vil The Section of Geology had as Chairman Dr. J. A. Dulhunty and as Hon. Secretary Mr. R. D. Stevens. The Section held eight meetings during the year, including lecturettes, notes and exhibits. The average attendance was 20 members and five visitors. The Council of the Society held eleven ordinary meetings and one special meeting during the year. The average attendance at the meetings was 13. The President represented the Society on the Board of Visitors of the Sydney Observatory. At the A.N.Z.A.A.S. meeting held this year, the President and Mr. H. W. Wood attended as delegates of the Society. On the Science House Management Committee the Society was represented by Mr. H. A. J. Donegan and Mr. F. R. Morrison ; substitute representatives were Dr. R. C. L. Bosworth and Mr. H. O. Fletcher. The representatives of the Society on Science House Extension Committee were the President, Dr. Ida A. Browne, and the Hon. Treasurer, Mr. H. A. J. Donegan. Election of Councillor.—Mr. F. N. Hanlon was elected to the Council at the meeting held on 29th July, 1953, to take the place of Mr. A. V. Jopling, who had resigned his membership of the Council as he was leaving Australia for an extended trip overseas. At the meeting held on 28th October, 1953, Mr. F. N. Hanlon was appointed to act as Hon. Editorial Secretary following Dr. G. D. Osborne’s resignation from this position on the Council owing to illness. The Rev. Daniel J. K. O’Connell, s.3., D.sc., Ph.p., F.R.A.S., Director of the Vatican Obser- vatory, was elected an Honorary Member of the Society at the Annual and General Monthly Meeting held on Ist April, 1953. The Clarke Memorial Lecture for 1953 was delivered by Dr. M. F. Glaessner on 18th June. The title of the lecture was ‘‘ Some Problems of Tertiary Geology in Southern Australia ”’ The Clarke Medal for 1954 was awarded to Emeritus Professor E. de C. Clarke for his distin- guished contributions to geological sciences. The Walter Burfitt Prize for 1953 was awarded to Pr Oe K. E. Bullen for his outstanding contributions in the field of geophysics. The Society’s Medal for 1953 was awarded to Dr. A. B. Walkom, Director of the Australian Museum, in recognition of his outstanding services in the organization of Science in Australia and his distinguished contributions in Palzobotany. The James Cook Medal for 1953 was awarded to Sir David Rivett, K.c.M.G., F.R.S. Royal Tour.—On the occasion of the Royal visit to Sydney, the Society was represented officially by the President at the luncheon given by the Government of New South Wales in honour of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth IT, and also at the garden party at Government House. Under the auspices of the Royal Society of New South Wales, the British Astronomical Association and the Institute of Physics, a lecture entitled ‘“‘ The Sun, the Stars and the Nebulz ”’ was delivered by Professor Otto Struve of the University of California, who is also President of the International Astronomical Union. The lecture was held in the Hall of Science House. on llth January, and was very well attended. The financial position of the Society, as disclosed in the annual audit, is not a satisfactory one, the deficit for the twelve months being £184 12s. 8d. The Society’s share of the profits from Science House for the year was £450. The Society has again received a grant of £400 from the Government of New South Wales. The Government’s interest in the work of the Society is much appreciated. A special grant from the Rural Credits Development Fund of the Commonwealth Bank of Australia, amounting to £200, is gratefully acknowledged. The Library.—The Library Committee continues to meet, and has been helpful in advising Council on library matters. The amount of £55 12s. has been spent on the purchase of periodicals and £94 4s. 3d. on binding. Exchange of publications is maintained with 415 societies and institutions—five less than in the previous year. The number of accessions entered in the catalogue during the year ended 28th February, 1954, was 2,725 parts of periodicals. The number of books, periodicals, etc., borrowed by members, institutions and accredited readers was 399—an increase of 63 on last year’s figures. Among the institutions which made use of the library through the inter-library scheme were C.S.1.R.0.—Coal Research Section, Head Office, Melbourne, McMaster Animal Health Laboratory, Division of Fisheries, Division of Industrial Chemistry, Wool Textile Research Laboratories, Animal Genetics Section, Division of Entomology, Division of Plant Industry, Division of Food Preservation, Commonwealth Research Station, Irrigation Research Station, National Standards Vili ANNUAL REPORT. and Radiophysics Laboratory, Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Ltd., Sydney Technical College, University of Melbourne, Fisher Library, University of Sydney, Forestry Commission of N.S.W., Division of Wood Technology, Granville Technical College, Australian National University, Royal Society of Tasmania, N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, Commonwealth Observatory, University of Queensland, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Newcastle Technical College, Wollongong Technical College, National Museum of Victoria, W. D. and H. O. Wills, Ltd., Melbourne Public Library, B.C.P.A., S.M.H.E.A., Antarctic Division, Department of External Affairs, Sydney Hospital, University of Adelaide, University of Tasmania, Australian Paper Manufactures Association, Timbrol Ltd., Dental Hospital, Sydney, Lever Bros., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Australian Museum, M.W.S. and D. Board, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Taubman’s Ltd., Queensland Institute of Medical Research, N.S.W. Department of Health, Standard Telephones and Cables Ltd., N.S.W. University of Technology. IDA A. BROWNE, President. BALANCE SHEETS. 1X THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. BALANCE SHEET AS AT 28th FEBRUARY, 1954, LIABILITIES. 1953 1954 £ £ s. d. £ ise de ~- Australian and New Zealand Bank Ltd.—Overdraft 148 8 5 111 Accrued Expenses i : : 33 9 O 35 Subscriptions Paid in Advance : 28 17 6 135 Life Members’ Subscriptions—Amount carried forward 124 1 O Trust and Monograph coe Funds aes sa Clarke Memorial ; .. 1,809 10 7 Walter Burfitt Prize ve oe ast .. 1,055 14 9 Liversidge Bequest .. os Mu ¥ Va z 7 al é sO vt : x K . ee SE K x Ns SSN gee eS Sy 0 Bi ss y > , ~ Gg = ao. y 7 / ete c yy, * y | Pei ae Se eee FU a Oh OT HE eke N se ae = \ “N ee S | | ‘ A. Gi Coe ee Srl eS a SN) NET Sie as Ne ere a ge ey, Dee So oe = ike a Toad. tie yes ah iV | ee ee Sy ag a aly Gp PDO Beh [Sea OP AAPL E OD A eee ee Posies oi NT SS oS 2 x a : - 5 rg oy ae : eae (| ee ee ee ‘ 4) yn w a ” a 2 © eae 2 cS ov aed 2” = 3 : BS Bc o c o = 3 S Sl ONINMOG =m c 0 Ww 2) a8 > WY | : = = : 8 ~s S 3 e = @ = = s 3 S 3 0 = § Wy = ~ ~ S = & 5 S = 5 oa BB 8 IDA A. BROWNE. Silurian. The succeeding tuffaceous conglomerate in the neighbourhood of Bowning Hill transgresses unconformably the Hume series, and clearly belongs to the overlying Devonian volcanic sequence. The Silurian Period was apparently brought to a close by the Bowning orogeny (Browne, 1947) during which the strata in the Yass-Bowning area were gently folded along a north-north-west axis. The Hume Series now forms a closed oval basin surrounding Bowning Hill, and the underlying formations appear in confocal troughs, which become progressively more elongated. The outcrops of Bango limestone appear along a belt roughly parallel to the Siluro- Ordovician boundary. Cross-warping in the vicinity of Boambolo, south of the main basin, has produced an inlier of the Yass Series along the main fold- axis. No plutonic intrusions related to the Bowning orogeny are known at Yass, but the intrusion of the Gunning granite, which outcrops about 16 miles to the east, possibly took place during that epoch. Devonian Sedimentation. After an interval of erosion that followed the Bowning orogeny, ocean waters once again flooded the Tasman Geosyncline and the Devonian Period in the Yass district opened with a great display of volcanic activity. On the sinking shoreline west of Yass this commenced with the deposition of an agglomerate or conglomerate, in which waterworn boulders of hard Silurian tuff and fossiliferous limestone, with volcanic blocks of andesite, are embedded in a coarse tuffaceous matrix. On Bowning Hill this rock is overlain by flows of andesite and beds of tuff, which are succeeded by flows of rhyolite. This occurrence is an outlier of a great suite of voleanic rocks named the Black Range Series (Brown, 1941), which outcrops extensively in the Black Range and in the country between Bowning Hill and Burrinjuck Dam, and through Narrangullen Mountain to the south. Along the eastern border of the main outcrop the base of the sequence is hidden by heavy faulting, but the series consists of flows of rhyolite and pyroxene- andesite interbedded with fine tuffs, the whole being overlain by a thick sequence of coarse tuffs and volcanic breccias. North of Narrangullen Mountain black Shales overlie the rhyolites, but these thin out south of Taemas. Fine, shaly red tuffs are conspicuous near the top of the sequence. The thickness of the lava flows varies from place to place: a thickness of 1,800 feet has been measured north of Good Hope, and elsewhere it may be greater. The overlying tuffs also vary in thickness and in places taper out and disappear, but it is probable that the thickness of lavas and tuffs is of the order of at least 2,500 feet. The rock-types produced during this epoch of vulcanicity were quite distinct from those of the preceding period, the felsitic rhyolites with small felspar phenocrysts and dense stony groundmass being particularly characteristic, and the experienced field worker has little or no difficulty in distinguishing them from the Silurian igneous rocks. The occasional presence of marine fossils in the tuffs indicates submarine deposition. To the south and south-west of Yass the Black Range Series is succeeded by a sequence of Middle Devonian sediments called by Stssmilch (1914) the Murrumbidgee Beds and by David (1932) the Murrumbidgee Series and later (1950) the Taemas Series. These sediments, approximately 2,000 feet thick, consist of two great formations of richly fossiliferous limestone separated by fine-grained siliceous clastic sediments. Thus again in the Devonian, as in the Silurian succession, there is evidence of great rhythms in sedimentation. The lower limestones are well-bedded, and individual beds may be traced for many miles. Harper (1909) described part of the sequence, distinguishing, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9 from the base up, the Bluff Limestone, the Yellow Limestone and the Currajong Limestone, and mentioning some of the fossils occurring therein. Corals are abundant in a few thin bands near the base and in limited bands higher up, but the most abundant organisms are brachiopods, notably spirifers of the gens Spirifer yassensis (which range from the base to the top of the sequence), also chonetids, atrypids, small rhynchonellids and meristids ; Mollusca, including lamellibranchs, gastropods and nautiloid cephalopods ; and Bryozoa, sponges and trilobites. The overlying fine, clastic sediments are mainly unfossiliferous except in their upper portions. Rhythmic alternations of unfossiliferous bands with beds a few inches thick containing myriads of spirifers and chonetids are well seen near the western approach to old Taemas Bridge and along the river bank to the south. Red beds are prominent within these sediments. The upper limestone, which occurs along the western bank of the Murrum- bidgee River, north of old Taemas bridge, contains Bryozoa, brachiopods, corals and cephalopods, and also the plates of ganoid fishes. The specimen of Dipno- rhynchus sussmilcht described by E. 8S. Hills (1941) came from this limestone. As in other parts of the State, the Devonian beds have been extensively folded. In the region south-west of Yass, between the Murrumbidgee and Goodradigbee Rivers, the lavas and tuffs of the Black Range Series outcrop in a great trough or syncline plunging to the south from Illalong Creek Railway Station, in the centre of which a median anticline forming Narrangullen Mountain has raised the rhyolites more than 3,000 feet above sea-level. Around these the overlying shales and tuffs outcrop in a great are pitching at a low angle to the north, but dipping more steeply to the north-east and to the west, and the beds of the Murrumbidgee Series, eroded off this axis, are now confined to two more or less closed elongated basins, one on either side of the anticline. The western basin is along and to the west of the Goodradigbee River (Fig. 2) and is intruded by the Burrinjuck granite and related igneous intrusions ; the eastern basin extends from the Yass River, below the Devil’s Pass, south across the Murrum- bidgee River and through the parishes of Taemas and Cavan. The general stratigraphical succession is similar in the two basins, though the thicknesses of Strata are different. The similar order of succession of the faunas in the lower beds is very striking and indicates similar conditions of sedimentation and environment over a wide area. It was chiefly from the lower limestones of the eastern basin in the neigh- bourhood of Taemas and Cavan that W. B. Clarke and others (D. Hill, 1941) collected fossils that have made the area geologically famous ; and in this area also is the spectacular folding of the limestones that has been illustrated by Sussmilch (1914), David (1950) and others. However, no detailed map of the whole structure has been made until now, so that it has been almost impossible to place fossils from different localities in their correct stratigraphical horizons. As may be inferred from the map (Plate I) and geological section (Fig. 2), the eastern basin is really a compound structure, consisting of two synclinoria, _the eastern one much broken by faults. The most easterly fault has brought the Black Range Series down against the Silurian (Figs. 1 and 2), while a parallel fault two miles to the west throws down to the east, so that between the faults there is a long narrow belt of downthrown Devonian rocks. Within this are two other faults, between which a central zone has been upthrust. Of the minor foldings some are symmetrical, others very asymmetrical, and some small elongated domes and basins are developed. The folded and faulted rocks are strongly cleaved. 10 IDA A. BROWNE. Since the fossils in the limestones indicate a Middle Devonian age for the sediments, it is probable that their folding and faulting took place at the close of Middle Devonian time, during the epoch of diastrophism which affected much of south-eastern Australia (Brown, 1932), and which is known as the Tabberab- beran orogeny (Andrews, 1937-1938). Some of the minor folding and crumbling is closely related to the faulting, and this accounts for the intensity of folding of the Devonian rocks in contrast with the generally gentle, open folding of the Silurian near Yass. No intrusive igneous rocks occur in the eastern basin, but the granite and quartz-porphyrite of Burrinjuck are probably related to the Tabberabberan orogeny. Historical Summary. In the cross-section we have taken of the Tasman Geosyncline in the latitude of Yass district, we have seen that in its early stages, perhaps during Cambrian or Lower Ordovician times, it extended far to the east and to the west of Yass ; during the Ordovician, fine-grained muds were deposited within the geosyncline, and graptolites inhabited its waters. Coral and other shelly faunas lived in the shallower waters north of Yass during Middle and Upper Ordovician times and built up limestones. At the close of the Ordovician, folding of the sediments, intrusion of granite to the east and the formation of a geanticline within the geosyncline marked the epoch of Benambran orogeny. An interval of erosion was followed by sub- mergence of the region and the transgression of the early Silurian sea. Silurian sedimentation occurred in a somewhat more restricted geosyncline. The alternations of shallow-water, sandy, muddy and calcareous sediments record fluctuations of sea-level and changes of environment for their enclosed faunas of corals, brachiopods, trilobites and other organisms. The enormous quantities of associated igneous material are evidence of periodic displays of volcanic: activity on a tremendous scale. The Silurian Period closed with the Bowning orogenic epoch, when the Silurian sediments were gently folded and somewhat faulted, and granite was injected into the sediments around Gunning. A somewhat similar set of conditions was repeated in the Devonian ; great thicknesses of rhyolitic lava, tuff and ash were deposited over the eroded surface of Silurian formations as a result of widespread volcanic activity. In the Middle Devonian conditions became favourable for the formation of extensive coral reefs, which developed on a subsiding floor and produced thick deposits of limestone. By this time the Tasman Geosyncline in the Yass region contained sediments and products of igneous activity of the order of many thousands of feet thick, Silurian and Devonian alone accounting for at least 12,000 feet. The folding and faulting of the Middle Devonian and the accompanying intrusions of Burrinjuck granite and quartz-porphyrite of the Tabberabberan epoch may have been caused by fracture of the basement of the geosyncline by this enormous load of superimposed sediments. No Upper Devonian or younger Paleozoic sediments are known in the Yass district, although the widespread distribution of Upper Devonian in other parts of the State suggests that probably they also occurred here, but have been completely worn away. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 11 CONCLUSION. Although much has been written of the Tasman Geosyncline, much yet remains to be known of the details of sedimentation in various localities ; of changes of facies, both lithological and paleontological ; of migrations of faunas within the geosyncline at different stages in its history ; of distribution in space and time of vulcanicity and igneous intrusion ; of the character and timing of earth-movements which have produced folding, faulting and unconformity within the sediments. The solution of these and other problems lies in the detailed mapping and study of the geology and paleontology of particular areas and the integration and summation of all the knowledge thus obtained. REFERENCES. Andrews, E. C., 1937-1938. THis JoURNAL, 71, 118. Brown, Ida A., 1932. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 57, 323. —-—______—_—. 1941. Tuis JouRNAL, 74, 312. Browne, W. R., 1929. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 54, ix. —-——_——_—_— _ 1947. Scr. Progress, 35, 623. David, T. W. E., 1932. Geological Map of the Commonwealth of Australia. Com. C.S.I.R., Sydney, 1932. ——- 1950. ‘‘ Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia’’, Vol. I. Edward Arnold & Co., London, 1950. marper, L. F.,,1909. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 9, 1. Hill, Dorothy, 1941. Turis JourNAL, 74, 247. Hills, E. S., 1941. Rec. Aust. Mus., 21, 45. Joplin, Germaine A., 1945. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 70, 158. Lees, G. M., 1953. Pres. Add. Q.J.G.S., 109, 217. Naylor, G. F. K., 1935. THis JourNa.L, 69, 75, 123. Opik, A. A., 1954. In ‘“‘ Canberra, A Nation’s Capital.’ Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1954. Schuchert, C., 1916. Amer. Jour. Scr., 42, 91. Sherrard, Kathleen, 1939. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 64, 577. —_—___—____—_____—. 1943. Tuis JourRNAL, 76, 252. Sussmilch, 1914. ‘‘ Geology of New South Wales.” Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1914. EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. Geological Sketch-map of the Yass-Taemas District. The Silurian in the N.E. is from the author’s map (Brown, 1941) with additional boundaries from K. Sherrard (1939) and information kindly supplied by Mr. A. J. Shearsby of Yass. The Devonian part of the map is mainly original but incorporates some material from L. F. Harper (1909). Alluvium is omitted. NOTE ON A PAPER BY J. L. GRIFFITH. By G. BOSSON, M.Sc. Manuscript received, November 6, 1953. Read, April 7, 1954. If f(@1, %, . . ., #,) be a harmonic function of n variables, it is well known that the mean of the function taken over the (n—1)—dimensional boundary of an n-dimensional sphere is equal to the value of the function at the centre of the sphere. However, the writer has not been able to find, in the literature, any generalization of this theorem for the case of a function which is not harmonic, except that due to Griffith for a function of two variables. In a recent paper (Griffith, 1954), has shown that, if f(x, y) possesses derivatives of all orders within and on a circle of radius A whose centre is (x, y), then the mean value of the function taken round the circle vy es ; moll: f(@+A cos 0, y+A sin 0)Ad0 1 (2 =5-| f(v+ A cos 0, y+A sin 0)d0 47) O =F (AVo)f (G9 )p ee os ole es Me 0. sald oo (1) provided T(AVa) f(x, y) exists. In this theorem y2=0?/0u?-+0?/dy? and m= (1) 2n T,(avye)f(e, y= 2 we f(a, Yor Bio eee (2) 1)(AVe)f(@, y) will exist provided the series on the right of (2) is convergent. In the present paper, a formal derivation of the corresponding theorem for a function of three variables is given together with its application to the solution of the Equation of Wave Motions for three spatial co-ordinates. Suppose f(x, y, 2) possesses derivatives of all orders within and on a sphere of radius 4 and centre at a given point (#, y, z). We denote the mean of the function taken over this sphere by f(z, y,2; A). We take Vi=dvGa2. 0 | Cy" Coe, and assume (i) that f(x, y, z), gua function of x and y, satisfies the conditions of Griffith’s theorem and (ii) that f(x, y, 2), qua function of z, possesses a convergent Maclaurin expansion. Then f(®,Y, 23 A= 1 Tv 27 z|| { f(w+A sin 0 cos 9, y+A sin 0 sin o, 2+A cos 0) sin Oded. Ga) (Oia) 10 NOTE ON A PAPER BY J. L. GRIFFITH. BS On use of (1), this takes the form F(®, Y, 25 A) =3/"1, (A sin 6. aioe y, 2+A cos 9) sin 0d0 =1/"7, (A sin 6. ya)er ors 9-D sin 640. f(a, y, 2 ee , (A sin 8 . V2) cosh (A cos 9. D) sin. dO. f(a, y, 2 : n= 0 r2n sin2” 8) ‘ vo" m= a ne cos2m 4) sin 0. p2m Rey ome ~ (2m)! Ee Assuming that it is legitimate to interchange the order of summation and integration, we have now F(@, Y, 25 2) N= 0 _— m=O 2m +05" D2m =) n=0 ,m=0 227 (n!)? (2m)! ak cos?” 9 sin2”+1 Od0 f(a, y, 2 N=O M=O A2(m +075" P2m Dim +3)T (n ty) n=0 mao 22%(n!)2(Q2m)! ~ 0 0 (n-)°(2m) or (m+n+3) ERs Bye ack we ss (4) On using the duplication formula for the gamma function, equation (4) becomes N= 0 _mM=c 2m +075" D2m(m +n)! ees K) =D pa, IK no 83 4) n=0 m=0 mini(2m+2n +1)! 7 = 00 ,2r ? 2n Ter —2ny' i 9) ve (x, Y, 2) (“, Y, 2) T= 22"(73-+D?)" r= 0 2°73 2r pete : =) rare (2r+1)! Hes y, ca, @r+1)! TAGs Ye) ww p27 f(@, ¥, 2; v= EI | f(w-+a sin 8 cos 9, y+A sin 0 sin @, 2+A cos 9) sin OdedO 0/0 __ sinh Avs . f(g SO. |. hee 5 ic f(x, y, 2) (5) It is interesting to note that a well known general solution of the equation of wave motion follows rapidly from this result. 14 G. BOSSON. The wave motion equation for three-dimensional space may be written (writing, from now on, V for Vs) where J=v(a, y, 2, t) is the ‘‘ velocity potential ”’. Solving this equation formally, as though it were an ordinary differential equation with ¢t as independent variable and Vy were an algebraic quantity, we have sinh ctv OF v=cosh cty . Yo(2, ¥; z)+° . (8, Y, 2). eae (7) where Wy=(Y);=0 and ¥,=(Ab/0t); 0 If |) possesses derivatives of all orders and if the series cosh ay. Yy=a Dart SP a ee (8) and sinh ciy | eee ely ae , = y= ae nti Ry cn ts 378.83 (9) are convergent and may be differentiated twice, it is easy to see that (7) is, in fact, a valid solution of (6). Further, on differentiating (9) with respect to 1, we have N= (efr)2n ae =cosh cty . Uj, 0 = ay at Tee paar so that, writing J) in place of ,, we have cosh city . Y= g oa oN Sa (10) ae jot Finally, on using (5), (7) and (10), we have the following well known solution of the wave equation (6): A peench i perens } snp Sel | Yo(x +et sin 0 cos o, y-+ct sin 9, 2-+ce¢ cos 0) sin idea oJ 0 TMT f +4] | v,(v-+ct sin8coso, y+ctsin 0 sino, 2+ct cos 9) sin Oded. oJ0 ee ee ey |: (11) School of Mathematics, New South Wales University of Technology, Sydney, Australia. REFERENCE. Griffith, J. L., 1954. THis Journat, 87, 51. THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS MACULATA HOOKER. Parr I, By H. H. G. MCKERN, A.R.A.C.L, (Mrs.) M. C. SPIES, A.R.A.C.L., and J.. L. WILLIS, M.Sc. Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Sydney. Manuscript received, January 15, 1954. Read, April 7, 1954. SUMMARY. Essential oils from H. maculata have been examined from both Queensland and N.S.W. trees. The latter appear to produce oils of uniform composition, containing as major constituents cineole, (-+)-a-pinene, dipentene and (+)-limonene, cadinene, cadinol and a levo-rotatory sesquiterpene. The Queensland trees so far examined, whilst containing only (-++)-«-pinene as the major constituent, show some variations among themselves with respect to the minor constituents. Similar oils have been observed from some of the progeny of the low-aldehyde form of H. citriodora (Penfold et al., 1953), and the specific status of the two species is discussed. INTRODUCTION. The essential oil of H. maculata was first described by Baker and Smith (1920,) who examined two oils, one from southern and one from northern New South Wales. These authors reported the presence of cineole, pinene and sesquiterpene (assumed by them to be aromadendrene) in these oils. They could find no evidence for the presence of citronellal. Since this date no further work on the essential oil of this species has been carried out, owing to the fact that the oil showed no promise of either commercial value or scientific interest. However, following the discovery by Penfold e¢ al. (1948, 1951) of variant oil forms within the species H. citriodora Hooker, it has been found necessary to define the essential oil status of #. maculata more accurately both in Queens- land and New South Wales. This arises from the fact that some of the progeny from the low-aldehyde form of H#. citriodora have been shown by Penfold et al. (1953) to yield oils strikingly similar in composition to oils from #. maculata trees naturally occurring in Queensland. Secondly, although the geographical ranges of these two trees overlap northwards from about latitude 253°8., each species seems to occupy its own distinct area within this range, and they rarely intermingle to any creat extent. Notwithstanding this, several individual trees within weil-defined populations of H. citriodora, and remote from any occurrences of EH. maculata, have given oils very similar in composition to #. maculata oils. This evidence has led us to review the relationship between EH. citriodora and what is known in Queensland as #. maculata. Morphologically, the two Species, as they occur in Queensland, are remarkably alike, and it is virtually impossible to separate them on these grounds alone. Mueller (1879) maintained 16 MCKERN, SPIES AND WILLIS. there were no morphological differences between the two, and considered . citriodora to be merely a variety of EL. maculata. Maiden (1922, 1924) agreed, aS he considered the two trees did ‘‘ not differ in important morphological characters ’’. Blakely (1934) mentions that the pedicels of EH. citriodora are more slender than those of H. maculata, the buds less pointed, and the leaves, on the whole, shorter, but in our experience these characters are too variable to be of much value as specific differences. In addition, a critical examination of the wood anatomy of the two trees, carried out on our behalf by Byrnes (1953), has failed to show any differences between H. citriodora and Queensland H. maculata. Consequently, it is the opinion of the present authors that the name £. maculata has, up to the present time, been employed in Queensland solely to designate those trees whose leaves do not give an odour of citronellal when crushed. In view of what is now known of the occurrence of physiological forms or chemical varieties within a single species (Penfold, 1949), the separation of trees into species on purely chemical grounds can no longer be justified. It may also be of significance that the oils from the various collections of EH. maculata so far examined from Queensland sources, although varying some- what among themselves (e.g. guaiol present in some oils) are all fundamentally different in composition from oils from the tree known in New South Wales as E. maculata. The relationship between N.S.W. EH. maculata and the Queensland E. maculata-E. citriodora complex is also at present being examined at this Institution. THE ESSENTIAL OILS. The essential oils obtained by steam-distillation of the foliage showed marked variations in composition both between the Queensland and New South Wales samples, as well as within the Queensland samples. The two N.S.W. oils were similar in composition, consisting principally of cineole, (+)-«-pinene, dipentene, (-+-)-limonene, cadinene, cadinol, a levo- rotatory sesquiterpene yielding cadalene on dehydrogenation, and small amounts of an unidentified sweet-smelling substance. The two Queensland oils, differing from each other and from other Queens- land oils in the course of examination, differed markedly from the N.S.W. oils. Although the major constituent in each case was found to be (-+)-a-pinene, it was associated, in the case of the Brisbane oil, with tso-valeric aldehyde, dipentene, terpinolene, an ester of terpineol (?), a levo-rotatory and a dextro- rotatory sesquiterpene, both yielding an azulene on dehydrogenation, and a sesquiterpene alcohol fraction giving a mixture of cadalene and an azulene on dehydrogenation. In the case of the Tiaro oil, the pinene was associated with cuaiol, together with dipentene, a levo-rotatory sesquiterpene and a sweet- smelling constituent which could not be identified. The occurrence of guaiol in this oil may be not without significance in the question of the #. maculata- E. citriodora relationship, as Harris and McKern (1950) have already demonstrated the frequent occurrence of this compound in oils of the low-aldehyde form of E. citriodora. Data for the crude oils are given in Table I. EXPERIMENTAL. (In each case the essential oils were obtained by the steam-distillation of leaves and terminal branchlets. All melting points are uncorrected.) New South Wales Trees. The oils from Moorebank and Bateman’s Bay (see Table I) were examined separately ; however, as the oils were subsequently shown to be of similar composition, a typical examination only will be described. Leo ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS MACULATA HOOKER. ‘Uurult OT 98 99 09 dn surioq SUOTPIBAY BY} UL POYJoUL [OSes9-0 BY] AG PUNO; e[osulo sy UIOIZ UOTZR[NO[BO Aq PIUIULIeJeap 919M SIO BpNsd ayy 1OJ UIATS SyUEeZUOD ef[OBUID OIL], x. quEsSq 8°91 qUESO VY 6°81 «1096 9°61 «Jo LE 8-9F "UO1Ye "queyuog | -[AJo0V epoeur) | 4eysV IEquInN 10480] P's ‘3/HOM “Sul ‘TOqUIN NT 19480] "S[OA OT UL 9TqnOsUT COLT: 1 ‘3/HOM ‘SUL *TOq UN NT prev ‘(Aqrprq.n4) “s[OA OT Ur e(qhTes ‘S]OA #-8 ur eTQn[og SESE | ul eTqnTog "M/M %08 ‘S[OA QT ul 9TqnyTosuT "S[OA OT UL 9[qnjosUT "SJOA OT ul eTqnTosUT "M/M %OL SLO OOny: shoonby ut Aqiyiqntog — | | | | Sf o0L:9 ar GIL8:0 i Let "PISITA LO ‘QSRI[O NT jo WUSIOM, 1¢/g/F1 1¢/6/81 t¢/L/61 ‘poatoooy 278 pue[suven’y ‘OreLy, —"puey -sugon() ‘euBqslig “ASN ‘Avq S uBUIEye "M'S'N SYUBQILOO/L *[BL1078 JA jo ulsIg “eyetnovul “iT fo s7iQ apnsg fo saysrsazonInYD ‘| Wavy 18 MCKERN, SPIES AND WILLIS Fractional distillation : 475 ml. of oil after washing with alkali to remove acidic and phenolic constituents had ae 0: 9206 ; nA 1:4861 ; chy) +2-40°. On fractional distillation at reduced pressure the fractions described in Table II were obtained. Taste IT. Fractional Distillation of N.S.W. E. maculata Ozl. Boiling Fraction. Range. Pressure. | Volume. de: me, Xp: mm. ml. 1 40—60° 10 203-0 0-8970 1-4632 oo 2 60—110° 9 30-5 0-9109 1-4846 — 5-8° 3 110-112° 9 31-0 0-9149 1-5034 9- 85° 4 112-113° 9 39-0 0-918] 1-5061 — 0-6° 5 113—125° 9 30-0 0-9239 1-5094 +21-0° 6 125—128° ) 30-0 0-9307 1-5096 +33: 0° 7 128—132° 10 22-0 0-9519 1-5080 OO 8 120-125° 5 57-0 Ono 797 1-5075 —23-0° Determination of Cineole. Fraction 1 had a cineole content (Cocking method) of 60-5%. The cineole was removed from 190 ml. by repeated extraction with 50% aqueous resorcinol solution. The aqueous solution of the cineole-resorcinol addition compound was steam-distilled with an excess of sodium hydroxide solution to give a colourless oil of camphoraceous odour having ane 0-9281 ; no 11-4607 ; 1 202: The identity of the cineole was confirmed by the preparation of the o-cresol addition compound of m.p. 56-56-5°, undepressed by an authentic specimen. The cineole-free oil from fraction | was refractionated at reduced pressure to give the fractions described in Table III. TaBLe III. Boiling Fraction. Range. Pressure. Volume. aes nen, Xp: mm. ml A 42—52° 19 11-6 0- 8569 1-4681 +30-3° B 52—58° 19 oe 0-8529 1-4706 +26 - 66° C 58° 17 24-8 0-8450 1-4767 +19-35° Determination of (+)-a-pinene. Fraction A yielded a nitrosochloride of m.p. 109°, unde- pressed by an authentic specimen of a-pinene nitrosochloride. Confirmation was obtained by permanganate oxidation of the fraction to an oily acid which gave a semicarbazone of m.p. 205°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of pinonic acid semicarbazone. Alkaline permanganate oxidation gave no indications for either 2-pinene or sabinene. Determination of Dipentene. Fraction C in glacial acetic acid readily yielded a bromide of m.p. 124-125°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of dipentene tetrabromide. Determination of (+-)-lumonene. Using amyl] alcohol and ether a second bromide preparation from fraction C gave, on fractional crystallisation, a bromide of m.p. 104°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of limonene tetrabromide. The Laevo-rotatory Sesquiterpene. Refractionation of fractions 2, 3 and 4 at reduced pressure gave a fraction by., 112—117° ; dae 0-9082 ; ne 1-5001; ap, —22-2°. Dehydrogenation of 10 ml. with sulphur for 24 hours at 185—220°, followed by extraction with ether and distillation under ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS MACULATA HOOKER. 19 diminished pressure yielded 3-8 ml. of a greenish-brown oil having ae 0-9817 and no 1-5680. It gave a good yield of an orange picrate of m.p. 116°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of cadalene picrate. The fraction yielded also a nitrosochloride of m.p. 155° (with decomposition) but a hydrochloride could not be prepared. Determination of Cadinene. Refractionation of fractions 5 and 6 gave a fraction b,, 133-139° ; di? 0-9250 ; nn 15097; ap +43-27°. The fraction gave a good yield of a glistening white hydrochloride of m.p. 119°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of cadinene dihydrochloride. Dehydrogenation with sulphur gave a green oil 6, 122°; are 0: 9826 ; oN 1-5747. It gave an orange picrate of m.p. 115°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of cadalene picrate. _ Determination of Cadinol. Refractionating of fraction 8 gave a fraction 6, 124° ; ay 0-9783 ; nv 1-5083 ; ap —24:4°. This highly viscous oil yielded a hydrochloride of m.p. 119°, unde- pressed by an authentic specimen of cadinene dihydrochloride. It also was dehydrogenated with sulphur to yield an oil which readily formed a picrate of m.p. 116° undepressed by cadalene picrate. Alkali-soluble Constituents. The various consignments of oil contained about 0:2% of acidic and phenolic substances which were not further investigated. Queensland Trees. (a) Tiaro District. Four hundred and twenty-seven grammes of the crude oil (Table I) were fractionally distilled at reduced pressure to give the fractions shown below in Table IV. TABLE IV. Boiling F Fraction. Range. Pressure. Volume. ae. ny, Xp: mm. ml. 1 39—40° 1] 373 0- 8640 1 - 4662 +39-4° 2 40-55° 9 8 0-8527 1-4782 +19-6° 3 55-120° | 9 5) 0-9103 1-4840 + 4-0° + 120-144° 9 Remainder solidified. — — The first runnings had an odour of tso-valeric aldehyde. Its amount was too small to investigate, but the presence of this aldehyde was demonstrated in the Brisbane oil which will be described later. Refractionating of fraction I failed to alter significantly the physical data. Determination of (-+)-x-pinene. 32 g. of a fraction having dee 0- 8636 ; nn 1-4668 ; av +39-87° on oxidation with permanganate gave an excellent yield of a crystalline acid of m.p. 68-5°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of penonic acid. The semicarbazone was prepared and melted at 204°, also undepressed on admixture with an authentic specimen of pinonic acid semicarbazone. Determination of Dipentene and Limonene. Fraction 2 yielded a bromide of m.p. 120°, undepressed by admixture with dzpentene tetrabromide of m.p. 124-125°. It thus appears that both dipentene and (-+-)-limonene are present. fraction 3 failed to give an «-naphthyl urethane and was not further investigated. Determination of Guaiol. Fraction 4 solidified to a crystalline mass. The liquid portion was filtered off at the pump and the solid purified first by draining on a porous tile, then by recrystal- lisation from alcoho] to m.p. 91-5°, undepressed by admixture with an authentic specimen of euaiol. The Laevo-rotatory Sesquiterpene. The filtrate from fraction 4 had ae 0:-9806 ; nw 1-5044 ; kp —23° 15° and was still heavily contaminated with guaiol. It was redistilled at 8 mm. to give 20 MCKERN, SPIES AND WILLIS. a main fraction of die 0-9454 ; no 1-5040; a, —26°. An attempt to prepare a hydrochloride was unsuccessful. (6) Brisbane District. Four hundred and sixty-five ml. of crude oil (see Table I) were fractionally distilled at reduced pressure to give the fractions shown in Table V. Determination of Iso-valeric Aldehyde. Low-boiling constituents were condensed in a trap immersed in a “ dry-ice ’’-acetonc freezing mixture interposed between the fractionation assembly and the manometer. This liquid was distilled directly into a solution of p-nitrophenyl hydrazine in alcohol (30 ml.) containing acetic acid (1 g.). Distillation was discontinued when the b.p. had reached 100°. From the above solution was isolated a brown p-nitrophenylhydrazone of m.p. 110-5°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of isovaleraldehyde p-nitrophenylhydrazone. Found: C, 59-56; H, 6-45; O, 14-91, 14-95; N, 18-98%. Calculated for C,,H,;0,N, : C;59- 69 5 Hy. 6 83.5507 14-45 5) N, V828a27, TABLE V. Boiling ie on Fraction. Range. Pressure. Volume. | d 15 Ny oan) wn OF mm. ral Trap — | 10 35-0 | 00-8640 1-4667 +37-7° 1 38 10 275-0 | 00-8634 1- 4662 +41-5° 2 39 | 10 42-0 | 0-8639 1-4669 +37-0° 3 39- 43 10 6-0 | 00-8664 1-4689 +29-5° 4 43- 51 10 5-0 | 0-8690 1-4715 +14-9° 5 51- 58 | 10 20-0 | 0-8616 1-4745 + 4-8° 6 58- 61 | 10 4-0 | 0-8608 1-4796 + 2°5° a | 61- 66 | 10 2:0 | 0-9251 1-4863 — 8 86— 96 5 5-0 | 00-9475 1-4870 +10-1° 9 96-108 5 9-0 | O-9281 1-4958 — 7-3° 10 108-111 5 | 10-0 |) *O=9224 1-5002 — 3:4° 11 111-114 5 8-0 | 0-924] 1-5025 + 8:0° 12 114-120 5 | 8:5 | 00-9279 1-5054 +12-4° 13 120-123 5 7:5 | 00-9358 1-5088 +12-7° 14 123-125 5 T=0 |} 0-9618 1-5073 + 5:0° 15 125-126 | 5 7:0 | 00-9757 1-5052 + 5-0° Determination of (+)-a-pinene. Fraction 1 gave on permanganate oxidation an acid of m.p. 68:5°. The semicarbazone of the acid melted at 205°. Alkaline permanganate oxidation of fraction 4 failed to yield any benzene-soluble acidic material. Determination of Dipentene. Fraction 5 gave a good yield of a bromide of m.p. 124-125° undepressed by an authentic specimen of dzpentene. tetrabromide. Determination of Terpinolene. Fraction 6 yielded a bromide which was fractionally crystal- lised into two main fractions. The first melted at 120° and was undepressed by an authentic specimen of dipentene tetrabromide. The second fraction melted at 116°, was depressed by dipentene tetrabromide, but undepressed by terpinolene tetrabromide. Terpenyl Ester ? Fraction 8 was saponified with 0-5 N alcoholic potassium hydroxide for 2 hours on a steam-bath. Steam distillation of the reaction mixture gave 3 ml. of a colourless oil of a pronounced terpineol odour and having dee 0-9395 and Mey) 1-4880. Attempts to prepare a crystalline derivative failed. Sesquiterpenes and Sesquiterpene Alcohols. All of the fractions boiling above 96° C. at 5 mm. were separately dehydrogenated with sulphur. The dehydrogenation products in petroleum ether were chromatographed through an alumina column. On removal of the solvent from the various fractions, the main dehydrogenation product in each case was an intensely royal-blue azulene. The picrate in each case formed as very dark olive-green needles melting at 115-5° C. ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS MACULATA HOOKER. 21 Attempts to prepare hydrochlorides and trinitrobenzoates failed with all fractions. Water was formed during the dehydrogenation of fractions 14 and 15. The ester number after acetyla- tion indicated 51% of acetylisable constituents. Fractions 14 and 15, as well as yielding the royal-blue azulene as the main dehydrogenation product, also gave a yellow fraction, which reacted with picric acid to give an orange-yellow product, m.p. 114-5° C., identical in physical characteristics with, and undepressed by, admixture with cadalene picrate. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. We should like to express our thanks to the District Forester at Bateman’s Bay, N.S.W., for securing material from his area. The Queensland Sub- Department of Forestry has given great assistance in arranging collections of material from various localities in that State. Much help in the analytical determinations was given by Mr. R. O. Hellyer, A.S.T.C. (Chem.). Micro- analyses are by the Division of Industrial Chemistry of the C.S.I.R.0O., Melbourne. Our thanks are due to the Director (Mr. A. R. Penfold, F.R.A.C.I.) and the Trustees of the Museum for permission to publish this work. REFERENCES. Baker, R. T., and Smith, H. G., 1920. ‘‘ A Research on the Eucalypts.’’ Government Printer, Sydney, p. 82. Blakely, W. F., 1934. ‘‘ A Key to the Eucalypts.”’ Worker Trustees, Sydney, pp. 93-94. Byrnes, N., 1953. Technical Notes (N.S.W. For. Comm., Div. Wood Tech.), 6, 9. Harris, C. M., and McKern, H. H. G., 1950. Res. on Essential Ouls of the Aust. Flora (Mus. Tech. and Appl. Sci., Sydney), 2, 15. Maiden, J. H., 1922. ‘‘ A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus.” Government Printer, Sydney, 5, pp. 84-92. —-——— 1924. Ibid., 6, p. 433. Mueller, F. V., 1879. ‘‘ Eucalyptographia.”’ Government Printer, Melbourne. Third Decade, p. 109. Penfold, A. R., 1949. ‘“‘ The Volatile Oils of the Australian Flora.” Liversidge Lecture. Government Printer, Tasmania. Penfold, A. R., McKern, H. H. G., and Willis, J. L., 1953. Res. on Hssential Oils of the Aust. Flora (Mus. Appl. Arts and Sciences, Sydney, 3, 15. Penfold, A. R., and Morrison, F. R., 1948. Aust. J. Sci., 11, 29. Penfold, A. R., Morrison, F. R., Willis, J. L., MeKern, H. H. G., and Spies, M.C., 1951. Tis JOURNAL, 85, 120. OCCULTATIONS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1953. By K. PB. SIMs, B.Sc (Communicated by the GovERNMENT ASTRONOMER.) Manuscript received, February 4, 1954. Read, April 7, 1954. The following observations of occultations were made at Sydney Observatory with the 114-inch telescope. A tapping key was used to record the times on a chronograph with the exception of 269, which was an eye and ear observation. The reduction elements were computed by the method given in the Occultation Supplement to the Nautical Almanac for 1938 and the reduction completed by the method given there. The necessary data were taken from the Nautical Almanac for 1953, the Moon’s right ascension and declination (hourly table) TABLE I. Serial N.Z.C. | | | No. No. | Mag. Date. | Ut. Observer. | him. is | 266 731 a) Jan. 25 10 57 20-5 | R 267 LAG Bel Feb. 24 9 45 19-2 S 268 1282 | 6-6 Apr. 21 11 29 46-1 S 269 1385 6-5 Apr. 22 10 25 43-9 R 270 1486 4-6 Apr. 23 12 06 32-7 W 271 1759 6-5 Apr. 26 9 52 lies Ww 272 1242 6-8 May 18 9 46 38-5 S 273 2039 5-6 May 26 7 40 17-4 W 274 2045 6-4 May 26 8 45 13-6 S 275 2051 yey | May 26 9 46 42-6 S 276 2108 6-4 June 23 7 31 29-4 W 277 2109 6-1 June 23 8 16 11-8 Ww 278 1565 6-3 July 15 8 29 39-9 R 279 7-4 July 15 8 29 44-4 R 280 1967 ow July 19 12 16 AZ Ww 281 2084 6-5 July 20 13 05 21-5 W 282 2349 3-1 July 22 11 37 30-8 8 283 2524 6-0 July 23 16 49 00-9 W 284 2652 6-4 July 24 9 07 03-1 Ss 285 2286 5-4 Aug. 18 1 Li 2s W 286 2295 7-0 Aug. 18 13 14 37-3 R 287 3320 5:3 Nov. 15 13 44 27-8 W and parallax (semi-diurnal table) being interpolated therefrom. No correction was applied to the observed times for personal effect, but a correction of —0-00152 hour was applied before entering the ephemeris of the Moon. This corresponds to a correction of —3”-0 to the Moon’s mean longitude. Table I gives the observational material. The serial numbers follow on from those of the previous report (Sims 1953). The observers were H. W. Wood (W), W. H. Robertson (R) and K. P. Sims (8S). In all cases the phase observed OCCULTATIONS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1953. 2s was disappearance at the dark limb. ‘Table IT gives the results of the reductions which were carried out in duplicate. The N.Z.C. numbers given are those of the Catalog of 3539 Zodiacal Stars for the Equinox 1950-0 (Robertson, 1940), as recorded in the Nautical Almanac. The star involved in occultation 279 was not included in the Nautical Almanac list; it is G.C. 14744. Its apparent place was R.A. 105 40™ 558-87, Dee. +4° 59’ 27”"-0. Tasie IT. Coefficient of Serial | Luna- ieee ; No. tion. Pp q Dp? Pq q? Now pAs | qc Aa | Ad 266 372 (+100 | + 3 | 100 + 3 0 |+0-7 |+0-7 0-0 | +13-2 ) +0-11 267 373 {+100 ; + 3 | 100 + 3 0 |+1-1 /+1-1 0-0 ; +13-4 | —0-19 268 375 |+ 69 | +73 47 +50 53 |—0-7 |—0-5 |—0-5 | +12-5 | +0-46 269 375 |+ 86 | +51 74 +44 26 |+0-4 |+0°3 |+0-2 | +14-3 | +0-14 270 375 |+ 99 | +13 98 +13 2 |+0-5 |+0-5 |+0-1 | +14-1 | —0-31 271 375 |+ 60 | —80 36 —48 64 |+0-3 |+0-2 |—0-2 | + 2-8 | —0-98 272 376 |+ 96 | —27 93 —26 7 |+0:-8 |+0-8 |—0-2 | +11-7 | —0-55 273 376 |+ 89 | +46 79 +4] 21 |+0-5 |+0-4 |+0-2 | +14-2 | +0-14 274 376 {+100 | — 9 | 99 — 9 1 |+2-6 |+2-6 |—0-2 | +13-0 | —0-41 275 376 |+ 96) +27 93 +26 7 |+0:-6 |+0-6 |+0-2 |} +14-2 | —0-06 276 377 |+ 45 | —89 20 |. —40 80 |+2-5 |+1-1 |—2-2 | + 2-4 | —0-99 277 377 = |+ 37 | —93 14 —34 86 |+2-3 |+0-9 |—2-1 | + 1-3 | —1-00 278 378 |+ 69 | —72 48 —50 52 |—0-2 |—0-1 |+0-1 |) + 4-4 | —0-95 279 378 |+ 68 | —73 47 —50 53 |+1-5 |+1-0 |—I1-1 | + 4:3 | —0-96 280 378 |+ 84) +55 70 +46 30, |—0-8 |—0-7 |—0-4 | +14-1 | +0-21 281 378 |+ 96) +28 92 +27 8 |—0:3 |—0:3 |—0-1 | +14:-1 |; —0-02 282 378 |+ 40 |] +92 16 +37 84 |—1-0 |—0-4 |—0-9 | + 6-8 | +0-86 283 378 |+100 | — 2 100 — 2 0 |+0-6 |+0-6 0-0 | +13°5 | 0-00 284 378 |+ 55 | +84 30 +46 70 |—0:-7 |—0:4 |—0-6/} + 6-2 | +0-89 285 379 |+ 51 | +86 26 +44 74 |—1-0 ;—0-5 |—0-9 | + 8:7 | +0-77 286 379 |+ 96) +27 93 +26 7 |—0-7 |—0-7 |—0-2 | +13-5 | +0-12 287 382 |+ 85 | —52 73 —44 27 |+0-7 |+0-6 |—0-4 | +14-9 | —0-10 REFERENCES. Robertson, A. J., 1940. Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris, 10, Part II. Sims, K. P., 1953. Tuis Journat, 87, 19; Sydney Observatory Papers, No. 19. GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE AREA NORTH OF THE DARLING RIVER BETWEEN LONGITUDES 145° AND 149° E., NGS IW: By J. RADE.* With two Text-figures. Manuscript received, December 18, 1953. Read, April 7, 1954. INTRODUCTION. The present paper deals with that part of the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin stretching between the Darling-Barwon River and the Queensland border and between longitudes 145° and 149° E. The towns of Bourke and Walgett mark the southern boundary, while the western boundary passes through Yantabulla. The area comprises about 14,200 square miles of flat country, topographic features rarely rising to more than 200 feet above the surrounding country. In the western part of the area the altitude varies from 350 feet above sea level in the south to 500 feet above sea level in the north. Higher country is found to the east, where elevations above sea level vary from 430 feet in the south to 565 feet in the north, the latter being the highest part of the map area. . The area is drained by the northern tributaries of the Darling River. Narran River is an exception, since it flows directly into Lake Narran and thus does not enter the Darling. Such rivers as the Narran, Bokhara, Birric and Culgoa, all located north-east of Bourke, flow in a south-westerly direction, but the more westerly situated Warrego River has a south-south-westerly course. During the course of the present work, the main effort was directed towards the elucidation of the structure and composition of the Paleozoic basement rocks, since they are of importance in a study of water potentialities of the area and are not well known. Full use has been made of the bore data collected by the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Sydney. However, it should be noted that bore data for this area is not always reliable, despite the intensive boring programmes carried out. Bore logs are generally inadequate, few paleontological studies have been made, and the chemical analysis of water samples are too few. Thus much information which would have been of great assistance in the present study has been lost. The two contour maps which accompany the present paper were prepared by the author from information gained from artesian and sub-artesian bores. Inaecuracy has been introduced by the inadequate bore records, and doubt as to the exact localities of some of the bores. The contours must thus be regarded as only approximate, but nevertheless they serve to elucidate the structure of the basement in this, the most complex area of Paleozoic basement rocks in the whole of the New South Wales section of the Great Artesian Basin. GEOLOGY. The area under consideration consists mainly of Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks. The Paleozoic rocks form the basement of this portion of the New South Wales part of the Great Artesian Basin, while the overlying Mesozoic rocks form the aquifers for artesian and sub-artesian water. * Geologist, Bureau of Mineral Resources. t GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS NORTH OF DARLING RIVER. 2 The Paleozoic rocks are of Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian age. Granites also form a considerable part of the Paleozoic basement in the western part of the area, while Paleozoic schists and slates are widespread in the central and eastern parts of the area. These Paleozoic basement rocks will be considered below in more detail. The deepest bores of the whole area were drilled into the structural depres- sions of the eastern section of the area under consideration, to the north of the town of Walgett. The Gerongra bore, situated 17 miles north of Walgett, reached Paleozoic slates at a depth of 3,053 feet, this being the greatest depth at which the basement has been encountered. The Nullawa bore, situated 69 miles north-north-west of Walgett, encountered Paleozoic granite at a depth of 3,018 feet. Paleozoic quartzite and schist were encountered in the Dungle Ridge bore, situated 49 miles north-north-east of Walgett. The Paleozoic granite has been encountered widely in many bores drilled in the western part of the area. It has been strongly faulted, so that in some places it forms horsts, with the result that the granite is struck at shallow depths. In the north-western corner of the map area the granite was penetrated at a depth of 1,553 feet in the Brindingabba No. 5 bore, 21 miles north of Yantabulla. However, in the Yantabulla No. 1 bore, located at Yantabulla, faulting has brought the granite to within 180 feet of the surface. Granite is met with at varying depths in the several bores to the north-east and east-south-east of Yantabulla. For example, the Mascotte No. 2 bore, situated 17 miles east of Yantabulla, met granite at a depth of 839 feet, while the Maranoa No. 2 bore, situated 28 miles north-east of Yantabulla, encountered granite at a depth of 1,469-5 feet. Granite was encountered 40 miles east-south-east of Yantabulla at a depth of 742 feet in the Multagoona No. 9 bore, apparently in a horst. In the Grass Hut bore, 46 miles east-south-east of Yantabulla, the granite was struck at a depth of 430 feet. Decomposed granite and schist were encountered in the middle part of the area, not far from the Queensland border, at a depth of 1,595-5 feet in the Dunsandle No. 1 bore, 40 miles east-south-east of Bar- ringun. South-east of Yantabulla the Paleozoic basement also consisted of granite and was encountered at varying depths below the surface; in the Boongunyarrah Springs bore, nine miles south-east of Yantabulla, it occurred at 285 feet, while at the Pirillie No. 8 bore, 16 miles south-east of Yantabulla, it was encountered at 1,330 feet. In the southern margin of the area, 28 miles north-east of Bourke, the granite was struck at a depth of 700 feet. Slates and schists of Paleozoic age were encountered in the central and western parts of the area concerned ; slates were recorded at 1,641 feet in the Maranoa No. 4 bore, situated 25 miles north-east of Yantabulla, at 1,820 feet in the Belalie No. 7 bore, 12 miles south-south-west of Barringum, and at 1,795 feet in the New Eureka bore, 24 miles east-south-east of Barringum. Schistose slate is known from a depth of 1,674 feet in the Weilmoringle No. 7 bore, 57 miles east-south-east of Barringun. The Paleozoic basement, consisting of slates and quartzites, was first struck at a depth of 1,300 feet in the Kerribree No. 2 bore, situated 21 miles south-south-east of Yantabulla.. Schist with quartz veinlets was met with at 1,118 feet in the Pirillie No. 9 bore, 30 miles south-east of Yantabulla. Paleozoic slate also forms the basement north-east of Bourke, where it is known at a depth of 1,710 feet in the Gidgea Camp bore, 12 miles north-north-east of Bourke, and also at a depth of 1,898 feet in the Weilmoringle No. 9 bore, 74 miles north-east of Bourke. Slates are known at 1,860 feet below the surface in the Milroy No. 2 bore, 63 miles north-east of Bourke. Schistose slate was recorded from a depth of 1,674 feet in the Weilmoringle No. 7 bore, 76 miles north-east of Bourke. | 26 J. RADE. The depths at which the granites, slates and schists are first encountered may be compared by reference to the data given above. It is clear that the granites occur at much shallower depths than the slates and schists. The granites which form part of the Palzeozoic basement occur mostly as batholiths intruding the slates and schists. The slates and schists were more susceptible to processes of denudation, and thus form the deeper portions of the basement surface, while the more resistant granites form the higher basement surfaces. The Jurassic Walloon Series, consisting of sandstones with intercalations of shales, was deposited on the Paleozoic basement. The intercalations of shale have an average thickness of from 30 to 60 feet in the bores sunk in the area north of Walgett. Conglomerates are also found in the Walloon Series, generally along the flanks of the Palzeozoic basement ridges. An example is to be found along the ridge to the north-east of Bourke, stretching in a north-north-westerly direction into the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin. Sand, sandstone and conglomerate, presumably derived from the abovementioned ridges, was encountered between 1,590 feet and 1,642 feet in the Warraweena No. 4 bore, situated 27 miles north of Bourke. Water-worn quartz gravels were encountered at a maximum depth of 1,070 feet in the Lissington No. 4 bore, 43 miles north-north-east of Bourke. The Warraweena No. 4 bore, mentioned above, is situated above a structural depression in the Paleozoic basement, while the Lissington No. 4 bore is located on the northern slopes of the adjoining ridge. Two cycles of sedimentation are represented in the strata pierced by the Gingie bore, situated 23 miles north-west of Walgett. The sediments in question represent the upper part of the Walloon Series. Each cycle commenced with the deposition of conglomerate, and was terminated with the deposition of shale. The following is the record of the older cycle of sedimentation, taken from the Gingie bore : 1,936 to 1,945 feet below surface 9 feet of black shale. 1,945 5, 1,985 = ie AOS brown shale. 159857). 15987 a Y 7 ee drift sand. 19380 53) 2,064 zs . (te aoa sandstone. 2,064 ,, 2,072 5 53 Sreless gravel. 2,072 ,, 2,084 A . 5 re conglomerate. A gradual transition from sediments of coarser character to sediments of finer character can be clearly seen by the figures above. The occurrence of brown and black shales at the top of the cycle is significant. Black shales containing pyrite are characteristically encountered in the Jurassic deposits of Europe, and it is thought that they are the result of deposition under tranquil conditions. These circles of sedimentation expressed in the Gingie bore may be taken as true reflections of the saltatory uplift of the peninsular-like structure of the Paleozoic basement, the latter stretching from the Lake Narran area in a north-easterly direction into the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin. The Gingie bore is situated on the south-eastern margin of this Paleozoic ridge, and thus the earth movements which affected the ridge are faithfully reflected by the type of sediment found in the bore. The thickness of the Walloon Series varies within wide limits according to the sub-surface contours of the Paleozoic basement. Thin sequences of the Walloon Series are found on the basement ridges, but great thicknesses have been recorded in the structural depressions. The average thickness of the Walloon . Series is 600 feet in the eastern part of the map area, but thinner sequences are known from the western part of the area. The Walloon Series is overlain by the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale Series, consisting largely of shales, but containing intercalations of sandy shales, sand- GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS NORTH OF DARLING RIVER. 27 stones, and some thin coal seams. The sediments are of lacustrine origin, and on the whole are more sandy than the overlying marine Roma Series. The average thickness of the Blythesdale Series is about 600 feet. The Roma Series consists largely of blue-grey shales, but intercalations ot sandy shale and sandstone are occasionally encountered. The Roma Series generally accounts for the bulk of the sediments penetrated by the bores. Valu- able foraminiferal studies of the Roma Series have been carried out for the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission by Miss Irene Crespin, of the Bureau of Mineral Resources. As a result of these studies, foraminifera of Lower Cretaceous age have been identified in the marine facies between 325 and 1,181 feet in the Lila Springs No. 8 bore, situated 32 miles north of Bourke. In this same bore the marine facies is replaced at a depth of 1,200 feet by fine- grained fawn-coloured shales containing numerous plant remains and seed pods. Foraminifera and ostracods are no longer found, and it is assumed that this level represents the top of the Blythesdale Series. If this be the case, then the thickness of the Roma Series in this locality is 875 feet, which is taken to be the average thickness. The overlying Winton Series represents a return to lacustrine deposition. It consists mainly of sandy clays, with occasional seams of clay and legnite. The average thickness of the Winton Series is about 500 feet. In 1945 Miss Crespin conducted a foraminiferal investigation of the Stanford bore, situated 58 miles north-east of Bourke. The strata between 139 and 237 feet were referred to the Upper Cretaceous. The thickness of the Upper Cretaceous Winton Series in this area is thus seen to be less than in other areas. In this connection it is significant that the Stanford bore is situated towards the southern limit of development of the Winton Series. In general, the Winton Series is most widely developed in the vicinity of the Queensland border, while it is absent in the south-western corner of the map area. Kenny (1934, p. 71) states that the Upper Cretaceous sediments are not represented in the West Darling district, although the Lower Cretaceous is represented, probably by the equi- valents of the Roma Series of Queensland. The Winton Series is developed in the far north-west corner of the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin, adjacent to South Australia. According to Jack (1930), the Winton Series is also developed in the adjoining area of South Australia. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY. ° The accompanying figure (Fig. 1) is a contour map of the surface of the Paleozoic basement. Before this is considered in detail, a summary of previous investigations will be given. Mulholland (1940, p. 22) investigated the geological structure of the area south-west of Bourke and found two sets of fold axes. One of them was stated to vary in strike from meridional to N. 20° W., while the other was stated to vary between N. 40° E. and N. 45° E. Domes were identified at the points of intersection of these trend lines, and a probable fault with a strike of S. 30° KE. was detected. From these studies by Mulholland it can be seen that the geological structure of the area to the south-west of Bourke is quite complex. The accompanying contour map (Fig. 1) will show that the Paleozoic basement configuration is also complex between Bourke and Yantabulla. The major feature of the basement configuration is the peninsular-like ridge which extends in a north-easterly direction into the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin. It is suggested that this trend may be referred to the Caledonian Orogeny. Lloyd (1936, p. 65) has detected the same north-easterly trend in a synclinal structure located at Mt. Drysdale, between Bourke and Cobar. The same trend can be detected in some of the basement J. RADE. (e 4) oe | 2 aS Sys = QN4941 SONIUdS GNNOW d0 GNWe SLINVs JIVE == ( Va LE aanog, : Bb, Cox ny aly TA LLASTVM lNaVONRIV 1709, TINAVINVA | NNONISAVS 00% 0°" be al 0 862 SITIW GJIIN 9¢— v2 9795 | Ov) INV Gp) SSAQNLISNOT N NJ4IM1L48 adsAld SNIIVO 40 HLYON V3NV FHL NI LNIWISVE JIOZOIVWd JHL 40 NVId adNOLNGD GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS NORTH OF DARLING RIVER. 29 faults, such as the probable fault to the north of Walgett (Fig. 1) and other faults in the central and western parts of the map area. The main structural depressions also follow this trend. The north-north-westerly trend is referred by the present author to the Variscan period of orogeny. It is expressed in the faults which cut the central and western portions of the map area, and is clearly reflected by the alignment of the mound springs. Of particular significance are the mound springs which are located 42 miles north-north-west of Bourke. Here they occur along the eastern margin of a granitic basement horst. A further alignment of the mound springs occurs along a parallel fault to the south-east of Yantabulla. There can be little doubt that these structural lines are true faults, as evidenced by the mound springs and the basement contours. The faults encountered to the north-east of Bourke are also reflected in the courses of the Darling and Culgoa Rivers. The Culgoa River abruptly changes its course when it strikes the south-south-easterly trending fault, and flows along the fault line for some distance. Again, the intense branching of the Darling River, which takes place 25 miles east-north-east of Bourke, coincides in position to the area where the south-south-easterly trending faults strike the line of the river. The faintest trend found in the map area strikes slightly north of west. It is seen in the fault which bounds the south-eastern corner of the horst located 42 miles to the north-north-west of Bourke, and is clearly expressed in the alignment of the Kullyna and Native Dog mound springs. The structural valley encountered 23 miles north-east of Bourke has the same trend direction. Another small fault having the same strike connects the mound springs of Coon- billy, 20 miles south-east of Yantabulla, with those of Youngarinnia, 15 miles south-east of Yantabulla. It is clear that these structural trends form a continuation of the trends described from the adjoining areas of Queensland. In the latter area Whitehouse (1945, p. 25) has shown that the bedrock occurs at shallow depths between eastern meridians of longitude 142 degrees and 147 degrees. The structural geology of the area has not been discussed in detail, since the author is at present engaged in the preparation of a more extensive paper dealing with the structural geology of the whole of the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin. HYDROLOGY. Aquifers are occasionally encountered at shallow depths, but they are saline and are thus of little practical value. Below these are the aquifers of the Upper Cretaceous Winton Series, generally formed above the structural valleys of the Paleozoic basement. They carry sub-artesian water. The uppermost truly artesian aquifers are located in the sandstone inter- calations of the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale Series, while the most important artesian aquifers are found in the Jurassic Walloon Series. The accompanying contour map (Fig. 2) represents the artesian aquifer of the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale Series ; however, it must be emphasized that at present the aquifer does not yield artesian water throughout the whole of the map area. This contour plan for the upper artesian aquifer only includes the eastern part of the area under study, mainly the area north of Walgett. In this restricted area the basement contours are fairly regular. Few faults are present. The central and western parts of the map area are different in this respect, since strong faulting in the basement has produced many irregularities in the contours of the aquifer. On comparing the contour plan of the artesian aquifers of the eastern portion of the area (Fig. 2) with the same portion of the contour plan of the Paleozoic 30 J. RADE. basement (Fig. 1), it becomes evident that the former plan approximately reflects the main structural features of the latter. The contours of the aquifers express the north-easterly trending ridge and the depressions occurring to the north and east of it, just as do the contours of the Paleozoic basement. The aquifers of the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale Series occur at the greatest depths in the north-eastern part of Figure 2. Thus in the Goondablui No. 2 bore, 71 miles north-north-east of Walgett, this aquifer was encountered at 2,675 feet below the surface. The main flow from the Jurassic Walloon Series was encountered in the abovementioned bore at a depth of 625 feet below the aquifer of the Blythesdale Series. MAP SHOWING CONTOURS OF THE UPPER ARTESIAN AQUIFER IN THE AREA NORTH OF WALGETT SCALE N 2 24 36 wis Fig. 2. The following are analyses of the water obtained from several bores. From this table it may be clearly seen that the good quality waters of the valuable aquifers in the Walloon Series are located at shallow depths in the vicinity of Yantabulla. It is usual for the aquifers bearing saline water to occur in the western part of the area. Their distribution may be correlated with the severe faulting, which fractured the strata and permitted leakage of saline water from the shallow aquifers into the deeper aquifers. The long distances which the water must travel from the intake area is also an important factor in a consideration of salinity. The prevailing direction of sub-surface water flow is to the south- west. The water travels in this direction from Queensland to New South Wales 31 GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS NORTH OF DARLING RIVER. 66 "qo0J QOST 78 Jobe (Vsy[Iq) UoopeM ‘e[TNqezue x "N OL =. eTvUUO ST “1D ‘qooy FEO'E Fe JoFmMbe (esy[Iq) uooypem = ** ees MNGN P99 equing “Wf ‘qooy BgE'c 7e soymbe (esyIq) uooypey =“ see VEN Ate Ga pooMe[suy “a ‘qooy cgc’g ye sojmbe (esq[rq) uooTfeA “HNN “ 89 “ % MIqepucoy -q "qe0J GC9'S Je soJINbe opepseyyATq =“ “ANN “ 89 “ IQepuoccyH *O "q92J OOL‘S Ye Jofmnbe (esy[Tq) uooyey — “* “ANN “ 67 “ o8pry efsunq ‘g "yooy 99ST Ye aozmbe orepseyyAT “q908Te A, JO “ANN Splut GF ‘log ospry ojsunqg ‘vy IV IT'S'SZ EL'S'9Z ra ee IT'S" | CLS LZ [Galee sisAyeue jo oye Ef9F-0 | 6LE-ZE | 18SG-0 | 690-6E | 0619-0 | TE&-F | 6EFL-0 | OLO-ZE | 9L9T-T | SEL-88 | 8ZF8-0 | 86G-8S | 9860-1 | GOG-9L | °° = redo”, mi o —— BRI} B oe 9081} & — Q0B1} V als quivy B = SUAS B — — = “14 poe ood i "14 14 “19: “14 *14 “19 "14 °19 “14 14 14 a *14 °O°1V "14 14 "14 "14 19 19 Sera tl "14 14 "14 "14 "19 "14 "14 ®9°% 07 4900-0 | 8FF-F | 0920-0 | OZ8-T | OTZO-0 | OLF:T | OZEO-0 | OFZ-Z | O8ZO-0 | 096-T | OLZO-0 | O6G8-T | FZZ0-0 | 89-1 “OIS quesqe yuesqe quesqe ZUOSqe JuOsqeB yUuesqe “4 “14 “14 “I yussqe quosqe JUNSqe yuesqe ee ’oQ?eN LLOT-O | 6&9-L | GOTT-0 | 89L-L | OZIT-0 | Z88-L | S6IT-0 | Z9E-8 | FF9Z-0 | 9OG-ST | LOTT-O | 89T-8 | 2PZZ-0 | TgL-ST | °° TORN “1 “1g “1g “ay €Z00-0 | 6E1:0 | 0800-0 | ZIZ-0 | 0€00-0 | ZIZ-0 | €200-0 | 6ST-0 | 6800-0 | Gzz-0 | °° *oosH 1Z&0-0 | OS: | LOTO-0 | OSL-0 | TL00-0 | 00G-0 | 9ET0-0 | 026-0 | 9800-0 | 009-0 | 6800-0 | ¢z9-0 | €600-0 | 0¢9-0 | °° *oOQRD 6£00-0 | 6&Z-0 “a4 “1g “14 “14 “ay “14 “14 “1 “14 “1 “14 1 “O° M LETE-O | SOL-ée | SOTF-O | IEL-8Z | ODLF-0 | OZE-EE | SGLG-0 | 90OE-OF | 9896-0 | SSF-L9 | 6189-0 | OST-SF | E8Es-0 | T89-8¢ | °° *OO*eN “Sq1B ‘UOTT[e*) *SJIB “UOTI[e*) *SJLC I “UOT[ey) “S418 J “UOT[eL) *S4LC “UOT[V*) “S9IB “UOT[eY) *SZIB I “MOTT B*) | 0001 sod 0001 | aod 0001 aod 0001 sod 0001 sod 0001 | sod 0001 tod | Url SUTBIY) Url suTedt) Ul SUTBIY) Ur SUTBIL) Url SUTBIY) Ul suredy) Uy suTedt) | al “OL 4a ze) ‘a ie ‘T FTAV I, oe J. RADE. along the structural depressions of the Paleozoic basement and along the northern margin of the Paleozoic peninsular-like structure described above. This means that in travelling from the intake beds the water must traverse the highly faulted regions where the minerals from the Cretaceous shales are responsible for the ‘* salting ’”’ of the water. These considerations are especially applicable to the aquifers of the Blythesdale Series. The mud or mound springs are of particular interest. They are formed when an artesian aquifer is transected by a fault, especially when an impervious bed blocks the aquifer on the side of the fault opposite to the prevailing direction of flow of the water. This is shown by the horst situated 47 miles east-south-east of Yantabulla, where mound springs are developed along the faults on the eastern side of the horst, but not on the western side. Mound springs are especially common at the point of intersection of two faults, as may be seen in the central map area of Figure 1. Comparing the movement of the water and the structure of the basement, it appears that in its movement the water uses the deeper strata as the thalweg, and the direction of movement is closely controlled by the configuration of the Paleozoic basement. SUMMARY. The strata in the area between longitudes 145° and 149° of the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin are mostly of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age. Caledonian trends dominate the Paleozoic basement, but Variscan faulting has an important structural control. The shallower artesian flows are from the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale Series, while the main artesian flows are from the Jurassic Walloon Series. The movement of the artesian water is from Queensland into New South Wales, and is closely controlled by the configuration of the Paleozoic basement. REFERENCES. Jack, R. Lockhart, 1930. ‘‘ Geological Structure and other Factors in Relation to Underground Water Supply in Portions of South Australia.”” Geol. Surv. S. Australia, Bull. 14. Kenny, E. J., 1934. ‘‘ West Darling District.”” Miner. Res. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 36. Lloyd, A. C., 1936. ‘‘ Cobar District.’’ Rep. Dept. Mines N.S.W., 95, 97. Mulholland, C. St. J., 1940. ‘‘ Geology and Underground Water Resources of the Hast Darling District.”” Miner. Res. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 39. Whitehouse, F. W., 1945. ‘“* Artesian Water Supplies in Queensland.” First Intervm Rep. Qd. Parl. Pap., 22-28. AUSTRALASIAN MeEpIcaL ‘PUBLISHING CoMPANy - Arundel and Seamer Streets, Glebe, N sw ISSUED DECEMBER 10, 1954 VOL. LXXXVIII : PART II JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY -OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR a 1954 (INCORPORATED 1881) PART II (pp. 33-54) OF 1 VOL. LXXXVIII Containing Papers read in June and July, with Plates I-III. EDITED BY F. N. HANLON, B.Sc.,-Dip.Ed. Honorary Editorial Secretary. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN SYDNEY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS 1954 Registered at the General Post Office, Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical VOLUME LXXXVIII (Prichosurus aay. i A. Bolliger .. — JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 1954 (INCORPORATED 1881) VOLUME LXXXVIII Part II EDITED BY F. N. HANLON, B. Sc., Dip. Ed. Honorary Editorial Secretary THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN SYDNEY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCH HOUSE GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS / ‘ ay Y kie i = . ri ' ‘ ‘ ‘ e i Ld Ml ; e ORGAN TRANSFORMATION INDUCED BY CESTROGEN IN AN ADOLESCENT MARSUPIAL (TRICHOSURUS VULPECULA). By A. BOLLIGER. From the Gordon Craig Research Laboratory. Department of Surgery, University of Sydney. : With Plates I-ITI. Manuscript received, March 29, 1954. Read, June 2, 1954. The scrotum of the adolescent male of the marsupial 7. vulpecula (brush tail phalanger or possum) can be transformed into a persistent mammary pouch by castration and subsequent repeated administration of cestrogens (Bolliger, 1944; Bolliger and Tow, 1947). In the present paper this is confirmed and additional changes brought on by cestrogen administration to a castrated phalanger are described. These will be discussed under the headings of (a) cloaca, (b) penis. (c) scrotomarsupial area, and (d) fur. ANIMAL AND TREATMENT. A male phalanger (7. vulpecula) about five months of age, weighing 510 grms., was castrated (7/3/52). The testicles, which had a diameter of 0-2 cm., were removed through two small lateral incisions in the scrotal sac. Three days later injections of cestradioldipropionate were begun. During the whole experi- ment the animal remained with its mother. Details. 0-1 mg. of estradioldipropionate on 10, 17 and 24 March, 1952. 103 Fa eae .S » ¢€ and 16 April, 1952. LOC aes 3 ,» 26 April and 5 May, 1952. UTE mote ee $5 » 12 and 19 May, 1952. Oa iieger’ ss . » 26 May, 2 and 11 June, 21 July, 29 August, 29 September, 29 October, 1952. The total amount of cestradioldipropionate administered over a period of eight months was 4-4 mg. At the time of the last injection the phalanger was approximately one year and two months old. At this age normal males have reached sexual maturity (Bolliger, 1942). At the age of two years the animal was killed (24/8/53), ten months after the last injection of cestrogen. (a) Cloaca. Penis, cloaca, rectum and pericloacal glands (Bolliger and Whitten, 1948) are contained in a conically shaped hillock (Colliculus urogenitalis) with an apical sphincteric orifice which normally only opens for excretory and repro- ductive functions (Plate I, Fig. 1). This opening leads into a shallow cloaca. In the cloaca can be seen the opening of the penis pocket (preputium) and Separated by a short perineum, the terminal portions of the rectum, Externally 34 A. BOLLIGER. the penis cannot be seen even when the animal urinates. It becomes visible only when in a state of erection. On defecation the rectum may protrude for a distance of about 1 mm. This was the state of the external genitalia of our experimental animal as injections with cestrogen were commenced. ‘The cloacal hillock measured about 4 mm. in length. Approximately one month after the first cestrogen adminis- tration the urogenital hillock began to swell. Next, the swollen rectum attached to a greatly altered urogenital apparatus became everted, and after another two months it protruded from the opening of the hillock for a distance of 1 cm. It was necessary to cover the exposed rectal mucosa frequently with penicillin ointment in order to protect it against injury and infection. By this time the originally conical cloacal hillock had taken on a cylindrical elongated shape and measured about 1 cm. in length. It was capped by the protruding, now mushroom-shaped rectum attached to the terminal portion of a modified urogenital canal. The swollen rectal orifice measured 1-1 cm. in diameter (Plate I, Fig. 2). After terminating cestrogen injections the protruded rectum returned almost completely into the cloacal hillock. The cloacal hillock also diminished in size but retained a somewhat swollen appearance for ten months until the animal was killed. (b) Penis. As already mentioned, the penis cannot be seen exteriorly, and even on inspecting the interior of the cloaca it may not be noticed, because it is retracted in the penis pocket or preputium. If the penis is pulled out from the penis pocket, it is noticed that it consists of two sections: distally, an unattached part (pars libera), and proximally a part covered by a fibrous tunic (pars obtecta) (Van den Broek, 1910). The free unattached part is an undivided cylindrical structure of about 2-3 cms. in length when not erected, and is covered with numerous small horny spicules. At its distal end it is provided with a flagellum which arises near the ventral periphery of the cylindrical shaft. The flagellum is approximately 1 cm. long and near its base is the external opening of the urogenital canal. The relaxed penis is S-shaped, as shown in the diagram (Plate I, Fig. 3) and about 5-6 cms. in total length. This double bend permits large extension, the total length of the fully erected penis being about 12-14 cms. with a diameter of about 1 cm. About three months after the beginning of cstrogen injections when the rectum had become protruded, it appeared as though the unattached part of the penis with its typical flagellum and horny spicules had disappeared. At this stage there was attached at the distal end of the rectum on its ventral aspect a roughly pyramidal structure (base 1-5; height 0:7 cm.) of fibrous tissue which contained at its apex a pin-sized opening (Plate I, Fig. 2). This was the urinary outlet, and the urinary stream issuing from the small opening was at first of very narrow diameter. This occasioned bladder distension. During the subsequent weeks the opening became wider and adequate for the urinary flow. The protrusion of the rectum became less obvious about two months after the last cstrogen injection, and finally the anus became retracted almost com- pletely within the cloaca. At the age of two years, when the animal was killed, the urinary outlet was seen within the cloaca as an opening of about 1 mm. diameter. The appearance of the penis and urogenital canal at this stage is described in the post-mortem report. (c) Scrotomarsupial Area. After about three months of estrogen administration, the scrotum became transformed into a pouch, confirming previous observations (Bolliger, 1944 ; ORGAN TRANSFORMATION INDUCED BY CG&STROGEN. 35 Bolliger and Tow, 1947). The pouch thus formed was well developed (Plate I, Fig. 2), but a small remnant of the scrotal tip failed to invert. At the height of its development the length of the pouch opening was 4:5 cm. The inferior recess was 2:0 cm., and the maximum width was 4:0 cm. Some four months after cstrogen administration had ceased the pouch gradually diminished in size but persisted till the animal was killed. (d) Fur. As previously reported (Bolliger, 1944), the male phalanger treated with cestrogen loses its typically brownish male pelage and becomes dark grey, thus presenting an exaggeratedly female appearance. In the present experiment this was very marked, in as much as the fur of the whole of the posterior half of the body moulted almost simultaneously. The new grey fur which replaced the shed hairs had the typical dark grey female appearance. In addition the line of demarcation between old and new fur was very distinct, as shown in Plate II, Fig. 4. Ultimately the whole of the male animal grew a female pelage, the transformation being much slower and less visible in the anterior region of the body. The distinctive sternal area also exhibited this feminization of the pelage as described in previous experiments (Bolliger and Tow, 1947). POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION. The phalanger weighed 1-92 kg. This was approximately normal, but the body length of this cstrogen-treated animal was only three-quarters of that of normal controls. It was correspondingly broader and contained large masses of adipose tissue. The fur was also darker and thicker than in controls (Plate IT, Fig. 5). The pouch created by administration of cestrogen was still definitely in evidence, and the scrotal remnant had not increased materially. The cloacal hillock measured about 1 cm. in length and in the cloaca two openings were seen, one leading to the rectum and the other forming the urinary outlet. Internal Organs. On opening the abdomen the viscera were found buried in a large deposit of fat. The kidneys were of normal size and weighed 5-3 and 5:0 grm. A very small fibrous prostate weighing about 0-8 grm. did not show the pigmentation which is always present in the gland of normal males. The Cowper’s glands were about one-tenth of the normal size. The ‘ erectores penis and urethre ’’ were small spherical bodies measuring about 0:1 cm. in diameter. In controls these bodies have a diameter of about 1-0 to 1-5 cm. No penis could be seen on macroscopic examination, and the structure which had taken the place of the long S-shaped cavernous urethra was a straight short and narrow tube measuring 2 cm. in total length. The distal third had a diameter of about 0-1 cm. and consisted of thin translucent tissue. The proximal two-thirds had thicker walls and measured approximately 0-2 cm. in diameter (Plate II, Fig. 6). The rectum appeared to be normal. The paracloacal glands were of about the size and appearance found in fully grown females (Bolliger and Whitten, 1948). The oil glands weighed 0-25 grm. and the cell glands 0-16 grm. each. On microscopic examination of cross sections of the prostate the urethral lumen was found to be branched and narrow. The lining epithelium had undergone metaplasia from a columnar to a stratified squamous type. Tubular vestiges lined by stratified squamous epithelium were comparatively few and most of these contained keratin plugs. The rest of the prostate was mainly composed of fibrous tissue, 36 A. BOLLIGER. The Cowper’s glands presented an atrophic picture similar to that seen in the prostate gland. Serial sections were prepared from the terminal or ‘‘ cavernous ”’ urethra and three distinct areas (a, b and c) could be recognized. (a) A translucent thin empty tube of about 0-5 cm. in length led into the cloaca. Its wall measured about 0-05 cm. in thickness and consisted of fibrous tissue, muscle and epithelium. It appeared as if this section of the urethra was derived from the original penis pocket or preputium. (b) In the next area the urethral tube contained a body unattached to the wall of the urethra for a distance of about 0-3cm. The position of this body was comparable with that of the unattached part of the penis. It resembled, how- ever, not a phalanger’s undivided penis but had more the characteristics of the female clitoris. A deep narrow groove now divided the former penis structure into two parts (Plate III, Fig. 7). This cleavage is typical of the clitoris of T. vulpecula as already pointed out by Van den Broek (1905). The bulk of this clitoris-like structure was composed mainly of a vascular connective tissue containing only small remnants of muscle. The blood vessels had very thin walls and though varying in size, they nowhere assumed the size of cavernous spaces. Epithelial septa protruded into this tissue. The erectile tissue was concentrated on the dorsal periphery forming a distinctive oblong body. This area was much more cellular and contained more muscle and wider cavernous spaces. In contrast to the undivided and unattached part of the penis this clitoris- like. structure was bipartite and possessed neither flagellum nor spicules. It was not endowed with the large amount of muscular tissue typical of the penis of the phalanger and was not pierced by an urethra. (c) Higher up the original penis pocket and the clitoris-like structure began to grow together and a definite urethra was formed. The last third of the cavernous urethra greatly resembled the urogenital canal of the female. The broad submucosa consisted mainly of fibrous tissue and the lumen of the urethra was extensively branched (Plate III, Fig. 8). The urine is conveyed through this urethra and subsequently through a number of narrow channels situated between clitoris pocket and clitoris into the space beneath the clitoris and ultimately into the cloaca. DISCUSSION. In the case of another marsupial, the American opossum (Didelphys vir- giniana), it is already known that by the use of sex hormones it is possible to orient the primordia of the copulatory structures in either the male or the female direction during the first 20 days of pouch existence. Throughout this early period, administration of an androgen to either sex of this marsupial always results in the formation of a precociously differentiated penis. On the other hand, an estrogen produces a hypertrophic vulva in genetic males or females (Moore, 1941; Burns, 1950). In previous investigations on the effect of sex hormones on the common phalanger or possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) it was noticed that the external genitalia of this Australian diprotodont marsupial respond in a manner similar to the American polyprotodont marsupial. In 7. vulpecula, however, these responses were found to occur even 90 days or later after the birth of the phalanger (Bolliger and Carrodus, 1940). Furthermore, and in contradistinction to observations of the American workers, the scrotum of the phalanger responded markedly to cestrogen adminis- tration by forming a rudimentary pouch (Bolliger and Carrodus, 1939 ; Bolliger ORGAN TRANSFORMATION INDUCED BY GSTROGEN. 37 and Canny, 1941). Combining estrogen administration with castration it was possible to convert the scrotum of the phalanger into a typical permanent pouch (Bolliger, 1944; Bolliger and Tow, 1947). The experimental demonstration that scrotum and mammary pouch are homologous has been confirmed in the present investigation. This transformation of an existing organ, not merely of its primordia, presented the question of the response to cestrogens of the male external genitalia of the phalanger in general. In the present and previous experiments, where this subject was not pursued further, a temporary extrusion of the urogenital canal and of the rectum was noted after a few months of estrogen administration. Such a reaction could be explained by the intensive growth of periurethral connective tissue and of sinus epithelium ofter cestrogen administration which for example, gives the vulva of the very young opossum D. virginiana a remark- ably swollen appearance (Burns, 1942). In all probability a similar process also operated in the present experiment, although the animal was much older. The urogenital canal, together with the attached rectum, was thus forced to move caudally, giving the picture of rectal prolapse. This apparent prolapse lasted for about four months only, after which time a normal cloaca slowly became reestablished and the remnants of the urogenital canal and the rectum were therefore no longer visible in the living animal. On post-mortem examination, the rectum was similar to that of controls, but the urogenital canal had changed profoundly. The structure which pre- viously was the penis had much diminished in size and was now so small that it could only be examined microscopically. It must be emphasized that the present experiment was begun when the animal was five months old and when a typical penis of about 3 cm. in length was already present. Sexual maturity is established at the age of one year. At the age of two years there is found within the urethra of the wstrogen-treated phalanger a minute unattached structure which resembles not the free part of the undivided penis, but a bipartite clitoris. The remainder of the original penile urethra also resembles more the urogenital canal of the female than the attached part of the male copulatory organ. This would suggest that in addition to a severe regression in size a trans- formation of a male into a female organ had been accomplished. Simultaneously the male scrotum was transformed into a female pouch. Compared with the penis of the fully grown male, the rudimentary structure found in the cestrogenized animal was probably less than a fiftieth of the normal size, erectile and muscular tissue having atrophied tremendously. The diminu- tion of the amount of erectile tissue was reminiscent of the condition described in the cestrogen-treated 20 days old American opossum, where little erectile tissue remains. Burrows (1949) pointed out that atrophy of the musculature of the penis of the wstrogen-treated rat is an early and constant reaction. This is also marked in the cestrogen-treated phalangers where, after cessation of the cestrogen treatment, the penis regains its original size and shape. This indicates that in the half-grown phalanger both castration and sex hormone administration are necessary to reestablish that degree of plasticity of the accessory sex organs which exists during embryonic development of higher mammals or which still _ exists in the American opossum during the first few weeks of life. This restored plasticity not only includes the cloaca (Zuckerman, 1950) but spreads to the Scrotomarsupial area, and even the whole skin region in which a sudden well demarcated replacement of the male fur by a female type occurs over the posterior half of the rump. 38 A. BOLLIGER. The resulting transformations of pouch, penis and pelage of the adolescent phalanger are persistent for many months after cessation of cestrogen adminis- tration and may therefore be considered permanent. Compared with controls the ultimate changes produced in the genito- urinary tract were so extensive and the concomitant interference with the lower urinary passages so extreme that survival of the animal must be considered extraordinary. SUMMARY. The administration of cestrogen to a practically half-grown castrated male diprotodont marsupial, Trichosurus vulpecula, known as the brush tail phalanger or possum, caused a transformation of the scrotum into a permanent pouch, thus confirming previous experiments. In addition, temporary protrusion of the urogenital canal and the rectum occurred and continued for a period of six months. At this stage the penis had altered its shape and the characteristic unattached part could no longer be distinguished. Subsequently the rectum regained its normal shape and position but the atrophy of the penis progressed further, and at the age of two years the distal part of the urogenital canal below the Cowper’s glands consisted of a narrow urethra containing a small clitoris-like body in its lumen. 4 These anatomical changes in the distal part of the urogenital canal are interpreted as a transformation of a male organ into its female homologue and are comparable with the conversion of the scrotum into a pouch. Simultaneously the pelage undergoes feminization which is particularly rapid and obvious in the posterior half of the body. The most remarkable aspect of this transformation process is the fact that these phenomena occurred in the second half of the phalanger’s period of adolescence, and, without further cstrogen administration, persisted even when normal sexual maturity would have been established. Both estrogen administration and castration are necessary to yield these practically permanent transformations. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The photography was done by Mr. 8. Woodward-Smith and Mr. K. Clifford of the Department of Illustration. Throughout the experiment indispensable assistance was given by Mr. N. T. Hinks. REFERENCES. Bolliger, A.,1942. Tuts JouRNAL, 76, 86. ——— 1944. Med. J. Aust., 1, 56. Bolliger, A., and Canny, A. J., 1941. THis Journat, 75, 21. Bolliger, A., and Carrodus, A., 1939. Aust. N.Z. J. Surg., 9, 155. $$ —__________. 1940. Med. J. Aust., 2, 368. Bolliger, A., and Tow, A. J., 1947. J. Endocrinology, 5, 32. Burns, R. K., Jnr., 1942. Contri. Embryol. Carneg. Instit., 30, 63. ——_______—_—__——. 1950. Arch. danatomie microscop., 39, 467. Burrows, H., 1949. Biological Actions of Sex Hormones. Cambridge: At the University Press. 2nd Ed. Carrodus, A., and Bolliger, A., 1939. Med. J. Aust., 2, 633. Moore, C. R., 1941. Physiol. Zool., 14, 1. Van den Broek, A., 1905. Petrus Camper., 3, 221. —_—__—_—___—___—_——— 1910. Morph. Jahrbuch., 41, 347. Zuckerman, S., 1950. Arch. d’anatomie microscop., 39, 608. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVIII, 1953, Plate I Penis Pocket Penis — [: ARH , nee rp Be ee “ Retractor Urethra Penis Flagellum — Corpus Cavernosum Urogenital Urethrae Canal —_— Corpus Cavernosum Berle wemitarcde Prostate Urethra A) \ | * | . ” ~ ” - ae > , Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. DXXXVIII, 1953, Plate II me. in = ie = Bid a Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. DXXXVIII, 19535, Plate [II ie Sens 4 } PAD eee We TL ORGAN TRANSFORMATION INDUCED BY GSTROGEN. 39 EXPLANATION OF PLATES. | Puate I. Fig. 1.—Scrotum and cloacal hillock in a normal male. Fig. 2.—Cloaca and scroto-marsupial area in the castrated male phalanger (7. vulpecula) treated with cestrogen for six months. Notice the transformation of the scrotum to a well- developed pouch. Rectum and urogenital canal are protruding from the cloaca and the urethral orifice is visible on the apex of the pyramid-shaped remnant of the free part of the penis which ‘is attached to the rectum. This condition of rectum and penis as depicted had already persisted for three months. Fig. 3.—Schematic drawing of the penis of 7’. vulpecula. (Partly after Van den Broek, 1910.) Notice the spicules on the free part of the penis. Puate II. Fig. 4.—The cestrogen-treated phalanger lost the fur from the whole of the posterior half of its body. The new, grey fur which replaced the more brownish shed hairs had the typical dark grey colour of the female. The line of demarcation between old and new fur was very distinct, giving the impression that the rump had been shorn. Fig. 5.—Compare the short broad body of the cestrogen-treated phalanger with that of a normal male. Fig. 6.—Atrophic urogenital tract of cestrogen-treated phalanger. (a) Bladder. (6) Prostate. (c) Cowper glands and erectores penis and erectores urethre. (d) ‘‘ Cavernous ”’ urethra. Compare with normal urogenital tract (Fig. 9). See also Carrodus and Bolliger (1939). Pruate III. Fig. 7.—Cross-section through clitoris-like body and wall of urethra. Note the deep cleavage in the clitoris-like body. (x 20.) >) Fig. 8.—Cross-section of *‘ cavernous ”’ urethra near Cowper’s glands. Note the branched urethral canal and the broad submucosa. ( x 20.) Fig. 9.—Posterior aspect of normal urogenital tract of fully grown phalanger. Note the large prostate, erectores penis and urethre, and Cowper’s glands. The dissected penis is still somewhat bent and the naturally straight flagellum is hooked. The vasa deferentia enter the prostatic urethra in close proximity to the bladder neck and ureters. WARIALDA ARTESIAN INTAKE BEDS. By J. RADE.* With one Text-figure. Manuscript received, March 18, 1954. Read, June 2, 1954. INTRODUCTION. The area treated in the present paper comprises about 3,200 square miles of country in the northern part of New South Wales, stretching from Delungra and Warialda in the south to Boggabilla and the Queensland border in the north. - The main part of the area is located in Burnett County, but portions of the adjacent counties of Stapylton, Courallie, Murchison and Arrawatta are included. The main purpose of the work is a consideration of the effectiveness of the Warialda intake beds. Full use has been made of the bore data collected by the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Sydney. The geological investigations of the area concerned were carried out by the writer, following the main creeks on foot and traversing the country in different directions by car. TOPOGRAPHY. The highest country in the map area is to the east of Delungra, where an elevation of approximately 2,000 feet above sea level is recorded. Much lower country occurs to the north-west, elevations of approximately 700 feet above sea level being recorded in the extreme north-west, and elevations of 900 feet being known from the western map border. The northern part of the area, near the Queensland border, is drained by the Macintyre and Dumaresq Rivers. West of the Macintyre River, several creeks flow in a north-westerly direction, the largest of them being Ottley’s Creek, Yallaroi Creek and Croppa or Cox’s Creek. The southern part of the area is drained by westerly trending streams, including Gwydir River, Mosquito Creek and Warialda Creek. GEOLOGY. The following is a brief outline of the rock types encountered in the map area. Devonian. Rocks of Devonian age outcrop on the banks of Warialda Creek, south-west of the township of Warialda. They belong to the Upper Devonian Barraba ‘‘ Series ’’, and consist of mudstones with intercalations of tuff. David (1950, p. 252) has stated that the Barraba ‘ Series ’’ dip beneath the Jurassic sediments in the Warialda area, but reappear to the north-east of Ashford. Carboniferous. Rocks of Carboniferous age are exposed along the banks of Warialda Creek east of the point where this creek joins the Gwydir River, and also in the railway and road cuttings at Yagobie and Gravesend. They consist mainly of tuffs and lavas, with shale and slate intercalations. * Geologist, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Sydney. WARIALDA ARTESIAN INTAKE BEDS. MAP SHOWING SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS OF EFFECTIVE WARIALUA INTAKE BEDS 4 6 8 wMLls — ee ieee —— ree, 5 SSS ESSER Hex dss LEGEND... 1 ROMA GUNNEE CRETA cco S "SERIES " TRIASSIC BEDS BLYTHESDALE "SERIES" CARBOMIFEROUS Reed Lees WALLOON UPPER BARRABA WS ale ERIES atvowian (itis) AREA, — GRAGIN CONGLOMERATE <--> UPPER LIMIT OF EFFECTIVE INTAKE BEOS -----— LOWER LIMIT OF EFFECTIVE INTAKE BEOsS | LATE PERMIAN GRAWITE AND POST- MESOZOC ROCKS QWTTED 41 42 J. RADE. Permian. The western portion of the late Permian New England batholith occupies the eastern part of the map area, but is largely covered by Tertiary basalt. Granites outcrop in the banks of Warialda Creek. They are also encountered in several bores drilled into the cores of the north-west trending Paleozoic ridges which will be shown to underly the Mesozoic strata. These granites are best known from bores west of Warialda, and in the vicinity of - Gragin Peak, 10 miles east-north-east of the township of Warialda. Spectacular gorges have been formed in the late Permian granites which outcrop along the banks of Warialda Creek, as for example at the Dog Trap, located 4-5 miles east of the township of Warialda. Xenoliths of grey sandstone with contact metamorphosed outer rims are found in the granite which outcrops in Warialda Creek, east of Warialda township. It seems probable that these sandstones represent remains of Palzeozoic (probably Carboniferous) sediments which were intruded by the granite, but have since been completely removed by erosion. Triassic. Much of the area in the northern part of New South Wales and the adjacent portion of Queensland is occupied by the New England granodiorite batholith, and it is clear that this intrusion forms a divide between the Clarence Basin in the east and the area of sedimentation around Moree in the west. The present author has recently recognized a characteristic group of sediments to the west of this divide, in the Delungra area and to the east of Warialda. To them the name ‘‘Gunnee Beds’”’ is hereby assigned. They consist of grey gritty sandstone, with shale and carbonaceous shale intercalations. Well-preserved plant fragments were found in a carbonaceous shale which outcrops in the bank of Warialda Creek, north-west of Delungra, Portion 42, Parish of Gunnee, County of Burnett. The following species have been determined by Dr. A. B. Walkom : Thinnfeldia odontopteroides (Morris). Thinnfeldia lancifolia (Morris). Thinnfeldia feistmanteli (Johnston). Johnstonia coriacia (Johnston). Stenopteris elongata (Carruthers). All material is stored in the Australian Museum, Sydney. It is clear that the assemblage is typical of the Ipswich “ Series ’’. The outcrops of the Gunnee Beds found to the north-west of Delungra occur between outcrops of granite belonging to the New England granodiorite batholith, and it is thus clear that the granites underly the sediments. There is also- evidence to suggest that the sediments have been partly infaulted into the sranite. The thickness of the Gunnee Beds in this area is not evident, but it is clear that it is greater than 100 feet. Jurassic. The Gunnee Beds are overlain by a formation, hereby referred to as the Gragin Conglomerate, and correlated with the Bundamba ‘“‘ Series ”’, of Queensland. It is represented by approximately 200 feet of conglomerates, and outcrops in the banks of Warialda Creek between Delungra and Warialda. Occasional thin sandstone beds are encountered. Most of them are only 1-2 feet in thickness, but a 7-feet thick sandstone bed is found near the top of the conglomerate where it outcrops in Warialda Creek, 3-5 miles east of the township of Warialda. This same area represents the most westerly outcrop of the formation known to the author. The Gragin Conglomerate is also known from several bores to the south of Gragin Peak, but apart from the outcrops in Warialda Creek, no others are known to the west of the New England granodiorite batholith. Lloyd (1941, p. 96) has, however, recorded the Bundamba ‘‘ Series ’’ from the Nymboida area to the east of the New England batholith. Here it is repre- sented by 250 feet of conglomerates, overlying sediments which, it is suggested, WARIALDA ARTESIAN INTAKE BEDS 43 probably belong to the Ipswich ‘‘ Series ’’. It is interesting to note that there is no great discrepancy between the thicknesses of the Bundamba sediments in these two basins. The equivalents of the Purlawaugh beds of the Walloon “ Series ’’ outcrop in the Warialda intake area, and are hereby named the Delungra Shale. They consist mainly of shales, but contain intercalations of sandstone and some coal seams. The Purlawaugh beds of the Coonabarabran-Narrabri intake area, described by Mulholland (1950), bear a close resemblance to these sediments. Outcrops of the Delungra Shale in the Warialda intake area are not numerous, since the formation in question is generally obscured by the overlying Warialda Sandstone. It is, however, encountered in several bores around the margins of the effective intake beds, and are met with in the structural ridges formed by the Palzeozoic basement complex. More detailed information of the sections encountered in these bores will be presented in the hydrological portion of the present paper. The greatest thickness of the Delungra Shale is approximately 300 feet. In comparison, Mulholland (1950, p. 125) estimated that the greatest thickness of the corresponding Purlawaugh beds in the Coonamble artesian basin near Coonabarabran is in the vicinity of 200 feet. The sediments corresponding to the Pilliga Sandstone outcrop more exten- sively in the Warialda intake area than any of the other Jurassic rock units. They consist of massive, coarse, porous sandstones and grits, are frequently ferruginous, and contain ferruginous concretions surrounding fragments of wood. Conglomeratic intercalations are rare, and occasional beds of clayey sandstone and sandy shale are found. Current bedding is frequently encountered. These sediments are hereby named the Warialda Sandstone. The Warialda Sandstone outcrops most extensively to the north of Warialda, but is also found in bores to the south-east of Moree. It was in this latter area that David (1950, p. 459) recorded outliers of current bedded sandstone, and quartz conglomerate with thin layers of ironstone, resting with unconformity on the Lower Carboniferous strata. The Warialda Sandstone has been proved to be 400 feet in thickness in bores to the north of Warialda. Mulholland (1950, p. 126) has stated that the corresponding Pilliga Sandstone in the intake area of the Coonamble artesian basin has a thickness of 600 feet. Cretaceous. The Jurassic Warialda Sandstone disappears to the north-west and west beneath sediments consisting of shales and sandy shales, with sandstone intercalations and small coal seams. It is clear that the latter are transitional beds between the Warialda Sandstone and the Cretaceous Roma ‘“ Series ’’. The lithology of the Warialda Sandstone indicates that it was deposited in a lake, whereas Crespin (1944, 1945, 1953) has shown the marine affinities of the Fora- minifera found in the Roma ‘Series ’’. Foraminifera are unknown from the transitional beds. David (1950, p. 484) has suggested that the inliers found in the far north-west of New South Wales may be correlated with the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘‘Series’’. Whitehouse (1945) has shown that the Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’ occurs almost as far south as the New South Wales border, and this proximity strengthens the present author’s correlation of the transition beds mentioned above with this Lower Cretaceous formation. The Blythesdale ‘‘ Series’ is considered to be of lacustrine origin. It forms an effective intake bed, since it has been proved to contain artesian horizons further to the west. To the west and north-west, the Blythesdale ‘ Series ”’ is overlain by the Lower Cretaceous Roma ‘‘ Series ’’ and the Upper Cretaceous Winton “‘ Series ’’. The former consists largely of blue shales with occasional Sandstone intercalation, whereas the latter is more sandy in character, and 44 J. RADE. contains coal seams. The lithology of the Winton “ Series ’’ clearly indicates the lacustrine origin of the sediments, and demonstrates a return to lacustrine conditions after the transgressions which were responsible for the marine Roma “* Series ’’. Cainozoic. Tertiary basalts are widespread, and largely obscure the older sediments. The thickness of the basalt is variable, but bores north of Delungra in the Gragin Peak area, north of Wallangra, north-east of Warialda and in the middle of the Warialda intake beds, have proved it to be greater than 200 feet. In the Warialda intake area, it is evident that the eruptions of the basalt were of the fissure type. As will be shown later in this paper, the fissuring is closely connected with the uplift of the New England block in Tertiary times. Great thicknesses of alluvium, largely derived from the disintegration of the Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments, are of widespread occurrence. The western and north-western portions of the area under consideration are almost completely covered by these deposits, so that outcrops of the older rocks are rarely seen. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY. In the area occupied by the Warialda intake beds, the Mesozoic strata have a regional dip of a few degrees to the north-west. The trend in the underlying Paleozoic basement is N. 20° W., and is thus the same as that for the Devonian rocks encountered in the classic sections of the Tamworth district. A north-easterly trend may also be discerned in the north-western portion of the map area, both in the surface outcrops and from the bore data. Numerous geological sections through the Warialda Intake Beds have been constructed for hydrological purposes by the present author. These sections clearly show the presence of the north-west trending sub-surface ridges, and demonstrate that the latter are transected at their north-western extremities by the less well marked north-eastern trends. The result of these two trends is the formation of shallow domes and basins in the north-western part of the map area. The Warialda Sandstone is found close to the surface in the domes, but lies deeply buried beneath the Lower Cretaceous in the basin structures. According to David (1950, p. 266), all of the Upper Devonian sediments of eastern Australia were folded at the end of the Lower Carboniferous. It can thus be assumed that the north-westerly trending ridges are a product of this Lower Carboniferous period of orogenic activity. Bryan (1925, p. 21) has stated that the north-easterly trend direction may be regarded as older than the north- westerly trend. After the intrusion of the late Permian New England granodiorite batholith, its western margins were subjected to faulting. Evidence of the faulting may be seen in the area between Delungra and Gragin Peak, where a tongue of the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘ Series ’’ is infaulted into the granite. The bore data of this area further indicates that the granite escarpments formed by the faulting existed as bold ridges in the lower Mesozoic, and that it was not until the time of deposition of the Warialda Sandstone that the escarpments were partially covered by sediment. It is also suggested that further faulting, and rejuvenation of the faults and consequent uplift was responsible for the coarse Gragin Conglomerate of the Jurassic Bundamba “ Series ’’, while the uniform erain size of the Warialda Sandstone indicates gentle but uniform uplift during the time of deposition of these sediments. Intense uplift of the New England Block occurred in Tertiary times, partially due to the initiation of new fault lines. Tertiary lavas reached the surface along these fracture lines, as shown in the sections between Delungra and Gragin Peak. Hill (1930) has found similar faulting of the intake beds of the Great Artesian Basin of eastern Queens- land, and has shown that in some places the Esk ‘ Series ”’ has been infaulted into the underlying Brisbane Schists. WARIALDA ARTESIAN INTAKE BEDS. 45 GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY Paleozoic Formations. The water-bearing properties of the Paleozoic formations of the Warialda area are limited. They serve as run-off regions, and do not constitute an important element of the effective intake beds. Devonian. Little information regarding the mudstones of the Barraba ‘“ Series ’’ is available. Carboniferous. Carboniferous rocks occupy the south-western portion of the map area. The comparatively shallow bores (100 feet average) into these rocks generally yield brackish water, but several bores ranging in depth from 150 to 300 feet have failed to yield water. Late Permian Granite. Most bores drilled into the late Permian granite fail to produce water. Occasional exceptions do, however, occur where the bores are sunk into alluvium- filled depressions in the granite, or in the beds of creeks. Some of the bores in the valley of Warialda Creek produce water from the joint and fracture systems in the granite. The ridges and cupolas of the late Permian granite possess an interesting character from the hydrological point of view. In no case have these structures produced water, since both they and the sediments which overlie them are denser in structure than the surrounding rocks, and thus act as run-off areas. Typical examples of these structures are found in the vicinity of Gragin Peak, located 10 miles east-north-east of Warialda, and in the area situated 15 miles east-south-east of Warialda. Here the granites are covered by Jurassic sediments and Tertiary basalts. Commonly the percolating water travels through the gently north-westerly dipping Jurassic sandstones, and thus does not reach the cupolas and ridges of the granites. In the past, an intensive boring campaign has been conducted in this area, but most of the bores have proved to be failures. Granite was struck at a depth of 458 feet on one of the north-westerly trending structural ridges situated 5 miles west-north-west of the town of Warialda, and this bore proved to be unproductive. Another failure bore was drilled in the vicinity of Gragin Peak, 8 miles east-north-east of Warialda. Here granite was encountered at a depth of 504 feet. It was overlain by a thickness of 320 feet of Delungra Shale, this in turn being overlain by 160 feet of Warialda Sandstone. Sixteen gallons per hour were encountered, however, in the Delungra Shale at a depth of 290 feet. The Warialda Sandstone was unproductive, since the strata were deposited on the basement ridge, and their regional dip to the north-west means that favourable conditions for the accumula- tion of sub-surface water could not occur. Gunnee Beds. Several bores to the north of Delungra may have penetrated the Gunnee Beds, but bore logs are incomplete and contain little useful information regarding these rocks. Gragin Conglomerate. Bores drilled into the Gragin Conglomerate commonly prove to be non- productive. Excellent examples are the bores located west and north-west of Delungra, and in the vicinity of Gragin Peak. A bore situated nine miles east- 46 J. RADE. north-east of the town of Warialda, in the vicinity of Gragin Peak, was drilled to a depth of 510 feet without providing water. Here the Gragin Conglomerate has a thickness of 199 feet and is overlain by blue and brown shales, sandy shales, clay, and a thin bed of sandstone. The latter sediments represent the Delungra Shale. Small flows of water were encountered at a depth of 214 feet. A partial analysis of the water disclosed the presence of 25-2 grains per gallon of total solids, 12-2 grains per gallon of sodium chloride, and a pH. of 7-6. It is tentatively suggested that the Delungra Shale overlies the Gragin Conglomerate to the west of the Macintyre River, north of Wallangra. In a 350 feet deep bore, located 14-5 miles north-west of Wallangra, the thickness of the Delungra Shale which overlies the Gragin Conglomerate is 220 feet, the deposits consisting of carbonaceous shales. In a failure bore, 467 feet deep, located 5-5 miles west of Wallangra, the Delungra Shale is represented by 267 feet of grey shale and underlies 200 feet of Warialda Sandstone. Warialda Sandstone. The Warialda sandstone forms the main effective intake beds of the Warialda area, and contains several aquifers. The permeable beds are generally seen to be sealed by thin shale intercalations. Shales are, however, not always encountered, and the present author agrees with Mulholland (1950, p. 126) in his conclusions for the Pilliga beds of the Coonamble artesian basin, in that the permeable beds may be sealed by harder sandstone beds which are relatively impermeable. The Warialda Sandstone and the aquifers it contains have a regional dip to the north-west. Apart from this slight regional dip, the aquifers of the Warialda Sandstone exactly reflect the regional configuration of the underlying basement, and are transected by the N. 20° W. trending ridges of that basement. Thus as a result of the regional dip of the strata and the configuration of the basement complex, the water in the aquifers flows towards the border of Queens- land. The flow trend in this direction is reinforced by the sub-surface barrier west of Warialda, the latter having been formed by the north-westerly trending Devonian and Carboniferous ridges. Thus only a small percentage of the water finds its way into the Moree District. Most of the water which does reach the Moree District is derived from the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘ Series ’’, and 1s comparatively high in its content of total solids. Very few of the bores drilled into the Warialda Sandstone prove to be failures. Some bores are, however, not of sufficient depth to reach the aquifers of the Warialda Sandstone, and other non-productive bores can be seen to lie above the Paleozoic basement ridges, where the cover of Warialda Sandstone is thin. In the latter case the bores penetrate the Delungra Shale and the late Permian granite. The depth to which bores must be sunk is dependent on the structure of the underlying basement surface, and is thus variable. Two prominent ridges of the basement complex are encountered in the southern portion of the Warialda Intake Beds, where most of the bores penetrate the Warialda Sandstone. The axis of the first ridge is located approximately 5 miles west of the township of Warialda. Here granite is encountered at a depth of 458 feet in a bore of total depth 468 feet. Many of the bores located along the same ridge, in the area between Warialda Creek in the south-east and Mosquito Creek in the north-west, have proved unproductive. They often penetrate 95 to 180 feet of Warialda Sandstone and then encounter the Delungra Shale. The most north-westerly non-productive bore drilled along this ridge is located 16 miles north-west of the town of Warialda. It has a total depth of 220 feet, and ended in Delungra Shale. To the north-west of this point, most of the bores encountered Warialda Sandstone and produced water from between 150 feet and 355 feet beneath surface. WARIALDA ARTESIAN INTAKE BEDS. 47 Similar hydrological conditions are found along the second sub-surface basement ridge. It occurs to the north-east of the township of Warialda, where many bores ranging in depth from 300 to 520 feet have proved unproductive. Further to the north-west the aquifers in the Warialda Sandstone were encountered at depths of from 200 to 577 feet. Yields of up to 800 gallons per hour have been recorded, and few failure bores are known. In the structural valleys of the Warialda Intake Beds (which reflect the configuration of the basement) an aquifer is encountered in the Warialda Sand- stone. It is found at depths of from 300 to 400 feet, and yields 400 or more gallons of water per hour. As a result of the regional north-westerly dip of the Warialda Sandstone and the regional structure of the basement complex, the yield of the aquifers increases considerably in the north-westerly direction. The water yielded by the aquifers of the Warialda Sandstone is fairly pure and contains little saline material. Oretaceous. The sandstone intercalations encountered in the Lower Cretaceous Blythes- dale ‘‘ Series ’’ constitute the upper horizons of the effective aquifers. In the north-west part of the area under consideration, several aquifers are found in sandstone intercalations between the sandy shales of the Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’. As with the lower aquifers, the regional dip of the upper aquifers is to the north- west. Yields average from 300 to 500 gallons per hour, but the water is generally brackish. Saline water is also encountered at more shallow depths. One such aquifer is encountered at a depth of 150 feet, the yield averaging from 100 to 150 gallons per hour. The structural valleys, the upper portions of which are filled by the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’, are important from the hydrological point of view. As pointed out earlier in the present paper, the Blythesdale ‘ Series ”’ has formed in embayments underlain by the Warialda Sandstone. Thus where the Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’ is present, the bores must be deeper so as to drill through the unsatisfactory water horizons in these rocks and penetrate the excellent water horizons of the Warialda Sandstone. Tertiary Voleanies. The hydrological conditions which prevail in the Tertiary volcanics have an important economic bearing, since great areas of the Warialda Intake Beds are covered by these Tertiary basalts. Boring has proved that the basalts contain zones of cavities which are capable of storing water. It has become apparent that, in basalt areas, any available ground water is generally located at shallow depths, and the hydrology is dependent on local conditions, of which the topo- graphy plays an important role. An example can be found in the country between Inverell and Delungra, where the slight westerly dip of the land surface has an important bearing on the hydrology of the area. The basalt flows have followed the land surface, and thus the zones which contain abundant cavities also dip gently to the west. Many of the bores drilled into the basalts of the Warialda area have yielded no water. This is because the bores have not penetrated, either one of the cavity zones, or a fracture zone in the more solid basalt flows. Blasting to gain access to the cavity zones or to widen existing fractures in the basalt has been under- taken with considerable success. Several good aquifers have been encountered in the basaltic rocks of the Warialda intake area. Up to three aquifers have been encountered in a bore 48 J. RADE. with a depth of 250 feet, the yields increasing with depth to 400 gallons per hour for the bottom aquifer. The uppermost aquifer is commonly encountered at a depth of from 80 to 90 feet, the average yield being 160 gallons per hour. How- ever, if the surface of the basalt is weathered and fractured and is covered by a thin layer of alluvial deposit, then the yield from this upper horizon frequently reaches as high as 700 gallons per hour. From the accumulated bore data it may be stated that the maximum depth from which good water supplies can be expected in the basalt does not exceed 300 feet. Pleistocene and Recent. Water occurs at shallow depths in the alluvial deposits, which have originated largely from disintegration of the Jurassic sediments. From the point of view of the possibilities for irrigation from these bores which penetrate the alluvium, it seems that the alluvium from the Warialda Sandstone is too fine grained to give up the considerable yields which are necessary for irrigation purposes. Another feature worthy of consideration in this respect is that the creeks which cut into the Warialda Sandstone are generally youthful and thus contain little alluvium. The river flats formed of alluvium derived from this formation are also generally shallow. Similar features have been noticed by the author in the Coonabarabran area, which is the intake area for Coonamble artesian basin. In this area it is the Castlereagh River which traverses the Pilliga Sandstone. Complete similarity in regard to these features thus exist between the Coonamble basin and the Warialda intake beds. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The writer is indebted to Dr. A. B. Walkom, Director of the Australian Museum, for the determinations of the fossil plants. Thanks are also due to the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Sydney, for permission to publish this paper. SUMMARY. The paper deals with the Warialda intake beds, which outcrop over an area of 3,200 square miles in the northern portion of New South Wales between Delungra, Warialda, Boggabilla and the Queensland border. Sediments of Devonian, Carboniferous, Triassic and Cretaceous age, as well as the late Permian granite and Tertiary volcanics, are described. Consideration is also given to Tertiary and Recent alluvium. The writer records the presence of the Triassic Ipswich ‘‘ Series ’’ (Gunnee Beds) with its characteristic flora. This is the first time the Ipswich ‘‘ Series ’? has been recorded to the west of the late Permian New England granodiorite batholith. The Mesozoic sediments are shown to have a gentle regional dip towards the north-west, and to be deposited over the north-westerly trending ridges of the Paleozoic basement complex. It is considered that this basement con- figuration is the result of the Carboniferous orogenic period. The configuration of the basement and the regional dip to the north-west of the Mesozoic sediments is responsible for the movement of the ground water towards the Queensland border. Special hydrological treatment is given to each formation of the Warialda intake beds. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bryan, W. H., 1925. Earth Movements in Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 37, 3. Crespin, I., 1944. Some Lower Cretaceous Foraminifera from Bores in the Great Artesian Basin, Northern New South Wales. THis JouRNAL, 78, 17-24. WARIALDA ARTESIAN INTAKE BEDS 49 Crespin, I., 1945. A Microfauna from Lower Cretaceous Deposits in Great Artesian Basin. Commonwealth Miner. Res. Surv. Rep., 1945, 16. 1953. Lower Cretaceous Foraminifera from the Great Artesian Basin, Australia. Cont. Cushman Found. Foram. Research, 4, 1. David, Sir T. W. Edgeworth, 1950. The Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia. Edited by W. R. Browne. London. Hill, D., 1930. Esk Series between Esk and Linville. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 42, 28. Lloyd, A. C., 1950. Clarence Coal Basin. Repts. Dept. Mines N.S.W., 96. Mulholland, C. St. J., 1950. Review of Southern Intake Beds, New South Wales, and Their Bearing on Artesian Problems. Repts. Dept. Mines. N.S.W., 125-127. Whitehouse, F. W., 1945. Artesian Water—Supplies. First Interim Report. Queensland Parl. Pap., 22, 24. Brisbane Govt. Printer. THE T-PHASE FROM THE NEW ZEALAND REGION. By T. N. BURKE-GAFFNEY, §8.J. Manuscript received, April 12, 1954. Read, July 7, 1954, On January 12 and 13, 1954, three earthquake shocks occurred at a point south of New Zealand. On the seismograms of these from the Sprengnether Vertical Short Period instrument at Riverview there were found waves of very short period and of small amplitude, some seventeen minutes after the P. These are evidently examples of the T-phase, which are of interest inasmuch as this phase does not appear to have been reported previously from the New Zealand region. OS i i ; i 3 F % Fata i bebe Ci i hg ‘ “A : Te As a9) 8 Ii {= a ASU 'WK i. 7f | \M EES N77 NNN i A od Varennes S| ES SLY Vist: 1a) 0 See eer x ee | Lee, eee 9. | ae Ka Pa //):2 : Lae | yea Feu ll Se ae meee EL | ih haa Tho | oe a ery [Helin ufi"|ir ir i ad ote0 UN (6 erase ORO A NLT iw O ae cco e : oo inet TORU RTRY pe aired ° al | | ful stul or AQ - oe : ——il" = rp O| 2 vera eth | : eo) H ee | Sei a SE Pee NES oe AE | | {iene gare te I Oo} 5 Lee | nif pel file fealty fi iS) ~ SS Sg | I oul | | ro) Oo 9 sae nemnae, | Fetal Tf fe) — | | AH : . irre Le eis (gaan aml Cl of ° 7 / | \ ALLUV/UM . ey Menards ae : RAY Vg l ORORD A foil O Sag ry 13 94 EXIM DRA : BOULDER ORIFT ae es [eeslnfinlit S7 ag ee ol \ | ryt yl ' To fe) TERTIARY my rei o| BASALT esto]: clalaalen Ve ete eau UPPER DEVONIAN ha i leatal y 3 i vir [rere lo a " ole Rock Sandstone | \G | | | | Hele cae j O oO}; Ey SILURIAN~? DEVONIAN 3 alae ea tii ell & ee phces CRYSTAL TUFF F | | | | | | | it aot enis : eal 1 tye : nae he G.0 Wellace Shale Jp. Stsine ¢ | . | ie digs fo 200 SILURIAN : 9 yess Ue cea Penuare Formation : pe | | py aes i Ais: : JOS eee ] Oo ‘SC A | Quarry Creek | Se NO 9 CG aueavieia | SS) curcrorsiogeae E.Outecrop See ‘ One o 2 NC ANDESITIC Fossiliferous D MOT S Sx 4 Bees VOLCANICS Limestone (S/LUR/AN) a 8 Se La on | ! Oe ior © Lb Fam — FAULT Ls ten aie teil Barton Limestone eae arene Concealed FAULT 10,0, 0 Bare Soon ) Oo O OF 88 Yf Calcareous Siltstone etc. iy i \ || oO i WAR ows , = Fig. 1.—Geological sketch-map of Spring and Quarry Creeks. - L=limestones of uncertain stratigraphical position. PALMHOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF SPRING AND QUARRY CREEKS. 57 Andesitic volcanic rocks of Ordovician age outcrop on either side of the Barton Limestone. They are indicated separately on the map as eastern and western outcrops because of lithological differences and probable different stratigraphical position. The rocks of the western volcanic outcrop are mainly andesites (often amygdaloidal) and tuffs. At g,, they are conformably overlain by thin beds of shale and bluish-grey felspathic sandstone with Climacograptus supernus, C. cf. mutt and Orthograptus sp., which suggest a zone near the top of the Ordovician. East of the Barton Limestone, andesitic lavas, breccias, tuffs and con- glomerates outcrop along Quarry and Spring Creeks, underlying Lower Silurian limestone. Calcareous beds with Favosites sp., Halysites sp., Heliolitids, Strepte- lasmids and Stromatoporoids occur amongst the volcanic rocks 400 yards.N.E. of the junction of Spring and Quarry Creeks. Bane FAULT B 4A MILE Fig. 2.—Geological section AB (see map). Directions and angles of dip of faults are assumed. Relations between the eastern and western volcanic outcrops are not observable in the field, but the eastern outcrop is thought to be the younger, since it underlies Lower Silurian limestone, with only a few feet of red sandy shale intervening. The andesitic conglomerates and breccias in Quarry Creek resemble types in the Upper Ordovician Angullong Tuff of Four Mile Creek (Stevens and Packham, 1953). The sequence in the Ordovician rocks described above seems to be as follows (the top unit may be partly Silurian) : 5. Andesitic volcanic rocks (E. outcrop). 4. Sandstones and shales (g,;) 3. Andesitic voleanic rocks (W. outcrop). 2. Barton Limestone. 1. Calcareous siltstones, ete. (211;, 213). Several limestone lenses appear along the eastern margin of the western outcrop of the volcanic rocks. They are unfossiliferous and their stratigraphic position is uncertain. The boundary on which they lie is known to be faulted east of g,; and it is possible that a continuation of this fault may pass on either side of the limestone beds. Silurian. Panuara Formation. As in the type area (Stevens and Packham, 1953) the Panuara Formation consists of a limestone near the base, followed by shales and fine-grained sandstones, both of which are graptolite-bearing. The thickness of the formation is probably less than 700 feet. : 58 PACKHAM AND STEVENS. The lowest member of the formation is a bed of red sandy shale with occasional andesite pebbles, which overlies andesitic rocks in Quarry Creek and its tributaries. The presence of this weathered andesitic material is evidence of a time-break between the formations. The limestone which follows is well-bedded, richly fossiliferous and made up largely of fossil debris, but it lacks the marly layers of the Bridge Creek Limestone of the type area. It is proposed to call this fossiliferous limestone the Quarry Creek Limestone Member. The section along Quarry Creek is much disrupted by strike faults, resulting in the appearance of the same limestone bed three times. These are beds A, B and C (from east to west) of Stissmilch (1907), whose geological section shows all three beds dipping east, apparently at different stratigraphical horizons. Bed A (Quarry Creek) is the type locality for Halysites peristephesicus and Arachnophyllum (?) epistemoides ; bed C (near the junction of Spring and Quarry Creeks) is the type locality for H. pycnoblastoides and H. siissmilehi, and H. litho- strotionoides has for its type localities bed C.and bed A on Spring Creek. Siissmilch records also H. australis, H. cratus, Mycophyllum crateroides, several species of Favosites, Heliolites and Cyathophyllum, Pachypora, Claudopora, Zaphrentis, Astylospongia and Orthosina (?) from beds A and C. Beds A, B and C have been found to be equivalent, since A and C have similar faunal assemblages, while A and B overlie andesitic rocks and are overlain by beds containing graptolites of similar age. Fine-grained sandstones with some sponge spicules overlie the Quarry Creek Limestone. -Monograptus cf. pragensis pragensis and dendroid graptolites have been found in these rocks at g,, a few feet above the limestone, and on Spring Creek at g3,, M. marri and dendroids occur about 20 feet above the limestone. There are also dendroid graptolites in these sandstones on either side of an anticlinal fold at g,) and g5. The graptolites at g, and g, are of Upper Llandovery age; however, the graptolites 50 feet above the Bridge Creek Limestone at Four Mile Creek are of Lower Llandovery age, so that the Quarry Creek Limestone seems to be of a higher horizon. Above the sandstones, green or brown splintery shales with M. marr, M. cf. initialis, dendroids and Chonetes sp. (at g,) are faulted against outcrop B of the Quarry Creek Limestone. South of Spring Creek, buff-coloured shales at g, contain Gladiograptus sp., M. cf. griestonensis minuta, fragments of Rastrites sp. or the proximal end of a M. triangulatus type and fragments possibly of M. probosciformis. In the N.W. part of the area at g,., there are green shales with M. probosciformis, M. cf. initialis and proximal fragments of M. pandus or M.marri. The shales are faulted against the oldest Ordovician rocks on the east and adjoin a bed of massive limestone of uncertain age on the west. The graptolites at g,, g, and g,,. are considered to be of the same zone, near the top of the Llandovery. Grey shales with some calcareous and sandy beds follow. On the eastern tributary of Quarry Creek, a lower Wenlock assemblage of graptolites includes M. dubius, M. priodon and M. cf. linnarsson at g,, and M. dubius also occurs at 2). . Graptolites at g, and g,, east and south respectively of the outcrop of the Quarry Creek Limestone on Spring Creek, seem to represent a higher horizon. At g, grey shales with M. aff. vulgaris var. curtus and M. aff. testis var. inornatus are associated with a thin bed of impure limestone, and at g, and g,, M. aiff. vulgaris var. curtus is present in micaceous siltstones. Buff-coloured shales at g,, and g),, on either side of the western outcrop of the Ordovician volcanic rocks, have yielded M. cf. testis, and in dark green shale at g, on Quarry Creek the same graptolite is associated with a Monograptus of the M. vomerinus group. The age of these beds is probably Upper Wenlock. PALMHOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF SPRING AND QUARRY CREEKS. 59 The youngest Silurian strata in which graptolites have been found are grey shales at g, on Quarry Creek, and at g, near Paling Yards Public School site. At g,, badly preserved graptolites, probably M. bohemicus and dendroids are present, and at g, the assemblage includes M, bohemicus tenuis, M. nilssont, M. leintwardinensis var. primus and dendroids. Two lenses of fossiliferous limestone south of Paling Yards Public School site should, from structural considerations, be near the top of the Panuara Formation, but their fauna (Halysites, Cystiphyllids and Mycophyllids) is suggestive of a lower horizon. TABLE 1. Stratigraphic Relations of Graptolite Assemblages in the Panuara Formation of Spring and Quarry Creeks. M. bohemicus tenuis, M. nilssoni, M. leintwardin- Unnamed ensis V. primus. M. cf. testis. Monograptus sp. LoweErR LUDLOW. Member (interbedded) fe) ‘S , Es fine-grained WENLOCE. | ES | sandstone, os siltstone Nie es | 3 and shale) M. priodon, M. ef. dubtus, M. cf. linnarssoni. — M.marri, M. cf. initialis, ‘M. probosciformis, M. cf. | griestonensis minuta, M. sp., Gladiograptus sp. --~-—-—- ies M. marri, M. cf. pragensis pragensis. | Quarry Creek | | Limestone i | LLANDOVERY. Silurian—? Devonian. Wallace Shale. As in the Four Mile Creek area, the Panuara Formation is conformably overlain by a formation consisting largely of unfossiliferous shales. The shales are poorly bedded ; generally the only indication is the presence of a thin silty band approximately every six inches. The thickness is about 800 feet. In the upper part of Quarry Creek, green shales overlie a tuff with quartz and orthoclase fragments and some devitrified glass shards in a fine-grained matrix. 0+ then (G6 +-1) F(s)~B oa as $+, (see [D.L.T.], p. 200, theorem 12). Il. THE STATEMENT OF THE THEOREM WHEN a> i. We consider first the case when a> 3. We then have Theorem 1. , Assuming that f(x) is a function of x, and that (i) Pe es) a, Slt dO (2.1) (ii) a0 3f (ae) 0: as) a —00's ied di ie ws. clkhd ce sea Fie (2.2) (iii) F(v)=xf(xe) is absolutely continuous in OSa%<00; .. (2.3) (iv) «*—4@F’(x) is absolutely integrable in 0oo I\(4v—4a-+1) 2—af, a eas TaN Se _w J) > 5 epi day! J ee (2.5) where f(w) is given by equation (1.1) and where K=FO) tm jeg Se ee (2.6) “0+ ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOUR OF HANKEL TRANSFORMS. Proof. From (iii) it follows that K =F (0) is finite, and that F’(x) is absolutely integrable in (0, y) for all 4 >9. Now efi) — | * u2— “af (2)J y(ux)dax 0 Sis } ” BevMo nce (2.7) le dax where Ze) = | ” tha J y(t) dt. By using the inequality (2.1), we see that this integral converges and Aes ee? re (2.8) 22-11 (4v + 4a)’ ((M.O.F.], p. 34). This obviously implies that there exists a constant M, such that NZ) | , aS w—->oo by assumption (il). Now reverting to equation (2.7) and integrating by parts, u2—4f(u) _ fi a Z(ux)F" (a)dax 0 a0) + | 2 (GHA) G00 a rr (221) In order to prove the theorem we must prove that the integral in equation. (2.11) vanishes as u—-oo. For this purpose, we split the range of integration and obtain | [°2 (wx) PF’ a(dax) | = =|{- Zuo) (wy |” Z (ux) F" (ax)da. n 0, we may choose 7», so that 0 From assumption (iv) fs xt~*| F(x) | dx is finite, “ q and so after the choice of 7 above we may choose a uw, so that Nut-«{* gt—o | F' (an) | da Up. Thus fz (uc) PF’ (a)dax | Uu. Hence E lim {u?—4f(u)} =F(0)Z(0) Ea P(4v—ta+1) 24-1]P\(4y+4a) Ill. A GENERALISATION OF THEOREM 1 Now suppose that f(x) satisfies the conditions of theorem 1 except that there is a finite discontinuity at the point v=a. As stated in the Introduction, we add the assumption that Ve hon os Sie oe ee ee (3.1) Suppose that : f(% 1-0) fla —9) fo. -- 2. eee (3.2) We then construct the function 6) ==f(@) -+h(a), ~~... Gs. tele eae (3.3) where Ten 0 2 =X. h(a) = Oso) @ a. The new function g(x) satisfies the conditions of the theorem and lim: {af (a)} == amy {atg(e)), (22. he ae (3.4) z—0+ £—>0-{- since v>—4 and a>}. Now hu) | xd y(ux)h(a)da 0 =|" foe’ 1S y (ux) dar 0 =U txt tS y +1 (Ua) ({S.F.T.], p. 528.) ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOUR OF HANKEL TRANSFORMS. 65 Then lim {u?~*h(w)} foxy? lim {ut -2Sy 11 (way)} u— 00 U—> 00 for all a>#. That is lim {u?-@f(w)}—= lim {u2-ag(u)}. ee ee (3.5) u— 00 U-> C So, since the theorem holds for g(a) it holds also for f(x). Obviously, this method may be continued to show that if f(x) satisfies the conditions of theorem 1 except that it possesses a finite number of finite dis- continuities, then equation (2.5) holds. IV. EXTENSION OF THE THEOREM TO THE CASE a CO (iv) u@+vF’(w) is absolutely integrable in 0 0. So our formula breaks down in the most useful case a=0 and v=0. This situation will be examined further in a note to be presented to this Society later. REFERENCES {M.O.] Macaulay Owen, P. ‘‘ Riemannian Theory of Hankel Transforms.’ Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., (2), 39, 1935, p. 295. FL.) Titchmarsh, E. C. ‘‘ Fourier Integrals.” Oxford, 1948. [D.L.T.] Doetsch, G. ‘‘ Laplace Transformation.” Dover, 1943. [W.B.F.] Watson, G. N. ‘“‘ Theory of Bessel Functions.”’ Cambridge, 1945. [M.O.F.} Magnus, W., and Oberhettinger, F. ‘‘ Formulas and Theorems for Special Functions of Mathematical Physics.’ Chelsea, 1949. [S.F.T.] Sneddon, I. N. ‘ Fourier Transforms.’ McGraw Hill, 1951. MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1953. By W. H. ROBERTSON. Manuscript received, July 20, 1954. Read, September 1, 1954. The following observations of minor planets were made photographically at Sydney Observatory with the 13” standard astrograph. Observations were confined to those with southern declinations in the Hphemerides of Minor Planets published by the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy at Leningrad. On each plate two exposures, separated in declination by approximately 0’-5, were taken with an interval of about 20 minutes between them. The beginnings and endings of the exposures were recorded on a chronograph with a tapping key. Rectangular coordinates of both images of the minor planet and three reference stars were measured in direct and reversed positions of the plate on a long screw measuring machine. The usual three star dependence reduction retaining second order terms in the differences of the equatorial coordinates was used. Proper motions, when they were available, were applied to bring the star positions to the epoch of the plate. Each exposure was reduced separately in order to provide a check by comparing the difference between the two positions with the motion derived from the ephemeris. The tabulated results are means of the two positions at the average time except in cases 32, 33, 46, 63, 76 where each result is from only one image, due to a defect in the other or a failure in timing it. No correction has been applied for aberration, light time or parallax, but in Table I are given the factors which give the parallax corrections when divided by the distance. The observers named in the last column of Table II are W. H. Robertson (R), K. P. Sims (S) and H. W. Wood (W). I wish to thank Mr. Wood for help in initiating this programme and Mr. Sims for assistance with the computations. TaBLeE I R.A. Dec. Parallax 1953 U.T. Planet (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors h m S °o / uM s wu 1 May 14-49466 7 Iris 14 19 35-29 | —19 05 48-0 | —0-12 —2-3 2 June 546904 7 Iris 14 04 37-66 | —17 03 03-0 | +0-02 —2:-5 3 Sep. 8- 63040 13 Egeria 0 12 37-66 | —21 21 06-5 | +0:-02 —1-9 4 Oct. 1-53735 13 Egeria 23 49 21-35 | —22 00 05-8 | —0-02 —1-8 5 May 13-43858 15 Eunomia 11 43 06-50 | —14 51 24-0 | +0-04 —2-8 6 May 14-41494 15 Eunomia 11 43 00-39 | —14 46 39-7 | —0-03 —2-8 7 May 26-40390 15 Kunomia 11 43 27-52 | —13 57 45-8 | +0-04 —3-0 8 June 11-:48122 16 Psyche 14 31 47-20 | —10 36 30-7 | +0-05 —3-4 9 June 16-45689 16 Psyche 14 30 02-08 | —10 32 23-4 | +0-02 —3-4 10 Aug. 13-47186 18 Melpomene | 19 10 40-54 | —13 51 54-5 | —0-04 —3-0 11 Sep. 8:4181] 18 Melpomene 19 08 17-52 | —17 26 27-2 | +0-02 —2:5 12 May 20-37128 25 Phocea 10 46 53-18 | — 5 26 33-2 | +0-01 —4:-2 13 June 1-37546 | 25 Phocea 10 55 15-55 | — 4 16 08:0 | +0-10 —4:3 MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1953. TaBLE [—Continued. 67 1953 U.T. 14 Aug. 31 15 Sep. 8- 16 July 23 17 Aug. 13 18 Sep. 8- 19 June 30 20 July 27 21 Aug. 17 22 Aug. 31 23 July 15 24 July 23 25 June 15 26 June 29 27 Aug. 10 28 Aug. 31 29 July 29 30 Aug. 18 31 July 1 32 July 21 33 June 22 34 July 20 35 June 4. 36 June 9- 37 Aug. 10 38 Sep. 8: 39 Aug. 24 40 Sep. 10 41 July 30 42 Aug. 17 43 Aug. 24 44 Oct. 1- 45 Sep. 10 46 Oct. 1- 47 Aug. 12 48 Sep. 21 49 June 29 50 July 21 51 Aug. 10 52 Aug. 24 53 July 1 54 July = 22- 55 June 9- 56 July 14 57 Aug. 13 58 Aug. 17 59 June 11 60 June 22: 61 June 9- 62 June | 16 63 July 23: 64 July 30 ; 65 Aug. 17 66 July 22 67 July 28 68 June oF 69 June 18 70 June 30 71 June Il 72 June 15 73 July 23 °40994 38566 -71378 -61232 53328 64034 -57700 | -55900 -49256 - 59270 -52408 -56180 -51198 -38051 -36877 -63476 - 58358 - 60404 -55246 -60913 49942 39290 40047 - 63550 53328 - 68382 -62310 - 63948 -59794 - 64534 50016 -65815 56258 - 63965 -49100 - 62207 - 52932 *66525 - 60536 - 68752 60962 65952 -51514 -52903 -51691 - 59324 53957 55270 -52370 61480 -58956 -63116 »56474 -52686 60262 » 56482 -§3152 - 55580 -51970 - 66960 Planet 26 26 28 28 28 29 29 32 32 38 38 46 46 51 51 52 52 62 62 78 78 79 ce) 91 91 92 92 97 97 109 109 110 110 124 124 128 128 130 130 133 133 144 144 154 154 184 184 201 201 214 214 241 259 259 266 266 266 275 275 352 Proserpina Proserpina Bellona Bellona Bellona Amphitrite Amphitrite Pomona Pomona Leda Leda Hestia Hestia Nemausa Nemausa Europa Europa Erato Erato Diana Diana EKurynome Eurynome Aigina Afgina Undina Undina Klotho Klotho Felicitas Felicitas Lydia Lydia Alkeste Alkeste Nemesis Nemesis Elektra Elektra Cyrene Cyrene Vibilia Vibilia Bertha Bertha Dejopeja Dejopeja Penelope Penelope Aschera Aschera Germania Aletheia Aletheia Aline Aline Aline Sapientia Sapientia Gisela *32 -54 -74 -50 -88 -56 -03 -65 she) 2~ 91 -74 -48 04 -50 -26 -51 -40 -21 -88 -62 1) ae -31 “44 “12 -87 °95 -88 -61 -16 64 -33 -90 234 -56 -46 -72 -34 -81 54 -46 *95 “59 -4] -80 *55 -47 -38 -26 -08 -25 -62 -07 *85 -61 -44 °23 -0O7 -14 *31 PION HE WOORHE DUNBAR N DOWTHOADROOCUANIRASHHADDNDHEONDDODNONNONHROW Parallax Factors +0:-08 —1-0 +0:06 —1:-0 +0-138 —3-6 +0:02 —3-2 +0-04 —2-8 —0-06 —0-9 —0:10 —0:8 +0:05 —3-7 —0-02 —3-6 —0-08 —1-6 —0:06 —1-6 0-00 —2-2 —0:01 —2:3 +0:-10 —3-9 +0-19 —3-6 —0:02 —2-9 +0-02 —2-6 0-00 —1-9 +0-05 —1-8 +0:06 +0:1 +0-01 0-0 +0-04 —4-8 +0:10 —4:-8 +0:-14 —3-1 +0:03 —2-7 +0:10 —2-9 +0-08 —2-6 —0:02 —4-1 +0-03 —3-8 +0-02 —3-7 —0:03 —3-6 +0:04 —4-5 —0:04 —4-3 +0:08 —3-9 +0:02 —3-4 +0:06 —1-1 0-00 —0-9 +0:-04 —3-3 —0:01 —2-9 +0:-02 —2-0 —0-02 —2-0 +0:08 —1-4 0-00 —1-1 +0:04 +2:-5 +0:05 +2-5 +0:08 —1-4 +0-02 —1-4 +0-01 —3-2 —0:-01 —3-2 +0:-04 —1-8 +0-:03 —1-7 +0:-06 —4:-7 ° +0-05 —0-7 —0-02 —0-6 +0:01 —2-9 —0-02 —3-0 0-00 —3-1 +0:-10 —3-1 +0:03 —3:1 +0-14 —3-5 J 68 W. H. ROBERTSON. TABLE I—Oontinued. R.A. Dec Parallax L953 Planet (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors ho om Ss 2 @, s A 74 July 15-67975 359 Georgia 21 23 09-95 | —25 50 59-1 | —0-08 —1-2 75 Aug. 6: 60782 359 Georgia 21 04 21-28 | —26 50 12-8 | +0-08 —1:1 76 July 23-61480 367 Amicitia 20 39 01-34 | —21 51 00-7 | +0-04 —1-8 77 July 30-58956 367 Amicitia 20 31 34-05 | —22 25 O1-1 | +0:-03 —1-7 78 June 8-59070 372 Palma 16 36 22-78 | —52 32 20-1 | +0-16 +2-7 79 June 29-66232 375 Ursula 20 06 38-73 | —38 50 03-2 | +0-06 +0°-8 . 80 July 28-56140 375 Ursula 19 37 07-69 | —88 14 48-2 | +0-05 +0-7 81 June 16:63762 381 Myrrha 18 35 22-06 | —12 50 27-0 | +0-06 —3-1 82 July 14-54602 381 Myrrha 18 13 47-80 | —14 58 10-0 | +0-06 —2-8 83 July 21-66763 385 Ilmatar 21 36 52-95 | —26 03 54-9 | +0-06 —1-2 84 Aug. 24-55140 385 Ilmatar 21 04 59-92 | —26 32 33-0 | +0-06 —1-1 85 July 7:61489 394 Arduina 19 35 22-61 | —29 03 02-0 | +0:-04 —0-7 86 July 23-55520 394 Arduina 19 20 38-76 | —30 15 23-9 | +0-02 —0-5 87 July 7-68151 412 Elizabetha 20 51 12-77 | —22 57 24-6 | +0-08 —1:-7 88 July 29-57983 412 Elizabetha 20 33 46-17 | —25 53 25-9 | —0-01 —1-2 89 June 8: 64830 488 Kreusa 18 12 37-94 | —24 22 24-6 | +0-08 —1-4 90 July 7:-50648 488 Kreusa 17 47 53-47 | —25 40 36-4 | —0-08 —1-3 91 June 29-55973 550 Senta 17 38 50-83 | —23 23 21-2 | +0-05 —1-6 92 July 9-50516 550 Senta | 17 30 32-84 | —22 10 49-2 | —0-02 —1-8 93 July 15-63001 556 Phyllis 20 17 50-50 | —17 44 34°5 | +0-06 —2-4 94 July 30-55224 556 Phyllis 20 02 58-96 | —18 03 26-9 | —0:03 —2-4 95 July 21-71485 595 Polyxena 22 16 29-84 | —37 06 50-6 | +0-15 +0-4 96 Aug. 6- 64274 595 Polyxena 22 03 43-35 | —38 16 15-8 | —0-09 +0-6 97 Sep. 8- 66354 599 Luisa 1 03 02-71 | —20 04 41-9 | +0-02 —2-1 98 Oct 1: 60898 599 Luisa 0 39 46:41 | —19 03 38-8 | +0-09 —2:3 99 Oct 8- 56036 599 Luisa 0 32 07-61 | —18 13 57-4 | +0-02 —2-3 100 June 18-52210 675 Ludmilla 16 36 14-38 | —23 58 43-8 | —0:-03 —1-5 101 July = 13-61252 758 Mancunia 19 44 27-92 | —22 13 40-7 | —0-01 —1-8 102 July 29-54424 758 Mancunia 19 31 56-19 | —23 O1 30-9 | +0-01 —1-6 103 Aug. 13-65487 | 1303 Luthera 23 20 38:73 | —33 04 38-1 | +0-02 —0-1 TABLE IT. Comparison Stars Dependences 1 Yale 12 II 6019, 5998, 5994 0: 30926 0: 33202 0: 35871 W 2 Yale 12 I 5287, 5286, 5260 0: 46404 0- 21685 0:-31911 R 3 Yale 13 I 39, 56, 14, 81 0: 09164 0- 42420 0: 48416 W 4 Yale 1/4 15874, 15880, 15891 0: 33268 0: 07540 0: 59192 NY 5 Yale 12 I 4605, 4599, 4591 0:-01999 0: 61379 0: 36622 S 6 Yale 12 II 4586, 4591, 4599 0: 15859 0- 20200 0: 63940 W 7 Yale 11 4354, 4356, 4365 0: 28129 0:-52478 0: 19392 NS 8 Yale 117 5114, 5099, 5104 0:79252 |—0-00264 0:21012 R 9 Yale 11 5101, 5104, 5115 0: 42218 0: 46503 0-11279 WwW 10 Yale 12 I 7126, 7151 11 6680 0: 28597 0:52188 0: 19216 R 11 Yale 72 II 7092, 7115, 7134 0- 13688 0- 45079 0: 41233 R 12 Yale 17 4123, 4135, 4148 0: 35454 0: 13039 0:51506 R 13 Yale 17 4174, 4175, 4184 0:31194 0- 18782 0: 50024 S 14 Yale 13 II 11565, 11577, 11579 0- 06233 0: 90428 0: 03339 Ny 15 Yale 13 II 11656, 11681, 11698 0:-51930 0: 21723 0: 26347 R 16 Yale 71 7880, 7883, 7889 0: 17868 0: 43960 0-38172 W 17 Yale 71 7814, 7822, 7825 0:59451 0:57106 |—0O-16557 W 18 Yale 72 I 8177, 8183, 8196 0:-13401 0: 63514 0: 23084 W 19 Yale 13 II 13437, 13460, 13489 0: 43569 0- 22986 0-33445 W 20: Yale 73) 11 131733, 13152, 13167 0: 36802 0: 36682 0: 26515 R 21 Yale 16 7458, 7474, 7494 0: 42018 0: 35586 0- 22396 R 22 Yale 11 7316, 7318, 7340 0:13722 0: 48864 0:-37414 Ss MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1953. 69 TaBLeE LI—Continued. Comparison Stars Dependences 23 Yale 14 13424, 13428, 13452 0:47199 0- 08448 0: 44354 Ss 24 Yale 14 13324, 13344, 13358 0- 29038 0-46044 0- 24918 Ww 25 Yale 12 II 7008, 7010, 7043 0-35149 0-41484 0: 23367 R 26 Yale 12 II 6900, 6921, 6937 0-28155 0- 24386 0-47458 Ww 27 Yale 16 5479, 5492, 5493 0-37392 0:45580 0: 17027 Ss 28 Yale 16 5595, 5596, 5604 0-51542 0-35133 0: 13325 S 29 Yale 12 I 8225, 8232, 8248 0-33960 0- 34975 0-31065 R 30 Yale 12 I 8168, 8169, 8179 | 0-28511 0-59165 0: 12325 R 31 Yale 13 I 8162, 8177, 8192 0-37422 0:46173 0- 16405 Ww 32 Yale 13 I 8009, 8027, 14 13182 0- 35482 0: 24189 0: 40329 Ww 33 Cord. C 10172, 10178, 10202 | 0-38128 0-21704 0-40168 S 34 Cord. C 9811, 9844, 9850 | 0-24832 0- 28430 0-46738 Ww 35 Yale 21 3343, 3346, 3348 | 0-27520 0: 64205 0-08274 Ww 36 Yale 21 3352, 3353, 3357 | 0-47183 0-37844 0-14973 R 37 Yale 11 7864, 12 I 8302, 8303 0-52063 0-30770 0-17166 Ww 38 Yale 12 I 8177, 8187, 8196 0: 09806 0: 43686 0-46508 Ww 39 Yale 12 I 8793, 8795, 8810 0-33512 0: 28276 0-38212 S 40 Yale 12 I 8742, 8752, 8755 | 034575 0: 28848 0-36577 Ww 41 Yale 16 7926, 7928, 7947 — 0-32270 0: 31237 0: 36493 R 42 Yale 16 7860, 7861, 7881 - 0-23254 0:37592 0-39153 R 43 Yale 16 8348, 8349, 8357 | 0-68833 0: 17106 0-14061 S 44 Yale 11 8060, 8074, 16 8176 | 0-07244 0: 46232 0: 46524 S 45 Yale 17 192, 196, 207 0:47905 0-66169 |(—0-14074 Ww 46 Yale’ 17 118, 127, 181 0-48732 0: 04623 0: 46646 S 47 Yale 16 7962, 7963, 7977 0-21681 0:37195 0-41124 Ww 48 Yale 11 7708, 7718, 7730 0- 29298 0: 58393 0- 12308 S 49 Yale 14 13299, 13 IL 12466, 12513 0-45701 0: 19267 0: 35032 Ww 50 Yale 13 II 12215, 12246, 12263 0-34541 0-27710 0:37748 Ww 51 Yale 11 8067, 8073, 8076 0-56688 0: 13027 0- 30285 Ww 52 Yale 12 I 8478, 8482, 8499 0- 14936 0:39641 0-45424 S 53 Yale 13 I 9049, 9055, 9072 0- 28430 0:48149 0: 23421 Ww 54 Yale 13 I 8943, 8945, 8953 0:00717 0: 40570 0:-58713 Ww 55 Yale 14 12845, 12879, 12890 0-41623 0+ 28807 0-29570 Ww 56 Yale 14 12306, 12321, 12340 0: 40044 0: 30750 0: 29206 S 57 Cape Ft. 18941, 18977, 19000 0-33904 0: 25359 0:40737 Ww 58 Cape Zone 18525, 18548, Cape Ft. 18919 0: 46860 0:37139 0-16001 R 59 Yale 14 11792, 11794, 11827 0: 46890 0: 23275 0- 29835 A 60 Yale 14 11698, 11704, 11731 0-42167 0:36781 0- 21052 S 61 Yale 11 5690, 5700, 5716 0: 46657 0: 20614 0: 32729 Ww 62 Yale 11 5656, 5673, 5684 0: 24537 0: 45490 0-29974 R 63 Yale 14 14342, 14357, 13 I 8872 0:33128 0:44198 0- 22674 W 64 Yale 14 14258, 14279, 14296 0- 32608 0+ 21590 0-45802 R 65 Yale 17 7805, 7809, 7816 0- 16928 0:35791 0-47281 R 66 Yale 13 II 12649, 12659, 12673 0-15754 0-36107 0-48139 Ww 67 Yale 13 II 12586, 12611, 12623 0- 26434 0: 45210 0- 28356 R 68 Yale 11 6052, 12 I 6365, 6379 0- 25488 0: 38028 0- 36484 Ww 69 Yale 11 5998, 6012, 6021 0-56687 0: 34559 0: 08754 R 70 Yale 11 5931, 5949, 5952 0-34271 0: 31392 0: 34337 Ww 71 Yale 11 5539, 5540, 5545 0-54809 0:34181 0-11010 Ww 72 Yale 11 5516, 5530, 5531 0: 22336 0: 24528 0-53136 R 73 Yale 11 7499, 7506, 7519 0- 23681 0: 42949 0:33370 Ww 74 Yale 14 14751, 14761, 14771 0-25813 0:47346 0-26841 ~ 75 Yale 13 II 13869, 13910, 14 14613 0:43997 0: 25994 0-30009 S 76 Yale 14 14342, 14357, 13 I 8872 | 0-00611 0-37802 0- 61586 Ww 77 Yale 14 14258, 14279, 14296 | 0:30883 0:37642 0-31474 R 78 GC 22320, LPI A 5611, 5651 0-37190 0: 23511 0-39299 Ww 79 Perth 2 1372, GC 27941, 28055 0-32055 0: 36562 0-31383 w 80 Perth 6 1650, 1652, 1655 | 024794 0: 51467 0- 23739 R 81 Yale 1/7 6377, 6380, 6388 | 0:°15555 0: 25754 0:58690 R 82 Yale 12 I 6610, 6644, 6654 | 0-34470 0:30110 0:35420 S 83 Yale 14 14863, 14867, 14883 | 0-30029 0-35113 0:34858 Ww 84 Yale 13 IT 13899, 74 14578, 14620 0- 21529 0: 34908 0-43562 Ss W. H. ROBERTSON. TaBLE II1—Continued. Comparison Stars Dependences 85 Yale 13 II 12858, 12860, 12878 0: 06922 0- 58902 0- 34176 R 86 Cord. B 12665, 12702, Yale 13 II 12671 0: 33463 0:39791 0: 26745 WwW 87 Yale 14 14467, 14487, 14496 0: 26118 0: 22663 0-51218 R 88 Yale 14 14282, 14298, 14321 0:45119 0: 15208 0: 39674 R 89 Yale 1/4 12598, 12610, 12642 0: 18303 0: 44397 0:-37300 WwW 90 Yale 74 12198, 12209, 12228 0- 16063 0:37200 0:-46737 R 91 Yale 14 12117, 12120, 12127 0: 24553 0: 34070 0:41377 WwW 92 Yale 13 I 7179, 7203, 14 12070 0- 36720 0:-19714 0: 43566 R 93 Yale 12 II 8693, 8716, 72 I 7658 0-17863 0- 32883 0: 49254 S 94 Yale 12 II 8601, 8602, 8622 0: 44909 0: 40406 0: 14685 R 95 Perth 6 1880, 1883, 1886 0: 29432 0- 20660 0-49908 WwW 96 Perth 6 1862, 1864, 1870 0- 30124 0- 25561 0: 44316 S 97 Yale 13 I 264, 281, 283 0-17273 0: 39373 0: 44354 WwW 98 Yale 12 II 152, 168, 169 0- 11204 0:57414 0: 31382 S 99 Yale 72 II 123, 133, 140 0: 37563 0: 38528 0: 23909 Ww 100 Yale 7/4 11528, 11556, 11559 0: 34121 0- 36345 0: 29534 R 101 Yale 14 13767, 13790, 13812 0: 30914 0-51402 0: 17684 S 102 Yale 14 13602, 13621, 13650 0: 25600 0: 22930 0:-51469 R 103 Cord. C 12515, 12539, 12541 0: 32531 0: 29921 0:-37548 Ww ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES SYMPOSIUM OIL, AUSTRALIA AND THE FUTURE YDNEY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, pee ah HOUSE GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS CONTENTS. Page SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA: THE GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND. By H. G. RAGGATT .. oe - ee Ni 13) Om PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILISATION. By PROFESSOR HUNTER .. 822 PETROLEUM CHEMICALS. By R. F. CANE... dis as 7 Be Ph) THe EcONOMIC EFFECTS OF AN OIL INDUSTRY ON THE AUSTRALIAN EcoNoMy. By PRoressor C. RENWICK S37 FOREWORD. The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ‘* Philosophical Society of Australasia’; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the ‘‘ Australian Philosophical Society ”’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘** Philosophical Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. Its objects, as set out in the Rules of the Society, include ‘ studies and investigations . . . in Science . . . and especially on such subjects as tend to develop the resources of Australia, and to illustrate its Natural History and Productions ”’. The Society publishes original investigations, awards medals to distin- guished scientists and arranges for addresses by research workers on specialist topics in Science. In addition, however, the Society is actively concerned with the translation of scientific developments to the general public and holds regular symposia and discussions on topics of interest to the community. It was decided to hold in 1954 a symposium dealing with the search for oil in Australia and the likely effects of its discovery on Australia’s economy. The four speakers invited to address members of the Society and visitors are authorities in their fields. .The presentation of their subjects in a manner intelligible to the general public met with an enthusiastic response from the well attended meeting which was held on Wednesday, 4th October, 1954, in the Hall of Science House, Sydney. The Council of the Royal Society of New South Wales considered that the publication of the addresses would contribute to a broadening of the outlook of the public on this most important subject. It was decided, therefore, to make this publication available to the general public. The Council takes this opportunity of expressing our appreciation of the contributions made by the four speakers. R. S. NYHOLM, President. SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA : THE GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND. By H. G. RAGGATT. It is impossible to discuss the search for oil in Australia without. first: reviewing the conditions under which oil occurs in the earth. This means, of course, that some of you will have presented to you material similar to that included in an address to the Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy in Sydney on the 2nd June, 1954. However, I see no alternative to this method of presentation. If oil had been found in commercial quantities anywhere in Australia or Papua-New Guinea, it might have been possible to adopt a different approach, but that is still in the future. The search for oil is a research problem on a grand scale. I believe that oil has been found in Western Australia mainly because the investigation was approached basically as a piece of research, and because the Commonwealth and Western Australian Governments accepted the view that this was a long- range problem which ought to be tackled systematically and that no drilling should be done until the facts had been gathered together and critically appraised. Before a decision was made to concentrate the efforts of the Commonwealth Bureau of Mineral Resources in the Carnarvon and Fitzroy Basins, two propositions were examined : _(1) What are the geological conditions in which oil occurs ? (2) Using criteria deduced from (1), what conclusions may be drawn concerning the oil possibilities of the sedimentary basins of Australia ? I propose to discuss these two propositions and to outline the conclusions reached from examination of them. In doing this we shall see that there is a great deal known about the conditions in which oil occurs in the earth, but that our knowledge of Australian geology is so scanty that the information known about conditions is difficult to apply. The geological conditions that are regarded as essential for the occurrence of oil in commercial quantities have been stated many times, and confirmed over and over again by experience. Recent research (Smith, 1954) shows ‘‘ that petroleum is being formed in the present era and that the crude product is nature’s composite of the hydrocarbon remains of many forms of marine life ”’. The research results tend to support the long-held view that both relatively and actually organic matter such as plankton is the major source of oil, though all forms of marine life probably are sources to a greater or lesser degree. The abundance of organic matter in sediments decreases with increase in grain size; clay contains twice as much organic matter as silts and silts twice as much as sands (Trask, 1934). Thus, the widely held belief based mainly on field observations, that dark- coloured marine shales are to be regarded as source beds, seems to be pretty well supported by laboratory research. It would be difficult to explain many occurrences of oil on any other hypothesis. For example, it is the general rule to find oil in a particular formation or formations over wide areas, whereas other formations in the same sequence with reservoir characteristics similar to the producing ‘‘ sands ”’ contain water only. Again, in oilfields such as Goose S6 H. G. RAGGATT. Creek, Texas, which is characterized by numerous lenticular sand bodies through a section about 4,000 feet thick, oil is found in some lenses and not in others despite the fact that the lithology of the lenses is similar (Minor, 1925). It seems reasonable to assume that in such cases the oil came from shales adjacent to the oil sands, and not from a common distant source. This and other evidence (Clark, 1934) seems to rule out the migration of oil over long distances, either vertically or laterally, as a common occurrence, though no doubt migration does occur, e.g. along faults and at unconformities. In general, however, source beds should be looked for first, near to where oil is found. The first essential is, therefore, a sequence which includes fossiliferous marine rocks, among which shales are favoured as likely to contain source material in adequate quantities. The next essential is that there should be porous rocks into which the oil can move and be stored, because it is rarely that sediments which contain abundant source material are themselves sufficiently porous to serve as reservoirs. Finally, the reservoir must be sealed by having an impervious cover, such as beds of shale. In a typical oilfield, therefore, there is usually good development of shale, and many oilfield areas are characterized by more than one formation of shale interbedded with limestone and sandstone, thus providing an alternation of source, reservoir and cap rock. Western Venezuela, one of the world’s largest oil-producing regions, may be taken as an example. Oil is produced mainly from two formations in the Cretaceous, which has a total maximum thickness of about 13,000 feet. Excluding 4,600 feet of sandstone and conglomerate at the base, the section consists of alternations of dark shales, limestone, and glauconitic sandstone (EK: Rod and W. Mayne, 1954). A striking feature of some oilfield regions is the association of commercial accumulations of oil with unconformities. Cunningham and Kleinpell (1934) state that a review of the evidence concerning producing oilfields in the San Joaquin Valley, California, ‘‘ indicates that the presence of unconformities has caused the accumulation or the avail- ability at drillable depths of the major portion of the commercial oil of the region’’. The unconformities to which they refer are either ‘‘ marine transgressions rarely accompanied by the development of basal conglomerate ”’ (Miocene) or regressions marginal to a rising border or to rising structures within the basin (Pliocene). Levorsen (1934), referring to oilfields of the mid-continent region of U.S.A. (Kansas, Oklahoma, Arkansas and parts of Texas and Illinois), states that : “. . . other things being equal that district which contains the most unconformities has the most traps capable of retaining oil and gas and is consequently the most desirable as prospective oil and gas territory. ‘* Unconformities mark planes of increased porosity in many places. This may be due to the porosity developed in the leaching and weathering of the underlying formation when it is a limestone or dolomite, or to the accumulation of unassorted fragments, pebbles, sandstones, and con- glomerates as the basal member of the overlying formation. This porosity may act as an avenue of migration for oil and gas, or, when developed to the proportions of a reservoir rock and in the form of a suitable trap. it may be the locus of an oil pool. . ‘* Formations which overlie a plane of unconformity are commonly of nearshore or littoral origin. Many geologists believe that petroleum and natural gas originate in such an environment.”’ SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA. S7 Levorsen uses ‘“‘ unconformity ’’—in its widest sense as defined by Twen- hofel—to include erosional, non-sequence and angularly discordant contacts. We may consider for a moment one of Levorsen’s illustrations—a section through the Oklahoma City field—showing the relationship of unconformities to oil and gas production (Figure 1). It will be noted that oil and gas occur in several formations of Ordovician age below an unconformity overlain by a shale of Pennsylvanian age; that is, the Silurian, Devonian and Mississipian are absent. This example is by no means unique. In the Turner Valley, Western Alberta, oil is produced from limestone of Mississipian age overlain unconformably by shale of Jurassic age; that is, the Pennsylvanian Permian and Triassic are missing. Similar conditions prevail in the Kevin-Sunburst field in northern Montana. . 2/ Ti Up 14 Rg CNATY sy | VIOLA Fig. 1.—Idealized section across Oklahoma City field, Oklahoma, U.S.A., showing relation of unconformities (wavy lines) to occurrence of oil (full circles) and gas (rayed circles). After A. I. Levorsen, 1934. In some of the papers in which the accumulation of oil at unconformities is described the authors do no more than state the relationship but, implicitly or explicitly, the general view seems to be that we should look to the sediments immediately overlying the unconformity for source material. Although there is satisfactory evidence—e.g. gravity of oil—that this applies in many places, it cannot be universally true. It seems unlikely to be true, for example, of the oil occurrences in the Arbuckle limestone illustrated by Levorsen. Rise in the rock temperature with depth of burial may be an important factor in determining the time and rate of migration into and across unconformities in some places. For our present purpose we need not examine the matter critically, but merely note the fact that unconformities, even where they represent long periods of time, are not unwelcome in the geological record of potential oilfields. There are two other general points that deserve consideration because of their bearing on the search for oil in Australia : (1) Is the absence of signs of oil in outcrops, and in water bores, of particular significance ? (2) Is the presence of pressure water inimical to the occurrence of oil ? S8 H. G. RAGGATT. Absence of indications of oil in outcrops and in the hundreds of bores that have been put down for water in many of the sedimentary basins in Australia, has been cited as discouraging even to the point of proving that no oil exists. Andrews (1924) wrote down the oil prospects of Australia largely on the absence of indications of oil in outcrops and bore waters. Clapp (1926a, 1926b) writing about the Carnarvon Basin, stated: ‘‘. . . if oil existed in commercial quantities anywhere (in the Basin) it would seem that some trace of oil or gas should have been found in one or more of the numerous wells.”’ Dr. W. G. Woolnough, however, after a tour of inspection of the oilfields of U.S.A. and Argentine, reported (1931, p. 14) that ‘‘ almost complete absence of oil seepages in Australia is far from being the unfavourable indication that some people suppose ’’. When we visited the United States in 1945, Mr. J. M. Rayner and I made a special point of examining an oil field area where there was no sign of oil in the outcropping sediments. The area selected was Big Horn Basin in Central Wyoming. In the oilfield at Byron (Garland) the principal reservoir rock is the Madison limestone (Mississipian). The wells in the Madison limestone were characterized by large initial production of a low gravity oil (19°), but in the outcrops of the Madison limestone only 30 miles away there are no seeps or oil residues, and the smell when struck with a hammer is no different from that commonly noticed with limestones. | There is an absence of seepages over large areas of the United States which include many important producing oilfields. It was concluded that lack of evidence of oil in outcrops need not be regarded as particularly significant, and certainly should not be taken as excluding from examination areas that otherwise show promise as potential oilfields. Now that it is known that oil occurs in the same formation that forms the main artesian aquifer in the Carnarvon Basin, it may seem strange to many that no oil was noted in drilling the artesian wells. Experience at Rough Range shows how difficult it is to find oil, even when it is being sought by a properly planned drilling campaign. Most of the artesian wells were not drilled on structures favourable to the accumulation of oil. One or two were, but they were drilled long ago with unsuitable rigs and by men who were not trained to note the signs of oil. Moreover, once the hole fillted with water the oil would have had to come in against the pressure of the water column in the bore ; and, of course, the structures may not contain oil. It is impossible to generalize about the effect of water circulation on the accumulation of oil. Krampert (1934) makes some statements concerning the effect of water circulation on distribution and accumulation of oil in Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico which, no doubt, apply to several areas in Australia. Krampert considers that in the Rocky Mountains region ‘“‘ water circulation is probably a necessary adjunct to oil migration ’’, but he also reports that ‘ fully 90 per cent. of the structures in the region have been adversely affected by being either completely or partially flushed ’”’. His general conclusion about the area may be quoted : ‘‘ Water circulation in the reservoir sands prevents accumulation of oil and gas in structural traps, when the direction of movement is from the structures toward the basin in which the oil and gas originates. Con- versely, accumulation is stimulated when the water movement is from the basin toward the structural trap.”’ Having thus somewhat sketchily examined the geological conditions in which oil occurs, we may now turn to our second question : Using the criteria deduced from this examination, what conclusions may be drawn concerning the SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA. S9 oil possibilities of the sedimentary basins of Australia? We shall see that our main difficulty in answering this question is that we do not know enough about the geology of the basins, and particularly of the subsurface geology in their deeper parts. In a first appraisal of potentialities, the very general knowledge that we have of the geology of large parts of Australia may be adequate, but the nearer we get to an attempt to assess resources, or indeed, to outline with some precision the areas to which we should give detailed attention, the more we realize how lacking we are in detailed knowledge of the geology of Australia. I can prove this best by some illustrations from geological investigations of large potentially oil-bearing areas of Western Australia with which I have been personally associated. The broad outline of the geology of. the Carnarvon Basin was established by the Gregory brothers between 1848 and 1861, and by Gibb Maitland between 1911 and 1919. These men did wonderfully good work under very difficult conditions. JI am not finding any fault with their work, but it is astonishing, nevertheless, how much has been added to the geological picture since their day. F. G. Clapp, though he sadly underrated the oil possibilities of the Carnarvon Basin (1926a, 1926b), made a notable contribution to knowledge by discovering the Cape Range anticline and recording that it consisted of Tertiary rocks (1925). ! Rudd and Dee, in 1932, named, described and mapped for the first time a number of formations in the Permian along the Wooramel River. It has since been shown that these formations occur throughout the Carnarvon Basin. Condit and Rudd, in 1934, showed that the white siltstones which are such a conspicuous feature of the geology of the area are Cretaceous and not Jurassic. In 1934 (and again in 1935 with Dr. Washington Gray), I spent a considerable time in the area and discovered much that was new, including : (a) That there was not merely one glacial boulder bed but a thickness of over 2,000 feet of fluvio-glacial deposits including at least eight distinct boulder beds and fossiliferous marine deposits ; (b) that the Permian section included considerable thickness of shale,* much of which was dark in colour ; (c) that the Permian formations thicken from south to north ; (d) that there is an angular unconformity between the Cretaceous and the Permian. Although it seemed that by 1935 the general geology of the area was fairly well known, it can now be seen that all the work that had been done, including my own, amounted only to reconnaissance and not very detailed reconnaissance at that. It was not until 1948 that systematic detailed work was begun by the Commonwealth Bureau of Mineral Resources. This resulted in many important modifications and additions to the knowledge of the Permian and to the discovery of fossiliferous marine rocks of Devonian and Carboniferous age. These additions to knowledge so changed the geological picture that they led to re-orientation in the views held by Caltex Oil Company (which itself had done some work in the area) concerning the oil possibilities of the Carnarvon Basin. Mr. Follis, Vice-President of Standard Oil of California, when he announced the discovery * It is curious that such an experienced observer as Clapp (19266) should have tried to ‘“‘ explain away ”’ references to the occurrence of shale in the Carnarvon Basin when at the same time he published a list of bores ranging in depth from 523 to 3,011 feet and yielding flows of water up to two million gallons per day. S10 H. G. RAGGATT. of oil in Rough Range No. 1 well, stated: ‘‘ It was the extensive exploration efforts of Australia’s Department of National Development which led to the leasing of widespread acreage now held by Caltex and Ampol. This work was what encouraged Caltex to return to Australia in the hope of bringing in the Commonwealth’s first discovery.”’ (Lhe West Australian, 5th December, 1953.) A similar story could be told about the results of detailed work by the Bureau of Mineral Resources in the Fitzroy Basin. Here, not only has it been proved that the reported showings of oil in bores put down at Price’s Creek in 1922 were genuine, but that they occur in limestone of an age—Ordovician— whose presence has never been recorded or even suspected in Western Australia. Not only that, but it has been shown that marine rocks of uppermost Permian and lowest Triassic are present. This is the first record of the occurrence of marine Triassic on the Australian continent. The lesson to be learnt here obviously is that one cannot begin to discuss Australia’s resources of petroleum, or even the possibility of its occurrence in much of Australia, because there is not enough geological information available. {It may be thought that these remarks apply only to the remote areas to which I have just referred, but this is not so. Clearly the remarks apply most forcibly to those areas, but there are also serious gaps in our detailed knowledge of the veology of the sedimentary basins of eastern Australia. Australian stratigraphy suffers from a long history of generalizations because, except in a very few areas, there has been no economic objective to provide the incentive necessary to work out the stratigraphy in detail. Two simple illustrations may be given. So great an authority as Sir Edgeworth David stated the commonly held view when he wrote (1923) that the red beds of the Narrabeen Group provide the rich soils upon which the citrus orchards of the Gosford district are estab- lished. In fact the citrus orchards are not established on soils derived from red beds and the area where these beds crop out to the north and east of Wyong is some of the poorest country in coastal New South Wales. This area is traversed by a railway and a highway connecting the two largest cities in New South Wales. The red beds are exposed at the south end of the cutting at Wyong railway station, where they have a definite southerly dip. Moreover, in a bore at Ourimbah (N.S.W. Mines Department, 1888)—in the heart of the citrus growing region—the first red bed was intersected at a depth of 447 feet. Yet the view expressed by David remained current until the area was mapped by Reeves and myself for Oil Search Ltd. in 1935. Detailed work carried out in recent years by Miss Crespin and me (1952) in the Torquay area 50 miles south-west of Melbourne, has shown that two stratigraphic units of the Tertiary which, for many years, have been regarded as distinct—the Janjukian and the Balcombian—overlap each other. It is worth stressing that nearly all this new information has been revealed by examination of rocks at the surface. Many of the areas which are of interest as possibly containing oil are basins or parts of basins covering large areas and have never been tested by deep boring. In many places there is not enough evidence upon which even conjecture can be based as to what rocks lie deep beneath the surface. For example (a) What is the lower part of the Permian like, and what underlies it, beneath Sydney ? (6) What underlies the Tertiary rocks at the Victorian-South Australian border, or the structures it is proposed to test near Woodside, Victoria ? (c) What underlies the Mesozoic rocks of the Great Artesian Basin, particu- larly to the west and south-west ? SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA. Sil To me this last is one of the most fascinating unknowns in the search for oil in Australia. Answers must be found to these and many other questions before we can begin to express any reliable opinion on the prospects of finding oil in many parts of Australia. The first requisite is reliable geological maps on a scale of not less than one inch equals four miles. Happily the preparation and publication of these maps on a co-operative Commonwealth-States basis is already under way, but it will be many years before they will be available in large numbers. These, of course, are not the only geological maps available. State Geological Surveys have been publishing maps for many years, but the four-mile map series represents the first attempt to bring together geological information systematically on an Australian wide basis. The second requisite is a series of geophysical profiles—magnetic, gravity and seismic—supplemented to the greatest extent possible by scout drilling. Magnetic surveys can be, and are being speeded up by the use of airborne equipment, but gravity and seismic surveys are relatively slow and seismic more so than gravity. Nevertheless, we would reach our goal more quickly if we followed this methodical approach. As it is, some companies are going ahead with test drilling without having found out anything more than can be deduced from geological surveys of the surface. Moreover, some of this drilling is being done in areas where unconformities exist and where the structure at depth is unknown. A few simple illustrations will indicate how foolish a procedure this is. Figure 2 includes three sections across an anticline underlain by an uncon- formity. In Figure 2.1 the anticlinal axis continues through the unconformity. A well put down to test the surface anticline will be correctly placed to test the anticline below the unconformity. In Figure 2.2 and 2.3, however, a well sited so as to test the surface anticline will be off structure in case 2.2 and will pass from an anticlinal to a synclinal axis in case 2.3. The dip of the beds above and below the unconformity in cases 2.2 and 2.3 are the same and, therefore, determination of dip will provide no clue to the fact that the structural conditions below the unconformity are different from those above it. This brings me to my next point. Most of the drilling for oil in Australia was done before the modern techniques of geophysical surveying, whether from the surface or in bore holes, were developed; certainly they were not then available in Australia. However, these techniques are available now and there is no excuse for not using them. The structural conditions I have just illustrated can be worked out by geophysical surveys, the results of which may also provide other evidence of value in working out the subsurface geology. Magnetic methods are useful where the buried ridge type of structure is suspected, particularly if the basement ridge is made up of rocks with relatively high magnetic susceptibility, e.g. basalts. Gravity methods are also useful for elucidating this type of structure and for giving a measure of the probable thickness of sediments above bedrock. However, it is the seismic method that has been found most useful in exploration for oil, because it provides a means of actually mapping structures beneath the surface. A good example of the value of seismic surveys is provided by a traverse by the Bureau of Mineral Resources across the Giralia anticline in the Carnarvon Basin (Figure 3). It will be seen from the illustration given that the survey confirmed the existence of an unconformity between the Cretaceous and Permian rocks (see page S9) and showed that the structure below the unconformity extended to considerable depth. S12 H. G. RAGGATT. Geophysical logging of bore holes is now standard practice. The electrical characteristics generally logged are resistivity and self-potential. With a single-electrode probe, logs of resistivity and potential are recorded simul- taneously and are useful for correlation and identification of geological strata. ANTICLINAL AXIS BOREHOLE A ANTICLINAL AXIS BOREHOLE eG I ae 4 UNCONFoRmity ! U NCONFORMity | | ! I I | ANTICLINAL AXIS i i }. Bel aad Gee 2. Borehole well down flank below Unconformity above and below Unconformity as compared with position above it. BOREHOLE l \ ANTICLINAL AXIS UNCONFORMITY |. oa SYNCLINAL AXIS 3. Borehole on Anticlinal Axis above Unconformity passes into Synclinal Axis below it Fig. 2. Structure above and below Unconformity. Multi-electrode resistivity logging techniques provide the possibility of making a quantitative interpretation in terms of the porosity and saturation of reservoir sands. Gamma-ray logging records natural radioactivity of sediments. Neutron logging records the gamma-ray activity artificially generated in the sediments by neutrons emitted from a source lowered into the hole. n [wr S15 AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA. SEARCH FOR OIL IN ‘AGIUULOFUOOUN JO GdBJANS OY} MOTEG PUB eAOgE Je][BIVd JOU ov (SoUI| UsyOIG Aq pezyBotpul) sdrp eyy sooejd [eloAes UL yVYY poyou oq [[IM I «*900F OOO'S AToyeutrxoidde Jo yydop wv 48 sort AytutZoyUOOUN oTLT, “AyIuTAOJUOOUN SULMOYS OUIPIVUY BI[BII ssoI0B osIOABIT.—'E ‘SIT 7 ,00001| as = a re on 7 aa 000! ose! o00e6—t”™” Sa SOGe as Sosoer ; 3 ae ere 1334 NI 31¥DS WLNOZIYOH @ 2 a. a WIVYLS Y3d330 ONY MOTIVHS N33ML3¢ a : = a ee ALINYOINODNN © ONIMOHS -— Hee NOILDSS SSOYD NOlLDI14394 a ¥, ASHIAVYL JONYY YIIVHIO = pari ee =. ces eae ay saat ™ Fd ee ae -=>— ———— Es 5 =a See 5 2 L z ' poet ———- Le ees —=—_ — Se — = : —— 2S = 000's | I Se ica SSS SO SS Se ———= EES ee = _-—~— _-_—— -- Ae oT oe ee ee ae . | rte a Begs he ee eee — tom | —— = ” hero Rene a eats Azl 4 oO S === mer a a arated rast a --—— eee ase | > a | ee ee ee = eas eT aay ae ae a i ——— ee | a Sasa = Le =e a z a ee ees ee eee Sa aaa ee | = Saar oe eae gy eee ee ee ee Be eet O% Sea a eee ee og ens | -- == SS ee SS Se ee ee ee ee ee Se SSS oo Oe a SS | py aes ET et ee a ee ee | a en eens eee ee | — es ee eee ee ae pee a, ae ae ae a ern a eT one ee aaa mates --— << Reser eae! SS a ————_ O_O eee _——— = San oe _ | —> aS TS SS SS SS = = —— --- gaat openers SES ——= =a 4 fa rae ee a ee = ——— === == Miles ees | z ae more SSS ae eee Oe a oe 5 ty a ee m ~ ,OO1 13A37 WNLva Linvs J1evVaOud INIDILNY = VWITWHID JO. SIX¥ S814 H. G. RAGGATT. In general, relatively high natural radioactivity is shown by shales, particu- larly oil shales, and by bentonite and volcanic ash. Low gamma-ray activity is shown by pure limestones, dolomites and quartz sands. Absolute identifica- tion of formations is generally not possible from a gamma-ray log but the log is useful in areas where the general features of the stratigraphic section have already been established. The chief value of the neutron log lies in the fact that the gamma-ray output of rocks during irradiation with neutrons is closely related to hydrogen content of the rock. Low response signifies high hydrogen content which might . imply presence of water- or oil-saturated formations. SEDIMENTARY BASINS OF AUSTRALIA & NEW GUINEA 5 teate of Miles 200 tao ° 200 400 Y & 47, BASINYYA \ 4 Via Y yy Y yyy, Y Ds FITZROY y a Boure Y Derby Coro river KER YY 4 y, L foBisin ; BASIN YYy Ye Wy Prices Creek j Vif Ysa Y retary (/BASIN My CANNING BASIN p Nerthern Tereitary % 3 YY ys Vian ey Md ! McDonnelt Rante_ Wy y Sy GREAT ARTESIAN BASIN MARYBOROUGH Y GRE an , Yj Tee ie Waster Avestrahia FF Ui, } y Y / Wy / BASIN YY YUH _N lll Y, Uy A i feriseane }) = Gaara Up ; ly 4 Lf : PSWICH t v /, g aL 1 oo ON L UY ps Vy, Y i2 \IGCCARENCE ‘ ‘ Gratien Q PERTH BASIN gLLKY) Lake Frome Bienen BASIN 45 ERTHPE 4a) 4 Bunbury O % Via i SYDNEY BASIN Sey, SYDNEY NAMES OF BORES SHOWN ON THE MAP oa } Rough Range No } 9 Loder Bore BS" chow entrance 2 Albata-Karoo Bore 10 Kulnura Bore od 0 GIPPSLAND BASIN 3 Cook Bore 1] Mulgoa Bore ‘4 Netson Bore 32 Cootabarlow Bore Q 5 Hollands Landing Bore 13 Morella Bore ; 6 Sperm Whale Head Bore * 44 Hutton Creek Bore Tasuiemiz 7 Belford Bores 15 Arcadia Bore = 8 Farley Bore HOBART HEE Fig. 4. It is to be hoped that the government departments responsible for the administrative oversight of the current oilfield exploration programmes will do all they can to ensure that modern exploration survey and drilling techniques are used. It is to be hoped also that they will see to it that all companies keep adequate records and samples which should be available as a permanent reference because. undoubtedly, in the future ideas will undergo change and interpretation of evidence will be revised many times. SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA. S15 Having stressed the difficulties in advance we may now go on to discuss. some of the sedimentary basins that may be considered as having oil prospects. This discussion will be somewhat uneven because I wish to avoid repeating most of what was said in my address to the Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. It is proposed to refer to (1) Carnarvon Basin, (2) Bonaparte Gulf and Ord River Basins, (3) Fitzroy and Canning Basins, (4) Gippsland Basin, (5) Sydney Basin ; (6) Great Redan Basin, (7) Papua. CARNARVON BASIN. There is no part of Australia where the geological conditions outlined earlier in this address are so well met as in the Carnarvon Basin. The geology of the area is briefly described in my address to the Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy and a report on it by Mr. Alan Condon, Acting Chief Geologist, Bureau of Mineral Resources is in the press. Here I wish to add only some further speculation concerning the origin of the oil struck in Rough Range No. 1 well. The three possibilities discussed in my address to the Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy were : (1) Birdrong Formation, (2) Formation above the Birdrong—the Muderong Shale, (3) The Paleozoic rocks. Possibility (3) was favoured with a preference for the Permian, but in the light of further study of published work, some of which has been referred to in this address, it seems at least as likely that the oil formed in the eroded surface of the Palzozoic from material deposited in the early Cretaceous seas, and that later flushing by water may have played an important part in determining the emplacement of oil in structural and, perhaps, other traps. The reported occurrence of oil and gas in shale in Cape Range No. 1 well (Shothole Canyon) suggests that the possibility of origin in the Cretaceous cannot be excluded. If the oil did originate in the Permian rocks that underlie the Birdrong at Rough Range, experience suggests that the source should be sought first close at hand to the east, that is in the opposite direction to the movement of the artesian water. Those of you who have been to Rough Range or have seen samples of the oil will know that it is not fluid at surface temperature. It is, of course, quite fluid at the rock temperature at a depth of 3,605 feet. Itis conceivable, therefore, that during the geological past the oil may have existed in a non-fluid state and that it only began to migrate (or began to migrate again) and collect in commercial quantities with the rise in rock temperature due to depth of burial; at the least, this must be a factor to be taken into consideration in examining the mechanics of the accumulation of oil. BONAPARTE GULF AND ORD RIVER BASINS. In my Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy address I referred to the fact that seepages are still active in the Ord River area and that they appear to be bringing up an oil residue from the underlying rocks which, in this area, may be basalt or Proterozoic sediments. It was stated that the view was held S16 H. G. RAGGATT. that the oil possibly originated in Middle Cambrian sediments and later found its way down into the basalt, whence it is now moving upwards again. Since that address was given I have seen for the first time the section of Proterozoic rocks in the Ord Valley. These rocks include a considerable thickness of dark- coloured shales which dip at low angles and are not metamorphosed ; in fact, a Sydney geologist would be pardoned for mistaking them for Wianamatta. It is known that the shales are marine in origin (Traves, 1954) and, therefore, despite their great age they cannot be excluded from consideration as source rocks. Accordingly, I suggest that these shales may be the source of the asphaltite now found in the Cambrian basalts, and that they have to be taken into account in considering the oil prospects of several parts of Australia, e.g. the Fitzroy and Great Artesian Basins. FITZROY AND CANNING BASINS. In my earlier remarks on these basins there was an inference that the prospects of the area rested mainly upon the possibility of oil having been formed in the fossiliferous marine rocks and having remained therein or accumulated at unconformities. There are two points I wish to add here: (1) That the possibility of the occurrences of oil at unconformities should also be examined in the light of the abundant information from other countries to some of which I have referred in this address. Uncon- formities of the type that have produced oil in other countries are present between the Proterozoic and the Ordovician, the Ordovician and the Devonian and between the Devonian and the Permian. The conditions that prevailed when the Permian deposits were laid down upon the Devonian reef structures must have been generally similar to those that prevailed when the Jurassic deposits were laid down upon the Mississipian in western Canada and north-western United States. —_— bo — For reasons outlined in discussing the Ord River area, the unconformity between the Paleozoic and the Proterozoic cannot be excluded as a possible target in drilling for oil. GIPPSLAND BASIN. Renewed interest in this Basin probably makes it worth while to speculate further concerning the origin of the oil and of the bearing of the conclusion reached on the possibility of finding oil in commercial quantities. The shaft that was put down by the Commonwealth Government on the recommendation of Mr. Leo Ranney provided an opportunity for examining the glauconitic sandstone in which most of the bores in this area struck oil. The sandstone is not known to crop out anywhere in Gippsland. Examination of the crosscut from this shaft strongly suggested that the oil occurs in small lenses and the probability, therefore, is that the oil originated in the lenses themselves or in the adjacent rock in much the same way as is suggested for the oil sands of Goose Creek, Texas, and other similar fields. Mr. L. C. Noakes (1947), who, with Mr. R. F. Thyer made a special study of the distribution of the oil in the sand, agrees with this conclusion. Below the glauconitic sandstone at Lakes Entrance there are 6 feet to 68 feet of sandstone from which large flows of artesian water are recorded. The meagre evidence available suggests that these are estuarine. At other localities along the Victorian coast the basal Tertiary beds are Coal Measures (Kastern View) or sparsely fossiliferous marine sandstones (Pebble Point). Nevertheless, in places source material may have been deposited on the basement rocks, with the encroachment upon them of the Tertiary sea, perhaps down dip in a facies not seen in outcrop. It is highly probable, however, that if this happened most SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA. S17 of the oil would have been flushed out of the sands at such places as Lakes Entrance by later incursion of fresh water. It may be profitable to examine the direction of flow of the water and whether the possibility exists for oil to have been held in structural or stratigraphic traps in the direction of that movement. There are several places along the Victorian coast where the contact of the Tertiary and Jurassic rocks can be seen. At none of these places is there any evidence of significant pre-Tertiary, post-Jurassic folding, so that it seems that fold axes in the Tertiary will be co-planar with those in the Jurassic. This means that wells can be sited so as to test the possibilities of the Tertiary, and of the surface of unconformity between the Tertiary and the Jurassic for oil, and of the Jurassic for dry gas. I do not know enough about the regional geology to venture any opinion as to merits of any test being continued through to the rocks underlying the Jurassic. SYDNEY BASIN. ‘* Tests so far made have provided valuable geological information but otherwise cannot be regarded as having done any more than narrow the area of search for oil and gas. Hopes for the discovery of oil and gas now depend upon a suitable structure being found, which can be proved to extend through the Permian, and upon the Permian being in more favourable facies (a reasonable hope) in the deeper parts of the basin.”’ (Raggatt, 1954.) Certain conclusions may be drawn from an examination of the palexo- geography of the Permian (see Figure 5). In the absence of information from deep bores there is an element of conjecture in drawing the boundary of the ‘* Lower Marine ’’ sea and the area of deposition of the Greta Coal Measures ; but the available evidence does not allow a great deal of room for error and the boundaries shown in Figure 5 are probably sufficiently close to the truth to allow the general inference that the northern part of the Basin has far better prospects than the southern part. Taking into consideration the comments made con- cerning the results of earlier drilling, the area with best prospects would appear to be that bounded approximately by lines drawn between the following places : Muswellbrook, Newcastle, Wollongong and Springwood. Isopachs of the Newcastle Coal Measures and of the ‘‘ Upper Marine ’’, based on the results of drilling, suggest that these two units are thickest in the area outlined, so that the prospects of finding oil and gas in the upper part of the Permian are better in this part of the Basin than elsewhere. An examination should be made of the pre-Permian rocks around the Basin to see whether any useful conclusions can be drawn as to the kind of rocks that may be expected to underlie the Permian in the deeper parts of the Basin. If, for example, the conclusion were reached that the Permian is underlain by Kuttung and Lambian, deep drilling would be a hazardous venture ; but if the Permian is underlain by Burindi and by Devonian and Silurian rocks such as occur in the Yass district, deep drilling would be well worth while. GREAT ARTESIAN BASIN. Strictly speaking the Great Artesian Basin includes only the area of Mesozoic rocks in which artesian water is found, but in discussing the oil prospects it is usual to include the surrounding areas, if only for the reason that the opinion is widely held that the oil and gas found in the Mesozoic rocks came from rocks of the same age as those found in outcrop around its margin (Woolnough, 1931). The search for oil and gas has so far been restricted to two objectives : (a) testing the lower Mesozoic in the Artesian Basin area itself for gas and oil ; (b) testing domes in the outcropping Triassic and Permian in the Springsure- Rolleston area about 150 miles north of Roma. TI have little to add to what I have said about this work in my earlier address. So far as Springsure-Rolleston H S18 H. G. RAGGATT. is concerned, it is suggested that unless regional studies disclose some good reason for drilling one of the other structures, it would appear preferable to cK RIS —Lavas— TERS EEE avas__,GLOUCESTER DUBBO 8 MUDGEE % rs $91,241] ewos ®. WOLLONGONG Sauna em —_ —- NOWRAS | No Deposits w | KEMPSEY ‘Sediments @ Bridge to Eastern Land Mass in Late Lower Marine Time —= LOWER MARINE EPOCH —— ———— Fz SBATEMAN’S BAY b [| bang — irr \ a —SaAWERRIS CK. : TIES TIES SETSDS CLE Boulder Beds—— ETA and Rhyolite _ ae DUBBO f——MERRIWAS4 ——Jus Se WELLBROOK Gamma ay a a NEWCASTLE $$ gWOLLONGONG (pa En 8, — mane Ch NOWRA BEE, (ae SEH ERVIS BAY (area 2 UPPER MARINE EPOCH [7] tn (oe BATEMAN 'S BAY ——| Sea = 2000ff Isopach 2000ft. Fig. 5. FCLOUCESTER 2 s * Mrinal d A Deposition KEMPS EY ff “Coal Seams’ = ; RQWERRIS CK — nimportant Nae a ) GLOUCESTER DUBBO MUSWELLBROOK MERRIWA ae . =F —— MUDGEE : SET ey SGT UF 2 manne ay ALi 7 [3 LITHGOW DrIERVIS BAY =, GRETA EPOCH [J BATEMAN’S BAY ae =n i “Lagoons KEMPSEY DUBBO SE EY Tg ON EY ee ‘Ts a SP SEEN /, EEaEZ ” (7 —fwo onconc u BIERVIS BAY UPPER COAL EPOCH [os BATEMAN'S BAY Sydney Basin-Palaeogeography of Permian. test further the Arcadia Dome. ‘The Arcadia bore yielded a large flow of eas. It is true that much of the gas was carbon dioxide, but the presence of this gas in large quantities is not unusual in oilfield regions, e.g. Montana and Mexico. SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA. S19 TERTIARY CRETACEOUS ° ° ° oO S ° ) ° .) fo} ° o o = ey nN KARIAVA WELL ANT ANT UHEEDI HORBU BIKEO ANT ORLOLI ANT @ =) QO. (an) py an) > an) — fan) oq 2 5 co) fav) 3 © 5 wn eal se t|- 22 q < | == BS) c st ~ EE : “ wh x 2 % fe) = es) 2 \ FS = oll 2 Tos oD = ey Sz == e cal HEPA HEEL LE OMATI WELL LS) ro) 3 ro} 6 3 15.000: S20 H. G. RAGGATT. The Arcadia Dome has not been geophysically surveyed. This should be done and at least one other test well drilled before it can be said to have been adequately tested. Nothing has been done so far to investigate the pre-Mesozoic geology of the western and south-western part of the Basin. The Amadeus trough to the south of Alice Springs is 400 miles long and 150 miles wide. It contains sediments ranging in age from Upper Proterozoic to Ordovician. The Proterozoic rocks include shale, limestone and dolomite. The Cambrian which is upwards of 3,000 feet thick, consists of shale, limestone and sandstone. The Ordovician is predominantly sandy. Its thickness has been estimated at 6,000 feet; this is an overestimate, because allowance has not been made for repetition by faulting. These rocks may extend eastwards under the Mesozoic rocks of the Artesian Basin. If so, in addition to their own potentialities for oil there may be surfaces of unconformity overlain by marine sediments which should be investigated for their oil possibilities. Obviously, this is a task which could be undertaken only by government or by a company of wide experience and adequate financial resources. PAPUA NEW GUINEA. Principal interest centres upon the test drilling by two companies: Island Exploration Co., Pty., Ltd., and Australasian Petroleum Co. Pty., Ltd. Between them these companies have spent nearly £12,000,000 on the search for oil in Papua-New Guinea. For some considerable time, and until recently, the activities of Australasian Petroleum Co. Pty., Ltd., have been concentrated in the geological structure known as the Aure trough. This is a deep depression named after the Aure River, a tributary of the Purari. Drilling in the trough has disclosed a thickness of at least 15,000 feet of Tertiary rocks, predominantly argillites of Miocene age. It is highly probable that beneath the Tertiary there are considerable thicknesses of Cretaceous, Jurassic and Permian rocks. Very deep drilling would be required to test these rocks and it is not likely to be undertaken for a long time. Six holes, ranging in depth from 4,721 feet to 12,621 feet, were put down in the Aure trough by Australasian Petroleum Co. Pty., Ltd. Not only were they ‘‘ dry holes ’’, but they failed to reveal suitable reservoir conditions. For this reason the centre of interest has now moved to the country west of the trough where the Miocene is in limestone facies. Island Exploration Co. Pty., Ltd. has always been interested in this tract, so that there are now two large companies drilling to test similar objectives. Figure 6 illustrates what these objectives are: to locate and test structures where the Miocene limestone and/or the Cretaceous are overlain by suitable cover rocks. Oil seepages are common in outcrops of the Cretaceous rocks on the flanks of the Kubor range and the Miocene limestone has a high porosity. Argillaceous rocks in the Pliocene should provide adequate cover? With the essential con- ditions so well satisfied, a successful end to the search for oil in Papua is looked for with considerable confidence. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. Some of the information used in this paper has been supplied by officers of the Bureau of Mineral Resources in response to personal inquiries. I am most erateful for this assistance. My thanks are due to the Director, Acting Chief Geologist and draftsmen of the Bureau and draftsmen in my own office for their help in preparing illustrations and lantern slides, SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA, $21 I also wish to thank the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy for making available the block for Figure 4 and Australasian Petroleum Co. and Island Exploration Co. for permission to use information on which Figure 6 is based. REFERENCES. Clapp, Frederick G., 1925. A Few Observations on the Geology and Geography of North West and Desert Basins, W.A. Proc. Surv. Soc. N.S.W., 50, 64. —-—_______—_— 1926a. The Oil Problem in Western Australia. con. Ecol., 31, 421. —-—________—— 1926b. Oil Prospects in the North-West Basins of Western Australia: A.A.P.G., 10, 1148. Clark, F. R., 1934. Origin and Accumulation of Oil. Problems of Petroleum Geology. A.A.P.G., 309-335. Cunningham, C. M., and Kleinpell, W. D., 1934. Importance of Unconformities to Oil Production in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Problems of Petroleum Geology. A.A.P.G., 804-805. Krampert, E. W., 1934. Geological Characteristics of Producing Oil and Gas Fields in Wyoming, Colorado and North-western New Mexico. Problems of Petroleum Geology. A.A.P.G., 732-733. Levorsen, A. I., 1934. Relation of Oil and Gas Pools to Unconformities in the Mid-Continent Region. Problems of Petroleum Geology. A.A.P.G., 771, 783-784. Minor, H. E., 1925. Goose Creek Oilfield, Harris County, Texas. A.A.P.G., 9, 286-297. Noakes, L. C., 1948. A Method of Determining Distribution of Oil in a Reservoir Rock by Means of Ultra-violet Light. Turis JouRNAL, 81, 173, fig. 4. N.S.W. Department of Mines, 1888. Annual Report, p. 145. Raggatt, H. G., 1936. Geology of North-West Basin, Western Australia, with particular reference to the Stratigraphy of the Permo-Carboniferous. THs JOURNAL, 70, 100-174. —-——______—_—— 1954. The Search for Oil in Australia and New Guinea. Aust. Inst. Min. and Met., 172 (F.U.P.P.). Raggatt, H. G., and Crespin, Irene, 1952. Geology of Tertiary Rocks Between Torquay and Eastern View, Victoria. Aust. Journ. Sci., 14, No. 5, 143-147. Rod, Emile, and Mayne, Wolf, 1954. Revision of Lower Cretaceous Stratigraphy of Venezuela. A.A.P.G., 38, No. 2, 216-217, fig. 7. Smith, P. V., 1954. Studies on Origin of Petroleum: Occurrence of Hydrocarbons in Recent Sediments. A.A.P.G., 38, No. 3, 377-404. Trask, P. D., 1934. Deposition of Organic Matter in Recent Sediments. Problems of Petroleum Geology. A.A.P.G., 32. Traves, D. M., 1954. Collenia frequens in Upper Proterozoic Rocks in the Northern Territory of Australia. Proc. Surv. Soc. N.S.W., 79, 95-96. Woolnough, W. G., 1931. Report on Tour of Inspection of Oilfields of the U.S.A. and Argentina and on Oil Prospects in Australia. Parl. Paper, Commonwealth of Australia, 86. OIL PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILISATION. By PROFESSOR HUNTER. The word ‘‘ lamp ”’ is derived from a Greek word meaning a torch. A torch was the earliest source of artificial ight known to primitive man. The next step in development must have been the utilisation of animal oils and fats in some form of crude lamp. Archeological excavations have revealed that the Egyptians and other ancient peoples used wick-fed lamps many thousands of years ago, and until the beginning of the twentieth century, wick-fed lamps remained the main source of artificial light. By the middle of the nineteenth century the principal illuminant used in lamps was sperm oil, obtained from the sperm whale. In the late 1840’s the sperm whale fisheries of the world were seriously declining. Sperm oil, due to declining production and constantly increasing consumption, was becoming more and more expensive. Substitutes were being sought. In France and Scotland lamp oil was being produced by the heating and distilling of shale. In America the distillation of coal was employed for its production. On the 29th August, 1859, a Colonel Drake completed the drilling of a well at Oil Creek, Pennsylvania, in the United States of America, and, after months of wearisome effort, at a depth of 69 feet, he obtained petroleum, from which lamp oil or kerosine could be prepared by a distilling process. This petroleum was no new thing. It had a history of usefulness to man running back into the mists of antiquity and long antedating the establishment of the modern petroleum industry. Asphalt and bitumens were used as a cement in building the walls of Babylon, and were an article of commerce among the ancient Mexicans. Liquid petroleum, collected from springs, was used as a medicine both internally and externally by many primitive peoples. Crude petroleum was used as a lamp oil in Italy and China before the beginning of the Christian era. Flares from burning gas and oil springs were strange and impressive phenomena having a place in the religious rites of the ancient Persians, Egyptians and Greeks, and formed the central mystery around which grew up that strange sect, the fire-worshippers of Baku and Persia. At this time, in the middle of the nineteenth century, the only question with regard to petroleum as a suitable raw material from which to manufacture lamp oil was the all- important one of quantity. This question was answered with an emphatic affirmative by the developments which followed upon the completion of the Drake well. Within ten years from the bringing in of Drake’s well, which flowed at the rate of 1,000 gallons a day, Pennsylvania was producing 80 million gallons of crude oil a year. Furnace oil. J Gas making. Machinery lubricating. Lubricating oil .. a Cosmetics. Medicinal. Electrical oils. Containers and wrappers. Paraffin wax ae Bt Candles. Matches. Polishes. Road making. Paints. Coatings. {else black. Asphalt and bitumen Coke Electrodes. Fuel. On the basis of 1 ton of black coal or 2-4 tons of brown coal being approxi- mately equivalent to 0-73 tons of oil, the surplus of 850,000 tons of fuel is equivalent to about 1-2 million tons of black coal or 2-8 million tons of brown coal. This surplus could have a considerable effect on the Australian economy, particularly on that of N.S.W., which is the State mainly producing black coal. TABLE 2. Expected Output from Australian Oil Refineries. Expected Output | Consumption Product. in Thousand in Thousand Tons per annum.|Tons per annum. Gasoline es a 2,281 2,492 Gas and diesel oil .. 1,188 1,075 Kerosine bs ee 220 458 Fuel oil we Bn 1,998 1,156 In 1953 the total consumption of N.S.W. black coal was 13-8 million tons. If the surplus fuel oil equivalent to 1-2 million tons of black coal succeeds in replacing N.S.W. black coal from the Australian market, it will mean a loss of nearly 9% of N.S.W. trade in black coal. OIL PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILISATION. S25 In Table 3 an estimate of the energy available to Australia is shown. It will be seen from this that the total yearly energy available to us, calculated in tons of black coal equivalents, is about 29 million tons. Just over 75% of this is produced in Australia as black and brown coal, the remainder comes from imported oil. The proportion of oil to coal used for energy purposes in Australia has steadily risen since 1936, when 15-8°% of imported oil was employed, until today, when this proportion is now 24:2% of oil. With the building of new oil refineries in Australia it could be expected that this proportion could increase considerably at the expense of the Australian coal industry. TABLE 3. Estimates of Energy Available to Australia. (Thousand tons of black coal equivalents.) Black Brown Total Year. Coal. Coal. Coal. Oil. Electricity. Gas. Total. 1936-37 .. 11,724 1,296 13,020 2,452 37 28 15,537 1937-38 .. 11,880 1,500 13,380 2,616 40 29 16,065 1938-39 .. 12,612 1,332 13,944 2,822 43 30 16,839 1946-47 .. 14,136 2,448 16,584 3,627 70 46 20,327 1947-48 .. 14,772 2,676 17,448 4,553 77 50 22,128 1948-49 .. 14,928 2,928 17,856 5,358 84 51 23,349 1949-50 .. 14,916 3,180 18,096 6,078 88 48 24,310 1950-51 .. 16,428 3,036 19,464 6,956 97 51 26,568 1951-52 .. 19,176 3,372 22,548 7,562 105. 56 30,271 1952-53 .. 18,552 3,372 21,924 7,054 114 57 29,149 The four major uses for black coal in Australia are for metallurgical purposes (particularly steel making), for gas making, electricity generation, and as a fuel for railway locomotives. It is interesting to examine the possibility of these uses for coal in the light of their possible replacement by oil. Coal is an absolute essential for steel making and cannot be replaced by oil in this regard, so that this market should expand with expanding steel making capacity. The Australian Gas Light Company of Sydney, the largest producer of town gas in Australia, has recently signed an agreement under which half of its 1956 production of gas will be derived from oil, and it is believed that another project is under discussion which will increase this proportion to about two-thirds. In Victoria the Gas and Fuel Corporation is considering taking some 30°% of its gas requirements from an oil refinery close to Melbourne. It would therefore appear that in the future coal for gas making purposes is going to be considerably displaced by oil. In the field of electricity generation, there is no immediate indication that coal will be displaced by oil, but some of the 850,000 tons per annum surplus fuel oil from the new oil refineries could find its way into this field. At the same time, in Australia developmental work on the utilisation of atomic energy for electricity generation is being given serious consideration, and while atomic power stations are not likely to displace existing coal burning power stations, there is a strong, if remote, future possibility that some of the new electricity generating plants may operate on atomic energy. It is significant to note that the railway systems in the three south-eastern States of Australia have over 230 oil burning steam locomotives in use at present. In addition, the use of a diesel electric locomotive is about 45° cheaper than that of a coal fired steam locomotive, while the first cost of such an engine is only I - $26 PROFESSOR HUNTER. about 25% more than that of a coal fired locomotive. Already 70 diesel electric locomotives are in operation in Australia, and further conversion to this form of traction will undoubtedly occur in the future. The use of oil for railway operations could therefore displace substantial quantities of coal. In this connection, too, should be mentioned some interesting costs which have been calculated in the United States on the operation of an atomic powered locomotive. An approximate estimate suggests that the first cost of an atomic locomotive will be twice that of a diesel and 24 times that of a coal fired locomotive. The fuel for atomic powered locomotion would be uranium-235 or plutonium. The price of these materials is secret, but the U.S. calculations have shown that an atomic locomotive would be competitive with a diesel electric even if the price of such fuel was £6,000 per pound against diesel fuel at about 1/- per gallon. It is conceivable, therefore, that atomic power could in the future become a competitor with both oil and coal for railway use. PETROLEUM AS A RAW MATERIAL. The most significant development in the petroleum industry during the last ten years, however, has come from its use aS a raw material for the manufacture of chemicals, plastics, pesticides, surface coatings, fertilizers, explosives, synthetic fibres, synthetic rubber and detergents. Synthetic Rubber. For two decades synthetic rubber was an unrealized chemists’ dream. With the loss of Indonesia and Malaya by the Allies in World War II, the U.S.A. in just two years increased her synthetic rubber production from 8,000 to 800,000 tons. This latter figure was almost equal to the maximum world consumption of natural rubber in any previous year. During the post-war years, aS more natural rubber became available, synthetic production declined to 400,000 tons. Five major types of synthetic rubber are now produced, and consumption has steadily risen to 500,000 tons in 1951, to over one million tons a year in 1952, while today the world is producing 1-5 million tons a year of synthetic rubber from petroleum as a raw material compared to a production of 1-7 million tons a year of natural rubber. So that we can say that nearly 50% of world rubber requirements is now produced from petroleum. Fertilizers. Ammonia and its derivatives, particularly ammonium sulphate and nitrate, are important fertilizers. Ammonium nitrate is also used for explosive and munitions manufacture. Today these materials are largely synthesized from atmospheric nitrogen by its reaction with hydrogen, obtained from steam and coke or from steam and natural gas. In the U.S.A. nearly 75°% of all synthetic nitrogen production is derived from natural gas. In Australia, our most important fertilizer is superphosphate, made from imported sulphur and imported rock phosphate. Natural gas usually contains hydrogen sulphide. This can be converted to sulphuric acid, which in turn could react with rock phosphate to give superphosphate. Hence, natural gas could help supply Australia’s fertilizer requirements and free our national economy’s complete reliance upon American sulphur, if such gas contained fair quantities of hydrogen sulphide. Synthetic Fibres. In the U.S.A. three out of every four pounds of wool consumed are imported, so that a great incentive has always existed in that country to produce a wool substitute from indigenous raw materials. This has resulted in the recent OIL PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILISATION. S27 formation and rapid growth of a synthetic fibre industry founded on natural gas and petroleum as the basic raw materials. U.S. consumption of synthetic fibres is 556 million pounds a year, compared to 495 million pounds a year of wool. As six square yards of cloth are produced from one pound of synthetic fibres, against two and a half square yards from a pound of wool, more synthetic cloth is produced in the U.S.A. than woollen cloth. Total sales of synthetic fibres in the U.S.A. are in excess of £500 million per year. Capital investments in plant are in the region of £500 million. Raw material purchases are over £200 million per year, with an annual payroll of £100 million. | Plastics and Paints Synthetic plastics, resins and surface coatings in paints produced from petroleum as a raw material now total over 150 million pounds a year in the U.S.A. alone, which is greater than the present rate of production of all other plastics. Synthetic Pesticides. In this modern age the farmer treats his crops with chemicals through all stages from planting to harvesting. In the U.S.A. over 1,000 million pounds a year of chemical pesticides are produced, of which 50% are derived from sulphur and 30% from petroleum. Synthetic Soaps. In no chemical field has development been so spectacular and rapid as in that of synthetic detergents—the so-called synthetic soaps or syndets. Such materials of exceptional wetting, and excellent draining and dispersing power have led in turn to the introduction and development of mechanical dish- washing and home laundering machines. In 1940 the U.S.A. produced 30 million pounds of syndets, which today has increased to 2,000 million pounds, 65 °% of which is produced from petroleum. All this is a symbol of things to come. Gigantic plants are already producing rivers of chemicals, fibres, plastics and rubber from petroleum. This is changing the economy of whole countries and will profoundly influence world affairs in the future. In these previous remarks I have tried to indicate briefly something of the history and industrial significance of petroleum products. In order to assess the real value of a petroleum industry and its products to Australia, however, let us first compare the industrial potential of this continent with that of a highly industrialized community—the U.S.A. THE INDUSTRIAL POWER OF THE U.S.A. The U.S.A., with 6-5% of the world’s population, using 61° of the world’s petroleum production and 45% of the world’s mineral production, produces 50% of the world’s industrial output. It is no accident that has raised the U.S. to the position of the world’s leading industrial nation. It is due to an abundance of raw materials and resources vigorously developed and exploited. Seventy-five years ago about 35 metallic and non-metallic minerals satisfied the needs of an industrial community. Today nearly 100 such minerals are required, of which about 40 are of major significance. In 20 of these 40 minerals the U.S.A. is over 50% self supporting, and in addition possesses important deposits in 30 more. On the agricultural side, abundant rainfall and high soil fertility ensures adequate supplies of grain, dairy products, meat, fruit, vegetables and natural S28 PROFESSOR HUNTER. oils. This in turn has led to the development of large industries based on the processing of these commodities. Vast forests, grown as crops, together with a huge production of cotton, gives plentiful supplies of cellulose to support paper, board, cotton and rayon industries. Enormous deposits of coal, anthracite and shale ensure the U.S.A. sufficient supplies of energy for at least 1,500 years at the present rate of consumption. With 65% of the world’s known reserves of petroleum and natural gas, the U.S.A. has until recently been self-supporting in respect of diesel oil, petrol, fuel oil and lubricants. For the first time in nearly 100 years, however, the consumption of petroleum is tending to become greater than the rate of pro- duction. The rapid growth of cities, industry and agriculture in America has required large water resources which are available. Two of America’s most important deficiencies of raw materials are rubber and wool. The lack of these, at one time serious, has now been overcome by the manufacture of synthetic rubber and synthetic fibres from indigenous petroleum. The overall picture, then, is that of a country with large natural resources, good rail, road, water and air transportation facilities, adequate manpower and large markets all combining to make a highly industrialized community with a high standard of living. THE INDUSTRIAL POTENTIAL OF AUSTRALIA. Australian mineral resources are poor. Our only extensive deposits of metallic minerals are lead, zinc, gold, silver and possibly aluminium. Iron ore is high in quality but low in quantity, with estimated reserves of 250 million tons compared to 10,000 million tons in the U.S.A. Partially deficient in copper and tin, we are unfortunately wholly deficient in phosphorus and sulphur, upon which the whole agricultural economy of the country depends. Australia’s only extensive non-metallic mineral deposit is coal, with a reserve estimated at 35,000 million tons, sufficient to last us, at our present rate of consumption, for over 1,500 years. On the agricultural side, inadequate rainfall with a bad seasonal and geographical distribution combined with a low overall soil fertility result in severe limitations on agricultural productivity. Compared with the U.S.A., with the same land area, Australia has only 400,000 square miles capable of producing crops, against 1,600,000 square miles in America. No vast forests, cotton or rubber crops are available to provide raw materials for large cellulose and rubber industries. Huge land areas with low rainfall and high evaporation rates mean a deficiency of water resources for both industry and agriculture. An antiquated rail transport system, poor roads with long distances between settled areas, inadequate manpower and small markets complete a picture of a community unlikely to become highly industrialized. The discovery of extensive petroleum deposits in Australia could considerably improve our industrial potential and further improve our standards of living. Large discoveries of petroleum could wipe out our £60 million a year bill for imported petroleum products and might even give us a new export trade in these commodities. In addition, such discoveries could create new indigenous industries in fertilizers, plastics, surface coatings, fibres, pesticides, explosives, and rubber by providing the necessary raw materials. Large immediate expansion of such industries and of a parent petroleum industry should not be expected because of our small capital resources and small markets. PETROLEUM CHEMICALS. By R. F. CANE, D.Sc., F.A.C.1. INTRODUCTION. William Bell, of American Cyanamid, once said that in his opinion the most useful and beautiful piece of research that any scientific organization could possibly undertake would be to work out some formula by which one places in a test tube a bright idea, together with so many units of labour, so much raw material, so many units of selling cost and so much of market price and popular favour, the solution shaken with government interference and taxation acid added, then the whole boiled for five minutes. If the contents turn green, the project should be proceeded with forthwith—if red, immediately abandoned, and if white, deferred until later. Of all industries, it is felt that this formula would command the greatest price in petrochemicals manufacture, for, although this scion of the petroleum family has grown from birth to lusty adolescence in a brief 35 years, it has suffered its share of growing pains, and from the annoying habit of the test solution showing all three colours at the same time, alternatively mixed to a dull, muddy grey. PETROCHEMICALS. It is first necessary to define what is meant by the term petroleum chemical— or ‘‘ petrochemicals ’’. One journal has defined a petrochemical as a ‘‘ chemical compound or element recovered from petroleum or natural gas, or derived in whole or part from petroleum or natural gas hydrocarbon and intended for chemical markets ”’. This definition excludes mixed hydrocarbons used for other than chemicals, and excludes a single hydrocarbon such as butane or iso-octane used as fuel. The meaning of the term is by no means crystallized and at least three organizations in the U.S. are studying a suitable definition of the term petrochemical. Although many people have expressed disapproval of this pseudo-technical word, some refusing to use it altogether, it is here to stay and to save even further confusion among the semanticists I shall use it without apology. In the beginning, it is well to realize that petrochemical manufacture cannot be segregated from other fields and placed in a distinct category. It merges with and overlaps the rubber, textile, oil and other industries, as well as being more or less dependent upon them for both the raw material and consumption of product. Many of its processes are not new, but have been borrowed from those used for many years in the coal and oil field, although perhaps the scale of operations is often larger in petrochemicals. This large scale of operation and the high capital costs of plant make the petrochemical industry particularly vulnerable to new discoveries and to fluctuations in markets. This fact, to a more or less extent, is being felt in some quarters now, where too many producers, anxious to take the cream off the market, have caused an over-supply of certain products. New discoveries can also have far-reaching consequences, rendering obsolete more or less overnight a particular process or S30 R. F. CANE. product. The general impression gained overseas this year was that the petro- chemical industry, having passed the teething stage, and finding the road to success no easier or harder than any other industry, was now taking stock of itself whilst settling down to steady growth. Organic chemicals manufacture has always been closely associated with the production of fuel, aromatic chemistry had its genesis in the by-products of coal, while aliphatics probably largely arose from a study of combustion itself. The gigantic tonnage of raw materials used in the manufacture of liquid fuel for power and locomotion has, in turn, meant that large quantities of relatively cheap hydrocarbons have become available as by-products of the petroleum industry, and these are replacing vegetation as a source of raw material for chemicals. This change from the use of vegetation to petroleum for chemical raw material has been brought about by two factors, firstly, the cheap cost of the hydrocarbons ; secondly, the necessity to reserve crop area for the growing of food, itself a source of human energy. Had this change not occurred, serious inroads would have been made into the world’s food to supply the present requirements of organic chemicals for industry. To give two examples of this: If the U.S. production of methyl alcohol still depended on the distillation of wood, as it did thirty years ago, and not largely on natural or water gas, then an area equivalent to 4% of their total forest land would have to be reserved permanently for the growing of timber to supply their present demands for methanol. To supply the present world demand for ethylene by making it, not from natural gas but by the older process of the dehydration of fermentation alcohol from sugar, would immediately deprive one-eighth of the world’s population of their sugar, excluding molasses. DISTRIBUTION. On a world-wide basis petrochemical production may be divided into two groups with respect to the occurrence of natural gas: (1) the countries which have it, (2) the ‘‘ have-nots ’’. As an illustration of the ‘“‘ have ’’ countries, the obvious example is the United States, where the production of natural gas for heating and chemical use in 1952 was eight billion cubic feet. This amount is hard to imagine, but when it is expressed as 53 cubic miles one gets an idea of the enormous volumes which are used. Not only about one and a half million tons of ammonia, one million tons of carbon black and 300,000 tons of sulphur were derived from natural gas last year in the U.S., but today something like a quarter of the entire United States chemical industry is based on petrochemicals, and in another decade it may contribute one-half. England and Australia, on the other hand, would represent the ‘‘ have-nots ”’ and in the U.K. ethylene, butadiene, carbon black, glycol, etc., have to be made from gases obtained by cracking imported oils, while ammonia is still largely dependent on water-gas from coke. Let us now look briefly into how these chemicals are produced and what sort of forward picture can be envisaged for Australia. Natural gas, that great storehouse of raw materials for petrochemicals in the U.S., is somewhat variable in make-up, but consists always predominantly of methane, with smaller amounts of ethane and higher hydrocarbons, together with hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen and sometimes helium. The constituents of natural gas are chemically unreactive and therefore are of little use, as such, in chemicals manufacture, except as raw material for such chemically simple structures as ammonia, for which it produces the hydrogen, methanol and carbon black. Methane is now becoming a possible source of acetylene by the Sachsse partial combustion process. PETROLEUM CHEMICALS. 831 AMMONIA. Both ammonia and methanol production depend on the decomposition of natural gas or hydrocarbon mixtures from refineries and is accomplished by one of two methods: either natural gas is burnt in a limited supply of nearly pure oxygen to give hydrogen and carbon monoxide, the monoxide removed or converted and then nitrogen added to give the required three times hydrogen : nitrogen ratio, or the gas and steam are reacted together with air to give the ammonia synthesis gas. In either case practice then follows con- ventional ammonia production, where the synthesis gas is passed over an iron containing catalyst at temperatures up to 1000°F. and pressures between 3,000-15,000 p.s.i. If nitrogen is not added, the gas can be used directly for methanol pro- duction or as a feed to a Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. Very large ammonia plants are operating overseas, using one or other of the above processes and production is as large as 350 tons a day for a single plant, compared with the 10 tons a day for the average plant in Australia. Increasing amounts of ammonia are being used for direct injection into the soil rather than present Australian practice of using ammonium sulphate as a source of nitrogen. Cyanides are also made petrochemically by reacting ammonia, natural gas and air over a platinum catalyst. Because of the high pressures used, ammonia plants are not cheap, a reason- ably sized plant, say of 75 tons per day, might cost five million. CARBON BLACK. Carbon black is also made in large quantities from natural gas by burning it in a limited air supply so as to produce a sooty flame, or by cracking the hydro- carbon so as to form free carbon of the correct physical properties. In places where suitable gas is not available, as in England, and would be here, carbon black is made from a high aromatic oil, either natural or obtained from the cycle stock from catalytic cracking. The minimum sized plant that it pays to operate lies between 20 and 25 million pounds per year, and this is about the same size as the total Australian market. The only other material which I should like to mention among what might be called non-conversion products, i.e. products not made by converting one hydrocarbon to another, either as an end-product or an intermediate, is sulphur and sulphuric acid. SULPHUR. Today approximately half a million tons per year of sulphur in the Western world is produced from hydrogen sulphide, either from natural gas or refinery gases. The sulphur so produced is extremely pure and can demand premium price for certain operations. In cases where the potential sulphur make is not quite large enough to justify sulphur production, or there is a demand for sulphuric acid for fertilizers, hydrogen sulphide can be converted directly to sulphuric acid. Before we go on to the more complicated picture of what might be termed conversion products, that is hydrocarbon to hydrocarbon to chemical, consider how petrochemical ammonia, carbon black and sulphur fit into the Australian picture. With the exception of the war years, Australia has been importing ammonia in the form of sulphate since 1929. Now, with a 55,000 tons per year ammonium sulphate plant due for completion this year at Risdon in Tasmania, and possible future sulphate from Mt. Morgan, there is a possibility that Australia 832 R. F. CANE. may have an exportable surplus of ammonium sulphate, as she did after the 1914-1918 war, when her product had, of necessity, to sell overseas in severe competition with foreign material. It is thought possible that ammonia will be made in Australia, using refinery gases aS araw material. If this happens it is felt there will be severe competition for the home market, because the petrochemical product can be made at a very much less cost than ammonia derived from coke and steam. If one of the major oil companies decides to erect a reasonably sized plant it may be then uneconomical to operate one or more of the small plants now making sulphate. With regard to carbon black, as mentioned earlier, the Australian market is about the same size as the minimum economic plant, and unless the present purchasing agreements of the rubber companies for carbon black are altered, the demand for a fraction of this total would not be sufficient to justify the capital outlay and allow economic operation. In my opinion, one can write ‘‘not probable ’”’ against carbon black. On the other hand, it is thought likely that, later on, one or more of the refineries now being constructed will recover the sulphur from their gases. The refinery now being erected at Kwinana in W.A. has a crude design capacity of three million tons a year, and this represents something like 50,000 tons per year of sulphur. Of course, only a small proportion of this eventually ends up as hydrogen sulphide, but plants handling as little as 4,000 tons per year have been found to be economically sound. With the increasing application of catalytic reforming and desulphurizing in which all sulphur is removed as hydrogen sulphide, sulphur recovery is becoming increasingly important. In the U.S. about 5°% of their total production of six million tons is coming from petroleum and natural gas. HYDROCARBONS. Having now dismissed some billion dollars of industry, we return to what can be and is done today with what might be termed conversion products. Although the paraffins, methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc., are not reactive themselves, they can, by means of high temperature decomposition or cracking be converted into the corresponding or lower olefin, which is a reactive com- pound, suitable for chemical manipulation. These olefins are also present in refinery gases, some in coke oven gas and in oil-gas. Obviously methane cannot be changed into its corresponding olefin, but quite spectacular results are being obtained by the partial decomposition of methane in oxygen—the so-called Sachsse method for acetylene. In the Sachsse method, methane and oxygen are preheated separately in a special burner and then injected with a high velocity into a combustion chamber, then the gases are quenched or cooled in the matter of two or three thousandths of a second. The raw gas from such operations contains about 10% of acetylene and this can be removed by selective solvents. The residual gas, consisting of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, is used for ammonia production, the nitrogen being obtained by either of the methods mentioned above. Three such plants are in operation in the States, and more than this in Europe. The disadvantage of this process is the need for an oxygen plant. Other methods are available for conversion of paraffins to acetylene but none, apart from the Sachsse method, has become commercially important yet. ETHYLENE. Normally ethylene is made from propane or ethane or mixtures of these, and less often today recovered from refinery gases, for unless ethylene is present in very large volumes of gas in sufficiently high concentration and without other complications, it is usually cheaper to make it, at about 20% to 30% PETROLEUM CHEMICALS. $33 concentration, in a plant designed for this purpose, and then separate it, than to separate it directly from refinery gases containing 5% to 15% ethylene, even though these gases may be considered in some ways as waste products of no commercial value. Here again we meet the very large scale at which these plants have to operate to make them economically attractive. The smallest ethylene plant that it pays to build and operate overseas is, in round figures, 10,000 tons a year. It is relatively easy to make such ethylene and separate it from heavier gases, but it is a problem of separating ethane and ethylene from the lighter con- stituents, hydrogen and methane, and purifying the ethylene so produced, that demands very large capital outlay and considerable research into technique. A plant to produce 10,000 tons annually of ethylene might cost half a million pounds, but the plant to purify it after production might cost four to five million pounds, for here one is dealing with not only high pressure, but with technique of handling gases at quite low temperature and separating con- stituents boiling fairly closely together. This high capital cost is reflected in the need for high throughput. One set of figures taken out in 1951 for cracking propane at 4c./Ib. to ethylene show that at 10m. lb./yr. cost of manufacture was 7¢./lb., at 30m. l1b./yr. cost of manufacture was 5c./lb., and only at 60 m. lb./yr. does the cost of manufacture approach 4 ¢./lb., the cost of the raw material. About one million tons of ethylene is made annually in America as a raw material for the manufacture of styrene for alcohol, ethylene oxide, glycol, acrylonitrile and a host of other minor products, while the U.S. demand for ethylene is expected to increase to 4000 m. lb. by 1960. Before mentioning how some of these products are made, let us first see what sort of future they have here. The position in Australia is quite different from that in America, for there are no known resources of natural gas nor proven oilfields to serve as feed for the ethylene plant, the population and conse- quently the market for ethylene derivatives is very much smaller ; the climate is much milder and the use of glycol anti-freeze, the oldest and most important petrochemical except alcohols, is negligible. Glycol itself absorbs over 60% of a total annual production of 600 m. lb. of ethylene oxide, 75% of the glycol being used directly as an anti-freeze. Also in Australia there is no large volume use of synthetic rubber, alcohol and benzene are cheap and readily available here, there is no need to make them specially. There is no large urban problem of hard waters necessitating domestic synthetic detergents. At the moment there seems little chance of synthetic alcohol competing with the fermentation product and even today, some million gallons a year of alcohol are blended into automotive gasoline in Queensland and burnt to carbon dioxide and water; and, unless there were sudden and drastic changes in the sugar industry it would appear that fermentation alcohol would have to become very much dearer for the synthetic product to compete. At the moment the reverse reaction appears a cheaper source of ethylene, that is the dehydration of alcohol to make ethylene, compared with the hydration of ethylene to make synthetic alcohol. With regard to styrene, it seems that a case might be made for the production of the monomer, all of which is now being imported for the polymerization plant of Monsanto in Victoria. Styrene demands two raw materials, ethylene and benzene. Benzene is available and cheap compared with overseas prices, and ethylene could be made available either by the dehydration of alcohol or from petroleum sources. The greatest use of styrene, of course, is in synthetic rubber, and today synthetic rubber is the greatest end-product of all petrochemical operations in S34 R. F. CANE. the U.S., consuming annually about one and a half million tons of hydrocarbon and, not only does the synthetic rubber industry consume over 20° of all petro- chemical production, but it, per se, represents the largest manufacturer. So far, Australia has not been a large consumer of synthetic rubber, and unless there are changes in the availability of the natural product, or a new type of rubber is discovered with vastly superior properties, it is thought that synthetic rubber production at our scale of consumption is most unlikely for some time. This being so, one is left with glycol, polyethylene and styrene, and perhaps polyvinyl chloride, as large ethylene consumers. Because of our mild climate we are not forced to use automotive anti-freeze, and this immediately takes the core out of the reasons for glycol production. This lack of demand for glycol and the high Australian chlorine cost renders prohibitive other products based on ethylene chlorhydrin. At the moment the Australian market for polyethylene has not been fully developed and polyvinyl chloride is based on acetylene. This leaves some five to six thousand tons of consumptive capacity for ethylene, which is far below the minimum scale mentioned earlier, and unless some rich source or cheaper method is found to purify the product to the purity required by most petrochemicals, that is from 95% to nearly 100% purity, it is seen that the immediate future in Australia for ethylene-derived-from- petroleum is rather dismal. In five or ten years time, perhaps, when the demand for polyethylene has increased and, as seems likely, new and improved methods of generation, purification and manufacture of end-product have come about, then ethylene manufacture does seem likely in this country. As mentioned earlier, the cost of ethylene is predicated by two facts : (1) the relatively high energy consumption per ton of product, it consuming something like 700 times per unit quantity the amount of energy as does a normal refinery, and (2) the high capital cost of plant to handle such ethylene when produced, and thus the necessity for large throughputs. In the U.S., with its great refinery capacity and ample natural gas and markets, ethylene is usually made by cracking ethane or propane at low pressures at 700-800° C. In England and Europe the process has been to crack naphtha or gas oil, and in a few places ethylene is extracted from coke oven gas by low temperature distillation. Ethane may appear the most attractive raw material because, by simple dehydrogenation, only ethylene and hydrogen are obtained, and by-product formation can be kept low. However, ethane requires much higher cracking temperatures than does propane, and cost of transportation of the raw material is prohibitive ; accordingly ethane cracking is confined to places where ethane is found. Propane is easily liquefied and transported ; it requires less drastic temperatures for cracking, but, as it can decompose in several ways, the yields are not as high as with ethane. In the case of naphtha and gas oil, yields are even lower and there is appreci- able formation of by-products which are highly aromatic in nature and are unsatisfactory for recycling, but they can serve as chemical intermediates or, at worst, as fuel. Which ever way ethylene is made the raw gas is purified by either straight low temperature distillation or a combination of this and oil absorption. Mention should be made of the enormous quantities of ethylene made at Hills by hydrogenation of acetylene from methane from coal hydro- genation gases. Ethylene is undoubtedly the main building block of the petrochemical industry and occupies first or second place among all the large volume organic chemical intermediates. Figures could be given showing the phenomenal | growth of ethylene derivatives, such as polyethylene, ethylene dichloride, ethyl PETROLEUM CHEMICALS. $35 chloride and polystyrene ; for instance, polystyrene production has increased sevenfold over the last seven years, and its production is now about 400 m. Ib. per yr. in the U.S. ; polyethylene has soared to astronomical heights in a matter of a few years, and is expected to be the first plastic to reach 1,000 m. lb. annually. Synthetic alcohol is fast replacing the natural product. And, in all, some 2,300 m. lb. of ethylene were used in chemicals’ manufacture in the U.S. last year. But quoting statistics in the chemical industry is always a dangerous game: a compound can be counted twice in cases where one organization sells a semi- refined product to another for final purification, and in the extreme the same atom can be counted many times in various stages of chemical manipulation. Never- theless, as someone has said, ‘‘ a statistician is a specialist who draws a straight line from an unwarranted assumption to a foregone conclusion ’”’ ; we can rest assured that the conclusion here is that the production of ethylene will increase and it will continue to be the mainstay of the petrochemical industry. About one-third of the production of ethylene is converted to ethylene oxide, and from the oxide to glycol and other materials. More than a quarter of the ethylene ends up as alcohol and about one-tenth in styrene and ethyl chloride. Other miscellaneous products aggregate about one-quarter. Propylene is usually obtained direct from refineries, especially those with a catalytic cracker, or from the ‘‘ heavies ’’ from an ethylene plant. Propylene separation is easy and presents no practical difficulties, for most petrochemical operations can tolerate the propane with which it is mixed. The dominating outlet for propylene is hydration to isopropyl alcohol, thence to acetone, methyl isobutyl ketone and the methacrylates, while a fast-growing demand exists for the tetramer for alkylation with benzene to give Alkane, the base of detergents such as Surf and Tide. The latest use for it is to make cumene as an inter- mediate for phenol. Butenes are used predominantly for synthetic rubber, for which they are dehydrogenated to butadiene. Again reverting to the Australian picture, it seems likely that one or other of the cracking plants now being erected will produce enough propylene to justify the manufacture of isopropyl alcohol and acetone, etc., and perhaps tetramer, but of course the economics of running a series of small diverse plants are not as favourable as one large unit producing a single product, and for this an overseas market would have to be found—the final decision rests with the oil companies. Catalytic reforming will potentially double our supply of benzene but, as Australia is already disposing of over half the present output as automotive fuel, the picture will be little altered. Toluene and toluene-containing solvents, which have been short for some time, should become readily available, and there will exist a potential supply of xylenes for the production of phthalic anhydride and terephalic acid should the need arise. As an overall picture, it seems that Australia, for the time being, will not See a rapid growth of petroleum chemicals production such as has happened in the last ten years in the U.S., and this is simply because sufficient market does not exist here and our Pacific neighbours, although many in numbers, have not the per capita demand as has the Western world. What I feel will happen is that certain spearheads will be thrust into this absorbing field and then, as our population and demand increases, the flanks will be brought into action. The petrochemical industry, whether as a whole or some particular facet, by reason of its phenomenal growth, has had a particular allure for the individual, group or company, and this has, to a certain extent, been fostered by the popular technical press. However, there is no doubt that petrochemicals are no easy road to large profits or early retiring age. Many people are included to draw loose comparisons between the petroleum refinery and the petrochemical plant, S36 R. F. CANE. and although this may be so as regards pretty photographs, to a large extent the resemblance ends there. The average petrochemical installation is about one-tenth the size of the average refinery, and consequently its investment cost per unit of product is three to four times as great. Figures taken out by the Chase National Bank in New York show the average investment cost in refineries is about 125 dollars per daily gallon, whereas in the petrochemical industry it is greater than 400 dollars. Service requirements are also much greater than in refineries, ranging from 10 to 100 times. There is also the problem of transportation of finished product which is usually more difficult than pumping gasoline or transporting it in rail cars. Nevertheless, while this field is indeed a fertile area for the properly trained and equipped, entry into it must be made slowly and with caution. The large capital investment, rapid obsolescence of plant and possibly product, high energy and service ‘requirements and the large sums which should be ploughed back into research and development to maintain a competitive position in this rapidly changing picture are a few of the obstacles in the petroleum chemicals race and even though a synthesis may look extremely attractive on paper, the scaling-up of this a millionfold may be quite another story. THE ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF AN OIL INDUSTRY ON THE AUSTRALIAN ECONOMY. By PROFESSOR C. RENWICK. Any examination of the economic effects of an oil industry on the Australian economy must start with a review of the state of the economy at the moment. In the last year or so Australia has shown considerable stability in its general economic conditions, with retail and wholesale prices remaining fairly stable and with an increase in national income of 5%. This means that there was a real gain in terms of goods and services for consumption in the economy. Total wages and salaries rose by about 7°, business and professional income by about 6%, and overall there was a personal consumption expenditure which was 10% greater than in the financial year of 1952--1953. These figures show, then, a healthy stability in the economy in which a wide range of industries held production at a high level. Output from the iron and steel, coal, copper and zinc industries approached or passed previous figures, and there was a big increase in the manufacture of many domestic articles. This was reflected in a considerable increase in the volume of retail trade: Markets widened, too, but our exports fell in money value even though they remained at a relatively high figure. I think we can sum up the period in the words of the Federal Treasurer: ‘‘ 1953-1954 was a period of stable and wide- Spread prosperity ; perhaps never before in our history have we had a year to equal it.”’ The prospects for the economy depend upon several factors—firstly on the Stabilization of this high level of production and consumption ; secondly, on the degree of national and private development ; and thirdly, on economic and business conditions abroad. Taking up the last of these first, it is an interesting fact that, despite an economic decline in the United States, the prosperity of the rest of the world has been maintained, giving the lie to the remarks that: ‘‘ When America sneezes, the rest of the world catches pneumonia ’’. For more than a year America has shown signs of economic malady, in fact has been sneezing vigorously, but so far the rest of the world has failed to give, by and large, so much as a polite cough. Industrial output in the United States is down by 10% on her high level of a year ago, but an industrial boom continues in Western Europe. One reason for the survival of prosperity in the rest of the world in the face of the American recession is the degree to which America has cut herself off from world trade. The flow of dollars is now drying up in some respects, but continues for armament and development of ‘‘ backward areas ’”’. Another reason is that big business in America, in such fields as steel and oil, is now determining its own price stability. The American industrial structure is such that giant firms dominate the various heavy industries, and these giant firms restrict output and stabilize prices in order to conserve their position. If we take the case of the production of oil, for.example, the surplus that could have developed has been controlled by cuts in the production of crude oil both at the government level, in the case of the Texas Railroad Commission, and by a voluntary cut of refinery output by big companies themselves. In this way they have prevented S38 PROFESSOR C. RENWICK. the appearance of embarrassing surplus stocks. These cuts are cushions against over-production following on over-investment, and are stabilizing in some degree the American economy. I have said a good deal about the case of America because she is regarded as one of the determining factors in world economic progress, being the most substantial and diversified industrial producer and consumer. So far we have not caught cold from America, but the germs are in the air all the time ; should our resistance be lowered, then the Australian economy will be seriously affected. At this stage, then, we should look at the health of our economy with a view to discovering what signs of stress are apparent. One thing that springs to the eye immediately is the growth of secondary industry behind tariff walls, which we must examine in a moment, another is unhealthy financial speculation connected particularly with oil and uranium. Consideration of these points brings us back to the first two of the three conditions of stability which I men- tioned a few moments ago. The general feature underlying tariff policy at the moment is the inflation of costs in all fields of activity which this policy has helped to induce. This, in turn, has brought about pressure on resources, pressure which is likely to become still more inflationary if encouraged. Inflationary pressure will threaten the ordinary business firm on which stability depends and also some of the develop- mental projects, such as the Snowy Mountains Scheme and the oil explorations in Western Australia. Rising costs will be the greatest enemy of any successful development of an oil industry in this economy just as they have become the enemy of long established and successful industries such as steel and wool. Both these industries have been seriously affected by rising costs, which have developed as a result of tariff protection. These rising costs are like a disease: once they secure a grip on one part of the economy, they spread outwards to all parts and even the healthiest industries will be affected. The problem is to control costs at all points, particularly at those points where they are most likely to increase most rapidly. Rising costs can be explained quite simply in terms of such things as attractive wage rates, shortages of building materials, inadequate transport and a search for quick profits. Fundamentally, it is a question of a scramble for Scarce resources which have many alternative uses. The Australian tariff policy, in recent years, has tended to encourage the growth within this economy, at high cost, of a miniature diversified industrial economy. It is a small scale replica of the United States. This has been achieved without guaranteeing future Stability of the economy. In connection with the development of an oil industry within the Australian economy we can dispose very quickly of certain illusions which have developed with surprising speed in recent months. To quote from a popular Australian magazine: ‘‘ The discovery of oil in substantial quantities in Australia is hoped to play as great a part in the future development of the country as the discovery of gold did at an earlier stage of our history. Gold brought wealth to the country. It also brought the first big influx of free settlers, and an outstanding population increase in what was then a backward colony. Now Australia is a nation. Oil, together with the other great hope in our future, uranium, could make it a powerful nation.”’ I would suggest that, for this type of development to take place, the amount of oil discovered and usable would have to be great. At the same time there is to be considered the fact that America, one of the great oil producers and suppliers of capital for oil exploitation, is at this moment limiting oil production to maintain internal stability. This suggests something of a dilemma. If oil is to be a great source of national development, it would at the same time ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF OIL INDUSTRY ON AUSTRALIAN ECONOMY. S39 be a source of national embarrassment if we attempted to export it in large quantities to a stable or declining world market. But the problem is deeper still, touching fundamentally on the matter of the formation and use of capital in the economy. The by-products of an oil industry are of tremendous significance to an industrial economy providing, as they do, a great range of subsidiary commodities, but this range of subsidiary commodities is achieved only under conditions of large-scale and diversified production such as obtains in the United States. The Australian economy is not really like that of the United States, even though we enjoy a high standard of living. This is not based fundamentally on division of labour in a large population plus growing markets at home and abroad. Rather, we have achieved our prosperity and development by sacrificing the development of national capital in the form of public works of all kinds, and at the cost of losing or failing to develop much of our export market. High levels of current consumption have replaced what seems to be an old-fashioned but nevertheless basic activity: that of capital accumulation. This has led to a consumption of resources in the short run which must affect future productivity in the Australian economy. If a large-scale oil industry were to develop in Australia, it would probably be at the cost of still more national development, and would be established in direct competition with alternative private capital investment. Wool still remains our trump card in the field of exports, and the prospects of a great export market in oil seem slight. The internal use of Australian oil would be as a substitute for crude products brought here and refined in our refineries. A moderate production of oil, then, would conserve our foreign balances and make the defence position better. But it could seriously disrupt the coal industry, which is already in a difficult position, and impinge on all other industries in some degree. The positive gain of oil production in Australia will lie in the extent to which we can substitute our oil for foreign oil without an increase in costs, without retarding other essential national development, and without thoughtlessly disrupting important spheres of production in other sectors of the economy. S73n.e hynny AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING ComPaNy Lr _ Arundel and Seamer Streets, Glebe, N.S.W. te reer yo ati . OF NEW SOUTH WALES oe | FOR 6 2s ne | (INCORPORATED 1881) ss PART =IV (pp. 71-135 and xiii-xvi) es es One. aoe - VOL. LXkVa ao - Be Containing Papers read in December, a sidge Research Lecture, Abstract of Proceedings, and Index | Be Sy ED ITEREE __F.N. HANLON, B.Sc., Dip.Ed. ie ae : Honorary Hditorial Secretary ants y ‘THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE — _ STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN © PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE ss GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS te the General Post Offfte, Sydney, trans cal icky ee coe Ant. XIV. —Quartzite Xenoliths in the Tortiary Magmas of ae Souther * r ud-Gloucester | oe ‘XVI. —Liversidge Research Lecture. ope the Berea. Pigments and Enzymes. / JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 1954 (INCORPORATED 1881) VOLUME LXXXVIII Part IV EDITED BY F. N. HANLON, B. Sc., Dip. Ed. Honorary Editorial Secretary THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN SYDNEY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS ON THE ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOUR OF HANKEL TRANSFORMS. By J. L. GRIFFITH, B.A., M.Sc. School of Mathematics, New South Wales University of Technology. Manuscript received, July 19, 1954. Read, December 1, 1954. SUMMARY. Assuming that glu) = | nJv(ua)g(a)der, 0 it is proved that, with certain restriction on the functions and constants, lim {up +2—ag(u)} (gp +3v —434 +1) lim {(—aypanevse( 5) (Se Vt u—> 0 ~ 22-11 (dp +4v +44) 204 wdx} \ av J This formula is modified to cover the case when g(x) and its derivatives possess a finite number of finite discontinuities. I. INTRODUCTION. In my previous paper [G] on the same subject, I obtained the above result for the case p=0. This was proved in two theorems which will be referred to as Gl and G2. The generalizations follow very easily, provided some restrictions are placed on the behaviour of the derivatives. As in [G], it will be assumed that when g(x) is given, g(w) will be defined by G(u) =|" BI yV(UDVOUD AG? nce ccs cccceees (1.1) 0 and when g(u) is given, g(x) will be defined by gto)=| ud y(ou)g(ujdu. .......222006- (1.2) 0 The integrals in equations (1.1) and (1.2) are not assumed to converge absolutely at the upper limit. When we are dealing with the Hankel Transforms, we may assume that both equations hold. However, this will not be assumed in this note. In addition to the restrictions placed on v in the theorems, it will be assumed that v is not a negative integer. The following notation will be used : GV = 0 9g (0) I oes Ss de cee we as (1.4) _ Vp +3v—3a+1) y(p, Vy 2) — 5517 (Spee iveera): oe eee eo wo 72 J. L. GRIFFITH. Il. THE GENERALIZATION OF THEOREM Gl. Theorem A (t). If g(x) is a function of x, such that dx Osn0 as 2204+, OSn0 as >, OSn0, and satisfies the assumptions of G1 (v-+p replacing v of that theorem). Then lim {w?*?—9g(u)}=y(p, v, a) lim {(—1)PartvteDPg(y, x)}, (2.1) x—>0+ where g(u) is defined by equation (1.1) and where 4 CO assuming that Se ee pk a (2.8) which proves the theorem. We now suppose that at a finite number of points, «=a,, some (or all) of the derivatives & Jc, O0%g+ %—>%_— te equation (2.5) shows that the left side of equation (2.6) must be replaced y : p-l UPg(w) + = 2i(—1)"G(n, q)uP—" 1S nya (UH,). .... (2.10) n=0 q This modification would be carried through to equation (2.7) and we have proved NOV'7 1955 74 J. L. GRIFFITH. Theorem A (it). Assuming that (i) at a finite number of points «=z, (<2) 9 (O 0 =y(p, v, a) lim {(—1)Par+vteDrg(y, @)} 2... eee eee (al x—>0+ where g(u) is defined by equation (1.1), and G(n, q) by equation (2.9), and where $ 00 n=0 q i | Ce (3.3) where g(x) is defined by equation (1.2) and where —V Dene NS. oon ou oie ae pene ae (3.4) Proof. Introducing the unit function H(t) defined by H(t) =1,, 120 poe ae ed, deg (3.5) H(t)=0, t<0 | ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOUR OF HANKEL TRANSFORMS. 75 we find that | Is41(Ua,)I,(us)du=—"_H (aw, —2), 0 a ((W.B.F.], p. 406.) In particular, this formula gives Z[* 2G, Wo in eater Ty (ude 0 Then and gly, w= |" UG (U)0 VIN UDIUU: ne cose cease (3.7) 0 After using equation (3.6) with n=0, we obtain g(v, 2) +Q(0) = { ” Lugo() +EG(O, q)Ty 41 (wer,) wo-¥T v(mer)dee q 0 7 | * G,(w)e-YTv(un)du. 0 This equation is now differentiated with regard to x and the result is justified by uniform convergence. Thus Dig(v, @) +Q(0)J=D | ° Gluyo—"T (uaa 0 arf “ ui Ma M) 5 g [ (wa) VI y(ua) du 5 Ux) = —y1 a ui t+vg,(u)(ux) VI y 41 (ux)du - ((W.B.F.], p. 45). == {™ gy (ule Ty (uaa 2 0 ee) -—| UG, (U)oVAD, (Ue)du. .. 20. eee (3.8) 0 After p steps we obtain av+PD[D[. . .[D[g(v, v7) +9(0)]+@()]. . -14+4(p —1)] aie | NGA) y 4p WO\ON MO er (3.9) 76 J. L. GRIFFITH. In the neighbourhood of the origin (i.e. to the left of all the x,), it is clear that the left side of equation (3.9) reduces to i ag 9 6 12/0) VA oe ae UES ne (3.10) It is also clear that equations (3.1) and (3.2) give 1 Fp(u) =urg(u)-+ DE —1yPE(m, qQur—" Ty natty)... (8-11) n=0 q So equation (3.9) and Theorem G2 give the required result (3.3). We have only to show that the G(n, q) defined by equation (2.9) are the same as the G(n, q) defined at the beginning of this section. This follows easily after an examination of the left sides of equations (3.8), (3.9) and the inter- mediate equations. It is also clear that when Gin, q) 0, Tor alls nip, 0 (3.12) equation (3.3) reduces to equation (2.1). | We have shown that provided g(a) and g(wu) satisfy the assumptions of the theorems, equations (2.1) and (2.11) hold for VP 0 eee ee See (3.13) If f(x) or f(w), defined in Theorems A(i) and B respectively, possesses dis- continuities, it follows from sections 3 and 4 of [G] that the additional restriction DA Bs oe A lee te eee ate (3.14) must be made. The two most important special cases of equation (2.1) are: (i) for a=0 lim {(—1)?uP+2g(u)}=(p+yv) lim [#?+YDrg(v, v)] .... (3.15) u—> 00 20+ for p+v>0. (ii) for v=0 lim {(—1)?uPt+?2—%9(u)}=y(p, 0, a) lim [aP+4DPg(x)] .. (3.16) U—> 00 z—0+ for —p (He OES AMAA ce (3.17) n=0 then lim [u??+8g(w)]=(—1)?t1[(2p +1)(2p —1). . .1]?dep +1 uU—-> & where g(u) is the zeroth order transform and dg, is the first non-zero odd coefficient in equation (3.17). REFERENCES. [G.] Griffith, J. L. “A Theorem Concerning the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel Transforms.’ THis JOURNAL, 88, 61. [W.B.F.] Watson, G. N. ‘“* Theory of Bessel Functions.’ Cambridge, 1945. GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE COONAMBLE BASIN, N.S.W. By J. RADE* Manuscript received, June 4, 1954. Read, December 1, 1954. INTRODUCTION. The present paper deals with the geology of the Coonamble Basin, situated in the Dubbo area of the central portion of New South Wales. The Coonamble Basin is taken as a separate unit, since it forms the largest em- bayment of the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin and bears several characteristic geological features. The main part of the Coonamble Basin is located between Gilgandra and Warren in the south and reaches north to the vicinity of Walgett, the northern boundary coinciding with the Barwon and Namoi Rivers. The eastern margin is located to the west of the Warrumbungle Mountains, while the western margin is formed by a peninsular-like structural high in the Palaeozoic base- ment complex which stretches in a north-easterly direction into the Great Artesian Basin. The area of the basin is approximately 9,000 square miles. Previous geological publications concerning the artesian bores of the Coonamble Basin include those by Symmonds (1912), Mulholland (1950), and David (1950). The results of the foraminiferal studies of the sediments of the Great Artesian Basin, made by Crespin (1944, 1945, 1946, 1953), are also applicable to the smaller area at present under consideration. Full use of the data collected by the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Sydney, has been made in the writing of the present paper. GEOLOGY. Paleozoic basement rocks underlie the Mesozoic rocks of the Coonamble area. The Paleozoic basement complex consists of sediments of Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian age. These are intruded by Kanimblan granites, often in the form of felspar porphyries, especially in the eastern part of the area. It is also possible that some of the granites encountered in the western part of the basin belong to the Caledonian orogenic epoch. The Palzxozoic sediments are often found to be represented in the bores by slates and micaceous schists. The granites evidently form large batholiths, and occupy the cores of the structural ridges of the basement. The configuration of the basement complex will be treated later in the paper, but before this is done, a more detailed account of the lithology of the basement complex will be given. At Coonamble the Coonamble No. 3 bore reached the basement at a depth of 2,158 feet. The basement consisted of slate containing a variable amount of quartz. Paleozoic slate was encoun- tered at a depth of 1,995 feet in the Quambone No. 2 bore, situated 20 miles to the west-north-west of Coonamble. It was overlain by the sandstones and coarse gravel of the Pilliga Sandstone of the Walloon ‘‘Series’’. In the *Geologist, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Sydney. 78 | J. RADE. Carinda bore, located near Carinda, Paleozoic slates were encountered at 2,240 feet below the surface, while similar slates were encountered at depth of 2,133 feet in the Wangrewally bore, situated 27 miles south-west of Wal- gett. The Sunny Vale No. 2 bore, situated 44 miles north-west of Warren, 700 § 590 PILLIGA %00 200 100 | DATUM SEA LEVEL SCALE WARREN FAULT SHOWN THUS ==xm eres eee ee PROBABLE FAULT SHOWN JHUS awe : PALAEOZOIC BASEMENT CLOSE TQ SURFACE OR OQUTCROPPING SHOWN THUS RB. Text-fig. 1. encountered Paleozoic slates at 1,335 feet ; the bore reached a depth of 1,577 feet 10 inches and was then reported to be in dense volcanic tuff. Volcanic breccia is recorded at a depth of 2,020 feet below the surface of the Quam- bone No. 1 bore, situated 32 miles west of Coonamble. In the Wingadee No. 6 bore, located 26 miles north of Coonamble, micaceous schist was encountered at a depth of 2,075 feet. GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE COONAMBLE BASIN, N.S.W. 79 The Kanimblan granites were encountered by the Tholoo bore, in the north-eastern part of the map area, 30 miles east of Walgett. They were first penetrated at a depth of 2,680 feet, and the drilling continued in the granite for a further 52 feet. Granite was also encountered at Warren in the southern part of the map area, where the Warren bore penetrated it at a depth of 817 feet. The Three Corners bore, situated north-north-east of Warren, struck granite at 941 feet. In both the Warren bore and the Three Corners bore the granite was overlain directly by the Pilliga Sandstone of the Walloon ‘‘ Series’. The granites form a north-easterly trending basement ridge to the north-north-east of Warren, and are encountered at a depth of 900 feet in the Wildwood bore, situated 37 miles to the north-north-east of Warren. It is suggested that these granites of the Warren district represent a north-westerly continuation of the great granite batholith which is exposed to the south- west of Dubbo. Evidence supporting this conclusion is found in the small outcrops of granite which are found between Dubbo and Warren. Most of the south-western part of the map area is underlain by granite outcropping at Mt. Foster, Mt. Harris, and Mt. Eugolma. To the north-west of these mountains the granite is encountered at a depth of 395 feet in a bore situated in Portion 20 of the parish of Willie, County of Gregory, 60 miles north-west of Warren. The granite was first struck at 717 feet, and drilled for a further 91 feet in the Thornwood bore, situated 63 miles north-west of Warren. The dome in the Palzozoic basement complex which occupies the north-western corner of the map area also consists of granite. On the north-west side of this dome the Brewon No. 4 bore, situated 32 miles west-south-west of Walgett, reached granite at a depth of 2,354 feet. The Bogewong No. 1 bore, situated on the crest of the dome, 27 miles south-west of Walgett, struck the granite at 1,399 feet below the surface. Granite was first reached at a depth of 1,543 feet and penetrated for a further 62 feet in the Borgara bore, situated 21 miles south-west of Walgett. From this bore data it is clear that the granites partially form the margins of the Coonamble Basin, either outcropping or coming to within a shallow depth from the land surface. The Mesozoic rocks encountered in the area are of Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous age. As pointed out by Mulholland (1950, p. 126), the Triassic sediments consist mainly of shales; they are thickest in the eastern parts of the basin and thin considerably towards the west. As evidence of this, the Jurassic rocks are seen to overly the Triassic sediments in the eastern part of the basin, whereas they directly overly the Paleozoic basement complex in the western portion. The Jurassic sediments are much more shaly than their equivalents in the Moree district. This is readily related to their environments of deposition, since the sediments of the Coonamble Basin were deposited in an embayment of the main lake. It is found that the Jurassic sediments are particularly Shaly in the western part of the basin, but have a more usual character in the eastern part. This is partially due to the configuration of the basement, and partly due to the character of the sediment which was introduced into the basin. The terrigenous material brought into the eastern part of the basin would have been derived from the weathering of the Kanimblan granites and the New England granodiorite batholith. The latter was being subjected to intensive denudation during the Jurassic period, and sandy sediments are thus to be expected. The slates and micaceous schist of the basement complex were freely exposed to the west of the Coonamble Basin during the Jurassic, and thus sediments of a finer texture are to be expected in this area. The nature of the sediments must also be related to the depths in different parts of the basin and the turbulance of the water at the time of deposition. Rela- tively turbulant water is thought to have been present on the more open 80 J. RADE. eastern part of the basin. However the contours of the basement rocks on the western side of the basin seem to suggest that this area consisted of a number of north-easterly directed embayments. Shales are known to have accumulated in the quieter waters of this part of the basin. n° | 4¢'7/ QUAMBONE Q S \ ff = 1300 \ Z a \F 5 £% \ Dy) fh Ay (Aa. aecavenn ie —} ss A) CONTOURS SHOWN ARE BELOW SEA LEVEL SCALE mites? 29 4 ‘2 /Onices Text-fig. 2. The high pyrite content of some of the shales seems to indicate that the waters were tranquil and stagnant in at least some parts of the basin. Con- ditions must have been similar to those in which pyrite is known to have developed in some of the Jurassic sediments of Europe. The Jurassic Walloon “ Series ’”’ consists of the Purlawaugh Shale and Pilliiga Sandstone. The Purlawaugh Shale is best known from the eastern part of the Coonamble Basin, where it is difficult to distinguish it on litho- logical grounds from the lower Mesozoic sediments. In the Galga No. 1 bore, GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE COONAMBLE BASIN, N.S.W. 81 situated 25 miles east-south-east of Coonamble, the Purlawaugh Shale is first encountered at a depth of 980 feet. The upper 693 feet of the formation consists of shale, and this is underlain by clays with a thickness of 150 feet. Mulholland (1950, p. 125), has stated that the thickness of the Purlawaugh Shale in the Coonabarabran area is about 200 feet. Recent investigations by the writer have shown that the thickness of this formation in the Warialda intake area, located east of Moree, is in the vicinity of 300 feet. It can be concluded that only the upper part of the shales in the Galga No. 1 bore represent the Purlawaugh Shale, and that the lower shales and clays are of Triassic age. Investigations in the eastern part of the Coonamble Basin show that the Purlawaugh Shale was only deposited between the granitic ridges of the basement complex, the granitic ridges having apparently projected as land ridges during the period of deposition of the shale. In the eastern portion of the Coonamble Basin, the Purlawaugh Shale is overlain by the Pilliga Sandstone, the latter formation being represented in this area by a pure sandstone without intercalations of shale. This formation has been penetrated in several of the bores drilled in the area under considera- tion. The Nebea No. 2 bore, situated 12 miles north-east of Coonamble penetrated 1,291 feet of sandstone with gravel intercalations. This formation was overlain by the shales and clays with thin sandstone intercalations, which are thought to be of Cretaceous age, and underlain by the Paleozoic schists of the basement complex. In the Milchomi bore, 37 miles north-east of Coonamble, the shales, clays, and sandstone intercalations of the Cretaceous were penetrated to a depth of 1,151 feet, where they gave place to the sand- stones of the Pilliga Sandstone, the latter being penetrated for a further 756 feet. To the west of the Coonamble Basin, the Pilliga Sandstone directly over- lies the slates, tuffaceous and micaceous schists, and granites of the basement complex. Some bores in the eastern part of the basin, such as the Tholoo bore, show that in some places the Pilliga Sandstone directly overlies the Kanimblan granites. The same stratigraphic associations are known in the southern part of the basin, as was shown earlier in the paper with reference to the Warren bores. Further to the west in the deeper portions of the Coon- amble Basin, the Pilliga Sandstone is known to include intercalations of shale. Conglomeratic intercalations are sometimes encountered in the Pilliga Sandstone. It is significant that these conglomerates generally occur in the vicinity of the ridges of the Paleozoic basement complex. In this connection it is interesting to examine the north-westerly trending ridge which is known to the north-west of Coonamble. The Yowie bore is situated 12 miles to the north-west of Coonamble and is situated on this basement ridge. The bore logs record the repeated occurrence of conglomerates, and the sediments are generally coarser than those of corresponding horizons in other parts of the basin. This is to be expected, since the waters overlying this basement ridge would have been shallower and more turbid than in the deeper parts of the basin. Tuffaceous schists of the basement complex were penetrated by the Yowie bore over a distance of 46 feet. The sediments of the Walloon ‘‘ Series ’’ encountered in the Yowie bore show clearly marked cycles of sedimentation, five complete cycles having been recognised. They begin with fine grained sediments such as shale and fine sand, and terminate with the deposition of conglomerates. One such cycle was also encountered in the Cretaceous sediments. Here a bed of quartzite pebbles and shale with a thickness of 23 feet is encountered at a depth of 397 feet, and is underlain by 40 feet coal. The whole sequence is enclosed by beds of clay. It is considered by the present author that these cycles of 82 J. RADE. sedimentation reflect the saltatory uplift of the margins of the Coonamble Basin during the Mesozoic. Conglomerates are also encountered in other parts of the Coonamble Basin. The Woodlands bore, situated 4 miles south-south-west of Coonamble, encountered a conglomerate bed with a thickness of 8 feet at a depth of 1,720 feet. This bore is situated on the south-western margin of the basement ridge mentioned in connection with the Yowie bore. In the previously mentioned Nebea bore, north-east of Coonamble, 23 feet of gravel and sand were encountered at a depth of 1,213 feet. Conglomerates were encountered north of Warren, in an area in which the granites form a basement ridge which is elongated in a north-easterly to south-westerly direction. They were met with in the Wildwood bore, situated 37 miles north-north-east of Warren. The northern, south-western and southern sides of this basement ridge are known to be encircled by con- glomerates. To the south-west of the ridge they are encountered at a depth of 900 feet in the Coburg bore, situated 27 miles north-north-west of Warren. The Stray Leaves bore, situated 28 miles north-north-east of Warren and on the southern side of the basement ridge, encountered 13 feet of conglomerate at a depth of 1,305 feet. To the northern side of the same ridge, 50 feet of relatively unconsolidated sandstone and conglomerate were encountered at a depth of 1,400 feet below the surface in the Ellerslie bore, situated 43 miles, north-north-east of Warren. Further to the north-west, 12 feet of gravels and sandy shale were encountered at a depth of 988 feet in the Stanley bore, situated 57 miles north-west of Warren. Conglomeratic intercalations ranging in thickness from 4-9 feet are recorded from the Walloon ‘‘ Series ’’ where it was penetrated by the Wallamgambone bore, 59 miles north-west of Warren. In Jurassic times the Coonamble Basin formed a large embayment along the border of Lake Walloon. Sedimentation took place under tranquil con- ditions in the western portion of the embayment, but the water must have been more turbid in the eastern portion. However in no part of the embay- ment were conditions as turbid as they appear to have been in the Moree district. These tranquil conditions of deposition account for the fine texture of the sediments in the Coonamble Basin, and for the numerous intercalations of shale in the Pilliga Sandstone. The average thickness of the Walloon ‘‘Series ’’ in the Coonamble Basin is 800 feet. Mulholland (1950, p. 126), estimates the thickness of the Pilliga Sandstone in the Coonabarabran intake area to be of the order of 600 feet. Difficulty is sometimes encountered in the Coonamble Basin in determin- ing on lithological evidence the transition from the Jurassic sediments to the lacustrine Blythesdale ‘Series ’’. However, geological and hydrological in- vestigations in the Moree district have shown that the sediments of Jurassic and Cretaceous age are more readily separated and that the upper artesian aquifers are located in the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’”’. With this information regarding the stratigraphic position of the aquifers in the Moree district, it is possible to interpolate in the Coonamble Basin and deter- mine the stratigraphic horizon by reference to the aquifers. The Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’”? as developed in the Coonamble Basin is similar in lithology to the corresponding sediments of the Moree district, consisting of shales and sandy shales, with coal seams and sandstone intercalations. The average thickness of the Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’ in the Coonamble Basin is between 500 feet and 600 feet. The Blythesdale ‘‘ Series’ is followed by the marine Roma ‘“‘ Series ”’, consisting almost entirely of blue and grey shales, but with occasional inter- calations of sandy shales. The average thickness of the Roma “ Series ”’ in the Coonamble Basin is between 700 feet and 900 feet. GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE COONAMBLE BASIN, N.S.W. 83 Foraminiferal determinations of samples from the Roma ‘‘ Series ’? have been made by Miss Irene Crespin, Paleontologist, Bureau of Mineral Resources. In the Lochinwar bore, situated 3-5 miles west-south-west of Carinda, the youngest Foraminifera were found from 254-304 feet in grey carbonaceous shale and sandstone. They were associated with indeterminate plant remains, thin shelled Mollusca, and Ostracoda. From 704-754 feet, the bore samples contained fragments of limestone, and from 754-802 feet, frag- ments of calcareous sandstone, carbonaceous shale and limestones containing rare Foraminifera were reported. Miss Crespin has kindly given permission for the publication of her foraminiferal determinations of the fauna contained in the Lochinwar bore between depths of 254 feet and 802 feet. They are as follows : Ammobaculites australe. Ammodiscus sp. Anomalina mawsont. EHpondes sp. Haplophragmoides cf. chapman. Lagena levis. Lenticulina ef. gibba. Marginulina bullata. Marginulinopsis subcretacea. Pyrulina fusiformis. Robulus gunderbookensis. Saracenaria cf. acutiauricularis. Spiroplectammina cushmani. Valvulinertia parvula. Ostracoda were also encountered between 254-704 feet, and they have been identified by Miss Crespin as follows : Bythocypris sp. Cythereis sp. Cytheropteron cf. concentricum. This assemblage of Foraminifera and Ostracoda is characteristic of the Lower Cretaceous sediments of the Great Artesian Basin. The Roma “ Series’? in the Coonamble Basin is overlain by the Upper Cretaceous Winton ‘‘ Series ’’, representing the lacustrine deposits which developed in Lake Winton. These are of a more sandy character than the marine Roma “ Series ’’, and contain small seams of lignite and coal. Gas was encountered in the coaly intercalations between the shale at 665-675 feet in the Keelendi No. 2 bore, situated 16 miles north-west of Pilliga. The Winton ‘‘ Series ’’ is best known in the northern part of the Coonamble Basin, especially towards the north-eastern portion. The average thickness of the Winton ‘ Series ’’ in the Coonamble Basin is 500 feet. A separate paper, by the present author, dealing with the basement structures of the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin will be published in the near future. Thus, only a brief summary of the basement structures of the Coonamble Basin will be given in the present paper. It may be seen from the accompanying contour plan that the main trend dominating the basement of the Coonamble Basin has a north-easterly direction, being expressed in the alignment of the ridges and valleys in the western part of the Basin. A basement valley, elongated in the same north-easterly direction, occurs in the eastern portion of the Coonamble Basin to the north-west of Galargambone. A dome-like topographic feature of the basement complex, also elongated in the north-easterly direction, is found to the south-west of 84 J. RADE. Walgett. Most of the basement valleys which exhibit this north-easterly alignment are extremely narrow. Close observation of the basement contours in the north-eastern portion of the Coonamble Basin indicates the presence of a north-north-westerly trend direction. This trend is expressed by the ridges which protrude from the south-eastern margin of the Coonamble Basin. They are well developed in the vicinity of Coonamble. A basement ridge with a trend direction slightly north of west protrudes from the east-south-east into the Coonamble Basin about 26 miles north of Coonamble. The ridge is thought to be composed of Kanimblan granite. The roughly meridional elongation of the central portion of the Coonamble Basin, to the north-west of Coonamble, is thought to be due to the interrelation of the above-mentioned trends. Bryan (1925, p. 21), recognised two trends in Queensland, one in a north- easterly direction and the other in a north-north-westerly direction. He regarded the north-easterly trend as being the older of the two. The work in the Coonamble Basin has convinced the present author that the north- easterly trend can be referred to the Caledonian diastrophism, whereas the north-north-westerly trend represents the Variscan diastrophism. A contour plan of the aquifers of the Coonamble Basin has been drawn to determine to what extent the contours of the basement complex are reflected in the contours of the aquifers. The aquifers of the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’ were found to be the most easily recognised, and have thus generally been used in the construction of the aquifer contours. . Certain structural features are seen to be common when a comparison of the contours of the basement complex and the aquifers is made. The same structural basins and domes occur on both contour plans. Similarities in the two sets of contours may be seen in the domal structure to the south-west of Walgett and the small basin which occurs to the south-south-west of Coonamble. Both of these structures are elongated in a north-easterly direction. It has been seen that this trend direction dominated in the Paleozoic basement complex of the Coonamble Basin, and that it is related to the older Paleozoic period of diastrophism. Of great interest are the contours of the aquifers which overly a Paleozoic ridge which protrudes into the Coonamble Basin from the east-south-east, and is situated 23 miles south-west of Pilliga. The contours point to the presence of a fault along the northern side of the ridge. The strike of the fault is north 64 degrees west, and the throw is approximately 400 feet. The depression in the aquifer contours to the north of the fault can be traced further to the west-north-west, where it is located again 18 miles south-east of Walgett. The west-north-westerly continuation of this depression cannot be traced in the basement complex, so that it is clear that supplementary structures which are unknown in the basement complex do occur in the overlying Mesozoic rocks. A probable fault bordering the southern side of the above-mentioned Paleozoic ridge is encountered 33 miles south-west of Pilliga. However, the contours of the Paleozoic basement do not reveal its basement continuation, — probably because very little information regarding the basement is available, few bores having reached it in this area. In better known areas, faulting of the basement is known to be a characteristic feature. It is well known from the eastern margins of the Great Artesian Basin, and similar infaulted embayments in the Moree district and the Warialda intake area have recently been detected by the present author. A close study of the eastern portion of the accompanying contour plan of the aquifers will reveal the presence of the later Palzeozoic north-westerly trend. This trend is clearly expressed by the anticlinal structures which trend GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE COONAMBLE BASIN, N.S.W. 85 in fron the eastern margin of the Coonamble Basin. The interrelation of this latter trend with the dominant trend produces, towards the centre of the Coonamble Basin, small basin structures in both the basement and the over- lying sediments. Several granites of Paleozoic age outcrop in the southern part of the area covered by the contour plan. The contours of the aquifers in this area are complex, and it is probable that the accompanying contour plan does not represent them accurately. HYDROLOGY. Some shallow but salty aquifers are known from the Coonamble Basin. The depth range of these salty aquifers is 80-200 feet, the average depth being about 100 feet. Subartesian aquifers are encountered in the Upper Cretaceous Winton ‘Series ’’; they are of economic value in those areas where the artesian aquifers are found only at great depth. The water is generally brackish, although suitable for sheep, but the yields are small. Such aquifers are known to the north-west and west of Pilliga, and range in depth from 470-640 feet. In this same area the first true artesian aquifers are encountered 700-800 feet deeper than the aquifers of the Winton ‘Series ’’, and the main artesian aquifers occur 1,100 feet below the Winton ‘‘ Series ’’ aquifers. The following table contains information regarding the aquifers of the Winton ‘‘ Series ”’ in the north-eastern portion of the Coonamble Basin. Depth of Name of Location | Year aquifer Water Yield of Bore | completed in feet rose aquifer Gorian .. | 24 miles NNW | 1905 518 within few very small of Pilliga feet of supply | surface et as ear ies oe ee | | | Keelendi | 16 miles NW 1941 470 110 feet | 4800 g.p.d. No. 2 | of Pilliga | | | Kiewa .. .. | 28 miles WSW | 1936 590 _ 200 g.p.h. of Pilliga | | Wingadee 31 miles W | 1920 | 640 | 40 feet small No. 7 ase of Pilliga | | supply | | The aquifers of the Winton ‘ Series ’’ are also encountered in the partly infaulted embayments of the eastern portion of the Coonamble Basin. This was the case with the Nyleve bore, situated 30 miles north-east of Coonamble in an embayment which is known to be terminated to the south by a fault. The aquifer was penetrated at 512 feet below the surface; the static water level was found to be 90 feet below the surface, and the water proved to be brackish. Apart from the areas mentioned above, the aquifers of the Winton ‘* Series ’’ are also known from the north-western portion of the map area. The upper artesian aquifers are located in sandstone intercalations of the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘‘Series’’. These intercalations have an 86 J. RADE. average thickness of 30 feet. Some typical from the Coonamble Basin will be mentioned below. In the Ottendorf bore, situated 16 miles north-west of Coonamble, the sandstone intercalation which forms the aquifer of the Blythes- dale ‘‘ Series ’’ has a thickness of 40 feet. The Milchomi bore, situated 36 miles north-east of Coonamble, encountered the Blythesdale aquifer at a depth of 849 feet below the surface. It occurred in a sandy intercalation into shales which extended from 785-890 feet. In the Thornydyke No. 2 bore, situated 25 miles north-west of Coonamble, the upper artesian aquifer of the Blythes- dale ‘‘ Series ’’ consisted of a sandstone intercalation into the shales and extended from 1,335-1,367 feet. The same aquifer was encountered in the Thornydyke bore, situated 24 miles north-west of Coonamble. Water was first struck at 1,310 feet, and occurred in a sandstone intercalation into the shales, which extended from 1,272-1,342 feet. The main artesian aquifers are located in the sandstones of the Jurassic Walloon ‘‘ Series ’’. These sandstone beds are often sealed by intercalations of shale, especially in the deeper western portions of the Coonamble Basin. The main aquifers commonly follow the contours of the surface of the base- ment complex, so that contour maps of the Paleozoic basement are of con- siderable value. The main aquifers commonly lie a short distance above the surface of the Paleozoic basement, but in the Hollywood No. 1 bore they lie immediately above the surface of the basement. A contour map of the upper artesian aquifers of the Coonamble Basin has been prepared by the present author. The aquifers of the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’ have generally been considered in this compilation. However, the Blythesdale aquifers are not well known around the margins of the basin, and since the map was prepared essentially for practical purposes, the upper aquifers of the Walloon ‘‘ Series ’’ have been included in the map where bore information regarding the aquifers of the Blythesdale “ Series ”’ is not available. This substitution of the aquifer used in mapping is par- ticularly common in those marginal areas where the Blythesdale aquifers are not developed. Such is the case in the southern and south-western parts of the map area, where the Kanimblan granites outcrop at Mt. Foster and Mt. Harris. However, it is probable that this practice does not introduce any relatively great inaccuracy, since the maps are only of a general nature. This contour plan has considerable practical value, since if the depths of the Blythesdale aquifers are known, then the depths of the aquifers of the Walloon ‘‘ Series ’’ may be readily calculated. As a rule, the contours repre- sent the horizon of artesian flow, although in a limited number of cases the flow has been subartesian. This was the case with the Noonbah bore, situated 38 miles south-west of Coonamble, which encountered a subartesian aquifer at a depth of 293 feet. However, in this bore the water rose to a shallow depth, fresh water appearing at a static water level of 50 feet below the sur- face. In this case the water came from a 4-feet coal seam intercalated into clay and shale. This coal seam may be used as a datum level, since in the Thurn bore, situated 24 miles west-north-west of Coonamble, the same coal seam was penetrated at 1,115 feet below the surface and was found to have a thick- ness of 2 feet. The coal seam in the Thurn bore was underlain by 38 feet of sandstone, the latter being in turn underlain by sandy shale. The sandstone bed provided a subartesian aquifer which brought water to a static water level 20 feet below the surface and yielded 600 gallons per hour. The aquifers in both of the bores mentioned above may be correlated with the upper aquifer of the Blythesdale ‘“‘Series’’. This aquifer does not persist to the south- south-west. Thus in the Buttabone No. 1 bore, situated 52 miles south-west GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE COONAMBLE BASIN, N.S.w. 87 of Coonamble, only the aquifers of the Walloon ‘“ Series ’’ were encountered appearing at 750 feet and 850 feet below the surface. The first true artesian aquifers in the Thurn bore did not appear until a depth of 1,717 feet had been reached. In the eastern portion of the Coonamble Basin the water of the main aquifers contains less than 40 grains per gallon of total solids, but towards the west the amount of total solids increases. This is clearly shown by the series of chemical analysis of the waters from bores along the line connecting the Tunderbrine No. 3 bore, situated 30 miles south-east of Coonamble, with the Brewon No. 4 bore, situated 32 miles west-south-west of Walgett. The water encountered in the Tunderbrine No. 3 bore is of excellent quality, containing only 13 grains per gallon of total solids. The highest content of total solids of the bores along this line is found in the waters of the Ottendorf bore, which contained 76 grains per gallon. Here only the aquifers of the Blythesdale ‘* Series ’? were penetrated, and the deeper aquifers of the Walloon “ Series ”’ were not encountered. The waters from the bores in the south-western portion of the Coonamble Basin bear approximately 50 grains per gallon of total solids, this being a higher total solid content than is found in the bores in the south- eastern portion of the Basin. The chemical content of the water can be related to the change in the type of sedimentary deposit, since shales predominate in the south-western part of the Coonamble Basin. Sodium sulphate occurs in the waters of the bores to the south-east of the section under examination, but in the north-west of the section, commencing with the Wingadee No. 3 bore, situated 35 miles north-west of Coonamble, no further sulphates have been recorded. The results of the chemical analysis of the water obtained from the bores mentioned above can be found in Report of Interstate Con- ference on Artesian Water (1912, p. 93, 99-100, 106-108), Report of the Second Interstate Conference on Artesian Water (1914, p. 246, 248) and Report of the Fourth Interstate Conference on Artesian Water (1924, p. 33). The Tunderbrine No. 1 bore, situated 38 miles south-east of Coonamble, contains 155 grains of total solids per gallon, while the Tubba bore, situated 82 miles west-north-west of Coonamble, contains 84 grains per gallon of total solids. Both of these bores are located near the margin of the Coonamble Basin. The increase in the content of total solids contained in the artesian water towards the west of the Coonamble Basin bears a relation to the prevailing flow direction of the water. It is considered by the present author that the artesian water moves from the south-eastern intake area towards the west and north-west, where it is mixed with the waters coming from the north-east. This water from the north-east is considered to originate from the intake areas of part of Queensland, and to traverse the Moree district in its journey to the Coonamble Basin. The main ‘“ salting ’”’ of the artesian water probably takes place in the western portion of the Coonamble Basin due to contact of the water with the shales which dominate the lithology of the Mesozoic rocks in this area. There is no further intake of water in the western part of the Coonamble Basin, due to the lack of intake beds. On the contrary, there is a natural outlet for artesian water, evidenced by the mound springs. These mound springs are known to occur between the Tubba. and Coolabah bores near the western margin of the Coonamble Basin, and are also represented by Guddie Spring, which is situated near the Gilgoin No. 1 bore, 22 miles west-north-west of Carinda. The present author thinks it probable that these springs are located along the eastern margin of the penin- sular-like basement prominence which forms the western margin of the Coonamble Basin. H 88 J. RADE. SUMMARY. Rocks of both Paleozoic and Mesozoic age are represented in the Coon- amble Basin. The trends which dominate the structure of the Paleozoic basement complex are thought to be of Paleozoic age. The Mesozoic sedi- ments of the Coonamble Basin were deposited in a large embayment, and this mode of deposition is responsible for the fact that these sediments are more shaly than corresponding sediments in other parts of the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin. The stagnant conditions under which sedimentation occurred in the Coonamble Basin during Mesozoic times is responsible for the wide-spread occurrence of pyrite in the sediments. The total solid content of the artesian waters in the Coonamble Basin increases from east to west. This can be correlated with the type of sediment through which the artesian waters pass, shales being more abundant towards the western margin of the Basin. REFERENCES. Bryan, W. H., 1925. ‘‘ Earth-movements in Queensland ’’. Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensland. 375.3: Crespin, I., 1944. ‘“‘ Some Lower Cretaceous Foraminifera from Bores in the Great Artesian Basin, Northern New South Wales’’. THis JoURNAL, 78, 17-24. 1945. ‘‘ A Microfauna from Lower Cretaceous Deposits in Great Artesian Basin ”’. Commonwealth Miner. Res. Surv. Rep. 1945/16. 1946. ‘*‘ Lower Cretaceous Fauna in N.S.W. Basin’. J. Paleont. 20, 505. 1953. ‘‘ Lower Cretaceous Foraminifera from the Great Artesian Basin, Aus- tralia’. Contr. Cush. Found. Foram. Res., 4, (1), 26-36. David Edgeworth, T. Sir, 1950. ‘‘ The Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia ’’, edited by W. R. Browne, London. Mulholland, C. St. J., 1950. ‘‘ Review of Southern Intake Beds, New South Wales, and their Bearing on Artesian Problems”. Rep. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., 125-127. Report of Interstate Conference on Artesian Water, 1912, Sydney. Report of the Second Interstate Conference on Artesian Water, 1914, Brisbane. Report of the Fourth Interstate Conference on Artesian Water, 1924, Perth. Symmonds, R. S., 1912. ‘‘ Our Artesian Waters ’’, Sydney. QUARTZITE XENOLITHS IN THE TERTIARY MAGMAS OF THE SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS, N.S.W. By ROBERT STEVENS. Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney. With Plate IV. Manuscript received, November 8, 1954. Read, December 1, 1954. I. INTRODUCTION. In the course of a preliminary survey of the Tertiary volcanics in that. part of the Southern Highlands centring around Mittagong, Bowral and Moss. Vale, about 70 miles south-west from Sydney, the author collected specimens of basalt and dolerite containing the quartzitic xenoliths which constitute the subject of this paper. Such xenoliths have so far been found only in the more basic rocks from High Range and Mt. Flora, ten miles north-west and six miles north from Mittagong respectively. II. GENERAL GEOLOGY. The stratigraphy of the area is very simple in outline, the region being part: of the elevated margin of the Sydney Basin, consisting of Permian and Triassic sediments resting more or less horizontally and with violent unconformity on an older Paleozoic basement-complex of Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian (?) meta-sediments and acid plutonic rocks of a granitic nature. The Triassie Hawkesbury Sandstone, a 600 ft. thick orthoquartzite, is particularly important. since it was from this unit that the xenolithic fragments are thought to have been derived. Ill. THE XENOLITHIC ROCKS. (a) The High Range Basalt. The basaltic rocks on High Range are the thin remnants of an originally more extensive sheet which has suffered continuous erosion since the Kosciusko: uplift (late Pliocene). The rock is a rather coarse-grained olivine-titanaugite- basalt carrying small amounts of analcite. The principal felspar is an inter- mediate labradorite (Ab40) in laths averaging 1 mm. in length. Olivine occurs. as phenocrysts 1 to 3 mm. across, and is generally detectable in hand-specimen. It is a highly magnesian variety (2V nearly 90°), considerably fractured, and sometimes marginally serpentinized. The pyroxene is a pinkish-brown titan- iferous augite intergranular to the feldspar laths. Individual grains proved to be too small to undertake an optical investigation, but they do not appear to be pigeonitic. Interstitial feldspar is a basic oligoclase in anhedra up to 1mm. across. Analcite, magnetite and apatite are the main accessory minerals. The xenoliths are difficult to distinguish from the olivine phenocrysts in hand-specimen and they certainly were not recognized as foreign inclusions. in the field. In thin-section, however, they are very striking by virtue of the spectacular reaction rims which have formed around them. These reaction rims (Plate IV, Fig. 1) have the characteristic structure so often described in the literature, consisting of an outer zone of closely packed small prismatic clino- pyroxenes arranged radially to the periphery of the xenolith, followed inwardly 90 ROBERT STEVENS. by a narrower zone of brownish, turbid glass (largely in a devitrified state) and extremely minute, needle-like pyroxene crystallites. The outer zone is about 0:25mm. wide and the inner zone about 0-1mm. This occurrence departs from the usual in that there is little evidence of the production of alkali- feldspathic material in the inner zone. The xenoliths consist of two or more grains of quartz in very close contact and, in nearly all cases, the formation of a glassy reaction product has extended along the full length of the intergranular boundaries. It is where these grain junctions intersect the periphery of the xenolith that reaction has been most intense, and it is only in such places that we find alkali feldspar in the reaction rim (see Fig. 1). There is also some development of a fibrous, brown micaceous BUBBLE STREAM 29 "1, a e? Vv DOLERITE PRISMATIC PYROXENES x a e a eo) z a) << Text-fig. 1. Part of the margin of a quartzite xenolith in the High Range basalt showing the mode of occurrence of alkali feldspar in embayments at grain boundaries. mineral along some of the fracture planes through the quartz grains, though these fractures are commonly occupied by glass. Another characteristic of the xenoliths in the High Range basalt is the presence of bubble streams traversing the quartz grains (see D. L. Reynolds, 1936, p. 379). These have the appearance of narrow channels crowded with minute globular inclusions extending from the reaction rim into the substance of the quartzite. No instances were found of the xenoliths having completely reacted with the magma, but it is thought feldspathic patches and veins in a similar basalt from Mt. Wanganderry (about five miles to the west of High Range) may represent the final product of such a process. QUARTZITE XENOLITHS IN TERTIARY MAGMAS OF SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS. 91 (b) The Mt. Flora Dolerite. The Mt. Flora dolerite occurs in the form of a sill domed upwards by the intrusion of a laccolithic body of solvsbergitic rock beneath it. It is only where the dolerite is in contact with the Hawkesbury Sandstone that it contains ‘quartzitic xenoliths, often in great numbers. It is not difficult to find specimens in which the proportion of xenolithic material is greater than that of the host rock. Normally, the non-xenolithic phase is essentially a teschenitic rock having a fairly coarse grain-size and consisting of intermediate labradorite, pyroxene, serpentine representing original olivine, and such accessories as titaniferous magnetite, apatite, biotite and abundant analcite. The xenolithic phase, however, has a rather different character in that there is no analcite, and the pyroxene and feldspar are generally deeply altered to carbonate and chlorite. The quartzite xenoliths range in size from 1mm. to 1 cm., and are commonly highly irregular in outline, with large embayments clearly visible even in hand- specimen. In thin-section the xenoliths are again surrounded by striking reaction rims up to 2 mm. wide and consisting of an inner zone of turbid alkali-feldspathic material, now largely replaced by calcite, and an outer zone of prismatic clino-- pyroxenes altering to carbonate and chlorite. One of the smaller xenoliths from the Mt. Flora dolerite is illustrated in Plate IV, Fig. 2. In places the pyroxenic mantles have been disrupted and it is apparent that in such regions the feldspathic material of the inner zone was migrating into the surrounding dolerite. The quartz grains of the xenoliths have frequently developed a remarkably good rectilinear cleavage, generally confined to the area of the bubble streams present in these xenoliths as in those of the High Range basalt. Thin veins of epidote cutting across the xenoliths are common, and veins and lenses of calcite are even more abundant, in fact the xenolithic quartzite is quite often almost completely replaced by masses of crystalline carbonate. This process of replacement seems to have operated at a late stage in the cooling history of the rock. TABLE l. Values of the Optic Axial Angles of Pyroxenes from the Xenolithic and Non-axenolithic Phases of the Mt. Flora Dolerite, illustrating the Relatively Subcalcic Nature of those from the Xenolithic Phase. Optic Angle (2V) Pyroxenes of Pyroxenes of Non-xenolithic Xenolithic Phase. Phase. 51° 48° 49° 46° 56° 47° 54° 42° Bowen (1922a) holds that the addition of siliceous xenoliths to a basie magma tends to decrease the amount of olivine and to increase the magnesia. content of the pyroxene and the anorthite content of the plagioclase. The character of the Mt. Flora dolerite supports this theory, in that the serpentine pseudomorphs after olivine, so common in the non-xenolithic phase, are com- pletely absent from the xenolithic phase. Also, the pyroxenes of the xenolithic phase are slightly subcalcic relative to those of the normal rock type (see Table 1). 92 ROBERT STEVENS. The fact that there is no significant difference in the composition of the plagio- clases from each type indicates that the xenoliths were taken up at a time too late to influence the course of crystallization of the feldspar. IV. DISCUSSION. (a) The Process of Reaction. The reactions of quartzite xenoliths with the enclosing magma have received considerable attention in the abundant literature since about 1890 (see Daly, 1933, table 37, p. 299). In most cases it has been shown that the xenolithic material has in some way been incorporated in the magma, but the processes through which this has been achieved have been the subject of considerable Speculation. The simplest theory postulates direct fusion of the xenolith by magmatic superheat with subsequent incorporation in the liquid magma. Daly (1933, p. 307) suggests that ‘‘ hundreds of cubic kilometers of Sialic rock ’’ may be incorporated in a single basaltic injection by this means. However, the role of direct fusion in assimilative processes is now generally discounted (Bowen, 1922a).- A point arising from consideration of the Reaction Series (Bowen, 19226) would indicate that direct fusion is at least theoretically possible in those cases where the added minerals are lower in the Reaction Series than the minerals crystallizing from the magma at the time of addition. As a development of this theory, Bowen (1928) suggests that a low-melting fraction of granitic composition (alkali feldspar and quartz) is withdrawn from the xenolith into the liquid phase of the magma, leaving behind a recrystallized residue of the excess silica, alumina and lime originally present in the xenolith. The heat required for these ‘‘ stewing ’’ processes can only be provided by an increased precipita- tion of those minerals with which the magma is saturated. In view of the fact that the quartzite xenoliths contain no substances capable of recombining to form a granitic fraction, it follows that no such reaction could have taken place in the present instance. Bowen (1922b) has shown, however, that minerals higher in the Reaction Series can be made over into those phases with which the magma is saturated by a process of ionic reaction with the magma itself. It is by means of chemical rather than physical reaction that the assimilation of the quartzitic xenoliths has been accomplished. Also, it is necessary to postulate the addition of certain substances to the xenoliths, for only by such a process of metasomatic reaction can they have been converted into magmatic phases. (b) Origin of the Reaction Rims. As indicated above, the xenoliths are surrounded by an inner reaction rim of glass and/or alkali feldspar, and an outer rim of closely packed, small prismatic clinopyroxenes. The outer pyroxene zone, though more striking in appearance, is more readily explained than is the inner reaction rim. The author does not consider the pyroxene zone to constitute a reaction rim sensu stricto since, in his opinion, no chemical reaction between the magma and the xenolith was involved in its formation. It is due, rather, to the operation of purely physical (or, if the reader prefers to consider them as such, physico- chemical) processes as will be explained below. The absence of marked contact alteration, apart from a moderate degree of induration at the immediate contact, in the sediments through and into which these magmas were injected, together with faulting contemporaneous with intrusion, attest to rapid emplacement and cooling. The character of the consolidated igneous rocks indicates, too, that they were intruded in an essen- tially fluid condition. One may assume, therefore, that under these conditions QUARTZITE XENOLITHS IN TERTIARY MAGMAS OF SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS. 93 accidental inclusions of country rock would be quite cool in contrast to the high temperature of the magma. The temperature of these fragments must be raised to that of the enclosing magma if they remain in contact with it for any length of time and, in so doing they will absorb a certain amount of heat from their surroundings. As we have seen, heat can only be supplied from the magma by an increased precipitation of those minerals with which it is saturated. It is suggested that in this and similar cases the xenoliths were taken into the magma at a time when it was saturated with respect to pyroxene, that is, very early in its crystallization history, and that the heat required to raise the temperature of the fragments and to ensure the continuation of true reaction was supplied by the crystallization of pyroxene in their immediate vicinity as a peripheral corona. It now remains to account for the origin of the zone of feldspathic and glassy reaction material so characteristically present between the pyroxene corona and the quartz. This zone constitutes a true reaction rim, and as indicated above, reaction in such cases as these can only take place by way of metasomatic addition of magmatic substances to the xenoliths. Such a process was invoked quite early in the century by Lacroix (1903) to explain the feld- spathization of quartz-granulite xenoliths in a nephelinite from Drevain. In 1907 Campbell and Stenhouse (p. 133) indicated that reaction has involved the addition of alkalis to the xenoliths, while in more recent times D. L. Reynolds (1936, 1940, 1946), Holmes (1936) and Muir (1953) have ably demonstrated the importance of metasomatic reaction in the transfusion of quartzitic xenoliths. Holmes’ investigations in the basic and ultrabasic lavas of south-west Uganda (1936, p. 416) show that the production of a reaction glass by meta- somatic replacement of the quartz has resulted from the introduction of K,O, Al,O, and H,O in proportions very different from those in which they could have been present in the magma. He has shown that the reaction corresponds chemically to the feldspathization of the quartzite. Holmes (p. 417) also draws attention to the fact ‘‘ that the composition of the lavas is no more than a rough guide to the composition the magmatic material from which the migrating emanations were actually given off’’. The volatiles, for instance, which must have had considerable influence on the course of chemical reactions within the magma, have been largely lost during the later stages in the cooling history of these rocks. Moreover, Reynolds (1936, p. 397) considers that it is unlikely that the migrating units were oxides. It is more probable that they were free ions, or those ions in some way combined with the fluxing volatiles. The initial formation of a reaction glass of feldspathic composition at the interface between the xenolith and the magma is no doubt a reaction governed by the laws of surface chemistry, the reactants being supplied by migration of Al,O;, K,O and H,O (or the appropriate ions) from their source environment to the interface. Having migrated into this position they are adsorbed on the quartz surface and are then ready to participate in reactions of chemical com- bination or replacement. The nature and degree of activity of the minor magmatic constituents in a catalytic capacity in these reactions is an unknown factor, but Ramberg (1952, p. 206) tells us that they consist mainly of H,O, CO,, F, Cl, S, B and other substances which ‘‘ tend to be concentrated in the inter- granular adsorbed phase ...’’ He goes on to state that ‘‘ these substances generally have relatively high vapour pressure and are weakly bonded in or on the silicate lattices ’’. It has been demonstrated (Muir, 1953) that the pyroxenic corona has developed around the quartz prior to the formation of the reaction rim. Such a zone of radiating prismatic pyroxenes cannot hinder the diffusion of ions to the quartz surface since, no matter how tighlty packed they may be, there are always 94 ROBERT STEVENS. inter-crystal boundaries to provide channels for migrating fluids or particles. After the formation of the first layer of reaction products, even though only a few molecules in thickness, we are faced with the problem of transporting the reactants through this outer insulating mantle so that transfusion may proceed inwards from the margins to the centre of the xenoliths, as it assuredly does. The writer considers that this process is governed by the concept of chemical potentials. The quartz of the xenolith contains very little or no Al,O, or K,O, while the surrounding magma has a relatively high concentration of these substances. Such material will, therefore, migrate towards the quartz under the influence of the resulting potential gradient. Once a feldspathic reaction rim has formed there is an even more marked concentration gradient across the interface between the inner surface of the feldspathic rim and the quartz, so that the tendency for Al,O, and K,O to leave the reaction rim and cross the interface to the quartz is increased. This, in turn, creates a deficiency in these substances at the outer margin of the reaction rim. In consequence of this, the concentration gradient between the reaction rim and the magma is maintained despite the higher total concentration of Al,O, and K,O in the reaction rim. There is, therefore, a continued migration of material from the magma to the rim to replace that lost to the quartz on the inner side of the reaction zone. In this manner transfusion can proceed towards the centre of the xenolith until falling temperature puts a stop to further reaction and/or migration. A particu- larly interesting case has been described by Fromm (1891) of the formation of nepheline rims around quartz xenocrysts in the Herzstein basanitoid. Such a phenomenon records the migration in over-abundance, and at a rate faster than the quartz— feldspar reaction can use them up, of alkalis and alumina from an originally highly alkaline magma. Why is it that the product of transfusion is almost invariably a potash-rich glass, feldspar or feldspathoid (rarely), even when the magma is a dominantly sodic one? Ramberg (1952), discussing the relative diffusibility of different particles, has shown that at temperatures above 500°C. potassium is more mobile than sodium, while at lower temperatures sodium is the more mobile ion. This may in some way be bound up with the effects of solvation on the sizes of the different ions. Ramberg suggests that the process may be akin to the diffusion of small particles through a semi-permeable membrane which holds back some while allowing others to pass freely. In lavas, at any rate, these reactions take place at temperatures probably higher than 500° C, thus accounting for the predominance of K,O over Na,O in the reaction products. The fact that an elevation of temperature may and, in the case of quartz, does change the dimensions of the crystal lattice has been clearly demonstrated (see, for example, Wykoff, 1926). X-ray investigations have shown that the dimensions of the unit cell of beta-quartz (above 572° C.) are greater than those of alpha-quartz and it is possible that such expansions of crystal lattices may well reduce resistance to diffusion of ions through them and will increase the reactivity of the crystalline substances by a general weakening of the bonds. The glassy nature of the reaction rim in its present state would indicate that it may have been at least semi-fluid at the time of its formation. This fluidity may well have been due to the fluxing properties of the ‘“‘ fugitive constituents ”’ (Shand, 1927) which tend to be concentrated in the reaction zone. Whatever the origin of this condition, however, a zone of fluid reaction material would offer little resistance to the diffusion of ions to the quartz/magma interface. Apart from the differing diffusion rates of sodium and potassium, there is another factor which may be at least partly responsible for the preferential early development of a potash-rich reaction product. This is a simple reversal of the Reaction Series (Bowen, 1922b), in which the normal sequence with decreas- ing temperature is from calcic -plagioclase, through alkali feldspar, to quartz. QUARTZITE XENOLITHS IN TERTIARY MAGMAS OF SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS. 95 If reaction commences at the quartz end of this series by the addition of potash, alumina, etc., together with an elevation of temperature, quartz will be replaced by potash feldspar and the potash feldspar by sodic feldspar if the reaction progresses beyond the first stage. Observations supporting this hypothesis are not difficult to find. Reynolds (1936, p. 381) notes that albite sometimes replaces potash feldspar in the reaction rims after the formation of the latter mineral. Muir (1953, p. 419) records a similar phenomenon associated with the xenoliths in the Ballachulish granodiorite. These examples demonstrate that that part of the reaction rim longest in contact with the magma is made over into phases higher in the Reaction Series, while on the inner side of the rim those reactions forming the lowest possible member of the Reaction Series continue the transfusion of the xenolith. V. PETROGENETIC SIGNIFICANCE. Most authors agree that the material generated by the transfusion of quartzite can become mobile, the final result depending upon whether or not the transfused material is assimilated by the magma. If the transfusion product is assimilated and becomes part of the magma, there is little or no effect upon the immediate course of differentiation. The main effect is to increase considerably the quantity of ‘“ granitic ’’ residual material formed in the later stages of differentiation (Turner and Verhoogen, 1951). This will find expression in one or other of two possible ways: (1) by the development of a micropegmatitic or otherwise quartz-rich interstitial differentiate, or (2) in the formation of especially siliceous late differentiates as separate rock types. Daly has compiled a list of reported cases of assimilation of highly siliceous sediments up to 1933. His table (Table 37, p. 299) illustrates the above statements when the examples are rearranged according to the nature of the differentiation products. In those cases where the transfusion products are not assimilated the final result is similar, though the path by which it is reached is a very different one. The transfused material remains as a separate phase within the enclosing magma and, being largely fluid, constitutes a syntectic magma. Reynolds (1936) has described this process in considerable detail in her account of the transfusion ' of quartzite xenoliths in the hornblendite of Kiloran Bay, Colonsay. Here the development of syntectic magma has gone so far as to result in the formation of a network of feldspathic veins through the hornblendite and ‘* without the evidence of complete exposure, this small portion would hardly fail to be inter- preted as resulting from the invasion of solid hornblendite by a feldspathic magma ’’. She also observes that the appearance of this occurrence is very similar to rock bodies which have generally been interpreted as being due to magmatic differentiation or multiple intrusion. In Colonsay, at all events, the vein material was in fact a syntectic magma, and the appinite and syenite resulting from transfusion are chemically, mineralogically and texturally normal igneous rocks (Reynolds, 1936, p. 395). The draining off of this syntectic magma, with subsequent concentration in some one part of the igneous mass, will result in the formation of a body of apparently igneous rock having a seemingly younger age than the main intrusion. In such a way at least some of those cases of ‘‘ magmatic differentiation ’’ may be explained where the later acid differentiate exhibits sharp, even intrusive contacts with the basic parent magma. VI. SUMMARY. Quartzite xenoliths from the High Range basalt and the Mt. Flora dolerite have been described. Reaction rims consisting of an outer zone of prismatic clinopyroxenes and an inner zone of glass and/or alkali feldspar have been 96 ROBERT STEVENS. | developed around the xenoliths. It has been shown that only the inner zone is a true reaction rim and that it has resulted from metasomatic transfusion of the quartzite. The mechanism of this reaction has been explained in terms of ionic diffusion, concentration gradients and a possible reversal of Bowen’s Reaction Series. The effects of assimilation of quartzite xenoliths on the differentiation trends in the host rock have been discussed and it has been shown that failure to assimilate the transfusion products may result in the formation of a syntectic magma. The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. G. A. Joplin from the Australian National University and Miss J. Phillips from the University of Sydney for their help and useful criticisms in the preparation of the manuscript. The accompanying photomicrographs were prepared by Mr. D. E. Havenstein. VII. REFERENCES. Bowen, N. L., 1922a. ‘‘ The Behaviour of Inclusions in Igneous Magmas.’’ Amer. J. Sci., 30, 513-570. 19226. ‘‘ The Reaction Principle in Petrogenesis.”?> Amer. J. Sci., 30, 177-198. 1928. ‘“‘ The Evolution of the Igneous Rocks.’’ Princeston Univ. Press, Princeston, N.J. Campbell, R., and Stenhouse, A. G., 1907. ‘“‘ The Geology of Inchcolm.”’ Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc., 9, 121-134. Daly, R. A., 1933. ‘‘ Igneous Rocks and the Depths of the Earth.’”’ 2nd Ed. McGraw-Hill, N.Y. Fromm, O., 1891. ‘‘ Petrographische Untersuchung von Basatten aus der Gegend von Cassel.” Zeits. Deut. Geol. Gesell, 43, 43-76. Holmes, A., 1936. ‘‘ Transfusion of Quartz Xenoliths in Alkali-basic and Ultrabasic Lavas, South-West Uganda.” Miner. Mag., 24, 408-421. Lacroix, A., 1903. ‘‘ Note sur le Néphélinite du Drevain.” Bull. Soc. hist. nat. Autun., 16, 134-140. Muir, I. D., 1953. ‘‘ Quartzite Xenoliths from the Ballachulish Granodiorite.” Geol. Mag., 90, 6, 409-428. Ramberg, H., 1952. ‘‘ The Origin of Metamorphic and Metasomatic Rocks.” Univ. Chicago Press, Ill. Reynolds, D. L., 1936. ‘‘ Demonstrations in Petrogenesis from Kiloran Bay, Colonsay. I. The Transfusion of Quartzite.’’ Miner. Mag., 24, 367-407. 1940. ‘‘ Contact Metamorphism by a Tertiary Dyke at Waterfoot, Co. Antrim.” Geol. Mag., 77, 461-469. 1946. ‘‘ The Sequence of Geochemical Changes Leading to Granitisation.” Quart. J. Geol. Soc. Lond., 102, 389-446. Shand, S. J., 1927. ‘‘ Eruptive Rocks.’ Woodbridge Press, Guildford. Turner, F. J., and Verhoogen, J., 1951. ‘‘ Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology.”” McGraw-Hill, N.Y: Wykoff, R. W. G., 1926. ‘‘ The Crystal Structure of the High Temperature (8-) Modification of Quartz.’’ Amer. J. Sci., 11, ser. 5, 101-112. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV. Fig. 1.—Quartz xenolith from High Range basalt showing outer prismatic pyroxene corona and a thin inner zone of turbid glass between the corona and the quartz. Fractures and bubble streams traverse the xenolith in sub-radial arrangement. Ordinary light, X35. Fig. 2.—Partly transfused quartzite xenolith from the Mt. Flora dolerite. Zone (P) consists essentially of small prismatic pyroxenes ; zone (F) of alkali feldspar and glass ; zone (Q) of quartz. Cleavages have developed in the central bubble-charged region of the xenolith. Ordinary light, X35. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. DXXXVIII, 1954, Plate IV PETROLOGY OF GRAYWACKE SUITE SEDIMENTS FROM THE TURON RIVER-COOLAMIGAL CREEK DISTRICT, N.S.W. By KeitH A. W. CROOK, B.Sc., (Deas-Thomson Scholar, University of Sydney.) Manuscript received, November 8, 1954. Read, December 1, 1954. INTRODUCTION. Initial work in the Turon River-Coolamigal Creek district was incorporated in an honours thesis at the University of Sydney (Crook, 1953). The author wishes to acknowledge the interest and assistance rendered by Messrs. G. H. Packham and D. K. Tompkins and the late Dr. H. Rutledge. The area dealt with (see Text-fig. 1) is situated immediately to the west of the Ben Bullen Complex described by Joplin (1936), and incorporates portions of the parishes of Ben Bullen, Coolamigal, Turon and Cullen Bullen, the major part lying in Portions 15 and 54 of the Parish of Coolamigal, County of Roxburgh. Wilkinson (1887, p. 57) appears to have been the first to mention the sediments in this district. He referred to them as Devonian, in which he was followed by Carne (1908, p. 61). Joplin (1935) referred to the limestones in the Ben Bullen Complex as Middle or Upper Devonian. She included a brief description of the associated ‘ areno-argillaceous series ’’ (1935, p. 368), but came to no conclusions concerning their age. She did, however, consider the rocks to be possibly tuffaceous. SUMMARY OF STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE. The oldest rocks in the area are. andesitic volcanics and shales outcropping for some distance along Coolamigal Creek. These rocks occur again on the western edge of the area, where the shales contain fossils of Lower or Lower Middle Silurian age. The assemblage contains some new forms, the genera represented being Tryplasma, Syringopora, Heliolites, Rhizophyllum, Cystiphyllum and Hnecrinurus ? bowningensis. Shales containing a similar assemblage, including Tryplasma lonsdalet, Halysites and H. bowningensis, occur associated with the volcanics further to the west in the valley of Palmer’s Oaky Creek. The age of the volcanics is thus probably near the top of the Lower Silurian. The volcanics consist of pyroxene-andesites of the type common in central western N.S.W., with interbedded tuffs and agglomerates. In the vicinity of the fault on Coolamigal Creek, an agglomerate has suffered shearing and replace- ment, the contained blocks being silicified. The volcanics are overlain, apparently conformably, by a sequence of Gray- wacke Suite sediments, chiefly arenites but with minor amounts of coarser and finer types. These are dealt with more fully below. Overlying these, with apparent unconformity, are unfossiliferous ortho- quartzites, which are provisionally assigned to the Upper Devonian. They are pale grey, fine grained rocks which outcrop only on a high hill top in the southern portion of the area. No Permian rocks occur in the area, although they are well developed a mile or so to the east. To the south and west isolated hill tops are capped with 98 KEITH A. W. CROOK. | GEOLOGICAL SKETCH MAP OF THE COOLAMIGAL ; CK-TURON R. DISTRICT, a HOLOCENE ANlueies UPPER DEVONIAN? | URIAN }|baz|] Quartzites age Uiinoatt | Volcanics eé@ ha miles Graywackes FAULTS DIPS DIRECTION ‘> VA 527 / /@ vv vVVV a VV Vv Vo 2 ea Ve Text-fig. 1. PETROLOGY OF GRAYWACKE SUITE SEDIMENTS. 99 Permian conglomerates and shales at levels topographically lower than the Upper Devonian. Holocene gravels, sands and muds occur along the course of the Turon River and its tributaries. Some of these deposits are fossil, whilst others are still being formed. Igneous rocks are widespread, generally as dykes and sills. LLamprophyres, frequently more or less altered, are of common occurrence. In the south there occurs a large area of very much altered igneous rock, apparently intrusive. It is probable that there is a major thrust fault striking slightly west of south down the valley of Coolamigal Creek. The outcrop of the fault plane has not been observed, but the shearing of the andesites and the abrupt changes in lithology, coupled with the appearance of wedges of graywacke surrounded by sheared andesite, indicates the presence of a fault of some magnitude. On the western side of the fault, dips have a fairly constant direction to the west or north-west, except in the lower portions of Coolamigal Creek, where much minor folding has occurred. Here the axes of the folds dip towards 325° at about 50°, indicating that the major pressure came from the north-west. On the eastern side of the fault some beds are overturned, at up to 55°, whilst others are quite normal. This may be due to a series of tight overturned folds with axes dipping to the north-west at about 30°. The strike of the graywackes, relative to the distribution of the volcanics, suggests that there may be a fault separating them in the south. In the south- west, on Short Cut Creek, a fault brings the volcanics and graywackes in contact. The associated shearing is on a much smaller scale than that observed near the Coolamigal Creek fault. SEDIMENTS. ‘The sediments overlying the volcanics are of the Graywacke Suite, as defined by Packham (1954), whose classification is followed herein. Graded bedding is common in the more labile members, whilst the more quartzose frequently contain shale pebbles. Slump structures, micro-current-bedding (confined to the coarser layers) and load casts are associated with the graded bedding. In hand specimen these sediments—lutites excepted—are very dark green or black, although some of the more quartzose types may be varying shades of grey or yellow-brown. In dealing with these rocks 27 thin sections have been cut from specimens collected from widely spaced localities. Micrometric analyses of 16 of these are tabulated in Table 1 and plotted on Text-figure 2. On thin section examina- tion the sediments can be divided into two major groups without much difficulty. These were called ‘‘ graywacke ”’ and *‘ subgraywacke ”’, and each group can be further subdivided on texture. These names, given on thin section study, which are shown by the key symbols on Text-figure 2, show a high degree of correlation with the names decided from plotting the results of the micrometric analyses. All specimens and slides are housed in the museum of the Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney. (a) The Labile Graywackes. The coarsest of these are rudites, or polymictic breccias (Pettijohn, 1949, p. 196), which are poorly sorted, grain diameter ranging from 0-1 mm. to 4 cm., most of the material being between 3and6mm. The paste or matrix is generally subordinate, although in W19 it forms almost half the rock due to an abundance of silt sized feldspar, and also possibly to shearing. The arenites show a greater development of paste than the rudites. A thin section mechanical analysis, following Packham’s method (in press), was carried KEITH A. W. CROOK. 100 . . MUDD NM OUOSWKROSEOADDAS NH OOD CQ SH OQ 99 89 8D SON NY 99 99D SH SMOKHWOOSKRIN IR WNAOI ~ ‘oqsegq ea) 4D 29d ™~ DHANMUHMSURES ID DMIDGM MD NDWDNHNVNSOR *SOIABOFT +°290 9-09 = 1D SD COULD HOON OID AN HAN Om HNO HOO Hr © *SOIABVOFT] ‘Z4O DALY Yat obrwunpooy-waary UoINT, 247 Wolf syuaunpay ayng eyopmMhnapy fo sashjoup ‘Z eInsy-9xe], UI pozjo[d osoyy ore soIjeyt ul somnsiiy 6°36 G°G 6° LG 8°P GG G28 Geg Beg. €°€ Toe 9-66 [-9¢ 8° LE 0:8 G-GE 0°4¢ €: FP SG €°8¢ 4:0 L:8& 6°04 L:09 £-&9 T-&€¢ 0:0¢ GOP 9°66 9-6 £88 ¢-88 “SPIO *SyUSUIZBI TT +a POT +euexo1hg ‘T FIAVL; ‘qrydury pue euexo1hg = . ° = DH SO 19 69 OE 1D HID ONOON H WOAAAaAr A OAS AN O ie “SPISH “eu04s -qyIs ‘oyoemABisqng 66 66 ‘oysoemABISqngG 66 66 “eUOISTIS OPOBMABIL 66 66 66 ‘oyoVMABID 66 66 66 66 ‘oyIpni oyoBmABID ‘odAT, Yoo y DMJAWLOLI IT PETROLOGY OF GRAYWACKE SUITE SEDIMENTS. 101 out, but, due to a tendency of many of the fragments to merge imperceptibly into the chloritic paste, the results are not of great accuracy. Values of the geometric measures of the specimen examined are: Sorting coefficient, 1-99. Skewness, 0-79. The siltites are difficult to deal with, due to their high percentage of paste. In texture they vary greatly, some passing into chloritic silty shales. Quartz is generally the best rounded constituent of the labile rudites and arenites (see Table 2). This also applies to the siltites. Rock fragments and feldspar are usually quite angular. : KEY. PASTE GRAYWACKE BRECCIA + GRAYWACKE x GRAYWACKE SILTSTONE SUBGRAYWACKE fc) SUBGW SILTSTONE -+- { (ej FELDSPAR and QUARTZ & ROCK FRAGMENTS HEAVIES ’ Text-fig. 2. Rock fragments are a major constituent of these rocks, many varieties being represented. Of these the most characteristic and abundant is an altered ophitic dolerite. Its feldspar is untwinned albite, containing acicular inclusions, and the ferromagnesian mineral, probably augite originally, is replaced by isotropic green chlorite. Minor amounts of iron ore are present. The widespread occurrence of this dolerite, coupled with its distinctive appearance, suggests that it may be of value in correlation problems. This dolerite, together with radiolarite and fine aphyric volcanics, is present in more than 80% of the rudites and arenites. Some arenites (W4) and most siltites contain only fine grained volcanics and silty shale fragments. Also present in the rudites are fine black feldspathic ‘‘ tuff ’’ with radio- laria, porphyritic volcanics, recrystallised limestone and siltstone. The pyroxene bearing arenites contain an unusual assemblage, which includes intergranular 102 KEITH A. W. CROOK. basalt, porphyritic andesite—generally with hornblende and feldspar phenocrysts, devitrified spherulitic pitchstone and minor amounts of recrystallised limestone. Feldspar is widespread, although uncommon in all rudites save W19. It is generally clear albite with acicular inclusions, and has probably been derived from the ophitic dolerite. Smaller amounts of more altered twinned feldspar, an acid plagioclase, are also present. This is developed to the exclusion of the clear albite in W4. TABLE 2. Roundness Values of Grains. (Using Visual Chart, Krumbein and Sloss, 1951, p. 81.) Roundness Values. Nature of Grains. Majority of Large Grains. Grains. Rock fragments in Graywacke Breccia 0-1-0-4 0-8 Quartz, in Graywacke Breccia 0-5-0°9 —_— (W19 0-1-0-5) — Rock fragments, Labile Graywacke 0-1-0-3 0-5 Feldspar, in Labile Graywacke os 0-2-0-4 -— Amphibole and Pyroxene paeu peer? 0-2-0-4 — Quartz, in Labile Graywacke : 0-5-0-9 — Quartz, in Subgraywacke 0-1-0°5 _ The quartz, which is not common, appears to be entirely of igneous or vein origin. Strings of bubbles are frequent, and composite grains are met with. Extinction is generally undulose. No signs of secondary enlargement have been observed. The quartz in W4 contains occasional inclusions of muscovite. TABLE 3. Results of Mechanical Analyses. O6, Labile Graywacke. Q28, Subgraywacke. Cumulative Percentage. Cumulative Percentage. Class Limits. Class Limits. (mm.) (mm.) Observed. Corrected. _| Observed. Corrected. 0-0835 100-0 100-0 0-0105 100-0 100-0 0-0835—0- 167 72°3 78°4 0-0105—0- 0385 61-8 62-9 0-167 —0-334 57-6 65-5 0-0385—0- 0665 41-7 49-5 0-334 —0-501 31-2 39-6 0- 0665-0 - 0945 19-7 24-9 0-501 —0-668 13-5 18-3 0-0945-0- 119 10-9 16-9 0-668 4°5 7:2 0-119 4-6 8-0 Certain of the arenites (C19b and Q26) contain appreciable amounts of pale green clinopyroxene and a little amphibole. In C19b limited amounts of detrital bright green chlorite are present. The amphibole is pleochroic: X, brown; Y and Z, deep brownish green; 2V (—) about 30°, and is very dis- tinctive. Occasional small grains of amphibole, associated with bright green chlorite, have been met with in the siltites. PETROLOGY OF GRAYWACKE SUITE SEDIMENTS. 103 The paste, or matrix, is chloritic, but may be converted to biotite by metamorphism, as in W4. In passing it may be noted that W4, which is anomalous in many respects, comes from a well-defined bed, devoid of internal bedding, associated with the overturned fold and slump structure referred to below. (b) The Sublabile Graywackes and Subgraywackes. No rudaceous representatives of these have been found, and the arenites are appreciably finer than their labile graywacke counterparts, and contain much silt (Text-fig. 3). Mechanical analysis (Table 3, Text-fig. 3) shows a polymodal distribution of the grains, which is probably characteristic of these arenites. The siltites are not so common as their labile graywacke equivalents, and show an increase in paste and detritial muscovite over the arenites. The roundness values of the quartz in these sediments (Table 2) is lower than that of the quartz in the labile graywackes. There is little difference in roundness between the arenites and siltites. 100 x > UO Ze ul ie: = er 4 re, mee : 50 9° re wa : a — GRAYWACKE ____—_ _— SUBGRAYWACKE ¢ Observed Values ® Corrected Values 1! 6 .6 24 -1 .08 -.O5 -O3 Ol 005 GRAIN SIZE IN MILLIMETERS Text-fig. 3. The most important constituent of these rocks is quartz. The apparent sphericity of all grains is high, and trails of bubbles and undulose extinctions are frequent. Rock fragments and feldspar are only minor constituents, the former being mainly fragments of shale and siltstone, and, very occasionally, igneous rocks. Microcline, twinned plagioclase and an untwinned feldspar, probably orthoclase, are present. A characteristic feature of these rocks is the heavy mineral assemblage. Micrometric analyses show the rocks may contain up to 1-5% of heavies. In thin section the following stand out: (1) abundant apatite; (2) blue and yellow tourmaline abundant ; (3) zircon subordinate ; (4) rutile present in only minor amounts. The abundance of apatite is quite striking, and may prove diagnostic for rocks of this age. The matrix, or paste, is partly chloritic and partly sericitic, and may sontnin considerable amounts of comminuted muscovite. Occasional large fragments of muscovite are present. I 104 KEITH A. W. CROOK. Alteration. Alteration is restricted to low temperature diagenetic effects. Authigenic pyrite is widely developed, generally euhedral, and is not restricted to any particular rock type. Quartz-chlorite and quartz-carbonate veins occur frequently, the chlorite being generally vermicular penninite. The carbonate may be either ankerite or siderite. SEDIMENTATION. In dealing with the sedimentation, two sets of features are important : sedimentary structures and composition of the sediments. Following Kuenen (1953), use has been made of certain sedimentary structures to determine the direction of provenance. Three determinations are shown on Text-figure 1. That shown on Jew’s Creek was determined by calculat- ing the direction of dip of a layer of micro-current-bedded material, allowing for folding. This gives the direction of current flow, in this case 130°. This value, subject to the qualifications below, may be taken as the direction of provenance. Two other determinations have been made, both using slump structures. In these cases the direction of provenance is the same as the direction of slumping. The northern occurrence gives a value of 225°. The southern occurrence is on the overturned limb of a tight minor fold, and the direction in this case is 60°. Because of the small number of determinations it would be inadvisable to draw any firm conclusions regarding direction of provenance. The variations in direction observed may be due to: (1) Variations in the direction of provenance during the deposition of the sequence, such that some members were derived from one direction and some from another. (2) Variations in the topography of the sea floor causing currents and slumps to have directions other than normal to the shore line. Bearing these possibilities in mind, there is evidence that the sediments in the north were derived from the north-east, whilst those in the south came from the west. The composition of the sediments gives some idea of the lithology of the terrain from which they were derived. Several of the rock types represented have their equivalents in the Lower Silurian of the Palmer’s Oaky district. They may not have been derived from this region, for similar rocks may well be present beneath the younger sediments to the east. The radiolarite, feldspathic “ tuff’’ and several of the volcanics, particularly the andesites, are similar to those to the west, but some types, notably the dolerite and inter- granular basalt, have not been found in that region. Erosion and deposition of the material was swift, as is shown by low round- ness values, and the presence of unweathered pyroxene, amphibole and reck fragments. The presence of unweathered euhedral pyrite in radiolarite fragments in 23 also indicates this. The nature of the quartz and the presence of quartzose members raises some problems. Many of the quartz fragments in the labile members are well rounded, indicating an appreciable distance of transport. The absence of secondary enlargement renders derivation from a pre-existing sediment unlikely. The quartz seems to be of plutonic igneous or vein origin, and the presence of minor amounts of microcline in the subgraywackes suggests that part came from a granitic terrain. It should also be noticed that veins of milky quartz PETROLOGY OF GRAYWACKE SUITE SEDIMENTS. 105 are of frequent occurrence throughout the Ordovician and Silurian of central western N.S.W. The quartzose members are not shoe-string sands (Pettijohn, 1949, p. 257), and their composition differs radically from the labile members ; they probably represent definite influxes of material from a quartz-rich terrain. They do not appear to be of cyclic occurrence. CONCLUSIONS. (1) The sediments developed in the Turon River-Coolamigal Creek district include a sequence of graywackes of probable Middle Silurian age. (2) Rock fragments present in the labile members are of types similar to rocks outcropping in the Lower Silurian to the west. (3) The detrital quartz is of plutonic igneous and vein origin, and that in the quartzose members has probably been derived from a granitic terrain. (4) Fragments of a distinctive type of altered ophitic dolerite are common in the labile members. This may be valuable for correlation purposes. (5) Apatite is abundant in the subgraywackes, and this may be of value in correlation problems. (6) Use of sedimentary structures as indices of provenance shows that the sediments in the north may have come from the north-east, and those in the south may have come from the west. More detailed examination of this area would provide a much fuller picture . of the sedimentation and sediments than that presented here. Circumstances, however, do not permit the author to continue this investigation, and he feels it best to publish the results obtained to date for the reference of future workers. REFERENCES. Carne, J. E., 1908. ‘‘ The Geology and Mineral Resources of the Western Coalfield.’’ Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Mem. 6. Crook, K. A. W., 1953. ‘‘ The Geology of the Mt. Horrible-Palmer’s Oaky-Coolamigal Creek District.’”” Unpublished B.Sc. Honours Thesis, University of Sydney. Joplin, G. A., 1935. ‘‘ The Exogenous Contact Zone at Ben Bullen, New South Wales.”’ Geol. Mag., 72, 385-400. —-——_—_———— 1936. ‘‘ The Ben Bullen Plutonic Complex, N.S.W.”? TuHis JouRNAL, 70, 69-94. Krumbein, W. C., and Sloss, L. L., 1951. ‘‘ Stratigraphy and Sedimentation.’’ Freeman and Sons, San Francisco. Kuenen, Ph. H., 1953. ‘‘ Significant Features of Graded Bedding.’ Bull. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol., 37, 1044-1066. Packham, G. H., 1954. ‘“‘ Sedimentary Structures as an Important Feature in the Classi- fication of Sandstones.’”? Amer. Jour. Sci., 212, 466-476. -——— “Volume, Weight and Number Frequency Analysis of Sediments from Thin Section Data.’ Jour. Geol. (In press.) Pettijohn, F. J., 1949. ‘‘ Sedimentary Rocks.’ Harper, New York. Wilkinson, C. S., 1887. ‘‘ Mineral Products of New South Wales.” 2nd Ed. THE Hate pon COAL MEASURES OF THE STROUD-GLOUCESTER TROUGH. By F. C. LOUGHNAN, B.Sc. School of ce Engineering and Applied Geology, N.S.W. University of Technology. With Plate V. Manuscript received, November 8, 1954. Read, December 1, 1954. INTRODUCTION. Since the discovery of coal in 1855 by Odenheimer some seven miles or so to the north of Stroud Road, little in the way of systematic work has been attempted in the development of this coal basin. David visited the basin in 1889 and reported on coal seams in the Johnson’s and Stoney Creek areas, but these examinations were too cursory to have effected any correlation of the strata. Sussmilch, in 1921, described the Devonian and Carboniferous stratigraphy in addition to making important contributions towards a better understanding of the structures at the northern end of the Trough, and later in the same year Morrison inspected coal outcrops along the Gloucester River, within the town itself, and reported on shafts near the Avon River, to the east of the town. Since 1922, Osborne, in his efforts to elucidate the complicated structural history of the Hunter-Myall-Manning Province, has been brought into contact with the coal measures on many occasions, but, as these deposits lay beyond the scope of his research, little attention was paid to them. ~The present paper is principally concerned with the stratigraphy, economic potentialities and related aspects of the coal measures. PHYSIOGRAPHY. As a section is devoted to structures, at this point it will suffice merely to mention the general synclinal nature of the strata which strike meridionally, dipping toward the axis at angles ranging up to the vertical. The coal measures extend for 25 miles in the direction of the strike whilst the width of the syncline as it now stands is variable from a matter of a few hundred yards in the southern extremity near Dewrang, to seven or eight miles in the vicinity of Stratford and the Upper Avon. Further north a general narrowing takes place as the town of Gloucester is approached and one and a half miles beyond this town the syncline terminates abruptly in a complicated fault system. Both Permian and Carboniferous strata have been caught up in the folding movement, and as the upper beds of the latter system are principally volcanic a marked contrast is made with the comparatively weak Permian strata. The product of erosion consists of two sub-parallel lines of hills, often with precipitous faces, exposing bare rock in piaces, whilst the coal measures occupy the valley floor between. The foothills generally, but not invariably, mark the boundary of the two systems. A remarkable change in the topography of the valley floor takes place just to the south of Craven. The undulating hilly country of the south gives way to Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVIII, 1954, Plate V COAL MEASURES OF THE STROUD GLOUCESTER TROUGH SCALE cHAINS 80 60 40 20 O | 2 MILES at — ac kh a ~ * SS =f . = i} cat i = } * “, aie we — soon *) a Lig 2 oe < Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXX XVIII, 1954, Plate V ! COAL MEASURES OF THE STROUD GLOUCESTER TROUGH SCALE cans 60.0 4 0 0 n 2 MILES SS [] atcovuar Uppermose. deposits) of sandstone and shales Spring Creek conglomerates Bo. 0000 500 Ooo FA Craven coal | (44) seams NVIWWad 0] Wards River 800} conglomerates Gloucester Coal seams Basal Beds & thirty foot seam \| CARBON/IFEROUS Bx] Devonsan g = 5 3 4 lo) > 2 g 3 > ‘ io) SEQ JAANY SPLENA, | Hy Syst a ‘ : e 2) 1 Aedes y hats i 3 = " i fg yee =3 = sae | iene = . | . | ates | . “a | ae | PERMIAN COAL MEASURES OF STROUD-GLOUCESTER TROUGH. 107 flat, alluvial and swampy country on the north, some hundred or so feet higher in elevation. The change marks the divide between the Ward’s River-Johnson’s Oreek drainage system flowing southward to the Karuah, and eventually Port Stephens ; and the Avon-Gloucester Rivers, which trend northward to meet the Manning and hence to the coast. Coal Creek, a tributary of Ward’s River, actually has its headward reaches on the northern side of the divide, but manages to reach the parent stream by way of a deeply entrenched course. The ubiquity of river gravels at every possible level of the present topography is indicative of the numerous cycles of erosion to which this area has been subjected, and as shown above the valley has embarked upon a further cycle of base levelling, undoubtedly brought about by a tributary of the Karuah extending its headward reaches to capture the ancestors of the Ward’s River-Johnson’s Creek system, which, prior to this capture, flowed northward. STRATIGRAPHY. Rocks of Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian age outcrop in the area, in addition to superficial river deposits referable to a late geological period. A description of the first two systems may be found elsewhere in the literature, and it is intended to give only a brief historical account of the area to the close of the Carboniferous. Summary of the History to the Close of the Permian. The rhythmically bedded Carboniferous tuffs, mudstones and lava flows contrast markedly with the deeper marine deposits of the Devonian, and Sussmilch, who discussed the relationship of these two systems at some length, was of the opinion that an angular unconformity exists. Such an unconformity would be referable to the Tabberabberan Orogeny. On the other hand, the conformable nature of the lower and upper Burindi contact suggests that in this area at least the effects of the Kanimbla Diastrophism were not felt, but rather from the commencement to the close of Burindi times a general silting-up of a shallow basin took place, accompanied by small, inter- mittent epeirogenic movements and, during the Upper Kuttung, the area was dry land suffering periodic and extensive inundations of lava flows, accompanied by contemporaneous erosion. Evidence for this is shown by the disconformable nature of the Kuttung-Permian contact and, in one or two localities, notably along the Faulkland Road, rhyolitic conglomerates of the Kuttung Series form the basement beds for the Permian. Permian. Lying between the volcanic hills of the Upper Kuttung Series is a thick terrestrial group of conglomerates, sandstones, mudstones, arkoses and carbonaceous shales with numerous coal seams ranging up to 30 feet in thickness. That these deposits are of Permian age is placed beyond doubt by the frequent occurrence of such plant remains as Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Noeggerathiopsis and vertebraria. In the southern part of the area between Craven and Dewrang, the fold trends N.20 W. with a plunge to the north. Faulting in this vicinity has produced a more southerly extension of the outcrop. North of Craven, where the influence of remarkable E.-W. tear faults is most intense, the axis swings to the N.N.E., but between Berrico Siding and Gloucester a gentle plunge southwards is present, though this tendency is rendered less apparent by the presence of many minor structures. Beyond Gloucester a complicated fault system has assumed control and only the eastern limb of the syncline is preserved, the strike being N.N.W. 108 F. C. LOUGHNAN. Throughout the entire length of the synclinal basin the axis is displaced to the western side of the Permian outcrops, suggestive of asymmetrical folding. However, that this is not so may be seen by the regular and complementary increase in dips as the measurements are made away from the axis ; and, in fact, the apparent asymmetry is due to a divergence of the strata from west to east. Further evidence is given by the greater predominance of conglomerates in the west, together with the overlapping of several of the formations. The following is a generalised section of the Permian stratigraphy in descending order : Approx. Thickness 6. Broad Gully Formation of sandstones, carbonaceous Shales, conglomerate and a little coal .. ne ils 770 ft. 5. Spring Creek Conglomerate a ee ne dee 50 ,, 4. The Craven Coal Measures i Be oe .» 2,d00° 05, 3. Ward’s River Conglomerate . 0 ie es 220. 2. The Avon Coal Measures .. ue ce we ~». 1,900i 1. Dewrang Formation of sandstones, conglomerate, arkosic sandstones including the ‘30 Foot Seam”... ios fel hOO RAS 6,340 _,, 1. The Dewrang Formation. The presence of a considerable amount of strike faulting between the Upper Kuttung Series and the basal beds of the Permian, coupled with the prevalence of thick talus slopes along the contact, | requires specialised conditions in the physiography for the observation of the basal deposits. However, on the eastern bank of Johnson’s Creek, to the extreme south of the Permian outcrop, the contact is clearly exposed. Fifty feet of sandstones, carbonaceous shales rich in flora, conglomerates and two eighteen-inch coal seams overlie the lavas. The same sequence may be observed a mile further north, on the Johnson’s Creek Road, and along the eastern margin between Loggy Creek and The Glen Road, where 600 ft. of strata consisting principally of sandstones, outcrop. On the western side of the syncline the sandstones may be seen where they intersect the Pacific Highway, but beyond the latitude of the Upper Avon, conglomeratic sandstones predominate. The conglomeratic pebbles, like those of the Ward’s River and Spring Creek Conglomerates, consist almost exclusively of acid lavas, often with the fluidal fabric well preserved, though tuffaceous material comprises a small proportion. A variation in the degree of sphericity is observed between the pebbles of the western and eastern sides, the former being more angular than the equidimen- sional material of the east. The matrix is predominantly arkosic, consisting of 40°, silica grains with a variable amount of plagioclase, often displaying a remarkably fresh state of preservation, and chloritised biotite, whilst a consider- able proportion of the rock consists of unresolved clay material. Approximately 600 feet stratigraphically from the base of the Permian occurs a thick coal seam, to which Odenheimer in 1855 gave the name ‘ The 30 Foot Seam ’’. The seam may be traced for most of the distance round the synclinal basin with good exposures located on the north bank of the Avon River close to the Upper Avon Fault, near Chainey Flat Creek, along Coal Shaft Creek, in a railway cutting a few hundred yards north of Dewrang Siding, at Barry’s Gully and Masters Creek, and further north near Oakey Creek. PERMIAN COAL MEASURES OF STROUD-GLOUCESTER TROUGH. 109 Several prospecting shafts are located along Coal Shaft and Masters Creeks and at Barry’s Gully, whilst a small colliery has operated in the first-named locality. Records of these shafts are to be found in the reports of Odenheimer and David. (itis interesting to note that Odenheimer reports 28 feet of excellent coal close to the surface in one of these shafts.) The seam dips steeply toward the axis, the lowest recorded angle being 35°. Overlying the ‘30 Foot Seam” and the associated carbonaceous shales are approximately 500 feet of medium to coarse grained sandstones, which are pebbly in places and locally grade into conglomerates. Bedding is fairly well defined and the rocks contain a high percentage of plagioclase, generally in a much decomposed state, in addition to minor amounts of chlorite, biotite, zeolite, hematite and calcite. 2. The Avon Coal Measures. Approximately 1,100 feet above the base of the Permian is a thick succession of intercalated sandstones and coal-bearing strata totalling 1,900 feet in thickness. Good outcrops occur within the town of Gloucester along the southern bank of the river and opposite the railway station. Fifteen coal seams were counted, ranging in thickness from two to eight feet, with a general dip south-west at 55°. Minor faulting and buckling of the strata is prevalent, and an attempt to mine the coal by the Gloucester Main Colliery experienced difficulty in this respect. On the eastern bank of the Avon River, 600 yards south of the Krambach Road, several infilled prospecting shafts are situated on the lowermost beds of the formation. A description of one of these shafts is given by Sussmilch. Southwards from this latter area, the formation may be traced by isolated outcrops to within two miles of Dewrang, with good exposures occurring on the southern bank of Ward’s River and in tributary streams of Johnson’s Creek. On the western limb the coal-bearing strata can be followed from the intersection with the Pacific Highway, three miles south of Ward’s River village to the Avon River, but between the latter point and the Gloucester River evidence is lacking, suggesting an overlap. 3. Ward’s River Conglomerate. Exposed along the eastern bank of Ward’s River, to the south of Craven, where the stream flows parallel with the Pacific Highway, is a massive cliff-forming conglomerate containing two horizons of interbedded shales and coaly bands. The formation measures 220 feet in thickness. The conglomerate pebbles have been derived, almost exclusively, from the Upper Kuttung Series, and are usually elongated in one or two directions, varying in size to some extent but generally large and tightly packed, though here and there the sandstone matrix forms small lenses and thin beds devoid of rudaceous material. In composition the matrix resembles the basal sandstones. Further south along the Johnson’s Creek Road, near Relf’s Creek, the same strata may be seen striking N. 8° E. with a dip of 45° to the west. On the western side of the axis the equivalent deposits across the Pacific Highway within a mile south of Ward’s River village, striking N. 20° W. and dipping to the east at 47°. The southerly extension of these beds is difficult to trace, but the proximity of the same strata on both sides of the syncline and the steepness of the dips involved renders a difficulty in visualising the beds as merely folded and not faulted additionally. To the north-west the massive conglomerate may be traced almost to Gloucester, forming cliffs along the banks of the intersecting streams, notably those of Spring and Sandy Creeks. South of Craven the conglomerate is quarried for road metal, but further north swamp and alluvium conceal the outcrop for the most part. However, 110 F. C. LOUGHNAN. within the town of Gloucester and along the Barrington Road excellent exposures may be seen in the various road cuttings and creek beds. 4. The Craven Coal Measures. Outcropping in a series of road and railway cuttings less than a mile to the south-east of Craven Post Office is a thick forma- tion containing numerous coal seams up to nine feet in thickness. The beds have suffered considerable distortion and several classical examples of structures in miniature may be seen. To what extent these folds and thrusts have displaced the strata is difficult to estimate, since many more must remain concealed beneath the thick soil cover. The succession has a thickness of approximately 2,300 feet and contains at least 30 coal seams. North of Craven all trace of the strata is lost under the alluvium of ‘‘ The Swamp ”’, but at the junction of the Upper Avon Road and the Pacific Highway the uppermost beds with several coal seams may be seen cutting across the road with a strike N. 10° E. The swing in the strike becomes more pronounced along the East Stratford Road, where the coal-bearing strata run N. 32° EH. with a dip of 55° N.E. Undoubtedly the Upper Avon Fault has been influential in this respect. Further north the strata strike more or less meridionally, but only isolated outcrops occur, notably along Waukivory and Dog Trap Creeks; and, just to the south of Gloucester on the Pacific Highway thick deposits of carbonaceous shale and sandstone, with a shallow southward dip, mark the northern extent ‘of the Craven Coal Measures. South of Craven exposures of carbonaceous shales, coal and arkosic sand- stones in road and railway cuttings extend as far as Ward’s River village, where the dip is to the north. Along the western margin of the syncline the strata may be traced north- wards to the Avon River, where a considerable thinning of the formation takes place, and beyond this point the deposits fail to outcrop. 5. Spring Creek Conglomerate. Overlying the Craven Coal Seams is a heavy unstratified conglomerate approximately 50 feet thick, resembling the Ward’s River Conglomerate in composition. Good outcrops are to be found along Spring Creek and south towards Ward’s River School, but northwards from | Spring Creek the conglomerates are difficult to trace, which is surprising in view of their competent nature. However, occasional outcrops of conglomerate on the expected horizon suggests that this rock occurs right round the synclinal basin. i 6. Broad Gully Formation. In the Spring Creek sector, lying along the axis between the two outcrops of the conglomerate described above, is a succession of carbonaceous shales, arkosic sandstones, conglomerates and mudstones with several thin coaly beds. The strata on the whole deviates but a little from the horizontal, though minor puckering coupled with the lack of good exposures makes measurements difficult. However, from an economic viewpoint the beds are of little interest. WARD’S RIVER BASIN. A mile east of Craven, along The Glen Road, the eastern boundary of the coal basin is reached, and for a further 600 yards the road traverses the Upper Kuttung Series, which dip steeply to the west. Beyond the lavas coal measures are encountered once more, with a steep easterly dip. A thick arthracitic coal seam, which outcrops along Stoney Creek, forms the basal beds with a strike N. 20° W., dipping to the east at 50°. The relation of the basal seam to the Carboniferous lavas is difficult to ascertain in such rugged country, since thick talus slopes obscure the contact at PERMIAN COAL MEASURES OF STROUD-GLOUCESTER TROUGH. 111 every occasion. However, the juxtaposition of coal measures and basement lavas dipping steeply in opposite directions is suggestive of either an uncon- formity or faulting. A thick succession of mudstones, carbonaceous shales and sandstones, which locally grade into conglomerate, overlie the coal seam, but the geology of this subsidiary basin was not fully investigated and the extent is unknown. Economic ASPECTS. In describing the Permian stratigraphy, attention was drawn to the occur- rence of coal seams in commercial thicknesses at several horizons and, though two attempts have been made to mine the coal (at Gloucester and near Dewrang Siding) and many prospecting shafts have been sunk, chemical analyses are few. On the present survey, opportunities for satisfactory sampling of the coal were restricted to one locality, viz. a small cross-cut driven into the bank of Coal Creek, one-half mile south-east of Craven. This drive intersected three seams, the upper two of which were sampled. The following proximate analysis is representative of both seams, excluding bands: hyg. moist, 10%; vol. mat., 25%; fixed carbon, 45%; ash, 20%. The coal was in a partly weathered state, and much soil material had been added along the cleats; the nature of the coal in thin section indicates that a somewhat lower ash content could be expected from a fresher sample. In attempting to ascertain the effect of faulting on the rank of the Stoney Creek seam, a random sample was taken from the creek bed and a proximate analysis was carried out, yielding the following results: vol. material, 33% ; fixed carbon, 37:39; ash, 9°7%. Recalculating. on an A.F.D. basis: vol. material, 36:5°%; fixed carbon, 63-5%. These figures indicate a low rank bituminous coal, which is surprising in view of the high physical rank the coal appears to have in hand specimen. However, it must be remembered that only one determination was made, and that on a random sample, hence the results obtained cannot be regarded as representative. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY. Perhaps no other area within the State presents such a unique opportunity for studying the rapid succession of differing tectonic environments as the Stroud-Gloucester Trough. However, it is not intended to duplicate the work of Osborne, Sussmilch e¢ al. in this respect but rather to add and possibly modify some of their work. Undoubtedly the most remarkable feature of the area is that due to a late K.-W. compressional stress of some magnitude which superimposed new structures on pre-existing ones causing the development of tear fractures and the displace- ment of whole blocks of country. The displacements were differential in part, and where the blocks became ‘“ anchored ”’ at one extremity but yielded at the other a certain amount of rotation took place, whilst minor fractures and folds developed about the anchored regions. Mograni, Barrington River and Upper Avon faults are examples of major displacements, whilst the minor structures developed to the south of Craven (see Osborne and Andrews) and within the town of Gloucester are located about the “ hinge ”’ regions. A modification found necessary concerned the position of the Kiaora Fault. This fault, which obliquely transects the coal measures to the north-west of Gloucester, was first recorded by Sussmilch and later named by Osborne and Andrews (1949). Alluvium covers much of the critical area, but nowhere in the region could evidence be found to support the existence of such a fault. How- ever, on the north side of the Gloucester River along the contact of the coal 112 F. C. LOUGHNAN. measures and the Kuttung lavas between the railway line and Kiaora crossing slickensides are numerous and the strata has been greatly disturbed, suggesting faulting. It is proposed to retain ‘‘ Kiaora ”’ for this fault. A further area in which a possible fault exists lies to the south of the ‘* Buckets ’’, where the Gloucester River cuts through the volcanic hills. A considerable wavering of the strike occurs and the unusual courses taken by both the Gloucester River and Sandy Creek are suggestive of faulting, though no displacement could be measured. Reference has been made previously to the discordant nature of the Ward’s River Coal Measures and Kuttung lavas contact, a marked discordance which is not observed between coal measures and Carboniferous elsewhere ; and, in view of the prevalence of slickensides in the basal coal seam of the Ward’s River measures it would appear that a fault separated the two systems. Moreover, the Ward’s River Basin is associated with that block of country which has suffered the greatest lateral movement, a stress condition more compatible with overthrusting than normal faulting. Hence it is proposed to term this fracture the Stoney Creek overthrust. AGE OF THE COAL MEASURES. Since the earliest discovery of the Gloucester Coal Basin attempts at a correlation between these deposits and the type Permian of the Lower Hunter area have proven unsuccessful, perhaps the reasons being the absence of recog- nisable marine deposits and the specialised nature of the sedimentation environ- ment. On the present survey several attempts were made at microspore correlation, but with unsatisfactory results. Perhaps the best method of effecting a correlation of the respective deposits would be by a correlation of the tectonic disturbances which affected both areas. Owing to the conformable nature of the Carboniferous-Permian boundary and the limited extent of the measures, it would appear that the Permian was laid down during a mild compressional period which initiated the syncline. This period of intermittent subsidence was followed by a stress relief period during which the tensional boundary and intragraben faults developed. At a later period a compression of some magnitude tended to squeeze the sediments into a tightly pinched syncline, and finally, though possibly as a culmination of this compression, a rotational disturbance brought about the tear fractures. In view of the magnitude of the disturbances and the close proximity of the areas, it would be expected that disturbances in one area would be recorded in the other and vice versa. In short, it is postulated that the Gloucester Syncline was initiated early in the tectonic history of the Permian of the Hunter Valley along with that of the Lochinvar Dome (epi Muree Osborne, 1950) or the Cranky Corner Basin (pre-Greta in age). In which case the Gloucester coal measures were developed not later than Muree times. CONCLUSIONS. Coal, in commercial thickness, occurs at numerous horizons throughout the thick Permian terrestrial sediments of the Stroud-Gloucester Trough. The quality of the coal has not been fully investigated, but the steep dip of the seams, the presence of numerous minor structures and the high level of the water- table wound render mining hazardous. The associated sediments, which have been derived in toto from the under- lying Carboniferous rocks, are predominantly coarse in grade size and there is a gradation towards finer material from west to east, suggesting that the western margin of the coal measures was not far removed from the source areas, whereas the original eastern boundary extended some distance beyond its_ present PERMIAN COAL MEASURES OF STROUD-GLOUCESTER TROUGH. 113 confines, the coal measures have since been removed by erosion. This is with the exception of the infaulted Ward’s River Basin. The coal measures are probably not younger than Muree. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Odenheimer, F., 1855. Report to the Aust. Agric. Co. (Unpublished.) Osborne, G. D., 1938. ‘“‘ On Some of the Major Faults North of Raymond Terrace and Their Relation to the Stroud-Gloucester Trough.’ Tuis JOURNAL, G1, 385. 1950. ‘‘ The Structural Evolution of the Hunter-Manning-Myall Province, N.S.W.”’ Monograph No. 1, Roy. Soc. N.S.W. Osborne, G. D., and Andrews, P. B., 1948. ‘‘ Structural Data for the Northern End of the Stroud-Gloucester Trough.” TxHis Journat, 81, 202. Sussmilch, C. A., 1921. ‘“‘ The Geology of the Gloucester District of N.S.W.”’ TxHis JoURNAL, 55, 234. Voisey, A. H., 1940. ‘ The Geology of the Country between the Manning and Karuah Rivers.”’ Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 65, 192. LIVERSIDGE RESEARCH LECTURE" CHEMICAL STRUCTURE AND BIOLOGICAL FUNCTION OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. By R. LEMBERG. Mr. President, Members of the Royal Society, Ladies and Gentlemen, It is a testimony to the far-sightedness of Liversidge, to whom we owe these lectures, that the aim of the bequest is today as essential and its terms as well- conceived, as they were at the time of his life and death. It is, indeed, difficult for me to imagine that sixty-three years separate the short time which Liversidge spent with Michael Foster at the Cambridge Physiology School from the time of my collaboration with Sir Joseph Barcroft at the same school, and with Sir Frederic Gowland Hopkins at its daughter school of Biochemistry ; the same number of years separate our arrivals in Australia. It was during the years Liversidge was still at Cambridge, in 1871, that Hoppe-Seyler laid the foundations of the field of knowledge which I am going to discuss, by his conversion of hemoglobin to a porphyrin, followed a few years later by his discovery that the same type of compound could be obtained from chlorophyll. When the Royal Society entrusted me with this lecture, I felt somewhat diffident, knowing that I had chosen a general survey of the pyrrole field as my subject for the Presidential Address of Section N of A.N.Z.A.A.S. at the Canberra January meeting, and that I should be in danger of repeating what I had said there. Permit me, therefore, to put before you the story of some of my own adventures in this field. If such a procedure is perhaps ill-suited for a ceremonial lecture such as this—there is a good excuse to be found in Liversidge’s terms, i.e. that these lectures should be designed to encourage research. Nothing is more needed for the encouragement of research than the demonstration that a research career is a great intellectual adventure compared with which ‘‘ mere physical adventure is a pale and colourless experience’. This phrase is taken from a lecture of Frederic Wood-Jones, F.R.S., entitled ‘“‘ The Spirit of Adventure ’’, and found in his book ‘ Life and Living ”’, a lecture which every student, research worker and university teacher should read. As in all adventures, hardships and uncertainties are part of the game and heighten its enjoyment. It is the story of a long research adventure which I intend to put before you. Everyone of us, however, explores only a few corners of a continent, and a rough map of what is known today must precede the story. The field is that of the tetrapyrrole pigments and enzymes, full of intrinsic chemical interest, but still more fundamentally important for the physiologist and biologist. Structure, metabolism, function and their correlation will therefore receive attention. * Delivered to the Royal Society of New South Wales, July 15, 1954. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 115 BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE. There are three fundamental biological processes—two of them closely linked up—for which tetrapyrroles are essential (Text-fig. 1). Firstly photosynthesis. The elucidation of this process by which sunlight energy is converted into the potential energy of foodstuffs may one day bring humanity more benefits than atomic energy, and certainly less danger and misery. Several chlorophylls, e.g. a and 6b in higher plants, or bacterio-chlorophyll in purple bacteria, and the bile pigment-chromoproteins of red and blue alge, phycoerythrin and phycocyanin, are involved in photosynthesis. In addition, we know that iron-porphyrin (hem) complexes bound to protein are also required, such as cytochrome f in the chloroplasts of green plants, cytochrome ec, in purple bacteria. Photosynthesis .. .. Chlorophylls. Phycochromoproteins. Hem enzymes. Cellular respiration .. Cytochrome oxidase. Cytochromes. Peroxidases. Catalases. Oxygen storage and Myoglobins and transport. hemoglobins. Chlorocruorin. Text-fig. 1.—Biological role of tetrapyrroles. Secondly, cellular respiration. We may define life as a complex organisation by which a steady state of a free energy content far above that of the equilibrium is maintained by a constant influx of energy needed for the maintenance of the steady state and of the complex organisation itself. This energy is provided in most cells by the stepwise oxidation of food materials, and in the chain of events which require the movement of electrons from the substrates to atmos- pheric oxygen, hemo-proteins such as cytochrome oxidase and several cyto- chromes are involved. The peroxidases and catalases serve as auxiliaries in this process. An overwhelming part of life on earth depends on the systole and diastole of these two processes photosynthesis and cellular respiration. Only a few autotrophic and a few strictly anaerobic bacteria form an exception ; Some of the autotrophs at least, e.g. the nitrate reducing bacteria, probably also use cytochromes, and some obligatory anaerobes contain a little catalase. Thirdly, when an organism grows in bulk and complexity, diffusion is no longer sufficient to bring the oxygen for cellular respiration from outside. Special oxygen carriers in the blood are required. Hemoglobins are found in moulds, e.g. in yeasts, and in leguminous root nodules, but their essential function appears to begin sporadically in Invertebrates, to become regular in Vertebrates, with the recently discovered exception of a few fishes. Finally, the red muscle which is able to store oxygen combined with myoglobin, is a far more efficient organ than the white muscle which lacks it. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE. If we now turn to chemical structure, we find that the structural basis of _ all these compounds is the porphin ring (Text-fig. 2), directly for hem compounds and chlorophylls, more indirectly for the bile pigments. Porphyrins are porphin substituted with various side chains at the eight 6-positions of the four pyrrole rings; hems are their internal tetracoordinate iron complexes, chlorophylls magnesium complexes, usually of dihydro- or tetra- hydroporphyrins. Finally, bile pigments are essentially porphyrins whose ring has been opened by oxidative scission. 116 R. LEMBERG. Of the porphyrins (Table 1), protoporphyrin, with four methyl, two vinyl and two propionic acid side chains, is the most important. It forms the prosthetic groups of hemoglobins and myoglobins, of a number of cytochromes, such as b and f (and in somewhat modified form of cytochromes c), of catalases and of some peroxidases. Text-fig. 2.—Porphin. Porphyrins with a formyl] side chain are found as the prosthetic groups of cytochrome oxidase (the Atmungsferment), of cytochrome a and of the oxygen carrier in the blood of Sabellid worms, chlorocruorin. TABLE lI. Porphyrins and Their Occurrence as Metal Complexes and Prosthetic Groups. Occurrence as Prosthetic Group Porphyrin. Side Chains. | or Metal Complex. Atio-TIl .. .. | 4M, 4B. | Meso-IX A ae ee Meine, 2. | 0. Proto-IX .. oo | eR OP. Fe: hemoglobins, myoglobins. cytochromes 6. catalases, horse radish peroxidase. (Mg: Chlorella mutant.) Hemato-IX.. | (oie EE 2 P Fe: (modified) cytochrome c. Acetyldeutero- .. | 4M, 2P, 1Ac. Fe: lactoperoxidase. Chlorocruoro- a 1 4M VATE, 2.P: Fe: chlorocruorin. Cyto-(a)- -. | IF, along alkyl: Fe: cytochrome oxidase, cytochrome a, ay. Copro-I and III .. | 4M, 4P. (Cu, Zn: urine.) Uro-I and IIT .. | 4AC, 4P. (Cu: turacin.) (Zn: urine.) Abbreviations : M=methyl, .CH3. F=formyl, .CHO. E=ethyl, .C,H;. AC=acetic acid radical, .CH,CO,H. V—vinyl, -CH—CH.. P=propionic acid radical, .CH,.CH,.CO,H. HE=hydroxylethyl, .CHOHCH;, Acetyl groups are found in bacteriochlorophyll and in the peroxidase in milk (Morell, 1953). CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 117 Coproporphyrins with four, and uroporphyrins with eight carboxyl groups in their side chains, are found, usually in small amounts as free porphyrins, occasionally as copper or zinc complexes. They will mainly interest us in connection with the biosynthesis of hem. Text-fig. 3.—Porphyrin isomers. Porphyrins with two types of side chains (e.g. copro- or uroporphyrin) can form four isomerides (Text-fig. 3), but only two, types III and I, have so far been found in nature. All functionally important compounds, chlorophylls as well as hem compounds, are derived from type III. Porphyrins with three types of side chains, such as protoporphyrin, can form 15 isomers ; the natural protoporphyrin IX is derived from type III. v mv ae) M E N N N N H H H H OPSO HAEMO CRYPTO PHYLLOPYRROLE M Ec M p (Carboxylic Acids) (ee co co co Bs H a UA NX J P CH, CH, CO, N N H H J METHYLETHYL H AEMATINIC MALEIMIDE ACID Text-fig. 4.—Products of reductive and oxidative scission. The correct formula for the porphin ring was given by Wilhelm Kuster (Kuster and Deihle, 1913) based on his studies on the products of oxidative scission, substituted maleimides, and on the studies of other workers on the products of reductive scission with hydroiodic acid, substituted pyrroles (Text- fig. 4). This evidence culminated in the synthesis of protoporphyrin and hemin 118 R. LEMBERG. « by H. Fischer in 1929 (cf. Fischer, 1937, p. 372). Monopyrroles are first con- densed to two dipyrrolic pyrromethenes and then two of these to the unsym- metrically substituted type III porphyrin. pris XS Text-fig. 5.—Phthalocyanine. Finally the structure has been confirmed by purely physical methods. Phthalocyanine (Text-fig. 5), a tetrabenzenotetrazaporphin, synthesised by Linstead (1934) was the first organic compound to give a complete Patterson X-ray diagram in the hands of Robertson (1935). The molecule is flat and there is no real difference between the four isoindole rings, although the symmetry only approaches the tetragonal one. Linstead has bridged the structural gap iQ Text-fig. 6.—Dipyridine-diisoindole macro- cyclic ring system of Linstead. between phthalocyanin and porphin by synthesising tetrabenzo- and tetraazo- porphyrins. The central 16-membered ring (Text-fig. 7) leaves a hole in the centre with a diameter of 2-65 A, just large enough to be filled by atoms such as iron (atomic diameter, 2-54 A.), but the ring is also adjustable by small alterations of the length of, and angle between, its many bonds, to take larger atoms such as Mg, and to bind even atoms like Be, otherwise never found in planar tetraco- ordination. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 119 Recently Linstead (1953) has synthesised similar macrocycles with two of the four isoindoles replaced by either pyridine or benzene. The dibenzene- diisoindole compound no longer forms metal complexes ; it lacks the possibility of tetracoordination. The dipyridine-diisoindole compound (Text-fig. 6) forms Text-fig. 7.—Stereochemistry of porphin. The central circle represents the central hole filled by two hydrogen atoms in porphyrins and by the metal atom in the metal complexes. The four adjoining circles are those of the four pyrrole nitrogen atoms, the remaining circles represent carbon atoms. such complexes. It is of interest that the free compound has a spectrum quite different from that of porphins, whereas those of the metal complexes resemble porphin complexes. In the free compound the hydrogen atoms are evidently strictly bound to the two isoindoles, thus severely restricting resonance which is still possible in the metal complex. Text-fig. 8.—Porphyrin tautomerism. The type of linkage of the central hydrogens in the free porphyrins is not yet fully established. It appears that free porphyrins consist of mixtures of two tautomeric forms (Text-fig. 8), each in turn stabilised by resonance of several canonical forms. J 120 K. LEMBERG. Tron in the hem compounds can be bound in two different ways. In addition to the four valancies going to the four nitrogens of the porphin ring, there are two additional sites of coordination above and below the porphin plane (Text- fig. 9). Ferrous hem binds, e.g. two molecules of pyridine to a hexacoordinate complex, called hzemochromogen, or more concisely hemochrome. In this Fect 4s ~ 4p 3d ‘ionic. OOOO (x) (x) (x) ‘<- QQOOD@ @ O@® Text-fig. 9.—Iron porphyrin (hem) compounds. instance the linkage, called ‘‘ covalent ’’, is of d,sp, type, using the 3d, 4s and 4p orbitals of iron, and the molecule is diamagnetic. In other compounds, however, the paramagnetism of ionic iron is preserved. The linkages, not quite fortunately called ‘‘ ionic ’’, are also covalent, but involve only the 4s, 4p and perhaps 4d orbitals of iron. TABLE 2. Chlorophylls and Related Compounds. State of Isocyclic Ring X in Ring. Side Chains. C,-Cy. -CH,-CH,CO,X. Chlorophyll a .. | Mg dihydro- | 4M; 1H, 1V, 1P | -CO-CH(CO,M)- phytol porphin. Protochlorophyll .. | Mg porphin. . A phytol. Vinylphzoporphyrina;| Mg ,, BS HP H. Chlorophyll 6 .. | Mg dihydro- | 3M, IF; 1E, 1V, | -CO-CH(CO,M)- phytol. porphin. Ee Bacteriochlorophyll .. | Mg tetra - | 4M; 1H, 1Ac, 1P. | -CO-CH(CO,M)- phytol. hydroporphin. Phycochromoproteins. Phycocyanin .. .. | biladiene- (a, | 4M, 2E, 2P. protein, no metal. b). Phycoerythrin as » +1H. ss sa Chlorophyll (Table 2) contains Mg instead of the iron of hem. Text-figure 10 shows the relationship between hem and chlorophyll a. We may imagine that one of the propionic acid groups of hem is curled up and oxidatively condensed to a fifth isocyclic ring. This oxidation is partly counterbalanced CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 121 by hydrogenation of the nucleus (transforming porphin to dihydroporphin or chlorin) and reduction of one vinyl to ethyl. Finally the carboxyl groups are esterified, one with methyl thus protecting the @-keto acid carboxyl, and one with the long chain aliphatic alcohol phytol. We shall see below that this picture is not merely imaginary. Protochlorophyll from which chlorophyll a arises on irradiation in the plant is still a porphin, not a chlorin derivative. Chlorophyll Db carries a formyl instead of a methyl side chain of chlorophyll a. Bacteriochlorophyll is a tetra- hydroporphin with an acetyl side chain. In contrast to the porphin derivatives, the bile pigments are compounds with an open tetrapyrrolic chain, although in many instances they are probably more correctly formulated as rings closed by a hydrogen bond; this holds at least for their metal complexes. In the porphin series there is only one stable hydrogenation state of the central rmg system, which remains essentially intact Heem. Chlorophyll a Text-fig. 10.—Relationship between hem and chlorophyll a. if hydrogen is introduced into one or two crossed double bonds to form dihydro- and tetrahydroporphins. Porphyrinogens with four —CH,— bridges are rather unstable substances, probably for stereochemical reasons. No compounds are known which contain —CH,— and —CH= bridges. This is different in the bile pigments (Text-fig. 11) where several classes exist, varying in colour from white to yellow, red, violet and blue-green, which differ in number of conjugated double bonds. Wherever a —CH,— group replaces a —CH= bridge, the conjugation becomes interrupted. The fully conjugated bilatrienes or verdins correspond to the porphyrins, the leuco-compounds or bilanes to the porphyrinogens. But between them we find systems with only two (urobilins), twice two (rubins), or three pyrrole rings (violins), belonging to conjugated systems. It is this field to the development of which my first studies contributed. Chromoproteins of Red and Blue Algw. My starting point was a sentence in Kostytschev’s well-known text of plant physiology. Speaking of the chromo- proteins of red and blue algz, he concluded: ‘‘ Their chemistry has not been sufficiently investigated.’’ These beautifully crystalline, strongly fluorescent proteins, phycoerythrin and phycocyanin had attracted the attention of many botanists (Engelmann, Gaidukov, Molisch, Boresch, Kylin). It had been 122 R. LEMBERG. shown that they acted as photosensitisers of the photosynthesis of red alge, allowing them to penetrate into deeper layers of the sea than green or brown seaweeds. The absorption of phycoerythrin and phycocyanin is maximal in the orange to green part of the spectrum, where that of chlorophyll is small. This is of particular importance in deeper layers, where red light no longer penetrates. Some Cyanophyceze also show the interesting phenomenon of ‘complementary chromatic adaptation ”’. Irradiated with coloured light, they change their colour to one roughly complementary to that of the incident light. The interest of the botanists in these compounds has recently been revived by the findings of Haxo and Blinks (1950) that light energy absorbed by phyco- erythrin or phycocyanin is used more efficiently for photosynthesis of some algz N Hf NOMENCLATURE STRUCTURE fe SYSTEMATIC GENERAL BILATRIENES VERDINS ay y %, aa A. M. | Bee VIOLINS | : | Fae 7 8 HO” Sn So7 NN Ri \c7\NZSOH BILADIENES - Bee gy (a, b) ERY THRINS ( ) Hp BILADIENES- RUBINS . C | CULE see = u (a,c) 2 BILENES-(b) acer A | } y, / LAA, A. J UROBILINO- “f a j aq e uC J, Ne BILANES AES \y Text-fig. 11.—Bile pigments. The brackets over the pyrrole rings indicate those which form a system of conjugated double bonds. a than is light absorbed by the chlorophylls. While it appears that chlorophyll a is necessary for the energy transfer in these alge, the explanation of the phenomenon is not yet clear (cf. French and Young, 1952 ; Duysens, 1951). Kitasato (1925) had failed to find any evidence for the pyrrolic nature of the prosthetic group, but I suspected that his experiments were inconclusive. I used the very suitable starting material which Kitasato had described, a Japanese delicacy called ‘‘ nori’’ prepared from Porphyra, a red alga. At the outset I struck the great difficulty that the prosthetic groups of both the red phyco- erythrin and the blue phycocyanin was far more firmly bound to the protein than in hemoglobin, and new methods had to be devised to obtain them free from attached peptide. Once this was done, it was easy to demonstrate the pyrrolic nature, and the strong fluorescence of the zinc complexes placed them into close relationship to urobilins (bilenes). The prosthetic groups of phyco- CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 123 erythrin and phycocyanin were identified with two new compounds, mesobiliviolin and mesobilierythrin (see Text-fig. 11) which could be obtained by ferric chloride oxidation of mesobilirubinogen (mesobilane), the leuco compound of bilirubin (Lemberg, 1930). Thus two new types of bile pigments were obtained which were later converted into the crystalline mesobilirubin and mesobiliverdin by alcoholic potash (Lemberg and Bader, 1933). There is still much work to be done in this field for a chemist who is not afraid to start with a few hundred litres of extract to end up with a few milli- grammes of substance. The structure of the prosthetic group of phycoerythrin and its relationship to that of phycocyanin is not yet safely established, and this is of particular interest for the problem of complementary chromatic adaptation, which is based on the relative increase of the substance, phycoerythrin or phycocyanin, absorbing most of the light. Bs Pr He Pr a H MC of l M MAT 1006 M HC? ‘et SCH Cc : ; CH = nt aes N N N N V If r W MV I IV YM OH H (a a M V Protohaem = ay. icy Biliverdin V= ‘CH:CHo Text-fig. 12.—Relation of biliverdin to protohem. The type of linkage between prosthetic group and protein required further study. Apart from the firm peptide linkage, there is a second weak linkage easily broken by dilute acid. It is this linkage which is necessary for the strong fluorescence of the native chromoproteins and for their extraordinarily strong absorption of light. The biogenesis of these and other invertebrate bile pigments, such as that found in the hemolymph of insects (Hackman, 1952), e.g. our common cicada, appears to be different from that in Vertebrates, and the nature of the side chains indicates neither formation by oxidation from hem compounds, as in the Vertebrates, nor photooxidation of chlorophyll. Bile Pigments. The next step was an attack on another class of bile pigments. Oocyan, the blue-green pigment of many birds’ egg shells, e.g. of the duck and the emu, was the first pigment of the bilatriene class to be isolated in pure form (Lemberg, 1931). It is this compound which causes the blue-green colour in the well-known Gmelin or Fouchet reaction for bile pigment. At that time I worked in Hopkins’ laboratory as a Fellow of the Rockefeller Foundation. There was an atmosphere of adventure in which the Institutes of Hopkins, 124 R. LEMBERG. Barcroft and Keilin were closely linked. One of those days Keilin brought Barcroft to me to discuss a green pigment in the dog’s placenta which disturbed Barcroft’s attempts at hemoglobin estimation. In a short time I had identified this substance, uteroverdin, with oocyan and established its structure as that of dehydrobilirubin or bilatriene (see Text-fig. 11) (Lemberg and Barcroft, 1932). Later it was prepared from bilirubin by dehydrogenation (Lemberg, 1932). Uteroverdin had been intensively studied by early biologists and embryologists of the German and French schools. It was the careful study of this old literature in the peaceful atmosphere of the Old Cambridge Library which made me first doubt the primogeniture of bilirubin. Its correct structure showed biliverdin to be more closely related to hemin than is bilirubin (Text-fig. 12). In one of my first studies in Australia I described the reduction of biliverdin to bilirubin PHYSIOLOGICAL REDUCTION OF BILE PIGMENTS MOY MP PM M | | | | } | | BILIVERDIN. HO“ SN ‘ : c N C AN NOH ee | aes eyes ¥ Bwtine Shite BILIRUBIN Nucleus +4H; side chains+4H | Leta paciett enzymes MoE Rode ae ot ne | _» | | | | | | «< MESOBILANE HO~ \N Ga NN N ; N’ OH H Teale CG How H 2 Ho |eeymes. Clostrid. =. proven eu enzymes oye teine verrucosum P nf ar | H aah eg Hy i 4 MESOBILANE N C7 ON H Ho H Text-fig. 13. es, ee reductions of bile pigments. The double arrows indicate the part of the molecule at which reduction takes place. in liver slices, and the enzyme systems which can use biliverdin as hydrogen acceptor (Lemberg and Wyndham, 1936). This reduction (Text-fig. 13) is continued in the mammalian organism by bacterial enzymes in the intestine ending in a mixture of mesobilane and tetrahydromesobilane, known as uro- bilinogen or stercobilinogen ; in the literature you find these names urobilinogen and stercobilinogen confusingly applied to mesobilane and tetrahydromesobilane respectively (cf: Lemberg and Legge, 1949, p. 134). The structures of tetra- hydromesobilane suggested by Fischer is open to doubt and requires reinvestigation. Bile Pigment Formation. The knowledge of the properties of biliverdin led directly to the next step, the explanation of the transformation of the haem compounds to bile pigments. It was one of the rare instances in which a CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 125 reinterpretation of data of other workers allowed one to predict the outcome of a study with some degree of certainty. At that time, Warburg (1932) classified the hzemins into three classes according to their colour, red hemins derived from protoporphyrin, green hemins derived from chlorophylls, and dichroic green-red heemins such as the prosthetic group of the Atmungsferment, derived from what we now know to be formylporphyrins. Warburg and Negelein (1930) had formed such a “ green hemin’’ by coupled oxidation of hemin in pyridine solution with hydrazine. Its supposed methyl ester, obtained by the action of methanol hydrochloric acid, had been obtained crystalline. This ester contained four chlorine atoms. Now hemins contain only one, there was little chance of chlorination under the experimental conditions, and I knew that biliverdin ——> PORPHYRINS —— > HAEMOGLOBIN + 0 CHOLEGLOBIN - { VERDOHAEMOGLOBIN CONCEPT { - Fe protein BILIVERDIN i; + H MESOBILANE + H BILIRUBIN TETRAHYDRO- + il : MESOBILANE | PORPHYRIN ~~ OLD (Nee STERCOBILINOGEN (UROBILINOGEN ) CONCEPT HAEMATIN - protein HAEMOGLOBIN HAEMOGLOBIN BREAKDOWN Text-fig. 14 —Hzmoglobin breakdown. readily forms a ferrichloride [B]+[FeCl,]-. I could show that the “ green hemin ester ’’ was, in fact, biliverdin ester ferrichloride, and the transformation of hemin to biliverdin had thus been carried out inadvertently (Lemberg, 1935). The green hemin in itself, however, was still an internal iron complex, but with an increased lability of its iron; in fact a pyridine hemochrome, which I called verdohemochrome. It had been formed by the removal of one carbon atom from the ring and by its replacement by oxygen. With ammonia, the oxygen could in turn be replaced by nitrogen, yielding a monoazahemin with restored firm iron linkage (Lemberg, 1943). Oxidation of the ring thus precedes iron removal, and no porphyrin is formed as intermediate of hemoglobin breakdown. It took more than ten years of intensive work before this new concept (Text-fig. 14) became generally accepted. The first model was still far removed from physiological conditions, but step by step it was brought nearer to them. Hydrazine was replaced by ascorbic acid, hemin in pyridine by hemoglobin at physiological pH and 37°C. Inter- 126 R. LEMBERG. mediates were observed and a clearer picture of the reaction mechanism obtained (cf. Lemberg and Legge, 1949, Chapter X). The work was not lacking unexpected surprises. Thus hemoglobin gave finally biliverdin, but as intermediate choleglobin with a hem different from verdohem. The greening of hemoglobin by certain streptococci is due to choleglobin formation, and a cholehem prosthetic group was later found in the peroxidase of leucocytes (Foulkes, Lemberg and Purdom, 1951). INTERMEDIATES IN BILE PIGMENT FORMATION Ce Azahaem OH Cholehaem Fe C O OH N Jb Dc Fe —. OH — ee Bilipurpurin -haem Ox 0 ty OH (OH) Verdohaem Biliverdin Haem OO HH Biliverdin Text-fig. 15.—Intermediates in bile pigment formation. Text-figure 15 shows the picture as it finally emerged. The ring is at first oxidised but remains still carbon-closed. (The structure of cholehem is here depicted in the same way as Linstead formulates his first oxidation products of phthalocyanine, but hydroperoxidic structures are not excluded.) Later the carbon is replaced by oxygen and Sjostrand has recently demonstrated that it emerges as carbon monoxide. This poison is thus not quite unphysiological. Other hem compounds, myoglobin, catalase, methemalbumin and even free hematin are similarly oxidised. The mechanism is essentially a peroxidative CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 127 autoxidation of the ring catalysed by the hem iron, in which a [Fe?+.H,O,] or [Fe**+] or [FeO?*] complex is involved (Text-fig. 16).* Catalase and Peroxidase. This brings the problem in close proximity to the mechanism of the enzymes, catalase and peroxidase. Liver catalase contains a verdohzem group which yields biliverdin by the action of acids (Lemberg, Norrie and Legge, 1939). During its action on hydrogen peroxide, some of the enzyme is destroyed by oxidation of protohem to verdohem, but the rate of destruction is greatly increased by ascorbic acid. The inhibition of catalase by ascorbic acid or azide is of a type quite different from that produced by cyanide (Lemberg and Foulkes, 1948). Foulkes and Lemberg (1948) had obtained apparent spectroscopic evidence for a compound between catalase and ascorbic acid, overlooking that our ascorbic acid solutions contained traces of hydrogen peroxide formed by autoxidation. Chance (1948) found that ascorbic acid accelerated the conversion of a primary complex of catalase with hydrogen peroxide into a secondary one, which was our supposed ascorbic acid compound and which he formulated as ‘“ catalase- H,O, complex I1’’. Such a complex played a normal role in the activity of HAEMOGLOBIN [Fe?* 0, | + HOA = ire | + 20H +O, 1 HOA Oa A HO! H,O, + [Fe2*]—> [re4*| + 20H } hs Evie [Ee* | Autodestruction [re+*] + HyA —» [Fe5*] + H* + HAY 3. 4 [Fe>"] + HA — [Fe2*] + nt + wt [Fe**] + 02 = [Fe2*0,] Peroxidase activity Text-fig. 16.—Coupled oxidation of hemoglobin and ascorbic acid [Fe] hem-iron. H,A ascorbic acid. 1. Formation of [Fet+] directly (first line), or from action of hydrogen peroxide formed by autoxidation of ascorbic acid. 2. Oxidation of porphin nucleus to form choleglobin. 3. Back reduction of [Fe4+] to [Fe?*]. peroxidases. Finally George (1952, 1953) has shown that the ‘ complex IT ’’ of peroxidases and of catalase can be obtained by the action of a great variety of oxidants and cannot be formulated as hydrogen peroxide complex. It is best formulated as [Fe*+] or [FeO?+] complex, and ascorbic acid, or even impurities, cause a monovalent reduction of the primary complex having ‘‘ effectively pentavalent ’’ iron. It is still too early to say what is the real valency of iron in these compounds, and whether radicals in the porphin ring or protein are formed. One therefore speaks of ‘ effective valency ’’. Neglecting this we may thus write the action of catalase as in Text-figure 17. Formule 1-2 represent the normal catalatic activity of catalase, formule 3-5 its comparatively weak peroxidative activity in the presence of hydrogen donors, when the [Fe**] complex is formed and undergoes partial autodestruction. * The fact that ferric hzematin is not reduced to ferrous by ascorbic acid, but can be trans- formed into bile pigment by ascorbic acid plus hydrogen peroxide (Kench, 1954) is no evidence against this. Ascorbic acid is required for the process and may well reduce an initial [f'e*+.H,O, | or [fe>+] complex to [Fett]. [Fe|=hem. 128 R. LEMBERG. A [Fe*+] complex plays a normal role in the mechanism of peroxidase. Under certain conditions, catalase can thus act as peroxidase, but differs from peroxidase apparently in the properties of the [Fe +] and [Fe*+] complexes. Only in catalase the [F'e°+] complex reacts (directly or indirectly) with a second molecule of hydrogen peroxide. The [fe*+] complex of peroxidase is com- paratively stable although some bile pigment is also formed (Kench, 1954), The [Fe**+] complex of catalase undergoes partial oxidation of its porphyrin ring. The verdohem groups in liver catalase, and the rapid turnover of liver catalase iron, aS compared with erythrocyte catalase iron (Theorell et al., 1951), are evidence for the peroxidative activity of liver catalase. No such evidence is available for erythrocyte catalase whose function is that of a safeguard against irreversible oxidation of hemoglobin to choleglobin by hydrogen peroxide (Foulkes and Lemberg, 1949). Somewhat similar reactions of catalase occur in the presence of hydroxylamine or azide. Both are oxidised to a mixture of nitrous and nitric oxide (Foulkes and Lemberg, 1949); Keilin and Hartree, 1954). The latter stabilises catalase in the ferrous form as [fe2?+NO] complex. Keilin concludes from this and other experiments that the [Fe?+] state is also passed during the normal action of catalase on hydrogen peroxide, but the matter is not yet clear. CATALASE 1 [Fe 34] +H,0, > [fe>*] + 20H" 2. [FoF] « 1,02 —> [Fe] + 2H" +0, 3. [Fe] +H, A —> [Fe4*] +H’ + a | 1 Peroxidase activity i Catalahe activity 4. [Fe4*] +H, A —> [Fe3*] + Ht + HAM 5 bea | > [Fe* | Autodestruction PEROXIDASE 1 Fe>"]~H,0,-> [Fe] + 208 2. [Fe>*] + HA —> [Fe4*] + Ht +HAm 5, [Fe 4*] + Ho A —> [Fe>*] + H*+ HAY Text-fig. 17.—Mechanism of catalatic and peroxidative actions. [Fe] hem iron, H,A ascorbic acid. Cytochromes. Lately our work has been mostly concerned with the cyto- chromes. The chain of electron passages from hydrogen donor to oxygen ends in a series of cytochromes, e.g. b+?-—>c—a—az, where az is almost certainly Keilin’s cytochrome oxidase and Warburg’s Atmungsferment. Whereas cytochrome b is derived from protohem, and cytochrome e closely related to it (it may be considered an adduct of protein—cysteine to the vinyl groups of protohem), cytochromes a3, a and the bacterial cytochrome a, are derived from formylporphyrin. Cytochrome a, found in bacteria such as Aerobacter, Azo- tobacter or Escherichia coli is perhaps the terminal oxidase in these organisms ; Barrett and Lemberg (1954) have recently isolated its hemin and shown that it is an iron complex of a chlorin, not a porphyrin. Porphyrin a or “ cytopor- phyrin ”’ (Warburg) has been obtained spectroscopically pure and in almost quantitative yield from heart muscle (Lemberg, 1953). This preparation largely excludes the formation of the cryptoporphyrins, which are artefacts, some derived from hem a, others from protohem. The prosthetic groups of cytochrome oxidase (cytochrome a3) and cytochrome a are generally assumed to be identical. Recently we have obtained two fractions of porphyrin a haying exactly the same absorption spectrum, but differing in their extractability from ether by hydrochloric acid or phosphate buffer, as well as in their behaviour on cellulose or silica gel chromatographic columns. We have shown that these are CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 129 mutually intraconvertible forms of porphyrin a and while it is not excluded that one is the prosthetic group of cytochrome a,, the other of cytochrome a, our evidence so far does not support this assumption (Lemberg, 1955). The structure of porphyrin a is not yet finally established. It has a formyl side chain and a side chain with a double bond conjugated with the porphin ring, probably on a pyrrole ring opposite to the one bearing the formyl. This, or another side chain, is a long alkyl group which increases the molecular weight without contributing to the colour. It appears difficult, however, to account for the two forms of porphyrin a on the basis of the present formule. The evidence for a long paraffinic side chain in porphyrin a is of particular interest. Both chlorophyll and cytochrome oxidase are contained in intracellular particles, the chloroplasts and mitochondria which possess a complicated internal structure of lipides and proteins. In the chloroplast the chlorophyll molecules MODEL OF CHLOROPLAST Protein T= lipid layer I= protein toyer ‘so-tyclic Fino Phytol Toil CHLOROPHYLL CAROTENOID Oe STs enn NO! CHLOROPHYLL AND ER MOLECULE CARTENOIDS Text-fig. 18.—Chlorophyll monolayers in chloroplast (according to Wolken and Schwertz, 1953.) form monolayers between protein and lipide layers (Text-fig. 18), with the long phytol tails sticking into the lipid layer which also contains the carotenoids (Wolken and Schwertz, 1953). In porphyrin a a similar structure is achieved by different means, not by esterification but by a long aliphatic side chain. Here is a whole new field opening for the biochemist, all that which lies between molecular and microscopic structure. Whereas usually flavoproteins (with isoalloxazine prosthetic groups) carry electrons from pyridine nucleotides to the cytochromes, Appleby and Morton (1954) have recently shown that cytochrome b,, the lactic dehydrogenase of yeast, contains both hem and isoalloxazine groups on the same protein. BIOSYNTHESIS OF PORPHYRINS. The most important progresses in our field have been made during the last eight years in the exploration of the biogenesis of the hem compounds and of chlorophyll. H. Fischer had considered the uro- and coproporphyrins breakdown 130 R. LEMBERG. products of protohem and products of carboxylation of protoporphyrin. As has been shown above, however, porphyrins are not in the normal way of hem breakdown, and there was accumulative physiological and pathological evidence (cf. Lemberg and Legge, 1949, pp. 593 ff., 628 ff.) that these free porphyrins in the body were formed in hemoglobin synthesis. Uroporphyrin was the one found in the smallest amounts, so small that only recently Lockwood (1953, 1954) has been able to isolate pure uroporphyrin III from normal urine and to demonstrate that we excrete normally 10-30 ug. per day, one-fifth as much as coproporphyrin. Only in certain diseases (porphyrias), and in the fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) normally, is uroporphyrin excreted in milligramme amounts. The quantitatively insignificant or rare, in this instance uroporphyrin, in the instance of bile pigment formation biliverdin, had been considered of minor significance and the suggestion of Turner (1940) that uroporphyrin may be the primary porphyrin had found no acceptance. When in 1946 Rittenberg, Shemin and Bloch found in isotope experiments that N® from glycine (Shemin and Rittenberg, 1946) and deuterium from acetate (Ponticorvo, Rittenberg and Bloch, 1949) were incorporated in the hem of hemoglobin by the nucleated erythrocytes of birds, I suggested a new hypothesis PORPHYRIN SYNTHESIS Relation between porphyrins Proto Copro Uro 2 *CH5° CH5CO5R 2 *CH5*CH5* COOH 2 *CH* CH5*CO,H Text-fig. 19.—Porphyrin biosynthesis. Relation between porphyrins. The arrows indicate the two reactions which do not neces- sarily involve the side chains of the porphyrins themselves, but probably those of monopyrrolic or dipyrrolic precursors. of porphyrin biogenesis in my lecture before the Adelaide Congress of A.N.Z.A.A.S., which was published three years later (Lemberg and Legge, 1949, p. 637). At that time it was a rather daring hypothesis, but it has meantime been proved almost entirely by American and English workers. I have contributed nothing experimental to this development, but I believe that my 1949 discussions with Rimington and Neuberger, Rittenberg, Shemuin, London, Bloch, Watson and Granick have hastened this development, and I am glad that one of my earlier pupils, John Falk, now Royal Society Foulerton Research Fellow at London University College, has been able to put what one may describe as the coping stone on this edifice. My hypothesis was based on the following facts: The relationship between the side chains of the various porphyrins is such that the conversion of uro- to coproporphyrin (4CH,CO,H—4CH,) by decarboxylation and that of copro- to protoporphyrin (2-CH,.CH,.CO,H~2-CH=CH,) by oxidative decarboxylation are far more likely processes than the hitherto assumed inverse reactions (Text-fig. 19). The primary pyrrolic precursor thus should have the side chains of uroporphyrin, acetic and propionic side chains. Acetate enters the tricarboxylic acid cycle and in it becomes converted into «-ketoglutarate. Two molecules of a-ketoglutarate and two molecules of glycine can be expected to be condensed to such a precursor. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 131 Now here is the story as it stands today (Text-fig. 20). a«-ketoglutarate or succinyl coenzyme A formed in the citric acid cycle is condensed with one molecule of glycine to form «-amino-$-ketoadipic acid which is decarboxylated to 6-aminolevulinic acid (Shemin and Russell, 1953). Two molecules of this are condensed to the pyrrolic precursor, porphobilinogen (Dresel and Falk, 1953). This substance was discovered by Waldenstrém in 1935 as a colourless precursor of porphyrin in the urine of patients with acute porphyria and assumed to be a dipyrrylmethane. Recently it has been isolated (Westall, 1952) and its structure aS @ monopyrrole established by Cookson and Rimington (1953). Finally Falk, Dresel and Rimington (1953) have shown that porphobilinogen is converted to uroporphyrin, coproporphyrin and the protoporphyrin of hem in the hemo- lysates of bird erythrocytes. The picture of these reactions as given in my 1946 lecture (Lemberg and Legge, 1949, p. 672) still remains essentially unaltered except that the assumed primary monopyrrolic precursor, and not the dipyrry!- methane is identical with porphobilinogen. In the role of porphobilinogen we have one more evidence, how a substance considered as the oddity of a specialist, can assume central importance, and how the study of pathological products can be fundamental for the explanation of normal physiological events. Inversely, CO,H ine Pe CO5H CH COEH CH if ‘ i Le CHs CH, CH, CH5 { { | | CH pe CO (R) — CH Corp as AC P + | + | (R)cO CH5-(CO5H) co CHy H,N CH if ‘a A > 97 (CO5H) NH» H5NCH NH5 N HoNCH, H 2 molecules a-ketoglutaric 2 molecules acid (or succinyl-coenzyme —> ny -aminolaevu- —_ porphobilinogen A) + 2 molecules of glycine linic acid Text-fig. 20.—Porphyrin biosynthesis. Formation of monopyrrolic precursor. R represents -CO,H group in «-ketoglutaric acid, -SR’ group in coenzyme A. Groups eliminated during the reaction in parentheses. there is now hope that our new insight will help us to find means to cure acute porphyria, a distressing and usually fatal disease not as rare as was previously believed. The synthesis of chlorophyll proceeds along similar lines. The isotope experiments of Della Rosa, Altman and Salomon (1953) show that glycine and acetate are the primary precursors. Granick has discovered mutants of the green alga Chlorella which, instead of chlorophyll, contain the magnesium complex of protoporphyrin (Granick, 1948), that of vinylpheoporpbyrin a; (see Table 2) (Granick, 1950), or free highly carboxylated porphyrins (Bogorad and Granick, 1953). We now begin to understand why the synthesis of porphyrins, so difficult for the organic chemist, is so easy a task for nature. A human adult forms no less than 80 g. of porphyrin annually and the amount of hemoglobin-porphyrin, alone, produced by mankind alone annually is about 160,000 tons. The produc- tion of chlorophyll is immeasurably greater and though the hematin enzymes are found in small concentrations, they are so widespread that the amounts of their prosthetic groups must also be very large. These discoveries raise new problems with regard to biochemical evolution. The synthesis of the tetrapyrroles evidently presupposes the existence of a large 132 R. LEMBERG. part of the intermediary metabolism with its numerous enzymes so that it does no longer appear likely that their appearance on earth can have been so primeval as had been frequently assumed. If this is so, then almost all the metabolism as we know it today, with photosynthesis and respiration, chlorophyll and hem enzymes, is far from primitive in terms of biochemical evolution, although we know from findings of porphyrins and chlorophyll derivatives in Silurian coals that it is at least 300 million years old. Moreover, we have the apparent contradiction that an oxidative cycle is necessary for the synthesis of the very catalysts which catalyse the oxidation. This vast complexity of the basis of life is often insufficiently appreciated by physicists as well as by people who speculate on the origin of life on earth. PHOTOSYNTHESIS Bacterioviridin Bacteriochlorophyll Chlorophylls a + b Phycochromoproteins Chlorophylls c, d. RESPIRATION Cytochrome ao Cy tochrome a, (Cu-enzymes ) : Cytochromes as + a (Peroxidases) | (Catalase) OXYGEN TRANSPORT Haemocyanins Haemoerythrins Vertebrate haemoglobins Chlorocruorin Erythrocruorins=—- — —_ —_ —_ ‘=> Myoglobin Text-fig. 21.—Convergent development. There is a tendency of convergent development which is displayed by the tetrapyrroles in nature. Nature appears to experiment with a variety of devices before it finally accepts one, which is then no longer modified (Text-fig. 21). Thus we find in the more primitive organism a variety of chlorophylls, and also phycochromoproteins, as catalysts in photosynthesis which in higher plants are replaced by the chlorophyll a, b system. In cellular respiration, a variety of cytochromes (a@,, 4,) and non-hem catalysts such as the copper enzymes, are finally replaced by the cytochrome a,—a system. In a way, also, peroxidases and catalases become of minor significance with the development of this system. In oxygen transport, non-hem oxygen carriers, the Cu containing hemocyanin, the iron containing hemerythrins and the hemovanadins, as well as more primitive hemoglobins and chlorocruorin, are finally replaced by the vertebrate type of hemoglobin with four hem groups per molecule, while the perhaps more primitive monohem protein answers a particular function as myoglobin in the CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 133 red muscle cell. It appears that such compounds as hemoglobin have not been developed once but several times by Nature, in the same way in which organs, e.g. the placenta, have been constructed in different ways repeatedly. RELATION BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND BIOLOGICAL FITNESS. We may now try to sum up the chemical features which we find to be the basis of biological fitness of the tetrapyrroles. At first glance, it would appear difficult to reconcile the needs for a substance required for photosynthesis with those required for one functioning in cellular respiration, and again those for an oxygen carrier. The former requires a substance able to absorb sunlight and being able to hand on the energy of its activated molecule to the complicated mechanism by which the endergonic reaction CO,+H,O0—-[CH,O]+0O, is carried out. Absorption of light energy has no role in cellular respiration or oxygen transport. Again, the ability to act as electron carrier between the substrates and oxygen in the respiratory chain appears to contradict the properties demanded for an oxygen carrier. In the first instance activation of oxygen and valency changes of the iron atom, in the latter lack of activation of oxygen and no valency change of iron. Nevertheless, there are physicochemical features which make the porphyrin derivatives suitable for all these tasks. The first is the resonance structure, which at the same time is the basis of the absorption of visible light, helps the formation of stable metal complexes, and results in a most complicated interaction between the z-electrons of the porphin ring and the electrons of the metal. The role of iron in cytochrome oxidase, the cytochromes, hemoglobin, peroxidases and catalase has been discussed. That of magnesium in chlorophyll is less certain. The original assumption of Willstatter that its role is the binding of carbon dioxide has been disproved. It now appears much more likely that it is water that is bound on the magnesium atom of chlorophyll, and that the first reaction of photosynthesis, written schematically H,O +hv—-OH -+-H, takes place with water thus bound. Chlorophylls form hydrates, as has been demon- strated by the change of absorption and fluorescence which they undergo if water is added to their solutions in water-free hydrocarbons (Livingston and Well, 1952). The importance of the resonance structure is, however, still larger. If a monovalent electron change is to be connected with the usual divalent hydrogen changes of organic substrates, or with the monovalent changes between oxygen and water, or hydrogen peroxide and water, without the formation of indis- criminately reactive monovalent radicals, such radicals must be resonance- stabilised. Radicals such as OH, O,H and H have been freely postulated by physicochemists but I doubt whether such almost indiscriminately reactive and freely diffusible radicals could be subjected to the fine control (homeostasis) characteristic of every living cell and could find a place in normal biological reactions. In fact such radicals cause the destruction by y radiation. Nature uses the device of letting such reactions take place on large resonance stabilised molecules, whose monovalent radicals are less reactive and less or non-diffusible, and which, moreover, are held in position by their linkage to proteins in a well organised chain in special cell organs, such as the mitochondria or chloroplasts. It is thus not accidental that so many of the catalytically important molecules of the cell are coloured, even where colour per se is no requisite. Evidence for such resonance-stabilised radicals in the tetrapyrrole field is still largely circum- stantial. There is no reliable evidence for the role of a mono-dehydrochlorophyll in photosynthesis or for reversible alteration of the porphyrin ring in hematin enzymes. We must go one step further and consider the whole porphyrin-iron- protein complex. Hemin is a 1000 times better catalatic catalyst than iron, but catalase is 1000 million times more effective. No simple ham compound 134 R. LEMBERG. has the ability of reversibly combining with oxygen, which is the functional characteristic of hemoglobin. This requires a specific type of protein, globin. The iron of protohem behaves quite differently when it is combined with the respective proteins in hemoglobin, cytochrome 0b, catalase or horse radish peroxidase. We have no less than five different ways of behaviour of hzem iron which depend mainly on the protein and, with the possible exception of cytochrome oxidase, not on the side chains of the porphin ring. In hemoglobins and myoglobins: ([fe?+] + O, = [fe?*O,]; in cytochrome oxidase: [fe2+]+0,—[Fe3+],; in non-autoxidisable cytochromes: [Fe?+]=[Fe*+]-+e. About the reactions of catalases and peroxidases, see Text-figure 17. It will require a far greater knowledge than we possess today of protein structure, of the type of linkage between prosthetic group and protein, and of quantum mechanics, to understand the complex interactions between z-electrons of the porphyrin, electrons of the iron and the influence of the protein bound to the metal. It is the protein which determines the finest adaptations and variations, e.g. those between hemoglobins and myoglobins, and still finer ones between the different hemoglobin of various species, and even in one and the same species, between several hemoglobins, such as foetal and adult, or normal adult and a variety of pathological hemoglobins. This, however, leads us out of the field which I have proposed to discuss into the different one of protein specificity, and I must restrict myself to having pointed out the connection. We still know far too little, both of biological function and of chemical structure, and particularly about the relations between these two, to see more than a faint glimmer. But this glimmer is enough to let us stand in awe of the incredible complexity and the degree of fitness in this complexity. Perhaps Voltaire’s sneer about this ‘‘ best of all possible worlds ’”’ was hardly less one-sided than the all too complacent idea of an order of absolute infallibility in Nature. Surely the truth lies somewhere in between ‘‘ what a scene of gratification and pleasure ’? and ‘‘ Nature red in tooth and claw ’’, between Henderson’s ‘‘ co- ordinated fitness of animate and inanimate world ”’ and ‘‘ struggle for life in a hostile environment ”’. I cannot close without remembering in gratitude some of my teachers : Heinrich Biltz, to whom I owe most of the little skill I possess as an experi- mentalist, and an education to patience and perseverance ; Karl Freudenberg, who showed me the wide possibilities for the organic chemist in the exploration of natural products ; Sir Frederic Gowland Hopkins, David Keilin and other Cambridge friends, who turned my attention from structural to metabolic and functional problems and thus began the conversion of an organic chemist to a biochemist. My collaborators, many unnamed here, have borne more than their share of troubles in our adventures but have, I hope, also participated in the joys of exploration. Without the support of the hospital authorities, and in particular of the National Health and Medical Research Council, my researches could not have been carried out. I thank the Royal Society of N.S.W. for the honour they have conferred upon me by entrusting me with this lecture, and I hope that I have shown some lines from my work which may lead into the future. REFERENCES. Appleby, C. A., and Morton, R. K., 1954. Nature, 174, 749. ° Barrett, J., and Lemberg, R., 1954. Nature, 173, 213. Bogorad, L., and Granick, S., 1953. J. biol. Chem., 202, 793. Chance, B., 1948. Nature, 161, 914. Cookson, G. H., and Rimington, C., 1953. Nature, 171, 875. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 135 Della Rosa, R. J., Altman, K. I., and Salomon, K., 1953. J. biol. Chem., 202, 771. Dresel, E. I. B., and Falk, J. E., 1953. Nature, 172, 1185. Duysens, L. N., 1951. Nature, 168, 548. Falk, J. E., Dresel, E. I. B., and Rimington, C., 1953. Nature, 172, 292. Fischer, H., and Orth, H., 1937. Die Chemie des Pyrrols, 2, 1. Akad. Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig. Foulkes, E. C., and Lemberg, R., 1948. Austral. J. Hxp. Biol. Med. Sci., 26, 307. Foulkes, E. C., and Lemberg, R., 1949a. Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 136, 435. ——— 19496. Enzymol., 13, 302. Foulkes, E. C., Lemberg, R., and Purdom, P., 1951. Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 138, 386. George, P., 1952. Biochem. J., 52, xix. —_—§— 1953. Biochem. J., 54, 267. Granick, S., 1948. J. biol. Chem., 175, 333. -—— 1950. J. biol. Chem., 183, 713. Hackman, R. H., 1952. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 41, 166. Haxo, F. T., and Blinks, L. R., 1950. J. Gen. Physiol., 33, 389. Keilin, D., and Hartree, E. F., 1954. Nature, 173, 720. Kench, J. E., 1954. Biochem. J., 56, 669. Kitasato, Z., 1925. Acta Phytochimica (Japan), 2, 75. Kuster, W., and Deihle, H., 1913. Z. physiol. Chem., 82, 463. Lemberg, R., 1930. Lieb. Ann., 477, 195. —_—_____—___—. 1931. Lieb. Ann., 488, 74. 1932. Lieb. Ann., 499, 25. 1935. Biochem. J., 29, 1322. 1943. Austral. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sc., 21, 239. 1953. Nature, 172, 619. 1955. In “ Biochemistry of Nitrogen”, Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, Helsinki p. 165. Lemberg, R., and Bader, G., 1933. Lieb. Ann., 505, 151. Lemberg, R., and Barcroft, J., 1932. Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 110, 362. Lemberg, R., and Foulkes, E. C., 1948. Nature, 161, 131. Lemberg, R., and Legge, J. W., 1949. ‘“‘ Hematin Compounds and Bile Pigments.” Inter- science, New York. Lemberg, R., Norrie M., and Legge, J. W., 1939. Nature, 144, 551. Lemberg, R., and Wyndham, R. A. Biochem. J., 30, 1147. Linstead, R. P., 1934. J. Chem. Soc., 1016. —-——_____——— 1953. —J. Chem. Soc., 2837. Livingston, R., and Well, S., 1952. Nature, 170, 750. Lockwood, W. H., 1953. Austral. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sc., 31, 453. Lockwood, W. H., and Bloomfield, B., 1954. Austral. J. Hxp. Biol. Med. Sc., 32, 733. Morell, D., 1953. Austral. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sc., 31, 567. Ponticorvo, L., Rittenberg, D., and Bloch, K., 1949. J. biol. Chem., 179, 839. Robertson, J. M., 1935. J. Chem. Soc., 615. Shemin, D., and Rittenberg, D., 1946. J. biol. Chem. 166, 621. Shemin, D., and Russell, C. 8., 1953. J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 75, 4873. Theorell, H., Beznak, M., Bonnichsen, R., and Paul, K. G., 1951. Acta Chem. Scand., 5, 445. Turner, W. J., 1940. J. Lab. Clin. Med., 26, 323. Waldenstrom, J., 1935. Dtsch. Arch. klin. Med., 178, 38. Warburg, O., 1932. Z. angew. Chem., 45, 1. Warburg, O., and Negelein, E., 1930. Ber. Disch. Chem. Ges. 63, 1816. Westall, R. G., 1952. Nature, 170, 614. Wolken, J. J., and Schwertz, F. A., 1953. J. Gen. Physiol., 37, 11. Wood-Jones, F., 1939. ‘‘ The Spirit of Adventure,” in “ Life and Living’. Routledge, London. ti r| ii . if “et ‘ F 1 ) i ‘ + & y y ; ie By ¢ ie ¥ ian ; t glass : ( Bh pei 1) eh ee ee , Bake 8 eae. ("eh : ‘ ' 4 1 ae ye f ' op i} ‘ i y ut ? Oh : pee M vA if ms 2% , Cas U / t We i) ; i uk y ‘ 2 Yi y ‘ ’ ; Us Vy i i ra 1 ¥ yt a) ‘ . LN : f if \ hi \ F F ; 4 i R 5 Bhi : A ‘ Lae ' a ae { 7 cf af di { \ 7 Pr x ; i { } : if Lf mn e) bait aN 1 oo 3 hb . y Fee) ia 1 ' : ‘ ee ne é ! j F Ht y : me f i ¥ f*s ‘ ay By r fi ; Py Op 3 yin ep ‘ , i hd me ‘ , Woe > . * ais * i ; { tk . ¥ &, ; > A i a : i { } 4 pot men’ P ‘ 4 yt z ‘ : nt \ } i , a ! + i s\i } ~ 4 S Ni on | he 4 Aa 4 A Coes ‘ rt . . i ¥ “8 i t , a x i ha ye ies 4 { i = 9 4 | L. F ' i ; ‘ } BAL i a 1 ei rk a f aay % m7 ” r i rite NE man. Nie F A Pe ae ’ 1S ry i ‘. re 4 % ti hi ; a Hig . Aare c H } I ® : } = ei ie i ; , 4 be Te : i 1 ty ‘ Mad j Ay OAS *y { / : v S ’ } ij i 1 | xiii ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS April 7th, 1954. The seven hundred and first Annual and General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Dr. Ida A. Browne, was in the chair. Seventy members and visitors were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of two candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were read for the first time. Edgeworth David Medal.—It was announced that no award was made during 1953 for the Edgeworth David Medal. Liversidge Research Lecture for 1954.—It was announced that the award of the Liversidge Research Lectureship had been made to Dr. M. R. Lemberg. Election of Auditors.—Messrs. Horley & Horley were re-elected as Auditors to the Society for 1954-55. The following papers were read by title only : ‘** Note on a Paper by J. L. Griffith’, by G. Bosson, M.Sc. ‘“The Essential Oil of Hucalyptus maculata Hooker. Part I’’, by H. H. G. McKern, A.R.A.C.I., (Mrs.) M. C. Spies, A.R.A.C.I., and J. L. Willis, M.Sc. ‘* Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1953’, by K. P. Sims, B.Sc. ‘* Geology and Subsurface Waters ofthe Area North of the Darling River between Longitudes 145° and 149°, N.S.W.”’’, by J. Rade. The retiring President, Dr. Ida A. Browne, delivered her Presidential Address, entitled ““ A Study of the Tasman Geosyncline in the Region of Yass, New South Wales ’’. At the conclusion of the address, Dr. Browne welcomed Professor R. 8. Nyholm to the Presidential Chair. The new President expressed his thanks to members for his election to the Chair. The meeting accepted a vote of thanks to Dr. Browne for her services as President and for her Presidential Address. May 5th, 1954. The seven hundred and second General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Professor R. 8. Nyholm, was in the chair. Thirty-three members and visitors were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of three candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were read for the first time. The certificates of two candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were read for the second time. David Hiley Stapledon and Clive Charles Wood were duly elected ordinary members of the Society. Commemoration Ceremony of the Landing of Captain Cook at Kurnell.—The Chairman announced that he had attended this ceremony on May Ist, 1954, and reported that, for the first time, the Society placed a wreath on the Banks Memorial in commemoration of the landing of the first scientist on these shores. Discussion.—It was announced that, in place of a popular science lecture, a discussion on ** Would Space Travel be Worthwhile ?”’ would be held on Thursday, May 20th, at 7.30 p.m., and the following speakers would lead the discussion: Prof. F. 8. Cotton, Dr. D. F. Martyn and Prof. A. H. Willis. Inbrary.—The following donations were received : 144 parts of periodicals and nine purchased parts. Address.—An address on ‘“‘ Education in India ’’ was given by Mr. Muni Lal, First Secretary of Information to the High Commissioner of India. KK XIV ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS June 2nd, 1954. The seven hundred and third General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Prof. R. S. Nyholm, was in the chair. Twenty members and visitors were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Deaths.—The President announced the deaths of the following : George Wright, a member since 1916, and James J. Hill, an honorary member since 1914. The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member of the Society was read for the first time. Library.—The following donations were received: 332 parts of periodicals, 23 purchased parts. The following papers were read by title only : ‘“ Organ Transformation Induced by Cstrogen in an Adolescent Marsupial (Trichosurus vulpecula)’’, by A. Bolliger. ‘‘Warialda Artesian Intake Beds’’, by J. Rade. Address.—Dr. N. F. Stanley, Acting Director, Institute of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine at the Prince Henry Hospital, delivered an address on ‘‘ Virus Vaccines—with Special Reference to Poliomyelitis ” July Tth, 1954. The seven hundred and fourth General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. A Vice-President, Dr. Ida A. Browne, was in the chair. Thirteen members and visitors were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. The Chairman announced the names of those members of the Society who had been elected to the Australian Academy of Science: on the Council, Prof. R. J. W. Le Fevre ; Fellows, Prof. J. P. Baxter, Prof. A. J. Birch, Dr. W. R. Browne, Prof. K. E. Bullen, F.R.S., Prof. J. C. Jaeger, Dr. M. R. Lemberg, F.R.S., Prof. P. D. F. Murray, Dr. H. G. Raggatt, Dr. R. N. Robertson, Prof. W. L. Waterhouse. Liversidge Research Lecture.—It was announced that the Liversidge Research Lecture would be delivered by Dr. M. R. Lemberg, F.R.S., on Thursday, July 15th, 1954, at 8 p.m., in the No. 3 Lecture Theatre, Chemistry Department, University of Sydney, and would be entitled ‘“ Chemical Structure and Biological Function of the Pyrrole Pigments and Enzymes ”’ Library.—The following donations were received: 342 parts of periodicals, 14 purchased parts. Dr. A. Bolliger presented a paper (previously read by title only) on “‘ Organ Transformation Induced by Cistrogen in an Adolescent Marsupial (T'richosurus vulpecula)’’, expanded under the title “‘ Organ Transformation Induced by Cistrogen in an Adolescent Marsupial (Trichosurus vulpecula) with Additional Remarks on ‘ Change of Sex’’’. Rev. T. N. Burke-Gaffney, S.J., presented a paper on “‘ The T-Phase from the New Zealand Region’’, expanded under title ‘“The T-Phase, a Seismological Problem ”’ August 4th, 1954. The seven hundred and fifth General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Prof. R. S. Nyholm, was in the chair. Thirty-eight members and visitors were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of three candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were read for the first time. The certificates of four candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were read for the second time, and Keith Alan Waterhouse Crook, Syed Manzurul Hasan, Veeraghanta Bhaskara Rao and Denis Keith Tompkins were duly elected ordinary members of the Society. Presentation of the James Cook Medal for 1953.—The President had pleasure in presenting the James Cook Medal for 1953 to Sir David Rivett, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. It was announced that August 5th would be the centenary of the birth of William Aitcheson Haswell, who was Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy at the University of Sydney from 1890 to 1918. Naper Shaw Memorial Prize.i—Members were informed that the Royal Meteorological Society had announced the first competition for the Napier Shaw Prize and that further particulars could be obtained from the office of the Society. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS XV Library.—The following donations were received: 209 parts of periodicals, 16 purchased parts. ; The following paper was read by title only: ‘‘ The Paleozoic Stratigraphy of Spring and Quarry Creeks, West of Orange, N.S.W.”, by G. H. Packham and N. C. Stevens. Addresses.—Addresses were given on the subject of ‘“‘ Evolution’ as follows: ‘‘ Man’s Place in Evolution ”’, by Dr. N. W. G. Macintosh ; ‘‘ The Implications of Genetics for Darwinism ”’, by Dr. J. M. Rendel. September lst, 1954. The seven hundred and sixth General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Prof. R. 8. Nyholm, was in the chair. Twenty-one members and visitors were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member of the Society was read for the first time. The certificates of three candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were read for the second time. Brian Douglas Booth, Edric Keith Chaffer and Griffith Taylor were duly elected ordinary members of the Society. It was announced that a symposium on “*‘ Oil, Australia and the Future’, to be held on Wednesday, October 6th, would take the place of the General Monthly Meeting. It was also announced that the second in the series of discussions arranged by the Society would be held on Thursday, September 16th, and would be entitled *‘ Was Myxomatosis Wise ? ”’ The leaders in the discussion would be Dr. Phyllis M. Rountree and Mr. Grahame Edgar. Members were informed that the Nuffield Foundation was offering a series of Travelling Fellowships to Australian graduates. Further information could be obtained from the Society’s office. LInbrary.—The following donations were received: 198 parts of periodicals, nine purchased parts, four back numbers. The following papers were read by title only : ‘““A Theorem Concerning the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel Transforms’’, by J. L. Griffith, B.A., M.Sc. ‘*“ Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1953’, by W. H. Robertson. Commemoration of Great Scientists—The meeting was devoted to the commemoration of great scientists, the following addresses being given : “Sir Lazarus Fletcher ’’ (Mineralogist), by Dr. G. D. Osborne. “Georg Simon Ohm, 1787-1854’ (Physicist), by Dr. R. C. L. Bosworth. ** Paul Ehrlich ” (Organic Chemist and Immunologist), by Dr. Phyllis M. Rountree. October 6th, 1954. The seven hundred and seventh General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 5 p.m. The President, Prof. R. 8. Nyholm, was in the chair. One hundred and forty members and visitors were present. His Excellency the Governor of New South Wales, Lieut.-General Sir John Northcott, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.0O., C.B., had honoured the Society with his presence at the first address of the evening. Symposium.—In place of the usual General Monthly Meeting a symposium on “ Oil, Australia and the Future ”’ was held, and the following addresses were given : ‘“The Search for Oil in Australia’, by Dr. H. G. Raggatt. ‘* Oil Products and Their Utilisation’, by Prof. T. G. Hunter. ‘** Petroleum Chemicals’’, by Dr. R. F. Cane. ** The Economic Effects of an Oil Industry on the Australian Economy ”’, by Prof. C. Renwick. A buffet meal was available to members and visitors from 6.30 p.m. to 7.30 p.m. The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member was read for the second time, and Norman William West was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society. November 3rd, 1954. The seven hundred and eighth General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Prof. R. 8S. Nyholm, was in the chair. Seventy-two members and visitors were present, The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Xvi ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS The death was announced of Richmond D. Toppin, a member since 19238. It was announced that Professor K. E. Bullen had recently been elected to the presidency of the International Seismological Union. Library.—The following accessions were received: 265 parts of periodicals, 18 purchased parts. The meeting was devoted to the screening of the following: ‘“‘ Ninety Degrees South ”’. This film, made by H. G. Ponting, F.R.P.S., and described by him as “‘ an account of experiences with Captain Scott’s South Pole Expedition and of the nature life of the Antarctic ’’, had been. made available to the Society through the courtesy of the New South Wales Film Council. December 1st, 1954. The seven hundred and ninth General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. Dr. Ida A. Browne, Vice-President, was in the chair. Seventy-six members were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. The following deaths were announced: Horatio Scott Carslaw, a member since 1903 ; Sir Frederick McMaster, a member since 1927; Frederic Wood-Jones, an honorary member since 1946. The certificates of two candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were read for the first time. Library.—The following accessions were received: 175 parts of periodicals, 11 purchased parts. The following papers were read by title only: ‘* On the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel Transforms ’’, by J. L. Griffith, B.A., M.Sc. ‘* Geology and Sub-surface Waters of the Coonamble Basin, N.S.W.”’, by J. Rade. ‘* Quartzite Xenoliths in the Tertiary Magmas of the Southern Highlands, N.S.W.”’, by R. D. Stevens. ‘* Petrology of the Greywacke Suite Sediments from the Turon River-Coolamigal Creek District, N.S.W.”’, by K. A. W. Crook. ‘* The Permian Coal Measures of the Stre-1d Gloucester Trough ”’, by F. C. Loughnan. Discussion.—The meeting was devoted ‘» » discussion on ‘‘ Fuel and Power in New South Wales’, and the following addresses were given: ‘“ The Potentialities for Utilization of Solar Energy ”’, by Mr. Charles M. Sapsford. ‘* Solar Energy and Photosynthesis’, by Dr. R. N. Robertson. ‘“The Future of Water Power in New South Wales’, by Mr. H. E. Dann. ‘¢ Power Resources in Coal—The Future Outlook for New South Wales Supplies’, by Mr. H. R. Brown. ‘ _AUSTRALASTAN MeEpIcAL PUBLISHING Company Limirep _ Arundel and Seamer Streets, Glebe, N.S.W. _ ve ihe SEBS aint se ela ko oa ak ree i i oo as phen : ah ee of pdiorer tiene Mt neh } oi ae i S ay Hie fhe +f bh ERI ¥ a Hts wend fot Ay ite “fe ee 1 nat ti Nout eile fee We q (ptt ve ot baits eee tettd sit aay He 4) Seely , ne zn reine alee tte Ait stot free 4 is ais fy erie ae 7 iehity es Tahal rie tau soils ne | a a nk unite seinen enti oa cas se a ce \ a ateets be a ae = my cae ts cn at iy th ts ‘ i ath ci aM wa at Sieh Wh, TL ; rub tet 4 a Ree AG ee ai) aK a Pik aae bi Hehe alas fe is vebiibeh ined a ee MS Aisle h ety aN Pediat it! i; Ne: Sebiiies hey Hetete! ee en! 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