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O le? i 4 go ote ene ei ie ms 4 no ora, Lap tie. Us; sae, DARD, Ge ut set And oo a TEE 25% BES, nie spent 1 ' taba 4 : C nl ill aa 4 rs { { = WR NERD oy ak ae? SF Mee Tay ea Set Payers a “emerentel a i i I; f i MM Vl weal ul | I i ii i! 4. a a TM i ! es ae if ts iB Se = , i Sa, sb, wtih: os, . 7 HS “a anit’ fide hoes Foray fase EES ce izes 3 mets JRE BE oa) IEE ize fl aes Sane {REE Coos SE gla a < ip "4 *p 33H 1 ty. 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AL ee frente Srraawets ty & i, ih : af 4, Ce “9 se ne) oO ; : es Era epshnel ean oft ae KD “oy, S ES ae 4 CES hy ie oe |) -p #4 ‘ Xe ae : “ie” i ee ey Sat ah ; if ; Eid poeta EAN he? Se By art ge BNO, Ae fg, S iM — Ui JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES VOL. 93 1959-60 PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS SYDNEY Royal Society of New South Wales OFFICERS FOR 1959-1960 Patrons His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, FIELD-MARSHAL SIR WILLIAM SLIM, G.c.B., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., G.B.E., D.S.O., M.C. His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SOUTH WALES, LIEUTENANT-GENERAL SIR ERIC W. WOODWARD, k.c.M.G., C.B., C.B.E., D.S.O., D.Litt. President A. F. A. HARPER, M.sc. Vice-Presidents F. N. HANLON, B.sc. H. A. J. DONEGAN, Msc. Ife F..D. McCARTHY, bip-Anthr. L. GRIFFITH, B.a., M.sc. Hon. Secretaries A. A. DAY, Ph.D., B.Sc. HARLEY W. WOOD, o.sc. (Editor) Hon. Treasurer C. L. ADAMSON, B.sc. Members of Council B. A. BOLT, pPh.p., M.sc. F. W. BOOKER, D.Sc., Ph.D. C. M. HARRIS, Ph.pD., B.Sc. C. T. McELROY, B.sc. H. H. G. McKERN, M.sc. W. H. G. POGGENDORFYF, B.sc.agr. KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD, M.sc. GH. SEADE, 8:Se: N. W. WEST, B.sc. H. F. WHITWORTH, M:sc. NOTICE The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the “‘ Philosophical Society of Australasia ’’; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of the “ Australian Philosophical Society ’’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales ’’. In 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. CONTENTS Parts 1 and 2 Presidential Address : On Some Aspects of Integral Transforms. /. L. Griffith Astronomy : Minor Planets observed at Sydney Observatory during 1958. W. H. Robertson Ronchi Test Charts for Parabolic Mirrors. A. A. Sherwood Occultations observed at Sydney Observatory during 1958. kK. P. Sims Engineering (Highway Engineering) : Petrology in Relation to Road Materials. Part I: The Rocks used to produce Aggregate. BE, J. Minty Geology : Palaeozoic Stratigraphy of the Area to the West of Borenore, N.S.W. D. B. Walker Variation in Physical Constitution of Quarried Sandstones from Sydney and Gosford. H. G. Golding Mathematics : On Some Aspects of Integral Transforms. /. L. Griffith. (See Presidential Address, above) On Some Singularities of the Hankel Transform. /. L. Griffith bes Distribution of Stress in the Neighbourhood of a Wedge Indenter. Alex Retchel Proceedings of the Society : Annual Reports by the President and the Council Financial Statement .. Obituary List of Members Awards Abstract of re cies 1958 Section of Geology Part 3 Geology : Dykes in the Port Stephens Area. Beryl Nashar and C. Catlin Deuteric Alteration of Volcanic Rocks. H. G. Wilshire 39 47 61 86 99 105 CONTENTS Part 4 Astronomy : ’ Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory during 1957 and 1958. W. H. Robertson sf ae e Ry ne M aie a oe jo eae Geology : The Geology of the Parish of Mumbil, near Wellington, N.S.W. D. L. Sirusz se Sc Geophysics : The Structure of the Earth. Sw Harold Jeffreys a a a ia Fel Lot Relativity : The Measurement of Time in Special Relativity. S. J. Prokhovnik Be i sf wi), Index eg ae ce ie i x a ie Ls ve +6 xe (he ( Lag Dates of Issue of Separate Parts Parts 1 & 2: December 22, 1959 Part 3: February 9, 1960 Part 4: March 31, 1960 i ISSUED DECEMBER 22, 1959 at Registered at the General ‘Post Office, Sydney, for transmission by PORE, as a periodical. fi aren UH eA, ‘ Royal Society of New South Wales © OFFICERS FOR 1959-1960 x Gl Patrons ae gi His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE Saison eat OF Agieabers’ s | Fre_D-MARSsHAL ‘Str WILLIAM SLIM, G.c.B., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.0., G.B.E., D.S.0,, M.C, i) His Excerrency THE Governor or New SourH WALES, fer aU i LIEUTENANT-GENERAL SIR ERIC Ww. we Sere K.C.M.G., C.B., C.B.E., "D.S.0., D. Lit. EE cake 3 | President _ a A. F, A. HARPER, “M.Sc. A , Vice-Presidents H. A. J. DONEGAN, M.sc. °°» F. N. HANLON, B.sc. . Bens i GRIFFITH, B.A:, M.Sc. F. D. McCARTHY, pbip.anthr, vi _ “Hon, Secretaries. _ HARLEY W. WOOD, mse. Bae A, A. DAY, ph.v., B.Sc. comes: ae (Editor) Hon. Treasurer | 4 i Ge AE ADAMSON,. B.Sc. ss tape Members of Council sath ? B. A. BOLT, Ph.p., Msc. Cre. Wie eke Ge POGGENDORFF, B.Sc. Agr. F.. W. BOOKER, D.sc., Ph.D. oe KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD, M.Sc. ©. ‘C. M. HARRIS, ph-p.,. B.Sc. G..H. SLADE, B.se. , C. T. McELROY,. B. Se. ON. W. WEST, B.Sc. | H..H. G. McKERN, M.Sc. © Aes A. F. WHITWORTH, M.Se, 7: PS ; | Rao oS NOTICE? <. : The Royal Sdcieky of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ‘ i « Philosophical Sociaty of. Australasia ’’; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in ‘1850 under the name of the ‘* Australian Philosophical Society.”’, by which title it ‘was known until 1856, when the name was changed to, the ‘’ Philosophical Society of New South Wales”... In 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its s present hag end was Icratnh aerate by Act of rn vps ack of New ee ‘Wales’ in. 1881. . ey {Rk fee - | i = f 4 ee Wf M rs : %: f 4 a Ce eae : Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. 1-9, 1959 On Some Aspects of Integral Transforms* JAMES L. GRIFFITH It has been traditional in the Royal Society of New South Wales for the retiring President to tell members of the Society something of the subject in which he is most interested. For some years, I have been carrying out research on Integral Transforms and I will attempt in the short time at my disposal to indicate the main trends and the present state of this topic. 1, Introduction The subject of Integral Transforms reduced to its bare essentials is the study of the integral mappings F(s)= { K(s,x)f(x)dx .... (1.1) =T[f(*)] and F(s)= | K(s,x)df (x) (1.2) =T,[f(*)], where the definite integrals may be -dimen- sional if required. The variable s may be a complex number or a real number, or in a few cases be restricted to be a positive integer. The definition of the subject as the study of integrals of the type (1.1) and (1.2) is rather too wide. However, as in many fields of Mathematics the boundaries are rather ill defined. It is rare to include a discussion of a general Kernel K(s,x~) over a general function space. In order that the mappings (1.1) and (1.2) should be included in our subject, I would restrict the kernel by at least one of the following conditions :— (i) it must be one of the classical kernels— be ce, cos sx, sin sx, x J,(xs), x8-1., (x-+s)-* or (x—s)7}; (ii) it must be a kernel which occurs in Applied Mathematical problems ; (iii) it must be a generalization of one of the above kernels. * Presidential Address delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales, April 1, 1959. A The use of the Dirac 6-function and pseudo- functions in Applied Mathematics and Engineer- ing has forced the definitions (1.1) to be modified to include the generalized functions of Schwartz (1946, 1948). It has also been found profitable to consider Fourier and Laplace transforms over generalized measures (Mautner (1955), Hewitt (1943), Cameron (1945)). Since I dojnots intend to treat the topics i great detail, I will restrict the definition to the form in (1.1). The greater part of the literature considers the integrals in the definition to be L?-integrals, simple L-integrals, Cauchy prin- cipal value integrals, (C,’)-summable integrals and Gauss summable integrals. It must be emphasized at this point that even though the subject has a considerable bulk of Mathematics in its own right, the main driving force behind the research in Integral Transforms comes from the needs of the Applhed Mathe- matician. Some of the engineering fields using Integral Transforms can be found from the chapter heading and examples in standard text books (Carslaw and Jaeger (1947), Churchill (1944), Sneddon (1951), Muskhelishvili (1953), Gardner and Barnes (1942)). 2 2.1. A Classification of the Main Frelds of Research—It is clear that any classification of the research fields could be modified since there is again no sharply marked boundary line. I would divide out four main classes :— (i) The Basic Theorems—Existence Theorems, Representation Theorems, Inversion Formulae and Uniqueness Theorems. (ii) Analysis of the Properties of Transforms— Operational Calculus associated with the applica- tions. (iii) Construction of Tables of Transforms. (iv) Generalization of Transforms—Classifica- tion of Transforms. There are many minor topics not yet fully developed. Of these I will comment on three :— (v) Self Reciprocal Functions. (vi) Characterization of Transforms. (vii) Dual Integral Equations. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JAN 2 8 1960 2 JAMES L. GRIFFITH 2.2. The Basic Theorems—We suppose that the meaning of the integral in F(s)= | K(s,x)f (x)dx is made clear, i.e. whether it is an L}-integral, L?-integral, etc. We then come to the four main types of basic theorems. (i) Existence Theorems—By an_ existence theorem we understand a theorem which defines a class of functions f(x) for which an F(s) exists. NOx) (i) Representation Theorems—A representation theorem is a theorem which defines a set of functions f(s) for which it is known that an f(x) exists so that equation (2.1) holds. (11) Imverston Theorems—An inversion theorem states a set of functions f(x) for which F(s) exists and also states a rule by which f(x) can be obtained from Fs). (iv) Uniqueness Theorems — A uniqueness theorem is a theorem which states a set of functions f(x) and a corresponding set F(s) con- nected with f(x) by equation (2.1) so that the relation between the two classes is (1—1). It is obvious, first of all, that some kind of existence theorem is necessary since otherwise the definition (2.1) would be a waste of time. Additionally, it 1s desirable that the theorem should be stated so that it covers all the functions on which the transform will operate. In order to apply the Laplace transform in Electrical Engineering, a theorem somewhat as follows would be satisfactory :—Assuming that | ‘ CRUNK AX 0 is defined to be a Cauchy-Riemann integral, then it is sufficient for the integral to exist that f(x) would be sectionally continuous and be O(e*) for some finite a and x>-+ 00. A representation theorem has two purposes. The first is seen in the situation when attention is directed to the F(s). The engineer has some reason to believe that F(s) may be expressed in the form (2.1). The representation theorem will confim this belief. Now suppose that we are mainly interested in Fie) but are working with Pfs). | The repre- sentation theorems will confirm in the steps of our work that we are dealing with genuine transforms. In recent times it has become usual to indicate representation theorems immediately after the definition of a new transform. One must distinguish between the set of functions f(x) for which it is known that F(s) exists and the set of f(x) which can be deter- mined from the corresponding F(s), by a specific inversion formula. The Hankel transform and its inversion formula are Fis | ” eFlsaplde 2. (2a) and f(e)= | ” sIy(sx)F(s)\ds .. (2.2b) 0 The well-known L1 theorem demands that x%?f(x) should belong to L1(0,00) and that the integral in (2.2b) should be a Cauchy limit at the upper end. However, it is clear that f(s) exists if we merely demand that x2/(x) belongs to L1(1,00) and that x1+vf(x) belongs to L*(0A): Now referring to Erdelyi (1954), p. 25 (30) and p. 35 (5), we observe that if f(*)=2- x -ta4T (3) sia then F(s) =s-*(s?—a2)¥-3/2, == 8 4 and (2.2b) holds only when $a ON SOME ASPECTS OF INTEGRAL TRANSFORMS 3 The finite Hilbert transform furnishes a neat example. Here . (2.3a) where s is restricted to the interval —1oo for some finite a and all belong to L1(0,7) for all finite x. Thus if a result is found it has these properties. There may be further solutions for which one of the properties does not hold. If a result is not found the fault may lie in the incompleteness of the tables (which would be the case for equation (2.8)). A check through representation theorems would be called for. After this an application of an inversion formula. However, it may happen that the equation has no solution. For example cos «= i " sin (x—é)f()dt .. (2.10) 0 which when “ solved ”’ by the Laplace transform leads to F(s)=s. Each integral transform creates its own operational calculus over a suitable restricted class of functions with suitable boundary conditions. The Zero-th Order Hankel trans- form converts a Vd |” ae 4 )—>(—L)ts"Y (s ee al y(*)>(—1)"s"¥(s) (see also Griffith, 19560). The second section of this analysis of trans- forms consists of determining the manner in which a property of f(x) affects the behaviour of F(s) and the manner in which a property of F(s) allows us to discover some property of fle), In our equation (2.10) above it is known that for all f(x), F(s)+0 as s>+-+o, thus F(s)=s is not the transform (Laplace) of any function. As an illustrative example we consider the example F(s)=s-3J,(as) =(2n)-3 | ” elsef (x\dx (Erdelyi (1954), p. 69 (9)). Our analysis would proceed as follows :— (i) #(s) is an integral function of exponential type a. This shows that f(x) is zero for | x |>a (Boas (1954, p. 103)). (ii) &(s) is odd in s, then f(x) is odd in x, (ii) sf(s) belongs to L1(—oo.00), so that f(x) 1s differentiable for all x. Intact. f(a) Cx (a2—_77)>2 SN ee eerce where C-1==2147ra31"(33). Sometime later in the year, I hope to submit a paper which shows how to find the discon- tinuities of f(~) when F(s) has been defined by F(s)= | x Jules) f (a), 0 It is not surprising that a section of the subject has a very large literature (Franz (1950), Zemanian (1957), Harmann and Wintner (1951) as examples). There is associated with this type of work also a great deal of work on Tauberian and Abelian Theorems. Much of this is based on the work of Karamata (1931) and Wiener (1933). The analysis of. transform properties is a continuing program with naturally no limit. ie | <0 2.4. Construction of Tables of Transforms— It is seen from the remarks made above that in order to make applications easy there must be suitable tables prepared. Erdelyi (1954) lists approximately 900 entries for the Laplace transform. There is no limit to the number of transforms which can be tabulated. Any transform-pair useful to an engineer is a welcome addition. The method of construction of the tables must be directed at the user. The tables for a Mathematician would not suffice for a person whose knowledge is restricted to a year of University Mathematics. 6 JAMES L. GRIFFITH 3. Generalization of Known Transforms | The topics mentioned in the previous section are all directly of the utilitarian type. They are all related to the solution of specific problems which come from Applied Mathematics. We will have a look at a few topics which have developed without reference to applications. 3.1. The Whittaker Transforms — Meijer Tvansforms—Meijer (1940) found that the transforn F(s)—=(2/)*| (sxe (sx\iiwdx =. (3.5) 0 reduces to the Laplace transform when m=. He later found that (Meijer (1941a)) Fe)=|" (st)-*be FW, m( st) f (at 0 also reduced to the Laplace transform when k=m. The bulk of periodical literature on this transform is very large. It does not appear to have been collected in any reference book. Almost every paper involves very heavy algebra. Much of the work is formal and doubtful, which makes an accurate estimation of the value of the research rather hard. It is probable that the major contribution is the construction of tables of integrals involving Whittaker Functions and other Confluent Hypergeometric functions (Saksena (1953)). 3.2. [he Convolution Transforms—We class a transform as a convolution transform when it is expressed as (Ss) | K(s—x)f (x)dx. It is easily observed that all of our transforms mentioned can be expressed this way. Any analysis of equation (3.3) without heavy restrictions cannot get anywhere. A development which will no doubt have a very great influence on future work is due to Pollard, Hirschmann and Widder in U.S.A. This work started about 1946 and was sum- marized in 1955 by the book by Hirschmann and Widder. The two-sided Laplace Transform (Van der Pol and Bremmer (1950) and Widder (1941)) is defined by Iylf(*)]=F (Pp) we | ” e-baf (x)dx 83) and has the following two properties Ly [Df (*)|=p"F(p), D=dldx .... and (3.5) id | ‘ ale—aftoa =G(p)F(p) .. (36) co (we have used # as a variable to avoid con- fusion in the next few lines). The operational form of the Taylor series is eet (x) =f (x+a). These writers now consider the transform eee e © we we © e(s—x)f(x)dx .. (3.8) =| where g(x) has a two-sided Laplace transform [E(p)|-1 of the special form B(p)=e Tl (1—pla,)etl, .. (3.9) =19 where the 0 and a, are veal and aj,” converges. Formally, applying the two-sided Laplace transform (with regard to s on equation (3.8) we obtain O(p) =(E())*F (A) F(p) =(E)p@(). So using equation (3.5), we obtain 1.e. F(x) =e! TL (1—D/a,)eP"a9(2) “ee e@eee ee 6 (3.11) which is interpreted in light of equation (3.7). The inversion theorem indicates to us immediately that in order that a transform should be collected in this general group that the image function must be infinitely differenti- able. With some change of variable, the one-sided Laplace, the Stieltjes and the Meijer transforms can be expressed as convolution transforms of this type. On the other hand, it is clear that the Fourier and Hankel trans- forms cannot be included. An examination of the research shows that much of the work has a statistical basis and there is no doubt that there will be further applica- tions in this field. One indirect result of this study of convolu- tion transforms is the stimulus it has given to workers to look for inversion theorems expressible in terms of infinite derivatives. ON SOME ASPECTS OF INTEGRAL TRANSFORMS 7 _ Unfortunately, there is no literature on the subject of how to deal with these infinite derivatives. It would seem that the next step in the research on this transform could be to examine the situation when the a, were complex. In particular, they could possibly be restricted to lie in strips along the real axis. However, whether this has been examined and found to be unprofitable I do not know. Research seems to be directed to examining other types of kernels (Pollard (1945), Blackman (1957). Sumner (1953), Calderon and Zygmund (1955)), 3.3. The Contributions of E. C. Titchimarsh— E. C. Titchmarsh, with two books ‘“ Fourier Integrals” and “ Eigenfunction expansions associated with second order Differential equa- tions ’’ and a large number of papers, has had a profound influence on the modern work on integral transforms. Eigenfunction expansions is concerned with providing a method for obtaining inversion formulae for a large class of kernels. These kernels satisfy a differential equation of the type d2 sath 9le)ly =O eee ewe oe together with certain boundary conditions. If a transform has occurred with a Kernel K(s,x) and this Kernel with some change of watiable 4—%(z) and s—s(A) can be put in the form where it satisfies an equation of the type (3.12), there is some possibility that an inversion theorem can be obtained (i.e. at least formally). 2 1 Vv es Ge leads to the inversion formulae for the Hankel, Weber, Generalized Weber (Griffith (19560)) and the Finite Hankel Transforms. The subject of the “ Eigenfunction Expan- sions”’ is closely related to the subject of Operators in Hilbert Space. All the transforms discussed possess a real scalar product or Parseval formula of the type [fe@g@e)dx=[ F(s)G(s)dw(s) (8.13) Founer Integrals was first published in 1937. This book collects in an easily accessible form much of the work connected with Fourier integrals. We will only mention two chapters. The equation are Chapter VIII deals with General Transforma- tions or Watson Transforms. Here he finds that | Ae | K(sx fide .. (3.14a) has an inverse of the! form i | Has) F(shdx _ (3.14b) provided that — — K(s)H(1—s)=1 where K (s) and H (s) are the Mellin transforms of K(x) and H(x) respectively. This result again allows a general method for finding inversion formulae (Bochner and Chandrasekharan (1949), Guinand (1950)). Chapter IX provides the notations and methods of much of the later work on self reciprocal functions (see later). 4, Some Minor Topics 4.1. Self Reciprocal Functions—The integral equation p(x) =9(x) +| K(x) (s)ds when solved for f(x) will have one solution only if f(x)= [K(a,s) f(s)ds . (4.1) has no solutions. This (amongst other considerations) has led to determinations of functions which satisfy (4.1). Such functions are said to be reciprocal with regard to the Kernel K(x,s). The problem is clearly a specialized form of the eigenvalue problem for the Kernel K(x,s). Titchmarsh treats only the sine, cosine and Hankel transforms. However, the subsequent literature is extremely extensive, the greater part being connected with the Hankel transform and its generalizations (for example, Bhatnagar (1953), Bose (1954)). A few other transforms have been considered (Stankovic (1953), Guinand (1938-39)). 4.2. Characterization of Transforms—This is a section of the subject which has received little attention and in my opinion is exceedingly important. There are two aspects of the problem. The first is what properties of a transform uniquely determine the transform, and the second is what is the set of transforms which have a certain property. 8 JAMES L. GRIFFITH To illustrate the second problem, we note that the two-sided Laplace transform and the Fourier transform (slightly modified) satisfy the equations r| | * Fee—naloat =Thf(x)] ig) : (Kunze (1959)). The problem would be to find are there other transforms satisfying this equation. The solution would possibly provide a set of new transforms which could be of assistance to the engineer and the applied mathematician. These transforms may operate on different sets of functions from known transforms. We know that the most important property of the zero-th order transform { Re aXS)y (x) as 0 | : % J g(xs) Lf" (x) +4 7f" (x) ]dx = —s*F(s) 0 1.e. Tf" (%) +44 f'(x)] =—s?T[f(x)] (4.3) It is quite trivial to show that provided the f(x) satisfy certain boundedness conditions that this is the only transform of the type i * 1cQ (sx) f (dx 0 which satisfies this equation. This would be a solution of the first type of problem. The Hankel transform of order zero is the only transform of the type (4.4) which satisfies equation (4.3). For related problems, see San Juan (1941) and Jaeckel (1957). 4.3. Dual Integral Equations—This section of the work is usually extremely difficult, and the problems require rather ingenious methods of solution. These equations arise from the trans- lation of boundary value problems in physics into transform formulae. An example from the recent literature is (Gordon (1954)) to solve I vty) Iv(xy)dy =ge(x), x1 0 eee ee eee | i Sy) Jv(xy)dy=k(x), *<1. The equations satisfy one transform over part of a range and a related transform over a second part of the total range. There does not appear to be any general method, and most examples are of the Hankel type. 5. Future Developments As mentioned earlier, the major driving force in the subject of integral transforms is the supply of problems coming from engineering and applied mathematics. Without an intimate knowledge of applied mathematics one could not anticipate a transform as F(s)= | ” fe) K,,(s)dx 0 which is inverted by f(x) =2n-2x sinh (xx) | A 0 F(s)K,,(s)s-tds (the Kontorovich-Lebedev transform, see Erdelyi (1954)). There is no doubt that as research continues more problems will be provided. It is clear that, as in Statistics, where much of the work is being considered over generalized measure spaces, Integral Transforms will include more work with generalized measures and generalized functions. 5.1. The Multidimensional Founer Tvrans- forms—One of the surprising features of our subject is the smallness of the literature on the multidimensional Fourier Transforms. There are many applications in journals on applied Mathematics, but it is easy to see that these are mostly formal. There is the need for an encyclopaedic work of the nature of Doetsch (1950-56). Very few properties of the transforms which are not trivial extensions of the one-dimensional case are known. The non-trivial extensions are those related to radially symmetric functions, and these are developable from Hankel Transforms. Reference to Sneddon (1951) shows the need for an examination of the situation where the original transform is defined by Sta) — hi | | e Presta dyes p—0 This problem will probably be treated by means of a generalized measure theory. Possibly one of the reasons for lack of progress in research of the multidimensional Fourier is the difficulty of obtaining literature on the theory of functions of more than one complex variable. There is no comprehensive text book available. ON SOME ASPECTS OF INTEGRAL TRANSFORMS 9 The major problem of crystallography, that of determining f(x,y,z) from | F(s,t,w) |?, has not been solved. There has been a fairly complete study of the problem, for the one- dimensional case has been given by Akutowicz (1956, 1957), but the corresponding problem for the two and three dimensions has not been completed. 5.2. Numerical Methods and Inequalittes— With the extended use of integral transforms in engineering, there has developed a number of methods for evaluating transforms by numerical methods. The major problem is the following : If F(s)=G(s)+A(s) and we approxi- mate F(s) by G(s), what is the error made in f(a)? | We need three separate answers to this question. These are (i) is g(x) essentially the same as f(x) 1e. do the graphs look alike ? (ii) what is the maximum error? ; (i) what is the error for the extreme values, say 0 and ++ 00 ? Most of the literature appears to be connected with the sine- and cosine-transforms (Zemanian (1957), Boas and Kac (1945)). There is a large field of work yet to be covered in this section. 6. References Axkutowicz, E. J., 1956. Tvans. Amer. Math. Soc., 83, 179-92. AKULOWICZ, EH. J., 1957. 8, 234. BHATNAGAR, K. P., 1953. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc., Ganita, 4, 19-37. BLACKMAN, J., 1957. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc., 8, 100-6. Boas, R. P., jnr., 1954. ‘‘ Entire Functions.’’ Academic Press, New York. Boas, R. P., JNR., AND Kac, M., 1945. Duke Math. J., 12, 189-206. BocHNER, S., AND CHANDRASEKHARAN, K., 1949. “* Fourier Transforms.”’ Princeton UES Princeton. Bose, B. N., 1954. Bull. Calcutta Math. Soc., 46, 109-27. CALDERON, A. P., AND ZYGMUND, A., Math., 14, 249-71. CAMERON, R. H., 1945. 1955. Stud. Duke Math. J., 12, 485-88. CarsLaw, H. S., AND JAEGER, J. C., 1947. ‘‘ Opera- tional Methods in Applied Mathematics.” Oxford Wie Oxtord. CHURCHILL, R. V., 1944. ‘‘Modern Operational Mathematics in Engineering.’”’ McGraw-Hill, New York. DoeEtscu, G., 1950-56. ‘‘Handbuch der Laplace Transformation.’ Birkhauser, Basel. Bd. 1 (1950), Bd. 2 (1955), Bd. 3 (1956). ERDELYI, A., AND OTHERS, 1954. ‘‘ Tables of Integral Transforms.” Vols. 1 and 2. McGraw-Hill, New York. Franz, K., 1950. Revista Union Mat. Argentina, 14, 140-55. GARDNER, M. F., AND BarNnEs, J. L., 1942. ‘‘ Transients in Linear Systems.’’ Wiley, New York. GOLDBERG, R. R., 1958. Pacific J. Math., 8, 213-18. Gorpbon, A. N., 1954. J. London Math. Soc., 29, 360-63. GRIFFITH, J. L., 1954-57. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 88 (1954), 71-6, 109-15; 89 (1955), 232-48 ; 90 (1956), 157-61; 91 (1957), 190-96. GUINAND, A. P., 1938-42. Quart. J. Math. (Oxford), 9 (1938), 53-7; 10 (1939), 104-8; 13 (1942), 130-9. GUINAND, A. P., 1950. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., 46, 354-5 HARMANN, P., AND WINTNER, A., 1951. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc., 2, 398-400. Hewitt, E., 1943. Ann. Math. (2), 27, 458-74. HIRSCHMANN, I. I., JNR., AND WIDDER, D. V., 1955. “The Convolution Transform.’’ Princeton U.P. JAECKEL, K., 1957. Z. Angew. Math. Mech., 37, 401. KARAMATA, J., 1931. J. f. veine u. angew. Math., 164, 27-9. Kunze, R. A., 1959. Ann. Math., 69, 1-14. MAvuTNER, F. I., 1955. Tvans. Amer. Math. Soc., 78, 371-84. MEIJER, C.S., 1940-42. Proc. Nederl. Akad. Wetensch., 43 (1940), 599-608; 44 (1941), 435-44; 45 (1942), 186-94. MUSKHELISHVILI, N. I., 1953. ‘Singular Integral Equations.” Noordhoff, Groningen. MUSKHELISHVILI, N. I., 1953. ‘‘ Some Basic Problems in the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity.” Noordhoff, Groningen. POLLARD, H., 1955. Tvans. Amer. Math. Soc., 78, 541-50. POLLARD, H., AND STANDISH, C., 1956. Scvipia Math., 22, 207-16. Rooney, P. G., 1957-58. Canadian J. Math., 9 (1957), 459-65 ; SAKSENA, K. M., 1958. 19, 173-81. SAN JUAN, R., 1941. Portugaliae Math., 2, 91-2. ScHWARTZ, L., 1946-48. Ann. Univ. Grenoble, Sect. 10 (1958), 613-6. Proc. Math. Inst. Sci. India, Sci., Math., Phys., (N.S.), 21 (1946), 57-64; 23 (1948), 7-24. SNEDDON, I. N., 1951. ‘‘ Fourier Transforms.” McGraw-Hill, New York. STANKOVIC, B., 1953. Svpska Akad. Nauk, Zbornik Radova, 35 Mat. Inst. 3, 95-106. SUMNER, D. B., 1953. Canadian J. Math., 5, 114-7. TITCHMARSH, E. C., 1948. ‘‘ Fourier Integrals.’ Oxford U.P: TITCHMARSH, E. C., 1946. ‘‘ Eigen Function Expan- sions associated with Second Order Differential Equations.” Oxford U.P. Tricom!, F. G., 1951. Quart. J. Math., 2, 188-211. VAN DE Pot, B., AND BREMMER, H., 1950. ‘“‘ Opera- tional Calculus based on the Two-sided Laplace Integral.’”’ Cambridge U.P. VOELKER, D., AND DoeErtscH, G., 1950. ‘‘ Die zweidimenzionale Laplace-Transformation.” Birk- hauser, Basel. WEINER, N., 1933. of its Applications.” WIDDER, D. V., 1941. Princeton U.P. ZEMANIAN, A. V., 8, 468-75. ‘“ The Fourier Integral and Certain Cambridge U.P. “The Laplace Transform.”’ 1957. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc., School of Mathematics University of New South Wales Sydney Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. L1—-17, 1959 Minor Planets observed at Sydney Observatory during 1958 W. H. ROBERTSON (Received April 13, 1959) The following observations of minor planets were made photographically at Sydney Observatory with the 13-inch standard astro- graph until July 8 and from then on with the 9-inch Taylor, Taylor and Hobson lens. Observa- tions were confined to those with southern declinations in the Ephemerides of Minor Planets published by the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy at Leningrad. On each plate two exposures, separated in declination by approximately 0’-5, were taken with an interval of about 20 minutes between them. The beginnings and endings of the exposures were recorded on a_ chronograph with a tapping key. Rectangular coordinates of both images of the minor planet and three reference stars were measured in direct and reversed positions of the plate on a long screw measuring machine. The usual three star dependence reduction retaining second order terms in the differences of the equatorial coordinates was used. Proper motions, when they were available, were applied to bring the star positions to the epoch of the in order to provide a check by comparing the difference between the two positions with the motion derived from the ephemeris. The tabulated results are means of the two positions at the average time except in cases 664, 696, 698, 713, 714, 751, 760, 773 where each result is from only one image, due to a defect in the other exposure or a failure in timing it. No correction has been applied for aberration, light time or parallax but in Table I are given the factors which give the parallax correction when divided by the distance. The serial numbers follow on from those of a previous paper (Robertson, 1959). The observers named im. table Il are. W. El Robertson (JK), Ko e; Sims (S) and H. W. Wood (W). The measure- ments were made by Mrs. M. Wilson, who also assisted in the computation. Reference RoBeErRtTson, W. H., 1959. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 92, 57; Sydney Observatory Papers, No. 34. Sydney Observatory plate. Each exposure was reduced separately Sydney TABLE [| KeAG Dec: Parallax No. 1958 U.T. Planet (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors lol@eacel S Cr a. S 4 640 Aug. 27- 65240 28 Bellona 0 08 48-14 — 5 48 08-4 —0-01 —4-l 641 = Sep. 9-62544 28 Bellona 0 00 44-91 — 7 24 42-1 +0:04 —3-9 642 Sep. 25:57851 28 Bellona 23 48 46-83 — 9 23 27-6 +0:05 —3-6 643 = =July 28-55388 52 Europa 19 35 24-51 —19 12 34-7 +0:02 —2-2 644 Aug. 11-47869 52 Europa 19 25 55-50 —19 58 53-5 —0:08 —2-1 645 July 31-60217 87 Sylvia 20 29 32-56 —31 32 18-0 +0:09 —0-4 646 Aug. 18-53859 87 Sylvia 20 16 17-28 —32 24 23-2 +0:07 —0-2 647 July 31-56188 93 Minerva 19 52 58-71 —34 24 18-7 +0:04 +0-1 648 July 21-69789 116 Sirona 22 03 30°81 —17 07 02-4 +0:-09 —2-6 649 Aug. 18- 60564 116 Sirona 21 42 08-91 —19 14 32-6 +0:09 —2-2 650 = Sep. 9-53211 116 Sirona 21 25 14-26 —20 25 04-6 +0-09 —2-1 651 July 28 - 60737 127 Johanna 21 08 46-52 —29 26 10°5 —0:02 —0°7 652 Aug. 27:61528 128 Nemesis 22 39 48-20 —19 32 02:3 +0:07 —2-2 653 = Sep. 25-51660 128 Nemesis 22 18 05-15 —21 06 02-6 +-0-06 —1-9 654 May 29-54118 134 Sophrosyne 15 26 41-66 —36 36 51-1 +0:01 +0:5 655 June 18-50874 134 Sophrosyne 15 09 30-96 —35 03 36-1 +0-:-13 +0:1 656 May 27-65752 145 Adeona 17 16 43-89 —22 15 45-5 +0:-12 —1-8 657 = July 2-54060 145 Adeona 16 42 47-04 —23 38 05-1 +0:-14 —1-6 658 ~=—‘Feb. 26- 64040 172 Baucis 11 53 40-33 — 5 13 31:3 —0-01 —4-2 659 Mar. 20- 55428 172 Baucis 11 31 52-25 — 4 26 19°8 —0:04 —4:3 660 Mar. 31-63732 186 Celuta 14 00 35-84 —16 14 38-4 —0:-01 —2-6 661 Apr. 29 -52730 186 Celuta 13 28 42-11 —16 12 28-3 —0:04 —2:-6 W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE I—continued 12 No. Mey Uae: Planet 662 July 16- 60423 189 Phthia 663 Aug. 7°48593 189 Phthia 664 May 5: 56946 192 Nausikaa 665 May 19-51535 192 Nausikaa 666 Aug. 26-67830 196 Philomela 667 = Sep. 9-62544 196 Philomela 668 Aug. 26- 64708 201 Penelope 669 Oct. 1-53252 201 Penelope 670 Mar. 31-66820 210 Isabella 671 May 6-52596 210 Isabella 672 Apr. 29 - 58226 212 Medea 673 May 15-57104 212 Medea 674 May 28-50960 212 Medea 675 Aug. 18-56612 237 Coelestina 676 Aug. 26-64708 240 Vanadis GHiEe Oct. 1-53252 240 Vanadis 678 July 17-58053 241 Germania 679 = July 24-63179 241 Germania 680 Aug. 11-55164 241 Germania 681 July 24+ 66864 254 Augusta 682 June 17-60238 268 Adorea 683 July 9-51860 268 Adorea 684. May 5:58778 270 Anahita 685 May 20-51102 270 Anahita 686 Aug. 19- 67643 279 Thule GSiiee Sep. 18-58448 279 Thule 688 Sep. 11-62087 286 Iclea 689 = Sep. 22 - 63028 286 Iclea 690 = July 22-68756 goz Siti Cole Aug: 26- 64708 337 Devosa 692 Oct. 1-53252 337 Devosa 693 Oct. 7:58229 348 May 694 Apr. 28+ 55982 356 Liguria 695 May 15-50452 356 Liguria 696 Apr. 29 - 56054 372 Palma 697 May 12-53177 372 Palma 698 Mar. 20- 64442 376 Geometria 699 .Apr. 28 -52983 376 Geometria 700 = July 31-66290 385 Ilmatar 101, Aug: 27- 58382 385 Ilmatar 702 June 18- 64625 388 Charybdis 703 = July 2-58694 388 Charybdis 704 = July 21-52702 388 Charybdis 705 Aug. 25+ 66844 402 Chloe 706 = Sep. 25+ 55072 402 Chloe 707 =July 16-67226 404 Arsinoe 708 July 24-70888 404 Arsinoe 709 Aug. 20-67090 412 Elisabetha WLOe Sep: 22 -59342 412 Elisabetha 711 May 19- 68206 418 Alemannia 712 June 18-56760 418 Alemannia diel 1aelop 26- 61953 429 Lotis 714 Mar. 19-55103 429 Lotis Toe sully, 16-67226 432 Pythia TUG ee uly; 24- 70888 432 Pythia tlie ~ Aug. 11-62160 432 Pythia 11S a Sep. 1-54828 432 Pythia 719 May 29-59716 438 Zeuxo Z20— > june 17-57264 438 Zeuxo (Zl Sep: 22-67020 442 Eichsfeldia a2 “Oct. 14-59016 442 Eichsfeldia 723 §©July 21-69789 472 Roma 724 Sep. 3°56157 472 Roma 725 July 28 - 66830 494 Virtus 726 June 18- 53634 503 Evelyn R.A. (1950-0) 39- 02- 55° yf 46- 13: im: 25° 09- Page 35° 52- 45- 10- 27: 39- 24- 26: 23° 40- 13- 57: 56- 34- OTe 00- 05- 15- 03- 44- 14- 22° 03- Dike 31- 52- 05- 06- 52: Zor 43° a9" Ol- 23° 36: 03- 31- 52: 59- 7A T( 39> 41- 53° 50- 18- 53° 39- 16- 36- 45- 43- 15: 30: 14- 51- RIOR TOSCOCHODOR DEE MUWODOURDHODHENORNORBDOWOHMDOHOHONMNNONNAOHMUNOOKRBDOUWORUDEO Parallax Factors S a“ +0-:02 —3- —Q0:12 —3- +0:03 —l- +0:-01 —1l- +0:05 —3: +0:02 —3- +0:09 —4: +0:09 —3:- +0:03 —3: —0:04 —3: —0:06 —l- +0:08 —l- +0:-01 —l- +0:02 —0O- +0:-10 —3: +0:-11 —38: —0:06 —2: +0:04 —3- +0-:-11 —2: +0:11 —l- —0-01 —1- —0:05 —l- +0:03 —2: —0:05 —2:- +0:08 —4- +0:08 —3: —0:01 —3: +0:13 —3- +0:19 —2: +0-09 —3:- +0-:-12 —3- +0:02 —3 —0:04 —l1- —0:04 —1 +0:-01 +1 +0:08 +1 —0:06 —1 —0:01 —2 +0:-01 —2 +0:04 —2 +0:01 —0O —0:03 —O —0:02 —0O +0:07 —3 +0:-02 —2 —0-:01 —1 +0:-20 —l- +0:-06 —2 +0:16 —1 +0:05 —1 0:00 —2 —0:03 —3- —0:-03 —4 —0:02 —0 +0:20 —O +0:-11 —O +0:10 O 0:00 —1 +0:14 —l1 +0:-1]1 —4 +0:09 —4 +0:-09 —2 +0:-11 —1:- +0:01 —l- +0:09 —2 SCODAROGSCSCOWOSDSOHAOHNSOSSSNWNNMBWANAHOADOHDATNIE NW KDE AUWHONARILBDISOHANOTMHADIANYW 778 780 781 783 7184 788 790 791 MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING May July Sep. Sep: Aug. Aug. July Sep. May June Aug. Sep: Feb. Mar. May Sep. July Aug. July Aug. July July Feb. Mar. July Aug. Apr. May May May June Aug. Sep. - Feb. Mar. Oct: Oct. Mar. Apr. July July June July July July Aug. Sept Oct. May May May Apr. May May May July Aug. Sep. May June Aug. Mar. Aug. Sep: July 1958 U.T. 29- 8. 9: 25° 12 Ie 28- 3. 20: 18- 19- 3. 24: 26- 29- 18- 14- he 16- 12- 8. 17- - 68592 20: -62459 25 31 19- 9: 19- 19- 20- Ii: 1l- 2. 26- Tv 7. 14- ii: ie 16- 24- 18- g. 24- 17- -58760 -52181 -54654 -59725 *53523 -54180 - 66748 -55910 -53334 - 64580 -54306 -65510 - 60908 -58086 - 52269 -67276 - 64344 - 67643 -58448 -67226 11 62328 49978 66524 60906 65510 64164 63762 53860 61521 53634 67643 64542 67142 59787 57234 67476 56844 46520 60423 51037 57521 54982 57726 61026 69754 54398 58086 56253 47490 71417 59602 56401 50910 62186 63088 62114 52632 60423 59668 69023 60600 55964 67440 512 512 536 536 537 546 554 554 562 562 575 575 584 584 595 596 598 598 622 622 628 628 631 631 660 660 693 693 712 712 712 Ti2 CHP: Ce) To 781 781 792 792 794 794 818 818 818 866 866 866 891 912 912 912 932 932 932 936 936 1018 1018 1028 1028 1032 1036 1061 1061 1087 TABLE I—continued Planet Taurinensis Taurinensis Merapi Merapi Pauly Herodias Peraga Peraga Salome Salome Renate Renate Semiramis Semiramis Polyxena Scheila Octavia Octavia Esther Esther Christine Christine Philippina Philippina Crescentia Crescentia Zerbinetta Zerbinetta Boliviana Boliviana Boliviana Tanete Tanete Nina Nina Kartvelia Kartvelia Metcalfia Metcalfia Irenaea Irenaea Kapteynia Kapteynia Kapteynia Fatme Fatme Fatme Gunhild Maritima Maritima Maritima Hooveria Hooveria Hooveria Kunigunde Kunigunde Arnolda Arnolda Lydina Lydina Pafuri Ganymed Paeonia Paeonia Arabis (1950-0) h 17 16 0 0 22 23 21 20 16 16 23 23 12 12 16 1 18 18 i) ne) 18 18 12 11 22 22 15 14 15 15 15 23 23 10 10 1 1 12 12 19 19 IBS) 19 19 21 20 20 0 15 14 14 15 14 14 17 16 22 22 15 15 22 13 23 23 21 TR m 07 25 45 33 31 05 32 57 25 00 36 21 36 11 14 28 53 33 52 27 51 43 05 49 16 03 15 38 40 39 Ly 46 25 19 03 58 53 55 30 56 50 50 34 Ig 15 56 42 09 03 49 42 02 36 27 14 36 34 16 41 22 50 08 37 17 51 21 -24 -63 -50 “41 -48 274) 54 -93 -88 -82 -24 -74 -28 -82 -53 249 -76 -36 -08 -4] Sen *95 -36 -28 Ste)Zh -10 -31 -82 -68 - 64 and, -93 22° AN -69 -47 -32 -49 24: -38 -36 -68 -28 -93 -27 -72 -88 -58 -50 -18 *32 oe) *35 ay) - 64 -20 -48 -75 -2) 167 -49 SULT -59 Se) -50 44 70 | 1958 13 Parallax Wec: (1950-0) Factors O° / a S id —13 37 43-0 +0:03 —3-0 —15 47 04-6 +0:09 —2-7 —22 33 26-5 +0:07 —1-7 —23 23 13-3 +0-05 —1-6 —17 23 35:3 +0-08 —2-5 —24 22 03-0 +0-03 —1-4 —12 55 37:3 +0:-03 —3-1 —14 47 55-5 +0-11 —2-9 —19 49 37-3 +0-03 —2-] —20 25 24:8 +0-09 —2-1 — 7 14 49-4 +0-07 —3-9 — 0 39) 49-9 +0-13 —4:-0 —I19 52 44-2 —0:02 —2:-1 —18 47 50-8 +0-06 —2:-3 —40 17 46-8 0-00 +1:-0 —10 34 30-2 +0-08 —3-5 —27 32 49-7 +0-04 —1-0 —29 17 57-7 —0:04 —0:7 —14 06 43-7 +0:04 —3:-0 —17 02 46-4 +0-03 —2:5 —20 00 03-4 +0-:-01 —2-1 —20 57 10-4 +0-:03 —1-9 —23 33 23-9 +0-11 —1-6 —21 08 07-5 —0-01 —1:9 — 415 15:0 —0-08 —4:3 — 7 41 09-5 +0-06 —3-9 —34 37 09-3 +0-11 +0:-1 —35 12 17-0 +0-:04 +0:-2 —17 19 02-6 +0:-02 —2-5 —17 12 44-8 —0-03 —2:5 —l4 33 25-4 —0-02 —2-9 —46 31 18-2 +0:-14 +1:°8 —48 51 50-8 —0:04 +2:°-3 — 8 03 47-2 —0:04 —3-5 — 6 47 14:8 —0-02 —4-0 —13 27 29-3 +0-01 —3-1 —14 15 25-4 +0-11 —3-0 —20 40 04:8 —0:-04 —2:-0 —17 36 45-5 —0:02 —2-4 —13 38 36-2 +0:03 —3-0 —14 12 53-8 +0:-09 —3-0 —33 53 40-2 +0-09 0-0 —36 04 37-4 +0:02 +0:4 —37 17 59-6 +0:05 +0:5 —23 50 03-1 +0:09 —1:-6 —26 08 18-4 +0:-08 —1-2 —27 16 27-7 +0-08 —1-0 —20 31 16-6 +0-01 —2-0 —24 22 32:8 +0:-04 —1-4 —24 28 24-6 —0:-01 —1-4 —24 26 52-0 +0:-10 —1:-5 —22 23 35-2 +0-03 —1-7 —22 05 14-7 —0-03 —1-8 —21 43 18-1 —0-01 —1:-8 —23 37 30:0 +0:-02 —1-5 —23 17 45-0 +0-21 —1:8 —18 33 03-7 +0:-08 —2:3 —18 10 27-9 +0:-15 —2:-5 —17 58 04:3 +0-01 —2-4 —17 40 56-0 +0-12 —2:-5 —22 02 03-2 +0-09 —1-8 —19 49 50-8 +0:08 —2-1 — 6 27 47:3 +0:-07 —4-0 — 8 54 47-1 +0:-08 —3-7 —28 06 02:4 —0-01 —0:9 14 W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE I—continued R.A. Dec. Parallax No 1958 U.T. Planet (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors lal. yaa Ss aga u Ss " 192) © july 24- 70888 1087 Arabis 21 46 38-59 —28 44 58-3 +0-20 —1-0 (BBY) Siejor 18-63192 1124 Stroobantia 0 22 27-39 — 2 20 52-8 +0:09 —4:6 794 July 16-56716 1128 Astrid 19 00 38-46 —23 57 18-4 +0:-04 —1:5 795 May 28 - 69400 1204 Renzia 18 21 32-80 —27 09 25:3 +0-11 —1-1 7196 June 18-60182 1204 Renzia 18 08 32-70 —21 ol 299 +0-:02 —0:9 Tone july 17-51753 1204 Renzia 17 44 03-20 —27 49 00:8 +0-06 —0:9: 798 May 27:65752 1248 Jugurtha I, Vo 13-14 —21 49 41-1 +0-12 —1-9 7199 July 2-54060 1248 Jugurtha 16 42 41-03 —22 55 23-0 +0:-14 —1:-7 800 = Sep. 11-65649 1304 Arosa 0 55 18-60 —22 13 36-8 +0:03 —1-8 801 July 22-68756 1332 Marconia 2102 27° To —20 34 40-7 +0:20 —2-2 802 Aug. 12-56802 1332 Marconia 20 45 21-92 —21 35 38-4 +0:04 —1-9 803 Aug. 19- 67643 1336 Zeelandia 23 33 36-65 — 7 41 54-1 +0-07 —3:9 804 Sep. 3° 64542 1336 Zeelandia 23 23 27-85 — 9 03 Ta-4 +0-:13 —3-7 805° Sep. 18-58448 1336 Zeelandia 23 11 46-50 —Il0 21 58-9 +0:09 —3-5 806 = Sep. 11-62087 1356 Nyanza 0 23 51-59 — 9 55 27-6 —0-01 —3-5 80% | Sep. 22- 63028 1356 Nyanza 0 15 39°75 —10 45 20-9 +0-:-13 —3-5 808 Aug. 19- 61026 1376 Michelle 22 05 31-58 — 9 20 13-3 +0:-06 —3-6 809) jSep. 11-50854 1376 Michelle 21 51 33-90 —I2 lo 08-2 —0:03 —3-2 810 Oct. 7:65833 1461 1937 YL 2 28 35-82 — 8 37 08:9 +0:06 —3:7 811 Nov. 14-55744 1461 19387 YL 2 00 15-71 —10 02 42-0 —0-13 —3-6 812 Aug. 12- 69546 1556 Wingolfia 23 12 41-50 —26 50 15-1 +0-13 —1-2 Sid.) July 21-66244 1618 1948 NF 21 39 09-66 —16 39 50-5 +0:03 —2-5 814 Aug. 12-61616 1618 1948 NF 21 22 30-30 —18 25 21-4 +0-11 —2-4 815 July 17-62892 1958 OA 20 02 47-07 —43 24 41-1 +0:14 41-4 TABLE II No. Comparison Stars Dependences 640 Yale 16 8, 33, 17 34 0- 24012 0-39124 0- 36864 S 64] Yale 16 8457, 8463, 8468 0- 56822 0-07064 0-36115 R 642 Yale 16 8408, 8426, 11 8275 0: 23207 0-44515 0-32278 WwW 643 Yale 12 II 8406, 8408, 8420 0-53093 0- 16700 0- 30206 R 644 Yale 13 I 8312, 8329, 12 II 8337 0- 27205 0- 30746 0: 42049 S) 645 Cape 17 11188, 11202, 11214 0- 33336 0- 16488 0-50176 R 646 Cape 17 11055, 11064, 11092 0-31161 0-37297 0-31541 R 647 Cape 17 10845, 10847, 10870 0: 24299 0-37622 0-38079 R 648 Yale 12 I 8265, 8267, 8284 0- 33568 0- 15163 0-51269 WwW 649 Yale 12 II 9286, 9287, 9303 0° 39852 0-31407 0-28741 R 650 Vales lols 9200729210 0-41747 0-31505 0- 26748 R 651 Yale 13 II 13917, 13946, 13958 0: 35263 0- 27045 0-37692 R 652 Yale 13 I 9581, 12 II 9583, 9602 0- 16642 0- 35444 0-47914 S) 653 Yale 13 I 9477, 9479, 9488 0- 23371 0-17234 0-59395 WwW 654 Cape 18 7635, 7638, 7662 0: 40832 0-30123 0.29045 SS) 655 Cape 17 7855, 7884, 18 7448 0- 16481 0- 64525 0- 18994 R 656 Yales/3-1 70557 7097,) 12 11960 0- 13963 0- 24845 0-61192 S 657 Yale 14 11582, 11600, 11607 0- 34512 0- 40598 0- 24890 Ww 658 Yale 17 4437, 4449, 4457 0: 22242 0- 38603 0-39155 S 659 Yale 17 4342, 4343, 4363 0: 38374 0- 24246 0-37379 S 660 Yale 12 I 5243, 5258, 5261 0-31223 0-32442 0+ 36335 R 661 Yale 12 I 5097, 5104, 5107 0- 28681 0: 42238 0- 29080 R 662 Yale 117 7040, 7059, 7071 0:55778 0- 24472 0- 19750 S 663 Yale 11 6901, 6915, 6924 0- 27456 0-18178 0-54367 W 664 Yale 14 10395, 10405, 10420 0:31826 0- 56394 0-11779 S 665 Yale 14 10265, 10293, 13 I 5956 0-51879 0- 21466 0- 26655 R 666 Yale 11 43, 16 48, 59 0-44419 0-17220 0-38361 S 667 Wale 77 10, 13 921 0-31620 0: 28296 0- 40084 R 668 Yale 16 8242, 8254, 8258 0-72040 —0-67502 0- 95462 S 669 Yale 17 8031, 8042, 8045 0- 25523 0-40161 0-34316 R 670 Yale 11 5072, 5085, 12 I 5383 0:43054 0-25701 0-31245 R 671 Yale 11 4922, 4944, 4947 0- 38076 0- 16305 0-45619 S MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1958 Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cord. Cord. Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Comparison Stars 14 10726, 10727, 10736 13 I 6129, 6144, 6145 13 I 6066, 6089, 6092 13 II 13997, 14011, 14030 16 8231, 8235, 8239 11 7992, 8000, 8016 12 I 7563, 7576, 7578 12 I 7525, 7540, 7543 12 I 7444, 7462, 7473 14 14786, 14804, 14808 13 I 7625, 7631, 7658 13 I 7391, 7448, 14 12371 12 II 6172, 6174, 6181 12 I 5402, 5412, 5413 16 8346, 8347, 8359 16 8270, 8292, 8297 11 68, 71, 76 11 45, 46, 58 13 I 9061, 9083, 14 14619 16 8238, 8239, 8250 11 7984, 7992; 8000 11 185, 202, 16 205 13 I 5960, 5975, 14 10349 13 I 5890, 5910, 5912 D 9334, 9342, 9407 D 9175, 9181, 9245 13 I 5850, 5852, 5868 12 II 5691, 5694, 5708 12 I 8400, 8404, 8414 12 I 8284, 12 II 9417, 9443 17 10504, 10519, 10547 17 10362, 10404, 10408 17 10187, 10197, 10231 11 8281, 8282, 8305 12 I 8652, 8667, 8672 13 II 14283, 14313, 14324 13 II 14253, 14265, 14275 13 I 9870, 9881, 9884 14 15586, 15603, 15623 13 I 7331, 7353, 7369 Hom T1ot, TEI6, T7178 16 4330, 4334, 43845 16 4257, 4270, 4278 13 II 14813, 14324, 14339 13 II 14265, 14285, 14298 tia whit, W778; L802 17 11624, 11631, 11665 13 II 10577, 10589, 10609 13 Il 10340, 10368, 10377 21 251, 265, 267 17 237, 238, 252 12 I 8267, 8284, 8292 14 14832, 14836, 14848 13 I 9494, 9524, 14 15225 13 I 6619, 6631, 6634 11 5853, 5863, 5874 12 I 5937, 5947, 5951 14 356, 364, 392 14 227, 258, 276 12 I 8404, 8414, 72 II 9554 14 15543, 15566, 15568 11 7643, 7648, 7653 ge i S99. F901, 7918 12 II 6768, 6770, 6786 13 I 6619, 6631, 6634 16 8350, 8368, 8370 TABLE I]—continued -38934 -49422 - 25961 - 26633 *33855 » 26647 -37982 -16031 -44750 - 38928 - 24494 -24901 - 28300 -37291 » 38594 -50371 34911 34927 - 39866 » 22722 - 66380 -44354 -38749 - 28380 -57579 - 20978 28788 -66125 24961 °40534 - 25971 -31400 -25716 - 27848 - 18362 - 28057 18256 48039 -40402 » 24953 -38567 -44903 -20571 -47201 » 25083 > 32502 - 35833 -06985 -44779 -21681 - 58596 - 25864 -56429 “31911 39438 14677 » 26541 38196 * 29552 -42441 60211 - 15235 - 24426 -52817 -57635 -39663 Dependences -21857 - 17497 - 27098 - 27868 - 38686 -34048 -43369 - 36362 - 29159 - 16625 -31620 - 36841 -51438 -41507 -21576 - 32093 -41028 -30095 -36821 -19479 - 28516 -32141 °45865 - 54490 - 10439 -55304 24374 - 17236 - 39069 27126 26130 -40552 -50890 -50319 - 29516 - 24779 » 29045 06408 17588 26305 29740 - 28959 -54619 - 25032 - 19699 -45869 -32476 » 28358 -37775 -54829 - 16652 -30436 -33361 33252 50312 38092 -36739 - 19683 - 26488 * 23559 - 23603 -41222 -35837 -01478 -13615 - 20483 -39209 - 33082 -46942 -45500 -27458 -39305 - 18649 -47607 - 26092 -44447 -43886 38258 - 20262 -21202 - 39830 - 17536 - 24061 -34978 °23313 -57799 -05104 * 23505 - 15386 -17130 -31982 -23718 46837 - 16638 -35970 32340 -47899 - 28049 » 23394 - 21833 -§2121 -47163 52699 45553 42010 48743 -31692 26138 - 24810 - 27766 -55217 - 21629 -31691 - 64657 - 17445 - 23489 - 24752 43700 - 10210 34837 10250 47232 - 36720 °42121 -43960 - 34000 - 16186 °43544 -39737 °45705 - 28750 -39854 15 AAA EAD SSADVO MASSA S SHV SS SOOORD SHAVEN S SHODDY SHIDO DN gS WOM SSO S 16 W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE II—continued No. Comparison Stars Dependences 738 Yale 16 8296, 8305, 8316 0-41331 0- 34314 0- 24355 739 Yale 12 Il 5456, 5465, 5467 0-13073 0-48659 0-38268 740 Yale 12 II 5293, 5296, 5321 0- 25549 0- 26234 0-48217 741 Cord. D 11334, 11344, 11380 0-52244 0-04766 0-42989 742 Yale 11 321, 329, 334 0- 38039 0-13488 0-48473 743 Yale 13 II 12339, 12356, 12394 0- 21922 0-32715 0- 45364 744 Yale 13 II 12044, 12088, 12094 0- 23860 0-35988 0-40152 745 Yale 12 I 7477, 7490, 7492 0: 23147 0: 44952 0-31902 746 Yale 12 I 7299, 7300, 7323 0-32149 0- 29386 0-38464 747 Walevis 17969; 798; 7996 0-44575 0-31793 0- 23632 748 Yale 13 I 7876, 7882, 7899 0-37803 0- 23722 0-38474 749 Wale 12 9183," 9199; 9210 0- 24305 0-34626 0: 41069 750 Yale 73 I 5156, 5175, 5185 0- 34250 0- 21609 0-44141 751 Yale 17 7759, 7760, 7774 0+ 23225 0-35414 0-41361 752 Yale 16 7908, 7920, 7932 0-38834 0-31801 0- 29366 753 Cape 17 7905, 7933, 7944 0- 36022 0- 25132 0: 38846 754 Cape 18 7112, 7144, 17 7592 0-37464 0- 20495 0-42041 755 Yale 12 I 5741, 5752, 5753 0-32963 0-49776 0- 17261 756 Yale 12 I 5741, 5749, 5753 0- 55302 0-32002 0- 12695 757 Yale 12 I 5624, 5628, 5644 0- 34373 0: 30307 0- 35320 758 Cape Ft. 20469, 20472, 20492 0-41033 0: 39845 0-19122 759 Cape Ft. 20331, 20334, 20362 0-32423 0- 38093 0- 29484 760 Yale 16 3967, 3974, 3979 0- 29553 0-42374 0- 28073 761 Yale 16 3890, 3907, 17 3920 0- 26107 0- 22278 0-51615 762 Yale 11 452, 12 I 514, 522 0-43415 0-36178 0- 20407 763 Yale 12 I 480, 492, 503 0-10101 0-34053 0-55845 764 Yale 12 II 5574, 5594, 13 I 5586 0- 36625 0- 13386 0-49989 765 Yale 12 I 4809, 4814, 4826 0- 44867 0: 23721 0-31412 766 Yale 12 I 7490, 7518, 11 7038 0- 30133 0-35461 0: 34406 767 Yale 12 I 7460, 7471, 7487 0- 13249 0: 43324 0:43427 768 Cape 17 10822, 10834, 10845 0-35819 0-44248 0- 19933 769 Cape 18 10168, 10178, 10180 0-35150 0-38357 0- 26494 770 Cape 18 10027, 10064, 10068 0-41647 0: 34321 0- 24032 771 Yale 1/4 14689, 14691, 14715 0: 24478 0-44488 0-31034 772 Yale 14 14517, 14531, 14539 0- 24480 0- 23029 0-52491 773 Yale 13 II 13649, 13661, 13679 0- 34095 0- 33091 0-32814 774 Yale 73 1 15, 32,53 0- 21622 0-43197 0-35181 775 Yale 14 10775, 10795, 10802 0: 22461 0- 36766 0-40773 776 Yale 14 10656, 10673, 10687 0- 29872 0-40436 0- 29692 ial Yale 14 10585, 10597, 10628 0-37706 0- 21289 0-41005 778 Yale 72 VO771, 10787, 13 116249 0- 24396 0- 27263 0-48341 ts) Yale 13 I 6089, 6093, 6108 0- 36237 0- 22336 0-41427 780 Yale 73 I 6045, 6053, 6062 0-46281 0-31681 0- 22038 781 Yale 14 11930, 11952, 11958 0-52172 0: 27263 0- 20565 782 Yale 14 11545, 11549, 11558 0-38523 0- 26596 0- 34880 783 Yale 12 II 9554, 9565, 9578 0- 32769 0-41005 0- 26226 784 Yale 12 II 9468, 9481, 9485 0-46155 0-40715 0- 13130 785 Yale 12 II 6499, 6521, 12 I 5752 0- 15363 0: 29539 0-55098 786 Yale 12 I 5652, 5658, 5668 0- 53350 0- 26833 0-19817 787 Yale 14 15409, 15425, 13 I 9652 0-42177 0- 31054 0- 26769 788 Yale 12 II 5633, 5655, 5661 0-37841 0-33153 0- 29006 789 Yale 16 8359, 8370, 8373 0- 30640 0-55055 0: 14305 790 Yale 16 8270, 8283, 8302 0- 30849 0: 27516 0-41635 791 Yale 13 II 14279, 14283, 14313 0-17819 0: 23289 0- 58892 792 Yale 13 II 14253, 14265, 14275 0-42857 0-34895 0- 22248 793 Wale l7 72; 88,, 98 0- 21257 0-67423 0- 11320 794 Yale 14 13230, 13231, 13256 0- 29939 0-31564 0- 38498 795 Yale 13 II 11912, 11935, 14 12750 0-09455 0-43627 0-46918 796 Vale 7s 11 VI719> e721) Woe 0- 29189 0-37166 0: 33645 797 Yale 13 II 11279, 11283, 11344 0-38005 0-43927 0- 18068 798 Yale 13 I 7055, 7097, 14 11961 0:53909 0: 36333 0-09757 799 Yale 14 11586, 11600, 11602 0-41338 0-27701 0-30961 800 Yale 14 449, 478, 13 I 246 0-40671 0- 24434 0: 34895 801 Yale 13 I 9034, 9044, 9055 0- 28231 0-49747 0: 22023 802 Yale 14 14415, 14453, 13 I 8925 0:44652 0- 28027 0-27321 803 Yale 16 8349, 8350, 8368 0-37791 0-45410 0- 16799 DEEA EOP APNN ZOOM SaaS SAW AVON DON SEO SDE EH ANON ge sr DOWN OW sn gnONdNS No. 804 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 812 813 814 815 MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1958 17 TABLE [[—continued Comparison Stars Dependences Yale 16 8302, 8319, 11 8189 0-39364 0- 34603 0- 26033 WwW Yale 11 8126, 8133, 8151 0- 16334 0-48936 0-34730 2 Yale 11 638, 71, 85 0-25875 0: 26259 0-47866 R Yale 11 35, 48, 57 0- 28050 0-54073 OSS WwW Yale 16 7923, 7931, 7944 0+ 25253 0-46774 0:27973 R Yale 11 7747, 7764, 7769 0-17614 0-56761 0+ 25625 R Yale 16 549, 559, 565 0-31166 0:35878 0-32956 S Yale 11 447, 463, 471 0-31396 0-40905 0- 27699 R Yale 13 II 14831, 14861, 14 15616 0-34896 0-34135 0-30969 W Yale 12 I 8144, 8156, 8167 0-31487 0-48487 0+ 20026 Ww Male-2271) 9162, 9179, 9186 0-40707 0-30124 0-29168 WwW Cord. D 14623, 14646, 14676 0-40649 0-53212 0-96140 ) ee ae He Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. 19-23, 1959 Ronchi Test Charts for Parabolic Mirrors* A. A. SHERWOOD (Received April 13, 1959) AxBsTRACT—This paper deals with the preparation of a series of test charts giving the shape of the Ronchi shadow band patterns for testing parabolic mirrors for a wide range of aperture ratios. Introduction The Ronchi (1925) test is well known and requires only simple apparatus to achieve a high degree of precision. Using a very low frequency grating, of the order of 100 lines per inch, analysis by geometrical optics is adequate. In a previous paper (Sherwood (1958)) the general case for a concave mirror of any given figure has been solved in this manner. Since the parabolic mirror is needed more often than other forms, it would be of practical value if the results of the analysis were presented in the form of a comprehensive chart, so as to avoid the labour of individual computations for each specific case. In order to allow for all the variables, a three-dimensional graph would be required; since this is impracticable, three charts have been computed, which may be regarded as sections of this space graph. It is thought that these will cover most requirements. In order to make this paper complete in itself, the analysis of the parabolic case will be derived from first principles instead of making use of the general solution given in my previous paper. Analysis Fig. 1 shows diagrammatically the layout for the test, and Fig. 2 a section on plane OBS at angle 0 to the horizontal. The grating line is considered to be very thin, consequently the geometric shadow band will also be thin. The idealized case considered will therefore represent the centre lines of the actual grating line and shadow band. The slit is shown on the optical axis ; in practice a small lateral displacement is necessary in order to view the shadow bands unless a beam splitter is used. The latter is only necessary when the focal length is so small that lateral displacement causes noticeable lack of symmetry in the shadow pattern. Any point B on the shadow band and its corres- ponding point A on the grating line must be such that a ray from the slit S will pass through * The publication of this paper was assisted by a grant from the Donovan Astronomical Trust, Sydney. The method of application of the results for specific cases is discussed. A after reflection in the mirror at B. BC is the normal to the surface at B, and 8 is the angle of incidence of the ray, also equal to the angle of reflection. Other symbols used are defined in Figs. 1 and 2. From the geometry of the figures (1) tan (p +8) =r/(R—S), (2) tan (p—B) =(r—H)/(R—s—d), (3) S742 (equation: or parabola), and (4) kath (O-—<0 S/A¥—=7) ie. Eliminating 8,9 from equations (1), (2) and (4) gives VS _ 7ys-+-vd—RH R?—Rs+r2 Rs+ Rd+HAr—r?— PR? Substituting s=r?/2R and making AH the subject of the equation _ (2R8d42 R272+-74 (6) te = eo) Equation (5) is exact in terms of the§data. A little calculation shows that terms dy?/R® and v4/k* are too small to show on the charts. Therefore we may write (6) H=r(d/R+7?/R?). Now from Fig. 1, H=H,sec 0. Therefore Hy sec 0=r(d/R-+7?/R?). This equation transforms easily to Cartesian coordinates, giving, after substitution of R=2F (7) y2=4 F2A x1 —2 Fd —x?. Equation (7) is the form used for computation. One other effect has been neglected; that is the shadow bands in the analysis exist on the surface of a paraboloid of revolution, while the charts are drawn on a flat surface. This effect has been shown (Sherwood (1958)) to be insignificant for the aperture ratios covered by the charts. 20 A. A. SHERWOOD SHADOW BAND MIRROR. Fia. l Computation - For convenience in computation, the following arbitrary values were chosen Focal length, /=100 in. H,=0-01 in., 0-02 in, 0-03 11M oe corresponding to a grating of 100 lines per inch. Formula (7) then becomes . etc. y2=400Nx-1 200d —x? where N takes integral values for successive shadow bands. Actually some fractional values of N were also taken for reasons which will be obvious at a later stage. Variation in d, corresponding to a shift of the grating along the optical axis, requires a third dimension. The only practical solution is therefore to produce a series of charts, each based on a selected value of d. Three values were chosen, namely d=1-0in., d=0:5in., d=0-2 in. The formulae then become y?=400Nx-!—200—x? for chart No. 1, y?=400Nx-!—100—x? for chart No. 2, y?=400Nx-1—40—x? for chart No. 3. Each chart has been plotted for one quadrant of the mirror only, since the normal Ronchi patterns are symmetrical about the vertical and horizontal axes. The series of circular arcs centred on the origin and numbered from 4 to 20 represent the outer edges of mirrors of various aperture ratios. Values of N are given along the x-axis and repeated along the outer curved boundary of the charts. RONCHI TEST CHARTS FOR PARABOLIC MIRRORS 21 eee aaa CART Ne |: ED Zit | Z | = HR : A : THUAN NY IN eA | 4 pe SR a N CHART 1 | (b) Select the lines on the chart numbered N=p/2, N=3p/2, N=bp/2,.. . etc. to give a pattern with a central light band. The above procedure is applicable to any one of the charts ; the one finally chosen should be that giving the most convenient band positions. 4 6 8 / Ome! Use of the Charts In order to apply the charts to a given mirror, the focal length, F, and the number of lines per inch, v, of the grating to be used must be known. A number, #, may be defined by ai yee ? is can best be demonstrate an example. P=10,000/(F'n) 40H best be demonstrated by pl For a symmetrical pattern, there are two alternatives :— Example (a) Select the lines on the chart numbered 0 It is required to test a mirror of 50 in. focal (i.e. the y-axis) N=p, N=2p, N=3p,...etc. length and aperture ratio f/8 with a grating of to give a pattern with a central dark band : 100 lines per inch. 22 Al A, SHEKWOOD FA See saee a2 [FH = THY eee ee APERTURE RATIO NA. tae ae cc eEne ies si 1H te HY ] Hf 2) ChAkKT INe CHART 2 Therefore F=50in., n=100, and p=2. Applying this to chart No. 3, we find band No. 2 outside the f/8 aperture ratio circle, 1.e. off the mirror. If the case for the central light band is considered, line No. 1 is just within the f/8 circle, thus giving no check on the central region of the mirror. Chart No. 1 will give a satisfactory pattern in this case, four bands (i.e. Nos. 1 and 3 on each side) appearing within the f/8 circle with a central light band, and three bands (i.e. central and No. 2 on each side) with a central dark band. If the grating is placed in the correct position on the optical axis, and if the mirror is of accurate parabolic figure, these band patterns will agree with the centre lines of the actual shadow bands obtained in the test. It should be noted that it is not necessary to measure the position of the grating. It is only necessary, while observing the band pattern, to move the gratmg (umtihy ie appropriate band spacing appears. This is very fortunate, since it obviates the necessity of placing the slit precisely at the centre of curvature, as small errors in the location of the RONCHY THs! CHARTS FOR PARABOLIC MIRRORS 23 O 5 4TH nee ‘TTT eS me EFA APERTURE RATIO DORR O~ OO a sa a) nNo~—~ — ~——~_ —_ slit can in practice be allowed for by adjustment in the position of the grating. While, in this paper, it is not proposed to discuss at length the order of accuracy, an indication of the sensitivity in this example may be obtained by noting the curvature of the bands; straight bands would indicate a spherical surface, and the difference between the sphere and the parabola of best fit in this case is well under a quarter of a wave- length. In the example given, N works out to an integer; in most cases this will not be so. CHART WN? 3. The intervals chosen for plotting the curves are sufficiently close for linear interpolation when non-integral values of N are involved. References Roncui, Vasco, 1925. ‘‘ La Prova dei Sistemi Ottici.”’ Zanichelli, Bologna. SHERWOOD, A. A., 1958. J. Brit. asty. Ass., 68, 180. Department of Mechamcal Engineering Umversity of Sydnev rie i Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. 25-26, 1959 Occultations observed at Sydney Observatory during 1958 Kear. SIMS (Received March 19, 1959) The following observations of occultations were made at Sydney Observatory with the 114-inch telescope. A tapping key was used to record the times on a chronograph. The reduction elements were computed by the method given in the Occultation Supplement to the Nautical Almanac for 1938 and the reduction completed by the method given there. The necessary data were taken from the Nautical Almanac for 1958, the Moon’s right ascension and declination (hourly table) and parallax (semi-diurnal table) being interpolated therefrom. No correction was applied to the observed times for personal effect but a correc- tion of —0-00152 hour was applied before entering the ephemeris of the Moon. This corresponds to a correction of —3”-0 to the Moon’s mean longitude. Table I gives the observational material. The serial numbers follow on from those of the previous report (Sims, 1958). The observers were H. W. Wood (W), W. H. Robertson (R) TABLE I oe ae Mag Date UE Observer 371 895 5:9 Feb. 28 11 29 56-8 R 372 1116 7:4 Mar. 29 8 51 53-6 WwW 373 1257 7:5 Mar. 30 10 03 52-4 R 374 654 6-0 Apr. 22 8 26 41-5 R 375 1577 7°] Apr. 29 11 08 41-6 WwW 376 1911 7-1 May 29 9 37 58-1 W 377 2092 7-2 July 24 9 51 08-4 R 378 2531 7:3 July 27 10 42 58-1 WwW 379 2210 6-8 Aug. 21 12 32 19-6 R 380 2555 7°5 Oct. 17 11 10 43-4 > 381 2883 5:5 Oct. 19 12 38 13-3 WwW 382 30 7°0 Nov. 21 10 37 42-5 R 383 98 6-2 Dec. 19 11 00 05-7 S) TABLE Uf Serial : a : Nc Lunation P q pp pq ae Ac pAcs qAc Pp aaas es 371 435 + 76 —65 58 —49 42 —0-7 —O0-5 +0:-5 +10-4 —0-68 372 436 + 57 —82 32 —47 68 —1:5 —0:9 +1:2 + 6-2 —0-90 373 436 +100 0 100 0 0 +0-2 +0-2 0-0 +14-1 —0-22 374 437 + 86 —52 73 ~44 27 0-0 0-0 0:0 +12-7 —0-44 375 437 + 99 +12 99 +12 1 —1:6 —1:6 —0:2 414-7 —0-20 376 438 + 99 —16 97 —16 3 —0'°5 —0°5 +0:-1 +13-2 —0-44 377 440 + 94 —34 88 —32 12 —1:-2 —1:1 +4+0:4 +4+12:2 —0-54 378 440 + 81 —59 65 —48 35 —0:9 —0O:7 4+0°5 +11-5 —0-59 379 44] + 12 +99 tl +12 98 —2-1 —0-3 —2:1 + 4:1 +0-96 380 443 + 98 +20 96 +20 4 —2-2 —2:2 —0-4 413-9 +0-22 381 443 + 91 —42 82 —38 18 —1-7 —1-5 +0°7 +13:9 —0-26 382 444 + 43 +90 18 +39 82 —2:6 —l1:1l1 —2°3 4 1:7 +0-99 383 445 + 34 +94 12 +22 88 —l1-l1 —0-4 —1:0 + 0°5 +1-00 26 Keep Sis and K. P. Sims (S). In all cases the phase observed was disappearance at the dark limb. Table II gives the results of the reductions, which were carried out in duplicate. The N.Z.C. numbers given are those of the Catalog of 3539 Zodiacal Stars for the Equinox 1950-0 (Robertson, 1940), as recorded in the Nautical Almanac. References ROBERTSON, A. J., 1940. Astronomical Papers of the | American Ephemeris, 10, Part II. Sims, K. P., 1957. - J. Proc: itay Soe esy., Oza 16; Sydney Observatory Papers, 32. Sydney Observatory Sydney Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. 27-38, 1959 Petrology in Relation to Road Materials Part I: The Rock Types used to produce “ Aggregate ” EE. J. Minty (Received March 3, 1959) ABSTRACT—During the past six years the Dept. of Main Roads, N.S.W., has received for testing over 2,000 rock samples for possible use as aggregates with bitumen or cement. From the records of the physical tests conducted on these samples details were extracted and tabulated with the object of correlating the geological features of the rocks with the properties which are of interest to the engineer. The more basic requisites of shape, resistance to abrasion and soundness of aggregate are briefly discussed, whilst the cause of poor adhesion between aggregate and bitumen, where such failure occurs, is shown to be due to the presence of hydrated minerals, generally as part of the rock but sometimes only as a surface coating. for 29 aggregates supports this conclusion. A good correlation coefficient based on calculations The recent problem of polishing of aggregate, a phenomenon which causes slippery pavements to develop, is discussed with a view to laying the foundation for more detailed study when more data on frictional coefficients are available. Reference is also made to the work of Jagus and Bawa (1957) on alkali reaction in concrete. The prime object of this paper is to illustrate the value of petrological study in assessing the potential of aggregate resources, and to bridge the gap between engineering and geological concepts related to concrete. Introduction Whilst a substantial amount of Australian road pavements are still built or composed of natural mixtures of gravel, sand and clay, nevertheless all “‘sealed’’ roads are topped with rock in the form of “aggregate ’’, or incorporate it in a mixture with bitumen. In addition crushed rocks have a very important role in providing concrete aggregate, and to some extent as road base material. Lastly, but not least, a variety of fissile and/or well jointed rocks, irrespective of hardness, are finding increasing use in place of sandy loams and natural ‘“‘road_ gravels” (gravel-sand-clay mixtures). In view of the increasing use that is being made of rock for road building some comments on the petrological characteristics of materials in use may be timely. In this paper it is proposed to deal principally with matters of petrographic interest and only with a cross-section of those rocks which find use as “ aggregate’’ with either bitumen or cement. It will be necessary to outline first the methods of test to illustrate the useful properties; but sampling, preparation and grading procedures will be omitted. Methods of testing Aggregate used by Road building Authorities in Australia Tests for resistance to abraston—The principal tests of this kind are the Los Angeles test and the British crushing test. The Los Angeles test is carried out by subject- ing a known quantity of material to ball milling and then recording the amount of fines (powder) produced by abrasion. More than 35% is generally regarded as unsatisfactory. The British crushing test result is given as a percentage breakdown after crushing a soaked specimen of aggregate. Further details can be found in the relevant British and American Standards for Testing Materials. Tests for shape—Marked elongation or flaki- ness are generally considered to be undesirable and aggregates are measured with slot gauges or between pegs to obtain a flakiness index. Flakiness indices over 30 are regarded as undesirable. Tests for adhesion to bitwmen—In Victoria and New South Wales a test is employed in which pieces of the aggregate are placed on a metal tray which contains bitumen. The aggregate is given every opportunity to adhere, and the plates are then placed in a thermo- statically controlled water-bath. Following this the pieces of aggregate are plucked from the plate, and a count made to determine how many come away without a coating of bitumen. This test is a good index of “stripping ”’. The latter is a distressing phenomenon observed sometimes on newly constructed roads, particu- larly after rain, and characterized by a rapid loss of aggregate from the surface. In severe 28 E. J. MINTY cases the bitumen is exposed and is likely to be torn from the road by adhesion to motor vehicle tyres. Tests for polishing—When aggregate becomes highly polished motor vehicles are likely to skid. At present there is no generally accepted test, but in England and America field tests to determine the coefficient of friction of road surfaces have been made. Also, certain laboratory investigations have been made here and overseas, and are being continued. In New South Wales the problem is fortunately at present restricted to a few intensely trafficked roads. for Tests soundness and resistance to weathering—Most authorities use a test for soundness employing sodium sulphate. In addition the N.S.W. Department of Main Roads employs micropetrological studies to give an indication of the probable behaviour of the rock ; tests on wet aggregate are also made. Tests for alkali reaction in concrete—Both the British standard mortar test and the compressive strength of the concrete are a guide to alkali reaction, but no truly specific tests are in general use. Petrology in relation to individual Tests The following sections give a discussion of test results in the light of petrological knowledge. Petrology and resistance to abraston—The results for aggregates set out in Table I indicate that a group of quartzites gave a Los Angeles test value similar to that for limestones. This fact indicates that the test does not differentiate between hard and soft rocks. However, the test does serve as an index of toughness, in the geological sense. TABLE | Relationship between Rock Type and Results of Abrasion Tests Los Angeles Sample Rock Type Test Number Oeleass A 265 Granite, crushed 42 A 289 Granite 36 A 320 - 16 A 204 Granodiorite 30 A 673 Crushed Bi. Granite 36 A 674 ia ty ne 45 All141 Granite 22 A 496 Or. Porphyry 22 A 55 Dolerite 23 A 600 Q. Or. Porphyry 14 A 915 Microdiorite 1l A 932 Dolerite 744 | A 962 Quartz porphyry 15 A 186 Dolerite 25 A dll Basalt iB A217, ts 10 A 597 Rhyolite 15 A 684 Basalt LS A 711 Basaltic dolerite 19 A 714 Semi-vesicular basalt 13 A 827 Basalt 1] A 915 a 10 A 957 Ne 12 A 994 es ll A 995 ie 17 A 995 ae 13 A1013 H, 14 Al1017 a 16 A1018 RS 20 41058 As 18) A1175 A 21 A1301 Volcanic breccia 13 yeas | Tuff 18 Los Angeles Sample Rock Type Test Number Wy (206s A 687 Quartz hd: A 986 oy 24 A 620 Limestone 20 A 640 a 26 A 873 - 24 A 532 Ne 18. A 554 Nodular calcareous rock 31 A 268 ” ” ”) 33 A 709 Indurated siltstone 40 A 828 Silicified mudstone 18 A 915 Indurated shale 14 A 282 * ~ 17 A 238 of *e 16 A 995 Slate 17 A1058 Silicified mudstone 13 A 321 Quartzite 19 A 443 Me 21 A 994 ny 18 A 713 Silicified sandstone 22 A 763 Quartzite 23. A 791 ee: 25. A 596 . 12 A1058 = 16. A 569 Slag 18 A 296 River gravel 26 A 280 a fa 35 A 299 oe mv 30 A 329 KS we crushed 24 A 353 ot ie apa A 349 a a 14 PETROLOGY IN RELATION TO ROAD MATERIALS 29 TABLE I—continued Los Angeles Sample Rock Type Test Number %% JlZoss A 378 s 49 Ap 18 A 401 as fs » 27 A 241 Bs 3 ys 31 A 510 F 3 18 A 498 ie Ms Pe 18 A 945 45 ‘s 40 A 962 i Hs e 12 A1017 36 $3 55 17 A1018 3 ks 29 A1046 ‘; is 44 A1059 - an 28 A 685 i is 15 AK 712 Rounded river gravel 28 The table also shows that the fine-grained rocks are the most consistent under test, whilst the coarser grained granites, for example, are variable and generally less resistant. Having established that toughness is the property being sought, the petrologist may make some relatively safe generalizations with regard to the performance of each rock-type. However, jointing, degree of weathering and deuteric alteration sometimes superimpose characteristics which are alien to a certain rock type in its fresh condition. Such is the case with quartz veins or quartz pebbles which have been buried Los Angeles Sample Rock Type est Number v7, IeOss A 715 Rounded river gravel 23 A 747 River gravel 36 A 778 ’ % 22 A 807 i 5 14 A 893 53 is 18 A 576 zp Pe crushed PAD A 66 or - screened 18 A 622 5 5 17 A 414 ya 3 26 A 482 io v crushed 20 A 363 a is ' 25 A 269 3 3 40 A 34 fe 35 32 in clay. The clay invades the minute fractures in the quartz, further weakening the structure, possibly by alternate shrinkage and swelling. Petrology and shape—The geologist is well acquainted with the various types of fracture common to different rock species. In general it is possible to predict which rocks will be more susceptible to flakiness by observing their fracture. Any tendency towards conchoidal fracture is a sign of incipient flakiness. Jointing must also be taken into considera- tion ; rocks having close-spaced joints generally yield aggregate of good cubic shape, whereas TABLE II Relationship between Flakiness Index and Rock Type Sample Shire or Flakiness Number Locality Rock Type Index A1831(ABG) Boree Granite 12-2 on oN G) 3 i 12-5 7 (CGG) i 5 15-6 ae (DRG) 3 i, 10-4 A1831(HCD) ns Dolerite 13-2 A2048 Woy Woy Quartzite and sand- 15-9 stone A1831 1GK Boree Quartz keratophyre 16-2 A1999 Volcanic breccia 13-9 A1301 o is 18 A2135 o 3 19-4 A1932 Molong Limestone 18-9 A1831ERL Boree e 22-8 wie OL a e 14-3 A2037 “f Basalt 28-9 Al1841 Wakool Na 21-8 A1831 Boree a 24-5 A1175 Carrathool ie 24 A2020(3A) Adelong Quartzite 25°6 2? (3B) »? a” 23 6 ” (3C) »”» os) 31 -0 ,, (4A) a Schist, porphyryand 24:8 quartz L.A. 30 E. J. MINTY massive rocks are prone to flakiness unless they are crushed by stages. Jocks possessing schistose or fluidal fabric are more likely to crush to a bad shape than those having a more granitic type of fabric. Another factor that must not be overlooked is the effect of the type of crusher used. Gyratory crushers appear to produce the least satisfactory aggregate. Table II lists the flakiness index for different rock types. It will be noted that granite is the best. Petrology and adhesion to bitumen—(i) Very few rocks are immune from the troublesome effect known as “stripping”’. Table It summarizes the results of an investigation by the author into the causes of this phenomenon. (ii) The theory mentioned in Main Roads (Anonymous, 1952) deals with “ stripping failure ’’ as a surface tension effect in terms of the aggregate-bitumen, aggregate-water and bitumen-water interfaces. From the results set out in Table III the author has formed the view that the most important factor is the strength of the bond between the aggregate and the bitumen. The plucking action imposed by motor tyres passing over the road surface is the disturbing force in the case of surfaced pave- ments but is less effective where bitumen- aggregate mixtures are used. Whilst it is generally agreed that water weakens the bond between the aggregate and bitumen, the important question is why it should do so more readily in some cases than | in others. The answer now offered to this question is that the water is absorbed in the first place by clay or clay-like minerals on or near the surface of the rock. When such strongly polar minerals are present over much of the surface, the bitumen being substantially non-polar and only weakly bonded to the less polar minerals composing the rock is easily dislodged from the aggregate when the polar minerals absorb water and exhibit stronger polar properties. (iii) Statistically there is a good correlation between the amount of adverse constituents in the aggregate and the amount of stripping, see lable 1 TABLE III Schedule of Stripping (Plate) Test Results and Observations on the Aggregate SPECIMEN A463 A484 NUMBER SHIRE OR JLOCALITY Bathurst Waradgery Rock Typr ne Basalt Olivine basalt A485 A496 A506 Cooma Marthaguy Jemalong Shire Shire Olivine Microgranite Sheared basalt Microdiorite Type AND Amount Moderateamount Moderateamount Small amount Large amount JLarge amount ADVERSE CON- iron hydrates Serpentine, STITUENTS some Iddingsite STRIPPING RATING! Bitumen A .. 2, 4 Bitumen B 2 4 ADVERSE CoN- 3 3 STITUENT RATING? SHAPE Bye he Flaky Flaky CLEANLINESS (Fresh Fresh Fresh faces or old and/or dusty) REMARKS ce — — 1 Stripping ratings—l: 0-25%; 2: 26-50%; 3: Iddingsite Kaolin, some Kaolin and and Zeolites Chlorite Chlorite Ih 4 2 I 3 2 2 + 4 — Angular Angular, some ? flakes — Fresh Fresh 51-75%; 4: 76-100%. PETROLOGY IN RELATION TO ROAD MATERIALS 31 However, it must be noted that an important step in the investigation was to recognize that the amount of these adverse constituents is rarely very large on a gravimetric basis, but should be described as a “‘ large amount ”’ when most of the particles composing the rock are coated with clay or clay-like minerals. The ratings used are set forth in Table ITI. In some cases stripping occurred in the plate tests where it was not predicted by microscopic examination. Every case of such departure is attributed to the clay being on the surface of the aggregate as an extraneous coating and not as part of the rock. That is to say, the aggregate was “dirty”. (iv) From Table III it becomes apparent that a large number of alteration products may be listed as adverse constituents. The structure of these minerals is in general similar to that of the clay minerals familiar to soil scientists. Among adverse constituents may be listed “ kaolin ’’, limonite, iron and aluminium sesqui- oxides, chlorite and possibly serpentine. (The term kaolin is used in Table III in a general sense only, owing to the difficulty of precise identification. ) (v) Aggregates susceptible to stripping are illustrated in Plate I, Figs. 1, 2 and 3. A relatively safe type—a basalt only slightly altered—is shown in Plate I, Fig. 4. Polishing and petrology—Present indications from field data in New South Wales are that river gravel consisting substantially of porphyry and quartzite is less susceptible to polishing than basalt or limestone. At the outset it was not entirely clear whether the high polish and slippery conditions were due to wear of the aggregate or to a film of extraneous material. Whilst oil slick deposited from exhausts and leaking engine components, and plasticized rubber from skidding tyres instant- aneously overheating may be a contributing factor, there is certainly no doubt that the individual stones taken from troublesome pave- ments do show a small amount of wear and a high polish on the high spots. Evidence of this wear is graphically illustrated by the photo- graphs of sections made through the upper and TaBLE IlI—continued Schedule of Stripping (Plate) Test Results and Observations on the Aggvegate—continued A509 A510 A532 A554 A569 A661 GC2 Narrandera Goodradigbee Jemalong Wentworth Cobar Mine Gundurimba Showground District tailings Quarry Quartzite River gravel Limestone Marl Slag Basalt (Quartz por- phyry) Small to moderate Small amount Very small Moderate Negligible Moderate amount amount Kaolin Kaolin amount indefinite Limonite Serpentine and clay mineral Clay 2 + ] + 1 2 1 + 1 + ] 2 2 2 il 3 ] 3 Flaky Rounded Angular Concretionary Angular Flaky to Irregular (vesicular in part) Fresh Dirty Fresh Very dusty Tarnished but Fresh _ The high stripping a is probably due to dirty surface 2 Adverse constituent ratings-—1: Negligible; 2 : small amount; 3: moderate amount; 4 dust-free : large amount. 32 E. J. MINTY lower surfaces of basalt taken from one such road, shown in Plate I, Figs.5 and 6. It will be noted that the individual feldspar crystals firmly held in the groundmass have worn down. Let us reflect briefly on the possible cause of this effect :—Fundamentally hardness is prob- ably the most important single factor. In this regard it should be noted that the Los Angeles test is not a good index of hardness, as is shown by the similar test figures for limestones and quartzites. (See Table I.) As most rocks are composed of more than one mineral, the fabric and texture are important, and together with the type of groundmass largely determine whether the rock is tough or friable. Naturally, hard minerals wear less than softer ones, and maintain sharp edges longer. These sharp edges probably increase the resistance to skidding. Friable rocks which are continually wearing down by losing whole crystals would not polish, but their usefulness depends on the degree of friability, for example some granites are too friable. if In conclusion then, the fine grained rocks containing minerals of only moderate hardness firmly embedded in a tough groundmass should tend to polish well, whilst the rocks of coarser texture containing hard minerals are expected to resist polishing. Consequently, a rock may be assessed in regard to polishing susceptibility on the basis of three factors :— (i) Hardness of mineral constituents. (ii) Toughness (fabric, texture and groundmass relationship for microscopic determination). (iii) Texture. In Table IV are shown some typical pre- dictions of the probable behaviour of rocks of the common types. Some preliminary experimental tests to obtain comparative values of friction have been made. It is recognized that improvements in technique may give more reproducible results, but the figures are of interest. TABLE III—continued Schedule of Stripping (Plate) Test Results and Observations on the Aggregate—continued SAMPLE NUMBER A668 A670 SHIRE OR LOCALITY Wangoola Western Division Broken Hill Rock TyPrE Limestone Garnetiferous granite TYPE AND AMOUNT Very small A104 A224 A244 Lyndhurst Wakool (from Murray Shire stockpile at Balranald and Barham) Tachylytic Biotite Vesicular basalt granite basalt Moderate amount Moderateamount Moderateamount Moderate amount ADVERSE CON- amount Limonite chlorite hydrated Iron Kaolin and Serpentine/ STITUENTS Oxides Sausserite Limonite STRIPPING RATING! Bitumen way. 1 4 3 4 4 Bitumen B ~o. I = 2 4 3 ADVERSE CON- 1 3 3 3 3 STITUENT RATING? SHAPE Flaky Angular Flaky Angular to Vesicular and flaky flaky CLEANLINESS (Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh faces or old and/or dusty) REMARKS .. nae — — 1 Stripping ratings—1: 0-25% ; 2: 26-50% ; 3: 51-75%; 4: 76-100%. PETROLOGY IN RELATION TO ROAD MATERIALS Table V gives the resistance to skidding in terms of a coefficient. It seems probable that some other factor than simple friction is involved. In any event, these coefficients vary with type of rubber and speed. Coefficients of a different magnitude were obtained for the same specimens using rubber of two different hardnesses. Photomicrographs of thin sections of some of the samples listed in Table V are shown in Plate I, Fig. 4, and Plate II, Figs. 1-4. Table VI gives coefficients for tests made on specimens of asphaltic concrete (a mixture of graded aggregate and bitumen) containing two of the aggregates quoted in Table V. In this case, however, the tests were carried out with a motor tyre of hardness approx. 70 shore degrees rubbing the surface of the asphaltic concrete, and having a peripheral speed of 30 m.p.h., just as a tyre would have skidding at this speed. The inclusion of more quartz sand in the basaltic mix would probably improve the wet coefficient. 33 Summing up, there are three questions to be answered :— (a) At what stage in its service will any particular aggregate become unsafe ? (b) Can the problem be solved merely by selecting aggregates of a more suitable type ? (c) Can the troublesome aggregate be used in asphaltic concrete ? (a) On the first question, the only local evidence at present is that fresh and polished aggregates give quite different coefficients, as set out in Table V, and that in both cases the polishing was most pronounced on winding sections of road. On both of the roads con- cerned the aggregate had only been in service for a few years, but traffic was heavy. It appears, therefore, that the rate of polishing is a function of the parent material, traffic density, curvature of the roadway, speed of traffic, and climate. (b) It is most unlikely that selection of more suitable aggregates will provide a completely TABLE III—continued Schedule of Stripping (Plate) Test Results and Observations on the Agevegate—continued A297 A298 A320 A321 A322 A350 Forbes Jemalong Burrangong Burrangong Bland Quarry Murray Shire (Young Municipal at State Forest, Moana Quarry Quarry) Binga Mountain Tuff Microdiorite Granite Quartzite Quartzite Schistose slate Moderate amount Large amount Moderateamount Small amount Small to moderate Negligible indefinite clay Kaolin Kaolin, some Kaolin amount Kaolin Chlorite and some Haematite = 3 + a + 3 — — 4 1 — 2 3 4 3 2 24 1 Irregular Angular, some Angular — Flaky Vesicular, flaky some flakes and somewhat fissile — Fresh — — Fresh Fresh —- Compare sample No hand — — The fissile nature specimen of the material 2 Adverse constituent ratings—I1: Negligible; 2: small amount ; 3: moderate amount; 4: possibly affects the stripping large amount. 34 | E. J. MINTY satisfactory answer from the economic view- point. This is clear from Table I, in which 40% of the aggregates listed are likely to polish if the hypotheses on which Table IV depends is accepted. (c) The third question cannot as yet be answered with assurance. Considerable effort is now being devoted by the Department of Main Roads towards an elucidation of the problem. Petrology in relation to soundness and susceptibility to weathering—The general sound- ness of argillaceous sedimentary rocks, grey- wackes and some other types is usually readily determined, but in the igneous rocks incon- spicuous features may be of great importance. On microscopic examination apparently sound — basalts are sometimes found to contain plagio- clase which is highly kaolinized, olivine which is red or green due to alteration, or, in the groundmass, there may be patches of chloritic material. In bad cases the aggregate may actually soften on wetting and crumble under light pressure. In one recent case a rock submitted to the Department to be tested as an aggregate for use in concrete was found to be a basic igneous rock with serpentine along shear planes (Plate II, TABLE III—continued Schedule of Stripping (Plate) Test Results and Observations on the Aggregate—continued SPECIMEN A390 A394 A430 A443 A673 A674 NUMBER SHIRE OR Wade Shire Liverpool Colo Shire, Bland Shire Wakool Wakool, LOCALITY Mt. Tomah Deposit 6 miles Mt. Hope Quarry 5.2 VWVeSE deposit Wyalong Rock Type . Contaminated Breccia Olivine Weathered Biotite Granite a Basalt (volcanic) Basalt Quartzite Granite TYPE AND Moderate Large amount Negligible Moderate Moderate Large renee AMOUNT AD- amount Chlorite and amount amount amount Kaolin VERSE CON- Chlorite Kaolin Serpentine Limonite, Limonite, STITUENTS Haematite Kaolin STRIPPING RaTING! Bitumen A 4 4 1 4 4 4 8 B + 3 1 3 4 4 ADVERSE CON- 3 i 1 3 3 4 STITUENT RATING? SHAPE Angular Angular, Angular to Angular — Very flaky some flakes flaky CLEANLINESS Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh faces, -- Fresh (Fresh faces but very or old and/or dusty dusty) REMARKS ae _— — == == — — 1 Stripping rating—1: 0-25%; 2: 26-50%; 3: 51-75%: 4: 76-100%. PETROLOGY IN RELATION TO ROAD MATERIALS 35 Figs. 5 and 6). Test cylinders were made, and these showed that the aggregate was weaker than would have been expected on the basis of the Los Angeles test. These two types of weakness are the principal characteristics which microscopic examination is ideally suited to find. As the same minerals which are adverse in regard to adhesion to bitumen are the ones which if present in quantity will lead to unsound aggregate, it can be seen that micropetrology and hand specimen petrology are very useful tools. Whilst this is clear enough to the geologist, unfortunately engineers have been slow to recognize the value of such methods. Alkali reaction in concrete and its relation to the petrology of the aggregate—Very little attention has been given to this problem in Australia because it has been considered that the use of low-alkali cement was a sufficient safeguard. However, Jagus and Bawa (1957) have recently suggested that the use of low-alkali cement with reactive aggregates is not a complete answer. The question now arises whether any failures in Australia may be due to overconfidence in low-alkali cement. Appendix 1 of the Indian article gives a table of the “alkali reactive minerals in aggregates’. From the latter table it appears that the less siliceous rocks are the safest aggregates with respect to alkali reaction. TaBLeE III]—continued Schedule of Stripping (Plate) Test Results and Observations on the Aggvegate—continued A707 R58 A680 A685 A690 A694 (Several A707 (B1038 Samples) B1034) Martin’s Muswellbrook Coolah Shire Dept. Works, Dunmore Emu Plains Prospect Gully (Patrick Canberra Plains) Weathered River gravel Impure Quartz Basalt with Crushed river Analcite, Porphyry (Basalt and Marble Porphyry inclusions gravel (much Dolerite Quartzite) Quartzite) Large amounts Very small Small amount Moderate Moderate Small amount Moderate Kaolin and amount Limonite amount amount Limonite and amounts Chlorite Serpentine Limonite and Serpentine Kaolin Kaolin and in Basalt, Kaolin Chlorite Limonite in Quartzite 4 + ] + 2 4 3 a = 1 4 2 3 2 4 1 2 3 2 3 Rounded to Smooth Angular to Angular to Flaky Angular to No specimens irregular (due rounded flaky flaky flaky to crushing) — Dirty Fresh Fresh Fresh Somewhat — dirty — The stripping — is probably due to the dirty surface of the aggregate * Adverse constituent ratings—1: Negligible; 2: small amount; 3: moderate amount; 4: Cee ee — Penrith is ys similar. Stripping probably due to dirty surface large amount. 36 E. J. MINTY TABLE IV Predicted Sample Type of Rock Susceptibility No. to Polishing A661 Basalt Moderate to high A532 Limestone 5 oA A690 Marble Moderate A445 Microdiorite ne A320 Granite Low A350 Hornfels containing a large amount of hard +} Low to moderate minerals A707 Quartzite Low Curiously, the basalts are included due, according to Jagus and Bawa, to the more acidic glass in basalts. The latter reference and the use of the term ‘““Diabase’’ are somewhat vague (cf. Harker (1908)). It is to be expected that both olivine basalts and olivine microgabbros, or similarly basic rocks, would not be alkali-reactive. In any event all basalts do not contain glass (Hatch, Wells and Wells (1949)). Owing to the frequent use of basalts in New South Wales, it appears that this aspect warrants some special attention. A later) publication “by the U:S: Highway Research Board (1958) gives a very similar table to that in the Indian Roads Congress Bulletin. Acknowledgements Whilst all the micropetrological work and the correlation with other test results is the work of the author, he deeply appreciates the permission given by the Commissioner for Main Roads, N.S.W., to utilize TABLE VI Rock Type Coefticient of (Principal Shire Degree of Sliding Friction constituent Area Wear —_____ in asphaltic Dry Wet concrete) Olivine Gosford Specimen 0-87 0-46 basalt artificially polished Nepean River Penrith 0-86 0-52 gravel Thanks are also due to my associates in the Materials Branch for their assistance by way of discussion, to the Parkes and Chatswood Laboratory Staff, and the Divisional Engineers and Engineering Staff of the Central and Central-Western Divisions. The opinions expressed are those of the writer and not necessarily the views of the Department of Main Roads. References ANONYMOUS, 1952. Stripping of bitumen from aggregates. Main Roads, 17, go. HarKER, A., 1908. Petrology for Students. Cam- bridge: University Press, p. i230. Hatcu, F. H., WEtts, A. K., AND WELLS, M. K., 194@ The Petrology of the Igneous Rocks. London: Murby, Dp: 30%. Jacus, P. J., anD Bawa, N. S., 1957. Alkali reaction in concrete construction. Road Research Bulletin. Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, 3, 52. UNITED STATES: HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD, 1958. Special Report, 31. Department of Main Roads, N.S.W. Central Testing Laboratory the Department’s records and to publish this paper. Sydney TABLE V Coefficients of Limiting Friction Rock Type Shire or Degree of Area Wear Dry? Wet! Dry? Wet? Tachylytic Basalt (angular Abercrombie None 0-59 0:62 specimens) 0-99 0-92 Tachylytic Basalt (flaky speci- ma ry 0:63 0-60 mens) Tachylytic Basalt ous ah Sp Approx. two 0:56 0°55 0-69 0-71 years in pavement Olivine Basalt .. ise Gosford 9 0-48 0:57 0-72 0-72 Rounded River Gravel? Penrith River action 0-64 0-62 0-91 0-92 Angular River Gravel? Penrith None 0:68 0-70 1-09 0-95 1 Using rubber of 50 shore degrees, with the aggregate on the rubber. 2 Using rubber of 90 shore degrees. 3 Containing porphyry and quartzite. MINTY, Plate I ournal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 93, 1959 Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 93, 1959 LLL PETROLOGY IN RELATION TO ROAD MATERIALS 37 Explanation of Plates I and II PLATE I—THIN SECTIONS OF ROAD MATERIALS Fic. 1—Biotite granite from Wakool Shire. Minerals shown are quartz, biotite and saussuritized feldspar. Crossed Nicols. Fic. 2—Analcite dolerite. Minerals shown include altered plagioclase and deuteric minerals. Crossed Nicols. Fic. 3—Volcanic breccia. Apart from a few quartz grains this section consists of particles of argillaceous sedimentary rocks, chlorite and indefinite clay minerals. Ordinary light. Fic. 4—A basalt in which there has been relatively little alteration ; it outcrops at Peat’s Ridge, north of the Hawkesbury River. Principal constituents are plagioclase, olivine, magnetite and/or ilmenite ; the groundmass contains in addition some titaniferous augite. Crossed Nicols. Fic. 5—Section of highly polished upper surface of a basalt fragment from a slippery section of pavement. Fic. 6—Section through the lower surface of the pebble of Fig. 5 above, showing original irregular nature of surface. PLATE II—THIN SECTIONS OF ROAD MATERIALS Fic. 1—Tachylitic basalt, Abercrombie Shire. Crossed Nicols. Fic. 2—Quartzite from river gravel at Penrith. Crossed Nicols. Fic. 3—Porphyry from river gravel at Penrith. Ordinary light. Fic. 4—The same. Crossed Nicols. Fic. 5—Basic igneous rock with serpentine in clear areas. 20. Ordinary light. Fic. 6—The same. Crossed Nicols. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. 39-46, 1959 Palaeozoic Stratigraphy of the Area to the West of Borenore, N.S.W. D. B. WALKER Communicated by Dr. G. H. PAcKHAM (Received April 7, 1959) ABSTRACT—The area contains a folded and faulted sequence of Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian rocks, overlain by flat-lying Tertiary lava-flows. andesitic volcanic products with a limestone developed near the middle of the sequence. overlying Panuara Formation (Silurian) consists of shales, sandstones and limestones. The Ordovician rocks are dominantly The In the north-west of the area two new members have been defined—the Rosyth Limestone Member, and, higher in the sequence, the Borenore Limestone Member. inter-tongues to the west with siltstones, then passes into shales. The last-mentioned member The boundary of the Wallace Shale (Silurian-? Devonian) with the underlying Panuara Formation is difficult to recognize at some localities. The Bull’s Camp Rhyolite overlies the Wallace Shale, but its relationship to the next youngest unit, the Garra Beds, is obscure but possibly unconformable. The Upper Devonian Black Rock Sandstone rests unconformably on the Garra Beds in the north-west, and on the Bull’s Camp Rhyolite in the south-east. Introduction The Palaeozoic rocks to the west of Borenore, west of Orange, New South Wales, are generally only exposed in creek sections, where the overlying cover of Tertiary basalt has been removed. The area links those extensively mapped in recent years south of Spring and Quarry Creeks (Packham and Stevens, 1955), to those to the north studied by Joplin and Culey (1938), and included in the compilation of Joplin and others (1952). Continuing north from the mapping of Packham and Stevens, the appearance of the Garra Beds, a new lithological unit beneath the Upper Devonian, introduces the problem of its relation to the rock units previously defined to the south ; problems also arise in the Borenore area in the differentiation between the Panuara Formation and the Wallace Shale. The forma- tion terms of Joplin and others have not been used, because, in this area, they do not appear to be applicable to discrete lithological units. Borenore has been known geologically mainly for the extensive outcrops of limestone which were quarried for building stone until about 1930. De Koninck (1898), Dun (1907) and Etheridge (1909) have described fossils from this limestone, most of the outcrops of which have been mapped by Carne and Jones (1919). Fletcher (1950) described some trilobites from below the Borenore Limestone, and suggested a correlation with the work of Sussmilch (1907), who mapped the southern part of the area. The present paper describes the area adjoining that mapped by Packham and Stevens, and includes the results of remapping parts of the areas examined by Sussmilch and by Joplin and Culey. Ordovician The Ordovician rocks of Spring and Quarry Creeks can be traced to the north as far as Mouse Hole Creek. The succession is not clear in the Spring Creek area, but at Oaky Creek an anticlinal structure exposes andesitic volcanic rocks overlain first by the Barton Limestone and then by further andesitic volcanic rocks. The andesitic rocks are highly weathered and not well exposed. The Barton Limestone is a typically poorly bedded and dark grey aphanitic limestone, is commonly calcite-veined, and contains black siliceous nodules. The lack of significant bedding obscures the structure of the area. The limestone is poorly fossil- iferous, having yielded only a gastropod and a small tabulate coral. Packham and Stevens have, however, suggested an Ordovician age for the limestone, although the only palaeonto- logical evidence is the similarity of two tabulate corals to forms in the limestone at Bowan Park. The Barton Limestone is approximately 200 feet thick at Oaky Creek, but to the north, at Mouse Hole Creek, it is apparently less than 100 feet thick. A fresh augite andesite, occurring to the west of the limestone in Oaky Creek, is probably a later intrusion, and not part of the Ordovician succession. At Mouse Hole Creek it appears that a steeply inclined, in part overturned, succession is D. B. WALKER 40 e1ousIOg JO 4SOMA 9} OF Vole oY} JO dey YOOYS [eorsojoeyy ‘]T ‘DIQ ; | ae = YIDJJIDUN SOIUPIIOA JOMO7F 3YON3YOS JO LS3M JHL OL 1: ace snc gue anaes x V3YUV JHL JO dVW HOLLINS WIINO1I039 gees 3 ey : sajPys pur sauoyspues fF] BaD eT See SOIUPSIOA U2YWON ‘yaddy [aa] NVIDIAOdYO le ele e 4 ‘eh e —— — YEW 3151 HLASOW ges YAW 3451 SHON 3¥09 ° | $039 INOLSIMNS $039 3TWHS SIPYS acPIlPM FS ayokyy dwed sing (774 NVINOASd¢é-NVIan Is sei ouipepuctee ous SPR eIELIES im UOI}EWJOJ |PQWoIPD fF |] NVINOA3d weseq aulAcC [|] weseq aulsopuy FAA XKUVILesL JON3Y353Y a=8 Mars > af —, wy a >To SEIS 7D Oy a ES OG == [Nae Uy, % 1 ws ass Y ergee, i) ARDY tea Mit i i HES fy aha | A ) ON ceo ee soW Ul = FqWOS AKAN KA abpiug suouaay as PALAEOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF AREA TO WEST OF BORENORE, N.S.W. 41 present. The volcanic rocks in this section are considerably fresher and better exposed. The western volcanics, considered to be the lower volcanics, are about 500 feet thick, and three rock types (possibly flows) can be recognized. The lowest member is a massive, medium-grained, altered andesite (?), consisting of pink, iron-stained, albite phenocrysts set in a groundmass of albite and chlorite. The rock is veined by quartz and calcite and contains, as do the other members of these volcanics in this section, significant quantities of pyrite. Above this is a much altered rock, possibly volcanic, with patches of chloritic material apparently relict after ferro-magnesian pheno- crysts, in a saccharoidal groundmass of albite, chlorite and epidote. The top member is a dacite. To the east of the Barton Limestone, 200 feet of (?) upper volcanics are present. These consist of a dark green, coarse, porphyritic andesite overlain by an altered dacite, containing phenocrysts of epidote apparently replacing an amphibole. Above this dacite there are a few feet of black fissile shales, from which one specimen of Climacograptus (identified by G. H. Packham), has been obtained. These shales are overlain, with apparent conformity, by Silurian limestone. In the northern part of the area, near Keenan’s Bridge, Ordovician rocks outcrop in a south- plunging anticlinal structure. The lowest beds exposed are of sandstone with interbedded shale lenses, at least 500 feet thick. Mapping by K. Wood (unpub. Hons. Thesis, Sydney University, 1955) indicates that these beds are of limited lateral extent, occurring within a succession of andesitic volcanics. The lowest sandstones are pink in colour, due to the presence of iron-stained feldspar grains, and both pelitic and volcanic detrital fragments are present, set in a clay matrix. Thin lenses of fissile brown and black shales are common. Towards the top of the succession the sandstones are more typically grey in colour and contain large shale pebbles. One horizon contains abundant limestone pebbles which have yielded tabulate corals and crinoid stems. A black shale lens near the top of the succession contains abundant Climaco- graptus bicorms, Orthograptus truncatus var. intermedius and Dicellograptus, together with a small straight nautiloid. Overlying these beds are about 800 feet of andesitic lavas, characteristically with pink iron-stained andesine phenocrysts. Several flows are probably represented, one of which, near the top, shows columnar jointing. In the Bowan Park area Stevens (1957) noted the upward succession of Cargo Andesite, Bowan Park Limestone (correlated with the Barton Limestone) and Malachi’s Hill Forma- tion. Tentatively, then, the upper and lower volcanics may be identified as the Malachi’s Hill Formation and the Cargo Andesite respectively, provided the correlation of the Bowan Park with the Barton Limestone is accepted. However, the base of the upper two formations in the Borenore area may be slightly younger than is indicated by Stevens, since Packham and Stevens record Upper Ordovician graptolites apparently from beneath the Barton Limestone. The graptolite fauna from within the andesite succession to the north indicates an Eastonian age, so that this andesitic succession probably occupies at least the same period of time as the two upper formations to the south. It is of note that to the north these andesites succeed a limestone (Pritchard, unpub. Hons. Thesis, Sydney Uni- versity, 1955) which would then appear to occupy a position lower than the Barton Limestone. Silurian Stevens and Packham (1953) defined the Panuara Formation as one of thinly-bedded sandstones and shales, with some limestones, resting unconformably upon Ordovician rocks and being overlain by the Wallace Shale, a distinctive shale lithology. Difficulties exist in extending the use of the term Panuara Formation in that, because of its variable, non- diagnostic lithology, it may be necessary to rely heavily on fossil evidence of age to identify what is primarily a lithological unit, and the danger may arise of extending the use of the term in a time and not in a lithological sense. This problem is emphasized by the fact that in parts of the Borenore area the Panuara and the Wallace lithologies are similar. A related problem concerns the boundary between these two formations. In the type locality, and at Spring and Quarry Creeks, the Panuara Formation and the Wallace Shale are of distinctive lithologies, but, to the north, the Panuara lithology is in places similar to that of the Wallace Shale, and there is an apparently gradual transition between the two. To the south, the base of the Wallace Shale appears to be a natural boundary, a distinct change in lithology, which is con- veniently marked by tuffaceous beds. There is no evidence to suggest a relationship between the change in lithology and the volcanic activity. 42 D. B. WALKER In Oaky Creek, where the boundary between the two formations appears gradational, the base of the Wallace Shale has been drawn at this tuffaceous horizon. This method is suitable only over limited areas, for extended use would imply that the Panuara-Wallace boundary is isochronous ; however, in this case it retains the desired identity of these most useful forma- tion names. The presence of a natural break at the tuffaceous beds is shown in the eastern Oaky Creek, where the change in lithology is from a massive limestone to shales. Dis- tinctive Wallace Shale lithology occurs in Boree Creek, and possibly has its base at the same horizon, but neither the tuff nor any fossil evidence is present to indicate this. Panuara Formation—In the Borenore area, the upper part of the Panuara Formation is notable for the marked changes in lithofacies, from a massive crinoidal limestone in the east to shales in the west. Between the two a siltstone facies can be recognized to the south of Keenan’s Bridge. A calcareous facies is present where the base of the formation is exposed, the Rosyth Limestone Member, named from the property, one and a half miles to the west of Borenore, near which it is best exposed. This facies is equivalent to the Bridge Creek and the Quarry Creek Limestone Members. The Rosyth Limestone Member consists for the most part of a richly fossiliferous marly limestone, interbedded with labile sandstones and shales. To the south of Rosyth the member is more than 900 feet thick. The basal beds of feldspathic sandstone are overlain by a calcarenite which grades upwards into a marly limestone about 300 feet thick, this limestone being interrupted near the base by 100 feet of feldspathic sandstone. The euhedral kaolinized feldspars in this rock suggest that it may be tuffaceous in origin. The marly limestone contains an extremely rich fauna which is commonly etched out on weathering. Much of the fauna remains unidentified, but it contains Arachnophyllum (?) epistomordes Eth., Cystt- phyllum, Phaulactis (?), Mycophyllum, Rhizophyllum (?), Halysites orthopteroides Eth., H. cf. pycnoblastoides Eth., Heliolites datntrees Nich. and Eth., Coenites spp., Favosites, stromatoporoids and crinoid stems, together with brachiopods and other coral genera. Fifty feet of green and brown shales overlie this limestone, and at the top of the succession these is about 300 feet of interbedded calcarenites and feldspathic sandstones. To the east, only about 500 feet of the succession is exposed. Limestone is absent here, the sequence consisting — of interbedded shales, labile and calcareous. sandstones and mudstones. The more argil- — laceous nature of these sediments is probably responsible for the absence of the coral fauna, the only fossils being occasional brachiopod. valves. Fine-grained basic igneous rock- fragments are notable in some of the labile sandstones. The succession thins to the west of Rosyth to about 550 feet, the lower part being typically of feldspathic sandstone, the upper part of marly limestone. To the west of the fault in this area the member is consider- ably thicker, probably because lateral equivalents of the Borenore limestone are necessarily included. ‘The section consists almost entirely of limestones and calcareous shales. In the upper part of this succession the presence of detrital quartz in beds of calcareous sandstones is of note. Near the top a thin bed of green acid tuffs is present, but does not extend for more than a mile along the strike. Farther west the member becomes thinner. Commonly the limestone grades into a calcareous mud- stone, but in the western part of Boree Creek the member is represented by a coarse crinoidal limestone. This crinoidal limestone is also: exposed as a small inlier one mile to the south-west, where it is in part brecciated, and has yielded Halysites sussmilcht Eth., Herco- phyllum, Mycophyllum (?), Favosites, gastropods, bryozoans, large pentamerids and abundant crinoid stems. The limestone exposed in western. Mouse Hole Creek is considered to be the same limestone member, and contains Halysites sp... Coemites sp., Favosites, Heliolites, pentamerids. and a (?) pycnactid rugose coral. The total extent of the Borenore Limestone Member is unknown because of the later basalt cover, but where exposed it often forms strong outcrops, rising about 60 feet above the river level at Borenore Caves. Stratification is. usually absent, so no accurate estimate of the thickness of the limestone can be obtained. It apparently dips gently to the south-west and probably is of the order of 1,500 feet thick. Texturally the limestone varies from aphanitic to coarsely crystalline, this latter phase more commonly being rich in crinoid stems. Typically — a brecciated limestone is present near the base. De Koninck (1898) and Etheridge (1909) have described trilobites from near the base of the limestone, and Sussmilch (1907) has listed the fauna from the crinoidal limestone at the top: of the member in Oaky Creek, Dun (1907) having described some new species in this fauna. Throughout the succession large gastropods, PALAEOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF AREA TO WEST OF BORENORE, N.S.W. 43 Ludlow Wenlock SILURIAN. Llandovery Bolindian Eastonian Se ee Gisbor nian U.ORDOVICIAN. Pie. 2: [eave es eee ae \ 7 \ wm [1 \f IN ave pwWaAea A. - 7 - f\ \.-/ er (= a Diagrammatic section showing the suggested relations of the Ordo- vician and Silurian rock units in the area to the west of Borenore. Reference as for Fig. 1 pentamerids and _ colonial common. The beds of the siltstone member to the west of the limestone are incompletely known as they form poor, broken outcrops The lower beds are buff-coloured, fine sandstones, silt- stones, and shales, with minor compact red claystones. Muscovite is a_ significant con- stituent of these beds. Higher in the sequence red shales and siltstones are more common, and muscovite is abundant. Green shales appear near the top of the beds. This member is interpreted as inter-tonguing laterally with the Borenore Limestone, but these relations are not exposed. To the west, the member thins rapidly and is absent at Boree Creek, where the Rosyth Limestone Member is overlain by shales. It is with the shale member of the Panuara Formation that difficulty arises in distinguishing the formation from the Wallace Shale. Typically the Panuara shale member in the southern part of the area consists of red and green splintery shales, while to the north massive beds of fine sandstone and siltstone, in beds of the order of a foot in thickness, are more common. In Oaky Creek the lowest beds exposed are of blue-green siltstones and_ shales, with occasional calcarenite beds a few inches thick. These beds are overlain by highly jointed red and green shales and siltstones, with occasional distinctive thin bands of light coloured silt- stones. This is a feature more typical of the overlying Wallace Shale, and the change in lithology to this upper formation is gradational, its base being drawn at the horizon of the tuffaceous beds and slumped mudstones. Folding, which is notably tight in the western tryplasmids are part of this creek section, makes it difficult to estimate the thickness of the shale member, but it probably does not exceed 1,000 feet. In the northern part of the area, the shales are more typically green and brown in colour, and fine sandstone and siltstone beds are common. These beds directly overlie the Rosyth Limestone, and indeterminate mono- graptids, and trilobites, have been found in shales just above the limestone. The structure is not clear in this region, and unobserved faulting may be present, but it is possible that the succession is somewhat thinner than to the south. Thin calcarenite beds occur interbedded with the siltstones. Towards the top the siltstones show graded bedding; a thin pebble band is present, and just below the top of the succession there is a slump structure involving several beds. Near the top in the north-western part of the area quartz sandstones occur inter- bedded with plant-bearing shales, and from these shales a specimen of Monograptus has been obtained (F. G. Larminie, personal communication). The relations of the different lithological units within the Panuara Formation can be tentatively suggested (Fig. 2), but as yet there is insufficient fossil evidence to establish this, and the absolute time relations are largely suggested from the faunas recorded by Packham and Stevens. Silurian-? Devonian Wallace Shale—The problem of recognizing a boundary between the Panuara Formation and the Wallace Shale has been mentioned above. In the areas to the south, the Wallace Shale is less well bedded than the Panuara Formation, 44 D. B. WALKER but this is not so in the Borenore area. Although a Wallace Shale lithology is present comparable to that of the areas to the south, there is consider- able variation from this lithology. The typical lithology in the Borenore area is of red and green jointed shales with occasional thin, persistent, light-coloured siltstone bands, which clearly indicate the bedding. In the south-east part of the area these grade up into well-bedded interbedded buff-coloured fine sandstones and shales in beds a few inches thick. No fossils have yet been found in the shales. The basal beds overlying the SBorenore Limestone exposed in the south-eastern part of Oaky Creek are well-bedded light-coloured mudstones, possibly in part tuffaceous in origin. One distinct green, coarse, acid tuff bed is present. The mudstones are well bedded, and in places show small flow markings on the bedding planes. These beds are about 100 feet thick, but are not exposed to the west of the Borenore Limestone. The overlying jointed green shales and siltstones are approximately 900 feet thick ; in the south, towards the top, bedding becomes distinct and thin sandstone beds abundant. In an unnamed southern tributary of Oaky Creek a slump structure in the shales several feet in amplitude contains small boulders of various rock types, including one limestone boulder more than one foot in diameter. This horizon appears to be somewhat lower than the boulder bed recorded by Packham and Stevens. Between this tributary and Oaky Creek to the east a small mass of limestone outcrops which, although an isolated outcrop, is apparently within the Wallace Shale. In the western part of Oaky Creek a similar succession of green shales overlies mudstone beds, showing small scale slumping and tuffs. In Boree Creek, a few feet of typical red and green Wallace Shale is preserved overlying the Panuara Formation. These shales can _ be distinguished from the well-bedded siltstones and shales of the Panuara Formation at this locality, however, in the absence of fossils or the tuffaceous beds, they cannot be correlated with the Wallace Shale to the south. Bulls’ Camp Rhyolite—Only a small part of this formation has been preserved in the southern part of the area. In Oaky Creek a few feet of poorly-exposed red tuff containing patches of dark chloritic material are present, overlain by a few feet of Wallace Shale; this tuff also appears to be filling scours in the shale. To the south of the eastern creek exposure a fresh devitrified virtoclastic tuff is exposed, and farther south a “coarse”’ pink acid tuff out- crops, the coarse appearance of this rock being due to a patchy development of albite replacing the groundmass of the tuff. Although this — rock is a tuff, a similar lithology appears in a creek to the west showing an intrusive relation with the Wallace Shale, and is considered to be part of the same vulcanism. To the south-east of this area, pink and grey rhyolites and dacites. occur in the succession. That the succession is conformable from the base of the Panuara Formation to the Bulls’ Camp Rhyolite agrees with the findings to the south. The Panuara Formation rests on the Ordovician rocks without any apparent angular discordance in the Borenore area, but a small erosional break possibly exists. In Mouse Hole Creek the succession is not clearly exposed and represents an interpretation, but in the northern part of the area the basal beds of the Panuara Formation appear to rest without discordance on the Ordovician lavas. The time interval between the topmost fossiliferous Ordovician strata and the Silurian beds may in part be represented by a period of exposure, and the presence of volcanic detritus in the basal beds of the Panuara Formation, considered to be derived from the underlying volcanics, suggests that this is so. Devonian Garra Beds—Joplin and Culey (1938) applied the term “‘Garra Beds” to a succession of mainly shales and limestones of supposed Middle Devonian age. Hill and Jones (1940) showed that the general indication was of a Lower Devonian age for these beds, but Hill (1942) later showed that, in what is in all probability a northern continuation of the same beds, both a Lower Devonian (Garra) and a probable Middle Devonian fauna are present. The lack of stratigraphic evidence of the relations of the horizons from which the fauna have been obtained and the necessary inter- regional correlation makes it difficult to suggest a range for the beds. The Garra Beds in the Borenore area consist for the most part of green and brown shales. Towards the top the shales are more calcareous and limestone beds appear. To the north of this area, the whole of the Garra succession appears to be of limestone (Wood, unpub. Hons. Thesis, Sydney University, 1955). In Mouse Hole Creek, a tightly folded succes- sion of interbedded very coarse sandstones and shales, probably less than 200 feet thick, is considered to represent the base of the Garra Beds. The very coarse sandstones are more PALAEOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF AREA TO WEST OF BORENORE, N.S.W. 45 common near the base, but towards the top, alternating beds of sandstone and shale about one foot thick occur. The sandstones are compact rocks with pebbles (of average size of 2mm.) of limestone, indeterminate argillaceous material, and feldspar. Crinoid stems, bryozoa and corals are present in the rock, but can usually only be seen as moulds when the calcareous fossil has weathered out. The shales contain abundant fragments of plant stems. A thick succession of green shales, in places highly jointed, overlies these basal beds, but the junction is not exposed. The shales which have yielded occasional plant remains, and a straight nautiloid fragment, appear to be of the order of 1,000 feet thick, and are overlain by about 700 feet of interbedded shales and limestones. For the most part the limestones are not richly fossiliferous, containing crinoid stems and tabulate corals; but one bed near the middle of the sequence contains a rich coral and brachiopod fauna dominated by the large solitary coral Pseudamplexus princeps (Eth.). In Boree Creek, exposures near the base of the Garra Beds are poor, and the base is apparently absent due to faulting. The lowest beds are of soft red argillaceous siltstones and labile sandstones which are overlain by the highly jointed green shales. The transition to the more calcareous shales is indicated by a thin lens of limestones which has yielded Tryplasma columnare Eth., Plasmopora gipps- landica (Chapman), Favosites and crinoid stems. In the overlying grey shales there are notably no other limestone horizons. At no place is there any satisfactory indication of the relation between the Garra Beds and the Bulls’ Camp Rhyolite. The junction of the Garra Beds with the underlying beds is believed either to be faulted, or is not exposed. Packham and Stevens have indicated that the Bulls’ Camp Rhyolite is most probably Lower Devonian in age. The fossil evidence suggests a general age for the Garra Beds above this horizon, and there is no indication that the rhyolites occupied an horizon within the Garra succession. It is reasonable to consider that the Bulls’ Camp Rhyolite preceded the commencement of the Garra sedimentation. Joplin and others have indicated an unconformity between the Silurian and the Devonian from regional considerations. Upper Devonmian—The sediments mapped as Black Rock Sandstone by Stevens and Packham can be lithologically identified as the same as the lower beds of those mapped as Lambie Beds by Joplin and Culey, and have been termed Catombal Formation by Joplin and others. The lowest beds consist typically of a coarse conglomeratic sandstone at the base overlain by shales, red friable sandstones and congiomerates. Sussmilch recognized these beds as of Upper Devonian age. Joplin and others have pointed out the presence of a structural unconformity between the Garra Beds and the Upper Devonian sediments. This is borne out in the present work, although the concordance in dip between the Garra Beds and the Upper Devonian in the Mouse Hole Creek section is somewhat mis- leading. However, it is considered that here the base of the Upper Devonian rests on an horizon within the Garra Beds some distance stratigraphically below the top. Tertiary The area is for the most part covered by an olivine basalt, the remnants of what must have been an extensive flow over a moderately flat land surface, sloping gently to the west. The flow is considered to have preceded the andesine basalt flows which can be recognized on the higher ground in the eastern part of the area. At least two such flows which are obviously part of the Canobolas vulcanism can be identified, a lower porphyritic andesine-basalt and an upper flow with augite phenocrysts. Three small basaltic intrusions, probably related to the Tertiary vulcanism, have been observed, viz. a plug (?) in Boree Creek to the west of Keenan’s Bridge, and two small dykes, one in western Mouse Hole Creek, the other in eastern Oaky Creek. River gravels cemented by iron oxides, similar to those noted by Colditz (1943) and by Stevens (1950), are present in the area. The age of cementation is not known, but the gravels must, at least in some instances, have belonged to a drainage pattern which existed before the outpouring of the Tertiary lavas. The restriction of the gravels to areas overlying limestone supports the suggestion made by Stevens that the iron cementing material has been derived trom the limestone. Acknowledgements This work was carried out at the University of Sydney, and the author would lke to thank Professor C. E. Marshall for the facilities to undertake the work. The author was introduced to the area as a student by Dr. G. H. Packham, and is greatly indebted to him for considerable advice and discussion of the problems of the 46 D. B. WALKER area. The author is also grateful to Professor W. F. Whittard for his helpful criticism of the manuscript. References CARNE, J. E., AND JONES, L: Je; -19N9: Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Min. Res., 25. CoLtpItzZ, M.. J, 1943: JJ. Proc: Roy. secs N-S.W., 76, 235. DE Koninck, L. G., 1898. N.S.W., Mem. Pal. 6. Dun, W. S., 1907. Dept. Mines, Geol. Surv. N.S.W.., Rec., 8, 265. ETHERIDGE, R., JNR., 1909. Ibid., 8, 319. FLETCHER, H. O., 1950. Rec. Aust. Mus., 22, 220. Dept. Mines Dept. Mines, Geol. Surv. tee oan ec @ Hirt, D., 1942. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. Nos. W ...aae 182 . Hitt, D., AND Jones, O. A., 1940. Ibid., 74, 175. Joriin, G. A., AND CuLEy, A. G., 1938. Ibid., 74 267. Jopitin, G. A., AND OTHERS, 1952. N.S.W., 77, 83. PackuHaM, G. H., AND STEVENS, N. C., 1955. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 88, 55. STEVENS, N. C., 1957. Ibid., 90, 44. STEVENS, N. C., AND PacKHAM, G. H., 1953. 86, 94. SuSSMILCH, C. A., 1907. Proc. Linn. Soe, J. Prog Tbid., — Ibid., 40, 130. Department of Geology The University of Bristol, England Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. 47-60, 1959 Variation in Physical Constitution of Quarried Sandstones from Gosford and Sydney, N.S.W. H. G. GOLDING (Received May 25, 1959) Apstract—Variation in petrographic, water absorption, density and porosity attributes of quarried sandstones from Gosford and Sydney is traced to genetic factors, among which variation in the ratio of quartz sand to argillaceous material in the original sediment and the consequent variation in the roles of quartz welding and clay compaction are dominant. Quartz welding results from concurrent stylolitization and silica cementation of quartz while clay compaction includes that induced by lode stress and that accompanying illite authigenesis. These processes and also carbonate deposition contributed to porosity reduction but void formation resulted from solution of carbonate in one of the samples examined. Some relations between the petrographic and other attributes are indicated and the diagenetic evolution of the sandstones is outlined. Introduction The building sandstones from Gosford and Sydney merit consideration as favourable materials for studies of certain fundamental sandstone attributes. This is a consequence not only of their somewhat specialized characters but also of the availability from active quarries of large, unweathered, relatively homogeneous samples. While such studies apply primarily to the types examined, they may, in addition, oaee cnn PILES CREEK® WONDABYNE % 4 B\MIDOLE COVE LANE eS AAW oAooINGTON ® BONDI MAROUBRA 5 re: | Sydney-Gosford District, N.S.W. contribute to the elucidation of wider problems concerning the sandstones of the area. Lithological diversity in building sandstones from Gosford and Sydney quarries was noted by Chalmers and Golding (1950) during a survey of building-stone resources of New South Wales. More recently the writer has attempted to correlate the petrographic attributes with certain physical properties for samples from some of these quarries (Golding, 19560). In this paper the composition, texture, initial rate of water absorption, bulk and grain density and porosity of sandstone samples from Piles Creek, Gosford, Paddington and Maroubra quarries (Fig. 1) are compared, the relations between the petrographic and other attributes are examined, the genetic factors which determined ultimate physical constitution are suggested and some implications of the study in aspects of applied sedimentary petrology are noted. Brief references also are made to sandstones from the two other major building- stone quarries in the area, at Bondi and Wondabyne, and to sandstones from Lane Cove and Middle Cove (Fig. 1), which were random locations sampled to obtain current-bedded Hawkesbury sandstone for comparison with the other samples. The writer desires to express his indebtedness to Mr. R. O. Chalmers of the Australian Museum, Sydney, for introducing him to the subject and for the loan of slides of Wondabyne sandstone; to Professor D. W. Phillips, New South Wales University, for helpful discussion; to Dr. W. R. Browne for reading the manuscript and making valuable suggestions; to Mr. F. C. Loughnan, New South Wales University, for advice on clay mineral determinations, and to Mr. G. Z. Foldvary, New South Wales University, for assistance with micropreparations. 48 HG) GOEDING Sampling and Lithology The study was limited to fourteen field samples from which seventy sub-samples for physical tests, sixty thin sections, and material for lithological, heavy mineral and clay-fraction determinations were obtained. Binocular examination of sawn surfaces of sandstone before, during and following acid treatment to detect carbonates and iron, and following the application of benzidine hydrochloride solution, which stains the clay blue, provided supple- mentary data for larger areas of sandstone than were available for study in thin sections. These data are incorporated in the appropriate petrographic sections of this paper, while the mineralogical studies are restricted to those bearing on the main theme of physical con- stitution. Notwithstanding variation within — single quarries, samples from the quarries at Piles Creek, Gosford and Sydney (Paddington and Maroubra grouped) correspond respectively to three moderately well defined compositional and textural types or “modes’”’, a comparison of which provides the basis for the present study. From Piles Creek quarry (530-560 ft. above sea level, ? Middle Hawkesbury Sandstone) four samples numbered P1—P4 from the surface downwards, taken over the upper eighteen feet of the quarry face, were generally similar, white, medium grained, relatively friable quartzose sandstones. The uppermost sample (P1) was faintly iron-stained. A_ reddish, slightly ferruginous, rhythmically - banded variety, occurring sporadically in the quarry, was also sampled (P5). The Gosford quarry (100-150 ft. above sea level, ? Upper Narrabeen Group or base of Hawkesbury Sandstone) provided four samples from central (G1), central-upper (G3) and near surface (G4, G5) levels, a fifth sample (G2), similar to G1, being taken from a somewhat weathered quarried block. These sandstones were grey, compact and highly argillaceous, and varied upwards from fine to very fine grained. Sporadic masses of a brown, moderately ferruginous, rhythmically-banded, sandstone with micaceous and graphitic bedding-planes separated by massive bands several inches thick also occur (G6). Sub-samples of G6 were prepared from the massive bands. Samples from the Sydney quarries (Upper Hawkesbury Sandstone, probably within 100 feet of the base of the Wianamatta Group) were argillaceous sandstones with rather prominent graphitic markings, those from Paddington (S1, S2) being pale yellow and fine | grained, while the Maroubra sample (S3) was. grey and of medium grain size. Constituents All samples contain essential quartz and clay minerals with accessory leucoxene, anatase, graphite, white mica, rutile (Golding, 1956a), zircon, tourmaline and occasional particles of quartzite and chert. The three modes differ however, in their quartz and clay content and in the presence and character of further con- stituents (Table I). Thus carbonate is absent from the Gosford banded specimen (G6) and from all Piles Creek specimens, but is present in all others. In the Gosford samples the carbonate is dominantly calcitic ; single grains, usually containing both calcite and siderite, are relatively large and at times envelop associated quartz grains. By contrast, in the Sydney samples a more homogeneous siderite (with limonite) occurs, often as small rhombs bridging quartz grains or isolated within the argillaceous matrix. A distinctive feature in all Gosford specimens is the presence of about one per cent. of feldspars (microcline, albite and probably orthoclase),. The grains, which include both limpid and cloudy types, are angular, smaller than associated quartz grains, and located within clay pellets, the feldspar clay contact usually being sharp, though marginal alteration of feldspar to clay is occasionally suggested. Smaller silt-sized fragments occur within the matrix. David and Pitman (1902) reported feldspar in sandstones from Sydney quarries, but none was recognized by the writer in either the Sydney or Piles Creek specimens examined. Both the Piles Creek and Sydney samples, and typical current-bedded Hawkesbury sand- stones from Middle Cove and Lane Cove, slides of which were examined for comparison, contain conspicuous traces of a variably leached biotitic mica, often thickly peppered with opaque, possibly leucoxenic “dust” (Plate i) Page 1 and 2). Limonite and haematite occur only in traces associated with carbonate, except in the two rhythmically banded ferruginous specimens (P5 and G6), which contain up to about 0-5 per cent. (G6) of these constituents. Magnetite and ilmenite are lacking in all specimens. The Gosford and Sydney samples also contain traces of opaque carbonaceous and transparent brown organic matter. The argillaceous matrix in all specimens presents several aspects in thin section (Osborne, TABLE I Bulk Volume Composition of Sandstones from Piles Creek (P), Sydney (S) and Gosford (G) Quarries VARIATION OF QUARRIED SANDSTONES FROM GOSFORD AND SYDNEY 49 1948 ; Golding, 19560). Thus it appears as (1) areas of colourless well-crystallized illite, at times exhibiting a parallel orientation of flakes which apparently results from stress accompanying recrystallization, but which may be a function also of depositional factors Mp eos ty fy | (syngenetic, or inherited, as with shale fragments) or of load stress (Williamson, 1951). These areas do not stain with methyl-violet prepara- tions. (2) Areas of colourless, low birefringent micromosaics and meshworks of fine shreds Pea bp teresa with a characteristic random orientation result- iE ing in a grid-pattern as viewed between crossed nicols (since only in the 45° position are shreds clearly visible). These areas stain intensely with methyl-violet and some include voids from 1-10 w wide between shreds. (3) Areas of similar aspect to the last, containing clay intermixed with silt-size particles of all other constituents, which stain in patches; and (4) various uncommon types which include oh Soh eS) Ge intensely staining, loosely packed and parallel oriented rod-like aggregates, green vermiculoid types and also opaque clay. Examination of the fine clay from several of the sandstones (Loughnan and Golding, 1956), indicated a dominantly illitic types in all, with kaolinite reaching a maximum of about 40 per cent. of the minus 2-micron fraction in the rhythmically banded Gosford specimen G6. ee Of these constituents most of the quartz a and all the feldspars, rutile, tourmaline, zircon and rock particles are detrital, while secondary silica, carbonates, anatase, haematite and limonite are authigenic. The argillaceous 2S | BOOSIE material may include detrital clay, and a pro- portion represents original sand-grade shale particles leached either before or after deposition, the indistinct detrital outline of which is occasionally discernible. Much of the well crystallized illite present presumably results from reconstitution within the rock of degraded illite (Grim, 1952) or from diagenetic reactions of kaolinite with silica and with potash in the connate water or from comminuted feldspars and micas. The leucoxene is mainly detrital, but much of it has recrystallized to clusters of recognizable anatase crystals and some may have developed from former ilmenite or biotite diagenetically. The carbonaceous material and 10 SH HO the graphite presumably are detrital, but occasional well formed hexagonal plates of the latter suggest its reconstitution from the former within the rock. bs mae | Ae 19 © Most of the constituents show the effects of yo yo | ak load stress. Thus feldspars and the larger grains of rutile and zircon frequently are cracked Total Siderite Cement Calcitic Carbonate OD Of OD Of) OD Se Quartz Total Matrix Porosity CO N10 eS Er wd 0, c=C+1y as 0 x—>oo, it is shown that (i) when B>0, F(z) is analytic in the strip | Im z |0, it will be seen that F(z) is analytic in a strip on the z-plane, but when B=0, this strip will reduce to the real axis. When B=0 we will consider that F(z) is defined only for real positive values of z. In this case, by a singularity we will understand a discontinuity. If f(x) =0 for all x>X, it is obvious that z-’F(z) is analytic for all z (Griffith, 1955). In our case, it will be found that the singularities occur at z=-+7b and that the type of singularity will be determined by c and v. The author has found the results of this paper rather useful in confirming his suspicions of misentries in tables of transforms. The general method adopted to determine our results is to replace the Bessel function by its asymptotic formula for large x, and then show that the behaviour of F(z) near one of the singularities can be found from the behaviour of an integral of the type [o@) [o.@) ee) { BALSA lag. } x°+? cos uxdx, OF | xet+t sin uxdx 1 1 1 as u—>0-+. 62 JAMES EL. GRIFRIME 2 Writing WT Ee ee ne be es eee (2.1) we know that Jy(@x) =(4re2x) cos (zx —w) 1-0! zx |=) 2. eee (2.2) as x>00 (z=>40) (Watson, Ch. 7). If we assume that B>0, it is immediately obvious that the integral in (1.1) converges for all | Imz|0O as x->oo. We restrict z to lie in the neighbourhood N of 2b defined by N: —4in—oX, and Telex) =(Qrezx)tete—2[1 ta(ea)] oe cee cceceecevest eee (2.5) where | g(zx)|X and all z in N. Now z-°Z,(z) 1s analytic for all z (including 20), and Zy(2)— (272) te A Za(2)--Z2)) se ee (2.6) where Z;(z) =|. e—(O+tz)ryve+tdy ve and Zae= [e+e pl0) + alm) +6600) x Now as z approaches 7b along the line Re z=—8, 0-472 is real and positive. This fact allows us to use Doetsch, p. 256, Theorem 1, to see that as z approaches 20 along any line in NV Z (2) —~V (e-- 14) (0-42) oa Ae ee (2.7) provided that C>—1#. Writing z=u-10, | Z,(2) |<8e | © FB We ttdy 31 (0 LI B_0)-o 3 (2.8) 4 In this last inequality, we observe that since z lies in N, B—v>| b—1z| cos » and that « may be chosen arbitrarily small. So we use equations (2.3), (2.6), (2.7) and (2.8) to show that F(z) ~(27ib)-4eAT(c+14)(b+iz)---8 as z->ib from below. More simply, we may write 2-9 F (z)~(270) “2A (6-41 2)0-HbPiz)-2 eee (2.9) ON SOME OF THE SINGULARITIES OF THE HANKEL TRANSFORM 63 There is no necessity to make an explicit discussion of the singularity at z=—1b, since z-*F(z) is even in Z. ; In order to obtain a result for the case c=—14, we require a formula. From { e- #4 Idx —u?l'(p), p>0 we obtain 0 ie ete det | xb —-1(e-“* —1)dx=u-?l'(p) —p-1, p> —-1; 0 | 1 the right side must be replaced by I’(1)—log wu when =—1. Thus { . e-“*x-ldx~—logu+I’(1)4+0(u) ... ee. eee eee eee. (2.10) 1 as u>0+ (Reu>0). Applying this result to Z,(z) and Z,(z), we obtain Za(2)~—log (b-+iz) +I” (1) —log X +0(u) and Z ,(2)~3e[—log (B—v) +I’(1) —log X +0(u)] as z—1b (in N). Since the first terms of the right sides dominate the other terms, we write F(z) ~—(271b)-#e”A log (b+22) and 2-YF (z)~—(27)-2AdD~—?* log (b+22). A summary of the work of this section is Theorem 2 :—If (1.1), (1.2) and (1.3) hold, then (a) z-*F(z) is analytic in the strip | Imz|—14 ~—(27)-3Ab~—# log (b472), 1f c=—1}, as z-+2b along any straight line inside the strip. 3 We now examine the case when C<—1}# (and incidentally C=—14, y+0). Our reason for expressing the results in the form of Theorem 3 below is that we require an “infinity”? at the singularity. In §2, we observed that if f(x) ~Ax%e-™* as x->00, z-YF(z) is analytic in the strip | Imz|—14 ....... ss 0-100 (oe (3.2) as x00. Then by Theorem 2 p Bi zF (2) ~(2n)(—-1PAT (c+ p41P)b--P-4O fig) P (3.3) with Re c> —p—1} as z+-+1b from inside the strip | Imz|-+7b from inside the strip | Imz|=Red. The summary of these results is Theorem 3:—If the assumptions of Theorem 2 hold, we have (c) if —p—140. Now assuming that —2i0. Using the notation of equation (2.3), where Z,(z) is continuous (differentiable), we may write Bip | EA eee Ae: ».¢ with 0h>0 (any). Then by a suitable choice of X we may make Z,(z) arbitrarily small. This shows that f(z) is continuous for z>0. A review of the last few remarks shows that with trivial modifications we may prove that (a) if f(x) =0(x°), Rec<—24 as x->oo, then F(z) is differentiable for all z>0; and that (b) if f(x) =0(x*), Rec<—14 as x00, then F(z) is continuous for all z>0. Considering Erdelyi (p. 47 (2) and p. 33 (5) corrected), we note that, in general, functions for which —210-+ | * 6-1 sin uxdx—u-PT'(f) sin (476) +0(u) 1 if —10-+ ie xP—1 cos (ux--a)dx =u? I'(p) cos ($np+a)—p-1 cos «+0(u) .... (5.2a) —1(-+. when y=0 Z (2) =—4A cos (w+) flog | X(e—8) | —I"(1)] 4.4 sin (w +0) +0(| 2-8 |)... (6.7) as 2—>B+. From these results we derive Theorem 5 :—If (a) (1.1), (1.2) hold and z>0; | (b) f(w=Ax? cos (Bx-+t)+fy(x) for x>1, B>0; f,(x)=0(x) as x>oo with Rek<—I}, (c) c=—1}-iy then the only discontinuity of F(z) is at z=6, and (i) when 740, F(2)-~(2r6)-#AT(¢y) cos (w+CF diy) +P(B8) .............- (5.8) (P(8) being independent of z) as z>B6-+ ; (ii) when y=0 and cos (w+) 40, F(z) ~—(27B)-#A cos (w+) log|z—B] «we. eee (5.9) as 2—>6-+ ; (iii) when y=0 and cos (w+C)=0 . F(z) has saltus of A(z/26)? sin{w-4-C) atwz—6. /..... 9 (5.10) Proof. We recall that X was chosen to make Z,(z) arbitrarily small. If we consider only z>h>0 where h6-+, provided that at least one value of cos (4cn-+2x= w+) does not vanish. If both values of cos (4cm-+32- w+ C) vanish then F(z) is continuous for z>0. The proof of this theorem differs only trivially from the derivation of equation (5.8) and will not be given. For the same of completeness we observe that if 8=C=0, then Z,(z) may be written in the form fee) Zya\mAre [ye Jo)dy XZ (from equation (5.2)). Thus Z,(z) is clearly continuous for z>0. Then if, in the enunciations of Theorems 5 and 6 we assume that 8=0, we may conclude that F(z) is continuous for z>0. References Doetscu, G., 1950. ‘‘ Handbuch der Laplace- GrirritH, J. L., 1955. Hankel Transforms of Func- Transformation’, Bd. 1. Birkhauser, Basel. tions Zero outside a Finite Interval. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 89, 109-15. ERDELYI, A., AND OTHERS, 1954. ‘‘ Tables of Integral ww aTsoNn, G. N., 1952. “‘ Theory of Bessel Functions.” Transforms ’’, Vol. 2. McGraw-Hill, New York. Cambridge U.P. School of Mathematics University of New South Wales Sydney Ca) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. 69-78, 1959 Distribution of Stress in the Neighbourhood of a Wedge Indenter ALEX KEICHEL (Received February 18, 1959) ABSTRACT—Wedge indentation techniques play a prominent role in testing ductile materials for hardness. Elastic stress states within the indented materials are of interest as a pointer to elastic-plastic behaviour. This paper presents the solution of a new wedge indentation problem for the state of plane elastic strain. Statement of the Problem A semi-infinite elastic medium “ occupies’ the lower half (of the complex) plane. The tip of a wide-angled rigid wedge, the profile of which is shown in Fig. 1, is brought into contact with the elastic half-plane at the origin O. The sides of the wedge AD and BC are vertical and the face AOB is frictionless. The equation of the face of the wedge before a force is applied is y=—ex for —l22u Pee! (7) (where ®(z) (2), etc.), the function ®(z) is analytically continued from the lower half-plane into the upper half-plane through the unloaded parts of the boundary. (See Muskhelishvili, 19534, 6 112). Using this analytic continuation we can write ¥ (2) = — O(z)—O(z) 20 '(z). for ¢ in S-” 2... eee (8) and hence equations (2) and (3) can be rewritten in terms of one arbitrary function ®(z) thus: X,Y, =2(O@)+0@)] ......-....... eee ee (9) Y,—X,+21X , =2[(Z—z)®'(z) —O(z) =—O(2)\> io ee (10) Adding equations (9) and (10) and taking the complex conjugate, we have Y =X ,=O(2)—O@) 4 (—2)0'@) ee (11) Differentiating equation (4) partially with respect to x and substituting for V(z) given by equation (8) we obtain Pula’ iv’) =xO(z)-+ OZ) —(z—2)@"(z) ws... (12) Equations (9), (10), (11), (12) are the formulae required in the sequel. Boundary Conditions in the General Case Assume that the profile of a rigid stamp, before being pressed into the elastic half-plane, has the equation y=/(x). A force P, applied vertically (in such a way that the stamp moves vertically downward) brings the stamp into contact with the boundary of the elastic body along a segment ab of the real axis. DISTRIBUTION OF STRESS IN NEIGHBOURHOOD OF WEDGE INDENTER 71 After the force has been applied the equation of the profile referred to axes O,, O, will be y=f (x) +e, where c is a real constant. A point of the elastic body, occupying the position (¢,0) before deformation, (a<¢¢ from S-, and using equation (14) we have St a (8) a! Da) 6) cg Os eae an fe ae near e (17) where O*(t) and ®~(é) are the left and right boundary values of ®(z). It follows from this equation (Muskhelishvili, 1953a, p. 473) that Equation (18) must be verified once @(z) has been found. Now from equation (12), if z+ from S-, Zale 00 Dat) aD ELS as see 4 oo een (19) Taking the complex conjugate of this expression we have Dy aay a) =O Da), 4.5 sesso es (20) Subtracting equation (20) from equation (19) and using equation (18) yields Api =(x+1){O*(t) +O-()} and since v’-=f/'(t) on ab we have O+(t) +0-(2) re an eee es (21) (The assumption v’-=(v-)’ on ab used here may be verified if need be, after the solution has been constructed. We rely here on the “reasonableness ”’ of the assumption.) Equation (21) represents a special case of the Hilbert boundary value problem (Muskhelishvili, 1953a, 6 107) in which G(é)=—1. @(z) can be determined from equation (21) and the general solution of the Hilbert problem (Muskhelishvili, 1953a, equation 110.33) provided /’(t) satisfies certain conditions. In $115 Muskhelishvili (1953a, p. 473) requires that f’(t) satisfy the Holder condition (idem, p. 258) on the segment ad. In the problem to be considered, f’(#) has a simple discontinuity at a given point of ab, so that the Hdlder condition is not satisfied at all points of ab. However, this 12 ALEX REICHEL is of no consequence. The validity of the solution will remain for points on ab other than the point of simple discontinuity. (For a discussion of this point see Woods (1958), Chapter 3, also Reichel (1958), 62. Fora description of @(z) at the point of simple discontinuity and at the ends of ab, see Muskhelishvili (1953), 6 33, also Reichel (1958), 6 2.) Because of the existence of the discontinuity in f’(?) the Cauchy integral in the solution (see below) cannot be solved by the contour methods suggested by Muskhelishvili (1953a, p. 445). Appropriate formal substitution in Muskhelishvili’s equation 110.33 yields \/ (aD) I Visalia '(t)dt D aon), Ct where D is a real constant. The branch of the function (z—a)?(b—z)*? is so chosen that (z—a)?(b—z)?= —1(z—a)?(z—b)? 2... ee eee ee ee eee (23) The value of the constant D is determined from the fact that for large | z| (equation (5)) O(:z =? 40 (: 3 ol ee (24) where —P, is the given resultant vector of the external force. Also from equation (23), for large | z|, (z—a)?(b—z)?=—1z+0(1). Hence, for large | z|, equation (22) gives Comparison of equations (24) and (25) shows that D=P,/2z. The pressure P(t) exerted by the stamp on the boundary ab underneath the stamp can be deter- mined from equation (17) once ®(z) has been found. In fact P#)=—Y,-=O1() -O-@ (26) In order that a solution may be physically possible it is necessary that P(t) be positive or zero for a# on the left side of (—/,/). (This is consistent with the behaviour of the chosen branch of (z—a)#(b—z)* in similar circumstances. See equation (23).) Thus at ¢+ (ie. O0 for —l=—, — B—C log —— whence 1 ®(z)+@(%) =A fe oi =o Bebe ) Eee ee 22 Putting (22—J2)t=rjrgete+ 02, (Z2—]2)4 =rivge-la+8)/2, andere, 2—re 9 (Fig. 2) we find, after substituting for A, B and C, that [2 _Oy2¥3 sin BE nate NC 4 E Aule ae a+ Sue yh Qn = e(x-+1) 2 -x(x+1) (me 78 ALEX REICHEL Since ®(z)=—Q(z), equation (10) reduces to Y,—X,+2iX, =2(z—z)®' (2) 29 (pees so that eer i om, cs al, We find, after some algebra, substituting for A, C, z, z?—/?, etc., as before, using elementary trigonometric formulae and separating real and imaginary parts, that — Pre. 20—3(a-+8) 8ylse 20-+3(a«-+6) Y,—X, =~ |2 sin 0 cos —— | 4g EE _ 9 sin iene FS aa sin 9 cos 5 | nin ply | sin 0 cos 5 | oe SRE NDS) Vet dees We . 3(a+8) —26 8ul8e . 3(a+6) +20 ==, § sin ———_—— | — ———____n 0 sin ——+_—_ 1 BR EP [sin sin 5 | eso sin sin 5 Loon én 2 (59) It must be remembered that «, 8, and 0 will have negative values in the lower half-plane. Expres- sions for X, and Y, can be obtained by combining equations (57) and (58). The maximum Syenathiag stress across any plane through the point (x,y) can be calculated from the formula Po ee aya +X ,?]2 wa wale vile sfAOS oe ae (60) Appropriate substitution yields nat =a sin 0 24 yoceaaes _ 16 Por? ule cos 20] * rr§PBP LS * (+1)? “HI The isochromatic lines are given by the curves 7y,,,—constant. Special Cases and a Previously Known Solution In the case when the applied vertical force P, is not large enough to bring the end corners of the wedge into contact with the elastic boundary, a diminished length 2/’ of the boundary touches the face of the wedge. This diminished length is given by equation (55) for a given Py. The distribution of pressure under the face of the wedge is given by putting /=/’ and _ 8yl’e € OS eed in expression (52) for P(é), ie ee Pt)= 7] [2 _p) ne Ozer) 8 Tae for —l’= DISTRIBUTION OF STRESS IN NEIGHBOURHOOD OF WEDGE INDENTER 79 This function ®(z) satisfies the conditions of the problem and we find a+ _ -_~Sye l'2—2ri7g sin 2 +r, X,+Y,= Can log ial ba (64) if yy ~ Ce ee - ‘9 sin 0 cos so dn ae ere (65) m(x+1)rjr5 ( “ ) and / | ) xX, = ower , sin 9 sin Paisteee ee eee (66) m(x+l)rirs 4 (In these expressions the lengths 7,. 7, are measured from /’, —/’ respectively.) The maximum shearing stress across any plane through the point (x,y) is obtained from equation (60) and we find _ 8ul’e sin 0 The isochromatic lines are given by the formula RemmO |Shvtis ay cis ata dawson ody hho ae (68) where & is a constant parameter. Certain results for this special case have been obtained previously by a different method. The results are given in Sneddon’s book (1951) and are apparently based on the work of H. G. Hopkins in a paper which at that time (1951) was unpublished. The results are obtained using Fourier transforms (Sneddon, 1951, pp. 43€, et. seq.). The only result of interest here, quoted explicitly by Sneddon, is the stress distribution on the boundary under the wedge. The resuit is expressed in terms of dimensionless co-ordinates and a special units system and has to be translated into the notation of this paper. Appropriate substitution yields the author’s result, equation (62). A second special case is given by putting ¢=0 in equation (43) to obtain Po 20 aos cay This solution corresponds to the problem of a stamp with a straight horizontal base, in contact with the segment (—/,/) of the real axis and under the action of a vertical force Py. This solution is given by Muskhelishvili (19534, 116a). NotE—tThis paper is part of a thesis entitled ‘‘ Determination of a Sectionally Holomorphic Function from a Problem of Hilbert with an Application in the Plane Theory of Elasticity ’’ by the present author, written in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, University of Sydney. References MUSKHELISHVILI, N. I., 1953a. Some Basic Problems Woops, L. C., 1958. The Theory of Subsonic Plane of the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. (Trans. Flow. (Unpublished book.) eg ae odor.) “Crone n. SNEDDON, I. N., 1951. Fourier Transforms. New P. Noordhoff. : York: McGraw-Hill. MUSKHELISHVILI, N. I., 1953b. Singular Integral Equations. (Trans. from the Russian ed. by REICHEL, A., 1958. Unpublished thesis for degree of J. R. M. Radok.) Gr6ningen: P. Noordhoff. M.Sc., Sydney University. School of Mathematics, University of New South Wales, Sydney .) Pi pe 4 , th 4 Lo s ve . mi 2 7 J . 1 ‘ ¢ “ ‘ : a fy - oa ae # \e D a \i e } ba le ¥ a = wat yi Annual Reports by the President and the Council PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE SOCIETY, APRIL Il, 1959. The President’s Report At the end of my Address, I will complete my year as President of the Royal Society of New South Wales. The year has not been by any means arduous due to the magnificent co-operation given to me by the Secretaries, Treasurer and other members of Council. It is with extreme regret that I have to draw your attention to the retirement from the Council of Dr. Ida Browne. If my understanding of the position is correct, she has been a member of Council for fifteen of the last seventeen years. Almost every year has seen her occupying some executive position. As you know, an ordinary member of Council must retire at the end of four years unless he then occupies an executive position. It is only pressure of outside work that has caused Dr. Browne to retire from the position of Editorial Secretary, and this retirement has of necessity forced her to retire from Council. I have not the faintest doubt that her name will be somewhere on the nomination form in two years’ time. I would like to draw your attention to the four conjoint meetings held during the year. As you all know, many of the Scientific Societies in New South Wales were once sections of the Society. These sections became large and then broke away and formed separate societies. It is one of the major aims of the Royal Society to co-operate with these societies, thereby bringing a unifying influence to all these professional groups. We feel that we have achieved something and are continuing this type of meeting. In June we will have a meeting with the Linnean Society. Now it is one of the expressed aims of the Australian Academy of Science to co-operate with the Royal Societies of the various States in assisting and stimu- lating scientific work. The first step has been taken, by which this Society has just completed the organiza- tion of a Soil Science Committee under the chairmanship of Professor Crocker. This liaison position between the Academy and scientist is the position which a modern Royal Society must occupy and must work to retain. I would recommend the Journal of the Society as a field for publishing to all members of the Society. This should be of particular interest to my Mathematical colleagues. The delay in printing is now less than six months. The Journal is sent directly to Mathe- matical Reviews, a copy of which is sent to us in exchange. The Journal is sent to all countries in which scientific work is being done and in addition to many others. If a review is satisfactory an author is assured that his paper will be easily available. Dr. Browne is organizing the fourth part of this year’s Journal, which will be a very large com- memorative issue. A number of the first-ranking geologists of Australia are contributing technical articles. I would like to express my congratulations to Mr. Heffron on his success at the recent elections. Mr. Heffron has been a strong supporter of the Society during his term of office as Minister of Education. FF The increased Government subsidy received by the Society is entirely due to his efforts. I know that his interest will continue in the coming years. One of my saddest duties during the year was to attend the funeral of one of our oldest members, Dr. Woolnough. Dr. Woolnough had been a President of the Society in 1926 and joined the Society in 1906. His interest in the Society did not diminish with his retirement. His astounding knowledge of a large number of languages was placed at the service of the Society. He cannot be replaced by any one man; and his passing was and still is a loss to the Society and to the community. I must also make special comment of the loss of Dr. George Harker, who joined the Society in 1905. Dr. Harker had not been able over the last few years to attend the meetings of the Society as often as formerly. He left a bequest of £100, for which I express our appreciation. During this year, I have had full co-operation from Miss Ogle, our only full-time member of staff, who has carried on with her usual efficiency, and from Mrs. Huntley, our librarian. Mrs. Huntley, after two years of very hard work, has now put the cataloguing in a reasonable condition. She informs me that there is still much to be done. You will see that the retiring Council can be proud of its efforts. The Society’s funds show a surplus and no loss of capital. It has co-operated more than ever with kindred societies, has taken steps to implement the aims of the Academy and has arranged the publica- tion of its first commemorative part of the Journal. I feel that the Society is in a very happy position. JAMES L. GRIFFITH, President. Report of the Council for the Year ended 31st March, 1959 At the end of the period under review the com- position of the membership was 311 ordinary members, 4 associate members, 8 honorary members; 6 new members were elected and 15 members resigned. Four names were removed from the list of members under Rule XVIII. It is with regret that we announce the loss by death of Mr. Arthur J. Bedwell, Father Thomas N. Burke-Gaffney, Mr. George Z. Dupain, Mr. Roy H. Goddard, Mr. Charles A. Loney, Mr. Herbert J. Sullivan and Dr. Walter G. Woolnough. Nine monthly meetings were held. The Proceedings of these meetings have been published in the notice papers and appear elsewhere in this issue of the ‘““ Journal and Proceedings ’’. The members of Council wish to express their sincere thanks and appreciation to the 15 speakers who contributed to the addresses, symposia and commemorations, and also to the members who read papers at the November monthly meeting. The meeting on 2nd July was devoted to a Com- memoration of the centenary of the birth of Professor Sir T. W. Edgeworth David. 82 ANNUAL REPORTS A feature of this year’s activities was the holding of three meetings conjointly with other scientific societies. The Commemoration of the Centenary of the birth of Sir George Handley Knibbs was celebrated on 3lst July with the Statistical Society of New South Wales, a symposium on “ Food” was held with the Royal Australian Chemical Institute on 6th August, ‘““ Evaporation and the Water Cycle’ was the subject of a meeting held on Ist October with the Institute of Physics, and on 19th March a lecture entitled ‘‘ Why is it Dark at Night ’’, sponsored by the Society and the Institute of Physics, was delivered by Professor H. Bondi. The Annual Sherry Party and Buffet Tea was held in the Holme and Sutherland Rooms, Sydney University Union, on 23rd March, at which the attendance was 41. The Clarke Medal for 1959 was awarded to Mr. Tom Iredale for distinguished contributions in the field of zoology. The Society’s Medal for service to science and to the Royal Society of New South Wales was awarded to Mr. Frank R. Morrison. The Edgeworth David Medal for 1958 was awarded to Dr. Paul I. Korner for outstanding work in the field of physiology. The Archibald D. Olle Prize was awarded to Mr. Alex Reichel for his paper entitled “* Boundary Stresses in an Infinite Hub of Special Shape ’’ published in volume 91 of the Society’s ‘‘ Journal and Proceedings ’’. The Liversidge Research Lecture for 1958 entitled “Modern Structural Inorganic Chemistry’’ was delivered by Dr. A. D. Wadsley. Council is pleased to announce that the Government subsidy has been increased from £500 to £750. The Government’s interest in the work of the Society is much appreciated. The Society’s financial statement shows a surplus of about £100. During the year four parts of the Journal were published. Eleven papers have been accepted for reading and for publication in the first three parts of volume 92. Part 4, devoted to the commemoration of the centenary of the birth of Professor Sir T. W. Edgeworth David, will include invited papers from about twelve senior geologists who were associated with Professor David. The Section of Geology held five meetings during the year. Dr. T. G. Vallance was Chairman and Dr. L. E. Koch owas Honorary’ Secretary. The average attendance was about 22 members and visitors. Council held eleven ordinary meetings. The attendance of members of Council was as follows: Mr. j--&. Griffith lj, Ho A] | Donegan 4) Ms; BN. Hanlon=7, Mr/-A. EF. Ax Harper 9) i) 2 ib: McCarthy 8, Dr. Ida A. Browne 10, Mr. H. W. Wood 11, Mr. C. L. Adamson 9, Dr. A. Bolliger 2, Mr. B. A. Bolt 9, Dr. F:) W:, Booker 3, Dr. Ay. Aj Day <6; Dr jak Dulhunty 5, Dr. R. M. Gascoigne 4, Mr. E. J. Harrison 1, Prof. D. P. Mellor 1, Mr. W. H. G. Poggendorff 8, Prof. G. Taylor 4, Mr. H. F. Whitworth 7. At the meeting held 27th August, 1958, Dr. A. A. Day was appointed a Member of Council to fill the vacancy left when Dr. Bolliger resigned due to his departure for overseas. The Society’s representatives on Science House Management Committee were Mr. Griffith and Mr. Donegan; Mr. Harper and Mr. Poggendorff were substitute representatives. The President and Honorary Secretary were both present at the Official Opening of the Atomic Research Establishment at Lucas Heights on 18th April, 1958. The Society was represented by Professor Taylor at the Laying of the Foundation Stone of the Australian Academy of Science, 24th April, 1958. The President attended the Commemoration of the 188th Anniversary of the Landing of Captain Cook at Kurnell. The President attended the meeting of the Board of Visitors of the Sydney Observatory and the meeting of the Donovan Astronomical Trust. The Libravy—Periodicals were received by exchange from 383 societies and institutions. In addition, the amount of £150 was expended on the purchase of 14 periodicals. Among the institutions which made use of the Library through the inter-library loan scheme were :— N.S.W. Govt. Depts—Department of Health; Department of Mines; Forestry Commission; Soil Conservation Service; Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission ; The Australian Museum. Commonwealth Govt. Depts.—C.S.I.R.O. (Division of Animal Genetics, Sydney; Library, Canberra; Coal Research Section, Sydney ; Division of Fisheries and Oceanography, Cronulla; National Standards Laboratory, Sydney; Sheep Biology Laboratory, Parramatta; Division of Industrial Chemistry, Melbourne ; Plant and Soils Laboratory, Brisbane ; Veterinary Parasitology Laboratory, Queensland ; Division of Food Preservation, Homebush; Wool Textile Research Laboratory, Ryde); Australian Atomic Energy Commission; Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra. Universities and Colleges—Sydney Technical College ; Wollongong Technical College; University of New England ; University of New South Wales; Uni- versity College, Newcastle; University of Sydney ; University of Melbourne ; University of Queensland. Public Libraries—Library Board of Western Australia; Public Library of Western Australia ; Public Library of South Australia. Companies—Austral Bronze Co., Sydney; Broken Hill Proprietary Co., Shortland; Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Sydney ; Polymer Corporation, Sydney; Standard Telephones and Cables, Sydney. Research Imnstitutes—Bread KResearch Institute, Sydney; Institute of Dental Research, Sydney ; N.S.W. State Cancer Council. HARLEY WOOD, Hon. Secretary. 195 7,865 23,474 £31,557 8,960 14,835 6,800 800 18 1 £31,557 ANNUAL REPORTS Financial Statement BALANCE SHEET AS AT 28th FEBRUARY, 1959 LIABILITIES Subscriptions Paid in Advance Life Members’ Sobecuunon — Amount “carried forward si Trust and Monograph Capital Funds (detailed below)— Clarke Memorial Walter Burfitt Prize Liversidge Bequest Monograph Capital Fund | Ollé Bequest Z Accumulated Funds ‘ Contingent Liability petual Lease). (in connection with Per- ASSETS Cash at Bank and in Hand Investments— Commonwealth Bonds and At Face Value—held for : Clarke Memorial Fund Walter Burfitt Prize Fund Liversidge Bequest Monograph Capital Fund General Purposes Inscribed Stock— Debtors for Subscriptions iis Less Reserve for Bad Debts Science House—One-third Capital Cost Library—At Valuation Furniture and Office Equipment—At Depreciation ‘ Pictures—At Cost, less ‘Depreciation Lantern—At Cost, Jess Depreciation Cost, less 1,857 1,141 680 4,185 132 th 186 mew 7,997 23,547 £31,745 14,835 6,800 14 16 2 14 4 0 779 14 17 1 3 0 oo & Oo OF £31,745 16 i ANNUAL REPORTS TRUST AND MONOGRAPH CAPITAL FUNDS Walter Monograph Clarke Burfitt Liversidge Capital Olé Memorial Prize Bequest Fund Bequest £ Sal a0 oe S24) Shad, ee ee: Cee eee. Capital at 28th February, 1959 .. 1,800 0 0 1,000 0 0700 0 90 3,000 0 0O — Revenue— Balance at 28th February, t 1958 oF eee 90 6 2 1,069: 3°°5 80° 3°57 Income for twelve months 68 2 37 16 8 26 9 5 115 19 ll 42 9 6 Less Expenditure ane 100 12 _: 57. % 6 — —_ Balance at 28th February, 1959 x £57 16 3 £141 10 3 £19 8 11 £1,185 3 4 £132 13 1 ACCUMULATED FUNDS = Sets Ha (6 b £ Spar ole Balance at 28th February, 1958 ia ae i, 23;404 tore Add Surplus for twelve months ats sis 103 15 O 23,0 lobe © Less— Loss on Sale of Stock ea = 0 9.0 Increase in Reserve for Bad Debts 214 0 Bad Debts written off 21 (67.0 30 <9" 60 Balance at 28th February, 1959 oe ae a £23,547 8 1 Auditors’ Repori The above Balance Sheet has been prepared from the Books of Account, Accounts and Vouchers of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and is a correct statement of the position of the Society’s affairs on 28th February, 1959, as disclosed thereby. We have satisfied ourselves that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are properly held and registered. HORLEY & HORLEY, Chartered Accountants (Aust.). Prudential Building 39 Martin Place, Sydney 19th March, 1959 (Sgd.) C. L. ADAMSON, Honorary Treasurer. 482 24 50 35 £3,536 ANNUAL REPORTS INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT Ist March, 1958, to 28th February, 1959 Annual Social Function Audit Cleaning Depreciation Electricity ; Entertainment Insurance , Library Purchases Miscellaneous Postages and Telegrams Printing Journal— Vol. 90, Binding - Vol. 91, Part 1 (block) Vol. 91, Parts 3-4 Vol. 92, Parts 1-2 Printing—General Removal Expenses Rent—Science House Management . Repairs : Reprints Salaries -.- Telephone a Surplus for twelve months Membership Subscriptions Proportion of Life Members’ Subscriptions Subscriptions to Journal ie : Government Subsidy Science House Management—Share ‘of Surplus Rentals Received—Reception Room Annual Social Function a estate G, Harker. - Interest on General Investments Reprints— Expenditure Receipts Sale of Periodicals ex Library : Sale of Back Numbers of the e Journal Publication Grant Deficit tor twelve months £262 17 9 334 15 0 £3,150 2 oe — oon onwnooc bo oOW = Oo Wwe Ps NOCNWONGDS wow Obituary, 1958-1959 Arthur John Bedwell, a member of the Society since 1933, died on 5th July, 1958. Mr. Bedwell, who was born in Sydney in 1877, was a pioneer of the eucalyptus oils industry in New South Wales and contributed substantially to the opening up of new areas of eucalyptus in the southern part of the State. Thomas Noel Burke-Gaffney was born in Dublin on 26th December, 1893. He entered the Jesuit order in 1913, and, after studying in Jersey and at the National University of Ireland, was ordained in 1926. He came to Australia in 1928 (after an earlier visit in 1921) as a science master at St. Ignatius’ College, Riverview, Sydney. He was appointed Assistant Director of the Riverview College Observatory in 1946, and Director (as successor to Fr. D. J. K. O’Connell) in 1952, a post which he held with distinction until his death in Sydney on 14th September, 1958. He was Convenor of the Australian national sub-committee on Seismology both for the I.G.Y. and the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. He also served on the Council of the Society for four years and contributed two papers to the Society’s Journal. His published work included seven seismological papers on the seismicity of Australia, the detection of transverse waves in the Earth’s inner core, special phases from New Zealand earthquakes, and seismic data from nuclear explosions. The papers on nuclear explosions, published jointly with Professor K. E. Bullen, received considerable attention overseas. They depended upon the careful collection of data from routine seismological reports from other observatories, many of which were then unaware that they had recorded the explosions. Father Burke-Gaffney was devoted to his work and he more than maintained the reputation which River- view has held since 1910 as one of the world’s most reliable observatories. George Z. Dupain died on 18th December, 1958, at the age of 77. He studied chemistry at the Sydney Technical College, and was an original member of the Australian Chemical Institute and of the Sydney Technical College Chemical Society. He served on the Council of the latter and was President in 1926-27. He founded the Dupain Institute of Physical Educa- tion, Sydney, in 1900, and thereafter devoted his life to establishing the concept that health meant more than mere freedom from disease; rather was it a force for effective living. His unobtrusive manner, together with a pleasant and cheerful temperament, was a source of inspiration and encouragement to his associates, his patients and students. He wrote a number of books dealing with physical education, nutrition and diet and many articles on similar subjects flowed from his facile pen. He was elected to membership of the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1924. Roy H. Goddard died on 15th April, 1958. elected to membership of the Society in 1945. He was Charles A. Loney, who was elected to membership in 1906, died on 5th February, 1959. Herbert J. Sullivan, a member since 1918, died on 13th July, 1958. By the death of Dr. Walter George Woolnough on 28th September, 1958, at the age of 82, Australia lost one of its most versatile and distinguished geologists. Graduating in 1898 after a_ brilliant course at the University of Sydney, where he came under the influence of T. W. E. David, he filled university lectureships in Adelaide and Sydney and in 1913 became the first Professor of Geology in the University of W.A. After 21 years of academic life, he entered the service of Brunner, Mond Alkali Company, and in 1927 was appointed Geological Adviser to the Commonwealth Government, a position from which he retired in 1941. He had an extensive and unrivalled knowledge of the geology of the Australian continent and was the pioneer in this country of the use of aircraft as an aid to geological reconnaissance, especially in the search for structures favourable to the accumulation of oil. An original thinker and a lucid writer, he contributed many valuable papers to Australian and overseas scientific journals. In 194] the American Association of Petroleum Geologists conferred on him Honorary Membership, a rare honour for a non-American. In his later years his remarkable knowledge of foreign languages was made freely available to research workers in science. He joined this Society in 1906, was President in 1926, and Clarke lecturer in 1936. He was awarded the Clarke Medal (1933) and the Society’s Medal (1955). Members of the Society, April 1959 The year of election to membership and the number of papers contributed to the Society’s Journal are shown in brackets, thus: (1934; P8). * indicates Life Membership. Honorary Members BURNET, Sir Frank Macfarlane, 0o.M., Kt., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.A.A., Director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Research Institute, Melbourne. (1949) FAIRLEY, Sir Neil Hamilton, c.B.E., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., 73 Harley Street, London, W.1. (1951) FIRTH, Raymond William, M.a., Ph.p., Professor of Anthropology, University of London, London School of Economics, Houghton Street, Aldwych, W.C.2, England. (1952) FLOREY, Sir Howard, M.B., B.S., B.Sc., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology, Oxford University, England. (1949) JONES, Sir Harold Spencer, K.B.E., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., 40 Hesper Mews, London, S.W.5, England. (1946) O’CONNELL, Rev. Daniel J., $.J., D.Sc., Ph.v., F.R.A.S., Director, The Vatican Observatory, Rome, Italy. (1953) OLIPHANT, Sir Marcus L., K.B.E., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.A.A., Professor of Physics, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. (1948) ROBINSON, Sir Robert, M.a., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.1.c., Professor of Chemistry, Oxford University, England. (1948) Members ADAMSON, Colin Lachlan, B.sc., 9 Dewrang Avenue, North Narrabeen. (1944) *ALBERT, Adrien, ov.sc., Professor of Medical Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. (1938; P2) *ALBERT, Michael Francois, ‘‘ Boomerang ’’, Billyard Avenue, Elizabeth Bay. (1935) ALEXANDER, Albert Ernest, ph.p., Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney. (1950) FALLDIS, Victor le’ Roy, Box 37, Orange, N.S.W. (1941) ANDERSON, Geoffrey William, B.sc., c/o Box 30, P.O. Chatswood. (1948) ANDREWS, Paul Burke, B.sc., 5 Conway Avenue, Rose Bay. (1948; P2) ASTON, Ronald Leslie, ph.p., Associate Professor of Geodesy and Surveying, University of Sydney. (1930; Pl; President 1948) *AUROUSSEAU, Marcel, M.c., B.Sc., 229 Woodland Street, Balgowlah. (1919; P2) *BAILEY, Victor Albert, D.Phil., F.A.A., 80 Cremorne Road, Cremorne. (1924; P2) BAKER, Stanley Charles, ph.p., Department of Physics, Newcastle University College. (1934 ; P2) BALDICK, Kenric James, B.sc., 19 Beaconsfield Parade, Lindfield. (1937) “BANKS, Maxwell Robert, B.sc., Department of Geology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas. (1951) *BARDSLEY, John Ralph, 29 Walton Crescent, Abbotsford. (1919) BASDEN, Keith Spencer, B.sc., School of Mining and Applied Geology, University of New South Wales, Kensington. (1951) BAXTER, John Philip, 0.B.£., Ph.p., F.A.A., Vice- Chancellor and Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington. (1950) BECK, Julia Mary (Mrs.), B.sc., Department of Geophysics, University of Western Ontario, London, Ont., Canada. (1950) BENTIVOGLIO, Sydney Ernest, B.Sc.Agr., 42 Tele- graph Road, Pymble. (1926) *BISHOP, Eldred George, 26a Wolseley Road, Mosman. (1920) BLANKS, Fred Roy, B.sc., 583 Malabar Road, Maroubra. (1948) BLASCHKE, Ernest Herbert, 6 Illistron Flats, 63 Carabella Street, Kirribilli. (1946) BOLLIGER, Adolph, p.sc., Gordon Craig Urological Research Laboratory, Department of Surgery, University of Sydney. (1933; P30; President 1945) BOLT, Bruce Alan, pPh.p., Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Sydney. (1956; P3) BOOKER, Frederick William, pD.sc., Government Geologist, c/o Geological Survey of N.S.W., Mines Department, Sydney. (1951; P4) BOOTH, Brian Douglas, pPh.p., 37 Highfield Road, Lindfield. (1954) *BOOTH, Edgar Harold, m.c., D.sc., 29 March Street, Bellevue Hill. (1920; P9; President 1936) BOSSON, Geoffrey, M.sc., Professor of Mathematics, University of New South Wales, Kensington. (1951; P2) BOSWORTH, Richard Charles Leslie, D.sc., Associate Professor, School of Physical Chemistry, Uni- versity of New South Wales, Kensington. (1939 ; P26; President 1951) BREYER, Bruno, M.pD., Ph.p., Department of Agri- cultural Chemistry, University of Sydney. (1946; Pl) BRIDGES, David Somerset, 19 Mount Pleasant Avenue, Normanhurst. (1952) *BRIGGS, George Henry, D.sc., 13 Findlay Avenue, Roseville. (1919; Pl) BROWN, Desmond J., Ph.p., Department of Medical Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. (1942) BROWNE, Ida Alison, pD.sc., 363 Edgecliff Road, Edgecliff. (1935; P12; President 1953) 88 MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY *BROWNE, William Rowan, D.sc., F.A.A., 363 Edge- cliff Road, Edgecliff. (1913; P23; President 1932) BRYANT, Raymond Alfred Arthur, M.£., School of Mechanical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington. (1952) BUCHANAN, Gregory Stewart, B.Sc., School of Physical Chemistry, Sydney Technical College. (1947) BUCKLEY, Lindsay Arthur, B.sc., 30 Wattle Street, Killara. (1940) BULLEN, Keith Edward, Sc.D., F.R.S., F.A.A., Pro- fessor of Applied Mathematics, University of Sydney. (1946; P2) CAMERON, John Craig, m.a., 15 Monterey Street, Kogarah. (1957) CAMPBELL, Ian Gavin Stuart, B.sc., c/o Wesley College, Prahran, Victoria. (1955) *CAREY, Samuel Warren, D.sc., Professor of Geology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas. (1938; P2) CAVILL, George William Kenneth, pPh.p., Associate Professor of Organic Chemistry, University of New South Wales. (1944) *CHAFFER, Edric Keith, 27 Warrane Road, Roseville. (1954) CHALMERS, Robert Oliver, a.s.t.c., Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. (1933; Pl) CHAMBERS, Maxwell Clark, B.sc., 58 Spencer Road, Killara. (1940) CHRISTIE, Thelma Isabel, B.sc., Chemistry School, University of New South Wales. (1953) CLANCY, Brian Edward, M.sc., 21 London Drive, West Wollongong. (1957) COHEN, Samuel Bernard, M.sc., 35 Spencer Road, Killara. (1940) COLE, Edward Ritchie, B.Sc., 7 Wolsten Avenue, Turramurra. (1940; P2) COLE, Joyce Marie (Mrs.), B.sc., 7 Wolsten Avenue, Turramurra. (1940; Pl) COLE, Leslie Arthur, 61 Kissing Point Road, Turra- mutra. (1948) COLEMAN, Patrick Joseph, Ph.p., Geology Depart- ment, University of Sydney. (1955) COLLETT, Gordon, B.sc., 27 Rogers Avenue, Haber- field. (1940) COOK, Cyril Lloyd, Ph.p., c/o Propulsion Research Laboratories, Box 1424H, G.P.O., Adelaide. (1948) COOK, Rodney Thomas, Buckley’s Road, Old Toongabbie. (1946) *COOMBS, F. A., Bannerman Crescent, Rosebery. (19138; P5) CORBETT, Robert Lorimer, c/o Intaglio Pty. Ltd., Box 3749, G.P.O., Sydney. (1933) CORTIS—JONES, Beverley, M.sc., 65 Peacock Street, Seaforth. (1940) *COTTON, Leo Arthur, D.Sc., Emeritus Professor, 113 Queen’s Parade East, Newport Beach. (1909; P7; President 1929) CRAIG; David Parker, Ph.p., ‘Department ‘of Theoretical Chemistry, University College, London, W.C.1, England. (1941; P1) CRAWFORD, Edwin John, B.E., ‘‘ Lynwood ”’, Bungalow Avenue, Pymble. (1955) CRAWFORD, Ian Andrew, 73 Wyadra Avenue, Manly. (1955) *CRESSWICK, John Arthur, 101 Villiers Street, Rockdale. (1921; Pl) CROFT, James Bernard, 8 Malahide Street, Pennant Hills. (1956) CROOK, Keith Alan Waterhouse, pPh.p., Geology Department, University of Melbourne. (1954; P4) DADOUR, Anthony, B.Sc., 25 Elizabeth Street, Waterloo. (1940) DARVALL, Anthony Roger, m.B., B.s., 119 Marsden Street, Parramatta. (1951) DAVIES, George Frederick, 57 Eastern Kingsford. (1952) DAY, Alan Arthur, Ph.D., Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney. (1952) DE LEPERVANCHE, Beatrice Joy, 29 Collins Street, Belmore. (1953) DENTON, Leslie A., Bunarba Road, Miranda. (1955) DONEGAN, Henry Arthur James, m.sc., 18 Hillview Street, Sans Souci. (1928) DRUMMOND, Heather Rutherford, B.se., 2 Gerald Avenue, Roseville. (1950) DULHUNTY, John Allan, bDisc., Geology, University of Sydney. President 1947) DUNLOP, Bruce Thomas, B.sc., 77 Stanhope Road, Killara. (1948) . DURIE, Ethel Beatrix, M.B., ChM.,, Institute ot Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards. (1955) DWYER; Erancis (2 Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. (1934; P62) EADE, Ronald Arthur, pPh.p., School of Organic Avenue, Department of (1937; P16; pD.Sc., Department of Chemistry, University of New South Wales. (1945) EDGAR, Joyce Enid (Mrs.), B.sc., 22 Slade Avenue, Lindfield. (1951) EDGELL, Henry Stewart, Ph. .c/o imma On Exploration and Producing Co., Masjid-i- Sulaiman, via Abadan, Iran. (1950) ELKIN, Adolphus Peter, ph.p., Emeritus Professor, 15 Norwood Avenue, Lindfield. (1934; P2; President 1940) ELLISON, Dorothy Jean, m.sc., 51 Tryon Road, Lindfield. (1949) EMMERTON, Henry James, B.Sc., 37 Wangoola Street, East Gordon. (1940) ERHART, John Charles, c/o “‘ Ciba’’ Company, Basle, Switzerland. (1944) *ESDAILE, Edward William, 42 Sydney. (1908) EVANS, Silvanus Gladstone, 6 Major Street, Coogee. (1935) FALLON, Joseph James, 1 Coolong Road, Vaucluse. (1950) *FAWSITT, Charles Edward, D.sc., Emeritus Professor, 14a Darling Point Road, Edgecliff. (1909; P7; President 1919) FISHER, Robert, B.sc., 3 Sackville Street, Maroubra. (1940) FLEISCHMANN, Arnold Walter, Avenue, Double Bay. (1956) FLETCHER, Harold Oswald, m.sc., The Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. (1933) FORMAN, Kenn P., 52 Pitt Street, Sydney. FREEMAN, Hans Charles, Ph.p., Street, Rose Bay. (1950) FRENCH, Oswald Raymond, 66 Nottinghill Road, Lidcombe. (1951) FRIEND, James Alan, ph.p., Department of Chemistry, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas. (1944; P2) FURST, Hellmut Friedrich, D.M.p. (Hamburg), 158 Bellevue Road, Bellevue Hill. (1945) Hunter Street, 8/25 Guuilfoyle (1932) 43 Newcastle MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY 89 GARAN, Teodar, c/o Geology Branch, Warragamba Dam, N.S.W. (1952) GARRETTY, Michael Duhan, D.sc., ‘“‘ Surrey Lodge ”’, Mitcham Road, Mitcham, Victoria. (1935; P2) GASCOIGNE, Robert Mortimer, Ph.p., Department of Organic Chemistry, University of N.S.W. (1939; P4) GIBSON, Neville Allan, pPh.p., Ashfield. (1942; P6) GILL, Naida Sugden, Ph.p., 45 Neville Street, Marrick- ville. (1947) *GILL, Stuart Frederic, 45 Neville Street, Marrick- ville. (1947) GLASSON, Kenneth Roderick, M.sc., Road, Beecroft. (1948) GOLDING, Henry George, M.sc., School of Mining Engineering and Applied Geology, University of N.S.W., Kensington. (1953; P83) GOLDSTONE, Charles Lillington, B.agr.sc., University of N.S.W., Kensington. (1951) GOLDSWORTHY, Neil Ernest, ph.p., Road, West Pymble. (1947) GORDON, William Fraser, B.sc., 58 Abingdon Road, Roseville. (1949) GRAY, Charles Alexander Menzies, B.E., Professor of Engineering, University of Malaya, Malaya. (1948; Pl) GRAY, Noel Mackintosh, B.sc., 6 Twenty-fourth Street, Warragamba Dam, N.S.W. (1952) GRIFFIN, Russell John, B.sc., c/o Department of Mines, Sydney. (1952) GRIFFITH, James Langford, M.sc., School of Mathe- matics, University of N.S.W., Kensington. (1952; P9; President 1958) GRODEN, Charles Mark, m.sc., School of Mathe- 103 Bland Street, 70 Beecroft 118 Ryde matics, University of N.S.W., Kensington. (1957 >" P 1) GUIMANN, Felix, Ph.p., University of N.S.W., Kensington. (1946; P1) HALL, Norman Frederick Blake, m.sc., 154 Wharf Road, Longueville. (1934) HAMPTON, Edward John William, 1 Hunter Street, Waratah, N.S.W. (1949) HANCOCK, Harry Sheffield, m.sc., 21 Constitution Road, Dulwich Hill. (1955) HANLON, Frederick Noel, B.sc., 4 Pearson Avenue, Gordon. (1940; P16; President 1957) HARPER, Arthur Frederick Alan, m.sc., National Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City Road, Chippendale. (1936; President 1959) HARRINGTON, Herbert Richard, 28 Bancroft Avenue, Roseville. (1934) HARRIS, Clive Melville, ph.p., School of Inorganic Chemistry, University of N.S.W. (1948; P6) HARRISON, Ernest John Jasper, B.sc., c/o N.S.W. Geological Survey, Mines Department, Sydney. (1946) HAWKINS, Cedric Arthur, B.sc.agr., Chemists’ Branch, N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, sydney. (1956; P2) HEARD, George Douglas, B.sc., Crows Nest Boys’ High School, Pacific Highway, Crows Nest. (1951) *HENRIQUES, Frederick Lester, Billyard Avenue, Elizabeth Bay. (1919) HIGGS, Alan Charles, c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Ltd., Building Material Division, 1-7 Bent Street, Sydney. (1945) HILL, Dorothy, D.sc., F.a.a., Department of Geology, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane. (1938; P6) HLA, U., Chief Planning Officer, Ministry of Mines, Rangoon, Burma. (1957) HOGARTH, Julius William, B.sc., University House, Canberra, A.C.T. (1948; P6) HOLM, Thomas John, 524 Wilson Street, Redfern. (1952) *HYNES, Harold John, D.sc.agr., Director, N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, Sydney. (1923; P83) IREDALE, Thomas, D.sc., Chemistry Department, University of Sydney. (1943) JAEGER, John Conrad, D.sc., F.A.a., Geophysics Department, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. (1942; PI) JAMIESON, Helen Campbell, 3 Hamilton Street, Coogee. (1951) JENKINS, Thomas Benjamin Huw, Ph.pD., c/o A.O.G. Corp. Ltd., Box 5048, G.P.O., Sydney. (1956) JENSEN, Harald Ingemann, oD.sc., Geologist, Caboolture, Queensland. (1958) JOPLIN, Germaine Anne, D.Sc., Geophysics Depart- ment, Australian National University, Canberra, WaCoL.. -Cl93o:> Ps) KEANE, Austin, pPh.p., School of Mathematics, University of N.S.W., Kensington. (1955; P2) KELLY, Caroline Tennant (Mrs.), Dip.Anthr., “ Silver- mists ’’, Robertson, N.S.W. (1935) *KENNY, Edward Joseph, 65 Park Avenue, Ashfield. (1924; Pl) KIMBLE, Frank Oswald, 31 Coronga Crescent, Killara. (1948) KIMBLE, Jean Annie, B.Sc., 383 Marrickville Road, Marrickville. (1943) *KIRCHNER, Wiliam John, B.sc., 18 Lyne Road, Cheltenham. (1920) KNIGHT, Oscar Le Maistre, B.E., 10 Mildura Street, Killara. (1948) KOCH, Leo E., D.Phil.Habil., University of N.S.W., Kensington. (1948) LAMBETH, Arthur James, B.sc., “‘ Talanga’’, Picton Road, Douglas Park, N.S.W. (1939; P3) LANG, Thomas Arthur, M.c.E., c/o Mr. Roger Rhoades, 101 California Street, San Francisco 11, California, U.S.A. (1955) LAWRENCE, Laurence James, pPh.D., School of Geology, University of N.S.W., Kensington. (195T- PI) LEACH, Stephen Laurence, B.Sc., c/o Taubman’s Industries Ltd., Box 82a, P.O., North Sydney. (1936) LEECHMAN, Frank, 51 Willoughby Street, Kaurri- bili. (1957) LE FEVRE, Raymond James Wood, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.A.A., Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney. (1947) LEMBERG, Max Rudolph, bD.phil., F.R.S., F.A.A., Assistant Director, Institute of Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards. (1936; P3; President 1955) *LIONS, Francis, Ph.p., Department of Chemistry, University of Sydney. (1929; P56; President 1946) LIONS, Jean Elizabeth (Mrs.), B.sc., 160 Alt Street, Haberfield. (1940) LLOYD, James Charles, B.sc., c/o N.S.W. Geological Survey, Mines Department, Sydney. (1947) LOCKWOOD, William Hutton, B.sc., c/o Institute of Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards. (1940; Pl) LOVERING, John Francis, ph.p., Department of Geophysics, Australian National University Canberra, A.C.T. (1951; P38) 90 LOW, Angus Henry, M.sc., School of Mathematics, University of N.S.W., Kensington. (1950; P1) *LUBER, Daphne (Mrs.), B.sc., 98 Lang Road, Centennial Park. (1943) LYONS, Lawrence Ernest, Ph.p., Chemistry Depart- ment, University of Sydney. (1948; P2) MACCOLL, Allan, m.sc., Department of Chemistry, University College, Gower Street, London, W.C.1, England. (1939; P4) McCARTHY, Frederick David, bDip.Anthr., Australian Museum), College Street, ‘Sydney. (1949; PI; President 1956) McCOY, William’ Kevin, c/o Mr. A. J. Victoria Road, Pennant Hills. (1943) McCULLAGH, Morris Behan, 23 Wallaroy Road, Edgecliff. (1950) McELROY, Clifford Turner, B.Sc., ““ Bithongabel ’’, Bedford Road, Woodford, N.S.W. (1949; P2) McGREGOR, Gordon Howard, 4 Maple Avenue, Pennant Hills. (1940) McINNES, Gordon Elliott, B.sc., Cranbrook School, Bellevue Hill. (1948) McKAY, Maxwell Herbert, m.a., School of Mathe- matics, University of N.S.W., Kensington. (1956; Pl) McKENZIE, Peter John, m.sc., 338 Harbour Street, Mosman. (1953) McKERN, Howard Hamlet Gordon, M.sc., Senior Chemist, Museum of Applhed Arts and Sciences, Harris Street, Broadway, Sydney. (1943; P9) McMAHON, Patrick Reginald, pPh.p., Professor of Wool Technology, University of N.S.W., Ken- sington. (1947) McNAMARA, Barbara Joyce (Mrs.), M.B., B.s., 82 Millwood Avenue, Chatswood. (1943) McPHEE, Stuart Duncan, 14 Lennon Street, Gordon. McCoy, 23 (1956) McPHERSON, John Charters, 14 Sarnar Road, Greenwich. (1946) MAGEE, Charles Joseph, D.Sc.agr., Chief Biologist, N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, Sydney. (1947; Pl; President 1952) MALES, Pamela Ann, 13 Gelding Street, Dulwich Hill. (1951) MANDL, Lothar Max, pDipl.ing., Senior Technical Officer, CSL ROe National Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City Road, Chippendale. (1955) MARSHALL, Charles Edward, D.sc., Professor of Geology, University of Sydney. (1949) MARSDEN, Joan Audrey, 203 West Street, Crows Nest. (1955) MAZE, William Harold, m.sc., Deputy Principal, University of Sydney. (1935; P1) MEARES, Harry John Devenish, Technical Librarian, Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Ltd., Box 483, G.P.O., Sydney. (1949) *MELDRUM, Henry John, B.sc., 116 Sydney Road, Fairlight. (1912) MELLOR, David Paver, D.Sc., Professor of Inorganic Chemistry, University of N.S.W. (1929; P25; President 1941) MILLERSHIP, William, m.sc., 18 Courallie Avenue, Pymble. (1940) MINTY, Edward James, B.sc., Cooyong Road, Terrey Hills, N.S.W. (1951) *MORRISON, Frank Richard, Director, Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Harris Street, Broadway, Sydney. (1922; P34; President 1950) MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY MORRISSEY, Matthew John, m.B., B.s., 46 Auburn Street, Parramatta. (1941) MORT, Francis George Arnot, 110 Green’s Road, Fivedock. (1934) MOSHER, Kenneth George, B.sc., c/o Joint Coal Board, 66 King Street, Sydney. (1948) MOSS, Francis John, M.B., B.s., 15 Ormonde Road, Roseville Chase, N.S.W. (1955) MOYE, Daniel George, B.sc., Chief Geologist, c/o Snowy Mountains Hydro Electric Authority, Cooma, N.S.W. (1944) MULHOLLAND, Charles St. John, B.se., Under- Secretary, Mines Department, Sydney. (1946) *MURPHY, Robert Kenneth, Dr.Ing.chem., 68 Pindari Avenue, North Mosman. (1915) MURRAY, James Kenneth, B.sc., 464 William Lane, Broken Hill, N.S.W. (1951) MURRAY, Patrick Desmond: Fitzgerald, D.sc., F.A.A., Professor of Zoology, University of Sydney. (1950) MUTTON, Anne Ruth, c/o Ascham, 188 New South Head Road, Edgecliff. (1959) NASHAR, Beryl, Ph.p., 23 Morris Street, Mayfield West, 2N, N.S.W. (1946; P11) NAYLOR, George Francis King, ph.p., Department of Psychology and Philosophy, University of Queensland, Brisbane. (1930; P7) *NEUHAUS, John William George, 32 Bolton Street, Guildford. (1943) NEWMAN, Ivor Vickery, Ph.D., Botany Department, University of Sydney. (1932) NOAKES, Lyndon Charles, B.a., c/o Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra, A.C.T. (1945; Pl) *NOBLE, Robert Jackson, Ph.p., 324A Middle Harbour Road, Lindfield. (1920; Pe: President 1934) NORDON, Peter, pPh.p., 42 Milroy Avenue, Ken- sington. (1947) NYHOLM, Ronald Sydney, D.Se., F.R.s., Professor of Inorganic Chemistry, University College, Gower Street, London, W.C.1, England. (1940; P26; President 1954) *O’DEA, Daryl Robert, Box 14, °P:0;) Broadway, Sydney. (1951) OLD, Adrian Noel, B.sc.Agr., 4 Springfield Avenue, Potts Point. (1947) OXENFORD, Reginald Augustus, Street, Grafton. (1950) PACKHAM, Gordon Howard, Ph.p., Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney. (1951; P83) *PENFOLD, Arthur Ramon, Flat 40, 3 Greenknowe Avenue, Potts Point. (1920; P82; President 1935) PERRY, Hubert Roy, B.sc., 74 Woodbine Street, Bowral, N.S.W. (1948) PHILLIPS, Marie Elizabeth, Ph.p., Soil Conservation Section, S.M.H.E.A., Cooma. p.r.: 4 Morella Road, Clifton Gardens. (1938) PINWILL, Norman, B.a., The Scots College, Victoria Road, Bellevue Hill. (1946) *POATE, Sir Hugh Raymond Guy, M.B., Ch.M., 225 Macquarie Street, Sydney. (1919) POGGENDORFF, Walter Hans George, B.Sc.Agr., Chief, Division of Plant Industry, N.S.W. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Sydney. (1949) *POWELL, Charles Wilfred Roberts, ‘‘ Wansfell ’’, Kirkoswald Avenue, Mosman. (1921; P2) POWELL, John Wallis, c/o Foster Clark (Aust.) Ltd., 17 Thurlow Street, Redfern. (1938) B.Se., 0° iay. MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY 91 PRICE, William Linsday, B.sc., School of Physics, Sydney Technical College, Sydney. (1927) PRIDDLE, Raymond Arthur, B.E., 7 Rawson Crescent, Pymble. (1956) *PRIESTLEY, Henry, m.p., 54 Fuller’s Road, Chats- wood. (1918; Pl; President 1942) PROKHOVNIK, Simon Jacques, B.Sc., School of Mathematics, University of N.S.W., Kensington. (1956) *PROUD, John Seymour, B.£., Finlay Road, Turra- murra. (1945) PYLE, John Herbert, B.sc., Analyst, Mines Depart- ment, Sydney. (1958) *QUODLING, Florrie Mabel, B.sc., Geology Depart- ment, University of Sydney. (1935; P4) RADE, Janis, M.sc., 694 Broadway, Nedlands, Perth, W.A. (1953; P4) *RAGGATT, Harold George, C.B.E., D.Sc., F.A.A., Secretary, Department of National Development, Acton, Canberra, A.C.T. (1922; P8) *RANCLAUD, Archibald Boscawen Boyd, B.E., 57 William Street, Sydney. (1919; P3) RAY, Reginald John, “ Treetops’’, Wyong Road, Berkeley Vale. (1947) RAYNER, Jack Maxwell, B.sc., Director, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra, A.C.T. (1931; Pl) REICHEL, Alex, m.sc., School of Mathematics, University of N.S.W., Kensington. (1957; P1) REUTER, Fritz Henry, ph.p., Associate Professor of Food Technology, University of N.S.W., Ken- sington. (1947) RITCHIE, Arthur Sinclair, a.s.t.c., Department of Mineralogy and Geology, Newcastle University College, Newcastle. (1947; P2) RITCHIE, Ernest, D.sc., Chemistry Department, University of Sydney. (1939; P19) ROBBINS, Elizabeth Marie (Mrs.), M.sc., Waterloo Road, North Ryde. (1939; P83) ROBERTS, Herbert Gordon, 3 Hopetoun Street, Hurlstone Park. (1957) ROBERTSON, Rutherford Ness, Ph.p., F.A.A., Senior Plant Physiologist, C.S.I.R.O., c/o Botany Department, University of Sydney. (1940) ROBERTSON, William Humphrey, B.sc., c/o Sydney Observatory, Sydney. (1949; P13) ROBINSON, David Hugh, 39 Molton Road, Beecroft. (1951) ROSENBAUM, Sidney, 23 Strickland Avenue, Lindfield. (1940) ROSENTHAL-SCHNEIDER, Ilse, Ph.p., 48 Cam- bridge Avenue, Vaucluse. (1948) ROUNTREE, Phyllis Margaret, D.sc., Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney. (1945) *SCAMMELL, Rupert Boswood, B.sc., 10 Buena Vista Avenue, Clifton Gardens. (1920) SEARL, Robert Alexander, B.sc., Rio Australian Exploration Pty. Ltd., 20 Queen’s Road, Mel- bourne. (1950) SEE, Graeme Thomas, B.sc., School of Mining Engineering and Geology, University of N.S.W., Kensington. (1949) SELBY, Edmond Jacob, Box 175D, G.P.O., Sydney. (1933) *SHARP, Kenneth Raeburn, B.sc., c/o S.M.H.E.A., Cooma, N.S.W. (1948) SHERRARD, Kathleen Margaret (Mrs.), M.sc., 43 Robertson Road, Centennial Park. (1936; P95) SIMMONS, Lewis Michael, pPh.p., c/o The Scots College, Victoria Road, Bellevue Hill. (1945; 'P3) SIMONETT, David Stanley, ph.p., Assistant Professor of Geography, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, U.S.A. (1948; P83) SIMPSON, John Kenneth Moore, “ Browie’’, Old Castle Hill Road, Castle Hill. (1943) SIMS, Kenneth Patrick, B.sc., 24 Catherine Street, St. Ives. (1950; P7) SLADE, George Hermon, B.sc., “ Raiatea’’, Oyama Avenue, Manly. (1933) SLADE, Multon John, B.Sc., Raymond Terrace. (1952) SMITH, Eric Brian Jeffcoat, D.phil., 74 Webster Street, Nedlands, W.A. (1940) SMITH-—WHITE, William Broderick, M.a., Depart- ment of Mathematics, University of Sydney. 10 Elizabeth Street, (1947; P2) *SOUTHEE, Ethelbert Ambrook, 0.B.E., M.A., Trelawney Street, Eastwood. (1919) SPARROW, Gerald Wiliam Alfred, B.sc., Geography Department, University of New England, Armidale. (1958) STANTON, Richard Limon, ph.p., Geology Depart- ment, University of New England, Armidale. (1949; P2) STAPLEDON, David Hiley, B.sc., c/o Engineering Geology Branch, S.M.H.E.A., Cooma, N.S.W. (1954) TS UP PHEN, Alired Ernestc/o Box LIls8HH, GPO: Sydney. (1916) *STEPHENS, Frederick G. N., M.B., ch.m., 133 Edinburgh Street, Castlecrag. (1914) STEVENS, Neville Cecil, Ph.p., Geology Department, University of Queensland, Brisbane. (1948; P5) STEVENS, Robert Denzil, B.sc., 219 Coleford Place, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. (1951; P2) *STONE, Walter George, 26 Rosslyn Street, Bellevue Hill. (1916; Pl) STUNTZ, John, B.sc., 511 Burwood Road, Belmore. (1951) *SUTHERLAND, George Fife, a.R.c.sc., 47 Clan- william Street, Chatswood. (1919) *SUTTON, Harvey, o.B.E., M.D., 27 Kent Road, Rose Bay. (1920) SWANSON, Thomas Baikie, m.sc., c/o Technical Service Department, I.C.I.A.N.Z., Box 1911, G.P.O., Melbourne. (1941; P2) SWINBOURNE, Ellice Simmons, c/o Chemistry Department, University College, Gower Street, London, W.C.1, England. (1948) TAYLOR, Griffith, p.sc., F.A.A., Emeritus Professor, 28 Alan Avenue, Seaforth. (1954 and previous membership 1921-1928; P5) *TAYLOR, Brigadier Harold B., M.c., D.Sc., 12 Wood Street, Manly. (1915; P3) THEW, Raymond Farly, 88 Braeside Wahroonga. (1955) THOMAS, Penrhyn Francis, Suite 22, 3rd Floor, 29 Market Street, Sydney. (1952) THOMSON, David John, B.sc., Geologist, c/o Boree Shire Council, Cudal, N.S.W. (1956) Street, THORLEY, Geraldine Lesley, B.a., 1290 Pacific Highway, Turramurra. (1955) THORNTON, Barry Stephen, M.Sc., School of Mathematics, University of N.S.W., Kensington. (1957) TOMPKINS, Denis Keith, B.sc., 24 The Crescent, Lane Cove. (1954) TOW, Aubrey James, M.sc., c/o Community Hospital, Canberra, A.C.T. (1940) TREBECK, Prosper Charles Brian, 124 Chester Street, Woollahra. (1949) 92 MEMBERS: OF THE SOCIETY TUGBY, Elise Evelyn (Mrs.), M.sc., c/o Department of Anthropological Sociology, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. (1951) UNGAR, Andrew, Dipl.ing., 6 Ashley Grove, Gordon. (1952) VALLANCE, Thomas George, Ph.D., Geology Depart- ment, University of Sydney. (1949; Pl) vAN DIJK, Dirk Cornelis, D.sc.Agr., 2 Lobelia Street, O’Connor, Canberra, A.C.T. (1958) VEEVERS, John James, Ph.p., Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra, A-C.1T., (1953) VERNON, Ronald Holden, B.sc., Minerographic Investigations Section, C.S.I.R.O., c/o Geology Department, University of Melbourne. (1958) *VIGARS,. Robert; “ Yallambee.”; The. “Grescent, Cheltenham. (1921) VICKERY, Joyce Winifred, D.sc., 17 The Promenade, Cheltenham. (1935) VOISEY, Alan Heywood, vD.sc., Professor of Geology and Geography, University of New England, Armidale. (1933; P10) *VONWILLER, Oscar U., B.Sc., Emeritus Professor, ‘“ Silvermists ’’, Robertson, N.S.W. (1903; P10; President 1930) WALKER, Donald Francis, 13 Beauchamp Avenue, Chatswood. (1948) WALKER, Patrick Hilton, M.sc.agr., Research Officer, C.S.I.R.O., Division of Soils, c/o School of Agri- culture, University of Sydney. (1956; P2) *WALKOM, Arthur Bache, pD.sc., 45 Nelson Road, Killara. (1919 and previous membership 1910-18 ; P2; President 1943) WARD, Judith (Mrs.), B.sc., 50 Bellevue Parade, New Town, Hobart, Tasmania. (1948) *WARDLAW, Hy. Sloane Halcro, D.sc., 71 McIntosh ~ Street, Gordon. (1913; P5; President 1939) *WATERHOUSE, Lionel Lawry, B.E., 42 Archer Street, Chatswood. (1919; Pl) *WATERHOUSE, Walter L., C.M.G., M.C., D.Sc.Agr., F.A.A., ‘‘ Hazelmere ’’, Chelmsford Avenue, Lind- field. (1919; P7; President 1937) *WATT, Robert Dickie, M.A., Emeritus Professor, 5 Gladswood Gardens, Double Bay. (1911; Pl; President 1925) *WATTS, Arthur Spencer, “ Araboonpo >) Glebe Street, Randwick. (1921) WEST, Norman William, B.sc., c/o Department of Main Roads, Sydney. (1954) WESTHEIMER, Gerald, ph.p., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co. Ltd., 33 Hunter Street, Sydney. (1949) WHITLEY, Alice, ph.p., 39 Belmore Road, Burwood. 1951 See meee Horace’ Francis, Museum, Sydney. (1951; P4) WILLIAMS, Benjamin, 14 Francis Street, Artarmon. 1949 Win uEe one William Harold, M.sc., 6 Hughes Avenue, Ermington. (1949) WOOD, Clive Charles, B:Sc,,’ c/o “Bank of “N.S. W.; M.Sc., Mining 47 Berkeley Square, London, W.1, England. (1954) WOOD, Harley Weston, M.Sc., Government Astronomer, Sydney Observatory, Sydney. (1936; P14; President 1949) WYNN, Desmond Watkin, B.Sc., c/o Mines Depart- Associates BOLT, Beverley (Mrs.), M.sc., 3/17 Alexander Street, Coogee. (1959) DONEGAN, Elizabeth S. (Mrs.), Sans Souci. (1956) 18 Hillview Street, Obituary, 1958-59 Arthur J. Bedwell (1933) Rev. Thomas N. Burke-Gaffney (1952) George Z. Dupain (1924) Roy H. Goddard (1935) ment, Sydney. (1952) GRIFFITH, Elsie A. (Mrs.), 9 Kanoona Street, Caringbah. (1956) SMITH, Glennie Forbes, 2 Mars Road, Lane Cove. (1958) Charles A. Loney (1906) , Herbert J. Sullivan (1918) Walter G. Woolnough (1906) 1947 1948 1950 1951 1952 1929 1932 1935 1938 1941 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Medals, Memorial Lectureships and Prizes awarded by the Society for the Southern Hemisphere. The James Cook Medal A bronze medal awarded for outstanding contributions to science and human welfare in and J. C. Smuts (South Africa) 1953 Sir D. Rivett (Australia) B. A. Houssay (Argentina) 1954 Sir F. M. Burnet (Australia) sin IN. HH. Fairley (U.K.) 1955 A. P. Elkin (Australia) N. McA. Gregg (Australia) 1956 Sir I. Clunies Ross (Australia) W. L. Waterhouse (Australia) The Walter Burfitt Prize A bronze medal and money prize of £75 awarded at intervals of three years to the worker in pure and applied science, resident in Australia or New Zealand, whose papers and other con- tributions published during the preceding six years are deemed of the highest scientific merit, account being taken only of investigations described for the first time, and carried out by the author mainly in those Dominions. De, and Mrs. W. F. Burfitt. Established as a result of generous gifts to the Society of N. D. Royle (Medicine) 1944 H. L. Kesteven (Medicine) C. H. Kellaway (Medicine) 1947 J. C. Jaeger (Mathematics) V. A. Bailey (Physics) 1950 D. F. Martyn (Ionospheric Physics) F. M. Burnet (Medicine) 1953. K. E. Bullen (Geophysics) F. W. Whitehouse (Geology) 1956 J. C. Eccles (Medicine) resident in the Australian Commonwealth or its territories or elsewhere. The Clarke Medal Awarded from time to time for distinguished work in the Natural Sciences done in or on the Australian Commonwealth and its territories; the person to whom the award is made may be Established by the Society soon after the death of the Rev. W. B. Clarke in appreciation of his character and services “as a learned colonist, a faithful minister of religion, and an eminent scientific man ”’. The recipients from 1878 to 1929 were given in this Journal, vol. 89, p. xv, 1955. L. Keith Ward (Geology) 1946 J. M. Black (Botany) R. J. Tillyard (Entomology) 1947 H. L. Clark (Zoology) F. Chapman (Palaeontology) 1948 A. B. Walkom (Palaeobotany) W. G. Woolnough (Geology) 1949 Rev. H. M. R. Rupp (Botany) E. S. Simpson (Mineralogy) 1950 I. M. Mackerras (Entomology) G. W. Card (Geology) 1951 F. L. Stillwell (Geology) Sir Douglas Mawson (Geology) 1952. J. G. Wood (Botany) J. T. Jutson (Geology) 1953 A. J. Nicholson (Entomology) H. C. Richards (Geology) 1954 E. de C. Clarke (Geology) C. A. Sussmilch (Geology) 1955 R. N. Robertson (Botany) F. Wood Jones (Zoology) 1956 O. W. Tiegs (Zoology) W. R. Browne (Geology) 1957 Irene Crespin (Geology) W. L. Waterhouse (Botany) 1958 T. G. B. Osborn (Botany) W. E. Agar (Zoology) 1959 T. Iredale (Zoology) W. N. Benson (Geology) 94 1884 1886 1887 1888 1889 1891 1892 1894 1895 1896 1948 1949 1950 1951 1903 1906 1907 1918 1919 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1931 1933 1940 1942 1944 1946 AWARDS The Society’s Medal A bronze medal awarded from 1884 until 1896 for published papers. The Award was revived in 1943 for scientific contributions and services to the Society. W. E. Abbott 1943 E. Cheel (Botany) | S. Hl. Cox 1948 W. L. Waterhouse (Agriculture) Jee Seaver 1949 A. P. Elkin (Anthropology) Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods 1950 O. U. Vonwiller (Physics) T. Whitelegge 1951 A. R. Penfold (Applied Chemistry) Rev. J. Mathew 1953. A. B. Walkom (Palaeobotany) Rev. J. Milne Curran 1954 D. P. Mellor (Chemistry) A. G. Hamilton 1955 W. G. Woolnough (Geology) J. V. De Coque 1956 W. R. Browne (Geology) R. H. Mathews 1957 R. C. L. Bosworth (Physical Chemistry) C. J. Martin 1958 F. R. Morrison (Applied Chemistry) Rev. J. Milne Curran The Edgeworth David Medal A bronze medal awarded to Australian research workers under the age of thirty-five years for work done mainly in Australia or its territories, or contributing to the advancement of Australian science. R. G. Giovanelli (Astrophysics) 1952 A. B. Wardrop (Botany) E. Ritchie (Organic Chemistry) 1954 E. S. Barnes (Mathematics) T. B. Kiely (Plant Pathology) 1955 H. B. S. Womersley (Botany) R. M. Berndt (Anthropology) 1957 J. M. Cowley (Chemical Physics) Catherine H. Berndt (Anthropology) J. P. Wild (Radio Astronomy) J. G. Bolton (Radio Astronomy) 1958 P. I. Korner (Physiology) Clarke Memorial Lectureship The lectureship is awarded for the purpose of the advancement of Geology. The practice of publishing the lectures in the Journal began in 1936. Te WW. Ee David 1942 E. C. Andrews E. W. Skeats (two lectures) 1943 H. G. Raggatt T. W. E. David (two lectures) 1944 W. H. Bryan W. G. Woolnough 1945 E. S. Hills | Dip ee Hie 1946 L. A. Cotton Wires: Ou 1947 H. S. Summers 15 | foewa\e ee 1948 Sir Douglas Mawson he Week o David 1949 W. R. Browne W. G. Woolnough 1950 F. W. Whitehouse H. C. Richards 1951 by L: J. Lawreiice. The meeting took the form of a conjoint meeting with the Institute of Physics, and an address entitled “Evaporation and »the Water Cycle’’ was delivered by Dr. A. J. Dyer, C.S.I.R.O. Division of Meteorological Physics. 5th November, 1958 The President, Mr. J. L. Griffith, was in the chair. Thirty members and visitors were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and con- firmed. The following was elected a member of the Society : Harald Ingemann Jensen. In accordance with Rule XVIII, the following names were removed from the list of members: Robert F. Holmes and Kevin J. Lancaster. In commemoration of the centenary of the birth of Max Planck, the following address was given by Dr. Ilse Rosenthal-Schneider, “‘ Max Planck, His Epoch- Making Work and His Personality ”’. The following papers were presented: ‘‘ Seismic Travel-Times in Australia’’, by B. A. Bolt, M.Sc., F.R.A.S.; “‘ Flexure of a Slab on an Elastic Founda- tion ’’’, by G. Bosson, M.Sc. (Lond.). The following paper was read by title only: ‘‘ Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1957 ”’, by W. H. Robertson. 3rd December, 1958 The seven hundred and forty-fifth general monthly meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Mr. J. L. Griffith, was in the chair. Fifty-one members and visitors were present. The following papers were read by title only: “An Investigation of Metal Gluconate Complexes ’’, by W. F. Pickering and J. Miller (communicated by Prof. D. P. Mellor); ‘‘ Macro- and Micro-Floras of North-eastern New South Wales ’’, by N. J. de Jersey (communicated by C. T. McElroy). The evening was devoted to a symposium on “ Progress of the Geophysical Year ’’ and the following addresses were given: ‘‘ Whistlers and the Outer llonosphere-’> by Dro G. R: Hillis, C:S.1-R-O:, National Standards Laboratory, Division of Radiophysics, sydney ; ~ Solar Activity’, by S. F: Smerd; C-S.1.R.O., National Standards Laboratory, Division of Radio- physics, Sydney; ‘‘ Exploration of the Upper Atmos- phere by Rockets”’, by Mr. W. G. Stroud, visiting American scientist. Section of Geology CHAIRMAN: T. G. VALLANCE, PH.D.; B.SC.; HON. SECRETARY : Abstract of Proceedings, 1958 Five meetings were held during the year, alternating with every second meeting of the Geological Society of Australia, New South Wales Division. The average attendance was about 22 members and visitors. March 21st (Annual meeting): Election of office- bearers:—Chairman: Dr: TIT. G. Vallance; Hon. Secretary Or. We. ivochs Business :—Notes and Exhibits. The following contributions were made: Dr. T. G. Vallance : contact- metamorphic rocks from near London Bridge, 11 miles south of Queanbeyan, containing axinite, clinozoisite, tremolite. Also, vesuvianite from Duckmaloi, Oberon district, and chiastolite from north-west of Dunkeld, N.S.W., were exhibited. Mr. R. O. Chalmers exhibited specimens of stillwellite from the Mary Kathleen district, N.T., associated with epidote, allanite, diopside, garnet. He also exhibited a scoriaceous material from Narrandera, N.S.W. Mr. G. H. Packham exhibited plant remains of probably Permian age from a locality eight miles west of Mudgee, N.S.W. Mr. W. Baker reported briefly on his investigations on hinsdalite from Tasmania and its relations to svanbergite. May 16th: Address by Dr. A. A. Day: “‘ Geology at Sea (with Special Reference to the North-East Atlantic)’’. Dr. Day reported on the under-water survey of the sea bed south-west of Britain as well as in the English Channel. Sampling by means of free-fall corers revealed the distribution of pre-Tertiary and late-Tertiary sedimentary deposits. Pebbles originating from glacial drift were characteristic for Pleistocene sediments. The investigations were supple- mented by a seismic and echo-sounding survey carried out from the research vessels ‘“‘ Discovery II” and “a5atsia: a, july Asth:~ Short “Notes: @ Some Aspects: (of Lateritization ’”’ (F. C. Loughnan), “‘ Infra-red Spectra of “Minerals “ \(G. 7. See). (Maw B.C. -Loughnan discussed the mineralogy of the Fuller’s earth deposit at Dubbo, N.S.W., and pointed out the probably Jurassic origin of the material produced by lateritiza- tion of probably arkosic sediments. Composition and probable mode of origin of this material were compared with the ‘‘ Chocolate Shales ’”’ of the Narrabeen Group L. E. KocuH, D.PHIL.HABIL. and a similar mode of origin was suggested for the latter. Mr. G. T. See reviewed recent investigations of the constitution of certain alumosilicates by means of the absorption spectra of infra-red radiation. The method can be used for the determination of the Ab-An content of plagioclases. September 19th: Address by Mr. H. G. Golding: “Observations on Quarried Sandstones of the Sydney and Gosford Areas.’’ Mr. Golding reported on his investigations on the relations between petrographic characteristics and physical properties of quarried sandstones (Hawkesbury Sandstone) from Piles Creek, Gosford, Paddington, and Maroubra, N.S.W. Gosford sandstone was found to contain a clay plus carbonate bonding, whereas sandstones from Piles Creek con- tained zones of microstylolites alternating with silica- cemented macro-porous zones. Carbonates are absent. Rates of water absorption, bulk and grain densities (but not porosities) vary significantly with variations in composition and texture. November 21st: Address by Mr. G. H. Packham : ‘““ Observations on Zeolites in Sedimentary Rocks from New South Wales and Other Occurrences ’’, of which the following is an abstract. “ Zeolites formed at or near the surface in sediments are derived either from detrital volcanic material, in particular, volcanic glass, or, in the presence of high concentrations of alkali salts, from other minerals, notably clay minerals. High concentrations of alkali salts favour the formation of analcite from volcanic glass. Studies in Southland, New Zealand, by Coombs (1954) have given evidence of a depth-zoning of zeolites, laumontite being the most significant at lower levels. Other sedimentary occurrences of this mineral fall into the same pattern. Less hydrated calcium silicates occur at greater depths. Studies in hydro- thermal areas reveal mineral successions which are comparable in general features, but differ in details. The features which are characteristic of this zoning are increase in lime content and decrease in degree of hydration with depth. \ ) ey ae Reports. by the: » President and the C _. Financial Statement . " oMObituary yey on of Members, Awards | ct of ve : be Ga 7 i | oer ‘ pout as. periodical. His: iets ae Sees eke : or THE. Cc ie Tae ee Bia 2 AM PG ° \ ae easier a DONECAN, M.Se. ey m y ‘Secretaries ey May Hon. ae bee Ve Eas ADAMSON, Bes ¢ pee 4 a ORL Pe AA BW INS Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. 99-103, 1959 Dykes in the Port Stephens Area BERYL NASHAR and C. CATLIN (Received 30 July, 1959) ABSTRACT—A swarm of some 60 non-olivine bearing basaltic dykes of probable Tertiary age is recorded as outcropping along the coastline in the Port Stephens District. intruded are Carboniferous lavas. The rocks The dykes fall into two natural groups, namely, those striking approximately north-south and those striking approximately east-west. Introduction Throughout the literature, mention is made of dykes which outcrop along the coastal region of N.S.W. That the dykes are unequally distributed has been shown by Morrison (1904), who has described the dykes of the Sydney Siistrict. In that District, the area of con- centration is between Port Jackson and Botany £°°. Harper (1915) has described some 270 “dykes along the coast between Broken Bay and Nowra, while Raggatt and Whitworth (1930) have described at least 40 dykes in the Muswell- brook-Singleton area. However, Hills (1955, p. 12, Fig. 6) indicated that there are at least 200 dykes between Nowra and Port Hacking, 103 in the Sydney District, and 48 in the Newcastle District. In literature on the coal- fields, for example, Lonie (1957) and Wilson et al. (1958), mention is made of the presence and distribution of similar dykes. The area considered in this paper lies along the coastline between Cemetery Point and Tomaree on the coast and Tomaree and Corlette Point on the southern shore of Port Stephens— TABLE I East-West Dykes North-South Dykes Dyke No. Thickness Direction Dyke No. Thickness Direction 1 9”—18” E 23° N 6 ae 5 10° E 2 24” E.30° N 8 48” S 4°E 3 162” E-W 9 36” 5 4E 4 E-W 16 48” 9 22° E 9) 24” Ee 8orN 17 54” 5 13° E 7 18”’—120” ee N 18 27” » 13° 10 12” E18°N 19 120” 5 15° E 11 12” Ee 10l N 20 120” 9 15° E 12 18” E-W 23 22” S 15° E 13 204” 1By thie 24 12" 5 15° E 14 192” BLO N 25 18” S15°E 15 ; E197 N 26 rag S 10° E-S 15° E 21 36” E-W 28 24” 5 2°E 22 84” E-W 29 24” S 13° E 27 6” Eo aN 30 31 84” Bloc: 33 24” bee Ash 32 Be lie N 34 24” Sry 2eeke 39 10” E-W 35 45” Sine 42 Ey Oa 36 81” poy aS ed 5 46 E 18° N 37 127 So oes 47 E-W 38 (P43 ssp LS 50 36” E 15° N 38a S 15° E 51 E 15° N 40 Lore 52 18” E-W 4] 6” 519° E 53 18” E-W 43 24” S22 55 24” E 20° N 44 24” ee eae 56 24” EB 20°uN 45 45” Surge 57 72” E33" N 48 S 20° W 49 30” S 20° W 54 24” S 7 W Note: Where no thickness and/or direction are/is given the dyke has probably been eroded or lies submerged under the water. 100 a distance of approximately 24 miles. Again, in this district the dykes are unequally distributed, the area of concentration lying between Cemetery Point and Morna Point—a distance of about seven miles. The dykes intrude volcanic rocks belonging to the Kuttung Series of the Carboniferous System. The volcanic rocks include rhyolite, toscanite and andesite, but for some reason, not yet clear, the “dykes “intrude, (tor “the imost \part;. the rhyolite. They are exposed best in the rock platforms and are soon lost after cutting back into the cliff because of superficial deposits of dune sand, soil and undergrowth. Nature of Intrusion and Direction The dykes number about 60 and, in keeping with the other dykes along the coast, those in the Port Stephens District fall into two distinct groups—those that trend approximately north- South (range of strike 5. 19°F. to S, 20° W-.) and those that trend approximately east-west (ranees of ‘strike IE. 337N. to) EB” 7-35!) sce Table I. The number of dykes in each group is about equal. For distribution of dykes between Cemetery Point and Fingal Bay, see Figs. 1, 14 and 1B. PORT ,STEPHENS INSET A TELEGRAPH SHOAL BEACH BERYL NASHAR AND C. CATLIN Actually, two more dykes which are not shown. in the text-figures occur to the north, one just — south of Tomaree and the other at Nelson’s - Head. Although the dyke outcrops have been numbered individually, it is probable that some of the outcrops belong to the same dyke as indicated by the dotted lines, in the above- mentioned figures. This would, of course, reduce the total number of dykes. The dykes vary in thickness from a few inches to about 17 feet, and in all cases seem to have been intruded along the joints of the older lavas. Mostly they are quite regular, but some show effects of side-stepping as a result of moving from one joint to another. In some places this involves a lateral shift of only a few inches, while at others it is in the order of | 12 to 18 inches. See Fig. 2. Side-stepping may be noted both in plan and in vertical section. Xenoliths of rhyolite, the country rock, are present in some of the dykes. The wider dykes often show jointing parallel to both sides of the dyke for a width of about six inches, while within the dykes joints are developed perpendicular to the sides. FINGAL BAY 4849 46 550 si BIG 6N_52 ONE ROCKY > 53 MILE PACIFIC OCEAN NIMORNA POINT INSET, 8 Fig, 1 DYKES IN THE PORT STEPHENS AREA 101 INSET A 2 2a = 2 17 ee, ; Ke) 16 ig CEMETERY = “SES aa 4 r—» POINT S eae FISHERMANS N BAY A mt OCEAN SCALE O 4 2 ML Fic. la DYKE NO. 26 PACIFIC OCEAN MORNA POINT Fic. 1B Fic. 2 102 Age All that may be stated definitely about the age of the dykes under consideration is that they are post-Carboniferous. However, most writers have ascribed a Tertiary age to similar dykes elsewhere, for they intrude rocks of Permian age as at Newcastle and rocks of Triassic age as in the Sydney District. Because of differences in rock types and the fact that some dykes are intersected by others, Harper (1915) thought that they did not fall in the same epoch of volcanic activity. However, the present writers, on petrological evidence, namely, the similarity of rock type, believe that the dykes of the Port Stephens District belong to the one epoch but some of the north- south dykes may have been emplaced slightly before the others. Evidence for this is obtained at the southern end of One Mile Beach. There, north-south dykes, numbers 38a and 40, are slightly offset by east-west dyke number 42, which obviously was intruded a little later. However, the rock type in all three dykes is identical. The geographical relationship of the Older basalts to the Port Stephens dykes is shown in figure 6 of Hills (1955). If these dykes are feeders to the basalts, then they must be the same age. David (1950) states that although the age of all the coastal dykes is not known they are, for the most part, assigned to the Older volcanic series on the grounds of physiographic relations and geographical association with Older flows and partly on _ petrological character. He regards the Older volcanics as being pre-Miocene in age. Weathering The dykes afford an excellent example of differential weathering. The mechanical weathering by the ocean is negligible in com- parison with the effect of the chemical weathering by ground water. The mechanical effect has been in some cases to reduce the dykes to the level of the surrounding volcanic rock, while in others the dykes are eroded away, leaving a trench. Because of the strong relationship between jointing and dykes, it is often difficult to tell if some of the trenches were originally hosts to dyke material since eroded away or have been joints widened by erosion. However, remnants of dyke rock are to be found in some eroded joints. Where the dykes are seen to cut back into the cliff, ground water has kaolinized the dyke rock and further mechanical weathering has caused the dyke to recede for some distance into the cliff. BERYL NASHAR AND C. CATLIN Petrography Unlike some of the dykes elsewhere, the dykes of the Port Stephens District are rather constant in mineralogical composition. Neither mon- chiquites nor any other lamprophyres as recorded from the South Coast dykes have been found. The rocks are olivine free felspathic basalts/dolerites which range in grain size from fine grained basalts to medium grained dolerites. The mineral constituents are as follows: Plagioclase : The composition appears to be labradorite (Ab,;An,;). The laths vary in length from 0-1 mm. to 1-5 mm., averaging 0-2 mm. in the finer grained rocks and 0:7 mm. in the coarser. Occasional rocks contain plagio- clase as phenocrysts when the size is approxi- mately 1-5 mm. Sometimes this mineral is kaolinized, and the larger laths may show partial replacement by chlorite. The pheno- crysts, when present, occasionally show replace- ment by calcite and chlorite. Augite : This mineral varies from being finely granular (0-05 mm.) to occurring as small — prismatic crystals which average 0-1 mm. in the finer grained rocks. Occasional idio- morphic phenocrysts may range up to 1 mm. in length and the augite in the coarser rocks may average 0-5 mm. The average content in the rocks would be about 20%. The alteration product, when present, is chlorite. Ilmenite: For the most part, this mineral occurs as fine grains, although in some rocks, particularly the coarser, it may occur as skeletal crystals. The frequent alteration product is leucoxene, grains of which are scattered through- out the rocks. Apatite: Fine needles of this mineral are fairly abundant as an accessory constituent in the rocks. Chlorite: This mineral occurs abundantly, mostly interstitially between the felspar laths. It was noted that the more abundant the chlorite, the more abundant are the granules of iron ore, indicating that some of the latter may be secondary in origin. Analcite and Calcite: These minerals have been observed in some rocks. They are not abundant and when they do occur they are interstitial and often outlined by chlorite. Acknowledgement Thanks are extended to Mr. A. S. Ritchie of Newcastle University College who introduced the authors to the area and for his co-operation in the field. DYKESZIN THE, PORT SIEPHENS AREA References Browne, W. R., 1933. An Account of Post-Palaeozoic Igneous Activity in N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 67, 9-95. Davin, T. W. E., 1950. The Geology of the Common- wealth of Australia. Vol. 1. Arnold, London. (Edited by W. R. Browne.) Harper, L. F., 1915. Geological and Mineral Resources of Southern Coal-field. Pt. 1—South Coastal Portion. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Geol., No. 7. mires. He S,, 1955. tectonics of Australia. J-16. A Contribution to the Morpho- ie CGeoL 2S0c. Aus, 3, 103 Lonige, W. M., 1957. Structure of the Newcastle Coalfield. (Unpublished.) Paper pres. at Ann. Conference Australasian Inst. Min. Met. Morrison, M., 1904. Notes on Some of the Dykes and Volcanic Necks of the Sydney District. ec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 7, 241-281. RaGGatTt, H. G., AnD WHITWoRTH, H. F., 1930. The Intrusive Igneous Rocks of the Muswellbrook- Singleton District. Pt. 1. J. Pyvoc. Koy.. Soe: N.S.W., 64, 194-233. Witson, R. G., et al., 1958. Review of the Geology of the Southern Coalfield, N.S.W. Proc. Austral- asian Inst. Min. Met., 187, 81-104. School of Mining Engineering and Applied Geology Newcastle University College Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. 105-120, 1959 Deuteric Alteration of Volcanic Rocks H. G. WILSHIRE (Received September 1, 1959) ABSTRACT—A review is presented of common types of deuteric alteration of volcanic rocks and of the effects of alteration on physical properties, mineralogy and bulk chemical composition. It is shown that some quantities, such as the (FeO+ Fe,O,)/(FeO+Fe,0;+MgO) ratio, which are taken as guides to stages of magmatic differentiation are affected by alteration and that, in general, changes due to alteration are parallel with those produced by magmatic differentiation within such broad groups as basic, intermediate and acid volcanic rocks. There is evidence that solid state replacement of basic rocks may give rise to extreme acid differentiates by deuteric alteration so that the processes are convergent. This replacement probably requires introduction of alkalis and extensive leaching of mafic minerals. Changes in fabric are likely, and convergence with magmatic processes is expressed in mineralogy, bulk chemical composition, and a trend towards the low-temperature trough of the system nepheline-kaliophilite-silica. Some conclusions based on the erroneous assumption that alteration has little or no effect on bulk composition are reviewed, and some problems in classification are pointed out. The origin and composition of deuteric solutions is discussed, and it is shown that volatiles and their dissolved constituents may be concentrated, and ultimately cause alteration, by several mechanisms of which fractional crystal- lization of anhydrous minerals is only one. before alteration is briefly considered. Introduction Volcanic rocks are susceptible to alteration in a wide variety of environments and it is likely that such diversified processes as low-grade regional metamorphism, diagenetic alteration, weathering, deuteric alteration and _ hydro- thermal alteration accompanying ore deposition can produce much the same secondary mineral assemblages from rocks of the same com- position. Not all of the processes are mutually exclusive; for example, some ore deposits within lava flows or shallow intrusions are of internal origin and associated hydrothermal alteration may be classed as deuteric. In addition, fumarolic alteration may in certain circumstances be considered as deuteric altera- tion. Designation of the process responsible for alteration is not simple and usually requires knowledge of all post-consolidation events in the history of the rocks. Many of the criteria set forth by Ross and Shannon (1926) adequately distinguish between alterations produced by solutions of internal and external origin in undeformed rocks, but do not take into account modifications of deuteric alteration products by weathering. The best criterion supporting an origin by deuteric alteration is_ restricted distribution of alteration products within a particular flow or intrusion. Where large areas of volcanic rocks, including a number of litho- logic or structural units, have been altered, an external source of hydrothermal solutions is probable. An example of such alteration is propylitization, common among undeformed The complementary effects of loss of deuteric fluids members of calc-alkaline volcanic suites. The secondary mineral assemblage—clay, carbonate, epidote, quartz, albite—produced by this type of alteration is similar to that produced by deuteric alteration in rocks of the same com- position. Where the rocks are interbedded with marine sediments (e.g. spilites) or have been deformed, the process of alteration may be difficult to ascertain. Deuteric alteration was originally defined (Sederholm, 1916) as metasomatic changes taking place “in direct continuation of the consolidation of the magma of the rock itself”. Singewald (1932) proposed that the term ‘“deuteric’’ be restricted to reactions in a closed system, thus excluding alteration pro- duced by fluids derived from more deep-seated magmatic sources than represented by the altered rocks themselves. Sederholm (1929), in an effort to clarify controversial points of usage raised by Gillson (1929) and Osborne (1929), stated that the term was intended to be descriptive of changes in primary minerals and not of the process. For present purposes, Sederholm’s meaning is most useful and takes the emphasis off qualitative arguments about how much alteration is consistent with an internal source of aqueous solutions. Singewald’s usage has the additional disadvantage of the many misleading implications of a “closed system’”’. If this precluded loss of volatiles and their dissolved constituents from the altered rocks, or concentration of fluids in certain parts of flows or intrusions, the term d 106 deuteric would have few natural occurrences under its name. In considering the formation of complementary rocks or liquids by loss of volatile constituents, however, the source of deuteric fluids is of importance. There is nothing in Sederholm’s definition which gives a guide to the types of minerals formed by deuteric alteration or to the effects of metasomatism, and there is room for legitimate doubt about separating magmatic from post- magmatic events (Ross, 1928). The distinction becomes important, however, in considering the distribution of elements by crystal-liquid reac- tions on the one hand and by solid state reactions on the other. In the first instance chemical evolution of the rocks may be controlled by relative movement of crystals and lquid and in the second instance by addition and/or removal of constituents from an already solid rock. For the most part consideration of metasomatism in deuteric alteration has been confined to introduction of constituents, especially H,O, CO, and alkalis, while selective leaching has not been accorded an important role by igneous petrologists although this is an essential part of Lindgren’s (1925) definition of metasomatism. The main purpose of this paper is to show, from data available in the literature, the magnitude of changes which may be effected by solid state replacements and to discuss the implications of these changes in classification of volcanic rocks and petrogenetic considerations. Physical Changes The variety of physical changes caused by deuteric alteration are practically the same as those described by Schwartz (1939, 1959). Altered rocks may be either lighter or darker in colour than their unaltered equivalents, and are usually less dense. Where alteration results in filling of vesicles, the bulk density may increase, but alteration of holocrystalline rocks nearly always causes a reduction in density. For the most part the original fabric of altered rocks is well preserved (Day, 1925, 1930a ; Wilshire, 1958, 1959), which clearly indicates equal volume replacement. In some _ cases parts of the original fabric may be destroyed by alteration (Day, 1930a, 19300), but those parts which are preserved generally indicate equal volume replacement. In a few cases the author has observed brecciation along narrow veins of secondary minerals, but this is exceptional. Because of density variation, the distinction between passive and actual chemical changes due to alteration requires measurement of H, Go wisi densities of altered and unaltered equivalents © (Lindgren, 1900). Calculations of changes are | straightforward with holocrystalline rocks, but | in the case of deuteric solutions of internal origin an additional problem arises, for segrega- tion of volatiles before alteration may give rise to open cavities. If such rocks are compared with those in which volatiles were not segregated, conversion of weight percents to gms./cc. will show unreal changes. In general it will be difficult to distinguish between cavities formed in this manner and those formed by solution. If the two cannot be distinguished or occur together, it is best to obtain both bulk and powder densities which will provide maximum and minimum passive changes respectively. Mineral Alteration Three principal types of deuteric alteration may be designated as: (1) dominantly clay mineral alteration; (2) dominantly carbonate alteration; and (3) dominantly zeolite altera- tion. Various combinations of the three are, of course, common, but where one group of secondary minerals dominates over others the effects of alteration on bulk composition may differ as shown in a subsequent section. The susceptibility of primary minerals to alteration is a complex matter, governed at least in part by the factors outlined by Schwartz (1959) and Hemley (1959). In dominantly carbonate alteration, mafic minerals are com- monly pseudomorphed by granular aggregates of carbonate and quartz with variable amounts of clay. In some examples of carbonate alteration plagioclase remains fresh although mafic minerals are completely altered (Wilkinson, 1958; Bailey ef al., 1924; Wilshire, 1959), but in others (Day, 1930a ; Day and Stenhouse, 1930) plagioclase may also be altered to carbonate. In hydrous alteration feldspars are frequently replaced by zeolites of a variety of compositions or by members of the kaolinite and mica groups (Buddington, 1923 ; Chapman, 1950; Duschatko and Poldervaart, 1955; Muilenburg and Goldich, 1933; Wilkinson, 1958). Where associated mafic minerals are altered to clay, plagioclase is not infrequently replaced by trioctahedral montmorillonite or chlorite. Olivine and orthopyroxene are usually altered to trioctahedral clay minerals (Wilshire, 1958) and are the only minerals which commonly show structural inheritance in alteration products (Brown and Stephen, 1959). Clino- pyroxene is sometimes remarkably resistant to alteration (Browne, 1925; M’Lintock, 1915), but may be altered to carbonate and chlorite DEUTERIC ALTERATION OF VOLCANIC ROCKS (Campbell, Day and Stenhouse, 1934) and is susceptible to composition change from salite to diopside (Shannon, 1924) or aegerine (Gillson, 1927 ; Larsen and Pardee, 1929) in the deuteric stage. Biotite and hornblende are _ both susceptible to chlorite-carbonate-sericite-epidote alteration, while nepheline and leucite are sometimes altered to sericite or zeolites. Unfor- tunately, little information is available on alteration of opaque minerals, but some records of conversion of titanomagnetite and ilmenite to leucoxene, sphene or hematite are available (Campbell, Day and Stenhouse, 1934 ; Cornwall, 19512). Clay Minerals—Members of all the major phyllosilicate clay mineral groups have been reported as products of deuteric alteration, the more common of which include: saponite ' (=bowlingite) (Cailliere and Henin, 1951; Mackenzie, 1958), common as pseudomorphs after mafic minerals, and as joint and vesicle filling ; vermiculite (Bradley, 1945) as vesicle filling; nontronite (Prider and Cole, 1942; Allen and Scheid, 1946) as pseudomorphs after olivine and fracture filling; regularly inter- stratified montmorillonite-chlorite (Earley and Milne, 1956) as vesicle filling ; random mixed- layer montmorillonite-chlorite (Wilshire, 1958) as pseudomorphs after mafic minerals and as joint and vesicle filling ; caladonite (Campbell, Day and Stenhouse, 1934 ; Hendricks and Ross, 1941) as vesicle filling; and chlorophaeite (=allophane) (Peacock and Fuller, 1938; Fermor, 1928; Ming-Shan Sun, 1957; Smedes and Lang, 1955; Wilshire, 1958) as pseudo- morphs after mafic minerals and as joint and vesicle filling. Others, possibly less common, clay minerals which may occur as mechanical mixtures with the above include serpentine, talc and mica. Dioctahedral members of the kaolin and mica groups have often been reported as alteration products of feldspars and zeolites. It is note- worthy that none of the common clays are Ca-bearing (except as absorbed cations). Deter- mination, at least qualitatively, of clay mineral composition is important, for such common clay alterations as replacement of plagioclase adjacent to altered mafic minerals by triocta- hedral montmorillonite requires redistribution of Ca and Al originally combined in plagioclase. For reasons given in a later section, clay minerals often do not reflect directly the composition of the primary minerals which they replace. Many of the optically homogeneous clay products of deuteric alteration are mixtures of both clay and non-clay materials. Because 107 of this the use of mineral names or specification of composition is not warranted unless adequate identification techniques are used. As mineral species, iddingsite and bowlingite have been discredited, and there is probably considerable variation in types and proportions of minerals making up these aggregates. Iddingsite probably consists chiefly of montmorillonite or vermiculite and goethite (Brown and Stephen, 1959) or of goethite and allophane (Ming-Shan Sun, 1957). Bastite in basic lavas is commonly the same as iddingsite, but has a lower Fe?/Fe? ratio and more commonly contains magnetite than goethite (Wilshire, 1958). All four principal types occur in lavas and hypabyssal intrusions, but “ iddingsite ’’, “‘ bastite ’’ and chlorophaeite are more common in lavas, “ bowlingite’’ in intrusions. With the presently available data there is a large difference in composition, depending on occurrence, but “ iddingsite ”’ from intrusions (e.g. Wilkinson, 1958) has not been analysed. Average analyses are given in Table I and are divided into five groups: (I) ‘“‘iddingsite’’ pseudomorphs after mafic minerals; (II) “‘iddingsite”’ vesicle filling ; (III) chlorophaeite vesicle filling ; (IV) “ bowl- ingite ’’ joint filling ; and (V) celadonite vesicle filling (possibly the same as II). Carbonates—Carbonates commonly accompany clay minerals in deuterically altered rocks and sometimes make up the bulk of alteration products. Identification and composition deter- TABLE | Average Composition of Some Deuteric Clay Mineral A gevegates 1 i III IV We S10, 41-20 52°45 45:02 44-56 53-59 110; 0-14 0-05 0-30 0-20 — AO. aaa, aoc as le 6-25 7°69 6-10 Fe,O, .. 35°42 14-27 19°35 7:25 15-28 FeO 0-38 2°43 6-93 3-82 3°93 MnO 0-05 0-03 0-34 — 0-17 MgO 6-85 TALS 9-65 22-86 6-33 CaO 2-35 a OL 2295 2-14 0-89 Na,O C212 0-37 0-59 = 0-74 K,O 0-10 3°43 0-16 — 6-87 H,O+F 9-30 3°81 71 Saas 7-67 H,O- 9-84 3°94 17°89 12-06 f All analyses except those of celadonite recalculated to 100% excluding H,O- before averages were com- puted. Column I represents 10 analyses (Wilshire, 1958) ; Column II represents 3 analyses (Min. Abs., v. 13, pp. 186, 393); Column III represents 6 analyses (Wilshire, 1958; Min. Abs., v. 13, pp. 185, 393) ; Column IV represents 5 analyses (Wilshire, 1958 ; Mackenzie, 1958); Column V represents 12 analyses (Hendricks and Ross, 1941; Min. Abs., v. 13, pp. 59, 180). 108 mination are easier than with clay minerals, but in spite of this compositions are often inferred from rock analyses or the carbonate is simply called calcite. As with clay minerals, the composition of carbonates does not directly reflect the composition of primary minerals which they replace. Ca-rich carbonates as frequently replace magnesian olivine as plagio- clase, and of course a redistribution of silica and alumina is implied by carbonate alteration. Zeolites—The zeolites comprise a chemically and structurally complex group of minerals which are very abundant in deuterically altered volcanic rocks. For the most part these are hydrated silicates of lime, alkalis, and alumina with few members containing significant amounts of Fe and Mg. Among the more common deuteric zeolites are members of the natrolite, pectolite, and prehnite groups and analcite, but such minerals as heulandite, thomsonite, chalybite and others are locally abundant. Again, such replacements as plagioclase by analcite or by prehnite effectively exclude certain elements originally combined in the primary mineral. Other Secondary Minerals—Among the most important anhydrous deuteric minerals are alkali feldspars and quartz which have fre- quently been recorded as products of deuteric alteration of plagioclase (Bailey and Grabham, 1909 M’iimtock, “19lb— Colony,” 1923% Shannon, 1924; Bailey e¢ al., 1924; Browne, 1924; Gillson, 1927; Clough ef al., 1925; Campbell e al., 1932; Shand, 1943; Walker and Poldervaart, 1949; Cornwall, 19510; Duschatko and Poldervaart, 1955). The alkali feldspar is generally called albite, but the properties given often do not warrant so specific a designation. Less common as _ alteration products in undeformed lavas and_ shallow intrusions are epidote, amphiboles, pumpellyite, garnet, sphene and sulphides. Metasomatic Character of Mineral Alteration It was suggested above that the composition of secondary minerals need not directly reflect the composition of primary minerals which they replace. Duschatko and Poldervaart (1955) consider this selectivity to be one of the most important characteristics of secondary minerals, and exclusion of elements which were combined in altered primary minerals is a _ defining characteristic of the most important class of pseudomorphs in Naumann’s classification (Lindgren, 1900). Unfortunately, there is not a great deal of quantitative information on H. G. WILSHIRE metasomatic alterations, but in such cases as replacement of olivine by calcite leaching of silica and magnesia is self-evident. Especially with clay mineral aggregates and some zeolites, it is difficult to determine compositions of secondary minerals, but in general equal volume replacement of primary minerals by less dense secondary minerals as well as addition of H,O and CO, clearly suggest that material must be leached in the replacement. That leaching is selective is implied by gross differences in composition between primary minerals and alteration products. Examples of the types of chemical changes which are involved in the alteration of olivine to “ iddingsite ’”’ (Ross and Shannon, 1926; Ming-Shan Sun, 1957) and in sericitization of plagioclase (Muilenburg and Goldich, 1933) are shown in Table II. These are the only quantitative data pertaining to metasomatic mineral alteration which the author has found, and even these calculations involve some assumptions. As pointed out by Ross and Shannon (1926), alteration of olivine to “iddingsite ’’ involves leaching of MgO, oxida- tion of Fe, and addition of H,O. Relatively small amounts of Fe and Al are also added, and silica removed. The changes involved in sericitization of plagioclase illustrate the possible effects of alteration on K,O/alkali and alkali/CaO+alkali ratios, ratios which also increase with progressive magmatic differentia- tion. Many authors have commented on the probability of such metasomatic changes (Tyrrell, 1928: Wilkinson, 1958; Peacock and Fuller, 1938; Shannon, 1924; and others), but it is often difficult to obtain reliable data, especially in fine-grained volcanic rocks. Reliance on optical determination of composition is suspect TABLE II Chemical Variation in Equal Volume Replacement of Olivine and Plagioclase 1 2 3 SiO), - sae OHI — 595 — 52 INO} fay + 106 a Fe,O; + 861 ihe aa FeO = Ts 978 = MgO —1153 —1064 Be CaO a eas aE 278 Na,O = is 398 K,O ane ze + 94 HO 2p ee 466 Aly + 89 COns iY an — ae aie =gains and losses (milligram/cc.) in replacement of olivine by iddingsite (Ross and Shannon, 1926) ; 2=gains and losses in replacement of olivine by iddingsite (Ming-Shan Sun, 1957); 3=gains and losses in partial sericitization of plagioclase (Muilenburg and Goldich, 1933). DEUTERIC ALTERATION OF VOLCANIC ROCKS 109 ee Ss a ae Sy Toto/ H20 GOs - 500 -400 -JF00 -200 KOK) 16) +100 * 200 + JOO milligrams | cubic centimeter BiG? 1 Straight line variation diagram illustrating compositional changes in_ basic volcanic rocks due to dominantly carbonate alteration. 5-6 ; Maple Gil: B—anals: 3-4: 3—anals. 1-2 9-10 ; 1 =analyses 4—anals. 7-8; 5=anals. 6=anals. 9-ll. for many alteration products, and aggregates of different minerals pseudomorphing single crystals of primary minerals introduce errors into mineral calculations. The data tabulated in Table II deal only with the distribution of major elements. Inasmuch as alteration of primary minerals involves complete structural reorganization and selective leaching, redistribution of trace elements is likewise to be expected. To the author's knowledge, this problem has not been dealt with on a mineralogical basis. Dispersal of Alteration Products The best criterion for the secondary origin of the minerals under discussion is, of course, pseudomorphism of primary minerals. If the considerations outlined above are correct, this alteration involves leaching of material which must be deposited elsewhere if the volume occupied by primary minerals is to remain the same. Hence, it is not surprising to find the same types of minerals occurring in vesicles, joints and porous wall rock. That constituents leached from primary minerals may be entirely removed from the rock is evident from generally lower bulk densities of altered rocks compared with their fresh equivalents. This does not mean, however, that every occurrence of these common secondary minerals in vesicles and joints is to be attributed to alteration, for the same con- ditions which permit migration of these materials will also permit movement of interstitial liquid residues formed by fractional crystallization and under appropriate conditions these may crystallize directly to any of the abovementioned minerals. Where equal volume deuteric altera- tions do occur, however, leaching and redeposition are to be expected. Bulk Chemical Changes The data now available representing altered and unaltered equivalents is meagre, and the value of much of that is considerably reduced by lack of specific gravity data. In addition, where supposed altered and unaltered equi- valents are separated by some distance and variations in granularity occur the lack of modal analyses renders some analyses suspect. Most of the data available represent altered basic rocks, and it is generally extreme altera- tions which have attracted sufficient attention for analyses to be made. Some of these have probably been further modified by weathering and others represent various stages of alteration with no fresh equivalent. Figs. 1 and 2 are a modification of the straight line variation diagrams used by Leith and Mead (1915). In these diagrams absolute compositional changes are represented in terms of milligrams/cc., assuming equal volume replacement. Inasmuch as many petrological calculations are based on weight percentages, the analyses used in Figs. 1 and 2 as well as others used in subsequent calculations are given in Table III. 110 Hy GoWItsHike TABLE III Chemical Analyses of Fresh and Altered Rocks 1 2 3 + 5 6 7 8 10 SiO, 46-01 31-91 42-02 38-80 43-05 32-97 46-31 32-01 43-52 40-65 LIO; 2-46 2-92 2°75 2-60 2-63 2787 1-82 2°19 1-69 2-03 Al,O, 13-13 13-41 14-19 12-88 14-23 17-54 16-91 25°33 13-95 11-75 Fe,O, 2-84 1-64 1-04 4-62 4-00 er 3:25 1-25 5°01 5-19 FeO 10-09 9-01 9-98 6-31 COR 6-43 6-46 6-23 6-70 7-87 MnO 0-18 1-39 — _— 0-17 0-17 0:17 0-19 0-22 0-13 MgO 8-90 2-86 10-65 5:56 8-62 5:05 6-01 3°15 10-84 4-52 CaO 9-08 15-87 10-83 16-15 10-55 8-64 9-33 6-71 8-74 13-13 Na,O 3:03 2-04 2-82 3°35 2-36 1-48 3-08 0-34 2°72 2-22 K,O 0-96 0-42 0-59 0-66 0-98 1-05 1-33 0-15 1-29 1-54 H,0+ 2-58 4-82 a > ee - 3 bg ; H,0- 0-30 I aah 4-58 3-60 4-65 8°54 4-31 8:76 4-82 3°37 P.O; 0-49 0-48 0-79 0-53 0-82 1-03 0-45 0-68 0-40 0-62 CO, 0-06 11-88 0-11 4-99 Ls 12-33 0-36 12-32 0-05 6-72 Fes, ~- — --— ~- 0-28 0-44 0-22 0-42 0-39 0-62 Total 100-11 99-95 100-35 100-05 100-59 99-55) 100" 02 99:73 100-34 100-36 Ga 3°03 2-67 2°9 2°6 2°89 2°5 2°78 2+55 2°79 2:6 TaBLeE IlI—Continued ule 12 13 14 15 16 7 18 19 20 SiO, 46-29 36-95 40-84 33-33 44-2] 36°53 49-86 38-83 45-63 42-07 TiO, 2-08 3°05 2-68 5°57 2-24 1-80 1-33 nil 2-04 2°57 Al,O, 12-44 17-88 32-13 18-97 9-1] 14-08 12-75 15-25 14-54 11-24 Fe,O; 3-48 5+ 84 2°21 7-00 3°77 9°63 3°36 4-33 1-98 5:08 FeO 8-18 12-12 1-05 9-32 8-07 6-26 11-38 13-83 10-25 ay MnO 0-12 os a —— —— -— oo — 0-19 0-18 MgO 5:04 5-45 0-90 3°91 7-84 7:20 4-39 4-18 9-18 8:8] CaO 8-88 3°39 2-60 1-20 7:60 8:51 8-71 3:92 9-83 8-53 Na,O 2-85 — nil nil 1-29 1-70 5+25 0-97 3:46 3-66 K,O 1-26 ~~ nil nil 4-73 Leas 0:57 0-42 1-04 0-32 H,O+ ; 6-14 10-14 9-82 0-38 WET Wee f 1-09 5:12 io. erat { 6-99 9-06 11-18: 3-01. 5-70f 7°20 Ab OR Sa eas EO} 0-51 = —— -— 2°77 4-13 0-58 nil 0-50 0-57 CO, 4-74 = —- — 4-99 6-14 nil 9-32 nil 0-21 Fes, 0-63 — = — — — — — a — Total 100-27 97°81, 101-61 ~ 100*S0 100-01 99:91 100-74> 102-06) (100-25 sy 100-05 S.G 2-6 2:63 2-04 2-54 2°72 2-60 Pao) | 2:6 3-00 2-66 TaBLeE IlI1—Continued 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 SiO, 52-72 51-06 51-75 49-96 48-69 33-04 34-91 37°98 31-81 TiO; 1-20 0-55 1-60 1-63 2-06 2-08 4-28 3-0 3°98 Al,Os lo or9 18-66 15-91 16-47 16-02 25-53 7-80 11-39 10-88 Fe,O; 4-80 4-15 0-76 5°33 4-18 2°5) 1-01 1-32 2°13 FeO 4-14 4-9] 9-71 4-68 6-91 1-81 5:77 6-03 5:43 MnO 0:07 0-09 — — 0-19 0-11 0-59 0-10 — MgO 4-12 3°55 7:36 5:10 3-82 3°24 V1-25 12-10 8-79 CaO 8-10 5-64 8-08 8-30 5:58 8-73 8-68 5:49 8-51 Na,O 3°31 3°75 2-82 2°10 4-17 0-47 ale) 2-86 1-41 K,O 2°45 3°84 1-52 1-02 2°73 0-24 5:68 3-08 3°53 H,O+ 1-56 2°88 0-65 2:4] 4°17 10-08 Jf 0-25 0-47 0-29 H,O- 0-92 0-18 0-09 3:08 0-49 0-92 0-13 P,O; 0-48 0-41 — — 0-90 1-68 4-8] 3°45 4-75 CO, 0-07 0-36 nil nil 0:75 10-30 12-03 11-86 18-41 Fes, — == — —— 0:43 0-39 — — == Total 100-13 100-03 100-25 100-08 100-60 100-21 99:45 100-05 100-05 SHEA 2°77 2-76 Ding 2-61 2-69 2:09 2-82 2°96 2-86 DEUTERIC ALTERATION OF VOLCANIC ROCKS Fig. 1 illustrates compositional changes in basic volcanic rocks which were caused by a dominantly carbonate alteration. Most of them show large losses of SiO, which is also obviously expressed in weight percentages. The average silica percentage is that of ultrabasic rocks, although most of them are derivatives of normal basalts. Al,O, and total iron show moderate gains or losses, but the Fe*/Fe? ratio generally increases. CaO, on the average, shows an increase and MgO and alkalis are generally lost in moderate to large amounts, but the K/Na ratio often increases. Campbell, Day and Stenhouse (1934) have noted that an increase of CaO during carbonation is accompanied by a decrease in MgO. Fig. 2 represents changes due to a dominantly clay alteration and mixed clay-carbonate altera- 1il TaBLe III—Continued 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 SiO, i 28°31 44-87 28-13 45-93 20-381 33°01 36-48 45-83 49-40 TiO, ae etl 3°41 2°51 3°47 1-21 1-84 1-64 ~~ — Al,O3 10-81 25-55 10-00 23-24 3-12 11-03 13-36 18-92 16-12 Fe,O; 2°97 2-4] 6-82 0-53 4°31 1-62 1-36 6-02 [pital FeO 6-85 0-56 10-36 0-85 13-02 10-51 9-44 6-24 2-13 MnO 0-27 0-12 0-25 0-04 0-31 0-34 0-26 —: = MgO 5-99 1-30 aye) 27 6-17 4-79 3°14 8-49 3°52 CaO 13-39 4-25 10-69 5:04 18-28 10-83 10-06 9-28 10-90 Na,O 0:56 0-49 0-49 0-61 2-72 4-27 3°34 2-10 3°02 K,O pe oD TAS NS) 3°13 6-43 0 T2 U2 19 0:28 0-32 0-58 HOF \ ‘ he 5-55 2 : -52 : J 2-70 2-30 H,O-f *’ 2-88 7-80 5-55 6-28 1-31 1-52 3°14 10-50 0-10 P.O, 0-09 bed Dees) 1-94 0-26 0-39 0-39 — —~ CO, 21-17 4-04 15-49 3°27 28-65 19-57 16-53 0-10 0-59 eS, 1-55 0-28 0-48 0-75 29 0-29 0-73 —- --~ Total 100-29 100-18 100-48 99-65 100-58 100-20 100-15 100-50 100-17 -G: 2-51 2-14 2-52 2-31 Peat Paerialh 2°81] ~— — TaBLeE I1I—Continued 39 40 41 42 43 44 SiO, 46-78 46-66 47-74 42-71 45-70 46-22 * All specific gravity data TiO, — — 1-02 1-29 1-10 0-95 quoted only to the first Al,O3 17-04 16-97 16-75 14-93 20°44 10-22 decimal are assumed values. Fe,O, 7:95 9-52 2-55 7°45 9-50 12-88 1-2 (Wilshire, 1959). 3-4 (Day, FeO 6°31 4-16 6-31 3°45 8-95 7°45 1925). 5-6 (Day, 1930a). 7-8 MnO — —— 0-52 0-22 ~— —- (Day, 19306). 9-11 (Day and MgO 6-31 5-02 8-32 2:70 2-24 0-84 Stenhouse, 1930). 12-14 (Fox, CaO 6-94 9-37 11-40 22-76 7-46 15-56 1914). 15-16 (Gee, 1932). Na,O 3°44 4-08 93 0-54 0-80 0-18 17-18 (Fox, 1914). 19-20 K,O 1-10 0-44 0-14 0-04 0-28 1-04 (Wilshire, unpublished). H,O* 3-62 2-79 2.73 3.56 2208 3°91 21-22 (Browne and White, H,O- 0-66 OF On ana | 0-35 0-58 1928). 23-24 (Wilshire, 1958). P0Ox — — = oe == aa 25-26 (Day, 1930a). 27-29 CO, 0-08 0-02 — —— ~ — (Fox, 1930). 30-36 (Day, FeS, = = aon = a ae 1930a). 37-44 (Butler and Total 100-23 99-94 99-41 99-65 99-60 99-83 Burbank, 1929). SG. — = som = — aa tion of basic rocks. Those illustrating clay alteration all show losses of Si0,, but this is not always expressed in weight percentages. AI,O; changes are erratic but show an average increase. Total iron is remarkably constant, but again there is usually an increase in the Fe3/Fe? ratio. In contrast to carbonate alteration, CaO shows only moderate changes and an average loss in dominantly clay alteration. MgO is generally leached and alkalis show small losses or gains with a general increase in the K/Na ratio. There is very little data representing altered and unaltered equivalents of intermediate and acid rocks which can be attributed with certainty to deuteric alteration, but the close similarity of changes in deuterically altered basic rocks with those produced by hydrothermal alteration 112 H. G. WILSHIRE Toto! 20 O15 5 o 4 CO: -600 -s50O -~400 OO -2 OO -700 O *700 *t200 milhgroms|/ cubic centimeter jetes 4 Straight line variation diagram illustrating compositional changes in basic volcanic rocks due to dominantly clay alteration (solid lines) and to clay-carbonate altera- tion. l=analyses 12-13, Table II1; 2=anals. 12-14; 3=anals. 15-16; 4=anals. 17-18; 5=anals. 19-20 ; 6=anals. 21-22; 7T=anals. 23—24 ; S8=anals. 25-26. related to ore deposition warrants a brief summary of data presented by Schwartz (1939, 1959). Both acid and intermediate rocks show little change in SiO, and Al,O3, but passive increases in SiO, weight percentages may be significant. Both Fe,O, and FeO are lost and the Fe?/Fe? ratio is generally reduced because of a high pyrite content. MgO, CaO and Na,O decrease in the majority of examples, while K,O shows little change. In terms of weight percentages, Na,O generally drops and K,O shows large passive increases. Although Lindgren and Ransome (1906) maintain that one of the most important processes is the replacement of soda by potash, Schwartz’s data (1939) do not support this where albitization of feldspars is important. Richards (1922) cited a number of examples of kaolinite-quartz deuteric alterations of rhyolites in which large increases in SiO, resulted from alteration. Although these are readily distin- guished from normal rhyolites because of their low alumina and alkalis, Fenner (1936) suggested that metasomatically altered rhyolites and dacites of Yellowstone Park would probably be regarded as fairly normal rocks in the absence of obvious surface evidence of hot spring activity. In this particular example, magmatic emanations dissolved in groundwater caused the formation of secondary quartz, orthoclase, clay minerals, carbonates and zeolites with the most notable effects being addition of silica and replacement of Na and Ca of feldspars by K. Similar changes produced by fumarolic altera- tion of trachyte and dacite were cited by Lovering (1957). Although SiO, weight per- centages show large increases in the altered rocks, these are entirely passive and silica is actually leached in the process. Iron, magnesia and alkalis are likewise leached, but intermediate stages of alteration could not be easily distin- guished chemically from unaltered rocks not- withstanding pronounced changes in SiQO,, iron and MgO. Increase in SiO,, reduction of total iron and MgO and increase in the Fe/Mg ratio produced by the alteration are changes which characterize silica variation diagrams representing basic, intermediate and acid rocks. Macdonald (1944) has described extreme effects of solfataric alteration at Kilauea in which basalt was converted to a rock composed largely of opal with perfect preservation of the original fabric. Macdonald noted, in com- parison with other examples of solfataric alteration, that alteration products were similar whatever the original rock type. Much the same thing was noted by Lindgren (1897), who found that in extreme cases of alteration basalts were difficult to distinguish from rhyolites, a convergence which has been stressed by Schwartz (1939, 1950, 1959) and Fenner (1931). The most common types of deuteric alteration, however, are not the result of throughgoing fluids of limitless supply, but rather of volatiles dissolved in the magma of a DEUTERIC ALTERATION OF VOLCANIC ROCKS particular lava flow or intrusion (Sederholm, 1929). The possible effects of similar meta- somatic alteration in volcanic conduits is outside the scope of this study. Some Petrogenetic Implications of Metasomatic Alteration The stage reached by differentiation among related basaltic rocis is usually measured by the ratios (FeO + Fe,O,)/FeO + Fe,O, + MgO) ; Fe,O,/(FeO+Fe,O,); and K,O/(K,0+Na,0) ; see Walker (1953). Because deuteric alteration often causes selective leaching of MgO, oxidation of iron, and increase in the K/Na ratio of basic rocks, changes in these ratios may occur solely through solid state alteration, and the changes may parallel those produced by magmatic differentiation. The effects of alteration on miese ratios are set out in Table IV. It is noteworthy that the magnitude of change is not correlative with degree of alteration. For comparison, the changes in these ratios between dolerite host rock and pegmatite differentiates (Walker, 1953) and among teschenites from various levels of a differentiated sill (Wilkinson, 1958) are set out in the same table. While the changes produced by alteration are somewhat erratic, the same may be said for those attributed to magmatic differentiation, a feature which Walker (1953) attributes to analytical difficulties in determining iron and alkalis. Again, because of bulk composition changes produced by alteration, displacement on standard three-component diagrams illustrating magmatic differentiation may occur and may parallel the changes produced by magmatic differentia- tion. Effects of carbonate alteration when plotted on the (total Fe)-(total alkali)-MgO diagram are shown in Fig. 3, the effects of clay alteration in Fig. 4, and the effects of zeolite-clay- carbonate alteration in Fig. 5. A few reversals FeOr 4O JO we. 7 Fic. 3 Three-component diagram illustrating the effects of 50 No20* K,O carbonate alteration. Altered rock lies at arrow point and is joined to its unaltered equivalent. Numbers correspond to numbers of analyses in Table III. 113 40 ED 40 Wey Fic. 4 Three-component diagram illustrating the effects of clay alteration. Altered rock lies at arrow point and is joined to its unaltered equivalent. Numbers correspond to numbers of analyses in Table III. JO NVa,0*K20O Mg O of normal trends occur, especially among the carbonated rocks, due to strong leaching of alkalis and less extensive leaching of MgO. Fig. 6 illustrates changes among equivalent rocks, all of which are altered, and data from Walker and Poldervaart (1949) and Walker (1953) on dolerite and associated dolerite pegmatites are shown in Fig. 7 for comparison. It seems evident that, in general, alteration is capable of producing pronounced selective changes in composition and in petrologically important ratios. In many _ differentiated intrusions in which relatively fresh exposures are available, this may be deduced from field observations which indicate the abundance of magnesian clays and lime carbonates and zeolites in joints and amygdules (see, for example, Shannon, 1924). These are not con- FeO + fe,O; IO. NYo,0+ KO +0 Biez5 Three-component diagram illustrating the effects of zeolite-clay-carbonate alteration. Altered rock lies at arrow point and is joined to its unaltered equivalent. Numbers correspond to numbers of analyses in Table III. WILSHIRE eine. 114 ‘UoI}eIUaIayIp Jo sa8ejs 10ze] AjaAtssor801d yuesoidos pue jis youl yoer_ oy} ur (Fy S11 0} 91) FUSIOY SUISeaIOUT YIM SOr}eI UT soSuLYO ozeIysHTII (ZZ “d ‘9 BIGeL, ‘ SG6T) PFEP S,WOSUTATIAA ‘aqryeurSed 9}119[0p 0} d}LIE[Op SOY WO} O1VVI UT OSB2IOUI 9}VOIPUI SUSTS + “(og ‘d ‘g a1qeT, { E61) CEP S.AONTEAA IO “woryes0z7e Aq poonpord o1zeI UT aseeIOUT 9}eOIpUT suSis + ‘[]] e1qey wl sosAyeue 0} puodse1109 sIEqUINN x id % SLE ¢-8§ €°GE 9-1 €+GE 9-0€ 6° FE geno op: EAs a ak oli ee . . a oe. © cans Oc (8261) es es ae z OsN+ #04 + OPT 3°68 [-8L PSL 8-69 G69 L-69 €-8¢ eae 8 L 9 g 7 (S I 3 O*°eN+ 0° (eae aoe rea L-OS+ fT G:OL-ao OL LOT 2b sf 9 bo 8 Coir = Gone Ens pete i: ie Pic: a iss .. 'O°%A+Oe% (961) €:01 Gey CCl BOl a HSek te 29-61 agg Phi Ola 9 SCG S261 easieorr Eotoq TONTeM ae Z. * ; . O8W+*O%?A+ 024 ie Set 86S «8st - 8-9 «S-3It 69+ 98:8 LTE G-8It 6-614 8205 ?o%a-+ 08d iZ-0Ce Ole sb I-OL pe Wieslen Pith Cl=lt.) “Ols6 8-L 8-9 c-§ v-€ o-1 Sp td e.69+ 2-0+ 9-PI— 6-6t 8-St @3— 1:8+ I1-SI— F-037r — == Gj Sas G-Oar sGsGl an 0 Oneeen Oe eeee ae on € BB ra) g-1it 9-6et+ 6-eIt eset E:1Z— 0-9F+ BL— 6:BSt O-It 86+ 9-9E+ 6-BI— 1-8— L:9I— 9-BI— 6-BET S-9— ee 8w+*o*%04+ 092 6-9+- 9-9¢+ get Fost E-LIt Pot PHEt 9-Bt BHt LHt GIt T-8It €-Ber g-g+ ¢-e+ ¥-GIt 9-61+ - (ASR Eoaae FP-OF ZH-IP OF-GE SE-LE 9Z-GS FS-E%Z GE-1G OZG6I 8I-LI FI-eI EI-Gl EO ONES 8-L Sees V=6 “4651 soupy junprodumy Ayvaisojoyag uo uoynsaypy fo spa ff AI a319vL DEUTERIC ALTERATION OF VOLCANIC ROCKS 115 Le0+ fe, 0, wie .fO OO 20 “FO. 9°50 <0 WWa,0 +h, 0 JO Mg O Fic. 6 Three-component diagram illustrating the effects of different degrees of alteration on equivalent rocks (each set joined by lines) all of which are altered. Numbers correspond to numbers of analyses in Table III. stitutents which may be expected to concentrate in residual liquids, but they are the ones which are leached from early formed primary minerals in common types of alteration. At the same time it is these constituents which are lost in crystal-liquid processes to move a magma ; 50 Naz,0+ K,0 Fic. 7 Three-component diagram illustrating chemical varia- tion between dolerite pegmatite (arrow point) and host dolerite. along the line of liquid descent, so that in a qualitative way parallelism between the pro- cesses may occur. This feature is important, for it is sometimes contended that alteration has little or no effect on bulk composition (Walker, 1952). Walker set forth a test of his conclusion by showing that an altered rock sequence followed the same differentiation trend as a comagmatic, unaltered basalt and its glassy mesostasis. This could be an adequate test only if alteration had some effect which is not parallel with that of fractional crystal- lization. Because of the apparent absence of olivine and variations in the Fe/Mg and other ratios, Wilkinson (1958, 1959) concluded that badly carbonated feeder dikes to a teschenite intrusion was emplaced at varying stages of differentiation. It seems more likely that the apparent absence of olivine is due to partial destruction of the original fabric, a feature which is not uncommon in carbonate alteration (Day, 1930a). If this were not the case it would be troublesome to justify the loss, by magmatic 611 processes, of olivine from these rocks which are still in the basaltic stage of differentiation, for Wilkinson (1956) contends that olivine has no reaction relation in alkali basalt magmas. The magnitude of the compositional changes, in comparison with the assumed parent magma, is well within the range which may have been produced solely by metasomatic alteration of a normal, undifferentiated teschenite. It is note- worthy that the change in trace elements as well as major elements (Wilkinson, 1959) of the altered dike rock suggests an advanced stage of differentiation. Rutledge (1952) used chemical analyses of rocks showing different types and degrees of alteration as supporting evidence for the presence of different basalt types in a composite intrusion although it is again possible that metasomatic alteration is largely responsible for the chemical variation. The hesitance shown by Rutledge in comparing altered rocks is shared by others and is, in the author’s opinion, well founded. Campbell, Day and Stenhouse (1932, 1934) utilized the normative composition of altered xenolithic rocks as a criterion for establishing the effects of assimilation on dolerite. An analysis of dolerite near quartzose xenoliths shows normative quartz, whereas the chilled margin of the intrusion is undersaturated in the norm. Ina previous study of carbonate alteration (Day and Stenhouse, 1930) it was shown that alteration alone produced an identical change in the norm, and it is possible that in this case carbonate alteration rather than assimilation is responsible for the change or at least contributes toit. Because of the extensive deuteric alteration of the Keewenawan lavas, it seems unlikely that Cornwall’s (19512) calculations of the composition of successive liquid fractions produced by fractional crystal- lization directly reflect the liquid chemistry. The same doubts apply to Edward’s (1938) calculation of the parental magma composition of the Newer Basalt Series of Victoria because basaltic members of this series are characterized by the occurrence of altered olivine. Although changes in petrologically important ratios comparable with those produced by magmatic differentiation may result from altera- tion, there is little in the data presented in the preceding section to suggest that common types of deuteric alteration could change a basic rock to an intermediate or acid one. In carbonate and clay alteration both silica and alkalis are generally leached, although in a few cases these constituents show passive weight percent increases. However, in the presence of alkali-bearing solutions such changes could H. G. WILSHIRE be effected. This conclusion was reached by | Shannon (1924) in respect of quartz-albite rocks which he believed to have formed by deuteric replacement of basic pegmatites. These rocks are the same chemically and mineralogically as others which Shannon considers to be products of magmatic differentiation, and if his con- clusions are correct, complete convergence of the processes is implied. Although the com- position of the altered rock is such that its normative composition may be plotted on the phase diagram representing the nepheline- kaliophilite-silica system, it does not fall in the low temperature trough. However, other rocks of nearly identical mineralogical com- position and which are also thought to have formed by deuteric alteration of basic rocks (Gilluly, 1933) do have normative compositions which plot in the low temperature trough of that system so that this is not, as it is often assumed to be, a reliable criterion for magmatic origin. Much the same conclusions concerning the hydrothermal origin of acid differentiates of diabase sills were reached by Bastin (1935) who, however, appealed to introduction of alkali-bearing solutions from external sources. Fenner (1931) also suggested that hydrothermal processes may produce dike-like bodies of quartzo-feldspathic rocks. Shand (1943, p. 162) stated: ‘“‘Clearly it is not necessary that hydrothermal alteration should affect all parts of an eruptive mass, or all to the same extent. But if some parts are hydrothermally altered and others are not, the results may be indistin- guishable from what has been called ‘ magmatic differentiation ’.”” A very clear statement that chemical changes due to alteration parallel those of fractional crystallization was given by © Neuerburg (1958), and a similar convergence of rocks of originally widely different composition by other types of hydrothermal alteration has been noted by Schwartz (1959) and Macdonald (1944). In alterations of this type it is, of course, no longer a simple matter to designate pairs of rocks as altered and unaltered equi- valents because of the great differences in mineralogy. For the most part it would also appear that pronounced changes in fabric must occur, for simple addition of alkalis and silica will produce no change in the Fe/Mg and Fe?/Fe? ratios, and the accompanying leaching of mafic minerals provides space for out- growths of new minerals. The occurrence of pegmatitic differentiates in flows and intrusions and localization of deuteric alteration in and around these, is generally taken as evidence of pre-consolidation concentration of volatiles so DEUTERIC ALTERATION OF VOLCANIC ROCKS that rapid variations in the original fabric complicates interpretation. In contrast to crystal-liquid processes, the degree of differentia- tion produced by deuteric alteration is largely dependent upon structural controls which permit concentration and subsequent escape of deuteric - fluids carrying dissolved material. Additional problems in classification arise from assuming that alteration has little or no effect on composition. A number of records (Honess and Graeber, 1926; Fox, 1930; Gee, 1932) of peridotite intrusions utilize composition of carbonated rocks as a criterion for classifica- tion as ultrabasic rocks. While the primary minerals of some of these dikes indicate a lamprophyric or more basic composition, leaching of silica from otherwise ordinary basalts by carbonate alteration may produce much the same bulk compositions. Because constituents leached from altered rocks are not in the same proportions as those present in the unaltered rock, it is evident that normative compositions will change. Such observations as Ming-Shan Sun’s (1957) that alteration of olivine occurs in rocks in which modal olivine exceeds normative olivine may be the effect rather than cause of alteration. In some pairs of analyses cited in Table III, the C.I.P.W. norm of the fresh rock is high in undersaturated minerals, while that of its altered equivalent has free silica or a high hypersthene/olivine ratio, normative dif- ferences which characterize alkali basalt and tholeiitic basalt respectively (Yoder and Tilley, 1956). Origin and Composition of Deuteric Solutions Without doubt the dominant constituents of fluids causing deuteric alteration are H,O and CO,. However, some mineralogical character- istics of alteration indicate that these fluids carry dissolved material, probably in consider- able bulk. In part this additional material is picked up during alteration, but in simple types of alteration such as conversion of magnesian olivine to ferruginous clay and alteration of plagioclase to analcite there is evidence that dissolved material is present at the time alteration commences. In fluids of internal origin, the composition may be con- trolled by fractional crystallization during which alkalis, silica, and sometimes iron are concen- trated simultaneously with volatiles. These constituents may, in the early stages of alteration, exert some control over material going into solution, but additions and sub- tractions from the fluids will cause continuous compositional changes. These changes may 117 affect not only primary mineral alteration, but also early formed secondary minerals, as is the case in hydrothermal alteration related to ore deposition (Schwartz, 1939, 1959). Alkali-rich aqueous solutions may also be concentrated independently of crystallization by volatile transfer (Fenner, 1926; Broderick and Hohl, 1935). Kennedy (1955) has pointed out the effects of pressure and temperature on the equilibrium distribution of water and suggested that alkalis may be _ selectively transported with water. While this may be reflected principally in primary minerals in plutonic rocks, such fluids may cause deuteric alteration in rapidly cooled volcanic rocks. Still another mechanism by which aqueous fluids rich in iron and silica may concentrate independently of crystallization is spontaneous splitting of immiscible liquids (Tomkeieff, 1942). At low temperatures the volatile-rich fractions may then cause hydrothermal alteration of the adjacent wall rock. In the case of intrusions it is possible that volatile constituents are derived from the wall rock. There is some tendency to regard CO, as an externally introduced constituent, especially in respect of ‘‘ white trap ”’ intrusions in coal seams, but there are many examples of carbonate alteration where no such immediate source is available (Stark and Behrer, 1936 ; Honess and Graeber, 1926; Wilshire, 1959). It does not seem essential that CO, be con- centrated solely by crystallization of silicates, and independent concentration may cause simultaneous movement of dissolved constituents such as lime. Because these fluids constantly change com- position by reaction with primary minerals, it is not possible to make direct inferences from the composition of interstitial minerals and vesicle filling as to the composition of liquid residues formed by fractional crystallization. Notwithstanding this possibility, amygdule minerals are sometimes referred to as sublimates of residual, volatile-rich liquids. This view is summed up by Amstutz (1958, p. 4), who states, “The minerals filling amygdules have, for a long time, been recognized to be the hydro- thermal rests of the main crystallization ”’’. There are many interpretations opposed to this view (e.g., Fenner, 1910; M’Lintock, 1915; Pecora and Fisher, 1946; Walker, 1951). Amstutz goes on to suggest that rocks composed of many of the common secondary minerals listed above may form by direct crystallization of volatile-rich magmas at low temperatures. While experimental data may be lacking, there 118 are many records of basic pegmatites which have crystallized from volatile enriched liquids. The sequence of events here is much the same as that suggested by Bowen’s and Tuttle’s (1949) work on the system MgO-SiO,-H,O : initial crystallization of anhydrous silicates in spite of a high water content. At low temper- atures there is commonly a _ hydrothermal alteration of these rocks where volatiles are retained. Pre-consolidation concentration of volatiles, as it occurs in basic pegmatites, may provide an explanation of localization of deuteric effects which Bowen (1928, p. 72) considers as evidence opposed to the secondary origin of quartz in acid differentiates of diabase sills. When deuteric processes, if they may be so called, are viewed on a broader scale than the secondary replacements which they may cause, it seems evident that they have other effects of petrogenetic importance. — Post-consolidation movement of interstitial residues as envisioned by Bailey e¢ al. (1924), Fenner (1926, 1931), Butler and Burbank (1929), Gilluly (1933) and Cornwall (19516) carry the implication that rocks from which these fluids were derived have undergone complementary changes in com- position (becoming more basic) by virtue of these losses. That the same thing can _ occur independently of the crystallization history is evident from Tuttle’s and Bowen’s (1958) experimental work, and Drever (1952) has suggested that removal of constituents of zeolitic composition from certain lavas may give an ultrabasic product. On the other hand, volatile loss of iron without alteration as proposed by Fenner (1931) and Hotz (1953) provides an alternative explanation of the lack of Fe enrichment in late differentiates to that of Kennedy (1955), who suggests that PO, is the dominant control and early separation of iron oxides reduces the iron content of residual liquids. By the same token, relative movements and internal redeposition of material gained by alteration of primary minerals and as well material originally present in deuteric fluids may produce significant composition variations within altered rocks (Campbell, Day, and Stenhouse, 1934; Broderick; 1935 ; Butler and Burbank, 1929 ; Schwartz and Sandburg, 1940). an es | References ALLEN, V. T., and ScHEIp, V. E., 1946. Nontronite in. the Columbia River Region. Amer. Miner., 31, 294-312. Amstutz, G. C., 1958. ‘Spilitic rocks. and mineral deposits. Bull. Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy, 96, 1-11. H. G. WILSHIRE BalILey, E. B., AND GRABHAM, G. W:, 1909. -Albitiza- tion of basic plagioclase felspars. Geol. Mag., 6, 250-256. BAILEY, E. B., e¢ al., 1924. Tertiary and post-Tertiary geology of Mull, Loch Aline, and Oban. Mem. Geol. Surv. Scotland. BastTIn,,. E. S., 1935....~ Aplites Gakat hydrothermal origin associated with cobalt-silver ores. con. Geol., 30, 715-734. Bowen, N. L.; 1928. The evolution of the igneous rocks. Dover Publications, Inc., New York. BoweEn, N. L., AnD TUTTLE, O. F., 1949. The system MgO-SiO, AE. O. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 60, 439-460. BrRaDLey, W. F., 1945. Glycol-montmorillonite. Amer. Miner., 30, 704-713. BRODERICK, T. M., 1935. of the Michigan Keweenawan. Differentiation in lavas Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 46, 503-558. BrovErick, T. M., anp Hout, C. D., 1935. Differ- entiation in traps and ore deposition. con. Geol., 30, 301-312. Brown, G., AND STEPHEN, I., 1959. Structural study of iddingsite from New South Wales, Australia. Amer. Miner., 44, 251-260. BROWNE, W. R., 1924. 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Contact-metamorphic effects of Triassic diabase at Safe Harbor, ae Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 66, 191-220. CrLouaH, C. T., et al., 1925. ‘The geology of the Glasgow district. Mem. Geol. Surv. Scotland. Cotony, .R.. J., 1923:. ithe ftinal consolidation phenoma in the crystallization of igneous rock. J. Geol., 31, 169-178. CoRNWALL, H. Fy 195la. Differentiation in magmas of the Keweenawan series. J. Geol., 59, 151-172: CoRNWALL, H. R., 1951b. Differentiation in lavas of the Keweenawan series and the origin of the copper deposits of Michigan. Bull. Geol. 4 Amer., 62, 159-202. Day, T. ce 1925. The Leithies, North Berwick a small laccolite with unusual intrusive phenomena.. Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc., 11, 300-307. ; Day, T. C., 1930a. Chemical analyses of white trap from Dalmeny, Granton, Weak Law and North Berwick. Tvans. Edinburgh — Geol. Soe., 12; 189-194. . Day, T. C., 1930b. Chemical analyses af Knee igneous rocks of east Lothian. Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc., 12, 263-266. 3. VE Etre DEUTERIC ALTERATION OF VOLCANIC ROCKS Day, T. C., and StenNHousE, A. G., 1930. Notes on the Inchcolm anticline. Tvans. Edinburgh Geol. -.- Soc., 12, 236-251. DrEVER, H. I., 1952. The origin of some ultramafic rocks: a preliminary survey of the evidence for and against gravitative accumulation of olivine. ~ Saer. Med. Dansk Geol. For., 12, 227-229. DuscHATKO, R. W., AND POLDERVAART, A., 1955. _Spilitic intrusion near Landron Peak, Socorro County, New Mexico. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 66, 1097-1108 EARLEY, J. W., AND MILNE, I. H., 1956. Regularly interstratified montmorillonite-chlorite in basalt. Proc. 4th Nat’l..Conf..on clays and clay minerals, Pub. 456, 381-384. Epwarps, A. B., 1938. of central Victoria. 94, 243-320. FENNER, C. N., 1910. The Watchung basalt and the paragenesis of its zeolites and other secondary minerals. Annals New York Acad. Sci., 20, 93-187. FENNER, C. N., 1926. The Katmai magmatic province. J. Geol., 34, 673-772. FENNER, C. N., 1931. The residual liquids of crystal- - lizing magmas. Miner. Mag., 22, 539-560. Fenner, C. N., :1936. Bore-hole investigations in Yellowstone Park. jJ. Geol., 44, 225-315. FerRmor, L. L., 1928. On the composition and nomen- clature of chlorophaeite and palagonite, and on the chlorophaeite series. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, 60, 411-430. Fox, C. S., 1914. Note on a dike of white trap from the Pench Valley Coalfield, Chhindwara district, Central Provinces. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, 44, 123-136. Fox, C. S., 1930. The Jharia coalfield. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, 56. GEE, E. R., 1932. The geology and coal resources of the Raniganj coalfield. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, 61. [CILLSON, J. L., 1927. Oreille district of Northern Idaho. 35, 1-31. GILLson, J. L., 1929. On the use of the term deuteric. Econ. Geol., 24, 100-102. GILLULY, J., 1933. Replacement origin of the albite granite near Sparta, Oregon. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 175-C. HEMLEyY, J. J., 1959. Some mineralogical equilibria in the system K,O-AI,0,-SiO,-H,O. Amer. J. Sct., 257, 241-270. HENDRICKS, S. B., and Ross, C. S., 1941. The Tertiary volcanic rocks Quart. J. Geol. Soc. London, Granodiorites in the Pend J. Geol., Chemical composition and genesis of glauconite and celadonite. Amer. Miner., 26, 683-708. Honsss, A. P., and GRAEBER, C. K., 1926. Petrology of the mica peridotite dike at Dixonville, Pennsyl- vania. Amer. J. Sci., 12, 484-493. Hotz, P. E., 1953. Petrology of granophyre in diabase near Dillsburg, Pennsylvania. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 64, 675-704. KENNEDY, G. C., 1955. Some aspects of the role of water in rock melts. Geol. Soc. Amer. Special Paper 62, 489-503. LarsEN, E. S., AND PARDEE, J. T., 1929. The stock of alkaline rocks near Libby, Montana. //. Geol., 37, 97-112. Lzeitu, C. K., anp MrEap, W. J., 1915. Metamorphic geology. Henry Holt and Co., New York. LINDGREN, W., 1897. The mining districts of the Idaho basin. Pt. 3, 617-744, I U.S. Geol, Surv., 18th Ann. Rept., _ 119 LINDGREN, W., 1900. Metasomatic processes in fissure-veins. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 30, 578-692. LINDGREN, W., 1925. Metasomatism. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 36, 247-262. LINDGREN, W., AND RANSoME, F. L., 1906. Geology and gold deposits of the Cripple Creek district, Colorado. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 54. LovERING, T. S., 1957. Halogen-acid alteration of ash at fumarole No. 1, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Alaska. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 68, 1585-1604. MACDONALD, G. A., rocks at Kilauea volcano. 496-505. MAcKENnNZzZIE, R. C., 1958. 1944. Solfataric alteration of Amer. J. Sct., 242, Saponite from Allt Ribheim, Fiskavaig Bay, Skye. Miner. Mag., 31, 672-680. MING-SHAN SuN, 1957. The nature of iddingsite in some basaltic rocks of New Mexico. Amer. Miner., 42, 525-533. M’Lintock, W. F. P., associated minerals around Ben More, Edinburgh, 51, 1-34. MUILENBURG, G. A., and GoLpIcH, S. S., 1933. Petro- graphy and petrology of the Mount Devon diabase porphyry. Amer. J. Sct., 26, 355-367. NEUERBURG, G. J., 1958. Deuteric alteration of some aplite-pegmatites of the Boulder Batholith, Montana, and its possible significance to ore deposition. Econ. Geol., 53, 287-299. OSBORNE, F. F., 1929. On the use of the term deuteric, a reply. Econ. Geol., 24, 335-336. Peacock, M. A., and FULLER, R. E., 1938. Chloro- phaeite, sideromelane and palagonite from the Columbia River Plateau. Amer. Miner., 13, 360-382. PEcorA, W. T., AND FISHER, B., 1946. Drusy vugs in a monzonite dike, Bearpaw Mountains, Montana. Amer. Miner., 31, 370-385. PRIDER, R. T., and Coie, W. F., 1942. The alteration products of olivine and leucite in the leucite- lamproites from the West Kimberley area, Western Australia. Amer. Miner., 27, 373-384. RiIcHARDS, H. C., 1922. An unusual rhyolite from the Blackall Range, south-eastern Queensland. Pyvoc. Roy. Soc. Qid., 34, 195-208. Ross, C. S., 1928. Physico-chemical factors controlling magmatic differentiation and vein formation. Econ. 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The geochemistry of a differentiated teschenite sill near Gunnedah, New South Wales. Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, 16, 123-150. WILSHIRE, H. G., 1958. Alteration of olivine and orthopyroxene in basic lavas and_ shallow intrusions. Amer. Miner., 43, 120-147. WILSHIRE, H. G., 1959. Contact metamorphism adjacent to a teschenite intrusion. J. Geol. Soc. Australia, 6, 11-20. YovpER, H. S., JNR., AND TILLEY, C. E., 1956. Primitive magmas. Ybk. Carnegie Inst., Washington, 55, 168-171. Karroo Buil. AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL. PUBLISHING CO. LTD. SEAMER AND ARUNDEL STS., GLEBE, SYDNEY “Notice t to “Authors : ae ee RUE oh “Mould: be. sdpeiced references Relerencee are to be pile in: 168, ‘Ro oyal Society’ of. “the text by giving the author’s name and me House, 157 Gloucester year of publication, e.g.: Vick (1934) ; USES copies. of each manuscript _ the end of the’ ‘paper they should be peed : the’ oral ey ene a. alphabetically. giving the author's name and ie: initials, the year of publication, the title of the n> repared. according to. the paper (if desired), the abbreviated title of the in this Journal, ‘They See volume number and pages, thus : | at ossible, consistent with , oN Pence tin - Viex, C.G., 1984. Astr. Nach., 253, 277. : ‘ ‘darity of Pe pieonOn’ and = The abbreviated form NS the title of this journal ie Se haigk Cee fy, Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. 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Nee oreeehss could be. in- ommencement of each paper _ lgaed only where essential, should be glossy, im Goa and. for use in preferably mounted on white card, and should ; show as much contrast as possible. Particular -attention Should be paid to contrast in photo- — ~ graphs of distant peat eed and of et | Pe ects. e _ Whenever Heecible ye ine. or ‘photographic ; “copies of each diagram should be sent so that the originals need not be sent to referees, thus. eliminating | possible damage’ to the diagrams ter in the mail. ae | 7 EP ecntsien on. The’ printed oe Le Gee ia Soe | not _ be Satce in. Reprints. uhors” ‘receive “BO copies of “each, Paper free. Additional copies, may be 1959-1960. ee EXCELLENCY THE GovERNOR-GENERAL OF ‘THE Cononoxws alts _ Eee Mapepse ‘Sir ‘WILLIAM S | ME) ge His enim Be Senet ’ New Sours Wares ms | LagureNAws-Genenat SIR ERIC. W. WOODWARD, EOE send CB ty M+ ¥ . Reis? yu age Sha ‘ Te a ely 7, fey aan es as 2 he ¢ 4 : f "4 HLA Ae es MO es Yr aaa EN. fd J. Li ‘GRIFFITH, ee Me sce ete ee aka 7 ge Ss D. “McCARTH -'Vice-Presidents ” Hon, Secretaries PS ee A AL Ep We KER, D.Se., Ph.D. ies HGF HARRIS, Ph.D., B.Sc 5 he oo Biers . Philosophical Society a ees to nt ic | Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. 121-126, 1959-60 Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory During 1957 and 1958 W. H. ROBERTSON (Received 8 October, 1959) The programme of precise observations of selected minor planets which was begun in 1955 is being continued and the results for 1957 and 1958 are given here. The methods of observation and reduction were described in the previous paper (Robertson, 1958). All the plates were taken with the 9-inch camera by Taylor, Taylor and Hobson (scale 116” to the millimeter). Four exposures were made on each plate. In Table I are given the means for all four images for the separate groups of stars at the mean of the times. The differences between the results average 08-023 sec 6 in right ascension and 0”-27 in declination. This corresponds to probable errors for the mean of the two results from one plate of 08-010 sec § and 0”°11. The result from the first two exposures was compared with that from the last two by adding the movement computed from the ephemeris. TABLE I R.A. Dec, Parallax No (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors h m S ° ’ u" s a 2 Pallas 1957 U.T. 115 Sep. 4-74962 3 02 19-597 — 7 41 47-50 —0:009 —3-86 §S 116 Sep. 4-74962 3 02 19-622 — 7 41 47-00 117 Sep. 12-73266 3 04 55-428 —9 51 19-48 +0:001 —3:-56 W 118 eps 12: 73266 3 04 55:444 —9 51 19-44 119 Sep: 17-71894 3 05 47-046 —ll 18 03-20 —0:001 —3-35 R 120. Sep. 17-71894 3 05 47-006 —ll 18 03-40 121 Oct. 1:-68390 3 04 49-095 —15 36 28-90 +0:011 —2:-73 W H2. Oct. 1-68390 3 04 49-118 —15 36 29-04 123 Oct. 3:°68174 3 04 16-152 —l16 14 13-90 +0:023 —2-64 W 24, ‘Oct. 3°68174 3 04 16-119 —l6 14 13:46 125 Oct. 8-65829 3 02 27:°978 —l17 47 40-54 —0:002 —2-41 R 126 Oct. 8° 65829 3.02 27-974 —l17 47 40-94 127 Oct. 16- 63572 2 58 21-508 —20 12 25-68 +0:002 —2:-05 §S m8. Oct. 16- 63572 2 58 21-555 —20 12 26-22 129 Oct. 21-63200 2 55 06-606 —21 37 13-35 +0:042 —1-:85 W 130;, Oct. 21-63200 2 55 06:-620 —21 37 13-49 131 Oct: 31-59012 2 47 30-568 —24 05 08-07 +0:012 —1:47 R hol Oct: 31-59012 2 47 30°536 —24 05 07-79 133 Nov. 11-56018 2 38 23-939 —26 05 32-14 +0:034 —1-17 W 134 Nov. 11-56018 2 38 23-948 —26 05 32-18 135 Nov. 14-54166 2 30 158" VeZ —26 29 30-34 +0:004 —Il1-1l1 W 136 Nov. 14-54166 2 35 58-130 —26 29 30-33 137 Nov. 20-52619 2 31 20-396 —27 05 51-61 +0:019 —1-02 R 138. Nov. 20-52619 2 31 20°388 —27 05 51-46 6 Hebe 19 St Wx. 139° ‘June 6- 78704 22 09 24-262 — 6 31 12-72 —0:025 —4:-01 S 140 June 6: 78704 22 09 24-278 — 6 31 12:61 141 June 25- 76693 22 25 45-678 — 6 38 24-62 +0:038 —4:00 S 142 June 25: 76693 22 25 45-659 — 6 38 24-45 143 July 3: 74996 22 30 26-896 — 7 05 438-56 +0:043 —3:94 W 144 July 3: 74996 22 30 26-902 — 7 05 43-48 122 W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE I—continued R.A. Dec. Parallax No. (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors h m S [e} / uv S nw 6 Hebe 1957 U.T. 145 July 4-74728 220s) DO ToD — 7 10 19-42 +0:042 —3 146 July 4-74728 22 30 55-774 — 7 10 19-51 147 July 10-71980 22. 33° 17-698 — 7 43 46-99 +0:002 —3-: 148 July 10-71980 22733 24 — 7 43 47-32 149 July 24- 69764 22) aa 01290 — 9 43 58-40 +0:049 —3: 150 July 24- 69764 22 35 07:340 — 9 43 58-34 151 Aug. 8-64983 22) ail, ‘Od-959 —l12 55 20-01 +0:036 —3: 152 Aug. 8-64983 22 31 05-892 —12 55 21-06 153 Aug. 13-61770 22), 28 footie —14 09 48-94 +0°016 —2: 154 Aug. 13-61770 22° 28 \.33-148 —1l14 09 48-58 155 Aug. 20-59405 22) 2490 2b —15 59 04-56 —0:022 —2 156 Aug. 20:59405 22) 24° 112°536 —15 59 04-72 157 Sep. 3°55187 22 14 19-549 —19 33 20-76 —0:013 —2: 158 Sep. 3°55187 22 14 19-534 —19 33 21-05 159 Sep. 4-56434 22 Vo por ood —19 47 44-08 +0:039 —2- 160 Sep. 4-56434 22? Va ST +552 —19 47 44-41 161 Sep. 12-52888 22 08 36-134 —21 31 43-10 +0:005 —l: 162 Sep. 12-52888 22 08 36°134 —21 31 43-11 163 Sep. 17°50876 22 06 04-374 —22 27 00-10 —0-010 —l- 164 Sep. 17-50876 22 06 04-373 —22 26 59-08 165 Sep. 27:-47874 22 03 01-018 —23 51 39-35 —0-:012 —l- 166 Sep. 27-47874 22 03 00-992 —23 51 39-72 167 Sep. 30-46855 22 02 42-774 —24 10 01-85 —0:018 —l 168 Sep. 30:°46855 22 02 42-800 —24 10 02:52 169 Oct 11:°46335 22 04 3-172 —24 50 47-86 +0:062 —I: 170 @ct 11-46335 22 04 13-150 —24 50 47-67 171 Oct. 31-40772 22 17 “03-670 —24 29 24-06 +0:028 —l: 172 Oct. 31-40772 22° 17% (03-708 —24 29 23-69 7/3 Nov. 1-41251 22 18 01-182 —24 25 30-33 +0:028 —l1: 174 Nov. 1-41251 22 18 O1-152 —24 25 30-50 7 Iris 1957 U.T. 175 Mar. 26- 76714 16 47 26-820 —25 12 45-90 —0:006 —l- 176 Mar. 26: 76714 16 47 26-838 —25 12 45-78 177 Apr. 9-72911 16 48 17-816 —25 10 35-92 —0:012 —l- 178 Apr. 9-72911 16 48 17-786 —25 10 35-56 179 Apr. 24-70490 16 43 21-688 —24 54 33-93 +0:060 —l1: 180 Apr. 24- 70490 16 43 21-720 —24 54 34-02 181 Apr. 29-67279 16 40 24-348 —24 45 35-06 +0:005 —lI- 182 Apr. 29°67279 16 40 24-393 —24 45 35-22 183 May 6:66182 16 35 15°205 —24 29 33-52 +0:045 —l 184 May 6-66182 1G 635 toe 247 —24 29 33-82 185 May 16: 62499 16 26 18-032 —23 59 43-20 +0:033 —l1 186 May 16: 62499 16 26 17-983 —23 59 43-44 187 May 2359842 16 19 17-498 —23 34 20-43 +0:024 —I] 188 May 23-59842 16 #19 17-502 —23 34 20-54 189 May 29-57656 16 13 05-352 —23 10 11-70 +0:020 —l- 190 May 29:-57656 16 13 05:°432 —23 10 12-36 191 June 25-48408 15 49 05-691 —21 15 39-82 +0:013 —l- 192 June 25-48408 15 49 05-637 —21 15 39-81 ; 193 July 3°46770 15 44 42-477 —20 47 23-78 +0:041 —lI- 194 July 3°46770 15 44 42-491 —20 47 23-60 195 July 10-43990 15 42 14-030 —20 27 09-22 +0:019 —2 196 July 10-43990 15 42 14-071 —20 27 08-62 197 July 15°41917 15 41 15-430 —20 15 30-68 —0:003 —2 198 July 15°41917 15 41 15-438 —20 15 30-66 199 July 26: 40052 15 41 23-680 —19 58 27-32 +0:034 —2 200 July 26: 40052 15 41 23-702 —l19 58 27-12 201 Aug. 2°37711 15 43 04-046 —19 53 39-07 +0:016 —2: 202 Aug. 2-37711 15 43 04-028 —19 53 38-89 . 203 Aug. 9-35900 15 45 53-432 —19 53 07-92 +0:013 —2 204 Aug. 9- 35900 15 45 53-465 —19 53 07-24 Df Oi a ie ee ee a eee ae SO ee eS PRECISE OBSERVATIONS OF MINOR PLANETS AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY 123 No. 115 116 117 118 119 120 May May May May May May June June July July July July July July July July July July July July Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Sep. Sep. Sep: Sep: SED. Sep. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Star 689 696 710 683 704 706 695 714 704 692 709 712 698 709 717 693 712 714 11 Parthenope 1958 U.T. 5. 5: We 1:9) Pit hse 27° Li Tae -67101 -67101 -64721 -64721 -63379 -63379 -61367 -61367 -59139 -59139 -57907 -57907 *55815 -55815 -53160 -53160 -50490 -50490 -46866 -46866 -44142 °44142 *42499 -42499 -40525 -40525 - 38499 - 38499 80119 80119 77354 77354 76276 76276 70183 70183 Depend. -357658 -381930 - 260411 - 336287 -291383 -372330 » 245833 *420474 - 333692 - 192390 -429732 -377878 - 295968 -341056 - 362975 + 245485 -461716 - 292798 qooocococoocoooqoooooo°odo h 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 19 8) 19 19 19 19 19 19 A) 19 20: 20 20 20 TABLE I—continued R.A. (1950-0) m Ss Dike Padi 17- 17- Outs (G 44- 44- 23° 23° 32: 32° 13: 13- 49- 49- 56: 56: Dike PaTe 44- 44- 55: 55- 31 31- 10- 10: 32- 32° 11 11 45- 45- 58: 58: 408 405 986 926 994 964 706 726 122 130 380 399 570 566 695 755 572 534 568 569 148 152 414 350 -966 967 350 352 882 897 -740 -734 906 916 316 266 TABLE II 38-99 18-92 24-86 31-03 52°61 06-1 19-36 E92 52-61 48-26 01-96 15-1 52-1 01-96 07-59 09-07 13-7 9 No. 124 125 126 Star 812 815 834 805 820 843 799 810 838 805 809 831 794 828 854 814 852 810 -42 -69 On -60 -57 -48 -20 -58 -12 04 -76 -90 -56 -56 -22 oe) -73 has -30 -80 -72 -62 ori 04 ‘ll -89 -28 °12 -60 -76 -98 -44 -60 -08 -27 18 40- 22 Depends SOO e Sooo eeeeeS -491168 - 287916 - 220915 -427824 -301061 -271115 - 284473 -395817 -319710 - 308296 - 390226 -301478 - 295657 - 247206 -457136 -343803 -344413 -311784 Parallax Factors Ss —0-017 —0-010 +0-015 —0-005 +0-040 +0-025 +0-066 +0-055 —0-006 +0-019 +0-060 +0-027 +0-012 +0-019 +0-019 +0-031 +0-056 +0-032 37-823 07-735 21-624 56-312 44-980 26-141 11-690 26-261 59° 587 56-312 12-116 02-667 01-252 48-804 35-051 ” 48-143 14-499 26-261 Se ee ee, ee ee i ee 124 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 Star 799 810 832 807 808 839 790 810 1354 789 807 1371 1279 1282 1316 1256 1301 1309 1183 1231 1235 1202 1203 1234 998 1041 1203 1004 1198 1235 965 982 1178 973 995 1165 7940 7957 7969 7937 7956 7974 8010 8029 8045 8014 8022 8048 8031 8048 8058 8028 8039 8066 8039 8048 8060 8031 8050 8058 8045 | 8065 8078 8052! > 8054"! 8077.8: Depend. - 262296 -408063 - 329640 *252115 -567175 - 180710 *275155 - 344120 -380725 - 323612 -331896 344492 384208 > 262472 * 353321 -277898 -498286 - 223816 -357327 - 274704 - 367968 - 246742 -419014 334244 326942 202966 -470092 -507902 - 289276 * 202822 - 202736 -410409 - 386855 - 160524 - 389796 -449680 -316232 -402090 - 281678 - 245208 -482918 -271874 -454466 - 174638 -370896 - 288110 -409778 -302112 -274490 ~ -415684 | - 309825 - 166152 -370076 -463772 - 247520 -425922 -326558 - 252154 -463806 - 284040 -457703 » 251828 - 290470 * 278657 -475086 -246257) - -956 -870 -506 -618 -879 -139 -688 *818 -506 -389 -830 -990 -165 -335 »144 -249 -886 -504 -741 -839 -560 “311 -741 ‘531 -422 -886 -313 -849 - 236 * 322 -991 Od: -417 -966 -829 -552 *337 -566 -716 - 240 -023 -913 -953 -936 - 164: -936° -137 “159° -074 -559 -074 - 936° -434 - 164: -039° -137) -023° -030' -446 > 381° -945 - -468_ W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE II—continued “ No. Star Depend. R.A Dec; S “ 149 8063 0-409242 05-698 29-73 7974 0-210648 01-012 50-24 7988 0-380110 50-384 45-47 150 7963 0- 248982 28-678 00-78 7986 0-393375 19-543 47-22 8076 0-357643 20-076 42-99 151 7940 0- 298256 02-284 40-88 7985 0-388566 31-341 42-64 8403 0-313179 29-611 15-90 152 7942 0-305408 06-363 13-87 7990 0-335032 03-393 10-46 8401 0- 359560 55-871 10-25 153 7924 0- 369976 55:476 57:41 8393 0-307160 41-407 25-52 8413 0- 322864 32-740 43-78 154 8385 0-303214 01-096 24°17 8403 0- 264167 29-612 15-90 8405 0-432618 45-325 34:40 155 8353 0-415240 40-825 15-85 8388 0-353836 51-985 54°15 8397 0- 230924 17-314 25°53 156 8358 0- 276522 51-482 09-96 8373 0-367856 18-782 22-75 8394 0- 355622 45-162 14-23 157 9452 0-334629 00-736 28-82 9463 0-351978 26-728 35:07 9482 0-313393 47-250 19-56 158 9447 0-304921 36-134 48-42 9468 0-302536 49-233 44-31 9478 0-392542 04-058 53°50 159 9426 0- 232342 30-792 01-84 9483 0-436164 07-006 10-36 9452 0-331494 00-736 28-82 160 9447 0-402427 36-093 48-81 9465 0-395346 33-403 17-73 9482 0- 202227 47-250 19-56 161 9410 0-324466 52-391 13-78 9449 0-389572 42-933 52:20 15124 0- 285962 36-006 21-10 162 15095 0- 294020 04-537 16-59 15132 0-310246 07-497 53-45 9440 0-395734 01-263 14-44 163 15095 0- 360084 04-530 16-53 15097 0-356161 13-522 33°98 15122 0- 283755 24-547 41-17 164 15073 0-403159 06-949 16-56 15110 0- 262141 05-281 33-84 15129 0-334700 01-670 59°28 165 15057 0-306740 27-483 17-87 15074 0- 254261 21-353 14-09 15096 0-439000 11-363 51-36 166 15071 0-379078 01-658 22-13 15075 0- 388466 31-526 52°35 15098 0- 232456 27-104 39-51 167 15071 0-484754 01-658 22°13 15074 0-311282 21-353 14-09 15092 0- 203963 53-279 24-98 168 15054 0- 302394 24-712 29-92 15063 0- 206825 01-955 42-91 15098 0-490780 27-104 39-51 169 15069 0- 239541 55:297 45-79 15074 0-418460 21-353 14-10 15117 0-341999 06-793 38-97 170 15063 0- 430349 01-957 42-92 15092 0-351360 53-280 24-98 15127 0- 218291 26-021 05-88 PRECISE OBSERVATIONS OF MINOR PLANETS AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY 125 TaBLe Il—continued No. Star Depend. IRieNs Dec No. Star Depend. R.A. Dec. iS) ff Ss uw 171 15166 0-329404 45-242 29-98 193 6503 0- 202064 24-717 41-15 15187 0:374928 59-831 02-45 6526 0: 362360 59-688 53°88 15194 0- 295668 27-483 05-09 6540 0:435575 27-220 58°31 172 15152 0- 128188 31-071 22-71 194 6496 0-344242 18-108 54-70 15179 0-594178 42-861 49-16 6564 0: 240518 37-049 19-34 15200 0: 277634 54-223 42-88 6532 0-415240 46-202 42-48 173 15179 0-352594 42-861 49-16 195 6500 0-314532 57-597 15-70 15180 0-371720 53° 654 27°58 6503 0: 250754 24-717 41-17 15209 0: 275686 11-955 32-49 6524 0-434714 55° 787 14-55 174 = 15166 0-381772 45-242 29-98 196 6483 0+ 202702 28-781 32-57 15187 0-329904 59-831 02-45 6534 0-315568 51-220 59-40 15216 0: 288324 22-042 30-29 6508 0:481730 52-239 48-18 175 11610 0- 220045 31-632 55°83 197 6498 0: 422644 31-011 26-69 11647 0-357503 44-745 39-41 6503 0-335392 24-717 41-17 11655 0-422452 42-588 57-31 6529 0: 241964 28-410 33°27 176 ~=11608 0- 272920 18-983 03-44 198 6483 0- 227702 28-781 32°57 11615 0-302423 11-153 02-53 6523 0- 247442 36-017 47°81 11683 0-424656 03-861 27-72 6505 0-524857 19-351 49-20 177 11610 0- 266289 31-632 55-83 199 6486 0-375398 56-442 59-16 11655 0-351240 42-588 57-31 6527 0:414402 01-064 10-08 11679 0-382470 32-862 17-26 6503 0- 210200 24-717 41-18 178 =: 11627 0: 405502 22-000 06-27 200 6483 0- 220463 28-781 32-58 11647 0- 305920 44-745 39-41 6502 0: 439392 12-138 38-33 11691 0- 288577 35-956 58-67 6529 0-340145 28-379 31-69 179 11571 0-310416 59-929 21-86 201 6498 0-376945 31-011 26-70 11608 0-490488 18-983 03-44 6533 0-332124 45-323 47-90 11625 0- 199095 15-327 18-10 6523 0- 290930 36-017 47-81 180 =11563 0- 223474 06-456 29°47 202 6500 0- 253177 57:°597 15-70 11585 0: 287420 32-570 04-97 6517 0: 366027 16-911 39-87 11627 0-489106 22-000 06-27 6524 0-380796 55-769 13-00 181 11566 0-446512 30-921 19-49 203 6517 0:387980 16-911 39-87 11571 0-385698 59-929 21-86 6524 0: 345833 55-769 13-00 11604 0-167791 42-812 43-49 6566 0- 266187 57-708 02-63 182 =: 11555 0-347766 16-805 26-76 204 6527 0-371112 01-064 10-08 11556 0- 225896 16-445 56:85 6529 0: 290470 28-379 31-70 11611 0° 426339 37-584 27-94 6544 0-338418 12-390 43-70 183 11525 0: 259098 52-714 52-91 205 7627 0-319437 08-184 53-07 11528 0-382914 15-925 02-31 7641 0: 323630 16-690 19-39 11563 0-357988 06-456 29-47 7678 0° 356933 29-563 49-41 184 11516 0: 172256 09-845 49-45 206 7634 0- 290048 27-156 20-04 11544 0-556158 31-907 59-64 7658 0- 268834 32-770 06-49 11555 0-271585 16-805 26-76 7664 0-441118 43-230 54-54 185 11462 0-334146 12-919 05-83 207 7712 0:333558 21-320 04-48 11500 0-397187 30-987 45-4] 7734 0-461184 33-241 22°33 11512 0- 268666 49-872 19-63 7761 0+ 205258 30-272 02-26 186 11454 0- 236876 49-728 46-98 208 7708 0-358492 14-424 46-48 11492 0-396906 43-467 22-35 7742 0- 292004 33-398 32-28 11510 0-366218 02-041 26-29 7755 0-349503 25-473 30-93 187 11418 0: 359238 47-413 28-13 209 7740 0: 270370 29-893 59-55 11466 0- 363886 25-886 24-46 7761 0- 346669 30-272 02-26 11470 0- 276876 17-744 02-39 7783 0° 382960 49-624 53-30 188 11423 0- 273858 19-703 42-45 210 7732 0- 211504 15-760 49-13 11454 0- 222490 49-728 46-98 7773 0-312798 07-568 52-50 11462 0- 503652 12-919 05-83 7775 0:475698 17-684 51-02 189 11392 0° 435562 36-979 23-59 211 7769 0- 368824 56-842 14-47 11396 0- 192573 09-274 05-63 7801 0° 282902 15-931 08-20 11422 0-371864 17-721 16-66 7802 0-348275 28-809 57°57 190 §=11377 0-379146 56-061 08-11 212 Cecil 0-327470 04-582 14-53 11418 0- 243362 47-413 28-13 7789 0: 403484 27-702 22-23 11421 0-377492 09-732 01-65 7813 0: 269047 25-288 07°31 191 6534 0-418831 51-220 59-40 213 7724 0-405917 25-851 39-39 6561 0-340184 25-481 24-31 7775 0-314932 17-684 51-02 6579 0- 240984 51-229 56°37 8849 0-279151 51-297 16-87 192 6543 0- 238212 00-768 22-03 214 7745 0- 408790 44-671 14-36 6555 0-336562 38-839 09-88 7761 0-390642 30-273 02-26 6564 0-425227 37-049 19-34 8837 0- 200568 33-334 16-55 126 W. H. ROBERTSON TaBLE Il—continued No. Star Depend. R.A Dec: S u 215 7704 0- 302567 33° 390 58-06 7745 0- 356184 44-671 14-36 8813 0-341248 46-323 03-26 216 7713 0- 256014 34-490 59-82 7737 0: 435256 23°427 15-90 8801 0- 308730 33-310 07-34 217 8742 0- 359842 20-719 35°95 8767 0- 270846 10-239 18-51 8770 0- 369312 21-898 49-79 218 8746 0: 231967 39-841 03-25 8750 0-400744 07-528 38-00 8775 0: 367289 24-927 55-08 219 8696 0: 345200 52-760 55-50 8699 0- 205396 25-039 52-39 8752 0: 449404 11-695 51-65 220 8715 0- 335752 57-481 35-52 8718 0:444686 05-247 14-57 8746 0-219561 39-841 03-25 221 8686 0- 210370 26-948 08-84 8719 0-522189 09-205 58-95 8732 0- 267441 16-882 22-80 222 8694 0- 261560 41-704 10-01 8696 0°373704 52-760 55:50 8746 0- 364736 39-841 03-25 223 8654 0- 380492 57-924 29-39 8692 0-390597 35-370 49-72 8664 0-228911 15-736 33-69 224 8652 0-375272 53-460 54-31 8675 0- 368400 49-307 51-68 8694 0- 256328 41-704 10-01 225 8578 0:324762 17-607 43-21 8614 0-355030 26-776 05-77 8636 0-320207 25-906 15-75 226 8594 0- 140754 50-554 37-83 8607 0- 666234 33-623 12-75 8624 0- 193012 43-788 55-72 227 8566 0-395988 50-748 51-66 8573 0- 260460 16-559 50-61 8617 0+ 343552 43-733 43-29 The means of the differences were 08-010 sec 5 in right ascension and 0”-12 in declination. No correction has been applied for aberration, light time or parallax but the factors give the parallax correction when divided by the distance. In accordance with the recommendation of Commission 20 of the International Astronomical Union, Table II gives for each observation the positions of the reference stars and the dependences. The columns headed ‘ R.A.” and “ Dec.” give the seconds of time and arc with proper motion correction applied to No. Star Depend. R.A Dee, S “ 228 8569 0- 306325 36°144. 43:65 8572 0-344500 12-679 08-64 8609 0-349175 39-248 54-17 229 8538 0- 288950 34-686 26:61 8547 0- 259974 04-085 59-90 8573 0-451077 16-560 50-61 230 8528 0- 246828 11-107 10-22 8566 0-325250 50-748 51-66 13923 0-427922 02-551 39-64 231 13835 0+ 285335 23-307 -|, 43°74 13907 0- 266321 36-163 16-22 8517 0-448344 40-901 18-92 232 13840 0-440737 41-566 35:81 13888 0: 254664 43-270 10-64 8528 0- 304600 11-107 10-23 233 13840 0- 358773 41-566 35-81 13865 0- 216972 54-398 21-17 13879 0-424255 55-940 07-30 234 13819 0-304146 52-135 02-95 13886 0- 363534 40-737 52°55 8538 0: 332320 34-686 26-62 235 13879 0-374758 55-940 07-30 13890 0- 320736 52-442 59-25 13916 0-304505 05-442 03-35 236 13874 0-350318 16-847 41-44 13899 0- 272005 42-762 12-34 13907 0:-377677 36-163 16-22 237 13945 0-325172 53-480 38-04 13968 0- 273861 03-468 02-63 13996 0- 400966 34-480 42-47 238 13955 0-304714 21-362 04-07 13978 0- 269255 55-550 22-60 13982 0- 426030 40-421 07-32 239 13983 0- 245098 40-576 18-97 14027 0-537996 02-034 02-98 14036 0- 216907 11-042 43-09 240 13982 0- 252252 40-421 07-32 14039 0- 398216 41-136 06-05 8632 0: 349531 58-622 11-51 bring the catalogue position to the epoch of the plate. The column headed “ Star” gives the number from the Yale Catalogue (Vols. 11, 12 I, 12 II, 13 I, 13 II, 14, 16). A number of the plates were measured by Mrs. M. A. Wilson, who also assisted in the reductions. Reference RoBeErRTSON, W. H., 1958. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 92, 18; Sydney Observatory Papers No. 33. Sydney Observatory Sydney Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. 127-136, 1959-60 The Geology of the Parish of Mumbil, near Wellington, N.S.W. D2-L, STRUSZ (Received November 27, 1959) ABsTRACT—The detailed stratigraphy and structure of an area of some 30 square miles south of Wellington, N.S.W., is described, accompanied by a geological map. In the light of the new information the previous conceptions of the geology of the Wellington district are re- assessed. Joplin’s Middle Silurian ‘‘ Nanima Formation ”’ is shown to consist of two formations, one Ordovician and the other on the Siluro-Devonian boundary, and it is therefore suggested that it be discarded. Introduction The area discussed in this paper comprises some 30 square miles in the Parish of Mumbil, County Wellington, and a part of the Parish of Narragal, County Gordon (Fig. 1). It lies east of the Great Western Highway, and for the most part north and east of the Bell River. The town of Wellington, which is 8 miles north-northwest of the area, is 250 miles by road west-northwest of Sydney. Relatively little geological work has been carried out in this region. Matheson (1930) published a paper on the Wellington district, but his conclusions (particularly about the Lower Palaeozoic) have been considerably altered by later workers. Basnett and Colditz (1945) established a stratigraphic succession, based on work to the north and northeast of Wellington. Knowledge of the regional geology of the Orange-Wellington strip then was very limited: Joplin -et al. (1952) published a reconnaissance compilation of this region, relying mainly on previous work, but detail was still lacking. Since 1952, the stratigraphy of the Orange region has become known in considerable detail, especially the relationships of the Ordovician and later rocks. Joplin, following Basnett and Colditz, considered that the large belts of andesitic rocks between Orange and Wellington were Middle Silurian, and called them the Nanima Formation. Work at Orange and to the south (Stevens and Packham, 1952 ; Packham, in press) showed that the andesitic rocks there were Ordovician, and it was tentatively inferred that the same applied to the north. However, detailed mapping under- taken by the author during 1958, and outlined in this paper, revealed that these rocks fall into two distinct groups—the major one being Ordovician, while the other, whose full extent is as yet unknown, lies on the Silurian-Devonian boundary. For this reason, and to avoid confusion, it is felt advisable to discard the Middle Silurian ‘“‘ Nanima Formation’. This follows also because the work was not done in the type area, north of Wellington. 128 TABLE I. Formations, etce Thickness TOLGA CALCARENITE 700 ft. |Foesiliferous calcarenite, CUGA BURGA VOLCANICS 2100 ft. IL BARNBY HILLS Shale Member ? wae MUMB FORMATION DD LYSTRUSZ calcilutite Keratophyre & quartz keratophyre lavas, tuffs, & detritus Horize of red shale (300 ft.) Horize of Me bohemicus NARRAGAL up to , Limestone Member| 500 ft. Massive & bedded limestone OAKDALE FORMATION over 2500 fte The purpose of this paper, then, is to outline the stratigraphy of the Mumbil area, and to discuss briefly its bearing on the Orange- Wellington region. The rich coral fauna has been described in a separate paper (Strusz, in press). Acknowledgements This work forms part of a thesis presented for an honours degree at the University of Sydney. I would like to thank Professor C. E. Marshall for providing facilities within the Geology Department. Dr. G. H. Packham gave much help during the year, including the discovery of the Ordovician and Silurian grapto- lites. He and Dr. H. G. Wilshire were of great assistance in the preparation of this paper. Stratigraphy The rocks in the Mumbil area have been placed in four formations, varying in age from Upper Ordovician to Lower or Middle Devonian. These formations are summarized in Table I; thickness, where given, is approximate. In the following text, specimen numbers are those of the collections of the Geology Depart- ment, University of Sydney—R for rock samples, F for fossils. Oakdale Formation The Oakdale Formation outcrops in the core of the Oakdale Anticline (on the properties of “ Oakdale’? and “ Barnby Hills’’), in a large area southeast of the Newrea-Dripstone road, and south of the Bell River. The Formation is named after the ‘‘ Oakdale ”’ property, where there are typical exposures. There are no complete sections of the Formation, nor is its base exposed. It is estimated that the Forma- tion must be at least 2,500 feet thick. The formation consists of volcanic rocks— ranging from quartz keratophyres to spilites— fine-grained greywackes and tuffaceous sedi- ments, with scattered limestone lenses, all Spilites to keratophyres, detritus, & limestone lenses being of limited vertical and horizontal extent. There are in the area no widespread horizons of use in mapping or structural analysis, and the stratigraphic relationships of the various fossil localities are therefore uncertain. The rich Shelly fauna from various limestone lenses within the Oakdale Anticline (see faunal lists at end of paper), where only two very poorly preserved diplograptids were found, cannot accurately be correlated with the graptolite fauna near the Dripstone-Newrea road (Fig. 2), which is Upper Ordovician in age. The top of the Formation in the area is best defined as the base of the Narragal Limestone Member of the Mumbil Formation. The junc- tion between the two is either conformable or more probably disconformable (see below) : there is no visible structural discontinuity. The graptolites found 80 yds. east of the Newrea-Dripstone road (por. 126, Mumbil parish ; 450 yds. north of por. 125; see faunal lists below) correspond to zone 12, the zone of Dicranograptus clingani, second lowest in the Caradocian, in the British succession (Elles and Wood, 1913). As this locality is close to the top of the Formation, and as Mr. K. J. Kemezys (personal communication) has found extensive Lower, Middle and Upper Ordovician graptolite faunas in this Formation further south, it seems probable that the Oakdale Formation is confined to the Ordovician. The coral fauna from the Oakdale Anticline is probably also Upper Ordovician in age, although it may extend into the base of the Silurian. The corals are described elsewhere (Strusz, in press) ; the fauna as known is listed below. Dr. Packham (personal communication) has found a similar sequence of interbedded lavas, sediments and thin limestone bands about 15 miles to the south, 5 miles northwest of Euchareena (locality ‘‘ Molong b”’ in Sherrard 1954, p. 83). The fauna is listed below. The graptolites correspond to zone 10, the zone of Mesograptus multidens and Climacograptus : Ppassajul uolysod au==p § GED === <2, Cramer eal 2yOwWIxOsddD uolzsod 2YINDIO uolzsod Sel Ve oe PIO} BDIP 93:7 6a 2 2uUAS souIW o73:p pate UNDNUD JouIw jo 2Bunjd .—— SIXD |DUI]DUAS aa SIXD |DUI]DIIUY SC707 Aw Ge — SOIOUD-NID WOU) padiesu on P2uUIN|AO p2uijoui GEOLOGY OF THE Ff “ [DIILJI|DA ss AVM UV NYFLSIM NIPW SCVvOY WNIANTIY 23142|0qG NVINOA3QG~OYuNTIS WOSOG AYWILYZ] AyyOD0) apo WD6 5 eee \] | | ine UWS Jaqu2zy 2u0ys aw /OLDJJON S2SU2] BUOS2WI| “NTIS A snoiwayog snjdvusbouozy JO UOZIJOY g $2171|D90) 2|DYS Pes 4O UOZIUOY qns /2quaw albus syity Aquiog YOIJOWIOY //GWNY/ NVIYN TIS sa1uD.10\ DbING DEAD NVINOASG-O8N TIS ea REIRD ) éy A ANTI CLINE, y) He /RONBARKS GEOLOGICAL DEVONIAN ?Cunningham Formation Tolga Calcarenite SILURO-DEVONIAN Cuga Burga volcanics SILURIAN Mumbil Formation Barnby Hills Shale Member Sub horizon of red shale localities & horizon of Monograptus bohemicus U. SILN. limestone lenses DémcL = Det spel 1] Narragal Limestone Member San izes MAP cS & go” THE LEGEND ORDOVICIAN Oakdale Formation Ouol— iF limestone lenses eo U.ORDN. t graptolite locality of TERTIARY Basalt Tb Ee SILURO-DEVONIAN Dolerite ri ALLUVIUM = os ROADS ee MAIN WESTERN RAILWAY PARISH oF MUMBIL , N. GEOLOG/CAL BOUNDARIES Position accurate ——~ Position approximate —— Position inferred ——?—— & concealed by alluvium-- ~ Bedding inclined overturned Avvo strike and dip As vertical ar ~ inferred from air-photos — — ~ > FOLDS Anticlinal axis 2 Synclinal axis _—s a plunge of minor anticline => ditto minor syncline <=? ditte drag fold 2? FAULTS position acucnte ——— —_ —— position approximate —_—_?=_— position inferred = “AS'N 'NOLONITIAM MVAN “TIEWAN FO HSIMVd THE 10 4901099 661 aoe : eas ; Z ‘ : ; ‘ “i = j 3 5 2 os p , = ! < 7 , . 2 ' 7 & . ‘ j = . ‘ Ri 2 “ i ' GHOLOGY OF THE PARISH OF MUMBIL, NEAR WELLINGTON, N.S.W. peltufer (topmost Llandeilo) in the British succession (Elles and Wood, 1913). As the difference in age is small, approximate cor- relation between the two localities is reasonable, and would indicate that the Oakdale Formation is wholly Ordovician in age, the Lower Silurian being missing. In the west of the area, between the graptolite locality and the Tertiary basalt cap, there is a large development of coarse conglomerate con- taining smoothly rounded boulders of lava (identical in composition with those of this Formation) up to 18 inches across, along with large fragments of limestone. These are set in a tuffaceous matrix. These conglomerates are clearly of sedimentary origin, possibly the result of cliff erosion. It is interesting to note that most of the limestone lenses in the western outcrop of the Formation are only a few yards across, whereas those in the Oakdale Anticline are reasonably well developed—one thin lens extends for over + of a mile. Here they are interbedded with spilitic and keratophyric lavas and tuffs (the latter predominating), and common _litho- feldspathic sediments. The lenses are apparently on three horizons, that at the top being only a few feet thick, but relatively persistent, with a slightly richer fauna. There is, however, no significant variation. Halysitids are common in these lenses, and extend only into the very base of the overlying limestone ; it is probable that they do not extend above the top of the Llandoverian (see discussion under Mumbil Formation). Petrologically, the volcanic rocks are highly variable, but fall within the spilite-keratophyre association typical of the earlier phases of geosynclinal development (Turner and Ver- hoogen, 1951, pp. 201-212; Tyrell, 1955). They range from quartz keratophyres to spilites, with the corresponding tuffs, which grade by reworking into fine-grained sediments. Associated with these sodic lavas are more normal trachytes and andesites, but these are in small quantity. Most of the lavas are porphyritic in plagioclase, grey-green or purplish- brown in colour and probably extensively saussuritized, and often contain numerous vesicles filled with quartz or calcite. Such vughs, up to #4 inch long, are particularly common in lavas from the Oakdale Anticline, R 13836 being typical. This is a_ striking purplish-brown rock with many large white vughs. The groundmass consists of albite with interstitial iron oxide (probably haematite), surrounding numerous small albite phenocrysts. 131 The vughs are lined with chlorite, and contain also one or more of quartz, chalcedony and calcite. The majority of the lavas are kerato- phyres and quartz keratophyres, consisting of albite (with associated calcite veins and blebs), magnetite or haematite, and quartz (particularly in vesicles), but lacking ferromagnesian minerals. The iron oxides often make up a considerable proportion of the groundmass. Several thin sections show chlorite pseudomorphs after pyroxene, and where fresh pyroxene remains, it is generally pigeonite. Occasionally, small quantities of hypersthene occur, usually in spilites. Of the less sodic rocks, two examples are R 13782, an andesite, and 13825, a trachyte. The andesite has phenocrysts of labradorite and pigeonite in a groundmass of plagioclase and magnetite, pigeonite and patches of devitri- fied siliceous glass. The magnetite content is quite high, mainly as small grains peppering the groundmass, and clearly late-stage magmatic, but it also occurs as skeletal crystals enclosed by labradorite phenocrysts. The trachyte con- tains scattered phenocrysts of sodic oligoclase and pigeonite in a trachytic groundmass of sani- dine, magnetite and chlorite, with numerous small vughs containing either devitrified siliceous glass or chlorite. Mumbil Formation As there is no locality where this formation is completely exposed, it takes its name from the Parish of Mumbil. The old ‘“ Mumbil”’ farmhouse is situated on the Narragal Limestone Member, which forms the base of the Formation. The Formation also outcrops along the western side of the two north-south sections of the Newrea-Dripstone road, on the west bank of the Bell River at “‘ Naroogal Park ”’ (the “ Narragal Limestone’”’ of Carne and Jones, 1919), and on the western side of the Great Western Highway, opposite ‘“‘ Neurea’’ farmhouse. The total thickness cannot be ascertained, as the limestones, and more particularly the over- lying shales, are highly folded on a small scale. The Formation has been divided into two Members. The lower, up to 500 feet thick but usually less, is the NARRAGAL LIMESTONE MEMBER. This consists of richly fossiliferous bodies of massive and detrital limestone, which rest, almost certainly disconformably, on the Oakdale Formation. The coral fauna (see faunal lists, below) includes Phaulactis shearsbyt and Entelophyllum latum, which elsewhere occur in the Wenlockian and Ludlovian (see Hill, 1940, 1942). At the base are halysitids ; not 132 far above the limestone is an horizon of grey siliceous shale containing the lower Ludlovian Monograptus bohemicus. Other accurately dated N.S.W. limestones with a halysitid fauna are not as yet known above the Llandoverian. The age of the Narragal Limestone Member would therefore appear to extend from the topmost Llandoverian through most or all of the Wenlockian. The limestone consists of large expanses of more or less well bedded detrital limestone, richly fossiliferous, but without much sign of extensive reworking. There are small areas of shale and chert, and scattered bodies of massive recrystallized limestone. These bodies probably represent small isolated reef knolls in a shoal-reef type of environment. The cherts contain sponge spicules, while the shales are generally siliceous, and similar in com- position to many of the overlying sediments. Above the Narragal Limestone Member are shales and a few small limestone lenses. These make up the BARNBy HILLS SHALE MEMBER, named after the property of “ Barnby Hills ’’, on which typical outcrops are found. The sediments are almost entirely shales and silt- stones, usually very quartz-rich, containing also plagioclase, muscovite, and haematite or more commonly limonite. Many of the coarser- grained rocks contain fragments of shale, or volcanic detritus. Several thin sections con- tained partly altered siderite. Two useful horizons within this Member are the Monograptus bohemicus horizon, a pale grey or fawny-grey siliceous siltstone about 200 feet above the limestone, and a 300 feet thick horizon of red-brown shale at the very top of the Formation. The latter horizon is well developed between the northeast faults and the Tertiary basalt cap (see map), but dies out as it approaches the Newrea-Mumbil road, where it fails to appear. This is probably a lateral facies change rather than a lensing effect. The colour is due to large quantities of haematite. Where this red shale horizon occurs, the top of the Mumbil Formation is defined as the junction of the horizon with the overlying volcanic sediments. Where it is missing, the top of the Formation must be defined as the base of the first bed of volcanic detritus in the Cuga Burga Volcanics. The junction is conformable. Cuga Burga Volcanics The Cuga Burga Volcanics take their name from Cuga Burga (or Narragal) Creek, which cuts through them at the south of the Newrea- DelLy Ss ERUSZ Mumbil road. They are typically exposed along both the creek and the road, and also in © several railway and road cuttings to the north. The rocks outcrop in a line of hills stretching northward for a considerable distance towards the Macquarie River. On air-photos the forma- tion is clearly visible because of this relief, and because much of the land, being rocky, is uncleared. In the Parish of Ironbarks, south of Mumbil, the strata clearly outline the Iron- barks Anticline, and the considerable drag- folding on its west flank. The base of the formation is defined as the volcanic rocks and fine-grained greywackes immediately overlying the shales at the top of the Mumbil Formation. The top of the forma- tion on the Newrea-Mumbil road is a massive trachyte (R 13789), which stands out as a wall of rock up to 10 feet high on the hillside to the west of the road, clearly differentiated from the overlying calcarenites. On the railway line to the north, the top is also a lava flow, apparently different from R 13789, however. Between the two are keratophyric tuffs. The various beds and lava flows within the formation are, on the whole, of small lateral and vertical extent, and so are not strati- graphically useful. There does, however, appear to be a discontinuous string of small limestone lenses, often brecciated and accompanied by volcanic agglomerates (or possibly a flow breccia), lying about 4 of the way up the formation, which is some 2,100 feet thick. The fauna of these limestones is very limited (see faunal lists, below), and of little use for accurate dating. However, the position of these volcanics in the stratigraphic succession, the age of the underlying shales, and the intra-regional correlation of the overlying calcarenites (g.v.), suggest that the boundary between the Silurian and Devonian must lie within the Cuga Burga Volcanics. Petrologically, the volcanic rocks are very similar to the lavas and tuffs of the Oakdale Formation, although no spilites have been found. Keratophyres and quartz keratophyres, both lavas and tuffs, are predominant. Another difference is the greater development of pyroxenes, giving many of the rocks a deep green colour, as opposed to the browns and grey-greens of the Ordovician lavas. The dominant pyroxene is augite, but pigeonite and diopside frequently occur, while orthopyroxenes have been seen. Chlorite is a frequent con- stituent, derived from the alteration of pyroxenes. As in the Ordovician lavas, magnetite is predominantly a late stage mineral. Ilmenite GEOLOGY OF THE PARISH OF MUMBIL, NEAR WELLINGTON, N.S.W. formed early, skeletal crystals being rather common in the sections prepared. Less sodic rocks occur also. R 13789, forming the top of the formation on the Newrea-Mumbil road, is a dark green trachyte with phenocrysts up to } inch long of orthoclase, with pigeonite and minor enstatite, in a groundmass of albite and chlorite (in about equal amounts), with a small quantity of magnetite. It also contains occasional vughs of calcite. Such dark green lavas, with large pale green feldspar phenocrysts, while not confined to the Cuga Burga Volcanics, are certainly a feature of the formation, although they are less abundant than the tuffs and litho- feldspathic sediments. These have much the same mineralogy as the lavas, with abundant calcite and chlorite, and often a little quartz, iron ore and pyroxene. Tolga Calcarenite The Tolga Calcarenite consists of a succession of flaggy beds of calcarenite 3 to 12 inches thick, separated by finely laminated siltstones and calcilutites. The formation is about 700 feet thick, and takes its name from the “ Tolga” farmhouse, which is situated on it. It con- formably overlies the lavas and tuffs of the Cuga Burga Volcanics, and is overlain by shales and siltstones (possibly the Cunningham Formation : Packham, in press). The beds are fossiliferous, the dominant elements being fragmental brachiopods and crinoid ossicles (see faunal lists). Some corals have been collected, and there are also fragments of lamellibranchs and polyzoans, while some of the calcilutites contain plant fragments. The stratigraphic position of the formation and the general nature of the fauna suggest a Lower Devonian age. If this be so, there are two possible correlations. Thus about 10 miles south, near Stuart Town, lies the Nubrigyn Limestone, Lower or Middle Devonian in age. This underlies, and in part is equivalent to, the Cunningham Formation (Packham, in press), and is probably the same age as the Tolga Calcarenite. To the west, in a belt extending from Wellington to Molong, are detrital lime- stones, calcarenites and shales—the Garra Beds (Joplin and Culey, 1938; Joplin, 1952), which are of the same age. Work done by the author during 1959 on these beds in Curra Ck., 6 miles" west of the Mumbil area, has proved interesting. A succession of andesitic tuffs and detrital rocks was found, closely resembling those of the Cuga Burga Volcanics, which passed conformably upwards into the Garra Beds. This strongly 133 suggests that the Tolga Calcarenite can be correlated with the Garra Beds. The flaggy calcarenites, in thin section, are almost pure calcite, mainly fine-grained recrystallized detritus, with brachiopod shells and other fossil material intermixed. The interbedded shales are often quite different. Typical is R13811, a coarse grey siltstone containing quartz, biotite and white mica (parallel to the bedding planes), feldspar (probably plagioclase) and blebs of calcite. Igneous Rocks Palaeozoic Dolerite—A number of small bodies of dolerite occur in areas occupied by the Mumbil Formation, the majority being on the northeast side of the Newrea-Mumbil road, near Narragal Ck. Some of the outcrops are isolated and irregular, while others are clearly small sills. On the east side of the Mumbil-Newrea road, where it turns north after traversing the Cuga Burga Volcanics, a small intrusion has left the surrounding shales completely undisturbed, and no metamorphic effects could be found. In hand specimen there is a fair amount of variation, chiefly in the amount of ferro- magnesian minerals present, and also in the grain size—from 1 cm. to less than 1 mm. in average size. Three thin sections prepared (R 13785, 13816, 13832) contain chlorite-rich devitrified glass (indicating rapid chilling), skeletal ilmenite and augite. The last can often be seen in process of alteration to chlorite and actinolite, these minerals accumulating near the augite crystals. The dolerite resembles the lavas of the Oakdale Formation and Cuga Burga Volcanics in that the plagioclase is usually albite—often with associated ragged patches of calcite, indicating post-magmatic albitization of a more calcic feldspar. In R 13832, the feldspar is oligoclase. This specimen differs from the others also in containing some alkali feldspar (orthoclase ?) and a small amount of devitrified quartz glass. The field relationships of the intrusions, and their petrological affinity with the Palaeozoic lavas, indicate that these dolerites were almost certainly contemporaneous with the lavas and pyroclasts of the Cuga Burga Volcanics, i.e. Upper Silurian to Lower Devonian. Tertiary Basalt and Alluvium—tThe Tertiary rocks in the area consist of the remnants of an olivine basalt flow, overlying alluvial deposits. The geological map shows that the flow parallels the Bell River, about a mile to its north. The alluvial deposits consist of finely laminated white and buff shales, ferruginous 134 sandstone and quartz-rich river gravels. A piece of silicified wood (F 7014) was also found. These indicate that the lava flowed down the old valley of the Bell River. Near the highway, the deposits are quite thick, and during the last century they were worked for gold. The lava is a typical basalt. Sections show a felted mass of labradorite lathes, of average length 0-4 mm., amounting to about 50% of the rock, with nearly as much _ interstitial magnetite, and a rather small proportion of interstitial olivine. Very few olivine pheno- crysts have been seen. Geological Structure The major structure in the area mapped is the Oakdale Anticline. Delineated by the outcrop of the Narragal Limestone Member, this anti- cline exposes an inlier of Ordovician rocks. The general trend of the fold is a little to the west of south, with a slight “ kink’’ near the railway line; approximately horizontal near Dripstone, it plunges very steeply south at the Bell River. The Cuga Burga Volcanics conform to this structure, dipping eastward. Not visible in the area because of poor outcrops, the Iron- barks Anticline occurs to the southwest of Mumbil. This is clearly seen on air-photos (e.g. Merinda, Run 4, photo CAC 72-5123) to plunge northwards. The structure of the Oakdale Formation in the west of the area is uncertain, but air-photo interpretation to the south of the Bell River seems to indicate a syncline and anticline plunging gently north. Associated with the folding are numerous small dragfolds—visible in air-photos in the Narragal Limestone, and on the western limb of the Ironbarks Anticline. These have made estimation of the thickness of the Mumbil Formation impossible. The major fault in the area is that passing approximately north-south, through Dripstone and west of the “ Oakdale ’’ farmhouse. This has apparently moved the Oakdale Formation on its west side upwards through an unknown but probably considerable distance; whether it is normal or reverse is unknown. It is joined by a second fault trending to the northwest. This forms a wedge of Silurian and Siluro- Devonian strata southwest of Dripstone. A number of quartz pods along the line of the second fault west of Dripstone have been excavated by gold fossickers. Two intersecting faults have cut the Cuga Burga Volcanics, shifting the outcrop by 4 mile, DL StvRUSZ and overturning the strata in the northern block. These faults, and some minor ones cutting the Narragal Limestone Member, appear to be of a peri-anticlinal nature (de Sitter, 1956, p. 207), intimately associated with the folding. Discussion Joplin (1952), following Basnett and Colditz (1945), considered that the Silurian was deposited unconformably around islands of folded Ordo- vician rocks. The succession was of limestones and shales, with lavas and tuffs in the Middle Silurian. It was thought that, following folding at the end of the Silurian, Lower and Middle Devonian limestones were formed, while Upper Devonian deltaic sandstones were laid down after further folding at the end of the Middle > Devonian. The final fold movements were placed at the end of the Devonian. It is now clear that, in the Mumbil area at least, and probably over much of the Wellington district, there was no significant folding before the end of the Middle Devonian, as the succession is structurally conformable from the Upper Ordovician to the Lower or Middle Devonian. Joplin and Culey (1938) found no angular unconformity beneath the Upper Devonian near Molong, nor did Basnett and Colditz (1945) in the Wellington district. Joplin (1952) considered that there is a regional overlap ; moreover, her sections do not show this to be an angular unconformity. Mr. J. Connolly (personal communication) has found a com- pletely conformable passage from Middle Devonian Garra Beds to Upper Devonian Catombal Group in Bushranger’s Creek, west of Wellington. It seems probable, therefore, that the regional overlap of Upper on Middle Devonian is a reflection of continuous sedi- mentation during slow, mild folding, with a shift of the axis of deposition. Folding in the Upper Devonian Catombal Group is just as severe as in the Lower Palaeozoic, vertical and overturned strata being far from rare. From this, and the evidence presented in this paper, it seems that on the Molong Geanticline (Packham, in press), in the north at least, folding movements began slowly somewhere about the beginning of the Devonian, but did not become intense until the Carbon- iferous. The gap in the succession corresponding to the Lower Silurian is probably a faint reflection of the Benambran Orogeny (David, 1950), but the Bowning Orogeny cannot be recognized in the area. GEOLOGY OF THE PARISH OF MUMBIL, NEAR WELLINGTON, N.S.W. Faunal Lists The coral faunas from the area are described elsewhere (Strusz, in press). The graptolites were identified with the help of Dr. G. H. Packham, while Dr. P. J. Coleman assisted in the tentative identification of the brachiopods. Trilobite remains consist of pygidia and one librigena, from two species. has been done on Australian lower Palaeozoic Polyzoa and Nautiloidea for these to be identified from the material available. A. FAUNAL LISTS, MUMBIL AREA 1. OAKDALE FORMATION RUGOSA: Palaeophyllum rugosum Billings ; — Tryplasma lonsdalet Etheridge, ie derrengullenense ? Eth.; Nipponophyllum sp. aff. giganteum Sugiyama. TABULATA: Heliolites daintreet Nicholson and Eth. (group 4, Jones and Hill) ; Propora conferta Edwards and Haime; Favosites gotklandicus Lamarck; Multisolenia tortuosa Fritz; Striatopora sp. Hill and Jones; Acanthohalysites australis (Eth), Schedohalysites orthopteroides (Eth.), Halysites lithostrotonoides Eth., H. sp., Falsicatenipora chillagoensis (Eth.), Quepora bellensis Strusz ; Syringopora sp. STROMATOPOROIDEA : Clathrodictyon sp., et altera. TRILOBITA: Encrinurus sp. GRAPTOLITHINA: Climacograptus scharenbergi Lapworth ; Dicellograptus sp. cf. elegans var. rigens Lapw.; Orthograptus truncatus var. intermedius Elles and Wood ; unidentifiable diplograptids. Also brachiopods, including a minute Orthid, cryptostome polyzoans and several nautiloids. 2. NARRAGAL LIMESTONE MEMBER Found only in base of member— RUGOSA : Palaeophyllum sp., sp. nov. ? TABULATA: Multisolenia tortuosa Fritz; Acanthohalysites australis (Eth.). TRILOBITA: Encrinurus spp. Found throughout— RUGOSA: Phaulactis shearsbyt (Stissmilch) ; Entelophyllum latum Hill; Tryplasma lonsdalet Eth.; 7. wellingtonense Eth., T ? columnare ? Eth. ; Nipponophyllum multiseptatum Strusz ; Coronoruga dripstonense Strusz. TABULATA: 4Heliolites daintreet Nicholson and Eth. (groups 1 and 4, Jones and Hill) ; Insufficient work - 135 Propora conferta Edwards and H.; Favosites allant Jones, F. gothlandicus Lamarck ; Siniatopora sp. Hill and Jones; Syringopora spp. Also brachiopods, including large pentamerids, cryptostome and trepostome polyzoans and stromatoporoids. 3. BARNBY HILLS SHALE MEMBER RUGOSA: Disphyllum_ sp. aff. floydense (Belanski) ; Yvyplasma lonsdaler Eth. TABULATA: Heloltes daintreet Nicholson and Eth. (group 3, Jones and Hill) ; Favosites gothlandicus ? Lamarck, F. sp.; Striatopora sp. Hill and Jones. STROMATOPOROIDEA : Clathrodictyon sp. GRAPTOLITHINA : Monograptus bohemicus (Barrande). 4, CuGA BuRGA VOLCANICS RUGOSA : Tryplasma derrengullenense ? Eth., ie? spe; , Pletcheria ? sp. TABULATA: Favosites spp.; Striatopora sp. Hill and Jones. BRACHIOQPODA : Altrypa sp. cf. ? reticularis Linné. POLY ZOA : Unidentifiable Trepostomata. 5. ToLGA CALCARENITE RUGOSA: Tryplasma derrengullenense ? Eth. TABULATA: 4Heliolites daintreet Nicholson and Eth. (group 3, Jones and Hill) ; Favosztes gothlandicus ? Lamarck, F. sp. Also fragments of brachiopods, polyzoans and a few plant remains. crinoids, 6. MARL JUST ABOVE THE TOLGA CALCARENITE (=Cunningham Formation ?) RUGOSA : Tryplasma derrengullenense ? Eth. TABULATA: Favosites spp. BRACHIOPODA (tentative): cf. Schizophoria sp.; Rhynchotreta sp. cf. americana Hall ; cf. Acrospirifer sp.; plus numerous unidenti- fiable casts and fragments. There are also lamellibranchs, polyzoans and crinoids. B. FAUNAL LIST, LOCALITY “ MOLONGB” OF SHERRARD (1954) (corals by personal communication, G. H. Packham) TABULATA : Species of Halysites, Heliolites, Syringopora and Multisolenia or Desmidopora. 136 GRAPTOLITHINA : Climacograptus bicormis Hall, C. scharenbergi Lapworth ; Orthograptus sp. cf. apiculatus (Elles and Wood), Lasiograptus harknessi (Nicholson). References BASNETT, E. M., AND CoxipiTz, M. J., 1945. General Geology of the Wellington District, N.S.W. Joy. SOCWING SAW 3, ui ve, 19, ana de CARNE, J. E., AND JONES, L. J., 1919. The Limestones of N.S.W. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Min. Resour., 25. Davin, T. W. EDGEWorTH, 1950. Commonwealth of Australia. & Co., London. The Geology of the Edward Arnold DEY SITTER, LL: > Ul, 1956." Structural sGeolosy- McGraw-Hill, New York. Eries, G. L., AND Woopb, E. .M: R., 1913. 7% Mono- graph of British Graptolites, Part X. Palaento- graph. Soc., London, 67. Hitt, D., 1940. The Silurian Rugosa of the Yass- Bowning District, New South Wales. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Proc., 65, 388-420. HILt, D., 1942. Some Tasmanian Palaeozoic Corals. Roy. Soc. Das:, Pap. Proc., 194l,, 3-1. JorLin, G. A., AND OrHeErRs, 1952. A Note on the Stratigraphy and Structure of the Wellington- Molong-Orange-Canowindra Region. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Proc., 78, 83-88. D. L. STRUSZ MATHESON, A. J., 1930. The Geology of the Wellington District, N.S.W., with Special Reference to the Origin of the Upper Devonian Series. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., J. Proc., 64, 171-190. . PackHaM, G. H. The Stratigraphy of the Molong- Hill End-Euchareena District. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., J. Proc... \(tayspresss) SHERRARD, K., 1954. The Assemblages of Graptolites in New South Wales. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., J. Proc., 87, 73-101. STEVENS, N. C., AND PackuamM, G. H., 1952. Grapto- lite Zones and Associated Stratigraphy at Four Mile Creek, Southwest of Orange, N.S.W. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., J. Proc., 86, 94-99. Strusz, D. L. Lower Palaeozoic Corals from Central- Western New South Wales. Palaeontology. (In press.) TURNER, F. J., AND VERHOOGEN, J., 1951. Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. McGraw-Hill, New York. DYRELL, G: W-, 1955: in Space and. Dume) 66, 405-426. Geol. Soc. Amer., Bull. Department of Geology and Geophysics University of Sydney Sydney Distribution of Igneous Rocks | Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. 137-139, 1959-60 The Structure of the Earth* HAROLD JEFFREYS I have been asked to speak on the general puietire of the Earth. We cannot take samples of the material more than a few miles down, but nevertheless we can get relevant information from many sources. Petrology helps us to some extent, at least in suggesting ideas, some of which stand further test and some do not. Below the sedimentary rocks, which probably averaged 1 or 2 km in thickness, our most detailed information comes from seismology, which gives us the velocities of elastic waves all the way to the centre. In addition we have a great deal of information about the Earth’s gravitational field, which determines both gravity over the surface and the motion of the Moon. This gives most valuable information, and the two together enables us to fix the distribution of density within rather narrow limits. The commonest rocks at the Earth’s surface are silicates; if we compare the number of metallic valencies with the number of silicon atoms they fall into an order as follows. Typical Metal/ Mineral Silicon Silica ay: Pe ole. 0:1 Trisilicates (felspars) KAISiI,0, 4:3 Metasilicates Mgsi0, Zim Orthosilicates Mg,s10, 4:1 Granites are mostly silica and trisilicates, with a mean density about 2-7; basalts (including dolerite, diabase and gabbro) a mixture of trisilicates, metasilicates and orthosilicates, with a mean density about 3:0; and dunite, con- sisting mostly of olivine (Mg,Fe),SiO,, has a mean density about 3:3. Olivine is a usual constituent of basalts but in the fairly pure form of dunite it is rare at the surface. In the Earth as a whole we should expect some stratification according to density. The mean density is about 5-5, and far more than that of any common surface rock. The first question is whether this is a matter of a surface skin of light materials or whether it implies * Pollock Memorial Lecture sponsored jointly by the Royal Society of New South Wales and the University of Sydney ; delivered September 1, 1959. an increase of density continuing to great depths. This is settled by considerations from the theory of the Figure of the Earth. Let M denote the mass, a the mean radius, C the moment of inertia about the polar axis, and A the mean moment of inertia about two perpendicular axes in the equator. The precession of the equinoxes, a very accurately determined astronomical motion, gives the ratio But the gravitational potential due A to the Earth is ~N M 3 Utah Taleo o)+.. { where f is the constant of gravitation, @ is the — The J term is a consequence of the fact that the Earth is not quite a sphere. If we write w*a/g,=m, where ow is the rate of rotation and g, is gravity at the equator, the fact that the ocean surface is one of constant pressure leads to the equation (to the first order in e and m) latitude, and /= SoG =A diss5 Ma? =e—in, where ¢ is the ellipticity. Also gravity satisfies ae een eae emit (5m | sin* ©, where @ is the latitude. Up till last year the most probable value of e seemed to be 1/297-1, but the latest determinations from artificial satellites, which determine J directly, indicate that e=1/(298-1+0-1). Then comparison of J with (C—A)/C gives e =0-330-+0-001 Ma =. For a homogeneous sphere the ratio would be 0:4. Further, if the differences of density were confined to a surface skin the ratio would hardly be affected. Therefore the density must go on increasing to a great depth. 138 We should expect some increase of density anyhow. Even if the material was the same everywhere, the deeper parts would be com- pressed by those above. But there might also be a concentration of denser materials towards the centre. Wiechert first worked out the consequences of the increase being entirely due to difference of material. He assumed a uniform shell of density p9, surrounding a core of radius aw with density 9, The mean density gives the relation P=Pot(P1—Po)% and the ratio C/Ma? gives a determination of {9 +(P1—Po) @°}/0- (Wiechert’s actual method was more com- plicated but is equivalent to this.) One extra datum would suffice to determine o, 9;, and «. His favoured solution took py, as the density of a dense surface rock, 3.2, and led to «=0-78, 0,;=8:2. This looked plausible because the densities would agree with those of stony and iron meteorites. Seismology goes into much more detail. An internal shock sends out both longitudinal and transverse elastic waves. The velocities of longitudinal (P) and transverse (S) elastic waves are «, B, related to the elastic constants », p, & and the density p by e=(A+2u)/o; B’=ule; k=A+ 3p. Then o?—36*=R/o, So if we can time elastic waves we should get a lot of information about elasticity. Early recording was poor, and it was not till 1900 that the phases were satisfactorily separated, by R. D. Oldham, of the Geological Survey of India. We measure distance by the angle A at the centre of the Earth subtended by the path. The linear distance would be pro- portional to sin$A. Oldham found that. the times did not increase as fast as sin $A, which was evidence that the velocities increased with depth. The waves P and S could be traced to about A=100°, taking about 14 and 25 minutes, and then disappeared. In 1906 Oldham dis- cussed observations near the antipodes (A=180°) and found that P emerged again about 140° and was traceable to the antipodes, but it took about 20 minutes. If the velocity at the deepest point reached by a ray emerging at 100° was continued all the way to the centre, the time would be 18 minutes. To reconcile the data there must be a drop of velocity. The S wave does not reappear at all. HAROLD JEFFREYS The consequences were followed up by Gutenberg and compared with observation. There are many other pulses derived by reflexion and refraction at the core boundary, and theoretical times for these were computed; and where comparison was possible they were found on actual seismograms. Of particular importance are the reflexions at the outer surface of the © core, which both show that there is a core with a sufficiently sharp boundary to give clear reflexions and enable us to determine its depth. Its radius is close to 0:55a, disagreeing greatly with Wiechert’s estimate. In European earthquakes observed at short distances some additional movements are found, which appear to be pulses that have travelled in various superficial layers. Comparison of the seismological values of a — 3B with laboratory determinations of k/o indicated that there was an upper layer that might be obsidian (the glassy form of granite), possibly resting on an intermediate one that might be tachylyte (the glassy form of basalt). Below that is the Mohorovitié discontinuity ; the properties below it correspond to dunite. In North America and South Africa, however, the upper layers agree better with ordinary granite and basalt. The total thickness of these layers in the continents is on an average about 35 km. Under the oceans the granitic layer is mostly absent and the deep-seated material is at a depth of 5 to 10 km. L. H. Adams and E. D. Williamson completed the proof that there must be a change of material at great depths. If # is the pressure and M(r) the mass within distance 7 of the centre, the condition for equilibrium gives dp __Mir)p Pane v2 and by definition of the bulk-modulus dp _de Ro Or ls Then it follows that de__ pM ¢ dr v2 ke adM(r) _ ‘ Also eae = —4rnfor 2 The total mass is M(a). Starting with M(a) and a reasonable density near the surface, and knowing k/o as a function of 7, Adams and ite SN UChORE OF Tih ET AK TH Williamson integrated the differential equations for 9 and M step by step as if all changes of density were due to compression. The result was that a large point mass was left over at the centre—the known materials would not account for the mass of the Earth even when compression was taken into account. Seismology had shown no sharp change of properties at the Wiechert core radius, but did show one at the Oldham-Gutenberg core. So this was the natural place to assume a change of material. If we go back to the equations for C and Ma? it is found that with the assumption that «0-55 they lead to op)=4°-6, 0, about 12. But compression gives a variation of density from 3-3 to 5-5 in the shell and 4-6 is a reason- able mean. Wiechert had got a wrong radius through neglecting compression. This was not his fault, as there were no data at that time to estimate it. There is no evidence of transverse waves through the core, so it is probably liquid. If the pressure was taken off the density would be between 6 and 7, so it looks as if the supposition that it was iron was not far wrong after all. The wave velocities have a rather sharp increase at a depth of 200km, probably spread over another 200km. This is known as the 20° discontinuity, from the strong curvature shown by the time-distance curves at that distance. Bullen repeated the work of Adams and Williamson with more accurate data. Finding the densities of successive layers, he was left with values for the mass and moment of inertia of the core. These gave C/Ma? for the core greater than 0-4—the density would have to decrease inwards! So there must be some other change in the shell, and it was natural to put it at the 20° discontinuity, where the velocities had already shown an anomalous variation. If this is done there must be a jump of density of about 0:5 not accounted for by the model used. No suitable change of material seemed likely, and Bernal suggested that there might be a transition of olivine at high pressure from a thombic to a cubic form as in spinel and magnetite. Spinel is Mg(AlO,), ; in comparison with olivine, Mg,SiO,, the silicon is replaced by Magnesium and the magnesium by aluminium. Magnetite is Fe(FeO,),. This is checked by the 139 Moon. The pressure at 400 km depth in the Earth is not reached in the Moon, and the density of the Moon, if its materials are also abundant in the Earth, should agree with ordinary olivine; and it does. But if the change was due to a new material we should expect a good deal of it in the Moon, and the Moon’s density would be higher. Laboratory work has not yet reached the pressures needed to convert pure olivine from the rhombic to the cubic form. But germanium, the next element below silicon in the periodic table, forms a compound Ni,GeQ,, and this does take a cubic form under pressure. A. E. Ringwood has studied the transition in mixtures or nickel germanate and olivine and infers that for pure olivine it would take place at about the right pressure. There is a further change of properties far within the core; this inner core has about one-third of the radius of the main core. The velocity of longitudinal waves rises and Bullen suggests that the inner core may be solid. If so, it may give us some information about temperature. But just outside this inner core there seems to be a region where the velocity decreases as we go deeper, and no explanation of this seems available. W. H. Ramsey has argued that the core is not iron but a further pressure modification of olivine, which may pass into an ionized state like a metal. Present data do not permit a proper check on this idea, but the corresponding transition for hydrogen has been worked out theoretically and has led for the first time to an explanation of the densities of Jupiter and Saturn; these planets must be about 90% hydrogen by mass to account for their low densities. This is most important. For one thing, it is the first explanation of how Saturn could have the low density of 0-7, though the range of pressure is about the same as in the Earth. For another, it confirms an opinion reached by astrophysicists after long discussion, that the stars and especially the Sun are nearly all hydrogen. Huntingdon Rd. Cambridge England Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 93, pp. 141-147, 1959-60 The Measurement of Time in Special Relativity S. J. PROKHOVNIK (Received November 9, 1959) ABSTRACT—Einstein’s definition for measuring an observer’s time of a distant event is examined in terms of its physical significance. The case of two receding observers at A and B, with similar clocks previously synchronized, is investigated. It is shown that A’s time (according to Einstein’s definition) of an event at B and B’s clock reading coincident with it, are related according to the relevant Lorentz transformation, only if the two separated clocks have remained synchronous. The corresponding case of two approaching observers is also considered. it 4s suggested that the proposed interpretation of Einstein’s definition is fully consistent with the principle of relativity and makes all inertial systems equivalent with regard to time, thus rendering unnecessary the concept of time dilatation. 1. Introduction In developing his concepts of Relativity, Einstein encountered the problem of measuring the co-ordinates of a body moving relatively to the observer. There are in fact two problems involved in such a measurement. The first concerns the synchronization of similar clocks separated by a displacement which may be varying. Einstein outlined a_ light-signal method for synchronizing clocks which were stationary in the same inertial reference frame. He also considered that relatively moving clocks could only be synchronized if and when they were coincident in space, but not otherwise. The second problem concerns the determina- tion of a moving body’s co-ordinates relative to the observer’s reference frame. Here Einstein (1905) proposed a convention based again on a light-signal method and he showed that this measurement convention leads to and is con- sistent with the Lorentz transformations linking the co-ordinates as measured by any observer with those relative to another observer stationary in a different inertial frame. The Lorentz transformations embody in mathematical form the principles of relativity and of light velocity constancy. They have also proved invaluable in the development of mathematical physics. So perhaps it is not surprising that many scientists have ignored the conventional nature of the underlying method of measurement and have attributed to it instead a universal significance which they take for granted. It is proposed to examine Einstein’s measure- ment convention and to show that the difference in measures of the “ time ”’ of an event, obtained by observers in relative motion, has a simple physical interpretation fully consistent with the principle of relativity. 2. Assumptions and Postulates We will assume as basic* Einstein’s principles of Relativity, viz., I. The laws of nature are the same for all inertial systems ; II. The velocity of light is invariant for all inertial systems; more exactly, the measure of this velocity is a constant c for all observers. We now define the co-ordinates and relative velocities involved in the Lorentz transformation as those obtained according to Einstein’s conventions postulated as follows : (1) Synchronization of relatively stationary clocks: Consider two relatively stationary clocks A and B. Let a ray of light start at the “A time” ¢, from A towards B, let it at the “ B time” é, be reflected at B in the direction of A, and arrive again at A aie adits) Al qehont=0 uy ; then the two clocks synchronize if tp—=3(ty +04). This definition does not apply to relatively moving clocks; the latter can be syn- chronized if and when they are coincident in space. (i) ““ The ‘time’ of an event is that which is given simultaneously with the event by a stationary clock located at the place of the event, this clock being synchronized for all time determinations, with a specified stationary clock.’ (Einstein, 1905.) * These are considered by most physicists as funda- mental physical laws conforming with the experimental evidence to date. However, even if they are weaker than this, we are interested in deriving the conse- quences which are fully consistent with these: assumptions. 142 Since, by (i), the stationary clock is reflected by a light-signal from the observer, midway between his times, ¢4, of sending the signal, and ¢%, of receiving its reflection, his, “time ’, #4, of the event must. be given by 14 =4(t4 +04) where #4 may be considered as the “ arith- metic mean time” of the light-signalling process. This interpretation of the “ time ”’ of an event is the one applied by Einstein (1905) in his derivation of the Lorentz transformations. The measure of the space interval, s,, separating an event from an observer A follows from (11) and II in terms of his clock readings. (111) m C e Thus s,—=c(t4—t) =5(t4 ih). This definition is used by Synge (1956) and others, and it is consistent with the usual one involving a rigid rod stationary in A’s inertial system. The measure of the velocity, v,, of the location of an event relative to an observer A is given by eS y= a ay hy If v, is constant, then where ¢ 1s a constant and ¢ is zero if A measures his time from the instant when s, was zero. In general the relative velocity is uniform if the ratio S4 (ices is constant for all #4 and a given e«. We will now adduce one more assumption followed by a definition. These were not made by Einstein and are in fact contrary to what is assumed by most physicists. III. The time taken by a lght-signal to travel, in vacuo, between two points A and B (in relative motion or not) is related in some consistent fashion to the distance between its source and destination ; and this relation is the same whether the path of the signal is from A to B or vice-versa. S. J. PROKHOVNIK Ji-s 2 . > siya This assumption will be referred to as the “light-signal hypothesis ’’.* no special status should be assigned to either A or B, and that the velocity of light is the same in both directions; Thus the ‘itypothesis 4 can be considered as a consequence of I and II. (v) We define a relatively moving clock at B to be synchronous with the clock A of an observer A if the reading, tg, of clock B reflected by a light-signal from A agrees with the time, ¢4, of the light-signal’s reflection, as calculated by applying the light-signal hypothesis to A’s clock readings of the signal’s departure and return. It will be shown that if, according to (v), clock B is synchronous with clock A relative to the observer A, then clock A is also synchronous with clock B relative to an observer at B. We note that for the case when A and B are relatively stationary (v) reduces to (i). In the interests of conciseness and provided the context is clear, we will refer to an observer at a point, A say, as the “ observer A ” or even occasionally as “A ’’; and to his clock as the “clocked: tm 3. Calculation of the Reflection Time ¢4 Consider two observers A and B receding from one another with relative velocity v and carrying similar clocks which were synchronized at ¢,=t,—0 during their spatial coincidences The observer A transmits a light-signal at time t', which reflects an event on B, the reading fz of B’s clock and returns to A at time f%. Then according to (11), A’s time of the event is =H) (1), or applying Einstein’s definition literally, 74 is the reading of a synchronous stationary clock located at B and therefore at a distance vt4 from A. Hence also c(t —t) =c(t% —t4) =vt'4. (2) Now let the time of reflection, according to A’s time-scale, be denoted by #4, Which is to be calculated on the basis of the light-signal hypothesis. * The hypothesis as stated may appear self-evident and perhaps even trivial, yet the implications which flow from its quantitative expression, given in equations (3) to (7) below, contradict the generally accepted assumptions regarding reflected light-rays. It implies that tHe MEASUREMENT OF TIME IN SPECIAL REEATIVITY The distance between A and B is vt) at the departure of the signal and vt, at its arrival at B. Hence the distance, d,,, travelled by the signal on its outward journey cannot be less than vty, nor greater than v?,, though it may have some intermediate value between these two bounds. We may write therefore d jp=vta +h gp(vts —vts) (3) where ky, is a constant depending on v and O¢4. Hence if the clocks A and B are synchronous such that t’4 agrees with ¢z, then the conventional measurement ¢4 makes clock B’s reading, tz, appear fast relative to observer A. From (14) we also obtain diy thy fe a dL Nine (15). THE MEASUREMENT OF TIME IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 4, Conclusions The Equivalence of Inertial Systems with respect to Time We have seen that Einstein’s definition for measuring the observer’s “time ’”’ of a distant event makes receding clocks appear slow and approaching clocks fast ; and in both cases the clocks appear to be losing time. The defined measure of a space interval, according to (iii), has the same relation to the corresponding interval at the time of reflection as has ¢7 to ty. Thus a measuring rod moving relatively to an observer appears contracted. These apparent contractions are therefore both due to the disparity (in the case of moving events) between the time of reflection of the event and the observer’s conventionally measured time. In two simple but crucial applications this turns out to be a difference between a “ geometric mean time ”’ and an “ arithmetic mean time ”’. The relation between these two times is given unequivocally by the relevant Lorentz formula. This is not surprising since Einstein deduced the Lorentz transformations from his definitions. What is surprising is that he (and most other physicists) then interpreted the transformations as above convention. Contrary, therefore, to the usual interpretation we have shown that the time dilatation formula is obeyed in the case of receding or approaching clocks only if they are synchronous with that of an observer. The Lorentz transformations relate measurements, they do not demonstrate a slowing down of moving clocks. Hence no suggestion of clock paradoxes can arise since time does in fact flow at the same rate in all inertial systems. It is claimed that “‘ time dilatation ”’ has been experimentally verified in two ways. Thus Moeller (1952) states that “the transverse Doppler effect ’’ (observed by Ives (1938) in canal rays) “‘is a direct expression for the retardation of moving clocks ’’. Further, Crawford (1957), following on the work of Rossi (1940) and co-workers, claims to have verified that high-energy w-mesons with velocities approaching c, have extended half- lives due to their movement. However, neither of these phenomena is necessarily a consequence of “ time dilatation ’’. 145 Provided that observers use Einstein’s convention for measuring their time of an event,* then the apparent slowing down of relatively fast- moving phenomena is inevitable, even though they obey the same laws as when relatively stationary. It should be noted that the “correction ’’ of an observer’s measurement of moving events is available precisely in the form of the Lorentz transformation. The equivalence of all inertial systems with regard to time would appear to be a natural corollary of the principle of relativity. We have attempted to show that such equivalence can be deduced from the principle of relativity and is consistent with the formulae expressing this principle. Acknowledgements The author wishes to record his thanks to Professor C. S. Davis and Mr. J. L. Griffith for their stimulating criticisms, which resulted in a strengthening and generalization of the argument ; also for the suggestion by Mr. Griffith of a figure similar to the one included ieee text. References CRAWFORD, F. S. (Junior), 1957. Nature, London, 179, 35. EINSTEIN, A., 1905. Ann. der Phys., 17, 891, as translated by W. Perrett and G. B. Jeffery. ives, Hy EE.) AND STILLWELL, G. R., 1938. J. Opt. Soc. Am., 28, 215. M@_LLER, C., 1952. The Theory of Relativity. Oxford: University Press. Rossi, B., ET AL., 1940. SYNGE, J. L., 1956. p. 50. p. 62. Phys. Rev., 57, 461. Relativity : The Special Theory. School of Mathematics Umiversity of New South Wales Sydney * Or, equivalently, assume that the out and return times are equal when a light signal is reflected by an object moving relatively to the observer. In the case of light signals received from a radiating moving object, the equivalent assumption is that the time taken for the signal to reach the observer is the same as if the object had been relatively stationary at the instant when it radiated the signal. 146 S. J. PROKHOVNIK Discussion N. W. TAYLOR The theory developed in the above paper is From another aspect, the light signal an alternative to the conventional Special Theory of Relativity. Therefore, it would appear to be superfluous, since the conventional theory is not in any serious doubt. However, it must be accepted for consideration for the following reason. It is based on a set of self-consistent and simple postulates, and after the advent of the Special Theory of Relativity, simplicity has been a major consideration in the develop- ment of physical theories. It is almost a physical principle. (Schilpp, 1959.) The main difference between this theory and conventional relativity is embodied in Assump- tion III, the “light signal hypothesis’. This assumption leads to a result which appears strange to the usual way of thinking. From the point of view of the observer A, the out and return journeys of a ray of light reflected at B are of different lengths (given by equations (3) and (4), respectively). Now, it is customary to let A suppose that the event of reflection involves only a single instant and a single point, and this point cannot have two different distances from A no matter how the reflector moves. The measurement convention of Special Relativity (described by equation (1)), which Assumption III replaces, seems to be the more logical hypothesis. It might be possible to avoid something which looks like a paradox by saying that the distances of the out and return journeys are the respective estimates of two different observers, the point of view shifting from that of A to that of B when the light signal is reversed. If this were done, another conflict with orthodox theory would occur. Measurements made by two different observers would be used in a statement of a physical law. hypothesis would, for an observer A, seem to give special significance to some framework not directly attached to A. It is as if the whole process were being described from the point of view of some imaginary outsider who can claim to have a more fundamental place in the universe than the given observer. This is directly opposed to the principles of relativity theory. _ A significant result of the theory under discussion is the reinstatement of a universal time, as implied by the equation ¢,=¢,. This would be an attractive feature to some philosophers and physicists. However, as it has just been shown, this feature entails results which do not accord with our conception of the physical universe at the present time. In any case, it has been amply demonstrated in a number of ways (e.g., by Builder, 1957 ; Moller, 1952; Schild, 1959) that the usual relativistic interpretation of time leads to no veal difficulties at present. The experimental verification of time dilata- tion mentioned in Section IV is very convincing evidence in favour of the usual interpretation of Special Relativity. It seems that a more detailed analysis than that given by the author would be necessary to show that the results of these experiments do not conflict with his theory. References Aust. J. Phys., 10, 246. The Theory of Relativity. Oxford BUILDER, G., 1957. MOLLER, C., 1952. Psp! 298: SCHILD, A., 1959. Amer. Math. Monthly, 66, 1. SCHILPP, P. A. (ED.), 1959 (reprint). Albert Einstein : Philosopher-Scientist. Harper, N.Y. p. 255. Department of Mathematics Umiversity of New England Armidale, N.S.W. Author’s Reply S. J. PROKHOVNIK The continuing controversy (cf. Cullwick, 1959) around Special Relativity is clear indica- tion that the conventional approach, with its built-in “clock paradox’’, is not beyond criticism. Even the adherents of time-dilatation are unable to agree on its interpretation. Thus Builder and Meller are widely divergent both in approach to the resolution of the paradox and, particularly, in their interpretation of the physical significance of time-dilatation. In Tait MEASUREMENT OF TIME IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY fact, Builder (1958a, 1958b) has, with a certain logic, retreated from Relativity to a _ neo- Lorentzian view. It is agreed that the “ light signal hypothesis ”’ leads to a result which appears strange to the usual way of thinking. This is because we are intuitively accustomed to thinking in terms of absolute concepts, viz.: “‘ We are stationary, the observed body is moving.’’ However, for the purposes of physical observation and measurement, such notions are untenable ; only the relative motion between observer and observed has relevance to their mutual relations. Thus consider a light signal despatched from A to a receding body B at ¢4 and reflected at B at t4. Clearly any other signal sent from A to B at a time subsequent to t4, say at 4, would have a longer path than its predecessor since A and B are receding. This must apply equally to a signal reflected at (or transmitted from) B at t4 back to A. This seems to be a natural consequence of the principle of relativity unless one could argue that a signal transmitted from B to A would travel differently to one reflected (say from A) at B at the same instant. Seen in this light, the non-coincidence of t4 with the conventionally-measured time, ¢4, is consistent with the viewpoints of observers on either A or B or even elsewhere. In fact the figure presented in the article shows that this is the only approach which gives a consistent sequence of reflection times from either view- 147 point; and which renders intelligible the reciprocity of the Lorentz transformations. — It should be emphasised that Einstein’s procedure (11) for measuring the “ time”’ of an event was never considered by him as anything but a convenient definition. Yet this “time” has been given a preconceived meaning, without justification in the lght of the principles of relativity I and II. The article is an attempt to correct this anomaly. The Lorentz transformations are relations between measurements. The transverse Doppler effect is then also a measurement relationship which has been verified by Ives. It is his identification of time with measurements of time which we question. The meson-life evidence is of a different nature and certainly demands a careful and unprejudiced analysis. Suffice it to say here that examination of Rossi's relevant publications (1940, 1941) reveals that, far from verifying, he assumed the existence of time-dilatation to develop certain conclusions. However, this assumption is at variance with one set of his experimental findings and, at best, the support for it is not conclusive. References BUILDER, G., 1958a, Aust. J. Phys., 11, 279. BUILDER, G., 1958b. Aust. J. Phys., 11, 457. CULLWICK, E. G., 1959. Inst. Phys. Bull., 10, 52. Rossi, B. Et Av., 1940. Phys. Rev., 57, 461. KOSSI, Bb.) AND Harr, Di By 194k. Piys. 595 228. Rev., oe 7 A r 10 4 Ss — a » 5 a \ - { Astronomy : Minor Planets observed at Sydney eye tn during 1958. By W. H. Robertson. Minor Planets, Precise Observations of, at Graney Observatory during 1957 and 1958. ey W. H. Robertson Occultations observed at Sr aney Observatory dune 1958. By K. P. Sims : Ronchi Test Charts for Parabolic iors, By A. A. Sherwood Authors of Papers: Catlin, C., and B. at hae in the Port Stephens Area Golding, H. GE acstion in Papel ont stitution of Quarried Sandstones from rey and Gosford Griffith, J. L—On Some Spats of “Tntegral Transforms. (Presidential Address) Griffith, J. L.—On Some See aaa of fe Hankel Transform Jeffreys, H.—The Structure of fhe Barth. Minty, E. J.—Petrology in Relation iS Road ' Materials. Part I: The Rocks used to produce Aggregate Nashar, B., and C. Catlin—Dykes in ane Port Stephens Area Prokhovnik, S. J.—The Mesuarement of Ae in Special Relativity F Reichel, A.—Distribution of ireust in fie Nere bourhood of a Wedge Indenter Robertson, W. H.—Minor Planets observed oe Sydney Observatory during 1958 Robertson, W. H.—Precise Observations of Minor Planets at eae ee during 1957 and 1958 Sherwood, A. A. Bea nchi Test Charts for Parabolic Mirrors Sims, KG Ieee cuittions. obecived oe Sydney Observatory during 1958 a Walker, D. B.—Palaeozoic SeatETapiae of tie Area to the West of Borenore, N.S.W. Wilshire, H. G.—Deuteric Alteration of Volcanic Rocks , Kae d Engineering (Highway Engineering) : Petrology in Relation to Road Materials. Part I: The Rocks used to Deets eee ee a By E. J. Minty ae INDEX 11 12] . 141 105 27 Geology : Deuteric Alteration of Volcanic Rocks. a H. G. Wilshire .. . 105 Dykes in the Port eteohena apes By Beryl Nashar and C. Catlin 99 Geology of the Parish of Mumbil, near Welimeton’ Nio.W. By D: L.iStrusz Palaeozoic Stratigraphy of the Area to ie Wiest of Borenore, N.S.W. By D. B. Walker .. 39 Variation in Physical Constitution of Quarried Sandstones from ate and Gosford. my H. G. Golding .. 47 127 Geophysics : The Structure of the Earth. By Harold Jeffreys... 137 Mathematics : Distribution of Stress in the Neighbourhood of a Wedge Indenter. By Alex Reichel 52) 109 On Some Aspects of Integral Transforms. Presi- dential Address by J. L. Griffith — 1 On Some Singularities of the Hankel aT fanetornn Bye jet. 1Grittith a ae ae .. 61 Proceedings of the Society : Abstract of Proceedings, 1958 ae ; 96 Annual Reports by the President and the ounce 1958-59 .. 81 Clarke Medal for 1959, ard Ne : wwe “82 Edgeworth David Medal for 1958, ‘ward a soy) LOL Financial Statement for 1958-59 .. oe .. 83 Geology, Section of. Report for 1958 .. ee he) Library Report for 1958 .. ae ie £3 82 Liversidge Research Lecture, 1958 wise : 82 Medals, Memorial cla and Prizes awarded by the Society -- : Be fe -< 93 Members of the Society, wee Ola ae s- 87 Obituary, 1958-59 .. ; a .. 86 Officers of the Society for 1958- 59 . Title Page Olle Prize for 1958, award of ~~ oe 8. 382 Science House Management Lee ee Society representatives on Sc a, a, (82 Society’s Medal for 1958, award af i nee pes Relativity : The Measurement of Time in Special Relativity. By S. J. Prokhovnik . a .. 141 se ne’ s =f Ce ae ee e: g.: "Vick (1934) « at Fh te end of ee DAREN they should be arranged x “ini als, te year. of pate ie the title of the e paper (if desired), the abbreviated title of the 7 eae volume number and pages, DE gts Vick, ie G, 1934." Astr. Nach., 253, BUGS. r ‘ pe abbreviated form of the title of this journal | fe Proc. Roy, Soc. 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Additional copies may be — ) ah purchased provided. they are ordered by the Nae author huge wees ee 3 Patt L text. x Rie yh: eet for, gee on me Poe Le "bristol board, blue linen or pale-blue ruled graph _ | Astronom Wate done amin aa a ert st Ne ssa eny Magara | Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory du | eis i, near Wellingtor 1, d | | Dik ie , Mi ge ay dy bey Hae wer ta VEN / ~The Measurement of. Time | in 1 Special, Re ativity. es De JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OP ails ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES PARTS |- 6 VOL. 94 1960-6 | PUBIASHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE, GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS SYDNEY Royal Society of New South Wales OFFICERS FOR 1960-1961 Patrons His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, THE Rt. Hon. VISCOUNT DUNROSSIL, G.c.M.G., M.c., Q.c. His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SouTH WALES, LIEUTENANT-GENERAL SIR ERIC W. WOODWARD, k.c.M.G., C.B., C.B.E., D.S.O. President H. A. J. DONEGAN, m:se. Vice-Presidents Jj; L. GRIFFITH, 5-A:, Msc: A. F. A. HARPER, Msc. F. N. HANLON, B.sc. F. D. McCARTHY, pip.anthr. Hon. Secretaries HARLEY W. WOOD, M.sc. ALAN A. DAY, Ph.D., B.Sc. (Editor) Hon. Treasurer C. L. ADAMSON, B.sc Members of Council Ae Gs PYINING TB :S¢s,°S Ji. KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD, Msc. J. W. HUMPHRIES, B.Sc. G. H. SLADE, Bsc. A. H. LOW, M.sc. W. B. SMITH-WHITE, .a. H. H. G. McKERN, M.Sc. N. W. WEST, B.sc. W. H. G. POGGENDORFF, B.sc. Agr. H. F. WHITWORTH, m.sc. NOTICE The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of Australasia ’’’; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of the ‘“ Australian Philosophical Society ’’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales ’’. In 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. CONTENTS Part 1 Geology : The Zonal Distribution of Australian eS with a Revised Bibliography of Australian Graptolites. D. E. Thomas Part 2 Presidential Address : Research, Development and the Maintenance of Standards in Heat at the National Standards Kaboratory. A. F. A. Harper Astronomy : Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1959. W. H. Robertson Physics : Net Electric Charges on Stars, Galaxies and “‘ Neutral ’’ Elementary Particles. V.A. Bailey Proceedings of the Society : Annual Reports for 1959 Section of Geology Part 3 Chemistry : Kinetics of Chain Reactions. R. C. L. Bosworth and C. M. Groden Relativity : An Interpretation of the Lorentz Transformation Co-ordinates. S. ]/. Prokhovnik .. Soil Science : An Occurrence of Buried Soils at Prospect, N.S.W. C. A. Hawkins and P. H. Walker Part 4 Fuels : Coking Characteristics of Selected Australian and Japanese Coals. C. FE. Marshall and D. K. Tompkins - me s os be a = m is mm 59 (ar 87 stl 99 109 115 CONTENTS Part 5 Geology : District, N.S.W. Keith A. W. Crook Stratigraphy of the Parry Group (Upper Devonian-Lower + Carboniferous) Tamworth-Nundle District, N.S.W. Keith A. W. Crook ; oy a Post-Carboniferous Spo a of the Tamworth-Nundle District, N.S.W. Keith A. W. Crook . 49 Le Stratigraphy of the Tamworth Group (Lower and Middle mp ae Tamworth-Nundle | Part 6 Engineering (Nuclear Engineering) : Resonance Absorption in a Cylindrical Fuel Rod with Radial Temperature Variation. A. Reichel and A. Keane Geophysics : The Palaeomagnetism of Some Igneous Rock Bodies in New South Wales. R. Boesen, E. Irving and W. A. Robertson A Study of the Variation with Depth of the ae igen in a Dolerite Drill Core from Prospect, N.S.W. "S.42 Aq Haz 2. on ot c An Appraisal of Absolute Gravity Values for ran Base Stations in we Melbourne and Adelaide. J. A. Mumme Metallurgy : Electrode Shape and Finish in Applied Spectroscopy. S.C. Baker Index Dates of Issue of Separate Parts Part: Fo july i960 Part 2: September 9, 1960 Part 3: November 18, 1960 Part 4: January 26, 1961 Part 5: February 27, 1961 Part 6: May 0v, 1961 215 239 243 PUBLISHE : » D t fens OUCESTER », Sydn AND ESSEX STREETS, SYDNLY _ ae Eee er eas Cal ee x ey, for transmission by post as a periodical. i f i , AN be ; cy ‘GOVERNOR-GENE ERA OF “Tas Rt. Hon. VISCOUNT DUM) ROSSIL, GcMe, K Thane ec pipers ‘BA ‘An! | “Members Hae Council Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 94, pp. 1-58. 1960 The Zonal Distribution of Australian Graptolites* D. E. THoMAS Introduction I am indeed sensible of the honour paid me in being invited to give the Clarke Memorial Lecture for 1959, but I have some misgivings as to whether the subject that I have selected is worthy of the Rev. W. B. Clarke, who pioneered geological investigations in New South Wales and laboured mostly on his own, and under great difficulties, to establish the succession of the sedimentary rocks of New South Wales. Our later work owes much to this great pioneer, and it is a reflection of his remarkable ability and his scientific approach that the results of his work have stood the test of time so well. To honour this occasion, therefore, I have chosen to summarize the present state of our knowledge of those remarkable early Palaeozoic fossils known as graptolites and, in particular, the sequence of graptolite faunas in the Lower Palaeozoic rocks of Australia. This also pro- vides the opportunity to point out the contri- butions that workers in this country have made in this field and to pay tribute to those workers without whose guidance I would not have been able to present this paper ; I refer in particular to the late Dr. W. J. Harris, whose untimely death cut short the work upon which we have been engaged during the past quarter century, ena to R. A. Keble. | What Are Graptolites ? The graptolites, which are placed in the Class Graptolithina, are found only in Palaeozoic rocks, and most of the forms are restricted to the Lower Palaeozoic. The Class Graptolithina consists of two principal orders: the Grapto- loidea, or true graptolites, which are restricted to the Ordovician and Silurian, and the Dendroidea, which range from the Cambrian into the Carboniferous. The zoological affinities of the graptolites are still much in dispute and they have been assigned by various workers to the Hydroidea, Polyzoa or the Pterobranchia ; * Clarke Memorial Lecture delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales, July 30, 1959; publication was assisted by a grant by the Australian Scientific Publications Committee, Canberra. A recent opinion places them with the Stomochorda (Pterobranchia) because of the stolon system which is present in the Dendroidea, and the histological features of the periderm (Bulman, 1955 ; Kozlowski, 1948). The true relationship of certain middle Cambrian forms that resemble graptolites in some respects, such as Archaeo- crvptolaria and Archaeolafoera, is still in doubt, but they have been regarded in Australia by some as belonging to the Hydroidea and distinct from true graptolites. As pointed out by James Hall as early as 1865, and elaborated later by others (e.g. Ruedemann, 1925; Bulman, 1928, 1957), the Dendroidea must have been sessile forms. Actual instances of attachment are very rare while siculate Dictyonemas are abundant. The association of the Dendroidea with organisms usually considered to be of shallow marine benthonic habitat, and the presence of creeping stolons and of worm tubes found rarely in the basal parts of the rhabdosomes of some Dendroidea, suggest that these colonial organisms were sessile and benthonic, and that they lived in a shallow marine environment. The Graptoloidea, however, appear to have been planktonic or _ epi-planktonic forms. Although Scharenberg (1851), Richter (1871) and Jaekel (1889) regarded them as bottom- living, other contemporaries (Hall, 1865; Nicholson, 1872) considered them to be free- floating forms, and Lapworth (1897) showed beyond reasonable doubt that they had an epi-planktonic mode of life. Lapworth pictured the graptolites as being attached by their nemae to masses of floating algae such as are found in the present Sargasso Sea. Ruedemann’s original discovery (1895) of numerous rhabdo- somes (synrhabdosomes) grouped around what appears to be a central float, since verified by many others, shows that at least many of the biserial graptolites were truly planktonic. Mode of Occurrence of Graptolites If graptolites were actually planktonic organisms their remains would not be expected to be associated with any particular type of sediment, and they are in fact found in av ariety of sedimentary rocks such as sandstones, cherts, 2 DPE. ATHOMAS shales and limestones. They are most abundantly found, however, in black shales that are generally almost devoid of any other types of fossils ; the black colour of such shales is doubtless due to the presence of carbon, which can comprise up to 13 per cent of the rock, and such rocks also invariably contain sulphur (up to 7 per cent) in the form of pyrite (Marr, 1925; Twenhofel, 1932). Some analyses of black shales from Victoria show 3-92 per cent of carbon (Baragwanath, 1923) but Joplin (1946), from her study of Ordovician slates from New South Wales, has suggested that these shales are derived from volcanic ash. It is generally agreed that black shales are deposited under anaerobic conditions where there is a lack of circulation of bottom water so that the oxygen supply cannot be replenished ; under these circumstances organic matter from the upper aerated layers sinks down and accumulates on the sea bottom. Sediments of this type are being deposited at the present day for example in the Black Sea, in narrow silled embayments such as the Norwegian fiords, and even in some coastal lagoons ; it is therefore highly probable that the graptolites drifted over or lived in similar areas in Palaeozoic time and accumulated in great numbers in this type of bottom sediment. Much has been also written concerning the parallel grouping and orientation of graptolites, presumably due to the effects of bottom currents (Hundt, 1933-1938), and ripple marks, rain prints and sun cracks have also been recorded from beds containing graptolites (e.g. Opik, 1929). Although graptolites are found most abundantly in black shales, their presence in other types of sediments, such as the greenish shales and silts of the Silurian of central Victoria and New South Wales in which they are often associated with abundant shelly fossils, should not be overlooked. At some places in these areas the graptolites do not lie in single bedding planes as they generally do in the black shales, but they are oriented in various directions obliquely to the bedding planes; Hills and Thomas (1954) have suggested that turbidity currents may have been responsible not only for this unusual orientation, but that such currents may also have influenced the mortality rate of the graptolites. It has also been shown recently (Smith, 1957) that mud-laden currents were apparently strong enough to drag grapto- lites along the sea bottom, where the sediments were sufficiently viscous to preserve the gouge marks caused by the dragging of the graptolites, and scratch marks on the surfaces of the graptolites were also apparently caused by the dragging movement along the sea floor. The graptolites in black shales are usually rather poorly preserved and more or less strongly —— compressed, but the well-preserved and uncom- — pressed forms that are often found in limestones and cherts interbedded with the black shales in some sequences are particularly suitable for detailed morphological studies. Much detailed work has been carried out on pyritised specimens from black shales. In sequences of black shales deposited continuously during a comparatively long time span the assemblages of graptolites change gradually in character throughout the sequence and the resulting admixture of forms makes it difficult to define clearly the exact boundaries of biostratigraphic zones within such sequences, particularly when they are condensed. How- ever, in Victoria, and particularly in the Lower Ordovician sequence, the graptolite-bearing beds are separated by appreciable thicknesses of unfossiliferous rocks, so that typical distinct assemblages can be readily recognized and it is possible to trace and map individual fossiliferous bands and correlate them on the basis of the well-defined assemblages contained in them. In these circumstances the horizons of the first appearance and the disappearance of particular forms of graptolites, particularly the former, have proved of great stratigraphic value in defining zones that can be satisfactorily cor- related in widely separated regions. Evolution of the Graptolites In Australia no graptolites have yet been found sufficiently well preserved to enable detailed study of their morphology to be undertaken and most emphasis has consequently been placed on the study of the general characters of assemblages and the times of their appearance in the Lower Palaeozoic succession, rather than on determining relative position within the sequence on the basis of stages in the evolutionary development of lineages. Because of the generally sharp and close folding of the Lower Palaeozoic rocks in Australia, as exemplified so well in our goldfields, the graptolites are usually strongly compressed and distorted so that minute differences in relative proportions of morphologic features, so often used to distinguish and separate species, cannot always be applied. Nevertheless it is very evident from our studies that there is a considerable degree of variation in the morphologic features of individual species and THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES 3 that these variations are of such a nature that they were clearly not caused by distortion or compression. Apart from the difficulty of identifying compressed specimens with forms of the same species preserved in the uncom- pressed state, the distortion suffered by specimens in sharply folded rocks makes comparison between such forms on the basis of detailed measurements quite unreliable. In the early days of the study of graptolites the genera were established on the basis of their broad morphologic features and while this tended to keep within reasonable limits the number of genera erected, most of these old genera have since been shown to be polyphyletic. The recognition of the evolutionary trends in graptolites and their application in defining and determining biostratigraphical zones is to a large extent due to the work of Elles (1922), who maintained that the early graptolites developed according to the Dichograptus plan and that the direction of their evolution is expressed by the following general trends: (1) Change in direction of growth from pendent to scandent forms; (2) simplification in branching; (3) elaboration of thecal type; (4) localization of thickening in the periderm walls. In recent years it has become evident that, although generally correct, this scheme is an oversimplification; for example, the early forms of Dictyonema, the Bryograpti and many of the dichograptids were pendent, while the later Diplograpti and Monograpti were scandent. 4. 3 j Fic. 1 Development of Phyllograptus cor (Nos. 7, 8 and 9) from Tetragraptus phyllograptoides (Nos. 4, 5 and 6). A scale of 1 cm. is shown against each diagram. bs Even in Tremadocian times most of the Clono- grapti, Staurograpti and Anisograpti were horizontal. Horizontal Didymograpti and declined Tetragrapti are very abundant at the base of the Bendigonian stage, but reclined forms such as Didymograptus hemuicyclus are also present; at a slightly lower horizon in Scandinavia the presence of Tetvagraptus phyllograptoides in which the secondary stipes are partly concrescent, and of Phyllograptus cor, is even more difficult to reconcile with the above scheme. The same can be said of the “burst ” of pendent Tetragrapti (T. fruticosus, T. pendens) which is accompanied by that of the reclined Tetragrapti (T. s¢milis, etc.) and by the scandent Phyllograpti. Bulman (1955) has pointed out that Nicholson and Marr (1895), as a result of their work on certain dichograptids, showed that graptolite genera are probably polyphyletic and they introduced the idea of an evolutionary trend toward stipe reduction which was then extended to include Clonograptus and Loganograptus. This so-called evolutionary trend from the many-branched forms to the two-branched Didymograpti and single stipe of Azygograptus may be expressed schematically as follows : Number of Number of Genus Branches Dichotomies Clonograptus 32+ o-+ (8-9) Loganograptus .. 16 4 Dichograptus .. 8 3 Tetragraptus .. 4 2 Didymograptus .. 2 1 Azygograptus.. 1 0 This mathematical concept of an evolutionary trend of progressive reduction in number of branches by failure of dichotomous branching is not supported by stratigraphic evidence, and it has already been pointed out (Harris and Thomas, 1940a) that the appearance in time of these forms does not support such an evolu- tionary trend and that the failure of dichotomy at any time can give rise to the simpler branched forms. Although an overall progressive reduc- tion of branching did take place in a general way during the time span of the graptolites as a whole, the process was by no means a regular evolutionary trend as is well shown by the fact that Didymograpius, Tetragraptus and Phyllograptus appeared in time before Dicho- graptus and Loganograptus had evolved. The same tendency has been described for T. fruticosus and T. hartz. The establishment of the Anisograptidae by Bulman (1950) has added to the problem | | IVAOILIVYDOTA/OG THOMAS Deak. ‘pipeAjsnYy Ul SeuNvy o}][o}de1s Jo UOIssedONs Surmoys Weiseip poeytdurlis 6 ‘OI ed FIVO/LITO/LIA (snid0160// 221 Burpnjou:)| IVAILIVYDOLAI7 FVGD/ILAVYONO/SY7 IVAILIVADOLAAYD | IVOILIVPHIOLYAD IWOlLd ve SONOW | S21 12r200H8ONIC a | JIVOlLd Ve 9OS/ JIVGILAVYIDOHI/G MOT0N) AYDOINSM | AYZACONV17 NVITTISHSY NV RED ton! NVINUNOSI3W| NVINOGTI3 NVINOTISy || NVIGNIIOg- | NVINOLSV3 Yaddn JIGGIW y3MO1 | y3addn NVIYNT/S ——— er = 7 | JVOILIVYDOSINY 2 | NVISINS UV E Ie z7-2 o < Alls apa; ID0dvuvD [er > | > > Zz 2 NVINYOaSIS NVI TIMIisyevd JIAGGIW NVIN33SdVA — 311SV) |'NVINOLM3HD} NVINOSION3@ NVINIVW ae NY/ID/AOCYD Y3MO7 NVIDOOVINSYL NV1IO1731IS3 DNV 1 hae ZONA DIStRIBULTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES a of the early appearance of Didymograpti and Tetragrapti because until specimens have been found preserved in such a way as to establish that they possess bithecae, these forms must be considered as normal Didymograpti and Tetragrapti. It has yet to be proved that the forms placed in this group all possess bithecae and some of the Bryograpti and many of the later Clonograpti also may not possess bithecae. In Victoria Dichograptus first appears in the Bendigonian stage. The existence of “‘ bursts ’’ of many-branched forms that are found at various horizons has generally been ignored and this phenomenon certainly complicates the concept of an evolu- tionary trend of simplification of branching ; the “burst ’”’ of dichograptids, for example, is contemporaneous with that of the horizontal Didymograpti and the declined and _ reclined Tetragrapti. Although Loganograptus appears sparingly with Dichograptus, the typical Logano- graptus burst occurs in the Castlemainian stage, much later. In the Middle Ordovician of Victoria there is a burst of Pterograptus and Brachograptus, while near the base of the Upper Ordovician is the burst of Nemagraptus and, higher in the sequence, that of Pleuro- graptus. Although the growth pattern of eraptolites is different in the Middle Silurian (by cladial development and not by dichotomy) maere is a burst at this horizon of the Cyrtograpti and in the Upper Silurian branched forms such as Linograptus, Abiesgraptus, Bar- vandeograptus and Diversograptus appear. The elaboration of thecal type (Elles, 1922) reaches its acme in the Monograpti; some of the later Didymograpti, however, also show this (e.g. Didymograptus nodosus, D. spinosus, D. cognatus, D. dulbitatus, D. callotheca). In the last thirty years it has become increasingly evident that a trend of elaboration of thecal type is present even in the dichograptids, and Mu (1958) has created a new family Sino- graptidae for many of these forms. It is also somewhat anomalous that the “burst” of Dicellograpti and Dicranograpti is characterized by the abundance of those forms with complex thecal types (e.g. Dicellograptus sextans, Dicrano- graptus vamosus) while the later forms seem mor revert to simpler thecal types. The Lasiograptidae are scandent biserial forms with attenuated periderm and a clathria, well developed thecal and septal spines, and lacinia ; these forms do not appear until high up in the sequence, after the burst of type B of the Isograptidae. Bulman (1958) has summarized most of the above problems and has recast the faunal sequence ; this dispenses with many of the anomalies but it is still not entirely acceptable to Australian workers. Harris and Thomas (1938) stressed the incoming in force of the Diplograpti in Britain long before the appearance of the Leptograpti.* Bulman (1958, p. 160) states “‘ Harris and Thomas (1956) have remarked that to put the Leptograptid Fauna stratigraphically below the Diplograptid Fauna ‘is not warranted bv observed facts ’, and in effect, that we in Britain seem to have got the Leptograptid and Diplo- graptid Faunas inverted’. The stress laid by Harris and Thomas is upon the incoming in force of new forms and, in Victoria, four diplograptid zones are present before the appearance of Leftograptus, Dicranograptus, Dicellograptus or Nemagraptus. As is shown in the accompanying plate (PI. 6) the Diplograpti keep on developing and increasing numerically and the development and acme of the Ortho- grapti is higher, in the Leptograptid Fauna. To omit the Leptograptid Fauna as a major unit and reduce it to a subfauna does not help the field geologist as the association of diplo- graptids and leptograptids is utilized in the subdivisions of our “Upper Ordovician ”’ (Caradocian and Ashgillian of Britain). To state (Bulman, 1958, p. 160) that “ the Lepto- graptid Fauna can hardly now be claimed to correspond to any precise stratigraphical unit ”’ certainly does not apply in Australia. The Upper Ordovician in Australia is essentially the range of Dicellograptus from its entry to its disappearance. Bulman introduced into the Anisograptidae those forms that have the typical “ triad ”’ development of the MDendroidea, which he considers to be the forerunner of the Dicho- graptidae, but many forms cannot yet be definitely assigned to either of these groups. The “burst”” of the true “ dichograptids ~ in the basal part of the Bendigonian stage may in fact point to the stabilization of the dicho- graptid plan of development. While Bulman (1938, p. 161) maintains “that there is stratigraphic support for the morphological evidence linking leptograptids and dicellograptids to Dichograptus and Antso- graptus in a continuous evolutionary series ”’, he points out that the origin of scandent forms is obscure and that they appear quite abruptly ; he accepts the incoming of the Diplograptidae * In this paper Diplograpti is used to include Diplo- gvaptus (=Mesograptus), Glyptograptus and = Ortho- gvaptus. 6 D. E. THOMAS DIPLOGRAPTID 22 DICHOGRAPTID TYPE TYPE LEPTOGRAPTID TYPE ( Moditied from Bulman 1958) The stipples show the’ “double - bud’ thecae Fic. 3 Thecal diagram of terminal ends to show progressive changes. as of much greater stratigraphical importance than that of the tuning-fork graptolites and extends the Diplograptid Fauna and “ docks the tail of the Dichograptid Fauna ’’. The formulation of the family Isograptidae by Harris is a very significant contribution and one which graptolithologists will increasingly utilize. Bulman neglects the possibility that the Isograptidae form a connecting link between the Dichograptidae and the diplograptid and leptograptid faunas, but the late Dr. Harris and myself maintain that the Isograptidae are one of the links connecting the Dichograptid with the Diplograptid and Leptograptid faunas. Isograptus marks a stage in which the theca carrying the “double bud” is now Thi?. In the Castlemainian stage, Isograptus tends to increase in size upward through the sequence but it still preserves this fundamental pattern. However, at the base of the Yapeenian stage (and uppermost part of the Castlemainian) many variants of [sograptus appear ; while it is not yet proved beyond all doubt, some of these forms have three crossing canals, and therefore follow the “ leptograptid ”’ type of development. Two lines of development then become apparent : (a) There is the concentration of the crossing canals near the upper part of the sicula in such forms as Isograptus hastatus and I. manubriatus ; (o) in other forms the crossing canals are relatively closer to the mouth of the sicula as in Meandrograptus tau and M. aggestus. The former development is suggested as one possible line of ascent leading to the scandent forms and the latter to the leptograptids. Not only is the scandent form of the diplograptids fore- shadowed in these new developments, but also the leptograptid type of thecae. Oncograptus and Cardiograptus are considered to be a side branch which, perhaps by retro- gressive development, soon became extinct (cf. the Tremadocian Tetragraptus phyllograpt- oides and Phyllograptus cor!). The strati- graphical position of these: forms, however, draws attention to the need for further work on their development. There is fairly general agreement regarding the stratigraphic position of the Diplograptid fauna but, in eastern Australia, the Leptograptid Fauna is retained as a biostratigraphical unit THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES 7 because the “ burst ”’ of this fauna in the zone of Nemagraptus gracilis marks the base of the Upper Ordovician, and it disappears just below the base of the Silurian. The second burst of the multi-branched forms, in this case Pleuro- graptus, takes place after the disappearance of Dicranograptus and this burst marks the base of the Bolindian stage. For these reasons the Leptograptid Fauna is of great stratigraphic significance in the Lower Palaeozoic sequence in Australia. Work in Australia has thrown no additional light on the Monograptid Fauna, which will not be dealt with at length here. History of Zoning of Victorian Graptolite-bearing Beds The graptolites found about a century ago by the Geological Survey of Victoria were identified by Sir Frederick McCoy, and his early identifications are printed on the various Quarter Sheets (1856, 1865, 1868, etc.). These were only broadly correlated but it is interesting to note the similarity of these forms with those elsewhere in the world. In 1862 McCoy published a faunal list in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, and in 1867 he stated that “all the slates containing gold- bearing veins in Victoria were identical in age and character with those in North Wales, in which the Romans worked the gold mines of Gogofau ” Between 1892 and 1932 the zoning of the Australian sequence was firmly established by T. S. Hall; in 1899 he amplified his earlier work and recognized four main divisions of the Lower Ordovician in descending sequence, the Darriwil, Castlemaine, Bendigo and Lancefield. In 1912 Hall extended these observations by recording Tetragraptus approximatus in the upper part of the Lancefield and lower part of the Bendigo Beds. W. J. Harris (1916) proved the existence of beds between the Castlemaine and the typical Darriwil, but his suggested name of Yapeen for these beds was not adopted at that time. The detailed work on the zoning of the Bendigo goldfield, carried out by R. A. Keble on the basis of the graptolites, has never been described except in its broader outlines, but the distribution of the major zones is shown on the maps accompanying a report by H. Herman (1923) ; the only indication of the detailed subdivisions Keble had worked out is contained in a short paper (1920), but the basis of this zoning has never been published. Harris and Crawford (1921) made a tentative attempt at zoning the upper Ordovician rocks and, in 1932, Harris and Keble published their zoning of the Victorian graptolite sequence where five zones were recognized in each of the four main stages. Thomas and Keble (1933) described the Ordovician and Silurian rocks of the Sunbury district and proposed serial subdivisions of the Upper Ordovician, namely the Gisbornian, Eastonian and Bolindian, which are still in use although in a slightly emended form; at that time the Yeringian stage of the Silurian was considered to be of Wenlock age but subse- quently, largely as the result of this paper, it was accepted as being younger. The Keilorian stage was recognized as the lowest division of the Silurian and the Melbournian as the highest, but the term Yarravian has been discarded and the name Eildonian can be utilized for the intermediate division (Thomas, 1947). Work by Harris and Thomas (1933 to 1957 in col- laboration or separately) has led to the re- evaluation of the subdivision of the sequence and of the many factors involved in correlation with sequences overseas. In New South Wales the pioneering work of Mrs. Sherrard in that state cannot be too highly praised, and the broad outline she has estab- lished can be correlated with subdivisions elsewhere in the world. Let us not forget the work now being undertaken by the younger generation, by Drs. Packham and Stevens in New South Wales, by Mr. G. Bell and Mr. P. Kenley in Victoria, and by Mr. M. Banks in Tasmania. The Sequence of Graptolite Assemblages The succession of graptolite assemblages throughout the world in its broad outline is everywhere essentially the same, but when individual species and/or their minute differences are used in zoning, discrepancies become evident. This is undoubtedly due to the varying lithology and thickness of the various zones in the sedimentary sequence and the response of the fossils to slightly different environmental conditions. No doubt many species that have been created are unnecessary and are merely local geographical variants of more widely distributed forms, and it is becoming increasingly evident that many stratigraphic units are of limited geographical extent. It is hoped that the recent work begun by Margaret Sudbury (1958) will lead to an increase in this type of investigation which combines our increased knowledge with further detailed research to 8 DE ADPHORAS link forms that were previously considered as separate entities into an evolutionary sequence. In Victoria, owing to the scarcity of shelly fossils, attention must be concentrated on the graptolites as a means of subdividing the sequence and for regional correlation with sequences elsewhere in the world. The waxing and waning of the main faunas, the Anisograptid, Dichograptid, Isograptid, Diplograptid and Leptograptid faunas, form the basis for subdivision of the Australian Ordovician and Silurian sequence, which is outlined below. The Amsograptid Fauna (Lancefieldian) By the recognition of the Anisograptid fauna Bulman has introduced certain difficulties for field geologists, due to the fact that in compressed forms bithecae cannot always be identified, and also for the taxonomist, as forms included by him in this group have not yet been proved to possess bithecae. The assemblages of the Anisograptid Fauna in Australia are as yet not as complete as in the lower part of the sequence in Sweden (Tjernvik, 1958) and the lowest horizon in Victoria lies above the typical Dictvonema flabelliforme beds and is to be correlated with a higher zone such as that described by Bulman (1950) for Quebec. These early forms are very variable and attempts to separate them into species on the basis of measurements of morphologic features are fraught with difficulties ; the variability of these forms is so great that even the individual specimens on the same slabs are seldom exactly comparable. This feature has been realized by most workers, and Bulman (1954, p. 7) has stated that “the variability of Duzctyonema flabeluforme is so great that hardly any two Specimens are exactly comparable and in any large collection the range of variability and diverse combination of characters is bewildering. Thecal characters have been employed but little in the subdivision of the species. Admittedly, there is some variation in number of thecae per unit stipe length but often this is of geographical importance affecting all varieties of one district or area rather than a true distinction of different varieties.’’ Such obser- vations are borne out in thick graptolite shales in Victoria, where bedding surfaces one-tenth of an inch apart (or even less) are literally crowded with forms differing considerably in measurements from those on the next bedding surface, whereas the general similarities of the forms are unmistakable. Some beds are crowded with smaller specimens which might have perished at the same stage of development or might have been stunted by some particular environmental factor at that time, but litho- logically and stratigraphically the beds form essentially the same “band” and the small forms are to be found associated with larger ones on adjacent bedding planes. The lowest graptolite horizon in the Ordovician sequence of Victoria (Lal) contains Staurograptus and two species of siculate Dictyonema (Pl. 1). About 1000 feet higher in the sequence are the typical Middle Lancefield Beds (La2) with two large species of Ductyonema (D. pulchellum, D. magillivrayt), Clonograpti (C. mgidus and C. tenellus and the very large C. magnificus), Bryograpti (Adelograpti) (A. victoriae, A. clarki, A. antiquus), two primitive Didymograpti (D. pritchardi, D. taylort) and Tetragraptus decipiens. This fauna shows some remarkable features as A. (?) antiquus. very rarely shows the third branch and the majority of the forms show only two and thus most of the forms are to be con- sidered as being Didymograpti. ‘“ Didyvmo- graptus pritchardt ’’, apart from the one specimen figured by T. S. Hall (1899), has only two branches; the third branch in this figured specimen originates from the sicula so that this form could be called a Tv1ograptus, yet in general aspect, thecal characters and thickness of stipe it cannot be compared with any of the published species of Tvograptus. The six- branched Tetragraptus decipiens figured by Hall is the only one yet found and it may be an accident of preservation rather than a true form, yet undoubted five-branched forms occur. The Phyllograptus recorded at this horizon by T. S. Hall (1899) is an incomplete phyllocarid crustacean. This horizon contains many tran- sitional forms and it is generally correlated with the upper part of the Tremadocian. The Didymograpti resemble those described from Oslo by Monsen (1925) and D. primigenius Bulman (1950) from Quebec. The succeeding assemblage in Victoria (La3) is marked by the incoming of large forms of Tetragraptus (IT. approximatus [of R. A. Keble] and T. acclinans), which are probable “ end forms ” of a variable group as there are innumer- able variants between these extremes, and they are accompanied by many of the forms present in the lower zone, La2. These Tetra- grapti are world-wide in their distribution and restricted in their range so that they are ideal for world-wide correlation. No Duchograptus has been recorded from the Lancefieldian, and it is evident that both Tetragraptus and Didymo- Tak ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES q graptus were well established before Dichograptus made its appearance. In Scandinavia the assemblage of this horizon is complicated by the occurrence of Tetvagraptus phyllograptoides and Phyllograptus cor, not only because of their reclined habit but also because of the partial concrescence of their branches (Strandmark, 1901). The Dichograptid Fauna Gisbornian) Bendigonian—The base of the Bendigonian is defined by one of the most significant bursts of new forms in the succession of graptolite assemblages. Upward in the sequence from this horizon pendent Tetragrapti (T. fruticosus, TI. pendens), reclined Tetragrapti (7. amit, T. bryonoides, T. serra) and extensiform Didymo- gerapti (D. extensus, D. latus, D. abnormis, D. similis, D. suecicus, D. asperus, etc.) are abundant. Phyllograptus, Dichograptus, Gonio- graptus, Loganograptus, Trochograptus, Schizo- graptus and others can be expected in the Dichograptid Fauna. In the Victorian sequence there is no con- centration of Dichograpti followed by Tetra- -grapti and Didymograpti in any beds. There is no succession of Didymograpti from those with slender to those with broad proximal partitions (Elles, 1933); in Victoria the only forms approaching Didymograptus hirundo, i.e. with broad proximal parts, are the forms of D. latus and its variety which occur at the base of this stage. It is of interest that assemblages similar to those present in this part of the sequence in Victoria have also been found in Newfoundland (Kindle and Whittington, 1958) where a form recorded as Didymograptus cf. hirundo (Salter) has been found in association with Tetragraptus approximatus (Nicholson) ; confirmation of the possibility that the form recorded as D. cf. hirundo may be D. latus is awaited with interest. The form considered to be Didymograptus extensus in Britain differs from both the American and Australian forms of this species, and is probably a variant of D. nitidus. The great variation in the Didymograpti of the earlier Dichograptid fauna in Victoria is comparable with that of Quebec (J. Hall, 1965) and of Norway (Monsen, 1925) and it is a cause of embarrassment to all taxonomists. In Bel, Tetragraptus approximatus together with four-branched T. fruticosus form a high percentage of the forms present, but in Be2 LT’. approximatus is not found and it appears to have become extinct. In the upper part of the (Bendigomian to Bendigonian stage (Be3—Be4) the three-branched form of TI. fruticosus becomes dominant and, after a period of co-existence in Be3, the four- branched form becomes extinct. With the appearance of the three-branched forms, two- branched forms also appear which resemble Didymograptus v-fractus. Gomograptus thureaui is more particularly abundant in the lower horizons and the smaller forms of G. macer in the higher. In the upper beds new types of Didymograpti make their appearance and are represented by forms which can be compared with D. nitidus, D. balticus, D. mundus and their numerous variants. Chewtonian—The base of the Chewtonian is determined by the incoming of the dependent Delymograpti such as D. fprotobifidus; this form appears first with Tetragraptus fruticosus, together with all the forms present in the upper Bendigonian as well as some new ones, but this pendent form is the most abundant form present. The association with T. fruticosus is short-lived and it is represented by one of the thinnest zones in Victoria, not exceeding 40-60 feet. After the disappearance of T. /fruticosus, D. protobifidus becomes even more abundant and it remains a characteristic form throughout a thickness of 2000 feet. One of the earlier mutations of [sograptus caduceus is present in the upper part of this zone. The (Castlemainian — to Isograptid Fauna Darriwilian) Castlemaintan—The evolution and develop- ment of the family Isograptidae was investigated in detail by the late Dr. W. J. Harris (1933) and this work was being extended until his death. The Castlemainian zones are defined by the progressive development from Isograptus caduceus var. primula to var. lunata to var. victoriae to var. maxima var. maximo-divergens and var. divergens. The Castlemainian in Victoria, apart from the development of I. caduceus, both in size and numbers, is characterized by the relative paucity of other forms. Except for extensiform Didymograpti only a few Phyllograpti are present, some which are close to Phyllograptus typus, and the other forms are narrow types described both from South America and from Sweden as varieties of P. angustifolius. In the higher beds Loganograptus logani becomes abundant and the maximum develop- ment of J. caduceus is accompanied by the incoming of the numerous variants of this form. Yapeentan—The Yapeenian is characterized by the presence of variants of Isograptus caduceus 10 D. E. THOMAS together with Oncograptus in Yal and with Cardiograptus 1n Ya2 (it should be noted that Q. upsilon has been recorded sparingly with Glyptograptus intersitus). According to Harris (1933) the two last-named forms developed from I. caduceus by concrescence, but doubt has been cast on this after study of serial sections of an Oncograptus from the El Paso Limestone of Marathon, Texas (Bulman, 1936) ; from these it is doubtful whether Oncograptus is even an isograptid. Harris’ general picture is logical, however, and because of its strong stratigraphical support it should not be dismissed too lightly. The incoming of the variant forms of J. caduceus in force characterizes the Yapeenian, and the stratigraphic horizons of Oncograptus and Cardiograptus are similar fo the occurrences in North Ireland, North America and China. Although many of the dichograptids from lower horizons still persist, there are other forms which first appear in the Yapeenian. One of the most characteristic and easy to identify of the Didymograpti is D. v-deflexus, but others such as D. mnitidus, D. nicholsoni and D. uniformis are also present. Biserial forms make their appearance in force at this horizon. Of great interest is Skiagraptus which is a_ biserial isograptid. Early forms of Glossograptus also occur and, in forms such as G.?crudus, the proximal thecae appear to develop as in the Isograpti.* Trigonograptus also makes its appearance and one specimen (PI. 5, fig. 63) in which the periderm has been stripped suggests that this form is a retiograptid with a thick periderm. Cryptograptus becomes increasingly abundant upwards in the succession. The Diplograptid Fauna Keilorian) The incoming of the diplograptids of which the first Australian representative is Glypto- graptus austrodentatus, marks a very important evolutionary advance. The abundance of the Diplograpti in association with the equally strong dichograptid element and the absence of the tuning-fork graptolites Didymograptus bifidus, D. murchisont and their variants, which are so abundant in Europe, gives an individuality to this biostratigraphic unit in Australia. The lowest part of the Darriwilian is characterized by Glyptograptus austrodentatus, and this is (Darnwilan to * The downward growing first theca of many forms in Lastograptus and Glossograptus is suggestive of derivation from the Isograptidae. followed by the zone of G. zntersitus and then by Diplograptus decoratus ; G. austrodentatus and G. intersitus are small forms, the former having a blunter proximal end. The large forms of Glyptograptus dentatus, so common _ and characteristic of other parts of the world, are unaccountably absent in Australia. Diplograptus decoratus resembles D. coelatus, but the heart- shaped vesicle at the distal end, although not always present, is very characteristic. Lasio- graptus is very common in the lowest zone, the most abundant form being L. ethenidget.. This fauna is considered in Victoria to be Middle Ordovician and this age determination has also been accepted by Stormer (1953). Although in size and perhaps even in numbers the Orthograpti reach their acme in late Ordovician times, the abundance of biserial forms associated with equally abundant dicho- graptid and isograptid elements and the absence of Leptograpti makes this horizon easy to identify in the field. Glyptograptus austrodentatus is the _ pre- dominant graptolite in the lowest part and, after co-existing with D. intersitus, it apparently died out before that form; G. intersitus is then associated with the Diplograptus decoratus, the characteristic form of the succeeding zone, which marks the incoming of the large diplo- graptids. Lasiograptus etheridger enters the sequence with Glyptograptus austrodentatus and Glosso- graptus acanthus; D. decoratus is associated with Didymograptus nodosus, which has spines arising from the thecae and from nodes in the dorsal side of the stipe. Didymograptus com- pressus and Pterograptus first make their appearance in the zone of Glyptograptus intersitus and other characteristic forms of the higher beds are Lasiograptus proteus, Cardio- graptus crawfordt, Didymograptus cognatus, D. cuspidatus, Atopograptus woodward, Phyllo- graptus nobilis, Brachiograptus etaformis and Amplexograptus confertus, A. differtus and A. modicellus. The zone of Glyptograptus teretiusculus 1s now included in the Middle Ordovician (Darriwilian) of Victoria and this horizon is one of the most important horizons in correlation as it marks the passage beds where the dicho- graptid element disappears before the incoming of the leptograptids. Glossograptus hincksw and Pterograptus lyricus are abundant and, at the base of the zone, Tetragraptus clarkfieldt, Isograptus ovatus and Isograptus caduceus var. tenuis are characteristic. The Climacograpti appear in force at this horizon, where they are THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES dal MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN UPPER ORDOVICIAN SILURIAN 2 DARRIWILIAN GISBORNIAN EASTONIAN BOLINDIAN KEILORIAN va LLANDEILIAN CARADOCIAN ASHGILLIAN || DIPLOGRAPTIO Y FAUNA ff | ae | LEPTOGRAPTIO y FAUNAG | Sa | 1 EPTOGRAPTU DICELLOGRAPTUS | DICRANOGRAPTUS | | | DICHOGRAPTID | FAUNA | i] | NEMAGRAPTUS PLEUROGRAPTUS | ) ) | MONOGRAPTUS BSCE ALTIG FAUNA | FAUNA Fic. 4 Ranges of Upper Ordovician graptolites. represented by Climacograptus riddellensis, which is closely allied to C. antiquus; Retiograptus spectosus is another characteristic form. The Leptograptid Fauna Bolindian) Dicellograptus has always been considered by Dr. Harris and myself to belong to the Leptograptidae as at times it is very difficult to separate this form from Leptograptus. The development is the same, and some Dicellograpti have leptograptid thecae. It is considered here as belonging to a group of leptograptids in which thecal elaboration has proceeded further than in the case of the other Leptograpti. Dicranograptus, a form without a nema, and with a proximal biserial portion, is totally distinct and should be regarded as the only known genus of the Dicranograptidae. In Victoria the following three divisions of the Upper Ordovician, in ascending order, are recognized : (1) Gisbornian ; (2) Eastonian ; (3) Bolindian. The entry of the Leptograptid Fauna in force marks the base of the Upper Ordovician as used in Victoria. It is readily distinguished by the presence of such genera as Dicrano- svaptus, Dicellograptus, Leptograptus associated (Gisborman to with Nemagraptus at the base and at a higher horizon with Pleurograptus, the two last-named forms being branched Leptograpti ; also, except for Didymograptus, which only extends into the Gisbornian, the dichograptids are absent. The diplograptid element is even stronger than in the Middle Ordovician and _ is characterized by large Orthograpti as Elles has pointed out, but the absence of dichograptids and the presence of the leptograptid elements are notable features. In the Upper Ordovician rocks of Victoria some bedding planes are covered with forms at approximately the same stage of growth with only an occasional fully grown specimen present, while on other bedding planes, often only a fraction of an inch away, the majority of forms are of other species, which may or may not be fully developed. In our Victorian - Upper Ordovician sequence it is therefore important in each locality to take samples from many bedding planes to ensure that the assemblage obtained is characteristic of these horizons. There are two “ bursts”’ of branched lepto- graptids in the Upper Ordovician, the Nemagrapti at the base of the Gisbornian and the Pleurograpti at the base of the Bolindian ; the earlier “‘ burst ’’ is one of the really striking 12 DEO THOMAS events in the evolution of graptolites as it marks the incoming of the leptograptid fauna, while the later burst, apart from Orthograptus quadrimucronatus, contains no large Orthograpti and no Dicranograptus ; the absence of Dicrano- graptus in the assemblages of this later burst of Pleurograpti is a feature of world-wide stratigraphic significance. Gisbornian The Zone of Nemagraptus gracilis—The burst joi the Leptoesraptid 7) Maunawaththe base of the Gisbornian takes place very suddenly and, although Nemagraptus itself occurs rather sporadically, the assemblage in these horizons is readily recognizable. Glyptograptus teretius- culus is still abundant, together with larger forms of Orthograpti such as the varieties of QO. calcaratus and varieties of O. truncatus and O. whitfieldi. Climacograpti have also become quite abundant and these are represented by forms allied to C. antiquus and C. bicornis ; in the forms allied to C. bicornis the large pendent proximal spines appear to be normal. Cryptograptus tricornis remains abundant in this zone, while Dicellograptus sextans is exceed- ingly abundant in certain bands; these are associated with Dzucellograptus intortus, D. dwaricatus, Dicranograptus nicholsom, D. vamosus and, among the Leptograpti, L. validus and L. grandis. The Zone of Climacograptus peltifer and Diplograptus multidens—As Elles pointed out (1925, p. 341) “the changes in the appearance of Climacograptus bicornis on successive horizons can be used as indices of age. In this zone the spines at the proximal end become more conspicuous and stout stiff structures with a slight downward tendency. In the succeeding zone the two basal thecae are entirely modified to spines which are thick downward growing structures "’. In this zone Dicranograptus zig zag, D. rectus, D. nicholsont and D. vamosus are abundant, while Dzicellograptus sextans and var. exilis, D. divaricatus and D. patulosus are characteristic. Diplograptus multidens and the large forms of the Orthograptus calcaratus group are also very abundant. The zone is characterized by the absence of Nemagrapti and the presence of Climacograptus peltifer and/or Diplograptus multidens. Eastonian Lhe Zone of Climacograptus baragwanathi— The large Orthograpti such as QO. vulgatus and O. truncatus var. intermedius, together with Diplograptus ingens, are very abundant in this zone. In Victoria there is no record of Climaco- graptus wilson, but its variety tabulanius has been used as a zonal form in New South Wales. Its place in Victoria is taken by Clamacograptus bavagwanat, in which the proximal sac is replaced by an anastomizing meshwork. Dicranograpti are abundant, as are also the Leptograpti and Dicellograpti. The Zone of Dicranograptus hians—The zonal form, Dicranograptus sians, is exceedingly abundant and it is characterized by a small parallel-sided spinose biserial portion and long arms ; the angle of divergence of the arms shows considerable variation. Typical of this zone are Dicellograptus morrisz, D. elegans, D. caduceus, Clmacograptus caudatus, C. tubuliferus, Orthograptus calcaratus, O. truncatus, Leptograptus flaccidus and L. eastonensis. The assemblages are characterized by the large Diplograpti, including Diplograptus ingens, Dicranograpti of the type of D. jians, as well as the better known D. nicholson, D. ramosus and its varieties, and in the upper part by D. thielet, probably the last of the Dicranograpti in Victoria. In the higher beds forms such as. QO. quadrimucronatus are common and_ the Leptograpti present are close to L. flaccidus, while Amp/igraptus also occurs sparingly. Hallograptus, Neurograptus, Nymphograptus and Plegmatograptus are characteristic and many of the forms pass upwards to the beds. containing Pleurograptus. Bolindian The Bolindian stage as at present accepted commences with the zone of Pleurograptus linearis. The lower division of the Bolindian is characterized by the “ burst ”’ of the many branched Pleurograptus which takes place after the disappearance of the Dicranograpti. The zonal form Pleurograptus, as in the case of the earlier Nemagraptus, occurs sporadically. The Dicellograpti continue to be abundant, and many of the forms occurring in the older beds. also persist. Diucellograptus elegans and D. forchammen are characteristic, and these are associated with many Leptograpti of the type of L. capillans, L. flaccidus and its varieties including JL. eastonensis; Climacograptus caudatus, C. tubuliferus, C. bicornis, Ortho- graptus quadrimucronatus, Orthograptus pageanus and QO. truncatus var. pauperatus are also abundant. Records of the’ occurence or Dicranograptus in the Pleurograptus zone are. not reliable. int ZONAL DISTRIBULION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES 13 The Zone of Dicellograptus cf. complanatus— There is a gradual change in lithology at this horizon and up to the present it has been impossible to separate the two zones of the Ashgillian as in Great Britain. The common Dicellograptus is of the complanatus group with the characteristic thecae but with a some- what broader axil than in the English form. Most of the large Orthograpti are now absent and the commonest biserial form is Orthograptus truncatus var. abbreviatus and var. socvalts. Climacograptus scalaris and var. muserabilis and var. normalis are characteristic, as well as C. uncinatus, but owing to the method of preservation no biprofile view of this form has been obtained. This horizon also marks the reappearance of Glyptograpti with forms such as G. tamariscus, G. sinuatus, which also pass up into the Silurian. Retiograptus pulcherrimus is also abundant. Silurian The Monograptid Fauna—tThe general suc- cession for Britain as summarized by Elles (1922) has been utilized in the zoning of the Silurian in Victoria. Elles has shown that the uniserial scandent Monograpti developed along two main lines, not mutually exclusive, one by the increase of isolation and the other by lobation of the thecae. The hooked variant of this line carried on longer, reaching its acme in M. priodon, then declined in a gradual process of unhooking so that there is a reversion to simple thecal types as in M. dubius and M. tumescens. The simple type of thecae, however, may persist in certain forms right through the range of the Monograptid fauna. Four divisions of the Silurian are recognized in Victoria and they are correlated with the Silurian of Britain as follows : Victoria Bnitain 4. Tanjilan Upper Ludlow 3. Melbournian Lower Ludlow 2. Eildonian Wenlock 1. Keilorian Llandovery Graptolites are found in the three lowest divisions, but they are rare in the Eildonian in Victoria and somewhat more abundant in equivalent horizons in New South Wales. As yet it has not been possible to map the boundaries of any of the major divisions with certainty owing to the lack of mappable units ; however, there is a facies change in the Upper Silurian east of Melbourne where the green mudstones and shales pass into black siltstones in which Monograptus uncinatus and its variants occur in association with Bavagwanathia, one of the oldest land plants. In the Silurian black mudstones east of Melbourne shelly fossils are absent and no zonal sequence based on graptolites has yet been possible. Work along the lines carried out by Jaeger (1958) in Europe will no doubt enable the variants of Monograptus uncinatus to be separated as some forms occur low in the Lower Ludlow while others are found at much higher horizons. The statistical work necessary for this, however, needs well-preserved material. The MM. wunecinatus-Baragwanathia beds are succeeded by the Panenka-Styliolina-‘‘ Ortho- ceras ’’ assemblage of the Tanjilian, which occurs beneath the basal conglomerates of the Walhalla beds, generally regarded as the base of the Lower Devonian. Keilorian The lower beds are characterized by an assemblage of Diplograpti, Climacograpti and other forms which are now being investigated, some of which are Akzdograptus and Dimorpho- graptus. The lowest Victorian Monograptid recorded is Monograptus concinnus, which occurs with Glyptograptus tamariscus, G. sinuatus and Climacograptus spp. Up to the present Diplograptus modestus and its varieties have not been found. At about the same horizon Monograptus fimbriatus also occurs. Above the first conglomerate in Jackson’s Creek (IThomas and Keble, 1953) Monograptus sedgwickt has been recorded and slightly higher M. turnculatus, M. exiguus, M ~ Marre, M. pandus, M. spiralis var. and Stomatograptus australis have been found. These horizons are widespread in south-eastern Australia and they have been found at several localities in Victoria, New South Wales and lately in Queensland. IYorms with lobate and hooked thecae are very characteristic and, while Monograptus priodon appears with these forms, it also extends into higher beds. The upper half of the Keilorian (Llandovery) is easily recognized by the abundance of the coiled and twisted forms such as Monograptus convolutus, M. spiralis, M. discus, M. turriculatus, etc. Enldonian Graptolites are quite rare in this stage. Monograptus priodon and M. vomerinus and some of its variants, however, are found. 14 D. E. THOMAS ——_—_———————— | | Emmanuel Creek e | Goldwyer Bore No.! | NORTHERN | Samphire Marsh No.} | TERRITORY | Broken River 3 : | Crossing | | QUEENSLAND | Stokes Pass - Boulia | : WESTERN: "AUS TiRiAlUINemel Saar: Se uramienie a | SOUTH | | AUSTRALIA ia ae | | | ar S529 (ONE ena } NEW SOUTH e Graptolite localities excl. ro Graptoliferous areas in Victoria | WALES 4 | “4 | ViCTORTANG.” - rs, Victoria 9) % er: Fig. 5 Graptolite distribution in Australia. Towards the top of the Eildonian M. testis has recently been found as well as M. dubius, which ranges into the Melbournian. The characteristic burst of Cyrtograpti appears to be absent in Australia although Cyrtograptus insectus is present in New South Wales and a new species is present in Tasmania. No doubt detailed search will yield many more of these forms in the future. The great abundance of the pseudo-branched Cyrtograptids, which is typical of the Middle Silurian of Europe, is unfortunately absent in Australia. Melbournian In the higher beds of the Silurian graptolites belonging to the Monograptus colonus group are of frequent occurrence and typical forms have been recorded. Many have the “ biform thecae ’’’, e.g. M. colonus et vars., M. roemert, M. dubtus and M. varians. The only record in Australia of Linograptus sp. is from New South Wales. Among the characteristic forms from the Lower Ludlow are: Monograptus bohemicus, M. colonus, M. colonus var. compactus, M. varians, M. nilsom, M. comis, M. roemert, M. dubius, M. crinitus, M. chimaera, Plecto- graptus sp. and in the black mudstones east of Melbourne, M. wucinatus and varieties. Recent Discoveries in Australia Within recent years graptolites have been found in most States of Australia, whereas previously all undoubted records were confined to Victoria and to the southern parts of New South Wales. In recent times there have been discoveries from Queensland (from the Broken River crossing, inland from Townsville) and careful work and collecting in Tasmania have yielded graptolites of various ages. Graptolites from Queensland are found in siltstones and mudstones indistinguishable lithologically from those of Victoria and New South Wales. The following forms are present (see BEX): Monograptus griestoniensis M. convolutus M. marn, etc. The horizon is high Llandovery or in Victorian nomenclature high Keilorian. From Tasmania, due to the careful and persistent collecting by M. R. Banks, there are several occurrences now known. Three horizons are indicated: Junee area with Didymograptus gracilis, Clonograptus, Tetragraptus, Didymo- graptus of the type of mundus, Didymograptus = THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES 15 gracilis and Phyllograptus. The horizon of these is Lower Ordovician. Farther to the N.W. in the Queenstown district two horizons are indicated: Cyrtograptus sp. nov. indicative of Middle Silurian (Wenlock) age and many forms from the Bell Shale among which can be identified Monograptus colonus et var. indicative of Melbournian age (Lower Ludlow). In the Tasman geosyncline graptolites have been found to extend over a distance of very nearly 2000 miles and the distance from the well known exposures in New South Wales to the newly discovered ones in Queensland is approximately 1000 miles. No doubt close collecting in this geosyncline is going to yield many new graptolite localities. In Western Australia graptolite-bearing Ordovician rocks have been found outcropping at Emmanuel Creek. Through the kindness of Professor Prider I have been able to examine these forms and have identified Didymograptus, Tetragraptus and Clonograptus. They occur in limestone and are exceedingly well preserved but no doubt intensive collecting in this locality will yield a varied fauna. The horizon is Lower Ordovician (Arenig). Through the kindness of Dr. Ross McWhae of Ampol and the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, cores have been submitted which contain graptolites. From the Samphire No. 1 bore Amplexograptus arctus and A. perexcavatus have been obtained, indicating a Middle Ordovician horizon. Goldwyer No. 1 bore has yielded Tetragraptus and Clonograptus, indicative of Arenig age. About 120 miles west of Alice Springs at Stokes Pass the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics have found Lower Ordovician graptolites in limestone. This form Geological Survey of Victoria, Melbourne, Victoria. is very close to Didymograptus patulus and the horizon indicated is Lower Ordovician (Arenig). No doubt in the near future many more localities will be found. A summary of the New South Wales grapto- lites has been given by Mrs. Sherrard in various publications, and I have been informed by Dr. G. Packham that he has found Lower Ordovician graptolites in the Snowy River area. Work he has carried on in the Silurian sequence will, when published, increase our knowledge of these forms and assemblages. Acknowledgments This compilation could not have been prepared without the knowledge passed on and _ the discussions with the late Dr. W. J. Harris and Mr. RK. A. Keble. Thanks are due to Professor Prider for making available material from Emmanuel Creek ; to Dr. McWhae for specimens from the wells in Western Australia; to Mr. Maxwell Banks by whose untiring efforts graptolites have been found in Tasmania; and to these people for permission to refer to these discoveries. Many thanks are also due to the Bureau of Mineral Resources who sent me their collections from the Northern Territory, Western Australia and Queensland. Without co-operation from all these people and Mrs. Sherrard in N.S.W., it would not have been possible to summarize these occurrences. To members of my staff I owe a great deal, and in particular to Mr. G. Bell, who has prepared the plates, photographed these forms, and prepared the Bibliography and the tables of zonal ranges. 16 DD, E. PHOMAS ORDOVICIAN LANCE = CASTLE- TREM- ASH- ADOC ARENIG GILL CARADOC PEBRERE SIs Fee lels eiebit DENDROGRAPTIDAE Dictyonema campanulatum pulchellum macgilvrayi scitulum ANISOGRAPTIDAE Staurograptus difissus DICHOGRAPTIDAE Bryograptus antiquus clarki crassus victoriae Clonograptus flexilis magnificus pervelatus persistens ramulosus rarus rigidus smithi tenellus tenellus var.problematica timidus trochograptoides sp. Goniograptus alternans macer palmatus sculptus speciosus thureau thureau var.clonograptoides thureau var.inequalis . tumidus velatus Loganograptus logani Pterograptus incertus lyricus Sigmagraptus crinitus yandoitensis Trichograptus fergusoni immotus Schizograptus incompositus spectabilis Mimograptus mutabilis Trochograptus australis diffusus indignus Dichograptus expansus maccoyi norvegicus N&lIANV 11 WAGNVTN THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES ORDOVICIAN LOWER MIDDLE UPPER LANCE - CASTLE - FIELD. BENDIGO. cvewron.| Care YAPEEN.| DARRIWIL.- EASTON.| BOLIND. TREM- cE > > ADOC vic yim eit SEEREEE TS GERI? 1/2 \ Po) A ES Ee octobrachiatus octonarius octonarius var.solida sedecimus separatus oe cee tenuissimus Atopograptus woodwardi Tetragraptus acclinans approximatus bigsbyi Le aides Be Sa See chapmani clarkfieldi decipiens fruiticosus, 4 br. fruiticosus, 3 & 2 br. harti pendens aa projectus quadribrachiatus Se eee) similis taraxacum triograptoides volitans a whitelawi aes sp. Phyllograptus augustifolius densus ilicifolius nobilis typus Didymograptus abnormis acriculus adamantinus aspersus balticus bifidus —— cognatus compressus cuspidatus dilatans distinctus ensjoenis eocaduceus euodus j extensus gracilis ee ee hemicyclus indentus ; latus var.inequalis mendicus mundus nitidus me nodosus perditus pritchardi procumbens protobifidus Cae similis suecicus suecicus var.robusta superstes taylori uniformis urbanus 1 ? Fad 4 18 CRYPTOGRAPTIDAE COR YNOIDIDAE LEPTOGRAPTIDAE Didymograptus v -deflexus validus var,communis vicinus ISOGRAPTIDAE Isograptus caduceus var.primula caduceus var,lunata caduceus var.victoriae caduceus var,maximus caduceus var.maximo-divergens caduceus var.divergens dumosus forcipiformis hastatus manubriatus ovatus Oncograptus upsilon & var, Cardiograptus crawfordi morsus Meandrograptus aggestus tau Skiagraptus gnomonicus Cryptograptus circinus schaferi tricornis Glossograptus acanthus crudus hincks1i pilosus Corynoides sp Leptograptus flaccidus flaccidus var.arcuatus flaccidus var.eastonensis flaccidus var.subjectus capillaris sp. Pieurograptus linearis Amphigraptus sp Nemagraptus gracilis gracilis var, remotus 4 Dicellograptus affinis caduceus complanatus complanatus var.ornatus divaricatus divaricatus var.rigidus elegans elegans var.rigens forchammeri forchammeri var.flexuosus gravis intortus morrissi patulosus pumilus bo | ory cd Pe | - 8 S La - 9 wo D. E. THOMAS ORDOVICIAN LOWER MIDDLE LANCE - CASTLE - ASH- CARADOC GILL ADOC ARENIG = E > Zz < nD re Eo) qWaaNwn * The title DICRANOGRAPTIDAE was inadvertently omitted here. THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES ORDOVICIAN ae © | ios UPPER | Lowen STLE ~ gain YAPEEN.| DARRIWIL- sis. | EASTON.| BOLIND. | ketton. MELB. ASH- LOWER CARADOC GILL LUDLOW Sah Sicha alt Dicellograptus sextans sp SILURIAN UPPER MIOOLE WENLOCK MAGNVN [sO NYIANY 11 * Dicranograptus brevicaulis furcatus furcatus var,minimus hians nicholsoni ramosus ramosus var.longicaulis ramosus var. spinifer tealei DIPLOGRAPTIDAE Climacograptus antiquus antiquus var.riddellensis baragwanathi bicornis bicornis var.peltifer bicornis var,inequispinosus brevis caudatus exiguus hastatus hughesi innotatus minimus missilis putillus cf.var.eximus scalaris scalaris var.muiserabilis scalaris var.normalis styloideus- supernus tubuliferous uncinatus Diplograptus decoratus foliaceus magnus modestus multidens ingens Amplexograptus confertus differtus perexcavatus modicellus ‘ Glyptograptus austrodentatus intersitus sinuatus tamariscus teretiusculus teretiusculus var.siccatus euglyphus sp. Orthograptus calcaratus calcaratus var.acutus calcaratus var. basilicus calcaratus var.tenuicornis calcaratus var.vulgatus insectiformis Pageanus Ppageanus var.abnormis Pageanus var.spinosus quadrimucronatus quadrimucronatus var.spingerus truncatus D. E. THOMAS ORDOVICIAN SILURIAN CASTLE - MAIN. YAPEEN.} DARRIWIL. | GISB. EASTON.| BOLIND. EILDON. MELB. ASH- LLAND ~ vere LOWER GILL OVERY HOEK LUDLOW i CARADOC N&YlANW 17 sO q130Nv17 nee A Orthograptus truncatus var.abbreviatus truncatus var.intermedius truncatus var.pauperatus truncatus var.socialis whitfieldi sp. LASIOGRAPTIDAE Lasiograptus etheridgei harknessi Hallograptus mucronatus mucronatus var. bimucronatus proteus Neurograptus fibratus & Var, margaritatus Nymphograptus halli RETIOLITIDAE Plegmatograptus sp. Retiograptus geinitgianus latus pulcherrimus speciosus Retiolites sp. Stomatograptus australia Plectograptus sp. Gothograptus sp. DIMORPHOGRAPTIDAE Dimorphograptus Akidograptus MONOGRAPTIDAE Monograptus bohemicus chimaera chimaera var.salwey} colonus colonus var.compactus comis concinnus ‘cyphus crinitus dubius exiguus fimbriatus flemingi flemingi var.compactus : flemingi var.elegans gothlandicus gregarius griestonensis jaculum marrl nilsonni nudus pandus priodon roemeri runcinatus scanicus THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES 21 Monograptus sedgwicki spiralis var,permensis testis var.inornatus triangulatus turriculatus uncinatus var,micropoma uncinatus var.orbatus undulatus varians Varians var.pumilus vulgaris var.curtus vomerinus vomerinus var.crenulatus sp. Rastrites approximatus longispinus Cyrtograptus insectus Linograptus sp. ORDOVICIAN | CASTLE - MAIN | YAPEEN.| DARRIWIL. N&lIANV 11 SILURIAN MIDDLE EILDON WENLOCK KEILOR LOWER LUDLOW Ia0NV1N rc Literature Cited BARAGWANATH, W., 1923. The Ballarat Goldfield : Mem. Geol. Surv. Vic., 14. Burman, O. M. B., 1928. Monograph of British Dendroid Graptolites, Part 1: Palaeontographical Soc. London. BULMAN, O. M. B., 1936. The Structure of Onco- gvapius T. S. Hall: Geol. Mag., 78, 271-8. Butman, O. M. B., 1938. Graptolithina in Handb. der Palaozool., Borntraeger ed. Schindewolf, ©, H.: Berlin, Band 2D Lief 2. Butman, O. M. B., 1950. Graptolites from the Dictyonema Shales of Quebec: Quart. J. Geol. Soc. London, 106. Buitman, O. M. B., 1951. Notes on Thecal Variation in Monograptus: Geol. Mag., 88, 316-328. Butman, O. M. B., 1954. The Graptolite Fauna of the Dictyonema Shales of the Oslo Region: Norsk. Geol. Tidsskr., 33. Butman, O. M. B., 1955. Treatise on Invertebrate Palaeontology, ed. R. C. Moore, Vol. V Grapto- lithina, Geol. Soc. America. Butman, O. M. -B., 1957. Graptolites : Soc. America, 67. Butman, O. M. B., 1958. The Sequence of Graptolite Faunas: Palaeontology, 1, Part 3. Buitman, O. M. B., 1958. Colonial Development in Graptolites: Journ. Linn. Soc. London, Zool., 44, No. 295, and Bot., 56, No. 365. metres, G. L., 1922. The Graptolite Fauna of the British Isles: Geol. Assoc., Proc., 33, 168—200. Eres, G. L., 1925. The Characteristic Assemblages | of the Graptolite Zones of the British Isles: | Geol. Mag., 62. -ELes, G. L., 1933. The Lower Ordovician Graptolite | Faunas with special reference to the Skiddaw Slates: Geol. Surv. Great Britain, Summary of Progress, 1932. Mem. Geol. ELLEs, G. L., 1937. The Classification of Ordovician Rocks: Geol. Mag., 74. HALL, J., 1865. Graptolites of the Quebec Group : Canada Geol. Surv. (Organic Remains, dec. 2). Hatt, T. S., 1899. The Graptolite-bearing Rocks of Victoria, Australia: Geol. Mag., 4, Dec. 4. Hatt, T. S., 1899. Victorian Graptolites Part II. The Graptolites of the Lancefield Beds: Proc. UrOVne SOCK VIG. (Mess)) oul Pb, 2: Hatt, T. S., 1912. Reports on Graptolites: rec. Geol. Surv. Victoria, 3, Pt. 2. Harris, W. J., 1916. The Palaeontological Sequence of Lower Ordovician Rocks of the Castlemaine District, Part 1: Pyroc. Roy. Soc. Vic., 49, 50-74. Harris, W. J., 1933. Jsogvaptus caduceus and its Allies in Victoria: Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., 46, 79-114. HARRIS, W. J., AND CRAWFORD, W., 1921. The Relationships of the Sedimentary Rocks of the Gisborne District, Victoria: Pvoc. Roy. Soc. Vic., 33, 39-78. Harris, W. J., AND KEBLE, R. A., 1932. Victorian Graptolite Zones with Correlations and Descrip- tions of Species: Pyvoc. Roy. Soc. Vic., 44. Harris, W. J., AND THomas, D. E., 1938. A Revised Classification of the Ordovician Rocks of Victoria : Min. and Geol. Journ. Vic., 1, Pt. 3. Harris, W. J., AND THomas, D. E., 1940a. Victorian Graptolites (new series), Part VII: Jbid., 2, 128-136. Harris, W. J., AND THomas, D. E., 19406. Jbidem., Parte libs fod, 2,197. Harris, W. J., and THomas, D. E., 1955. Ibidem, Pater bd 30; Harris, W. J., AND THomas, D. E., 1956. Review of Treatise on Invertebrate Palaeontology, Pt. V: Ibid., 6, 39, 40. 22 D. E. THOMAS Hitts, E. S., ann THomas, D. Es 1954. Turbidity Currents and the Graptolite Facies of Victoria: Jj. Geol Soc. Aust. & wi19: Hunpt, R., 1933. Massenvorkommen von Grapto- lithen der Gattung Monograptus im Ostthiiringer Obersilur: Paldobiol., 5, 248-250. Hunpt, R., 1934. Was lebten die Graptolithen ? : Der Naturforscher, 11, 1-8. Hunpt, R., 1935. Massenanhaufungen und Parallel- lagerung von Graptolithen: Z. ftir Geschiebe- forschung, 11, 69-82. Hunpt, R., 1936. Graptolithenleben und Grapto- lithensterben im Mitteldeutschen Silurmeer : Z. fur gesamte Naturwiss., 21-37. Hunpt, R., 1938. Eine biostratonomisch interessante Graptolithen-platte: Zentralbl. f. Mun., etc., Abt. B, no. 7, pp. 269-271, Jahrg. 1938. HunptT, R., 1938. Silurische Graptolithenmeere und rezente Aquivalente, ein biologischer, hydro- graphischer und morphologischer Vergleich: Geologie dey Meeve und Binnengewasser, 2, 424-441. JAEGER, H., 1959. Graptolithen und Stratigraphie des Jiingsten Thiiringer Silurs : Abhandl. d. deutsch. Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1959, No. 2. JAEKEL, O., 1889. Uber das Alten des sogenannten Graptolithengesteins: Z. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch., 41. Jopitin, G., 1945. Composition and Origin of Upper Ordovician Graptolite Bearing Slates: Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.; 79. KEBLE, R. A., 1920. Some Subzonal Forms of the Lower Bendigo and Upper Lancefield Zones: Rec. Geol. Surv. Vic., 4, Pt. 2. KINDLE, E. H., AND WHITTINGTON, H. B., 1958. Stratigraphy of the Cow Head Region, Western Newfoundland: Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 69, 315-342. KkozLowskI, R., 1948-1949. Les Graptolithes et quelques nouveaux groupes d’animaux du Tremadoc de la Pologne: Pal. Polonica, 3, 1-235. IkRAATZ, R., 1958. Stratigraphische und _ palaonto- logische Untersuchungen (besonders im _ Got- landium) im Gebiet Zwischen Wieda und Zorge (siidl. Westhartz) : Z. deutsch. geol. Ges., Hanover, 110 (1). LapwortTH, C., 1897. Die Lebensweise der Grapto- lithen (Lebensweise fossiler Meeresthiere, ed. Walther, J.): Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. Geselisch., 49. Marr, J. E., 1925. Conditions of Deposition of the Stockdale Shales: Quart. J. Geol. Soc, Lond., 81, 113-133. McCoy, F., 1862. Notes on the Ancient and Recent Natural History of Victoria: Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 3, 9, 137-140. tl McCoy, F., 1867. On the Recent Zoology and Palaeontology of Victoria: Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 3, 20. xf Monsen, A., 1925. Uber eine neue ordovicische Graptolithen Fauna: Norsk. geol. tidsskr., 8. Mu, A. T., 1957. Some New and Little-known Graptolites from the Ningkuo Shale of Changshan, Western Chekiang: Acta Palaeontologia Sinica, 5 (3). NicHotson, H. A., 1872. Monograph of British Graptolitidae. Blackwood & Sons: Edinburgh and London. NicHotson, H. A., AND Marr, J. E., 1895. Notes on the Phylogeny of the Graptolites: Geol. Mag., _ 42, 529-539. | Op1k, A., 1929. Uber Trockenrisse und Regenspuren im Monograptus-schiefer von Hodkovicky (Bohmen): Publ. Geol. Inst. Univ. Tartu, 13, 9 pp: RIcHTER, R., 1871. Aus dem thuringischen Schiefer- gebirge: Z. Deutsch. Geol. Gesellsch., 23. RUEDEMANN, R., 1895. Development and Mode of Growth of . Diplograptus McCoy: N.Y. State Geol. Surv., Ann. Rept. for 1894, pp. 219-249. RUEDEMANN, R., 1925. Siluric Faunal Facies in Juxtaposition : Pan. Am. Geol., 44 (4), 309-312. SCHARENBERG, W., 1851. Uber Graptolithen mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der bei Christiania vorkommenden: Arview., Breslau. SmitH, J. D. D., 1957. Graptolites with Associated Sedimentary Grooving: Geol. Mag., 94. STORMER, L., 1953. The Middle Ordovician of the Oslo Region, Norway, 1—Introduction to Strati- eraphy : Norsk. geol. tiddskr., 31, 37-141. STRANDMARK, J. E., 1901. Undre Graptolitskiffer vid Fogelsang : Geol. Foren., Forh., 23. SupBurY, M., 1958. Triangulate Monograptids from the Monograptus gvregarius Zone (Lower Llandovery) of the Rheido Gorge (Cardiganshire) : Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., B., 241, 485-555. - SupBurY, M., 1959. Monograptus triangulatus : Geol. Mag., 96. Tuomas, D. E., 1947. Geology of the Eildon District : Mem. Geol. Surv. Vic., 16. Tuomas, D. E., AND KEBLE, R. A., 1933. The Ordo- vician and Silurian Rocks of the Bulla-Sunbury Area and Discussion of the Sequence in the Mel- bourne Area: Pyvoc. Roy. Soc. Vic., 45, 33-84. THORSTEINSSON, R., 1955. The Mode of. Cladial Generation in Cyrtograptus: Geol. Mag., 92, 37-49. TJERNVIK, T. E., 1958. The Tremadoc Beds ag Flagabro in South East Scania: Geol. Fdéren., Forh., 80, 43. TWENHOFEL, W. H., 1932. ynd' ed. Baltimore - Treatise on Sedimentation. Williams and Wilkins. THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES Appendix Revised Bibliography of Australian Graptolites Species and Synonyms Abbreviations aff. ae pa related sto Keble & B. IXeble and Benson auct. non not author Keble & H. Keble and Harris Barr. Barrande Lapw. Lapworth Brongn Brongniart Linn. Linnarson Bul. Bulman Murch. Murchison Carr .. Carruthers Nich. Nicholson cf. .. compare nom. nud. nomen nudum Chapman & aL. Chapman and Thomas Rued. Ruedemann desc. description syn. synonym Elles & wW. Elles and Wood Thomas & K. Thomas and Keble emend. emendation Torn. Tornquist Eth. wi ix, Etheridge: ium. Tull. Tullberg fig. ‘is ea ateure Sherr. Sherrard Hdartis & KK. Harris and Keble var. variety Harris & T. Harris and Thomas var. nov. .. hew variety His. Hisinger vide ae Ta See Hopk. Hopkinson Species and Synonyms Amplugraptus divergens var. radiatus (Lapw.) Anthograptus nidus Torn. - Archaeolafoea serialis Ch. & T. Atopograptus woodwardi Harris .. Brachwograptus etafornus Harris & K. Bryograptus antiquus T. S. Hall, cf. Lepto- graptus antiquus clarkt T. S. Hall crassus Harris & T. hunnebergensis fee simplex Torn.. victoriae T. S. Hall, syn. with Adelograptus Bul. Callograptus arundinosus Sherr. disjectus Sherr. saltert J. Hall a Cardiograptus crawfordt Harris morsus Harris & K... Cladograptus furcatus J. Hall, syn. of Dicrano- graptus furcatus, q.v. vamosus J. Hall, syn. of Dicranograptus YAMOSUS, G.V. Clathrograptus geimtzianus J. Hall, syn. of Retio- graptus geimtzianus, q.v. Climacograptus affinis T. S. Hall antiquus J. Hall be var. bursifer Elles & W. var. lineatus Elles & W. ay var. sumulans Thomas & K. M.S. Reference in Bibliography 192 168 176 (desc.) (cf.) 105 (desc.), 112, 131, 184, 135, 138, 157, 169 ? 121 (desc.), 135, 138, 157, 180, 190, 193 39 (desc.), 40, 59, 69, 70, 87, 97, 111, 134, 135, 142, 156, 157 39 (desc.), 40, 87, 97, 155 (desc.), 157, 177 157 157 39 (desc.), 40, 59, 69, 70, 87, 97, 120, 121, 134, 135, 156, 157 196 (desc.) 196 (desc.) AT (cf.), 51 (cf.) 105 (desc.), 121, 127, 131, 134, 138, 157, 169 81 (desc.), 90, 98, 105, 112, 119, 120, 121, 122, 127, 137, 138, 157, 193 158, 134, 135, 137 42 (desc.), 180, 192 93, 1267 135, 157, 167, Lis, 180-(cf.) 137, 192, 196 126, 175 (desc.) 126, 175 (desc.) 126 24 D. E. THOMAS Species and Synonyms bavagwanat T. S. Hall, ae of C. wilsom bicorms J. Hall au var. longispina T. S. Hall var. peltifer Lapw. var. tridentatus, syn. of C. bicornts brevis Elles & W. : caudatus Lapw. _ var. wellingtonensis, syn. of C. caudatus coelatus Lapw., cf. mts sts coelatus .. exiguus Keble & H.. a hastata T. S. Hall hughes (Nich.) unitur innotatus Nich. mensoris T. S. Hall . minimus Carr. : miserabilis, vide C. scalaris var. maserabilis missilis Keble & El. normalis Lapw. putillus var. eximius Rued. | rectangularis McCoy, syn. of C. viddellensis viddellensis Harris ehh scalaris His. var. miserabilis Elles & W. var. normalis Elles & W. scharenbergi Lapw. Ee simulans, vide C. antiquus Vv var. simulans .. styloideus Lapw. ; subminimus Keble & cee supernus Elles & W. tornquistt Elles & W. tubuliferus Lapw. uncinatus Keble & H. a wellingtonensis T. S. Hall .. wilsont Lapw. Clonograptus abnormis J. Hall .. flextlis J. Hall ue gracilis J. Hall se magnificus Pritchard persistens Harris & T. pervelatus Harris & T. vamulosus Harris & T. varus Harris & T. Reference in Bibliography + 53 (desc.), 119, 191, 194 (desc.) 6, 8, 14, 19, 22, 30, 38, 40, 46, 52, 53, 57, 63, 69, 70, 75, 84, 90, 102, 116, 123, 126, 134, 135, 150, 161, 156, 157, 166, 169, 172, 175 (desc.), 179 (desc.), 172, 17%73a, 180) Paieeaias, 1843 185, 187, 191, 192, 194, 195, 196 47 (desc.), 57, 84, 119 84, 90, 102, 123, 126, 134, 185, 157, 166, 172; 175 (desc.), 179 (desc.), 180, 187, 191, 192, 194 179 (desc.), 192, 194 126, 131, 172, 173a, 179 (desc.), 180, 191, 192 37, 69, 70, 84, 86, 123, 126, 134,:1935) 157, 159) 172, 173a, 175 (desc.); 179 (deseny 1s) 1S 8 185, 187, 191, 192, 194 (desc.) 86 47, 194 102 (desc.), 123, 126 (cf.), 194 (desc.) 47 (desc.), 51, 75, 84, 89, 175 (desc.), 194 (desc.), 192 (desc.) 153, 175 (dese), 139; a2 195 (cf.) bi (ct), 84. (er) 53 (desc.), 84, 102, 119 123,126, 131, 172; 183 (ch); 13556092 102. (desc.), 131, 161, 172 42 125, 126 (ch.), 175 (desc) 14, 19, 30, 34, 37, 159, 181 fer) 98 (desc.), 123, 126, 131, 138, 156, 159 126, 157, 159, 180 126 ( (cf. 126 (cf.) 1351 ( 126, 159, ache 192, 191 (ch) 46, 47, 51, 53, 84, 86 (cf.), 114, 126, 131, 134, 135, 157, 161, 172, 175, 179 (desc.), 180, 183, 191, 192, 194 (desc.) 126, 131 (desc.), 157, 180, 191, 194 (desc.) 52 (desc.), 84, 102, 194 83, 84, 119, 134, 135, 157, 172, 192 (desc.) 23, 27, 61,-69, 70, 90, 120, 221) Tos 23, 27, 37, 39, 40, 43, 57 (2), 59, GI-(2), 69, TO 87, 97, 121, 134, 185, 157) Tie aiGese® 59 23 (desc.), 27, 28, 37, 39, 40, 56, 57, 59, 69, 70, 87, 97, 120, 157 160 (desc.), 177 171 (desc.) 155 (desc.) 155 (desc.), 177 194, 195 ine ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES 25 Species and Synonyms rigidus J. Hall var. tenellus, vide C. tenellus var. typicus (? nom. nud.) smith Harris & T. .. na tenellus Linn. var. problematica Harris & T. tumidus Harris & T. trochograptoides Harris & Te i Coenograptus gracilis J. Hall, syn. of Nema- graptus gracilis (q.v.) Corynotdes calicularis Nich. (see C. curtus var. australis) curtus Lapw. var. australis H. & T. Cryptograptus circinus Keble & H. schafert (Lapw.) tricormis Carr. tyicormis var. wmsectus Rued. Cyrtograptus insectus Boucek. Dendrograptus divergens J. Hall . wiemius, I. S Hall non. J. ‘Hall, D. flexuosus J. Hall nudus Sherr. vectangulosus Sherr. Desmograptus quinquelateralis ate spongtiosus Sherr. Dicellograptus affinis T. S. Hall syn. of anceps Nich. .. angulatus Elles & Ww. caduceus Lapw. complanatus Lapw. var. ornatus Elles & W. didvymus Thomas & K., M.S. divaricatus J. Hall var. augustus Thomas .. var. vigidus Lapw. : var. eS Elles & W. elegans Carr. var. rigens Lapw. extensus J. Hall, cf. Didymograptus extensus forchammen Geinitz .. i, var. flexuosus Lapw. Reference in Bibliography | 70, 78, 80, 87, 97, 23, 39, 40, 48, 57, 59, 69, 131, 184, 135, 156, 157, 175 (desc.) 67, 68 155 (desc.) 39, 40, 43, 56, 57, 59, 69, 70, 87, 97, 120, 121, 127, 131, 184, 185, 145, 156, 157 155 (desc.), 177 160 (desc.), 177 160 (desc.) yer MURAI 179 (desc.), 191, 192, 194 (desc.) 194 (desc.) I31 (desc.), 157, 180 157, 180 52, 53, 57, 68, 70, 84, 90, 98, 102, 105, 120, 121, 123, 126, 132, 138, 145, 150, 156, 157, 159, 161, 166, 169, 172, 175 (desc.), 179 (desc.), 181, 185, 187, 191, 192 123, 175 (desc. ?) 188 (cf.), 192 25, 37, 134, 175 (desc.) 2b(cl.), 31, Ltd desc.) 196 (desc.) 196 (desc.) 196 (desc.) 196 (desc.) 46, 47 (desc.), 51, 58, 75, 84, 89 (cf.), 102, 126, 172, 175 (desc. cf.), 180 30, 37, 40, 46 (cf.), 84, 86 (cf.), 157, 159 dO (Gese>), 183, bd 46 (cf.), 75, 86 (cf.), 89 (cf.), 126 (cf.), 159, 172, 179 (desc.), 180, 183, 185, 192 90, 96 (cf.), 126 (cf.), 184, 1385, 150 (cf.), 157 (cf.), 159, 161 (cf.), 175 (desc.), 180 (cf.), 181 53, 84, 86, 102 (?), 126 (cf.), 159, 175 (desc.); 181 126 47 (cf.), 126, 134, 157, 159, 169, 172, : 180, 187, 191, 192 (cf. ) 181 150, 161, 172, 175 (desc.) 126, 157, 159, 175 (desc.), 187, 190, 192 30, 37, 40, 46, 47 (cf.), 52, 53, 57, 63, 75, 83, 90, 96, 102, 123, 126, 134, 135, 150, 157, 159, VGIGO 172 1b, 180) 18i, TOL (cL), 192) 196 175 (desc.), poner) St (att.), 123 (cl). 126) 159: 12 (cr), 175 (desc.), 179 (desc.), 181, 187, 191, 192, 195 123, 126, 173a, 179 (desc.), 183, 191; 192 Species and Synonyms furcatus J. Hall, furcatus (?) gracilis (doubtful reference) gravis Keble & H. gurleyt Lapw.. havelockensis Thomas & ie, MS. imtortus Lapw. latusculus Thomas & ik, MS. moffatensis Carr. morrist. Hopk. patulosus Lapw. punulus Lapw. syn. of Duicranograptus vamosus, vide sextans J. Hall Dicranograptus rvamosus smitht Rued. Dichograptus expansus Harris & ce ap kjerulfi Herrmann, syn. of Goniograptus thureaut et G. macer latus Eth., cf. Didymograptus latus nor- vegicus Harris & T. maccoyt Harris & T. octobrachiatus J. Hall octonartus J. Hall var. solida Harris & T. sedecumus Harris & T. tenuissumus Harris & T. .. Dicranograptus brevicaulis Elles & W.. clingamt Carr. me contortus Reud. cyathiformis Elles & W. furcatus J. Hall var. minimus Lapw. jians, Vets. Hall var. aperius T. S. Hall Rivk?, Vatnisccnlnyra: : nicholsont Hopk. var. parvangulus Gurley ramosus J. Hall 2. ; var. longicaulis Elles & W. Val. Semspinijer, Lo.) tall: var. spinifer Lapw. (syn. senuspintfer) vectus Hopk. . D. E. THOMAS Reference in Bibliography = 75 102 (desc.), 114 (cf.), 120 70, 84, 114 (cf.), 175 (desc.), 191 126 126, 157, 175 (desc.), 187 126 126, 150 (cf.), 161 (cf.), 191 31, 37, 40, 46 (cf.), 70, 84, 172 (cf.), 185, 191, 192 192, 195 102 (?), 126, 150 (cf.), 159, 161 (cf.), 172, 173a, 180, 181, 192 30 (?), 37, 38, 40, 84, 86, 90, 123, 126, 134, 135, 138, 150 (cf.), 157, 159, 161 (cf.), 172 (cf.), 175 (desc.), 179 (cf.), 180, 181, 187, 190, 191, 192 90 (cf.), 150 (cf.), 161 (cf.), 175 (desc.), 191 162 (desc.) 40 162 (desc.) 162 (desc.), 177 6, 8, 11, 14, 19, 22, 25, 28, 37, 40, 53, 56, 57, 59, 61, 70, 75, 81, 87, 90, 95, 101i 20; 127, 138, 145, 157, 162 (desc.), 168, 175 (desc.) 25, 40, 77, 81, 162 (desc.), 175 (desc.) 162 (desc.) foo (desc.), 7 171 (desc.) 126, 134, 135, 138, 157, 187, 194 157, 159, 1734, 18h, 183, DOW (ec) se 179 (cf. desc.) 63. (cf.) 6, 8, 16, 19, 22, 34, 37, 57, 84, 90(?), 102, 123 (ef.), 126 (cf.), 172, 17a (desea or 114, 126, 179 (desc.), 191 d2 (desc.), 53, 70, 82, 84, 86, 102, 123, 134, 135, 157, 159, 161, 172, 180, 1905 Wo2Z dese, 194 (desc.) 62 (desc.), 159, 181 194 (cf.) (desc.) 52, 53, 57, 63, 84, 90, 102, 123, 126, 134, 135, 157, 169, 175 (desc.), 179 (desc.); 180) 187, 191, 192, 194 (desc.) 166 (desc.) 6, 8, 11, 18, 16, 19, 22, 30, 37, 40) 56 Yer) og 86, 90, 102, 112, 126, 161, 169, 185 (desc.), 187, 191, 192 (desc.), 194 57, 84, 126 53 (desc.), 56, 84, 86, 194 (desc.) 123, 126, 157, 175 (desc.), 1877 192eideces? 194 (desc.) Tidal von (dese) THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES 27 Species and Synonyms tealer Harris & T. zic-zac Lapw. var. minimus Lapw. Dictyonema apertum Sherr. campanulatum Harris & K. delicatulum Lapw. favosum Sherr. filiramus Gurley : grande T. S. Hall, syn. of D. macgillorayi.. macgillvrayt T. S. Hall ae pulchellum T. S. Hall salebrosum Sherr. scitulum Harris & K. winculosum Sherr. Didymograptus abnorms Hsu. acriculus Keble & H. adamantinus T. S. Hall affinis Nich. artus Elles & W. aspersus Harris & T. aureus T. S. Hall balticus Tull. il idus T. S. Hall non ie ‘Hall, D. protobifidus syn. of caduceus Salter, syn. of [sograptus caduceus, cf. JL. gibberulus and Didymograptus gibberulus var. forcipiformis Rued., syn. of Lsograptus ae cognatus Harris & T. ; compressus Harris & T. cuspidatus Rued. i decens Torn., cf. D. latens .. deflexus Elles & W. (?) denticulatus J. Hall dependulus Harris & K. dilatans T. S. Hall .. distinctus Harris & T. dubitatus Harris & T. eocaduceus Harris eocaduceus Keble, M.S., vide D. cocaduceus Harris elongatus Harris & T. ensjoensts Monsen euodus Lapw. extensus J. Hall var. linearis var. typice i forcipiformis Rued., forciprformis fruticosus, vide Tetragraptus fruticosus furcatus, vide Dicranograptus furcatus syn. of I sograptus Reference in Bibliography 194 (desc.) 1268 (cf), 127 (2), 135, 157, 175 (desc.), 180, 187, 192 47, 90, 134, 184 (?), 192 196° (desc.) 109 (desc.), 134, 135, 157 51 (cf.), 165 196 (desc.) 165 (cf.) 161, 169)" 172, 24 (desc.), 27, 31 (emend.), 37, 56, 69, 70, 2&7, 97, 120, 121, 134, 135, 149, 157 39 (desc.), 40, 70 (cf.), 87, 97, 134, 135, 157 196 (desc.) 109 (desc.), 121, 1384, 135, 157 196 (desc.) 155, 157, 177 1351 (desc.), 138 76 (desc.) 142 141 (?), 175 (desc.) 155 (desc.), 157, 177 76 (desc.), 101, 121, 131, 149 (cf.) 76, 157 25, 28, 32, 37, 40, 43, 51, 53, 56, 59, 61, 68, 70, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 90, 93, 120, 127, 129 (cf), tl Nea so, 145, Joly Loe 192 154 (desc.), 135, 138, 157 154 (desc.), 185, 1388, 157, 169 134 (desc.), 135, 138, 155, 157, 175 (desc.) 0 (cf.), 76 98 16, 19 27 (desc) 76 (desc.), 87, 120, 121, 162 (desc.) 134 (desc.) 134 (desc.), 1385, 157 127. (desc.),, 177 111 162 (desc.) 162 (desc.) 156 (cf.), 175 (desc.) 16, 19, 22, 32, 37, 40, 46 (2), 51 (?), 56 (cf), DIV oI, GS 70, 16,47, 8¢, 95, 101, 120; 127, 135, 145, 175 (desc.) 162 162 Dv. bo 102) Species and Synonyms gracilis Torn. (sensu stricto) evacilis J. Hall, syn. of Nemagraptus gracilis cibberulus, vide I sogvaptus gibberulus headi J. Hall, vide TITS headt hemucyclus Harris latens V. S. Hall, ci. decens latus T. S. Hall var. aequalis Harris & T. latus McCoy .. mendicus Keble & H. mundus T. S. Hall, cf. D. balticus murchisont T. S. Hall, non Beck, syn. of D. protobifidus nicholson. Lapw. nitidus J. Hall nodosus Harris ovatus T. S. Hall, syn. of Isograptus ovatus pantont Eth., cf. Tetragraptus pantoni and I’. fruticosus (2-branched) perditus VY. S: Hall: .. pnitchard: T. S. Hall procumbens T. S. Hall Ws protobifidus Elles, cf. D. bifidus T. cS Hall, non J. Hall servatulus J. Hall stimlis J. Hall suecicus Tull. var. robusta Harris & T. taylor. T. S. Hall thuream, vide Gontograptus thureaui wni- formis Elles & W. urbanus ae e validus var. communis Monsen validus var. polites var. vepanda v-deflexus Harris v-fractus Salter vicinus Harris & T. Diplograptus aculeatus (Lapw.) (Orthograptus) apiculatus E. & Ww. (Amplexograptus) arctus Elles & W. angustifolius J. Hall.. . (Gly ptograptus) austrodentatus Harris & Te, cf. D. inutiles (Orthograptus) bellulus Torn. (Q.) calcaratus Lapw. var. acutus Lapw. var. basilicus Lapw. var. incisus, vide. Diplograptus pristis THOMAS Reference in Bibliography 407 UO. 70, 140% VTL Iai (desc.) p1ao, 177 76 (dese.), 101) tol 57 (desc.), 81, 87, 120, 131, 142) toa lb7, ie faa (dese); 157 S107 6576; did; 19, fda 151 (desc.) 76 (desc.) 52, 34, 40, 59, 61 Cam 1 (cf.), 78, 80, 138, 175 (desc.) 11, 13, 19, 37, 46 Watts), be.Gi nT 163, 175 (desc.) 105 (desc.), 120, 121, 129, tak ass 156, 157, 169, 180, 198 | 122, 138, 135. 138. 13 (dese:), 19, 285535007 76 (desc.), 149 (cf.) 39 (desc.), 40, 51 (cf.), 56, D170 sia 134, 135, 155; 156. (cE yale 76 (desc.) 131, 134, 135, 138, 151, 157, 163, 175 (desc.), 180 121, 6,°3, 16, 19, 37, 175 (desc) am 90, 120, 121, 155, 157, 175 (desc.), 177 155 (cf), 157 (ck), 177 ae) 162 (desc.) 39 (desc.), 87, 97, 121, 13a ton 90, 98, 121, 122 (cf.), 138 162 (desc.) 162 162 81, 90, 98 (desc.), 120, 127, 135, 137, 157, 180 28, 98, 138, 175 (desc.) 155 (desc.), 177 53 (cf.), 84 (cf.) 179 (desc.), 185, 189, 192 123 (cf.), 192 19, 37, 70, 81 (cf.), 84, 90 (cf.) 121 (desc.), 122, 123, 129, 134, 135, 137, 138, 157 42, 126 (cf.) 57, 70, 84, 126, 135, 150, 159) Wel 1GGaici 169, 172,175 (desc.), 177 (desc.), 180, 181 (cf.), 187, 191, 192, 196 126, 157, 175, 187, 192 (desc.); 126, 150, 161, 172, 175 (desc.); 185, 192 196 179 (desc.), te ZONAL DISPRIBULTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES 29 Species and Synonyms (0.) calcaratus Lapw. var. priscus Elles & W. var. tenuicorms Elles & W. .. var. vulgatus Lapw. (Onecare: IT. S. Hall, syn. of D. (.) truncatus (Amplexograptus) coelatus Lapw., cf. D. (M.) decoratus (A.) confertus Lapw. (Mesograptus) decoratus Harris & T. (Amplexograptus) differtus Harris & T. (Glyptograptus) dentatus Brongn. (G.) euglyphus Lapw. var. sepositus Keble & H. (Mesograptus) foliaceus auct. non Murch. gnomonicus Harris & K., syn. of Skragraptus gnomonicus (Mesograptus) ingens T. S. Hall var. wellingtonensis H. & T... (Orthograptus) insectiformis var. vagus Thomas & K., M. S. (Glyptograptus) intersitus Harris & T. .. inutilis J. Hall, cf. D. (G.) austrodentatus (Mesograptus) linearis T. S. Hall .. (M.) magnus Lapw. ie manduramae T. S. Hall... (Mesograptus) modestus Lapw. .. (Amplexograptus) modicellus Harris & i mucronatus Eth. non McCoy, cf. Glosso- graptus mucronatus, G. hincksw, syn. of Lastograptus (T.) etheridger (Mesograptus) multidens Elles & W. var. nov. Thomas & K., M.s. murchisont (? nom. nud.) nodosus Harkness, cf. M onograptus lobiferus (Orthograptus) pageanus Lapw. .. var. abnormispinosus Elles & W. var. montana Harris & T. var. spimosus Harris & T. (Petalograptus) palmeus J. Hall (Glyptograptus) persculptus Salt. (Amplexograptus) perexcavatus Lapw. (Orthograptus) pristis His. eat quadrangularis McCoy, syn. of Climaco- graptus riddellensis (Orthograptus) quadnmucronatus J. Hall . var. spinifer Harris & T. var. spimgerus Lapw. .. Reference in Bibliography 126 143, 159, 181, 194 (desc.) 102, 114, 126, 157, 161, 172, 175 (desc.), 183, 192 53, 63, 84, 102, 119, 180, 194 105, 131 (cf.), 134, 145, 156 127, 134, 138, 145, 157, 175 (desc.), 192 154 (desc.), 1385, 1388, 156, 157, 169 154 (desc.), 138, 157 121, 126, 134, 175 (desc.), 192 ? 123, 126, 131, 135, 156, 157, 175 (desc.), 187 131 (desc.), 134 (cf.) 14, 30, 31, 37, 38, 40, 46, 47, 51, 53, 56 (cf.), 63, 75, 84, 90, 96, 126, 180, 189, 191, 192 81 (desc.), 98, 119, 120 a3 (desc.), 56, 84, 102, 114, 126, 157, 169, 191, 192 (desc.), 194 (desc.) 194 (desc.) 189, 192 126 134 (desc.), 185, 156, 157 at (Ct, ) 86 126 42 (desc.), 180, 192 42, 126 154 (desc.), 135 6, 8, 11, 13, 14, 19, 22, 25, 34 (cf.), 47, 90 (?) 96, 126 126, 134, 135, 157, 175 (desc.), 180, 187, 191 (cf.), 192 (desc., cf.) 126 53 (cf.) 37, 40 126 (cf.), 157, 191, 192 192 (desc.) 194 (desc.) 194 (desc.) 11, 16, 19, 22, 34 (cf.), 37, 47, 90, 96 191 (cf.) IA, 120, 131 (ck), 157, 172 Oona ts, 145 1G) 9: 90, 187 6, 8, 11, 13, 19, 22 (cf.), 187, 192 22, 30, 37, 40, 46, 84 53, 62, 84, 102, 126, 134, 135, 143, 157, 159, 169 i75 (desc.), 180, 1Sl,. 187,.191, 192. 1193 194 (desc.) 175 (desc.), 194 UZ65 79 (desc.), F3il, 192 30 D. E., THOMAS Species and Synonyms rectangularis McCoy, syn. of Climacograptus viddellensis (Glyptograptus) rostratus Sherr. (G.) rugosus var. apiculatus (G.) siccatus Elles & W. .. (Glyptograptus) sinuatus Nich. (G) tamariscus Nich. aus tavaus 1: 5, Hall - .. (Gly ptograptus) teretiusculus Nich. var. euglyphus var. siccatus Elles & W. thieletn T. S. Hall (Orthograptus) truncatus Lapw. abbreviatus Elles & W. .. intermedius Elles & W. .. var. pauperatus Elles & W. .. var. socialis Lapw. (0.) whitfieldi J. Hall Gladiolites australis McCoy, syn. of ‘Stomato- graptus australis Glossograptus acanthus Elles & W. ciliatus Emmons crudus Harris & T. if var. gisbornensis Harris & T. ferguson: T. S. Hall (? nom. nud.) qf hermant T. S. Hall, syn. of G. hincksu .. hola Bulman ce hincksu Hopk. Var. Var. mucronatus J. Hall, cf. Diplograptus mucro- natus pilosus Keble & H. ee or “a qguadrimucronatus, syn. of Dzplograptus e guadrimucronatus var. paucithecatus whitfieldi, syn. with Orthograptus Magis eldt Goniograptus alternans Harris & T. .. erimius “a Sy Talla laxus VT. 5. Hall) syn of Sigmagraptus laxus logant Eth., cf. Loganograptus ree macer T. S. Hall .. palmatus Harris & K. sculptus Harris & T. spectosus T. S. Hall thureau McCoy var. clonograptoides Harris & T. var. imequalis Harris & T. tumidus Harris & T. velatus Harris & T.. Reference in Bibliography 47, 98 179 (desc.), 192 183, 1907 ial 42, 126, 154, 157, 176, 178 (cf.), 189, 192 51 (cf.), 84. (cf.), 126; ISe ios 76. 178 (desc.), 180, 189; 191, 192) (deser) 57 (desc.), 84 126, 127, 134, 135, 137, 138, 156, 157, 172, 175° (desc.), 182, 184, 187, 1S8iras9, 191, 192 (desc.), 195, 196 189 126, 134, 172, 191 52 (desc.), 84, 86 30, 37, 40, 46, 47, 53, 84, 102, 123, 131, 135, 138, 157, 159, 161, 169, 172, 180, 181, 187, 191 126, 166 (desc., cf.), 175 (desc.) 102, 123,126, 169, 175 (dese), 19m 123, 126, 157, 172, 179 (desc.), 192 47 (cf.), 175 (desc.), 191, 192, 196 157,169, 192 desc.), 157, 180 desc.) 53, 84 46 (desc.), 57 127 (cf.), 70, 84, 98, 119, 126, 156 (cf.). 37, 46, 89 (2), 119, 126, 131, 134, 135, 138, 156, 157, 161, 167, 169, 172, 179 (desc.), 180, 185, 187, 191, 192 37, 47, 90 (?), 96 126, 134 (desc.) 62, 192, 193 160 (desc.) 76 (desc.), 81, 90, 98, 120, 121, 160 (non) 76 (desc.), 101, 120 40 (desc.), 46, 59, 61, 70, 76, 77, 81, 87, 90, 117, 120, 121, 160 (desc.), 171 121 (desc.), 149 (aff.) 160 (desc.) 76 (desc.), 81, 90, 120, 121, 122, 160 (desc.) 17, 18 (desc.), 22, 25, 28, 37, 40, 44, 57, 59, 61, 68, 69, 70, 77, 81, 87, 90, 98, 112) 1208a za 134, 135, 160 (desc.), 175 (desc.), 177 160 (desc.), 163, 177 160 (desc.), 177 160 (desc.), 177 160 (desc.) THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES dL Species and Synonyms Isograptus caduceus (Salter), cf. I. gebberulus, Didymograptus caduceus, D. gibberulus var. Var. Var. Var. var. divergens Harris horrida Harris wmitata Harris lunata Harris maxima Harris var. maximo-divergens Harris var. nanus Rued., syn. of J. forcipi- forms var. pertensa Harris var. primula Harris .. var. spinifer (Keble & B.) var. tenuis Harris var. velata Harris var. victoriae Harris dumosus Harris forcipifornis (Rued.) hastatus Harris manubriatus (T. S. Hall) ovatus (T. S. Hall) Lasiograptus (Thysanograptus) anenane, iene cf. Diplograptus mucronatus (Neurograptus) fibratus Lapw. ad (Nymphograptus) hall Harris & T. (Thysanograptus) harknesst Nich. (Neur.) margaritatus Lapw. (Hallograptus) mucronatus J. Hall, cf. Diplo- graptus mucronatus var. bimucronatus (H.) proteus Harris & T. .. Leptograptus antiquus T. S. Hall, syn. éf Byyo: graptus antiquus, q.v. capillaris Carr eastonensis Keble & H. flaccidus J. Hall var. angustus Keble & B. (non Keble & H.) var. subjectus Keble & H. flexuosus Harris & T. ts validus Lapw. Linograptus ; Loganograptus logani J. Hall var. australis McCoy var. kyerulfi Herrmann vectus Harris & T. Meandrograptus aggestus Harris. . tau Harris Mimograptus mutalibis sete & Reference in Bibliography G11 15, 19) 22,25, 28, 29, 30, 32, 34 (ef), 37, 40, 46 (?), 53, 56, 58, 59, 61, 70, 77, 78, 80, 81, 84, 90, 95, 96, 98, 104, 105, 117, 120, 121, £22; 126, 127, 184, 138, 145, 156, 157, 175 (desc.), 180, 193, 196 15 (cf.), 127 (desc.), 184, 137, 138, 156, 157 127 (desc.) Orch). 127 (desc) 127 (desc.), 129, 134, 138, 157 127 (desc.), 1384, 138, 157 6 (cf.), 127 (desc.), 138, 157 127 127 (desc.) 127 (desc.), 129, 138, 157 Tale 27 127 (desc.), 1388, 192 (desc.) 127 (desc.) 6 (cf.), 127 (desc.), 188, 157 127 (desc.), 138, 157 81, 90, 120, 121, 122, 127, 175 (desc.) 127 (desc.), 1387, 138, 157 Odesc.), Si, 90) 1215 122) 127, 107 6 (desc.), 84, 98, 123, 126, 127, 131, 138, 156 90 (?), 96, 98 (desc.), 134, 135, 138, 156, 157, 169 131, 137, 138, 169, 86 (cf.), 179 (desc.) (cf.) 194 (desc.) 172, 179 (desc.), 185, 192 59, 84, 157, 179, 191, 194 (desc.) 156 (cf.), 157, 175 (desc.), 179 (desc.), cf. 187, 192 192 (desc.) 154 (desc.), 135, 138, 157 102, 126, 159 (cf.), 181 (cf.), 192 (desc.) 102 (desc.), 126, 131, 157, 191 53, 70, 84, 86, 102, 126, 131, 145, 172, 175 HOT 92 (desc.) 111 (desc.) (desc.), 102 (desc.), 126 191 7 Oa(ets), 192 (cl.), 1957 (ci) 175, 186, 192 8, 11, 13, 14, 19, 22, 25, 28; 37, 40, 43, 68, 77, 78, 81, 90, 98, 105 (cf.), 120, 121, 131, 138 (cf.), 157, 162 (desc.), 175 (desc.) | 14 (desc.), 22 117 162 (desc.), 177 127 (desc.) 127 (desc.), 138 163 (desc.), 193 32 Di) Ee GHOMAS Species and Synonyms Monograptus aplint T. S. Hall, emend. Keble & H., syn. of M. exiguus barrande Lapw. bohemicus (Bartrr.) var. tenuis chimaera Barr. var. salweyt Hopk. colonus Barr. . a6 var. compactus Wood .. comis Wood concinnus Lapw. convolutus His. crenulatus Torn. crinitus Wood crispus Lapw. cutellus Torn. cyphus Lapw.. . decipiens Torn. dubius (Suess.) exiguus (Nich.) fimbriatus Nich. flemingt (Salter) au var. compactus Elles & W. var. elegans Elles & W. var. primus galaensis Lapw. gregarius Lapw. gniestontensts (Nicol) halla NN: umtialts intermedius Carr. yaculum Lapw. jackely Perner. . leintwardensis var. primus (Pack & Stevens) linnarasont .. leptotheca Lapw. lobtferus McCoy me a ludensis Murch., cf. M. priodon marvt Perner .. a a McCoy Lapw. melbournensis Thomas & Ke nilssont Barr . Pus) nodtfer Lorn. . nudus Lapw. .. pandus Lapw. pragensis pragensis Reference in Bibliography 76 (desc.), 107, 131 (emend.), 136, 154, 170, 180 141, 143, 159 126, 136, 141, 143, 152, 153, 154, 159, 175 (desc.), 180, 186 (desc.), 192, 195 195, 196 107, 126, 136, 152, 159, 180, 192 186 (desc.), 192, 196 107, 118, 126, 136, 159, 180 126, 152, 153, 154, 180 126, 154 (cf.) O62 raed lt (Cty) 178 (cf.), 180 118 57, 71, 99 (cf.), 104, 107 (cf.), 136 (cf.), 180 (cf.) 154, 175 (desc.), 186 (desc.), 192 107, 136 (cf.), 178 (desc.), 180 101 (cf); 107 (ct), 130 Fen) 67. (?),- 71: (ch. alOT, (er) 143 (cf.), 159 (ef.), 180) fet) 0 (cf.), 45 (cf), 53, 57° (ch), Tl Yer), 99 (7s 104, 107, 118, 126, 131 (cf.), 136 (cf.), 154, 169 (cf.), 175 (desc.), 180, 186: 2 (ef), 1388) 102% 195 (cf.) 76, 107, 118, 126, 131, 141, 143, 154, 159, 169; 170, 174, 180, 188, 190, 192 126, 140 (cf.), 180 (cf.) 150, 186, 192, 180 185 (desc.), 192 185 (desc.), 192 189, 192 37 (cf.), 126, 139, 154, 164, 188 (cf.), 192 (cf.) 126, 178 (cf.), 188, 192 126, 195 (cf.) 173 (cls 195 (cf.) 189, 192 (desc.) 126, 180 99 (chy 195, 196 195: (es) 101, 107 36, 40 6, 8, 11, 16, 19, 40 126, 175 (desc.), 178 (desc.), 180, 188, 189, 192, 195 101, 107 (cf.), 180 126 118, 126 (cf.), 141, 150 (cf.), 153, 154 (aff.), 159, 165 (cfi.), 175 (desc.), 180, 186 (dese]y 1G75 1195, 196 LOT, Lie) 154 (?), 180, 189 (2) 126, 131, 169, 175 (desc.), 178 (desc.), 195 195 107 (cf.), 136 (cf.), 176 (cf.), ce THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES 33 Species and Synonyms priodon Bronn., cf. M. ludensits Murch. probosciformis proetus Barr. .. riccartonensis Lapw. voemert Barr. runcinatus Lapw. scamicus Tull. sedgwickt Portlock spiralis Geinitz var. permensis Keble & H. testis var. tnornatus Elles & W. tortilis Perner. . triangulatus Hark. tumescens Wood turvriculatus Barr... uncinatus var. micropoma (Jackel) var. orbatus Wood var. undulatus Elles & W. vartans Wood var. pumilus Wood vomertnus (Nich.) var. crenulatus (Torn.) vulgaris var. curtus Elles & W. Nemagraptus explanatus Elles & W. var. pertenuis Lapw. gracias J. Hall, vide C oenograptus gracilis vemotus Elles & W. Oncograptus brangulatus Harris & K. upsilon T. S. Hall Phyllograptus angustifolius J. Hall anna J. Hall . folium et var. typus, syn. of P. bps ancifolius J. Hall .. nobilis Harris & K. ovatus, syn. of P. typus typus (J. Hall) Plegmatograptus nebula Elles & W. Pleurograptus linearis Carr. var. dispansa Thomas & 16 “MS. Pterograptus incertus Harris & T. lynicus Keble & H. .. Pttlograptus discurrens Sherr. plumosus J. Hall scalaris Sherr. Reference in Bibliography 19, 37, 40,.71, 76, 107, 118, 126, 136, 154, 175 (desc.), 180, 188, 189, 192, 195 195 101 (cf.), 180 71, 107, 111, 118, 128, 136, 139, 154, 180 107, 126, 186 (desc.), 180, 192 153, 175 (desc.) 131, 186 126, 136, 180 (cf.) 159, 175 (desc.), 190 126, 131 (desc.), 154, 169, 180 185 (desc.), 192, 195 (cf.) 143 (cf.), 159, 180 (cf.) 189, 192 (desc.), 195 150 (cf.), 179 (cf.), 180 (cf.), 186 (cf.), 192 (cf.) 76, 107, 118, 131, 136, 169, 178 (desc.), 180, 190 139, 154, 174 139, 154, 169 153, 164, 170, 192 143, 159, 178 (desc.) 107, 126, 136, 153, 154, 175 (desc.), 180 153, 175 (desc.) 150 (cf.), 154, 175 (desc.), 180, 186 (desc.), 185, 192 154, 180 126, 175 (desc.), 188 (cf.), 192 (cf.), 195 192 192 (desc.), 196 16, 19, 22, 40, 70, 84, 90, 98, 126, 134, 135, 157,-£72, lta (desc.), 180, 137, 191 191 81 (desc.), 98, 122, 127, 137, 138, 146, 157 76 (desc.), 81, 90, 98, 112, 127, 138, 146, 157, 175 (desc.), 180, 193 32, 37, 40, 46, 53, 61, 77, 81, 101, 145, 157, 175 (desc.) 81, 132 (cf.), 134 (cf.), 175 (desc.), 190 135, 157, 175 127 (desc.), 123 (cf.), 127, 131, 137 (cf.), 138, 148, 157, 191 6, 8, 11, 13, 14, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 32, 34 (cf.), 37, 40, 51, 53, 56, 57, 59, 61, 68, 70, 77, 81, Si ets) e 90) (ch). 99096, 98, 121 (ct), 127, la (a(ch,), to {desc:) 169, 192 191, 192 126 154 (desc.), 138, 157 131 (desc.), 138 196 (desc.) 51 (cf.) 196 (desc.) 34 Species and Synonyms Rastrites approximatus barrande:. Harkness .. longispinus. Reticulograptus undulosum Sherr. Retiograptus latus Keble & B. pulcherrimus Keble & H. geimtzianus J. Hall .. sbectosus Harris tentaculatus J. Hall yassensts Sherrard & Keble Retiolites australis, syn. of Stoma ere hile australis (McCoy) caudatus, syn. of R. (P.) nebula .. (Plegmatograptus) nebula Elles & W. Schizograptus incompositus Harris & T. shectabilis Harris & T. ae Sigmagraptus crinitus, cf. Goniog crinitus T. S. Hall ys : laxus (1. S. Hall) yandowtensis Harris & T. .. Skiagraptus gnomonicus (Harris Diplograptus gnomonicus Staurograptus diffisus Harris & K. Stephanograptus gracilis J. Hall Stomatograptus australis (McCoy) & K), cf. Strophograptus trichomanes (Rued.) Syndyograptus oC a: Temnograptus magnificus Pritchard, Clonograptus magnificus multiplex Nich. Tetragraptus acclinans Keble “syn. of amu Elles & W., syn..of T. serra approximatus Nich. . bigsbyt (J. Hall) bryonotdes (J. Hall) . caduceus, vide Isograptus caduceus chapmam Keble & H. clarket Rued. . clarkfieldt Thomas & ie M.S. deciupicns Las. Elall var. bipatens Keble & H. defensus Harris & T. denticulatus J. Hall frmticosus J. Hall D. E. THOMAS Reference in Bibliography 189, 192 (?) 196 (desc.) 111, 126 (?), 161 126, 131 (desc.), 134, 135, 157, 159, 180, 181 (cf.), 192 47 (cf.), 69, 70, 84, 86 (?), 90, 98, 156, 175 (desc.), 188, 192 (desc.) 98 (desc.), 102 (?), 126, 157 98, 127, 175 (desc.) 150 (desc.), 161, 172, 192 47 (desc.), 53 47 (desc.), 53, 119, 179 (desc.) 155 (desc.), 157, 177 155 (desc.), 157 160 (desc.) (6, 101° 120 wie 155 (desc.), 177 131, 142 81 (desc.), 119, 120, 121, 127%, 137, 138) 195 109 (desc.), 120, 121, 134, 135, 157, 180 Si 1G O(deSC.), ng none 136, 169, 180 $1, 120, 121,175. (dese;) 40, 71, 107, 118, 126, 151, 23, 27 ; 8&7 (desc.), 101 (cf.), 120, 121, 131, 134, 135, 155, 156 (cf.), 157, 180 32 51, 53, 56, 57, 64, 69, 70, 77, 81, 87, 91, 92, 93, 97, 120,.121, 127, 130, 131, 154) daria le 15G 175 (dese.) 177, £80 13, 29, 145 11, 13, 14, 19, 22, 25, 28, 29, 53, 56,59" O15 7am 77, 87, 95, 101, 127; a342 185 151 (desc.), 155 (?) 77, 88, 175 (desc.) 126, 157 11 (cf.), 39 (desc.), 40, 56, 57, 59, 69, 70, 87, 91, 92, 97, 101, 119, 120, 121, 123, 129, 130, 131, 1334, 134, 135, 137, 149; 156. (ch), tom 180 131 (desc.) 154 (desc.) 37 19, 22, 25, 28, 37, 40, 53, 57, 59, 68, 69, 70, 315 87, 90, 129, 131, 138, 155, 157, 175 (desc.), 180 THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES 35 Species and Synonyms fruticosus (2-branched), syn. of Didymo- graptus pantoni fruticosus (3-branched) J. Hall fruticosus (4-branched) J. Hall hartt T. 5S. Hall headi (J. Hall) panton Eth. non McCoy, vide Didvmo- graptus pantoni Eth. pendens Elles projectus T. S. Hall quadribrachiatus J. Hall serva (Brongn.) sxmlis (J. Hall), cf. T. Ee tabidus Keble & B. triograptoides Harris cot vestrogothus Torn. volitans Harris & T. whitelawt T. S. Hall.. Thallograptus succulentus (Rued.) Thamnograptus capillaris Emmons typus J. Hall Triaenograptus neglectus T. S. Hall Inichograpius ferguson T. S. Hall ammotus Harris & T. Trigonograptus ensiformis J. Hall Reference in Bibliography 13, 14, 51,53, 56, 61, 70, 77, 81, 93, 101, 120, 121, 127, 130, 134, 135, 157 14, 16, 51, 53, 70, 77, 81, 90, 93, 101, 120, 121, 130, 131, 134, 135, 156, 157, 177 76 (desc.), 87, 101, 121, 149 (cf.), 155, 163 18, 22, 37, 40, 127 (?), 138, 175 (desc.) 53, 56, 59, 61, 69, 70, 77, 81, 87, 121, 145, 157, 175 (desc.) 40 (desc.) 6, 8, 11, 13, 14, 19, 22, 25, 27, 28, 32, 37, 40, 51, 53, 56 (cf.), 57, 59, 61, 68, 69, 70, 77, 81, 87, 90, 95, 96, 98, 101 (cf.), 105, 120, 121, 122, 123, 126, 127, 131, 134, 135, 138, 145, 167, 169 (cf.), 175, 180, 192 29, 37, 40, 51, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 68, 69, 70, 77, 81, 87, 90, 95, 101, 121, 122, 127, 134 (cf.), 135 (cf.), 137, 188, 145, 157, 175 (desc.) (Sl, 87, 120, 121, 127, 131, 175.(desc.) 103" (cf.); 126. (ci), 169° (ct.) 155 (desc.), 163 157 155 (desc.), 177 76 (desc.) 147 (cf.) GSr27 (ci.)eit> (desc.) 25, 37, 98 76 (desc.), 112 70 (desc.), 184, 155, 157 154 (desc.), 157 40, 90, 98, 105, 120, 121, 127, 134 (cf.), 137, 138, 145, 156, 157, 169, 175 (desc.), 180, 90, 101, 120, 190, 192 wilkinson T. S. Hall 40 (desc.), 82, 98 Trochograptus australis Harris & T. 154 (desc.) diffusus Holm 154 (cf.) indignus Harris & T. a . 154 (desc.) Tylograptus (Mu), see Didymograptus nodosus Zygograptus (clonograptus) me ue abnormis (J. Hall) 168 (desc.), 175 (desc.) ferrarvus Harris & T. 168 (desc.) wrregularis Harris & T. 168 (desc.) gunont Harris & T. .. 168 (desc.) Bibliography | 1. 1856-1865. Aplin, C. D. H., Geol. Surv. 4, 1858-1865. Aplin, C. D. H., and Ulrich, Wict., Maps, @-S:. INW., 2NW., 2SW.., Ge Hach, 700d.) SSW. 14SE., 1oONE.. ; ie a meee ' 5. 1858-1865. Daintree, R., ibid., 12SE. 2. ~ : pint, ps EH. -andlaylor, { ; : Ancient | N., tbid., 6SE., TNE. : eo ane pire a of Victoria, 7 3. 1856-1868. Taylor, N., ibid., 5NW., Catalogue of the Victorian Exhibition, 5SW., 13NE., 51SW. 1861, pp. 159-174. 8vo, Melbourne. 36 21. 22. 28. 29. 30. D. Ey VBOMAS 1861. Daintree, R., and Wilkinson, C. S., Geol, Sutv. Vict.; Map) (Ors: 12NE- 1862. McCoy, F., Notes on the Ancient and Recent Natural History of Victoria, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 3, 9, 137-140. 1863. Salter, J. W., Note on the Skiddaw Slate Fossils, Q.J.G.S., 19, 135-140. 1865. Wilkinson, C. S., and Murray, Ke A. Geols Surv.; Vict.) Map a@rs, 19SW. 1867. McCoy, F., On the Recent Zoology and Palaeontology of Victoria, Aun. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 3, 20, 199-201. 1872. Nicholson, H. A., Migrations of the Graptolites, Q./.G.S., 28, 217-232. 1874. Etheridge Jun., R., Observations on a Few Graptolites from the Lower Silurian Rocks of Victoria, Australia, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 4, 14, 1-10, pl. 1. 18i4. McCoy, hs ‘Prods Veale Vict., Dec: Li xpp. 6-205 pla au: 1875. Hopkinson, J., and Lapworth, C., Description of Graptolites from _ the Arenig and Llandeilo Rocks of St. David’s, Q.J.G.S., 31, 631-672, particularly p. 637. 1875, “McCoys. VE» "Prods! | (Palvay Vict. Dec. II, pp. 29-37, pl. xx, Melbourne. 1876. McCoy, F., On a New Victorian Graptolite. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 4, 18, pp. 128-130, fig. 1877.4 MeCoy,- Ee. sProd)aebale. sVicts Dec. V, pp. 39-41, pl. 1, Melbourne. 1878. Etheridge Jun., R., A Catalogue of Australian Fossils, pp. 4-10. 8vo, Cambridge. 1885. Hermann, O., On the Distribution of the Graptolithidae in Time and Space, Geol. Mag., Dec. 3, 2, 406-412. 1886. Hermann, O., On the Graptolite Family Dichograptidae Lapw., Geol. Mag., Dec. 3, 3, 13-26, 9 fig. 1887. Murray, R. A. F., Geology and Physical Geography, p. 42. 8vo, Mel- bourne. 1892. Pritchard, ~G.Bs. On saaiNew Species of Graptolithidae (Temnograptus macniicus), Proc. Hoysesoc. Viciza(i-ss), 4, 56-58, pl. vi. 1892.) Hall, i. S., Ontay New Speciesnol Dictyonema,.7b7d7,-pp.aeas,) Dia ite 1893. Hall, T. S., Note on the Distribu- tion of the Graptolitidae in the Rocks of Castlemaine, Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., 5, 374-375, Adelaide. 1894. Hall, T. S., Some References to Literature Dealing with Graptolites, Vict. Nat., 11, 78-79. 1895. Pritchard, G. B., Notes on Some Lancefieldian Graptolites, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), 7, 27-30. 1895.. Hall, ie S:, “he “Geoloryaeot Castlemaine, with a Sub-division of Part of the Lower Silurian Rocks of Victoria, ibid., pp. 55-88, map. 1896. Hall, T. S., Notes on Didymo- graptus caduceus Salter, with Remarks on its Synonymy, 2b7d., 8, 69-73. 1897. Hall, T. S., On the Occurrence of Graptolites in North-Eastern Victoria, ibid., 9, 183-186. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 38. 39. 40. 43. 44. 48. 49. 52. bt il 1897. Hall, T. S., Victorian Graptolites,~ Part 1, ibid., 10, 13-16. 1897. Hall, T.. SA Append to: thm Geology of Coimadai, Part 11, by G. Officer and E. G. Hogg, 2b7d., 10,.202-203. 1897. Roemer, F., and Frech, F., Lethaea Geognostica, 1, Lethaea Palaeozoica (3), Graptolithiden, pp. 584-668. Stuttgart. 1897. Dun, W. S., The Occurrence of Lower Silurian Graptolites in New South Wales, Rec. Geol. Suvv.’ N.S.W., 124-127. 1898. Dun, W. S., The Occurrence of Graptolites in the Peak Hill District, ibid., 5, 1883. 1898. Hall, T. S., An Examination of the Tasmanian Graptolite Record, Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., 7, 401-402, Sydney. 1898. Hall, T. S., Report on Graptolites, Prog. Rep. Geol. Surv. Vict., 9, 126-128. 1899. Hall, T. S., Report on the Grapto- lites of the Dart River and Cravensville District, Mon. Prog. Rep. Geol. Surv Vict., 6 and 7, pp. 13, 14. 1899. Hall, T. S., Victorian Graptolites : Part II, The Graptolites of the Lancefield Beds, Proc: oy. \S@6. -V tet.) (nes:)) - tee 164-178, pl. xvii-xix ; reprinted in Mon. Prog. Rep. Geol. Surv. Vici., 6 and % pp. 138-14. Melbourne. 1899. Hall, T. S., The Graptolite-bearing Rocks of Victoria, Australia, Geol. Mag., Dec. 4, 6, 439-451, pl. xxu, 3 fig. 1900. Dun, W. S., Ann. Rep. for 1899, Dep. Mines, N.S.W., p. 207. 1900. Hall, T. S., On a Collection ‘of Graptolites from Mandurama, Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W.5. 7) 1631 plawae 1902. Hall, T. S., The. Possibility sae Detailed Correlation of Australian Forma- tions with those of the Northern Hemi- sphere, Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., 9, 176-177, Hobart. 1900. Ruedemann, R., Note on the Growth and Development of Goniograptus thuveaut McCoy, Bull. N.Y. State Mus., 52, 19 figs. 1900. Hall, T. S., On the Occurrence of Monograptus in New South Wales, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 27, 654-655, fig. 1900. Hall, T. S., Reports on Graptolites, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., 1, 33-35, 2 figs. 1900. Hall, T. S., The Graptolites of New South Wales, zm the Collections of the Geological Survey, Rec. Geol. Su. N.S.W., 7, 49-59, pl. xii-xiv. 1900. Hall, T. S., Evidence of Grapto- lites in Tasmania, Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1902, 16, 17. 1903. Elles, G. L., and Wood, E. M. R., British Graptolites, Part III, Mon. Pal. Soc.,, 57, pp. Siw, exe 1904. Ruedemann, R., Graptolites of New York, Mem. N.Y. State Mus., 7, 743-746. 1904. Hall, T. S., Reports on Grapto- lites, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., 1, 217-221, 2 figs. 1905. Hall, T. S., Victorian Graptolites, Part III, from near Mount Wellington, Proc. Ray. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), 18, 20-24, pliavas: a3. o4. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64, 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74, THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES 37 1906. Hall, T. S., Reports on Graptolites, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., 1, 266-278, pl. XXxIv, fig. 1906. Elles, G. L., and Wood, E. M. R., British Graptolites, Part V, Mon. Pal. Soc., 60, pp. Ixxxvii. 1907. Elles, G. L., and Wood, E. M. R., British Graptolites, Part VI, zbid., pp. cxi, Cxavili,s CX1X., 1907. Hall, T. S., Reports on Grapto- lites, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., 2, 63-66. 1907. Hall, T. S., Reports on Grapto- lites, 2b7d., 2, 137-143, pl. xv. 1907. Skeats, E. W., Notes on the Geology of Moorooduc, in the Mornington Peninsula, Pyvoc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), 20, 89-103, map. 1908. Hall, T. S., Reports on Grapto- lites, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., 2, 221-227. 1903. Elles, G._L., and Wood, E. M. R., British Graptolites, Part VII, Won. Pal. Doce O2, Pp. CXXvVil, CxXxxi, cxli, cxlv, cxlvil. 1908. Hart, T. S., The Graptolite Beds of Daylesford, Pyvoc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), 21, 270-284, pl. xii. 1908. David, T. W. E., Geological Notes on Kosciusko, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.., 33, 659. 1909. Hall, T. S., On a Collection of Graptolites from Tallong, New South Wales, Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 8, 339-341, pl. 55. 1909. Hall, T. S., Recent Advances in our Knowledge of Victorian Graptolites, AuSiaaess:. Adv. Sct., 12, 318-320; Brisbane. 1909. Woolnough, W. G., The Geology of Marulan and Tallong, N.S.W., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 34, 782-808. 1909. Laseron, C. F., Exhibit of Grapto- lites from near Cooma, New South Wales, ibid., p. 118. 1910. Chapman, F., A Synopsis of the Silurian Fossils of South Yarra and the Yarra Improvement Works, Vict. Nat., 27, 65. 1911. Ruedemann, R., Stratigraphic Sig- nificance of the Wide Distribution of the Graptolites, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 22, 231-237. 1912. Hall, T. S., The Ages of the Rocks at Marong and Dunolly, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., 3, 185-188. 1912.~Hall, T. S., Reports on Grapto- lites, 7bid., 188-211, pl. xxvi. 1913. Chapman, F., Palaeontology of the Silurian of Victoria, Aust. Ass. Adv. Sct., 14, 207-236. Melbourne. 1913. Howitt, A. M., Geol. Surv. Vict., Map, Q.S. 42b, SW. 1913. Ruedemann, R., Graptolitoidea : in Text-book of Palaeontology by K. A Zittel, trans. by C. R. Eastman, p. 133. 8vo. London. 1913. Junner, N. R., General and Mining Geology of the Diamond Creek Area, Proc. Roy.. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), 25, 323-353, pl. xxv, xxvi. 75. 80. 82. 83. S4. 86. 87. 88. 90. SLE 93. 1914. Browne, W. R., The Geology of the Cooma District, New South Wales, J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 48, 172-222, 2) f1gs. 1914. Hall, T. S., Victorian Graptolites, Part IV: Some New or Little-known Species, voc. ov. © s0c., Vict, (miss): 27, 104-118, pl. xvii, xviii, 7 figs. 1914. Hall, T. S., Reports on Graptolites, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., 3, 290-300. 1914. Hall, T. S., Australian Graptolites, Fed. Hok. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sct., pp. 209-291. 1914. Chapman, F., Australasian Fossils, pp. 63, 123-130, 3 figs. 8vo. Melbourne. 1915. Hall, T. S., Victorian Graptolites, Rep. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sci., p. 359. 1916. Harris, W. J., The Palaeontological Sequence of the Lower Ordovician Rocks of the Castlemaine District, Part 1, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), 29, 50-74, ple 1, Anap. 1918. Chapman, F., On Some Hydroid Remains of Lower Palaeozoic Age from Monegeeta, near Lancefield, ibid., 31, 388-393, pl. xix, xx. 1919. Teale, E. O., The Diabases and Associated Rocks of the Howqua River near Mansfield with Reference to the Heathcotian Problem in Victoria, zbid., 32, 33-66, pl. iv, 4 figs., map. 1919. Teale, E. O., A Contribution to the Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria with Special Reference to the Districts of Mount Wellington and Nowa Nowa Respectively, zbid., pp. 67-146, pl. vi-ix, 18 figs., map. 1919. Chapman, F., and Skeats, E. W., On the Discovery of Fossil Hydroid Remains of the Older Calyptoblastea in the Palaeozoic of Victoria, Geol. Mag., Dec. 6, 6, 550, pl. xv. 1920. Hall, T. S., Ona Further Collection of Graptolites from Tolwong (cf. 63, 159), Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 9, 63-66. 1920. Keble, R. A., Some Subzonal Forms of the Lower Bendigo and Upper Lancefield Zones, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., 4, 195-202, pl. xxxill, xxxiv, 4 figs. 1920. James, A. V. G., The Physiography and Geology of the Bulla-Sydenham Area, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), 32, 323-349, pl. xxx xc, -2> figs, 1921. Harper, L. F., Note on _ the Occurrence of Graptolite-bearing Beds of Ordovician Age at Yalgogrin and Ariah Park, Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 10, 78-81. 1921. Harris, W. J., and Crawford, W., The Relationships of the Sedimentary Rocks of the Gisborne District, Victoria, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), 33, 39-78, 3 figs., map. 1923. Hall, T. S., Report on Graptolites from Main Cut, Phosphate Hill, Mansfield, Bull. Geol. Surv. Vict., 46, 45. 1923. Keble, R. A., Report on Grapto- lites Occurring with the Upper Cambrian Fauna at Loyola, Mansfield, zbid., p. 46. 1923. Herman, H:, Structure oi . the Bendigo Goldfield, ibid., 47, particularly pp. 10, 11, maps, table. OG: 109. 110. 111. DD? ES GHOMAS 1923. Whitelaw, H.S.,and Baragwanath, W., The Daylesford Goldfield, Bull. Geol. Surv. Vict., 42, 1-64. 1923. Summers, H. S., The Geology of Bacchus Marsh and Coimadai District, Proc. Pan-Pacific Science Congress (Australia), 2, 1632-1648, particularly p. 1638, list. 8vo. Melbourne. 1923. Summers, H. S., The Geology of Mount Macedon and Woodend Area, ibid., pp. 1654-1663, particularly p. 1656, list. 1923. Skeats, E. W., On the Cambrian (Heathcotian) and Lower Ordovician Rocks of the Lancefield and Romsey District, ibid., pp. 1664-1673, particu- larly pp. 1669, 1670, 1673, lists. 1924. Harris, W. J., Victorian Grapto- lites, New Series, Part 1, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), 36, 92-106, pl. vii, viii. 1924. Chapman, F., On the Question of the Devonian Age of the Tanjilian Fauna and Flora of Victoria, Aust. Ass. Adv. Sct., 17, 318-318. Adelaide. 1925. Kenny,’ J. P34 bright.) Wandi- . ligong, and Freeburgh Goldfields, Bull. Geol. Surv. Vict., 44, 6. 1925. Keble, R. A., Report on Grapto- lites, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., 4, 479-481, Di Vil, Vill: 1925, )Weblesaik7 Avs and, Elanase vv .. 1}, Graptolites from Mt. Eastern (corr. Easton), zbid., 4, 507-516, pl. 69, 71, 5 figs., map. 19252) Bulman, 7 7©; =i.) Be aeeBritish Dendroid Graptolites, Part 1, Mon. Pal. SOC. Oe ie 1925. Baragwanath, W., The Aberfeldy District, Gippsland, Mem. Geol. Suv. Vict., 15, 19-22, 11 figs., pl. i-xix. 1926. Harris, W. J., Victorian Grapto- lites, New Series, Part 11, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), 38, 55-61, pl. i, ii. 1926. Bulman, O. M.. B., _ British Dendroid Graptolites, Part 11, Mon. Pal. Soc:, 80) pp. Vi_ Vil, sea Xv XV) pele XX, XXlll, xxxi, 29-64, pl. iii-vi, fig. 19. 1927. Jones, O. A., Silurian Graptolites from Studley Park, Melbourne, Geol. Mag., Dec. 7, 4, 101-105, pl. 5. 1928. Keble, R. A., Tasmanian Grapto- lite: sRecords;, Paps, eevoces iron) 0c: Tasmania, pp. 69-71. 1928: Harris, W. jeandmi ° lilac S) (2) N x SSS «on ro) 52 D. E. THOMAS PLATE IX EASTONIAN Figures natural size unless otherwise stated THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES ee PLATE X ————————-—______—-_-_-_ —. > EASTONIAN (continued) Figures natural size unless otherwise stated Ca EER N ~~ SS nr Wi aera =~ eee Ss; wr BO’) ere ern IU ype. FIT IIIA 49th CRKARAIIS RAK ARKANSAS 137 > a '- v ee M “GK A RRLIAR S EEID SS we ea nas Piri ad Mia 44 3344820 g1Mg ssn Sot ert Ap PRERRRARKANIRAAKRARAAR SSS Snel AU IRI RR SSRIS NI WN = ee ners NOaAaG: ye b3 Ni ei 133 : ‘ ; 3 = b jo) ere CE GEES 54 D. E. THOMAS PLATE XI BOLINDIAN Figures natural size unless otherwise stated 149 x2 oA AUS) a. b x4 150 | q \ , i) e 153 X2 3 : | : = u : hs 7 ec 5 1 3 z 1 im Ga} ui 157 | \ ae pe a t ie 158 bx4 152 155 x2 156 X4 5 ~ 4 4 RAPTOLIT! I iy ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN « PLATE XII KEILORIAN Figures natural size unless otherwise stated N «x jo) Xe) 159 X2 162 x4 161 X2 163 X2 168 We LIPO ORE E TEPER RR OO POPE AAFC CEC ERODE LIF HPO ome nner se ron ere SRR a A pene ee ee 165 X2 LO OEPEE P-L AOCE IIIS - FOIE TWO es COD N ~S ie = —_ 17 (REF RRIF RERER ERE LLL LILA Rc 174 X2 173 D. E. THOMAS PATE LD SS EILDONIAN Figures natural size unless otherwise stated » SS POH” 179 X2 WAZ | | ! aX2 17g b xa MELBOURNIAN Figures natural size unless otherwise stated THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN GRAPTOLITES PLATE XIV TASMANIA Figures natural size unless otherwise stated 198 X12 foo VR PA SS SS WESTERN AUSTRALIA (Goldwyer) Figures natural size unless otherwise stated 58 D. E. THOMAS PLATE XV WESTERN AUSTRALIA (Emmanuel Ck.) Figures natural size unless otherwise stated ae \ : 205 X2 206 X2 TF OS GZ ZB 208 X2 NORTHERN TERRITORY Figures natural size unless otherwise stated QUEENSLAND Figures natural size unless otherwise stated —— os RCC IC ae 215 x2 aN le \ 217 x2 b \) “ $ es 216 X2 218 x2 Bde: Psecndes are to be Seed in “0 ginal types a _ alphabetically giving the author’s name and we HRS ae ‘ _ initials, the year of publication, the title of the h ota volume number and pages, thus : | VICK, o Ge 1934. Asi. Nach., 253, 277. As: J. Proc. Roy. Soc. NUS.W. Line Diagrams, Line diagrams Shiutd be a be ohibaued be. typed without ie Tong, ‘the headings — “for ee oo ue e ijdemted in the text nes. Captions of Figures. . on a separate | sheet. al or tesidential ‘copies. of each diagram should be sent so that _ the originals: need not be sent to referees, thus Sars Ss. nitials ‘being Cag - eliminatin ossible ssf e to the diagrams he i address vil ant Ae ne im Ate . | Photographs. iBiiekacraphs ehould be in- ote ed only where essential, should be glossy, to permit as etal eon without loss f detail BG) See ' show as much contrast as. possible. Particular | _ attention should be. paid to contrast in photo- should be : be pe c- _graphs_ hae distant. ee and of pare roeical Subjects. Se CaS arranged for the | n. com, ane eee oa aia free. Additional Sa ey be , with generous side — bata with dense black ink on either white — ’ bristol Wee te blue linen or pale-blue ruled graph _ paper. racing paper is unsatisfactory because | a table of contents ” “it is “subject. to attack by. silverfish and also * _ changes its shape i in sympathy with the atmos- REC cea. Pp _ pheric humidity. The thickness of lines and the Figures, lates S size of letters and numbers should be such as ; a Wiener Sonubic le or photographic _ preferably mounted on white card, and should, salted a “the. text. by giving the author’s name and the > e, 15 Neva ‘year of publication, eg.: Vick (1934); at a ae the end of the paper they” should be arranged | he a paper (if desired), ‘the abbreviated title of the sm and T tne abbreviated form of the title of ahs journal | =~ ie ‘ ef ate : aS ‘receive: 50 ‘copies’ of } x feoiges of ‘Guia ipa 7 Charges on. 1 Occurrence of Buried es at J of ' ‘Standards, in 1 Heat cal, ‘the ¥ Y THE socrery ae | ; AND D ESSEX STREETS, ‘SYDNEY fas His Huctewe. ae, Govznxon oF New. Sour -LImUTRNANT-GENERAT. SIR» ERIC » ; Re OS ‘Baoadeae | oe r a hg a A _ }. DONEGAN, -M.Se.) Pie ee OR 2s _Vice-Presidents beets a “J. L. GRIFFITH, B.A, Msc. i oe Ape eg BE HARPER, 14 2 N, HANLON, Vane a aed ak McCARTHY, f i J ag 4 2 a Ev yay dant ¢ : ee y f ; P f mi dy x zh = * m4 a, Bx e = ry i OE I RE ae ate a ae ge ae Secretaries ae Mi HARLEY W. WOOD, m.sc. _ Cn eos “ALAN A. DAY, Ph.D Ao Y eas ; : ¥ eee eh oe es he: ~ Hon. Treasurer Bet gree wet Noein, cc L. ADAMSON, B.se £ + oT: ae G. FYNN, BSe., 18.5. oN; ieee a? x Ce A a , HUMPURIES, BiSe! s as H. H.G. McKERN» use, ee W. H. c. POGGENDOREF, 1 B.se. Ag he sma which title it ’ ass v pits he ‘the ha i pelipsepkieal ge sty of New South Wales _Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the ociety a S by geeks of Lgeaiaion of Gh chet 9 Meese n 1881 pee ek aaa ‘ pe Pe x { mt aN oi 4; uf 1 Ms 1 7 ; atx 7 ey { aS if ¥ 4, r; es } Ne oR } / C mn CG ay Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 94, pp. 59-70, 1960 Research, Development and the Maintenance of Standards in Heat at the National Standards Laboratory* Jeol Ne Introduction In this address I shall attempt to review for vou the work of that part of the National Standards Laboratory with which I have been associated since 1939. In doing so I hope to give you by illustration some understanding of the functions and activities of a standards laboratory so that you will be able the better to appreciate just what it does and how and why it does it. I hope too that in the wide variety of topics I shall be touching upon, each one of you will find something of particular interest. A further reason for selecting this topic is that the National Standards Laboratory is about to “come of age’ and this seems a good time and opportunity to review from whence we have come and to contemplate whither we may be going. I wish to stress at the very outset that most of what I will be describing has been done by my co-workers: in many cases I have been little more than an interested onlooker. I am indebted to the various members of the Heat Section, both past and present, for their con- tribution to its record. I also wish to pay sincere tribute to my erstwhile Chief, Dr. G. H. Briggs, a member of this Society, for his guidance and direction in connection with the work I shall be describing. The National Standards Laboratory The decision to establish the National Standards Laboratory was made in 1937 in implementation of a recommendation made by a Committee, the Secondary Industries Testing and Research Committee, which had been charged with the task of advising how the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (as it was then called) could best assist the development of secondary industries (Common- wealth of Australia, 1937). It was not surprising that such a recommendation should have been made, for similar standards laboratories exist in almost all industrially developed countries. They have taken very different forms however ; in some cases an organization which is little * Presidential Address delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales, April 6, 1960. E HARPER more than a national testing and calibrating laboratory has been established while in others this aspect has been very much subservient to the activities of the laboratory in scientific research, often of a fundamental nature. In a country such as Australia, with a relatively small population, isolated and not yet mature industrially, a national standards laboratory has, I believe, a wider function to perform than the equivalent laboratories of say Great Britain, U.S.A. or Canada. As a corollary to this we must expect that with the further development of Australia the functions of the laboratory should change. Aspects of our activities in these initial years which illustrates this lack of development have been the need to take our standards right to the ultimate user—e.g. by the calibration of equipment actually in use in industry— whereas in more industrialized countries only sub-standards would need to be supplied; by the pressure to solve ad hoc industrial problems which would be the province of Research Associations in Great Britain ; and by the need to provide assistance in fields such as medicine, biology, veterinary science and agriculture in which physical assistance is not yet readily available. The functions a standards laboratory needs to fulfil in this country, at least for the present, seem to be as follows: (i) It must maintain the national standards for the measurement of physical quantities of importance to industry, commerce and science. These quantities embrace much more than the “ weights and measures ”’ of early legislation—length, volume and so on. They include, for instance, temperature, viscosity and humidity, to which I will be referring later. In fact, a standards laboratory will usually be called upon to give guidance as to what national standards of measurement age bequired, Dy pihe country. This is an important function if trade and commerce are to be protected and yet not hampered. In Australia this is in process of being worked out now. An Act, the Weights and Measures (National Standards) Act (Commonwealth of 60 Australia, 1948), has been passed to provide for national standards of measurement in place of the few and not always consistent State standards previously in use. Regula- tions are being prepared to cover the various physical quantities for which it seems it would be beneficial to have Commonwealth units and standards of measurement. When __pro- mulgated these will become the sole legal units and standards for use in transactions involving those physical quantities. (ii) A standards laboratory must also concern itself with the development of improved standards and improved methods of measurement in terms of them. A standard can seldom be left static—as greater accuracies become available the value of sézll greater accuracies become apparent. This calls for a type of scientific work to which not many are suited. To increase the accuracy of a measure- ment by an order of magnitude usually requires also an increase of the complexity of the equipment by an order of magnitude. Special staff, accumulated over the years, are the backbone of a standards laboratory, for members are needed who have the patience for meticulous work and yet a flair for seeing worthwhile departures from long established ways of doing things. (iii) Calibrations must be made, in terms of the standards maintained: no standard is of any use until it is disseminated to those requiring to use it. A standards laboratory should go further than this and should help to foster calibration services which will be more directly accessible to industry. These will be provided in testing laboratories and in the industrial concerns themselves. Fortunately, in Australia a Government sponsored body has been established for just this purpose : the National Association of Testing Authorities, and the National Standards Laboratory is doing a good deal to further the objects of this Association by the service of its members on N.A.T.A. Committees, by calibrating equipment, by providing technical assistance and advice in the establishment of testing laboratories and by training personnel for work in them. (iv) In a somewhat similar way a standards laboratory has to be able to assist Committees wt the Standards Association of Australia with specialized knowledge relevant to existing or projected specifications and must be prepared to represent Australia on committees of the corresponding international body, the Inter- national Standardisation Organization. As F sAG, FEAT: g To fulfil the foregoing functions it is necessary to maintain an active organization of high scientific standing. If this is not done the laboratory will soon become moribund for the very nature of its work can, or the wrong staff, exert a strong stultifying influence. Yet I hope to show that even in fields where all development might be thought to have ceased a generation ago an original approach can break through, in an exciting way, into new territory. To have a virile laboratory of high standing calls for the continued recruitment of good staff, for a flow of personnel through the laboratory should be expected and indeed encouraged because in this way the specialized knowledge of the laboratory can be more widely dis- seminated. Experience has shown elsewhere and here that to recruit staff of the requisite calibre it is necessary to provide them with research opportunities and that the position is further improved if the laboratory can gain recognition not solely as a standards laboratory but also as a physical research centre. To this end an active research school should be main- tained, not necessarily in a field closely associated with the standards activity. In the Heat Section of the Laboratory this has been done in the fields of low temperature and solid state physics. The Heat Section The Heat Section—which as will soon become apparent by no means restricts its activities to “heat ’’—is roughly half of the Division of Physics, which in its turn is one of the three Divisions of C.S.I.R.O. which comprise the National Standards Laboratory. The others are the Divisions of Metrology and Electro- technology. The Section’s major fields of activity are concerned with temperature, humidity, viscosity, low temperature physics and solid state physics. Other activities include aspects of medical physics and the study of the thermal properties of materials. Because many of its fields of work are of direct concern to industry this Section has always endeavoured to maintain a close liaison with industrial personnel. Nearly 200 technicians, drawn from every State in the Commonwealth, have passed through its training courses and many thousands of problems have been dealt with either by advice or investigation. This close contact with industry was established very early in the history of the Laboratory because of the exigencies of the War. Lack of alter- native facilities made it necessary for us to undertake the calibration of furnaces and Ai * a pee RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF STANDARDS 61 temperature measuring equipment used for defence work. It was soon realized that it was to the advantage of the Laboratory staff as well as of industry for us to undertake this work as it provided valuable insight into problems of practical thermometry and pyrometry. Accord- ingly this facility has been maintained to a limited extent, although every encouragement has been given to industry to become self- sufficient in these matters. Inevitably this class of work should ultimately pass entirely to laboratories such as those registered with the National Association of Testing Authorities, but,.as this happens, I expect as a parallel development that there will be a greater aware- ness of the potentialities of the Laboratory for the solution of more recondite problems. Temperature The statutory functions of the Section in connection with temperature measurement involve the establishment and maintenance of what is known as the International Temper- ature Scale (I.T.S.) (Comite International des Poids et Mesures, 1948). This is a scale of temperature adopted by international agreement in 1927 (Septieme Conference General des Poids et Mesures, 1930) to provide a uniform means for measuring temperatures throughout the world, which would conform with the thermo- dynamic scale of temperature as nearly as was practicable at the time. Such a scale is clearly an empirical one but it is only rarely, as in the measurement of the thermo-dynamic constants of chemicals, that differences from the thermo- dynamic scale are significant. From the nature of the scale the lines of its further development are not difficult to foresee; one can expect attempts to improve its internal consistency, to extend its range and to improve its con- formity with the thermo-dynamic scale. All three of these aspects have been and are still being actively pursued throughout the world. Two of them are currently receiving attention here. The Scale is defined by allocating temperatures to several so-called “‘ fixed points ’’, such as the melting point of ice, the boiling points of oxygen and sulphur and the melting points of silver and gold, and by prescribing means of interpolation (and extrapolation) between these temperatures, e.g. by the use of platinum resistance thermo- meters in which the physical characteristics of the platinum and the interpolation formula to be used are laid down. The accuracies of reproducibility of the initial scale were of the order of 0-01 deg. C at —190° C, the lower limit of the Scale, 0-001 at. O° C. 0-01 at 400°C, 0-1 at 1,000°C and 2 deg. C at 2,000°C. Inevitably these have proved inadequate. This may seem somewhat sur- prising for they ave quite high accuracies, but it must be borne in mind that it is rarely con- venient to make practical measurements of temperature directly in terms of equipment of the type used to realize the I.T.S. so that one or more intercomparisons are usually involved, each with its consequent lowering of accuracy. In certain measurements the accuracies quoted are directly significant; thus in the sale of chemicals purity is often the criterion for the price and is judged by melting point. We were consulted on just such a case not long ago where a few thousandths of a degree meant many thousands of pounds. Some improvements have resulted from subse- quent minor changes in the definition of the Scale: thus the platinum used for platinum resistance thermometers must now be of greater purity than was originally required. The Scale has been terminated at —183° C because below this it rapidly departs from the thermo-dynamic scale, and the approximate Wien law of radiation used for high temperature measurements has been replaced with the exact Planck law. Greatest precision, in the numerical sense, is usually required in the vicinity of room temperature and this has received a fillip from the replacement of the ice point with the triple point of water (0-010°C). It is not at all difficult to realize with this latter point a temperature which is constant and reproducible from cell to cell to 0-0001 deg. C. The position is not as satisfactory at the boiling point of water, the second of the funda- mental points used to define the thermo- dynamic scale. This has the weakness of all boiling points, that they are markedly sensitive to pressure—a change of 1 mm. of mercury in the pressure changes the boiling point of water by 0-04 deg.C. The position is aggravated by the difference in density between the vapour and the atmosphere above the vapour so that any variations in the condensation line will result in a change in the pressure at the point in the vapour at which the temperature is being measured. The other major problem is the establishment or measurement of the pressure at which boiling is occurring. Each standards laboratory in which the I.T.S. is realized has to face up to this problem and will meet it in its own particular way. In all cases where high accuracy is desired a controlled atmosphere will be used, usually of hydrogen or helium to 62 A BAL es Pik take advantage of the sharp condensation line which results from the high thermal con- ductivities of these gases. The pressure will be either adjusted to one standard atmosphere or kept near it and measured. Such a system, with which we hope to obtain pressures accurate to 0-001 mm. Hg, is now nearing completion in the Heat Section. The mercury of the manometer is contained in a stainless steel system kept at constant temper- ature. The position of the upper and lower mercury surfaces relative to flat plattens separated by precision end bars is determined by measurements of electrical capacitance. Space above one mercury surface will be con- tinuously evacuated and over the other will be filled with helium. The boiler (hypsometer) to be employed with this is already in use. It has been modelled on one developed at the National Bureau of Standards, U.S.A. (Stimson, 1955), and found to give very satisfactory results. As with many other aspects of the work of the National Standards Laboratory, advantage can be taken in this case of the specialized techniques developed in other parts of the Laboratory. We are utilizing the facilities of the Division of Metrology for the construction and measurement of precision end bars and very accurately lapped flat surfaces, of the Division of Electrotechnology for the very precise comparison of electrical capacitances and of our own Section for accurate temperature control. Although the completion of the manometer will, it is hoped, increase the accuracy of realizing the steam point to 0-0002 deg. C, this will clearly always be a less satisfactory fixed point than the triple point of water. It would be very convenient if it could be replaced with a satisfactory freezing point. Benzoic acid (freezing point 122°C) has been suggested (Schwab and Wickers, 1945) but has not proved sufficiently reproducib'e. Organic materials are usually at a disadvantage because of low latent and specific heats and poor thermal conductivity, as was found by us in some investigations on the use of diphenyl ether as a secondary fixed point located conveniently near ambient temperatures at about 28°C. An accuracy of better than 0-01°C proved very difficult to achieve. The present International Temperature Scale covers the range from 0° to 630°C by the use of platinum resistance thermometers calibrated at 0°, 100° and 444-6°C. These calibration points are not ideally spaced so it is worth contemplating the replacement of the steam point (100°C) with a freezing point at say 150°C. Indium which melts at 156°C is a possible substance. We have commenced work to investigate the suitability of this. If the steam point is a somewhat unsatis- factory boiling point, the boiling point of sulphur (444-6° C) is even worse, for here, the chemists tell us, we are dealing with a molecule which can adopt many forms: S,, S,, S. etc. and which will slowly change from one to the other with time in a non-equilibrium thermal environment. Fortunately there is a melting point conveniently close to the sulphur pomt; namely zine (419 -5° C), and a good deal of work is proceeding in various standardizing laboratories throughout the world on investigating this (Preston-Thomas, 1955). We have found it to give temperatures repeatable to 0-0002° C in agreement with the findings of others and there seems little doubt that the zinc point will replace the sulphur point in a future revision of, the 1. is: A word of warning is called for in the use of melting points in place of boiling points, however, for while they are insensitive to pressure, they can be very sensitive to impurity, unlike the condensation temperature of a vapour. In our work on zinc and indium (and also on cadmium which we are examining for use as a Secondary fixed point) we are finding it necessary to resort to zone melting refining techniques to obtain the purities we desire. The extrapolation of the I.T.S. from about 450° to 630°C is not particularly satisfactory and the possible use of a higher melting point as a fixed point may repay investigation. The temperature 630° C is indeed the melting point of antimony but this has not proved to be a very satisfactory fixed point, perhaps because of the difficulty of obtaining it in a pure state. An alternative is that if the stability of resistance thermometers at high temperatures could be increased, the upper limit for resistance thermometry could be extended to the melting point of silver (960-8° C) or even gold (1063° C). In the latter case the thermocouple range of the I.T.S. would be eliminated. At low temperatures the cessation of the Scale at —183°C (the boiling point of oxygen) has not been a serious limitation because of the relative paucity of technological interest at — temperatures much below this. However, the increasing use of liquid helium and_ liquid hydrogen and of pumped liquid nitrogen for scientific purposes is leading to technological applications and is making the extension of the Scale to lower temperatures desirable. Growing interest in rocket propulsion and interplanetary RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF STANDARDS 63 and interstellar space investigations must inevit- _ ably lead to an increased need for reproducible measurements at low temperatures. The Scale was only cut off at —183° C because the interpolation formula used with platinum resistance thermometers gives results which diverge rapidly from the thermo-dynamic scale below this temperature. Difficulties have been experienced by a number of workers in obtaining a reproducible scale in terms of the electrical resistance of platinum at these low temperatures ; but in some recent work (Lowenthal e al, 1958, 1960) we have been able to show that these difficulties can be overcome by suitably taking account of peculiarities in the _ resistance- temperature characteristics of platinum and a method has been given for defining a satisfactory scale, reproducible to 0-005° down to 20° K (—253° C). Below this temperature the vapour pressures of hydrogen and of helium are possible means of defining a scale. Platinum resistance thermometry would not be suitable because of the low resistances involved. fayine upper region of the [I.1.S:; where temperatures are measured in terms of the emission of radiation by the hot body the position is again interesting. Here the measurements are usually made with what is known as a disappearing filament optical pyrometer. It is operated by the observer determining the current of a lamp filament at which its luminance is exactly the same as that of the body on which the instrument is sighted, so that the filament “ disappears’”’ against the background. The measurement is made in more or less mono- chromatic light. One of the disadvantages of the method is that the filament rarely does disappear completely owing to variations in the luminance of the filament across its width. Work done some years ago in conjunction with the Light Section of the Division of Physics (Giovanelli and Kemp, 1950) showed that this could be overcome by taking advantage of the change in polarization of the light with its angle of emission. More serious is the fact that the answer is significantly dependent on the colour vision of the observer since it is not usually practicable to make observations in truly monochromatic light. In any case the subjective criterion of whether a filament has disappeared is not a very satisfactory basis for accurate measure- ment. In some work recently undertaken in the Section to set up with greater accuracy this portion of the I.T.S., errors resulting from this source were so considerable that it was necessary to have each of eight observers take over 90 observations under carefully controlled con- ditions to obtain an accuracy of setting at the gold point of --0-25° C. In an endeavour to obviate this source of trouble work is proceeding on the development of an instrument which will eliminate the effect of the human eye on the settings made. It is simple in conception but less simple in execution. It consists of a photoelectric device which scans across the filament and background and by the use of a suitable phase sensitive electronic detector gives a null reading on a sensitive meter when the luminance of the centre of the filament is the same as that of the hot body being observed. Edge effects of the filament are thus eliminated. This instrument has proved itself to be very sensitive ; individual settings can be made to 0:05°C (at about 1100° C) where for a trained human observer the mean of ten successive readings would have a_ standard deviation of about 2°C. Some difficulties have been experienced in obtaining satisfactory long term stability with the instrument but it is believed these have now been overcome. The various lines of investigation or develop- ment in relation to the I.T.S., referred to above, indicate that this is a field in which there are plentiful opportunities for worthwhile work. Numbers of other investigations have been made or are awaiting attention as opportunity occurs; the responses of resistance thermo- meters at low temperatures have been studied (Lowenthal and Harper, 1960); we have participated in international intercomparisons of the realization of portions of the I.T.S. and a study has been made of factors affecting the accuracy of optical pyrometry (Mortlock and Harper, 1953). With the completion of the photoelectric optical pyrometer a whole new range of investi- gations will be opened up, for the examination of phenomena which affect visual optical pyrometry and yet are on the border line of observation using visual techniques will become practicable. Other investigations planned include studies of the reproducibility of the melting point of tin (232° C) and cadmium.(321° C) to examine their potentialities as secondary fixed points and of the triple point of neon (27° K) as a possible calibration point for an extended I.T.S. (Lowenthal e¢ al, 1958). The calibration of instruments in terms of the I.T.S. is often effected relative to an inter- mediate substandard which is not itself an instrument,of the. type covered by the [Ics. specifications. Thus liquid-in-glass thermo- 64 ae a AC ES Ao sew Pik meters, unless they are to be calibrated to the highest possible accuracy, are compared with other liquid-in-glass thermometers which have in their turn been calibrated against I.T.S. resistance thermometers. This, and our natural concern with the types of measuring equipment in practical use and submitted for calibration, means that attention must be given to the limitations of such instruments, to possible ways of improving them and to finding ways of solving unusual problems of temperature measurement or control. Two of the matters of this type investigated have been the effect of strain on the thermo- electric properties of metals (Mortlock, 1953) and factors affecting the stability of liquid-in- glass thermometers. Because thermometers are so widely used by all scientists it might be of interest to mention explicitly one of the findings of the latter study. It is well known that with time the volume of the bulb of a thermometer alters, giving rise to what is known as secular change in the thermometer. This is usually allowed for by taking readings from time to time at a fixed temperature such as the ice point and correcting for the observed change. If the thermometer has recently been heated the bulb will not immediately return to its initial volume so a further change will be superimposed on the secular change ; they may be of opposite sign. This transient effect will disappear at room temperature in a more or less exponential manner. If the best accuracy is desired from thermometers it is usual, therefore, to measure the ice or other reference point after the thermo- meter has been left resting for at least a couple of days. This has been our practice for many years. Despite this precaution the measured ice points of some of our best secondary standards were found to behave in a rather irregular manner, even when the thermometers were of such a range that they were never heated above say 30°C. These variations amounted to as much as 0-01°C for thermo- meters graduated in 0-02° C. Our first reaction was to blame the ice points themselves or stiction of the mercury of the thermometers, but further study showed this was not the cause. The answer became apparent as soon as we tried storing the thermometers at constant temper- ature (0° C) for 48 hours or so before measuring their ice points. Immediately the ice point corrections became virtually constant, indicating that the previous variations had been due to variations in ambient temperature during the so-called “ resting ”’ period. The further we study the behaviour of liquid-in-glass thermometers the more convinced we become that if their apparent accuracy is to be achieved, they must be used with a very full understanding of their idiosyncrasies and previous thermal history. The Section is constantly being approached with requests for assistance in the solution of — unusual problems of temperature measurement or control. Often special instruments have to be devised or special techniques evolved. Examples are the design of a resistance thermo- meter for measuring, in the field, the rectal temperatures of cattle ; and of another resistance thermometer for measuring the temperatures of estuarine muds in connection with oyster studies. Recently a request was received for measurements of the temperatures of biscuits as they pass at high speed through a 300 ft. baking oven; and a somewhat similar problem of measuring the temperatures of oil drums as they pass, after painting, through a 200 ft. furnace was solved some time ago. Often apparently simple enquiries can lead into strange by-ways. One such case was when a request for the loan of a thermocouple resulted in our becoming involved in that fascinating development in medicine known as_ hypo- thermia—the lowering of body temperature for medical purposes. By such a lowering of temperature the metabolism of the body is slowed down so that its need for oxygen is reduced and the blood supply to the brain can be stopped for ten minutes or so without the production of per- manent injury whereas at normal temperatures this could only be done for about three minutes. It soon became apparent to us that the physical problems involved in cooling a human patient from the normal temperature of 37°C down to say 30°C, holding him at that temperature perhaps for several hours, and then bringing the patient back to near normal temperature, went far beyond the comparatively simple measure- ment of his temperature. The heat to be removed is of the order of a million calories. In an interesting collaboration between medical men, engineers and ourselves equipment and techniques were developed which allowed surgery to proceed in parallel with the removal (or provision) of heat so that the patient’s temper- ature would be under control at all times (Cass et al, 1956). This equipment has been used — on well over a hundred cases, mainly children suffering from cardiac defects, with very satis- factory results. The simple request for a thermocouple has taken us still further, however, RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF STANDARDS 65 for it has brought before us other physical problems associated with this type of surgery. There are many operations for which the ten minutes provided by hypothermia would not be sufficient, and for these either much lower body temperatures must be used or a machine must be provided to maintain the circulation of oxygenated blood while the heart is stopped— a so-called heart-lung machine. The pump to circulate the blood is com- paratively straightforward although it has to meet quite stringent requirements. It is with the oxygenator that the ideal has proved the hardest to attain, as is indicated by the many different models designed. The problem is to expose to oxygen a sufficient number of the blood corpuscles passing through the unit to be able to supply the patient with an adequacy of arterial-type blood. The demands, of course, may be reduced by combining hypothermia with the extra-corporeal circulation, as can easily be done. Most oxygenators tend to copy the human lung by spreading the blood out on a large surface area. This tends to result in a large unit which requires a good deal of blood to prime it—a serious disadvantage, and particularly so if the techniques are to be applied extensively to newborn children in need of assistance for the first few hours or days of their lives. In an endeavour to overcome these difficulties we have adopted a new approach to the problem. In most of the large-surface type oxygenators those corpuscles exposed to the oxygen spend much longer so exposed than is required, because the process of oxygenation is almost instant- aneous. This tends to increase the size and hence the priming charge unnecessarily. In the device we are working on the blood flows down a screw-like helix as a stream. It is hoped that by adopting a suitable shape for the helix “thread ”’ the internal circulation of the stream will be such as to bring virtually every blood corpuscle to the surface for the brief time required for its oxygenation. The method undoubtedly works but we are unable to say yet whether it will have a high enough efficiency to provide the compact, low priming charge oxygenator desired by our medical collaborators. The activities of the Section on temperature measurement represent its major effort in standards work and provide its closest industrial connections. Each year over 300 Certificates and Reports are issued on calibrations and tests performed in this field and a great deal of other work which does not give rise to formal reports is undertaken. In parallel with this, improve- ments in the facilities for the realization of the International Temperature Scale and_ for measurements in terms of it, and research in the field of temperature measurement and control are constantly in progress. Hygrometry Humidity, in the meteorological sense, has long been recognized as a quantity of significance for our comfort and wellbeing and of prime importance in agriculture and animal husbandry. Industrially we know that it was a factor in determining the location of spinning and weaving mills before the days of air-conditioning. In none of these cases has a precise knowledge of humidity been of much interest. There are other industries, however, such as the food processing, photographic, tobacco, sugar and printing industries in which tolerances of humidity or its related quantity, moisture content, can become quite critical. Other special cases exist in which more difficult measurements of humidity are required, as in the checking of the moisture content of the breathing oxygen for pilots to ensure there will be no risk of ice blocking the control valve, or in the control of the atmosphere of furnaces used for the surface carburization of steel to harden it. Scientific investigations of innumer- able kinds call for a good knowledge of the humidity, often under unusual conditions. In fact, one of the characteristics of work in hygrometry is the wide variety of circumstances under which measurements are required and the correspondingly wide variety of instruments which have been developed. The majority of these are empirical and many have been crude in the extreme. It is not my purpose to review such instruments here, however. While the work of the Section in hygrometry includes the calibration of a certain number of instruments for use as sub-standards, by far the greater part of the effort is devoted to research and developmental activities. We believe that if improved methods of measuring, recording and controlling humidity can be provided then industry will in time learn to take advantage of the additional accuracy and control thereby made available. Over the years particular attention has been devoted to four basic types of hygrometer, one or other of which is applicable to almost any humidity measuring problem. The work has in all cases gone a good deal deeper than the mere development of an instrument. 66 A..F. A. “HARPER The most commonly used instrument for the measurement of humidity is the wet and dry bulb hygrometer—the “ psychrometer’’. This semi-absolute instrument has the disadvantage that the response of its wet thermometer is dependent on air velocity unless this velocity is greater than about 10ft. per second. A far more versatile instrument is obtained if the thermometers are replaced with thermocouples (or a differential thermocouple). An investigation of the basic characteristics of such instruments revealed that if fine wires were used for the thermocouples, then the full depression of the temperature of the wet junction relative to that of the dry could be obtained with an air velocity of only 0:5 ft. per second (Wylie, 1949). The instrument obviously lends itself to remote reading. A second instrument which will be familiar to most is the dew point hygrometer. Anyone who has used this instrument will know that the detection of the presence of dew on the surface is usually so difficult that very great care is needed if the temperatures for appearance and disappearance of the dew are to agree to within 0-1°C. Photoelectric detection of the forma- tion of the dew leads to an appreciable increase in the precision of measurement. Such an instrument has been made automatic by causing the photo-current to control the temperature of the condensing surface. This instrument is particularly well suited to recording auto- matically the humidity of a stream of gas. Each of the above instruments has the disadvantage that it requires a largish sample of the gas whose humidity is to be determined and by its operation adds or removes water from the gas studied, 1.e. affects the conditions being measured. There are many problems in which a humidity “ probe ”’ is required for measuring the conditions at a point without significantly affecting these conditions. Typical of the many such cases on which we have been consulted is that of measuring the humidity in the fleece on a sheep’s back. I understand this was required in connection with the following problem: when a female louse on a sheep decides to lay an egg it leaves the sheep’s skin, climbs out along the wool fibre and at a certain place turns around, lays the egg and crawls back again. What determines where she will turn around? Temperature or humidity (for there will be a stadient) of each); = do meet ithis type "or problem use has been made of a method which while empirical in nature has the advantage that it is quick in response, uses only minute quantities of water, can be incorporated in an electrical circuit and is relatively stable (Cutting et al, 1955). The sensitive element comprises a small disk or rod of aluminium, the surface of which has been anodized to form a thin layer of aluminium oxide over which a moisture permeable gold film is evaporated as an electrode. Measurements are made of the electrical resistance or capacitance of the anodized layer, each of these quantities being a function of the relative humidity of the gas with which the probe is in equilibrium. The response of these probes is to some extent dependent on their previous hygrometric history and to overcome this a special calibrator unit has been developed which contains a number of cells in which known humidities are maintained by means of saturated salt solutions. It is thought this apparatus will find particular application to field work. The fourth instrument to which I wish to refer is in a class by itself for it represents a new technique in hygrometry which provides facilities not hitherto available (Wylie, 1955a). With it measurements can be made to an order of magnitude better than the best dew point measurements with a time constant of the order of only a second. Unlike the dew point hygrometer and the psychrometer, measure- ments can be made at sub-zero temperatures without there being any uncertainty as to whether the measurements are relative to the vapour pressure of water orice. It is interesting that this technique was the outcome of funda- mental studies of the condensation process on solid surfaces and yet the idea could have been developed several decades ago. This is a good example of the fact that even in fields which seem to have become static opportunities will exist for worthwhile advances. This hygrometer, christened the electrolytic condensation hygrometer, is quite simple in conception. The sensitive element is a water- soluble ionic crystal. If this is cooled in the presence of the gas to be examined a temperature will be reached at which the crystal will begin to exhibit ‘“ deliquescence ’’, 1.e. a film of saturated solution will begin to form on the surface of the crystal. This will occur when the vapour pressure of the water in the gas first exceeds the saturation vapour pressure of the saturated solution. As long as the vapour pressure exceeds this critical value, additional solution will form and the film will thicken; if the vapour pressure becomes less than the critical value the film will evaporate. The presence of such a film may be easily detected electrically by placing electrodes on the crystal ; a decrease or increase in the electrical resistance will RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF STANDARDS 67 correspond respectively to a thickening or thinning of the film. The instrument may be made self balancing by placing the crystal in a temperature controlled enclosure containing the gas sample and arranging for the temperature of the space to be brought to such a value that there will be a predetermined resistance (i.e. film thickness) between the crystal electrodes. The equilibrium temperature should be independent of this thickness for a wide range of thicknesses and this has been found to be so to better than 0-005° C (Wylie, 1957). Because the response of the instrument is electrical it is particularly well suited to the automatic recording and control of humidity. It can be adapted to the measurement of a wide range of absolute humidities by selecting appropriate crystal materials. Patents have been taken out on this device (Wylie, 1955), 1956, 1959) and it is hoped that it will soon be available as a commercially manufactured instrument. The electrolytic condensation hygrometer provides more than an instrument for practical hygrometer, however. It also represents a valuable research tool which can be applied to a wide range of investigations. It has already served to show that films of saturated solution of average thickness as little as 8 muy still have essentially the properties of bulk liquid and it has provided information on the fine structure of the crystal surfaces. It is proposed to apply it to further fundamental studies of the condensation process, accurate measurements of the interaction constant between gas and water molecules and to the determination of the vapour pressures (relative to the vapour pressure of water) of a number of saturated salt solutions. The field of hygrometry, far from being worked out, has proved to be redolent with opportunities mr research, development and _ practical application. Viscometry A “ standards ” function of the Heat Section which bears little relationship to heat is the calibration of viscometers in terms of the absolute units of viscosity, the poise and the stokes, although, it is true, the accurate control of temperature plays an important part in precision viscometry. This field, which is of considerable industrial and economic importance, particularly in the lubricating oil industry, is the subject of a large number of standard specifications and codes of practice designed to effect reproducibility in viscometric measure- ments (e.g. British Standards Institution, 1957). It is true that high absolute accuracy is seldom important, in fact for many years virtually empirical scales were in almost universal use, but a study of standards specifications will reveal the lengths to which those interested in such measurements will go to obtain high reproducibility. Modern practice is to refer all measurements to the viscosity of water at 20°C (1-0038 centistokes), and since any one viscometer can usually only cover a range of about a decade in viscosity this means that a long series of stepping up procedures is necessary if a viscosity of say 100 stokes is to be measured. In any such procedure errors are likely to accumulate, and this is particularly so with viscosity measure- ments. This is the reason for much of the complexity of standard codes for viscometry. The root of the trouble is that in an ordinary capillary tube viscometer the simple formula, which indicates that the rate of flow of a fluid through the capillary is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid, requires an additional correction known as the kinetic energy cor- rection. This term is hard to determine and yet in the stepping up calibration procedure will tend to introduce systematic errors. These errors can amount to several percent at higher viscosities. To anyone familiar with the complications arising from the presence of this correction term, it will be as much a surprise as it was to us to discover that by a comparatively simple modi- fication to the design of standard capillary viscometers, it can be made completely negligible (Caw and Wylie, 1958). The modification is to bell the ends of the capillary into a more or less exponential flare. This can be done quite simply by placing the sealed end of the capillary in a suitable linear temperature gradient and then blowing. The change of the viscosity of the glass with temperature causes the hotter portion to blow out to a much greater radius than the cooler. A viscometer incorporating the long flares at the ends of its capillaries can be used over a much greater range of viscosities than would otherwise be possible and can be calibrated by measurement at a single viscosity. Each of these characteristics helps to make possible the simplification of viscometer specifications. That this effect should have gone unrecognized for so long is indeed surprising. Perhaps this stems from the fact that in almost all of the early capillary tube viscosity measurements’ the experimenters were concerned with determining absolute values. The present simplification is 68 A. PA HARPER only applicable to measurements made relative to some standard viscosity. In the stepping up calibration procedure a suitable liquid is measured in one viscometer and then used to calibrate another. The rate of shear in the liquid will be markedly different in the two viscometers, so that the method tacitly assumes that the viscosity of the liquid is independent of its rate of shear, 1.e. is a pure ‘““ Newtonian ”’ fluid. This assumption is known to be invalid for many liquids but without an instrument in which the flow time is known to be simply related to the viscosity it has been difficult to check this point. The new type of instrument will accordingly be of considerable assistance in the selection of liquids suitable for use as sub-standards or transfer standards. Because of the high accuracy of the modified viscometers for the measurement of relative viscosities one is being used for a_ re- determination of the viscosity of water as a function of temperature. A special instrument has been constructed in which the flow time is measured automatically on an electronic counter fed by a constant frequency source. If care is taken to ensure constancy of water temperature a repetition accuracy of 1 in 50,000 can be obtained in the flow time in this way. The best accuracy for visual timing with a stopwatch in this case would be about 1 in 1,000. The ability to compare viscosities to this order of accuracy clearly opens up many other possi- bilities in a field which has for many years been thought to be without promise for original work. The development has notable scientific as well as industrial applications. Low Temperature and Solid State Physics I indicated earlier that it would be most undesirable to endeavour to operate a standards laboratory without associating with it the stimulus of active research. In implementing this policy at the conclusion of the War the field of low temperature physics was selected as an appropriate one for active work. This selection was made for several reasons : (i) It was a field to which our experience and the techniques and facilities developed in our standards work, particularly in thermo- metry and heat transfer, could be expected to be applicable ; per contra low temperature work could well contribute to our knowledge in these subjects. (i) It was known that no other facilities for the attainment of low temperature existed within Australia, although no country could — consider its physical armoury complete with- out these facilities. (11) It was considered that low temperature technology, for which the name cryogenic engineering has since been coined, was bound — to extend to this country and it was thought, therefore, that pilot experience in this field would prove valuable. (iv) Finally the field of low temperature physics 1s a most attractive one for research. It is a temperature region in which on the one hand strange phenomena occur, such as the disappearance of all electrical resistance in some metals (super-conductivity) and the apparent disappearance of all viscosity in liquid helium (super-fluidity), while on the other hand many physical processes are greatly simplified because of the reduction in the thermal vibrations of the atoms and molecules. It is a field for the testing of physical theories and for investigations which lead to new ones. All these expectations have been fulfilled. Our decision to establish low temperature facilities was made at a fortunate time, for improved techniques for the production of the refrigerant used for most low temperature work (liquid helium) had just been developed (Collins, 1947). By taking advantage of these we were able, from the first, to produce liquid helium in sufficient quantities to supply not only our own experimental needs but to assist others from outside the Laboratory with low temper- ature experiments. Our low temperature research has from the outset been concerned with the study of materials in the solid state, a comparatively new branch of physics which extends from pure physics into metallurgy and engineering and has_ been responsible for such major technological advances as the transistor. Here I would say that it seems strange that while at least five C.S.I.R.O. Divisions are actively engaged in research on different aspects of solid state physics, it has been almost entirely neglected by our Australian Universities as a field in which to train physicists. The conduction properties of metals and alloys was selected as the first subject for investigation (White, 1953). This has proved to be a fortunate choice for we have found the measurement of conductivities to be a most powerful technique for studying the imper- fections which are present in all crystals, a knowledge of the nature and distribution of RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF STANDARDS 69 which is essential to the understanding of the physical behaviour of solids (Klemens, 1956). Many types of imperfections in the regularity of the crystal lattice can occur and each of these introduces resistance to the flow of heat through the crystal; in a perfect infinite crystal there would be zero thermal resistance. Fortunately each type of imperfection leads to a different dependence of the thermal conductivity on temperature so that by making measurements over a range of low temperatures it is possible to identify the dominant types present. In this way it has been possible to study the imperfections introduced in solids by plastic deformation, quenching, radiation damage and fatigue, and to follow the course of the removal of these imperfections with annealing. The measurements have also been used to deduce the intrinsic conduction of perfect crystals subject only to the residual effects of thermal vibrations, and in this way to check current theories of the solid state and to study the laws of interaction between “conduction ’”’ electrons in the solid and the vibration of the crystal lattice. Additional information about the nature of the mutual reactions between electrons, lattice vibrations, and imperfections in metals and alloys can be obtained from measurements of their thermoelectric forces, and work is pro- ceeding to measure the exceedingly small e.m.f.s. involved. Further studies of the basic structure of selected solids have been made through the measurement of their heat capacities down to low temperatures (Rayne, 1956) and currently equipment is being set up for the measurement of thermal expansions. In all these cases the measurements can be extended from room temperature down to 1° or 2° K. Another approach to the study of the solid state is through what is known as paramagnetic mesonance. In the presence of a magnetic field atoms which are themselves magnetic will precess and by measuring these precession frequencies by resonance techniques it is possible to deduce the nature of the interatomic forces in the solid. The frequencies are in the microwave region. The technique can also be used for identifying and measuring the concen- tration of very small amounts of magnetic ‘impurities; with equipment which has been set up for this work the presence of as few as 108 magnetic atoms can be detected. The techniques can not only be applied to the detection of such substances as iron, nickel and chromium, but can also reveal the presence of free radicles in chemical compounds. They have been applied to a wide variety of specimens ranging from wool to coal. Our low temperature facilities play a vital part in this work, too, for although some useful measurements of paramagnetic absorption can be made at room temperatures, the effects are much sharpened by the reduction of thermal vibrations which results from cooling the specimen and can therefore be interpreted more simply and accurately. A good example of the unpredictable develop- ments which can stem from fundamental research has recently arisen in connection with this field of investigation in the invention of what has been called the “ Maser’’ (Bloom- bergen, 1956). This device for the amplification of microwaves is hundreds of times more sensitive than any conventional amplifier and consequently can have very important applica- tions to communication engineering. The idea has been enthusiastically received by the radio astronomers, too, for they see in the Maser a valuable ancillary to their radio telescope for the study of extra-galactic microwave radiation. In conjunction with officers of the C.S.I.R.O. Division of Radiophysics a Maser is at present under construction for use on the large radio telescope being erected at Parkes, N.S.W. A pilot model has already been made to operate successfully. It employs a ruby as the basic material, the red coloration of which is due to the paramagnetic chromium ions. The ruby is cooled with liquid helium and has to be mounted in a magnetic field. Theoretical studies made in the Section have revealed that in certain cases it should be possible to operate a Maser without requiring any external magnetic field (Bogle and Symmons, 1959). This would be of considerable benefit in many cases and the practicability of such a device is being investigated. The third major research activity involving the use of our low temperature facilities has been the study of low temperature thermometry. Various aspects of this have already been touched upon. Here, too, as with the other low temperature work, opportunities for interesting research abound. Conclusion In reviewing the work of the Section it is apparent that in the course of setting up the facilities which as a Standards Laboratory we are statutorily required to maintain, and in establishing a parallel research programme in the low temperature and solid state fields, numerous 70 A. Fy A: HAKPER promising lines of investigation have been opened up. It is believed that there will be a good opportunity for developing these lines and others as yet unforeseen, for it would not be expected that the considerable effort which in the past has had to be devoted by the research personnel to purely standards work will need to continue. Nevertheless it would be unsafe to allow any of these standards fields to remain quiescent, for in that direction lies regression. New fields of work present themselves for consideration ; others will arise from time to time. Thus in pyrometry the extension of our work to much higher temperatures must be seriously considered for technology is heading that way already. In viscometry consideration must be given to the complex but technically important field of rheology which deals with the flow properties of such things as pastes and paints. In whatever direction development takes us, I feel confident the Section will find interesting and profitable work. References BLOOMBERGEN, N., 1956. Phys. Rev., 104, 324. BocLe, G. B:, AND SYMMONS, HI. F:, 1959. Avsi. ff. Phys 2s. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, 1957. B.S. 188. Cass, M. H., Harper, A. F. A., AND WYLIE, R. G., 1956. M.J. Australia, 1, 134. Caw, W. A., AND WYLIE, R. G., 1958. Nature, 182, 1153. CoLrins, S. G, 1947. “Reus “Scz! Worst 18; V57z. CoMITE INTERNATIONAL DES POIDS ET MESURES, 1948. Procés-Verbaux C.I.P.M., 21, T30. COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, 1937. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, “‘ Report of Secondary Industries Testing and Research Committee ”’. COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, 1948. “‘ Weights and Measures (National Standards) Act.” CuTTineG, C. L., Jason, A. C., AND Woop, J. L., 1955: J. Set. Inst., 32, 425. GIOVANELLI, R. G., AND KEmpP, W. R. G., 1950. Inst., 27, 69. KLEMENS, P. G., 1956. ‘‘ Encyclopedia of Physics ’’, Vol. 14, Pt. 4, Springer, Berlin. LOWENTHAL, G. C., AND HARPER, A. F. A., Brit. J. Appl. Phys. Un press) LOWENTHAL, G. C., Kemp, W. R. G., AND HARPER, A. F. A., 1958. Bull. Inst. Intern. Froid. Annexe, £107. , MortLock, A. J., 19538. Aust. J. Phys., 6, 410. Mort Lock, A. J., and HARPER, A. F. A., 1953. J. Appl. Phys., 4; Y9o: PRESTON-THOMAS, H., 1955. ‘“‘ Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and In- dustry’, Vol. II, 169. Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York. RAYNE, J. A., 1956. SCHWAB, F. W., AND WICHERS, E., 1945. J. Res., 34, 333. SEPTIEME CONFERENCE GENERAL DES POIDS ET MESURES, 1930. Tvavaux et Mémoires du BioPoM,, 18756290) Stimson, H. F., 1955. ‘‘ Temperature, Its Measure- ment and Control in Science and Industry ’’, Vol. II, 159. Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York. WHITE, G. K., 1953. WYLIE, R. G., 1949. Report, PA-4. WYLIE, R. G., 1955a. Wyii1Ee, RG '95a0: WYLIE, R. G., 1956. WYLIE, R.. G., 1957: J Sct 1960. Brit. Aust. J. Phys., 9, 189. Bur. Stand. Proc. Phys. Soc., A, 66, 559. C.S.I.R.O. Division of Physics Nature, 175, 18. Brit. Patent 779,307. Aust. Patent 202,139. Aust. J. Phys., 10, 351, 429. WYLIE, R. G., 1959. U.S. Patent 25897,672: National Standards Laboratory, University of Svdney Grounds Sydney i Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 94, pp. 71-75, 1960 Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory During 1959 W. H. ROBERTSON (Received February 11, 1960) The following observations of minor planets were made _ photographically at Sydney Observatory with the 9 inch Taylor, Taylor and Hobson lens. Observations were confined to those with southern declinations in_ the Ephemerides of Minor Planets published by the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy at Leningrad. On each plate two exposures, separated in declination by approximately 0’-5, were taken them. The beginnings and endings of the exposures were automatically recorded on a chronograph by a contact on the shutter. Rectangular coordinates of both images of the minor planet and three reference stars were measured in direct and reversed positions of the plate on a long screw measuring machine. The usual three star dependence reduction retaining second order terms in the differences of the with an interval of about 20 minutes between equatorial coordinates was used. Proper TABLE [ Rens Dec. Parallax No. 1959 U.T. Planet (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors hm $s eae S id 816 Apr. 8:61448 24 Themis 14 00 34-62 —12 05 46-4 —0-02 —3-2 817 Apr. 30-53344 24 Themis 13 43 54-47 —10 39 37-4 —0:04 —3-4 318 July 22-61470 73 Klytia 20 52 49-97 —21 00 15-0 —0-01 —1-9 819 Oct. 1-63150 92 Undina 1 12 49-69 — 8 14 44-8 +0-08 —3-8 820 Nov. 3°53566 92 Undina 0 50 13-24 — 9 42 01-0 +0-11 —3-6 821 Mar. 5:65731 96 Aegle 11] 44 42-20 —13 33 47-8 +0-12 —3-1 822 Apr. 6-52288 96 Aegle 11 15 56-82 —I3 15 47-9 +0:04 —3-1 823 Aug. 5:52816 115 Thyra 20 03 14-30 —22 06 47-2 —0-06 —1:-8 824 Aug. 13-51520 115 Thyra 19 54 44-73 —21 44 37-6 —0-01 —1:-8 825 Apr. 29+ 48850 123 Brunhild 12 41 00-58 —14 26 53:8 —0:06 —2-9 826 Aug. 19-5648] 172 Baucis 21 17 15-94 19 47 51-6 +0-02 —2-1 827 Sep. 17- 66485 181 Eucharis 1 48 38-54 —10 49 38-1 —0-01 —3-4 828 Sep. 30- 65582 181 Eucharis 1 42 29-32 —13 02 37-0 +0:-09 —3-1 829. Mar. 5:62150 198 Ampella 11 14 12-17 — 9 49 05°5 +0-08 —3-6 830 Mar. 5° 69905 200 Dynamene 13 00 52-44 —13 43 51-2 -++0:09 —3-0 831 Apr. 9-52032 200 Dynamene 12 33 05-74 12°06 31-3 —0:11 —3°-3 832 June 25 - 66660 210 Isabella 20 17 39-91 —27 37 34-8 0-00 —0-9 333 July 23-59070 210 Isabella 19 53 23-48 29 15 305 +0-06 —0:7 834 Aug. 4-52790 210 Isabella 19 42 04-42 —29 36 41-7 —0:02 —0:-6 835 Mar. 18- 62486 242 Kriemhild 12 33 48-03 —l10 42 14-6 +0:03 —3-4 836 Apr. 13-52374 242 Kriemhild 12 15 41-40 — 6 51 53°8 —0-03 —4-0 837 Aug. 12- 68352 268 Adorea 23 17 41-39 — 6 47 18-5 +0:07 —4-0 838 Oct. 1°54211 268 Adorea 22 44 56-54 —10 28 26-0 +0:-12 —3:5 839 Apr. 29-48850 283 Emma 12 33 00-11 —15 09 43-6 —0:-04 —2-8 840 June 17-68858 292 Ludovica M9992 28°71 —41 40 33°5 +0:05 +1-0 841 July 23°55348 292 Ludovica 19 21 44-13 —45 25 39-5 0-00 +1-8 842 July 29- 55338 292 Ludovica 19 15 03-92 —45 29 38-6 +0:-10 +1-7 843 Apr. 6-63378 322 Phaeo 14 11 47-21 —21 08 10-3 0:00 —1-9 844. May 5+ 49530 324 Bamberga 13 20 25-83 —23 33 10-8 —0-:08 —1-6 845 May 12-50684 324 Bamberga 13 15 04-19 ——29 00 17-8 +0:-04 —-1-5 — 846 June 11-55756 340 Eduarda 16 22 22-31 —26 31 26:9 +0:05 —1-1 847 June 25-50409 340 Eduarda 16 10 57-93 —26 07 31-8 +0-03 —1-2 848 2 =6May 28 - 56866 352 Gisela 15 51 37-05 —20 38 03:8 +0-03 —2-0 — 849 June 18-63938 356 Liguria 18 53 37-27 —34 23 44-7 +0:04 +0-1 850 July 27:-53264 356 Liguria 18 16 16-69 —34 18 09-7 +0-11 0-0 85] July 2-65331 381 Myrrha 20 40 28-46 —16 03-35-6 —0:03 —2:-7 852 July 28-61893 381 Myrrha 20 22 56-48 —18 54 18-2 +0-12 —2:3 — 853 Aug. 20-51588 381 Myrrha 20 O07 22-97 —21 18 49-8 +0-03 —1-9 72 W. H. ROBERTSON TABLE I—continued eae Dec. No. 1959 7°U. Pe Planet (1950-0) (1950-0) hee ses 2 ee 854 SEp. 17-61394 387 Aquitania 0 34 34-42 21 18 (28710 855 Oct. 1-60316 387 Aquitania 0 23 34-61 —23 20 48-2 856 Oct 26-48709 387 Aquitania 0 07 59-73 —24 19 12-1 857 Mar. 5:65731 390 Alma 11 46 35-04 —15 35 la-3 858 Apr. 6-52288 390 Alma Wi 27-47 —14 16 03-6 859 June 11-55756 406 Erna 16 17 19-72 —27 1S O-2 860 June 25-50409 406 Erna 16 06 20-93 -26 27 56-2 861 July 29- 68394 422 Berolina 22 02 38-11 —21 41 34-0 862 July 2-62003 423 Diotima 19 22 16-83 —32 05 29-5 863 July 27-57580 423 Diotima 19 00 08-40 -33 35 49-0 864 Feb. 26- 61669 426 Hippo 11 10 22-5] -14 59 48-7 865 Apr. 6- 46909 426 Hippo 10 34 45-83 -14 38 25-3 866 July 28-66748 446 Aeternitas 22 03 59-69 ~30 46 12-8 867 Aug. 13-61423 446 Aeternitas 21 50 24-00 —32 05 14-5 868 Aug. 20-58802 446 Aeternitas 21 43 45-81 —32 24 30-2 869 May 28-59960 448 Natalie 16 45 06-58 —33 01 28-8 870 July 2-50447 448 Natalie 16 13 31-44 —33 27 42-1 87] Aug. 5+65106 487 Venetia 22 45 38-7] —1l7 19 a9=3 872 Sep. 17-5484] 487 Venetia 22 14 18-56 -22 46 31-3 873 June 25- 66660 488 Kreusa 20 19 31-72 —27 18 16-4 874 July 23-59070 488 Kreusa 19 58 06-47 —29 31 07-1 875 Aug. 4-52790 488 Kreusa 19 48 23-26 —30 11 03-0 876 Apr. 6- 55802 500 Selinur 12 44 50-45 —20 45 35-5 877 Apr. 28-49540 500 Selinur 12 27 02-49 -18 32 47-2 878 July 2-58872 505 Cava 18 38 43-10 25 14 42-7 879 July 23-51176 505 Cava 18 19 22-82 —26 11 50:5 880 Aug. 5-52816 534 Nassovia 20 05 03-62 —22 47 09-8 881 Aug. 13- 63946 578 Happelia 22 31 10-18 -19 47 06-2 882 SED: 17: 54841 578 Happelia 22 02 27-11 —20 42 58-1 883 Sep: 30-58312 582 Olympia 23 50 19-69 —20 25 34:8 884 Oct. 7-53738 582 Olympia 23 45 03°59 —21 51 09-2 885 Sep. 30- 62259 600 Musa 1 04 55-51 — 6 34 35-6 886 Nov. 4-49924 600 Musa 0 40 00-7] — 9 28 38-2 887 July 27 - 64506 624 Hektor 21 30 31:48 — 26 13 25-4 888 May 28- 63389 670 Ottegebe 17 33 33-11 —12 O01 12-4 889 July 2-54254 670 Ottegebe 17 04 16-06 —l] 24 54-1 890 June 25-63778 685 Hermia 19 24 40-99 —-16 18 34-1 891 July 22-52862 685 Hermia 19 OL 08-16 —15 50 46-3 892 July 2-58872 720 Bohlinia 18 32 53-82 —26 27 28-2 893 July 29 - 64399 732 Tjilaki 21 25 46-81 — 3 15 08-8 8o4 July 22-61470 758 Mancunia 21 02 10-54 —20 01 58-1 895 \ug 20-55192 758 Mancunia 20 40 30-75 —22 01 08-3 896 Aug. 12-65030 770 Bali 22 51 08-89 —15 39 02:8 897 Sep: 30- 45600 770 Bali 22 07 36-33 —18 29 TOot 898 May 28 - 56866 774 Armor 15 45 59-43 21 21 39-2 899 Apr. 22-69497 774 Armor 16 11 05-09 —23 44 35-6 900 June 11-59798 793 Arizona 17 05 23-97 —40 18 31-6 901 June 18-52364 804 Hispania 16 17 25-24 —45 46 09-9 902 July 2-47022 804 Hispania 16 05 37-91 —44 29 21-7 903 July 2- 62003 814 Tauris LOU Zon gs —31 53 22-7 904 July 27-57580 814 Tauris 19 00 44-63 —34 52 59-3 Sag Oct 1-66102 818 Kapteynia 1 58 14-02 — 7 52 06-4 906 Nov. 4-53940 818 Kapteynia 1 30 39-37 — 8 19 54-8 907 July 22-59038 824 Anastasia 20 02 07-76 —-to 00 2320 908 July 28-57659 824 Anastasia 19 57 16-02 —15 38 27-4 909 Apr. 30- 61303 838 Seraphina 14 50 05-57 20 55 TOR2 910 ~ Aug. 13- 66894 850 Altona 23 17 39-10 —18 34 26-3 91] Sep: 30- 54064 850 Altona 22 45 48-25 —24 12 09-2 912 Sep: 30 - 62259 861 Aida 1 14 48-51 — 4 37 57-7 O13. 7) 2pE: 6-59446 896 Sphinx 13 23 42-86 —22 23 30-1 914 Apr. 28-53179 896 Sphinx 13 04 53-92 —19 09 07-4 915 Aug. 12-68352 930 Westphalia 23 27 09-61 — 6 16 33-6 916 Oct. 1-47136 930 Westphalia 22 34 32-98 — 3 15 18-2 917 Aug. ~ 4-68835 942 Romilda 22 35 48-37 —25 10 22:1 918 Aug. 13- 66894 953 Painleva 23 09 56-24: —19 58 41-2 Parallax Factors iS “ —0:01 —1:9 +0:-11 —1:6 —0:01 —1:-4 +0:-12 —2:-8 +0:04 —2:-9 +0:06 —1-0 +0:04 —1:1 +0:12 —1-9 +0:04 —0°-3 +0:-18 —0-2 +0:01 —2:°-8 —0:04 —2-9 +0:06 —0:5 +0:06 —0°-3 +0:05 —0:2 —0:07 —0:-1 +0:09 —0-1 —0:02 —2-5. +0:10 —1:7 —0:01 —1-0 +0:05 —0:7 —0:04 —0-6 —0:05 —2:-0 —0:01 —2°-3 +0:03 —1-3 +0:-01 —1-1 —0:06 —1:7 +0:04 —2:1 +0:12 —2:1 +0:-11 —2-1 +0:03 —1:8 +0:06 —4:0 +0:03 —3-6 +0:05 —1-2 +0:01 —3:-3 +0:09 —3-4 +0:-04 —2-6 —0:04 —2:7 +0:04 —1-l +0:07 —4:-5 —0-03 —2:-1 +0:07 —1:8 +0°02 —2:-7 —0-07 —2-3 +0:04 —1:9 +0:08 —1-5 +0:10 +1:0 +0:01 +1:8 —0:02 +1-6 +0:03 —0:3 +0:18 0:0 +0:08 —3:9 +0:05 —3-8 +0:02 —2:-8 +0:04 —2:7 +0:06 —2-0 +0:03 —2-3 +0:-12 —1:5 +0:04 —4:3 —0:-02 —1:-7 +0:02 —2-2 +0:-05 —4:1 —0:07 —4-5 +0-12 —1-4 +0:05 —2-1 MINOR PLANETS : 4 OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1959 fis) TABLE I—continued ReAG Dec. Parallax No 1959 -U.T. Planet (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors h m S eo} / A Ss 919 Sep. 30° 49637 953 Painleva 22 31 38-08 —20 51 39-4 0-00 -—2-0 920 Apr. 6- 63378 957 Camelia 14 21 30-79 —22 16 14-5 —0:02 —1-7 921 Apr. 30-57184 957 Camelia 14 03 40-94 —19 20 17-7 +0:03 —2:-2 922 May 14-50783 957 Camelia 13 53 59-66 —l17 22 24-0 —0:03 —2:5 923 July 29-59796 1054 Forsytia 20 03 11-138 —30 08 27:3 +0:-12 —0:-6 924 Aug. 6- 53934 1054 Forsytia 19 56 14-75 —30 44 39-6 0-00 —0-4 925 Mar. 18- 62486 1068 Nofretete 12 37 56-87 —I1 02 05-0 +0-02 —3-:4 926 Apr. 13-56186 1068 Nofretete 12 16 48-19 — 9 28 49-0 +0-09 —3-6 927 Apr. 6-67081 1086 Nata 14 30 32-96 —27 04 39-6 +0:-09 —1:1 928 Sep. 23 - 65264 1093 Freda 0 54 55-67 —32 35 03-2. +0:-14 —0°3 929 Sep. 28- 62663 1093 Freda 0 49 20-68 —32 27 22-2 +0:-11 —0°3 930 Aug. 6-57252 1109 Tata 20 34 51-24 —13 44 37-6 +0:02 —3-0 931 Aug. 5: 65106 1188 Gothlandia 22 45 44-17 —14 53 51-6 —0:02 —2:°8 932 Sep: 23-46500 1188 Gothlandia 22 03 50-73 —15 37 04:3 —0:07 —2°8 933 Aug. 4-65110 1294 Antwerpia 22 00 36-59 —25 34 08-3 +0:07 —1-3 934 Sep. 28-67251 1362 Griqua 2 19 17-19 —29 29 09-8 +0:-05 —0:7 935 Oct; 23 -59936 1362 Griqua 2 06 12-86 —32 27 27-4 +0:07 —0-2 936 Nov. 3°57196 1362 Griqua 1 58 51-22 —32 11 06-1 +0:09 —0°-3 937 Nov. 27-50145 1362 Griqua 1 49 29-36 —28 20 58-9 +0-10 —0-9 938 July 2-65331 1432 Ethiopia 20 39 58-48 —15 40 44-6 —0:03 —2-7 939 July 28-61893 1432 Ethiopia 20 23 51-63 —19 38 59-1 +0:12 —2:-2 940 Aug. 4-60184 1560 Strattonia 21 05 21-98 —l2 01 07-1 +0:03 —3-3 TABLE II No. Comparison Stars Dependences 816 Yale 11 4947, 4956, 4968 0- 23985 0-38034 0-37980 S 817 Yale JJ 4881, 4894, 4896 0-44889 0- 23192 0-31919 R 818 Yale 13 I 8964, 8970, 8977 0- 30226 0-22144 0-47630 S 819 Yale 16 243, 247, 263 0- 22736 0-32572 0-44693 Ww 820 Males ialo0, 170, 175 0- 33698 0: 24518 0-41784 > 821 Yale 11 4354, 4356, 4370 0- 34237 0- 20065 0-45698 Ww 822 Yale 11 4234, 4242, 4254 0-27812 0: 32928 0- 39260 > 823 Yale 14 13971, 13983, 13996 0- 33626 0-11967 0-54407 R 824 Yale 13 I 8538, 8573, 14 13889 0-48870 0-34661 0- 16468 S 825 Yale 11 4585, 4608, 1/2 I 4868 0- 20094 0- 36614 0- 43292 S 826 Yale 13 I 9118, 9140, 9156 0-19635 0- 34604 0-45761 W 827 Yale 11 403, 417, 430 0-44959 0- 29098 0- 25943 R 828 Yale 11 380, 384, 400 0-37921 0- 24096 0-37983 Ww 829 Yale 16 4237, 4238, 4253 0- 22600 0-49728 0: 27671 W 830 Yale 11 4675, 4680, 4698 0-54149 0- 16576 0+ 29274 W 831 Yale 11 4556, 4560, 4572 0-35596 0-31130 0-33275 5 832 Yale 13 Il 13363, 13392, 13409 0- 23191 0-52272 0+ 24537 R 833 Yale 13 II 13067, 13072, 13107 0- 21450 0- 25287 0-53262 =) 834 Yale 13 II 12949, 12951, 12970 0- 34208 0-50792 0- 15000 R 835 Yale 11 4557, 4570, 16 4603 0- 23987 0-34951 0- 41062 3) $36 Yale 16 4523, 4531, 4536 0-53444 0-15359 0-31197 Ww 837 Yale 16 8287, 8289, 8296 0-89212 0-42600 —0-31812 Ss) 838 Yale 11 8013, 8019, 8032 0- 26713 0-31668 0-41619 W 839. Yale 12 I 4811, 4827, 4841 0-21792 0-40550 0-37657 S) 840 Cord. D 14582, 14598, 14648 0- 26888 0-49259 0- 23853 W 841 Cord. D 14225, 14248, 14271 0-28977 0- 25523 0-45500 5 842 Cord. D 14137, 14180, 14225 0-45104 0-21800 0-33097 Ww 843 Yale 13 I 5948, 5966, 5975 0-22175 0-39966 0-37859 S 844 Yale 14 9862, 9867, 9896 0-15492 0-43029 0-41479 5 845 Yale 14 9812, 9813, 9849 0-22918 0- 34628 0-42454 ~ 846 Yale 14 11457, 11483, 73 II 10256 0- 35650 0-40745 0- 23606 S 847 Yale 1/4 11368, 113875, 11411 0-31082 0: 35901 0-33017 R 848 Yale 13 I 6555, 6566, 6579 0-17991 0- 25301 0-56708 R 849 Cape 77 10271, 10279, 10312 0- 16853 0-37855 0- 45292 W 850 Cape 17 9829, 9866, 9868 0-5001) 0-24149 0- 25840 Ww 851 Yale 72 1 7788; 7798; 7825 0- 26499 0-52689 0- 20812 S 852 Yale 12 II 8746, 8762, 8765 0-41379 0- 15546 0-43075 W Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Cape Yale Yale . Cape Cape Cape Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Cord. Cord. Cord. Cape Cape Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale Yale TABLE I[I[—continued W. H. ROBERTSON 17. 13 12 14 14 14 12 13 13 14 16 v3 14 Lt 11 12 12 14 7g 13 14 12 12 Comparison Stars Dependences I 8624, 8632, 8658 I 138, 150, 14 263 151, 168, 189 36, 46, 61 I 4605, 4607, 4627 4237, 4254, 4260 II 10199, 10256, 24 11457 11322, 11354, 11375 15059, 15100, 13 I 9399 10567, 10590, 10611 10336, 10338, 10391 I 4420, 4425, 4445 I 4221, 4234, 11 4039 11994, 12012, 12029 11881, 11918, 11926 11856, 11861, 11873 8768, 8796, 8805 8446, 8500, 8506 I 8465, 8469, 8470 15145, 15173, 15176 II 13392, 13409, 13430 It 131338, 18154, 138167 10803, 10816, 10831 I 5518, 5525, 5544 II 5401, 5418, 12 I 4792 12957, 12965, 12989 12688, 12735, 12742 13983, 14009, 14017 II 9534, 9546, 13 I 9549 I 9393, 9399, 9410 I 9919, 9943, 9951 15847, 15848, 15867 222, 223, 239 128, 1438, 16 139 14818, 14819, 14839 6009, 6011, 6026 5845, 5851, 5862 I 7280, 7291, 7298 I 7047, 7058, 7073 12875, 12902, 12932 7495, 7498, 7504 I 9033, 9044, 9049 14355, 14379, 14383 I 8483, 8495, 8503 II 9413, 9432, 9436 I 6523, 6528, 6555 11383, 11389, 11396 12151, 12172, 12194 11345, 11368, 11409 11244, 11270, 11284 10590, 10611, 10630 10333, 10368, 18 9898 415, 422, 428 308, 319, 322 I 7533, 7542, 7556 I 7507, 7514, 7520 I 6177, 6178, 6191 II 9775, 9784, 9786 15368, 15399, 15405 284, 292, 293 I 5715, 5736, 14 9913 II 5622, 5624, 5649 8321, 8331, 8342 7839, 7853, 7854 15291, 15313, 15328 II 9734, 13 I 9746, 9762 I 9527, 9557, 9568 10392, 13 I 6009, 6028 - 55660 -37596 » 25464 -14116 -49700 - 30080 - 50960 -52273 -44356 »45332 » 26492 * 38994 24962 22052 26452 35166 26381 -51766 -41580 - 39706 - 39088 - 31088 - 23349 - 60948 - 28351 17221 31364 33246 20726 42341 45564 - 62865 45147 - 36966 -40498 -32988 »42509 -31471 °53335 - 36953 -49741 - 39422 -31569 - 25123 - 37548 -34871 48791 -33193 -31242 - 06542 -40343 - 26526 35846 30539 29242 40216 -55378 - 27633 -43133 - 06760 - 36996 -43032 - 38592 - 29837 - 22953 -42142 -31357 - 36428 - 13635 -35110 °42422 -67236 -17043 » 22482 * 39427 - 18930 -30951 *23795 *37379 33189 38034 34692 » 22278 43964 -52896 - 21606 - 13635 *42737 » 22472 - 30015 *52207 “11993 -44756 42757 »38534 *37145 31650 18809 2517) - 16268 *22173 - 29022 *44225 -38131 - 25029 -46797 - 19882 * 26545 » 25045 -39611 - 24265 -39510 -34288 - 38809 - 32245 - 26985 32289 36996 » 28243 *55227 - 38661 - 29521 -40798 - 13792 - 18840 -35051 - 26583 - 71384 -37140 - 22028 -42628 -58557 - 38967 -37651 -39882 - 22886 - 30705 * 27294 -32113 - 18647 *33257 -47438 -09612 -28797 » 24693 30872 36128 27816 37004 43256 -51270 - 20870 - 20723 - 26628 -44785 17557 - 38439 -38897 -24443 -27059 * 26894 -40021 -30102 > 29609 47624 38850 29265 - 20867 - 32680 -34013 °15277 - 28881 - 32462 - 21732 * 26784 - 36502 * 25213 - 20967 -44166 - 35367 - 28164 - 26320 - 18964 - 39822 - 36470 - 56462 -31414 -18247 - 25493 -3994] - 29960 -45992 - 25781 ‘37316 - 30283 -21857 - 25864 - 34940 -18780 -11606 - 38080 - 20207 - 28761 40687 PZORBNON EEO LON EAN SEU DANN ENZO DORAN aM ADV DOOGU DOM MAME EDEN ERNE ADs MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1959 75 TABLE II—continued No. Comparison Stars 921 Yale 12 Il 5917, 5935, 5940 922 Yale 12 I 5217, 5232, 5236 923 Cape 17 10933, 10950, 10959 924 Cape 17 10868, 10881, 10907 925 Yale 11 4570, 4590, 4591 926 Yale 16 4525, 4534, 4543 927 Yale 14 10475, 13 I 9172, 9229 928 Cape 17 327, 337, 352 929 Cape 17 298, 315, 319 930 Yale 17.7275, 7294, 12 I 7780 931 Yale 12 I 8459, 8464, 8478 932 Yale 12 I 8264, 8279, 8286 933 Yale 14 15052, 15058, 15069 934 Yale 13 II 898, 906, 915 935 Cape 17 748, 768, 771 936 Cape 17 695, 728, 729 937 Yale 73 II 654, 671, 705 938 Yate 72° 1 7788, 7798, 7825 939 Wale 73 1 8747, 8780, 12 Il 8765 940 Yale 11 7481, 7497, 7500 motions, when they were available, were applied to bring the star positions to the epoch of the plate. Each exposure was reduced separately in order to provide a check by comparing the difference between the two positions with the motion derived’ from the ephemeris. The tabulated results are means of the two positions at the average time except in cases (825, 839, 844, 864, 899, 908, 926) where each result is from only one image, due to a defect in the other exposure or a failure in timing it. No correction has been applied for aberration, light time or parallax but in Table I are given the factors which give the parallax correction when divided Dependences 0-33102 0: 22987 0:43911 R 0-51316 0-12810 0: 35874 R 0: 27983 0-47000 0-25017 W 0-17732 0-48007 0:34260 R 0-39681 0: 14231 0-46088 S) 0:40648 0- 22698 0- 36653 WwW 0: 40400 0-33406 0- 26194 ) 0-27731 0-41440 0-30829 S 0-44290 0- 27901 0- 27808 WwW 0- 26162 0: 42086 0-31753 R 0-25995 0-33412 0- 40593 R 0-32980 0-46221 0- 20799 R 0- 36682 0: 22795 0- 40523 Ine 0- 38022 0-44501 0-17477 W 0-35988 0-38237 0- 25775 WwW 0: 38734 0+ 24599 0- 36667 S 0-34557 0-41357 0- 24086 R 0-58237 0-21015 0- 20748 ) 0-37321 0-37395 0: 25284 W 0:47348 0- 06167 0:46485 R by the distance. The serial numbers follow on from those of a previous paper (Robertson, 1959). The observers named in Table II are W. H. Robertson (R), K. P. Sims (S) and H. W. Wood (W). The measurements were made by Miss M. Baker and Mrs. M. Wilson, who have also assisted in the computation. Reference ROBERTSON, W. H., 1959. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 93, 11; Sydney Observatory Papers, No. 36. Sydney Observatory Sydney Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 94, pp. 77-86, 1960 Net Electric Charges on Stars, Galaxies and “ Neutral ” Elementary Particles V. A. BAILEY (Received February 29, 1960) ABSTRACT—-The orthodox assumption in astronomy that stars cannot carry appreciable net electric charges is abandoned and as a result of the contrary assumption it has been found possible to account for the known orders of magnitude of five different astronomical phenomena and the directions relating to three of them, as well as to explain qualitatively or semi-quantitatively at least thirteen other phenomena. The first five are: 1. The maximum energy of about 5x 10!8 eV found for a primary cosmic ray particle. 2. dine Sun's polar magnetic field vectors. 3. The approximate equality for the Sun and for Blackett’s average of five magnetic stars, of P/U the ratio of the magnetic moment to the angular momentum of the star concerned. 4. The present state of magnetization of the Earth. 5. The existence and position of the outer Van Allen belt. To provide a source for the charge on a star two alternative hypotheses are advanced. 1. Introduction It has long been assumed in astronomy that a star cannot carry an appreciable net electric charge. In order to explain astronomical observations which indicate the presence of strong magnetic and electric fields it has therefore been customary until now to rely solely on hydro-magnetic theories. In this note it is proposed to remove this restriction on stars and to examine briefly some of the principal consequences. It will be found that this widening of our outlook has many advantages and unifies a number of phenomena which hitherto have required ad hoc hypotheses for their explanation. For convenience we consider first one possible source of the charge on a star. 2. The Fundamental Hypothesis H, We shall assume that in the interior of a hot star, like the Sun, the thermonuclear processes generate certain particles, provisionally named “ astrons ’’, which have the following properties. An astron has a small mass m (which may possibly be zero) and a small positive charge e, such that HOR ee ett a (1) where —e is the charge on an electron. Also an astron resembles a neutrino in its ability to penetrate matter freely. In order to link up this hypothesis with what is assumed to be known about thermonuclear processes we may conveniently adopt the following two supplementary hypotheses hy, and h,: _ (h,) Astrons are neutrinos ; (hg) A proton carries the same charge e as a positron and an electron carries an opposite charge —e. From these hypotheses and the processes considered below we shall deduce that a neutron carries a negative charge, —e,. For convenience of some later discussions we shall here relate e, to the neutron’s mass m, by means of the formula Cie ONG NS De nceaes (2) where 8, 1s a pure number. The physical meaning of #, is that @% is the ratio of the electric force of repulsion between a pair of well-separated neutrons to the gravitational force of attraction. It is well known that the following two processes can occur (see, for example, Reines and Cowan, 1956) : n°—>p++8-+y (antineutrino) pt—n°+68++y (neutrino) where vy and v denote a neutrino and anti- neutrino respectively. If we assume that in these processes electrical charge is conserved it follows from (3.1), (3.2), 78 V. A. BATLEY and (h,) that the neutrino and antineutrino carry charges e¢, and e, respectively where Q=—=C Neo =—= =, Also, by hypotheses (H,) and (h,) Kea: Hence, Cre and ey (Aap Thus the neutron carries a negative charge —e, and the neutrino and antineutrino carry the charges e, and —e, respectively. It will be noted that these hypotheses and deductions are entirely consistent with the following statements by D. Halliday (1950) and Reines and Cowan (1956) respectively : “The neutron behaves like a_ spinning negative charge as far as the relation between its spin vector and its magnetic moment vector is concerned.” “The conclusion remains that the neutrino and anti-neutrino are distinct particles with an as yet undetected ‘ difference ’.’’ This con- clusion was forced by the experimental evidence cited by Reines and Cowan. Our hypotheses and deductions are also consistent with the current assumption that the principal thermonuclear process in the Sun is the proton-proton reaction in which two Bt particles and two neutrinos (v) are released for every four protons involved. An alternative hypothesis on the source of the net electric charge on a star will be considered in Section 10. 3. The Charge —Q, Acquired by a Star The f astrons generated per second by the thermonuclear processes in a star will mostly pass out of the star and so constitute an outwards current 7, where ee As a result the star acquires a negative charge —(Q,, and so a surface potential —V, where V —.=Q,/R, and R, is the star’s radius. Q, remains constant if 2, is balanced by the currents due to electrically attracted nuclei and expelled electrons. It is now convenient to relate the charge —(Q, on a star to its mass M, by the following formula : Ose 8G BM oe nea (4) where 8, is a pure number which is analogous to: Bein (2), In order to estimate the value of 8, for an © average star we shall determine its value for the Sun regarded as an average star. This can be done in two different ways, as shown in the next section. 4. Primary Cosmic Ray Particles Arising from Stellar Electric Fields If W is the energy of a CR?) particle 19 electron volts it is known from experiments on C.R. extensive showers that W/y. (b) Equal fluxes f of electrons with charges —e and of protons with charges e(1—y) where y~l0™ and m>1. (c) Unequal fluxes 91, 9, of charged neutrinos — and antineutrinos carrying charges +e, respectively where ¢,/e<1. The possibility (b) somewhat resembles the recently published hypothesis of Lyttleton and Bondi (1959) but differs from it by inter- changing the roles of the electron and proton and including an explicit dependence of the flux f on the local physical conditions. It should be noted that flow into or out of U, can be indicated by placing the signs + or — respectively before the symbols ff, fo, fi 1 and @p. Since the conditions inside a hot star are favourable to thermonuclear processes it may be expected that the fluxes considered here are in some way related to these processes. This is equivalent to the expectation that the correct theory of nuclear forces can be unified with the theories of gravitational, electromagnetic and quantum fields by means of Kaluza’s hypothesis of a five-dimensional universe U;. This inference finds independent support from a publication by J. Rayski (1959) in which he gives ‘‘a six- dimensional interpretation of electrodynamics and nuclear interactions ’’. One advantage of the present hypothesis is that it automatically provides the means of keeping a large charge —Q, constant against a possible large emission current of electrons from the star into space or a possible large current of nuclei from space into the star. 11. Some Requirements of the Theory The number density of freely moving protons at the distance 7>=1-5 x101% cm from the Sun may be taken to be nearly the same as the estimated number density u=0-8x107!° particles/cm’ of primary C.R. particles near the Earth’s orbit. These move in all directions with velocities v near that of light and so a remote upper limit to the possible positive current 7, from space into the Sun is given by 74 where Dh =4Arricne e.s.u., thus , 9 1,<10° amp. The other (much more numerous) charged particles near the Earth’s orbit may be assumed to be associated together in large ionized, magnetic clouds similar to plasmoids and carrying an excess of trapped electrons. The energy carried away from the Sun per second by the escaping neutrinos is about 6 percent of the total radiated by the Sun, NED PUECE RIC CHAKGES 83 i.e., about 2 x 10°? erg/sec. Also in the assumed proton- proton chain reaction the mean energy of each resulting neutrino is W =0-25 meV. Hence the total flux f of neutrinos out of the Sun is given by f~5 X10°8 neutrinos/sec. If we assume that the neutrino energies W have a Maxwellian distribution and that all those with an energy more than W, can escape from the charged Sun where W Q,|fto, Cpe 3 10-22 e:siu.) j a cr . (17) CG |e 2X LO)? ) and so Bie Otc Siete gen Bria a neact (18) The limits (16) and (18) suggest the speculation that for the neutron 6, is of the order ‘of 1, er, ¢—4-3 ~107 0-9 X10;*%2. [tis remark: able that this charge is about one-half of the net charge which Lyttleton and Bondi (1959) have assumed to exist on a hydrogen atom in order to explain the recession of the galaxies. This fact suggests that with some elaboration our theory may also serve to explain galactic recession. : We have seen above that when the theory is based on the fundamental hypothesis H, of Section 2 it is necessary to conclude that nearly all the charged particles near the Earth’s orbit form part of large magnetic clouds like plasmoids and that the solar electron emission is under the dominant control of the solar magnetic fields. Should these conclusions ever be proved wrong the hypothesis H, could simply be replaced by the alternative hypothesis H, considered in Section 10. 12. Possible Experimental Tests of the Theory An experimental test can be applied by comparing the intensity and direction of the field H,, discussed in Section 8, with those of the magnetic fields determined by means of magnetometers carried on artificial satellites at distances between 1 and 20 earth radu from the Earth's centre. A second experimental test is suggested by the following facts and calculations concerning a large fission reactor like the British ‘‘ Pippa 2 ”’ which is at present under construction. The power generated is 4-5x108 watts and, as a result, a total flux of about 102° antineutrinos per second is generated. The current leaving the reactor is —2 where nee and so, by (15) and (17), 4-5 X10718<1<10-13 amp. This reactor approximates in size to a sphere of radius 10 metres, so if it were well insulated 84 VA Baten Y and the neutrons absorbed its potential would rise by v volts in 10 seconds where 4 x10-§ p./520) J. Wiley. x Sons. “Cosmical Electrodynamics ’’, Astroph. J., 130, 364. M.N.R.A.S., ATS, 36. PTI RIE. SG issues Nature, 184, 537. ‘““ Planetary and Space Science ”’ KELLOGG, P. J., AND Ney, EE. P9959) Nana 183.1297. LyTTLETON, R. A., AND Bonpt, H., 1959. Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 252, oiler McLean, D. J., 1959. Aust. J. Phys. 12, 404. RayskI, J., 1959. ‘“‘ Six-dimensional interpretation of electrodynamics and nuclear interactions ’”’, Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, P-379. Dubna. REINES, F:, AND Cowan, C. .,7:1956.) Warnes 178, 446. WILD, J. P., SHERIDAN, K. V., AND NeyvrAn, AL Ag 1959. Aust. J. Phys., 12, 369. School of Physics Umiversity of Sydney Sydney Annual Reports by the President and the Council PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE SOCIETY, APRIL 6, 1960 The President's Report It is customary and indeed I consider a duty for the retiring President to review for the members the past year’s activities and to bring before them matters affecting the welfare of the Society and his suggestions _ for its future. The previous half dozen Presidential Addresses could with benefit be made compulsory reading for all incoming Presidents, for it is one of the weaknesses of the otherwise sound system of appointing a new President each year that twelve months is often not long enough for a President to see implemented the changes for the good of the Society he can envisage. During the last few years the Society has undergone a major readjustment of its place in the scientific community. It has changed from a body one of whose major functions was the presentation of specialist papers to fellow specialists to one which devotes its meetings in the main to informing scientists of the developments in other fields than their own—and rightly so. The former function is adequately fulfilled in almost all the scientific disciplines by specialist societies, while there is no other society better able to fulfil the latter function. I believe this readjustment is now virtually complete and is being reflected in a better support for our General Meetings. It should also be reflected in our membership if it is put clearly before both our senior and junior scientists that the Society is performing this function and merits and needs their support. A special drive to bring this before the many scientists who have not yet recognized membership of the Society to be a duty has just been instituted. That such a drive is overdue is clear when one compares our almost static membership over the past 40 years with the very great increase in the number of scientists in New South Wales over that time. We have just seen that the present functions of the Society are very different from what they were, say, 50 years ago, and yet in one regard I consider the Society is failing to accept just such responsibilities as it carried 50 years ago. I refer to the fact that this is the Royal Society of New South Wales, not of Sydney, and that there are now several centres in N.S.W. remote from Sydney with scientific communities of about the same size as that of Sydney 50 years ago. The ideal Society for such a community would seem to be an all-purpose one such as a Section of our Society could provide. During the year the way has been cleared for this action by a suitable amendment to our Rules and I am hopeful that Regional Sections of the Society will soon be formed in both Armidale and Newcastle and perhaps later in Wollongong and Broken Hill. Most of you will realize that the Society has been passing through difficult financial times. I think we can be reasonably confident that, thanks to the efforts of your officers during the last several years and the somewhat unpalatable sacrifices made, the Society will be able to balance its budget for the next few years. Without the augmented Government grant, of which we are very appreciative, this would not be so. One of the sacrifices reluctantly made was the vacation of the ground floor Reception Room. This room is still used by the Society in the same way as heretofore, but is only rented to the extent that we use it. In this way we are saved a heavy rental and receive our proportion of the income from lettings of the room. The retention of the room as a Reception Room has been assured and honour has been done to a great Past-President of the Society by naming it the Sir Edgeworth David Room. Many more papers were submitted for publication in the Journal this year than last; whether this is a statistical fluctuation or represents an increase in the popularity of the Journal remains to be seen. During this year a number of changes designed to improve the format of the Journal were adopted. Sincere thanks are due to Dr. A. Day for his enthusiastic and con- scientious work as Honorary Editorial Secretary and to the Donovan Trust for generous assistance with the publication of one paper. I wish to extend the thanks of the Society to all those who have assisted its affairs during the year, particularly our lecturers, members of the sub-com- mittees of Council, our Assistant Librarian Mrs. Huntley and our Assistant Secretary Miss Ogle. I would further like to tender my sincere personal thanks to Mr. Harley Wood for his unstinting work as Honorary Administration Secretary, to Vice-President J. Griffith who acted for him during Mr. Wood’s absence overseas, to all the members of the Executive and Council for their support during the year, and to Miss Ogle for her ready assistance. Report of the Council for the Year Ended 31st March, 1960 At the end of the period under review the composition of the membership was 316 ordinary members, 5 associate members, 8 honorary members ; 20 new members were elected and 10 members resigned. Three names were removed from the list of members under Rule XVIII. It is with regret that we announce the loss by death of Mr. Frederick Lester Henriques and Dr. Roger Thorne. Alterations to the Rules: At the General Monthly Meetings held on Ist July and 4th November, motions regarding alterations to the Rules were adopted. These motions were conformed at the meetings held 5th August and 2nd December. A full text of each of the alterations was contained in the Abstract of Pro- ceedings of the meetings held 5th August and 2nd December. Nine monthly meetings were held. The Proceedings of the meetings have been published in the notice papers and appear elsewhere in this issue of the “‘ Journal and Proceedings ’’. Themembers of Council wish to express their sincere thanks and appreciation to the 12 speakers who contributed to the addresses, symposia and commemoration, and also to the members who read papers at the November monthly meeting. $8 The meeting on 38rd June was held conjointly with the Linnean Society of New South Wales and was devoted to the Commemoration of the Centenary of the publication of “‘ The Origin of Species ’’. Two meetings were devoted to the screening of films : 7th October: ‘‘ Desert Conquest ’’, by courtesy of A.M.P. Society Ltd. and Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation. 2nd December: ‘‘ Address Antarctica’? and ‘“ Antarctic Crossing’, by courtesy of B.P. Australia, Ltd. The Annual Social Function was held on 24th March and was attended by 47 members and guests. The Clarke Medal for 1960 was awarded to Dr. A. B. Edwards, of the C.S.I.R.O., Division of Mineragraphic Investigations, for distinguished contributions in the field of geology. The Society’s Medal for service to science and to the Royal Society of New South Wales was awarded to Dr. Ida A. Browne. The James Cook Medal for 1959 was awarded to Dr. Albert Schweitzer, of Lambaréné Republic, French Equatorial Africa, for outstanding contributions to science and human welfare. The Walter Burfitt Prize for 1959 was awarded to Protessor.E. Mo Sitemard “10; Mr. G..H. Slade 6, Mr. N. W.. West9300ins oie B Whitworth 6. The Society’s representatives on Science House Management Committee were Mr. A. F. A. Harper and Mr. C. L. Adamson. The President attended the Commemoration of the Landing of Captain Cook at Kurnell. The President attended the meetings of the Board of Visitors of the Sydney Observatory and the meeting of the Donovan Astronomical Trust. Soil Science Committee—At the request of the Australian Academy of Science the following Committee was appointed to discuss aspects of Soil Science in Australia: Prof. R. L. Crocker (Chairman), Mr. P. H. Walker (Hon. Secretary), Dr. W. R. Browne, Dr. J. A. Dulhunty, Mr. C. A. Hawkins, Dr. Alan Keast, Dr. T. Langford-Smith, Mr. F. D. McCarthy and Mr. S. Pels. Regular meetings have been held. The Libvary—Periodicals were received by exchange from 384 societies and institutions. In addition, the amount of £106 was expended on the purchase of 12 periodicals. Among the institutions which made use of the Library through the inter-hbrary loan scheme were : N.S.W. Govt. Depis——Department of Agriculture, Department of Health, Department of Railways, Electricity Commission, Forestry Commission, M.W.S. & D. Board, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission. Commonwealth Govt. Depts —C.S.I.R.O. (Division of Chemical esearch, Melbourne; Coal Research Section, Sydney ; Division of Fisheries and Oceano- graphy, Cronulla; National Standards Laboratory, Sydney; Sheep Biology Laboratory, Parramatta ; Plant and Soils Laboratory, Brisbane ; Division of Food Preservation, Homebush) ; Australian Atomic Energy Commission ; Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra ; Commonwealth Department of Works ; Defence Standards Laboratory ; Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Authority. Universities and Colleges—Sydney Technical College ; Wollongong Technical College; University of Sydney ; University of New England; University of New South Wales ; University College, Newcastle ; University of Queensland; Australian National University, Canberra. Companies—Amalgamated Cream of Tartar, Ltd.; Australian Gaslight Co. ; Australian Paper Manufacturers; Lewis Berger ; B.H.P. Co. Ltd.; C.S:R>Co.-Lid: 7. james Hamed Ltd.; Johnson and Johnson; Overseas, Tele- communications; Parke, Davis Ltd.; Reichhold Chemicals, Inc. ; Standard Telephones and Cables. Research Institutes—Bread Research Institute, Sydney; Institute of Dental Research, Sydney ; N.S.W. Cancer Council. Museums and Public Libraries—Botanic Museum, Brisbane; National Museum of Victoria; Public Library of South Australia. HARLEY WOOD, Hon. Secretary. Wireless, Australian ANNUAL REPORTS Financial Statement BALANCE SHEET AS AT 29th FEBRUARY, 1960 LIABILITIES 1959 £ — Accrued Expenses : 15 Subscriptions Paid in Advance : Life Members’ Subscriptions — Amount. ‘carried 186 forward Trust and Monograph Capital Funds (detailed below)— Clarke Memorial Walter Burfitt Prize Liversidge Bequest : Monograph Capital Fund Ollé Bequest : 7,998 23,547 Accumulated Funds Contingent Liability (in ‘connection with Per- petual Lease). £31,746 ASSETS 1959 £ 853 Cash at Bank and in Hand .. Investments— Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock— At Face Value—held for : Clarke Memorial Fund Walter Burfitt Prize Fund Liversidge Bequest .. Monograph Capital Fund General Purposes 8,460 Debtors for Subscriptions... Less Reserve for Bad Debts 14,835 Science House—One-third Capital Cost 6,800 Library—At Valuation Furniture and Office Equipment—At ¢ Cost, less 780 Depreciation : 17 Pictures—At Cost, less Depreciation 1 Lantern—At Cost, less Depreciation £31,746 1,842 1,167 706 4,302 144 1 n = OOO Nn 9 29 SS ad. Sees: 200 0 36 4 176 11 OW OL 8,162 14 23,423 10 £31,999 0 662 16 1 co) oon oF £31,999 > Ww SM) ool 90 ANNUAL REPORTS TRUST AND MONOGRAPH CAPITAL FUNDS Walter Monograph Clarke Burfitt Liversidge Capital Olé Memorial Prize Bequest Fund Bequest £ Sid. see Si¢G.ee:, SS. uGa e S. dd. tahoe aces Capital at 29th February, 1960 Ze oe -- 1,800 0 0 1,000 0 0700 0 0 3,000 0 O an Revenue— , Balance at 28th February, 1959 .. 5 DL aLG 3 141 10 3 19 8 11 1,185.34) a2 Income for twelve months 67° 16.70 36°20 10) 725 Ty 2 LiG..l7 . “Sos 4235200 12532230 ii 14, 1 6 8 3 1,802 1°O° iets Less Expenditure ae 830.2 vw 10 5 4 — — 30 0 0O Balance at 29th February, 1960 .. eae -- £42 0 2 £167 8 9 £6 8 83 £1,302) Ore ibe ACCUMULATED FUNDS > ee ha 6 £ Ss; ae Balance at 28th February, 1959 oe ke 23,04) - sen ae Add Decrease in Reserve for Bad Debts oe 17 17" © 23,565. 5 ot Less— Bad Debts written off a - ss 30.920 Deficit for twelve months .. Aes og LP ab: er 141 14° 7 Balance at 29th February, 1960 + Ae ue £23,423 10 6 Auditors’ Report The above Balance Sheet has been prepared from the Books of Account, Accounts and Vouchers of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and is a correct statement of the position of the Society’s affairs on 29th February, 1960, as disclosed thereby. We have satisfied ourselves that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are properly held and registered. HORLEY & HORLEY, Chartered Accountants, Prudential Building, Registered under the Public Accountants 39 Martin Place, Sydney Registration Act 1945, as amended. 18th March, 1960 (Sgd.) C. L. ADAMSON, Honorary Treasurer. ee eens ANNUAL REPORTS INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT Ist March, 1959, to 29th February, 1960 1959 — Advertising — Annual Social Function 31 Audit 117. Cleaning 42 Depreciation 50 Electricity 6 Entertainment 40 Insurance : 151 Library Purchases 116 Miscellaneous .. 125 Postages and Telegrams Printing Journal— Vol. 92, Parts 3-4 oF aS ba LY Se Ore te © Vol. 93, Parts 1-2 ae ny ae ie: = 604 9 6 Vols. 91, 92—Binding .. ae is ay om 48 7 6 102. Printing—General : 140 Rent—Science House Management 4 Repairs ; 1,164 Salaries 29 Telephone : Me 104 Surplus for twelve months 813 Membership Subscriptions 9 Proportion of Life Members’ Subscriptions 222 Subscriptions to Journal ah Me 750 Government Subsidy : - 951 Science House Management—Share ‘of Surplus 35 Rentals Received—Reception Room 4 Annual Social Function = 100 Bequest : 74 Interest on General Investments Reprints— Expenditure a v7 ee te a .. £245 18 6 Recetptsy 7. oe ss oe ae ~ .. 283 5 4 83 Sale of Back Numbers of the Journal 37 Sale of Periodicals ex the Library — Publication Grant te a — Deficit for twelve months 750 80 37 439 145 30 Ill £3,797 0 11 = COPAWDOHOOCORwW £3,797 16 8 ie 2) —_ one oS | 91 Obituary, 1959-1960 Frederick L. Henriques died on 18th November, 1959. He was elected to membership in 1919. Dr. Roger Chapman Thorne, who became a member in 1958, died on 20th May, 1959, as a result of severe injuries received when he was struck by a car in Cooma, N.S.W. He was born on 30th April, 1929, a son of the late Harold Henry Thorne who himself was for long a member of the Society. Roger Thorne had an outstanding career at both Sydney Grammar School and the University of Sydney. He graduated B.Sc. in 1949 with First Class Honours in Mathematics, the University Medal in Mathematics and a Barker Travelling Scholarship. In 1950 he entered’ his’ “father's old. college, Trinity “College; Cambridge, and in 1952 won a Distinction mark in Part III of the Mathematical Tripos. From 1952 to 1955 he was engaged on post-graduate work in Cam- bridge on the mathematics of water waves, and in 1955 received the Ph.D. degree for his thesis on this work. By invitation, he spent a post-doctoral year in the California Institute of Technology during 1955-56. Subsequently he was appointed Lecturer in Mathe- matics at Newcastle University College and, in 1957, to the equivalent post at the University of Sydney. He produced published work of high quality, initially on the theory of surface waves and later on asymptotic expansions. Dr. Thorne had many outside interests. While at school he acquired, on his own initiative, an astonishing knowledge of Egyptology. An active member of the Church of England, he was at the time of his death a member of the Church Synod, the Council of St. Catherine’s School, Waverley, and the management committee of the Church’s Halls of Residence for university students. He was pleasant and companion- able, as well as of unusual brilliance, and his death was a great loss to his family and all those who knew him. Members of the Society, April 1960 A list of members of the Society up to 1st April, 1959, is included in volume 93. During the year ended 31st March, 1960, the following were elected to membership of the Society. BUNCH, Kenneth, Government Analyst, 1/17 Pacific Street, Manly. BURROWS, Keith Meredith, B.sc., Physics Depart- ment, University of N.S.W. FYNN, Anthony Gerard, B.Sc., Director, Riverview College Observatory, Riverview, N.S.W. GRAHAME, Mervyn Ernest, B.a., Schoolteacher, 161 Parry Street, Hamilton, N.S.W. HOSKINS, Bernard Foster, B.sc., 227 Waterloo Road, Greenacre. HUMPHRIES, John William, B.sc., Physicist, National Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City Road. Chippendale. JONES, James Rhys, 25 Boundary Road, Mortdale. KRYSKO v. TRYST, Moiren, (C:S:1-R:O> Division sot Radiophysics, National Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City Road, Chippendale. LAWRENCE, Peter, ph.p., Senior Lecturer in Anthro- pology, Australian School of Pacific Administra- tion, Mosman. LOWENTHAL, Gerhard, Maroubra. MEGGITT, Mervyn John, m.a., Lecturer, Department of Anthropology, University of Sydney. MILLER, James, B.sc., 35 Angus Avenue, Waratah West, N.S.W. MUTTON, Ann Ruth, 8 Beta Road, Lane Cove. PICKERING, William Frederick Joseph, M.-Sc., Lecturer in Chemistry, Newcastle University College, Newcastle. M.sc., 43 Hinkler Street, RAMM, Eric John, Experimental Officer, Australian Atomic Energy Commission, Research Establish- ment, Lucas Heights, Ns v- RYAN, D’Arcy James, B.A., B.Litt., Anthropologist, 3 Ormond Street, Bondi. SHERWOOD, Arthur. Alfred, University of Sydney. SOMERVILLE, Jack Murielle, p.sc., Department of Physics, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W. STEPHENS, James Norrington, Avenue, Pymble. WILSON, Peter Robert, m.sc.; Lecturer am Applied Mathematics, University of Sydney. During the same period resignations were received from the following : Baker, William Ernest Baldick, Kenric James Chapman, Dougan Wellesley Darvall, Anthony Roger Denton, Norma F. McPhee, Stuart Duncan McPherson, John Charters Nordon, Peter Phillips, June Rosa Pitt Tugby, Elise Evelyn and the following names were removed from the list of members under Rule XVIII: Finch, Franklin Charles May Albert Ray, Reginald John. B.Sc., Lecturer, M.A., 40 Pymble Obituary, 1959-60 Frederick Lester HENRIQUES (1919) Roger Chapman THORNE (1958) Medals, Memorial Lectureships and Prizes James Cook Medal 1959 Albert Schweitzer, D.Theol., Dr.Phil., Dr.Med. Walter Burfitt Prize Frank J. Fenner, M.B.E., M.D., F.R.S., F.A.A. (Microbiology) 1959 Clarke Medal 1960 Austin’ B. Edwards, D.Sc., Ph.D., D.I.C. (Geology) The Society’s Medal 1959 Ida A. Browne, D.Sc. (Geology) Clarke Memorial Lectureship 1959 D. E. Thomas Pollock Memorial Lectureship 1959 Sir Harold Jeffreys Archibald D. Olle Prize 1959 G. Bosson The Clarke Medal, 1960 Dr. Edwards has already been honoured by the Royal Society of N.S.W. by being asked to deliver the Clarke Memorial Lecture in 1951. He is well known for his prolific writings on various geological subjects, being a recognized authority on ore minerals and at present is Officer-in-Charge, C.S.1.R.O. Mineragraphic Investigations Section. It seems fitting that details of his academic and professional career should be placed on record. Born in 1909, the youngest son of William Burton Edwards, I.S.0., he was educated at Caulfield Grammar School where, as both Captain and Dux, he completed his secondary education in 1926. In 1930 he graduated from Melbourne University as B.Sc. with honours in Chemistry, Metallurgy and Geology, and for the next two years he was awarded an 1851 Overseas Exhibition and then pursued post- graduate research at Imperial College of Science and Technology, University of London, from 1932 to 1934. The result of this research was the award of Ph.D. weondon), D.I.C. In 1935 Dr. Edwards joined the C.S.I.R. as an Assistant Research Officer in Mineragraphic Investiga- tions under Dr. F. L. Stillwell, whom he replaced as Officer-in-Charge in 1953. During this period (1935-53) he was awarded the David Syme Prize and Medal (1937) and D.Sc. (Melb.) (1942) for a thesis on Differ- entiation of the Dolerites of Tasmania and a number of supporting papers. From 1941 to 1953 he was part- time Lecturer in Mining Geology in the University of Melbourne. Since 1955 he has been Geological Advisor at the State Electricity Commission of Victoria and during the period of 1958-61 is acting as Observer on the Commission of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. Various professional and learned societies have benefited by his activities on their behalf. Since 1953 he has been Councillor of the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy and since 1955 has been editor of the Institute’s Proceedings. In the Geological Society of Australia Dr. Edwards has served as President of the Victorian Division and Councillor representing Victoria and Western Australia. His interest in overseas societies is shown by his following positions: Fellow of the Mineralogical Society oi America, Corresponding Fellow of the Edinburgh Geological Society, and Foreign Member of the Mineralogical Society of India. Dr. Edwards has made many contributions to geological literature. His book entitled “‘ Textures of Ore Minerals and their Significance ’’ was first published by the Aust. Inst. of Min. and Met. in 1947, and a second edition was issued in 1954. Large numbers of his papers have appeared in Australian and overseas journals. These have been principally on mineralogy and allied subjects, but other papers illustrate much wider geological interests. The Society’s Medal, 1959 The award of the Society’s medal to Ida Alison Brown (Mrs. W. R. Browne) is the first occasion on which a woman has been so honoured. Ida Brown was awarded a Linnean Macleay Fellow- ships by the Winmnean Society of N.S:W. after her graduation from the University of Sydney with the degree of Bachelor of Science with Honours in Mathe- matics and Geology and the University Medal in Geology. During her tenure of the fellowship, she 94 AWARDS published in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society a large number of papers on the geology of the South Coast of N.S.W., carrying out field work often under most arduous conditions. Her thesis on this work gained her the degree of D.Sc., the second time this degree was awarded to a woman by Sydney University. She held the position of Lecturer and later Senior Lecturer in Palaeontology at the University of Sydney from 1934 to 1950 and during periods of study leave visited England, U.S.A. and Canada. In 1945, after a period as a Council member of the Linnean Society, she became the first woman to be its President. In 1935 she was elected a member of the Royal Society of N.S.W., being its first woman member. She has contributed 12 papers to the Journal. In 1941 she was elected to the Council, again the first woman. She became Honorary Editorial Secretary in 1950. This was a time when the rising costs of publication of the journal by a Society with a fixed income called for the most devoted attention from its Editor. She served also as Vice-President, and the Society’s appreciation of her services was shown by her election in 1953 as the first woman President. She has been an official delegate from Australia to Pan-Pacific Congresses in Java (1929) and Canada (1933). She was a Fellow of the former Australian National Research Council. Archibald D. Olle Prize, 1959 The Archibald D. Olle Prize is awarded to Professor G. Bosson for his paper entitled ‘‘ Flexure of a Slab on an Elastic Foundation ’’, published in volume 92 of the Society’s Journal and Proceedings. Professor Bosson’s paper deals with the bending of a loaded stratum resting on an elastic foundation. The problem is considered as a case of plane strain. The methods used are modern, involving considerable use of transform methods. The results are expressed in terms of rapidly convergent series. However, the feature of the paper, which is most worthy of note, is the formulation of a new hypothesis for dealing with interface forces. Professor Bosson develops a hypothesis using a convolution formula which seems far more realistic than the classical Westergaard hypothesis. i Abstract of Proceedings, 1959 Ist April, 1959 The ninety-second Annual and seven hundred and forty-sixth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Mr. J. L. Griffith, was in the chair. Thirty-two members and visitors were present. The death was announced ot Charles A. Loney, a member since 1906. Ann Ruth Mutton was elected a member of the Society. The following awards of the Society were announced : The Society’s Medal for 1958: Mr. F. R. Morrison. The Edgeworth David Medal for 1958: Dr. Paul I. Korner. The Clarke Medal for 1959: Mr. Tom Iredale. The Archibald D. Olle Prize: Mr. Alex Reichel. The Annual Report of the Council and the Financial Statement were presented and adopted. Messrs. Horley and Horley were re-elected as Auditors to the Society for 1959-60. The following papers were read by title only: “Distribution of Stress in the Neighbourhood of a Wedge Indenter’; by A. Reichel; ‘“Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1958”, by a bois. Office-bearers for 1950-60 were elected as follows : President: A. i. A. Harper, M.Sc. Wice-Presidents: Ei. A. J. Donegan, M.Sc.; J. L. Grits BAS M:Sc.; ~E..N. Hanlon, B.Sc. ; F. D. McCarthy, Dip.Anthr. Hon. Secretaries: A. A. Day, B.Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D. (Cantab.) ; Harley Wood, M.Sc. Hon. Treasurer: C. L. Adamson, B.Sc. Members of Council: B. A. Bolt, M.Sc.; F. W. IBGoker Doc.,-eh.D. > C: M. Harris, Ph.D:,.B.Sc. ; Cale vickiroy,6.oc. ; H.H.G. McKerni; W.H.G. Poggendorff. B.Sc.Agr.; Kathleen M. Sherrard, IiMeSc-a(Vlelb:)s; G. HuSlade, B.Sc..; N. W., West, ioe nl... Whitworth, M.Sc. The retiring President, Mr. J. L. Griffith, delivered his Presidential Address, entitled “‘Some Aspects of Integral Transforms ’’. At the conclusion of the meeting the retiring President welcomed Mr. A. F. A. Harper to the Presidential Chair. 6th May, 1959 The seven hundred and _ torty-seventh General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Mr. A. F. A. Harper, was in the chair. Forty members and visitors were present. The Chairman announced that the Honorary Secretary, Mr. Harley Wood, was absent on leave, attending an Astrometric Conference at Cincinnati, to which he had been invited by the National Science Foundation of the U.S.A. Kenneth Bunch, James Miller and William F. J. Pickering were elected members of the Society. The Chairman announced that Professor V. A. Bailey and Mr. E. J. Kenny had now been elected to Life Membership. The following papers were read by title only: “Palaeozoic Stratigraphy of the Area to the West of Borenore, N.S.W.’’, by D. B. Walker (communicated by G. H. Packham); ‘‘ Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1958”, by W. H. Robertson; ‘‘ Ronchi Test Charts for Parabolic Mirrors’”’, by A. A. Sherwood (communicated by Harley Wood). The evening was devoted to a discussion on the Report of the Committee appointed to survey Secondary Education in New South Wales and the following speakers led the discussion: Mr. P. G. Price, Deputy Director-General of Education; Professor J. L. Still, Dean of the Faculty of Science, University of Sydney; Dr. W. G. Kett, Director, Mark Foy’s Limited. 3rd June, 1959 The seven hundred and forty-eighth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Sydney. The President, Mr. A. F. A. Harper, was in the chair. Sixty-five members and visitors were present. The Chairman announced the death of Dr. Roger C. Thorne, 19th May, 1959, a member since 1958. James Norrington Stephens was elected a member of the Society. It was announced that the names of the following had been removed from the List of Members in accordance with Rule 18: Franklin C. Finch and Albert May. A notice of motion by the Council that the following alteration be made to the wording of Rule 8, para- graph 2: “that three be replaced by two and two by one ”’. The following papers were read by title only: ‘‘ On Some Singularities of the Hankel Transform ’’, by J. L. Griffith ; ‘‘ Petrology in Relation to Road Materials. Part 1. The Rocks Used to Produce ‘ Aggregate’ ”’, by” E., J. Minty. The evening was devoted, with the Linnean Society of New South Wales, to the commemoration of the centenary of the publication of ‘‘ The Origin of Species,“,- and. Professor” P.. Dy EF. -Murray, of the Department of Zoology, University of Sydney, gave an address entitled ‘‘ Charles Darwin ’’. Ist July, 1959 The seven hundred and forty-ninth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Sydney. The President, Mr. A. F. A. Harper, was in the chair. Forty members and visitors were present. Anthony Gerard Fynn and Mervyn Ernest Grahame were elected members of the Society. The motion of the Council that the following altera- tion be made to Rule 8, paragraph 2, ‘‘ that three be replaced by two and two by one”’ was carried. The evening was devoted to a symposium on “‘ The Anthropology of Central New Guinea ’’ and addresses 96 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, 1959 were delivered by Mr. M. Meggitt and Mr. D’Arcy Ryan, of the Department of Anthropology, University of Sydney. 5th August, 1959 The seven hundred and fiftieth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Sydney. The President, Mr. A. F. A. Harper, was in the chair. Fifty-two members and visitors were present. Arthur Alfred Sherwood and John William Humphries were elected members of the Society. The motion of the Council carried at the General Monthly Meeting held on Ist July, 1959, that the following alterations be made to the wording of Rule 8, paragraph 2, “‘ that three be replaced by two and two by one ’”’ was confirmed. Professor J. M. Somerville, Department of Physics, University of New England, delivered the following address : ‘‘ Attempts on Controlled Release of Thermo- nuclear «Emery ~. 2nd September, 1959 The seven hundred and fifty-first General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Sydney. The President, Mr. A. F. A. Harper, was in the chair. Thirty-three members and visitors were present. Peter Lawrence and Jack Murielle Somerville were elected members of the Society. A paper entitled “‘ Variations in Physical Constitution of Quarried Sandstones from Gosford and Sydney ”’, by H. G. Golding, was read by title only. The evening was devoted to a symposium on Ants. Professor G. W. K. Cavill, of the University of N.S.W., and Mr: G. Pasheld,/ of the IN:S°W., Department of Agriculture, spoke on “ Entomological and Chemical Aspects of their Control and Eradication, with Particular Reference to the Chemistry of Natural Insecticides ”’. 7th October, 1959 The seven hundred and fifty-second General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Sydney. The President, Mr. A. F. A. Harper, was in the chair. Forty-eight members and visitors were present. Keith Meredith Burrows, Bernard Foster Hoskins, Gerhard Lowenthal and Mervyn John Meggitt were elected members of the Society. A notice of motion by the Council that Rule XL be amended to read: “ To allow fuller opportunities and facilities for meeting and working together to those members of the Society who devote attention to par- ticular branches of science or who are resident in regions of New South Wales remote from Sydney, Sections or Committees may be established as the Council may decide.”’ The Australian Mutual Provident Society’s film ‘“ Desert Conquest ’’, which was made available to us by courtesy of Twentieth Century Fox Films Cor- poration Pty. Ltd., was screened. Mr. R. O. Powys, of the A.M.P. Society, attended to discuss the film. 4th November, 1959 The seven hundred and fifty-third General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Sydney. The President, Mr. A. F. A. Harper, was in the chair. Thirty-one members and visitors were present. James Rhys Jones, D’Arcy James Ryan and Peter Robert Wilson were elected members of the Society. A motion by the Council that Rule XL be amended to read: ‘‘ To allow fuller opportunities and facilities for meeting and working together to those members of the Society who devote attention to particular branches of science or who are resident in regions of New South Wales remote from Sydney, Sections or Committees may be established as the Council may decide ’’, was carried unanimously. The following papers were discussed: “ Petrology in Relation to Road Materials. Part 1. The Rocks used to Produce Aggregate”’, by E. J. Minty. Dis- cussion was led by Professor D. F. Orchard, School of Highway Engineering, The University of New South Wales. ‘‘ Ronchi Test Charts for Parabolic Mirrors ’’, by A. A. Sherwood. Discussion was led by Mr. Harley Wood, Government Astronomer, Sydney Observatory. 2nd December, 1959 The seven hundred and fifty-fourth General Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m. The President, Mr. A. F. A. Harper, was in the chair. Fifty-eight members and visitors were present. The death was announced of Frederick L. Henriques, a member since 1919. Moiren Krysko v. Tryst and Eric John Ramm were elected members of the Society. A motion by the Council that Rule XL be amended to read “‘ To allow fuller opportunities and facilities for meeting and working together to those members of the Society who devote attention to particular branches of science or who are resident in regions of New South Wales remote from Sydney, Sections or Committees may be established as the Council may decide’ was confirmed. The following papers were accepted for publication : “Tertiary Dykes in the Port Stephens District’, by B. Nashar and C. Catlin; ‘‘ Deuteric Alteration of Volcanic Rocks”, by H. “G: “Wilshme- eb rceme Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory during 1957 and 1958’’, by W. H. Robertson. The following films were shown by courtesy of B.P. Aust. Ltd.: ‘“‘ Address Antarctica = sand 3) ‘* Antarctic Crossing ’’. Section of Geology Guam An : 1. G: VALLANCE, B.SC., PH.D.; HON. SECRETARY: L. E. KOCH, D.PHIL.HABIL. Abstract of Proceedings, 1959 Five meetings were held during the year 1959, including the Annual Meeting held on 20th March, 1959, and a Jubilee Meeting to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of continuous activities of the Section, held on 26th November. Average attendance was about 26 members and visitors. March 20th (Annual meeting): FElection of Office bearervs : Dr. T. G. Vallance was elected chairman and Dr. L. E. Koch was re-elected Honorary Secretary of the Section. Address: ‘‘Impressions from a Visit to famous Mineral Localities and Institutions Overseas’’, Dr. L. J. Lawrence. Dr. Lawrence reported on his study periods at the Royal School of Mines, London, at the University of Cambridge, and at the University of Uppsala, Sweden, and Heidelberg, Germany. He carried out extensive travels to noted mineral localities and institutions in Great Britain (Cornwall, Gloucester- shire), Sweden (Kiruuna), Hartz Mts., Mechernich, Siegerland, Germany. He also visited Switzerland, the Vulcanological Institute at Naples in Italy, and the graphite mines of Ceylon. May 15th: (1) Notes and Exhibits :—Dr. Lawrence exhibited metalliferous minerals of colloidal origin : Schalenblende (Belgium), cassiterite (Stanley), jordanite, gratonite, schalenblende (Wiesloch, Baden), chalcopyrite (Redruth). (2) Address: “‘ The geology of the Cow Flat District, IN-S:.W.” By KR. A. Binns, B.Sc. An Ordovician- Silurian sequence of rocks in the Cow Flat area consists dominantly of volcanic and volcanically derived rocks with minor limestone. These rocks have been meta- morphosed and subjected to two phases of folding and faulting, followed by the intrusion of the Bathurst granitic batholith. Ore deposits were formed probably n connection with the latter intrusion. July 17th: (1) Notes and Exhibits :—Dr. Lawrence reported on observations of radioactivity in hematite from ‘‘ Milestone’ near Calvert Hills, N.T. Lantern slides furthermore illustrated autoradiographs of polished sections of titanite and epidote produced on specially sensitized photographic plates. Dr. Vallance exhibited large slabs of aplite containing euhedral quartz crystals several inches in diameter. (Location : 976 482 Oberon l1-mile sheet, E. of Fish River, N. of Duckmaloi, N.S.W.) Material was first collected by B. Guy (Geology IV, 1959). Dr. Vallance also exhibited various contact-metamorphic rocks, e.g., wollastonite hornfels formed from a limestone con- glomerate (location: 941718 Bathurst 1-mile sheet, between Meadow Flat and Portland). Dr. W. R. Browne reported on the observation of ‘“ tectonic ripples ’’ of a remarkably recent age occurring directly W. of the headwaters of the Parramatta River, and running N.—S. Dr. Koch reported on an occurrence of epidote rock containing minor amounts of titanite, fibrous tremolite, quartz immediately adjacent to the chloritized shear zones in the granodiorite S.E. of Cobargo, South Coast, N.S.W. (2) Address by Dr. L. E. Koch, “ Diagrams repre- senting Paragenetic and Reaction Relations of Ore and Other Minerals’’. Paragenetic diagrams by Robertson and Vandeveer (1952) closely approach a new type of “standard diagrams’”’ developed by the speaker, representing ‘“‘ composite wholes’? and automatically permitting the application of the “‘ Calculus of Com- posite Wholes’”’ for their analysis and interpretation, i.e., set theory, imperfectly ordered sets, theory of relations, and combinatorics. September 18th: (1) Notes and Exhibits :—Dr. Val- lance exhibited two vols. of the “ Theory of the Earth ’’, by James Hutton, a classic work in geological science reprinted as a facsimile edition in 1952. Address : ‘““Some Observations on Tectonic Styles in New South Wales ’’, by B. Hobbs. Tectonic style is defined in terms of the geometry and overall fabric of a deformed belt and with reference to Sander’s ideas of axial flow in B and transport |B. Such concepts are then related to the two styles of folding, flexural slip (con- centric) and pure slip (cleavage folding). The concepts are illustrated by the Peel Fault system in New England, N.S.W., as well as structures developed in the Central West of N.S.W. The depth and emplacement of granites occurring in connection with the above structures was given particular attention. 26th November: Jubilee Meeting to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of continuous activities of the Section of Geology. (1) Address: ‘‘ Recollections of the Early Days of the Section of Geology ’’, by Dr. W. R. Browne, F.A.A. Dr. Browne gave first a brief historical review of the foundation of nine specialized Sections of the Royal Society of N.S.W. in 1876. ee: i ‘ (oe a hee : Pi er 7 fr i i ; a f t r ie hes ‘ y ‘ Pe > ae Ys py A | P) = r , . | Ae J a } * \ ' re t “ , ' i iy a Ee a al A 1 * ™ Fi i i ‘ E y > : : \ ‘ ' * - 2 7 4 2 = fos: ‘ =n i] ‘ Pr 2 ~ r ‘ % ’ t a Py } * — " apr | = ae > wy ‘ r b! r) ’ ne ms } - eK, nes % ‘ 7 : 3 Ms . ie wan ‘ a \ . a 4 ‘ ae ” 4 ‘ % i ‘i ; ri ; 5 Phe i es " 1 EB + ep a ‘ rk! ;; see Metiusecipts abould ‘be pened ary Secretaries, Royal Society of Science House, 157 Gloucester > copies of each manuscript _ sacs ‘4 typescript and” a epare according “: the ed in this. J ournal. 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THE (GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF ‘THE ComMoNWEALTH oF A STRAL . 0) Due Rr. Hon. VISCOUNT DUNROSSIL, ¢.c.M.c., M.c., OG, ras Ne i _. ‘His ExcELLENCY THE GOVERNOR oF New SoutH Watzs, LisvTgNANT-GENERAL SIR: ERIC Ww. MORI: K.C, M. ee ¢ rai c. B. : —" ) Pah Bx ie y ve Beda | ee eB aay UREA. a DONEGAN) (mde. 7). GLa Ya le alae Vice-Presidents i | obit: ne mis Ok Les GRIBRITE BAY M.Sa. 9) Yuan 4 . “A. F. A. HARPER, mise. . F. N. HANLON, B.se. 2) BD. McCARTHY¢ pip.anthe,. hee he Pye he ene ihy Hon. Secretaries sevice i EM ASR Aaa Pein a _ HARLEY W. WOOD, mse. 7 ‘ myers A. DAY, Ph. D., B.SC. (Eaton) va chan yee Plat ss Treasurer | ik vane as eign Cc. L. Paige Ae B.Sc > | Haag HN 4 | | Hi) Rad HEM ef Me _ Members of Count. ae ay Net age ae G. FYNN, B.Sc., Se yy Bite ‘KATHLEEN M, SHERRARD, “Mase ty yds W. HUMPHRIES, B.Sc. Ah | } GH: SLADE, iBise( yay oree | WALA. OW atSe. ici’ Ge LO NAS SMITH-WHITE, MAL Ay H. H. G. McKERN, m. Sc. enh aod _N. W. WEST, Bsc. | r ig W. a Gy POCGEHDOREE, B. Se. Kees See: i. OF, WHITWORTH, M, se iy My a 7 \ r t 4 Be My 4 ¥ 4 v hs | | \ f R a fi \ { ¥. i i r : . i i ’ ; / } ‘ i a ; - h { é x ; Mi i ¥ y ee | i$ ei . \ % x e fi > ‘ 4 \ < ; bas Qi ag a ‘NOTICE EPA hae eae The Royal Society. of New South Wales eS in 1821 as ‘ed * ‘ Philoso ‘Australasia > after\an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in| ‘1850 under the n ‘if th © Australian Philosophical Society ”’, by which title it was. known until 1856, when the 3 name was" changed to the *‘ Pidissopbieal Society of New South Wales”. In 1866, by the san . Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its present t title, an ‘was i corporat ee Act ne he hicanasune it, bala South Wales in eee Hi SINS aes a Ae Ni Hn \ 1 : ¥ f bin : f WM £ ss y fi ; ¢ hy i 7 { { J ? \ ; { Mi » 1 a if Bates j y + 4 ' \ ; , tr " } f i 3 is i i } if dy wv / ‘ "ah st 7 4 i eH \ i bs RUS i ; ‘ : My Ir . a « Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 94, pp. 99-108, 1960 Kinetics of Chain Reactions R. C. L. BoswortH and C. M. GRODEN (Received March 17, 1960) ABSTRACT.—The concentration of active centres in the presence of branching and rupture in the volume and on the walls, due to diffusion, has been discussed and the differential equation _ obtained solved by means of Laplace Transforms in the case of cylindrical and spherical vessels. Nk 1. Introduction The propagation of a chain mechanism through a reacting system with only first order initiation and termination processes can, as first shown by Bursian and Sorokin (1931), be represented by the following differential equation S SAN LO NV ReIUE Pwr se Sry 3 OSs Vuong eos hate Vs ty ass Sade (1) where » is the number density of chain centres ; A represents the total initial rate of formation of centres and is always positive ; Bn is the net difference between linear branching and linear homogeneous termination. The factor B accordingly can be positive, negative, or in exceptional cases, zero ; Dis the mean coefficient of diffusion of the centres through the reaction mixture. Many succeeding authors have given solutions for the case of one dimensional systems in which V2 reduces to a8 (Semenoff, 1935). The following assays solutions in cylindrical and spherical polar co-ordinates approximating respectively to the conditions obtaining in long cylindrical reactors and to approximate spherical reactors such as ordinary chemical flasks. The solutions obtained show the development of the overall density and the distribution throughout the reactor during the whole of the transient stage of chain propagation. 2. Solution in Cylindrical Co-ordinates Assuming circular symmetry we have in a cylindrical vessel (of radius R) that Gi ses eae raed Vi ae ore: where 7 is the distance from the axis of the cylinder | 0247-2 Thus, equation (1) becomes ! On On 1 On ; a 4 +Bnt+D(aat, 2 a: fe fen 'e ie Se) ely epheteteielien ais bor ees. enone (2) We put | A= a) ee OL Oa ne. OM Bt cue ct (3) and consider the case when B is positive. We then have Cn he ,(O-n 1 on Vl ae +6 +d (; sal *) Ser thigh ceaeea 0. ao eee er Cae (4) which we want to solve for m=n/(r,t) subject to the following initial and boundary conditions (a) n=0 when 7—0, 7>0 (6) n=0 Nr Ne ler gemev Noe een) galas ee, Sess os oa S, Sheet ole a) Aeviaj pts ve! Abe aaa s (5) (c) nm is finite when 7=0 100 R. C. L. BOSWORTH anv C. M. GRODEN The most commonly used method for the solution of problems of this type involves the use of an infinite series of some orthogonal functions or an infinite integral to represent the unknown solution. However, in the following development the Laplace Transform methods are used as they represent a unified method, more rigorous than the usual series solution. Putting Wee ee 1 On an Re oF mp malty Be | do? BOOCUMUmOUoodMUdCOCondDOeS (7) Let the Laplace transform of n(o,t) be denoted by 7(f,0) BONE | e~Mn(o,di ........ (3) 0 Then the transformed equation, in which dashes denote differentiation with respect to o, reads _ 1. a ~ i = i= utara +n or sat ee ns ee P\ =a |b? n sea +8 —h\= >. ee (9) This is a non-homogeneous differential equation of 2nd order whose general solution, finite at the origin, is given by a n pe Grae Py id (ure ea i (0) =55 55 + (ive B) ae (10) where « is a constant of integration and J,(7) is the modified Bessel function of first kind and order zero (Whittaker, 1946, page 372). In view of (55) and (6) we find that and, therefore if (5 ve) ae } : d a [op —8) FAC ee | ee ee aE io p(p—b?) Te a rec p(p—6") I)(S\/p—0? where o=4 and S=5, or, by using partial fractions : a? te ta I,(o./p—0) aa SS p—P p (p—b2)I(SvV/p—B) KINETICS OF CHAIN REACTIONS 101 Now, if L-{f(p)} is the function F(t) whose Laplace Transform is f(p) then we have qd) £ ea = —— zt ft 25) [00 ee (13) (II) 1 eve | oil Ty(ovp) | (p—?)I.(S/p —2*) plp(S/P) (nee 2 > e— PA, TolAnr) Hs ASR) et FS eg (eays—oy Toei) Ta ee es 14 a 7 Ja08) ~ where Jy, J, are Bessel functions of first kind and -+-A, are roots of BR ee = One trent een peltinecs al net oets pet yenece (15) (Carslaw, 1948), pages 123/4) ; b —b2) : “bh —b2) (III) L-2 1 Lop b*) as ipa Lop 6*) dt I(SVP—8)} Jo — (Lo(SVP—8") t ari | Cale Lolo?) (amas Pere eee CL et ar (16) 0 Ly(SvV/P) Using the Inversion Theorem we find that | 0 SLE el (17) TGP) ey een 0K) (Tranten, 1951, pages 27/8) ; Thus Bala tle PF) Lal nS 2d A To), oe pI(SVp—P)| Jo rar RAR) or, interchanging the operations of integration and summation 2 2CO i I,(o./p —B?) _2# ee Mx : UA) [1—e-(@ ARO], (18) a I(Ss/p—02) | -R naa (4A —0?) J1(A,R) Combining now (12), (13), (14) and (1 E we obtain 2 A,7) poeenyaet ot + Se (GARI — 04) Jo(r« =e h=1 ASR) 2d? ~ hy T(x”) ~(@A,2—b?)t TR AG LAR i which on simplifying yields the final result 20? & Jolhyr) [Ler] n(7,t) = R 2 e= eRe Sennen nnn (19) wi) wae al _2a* > Jolson (192) 1038) LES WTS ICN SSN CE VE) Me ae (see Appendix (c)). 102 R. C. L. BOSWORTH anv. C. M. GRODEN 3. Analysis of Results (a) When ¢->0oo we have from (19a) which is the obvious solution of the steady state equation (z= I and represents a distribution of the active centres over a radial section under final steady state conditions. The distribution represents a peak in the density of active centres along the cylindrical axis with a vanishing of the density of centres at the walls. At the other extreme stage in process of setting up a distribution of active centres, namely when ¢+0, the exponential in equation (19) may be replaced by its first order terms in a Taylor expansion and the equation as a whole reduces to Dqz @ n(r,t) = t > Jol) —Ay ; Ropar A Si(A,F) (see Appendix (a)). (b) When B is negative, i.e., the original equation reads Cis Ot then we get directly from (19) the solution Qq2 2 Ton 7) [1 —e— (Pg + OF) We) ——— a gee ae 21 VOR so MC AP +O) TR) ze which for steady state yields the result I b 2a © To(Axr) ae p a a®—b°n + d?V/ °n n(7)—> — b2 7a) 1— —7 os eee (21a) 1 (het ga) Oak 1a(@) (c) When” B usezero..:.-0—0 we have trom (i19} __ 2a? < T(z”) ey ia n( 1) = aap ae TAG [1 é k if BOO ONO O00 0.00 (22) This result can be obtained directly from the equation oA +DV2n. When ¢->oo we get in this case 2 oe) n(r) ae Sot) oe 2 (23) PR rar S1(A,R) ARS az R2 —y2 = ale As ie (23a) (see Appendix (b)). (d) Differentiating (19) with respect to 7 we obtain an Qa® 2 f(y) [Let ne R ae TR) 5 Gyan OOO OiwoO Oooo bo 05 6 which for y=0 becomes zero since /,(0)=0. Thus, the function n(7,t) has a peak value in the Cetltre, KINETICS OF CHAIN REACTIONS 103 4, Solution in Spherical Co-ordinates Assuming radial symmetry we have in a spherical vessel (of radius Rk) that where 7 is the distance from the centre of the sphere. Then equation (1) takes the form on 02n 2 On oe +Bn+D( Sat; i As before we consider the case when B is positive (6=6?) and introduce a function m/(r,t) defined by the equation TU GAD) VID tane a Soave Nod Weems ena epee ee (26) or m/(r,t) n{7,t) = Using equations (3), (25) and (26) we find that m/(r,t) satisfies the differential equation Om, H ,o"m =ap 4 y¥+b?m+d ce (27) with the initial and boundary conditions (a) m= when ¢=0, 7>0 (6) m=0 when 7=R, po Uh RMR conan eho eae Seen OC E re re ere eee (28) (c) m=0 waen 7-—0; t>0 If m(v,p) represents the Laplace Transform of m(r,t) eae | e—Plyn (r,t) dt 0 the transformed equation (27) now reads —W ind (Oe-Us irre tees eed ary 2 m (r) a m= ap’ p—b >0, 7 O66 oo blo O65 65 GGE (29) where dashes denote differentiation with respect to 7. Putting Y R iat, r FE mr) oh ARE ears yo a (30) we find that differential equation (29) has the general solution m(o,p)=ae-eVP—8 1 BervP—HF 1. GE Geen wa ree (31) p(p—6’) The constants of integration « and # are determined by conditions (280, c) ; in fact da? P es ae ae cs Sa eee ee ee eo eo oo ww (32) 2p(p—b2) sinh (Px/p—b?) so that = ee ee sinh (9/p—b?) Ee a Gal pata ert | a 104 R. C. L. BOSWORTH anp C. M. GRODEN =e (ge — 5) or, using partial fractions _d@eR[__ sin (ov>=B)__sinh (ov 9=B) 6? | (p —b2) sinh (P./p —b?) psinh (P+/p —b?) ee i (I) IE: ___ sinh (pVp—6*) — gb*y-1 1 sinh (ov) (p—b?) sinh (P»/p—0?) p sinh (P4/p) _gu| za) sinh_ inh (eV) |, oe » sinh oe i} and 1/sinh (ev2)|_1 21g (2. calle sinh (Px/p)| P a BP } (Bateman, 1953, Tables, Vol. I, page 258). Where 0, is Jacobi’s Theta function defined as follows 0,(v;¢) =1+2 > (—1)*g" cos (2kiv) . 22253 ee k=1 (Bateman, 1953, Functions, Vol. II, pages 354/60). In our case As a function of (8o) 0, is continuous in the interval (—z,7), t>0, and also O7( 70), =O par) ee. ee ee ee Hence the derivative a can be obtained by termwise differentiation de (Churchill, 1941, pages 78/9) : 00, dp pon =—=28 3 (1)? t1ke- FF" sin (ROO Cc ares he) ee and therefore t LAN po lim 28 3 (—1)*+1ke—S* sin (kd 0) dt 0 dp e—>0 k=1 7A\ fy 2 , sin (kde) |? —]j YY (—1)e-& Ft a 5| k= A ) e k Ih 2s yey oil (00) , sin (kde) Sigil | k=1 KINETICS OF CHAIN REACTIONS 105 The last sum represents the half range sine Fourier series of (—4de) so that ‘00,,, 2/8 oy, Sin (kde) ett 3[2 it = (- Lk ave SB EE) | CA Oe: (42a) 7-1{ __sinh (pvp—®) 7 (P= 0 \rsimlg 24/7 P07) and therefore bt ee) 1 = Sots» (—1te ero ae Seer ean ee eee (43) (II) | fh ENE EAN pen CV Pe | (44) p sinh (P1/p—2?) (p +02) sinh (P1/) - and since {1 sinh (pVB)\ _ p—iw sinh (P/p) __sinh (ox/iw) : k sin (R30) as ne es ee ey ro) 2 > 1)* i aS ee — Okt ® © 6) @ «+e © © 0 © SLE ie) Cec es 1) Pritt Pua (45) (Bateman, 1953, Tables, Vol. I, page 259), and in our case b——iw or V/iwo=+0i, we have that {sinh (9/9) sin (9b) 4, 2 @ k sin (R3e) _ ons ot wile eset Newt GHP ot SP p< (a gy ee — 3h | @—2) sinh 2 | sin (Pb) iro oe 2 O° : 62 Epes (46) r-1 sinh (94/p —0?) _sin (0b) 2 si (—1)* k sin (kde) _ (3th — 04 p sinh (P./p—b?)| sin (Pd) kaa 2 & 52 See ee ee (47) Combining now (34), (13), (43) and (47) we obtain m(o,¢) in the form _@ ad sin (0 2a*d @ in (kd as, ed z bi ay Eh eee (48) _@P sin (be) Yad 2 SIMA(OO) me Nes lc Meals Sey te OM ee Re 5s 106 R. C. L. BOSWORTH anv C. M. GRODEN By expanding the ex tees Sah a sin (bp) —l] in a half range sine Fourier series we finally have Dari ese sin kd 2h2__p2 | n(p.t) = ; x (—1)F SUD Ear bt) se (50) 5. Analysis of the Results (a) When too we get from (49) which is the steady state solution & =), On using (3) and (30) equation (51) becomes 42 sin \/B]D r =| n(r)>—= —— y sin,/B/D R B The final distribution of active centres about the centre thus corresponds approximately to a : 2 paraboloid about the centre, the approximation being the better the lower the value of — In the initial stages of development the exponential in equation (50) may be expanded and the equation becomes 27 , sin kde : n(p.t}>— 5 2. (— ) ery aa OG ON oO Oc Clo Db OMorola 5 6 0 (510) at =5,0° =o or WDA, ode ige ee eee (51c) which represents an initial homogeneous distribution throughout the cylindrical vessel completely different from the paraboloidal distribution in the fully developed system. (b) When B is negative, then replacing b? by (—0?) or 6 by (1b) we have from (49) ae Psinhi(bo) 244 eS estes (ko) ery no) fae Syd t 38 Me 1 7, 8 72 eC Pees (52) R{k +35 or from (50) 2 (e) ln (RP ee nle)=—— x (—1)* See ea wea eds oe eee (53) P k=1 bi i) The last two equations are equivalent. The steady state solution is given in this case by a* P sinh (do) n(e)>55 ie ; sah GP) a Bien ae (54) KINETICS OF CHAIN REACTIONS 107 (c) When B is zero ... b=0, we have from (50) 2a*7 1 2 sin (kde) Se —1)F 2 et cece eee 55 Hee 2 Ne (65) 2 sin (kde) ; ke ; and since & (—1) 73 represents the half range sine Fourier series of g (P?—e"), equation k=1 (55) takes the form a? 242 2 sin (kde) BIEN op weary Vet care _])k —8*k*t n(9,t)=6 (P e*) +35 5 2 (—1) ee a” Angie Gari (56) This is the expression which is obtained directly as the solution of the equation. On as ap ~ATPV nN ; when ¢->oo, (56) yields the steady state solution (d) Differentiating (50) with respect to p we find that for p=0 a since for each k d [sin (8p) __ [kde cos (kde) —sin (kde) iol e | = e* ‘. ies a sin | est e—0 2 Thus, the function (o,¢) has a peak value at the centre of the vessel. 6. Appendix (Expansion of functions in Fourier Bessel series) An arbitrary function /(e), 0 AJ (Axe) (rtp) hak a Iie) *L(a®) The approach to the subject in this paper has been purely mathematical, but since this paper has been prepared mainly for those with an interest in Chemistry rather than in Mathematics, the - treatment has avoided the use of Inversion Theorem as much as possible although this method might appear mathematically more elegant and compact. No attempt has been made to develop expressions suitable for test against experimental data. It is clear, however, that a number of significant points are already emerging. The development of a stationary system of active centres following from the equation of Bursian and Sorokin involves not only an induction period in the chemical reaction depending to some extent on the geometry of the system, but also a progressive change in the distribution of the active centres depending not only on the geometry of the system but also on the ratio of the parameters in the Bursian and Sorokin equation. These matters, together with the computation of experimental factors, will be taken up in a subsequent paper. and hence Jo(Axe) 2 “ehege sae b * (ta? — a) Jae) 7. Acknowledgments The authors wish to express their appreciation to Professor G. Bosson and Mr. J. L. Griffith, School of Mathematics, The University of New South Wales, for many helpful suggestions. 8. References . 1941. BATEMAN MANUSCRIPT PROJECT, 1953. CHURCHILL eu, ‘“Fourier Series and (a) ‘‘ Higher Transcendental Functions ’’, Vol. 2 ; Boundary Value Problems.” McGraw-Hill, New (b) “‘ Tables of Integral Transforms’, Vol. 1. York. McGraw-Hill, New York. SEMENOFF, N., 1935. ‘‘ Chemical Kinetics and Chain Reactions.” Oxford, Clarendon Press. ae ey at Sort} SUN NUS Hos Zoe ANS (CG TRANTER, C. J., 1951. “Integrall Dranstorme. sim CaRsLAw, H. S., AND JAEGER, J. C., 1948. tional Methods in Applied Mathematics.” University Press. ““ Opera- Oxford School of Chemistry (R.C.L.B.), and School of Mathematics (C.M.G.), University of New South Wales, Sydney Mathematical Physics.”” Methuen Monographs. WHITTAKER, E. T., AND Watson, G. N., 1946. “A Course in Modern Analysis.’”’ Cambridge Uni- versity Press. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 94, pp. 109-113, 1960 An Interpretation of the Lorentz Transformation Co-ordinates S. J. PROKHOVNIK (Received February 26, 1960) ABSTRACT.—It has been shown in a previous paper that Einstein’s principles and definitions are consistent with a new interpretation regarding the measurement of time in Special Relativity. An extension of the argument to space-interval measurements leads to a fully consistent inter- pretation of the Lorentz transformation and the co-ordinates involved therein. The approach gives physical meaning to the reciprocity property of the transformation and suggests a criterion of simultaneity for observers in relative motion. It is suggested that the transformation may have a previously unsuspected bearing on a number of practical and theoretical issues including radar measurements and the nature of light transmission. 1. Introduction The Lorentz transformation co-ordinates are based on Einstein’s measurement conventions for synchronizing clocks and timing a distant event, the displacement co-ordinates of the event being also defined in terms of these measure- ments. A consequence of these conventions is that observers with similar clocks previously synchronized but stationary in different inertial systems, obtain different measures of the co-ordinates of a given event. These two sets of measures are related according to the Lorentz transformations and this was first demon- strated by Einstein (1905). Unfortunately this demonstration and also all subsequent derivations of the Lorentz transformations concealed the purely con- ventional nature of the measurements. Most of the derivations given (e.g. Moller, 1952 ; McCrea, 1947) are based on obtaining trans- formations which satisfy uniquely the invariance relation, m2 fy2t 22 cB—y/2t a2 9/2 _ 24/2 Such derivations are independent of the meaning of the symbols, and their interpretation has been the subject of much controversy. It will be shown that a rigorous interpretation of Einstein’s conventions, in the light of his principles of relativity and light velocity constancy, leads to a new but fully consistent interpretation of the Lorentz transformations and the co-ordinates involved therein. There are some interesting and possibly verifiable consequences of this approach involving both practical and theoretical issues. Some of these will be briefly considered. 2. The Measurement of Time In a previous communication (Prokhovnik, 1960) it was suggested that Einstein’s principles and definitions (i) to (iv) were consistent with an assumption referred to as the “ light-signal hypothesis ’’, viz. The time taken by a light signal to travel, in vacuo, between two points A and B (in relative motion or not) is related in some consistent fashion to the distance between its source and destination; and this relation is the same whether the path of the signal is from A to B or vice versa. On the basis of this assumption, a definition (v) of synchronism for relatively moving clocks was also proposed. We then considered two observers A and B receding from one another with relative velocity v and carrying similar clocks which were synchronized at ¢,;=?,—0 during their spatial coincidence. The observer A transmits a light- signal at time ¢) which reflects an event on B, the reading 7, of B’s clock, and returns to A at time ¢#. Then A’s conventionally measured time of the event is according to the definition (11)* m—3(0, +8) * Wherever reference is made to Einstein’s principles I, II or to the definitions (i) to (v), these refer to the assumptions outlined in the author’s previous paper (Prokhovnik, 1960). In brief these are I Equivalence of inertial systems. II Universal constancy of light-velocity. (1) Definition of synchronism. (11) Definition of “‘time’”’ of an event. (i111) Definition of space interval. (iv) Definition of relative velocity. (v) Synchronism of ‘clocks in relative motion. 110 The time of reflection, /,, on A’s time-scale was then related to #1, and 73, by a consistent applica- tion of the light-signal hypothesis and it was shown that e)=Ae whence It was suggested therefore that if A’s light signal reflects the clock reading “#%, from B’s clock, such that a ae then the clocks must be synchronous in the sense of the definition (v)* ; and it was further shown that if the clocks synchronize in this sense according to the observer A, they would be similarly synchronous according to the observer B. Such observers were then said to have a common time-scale. Combining (1, (2) and (3), we also obtain 1+ 7 2 dps Seer (4) 5 eee C and 1+- BU, a eee (5} Alyce C 3. Derivation of Transformations We now deduce the relations between the two sets of co-ordinates of an event at EF, obtained by two observers A and B in relative uniform motion. It: will be sufficient and instructive for our present purpose to consider a number of cases where A, B and E are collinear. As usual we will consider that the two observers are using similar clocks previously synchronized at the instant of their spatial coincidence, and that their respective co- ordinates of any particular event are obtained according to Einstein’s conventions (i)* to (iv)*. We will take the observer A’s location as the origin of his inertial reference frame and similarly B’s location as his origin. We will S. J. PROKHOVNIK refer to the line joining A and By and its extension in either direction as the common x-axis of A and B where the direction A to B is taken as the positive direction of this axis. The co-ordinates of a point along this axis according to A will be denoted by x,, and according to B by Xz. In accordance with the direction of the common axis, the velocity of B relative to A will be denoted by v, and of A relative to B by —v. 3.1. Case where E 1s collinear with A and B and stationary relative to B Consider an event at E reflected by two light | rays, one transmitted by observer A at time 4, and returning to him at #, and the second transmitted by observer B at #4, and returning to him at 2. Then the x and ¢ co-ordinates of the event according to observer B are given by definition according to (ii)* and (iii)*: m4, +4) and Since B and E are relatively stationary, 7% is simultaneous (according to Einstein) with the event at E and x% is a constant independent of the time. According to observer A we have corres- pondingly and 7h ae = i zs using (4), and, in accordance with pines Cc Einstein’s light velocity principle, will take an m additional time “B to reach E, since B and E C are separated by a fixed space interval, **%. + This line may be considered as lying along the path of a light ray transmitted from A to B or vice versa. AN INTERPRETATION OF THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION CO-ORDINATES 111 Hence, on A’s time scale, the event at FE is reflected at ”,, where 1+ ym fl ee (10) At. A v C mane c= C Similarly on reflection the ray returns to B at 7B UY, se signal from B to A; so that, using (5), the ray returns to A at ¢%, where and thereafter behaves like a light 3=(7,+— eyo 8 = (asa ae (11) jeer C (10) may be written Ee ose: a= (t a a = Cb) ee Therefore, using (11), Bd: ee y 1+- i mn — "4 oF a C ai fia 1 And in Bo. ar 1+- i me zz a (e A. See v 1 =—- 1+ - Cc Cc Now if the clocks at A and B have remained synchronous such that the time of reflection of the event at EF is given by the same clock reading according to either time scale, that is Denis then (13), (14) become the familiar relations of the Lorentz transformation, viz. : B pe i" ier aise S06 to Go ooo (15) i xm + vim xh — = A, Seta (16) By eliminating x% and 7/%, in turn, from (15) and (16) we obtain also His reciprocal relation- ships. 3.2. Case where E, A and B are collinear and have a common time-scale We will assume that E£ moves with velocity u, relative to A and with velocity u, relative to B, and that A, B and EF were simultaneously spatially coincident at zero time according to the similar clocks carried by A and Bb. We might also imagine a similar clock associated with E similarly synchronized with those at A and B. Now consider an event at EF simultaneous with the reading ¢, on the clock at EL. The event is reflected by a light-ray from A whence A’s conventional time, ie of the event is related to his “‘ geometric mean time ” /, by oe e ee U ; B C sae inige aa = ane ae! —— es Kee Vou eh ou eae te (13) u é c oe c / 2 Uv U 1 = =< al C 1 C Ww, +x% eT = — (14) Similarly B’s conventional time of the event im is related to his #, by Up r= [1 — tp, B and E also having a common time-scale. Hence from (17) and (18), . (18) i a a ee (19) Ls 8 Uxm e+ = Lettie tes Wel (20) where ie (21) UsUp 1 2 “s Pee eae and using +%—wu,i" in accordance with (iv)*. Using also x%—u,im, (19) becomes U2 i as a with U as before. In order that a common _ transformation should apply to the cases of 3.1 and 3.2 it is necessary that U should be equivalent to uv, the velocity of B relative to A. This is easily verified since from (15) and (16) we obtain B ro Oar ie eee c? at” that is 1 B ae and hence jet Lead RMT (23) al UsUp C2 which compares with (21). Thus the identity of U and v is entirely consistent with the rest of the argument. 3.3. General case for E, A and B collinear As in 3.2 we will denote the velocity of E relative to A by u, and relative to B by wp. We assume here that the observers A and B only, have a common time scale. However, there must exist a location C, along the line ABE, in E’s inertial system, such that A, B and C were simultaneously spatially co-incident. We can therefore imagine an observer at this point C who shares a common time-scale with A and B, is stationary relative to E and hence has a velocity of u, relative to A and u, relative to B. Ss. J. PROKHOVNIK Then, according to (15) and (16), the co- ordinates of an event on EF, as measured by A and C, are related by XE TU WE ——— u' 1a C x and and the co-ordinates of the same event, as measured by B and.C, are related by m m ae He tUste and Eliminating x% and ?¢% from these four equations we obtain and where v is the velocity of B relative to A and as in 3.2 U,—Up Lae =e v= The combining of the results of 3.1 and 3.2, in this way, to obtain the more general result demonstrates incidentally that a succession of two Lorentz transformations is itself a Lorentz transformation. This reflects an important feature of the Lorentz transformations, namely, that they form a group. AN INTERPRETATION OF THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION CO-ORDINATES 113 4. Discussion The above derivation of the Lorentz trans- formations is both cumbersome and _ limited. However, it serves to demonstrate that the light signal hypothesis together with the definition relating to synchronism, are entirely consistent with the interpretation of the Lorentz transformations as linking two sets of specific measurements of an event. It is seen that the light signal hypothesis enables us to apply a criterion of simultaneity for observers in relative motion and this criterion is applied in the derivations, particularly in cases 3.1 and 3.2, to yield the expected results. The criterion depends on _ distinguishing between the time of reflection of the event and the conventionally measured time. In _ the simple circumstances considered in Part 2 the relation between these two times is that between the geometric and arithmetic means of the initial and final readings of the signalling process reflecting an event. In more general circumstances this difference provides the different measurements of the co-ordinates of an event by observers in relative motion, and the relation between these two sets of co- ordinates is given by the Lorentz transformation, precisely if the observers’ clocks have remained synchronous. The reciprocity of the observers’ measure- ments can now no longer suggest paradoxes ; it can be considered as a consequence of the equivalence of all inertial systems with regard to time, where for each observer the con- ventional measure of time and space intervals in the inertial system of his opposite number will be less than the corresponding proper intervals. The correction of these measurements is effected precisely by the Lorentz transformation which can thus be seen as having more than merely theoretical significance. Thus if our interpretation is correct, radar measurements should be corrected in this way if relatively moving bodies are involved. These measurements are based on the arithmetic mean of the times of transmitting a beam and receiving its echo. However, in his definition of synchronism Einstein himself emphasized that this arithmetic mean time will coincide with the time of reflection only if the reflected object is stationary relative to the observer. We have shown that if such is not the case then the time of reflection ¢, is related to the arithmetic mean time #4 by (8), viz. 2 ae, i = Cc This correction would require the determination of the body’s relative velocity from a sequence of radar contacts. For relative velocities small compared to that of light, the necessary cor- rection would of course be negligible. However, for radar contacts with heavenly bodies the correction may have significance. Our approach implies that the synchronism of two clocks is not affected by their relative motion. It also suggests (definition (v)*) a method of synchronizing clocks in relative motion even when these are not spatially coincident. This should make it possible to investigate experimentally the nature of light propagation between observers in relative motion. It may also lead to a better under- standing of the relation between the “ clocked ”’ velocity{ and its corresponding value when determined by Einstein’s definition (iv)*. If the proposed approach to Special Relativity is valid, then its consequences (including the above) will require much deeper consideration. Meanwhile we have attempted to show that our approach is not only a consistent alternative to the conventional view of Special Relativity, but also that it permits of positive physical interpretations of interest and importance. References EINSTEIN, A., 1905. Ann. der. Phys., 17, 891, as translated by W. Perrett and G. B. Jeffery. McCrea, W. H., 1947. ‘‘ Relativity Physics.” (London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.) M@LLER, C., 1952. ‘‘ The Theory of Relativity.” (Oxford: University Press.) PROKHOVNIK, S. J., 1960. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 93, 141. School of Mathematics Umiversity of New South Wales Sydney t This involves clocking a body at two different points of a given inertial system. J r , at | a tin s] 5 2 a Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 94, pp. 115-120, 1960 An Occurrence of Buried Soils at Prospect, N.S.W. C. A. HAWKINS and P. H. WALKER (Received February 2, 1960) ABSTRACT.—Examination of a cutting at the base of the Prospect Hill dolerite intrusion, N.S.W., showed a vertical sequence of five soil layers or their remnants. Each of the four upper layers, formed on dolerite detritus, represents a phase of landscape instability and erosion when fresh parent materials were laid down followed by a phase of landscape stability when soil formation took place. The fifth or deepest soil was formed on Wianamatta shale country rock and was truncated at the onset of the unstable phase which gave rise to layer four. This record extends the finding of periodicity in soil formation to the coastal environment. Introduction An excavation made by the Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board on the west side of the basic igneous intrusion at Prospect Hill was examined by the authors in October, 1957. The exposure, see Plate I, revealed a considerable depth of soil material in which there was evidence of five separate soil systems arranged in a well-defined stratigraphic sequence. In this paper a description of the soil materials in the excavation is presented and the significance of the data discussed. Prospect Hill was formed by the localized intrusion of a Pliocene dolerite (essexite) into the extensive Triassic, Wianamatta shales. The intrusion is still partially overlain by the shale, see Figure 1; however, that part of the intrusion which is of interest to this investi- gation has been exposed and forms the upper slope of the hill in which the excavation was made. The mineralogy of the dolerite has been described in detail by Jevons, Jensen, Taylor and Sussmilch (1911). The percentage silica lies between 40 and 50 and the minerals are predominantly feldspars (plagioclase), augite, olivine and biotite. Soils on the Prospect Intrusion The lower slope soils have been previously described by Brewer (1947) and the soils of the catenary sequence have been compared with adjacent catenas on shale (Walker, unpublished data*). Soils on the dolerite catena range from reddish chocolate soils in the upper slope to prairie soils in the mid-slopes, then to black earths. Shale * Soil survey of the County of Cumberland, N.S.W.— Report, N.S.W. Department Agriculture. catenas consist of red podzolic soils in the upper and mid-slopes with yellow podzolic soils as the end number. Brewer (1948) found that the boundary between the shale and dolerite was characterized by a zone of soils developed on a mixture of weathered shale and dolerite. He suggested, as the causal process, soil creep in which base- rich material moved downhill and became GEOLOGICAL OF THE PROSPECT INTRUSION (after Jevons et al.) MAP SCALE; ° D |:Dolerite 2 e A [W_]: Wionamotta Shale fy A wey PROSPECT RESERVO/P cr Fic. | WALKER H . HAWKINS anp P A c 116 STIOSINS Vos FOrLHIS ? “Sury3n9 yoedsorg Jo ures8erp efeos ZO] GQN3903517 OP BOF = ofl Kesso if SO Tad SIJNOLS qultitnalll i tt gq NOILI3S La me aan SP aneee, SP ECR OTRD ene : ts 2 TA VY NOILID3S SOF a 2 ‘© RROD "0 @*.@ 0.0 © Le : So oS SOR “alt 5 NQIL939$ 21VHS VLLVNVYNVIM GLEE 2S, cg bya Beh ‘ I ey AN OCCURRENCE OF BURIED SOILS AT PROSPECT, N.S.W. intimately mixed with shale on the lower slopes. Brewer’s evidence of soil creep, involv- ing the downslope movement of soil materials, is interesting in view of the periodic erosion and deposition proposed herein. Layered Soils in the Excavation The location of the excavation is shown in Figure 1. It is situated at the base of a long slope of maximum angle 17-20°. The foot of the cutting penetrates several feet into unaltered shale and is below the present water level of the reservoir. Preliminary observations of the excavation indicated five separate soil layers above the shale bedrock. The main soil layers can be seen in the photograph of Plate I, and the whole soil layer sequence has been drawn to scale in Figure 2. The top three of these were separated because of darkened zones of organic matter accumulation presumed to be the result of surface exposure. Each of the three soil layers had horizons similar to those of the Black Earth great soil group (Stephens, 1956) and each was formed largely from dolerite material with a slight admixture of hardened shale fragments. The fourth layer was also developed from doleritic material, copious rounded stones up to 8 inches in diameter occurring throughout. These dolerite stones appeared to be water worn and had a marked white, weathered rind which was absent in the rock fragments of overlying layers. Layer 4 did not have a dark organic surface, due it was thought, to trunca- tion of its upper profile during the erosion and deposition associated with layer 3. Layer 4 was lime-rich and in this respect resembled the lower horizons of overlying materials ; it is probable therefore that the soil of layer 4 was also a black earth. Layer 5 was typically a shale-derived material and again only a stump of the original profile remained. In this case, however, the soil material passed gradually into bedrock, suggesting 7m situ weathering from shale. It is important in studies of buried soils that evidence be presented confirming the proposition that the layers are in fact separate soils. In this study the clarity of the boundaries between layers and the kind and trends in soil properties were used as evidence. These properties are organic matter, clay and lime, pedality, oriented clay coatings and segregations of iron etc. The distribution of soil properties with depth indicates accumulations or depletions with respect to a particular surface and distinguishes 117 a soil from a fresh, pedologically unmodified deposit. Generally the boundaries separating soil layers were sharp and easily observed by eye. With all the soil materials it was possible to find immediate transitions (over 2-3 inches) from a state of unorganized and unweathered C horizon material to underlying soil in which weathering and segregation of constituents was considerably greater, e.g. a B-horizon. Com- pared with the abrupt changes when passing from one layer to another, the rate of change ot soil characteristics within each layer was gradual. A number of observable profile trends were followed throughout all layers. These were colour (in the moist state), particularly as it indicated surface organic accumulation, texture, structure, clay surfaces, lime and the state of alteration of C horizon minerals. Layers 1, 2 and 3 each had clearly defined, dark coloured, upper horizons although these were not entire across the cutting. The dark colours graded to browns and yellow browns in the B-horizons. For example, layer 3 at section B in Figure 2 was 10YR 2/2 in its A horizon and graded through 10YR 3/3 and 10YR 4/3 to 10YR6/8 in the lower B horizon. Layers 1 and 2 had similar colour trends. Layers 4 and 5, without A horizon remnants, had B horizon features and in layer 4, the colours were mottles of 10YR 4/4 and 10YR7/1 while in layer 5 (on shale) they were 7:-5YR6/8 and TON RGIO: All soil materials were in the clay texture range, the usual profile trend being from medium clay in the A and upper B horizon to light clay, often with coarse sand and gravel in the lower B and C horizon. Structure was strongly developed in the upper horizons of layers 2 and 3 and to a less extent in the surface of soil1. A strong grade of lenticular or fine blocky structure gradually gave place to a weak grade of 2 x 4 inch prismatic structure in the lower B-horizon, and where there was sufficient depth of profile (layers 2 and 4), the original depositional laminations were observed in the C horizon. Generally, the layers 4 and 5 showed variable, weak structure. The degree of segregation and eluviation of clays within a layer was estimated by the ultimate fineness of peds (natural aggregates) about which glossy surfaces were entire. In layers 3 and 4, such peds were s5— ) inch incross the zones of maximum clay, indicating a high degree of organization. The size of peds increased to 4-1 inch in the lower horizons of 118 C. A. HAWKINS AND PY Ee WALKRE TABLE 1 Analytical data for the layered soils on Prospect Hill taken from the sampled sections A, B and C of Figure 2 Organic Section Soil Depth Horizon pH Carbon Lime Number (inches) 8) % YE A Soli 0-10 Tiel 1-15 0-10 20-25 2) 0-37 0-13 Soil 2 (2) 51-56 A-B 8-3 0-09 2:5 80-86 BC 8:5 0-13 0-50 Soil 3 116-120 8-8 0-07 eal 127-130 BC 8-8 0-07 3:0 Soil 4 135-138 B 8-6 0-05 7:8 155-157 C 8-8 0-04 4-7 Soil 5 182-186 C 9-1 0-01 2:1 B Soil 1 14-18 B 8-2 O- Tt 6-1 Soil 2 (?) 36-39 BC 8-2 0-09 0-63 Soil 3 48-52 A 8-6 0-23 4+] 72-75 B 9-1 0-13 6-5 116-120 C 8-6 0-06 12-8 C Soil 1 9-12 A 6-8 1-76 0-18 36-39 B 6-5 0-45 0-40 Soil 2 (2) 40-50 A 8-0 0-11 0-36 55-59 B 7-9 0-02 0-65 Transition 72-76 8-5 0-02 4-] Soil 3 103-106 A Seri 0-26 6-0 Soil 4 150-156 B 8-9 0-03 10-0 these layers. Ped size in layers 2 and 5 was coarser (4+ inch) than in 3 and 4, whilst in layer 1 clay surfaces were more widely spaced again and sporadic. It would appear from these data that there are zones within layers 3 and 4 which are more highly organized than layers 2 and 5 and that layer 1 has the least segregation of all the layers. Lime distribution (see Table 1) was variable within each layer laterally but where sufficient depth of a layer occurred, definite trends were evident in vertical section within each layer. Where some of the layers were thin and more lime-rich, secondary accumulations continued into the underlying layer, so that in places, buried organic-rich A-horizons became the BCa. horizon for thé layer above. Layer 1 had least lime, layers 2 and 3 had considerable lime in the powdery and concretionary form, and layer 4 had the heaviest accumulations. Layer 5 had lime which appeared to be derived from layer 4 ; the accumulations were not found in the general soil mass but in soil cracks and rock bedding planes. Some of the morphological features have been plotted as depth functions to test the reality of the proposed five-fold subdivision of the excavation. Munsell colour values from profile section B have been plotted in Figure 3. Colour value indicates darkness of soil colour in relation to grey and decreases as the effect of surface organic additions becomes greater. Apart from the darkened zone of soil layer 1, the sudden reversal of profile trends at 5 feet and 10 feet shows the presence of buried surfaces belonging to soil 3 and soil 4 respectively. There is no evidence of soil 2 as a distinct layer. In Figure 4, the ultimate ped size is plotted against depth at section A, Figure 2. Ultimate Munsell Colour velue 0 2 4 6 H+} : > i ‘ hr jeg 5 2 fe ? depth 3 Aus 10 & 4.8 G IS Fic. 3 Munsell colour values plotted against depth for Section B (Fig. 2) at Prospect Log. ultimate ped adam. (173, ! 0-0 1-0 2-0 0 } Is 9 G % {t. 20. septh g ~N 10 ry =f \ 08 x 15 Fic. 4 Changes in ped diameter with depth at Section A (Fig. 2) peds are the minimum size of ped about which an entire coating of colloid occurs. The diameter of ultimate peds indicates the degree of organization of soil colloids ; the greater the organization the smaller the diameter. The upper 10 feet of soil in Figure 4 shows a typical plot for a single profile with a colloid maximum at 6-7 feet. There is no evidence of a maximum in the colloid of soil 2 in this section. At 10 feet there is an abrupt change to a more highly organized state of soil layer 3. Percentage CaCO, data in section A have been taken direct from Table I and plotted in Figure 5. The three maxima correspond to the proposed BCa horizons of soil layers 2, 3 and 4 and indicate that at least three separate dolerite-derived soil layers are present above the weathered shale. Once again there is no evidence of a double soil profile within the zone proposed for soils 1 and 2. The depth function graphs give reasonable support to the proposal that buried soils occur Vp Gace; 0 5 10 b+ 5 fo) We Ps 5 : ! ES ft. . depth E} ® S ue % i \s8 Fig. 5 Depth functions for CaCO, in Section A (Fig. 2) OCCURRENCE OF BURIED SOILS AT PROSPECT, N.5S.W. 119 in the Prospect excavation. Soil layers I, 3, 4 and 5 are readily distinguishable, however it is difficult to establish the separateness of soil 2 by depth function graphs. Its inclusion in Tables 1 and 2 and in the diagrams is based on field observations only. Soil pH, organic carbon (Walkley-Black) and lime data for each of the soils is recorded in Table 1, with a note of the genetic horizon from which each soil sample was taken. Discussion It is evident that the layered soil sequence at Prospect represents successive periods of soil formation on erosional materials, since the oldest soil system was developed on shale, while the four younger systems were developed on dolerite detritus. The truncation of the buried layers, together with the gravelly nature of their lower horizons, is evidence that between the periods of soil development there were periods of erosion and deposition. The deep TABLE 2 Soil and hillslope history at Prospect, starting from the oldest events Soil layer Surface history ; number Deep weathering of the Wianamatta shale country rock to a profile with a red and grey deep subsoil . 5 Erosion and truncation of soil layer No. 5 and superposition of doleritic detritus containing rounded boulders. Stabilization and deep weathering of the dolerite detritus with the mobilization and deposition of abundant lime which percolated into the relic shale soil below Erosion and truncation of soil layer No. 4 and superposition of an even veneer of doleritic detritus containing gravels. Stabilization with deep and intense weather- ing of the dolerite detritus, with deep movement of secondary lime, and great mobilization of colloid weathered from primary minerals. Black earth profile developed .. 3 Partial erosion and truncation of soil layer No. 3 with deep gullying and deep deposition of a gravelly dolerite detritus in some places and a thin veneer in others. Stabilization with relatively — shallow weathering and slight mobilization of colloid and secondary lime (?). Black earth profile developed (?) 2 Mild truncation of soil layer No. 2 and deposition of a relatively even veneer of clayey detritus (?). Stabilization with shallow weathering and very slight mobilization of colloid and secondary lime. Black earth profile developed as the present surface = 1 120 incision of layers at several places in the excava- tion, together with the gravels, indicates hill- wash and channel cutting as the removal processes, with perhaps some form of soil creep (see Brewer, 1948) filling in with finer materials and smoothing off the hillslope surface. The soil history of Prospect Hill is one of periodic soil development within layers of erosional origin. Each of the four younger soil systems originated with deposition which resulted from erosional instability. For each deposit soil development became the dominant process, necessarily under conditions of erosional stability. This soil development ceased as erosion again became predominant and the soil was truncated and/or buried as a new layer and soil system came into being. The sequence of events is summarized in Table 2. Butler (1959) has outlined the principles of periodic soil development as evidenced by buried soil sur- faces. Van Dik (1959) has described the periodic,.or cyclic ;: jsoill surfaces ince Canberra area. It is clear that the sequence of soils at Prospect can be likened in principle to the Canberra situation, even though the soils are different and the age of the sequences could be of a different order. It is significant that the Prospect data extend the observed erosional origin and periodic development of soils in south-eastern Australia to the coastal environment. C. A. HAWKINS anp P..H. WALKER Acknowledgments The authors are grateful for the assistance given in the field by Mr. G. Taylor, by Miss E. Shannon who drew the diagrams, and by Mr. A. Siman, N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, who carried out the soil analyses. References BREWER, R., 1947. Soil survey of the sheep biology laboratory site, Prospect Hill, N.S.W. Div. Rep. 21/47, C.S.I.R.O. Div. Soils. BREWER, R., 1948. Mineralogical examination of the soils developed on the Prospect Hill intrusion, N.S.W.. J. Proc. Roy. Soc” NGS Weenie. BuTLER, B. E., 1959. Periodic phenomena in land- scales as a basis for soil studies. C.S.I.R.O. Soil Publ. 14. Dijk, D. C. van, 1959. Soil features in relation to erosional history in the vicinity of Canberra. C.S.1.R:O. Sow (Pubis te: Jevons, H. S.,. JENSEN, H?) I TAVreR, fete) GND SUSSMILCH, C. A., 1911. The geology and petro- graphy of the Prospect intrusion. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 45, 445. STEPHENS, C. G., 1956. A Manual of Australian Soils. second Ed. €.S.1.K-O 3 Aus Chemist's Branch N.S.W. Department of Agriculture Sydney (C. A. Hawkins) C.S.JI.R.0. Division, of Sorts Canberra, A.C.T. (P. H. Walker) Explanation of Plate I Photograph of the excavation at Prospect, showing a sequence of layered soils developed on dolerite detritus over shale bedrock. The soil layers are numbered from 1, the youngest, to 5, the oldest. A z ——_—_————_—$ | AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD. SEAMER AND ARUNDEL STS., GLEBE, SYDNEY Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 94, 1960 HAWKINS and WALKER, Plate I ny ie: aoe nek Manuscripts Snobid be adapted ye to. the Honorary Secretaries, Royal Society of New South Wales, Science House, 157 Gloucester : Raa, et, Sydney. Two copies of each manuscript | qui ired z the epee typecnpe eee a nie "Papers si ula fhe prepared. hese 46: ier _ general style adopted in this’ - Journal. They should be as concise as possible, consistent with / adequa ore sentation. shou Id at : “to. larity, of ‘expression, and moat ‘should he: double-spaced, * ag should be typed without ; if a paper is long, the headings ‘ap eh ca in a. care of contents: | pee! 1e oecean eis be Bibbs, Plates e Tables should be indicated in the text bety en par rallel ruled lines. 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POGGENDOREFF, B.sc.agr. pode Bs WHITWORTH, M.Sc, 9 5) Ue Aaa AD ore F ‘ has NOTICE The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the“ + Philosophical Sotieky Cos Australasia ’’ ; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of the — = ‘« Australian Philosophical Society ’’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was phi changed to the “‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales”. In 1866, by the sanction of Her ~ Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its. preeent ses Gre ‘was incornareve by’ Act of Parliament of Dee South A forge in 1881. d pau ares . re WN xX ~ 4; Soe rok F f i Big * We, ey ~ , ¥ = ~— : ae my of i é %) / : Ge xe a ey + NY * Mi ={ 4 ay Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 94, pp. 121-172, : 60 Coking Characteristics of Selected Australian and Japanese Coals C. E. MARSHALL and D. K. TomMpxKINs (Received October 28, 1960) ABsTRACT—A laboratory-scale investigation of the coking characteristics of Australian and Japanese coals, both individually and in blends, has indicated their relative suitability for blending in the production of metallurgical coke. The value of small-scale coking tests is discussed briefly and the importance of inherent seam characteristics, methods of charge preparation, controlling size and maceral distribution, and the specific conditions of carbonization, are emphasized. Also of critical significance is the temperature at which charges are introduced to the furnace; despite substantial chemical and physical differences in the coals studied it was possible to accept a uniform “ standard ”’ charging temperature which appeared suitable for the majority of coals in the production of optimum quality coke in small-scale studies. Table of Contents Introduction es oe ae Objectives of the Investigation Range and Limitations of Study Study Procedures .. es ae Preparation of the Coal for Coking Petrographic Analysis a Coke Production Coke Testing te Shatter Index Stability Index Resistance to Abrasion Micro-Mechanical Indices RESULTS uae we The Australian Coal Seams an hs ae Charging Temperature and Coke Quality General .. eu a2 ad ae Greta Coal Liddell Coal Borehole Coal .. Mars Young Wallsend Coal Victoria Tunnel Coal Bulli Coal (Wollondilly) Bulli Coal (Coalcliff) The Japanese Coals Charging Temperature and Coke Quality General .. ; Akahira Coal Ohyubari Coal Futase Coal Takashima Coal. . Coking Characteristics of Two-Component Blends of Australian and Japanese Coals Greta Blends with Japanese Coals Akahira-Greta Blends Me Ohyubari-Greta Blends Futase-Greta Blends .. Takashima-Greta Blends : Liddell Blends with Japanese Coals Akahira-Liddell Blends : Ohyubari-Liddell Blends Futase-Liddell Blends .. Takashima-Liddell Blends Page 122 122 123 124 124 125 125 125 125 126 126 126 127 127 127 127 132 132 133 133 134 134 134 135 135 135 135 137 137 138 138 138 140 140 140 140 140 142 142 142 Borehole Blends with Japanese Coals Akahira-Borehole Blends Ohyubari-Borehole Blends Futase-Borehole Blends Takashima-Borehole Blends Young Wallsend Blends with Japanese Coals Akahira-Young Wallsend Blends Ohyubari-Young Wallsend Blends Futase-Young Wallsend Blends Takashima-Young Wallsend Blends .. Victoria Tunnel Blends with Japanese Coals Akahira-Victoria Tunnel Blends Ohyubari-Victoria Tunnel Blends Futase-Victoria Tunnel Blends : Takashima-Victoria Tunnel Blends .. Wollondilly Bulli Blends with Japanese Coals Akahira-Wollondilly Bull Blends Ohyubari-Wollondilly Bulli Blends Futase-Wollondilly Bulli Blends Takashima-Wollondilly Bull Blends.. South Coast Bulli Blends with Japanese Coals Akahira-South Coast Bulli Blends Ohyubari-South Coast Bulli Blends .. Futase-South Coast Bulli Blends Takashima-South Coast Bulli Blends Three-Component Blends of Selected Japanese, Bulli and Liddell Coals Bulli-Liddell Blends me Akahira-Liddell-Bulli Blends Ohyubari-Liddell-Bulli Blends Futase-Liddell-Bulli Blends Takashima-Liddell-Bulli Blends Summary os she ae ae se Thermal Regime and _ Carbonization Characteristics : a oe Two-component Blends oe oe Three-Component Blends Conclusion .. References .. AIT RAROONITA RN th 3 INSTITUTION FEB 2 & 1989 Page 142 143 143 143 143 145 145 145 145 145 147 147 147 147 147 149 149 149 149 149 151 151 151 151 151 153 153 155 157 157 159 161 161 166 172 172 172 122 Introduction In the majority of heavy industrial com- munities, diminishing resources of premium grade coal and intensifying competition from other sources of fuel and power have emphasized the need for the greatest possible efficiency in production, preparation and utilization of the solid fuels. Furthermore, increased efficiency, leading to greater production capacity in the mines, has intensified both local and _ inter- national competition for more critical markets which are generally either waning, or expanding at arate relatively slower than the coal producing industries. Depletion of reserves of the most suitable premium grade coals has been generally and most severely felt in the carbonization industries, more particularly those concerned with the production of metallurgical coke. The more exacting demands of modern blast furnace and foundry practice, often stimulated by the enforced utilization of inferior ores and other raw materials, require continuous scientific and technological development of methods for the production of metallurgical cokes from coals formerly considered unsuitable for this purpose. The situation of the Japanese heavy industries in relation to coal supplies is_ particularly difficult. The domestic seams are of Vertiary age and vary widely in rank and quality, frequently in response to a particular or complex geological environment, which may _ also adversely condition both the efficiency and economy of extraction. Coals suitable for the production of metal- lurgical coke are in particularly short supply and a considerable proportion of the annual requirements must be imported. Economic, social and _ technological factors, however, determine the national policy which requires that a proportion of “ local ’’ coal must be used in the production of metallurgical coke ; conse- quently the “compatibility ’’ or “ blending characteristics ’ of the domestic Japanese coals and the imported fuels are of considerable importance. In New South Wales, efficient and economic coal production capacity has exceeded the requirements of local industry, thus making successful entry into overseas markets essential to the welfare of the coal mining industry and the balanced development of the national economy. It was largely in response to this mutually important and “complementary ’”’ situation of the Australian and Japanese coal producing C. EK, MARSHALL Anp DK, TOMPKINS and consuming industries that the present introductory laboratory-scale investigation was proposed, and undertaken with the co-operation and part financial assistance of the Joint Coal Board. Previous and current “expenemee "(e.2, Marshall, 1958; Tompkins, 1959; Branagan, 1959; Marshall, Tompkins, Branagan and Sanderson, 1960) has demonstrated that care- fully controlled laboratory-scale methods of coke production and testing are reliable and capable of critical discrimination ; combined with the results of fundamental petrographic, physical and chemical research they permit evaluation and interpretation’ of current and projected industrial practice. The quantitative results of the small-scale investigation cannot be integrated directly with those of the industrial operation but they do permit rapid and economic study of important factors in coke production, and help to establish trends which may be used as guides to improved industrial practice. It is unfortunate that the Permian (bituminous) coal seams of Australia are generally (but not invariably) characterized by relatively higher proportions of inherent or dispersed sedimentary mineral matter than are the high-grade products of other industrialized communities with which they must compete. As the character and proportions of mineral matter are important factors in determining the value of a coal intended for the production of metallurgical coke, this situation emphasizes the need to strengthen other technological and economic claims to an adequate share of the available international markets, and re-emphasizes the importance of fundamental and applied research for the future of the Australian coal industry. Objectives of the Investigation The primary purposes of this study were to determine with the least possible delay which of the more “ eligible ’’ coal seams of New South Wales would be most suitable for blending with typical Japanese coals used in the production of metallurgical coke, and what improvement might be expected in the physical quality of the resultant coke over that produced from the Japanese coal when coked alone. For this purpose, the Japanese authorities supplied four bulk representative samples from the Akahira, Ohyubari, Futase and Takashima mines, the first two situated in Hokkaido Province and the others in Kyushu. As repre- sentative of the potentially more interesting seams of New South Wales, the Joint Coal COOKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND -JAPANESE COALS Board submitted bulk samples of washed coal from the Bulli seam of the South Coast and Burragorang Valley, as well as from the Victoria Tunnel, Young Wallsend, Borehole and Greta seams of the Northern Coalfield. for purposes of comparison, the University Coal Research Group included in the series a sample of the middle section of the Liddell seam (excluding stone bands) from the Foybrook open cut of the Singleton-Muswellbrook coalfield, upon which detailed carbonization studies were already well advanced. The Liddell seam is a representative of the Tomago (lower) Stage seams of the New South Wales Upper Coal Measures. Previous experience gained through detailed, laboratory-scale carbonization studies of individual coal seams has demonstrated that coking characteristics are affected by many related and often mutually sympathetic factors, including the inherent petrological, physical and chemical characteristics of the seam; induced modification of these characteristics as a result of preparation for the coke oven ; and the specific conditions of carbonization (Marshall, 1958). Both individual and sym- pathetic variation in these factors induces changes in the physical properties of the coke produced, including the “ hardness ”’ or “‘ tough- ness’ of the actual coke substance, the size and distribution of gas cavities in relation to “ wall ”’ thickness, and breakage characteristics resulting from the nature and distribution of joint and fracture planes. For the most satisfactory evaluation of the blending properties of the Australian and Japanese coals, it would have been desirable to complete first, a comprehensive and progressive study of the individual character and coking potential of all seams concerned, as revealed by controlled and progressive variation in each of the factors likely to affect coke quality. The results of these individual seam studies would have been of great value for the necessarily much more extensive and much more critical development of two- and _ three-component blend studies. Unfortunately, to complete in any reasonable time a project of such scale was much beyond the material resources and time available. Consequently, certain limitations of study were imposed, greatest attention being directed to those aspects and conditions which previous experience has indicated as being of greatest potentialimportance. The same limita- tions largely confined the study to blend systems involving two components; one _ three-com- ponent blend series was investigated for each 123 of the four Japanese coals available, the two Australian coals being selected on the basis of previous study. Range and Limitations of Study The physical characteristics of a coke may be greatly affected by the particle size consist and distribution in the oven charge, factors which in turn may be significantly related to overall petrographic composition, coal type and maceral distribution (Burstlein, 1955; Marshall e¢ al, 1958 ; Tompkins, 1959 ; Branagan, 1959). For medium and high volatile bituminous coals in particular, the proportions and distribution of both the coking constituents (essentially vitrinite, resinite and exinite) and the “ inerts ”’ (dominantly fusinite, micrinite and in some circumstances mineral matter) in the oven charge are of very considerable importance. Conse- quently in fully critical and comprehensive coking studies, there should be determined not only the overall petrographic composition, but also both coal type and maceral proportions in relation to coal-particle size distribution in the oven charge. Detailed investigation of these important and related factors requires carefully controlled preparation of very many individual oven charges, in which both the size consist and petrographic character of each size fraction are varied and accurately determined ; investiga- tion of the products of coking individual and progressively cumulative size fractions can also be very informative. However, previous experience has indicated that when coked under the conditions of the present laboratory study, the majority of medium and high volatile coals yield most satisfactory cokes from oven charges in which the coal has been reduced by controlled breakage to pass a 38mm _ mesh (4”) with minimum production of finer sizes. For urgent reasons of time economy, this size- condition of the oven charge was adopted as standard in all the blend studies. Under these circumstances the petrographic phase of the investigation was limited to the overall micro- metric (maceral) analysis of representative samples of the broken coal as prepared for carbonization. More detailed studies of the important petrographic-size consist character- istics will be undertaken later, as they appear to be of considerable importance in certain of the coals of contrasted coal types. Factors in the thermal cycle of coking are often related and mutually disturbing. For convenience, those which appear to be most significant in determining coke quality may be 124 C. E. MARSHALL anv D. K. TOMPKINS referred to oven temperature at charging and rate of heating (potentially closely related in the initial stages of heating) as well as final temperature and period of coking (total and ““soaking’’ time). From previous detailed study results referred to above, temperature of charging (especially in relation to plastic range and properties of the coal) appears to be of considerable significance to the quality of the coke produced from medium- and high-volatile bituminous coals. Consequently, this relation- ship was investigated for each of the individual seams, with the two-fold objective of deriving a “ standard ”’ charging temperature for the blend studies proper, and evaluating the possible effects upon coke quality, of any departure from either the general “standard” or the individual “optimum ”’. Also based upon previous and current study results, standards were adopted for the apparently rather less significant final rate of heating, coking temperature and “ soaking ”’ period, individual investigation of the influence of these factors upon the quality of coke pro- duced from each coal not being practicable in the time available. Study Procedures With the exception of the Liddell coal each of the samples for investigation was submitted in bulk after plant preparation. Consequently, no direct relationship can be established between study results and the character and coking potential of the raw coal and all comment upon characteristics of the seams must be considered as subject to possible qualification. |More especially does this bear upon coal “ strength ”’ and fracture characteristics as indicated by the results of the “standard ”’ laboratory prepara- tion and the possible effects upon coke quality (both beneficial and maleficial) of material rejected in the course of cleaning. Preparation of the Coal for Coking Each coal submitted was prepared for carbonization by identical “‘standard”’ pro- cedures. After preliminary screening to secure material already less than 3mm (4”) mesh, the bulk sample was broken progressively by roll crusher, roll separation being successively reduced between passes to a final spacing of 3mm; all material less than 3 mm was screened out after each crushing and reserved for the final sample. In this way, each of the bulk samples was reduced entirely to —}” with the minimum production of fine material (Table 1, Japanese Coals TaBLeE 1 Size Consist of all Coals as used in Blend Studies after Standard Preparation Australian Coals eUIYSeYe |, oseyny reqnAyoO erTyeyY BIpS[eo) TIME AT[IPUOTIOM, TIN jouuny, CIIOJOL A, puogs][eM suno XK ajoysi1og HePPFI e}OIN) Size Range Tyler Mesh ‘ep) cep ais, /Hee ist? co Ci SC hy One ee wig Ke? ye. tel Maly ye! Coerou. Mom eres Cr ero COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS Fig. 1). After final crushing the coal sample _ was carefully mixed to ensure uniform distribu- tion of particle sizes and coal constituents. Petrographic Analysis For the purposes of this investigation, petro- graphic analysis was limited to the estimation of overall proportions of the major significant constituents (macerals) in micro-preparations representative of the bulk samples. Micrometric analyses were made upon polished sections of representative samples of broken coal as prepared for carbonization mounted in Polylite Resin, aggregate and mean linear intercepts indicating maceral proportions and dimensions. The results of these analyses are summarized in Table 2. Coke Production As needed for immediate study purposes, coal charges of approximately seven hundred grams were prepared so as to be properly representative, either of the individual coals, or of their blends in the required, thoroughly mixed proportions. Each charge was coked in a standard covered retort, eight of which could be accommodated in the special oven without significant dis- turbance of uniform heating conditions. Each specific coke required for study was prepared in quadruplicate. A silit-rod (Globar) type electrical furnace with accurate thermostatic and programme control was used to heat eight charged retorts at a maximum uniform rate of temperature increase of 3:3 .C° per minute to a final coking temperature of 1200° C, which in each case was maintained for a period of two hours ; adoption of these standards was based upon the results of previous detailed studies. At the termination of each particular coking cycle, the cokes were quenched individually in water, recovered with a minimum of disturbance and oven dried to constant weight at 105°C before testing. However, as the mechanical quality of coke produced from the majority of bituminous coals appears to be particularly sensitive to charging temperature, initial coking studies of each seam were concerned with an evaluation of this relationship and the possible determina- tion of an acceptable standard charging temper- ature. In this study series individual charges of each coal were introduced into the oven, which was already raised to a predetermined temperature, the heating rate thereafter being controlled to the standard temperature increase of 3-3C° per minute up to the final coking 125 temperature of 1200°C, maintained for two hours. The coking cycle was repeated with fresh charges of each coal introduced into the oven preheated to successively higher temper- atures up to the final coking temperature of 1200° C. Discussion of the results of the above study series 1s reserved for later, but it is appropriate to record here that a “standard’”’ charging temperature of 800°C was adopted for all charges comprising blends of the Australian and Japanese coals. Coke Testing After oven drying at 105°C to constant weight, each of the coke samples was weighed so as to provide an estimate of the yield, great care being exercised to avoid breakage of the individual coke fragments. For the convenient evaluation of the physical or mechanical properties of cokes, a number of simple, quantitative tests have been evolved and are in common use by industry. Laboratory scale modifications of these methods have been developed so as to accommodate the much smaller coke bulk available for testing, and in practice have proved to be very successful in quality discrimination. Broadly, these tests define the “ bulk” mechanical quality of coke by its resistance to degradation by impact (shatter and tumbler stability indices) and by abrasion (resistance to abrasion and tumbler stability indices); the mechanical qualities of the actual coke substance are largely defined by its resistance to impact under special conditions (micro-strength or micro-mechanical indices) and to a qualified extent, by the resistance to abrasion as deter- mined on the bulk sample. After weighing, each of the carefully dried, individual coke samples was sized, so as to permit estimation of the overall progressive breakage induced by each particular method and then re-combined for actual testing. One complete sample was used for each of the macro- or bulk tests; all tests were run at least in duplicate, and in the few cases where significant differences emerged, the entire study run was repeated. The detailed methods of mechanical evaluation developed for these studies are as follows : Shatter Index After preliminary sizing, the entire, re- combined sample was dropped once through a height of six feet on to a thick steel plate and 126 again sized. The reconstituted entire sample was then allowed to fall twice through the same height and again sized. As the final stage of the test the reconstituted sample was allowed to fall three times through a height of six feet and the final coke size distribution determined. The shatter index adopted for these laboratory scale studies is represented by the percentage of +1” coke remaining in the sample after the sixth drop. The initial and intermediate sizing permitted estimation of the progressive degradation. The equipment designed for this test is particularly simple, consisting of a _ spring- operated trap which ensures uniform conditions of release for the sample, at the top of a 12” diameter, six-foot long metal tube which effectively . prevented scattering of coke fragments during fall or after impact ; the steel impact plate is in the form of a large, flat-based scoop to facilitate handling of the broken coke. Stability Index The sample, recombined after preliminary sizing, was rotated end-over-end at 40 revolu- tions per minute in a standard drum of one gallon capacity, for two periods each of twenty minutes ; the sample was sized at the end of each period. For the purposes of the present study, the stability index is represented by the percentage of +1” coke remaining at the end of the test ; an estimate of the progressive degradation was obtained from the preliminary, intermediate and final size consists. Resistance to Abrasion This estimate was obtained concurrently with the stability index, the resistance to abrasion being gauged by the percentage of +4” coke disclosed in the final size analysis of the drum stability test. Micro-Mechanical Indices The technique developed and described by Blayden, Noble and Riley (1937) for the small scale estimation of coke strength has proved particularly useful, the conditions of test providing results which are related more to the physical properties of the coke substance than those of the coke bulk. The equipment comprises essentially a stain- less steel tube of effective internal length of 12 inches, and internal diameter of 1 inch, burnished on the inside and closed by two C. E. MARSHALL anp D. K. TOMPKINS dust-proof, screw-on caps. Twelve stainless steel balls, each of 3” diameter, are included | with the coke charge in the tube. /€@oke for examination is sized between 14 and 28 mesh Tyler screens, two grams being required for each #tese. The stainless steel tube containing the two-gram sample and the twelve steel balls was rotated end-over-end at 25 revolutions per minute for 32 minutes. At the end of this period, the sample was again sized, the per- centage remaining +65-mesh, and the ratio of the proportions +28/+65, being recorded as “micro-strength 65°’ and “ micro-strength 28/65 °”’ respectively. As indicated by the consistency obtained in multiple runs, as well as by the discriminatory and progressive character of the results obtained, the laboratory-scale methods developed for both controlled production and evaluation of coke have proved to be very satisfactory. In the majority of the graphs which convey the essential study results, the strength indices are logged independently in relation to the factors under investigation. It is perhaps unfortunate that these indices, although revealing individually consistent trends, often vary quite independently of each other, and but seldom correspond in the circum- stances of their maximum development. Consequently, virtually every coke of ‘optimum ”’ quality represents a compromise in physical or mechanical properties. The nature of the industrial processes concerned, the properties of other materials with which it is to be used, the type of plant and conditions of operation, personal experience and preference, will all be concerned in the determination of the particular characteristics required in any industrial coke. Consequently, specific and detailed consideration of all physical properties is normally required in the selection of coke most suitable for a particular purpose. How- ever, for general guidance and ease of com- parison, “summary ”’ indices have also been derived by taking the arithmetic mean of all strength indices (“overall strength index ’’) and the arithmetic mean of all strength indices and coke yield (“ overall strength-yield index ’’). It is recognized that these indices are open to criticism in that the “ overall ’”’ figures have not been weighted to compensate either for scale differences in the individual indices, or for particular considerations as to their relative significance, such adjustments again being largely matters of personal experience and preference. ¢ COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS RESULTS The Australian Coal Seams Micrometric and chemical analyses of the coals of New South Wales included in the blend studies are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. Variation in petrographic composition is sub- stantial (Table 2), the dominant coking con- stituent vitrinite ranging in content from 50-1°% in the Bulli seam of the South Coast to 84-7% in the Young Wallsend seam from Boston Washery ; the inerts vary sympathetically. The chemical analyses confirm the majority of the samples as being of high volatile bituminous coal. According to the A.S.T.M. rank classification the Greta coal is emphatically high-volatile “A’’ bituminous, the Young Wallsend and Victoria Tunnel coals high-volatile “ B ” bituminous, while the Liddell and Borehole lie at the boundary of the two classes. Both of the Bulli samples are of appreciably higher rank, the South Coast coal approaching low- volatile bituminous, while the Valley (Wollon- dilly) sample is best described as medium to high volatile bituminous. Subject to the qualification already discussed (p. 124), the size consists of the standard pre- pared samples of these coals generally follow a normal pattern, the Victoria Tunnel and “Valley” Bulli being outstanding, however, in their particularly low proportion of fines. Most susceptible to mechanical disintegration (as evidenced by low proportions of the coarser sizes) were the South Coast Bulli and Borehole seams (Fig. 1). Charging Temperature and Coke Quality General With the exception of the Liddell, all study series employed 200°C increments; it is appreciated that a greater number of smaller increments may have given a somewhat different picture in some cases. Without exception, the effects of increased charging temperature upon quality of coke produced from the Australian coals were found to be systematic and frequently severe, especially as reflected in the macro-strength indices (shatter, tumbler stability and resistance to abrasion). For these indices, two main “ patterns ”’ of variation emerge, each however subject to adjustment and qualification in particular cases. I (a) Progressive and general improvement in the macro-strength characteristics of the coke with successive increments in the charging temperature up to 600° or 800° C ; 127 with higher initial temperatures, both shatter index and tumbler stability decline rapidly but resistance to abrasion tends to increase further, but at a slower rate. These trends were exhibited by the coals from the Liddell, Borehole and Victoria Tunnel seams (Figs. 3, 4 and 6). (b) Initial 200° C increment of oven temper- ature above that of the laboratory is generally accompanied by deterioration in the macro-strength indices, followed immediately by progressive improvement with charging temperatures up to 600 or 800° C ; higher initial temperatures are associated with precipitate decline in shatter index and tumbler stability, while the resistance to abrasion again improved quite significantly. These trends are evident in the coal from the Greta, Young Wallsend, Valley and Coastal Bulli seams (Figs. 2, 5, 7 and 8). The micro-strength indices may _ exhibit equally systematic and sometimes sympathetic variation ; in other cases these indices vary in an apparently irregular manner, which however, like the macro-strength indices, may be affected by charging temperature in relation to the plastic range. For ease of study and comparison, all coke strength indices are graphed against the temper- ature of the oven at which the corresponding coal charge was introduced. The study results of the Australian coals are represented in Figures 2-8 inclusive. Greta Coal (Fig. 2) The Greta Coal as supplied from Aberdare Colliery, washed to an ash content of approxi- mately 5%, yielded after standard preparation, a size consist in which the larger material (+20 mesh) was well represented. Muicrometric analysis reveals the overall character of the coal as a fine duroclarain (almost a durain) with fairly uniform micro-banding. As indicated by the properties of the resultant cokes the coal proved to be very sensitive to variations in the temperature of charging. After pronounced minima associated with an initial temperature of 200° C, all three macro-strength indices improved sympathetically with charging temperatures up to 600°C. Charging temper- atures above 600° C brought about a progressive and very rapid decline in shatter strength and stability, whilst resistance to abrasion improved gradually to an extremely high value for cokes produced from coals introduced to the oven at Maceral Mean Dimensions— Microns ick muy Mineral Exinite Inertinite Neatter 3:9 36°9 12-9 3°3 19-1 14:9 3°5 30:4 11-3 3°5 34°3 9-0 3°7 21-6 12-5 on 7 35°5 7-0 toy 34-3 7:0 2°7 15-2 6:4 2°9 30:1 6:8 3:1 14-4 10-9 3:1 13-7 10-9 Japanese Coals fd u a § A 9 4 ite =) a ge. < Oo fy H 2°8 1-4 3:0 2-2 41-7 40-2 38:°2 43-6 50:0 51-6 50:4 48:3 5°5 6:8 8:4 5:9 82°3 85°3 82:3 83°8 6-2 6:3 6:0 6:3 8°6 6:0 9-9 7:9 Dh 2:0 1:5 1-4 13,480 14,290 12,950 13,920 5 8 14 y G _ G7 D G4 0:68 0:43 0:32 0:65 0:07 0:08 0O-Ol 0:06 0:03 0:03 nil 0:03 0-048 0-031 0-005 0-032 40:6 45-1 57-0 42°5 22-9 23°3 28:7 26-5 6-8 8-1 4-4 5:0 1-0 0:8 0:8 1:0 11-3 10:8 4-] 10-9 4-4 DAS 0:3 2-4 2-02 1-04 0-14 1-25 7-9 6:1 2-0 7-0 3:0 2°5 2-5 3:1 128 C. E. MARSHALL anp D. K. TOMPKINS TABLE 2 Petrogrvaphic Constitution Maceral Proportions—% Coal Vitrinite Exinite Inertinite aan Vitrinite Greta 54-0 5-4 39-2 1-4 31-0 Liddell 80-9 1-3 16-9 0-9 83-6 Borehole : 193 | | 15-5 4-] 90-9 Young Wallsend .. 84-7 0:7 13-2 1-4 93-9 Victoria Tunnel 62-8 1-3 33-0 20 37:8 Bulli Wollondilly 58-4 0-8 40-4 0-4 39-0 Bull Coalcliff 50:1 0-9 48-5 0-5 30-0 Akahira 90-9 2-1 5:1 1-9 78:3 Ohyubari 84-8 0-9 13-2 1-0 72:8 Futase 91-6 1-6 5°9 1-0 87-0 Takashima. . 90-1 2:1 5:5 2°3 81-5 TABLE 3 | Australian Coals ee © Uv ca = fa) 5 S. : s3 g as 3 eg Se sf x3 v sc 3 Of 25 ere ens o) ag Ae Se 2 Sua Proximate Analysis (a.d.) Moisture : si 2°5 3:0 3°0 3°2 3°5 2°5 1-1 Volatile Matter 40°9 36-8 34-2 34-3 32-7 29-2. 22-2 Fixed Carbon 92°35 - 52-2 52-3 65°0 S124 1 62-9 6925 Shi: ee seis 4-3 8-0 10:5 7-5 12-4 5:4 7:2 Ultimate Analysis (d.a.f.) Carbon .. ; 82°9 82-4 81-0 83-0 82-8 85:2 89-0 Hydrogen Died 5:8 6-1 5:7 6-0 5:0 5:0 Oxygen 9-4 9-1 11-0 9-3 9-1 8-1 3°8 Nitrogen a 2-0 2°3 1-9 210 2-1 1-7 1-9 Calorific Value (gross uncorr.) a .. |13,940 12,850 12,580 12,900 12,130 13,830 14,170 Swelling Index (B.S.) + 23 5 5 3 74 8 Coke Type (G.K.) G C G G D G2 G2 Total Sulphur. . 0-70 0:42 0-49 0:36 0-47 0:42 0-38 Pyritic Sulphur 0:05 0-05 0:02 0-01 0-02 0-01 nil Sulphate Sulphur 0-02 0-02 nil nil 0-02 nil nil Phosphorus 0-022 0-066 0-092 0-030 0-097 0-073 0-064 Ash Analysis SiO, : 51-2 50:5 Al,O, 38-9 35-9 Fe,O, 4-4 4°8 Ti©; 1-0 1-0 CaO 6:3 2°9 MgO 0:7 1-0 IE OR 1-90 2:04 SO;L.. 3:6 1-2 K,0+Na,O 0:7 0-7 i COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS 129 Porticle Sze Ronges suo VY OO/VG TOD ELI WW BOREHOLE WALL SEND V/C TOR/A TUNNEL Percent Percent AKAHIRA OHVYUBAR/ Ox 70 Fic. 1 Size consist analysis of the individual blend components Percent 700 IO Oo oO C. EY MARSHAL vanip 18: 100 IO 200 400 600 0:05 70 COO 7000 1200 Oo Chorging Temperature —°C a «£00 400 600 Chorging Temperature —“C Effects of charging temperature on strength of cokes produced from four Australian coal . Legend : . BOREHOLE Rotio +28/+65 mesh 10) % 9 0-05 800 7000 7200 O Fics. 2-5 @——@ Shatter Index; (J——-L] Resistance to Abrasion ; +——-+ Mlicro-strength 28/65 ; K. TOMPKINS 3° 2/20 27e8 20 +-g 4h = ae \ sine: 200 400 600 Bi! coo 7000 Charging Temperature — °C 200 400 600 G00 Chorging Temperature —°C mM Stability Index ; x — > Coke Yield 1000 a—— A Micro-strength 65 ; oO "\ Be EN | jw x 70 &= aoa tee ss \a \ Re % 3 - © 5 ee es ei ae Q A he ‘ 40 $ 9 JO O15 1200 [+65 mesh 4 Retio, +28 0-05 1200 COKING CHARACTERISIICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS 200 400 600 g00 7OOO ==/200 Chorging Temperoture —°C 700 ot/0 +28/4+65 mesh 700 BULLI (W’DILLY) oa-—— 131 Rotio ta8/t65 mesh »—x 9 ce re) \ 90 VG a | ® O oO oO 70 |— L ae ae —— B es: + & 50 iy) Q £6) 20 70 oO oO BULL/ (COALC nn 9 % Q 0-20 200 400 600 coo 7000 Charging Temperature — °C es), Jaye Be: 30 20 70 8 % Q O Oo ~00 400 Charging Temperature —°C 600 e000 Fics. 6-8 Effects of charging temperature on strength of cokes produced from three Australian coals (see Figs. 2-5) Legend : 7000 6 Ratio +28/+65 mesh 9 7200 7200 132 the final coking temperature of 1200°C. The micro-mechanical strength indices varied in mutual sympathy throughout, recording definite minima and maxima at 200°C and 1000° C respectively. Coke yield showed a very slight tendency to improve with increased charging temperature. In the case of this Greta coal, charging temperature assumed particular and critical significance in relation to coke shatter and tumbler stability indices; unlike the American coals discussed in previous papers (Marshall e¢ al., 1958, 1960) there was no serious and continuing decline in macro- strength of the coke produced with charging temperatures immediately above the plastic range of the coal. The minima recorded for macro-strength with an initial temperature of 200°C may however be related to the plasticity and gas evolution characteristics of the coal in the vicinity of its plastic range. Qn the basis of “overall ’’ coke quality (Fig. 46) there is little to choose between charging temperatures of 400°C, 600°C and 800° C ; selection of an optimum would depend upon particular consumer requirements. Liddell Coal (Fig. 3) “Standard ’”’ laboratory preparation of the Liddell sample provided a coal charge with a particularly high content of +10 mesh material and a particle size distribution indicative of a particularly “strong’’ coal; overall micro- metric analysis indicated the coal bulk to be a medium to coarse clarain in which the average dimensions of the vitrinite intercepts greatly exceeded those of the “ inerts ”’. With progressive increase of charging temper- ature to 400° C, the shatter index of the coke produced improved slowly, while with the exception of small but definite improvement in the “ 300° C coke ’’, both tumbler stability and resistance to abrasion declined at a similar rate. All three macro-indices are significantly reduced for the coke produced from coal charged at 500° C, but thereafter progressive increase in charging temperature to 800 °C is accompanied by substantial overall improvement. With further elevation of initial oven temperature, deterioration in shatter index and tumbler stability was precipitate, while resistance to abrasion continued to improve but at a much reduced rate. The micro-strength indices vary fairly sympathetically and in very broad corres- pondence with the tumbler abrasion indices. Coke yield improved generally but slightly with increased charging temperature. It is possibly C. FE. MARSHALDT ann Do iK: TOMPKINS of considerable significance that the disturbance of the initial trends exhibited in each of the strength-index curves, occurs in cokes which were formed from samples charged to the oven at temperatures within, or just above the plastic range of the coal. Further, it is important to note that charging to an oven the temperature of which is 300° or 400° C higher than the plastic range yields substantially improved cokes. On the basis of “ overall”’ quality in the coke produced, a charging temperature of 800° C emerges as by far the most acceptable for the Liddell coal in all cases where greatest resistances to macro-fracture are decisive qualities. Borehole Coal (Fig. 4) After standard preparation the Borehole seam coal supplied from Stockrington Colliery via Hexham Washery yielded a size consist possibly indicative of only moderate strength as compared with others examined in this study (Table 1). As usual, this observation is subject to qualification as extraction and preparation methods may greatly influence the sample breakage properties. Micrometric analysis reveals this to be an overall clarain in which durain bands are quite well represented ; preparation control is likely to be very important in determining coke quality. The strength of the coke produced from this coal reacted in an extremely regular fashion to variations in the oven charging temperature. The macro-strength indices behaved fairly sympathetically, showing a progressive and marked improvement with increasing charging temperature up to 800°C or 1000°C, after which both shatter and stability indices fell rapidly and resistance to abrasion remained fairly constant. Micro-strength indices were largely unaffected by charging temperatures in the range up to 800°C, after which they improved significantly. Coke yield varied but little, achieving a very modest maxima with a charging temperature of 600 °C. Fracture characteristics of the coke “ bulk ”’ were again more susceptible to variations in charging temperature than the mechanical strength of the actual coke substance. In general, this coal followed the “ normal ”’ trend of progressive strength improvement with increasing initial temperature, each index reaching its maximum value in the higher charging temperature range. There were no apparent deteriorations in the vicinity of the plastic range (360-430° C) but shatter index declined rapidly with temperatures in excess of COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS 800° C and stability index above 1000°C; in this range coke micro-strength showed accelerated improvement. On the basis of these studies, a charging temperature of 800° C is considered to produce coke of best “‘ overall’ quality (Fig. 46). The higher charging temperature of 1000° C resulted in a coke of slightly improved micro-strength and stability index, but one in which shatter strength was severely impaired. Young Wallsend Coal (Fig. 5) The Young Wallsend coal as supplied from the Boston Colliery washery provided, after standard preparation, a size consist in which the larger fractions are well represented, possibly indicative of slightly _ better-than-average strength. Micrometric analyses reveal the over- all character of the coal to be clarain ; it is well banded, with individual intercepts of the dominant coking maceral vitrinite much greater than those of the inerts. This coal proved to be quite sensitive to variations in the temperature of charging. Minimal values for both macro-tumbler test indices were recorded for cokes obtained from coals charged at a temperature of 200°C; with progressively higher initial temperatures, the stability index improved to a modest maximum at 600°C and then fell, whilst resistance to abrasion increased with considerable regularity to 1200°C. Shatter index was similarly depressed in association with a charging temper- ature of 200°C, then rose to an inconspicuous maximum at 600°C; with initial temperature above 800°C it fell rapidly. Micro-strength indices improved significantly with increase in the charging temperature ; coke yield also rose slightly. The general pattern of variation of coke strength with charging temperature follows closely the pattern established by the Greta coal (p. 182). The depression of macro-indices with a charging temperature of 200°C is slightly less marked in the case of Young Wallsend coal, but it is also thought to be related to the plasticity and gas evolution characteristics of the coal in the vicinity of the plastic range. Further, in the charging temperature range 200° to 800° C the progressive improvement of overall strength is significantly greater, so that at this “optimum ”’ charging temperature it is considerably higher than that of Greta coal. While shatter and stability indices, in common with all other Australian coals, fall quite substantially for charging temperatures in excess of 800°C, there is not the usual con- tinuing deterioration. This factor, together 133 with the accelerated improvement in hardness and micro-strength in the higher temperature range, results in a coke of acceptably high overall strength being formed when the coal charge is introduced to the furnace preheated to the actual coking temperature (1200° C). On the basis of “ overall ’’ quality (Fig. 46) a charging temperature of 800°C clearly emerged as producing a superior coke. Where maximum coke size is not a dominant considera- tion, however, higher charging temperatures will yield a coke substance of significantly greater strength. Victoria Tunnel Coal (Fig. 6) As provided for this study, the Victoria Tunnel coal from Waratah Colliery yielded, after standard preparation, a size consist in which the 6 x10-mesh fraction was well repre- sented and finer sizes were present in remarkably low proportions, possibly indicative of a “ very strong’’ coal (Table 1, Fig. 1). “ Bulk” micrometric analysis indicated the coal to be a normal duroclarain type, the average dimensions of the dominant vitrinite and inertinite macerals being reasonably similar; the microtype (and maceral) distribution in the various particle size fractions varied considerably. Progressive increases in the furnace charging temperature up to 600° C and 800° C respectively brought about systematic and regular improve- ments in coke shatter and tumbler strength indices ; with successively higher temperatures both the shatter and the stability indices fell rapidly, while resistance to abrasion continued to improve but at a much reduced rate. Micro- strength properties were very irregular, recording a series of high and low figures (not always coincident) but showing a general very slight overall improvement with increasing charging temperature. Coke yield varied but little after initial improvement. Cokes produced from Victoria Tunnel coal followed broadly the trends established by the Borehole study—a gradual improvement in overall strength to a maximum at the “optimum ”’ charging temperature, and there- after a precipitate decline. Despite very considerable fluctuations in micro-strength, the “ overall’’ quality of the coke from Victoria Tunnel coal improves in a regular and progressive fashion with increases in charging temperature up to 800° C and then deteriorates with similar regularity as it is raised further (Fig. 46). The coke produced with the “standard ”’ charging temperature is significantly superior to any other in macro-mechanical properties, 134 but selection of an “optimum ”’ for full-scale practice should be decided on consumer require- ments for particular characteristics as at 800° C, the shatter index is somewhat depressed from its maximum and micro-strength 28/65 is at a pronounced minimum. Bulli Coal (Wollondilly) (Fig. 7) The Bulli seam coal from Wollondilly Extended Colliery provided, after standard preparation, a size consist in which the fines were present in rather less than “ average ”’ proportions, possibly indicative of a moderately strong coal (Table 1). As indicated by micropetrological studies the overall character of the coal is that of a fine duroclarain of very uniform character. The character of the coke produced from this coal was particularly susceptible to variation as a result of changes in the temperature of oven charging, especially in respect of shatter strength and micro-strength 28/65. Both of these indices were high for “ cold ’’ charging and deteriorated very markedly when the oven charging temper- ature was raised to 200°C. Micro-strength 65 also deteriorated at 200° C, but to a less marked degree, while other indices remained almost constant. As charging temperature was pro- gressively increased up to 800°C the coke shatter index fluctuated and then fell pre- cipitately with further temperature increases. The stability index achieved a maximum at 800° C before deteriorating, and resistance to abrasion increased progressively throughout the range to 1200°C. The micro-strength indices fluctuated sympathetically with “ minima ”’ at 200° and .800°C charging temperature, the variation in the 28/65 index being particularly severe. Coke yield was little affected by varia- tions in the charging temperature. On the basis of “overall’’ coke quality (rig. 46) there appears to be little to recommend any particular charging temperature between 400°C and 1000°C other than consumer requirements for particular strength character- istics; the choice lies principally between high micro-strength (for which consideration a charging temperature of 400°C would be the most acceptable) and high tumbler strength (achieved with a charging temperature of 800° C) ; resistance to shatter is generally poor to moderate. For the Bulli coal from Wollondilly, temper- ature of charging assumed its most critical significance in relation to the shatter and micro- strength 28/65 indices of the resultant cokes. C. E/ MARSHAEL Ann DK; TOMPKINS Bulli Coal (Coalcliff) (Fig. 8) As indicated by the size ‘consistiaiter “standard ’’ preparation of the material originally provided, this Bulli sample was possibly the most “tender ’”’ of the Australian coals examined to date (Table 1, Fig. 1), the progressive degradation and proportions of fines being pronounced. In petrographic con- stitution this coal closely resembled that of the Bulli seam from Burragorang Valley, being a fine duroclarain of particularly uniform character. The reaction of this coal to variations in charging temperature was emphatic. All coke strength indices displayed marked initial minima for charging temperatures in the range 200° C to 400° C. All macro-strength indices achieved their maximum value when introduced to the oven already at 800°C; with higher charging temperatures, resistance to abrasion was not affected significantly whilst stability and shatter indices declined precipitately. The micro- strength of the coke is generally very good. Both micro-strength indices were very high for the cokes produced when the charge was introduced to a cold furnace; after distinct minima at 400°C, they improved slightly to 600° C and then declined again progressively but gently. Coke yield increased slightly with increasing temperature of charging. On the basis of “ overall ’’ quality as assessed by all strength indices and coke yield, the “ standard ”’ 800°C charging temperature was significantly best ; this is largely as a result of the very pronounced maximum for the stability index recorded at this temperature, all other indices also being at or near their respective maxima under these same conditions. “ Over- all’’ strength and quality/quantity indices of the cokes produced from this South Coast Buili coal are appreciably higher than for those of any other coal examined in the course of the present study. Factors contributing to this are the exceptionally good micro-strength indices, excellent stability index, and high coke yields ; throughout the series the shatter index is poor to moderate. The Japanese Coals The overall petrographic constitutions of the Japanese coals are remarkably similar. Vitrinite content ranges from 84:8°% for the Ohyubari seam to 91-6% for the Futase (Table 2). All are emphatically of high-volatile bituminous rank, type “A” (A.S.T.M. Classification), their hydrogen contents being significantly higher COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS than those of the majority of bituminous coals of Carboniferous or Permian age. The two coals from Hokkaido have appreciably higher con- tents of nitrogen than those of Kyushu and in this respect are more closely akin to the majority of other bituminous coals studied. Both swelling index and Gray King Coke Type vary widely in these otherwise reasonably similar coals. As indicated by the size consist induced by the standard laboratory-scale methods of sample preparation, in general physical character these coals are reasonably comparable with the majority of the Australian coals also studied ; they are in general not quite so resistant to breakage as any of the Australian coals with the exception of the South Coast Bulli sample (Fig. 1) and when broken by the standard procedures yield a significantly higher proportion of the finer SiZes. Charging Temperature and Coke Quality General As revealed by the range and character of variation made evident in the strength indices of the associated cokes, the four Japanese coals submitted for study are particularly sensitive to differences in the temperature of the oven on charging. Two of the coals (Akahira and Futase, Figs. 9 and 11) exhibit trends which conform broadly with the simple progressive variation in strength pattern characteristic of the Australian coals from the Victoria Tunnel, Borehole and Liddell seams. The remaining two Japanese coals (Ohyubari and Takashima) differ markedly in degree and type of strength variation revealed by the laboratory cokes. The main features of the strength variation patterns may be summarized as follows : (a) Progressive and general increase in macro- strength indices of the resultant coke with increase of charging temperature (Figs. 9 and 11), the improvement being either maintained throughout the full range (resistance to abrasion) or ter- minated by maxima which need not be achieved under similar conditions (shatter and tumbler stability). S Immediate and rapid deterioration in macro-strength indices of the cokes formed from coals charged at successively higher temperatures, ranging up to 600 or 800° C. Charging at higher temperatures may provide improvement and_ subordinate maxima in these qualities, possibly fol- lowed by renewed improvement in the final ranges (Figs. 10 and 12). 135 Throughout the range of increasing charging temperature, with either subordinate or sig- nificant variations, the micro-strength indices may either improve generally but irregularly, improve to maxima in the vicinity of 1000° C, fluctuate about a general level, or progressively deteriorate. For ease of reference and comparison the coke strength indices are graphed against the temper- ature of the oven at which the corresponding coal charge was introduced ; the study results obtained for the individual Japanese coals appear in Figs. 9-12. Akalura Coal (Fig. 9) Standard laboratory preparation indicated the Akahira coal as supplied to be possibly the most tender of the four submitted; the size characteristics exhibited by this sample (Table 1) compare quite closely with those of the Coalcliff Bull. Micropetrographic analysis indicates the overall character of the coal to be high vitrain clarain, in which the average dimensions of the dominant coking constituent vitrinite greatly exceeded those ol the anerts. Increase in charging temperature up to 600° C was accompanied by a progressive improvement in coke stability which then maintained a consistent level before declining for temper- atures above 1000°C; resistance to abrasion continued to improve up to 1200°C. Slight initial improvement in shatter strength with increasing charging temperature was followed by a significant decline which became severe for temperatures above 800°C. Micro- mechanical strength indices exhibited a general but irregular improvement with increasing temperature of charging; both achieved pro- nounced maxima at 800° C. Coke yield increased very modestly throughout the range. Although the corresponding shatter index was somewhat depressed, the “standard ”’ charging temperature of 800°C was found to produce coke of best “ overall ’’ quality (Fig. 46). The mechanical characteristics of the coke produced from the Akahira coal alone under these conditions are reasonably comparable with those of the cokes of a number of northern coalfield seams prepared under similar con- ditions. Ohyubart Coal (Fig. 10) As revealed by the size consist after standard laboratory preparation, the Ohyubari coal as supplied is apparently of moderate to good “ strength ’ (Table 1). According to the results of micrometric analysis, the overall character 136 CE. MARSHALL any DK. TOMPKINS 100 9. AKAHR 90 o Le) =— | Ratio t28/+65 mesh 4 w : ex a case i “ | v t 50 toa i ae + zea N Ny | | A 0 Q Wa ': Q 10 4— 4 za — 0:20 O ~O0O 400 600 e0o0 JOOO /200 O 200 400 600 G00 7O0OO 7200 Chorging Temperature - iC 100 11 3 e eS i) 90 v S : S e + . > ake > x x + i Q ° ba, 70 S 8 Q Q 60 50 ra OE a) nS 5 | S v v 50 0-25 re OS W) Y Q Q 0-20 7O 0:05 0:05 O O 200 400 600 Boo 7000 1200 O ~<00 400 600 G00 7000 7200 Chorging Temperature —°C Chorging Temperature -°C Fics. 9—12 Effects of charging temperature on strength of cokes produced from four Japanese coals Legend: (see Figs. 2-5) COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS yi of the coal may be described as a clarain, with approximately 85% vitrinite. The difference between the mean dimensions of coking and non-coking constituents was the least marked of all the Japanese samples. In respect of strength of the resultant cokes, this coal was found to be particularly sensitive to variations in charging temperature. All coke strength indices were at or near their respective maximum values for charges intro- duced to a cold furnace. With increase in charging temperature, all coke macro-strength indices declined considerably to initial minima at 600°C. With a charging temperature of 800°C, all three macro-indices recovered to almost their original values, only to fall again to even more pronounced minima at 1000° C. A charging temperature of 1200°C induced considerable improvement in all macro-strength indices, particularly that of tumbler stability. The coke micro-strength indices declined rapidly and sympathetically in cokes produced from coals charged at temperatures up to 400°C. With higher charging temperatures micro- strength 65 improved considerably, high values being recorded for cokes of 800° C and 1000° C charging temperature. Coke yield was variable, but exhibited a tendency to a general increase with higher temperatures of charging. On the basis of “ overall’’ quality of the resultant coke (Fig. 46), charging at laboratory temperature, 200°C, 800°C and 1200°C all have closely similar effects. Once again “optimum ” quality may only be determined by specific consumer preference for certain characteristics. Under the “standard” con- ditions of the present test series the Ohyubari coal yields a coke significantly inferior to the majority of those obtained from seams of the northern and southern coalfields of New South Wales which have been studied under the same conditions. It is probable that in conditions of normal industrial practice, Ohyubari coal alone would yield a coke of very inferior quality. Although beyond the scope of this present investigation, it 1s considered that this coal would repay particular study for the production of coke of metallurgical quality from blends charged to beehive type ovens at relatively low temperatures. Futase Coal (Fig. 11) As indicated by the size consist after standard preparation, the Futase coal appeared to be the most resistant to mechanical disintegration (Table 1) ; it corresponds most closely with the Young Wallsend sample from the Boston B Washery. Constituent maceral proportions indicate the overall character of the broken coal to be high-vitrain clarain. Increase in the oven charging temperature from that of the laboratory to 600° C, induced a progressive and very rapid increase in all macro-mechanical strength indices of the resultant cokes. Thereafter shatter index decreased precipitately while the stability index increased slightly to a maximum at 800°C; resistance to abrasion showed further pro- gressive but less marked improvements to 1200° C. Although varying sympathetically, micro-strength indices were rather irregular ; both achieved modest maxima at 400°C although the general range of variation was small. Coke yield increased gently but pro- gressively throughout the range. On the basis of overall coke quality, the standard’”’ 800°C charging temperature proved again to be the most effective com- promise, although for cokes produced from coals charged at this temperature the shatter index was appreciably depressed from its maximum achieved at 600°C. The mechanical character- istics of the cokes produced from Futase coal charged at either 600° C or 800° C are reasonably comparable with those of the cokes of some northern coalfield seams produced under the same conditions. 6¢ Takashima Coal (Fig. 12) The size consist after standard preparation of the sample submitted indicates the Takashima coal to be of moderate strength (Table 1). According to the results of micrometric analysis upon the broken coal, in overall composition it must be classed as high-vitrain clarain. As in the case of the Ohyubari material, the Takashima coal proved to be_ particularly sensitive to variations in the temperature of the oven on charging, in relation to strength of the resultant coke. From quite satisfactory figures for cold charging, both shatter and stability indices declined precipitately with increased initial oven temperature, until at 800°C charging temperature, they exhibited unusually low minimal values. In cokes pro- duced from coals charged at 1000°C, both indices recovered to some extent, but the shatter index was again depressed when the oven temperature on charging was raised to 1200° C. Resistance to abrasion varied much less sig- nificantly, but is somewhat depressed for charging temperatures between 400°C and 1000° C. Micro-strength characteristics increase progressively and sympathetically to substantial 138 maxima for 1000°C charging temperature ; thereafter they decline slightly. Coke yield is depressed for coals charged between 200° C and 1200° C. On the basis of overall quality (Fig. 46) coal introduced to the oven at temperatures up to 200° C was found to yield coke of quite acceptable quality ; under these conditions, it is possible to produce from Takashima coal a coke which is superior to that of any other of the Japanese coals investigated when coked under their respective most favourable con- ditions. Under either present “standard” coking conditions, or those realized in a modern slot-type coking oven, the Takashima coal alone would most probably yield a coke of markedly inferior macro-mechanical properties. However, its particular and quite unusual qualities of yielding optimum strength coke from coal charged’ to “cool” or. {cold ovens, most strongly recommend it for comprehensive blend studies in relation to coke production in beehive type ovens. The general pattern of variation emerging from this study series (Fig. 12) seems to indicate that an increased “ soaking ’’ period may favour the production of stronger coke from charges introduced to the furnace at the “standard ”’ temperature of 800 °C. Coking Characteristics of Two Component Blends of Australian and Japanese Coals The limitations imposed upon the scope of this study by the particular circumstances in which it was undertaken have already been indicated (p. 123). It would have been extremely interesting to explore fully the effects of con- trolled variation in all factors in the thermal cycle (e.g. charging temperature and rates of heating, final coking temperature and duration) upon the mechanical properties of coke produced from specially prepared charges of different size ranges and consists, as well as maceral pro- portions and distribution. As this was not possible, certain “ standards ”’ in conditions of coking and charge character were accepted for all blend studies. With the exception of those of the Takashima coal, the results of the introductory investigation concerned with the effects of charging temper- ature upon the quality of coke produced from the individual samples indicated that optimum “overall ”’ coke quality was usually associated with an initial oven temperature in the vicinity of 800°C. Based upon reasonable conformity in the results of other more detailed studies of comparable high volatile bituminous coals, the “blend ’’ standards for rate of heating above C. E. MARSHALE ann DV Ke TOMPKINS charging temperature, final coking temperature and duration were accepted as 3:3C° per minute, 1200° C and 2 hours respectively. The size range, consists and maceral distribution produced in each individual coal by the con- trolled method of preparation were accepted as standard. In practice each Japanese coal was blended in turn with each of the Australian coals in various proportions. Study procedures were as previously described for the individual coals with particular attention to uniformity in distribution of blend components and coal sizes in the oven charge. For ease of comparison and interpretation, study results for each two- component blend series are graphed separately. In the following discussion, it must be clearly understood that where comparisons are drawn between the coking characteristics of individual seams, they refer to the quality of the coke produced under the laboratory conditions of production and testing accepted as “ standard ”’ for this investigation. Greta Blends with Japanese Coals Under the “ standard ’”’ coking conditions of the present laboratory scale study, the Greta coal alone yielded a coke characterized by low shatter and moderate stability indices, high resistance to abrasion, and moderate to rather low micro-mechanical indices; coke yield was relatively low (Fig. 2). With but one exception (Futase), Greta coal when blended with the Japanese samples induced definite improvements in the macro- mechanical indices of the coke produced. As would be expected, this improvement is most strikingly evident in the Greta blends with Takashima coal, where the benefits obtained are very substantial. Effects upon the coke substance as indicated by the micro-strength indices were not so generally or significantly beneficial. Akahira-Greta Blends (Fig. 13) Although these two coals appear quite reasonably comparable in their individual coking characteristics, the carbonized products of their blends do _ exhibit appreciable and systematic variation in their mechanical properties. Resistance to abrasion, shatter and stability indices increase modestly to maxima in the coke produced from a blend of Greta+ Akahira coals in equal proportions; unfor- tunately micro-mechanical strength properties exhibit the reverse trend and definite minima are recorded for these indices in the same coke. =~ COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS 139 700 700 13. AKAMA * o—o— —~n— 14. OHYUBAR/ 90 90 gO 8O 7O 7O $ : x4) v N SN 60 N 60 | 9 a eC . S + ™s. =~ 50 — 2 50 1 & % S) X + Q + 9 Q 40 a 40 8 9 , Y Q JO OWS JO O’VWS 20 0-10 20 70 (O}( Ofs% 0:05 70 O O % Akohira 100 75 5O 2S O 7, Ohyvbori 100 75 50 45 fo} Grete oO ZEN SO 75 100 %Greto Oo 25 50 75 100 700 90 ao 70 Rotio +28/+65 mesh JO O:15 <0 7O 0:05 O WFutose 700 75 50 £25 O ZTokoshimo 100 75 50 25 O %Greto oO Ee Bere 75 100 % Greta oOo 25 50 Te 700 Fies. 13-16 Variations in strength of cokes produced from blends of each Japanese coal with Greta coal Legend: (see Figs. 2-5) 140 Coke yield varies but little, a very modest maximum appearing in blends of 25° Greta- 75% Akahira. Ohyubani-Greta Blends (Fig. 14) Only in respect of shatter index and yield of the resultant coke do these two coals appear to be reasonably comparable as regards their individual coking properties. Greta coal is significantly superior to Ohyubari coal in respect of macro-tumbler test indices (stability and resistance to abrasion), and Ohyubari is markedly superior in both micro-mechanical strength indices. Variations in the properties of cokes produced from their blends are systematic and significant. Resistance to abrasion increases quite markedly when 25% of Greta is introduced into the coal charge, thereafter improving more gently to a maximum for Greta coal coked alone. The shatter indices of cokes produced from all blends are very definitely superior to those of either coal coked alone, but do not exhibit significant variation over the inter- mediate range 25% to 75%. In contrast, the stability index exhibits a very pronounced maximum for cokes produced from _ blends of 75% Greta-259% Ohyubari. Both micro- mechanical indices exhibit maxima for cokes produced from blends of 25° Greta-75% Ohyubari, indicating a coke “substance’”’ of appreciably superior strength. Coke syield showed a general tendency to decrease slightly with increasing Greta proportions in the charge. Futase-Greta Blends (Fig. 15) The two blend components appear to be quite similar in their individual coking properties, and variations in the mechanical properties of the cokes produced from their various blends are generally inconsiderable. The shatter index achieves a very modest maximum in cokes produced from blends with 75% Greta-25% Futase, and an equally modest minimum for the coke produced from a 50-50 blend. With one very minor exception, the stability index decreases very gently as the proportions of Greta are increased. The re- sistance to abrasion, however, improves with the inclusion of 25° Greta in the charge but, with further increase in the proportions of this component, fluctuates very slightly. Micro- strength 65 attained a modest maximum in the coke produced from 50% Greta-50°% Futase blend ; micro-strength 28/65 was a minimum in the Greta 75% -Futase 25% blend. Coke yield decreased slightly but progressively with increased content of Greta. Co MARSHALL AnD) Dike TONERS LTakashima-Greta Blends (Fig. 16) Coke produced from Greta coal alone is very markedly superior to that of Takashima in respect of all macro-mechanical strength indices, but is considerably inferior in micro-strength. The properties of cokes produced from their blends vary widely but quite systematically. Stability and shatter indices of coke produced from the Takashima coal are improved to a very considerable degree by the addition of even moderate proportions of Greta, these properties achieving maxima in the vicinity of 50-50 blends. Resistance to abrasion also improved rapidly with the addition of Greta coal in proportions up to 50% of the charge. As revealed by the micro-strength indices the “mechanical quality’”’ of the coke substance was not so improved. The 28/65 index fell rapidly with the inclusion of up to 50% Greta in the charge, while in the same range the 65 index improved very slightly and thereafter declined rapidly. Coke yield showed a slight maximum from blends containing 25° Greta. ¢ Liddell Blends with Japanese Coals Under standard conditions of coking, Liddell coal alone produced a coke of high shatter, stability and resistance to abrasion; both micro-mechanical strength indices were rather low. Yield of coke was quite normal for a high volatile bituminous coal (p. 132, Fig. 3). Liddell coal has a definitely beneficial effect on the coking characteristics of all four Japanese coals ; with the exception of blends of Futase coal, a content of as little as 25°% Liddell coal in the blends achieves remarkable improvement in the “overall’’ macro-strength characteristics of the coke produced. Akahira-Liddell Blends (Fig. 17) Although under standard conditions Liddell and Akahira coals appear to be very broadly comparable in their individual properties, cokes produced from their blends nevertheless exhibit some modest variation in mechanical properties, especially in respect of shatter index. None of the blends yields a coke with a shatter index as high as that of Liddell coal alone ; each addition of Akahira results in a gradual decline in shatter index which becomes much more precipitate when proportions of Akahira exceed 75% in the oven charge. Stability index and resistance to abrasion vary little and generally in sympathy ; definite minima are recorded for each in cokes produced from a 50-50 blend. Micro-mechanical indices of cokes produced from 70O 90 eO 70 JO 20 7O 7, Akahire 100 Z% Liddell oO 700 90 gO 70 60 50 Percent 40 JO 20 70 17 ARKAWRA 7S (@) | wifivtose 700 75 7, Liddell! oO 25 700 18.O4H COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS VUBAR/ IO oe aO XC a) v . 70 ‘ © AS <6) 6O X% * ae) N as) v < 2? 50 8 .) _ Q 0-20 40 O15 JO O-70 20 0-05 7O xe) de Ohyubor/ 700 % Liddell o 700 90 < ) vo 8 380 ho) © * ae 70 x A) = 60 ee) c <4 v .S) Ope & BO Q 0:20 40 Orn75: JO 0:70 ZNO) (EG) 0 Okey 7O O % Tokashime 100 % Liddell oO Fics. 17-20 Variations in strength of cokes produced from blends of each Japanese coal with Liddell coal Legend : (see Figs. 2-5) 141 [+65 mesh A ota 226 0:05 4 Reotio +28/+65 mesh O 142 the blends exhibit modest Liddell 75-Akahira 25 coke. tion of both macro- and micro-mechanical indices it is evident that most acceptable “ overall’ quality will probably occur in cokes produced from blends of approximate com- position: Liddell 75%-Akahira 25%. Coke yield varies but little, a very modest maximum appearing in blends of Liddell 25%-Akahira 75%. Ohyubani-Liddell Blends (Fig. 18) In their individual coking characteristics the Liddell and Ohyubari coals are quite different, the latter yielding a product quite inferior in macro-mechanical characteristics but of superior “strength ’’ in the coke substance. Blending these two coals produces quite systematic and considerable variation which assumes great importance in. the) ‘control, (ote. pretcered characteristics. All macro-indices are greatest for the cokes produced from Liddell coal alone and least for those yielded by the entirely Ohyubari charges. The presence of only 25°, Liddell coal in the blend effects considerable improvement in mechanical properties, especially in respect of tumbler stability. As the proportion of Liddell coal is increased both shatter index and resistance to abrasion improve, while tumbler stability declines very slightly. Micro-strength indices are _ considerably improved in the blends, the optima not corres- ponding but being achieved in the cokes pro- duced from charges in which both coals are either equally represented or in the proportions Liddell 25%-Ohyubari 75%. The best com- bination of strength characteristics would most probably be obtained in a coke produced from blends containing approximately equal pro- portions of the two components. Coke yield varies slightly and achieves a modest maximum for charges containing Liddell 75%-Ohyubari 25% blends. Futase-Liddell Blends (Fig. 19). The mechanical strength characteristics of the cokes produced from Futase coal alone under standard conditions are reasonably comparable with those of a number of northern coalfield seams ; but for a substantially inferior shatter index, they correspond quite closely with those of the Liddell. In general, the properties of the cokes produced from blends of Liddell and Futase coals vary systematically, but certain exceptions are notable. All macro-indices are greatest for the cokes produced from Liddell coal alone. However, maxima for the From considera- C. EH. MARSHALL ann BD. K: TOMPKINS shatter and stability indices both exhibit pro- nounced minima for the Liddell 25%-Futase 75% blend coke while resistance to abrasion attains a less marked minimum in the 50-50 product. Thereafter, as the \proporien’ of Liddell coal in the blend is increased, coke macro-strength generally improves. Micro-strength characteristics of the blend cokes exhibit pronounced minima in the vicinity of the 50-50 blend, and equally emphatic maxima for cokes of the Liddell 75 %-Futase 25% blend. Maximum “ overall ”’ quality in respect of mechanical strength is provided by cokes produced from coal charges containing Liddell 75%-Futase 25%. Coke yield is highest for blends ranging from Liddell 50°%-Futase 50% to Liddell 75°%-Futase 25%. Takashima-Liddell Blends (Fig. 20) The macro-mechanical indices of the coke produced from the Takashima coal alone under standard test conditions are very markedly inferior to those of the Liddell coal, while the latter is definitely inferior to the Japanese coal in the strength of the coke substance. Cokes produced from blends of the two coals exhibit considerable and progressive variation in both — macro- and micro-indices. Macro-strength indices are greatest for cokes produced from the Australian coal alone. Inclusion of no more than 25° of Liddell coal in the oven charge is accompanied by very considerable improvement in all mechanical characteristics, including the micro-strength indices. Resistance to abrasion and tumbler stability increases progressively as the pro- portion of Liddell coal in blends is increased ; with one minor exception (coke from blend of Liddell 75°,-Takashima 25%) the shatter index similarly improves. Micro-indices vary sympathetically, each achieving distinct maxima in cokes of the Liddell 25°%-Takashima 75% blend. Most acceptable “ overall’? mechanical quality of the coke produced would probably be obtained from blends between Liddell 25°%-Takashima 75% and Liddell 50°%-Takashima 50%. Coke yield increased gradually and progres- sively as the proportion of Liddell coal in blends was increased to 75%. Borehole Blends with Japanese Coals Under “standard ’”’ coking conditions, when carbonized alone the Borehole seam _ coal returned a coke of high shatter, stability and resistance to abrasion and low micro-mechanical COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS strength characteristics. Coke yield was quite normal (Fig. 4). In blends with the Japanese coals the Borehole seam generally produced significant and some- times substantial improvement in the macro- mechanical characteristics but usually some deterioration in coke substance as indicated by the micro-strength indices. Akahiva-Borehole Blends (Fig. 21) The two blend components appear to be reasonably comparable in their individual coking properties. The coke produced from the Bore- hole coal alone, however, was markedly less subject to shatter while that from the Akahira coal was slightly superior in respect of micro- mechanical strength. Except for the shatter index, variation in the mechanical properties of their blends were generally inconsiderable. With the exception of coke produced from the 75% Borehole-25°, Akahira blend, the shatter index increased with the proportion of Borehole coal, whilst stability index and resistance to abrasion both achieved modest minima in cokes from blends containing 759% and 25% of Akahira coal respectively. Both micro- mechanical strength indices were at a slight minima for the 50-50 blend cokes. Coke yield increased progressively with greater content of Borehole coal. Ohyubani-Borehole Blends (Fig. 22) The coking properties of the two blend components are not very similar. Coke pro- duced from Borehole coal alone is significantly superior in respect of shatter, stability, resistance to abrasion and yield, whilst that from Ohyubari coal is equally superior from the point of view of micro-mechanical strength. The effects of blending the two coals are, with minor excep- tions, quite systematic and considerable. All three macro-mechanical strength indices generally improve with increasing proportions of Borehole coal in the charge, the shatter index achieving an insignificant maximum with 75% of this component in the blend. With one exception, all micro-strength indices decline progressively as the proportion of Borehole coal is increased in the charge; the exception occurs in coke representing a blend of the two coals in equal proportions, for which the 28/65 micro-strength index was a definite minimum. _ Coke yield improved quite regularly with increase in the proportion of Borehole coal. 143 Futase-Borehole Blends (Fig. 23) In their individual coking properties these two coals are comparable in respect of all mechanical characteristics of the coke produced, except that the Borehole coal is significantly Superior in resistance to shatter. The effects of blending vary quite considerably, especially in relation to the three macro-strength indices and therefore are of great importance in the control of specific properties. The blending of Borehole and Futase coals results in some irregularity in variation of coke quality and little overall beneficiation. None of the blends investigated yield cokes in which there is any improvement in the macro-strength indices over those of the best individual com- ponent ; all achieve pronounced minima in one or other of the coked blends, the most significant being that of the shatter index in coke of Futase 75 %-Borehole 25°%. Lesser minima are recorded for stability (Futase 75° -Borehole 25% and Futase 25°%-Borehole 75°%) and for resistance to abrasion (Futase 25°%-Borehole 75%). Micro- strength varies but little, the 28/65 index generally improving slightly with an increase in the proportion of Borehole coal. Coke yield increased with addition of Borehole coal. Takashima-Borehole Blends (Fig. 24) In respect of the quality of the cokes yielded when carbonized individually, these two coals are quite different. The Borehole sample was greatly superior in terms of macro-strength and yield of coke, while the product of the Takashima coal was superior in micro-strength characteristics. Blending of the two coals produced substantial changes in coke quality. The inclusion of no more than 25° Borehole coal in the oven charge produced great improve- ments in all three macro-strength indices of the resultant coke over those of the carbonized product from Takashima coal alone; further increases in the proportion of Borehole coal were accompanied by further but more gradual improvements in these indices, the stability index achieving a modest maximum at Borehole (9°,,- lakashima’ 25%; The highest micro-strength 65 index was found in coke of the Borehole 25%-Takashima 75% blend but in general the strength of the coke substance declined with increase in the proportion of Borehole coal. Coke yield improved progressively with each increase in the proportion of Borehole coal. 144 700 go 7O 60 Percent Gy ©) 700 IO go 7O fo 10) Percent % 9 ss 12) JO 20 70 O Ui, Futose 700 vs Borehole Oo a5 CHE. MARSHALTE AnD DD: Ke TOMPKINS 700 90 80 aS S 4% & v 1 7O S bo) Re) © + + S ae x 60 % + % A N 9 5) 9 8 N 20, S ee Q Q -20 40 20 "75, JO O15 0-10 20 0-10 0:05 10 0:05 O %Ohywbori 100 75 exe) 25 O 7, Borehole 0 25-..50 . 75/00 <& % SS R x S g ie) » + © = * : 5 a) 4 C x 8 y © t g 3 e -20 0:20 O15 O15 0-710 0-10 0:05 0:05 O LTokoshime 100 75 GO 25 O 700 7 Borehole OO. 25 40) 7omamaG Fics. 21-24 Variations in strength of cokes produced from blends of each Japanese coal with Borehole coal Legend : (see Figs. 2-5) COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS Young Wallsend Blends with Japanese Coals Under “ standard ”’ conditions of the present laboratory study Young Wallsend seam coal from Boston Washery yielded a coke of moderate to fairly good physical properties as indicated by both macro- and micro-strength character- istics ; coke yield was quite normal for a coal of this type. Cokes produced from blends of the Young Wallsend sample with each of the Japanese coals were generally improved in macro-physical characteristics ; the micro-mechanical properties of the coke substance were not significantly affected. Akalra-Young Wallsend Blends (Fig. 25) From the character of the cokes which they yield when carbonized separately, these two coals appear to be quite similar in their individual coking properties; only in respect of shatter index was the coke from Young Wallsend coal significantly superior to that of Akahira. The properties of the cokes produced from their various blends varied systematically and to a pronounced degree. The shatter index was greatest for coke produced from Young Wallsend coal alone. From this quite high individual value a gradual decline in shatter strength accompanied each increase in the proportion of Akahira up to a content of 50%; blends in which proportions of Akahira exceed 50°% yield a coke which is much more susceptible to impact breakage. The stability index exhibits a very definite maximum in the vicinity of 50-50 blend cokes, while resistance to abrasion increases very slightly in the middle ranges. On the basis of these macro-mechanical indices alone, blends which yield cokes of quite good quality range between Young Wallsend 50%-Akahira 50% and Young Wallsend 75°%-Akahira 25%. The variation in the quality of the coke substance is very regular, the micro-mechanical indices being least in the blend cokes containing approximately equal proportions of the two coals. Coke yield decreased gradually with each increment of Akahira in the blend. Ohyubari-Y oung Wallsend Blends (Fig. 26) The two components of this blend series differ quite considerably in the quality of their individual cokes. The Young Wallsend coal returns a coke of significantly superior macro- mechanical strength characteristics and slightly higher yield, whilst Ohyubari coke is much better in respect of micro-strength. Blends of 145 these two coals showed considerable and _ pro- gressive improvement in all mechanical properties as compared with those of the individual seams; unfortunately no_ single blend yielded a coke in which all mechanical properties were most highly developed. Tumbler stability attained a pronounced maximum for cokes from blends of Young Wallsend 75%-Ohyubari 25%; both shatter index and resistance to abrasion were greatest in cokes from equal part mixtures, the former recorded as a pronounced maximum. Micro- mechanical indices varied progressively and in marked sympathy, with maxima in_ cokes representing the blend Young Wallsend 25%- Ohyubari 75%. Coke yield increased appreciably with addition of Young Wallsend in proportions up to 50% of the blend, but further increments produced no significant change. Futase-Y oung Wallsend Blends (Fig. 27) With the exception of the superior shatter index for coke produced from Young Wallsend coal, the cokes produced from these two coals individually are quite comparable. With few exceptions, both macro- and micro-mechanical indices of the blend series varied progressively with changing proportions of the two com- ponents. Maximum shatter and_ stability indices occurred in cokes obtained from the blend Young Wallsend 50%-Futase 50% ; resistance to abrasion was greatest for the coke from the blend Young Wallsend 25° -Futase 75%. The micro-mechanical indices improved greatly with each increase in proportion of Young Wallsend coal in the charge. Coke yield varied but slightly, Futase coal when carbonized alone providing the least return. Takashima-Y oung Wallsend Blends (fig. 28) As demonstrated by the contrast in the physical characteristics of their individual cokes, these two blend components are very different in their coking properties. Macro-mechanical strength indices and yield of coke from the Australian coal are much greater than from the Japanese coal, whilst the micro-strength indices of the entirely Japanese coke are appreciably superior. The effects of blending Young Wallsend and Takashima coals are systematic and substantial. Even modest proportions of Young Wallsend coal in the oven charge greatly improve the macro-mechanical properties of the _ coke. 146 C. E. MARSHALL anp D. K. TOMPKINS 700 g— 9 25 AKAMLA Bi Percent 7 fFutose 00 75 350 25 O %, Young Wollsend © ae 50. 7D 700 Percent Ts Fultose JOO 75: 50 25 O hide) ung Wallsend © 25 50 7S 700 80 < % : 5 N 70 v ‘0 N iS bo) =~ - 2 60 = x >) X 2 ‘ * S ) as) 8 ay 3 0-20 40 0-20 ONS JO 0-15 0-10 20 0:70 0:05 70 O04 oO 7, Ohpubaor’ 100 75 50 25 Oo % Young Wollsend Oo ee} SO oy 100 700 | | TARKASH/MA | gO 2 &. Ba oe Jo) : : NS x ee 70 N A») * ; Ie tay % 60 sc) & x + = 4 s : g “WM S x 50 x QV Q v 0-20 40 0-20 ONS JO OWS 0:70 20 0-10 0:05 70 0:05 O 7, Takashima 100, 75 ~ 50. 26; O wh Young Wa jisen uw 25 50 IS 7OO Fics. 25-28 JOO IO Variations in strength of cokes produced from blends of each Japanese coal with Young Wallsend coal Legend: (see Figs. 2-5) COOKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS Stability index and resistance to abrasion are greatest in cokes of 50-50 blends, while the shatter index exhibits a pronounced maximum for the carbonized product of the blend Young Wallsend 75°%-Takashima 25°. Micro- mechanical indices, however, deteriorate generally with increased proportions of Young Wallsend, the 65 index but slowly, the 28/65 more definitely to a minimum for cokes of the Young Wallsend 75%-Takashima 25°, blend coke. As compared with that of Takashima coal alone, coke yield increases significantly with additions of Young Wallsend up to 50%. Victoria Tunnel Blends with Japanese Coals Victoria Tunnel coal, when carbonized under the “ standard ”’ conditions of the present study, produced a “stable ’’ coke with high resistance to abrasion, stability and shatter, as well as moderate micro-strength characteristics. Coke yield was also quite good for coals of this rank. In blends with the Japanese coals, cokes were produced with very good macro-mechanical properties and improved strength in the coke substance. Akalura-Victoria Tunnel Blends (Fig. 29) Of these two blend components, the Victoria Tunnel is superior in respect of the micro- mechanical properties of its individual coke, and quite comparable with Akahira coke in micro-strength. The cokes produced from their blends exhibit appreciable and _ significant variations. In cokes produced from blends of the two coals the shatter index is considerably improved by the presence of quite modest proportions of Victoria Tunnel coal, a maximum being achieved from the 50-50 blend. Coke stability was improved with each increment of the Victoria Tunnel coal while resistance to abrasion was slightly impaired in all blends. Both micro- strength indices attain appreciable maxima in cokes of the 50-50 blend, the ‘ 28/65 ”’ values being rather erratic in their distribution. Coke yield proved to be best for the 50-50 blend. Ohyubari-Victoria Tunnel Blends (Fig. 30) In so far as the mechanical properties of their individual cokes are concerned, the Victoria _ Tunnel product is definitely superior in macro- strength and that of Ohyubari is superior in terms of micro-strength ; coke yield is slightly higher for Victoria Tunnel coal. The effects of blending the two coals are significant, variation In coke quality being reasonably systematic. 147 Both stability index and resistance to abrasion improve markedly with increase in the pro- portions of Victoria Tunnel coal up to 50% ; shatter index was recorded as a definite maximum in the 50-50 blend coke. Micro- strength is most highly developed in cokes of the Ohyubari 75°%-Victoria Tunnel 25% blend, and thereafter (with one exception) declines progressively as the proportion of Victoria Tunnel is increased. Coke yield increases with the proportion of Victoria Tunnel coal up to a content of 75%. Futase-Victoria Tunnel Blends (Fig. 31) As related to the mechanical properties of their cokes these two coals are reasonably comparable in individual carbonization pro- perties. The effects of blending upon the macro- mechanical properties of the cokes produced are generally modest and progressive; in relation to micro-strength they are emphatic and critical. There is a general progressive improvement in shatter resistance with increases in the proportion of Victoria Tunnel coal, to a maximum for the coke produced from blends containing 75° of the Australian coal. Variation in macro-tumbler characteristics and resistance to abrasion is generally progressive, slight improvement accompanying increased propor- tions of Victoria Tunnel coal. The effects of blending upon the micro- mechanical characteristics of the coke are conspicuous and critical; micro-strength 65 shows a pronounced minimum and _ micro- strength 28/65 an equally pronounced maximum for the carbonized product of the 50-50 blend. The rate of variation in the quality of the coke substance over the intermediate range of blends is very great. Coke yield is at an appreciable maximum for the 50-50 blend. Takashima-Victoria Tunnel Blends (Fig. 32) The physical qualities of the individual cokes of the Victoria Tunnel and Takashima coals differ greatly and are in fact only comparable in respect of the micro-strength 65 index. The Australian coal is very much superior in respect of coke yield and macro-mechanical strength, while the Japanese coal returns a higher micro- strength 28/65. The blending of the two coals produces well defined changes of considerable magnitude. The macro-strength of the Takashima coke is markedly improved by addition of 25% Victoria Tunnel coal in the charge; further increments induce little or no significant change 148 (3) Z Akohiro Vp Vielorio Tunne/ O Is F utose 100 Wp, Vietorio Tunne/ Variation in strength of cokes produced from blends of each Japanese coal with Victoria Tunnel coal Legend: (see Figs. 2-5) Percent Percent 700 IO co 70 60 30 40 JO 20 70 700 IO eO 70 60 JO 40 ZU ) c g v Vv ee) O-aS Naere) 02s .) « y & q : q c v y | 40 g 40 g | 6 6 © 0 | —< we ie O ® JO S + 7: ne) 9 20 is 20 < S Q X 70 0:05 70 0:05 O O % Futose 100 75 50 AS 7, Tokoshima 100 5 50 25 O Ti Busiimeno 25 50 75 100 7361) nO, 25 50 Si 700 Fics. 37-40 Variations in strength of cokes produced from blends of each Japanese coal with Coalcliff Bulli coal Legend: (see Figs. 2-5) COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS Three Component Blends of Selected Japanese, Bulli and Liddell Coals Previous discussion has been concerned with the generally significant and sometimes quite remarkable improvements in the mechanical properties of coke produced from two-component blends of certain Australian and Japanese coals ; in some cases the quality of the blend-coke may be such as to transcend that of either individual coke in the majority, if not all strength indices. Based upon this experience, considerable potential benefits could be expected as a result of blending in the coke oven charge, three coals of suitable individual characteristics in favourable proportions. The magnitude of the task involved in critical and comprehensive evaluation of the factors concerned in the determination of coke quality, 100 of) 7O O-.s0 . » O JO Rotio 428/465 mesh 20 Oo I, Bulli 100 7S 50 2s O Z, Liddel/ oO os, 50 Pom JOO IPTG: +41 Variations in strength of cokes produced from Liddell- Bulli blends Legend: (see Figs. 2-5) 153 either from individual or blend charges, - has already been indicated. As similar investigation of the factors controlling the quality of coke produced from three-component blends entails a very much greater volume of critical study the present three-component blend programme was of necessity limited to an introductory examina- tion of the coking characteristics of blends in which two Australian coals were used in various proportions with each of the four selected Japanese coals. For this purpose, the Bulli coal of the South Coast and the Liddell of the Northern Coalfield were selected, these seams having formed the subject of previous extensive studies and appearing to offer immediate prospects of interesting results. The standard conditions of preparation and coking developed for the two component blend studies were observed throughout the investi- gation. Under these conditions it emerges that both Bulli and Liddell coals make sub- stantial contributions to the quality of the cokes produced from the three-component blends. In particular, the Liddell coal con- tributes significantly to improvements in coke macro-strength, especially as represented by the shatter index ; resistance to abrasion, micro- strength and coke yield are almost invariably greatly improved by the Bulli content of the oven charge. The variations in the strength characteristics of the coke with different proportions of the three oven charge components are reproduced in the ternary diagrams, Figs. 42-45. It must be emphasized that these variation diagrams, based upon a relatively “ coarse’ pattern of blend distribution, represent trends which are subject to qualification in the light of results which may be gained from more detailed study. Bulli-Liddell Blends (Fig. 41) As of possible assistance to the interpretation of the results of the three component blend studies, a preliminary investigation of the quality of the coke produced from blends of the Liddell and Bulli coals was undertaken. The results are graphed in Fig. 41. Under standard conditions of coking, Bulli coal alone produced a coke of moderate shatter, good stability and very good resistance to abrasion. Micro-strength indices were excep- tionally high and coke yield good. The Liddell seam coked alone yielded a coke of high resistance to shatter and abrasion, moderate stability and rather low strength in 154 Ca Jag WU Rs) Ble LAE 2S A ey) De Lidde// ie RESIS TANCE FO ABRAS/ON Lidde// e. MICROSTRENG TH LG/ES Lidde// AND D. K. TOMPKINS © STABILITY. INBESe Lidde// MICROSTRENGTH 65 od, Lidde// COREL, )/AE2 Lidde// Fic. 42 Variations in strength of coke produced from Akahira-Liddell-Bulli three-component blends COKING CHARACTERISTICS: OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS the coke substance. low. Cokes produced from blends of Liddell and Bulli coals establish highly significant trends in their strength characteristics, which assume critical importance in the control of preferred mechanical qualities; briefly, to produce a coke of high impact strength requires a high proportion of Liddell coal in the charge and for a coke of optimum stability and hardness characteristics a high proportion of Bulli coal must be employed. Highest shatter index was recorded for cokes produced from Bulli 25% -Liddell 75% blends. The stability index and resistance to abrasion were both at their maximum for coke of the Bulli 75%-Liddell 25°, blend; minima for each were recorded for 50-50 blends. In general, both micro-strength indices deteriorate rapidly from very high figures for the coke from Bulli coal alone with each increase in the proportion of Liddell coal; a modest maximum for micro-strength 65 occurs with the Bulli 75°%-Liddell 25°% blend. Coke yield decreased progressively and rapidly with each increase in the proportion of Liddell coal. Akahira-Liddell-Bulli Blends (Fig. 42) Blends of these three coals in certain pro- portions in the oven charges yield cokes having mechanical strength superior to any one of the cokes produced from the individual components alone. As in no blend-coke do the various maxima for all macro- and _ micro-indices correspond, selection of an “‘ optimum ”’ blend would depend entirely upon particular consumer requirements. Extremely good resistance to shatter was developed in cokes produced from oven charges of approximately 75° Liddell, 25% Bulli, 25°, Akahira. Almost as high shatter indices were obtained in cokes of two general types of blend: one in which the content of Liddell coal exceeded 70%, and the second in which this same seam made up less than 30% of the oven charge (Fig. 42). Coke yield was relatively Index Liddell Series Shatter .. Bs gd Stability “a oe Resistance to abrasion Micro-strength 65 Micro-strength 28/65 .. Coke Yield é ae 91% (Liddell 75-Bulli 25) 88% (Bulli 50-Akahira 50) 93% (Bulli 75-Liddell 25) 69% _( 0-35 (Bulli alone) 77% (Bulli alone) CC Maximum for Bulli-Akahira- Bulli 50-Liddell 25-Akahira 25) 155 High stability indices were characteristic of the cokes produced from a variety of blends notably those in which the proportion of Liddell coal exceeded 60-65%, in which the repre- sentation of Bulli coal exceeded 75-80% ; or in which the contribution of Akahira coal lay between 50% and 85%. In each case the relative proportions of the other components were apparently of minor significance (Fig. 42b). Markedly inferior stability was developed in cokes formed from blends containing approxi- mately equal proportions of the three com- ponents. Resistance to abrasion was quite high for the cokes of all blends considered (Fig. 42c). In general, cokes of exceptionally high abrasion resistance were produced from blends in which the proportion of Bulli coal exceeded 65%. Both coke micro-strength indices were improved progressively as the proportion of Bulli coal in the oven blends was increased, the indices being rather low for the cokes produced from Liddell or Akahira coal alone (Figs. 42d and 42e). All blends in which the proportions of Bulli coal exceeded 65°% resulted in cokes of quite high micro-strength. Coke yield was increased progressively as the proportion of Bulli coal increased (Fig. 42f). The results of these three component blend studies indicate clearly the importance of Liddell coal in the development of high stability and resistance to shatter, while the Bulli coal contributes greatly to the quality of the coke substance. Particular quality requirements will dictate the composition of the blend to be used. However, from the consideration of all macro- and micro-strength indices and coke yield (Fig. 58) it appears that blends of Akahira, Liddell and Bulli coals possessing the “optimum” combination of all assessed characteristics (i.e. an overall index of 70 or more) can accept as little as 44% Bulli coal, provided the content of Liddell coal does not exceed 5%. Cokes produced from the two extreme blends satisfying these requirements would be expected to have the following characteristics. Bulli 44% Liddell 5% Akahira 51% Bulli 44% Liddell 0% Akahira 56% 87% High 87% V. High 90% V. High 63% High 0-26 High 66% Mod. High 87% High 88% V. High 90% V. High 62% High 0-26 High 66% Mod. High 156 C. E. MARSHALL anp D. K. TOMPKINS VS 5) AU ay ay Lidde// Ohsyubor eh LS) STANGE Tie ABRAS/ON Lidde// oe W/GLOS TENGE LOO Lidde// Ohyubor/ °” STABILITY [NRE Lidde// MICROS TRENCGT7/ ae) Liogde// OAyuboars COKE i VE Lidde// Fic. 43 Variations in strength of coke produced from Ohyubari-Liddell-Bulli three-component blends COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS Ohyubari-Liddell-Bulli Blends (Fig. 43) From the various blends of Ohyubari, Liddell and Bulli coals were produced cokes of superior macro- and micro-strength as compared with those yielded by any of the three component seams when carbonized alone. Unfortunately, no single blend was characterized by maxima for all strength indices. To obtain coke with the best possible resistance to shatter, not less than 25%, Liddell coal should be included in the charge, the pro- portions of the remaining two components being generally weighted slightly in favour of Ohyubari coal; if the proportion of Bulli coal exceeds that of Ohyubari, a coke of low impact strength may result. Blends in the proportions Liddell 40-85%, Bulli 15-30%, Ohyubari 0-30% pro- Index Liddell Series Maximum for Bulli-Ohyubari- 157 substance and resistance to abrasion; control of shatter is similarly dominated by the content of Liddell coal. Consideration of all mechanical indices and coke yield (Fig. 59) indicates that the ‘“ optimum ” combination of the various strength and yield characteristics can be achieved with a minimum of approximately 62°, Bulli coal in the charge. In these circumstances the relative proportions of Liddell and Ohyubari coal appear to be of relatively minor conse- quence; if strength of coke substance is of major importance then the content of Liddell coal in the charge should not exceed 25%. Cokes produced from the two extreme cases satisfying these requirements are predicted as having the following characteristics. Bulli CYA Bulli 62% Liddell 25% Liddell Qo% Ohyubari 13% Ohyubari 38% piatter .. ss .. 92% (Liddell 50-Bulli 25-Ohyubari 25) 76% Moderate 82% Mod. High Stability bes .. 87% (Bulli 75-Ohyubari 25) 85% V. High 85% V. High Resistance to abrasion 93% (Bulli 75-Liddell 25) SUG. luigh 90% V. High Micro-strength 65 .. 70% (Liddell 50-Ohyubari 50) Go Ve aelich 66% V. High Micro-strength 28/65 .. 0-35 (Bulli alone) 0-27 High 0-30 V. High Coke Yield o- 4a %, (Bulli alone) 71% High 69% Mod. High duce coke which is extremely resistant to shattering (Fig. 43a). Cokes with best stability characteristics are obtainable from blends in which the content of Bulli coal lies between 60% and 90%. Quite good stability characteristics are secured with as little as 20% Bulli in the oven charge, the relative proportions of the other two com- ponents affecting the situation but little. If the content of Bulli coal is reduced below 25%, as high a proportion as possible of Liddell coal is necessary for the production of coke of acceptable stability (Fig. 43b). Resistance to abrasion improves with the content of either Bulli or Liddell coal, the effect of the former being the more pronounced (Fig. 43c). Maximum micro-strength 65 was developed in cokes produced from equal proportion blends of Ohyubari and Liddell but this factor decreased progressively with greater proportions of Liddell coal (Fig. 43d) ; micro-strength 28/65 improved with increased proportions of Bulli coal (Fig. 43e). Coke yield improved as the content of Bulli coal in the blends was increased (Fig. 43f). From this three-component coking study there again emerges the importance of the Bulli coal in relation to strength of coke Futase-Liddell-Bullt Blends (Fig. 44) The blending of these three coals in certain definite proportions yields cokes of mechanical qualities which are in most respects superior to those produced from any of the components alone. However, in no single blend do the various mechanical strength indices all exhibit their particular maxima. Highest shatter indices are again recorded for the cokes of blends in which the content of Liddell coal is high (approximately 75%), and where the remainder of the blend is made up of a slight preponderance of Bulli coal (Fig. 44a). In general, highest stability indices were obtained for cokes produced from _ blends containing no more than minor proportions of Futase coal (Fig. 44b). Cokes with acceptable resistance to abrasion were produced from practically all blends except those in which the proportion of either Bulli or Liddell coal fell below 60%. Particu- larly high resistance to abrasion was recorded for cokes of blends having in excess of 75% Bulli coal. The lowest resistance to abrasion occurred in cokes produced from blends in which the Liddell and Futase components were present in approximately equal proportions and of which the Bulli coal was a minor part (Fig. 44c). C. E. MARSHALL anp D. K. TOMPKINS SHATTER INDEX ° STABILITY /Nemee Lidde// Lidde// oS ee re MICROSTRENGTH 65 Ligde// Lidde// Futase COKE Vjaiae Ligde// | Futose Fic. 44 Variation in strength of coke produced from Futase-Liddell-Bulli three-component blends COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS In general, the strength of the coke substance (micro-strength indices) improved as the pro- portion of Bulli coal in blends was increased ; the indices were relatively low for cokes pro- duced from both Liddell and Futase coals alone, but were much improved where the proportion of Bulli coal in the blends exceeded 25%, becoming very high where this component exceeded 75% of the charge. The micro-strength 65 index was at an unexpected maximum in cokes produced from blends containing 25% Bulli, 50% Liddell, 25°, Futase (Fig. 44d). Coke yield increased progressively with the proportion of Bulli coal in the oven charge (Fig. 44f). The relative importance of the Liddell and Bulli coals in the development of high resistance to shatter and greatest strength of coke sub- stance respectively, is again evident in the results of this three component blend study. From the consideration of all mechanical indices and yield it appears that coke of “ overall optimum ”’ quality (i.e. overall index of 70 or more) will be produced from blends in which the proportion of Bulli coal is as low as 68% provided that a maximum of 7° Futase is used. Coke produced from the two extreme cases satisfying these requirements would probably have the following characteristics. Index Shatter 91% (Liddell 75-Bulli Stability : .. 86% (Bull 75-Liddell Resistance to abrasion .. 93% (Bulli 75-Liddell Micro-strength 65 68% (Bulh 75-Liddell Micro-strength ease Coke Yield 0-35 (Bulli alone) 77% (Bulli alone) Takashima-Liddell-Bulli Blends (Fig. 45) From one blend of these three coals there was obtained a coke in which practically all strength characteristics approached or achieved their maxima. Although selection of a blend to yield “optimum” coke quality would still depend upon consumer requirements, it is possible to define one in which all mechanical characteristics of the coke produced would be good. Variations in the shatter indices of the blends of Takashima, Liddell and Bulli coals differ somewhat from those of the other three com- ponent blends (Fig. 45a). Greatest resistance to shatter was provided in cokes yielded by blends approximating Liddell 75%, Bulli Maximum for Bulli- Liddell-Futase Series 159 15-30%, Takashima 0-5%. In general, more than 65% Liddell coal, 60-70% Takashima, or 40-75%, Bulli (provided other component pro- portions were correct) would be conducive to good resistance to shatter in the coke produced from the blend. Proportions of Bulli coal in excess of 75°, are accompanied by substantial deterioration in this strength index (Fig. 45a). The proportion of Bulli coal in the blend and, to a lesser extent, that of Liddell, has a dominant influence upon coke stability (Fig. 45b) ; content of Bulli less than 25°, or a proportion of Liddell between 70% and 40%, appears generally critical for this quality. Resistance to abrasion improved as_ the proportion of Bulli coal (and to a lesser degree that of Liddell) was increased in the blends ; particularly high indices were measured in cokes representing blends with a content of Bulli coal in excess of 50% (Fig. 45c). Both micro-strength 65 and 28/65 decreased progressively with increased proportions of either Liddell or Takashima coal in the oven charges. Even quite low proportions of Bulli coal in the blend may provide coke of relatively high micro-strength 65 provided that the proportions of the other components are care- fully balanced (Fig. 45d). In general, the proportions of Bulli coal are dominant in Bulli 68% Bulli 68% Liddell 25% Liddell 32% Futase 7% Futase 0% 25) 80% Moderate 80% Moderate 25) 83% High 85% V. High 25) 90% V. High 919% V. High 25) 67% High 67% High 0-29 High 0:29 High 71% High TAS, igh determining the micro-strength characteristics of the coke substance. Coke yield improved progressively with greater proportions of Bulli coal in the blends. The results of this three component blend study again demonstrate the _ respective importance of the Bulli and Liddell coals in the development of greatest strength of coke substance and resistance to shatter. Consideration of all mechanical strength indices and coke yields (Fig. 61) indicates that blends most likely to yield cokes of “ overall optimum ”’ quality (i.e. overall indices of 70 or more) could contain as little as 50° Bulli coal, provided in such cases the content of Liddell 160 C. E. MARSHALL Aanp DD. K. TOMPKINS O. ©. STAB/LITYV INDEBe Lidde// SHAT TERRAIN OET Lidde/l/ Cn L191) DAVE sO, A BRAS/ON Lidde// MIC ROS TRENGT] ie? od Lidde// Tokoshimea Boll Tokashimo AV GIS WHINE Ee pee oo? Bolly aN Tokashimag CORE W/ET@e Tokoshimea Fic. 45 Variations in strength of coke produced from Takashima-Liddell-Bulli three-component blends COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS 161 Bulli 50% Bulli 50% - Index Maximum for Bulli- Liddell 20%, Liddell 0% Liddell-Takashima Series Takashima 25% Takashima 50% Siaiter ~ . Ss 91% (Liddell 75-Bulli 25) 85% High 89% High Stability .. 7 86% (Bulli 75-Liddell 25) 83% High 81% High Resistance to abrasion .. Micro-strength 65 Micro-strength 28/65 Coke Yield ne 0-35 (Bulli alone) 77% (Bull alone) coal did not exceed 25%. Cokes produced from the two extreme cases satisfying these requirements may be expected to have the characteristics shown in the table. Summary The principal objectives of this study were two in number, mutually supporting, equally important, and both of immediate and future concern. The basic purpose was to ascertain the potential variation in coking characteristics of coals of different types, ranks and ages, under various controlled conditions, singly and in blends, so as to determine whether more critical and detailed studies would be justified, and if so to serve as a guide and basis for such studies. The more immediate purpose was to determine the relative suitability of a number of well-known New South Wales coals for blending with four selected Japanese coals, and to indicate the order of improvement in the physical quality of the resultant cokes which might be expected in each case. In order to accomplish these purposes within a reasonable time, it has been necessary to ignore many facets of the study which preliminary work and other detailed studies have indicated as potentially significant. It is proposed to extend later work into these presently neglected fields of interest. Earlier studies have demonstrated the importance of petrographic, chemical and size control in the determination of the coking characteristics of a single seam. The particular circumstances of the present investigation have permitted only partial assessment of these factors in coals of widely differing age and sometimes contrasted rank but they have served to emphasize the need for critical, individual study of each particular coal. The results indicate clearly the vast amount of work necessary to give a complete picture of the interplay of all factors in relation to pre- paration and carbonization behaviour. 93% (Bulli 75-Liddell 25) 68% (Bulli 75-Liddell 25) 91% V. High 65% V. High 0-24 Mod. High 69% Mod. High 90% V. High 65% V. High 0-28 High 67% Mod. High Thermal Regime and Carbonization Characteristics The preliminary brief assessments of the suitability of various oven charging temperatures for each of the coals used in the blending study have been most rewarding. They have con- firmed in large measure the results of previous work and current investigations which indicate that for the majority of the coals examined, an oven charging temperature of 800°C favours production of coke of an overall superior mechanical quality. Summary graphs show the relationship of an “overall strength index’ and an “ overall strength-yield index ”’ respectively with varia- tions in oven charging temperature for each of the coals (Figs. 46 and 47). Inclusion of coke yield in the overall index (Fig. 47) does not alter the general trend of quality variation with charging temperature ; because of their greater coke yield only the indices of the Coalcliff and Wollondilly Bulli samples are significantly affected. Figures 46 and 47 also indicate that, under the condition of test, an oven charging temperature of 800°C appears most suitable for all save one of the Australian coals and for two of the four Japanese coals. For the Greta coal a slightly superior coke is produced at a charging temperature of 600°C, while for Ohyubari and Takashima coals the most favourable initial oven temperatures range from laboratory temperature to 200° C. ¢ Under “standard ’”’ thermal conditions (in- cluding an oven charging temperature of 800° C) the Coalcliff Bulli coal yields a coke of excellent “ overall strength ”’ (index 71) ; in this respect it is superior to the cokes of the Victoria Tunnel, Borehole, Liddell, Wollondilly and Young Wallsend coals of which the indices range in order between 644 and 624. The overall strength of Greta coke (index 59) is appreciably less. Under the same conditions all Japanese coals yield cokes which are markedly inferior to those of the selected Australian coals; the Akahira, Futase and Ohyubari return cokes of “ overall strength ” 61, 584 and 574 respectively C. E. MARSHALL anp D. K. TOMPKINS 162 jusuoduros pustq yoed wio1y poonpoid seyoo jo xopul yy8uerjs [[eIOAO uO sinzerIoduIE, BuIs1eYyO Jo xoTY 9F “SIA 2, — awnpowedwey buibwoy7 uweagcd 00e% OO0O/ 008 009 OOF O0Oe 7) Se N OWIYSOYO, = p----- A / PSO Y v—-—--+Vv / / s1ognayo ee —- =p } OF Ow! Y°"rV Vv Vv / ¥ a % ~ Q 2 » > e * a ak 7 ica O4 STVOI FSANVAVL = “ GL 6 - O02 OO0O¢f Do ~ %W070uaIus? / bu1bv045 008 OOo9 CH 22 D7 O9, (YV-PL Nn) 1/29. [244A] O1f07214 puasyj;oyg bunox a/Ove /O SY i cdi decas Tp o7 aut) OOF gaia) OOe oO GS Oe oe SOD ee NUL LV CLL Se GL ZL - “apy ¥7 Cuaw7e ayO7D° 163 COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS yueuodui09 pus,q yord wro1z poonpord sayxoo Jo xopur pyetd-YyZSUII4S [[eIOAO UO dINzeIOdUID} BUIBIeYO Jo OPA 2, 7 eenpOweTdwa / bu/bv04y. Y7A¢ OOF! OOO¢ OOF (exexe) OOF pUIYSOYO / A------- A ad Ren fla sf v- awe -V seognaye 2 -—-:--—A BILAN A AS Vv OO ao) wardas ANY GV £9 OL GL WA - *8PUY P/PIy 7 Oued] > ayo? LY “9 os — ef 70 2Tw =A / b6u/byoy7 v2a¢ O0Oe OOO¢ 008 Oo? (19 17/99D) MOP (YWILPLYLOYNM) MOP [2CC2y, O1SODVIIA puasy/ojg uno, 9/94 a/0F) Med) 07 a~74 OOF STVOD NVITIVALSAV OO O GL L - X9PY/ Pla -~P ypOuad)o ayo7 C. E. MARSHALL anp D. K. TOMPKINS 164 sNoLeA CL ~~ S S nN aN Ov & ~ N Q X\ S S Se = Y 9 x» % GC ore ~~ Y % | © ~ > °F g * ae fa) bw 09 Lay cal ¢ g 3 es SL suo1j10do1d 8p ‘Old SUO/JHOTON PUA/G NTN 8 8 N S]8 Pe NS NS S DVD yy Q yy Ns » ~ » Qiks Qa 9 9 ar iis : g Les > > = Sake z 3 3 > oS 3 9 9 JAG N eS AY Q 1o8 MQ PXe ON x eS IN IS (%, is a o G ~ Ss} ~ y p) y 9 NR Q — me SS 5 g ¢ S S ~ - SONITY VPWHSV AY ZL G N als nN Q PN S| s y & N y 38 Q S |S ° 8 yY S18 Q S 3 XN x Se ese x XN = Se ee ae = 2, y » c SES S S S g| 2 = = o Res S o cis x Sie ws Sele g J Se ae Q NS 4 ; 3 aS S N S SS = ¥ ¥: ae cs in y Q Q 9 \ ny 9 Some ot er u <7 Se) | pe eee: N & Q = SS Se ES N Q 2 8 NR g N O ds PN S a NX MN z Q A) Q NY NQ MN ° aK N Raho] R ° mS aN 3S S SSS Vie eS SS Se S 5S 2 dX » S & 5 4 G S c aN s G ~ y & > 9 q S 2 ~ 8 y Q x NS ~ by > 2 N 9 Q Q es y s Y 9 > S SS SS g 9 Y Q SS Q S y y > x N) NS 3 5) Q y 3 y > Q y 3 : S N J area ees Eee tas |e SPUa/IT # /2°7 (17/992) MOG , JOO Owlysoyoy p PLOY TE (22D (UP M) WAG = =e /O0J esopry SEO OU Sa (LOOT /ALCRieZlt 272 iO — © 0°27 1wogaagde¢ aA ROUT OC (2OD REA (2/4 buno, @—-——-BO loo [097 ovryory 9 SPUA/T PP 90D VHOYPIOT OC-------O SLO 8/7 80 [29D | {PLP |B —\— ed SPUAIT Pp /007D 07a/2) oO Oe | if [’ ~ » = N or |[®___.§__}___$___ Bip _@&___§__$__dia __§ ¥— § __ Hi —__¢___¢__§__ So» . $ : é aH ; ‘ : = |$ ; : g S| 8 : si 2S 9 ai a » ~]9 W : > nie 9 \ 2 aS 8 S ~ ¢ > Ss: y y vic uo aS = S ee < ~ 2 |S 0° = > i : S wa Se a. VTy GQ a Py s X SS - rN - = “ ¥—§ —y—4¢—_®& —__*__» ee z mt oN XN iS & 5 aS PS iS s G = 7 » BS “ ny 3 $ G x > x Q ; (S S : Q ~ ne > 2 Q AN) SS RE oe ae = : ‘ SS $ 3 . o = Q 3 Me Ss y 9 S OF x N a S s > Q S = ————— Os g v 5 y SPY B [007 (SA 72°22) N99 a-—-—B PUY F 22D (YPM) 11°9 e- ~@ Spua/GJ # OOD sauuny 014072!) o-..—© spualG7 ¥ [29D puasy/Onf bun0x n—--—o SPUa/ BP /00D O0YaIOT o.----- ro) SPUAT BP [POD //PPP!IT #/P°2 OLD) OU YSOYWO / A [P22 #80797 [9° (72gnd¢C) A [297 Onyory 7 ee 2 Pie cA 7VB2AG -— XP9PUL P/IIA @ YISuad7 So ayo? JUPISIG - KOPLY P/PIK Yi bU2so ayo7 ®@em— <0 G9 = R : - r 4 rie ‘ a - Za an aie . rr | | SONAITY VWIHSV AVL SONT /:G = ASV, GL s SONITI SGV SIAHO. SONFITP VOWHVAYW 166 (making them reasonably comparable with the poorest of the Australian coals) whilst Takashima coke is characterized by an extremely low index of 424. It is evident from Figure 46 that the trends of overall quality in relation to temperature of charging and associated rate of heating through the initial range of increase of temperature up to that of the oven, are by no means uniformly systematic. One significant feature is the pronounced ‘“‘local’’ deterioration of coke quality in an otherwise progressive improvement to a maximum, exhibited by the majority of Australian coals when the charging temperature is either in or immediately adjacent to their plastic range; exceptions were provided by Victoria Tunnel and Borehole coal. Extremely variable trends characterized both Ohyubari and Takashima cokes, in contrast with the much more regular behaviour of those of Futase and Akahira. The pronounced deterioration of coke quality in relation to these particular charging temperatures indicates significant modi- fication and variation of coke structure. The inferior overall quality associated with cokes formed from Australian coals charged in the lower temperature ranges is characterized by markedly higher proportions of fine coke or “ breeze ’’ which generally contribute to low values for both macro- and micro-mechanical Strength indices. No such efiect has been observed in cokes produced from _ either Australian or Japanese coals when charged at higher temperatures, any deterioration then being limited and made apparent only in macro- strength. Deterioration in the mechanical quality of coke as made evident by minimal values for one or more of the strength indices, thus appears to be critically related to the rate of heating of the charge through the plastic range of the coal ; depending upon the particular characteristics of the coal (petrographic, physical and chemical), rates of heating which are too low and/or too high may produce coke of inferior quality. From observations made during previous and present studies, these quality variations appear to be related both to the fundamental micro- structure of the coke substance and the macro- structure of the coke mass, each apparently being affected by the conditions and rate of heating of the charge through the plastic range. The potential scale and rate of volume changes in the coal charge, the time available for their development as controlled by the rate of heating in the plastic range, the subsequent history of adjustment to the stresses developed, C. E. MARSHALL anp D. K. TOMPKINS must affect the intensity and distribution of fracturing and jointing (evident or incipient) and thus condition the macro-strength character- istics. The destruction of the original “ petro- logical ”’ structure of the coal substance through. carbonization, and the development of a new coke “‘ micro-constituent ”’ of quite remarkable properties, have been demonstrated ; it is almost certainly and possibly critically affected not only by the petrographic constitution and character of the coal in oven charges, but also by specific features of the thermal cycle. De- tailed studies of the macro- and micro-structure of coke as produced under critically controlled rates of heating throughout the whole thermal cycle and especially referred to the plastic range, related to the petrological, physical and chemical characteristics of the original coal substance, are considered to be matters of fundamental and economic importance which demand immediate and comprehensive attention. Two-Component Blends The results of the two-component blend studies show that any one of the seven Australian coals examined is capable of effecting some degree of improvement in the “ overall strength ”” of the coke produced from each of the Japanese coals. In some cases, notably in blends of the relatively poorly coking Greta with either the Akahira or Futase coal (which are reasonably comparable in coking characteristics with this particular Australian coal), improvement is relatively slight and only occurs in some of the blends. Further, certain blends of Futase coal with either Liddell or Borehole seam, provide cokes of appreciably lower overall strength than those of either component when carbonized alone. In the case of the particular Futase- Liddell blends under discussion, this deteriora- tion is brought about by reduction in all strength characteristics ; for the Futase-Borehole blends, only the shatter and stability indices are affected. Figures 48-53 inclusive summarize the results of the two-component blend studies on the basis of overall strength characteristics. Figures 48 and 49 depict comparative variations in, respectively, the mechanical properties and the combined mechanical and yield properties of the cokes produced from each Japanese coal when blended with individual Australian coals in various proportions. Figures 50 and 51 relate the same information to the cokes produced from each of the Australian coals when blended with individual Japanese coals. Zo 7UBIIAY — XAPU/ YIbUBIZE FYOD S % ° . y " CHOI) GLI Oe): 7O OS 60 BOs xo (JP7/2°2) WF Loh [2seuodor Loe aman as CY Tay If BE) ZO" feseuedor 7. OC | (LI!1?/°°2) WFP L be [esev0dor L Gk a Sais ag! - =. Seo asavovoey 7 OO/ a, De WIG ° UTED MELLO OT GUE GD IESG EX AELS EN Ih s (Y//PYO// Nf ) WIA” Loc[essuocdor 1 OG (Y/iPLosoyy) T/A VE ge [asauodor 7, CZ iS 5 - NDS |BULLI (WOLLONDILLY) BLENDS|BULL/ (COALCLIFF) BLENDS ~ : eA eS CNL. Ne eee | uls in various proportions 7S ENDS| BULL/ (WOLLOND/LLY) BLENDS|BULL/ (COALCLIFF) BLENDS PYPPSIS — XBPU/ YpbuaW7G 27OD Pua2ay — xepuy yjbuss79 ayO7 7u2212 —epu/ P/al~ wp YjbUa~7O ayo> | » » 2 » 9 Nn) is) to 6 » ¥ + Es y NJ 8 a . 8 | 8 Q 5 8 9 (IA'171°22) 11°F, OOF Q | (9477/22) 11°F fp OOF > = a. S re COE MAY JPA PLETE: Q (1771°°2) 1°97 fe 94 [PEP URAL, Se pe Rn & —S yf as. (or >) 3 4 (417/222) 1/9 Los/- euvodor Y Oc- q CL2/222) °F Los/eseuederY, os- x | = x S | 8 EEN (L197/°2D) 1199 he Se 282v0 007 Y, OL — + wyy7207) yog bce [2sevederY os ~ : = 5 Sy jj) oe: Z Ss ets 3 | a ost 82407 Lor Q “Bs ep haw (UPL) IG 1, OOF | 7 CUP) W°9 f 00k r z BULL/ (WOLLOND/LLY) BLENDS Sali —}$ 1 (ypoeyey) rg 4.94] erevedop ce CY PLay-M) 119 I, 64 [282L0 er Y ox CYLPLeyjong.) IPG Los/rseuodor¥ oct i (PLE -M) 11°97 7, 08 /2824°8eerY OF | (WPLNIN) 11°79 fex/22u0der % cz 4 | ar (yey) i109 L5x/rs2v0dor L, oz ) 2 Q NI Q 2 y Q iS) = is) oa N g x § S = = S SS a ° Ss 2 E Sj a N Ss aes aeovodor Loos g = Beevedop Y, cos Peer, ee7i4 001 5 cay ¥ iN 5 a a B 8 q 1 21407214, 7, OOF Q SS OS a = x & SSS 8 joven, 3 yj s SISIANS || ire, oy ° é N % 12 2OL 3 ey Sn er07214 ox [ 282v0Gp Y cx 2 La 53) 2272'4 Ube [2ssucder oe. a a 2 i) Hey gs 5 ~i s ty BS SYSRRN ny 8 $ SSeS isd rex ‘ e = fal! jazeny S SSS wee 27224) LO8/eeereeer Loo 3 = S| 2101214 Yoe /eseveterY os 5 gee ESS Se Rs GIASSQQ 3 K x omosceal|, 4 A = x > /2uun Ss 21207214 Lee] rr2v0dory o, = iL Q iL every Yee /ereveder Y oz 9 | is 9 > K 3 K SI ee, pane 3 S a N ieee yieeemer 1, 00/ Bi S ees asavedor 00s 8 ae puesy/o4g 5u204 % O04 5 G push jag Bur04 Z% oor v = 3 & stg : S Sun q puasy/oyf 3 8 sy nS 4 5 8 yy O08 puesyjoyy s QS] Sry Y 64 /esov0der Y ce. ey J S'S Qiao Was ooreaop7 ce. 388 3 Q < PSNale 4 te Q Ge Se 3S FES = > Se y oe Q NOY SSS iy PS k puasyong VY 68 = SL wQ*S 8] reerem o) gis Suny Los/esevedop Loc} & 2 a ay S23 ose unex Y0s/2sev0der ¥ o¢- SI Ree °c Gg SI HNN SER See Si SYOVLSQq D4dp puesyoy > £ = 95/0, OTK » y 3) oOwonoseg PY?5//ONf e i i iL buney Use 2sevodor % 6 $ z G buna, 7 be [essv0dor Y oz 3 = S 8 S ie) os a 9S Sx SSchss 2s2vodor Y 0O/ a iN = arevodor Yoos Soe L 8 a rb 7oyasog Zh 0or 3 A OLNE/ iS oor y i) Q 8 0 8 S | oysvog % 94 /esevodorY, cx. q Ls + 704240g Y, SZ [aseuodor % oe ~ a Q SSI 3 Q “ yoyruog 1 o¢/aseuodar Y oc e ky yeyavog Log /sssucderYoc : ig ig 8 = 8 yoysvog Loe, ssevodor OZ: a +Q yoyew0g hse esavodor Y oz. Q = S Be! a Q er Y,00/ 3 Poca asauodor Y, OO/ PP. g UPPPIT f, OOL 2 % re % Q [/?PP17 1, 4 [28ovedor Y ce A Q 1?P!7 £4 [osevoder Y, oe s 8 si Q q =] 1Pe17 1,05 ssevoder 1 Os « 1 //®PP17 Los[zseuedep Y Os N N g , | S 20017 [cx /esouodor Y cz Q = perry Use rsevoter fot | eens e asavoder 1 00¢ - esavodor Y OOF Lb 2797 T00r | 27245 YOU %) ) Q 2700 Y, 52 [2cevoder 1 cx | Q apexb % oe [eseuoder Y oe a | 4 | S NI Q | y 5 Q UY, asavodor 7 os = é 27944 Los [essueder Y oc [eNoe ee | o79“y Los / LP fo AN N RK RK y y S - open Lce [essuedor Y, oz b 8 Bs 270d Lve/2sevoder % 4 | I = oo! pssvocer YOOL Vj. exevocer Loos by Ry ee i ar f fe 2 , 5 By 8 2 g 8 2 8 3 $ © 5 YER — KepLy YIbUE~75 2705 peerreg — “2PU/ F/P'A FP ¥)bueW7 By0D Is in various proportions Fic. 61 Blend Proportions Comparative variations in the overall strength-yield indices of cokes produced from each Australian coal when blended with individual Japanese Coa! 167 COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS s[eoo UeI[TeIJsNY [ENPIAIPU! YAM suoTz1odoid snorieA UI pepusq UsyM sjeoo ssouedef wo1y poonpoid sayxoo Jo sadIpuL yASUeI}s [[eI9AO Jo JUSWIOAOIdUIT a8e1UI0I9g 6g “SIH TYVIIASIGS - 7U97U0 {99°72 YOI/OATSA spua/q owiyso7yo | spuajg acon y spualgq 1oqgodyg¢ SPUAT OWIYOrY ONIP77 9 ‘ sazipuy ypbuaszO asauodor yo quawanouduy ab07U92IaS ae. re —s | SONI79 SONITE SONITY SONITI (o727v02) 17708) (ATTIO.M) 1778 | TINNAL WIZOLIIA \ONISTTVM DNDOA|SONITE FIOHTUO" | SONF7TE T7ITHT | SONFTTE VLIYD G4 OL sa2ipuy yjbuaw79 asauodor yO puawanowdu] 2O0JUBINIGS C. E. MARSHALL anp D. K. TOMPKINS 168 syeod UeT[eIISNY [eNPTAIpUi YIM suons0doid SNOLICA UT Popud{q UdyM sTeoo asouede lf w101, poonpoid saxo Fo sdorput petA-y3 sues [1[ei9sAo Jo queweAoiduit asezudoiog €¢ “SI JUAIIS — 7UA7U0D (MOD VoyoW;SOpy OF Go FL OF Gr iGZ OF Oe- SPUA/T OUNYSOYD / spud aso y spualg ogndyoC SPUNT onyory ONIIDI7 9 Xx i} Le) Of Or OL Or OF SP2IPU) P/Pl~ ¥ Y 7OUEW7IE aSPUDIOL JO PUPW/IIQ/TSU/ 2O0IUIIAIG OY | SONI7TE SONI7TE SONITT SONITE (JITITVWOD (7719 |) (ATIO,.M) /T7NG | TINNAL VIAOLIIA |\INISTTVM DNNOA SONITEG FIOHFAOG | SONITAG FIFIGAQ/7T | SONITY WLIAD OL Of- ie) Sa2PUl, P{Aly py Y7OUaW7zE asBuodos yO pUuaUaNod/duy BbDIUAIAT 9 © OL COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS 169 Lidde// 57. Ohpubor/ Bu/!; Liddel/ © Ve) 8 ae 8) a Nt Fics. 54-57 ariations in overall strength indices for cokes produced from three-component blends of Japanese coals with Liddell and Bulli 7 09-¢¢ a OL - C9 a = O9, ‘ ~O¢ £9 RELY / | \s9 ~O9 Vj } of i Us ~s7 ‘er ”" ie ele es / EE-O¢F ~OL \ i y OL~ £9 [/2PP'7 ‘LO ATA, O9 ee MOGINYO = WjAT a ee AE Fics. 58-61 C. E. MARSHALL anp D. K. TOMPKINS 170 /2P P17 6% P27 8G Variations in overall strength-yield indices for cokes produced from three-component blends of Japanese coals with Liddell anc COKING CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALIAN AND JAPANESE COALS Hit The remaining two-component summary graphs (Figs. 52 and 53) indicate the percentage improvement in both overall coke strength indices and combined overall coke strength- yield indices respectively, which may be effected by blending each of the Japanese coals with each individual Australian coal. The general order of strength of coke produced from the individual Australian coals may serve as an approximate guide to the order of improve- ment which may be achieved in blends with any of the Japanese coals. There are, however, a number of well marked exceptions to this general rule. The Ohyubari coal, for example, appears to be significantly more amenable to blending with either the weakly coking Greta, or with the Liddell coal, than it is with the Borehole. Further, this same Japanese coal, in certain of its blends with the Victoria Tunnel, produces stronger coke than in corresponding blends with either of the two strongly coking Bulli coals. Similarly, for certain blend pro- portions, the Liddell coal ismore suitable in com- bination with both the Akahira and Takashima than is the more strongly coking Borehole, and in the same way Victoria Tunnel coal is superior to the Wollondilly Bull. As may be expected from the characteristics shown by the cokes produced from the individual Japanese coals the least overall improvement in blending is achieved with Akahira and Futase coals which when coked alone may yield reason- ably satisfactory cokes. Somewhat greater improvement results from the blending of any of the Australian coals with that of Ohyubari, and a very substantial degree of improvement is obtained in all blends with the extremely poorly coking Takashima coal. In a small minority of cases, continued increases in the Australian coal content of the blends bring about corresponding progressive improvements in strength of the resultant cokes. On the contrary, it is quite evident that an excess of the Australian coal is frequently to be avoided, the most notable example being the series of blends with Young Wallsend coal. Inclusion of more than 50% of this particular material yields either no additional benefit or even deterioration in coke quality, as is evident in the case of its blends with Ohyubari coal. Three-Component Blends The results of the study of three-component blends of Liddell, Bulli and the Japanese coals are summarized graphically in Figures 54-61 inclusive ; Figures 54-57 relate to the overall strength of the cokes produced from the various blends, and Figures 58-61 to the combined overall strength and yield properties. The most arresting feature of this series of graphs is the dominant part played by Bulli coal in each case, especially in relation to combined coke strength and yield characteristics (Figs. 58-61), in which the actual indices are almost directly related to the proportion of Bulli coal in any blend. Another significant feature is the apparently greater degree of compatibility of the weakly coking Ohyubari and Takashima coals with the Liddell and Bulli, as compared with that of both the more strongly coking Japanese coals, the Ahakira and Futase. A combined strength- yield index of 65 or more is achieved with the Ohyubari-Liddell-Buli and Takashima-Liddell- Bulli three-component blends where the content of Bulli coal is 20%, or more. Conclusion The usually non-coincidental and frequently considerable variations in the quality of the cokes yielded by these various coals when carbonized under various conditions, either individually or in two- and three-component blends, emphasizes the importance of strict control of all factors concerned in coke pro- duction, with due regard for the particular characteristics of the individual coals. Under present industrial conditions, not all factors may be adjusted or controlled to achieve “optimum” circumstances for carbonization ; notably concerned are those of the thermal cycle, especially oven charging, temperature and rate of heating through the plastic range. Factors which may be economically controlled in the oven charge, such as petrographic com- position and maceral distribution in relation to size consist of the coal, should receive very particular attention. For the range of seams examined to date, these factors are potentially vital to the development of optimum coke characteristics, and even to the determination of the coal as “ coking ”’ or “ non-coking ”’’. References BLAYDEN;) H. E., NOBLE, W., AND Ricey, H. L., 1937. The influence of carbonising conditions on coke properties, Part I. Mechanical pressure. Journ. Ivon and Steel Inst., 136, 47-76. BrAaNnaGAN, D. F., 1959. Some aspects of a coking study of the Borehole seam. Institute of Fuel (Australian Membership) Symposium on Australian Fuels and theiy Utilization ; Symposium Preprint. 172 CEO MARSHALL ann DrkK; TOMPKINS MARSHALL, C. E., HARRISON, J. A., SIMON, J. A., AND- Tompkins, D. K., 1959. PreliminamySe¢udies jor thie PARKER, M. A., 1958. Petrographic and coking coking characteristics of Liddell seam coal. characteristics of coal: laboratory studies of Institute of Fuel (Australian Membership) Sym- Illinois coal seams Nos. 5 and 6. Illinois State posium on Australian Fuels and theiy Utilization ; Geol. Surv. Buil., 84. MARSHALL, C. E., Tompxins, D. K., BRANAGAN, D. F., AND SANDERSON, J. L., 1960. Note on charging temperature and coke quality: representative study results of American, Australian and Japanese Dept. Geology and Geophysics coals. Amer. Chem. Soc. (Div. of Gas and Fuel . . Chemistry) Symposium on Preparation and Pro- University of Sydney perties of Coals ; Symposium Preprint. Sydney Symposium Preprint. AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD. SEAMER AND ARUNDEL STS., GLEBE, SYDNEY id Alles ‘Geneeal: Matawone Should ie faddressed _ to the Honorary Secretaries, Royal Society of uth Wales, Science House, 157 Gloucester - “Street, Sydr ey. Two copies of each manuscript are required :- the original typescript and a carbon, copy. pe nse) general: style adopted in this Journal. They : should t as concise as possible, consistent with adequate presentation. Particular attention » ' should be. given to clarity of cenes and good ‘prose style, _ The typescript. ‘should bee “double-spaced, "preferably ‘on quarto paper, with generous side an Headings” should be typed without lining ; if a ‘paper. is long, the headings © ip "should also. be given in a table of contents » typed on a Separate: sheet, for the guidance of é Te. Editor. Hee og Waray: The approximate positions of Figures, ‘Plates - ‘and Tables should be indicated in the text ~ betw n parallel ruled lines. 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The abbreviated form of the title of this journal — 2 J. ee Roy. Soc. N.S.W. | O hine Diagrams. Line diagrams should be made with dense black ink on either white bristol board, blue linen or. pale-blue ruled graph Tracing paper is unsatisfactory because it is subject to. attack by silverfish and also changes its shape i in sympathy with the atmos- - pheric humidity. The thickness of lines and the size of letters and numbers should be such as to permit photographic reduction without loss of detail. ‘Whenever possible aye tine or photographic copies of each diagram should be sent so that ‘the originals need not be sent to referees, thus eliminating - papible og to the diagrams - while. in the mail. Photographs. Piustogianhs should be in- ‘cluded only where essential, should be glossy, ey the guidance of readers. and for use ‘in. Preferably mounted on. white card, and should show as much contrast as possible. Particular attention should be paid to contrast in photo- graphs of distant aged a and of geological eo hunger a on Oe oe E, subjects. Reprints, Authors «receive 59 copies of Additional copies may be purchased . provided they aré ordered by the author when pening peek oe THE. AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SEMEN MADE. AND Ay OPINIONS EXPRESSED Nierenayane ae ‘i : * x < - Devonian-Lower Carboniferous), 9 | i 3 tigraphy of the Tamworth-Nundle District, NSW. : eet, OEE de Re ee 2009 SS a. § . for transmission by post asa periodical = “His EXcrLLENcy_ THE oe = “THE Com Me Tae ge ea COUNT. Te eat M.C - OF w Sours WaLEs, | ‘LinUTENANT-GENERAL SIR ERIC we See : C8. eo ee “o- “Hon. ‘Treasurer Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 94, pp. 173-188, 1961 Stratigraphy of the Tamworth Group (Lower and Middle Devonian), Tamworth-Nundle District, N.S.W. KeitH A. W. CRooK (Received October 23, 1959) ApstTrRAct—The Tamworth Group is described and subdivided into nine formations ; five members are recognized. These subdivisions are related to earlier subdivisions of the unit, which are unsatisfactory in some cases, and the nomenclatural history of the unit is discussed. The group consists of radiolarian argillites and graywackes with coralline limestone lenses, passing down into graywackes and graywacke rudites with some limestone, and with further radiolarian argillites, red keratophyric breccias and limestone lenses low in the sequence. Pene- contemporaneous dolerite-spilite masses occur in the Nundle district. The group is the lowest recognizable unit deposited in the Tamworth Trough, which is defined. Brief mention is made of the Woolomin Beds, thought to be older than the Tamworth Group, against which the former are faulted. Introduction There occurs in western New England, N.S.W., a belt of sediments of Lower Devonian to Permian age which contains several character- istic lithologies. The belt extends from Warialda for some 250 miles southwards and then east- wards to reach the coast north of Newcastle ie 1). The Devonian in this belt has been recognized by Benson (1922) as faunally and lithologically different from the Devonian in other parts of New South Wales. It is thus a distinct faunal and stratigraphic province. This province is part of a major ortho- geosyncline occupying northeastern New South Wales and southeastern Queensland, which may be termed the ‘‘ New England Geosyncline ”’. It contains sediments from Lower Silurian to Upper Permian age, and older units may be present. In New South Wales these sediments are separated from those of the Ordovician-Upper Devonian ortho-geosyncline of western New South Wales and Victoria, termed the ‘“ Lachlan Geosyncline’”’ by Dr. G. H. Packham (pers. comm.), by Mesozoic sediments. Packham and the author consider that evidence obtained by each in the two geosynclines suggests that the Mesozoic conceals a major arch-like structure which separated the two geosynclines for much of the Paleozoic, particularly during the Devonian. In New South Wales the Devonian and Carboniferous are particularly well developed on the western margin of the New England A Geosyncline between the Hunter-Mooki and Peel Fault Systems (Fig. 1). Data to be presented in a subsequent paper suggest that the sediments accumulated in a trough trending 340° (true) along the western margin of the geosyncline. The eastern margin of this trough has not been recognized. It is proposed to term this depression the Tamworth Trough. Its recognizable eastern limit is the Peel Fault System, and it is limited on the north and west by Mesozoic cover. In the south the trough passes near Mount Royal into another trough which trends closer to west-northwest. The present paper deals with the stratigraphic subdivision of the Tamworth Group, the lowest recognizable unit in the trough, within the area fringe-hachured in Fig. 1. Maps of this area accompany the present paper and the following paper which deals with the stratigraphy of the overlying Parry Group. Brief mention is made of the Woolomin Beds which occur faulted against the Tamworth Group on the east and are thought to be older thanit. They do not form part of the Tamworth Trough sequence as herein defined. Terminology used in this and subsequent papers follows that of Pettijohn (1957), with the following exceptions: The classification of — arenites followed is that of Packham (1954), as amplified by the author (Crook, 1960). The term “ cherty argillite ’’ is applied to fine dense argillites with a tough splintery to conchoidal fracture which usually contain radiolaria with admixed detrital material. Most are siliceous argillites, but a few are true cherts. 174 KEITH A. W. CROOK Fig.1 Regtonsl setting of the 2rez Geological aeta from Voisey (7959) o Late Warialda Snverell *Bunderra \\ Or Berrecs eGlen Innes -Me/lbourne e °eArmidale °Uralla Bendemeer Scole in miles The terminology of cross-stratification used follows McKee and Weir (1953), as amplified by Crook (1957). The description of sole-markings follows Kuenen (1957) and Kuenen and Prentice (1957). The following relations apply between Benson’s terminology (1912-20) and that herein. Benson’s “claystone”’ is termed “ argillite”’ Port Macquarie and his “cherts” are covered) by) jcuenma a ‘“cherty argillite’’ and rarely) anetiicc gs Benson’s “tuffs’’ are arenites of pyroclastic or fluvial origin with abundant rock fragments and/or feldspar and little quartz. They are termed ‘labile arenites’ herein, most being labile graywackes. Benson’s “ pyroclastics ” are referred to by non-genetic terms—rudite, breccia, arenite. His “agglomerates” are STRATIGRAPHY OF THE TAMWORTH GROUP ¢ termed rudites’’, ‘or “breccias’’ or “ con- glomerates ’’ when applicable. Locality grid-references refer to the four maps entitled “Geology of the Yamworth- Liverpool Range district’. They are read in the same manner as military map references, eastings followed by northings. Thicknesses of units have, in most cases, been estimated from maps and cross-sections, and are not based on field measurements. Previous Work Portions of the Tamworth Trough sequence were described by Benson (1911-20) in a series of classic papers. Subsequently Carey (1934, 1935, 1937) described the area west of and immediately adjoining that dealt with here. A small area containing L. and M. Devonian limestones north of the present area was described by Brown (1942). The district south of the present area was mapped regionally by Osborne (1950), and Osborne et al. (1950) record some details of the Isis River-Timor district. The southwestern corner of the area was mapped by Hallinan (1950). More recently members of the University of New England have worked north and northwest of the present area, Voisey (19580) in the Manilla district, Williams (1954) in the Carrol-Wean district and Engel (1954) in a portion of County Darling. Chappell (1959) has described the geology of the Tamworth-Manilla-Bendemeer district and Pickett (1959) the geology of the Black Mountain district. Benson (of. cit.) stratigraphically subdivided the Paleozoic sequence. Modifications have been introduced by Brown (1942) and Voisey (19580). The nomenclature current in 1958 has been summarized by Voisey (1958a). Benson (1912-20) recognized the following major divisions : Burindi Series Barraba Series { Tamworth Series Some persistent units within these were recognized. Stratigraphy The stratigraphic nomenclature of the Tam- worth Trough sequence is complicated by several factors, and no complete statement of Barraba Mudstone 175 the present situation has been published. These factors are : (i) Erection of units which are inadequately defined and which, at times, are of doubtful objective status. (1) The widespread use of junior synonyms. (1) Use of the same term in different senses at different times. (iv) Widespread variation in terminal (1.e. rock unit) nomenclature, both before and since the introduction of the Australian Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature. (v) Errors of correlation based on mis- interpretation of field evidence, which give rise to subjective synonyms (i.e., “ A’ is erroneously held to be a synonym of ‘ B’). (vi) Subsequent emendations to original sub- divisions which do not meet the definitional requirements of the Code. (vil) Long-continued temporal persistence of dominant lithologies coupled with gradational changes in the same vertically and horizontally. In order to clarify the situation the history of the nomenclature is discussed where relevant, and synonymies are given. This will also enable a better understanding of Benson’s stratigraphic nomenclature, which is not as straightforward as a cursory examination of his papers might suggest. Wooloomin Beds (Benson 1912, emend. herein) Synonymy—Woolomin Series p. 100; 1913a, p. 496); Woolomin Beds (Benson); Eastern Series (Benson, 1915), p. 546) ; Woolomin Series (Browne (in David, 1950, p. 205)); Woolomin Group (Voisey, 1958), p. 209); mot Woolomin Series (Voisey, 1942, p. 289); mot Woolomin Group (Spry, 1954, p. 129). (Benson, 1912, Lower Carboniferous \ Upper Devonian Baldwin Agglomerate ] Middle and Lower Devonian This unit includes the “jaspers, altered spilitic rocks, schistose tuffs, slates, phyllites and hornstones’’ (Benson, 1913a) outcropping east of the Great Serpentine Belt. Initially considering it to be older than his Tamworth Series, against which it is faulted, Benson 176 subsequently realized (1915), p. 546) that the rocks to the east of the Serpentine Belt were, in part, altered Tamworth Series. He therefore dropped the term Woolomin and instituted the term Eastern Series to cover ‘the whole complex ”’. Browne (in David, 1950) used the term Woolomin Series in Benson’s original sense, considering these rocks to be distinct from the altered Tamworth Series. In 1942 Voisey applied the term Woolomin Series to the sediments of the Armidale district, and in this he was followed by Spry who used the term “ Woolomin Group ’’. In view of the subsequent bathylith between Armidale and Benson’s type area this usage is not relevant to discussions on the type area. Mappable con- tinuity of beds between the two regions has yet to be demonstrated. Voisey (19580) followed Spry’s terminology, applying the term ‘“ Woolomin Group” to rocks east of the Great Serpentine Belt in the Manilla district. These form part of Benson’s Eastern Series. Whilst there are places where rocks of Tamworth Group aspect appear within and to the east of the Peel Fault System, this is in part due to the multiple nature of that System, five faults having been recognized (see maps). However, many of the rocks of this region are distinctly different from the Tamworth Group, being slates with jasper bars and minor labile arenites. Also Dr. J. F. G. Wilkinson (pers. comm.) has recently discovered Silurian lime- stones with Halysites lying within and to the east of the westernmost serpentinite north of Attunga. This suggests that the beds east of the serpentinite may be, in part, of this age. The Woolomin Series of Benson thus has objective validity, and should be retained, with suitable terminal modification. The unit, for which the name ‘“ Woolomin’ Beds”’ is appropriate, may be briefly defined as follows : Derivation—W oolomin, Nundle and Nemingha. Representative Sectton—Nundle-Woolomin road near Anderson’s Flat (220198 to 222.5;206 Goonoo Goonoo). Lithology—Slates, at times massive red jasper bars. Thickness—Unknown. Age and Relations—Faulted against Tamworth Group, and outcropping within and east of the Peel Fault System. Lower Devonian (?) and older. a township between phyllitic, with KEITH AY We CROCK Tamworth Group (Benson, 1913, emend. Voisey, 1958) Synonymy—Bowling Alley Series (Benson, 1912, p. 100); Tamworth Series (Benson, 1913a, pp. 495, 496); Tamworth Beds (Benson) ; Tamworth Group (Voisey, 1958a, p. 175). . This is the Tamworth Series (or Group) of authors, Benson having used this term in preference to ‘Bowling Alley Series”. He included in it all rocks west of the Great Serpentine Belt and stratigraphically below his Baldwin Agglomerate. Voisey (1958a) emended the name, recognizing several units of Forma- tion-status. The unit may be briefly defined as follows : Derivation—City of Tamworth (097.5;373 Tamworth). Lithology—Radiolarian argillites and_ gray- wackes with coralline limestone lenses, passing down into graywackes and graywacke breccias with some limestone, and with further radiolarian argillites, red keratophyric breccias and lime- stone lenses low in the sequence. Pene- contemporaneous dolerite-spilite masses occur in the Group in the Nundle district. Thickness—Maximum observed 8000+ base not seen. Age and Relatuons—Lower and Middle Devonian ; conformably underlies the Parry Group. The unit has been subdivided, several names of Formation-status appearing in the literature. None have been formally defined. These can be fitted to the published sections (Benson, 1915), p. 549; 19184, p. 352; Brown, 1944, p. 121) as follows, descending : feet ; MoorE CREEK STAGE (Brown, 1942, p. 171). Synonym (subjective)—Nundle Series (lower part), Benson, 1918a, p. 326, 340. Components—Unnamed radiolarian claystones (cherts) ; Moore Creek Limestone (Benson, 19134, p. 497 (as Moor Creek Limestone), and 19150, p. 551) ; Crawney Limestone (Benson, 19184, p. 321 footnote, and 19180, p. 595), probably coeval with Moore Creek Limestone ; Timor Limestone (Osborne et al., 1950, p. 313), coeval with Crawney Limestone. SULCOR STAGE (Brown, 1942, p. 170) Components—Unnamed radiolarian claystones (cherts) ; ! Loomberah Limestone (Benson, 1915), p. 548 ; 1918a, p. 334) ; Sulcor Limestone (Brown, 1942, p. 170), prob- ably coeval with Loomberah Limestone. SURANIGRAPHY OF THE TAMWORTH GROUP NEMINGHA STAGE (Brown, 1942, p. 167) Components—Upper Bowling Alley Tuffs and Breccias (Benson, 19130, p. 578). Synonyms (objective)—Lower Bowling Alley Tuffs and Breccias (Benson, 1913), p. 573 (see Benson, 1918a, p. 327)); Igneous Zone (Benson, 19155, p. 550 (see Benson, 1918a, p. 327)) ; not Igneous Zone (Benson, 19150, p. 604 (see Benson, 1918a, p. 347)). Upper Banded Radiolarian Claystones (cherts) (Benson, 1913a, p. 496) ; Synonym (?)—Lower Banded _ Radiolarian Clay-stones (cherts) (Benson, 1913a, p. 496). Silver Gully Agglomerate (Benson, 19182, p. 347) ; Unnamed argillites ; Nemingha Red Breccia (Benson, 19182, p. 346) ; Synonym (objective)—Igneous Zone (Benson, 1915), p. 604 (see Benson, 1918a, p. 347) ; not Igneous Zone (Benson, 19150, p. 550) ; Nemingha Limestone (Benson, 19150, p. 551) ; Unnamed keratophyre ; Unnamed radiolarian claystones (cherts) ; (? Lower Banded Radiolarian Claystones (cherts) (Benson, 1913a, p. 496)). In 1918 Benson, in modifying some of his correlations between the Tamworth and Nundle districts, correlated the lower part of his Nundle Series, which he had previously considered to be synonymous with his Barraba Series (in the emended usage of that term), with the upper part of his Tamworth Series. This would place the lower portion of the Nundle Series in synonymy with Brown’s Moore Creek Stage. This correlation is invalid, however, as will be shown in a subsequent paper. In 1913 Benson, having examined the Bowling Alley Point region, recognized two tuff-breccia units, the Upper and Lower Bowling Alley Tuffs and Breccias. Subsequently, in 1915, he recog- nized in the Tamworth district an “‘ Igneous Zone ”’ which he traced southwards across East and West Gap Hill, Parish Nemingha. On further consideration of the relationship between these three units he became convinced of their synonymity: (19184, p. 327). At the same time, having mapped the Loomberah region between Tamworth and Bowling Alley Point, he recog- nized a further rudaceous unit, the Nemingha Red Breccia. He then realized (19184, p. 347) that a considerable part of the Igneous Zone on East and West Gap Hill belonged to this last unit. Brown (1942) erected the term “ Sulcor Limestone ”’ for masses in the Attunga district 177 north of Tamworth which she_ considered probably coeval with Benson's Loomberah Limestone. Osborne e al. (1950) proposed the name Timor Limestone for the limestone occurring in the core of the Timor Anticline. Mappable continuity with the Crawney Limestone cannot be demonstrated due to basalt cover, but it seems certain that the two are continuous. Field work has shown that the Upper Bowling Alley Tuffs and Breccias of Benson are identical with his Silver Gully Agglomerate. This synonymity results in a considerable telescoping of the lower part of the Tamworth Group section. Benson failed to appreciate fully the disturbed nature of the rocks in the Bowling Alley Point region, where he overlooked a marked swing in strike and several faults. The synonymy for the Silver Gully Ag- glomerate then becomes : Upper Bowling Alley Tuffs and Breccias (Benson, 19130, p. 578) ; Lower Bowling Alley Tuffs and Breccias (Benson, 19130, p. 573 (see Benson, 19182, p. 327) ; Igneous Zone (Benson, 1915), p. 550 (see Benson, 1918a, p. 327)) ; not Igneous Zone (Benson, 1215, bp. 604 (see Benson, 1918a, p. 347)) ; Silver Gully Agglomerate (Benson, 1918a, p. 347). The unnamed argillites between the Silver Gully Agglomerate and the Nemingha Red Breccia (Benson, 1918a, p. 352) become synonymous with the Upper (and Lower) Banded Radiolarian Claystones of Benson (1913a, p. 496). It is proposed to subdivide the Tamworth Group into several formations in the manner shown in Table 1. The relationship between this nomenclature and a composite of the older subdivisions is shown in simplified form in Table 2. The Moore Creek and Sulcor (Loom- berah) Limestones, which form the basis for Brown’s three-fold subdivision of the group, are not persistent, and are therefore unsuitable as boundaries for lithological units. These lime- stones, and the Nemingha Limestone, are treated as members for the present, although they appear as intermittent lenses at slightly varying levels in the sequence. All lenses appearing at the same general level in the sequence are referred to the same member, regardless of the lack of mappable continuity. This is not good stratigraphic practice, but the naming of each individual lens is not justifiable at present. 178 KEITH A: W. CROOK Table l. EASTERN REGION NORTHERN REGION PARRY GROUP Baldwin Formation Subdivision of the Tamworth Group AGE (after Brown, 1944, p. 121) UPPER DEVONIAN ? 1 PER old ey Ie BSL Bs Acad cay Se ale Passage Beds Passage Beds voc ra} z 22 oe | = Givetian oe Moore Creek Limestone Member & . Moore Creek Limestone S WE ME Member ta va Crawney Limestone Member s e Levy Graywacke Member 2 a a Silver Gully Formation Silver Gully Formation = Couvinian Loomberah Limestone Member Loomberah Limestone Member Wogarda Argillite Coblenzian | Drik-Drik Formation e > 2 Seven Mile Formation < Nemingha Limestone Member Z io) Nemingha Limestone Member > a Cope's Creek Keratophyre a a Gedinnian = 3 < a Pipeclay Creek Formation Base not exposed Stratigraphic position uncertain: Hawk's Nest Beds. The constituent formations of the group (Table 1) will be defined and described in descending order. Yarrimie Formation Derivation—Yarrimie Creek (170233 Goonoo Goonoo). Type Section—Silver Gully 198.4;200 Goonoo Goonoo). Lithology—Cherty argillites, greenish gray or green, becoming black and white banded with radiolarian limestone lenses as the sequence is ascended, with local biohermal limestones and some graywackes. High in the sequence olive- green to olive-brown mudstone interbeds enter and eventually become dominant. These are Passage Beds into the overlying Baldwin Formation. Thickness—2900 ft. in the Type Section. Age and Relations—M. Devonian, conformable on Silver Gully Formation. The base of the Formation is taken at the point where the arenites and rudites of the Silver Gully Forma- tion pass up into a sequence of greenish-gray (191200.6 to argillites. The Passage Beds commence at the base of the first bed of olive-green mudstone. Their top, here taken as the top of the Formation, is the top of the last bed of black and white banded argillite below the first massive (Baldwin- type) arenite. Three members are recognized within the Yarrimie Formation. They are briefly defined below : LEVY GRAYWACKE MEMBER Derivation—Levy’s Springs (111393 Tamworth). Type Section—Spring Creek (108.5;395 to 111395.5 Tamworth). Lithology—Massive labile graywackes with inter- bedded argillites. Thickness—Type Section 900 ft. Relations—Intertongues with argillites of the Yarrimie Formation. Top and bottom marked © by change from massive graywacke to argillite sequence. Moore CREEK LIMESTONE MEMBER (Benson, 1913) Derivation—Moore Creek, north of Tamworth. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE TAMWORTH GROUP Table 2. Relation Between New and Old Subdivisions of the Tamworth Group. OLD Unnamed radiolarian claystones Moore Creek Limestone and Moore Creek Crawney Limestone Unnamed radiolarian claystones Loomberah Limestone Silver Gully Agglomerate (= Upper and Lower Bowling Alley Tuffs and Breccias) Upper (?and Lower) Banded Radiolarian Claystones Unnamed radiolarian claystones Type Sectton—(provisional) Creek (096389.5 Tamworth). Lithology—Massive biohermal coralline lime- stone. Thickness—Maximum recorded 450 ft. (Benson, 1915d, p. 560). Age and Relations—Givetian (Hill, 1942, p. 144). Lenticular masses within the Yarrimie Forma- tion. Top and bottom marked by change from limestone to thick argillite sequence. CRAWNEY LIMESTONE MEMBER (Benson, 1918) Derivation—Parish Crawney, County Parry. Lype Section—Tributary of Wombramurra Creek (170.3;055.5 to 158.7;056 Nundle). Lithology—Massive biohermal coralline lime- stone, with associated calcarenites, largely crinoidal. Thickness—Type Section, about 380 ft. Spring NEW Yarrimie Formation with Moore Creek Limestone Member and Crawney Limestone Member Silver Gully Formation with Loomberah Limestone Member Wogarda Argillite Drik-Drik Formation with Nemingha Limestone Member Cope's Creek Keratophyre Pipeclay Creek Formation Age and Relations—? Givetian. A large mass within the Yarrimie Formation. Top marked by change to argillite sequence, base by change to feldspathic labile arenites and argillites. A correlative of the Crawney Limestone in the Isis River district, which is treated as a separate formation pending more detailed work, is also defined here for convenience : Timor LIMESTONE (Osborne, Lancaster, 1950) Derivatton—Timor, on the Isis River. Jopling and Representative Section—Near Allston station (189972 Timor). (See Osborne ef al., 1950, pp. 314-315.) Lithology—Massive coralline limestone, at times bedded. Richly fossiliferous. Thickness—760 ft., maximum (Osborne eé al., 1950). 180 Age and Relations—M. Devonian, and perhaps older. Conformable within Tamworth Group beneath beds referred to the Yarrimie Formation. Top is 1500 feet below the top of the Group, and marks change from argillite sequence to massive limestone. Base not defined herein. The Type Section of the Yarrimie Formation on Silver Gully commences at the top of the last arenite bed of the Silver Gully Formation, the change to argillites being quite abrupt. The argillites are silty, cherty, and banded, occasionally conspicuously. Sedimentation units have parallel bounding surfaces and extend for tens of yards along the strike. They are usually less than one and rarely more than three inches thick. Small radiolarian (?) limestone lenses are occasionally present. In the lower parts of the sequence gray, greenish-gray, and green argillites occur. Some 2000 feet above the base, black and white banded radiolarian cherty argillite appears, sparsely at first, but, after a strong development of bright green cherty argillite, becoming dominant. The bright green argillites have green graywackes with excellent graded bedding associated. These terminate about 2500 feet above the base of the Formation, and above this the black and white banded varieties occur, with occasional interbeds of unindurated olive-green mudstone. The mudstones increase in volume as the sequence is ascended, finally becoming dominant, and passing into the overlying Baldwin Formation. Good examples of mud- stone with black and white argillite interbeds are seen near the top of the Formation (Plate 1, fie. 1): Occasional beds of creamy-white or pale gray feldspathic labile graywacke occur throughout. They are well graded and do not exceed two feet in thickness. One example (Plate 1, fig. 2) contained well-rounded argillite pebbles. The Formation can be traced south to Bowling Alley Point without lithological change. Locally dolerite invades the argillites. Benson (19182) mapped two limestone lenses as Loomberah Limestone within this area. Being above the bright green argillites, both are referred to the Moore Creek Limestone Member, which is well developed in the Formation near Tamworth. The lenses have not been examined. South of Bowling Alley Point the unit has not been clearly separated from other parts of the Tamworth Group, due to structural com- plexities. Features in this area are described under “Tamworth Group (undifferentiated) ’. Seven miles southwest of Nundle the Forma- tion occurs in the core of the Crawney Anticline. KEITH A. W.CROOK The lowest beds exposed directly underlie the Crawney Limestone Member, and are feldspathic labile arenites and argillites. The Crawney Limestone is massive, gray, and richly fossil- iferous. The argillites immediately overlying it contain thin beds of crinoidal calcarenite. The Formation here consists dominantly of black and white banded argillites with graywacke interbeds up to ten feet thick. Green or gray argillites have not been observed. Some coarse graywackes contain rounded argillite pebbles near the top of their sedimentation units. Kuenen (1957) attributes this to the bouyant action of the high-density turbidity current on the relatively light mud fragments. Near the top of the Formation, below the Passage Beds, a mappable graywacke is developed. This contains occasional argillite beds and shale pebbles. Immediately above it mudstone interbeds appear within the argillites, and very rapidly become dominant to the exclusion of the argillites. On Ryan’s Oakey Creek at 175053.2 Nundle, and again at 166.8;047 Nundle on Wombramurra Creek, is developed a lithology not encountered elsewhere, with the possible exception of the infra-limestone strata referred to above. It consists dominantly of yellowish feldspar-rich arenites with sedimentation units up to 1 ft. thick which vary rapidly in thickness along the strike. Faint suggestions of curved planar cross-stratification are present, and green and red argillite pebbles may occur. Exposures are very weathered, due to the proximity of the pre-Tertiary surface, and the relationship of these rocks to the typical Yarrimie Formation is in doubt. South of the Liverpool Range in the Isis River Valley the Tamworth Group reappears from beneath Tertiary cover in the Timor Anticline (Osborne et al., 1950). The core of this structure is occupied by the Timor Limestone, which is similar to the Crawney Limestone. About 1500 feet of argillite lies between the top of this unit and the base of the Baldwin Formation. These argillites, referred to the Yarrimie Formation, are initially black and white banded, but higher up become greenish, silty, and noticeably flaggy. Mud- stones, often rather cherty, and banded or laminated siltstones, are common. Minor labile graywackes occur. Mudstone interbeds are more common as the base of the Baldwin Formation is approached. At 195947 Timor a 6 inch graywacke unit was noted showing in the upper 3 inches a STRATIGRAPHY OF THE TAMWORTH GROUP set of straight planar cross-stratification, and graded bedding in the lower 3 inches. North of Silver Gully the Yarrimie Formation develops several mappable graywacke beds. These are prominent east and north of Nemingha, but die out northwestwards towards Tamworth. They are dark green and labile, with a little rudite near Reedy Creek, north of Yarrimie Creek. Banding, graded bedding, and shale fragments are frequent. North of the Black Jack Fault No. 1 bright green cherty argillites have been observed just above the Silver Gully Formation near the Wogarda Fault, and higher in the Formation near the southwest end of the same fault. Two bands of bright green cherty argillite appear to the north of the alluvium along Sandy Creek and extend northwards for some distance. ‘The lower of these is again seen on the western side of West Gap Hill, east of Nemingha. Near Tamworth the Formation contains two Members which are absent or scarcely developed to the south. The Moore Creek Limestone Member is well developed north of Tamworth along Spring Creek. It is a massive gray limestone with abundant corals (see Hill, 1942), locally with rough bedding, and occurs as lenticular masses within the black and white banded cherty argillites. The junction between the limestone and the underlying argillites is sharp and there is only minor interdigitation of argillite and limestone at the ends of the lenses. The argillites are well exposed in North Tamworth quarry (095385 Tamworth), where they contain abundant radiolaria, and the radiolarian limestone lenses described by David and Pittman (1899) and Benson (19150). Chemical analyses of the argillites from this district (David and Pittman, 1899, p. 32) show that chert, siliceous argillite and normal argillite, all radiolarian, are represented. On the upper part of Spring Creek and along Levy's Springs a strong development of gray- wacke occurs. This is the Levy Graywacke Member. The rock is similar to that elsewhere in the Yarrimie Formation, labile and coarse with graded bedding and some interbedded argillites. Shale fragments, some with white aureoles, are present. Sedimentary structures—Graded bedding is wide- spread, being particularly obvious in some of the arenite beds less than 6 inches _ thick. Convolute bedding and load-cast structures are often present, and an example of flow-casts has been noted. Silt units frequently exhibit 181 ripple-cross-stratification, and ripple-marked bedding surfaces are occasionally visible. Benson (19155, Fig. 8) illustrates ripple-cross-strati- fication from Nemingha railway cutting. Little can now be seen in the cuttings due to weathering. Fosstls—Macro-fossil remains are rare outside the limestones. Leptophloeum australe is known from the Passage Beds near Crawney (171.5;073.8 Nundle), but not elsewhere. This does not accord with Benson’s observations (1915), pp. 553, 581 footnote). Its apparent absence from Long Gully and Loder’s Gully may be due to sixty years of fossil collecting. This form has not been found by the author below the Passage Beds of the Formation. Radiolaria are particularly abundant in the argillites, particularly the black and white banded types, and in the small limestone lenses they contain. From Tamworth Hinde (1899) described 53 new species. Silver Gully Formation (Benson, 1918, emend. herein) Synonym—Silver Gully Agglomerate (Benson, 19182). Derivation—Silver Gully (200202.5 Goonoo Goonoo). Type Section—Silver Gully (198.4;200 to 201.3;203 Goonoo Goonoo). Lithology—Coarse massive rudites with volcanic, granitic and coralline limestone pebbles. Minor arenites and argillites. Colours generally drab. Lenses of biohermal limestone locally. Arenites dominant in north. Thickness—Type Section, 2300 ft. Maximum observed ca. 2800 ft. north of Hyde’s Creek. Age and Relattons—M. Devonian, lies conform- ably above Wogarda Argillite. Top is marked by argillites of Yarrimie Formation, base by a change from coarse clastics to an argillite sequence. The term “‘ agglomerate ’”’ is not descriptive of the lithology of this Formation, and has been replaced by a more general term. In the Type Section on Silver Gully the Formation is dominantly rudaceous. Its base is_ poorly exposed, but a thin argillite unit appears to separate it from the Drik-Drnk Formation. The lowest beds are coarse polymictic breccias, containing a wide variety of lithologies, dominantly volcanic. Arenites become more prominent as the sequence is ascended. Locally, some 300 ft. from the top of the Formation, bright green arenites are developed. Coralline limestone and granite pebbles occur in »”) 182 the rudite immediately below this. Generally, however, the arenites and rudites are drab greenish gray to greenish black when viewed from a distance. This distinguishes them from those in the upper part of the Drk-Drik Formation, which are reddish-purple and bright green. The Formation extends southwards, some- what broken by faulting, to near Bowling Alley Point. Limestone fragments are usually present in the rudite, and these are fossiliferous on the Peel River at 216179.4 Goonoo Goonoo, where Phillipsastraea maculosa Hill occurs. North of Silver Gully, near Cope’s Creek, arenites are well developed near the base of the Formation. Some are well laminated, and have associated argillites. North of the Black Jack Faults the Formation is dominantly rudaceous, limestone fragments being frequent. Aivypa sp. was obtained from the rudite at 177.8;252 Goonoo Goonoo, near the Wogarda Fault. Northwards the Formation appears to thin considerably for some miles, although outcrops are poor, and then thickens again on West Gap Hill, where it lacks rudaceous material. It is traceable on the northwest side of the Cockburn River to near the Cleary’s Hill road where it disappears into a mass of dolerite. At 124.2;378 Tamworth, arenites with graded bedding, referred to this Formation, contain argillite pebbles with halos. At various points coralline limestone lenses are developed within or immediately above the rudites, and are termed the Loomberah Lime- stone Member. The lenses referable to this member may appear near the top of the Forma- tion, or occasionally in the basal part of the overlying Yarrimie Formation. LOOMBERAH LIMESTONE MEMBER (Benson, 1915) Derivation—Parish Loomberah, County Parry. Type Section—Por. 58, Parish Loomberah (163.3;310 Tamworth). Lithology—Coarsely brecciated biohermal lime- stone, with abundant large brachiopods. Thickness—Maximum observed, 150 ft. (Benson, 19184, p. 335). Age and _ Relations—Early Couvinian (Hill, 1942). Lenses near the top of the Silver Gully Formation bounded by coarse clastics or argillite. Benson (19184) recognized this unit at various points between the south bank of the Peel River near Nemingha and Bowling Alley Point. Some of the limestones east of the Peel Fault No. Z, north of Piallamore, where repetition of the sequence seems to occur, may also belong to KEITH A. W. CROOK this Member, as may the small mass near the head of Seven Mile Creek. Corals are abundant in the Loomberah Limestone (see Hill, 1942). The rock is usually a breccia, and appreciable amounts of alloc- thonous material may be present, certain of the lenses being best described as limestone-rich polymictic rudites. Wogarda Argillite Dernivation—Wogarda Creek (180255 Goonoo Goonoo). Type Sectton—Munro’s Creek (226166 to 227165.5 Goonoo Goonoo). Lithology—Greenish-gray cherty argillites and fine graywackes. Thickness—Type section, 350 feet. Age and Relations—Late L. Devonian Brown, 1944, p. 121). Conformably overlies Drik-Drik Formation. Top is at base of coarse clastics of Silver Gully Formation. Base marked by coarse red or green clastics with keratophyre fragments characteristic of the Drik-Drik Formation. This unit is usually poorly exposed, and is quite thin. In wide areas of it shown on the map north of Cope’s Creek the outcrops are poor, and considerable areas may be occupied by other Formations. Although the Type Section is separated from the main sequence by one of the Peel Faults, there can be little doubt of its stratigraphic position. Immediately overlying it is a fine rudite of typical Silver Gully Formation aspect, and it is underlain by a thin, poorly exposed bed of red argillaceous sediment of typical Drik-Drik Formation aspect. The upper part of the Type Section contains pale greenish-gray cherty argillites, banded with fine graded graywacke interbeds. These inter- beds tend to become less common lower down, and the whole Formation has a strongly silicified appearance. Intermittent exposures occur on Wogarda, Sandy and Cope’s Creeks. The lower beds are bright green cherty argillites. Higher, thin bands of arenite may appear, and very hard greenish-gray argillites of very fine grain-size. A minor outcrop of mudstone associated with these has been observed on a tributary of Sandy Creek (183233.5 Goonoo Goonoo). (Gite Drik-Drik Formation Synonym—Nemingha Red Breccia 19182). Derivation—Drik-Drik Creek (190241.5 Goonoo Goonoo). (Benson, STRATIGRAPHY OF THE TAMWORTH GROUP Type Section—Spring Creek 187.2;230.9 Goonoo Goonoo). Lithology—Upper parts, green arenites with occasional red fragments, and green argillites. Lower parts, purple-red breccias, arenites and minor lutites with biohermal limestone lenses. Clastics contain abundant authigenic feldspar and epidote. Thickness—Maximum observed, ca. 2600 feet, south of East Gap Hill. Age and Relations—L. Devonian, conformably overlying Pipeclay Creek Formation, where Cope’s Creek Keratophyre is absent. Top is at base of Wogarda Argillite. Base is marked either by the appearance of keratophyre or of the argillite sequence of the Pipeclay Creek Formation. The name “ Nemingha Red Breccia’ suppressed as the geographic name “‘ Nemingha is established for the Nemingha Limestone (see below). The Formation is usually poorly exposed along creeks, an exception being the Type Section on Sandy Creek. It is notable for its briliant colouring, the greater part being purplish-red in hand specimen, but beds near the top are bright green. The unit is largely rudaceous, red aphanitic keratophyre (?) fragments being the dominant material, with appreciable amounts of other volcanics locally. Arenites, calcareous _ silt- stones, and poorly fissile shales, all red, are locally developed. The last contain question- able algal pisoliths. The siltstones contain ostracods and _ algae. Feldspars, epidote, chlorite and rarely laumontite act as cements in the coarser rocks, and similar minerals form minute vugh-like masses in the shales, and occasionally appear to replace the coarser material in the rudites. The higher beds are largely arenaceous, and dominantly green, due to chlorite. Feldspars and scattered bright red rock fragments are abundant, the latter being diagnostic. Bright green argillites and fine graded arenites are also present. The unit appears to die out southwards, and is last observed on Munro’s Creek. North of sandy Creek it seems to thin considerably through the area of poor outcrops, but thickens again and is very well developed on East and West Gap Hill. Dolerite-spilite masses and the Cope’s Creek Keratophyre may disrupt the Formation locally, but relationships are not clear. They may be (184.2:234.8 to rie 1S o} } 183 penecontemporaneous intrusions similar to -the dolerite-spilite masses near Nundle. At several points massive gray or pink biohermal limestone lenses occur. These belong to the Nemingha Limestone Member, and at times contain corals (Hill, 1942); locally they are conglomeratic, the rounded limestone blocks being set in a red argillaceous matrix. NEMINGHA LIMESTONE MEMBER (Benson, 1915) Derivation—Parish Nemingha, County Parry. Type Sectton—East Gap Hill (160363 Tam- worth). Lithology—Massive biohermal coralline lime- stone, sometimes brecciated. Thickness—Maximum observed ca. 200 feet. Age and Relations—L. Devonian, developed as lenses within Drik-Drik Formation. Cope’s Creek Keratophyre Derivation—Cope’s Creek, west of Woolomin. Type Section—Cope’s Creek (195.5;219 to 197.8;219 Goonoo Goonoo). Lithology—Deep green to gray keratophyre and quartz-keratophyre. Usually massive, but may be vesicular or brecciated. (See Benson, 1915a, p. 133 f; 19184, p. 369 f). Thickness—Type section ca. 1000 feet. Age and Relations—L. Devonian. Relations with adjoining strata obscure. Probably largely flows, but may be in part contemporaneous shallow-intruded sills. At times apparently transgressive, lying completely within Pipeclay Creek Formation or the Drik-Drik Formation. This unit has been very fully described by Benson (1914a, pp. 132-137, 149-156 ; 19182, pp. 348-349, 369-375). It does not include the magnetite-keratophyre mass termed by Benson the “ Hyde’s Creek Complex ”’, which is situated near the base of the Yarrimie Formation at 207.2;191.6 Goonoo Goonoo. Pipeclay Creek Formation Derivation—Pipeclay Creek (205209 Goonoo Goonoo). Type Section—(provisional) Cope’s (201222.2 to 198219.5 Goonoo Goonoo). Lithology—Black argillites and minor gray- wackes below Drik-Drik Formation. Thickness—Type Section, 2000+ feet. Age and Relations—Lower Devonian. Top of unit is base of Drik-Drik Formation when Cope’s Creek Keratophyre is absent. Base is faulted. Little is known of this unit due to very poor exposures. It appears to consist of black and white banded cherty argillites similar to those of the Yarrimie Formation, with occasional gray- Creek 184 KEITH A. W. CROOK wackes, and green argillites near the top of the unit. Dolerite, probably intrusive, occurs within it, and it is in places disrupted by the Cope’s Creek Keratophyre. Seven Mile Formation Derivation—Seven Mile Creek (130392.3 Tam- worth). Type Section—(provisional) Tributary of Seven Mile Creek (124.2;378 to 130.5;380.4 Tamworth). Lithology—Black and white banded argillites with graywacke beds and intermittent biohermal limestone lenses. Thickness—Maximum observed, ca. 3400 feet, east of Tamworth. Age and Relations—L. and early M. Devonian. Conformably underlies the Silver Gully Forma- tion north of the Cockburn River. It is the equivalent of the Wogarda Argillite plus the Drik-Drik Formation plus the Pipeclay Creek Formation. Base not seen. This unit is developed northwest of the Cockburn River, where it occupies the strati- graphic interval below the Silver Gully Formation. The lowest beds visible are those in the core of the Tintinhull Anticline on Seven Mile Creek. The provisional Type Section is not satisfactorily exposed. The unit consists dominantly of black argillites, with arenite interbeds, particularly in the lower portions. The argillites may contain siltstone bands and _ radiolarian (?) limestone lenses. Siltstones in the upper part of the Type Section show graded bedding and slump structures. They pass into graded bedded arenites containing argillite pebbles with halos, which are referred to the Silver Gully Formation. All rocks are metamorphosed to _ hornfelses with abundant biotite. The Nemingha Limestone Member is developed at several points within this Forma- tion. It is frequently recrystallized, due to the proximity of granite. The rock is frequently rudaceous, and may be cavernous in outcrop due to the solution of the limestone blocks. Calcarenites are occasionally associated. Identifiable fossils have been observed on a tributary of Seven Mile Creek (124.5;390.7 Tamworth) in biotite hornfels. A bed of pure garnet rock (metasomatic ?) occurs about 20 yards downstream from this locality. Hawk’s Nest Beds Dernivation—Hawk’s Nest Creek (230084 Nundle). Representative Sectton—Hawk’s Nest Creek (226.4;086 to 235.5;084.3 Nundle). A= ore omeel WARIRAL =SOLVLELY MILE “CRELF Section f: TintinAull Antlicline Marsden Park ult & Synctine fa Goonoo Goonoo Antitcline ’ Vertical & Horcontal Scale on Miles STRATIGRAPHY OF THE TAMWORTH GROUP Lithology—Interbedded black pyritic shales and graywackes, with occasional thick graywacke beds. Thickness—Unknown. Age and Relations—Age unknown, possibly L. Devonian. Relationship to other units obscure, probably faulted. Base not seen. Stratigraphic position unknown. This unit occurs southeast of Nundle, and also in a small area adjacent to the serpentinite on Folly Creek (242136 Nundle). It consists of interbedded black indurated fissile shales and indurated lithic and feldspathic labile gray- wackes. Occasional massive graywackes occur in beds up to 20 feet thick, and these contain shale pebbles, some of which are bleached and surrounded by a halo. Some rudite occurs. The interbedded shale-graywacke sequence shows excellent graded bedding, occasional slump structures, and commonly ripple-micro- cross stratification in the silty layers. The shales contain graphitized plant remains which simulate graptolites. Pyrite, in bands and as isolated crystals, is frequently seen. The unit is intruded by the Mt. Ephraim Granite in the east, and sills and sheets of granite porphyry occur along Hawk’s Nest Creek. Felsitic intrusives occur on Nundle Creek. They are fine, aphanitic, yellow to gray rocks, dominantly of potash feldspar. Tamworth Group (Undifferentiated) The Tamworth Group has not been sub- divided south of Bowling Alley Point because of structural complexities and _ dolerite-spilite masses. Most of the exposures along the Peel River and the Hanging Rock road below the Devil’s Pinch probably belong to the Yarrimie Formation. The dominant lithology is cherty argillite, the black and white banded variety being the most prominent. The greater part, however, is gray to greenish-black, laminated, massive, and inconspicuously banded. Grain-size varies from fine sand to clay, silty varieties being most common. Small pyrite cubes are locally abundant. Outcrops near the Baldwin Forma- tion on the Peel River at 210132 Nundle contain mudstone interbeds which increase in bulk as the sequence is ascended. On the Peel River (218.5;153.8 and 218.5;150.5 Goonoo Goonoo and 223137 Nundle) green cherty argillites are developed, at times to the exclusion of other varieties. Minor purple argillites are locally associated. 185 Bands of labile graywacke from + inch to many feet in thickness are widespread. These quite frequently show graded bedding and may be laminated. In general, bed thickness varies directly with grain-size, beds over 10 feet thick being partly or wholly rudaceous. Arenite and rudite beds frequently contain abundant argillite blocks and pebbles, which may be angular or rounded. They may be randomly distributed or occur in definite layers, sometimes at the base of a unit. Occasionally they form beds of shale breccia. The fragments are lithologically similar to the adjacent argillites, and were derived by penecontem- poraneous erosion. The pebbles are often surrounded by a white halo visible in hand specimen (see Benson, 1915), pp. 610-611). Coralline limestone lenses are developed at various places. A calcarenite is associated near the Devil’s Pinch (240110.5 Nundle). At Bowling Alley Point (221164 Goonoo Goonoo) large fossiliferous limestone blocks occur in a breccia. Small radiolarian (?) limestone lenses, up to 14 by 3 feet, similar to those from North Tamworth quarry, occur frequently. One, on the Peel River (217.5;142 Nundle), shows bedding traceable from the argillite into the limestone without distortion, rather suggesting that the lens might be a replacement body (Plate 1, fig.3). Signs of differential compaction about these lenses (see Benson, 19150, p. 562) have been seen only in North Tamworth quarry. Penecontemporaneously intruded _ dolerite- spilite masses are common in this region. Some show excellent pillow structure, e.g. in Swamp Creek gorge (231.3;137.5 Nundle) (Plate 1, fig. 4). A wide range of sedimentary structures has been observed. Graded bedding is exhibited by almost every bed of silt-size or coarser. The graded units generally pass upward into clay- sized material. Along their base load-casts are often present. These have been observed only in two dimensions, and appear to be flute casts and flow casts. The upper part of the silt portion of the graded units may be finely laminated and show ripple cross-stratification. Occasionally the form of the ripple-marks is preserved, either in cross-section or on _ bedding surfaces. The latter are usually large scale, two occurrences having: amplitude 1”; wave-length 9”-12” and amplitude 2”; wave-length 9”. The silt and clay layers not uncommonly show convolute bedding (Plate 1, fig. 5). Slump 186 structures are rare, but an example occurs on the Peel River at 210132 Nundle. Rare instances of a typical cross-stratification have been observed. The sets, which are extensive, have parallel bounding surfaces, and do not exceed 3 inches in thickness. The cross- strata are gently curved. These were produced by traction currents of appreciable strength, as sand-sized material is involved. Benson (19130, p. 578) has referred to intrusive relationships between the “ tuffs ”’ (1.e. arenites) and “cherts”’ (i.e. argillites) where the former overlie the latter. These are the “ intrusive tuffs ’’ of authors (see Browne, 1929, pp. xv-xvi). Later (1915), Figs. 5-7, 10 and 12) Benson illustrates examples, mainly from Nemingha railway cutting, in what is here termed Yarrimie Formation. It is quite clear from his figures that these structures would be considered to be of sedimentary origin by modern workers. His figs. 6 and 7 are examples of shale breccias, fig. 10 of a shale pebble conglomerate (cf. Plate 1, fig. 2, herein), and figs. 5 and 12 of some form of pull-apart or load-cast structure. Whese ‘structures’ are due either’ to the disruption of bedded argillaceous material by the passage of a turbidity current, or to the disruptive effect of a suddenly deposited load of coarse material from a turbidity current (see Kuenen, 1957). The author has observed similar structures south of Bowling Alley Point at 233.4;136 Nundle on Swamp Creek. Macrofossils are rare, except in the limestones. Worm tracks are occasionally observed in the argillites. Notes on Maps A series of four maps entitled “ The Geology of the Tamworth-Liverpool Range district ”’, are relevant to this paper and the subsequent papers on the Parry Group and the post- Carboniferous stratigraphy. The base maps for the geological maps were compiled from parish maps and surveyor’s plans, with extensive correction of creek courses and roads from aerial photographs, the maps being prepared on a scale of 2 inches=1 mile. No other maps of the area were available. No control was attempted, and, whilst the maps are morpho- logically of good accuracy, the scale is only approximate. A reliability diagram for the geological detail on the maps is included in the author’s Ph.D. thesis (Crook, 1959). The eastern portions of maps 1-3 were mapped by Benson (1911-20). Geological detail shown in these areas is a KEITH AL Wo CROOK composite of Benson’s observations and new observations of the author, combined with structural interpretation of both sets of observa- tions. Part of the boundary of the Liverpool Range Beds in the Quirindi Creek Valley is taken from Hallinan (1950). The remainder of the maps, and most of the structural inter- pretation, is original. Figures margining the maps are co-ordinates of the reference grid which has been used in the preceding text. It as)miot relatediitoy the Australian Military Survey Grid, but references are read in the same manner as on the military maps—eastings (i.e. lines trending north-south) followed by northings (ie. lines trending east-west), followed by the sheet name. E.g. the grid reference of Goonoo Goonoo Village is 084228 Goonoo Goonoo. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Prof. A. H. Voisey, University of New England, and Dr. G. H. Packham, University, of (Sydney, icq their interest and assistance both in the laboratory and the field, Messrs. B. W. Chappell and B. Hobbs for assistance with field work, and Miss J. Forsyth for assistance with the drafting. Whilst on fieldwork the author received most generous hospitality from Mr. R. Croker of Gaspard, Mr. and Mrs. C. Bull of Tamarang, Mr. H. Hartigan of Lindsay’s Gap, Mr. and Mrs. S. Hartigan of Loomberah, Mr. and Mrs. A. A. Buckley of Garoo, and Mrs. E. F. Blaxland of Tamworth. To these people the author is most grateful. Financial assistance from a University of New England Research Grant is gratefully acknowledged. References Benson, W. N., 1911. Preliminary note on the nepheline-bearing rocks of the Liverpool and Mount Royal Ranges. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 45, 176-186. Benson, W. N., 1912. A preliminary account of the geology of Nundle district, near Tamworth, N.S:W. Rept..A.A.A’S., 8, 100-106 Benson, W. N., 1913a. The geology and petrology of the Great Serpentine Belt of New South Wales. Part I. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 38, 490-517. Benson, W.N., 1913d. Ibid. Part II. The geology of the Nundle district. Jbid., 38, 569-596. Benson, W. N., 1913c. Ibid. Part III. Petrology. Ibid., 38, 662—724. Benson, W.N., 1915a. Ibid. Part IV. The dolerites, spilites and keratophyres of the Nundle district. Ibid., 40, 121-173. BENSON, W. N., 19150. Ibid. Part V. The geology of the Tamworth district. Ibid., 40, 540-624. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE TAMWORTH GROUP Benson, W. N., 1917a. Ibid. Part VI. A general account of the geology and physiography of the western slopes of New England. IJbid., 42, 223-284. Benson, W.N.,1918a. Ibid. Part VII. The geology of the Loomberah district and a portion of the Goonoo Goonoo Estate. IJbid., 43, 320-384. Benson, W. N., 1918). Ibid. Part VIII. The extension of the Great Serpentine Belt from the Nundle district to the coast. Ibid., 43, 593-599. BENSON, W.N., 1920. Ibid. Part IX. The geology, palaeontology and petrography of the Currabubula district, with notes on adjacent regions. Section A. General geology. Jbid., 45, 285-316. Benson, W. N., 1922. Materials for the study of the Devonian palaeontology of Australia. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 10, 83-204. Brown, I. A., 1942. The Tamworth Series (Lower and Middle Devonian) near Attunga, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 76, 165-176. Brown, I. A., 1944. Stringocephalid brachiopoda in eastern Australia. Jbid., 77, 119-129. Browne, W. R., 1929. An outline of the history of igneous action in New South Wales till the close of the Palaeozoic Era. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.., 54, 1x-xxxix. CAREY, S. W., 1934. Werrie Basin. 351-374. CaREY,-S. W., 1935. Note on the Permian sequence in the Werrie Basin. TJbid., 60, 447-456. CAREY, -S. W., 1937. The Carboniferous sequence in the Werrie Basin. Jbid., 62, 341-376. CHAPPELL, B. W., 1959. The geology of the Tamworth- Manilla-Bendemeer district. Unpub. B.Sc.Hons. Thesis, University of New England. Crook, K. A. W., 1957. Cross-stratification, and other sedimentary features of the Narrabeen Group. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 82, 157-166. Crook, K. A. W., 1959. The geological evolution of the southern portion of the Tamworth Trough. Ph.D. Thesis, University of New England. Unpublished. Crook, K. A. W., 1960. Classification of arenites. Amer. J. Sci., 258, 419-428. Davin, T. W. E., 1950. The geology of the Common- wealth of Australia. Edward Arnold, London, Vol. I, 747 pp. Davip, T. W. E., AND PITTMAN, E. F., 1899. The Palaeozoic radiolarian rocks of New South Wales. Quart. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 55, 16-37. ENGEL, B. A., 1954. The geology of the south-eastern portion of the County of Darling. Unpub. B.Sc.Hons. Thesis, University of New England. HALLInAN, J., 1950. The geology of the Wallabadah- Temi district. Unpub. B.Sc.Hons. Thesis, Uni- versity of Sydney. Hitt, D., 1942. The Devonian rugose corals of the Tamworth district, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 76, 142-164. The geological structure of the Pyoc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,. 59, 187 On the radiolaria in the Devonian Quart. J. Geol. Soc. HINDE, G. J., 1899. rocks of New South Wales. Lond., 55, 38-64. KUENEN, Ph. H., 1957. Sole marking of graded graywacke beds. J. Geol., 65, 231-258. KUENEN, Ph. H., AND PRENTICE, J. E., 1957. Flow- markings and load-casts. Geol. Mag., 94, 173-174, 260. McKeE, E. D., anpD WEIR, G. W., 1953. Terminology for stratification and cross-stratification in sedi- mentary rocks. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 64, 381-390. OSBORNE, G. D., 1950. The structural evolution of the Hunter-Manning-Myall province. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Monogr. 1, 80 pp. OsBORNE, G. D., JopLine, A. V., and LANCASTER, H. E., 1950. The stratigraphy and general form of the iimor. Antichne.” ofa, Proce droys "Soc. anos. Wa, 82, 312-318. PACKHAM, G. H., 1954. Sedimentary structures as an important feature in the classification of sand- stones. Amer. J. Sci., 252, 466-476. PETTIJOHN, F. J., 1957. Sedimentary Rocks. Harper and Bros., New York, 718 pp. PickETT, J. W., 1959. The geology of the Black Mountain district. Unpub. B.Sc.Hons. Thesis, University of New England. Spry, A., 1954. The thermal metamorphism of portions of the Woolomin Group in the Armidale district, N.S.W. Part I. The Puddledock area. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 87, 129-136. VolsEY, A. H., 1942. Sandon, N.S.W. Proc. 87, 129-136. VoisEY, A. H., 1958a. mentary formations of New South Wales. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 91, 165-189. VoisEy, A. H., 19585. The Manilla syncline and associated faults.” /.. Proc. Hoy. Soce N.SW 91, 209-214. VoIspy, A..H., 1959. eastern New South Wales, Australia. GV.G5005.1\ 5.1, 92,191 203; Witiiams, K. L., 1954. The geology of the Carrol- Wean district. Unpub, B.Sc.Hons. Thesis, Uni- versity of New England. 2nd ed., The geology of the County of Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Further remarks on the sedi- We es doy es The tectonic evolution of north- Hea sy 20% L. A. Cotton School of Geology, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W. Present address : Department of Geology, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. 188 KEITH A.W: CROOK Explanation of Plate PLATE 1 Fig. 1: Hard black-and-white-banded argillite interbedded with soft mudstones, Passage Beds of Yarrimie Formation, Silver Gully, 193.5;198 Goonoo Goonoo. Fig. 2: Well-rounded argillite pebbles in feldspathic labile graywacke. Drift block from Yarrimie Formation, Silver Gully. Fig. 3: Argillaceous hmestone lens, showing bedding continuous with surrounding argillite, Yarrimie Forma- tion (?), Peel River, 217.5;142 Nundle. Fig. 4: Spilite showing pillow structure (light material is sediment), Tamworth Group, Swamp Creek, 231.3;137.5 Nundle. Fig. 5: Convolute bedding in black-and-white-banded cherty argillite, Yarrimie Formation (?), Peel River 217.5;142 Nundle. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 94, L961 CANO OI eA, IIe wall TAMWORTH GROUL - 2 370 280 TAMWORTH -LIVERPO DISTRIC SHEET No.1 -"“TAMW TIN , Va (2) QUATERNARY Ns Peel Valley Alluwvials ber! inci TERTIARY TH | ; | | | Lwerpool Range Beds oe Voleauc Plugs 2?LOWLER PERMIAN ° Pla 0° Anderson's Flat Beds ° LOWER & MIDDLE CARBONIFFROOS Hiutlurg Beds LOWER CARBONIFEROUS & UPPER DEVONIAN Goonoo Goonoo Muadstone ete. Balawir Formation >— Roads — Ralway Lines L1THOLOGICAL FAULTS" BOUNDARIES: —— 2 ee Estat leshred ™ — —_~ ae - Interred ~~ —_—~’ Coryectssrat — eS vy. ce — Oboscucred AS Vertical strata ” ” wet young arectcon ~ Horwortal strata TW 190 QO 240 SYMBOLS SEDIMENTARY TEATIARY Liverpool Range Beas 2LOWER PERMIAN Anderson's Flat Beas UPPER & MIDDLE CARBONIFEROUS Autti Beas LOWER CARBONIFEROUS & UPPER DEVONIAN Parry Group (joon00 Goonoo Mumastone Members —-- - Bolery Down Sanatstone| Pyramud Hell Gowrie Sandstone |Arenule Members seas: Gray wacke pees Gray wacke Garoo Conglomerate Scrubs Mountarr Conglomer. \Wyde Graywacke Member Ch Clp nate have os BPA ra Boman Cle AraA Lumestone Balaweur Formation MIDDLE & LOWER DEVON/AN Tamworth Grow Yarrunie Formation 370 Moore Ck Lumestone Member Crawney Limestone Turor Lumestone Levy Graywacke Silver Gully Formatron Loomberar Limestone Meméer Wogarda Argtlicle | Drik-Drerk Formation Nemirghna Lunestone Member Copes CK. Keralophyre Pypectay Gully Formation Seven Ailes Formation Dis lean SILUVALAIV Woolomnn Beads (CNEOUS TERTIARY Volcanic Plugs ERMO-TRIASSSC Moons¢ Granrtile MiLphraum Granute MIDDLE PERM/AN ’” Peel Serpertiriiutle MISCELLANEOUS Green Arg llile Jasper Porpry rile LITHOLOCIC HACHURES Conglomerates Arentles [| Luliles 330 Green Argtllle Lumestone ae Dolertle & Spulile Keratophyre ae Andesite & Porphyrt£e \x\ 310 300 280 —= + TAMWORTH-LIVERPOOL RANGE bs se se —— TZ Ge a THE GEOLOGY OF THE Gas Vy Waitin (eo CH Ga DISTRICT SHEET No 1- TAMWORTH ~ ES Ss Hob { G { KA Seale in miler STRATIGRAPHIC HACHURES 11. ay Lf LL | || Mi eS SYMBOLS Orn axalll BROCe LITHOLOGIC HACHURES Ey pe oi me ‘ = - ay x ' 1 j | | \ Re 74 ! | E | | | 1 \ \ { ‘ . { | | ! | | } ( \ = \ v i | | | | | | ~ i | | | \ - | | - ; THE GEOLOGY OF THE TAMWORTH - LIVERPOOL RANGE DISTRICT SHEET No 2 “GOONOO GOONOC’ Scale wi miles ro : ‘ q ) Y a\ 8 Pee NO f AL uf oa) 4 z MN ay — Y \ Ae : \Z G a ; AEs —f ae aa) Pe 5 2 om (3) x \ ri \\ ee AN \ 4 | \ X é ‘ cl ‘Y Td te 9 . | HP J We mown =-8 N t TI % TS | ENKN tdiax \\ ea es UNS AGT AAT D2 MWORTH-LIVERPOOL RANGE DISTRICT ‘SHEET No3 “NUNDLE” Scale ur mules 709 210 220 2390 v : RY 5 KS ‘ . q N ML ARS (EGeae, WEB RAe Ae Ieee THE GEOLOGY OF THE TAMWORTH-LIVERPOOL RANGE DISTRICT SHEET No3 “NUNDLE™ ‘ * a ” : Veale en malar = = 72 —8 mn a HN a +—_—~_ } peer |) | Y y ‘i hay Pel 4 x Gusvenenis CODER rr VCR ~ Ae NY | jp IN| L ie | ALY /y aa i: (N im 1 IN Ya HE o >) Ch RNS SELL [/ NCE, Cee PAs wi Hae e PEC ETT TRON PTA PN Peres iene RN NEES CBaAen PN Bee enc ial heal eae Ns NR Zales | CRAWNEY PASS ea NBN BN ane SSA: rm & IN eae eh x EBS q AS if ve Wi eS BAe Mace 190 THE GEOLOGY OF THF TAMWORTH DISTRICT SHEET No4 TIMOR 43 (e) Scale tr miles RS XE oe On oy ee SOS S “~ \ ‘ - : Z 7 \ « E ae 7 ~ SER an Sg i j . i od y d So a Y ee _ Royal: Society of oe _ OFFICERS FC OR 1! x es a ; *Brgiant a 2 Se rer DONEGAN, a fe to ene es bee: Aaya = i | Vice-Presidents 2 GRIBFITH Seid hae ee HARPER BN. HANLON, B.se. ae PG) eG EO MoGARTHY, i ‘HARLEY Ww. woo, M. Se. eS Pe es = 2 “Hon, cipadures* at le Bae fe ae L sae Nae eo "A. G, FYNN, 2.0, 8.1. = yt. J. W. HUMPHRIES, 5.se. = me : : AL eae ee es McKERN, Wyse, Boe ee WG. POGGENDORFF, ‘BSc.Agr. ¥ & ‘ ‘The Roy ral Soncky. of Nala South V inated in- Australasia ” naa eee an fal Sout f it . Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 94, pp. 215-225, 1961 Resonance Absorption in a Cylindrical Fuel Rod with Radial Temperature Variation A. REICHEL AND A. KEANE (Received April 11, 1960) ABsTRACT—When calculating the effective resonance integral for a cylindrical fuel rod in which allowances must be made for a radial temperature variation, it has been found that the appropriate average temperature to use is 7,+0-44(7,—T,) where T, and T, are the surface and central temperatures respectively. 1. Introduction For the design of high temperature gas cooled reactors, it is important to know the average temperature to be used in calculating the Doppler coefficient since allowance must be made for a radial temperature variation across the fuel rods. The treatment herein for cylindrical fuel rods, which depends to some extent on a result due to one of the authors (Keane, 1958) and previous work on the Doppler coefficient for fuel rods containing Thorium 232 (Keane et al., 1960), gives the average temperature to be taken on any neutron path as as j; Penh il) oer d le ae IE) ; Por=3} VT tae sin-! rut) where 7, is the surface temperature and T, the temperature at the centre of the cylinder. This value of Tay does not differ significantly from Tay=—7,+0-44(T,,—T,) which is the recommended average. 2. Assumption Underlying the Calculation The radial temperature variation in the cylinder is assumed to be parabolic. The actual temperature variation given by equation (3.6) is approximately parabolic for fuel rods of practical size and is exactly parabolic if the assumptions of uniformly distributed thermal source and constant thermal conductivity are made. The analytic treatment of the problem is vastly simplified by assuming the parabolic temperature distribution. The cylinder is assumed to be long in comparison to the diameter so that there is no appreciable axial temperature variation. If the temperature were uniform throughout the fuel rod the effective resonance absorption cross section would depend on the function U(x, &) (equation 5.1). When there is a radial parabolic temperature distribution, the resonance absorption cross section depends on the function y(x, &, 7’), defined in section 5. In obtaining this function, scattering in the fuel rods is neglected, and the use made of this function depends on results found for the almost identical function y(x, &, 7) by Keane (1958), where a slab was considered. Within the framework of the simplified model discussed in that paper it is felt that the recommendations made as to the correct mean temperature to be used in calculating the resonance absorption cross sections is not in error by more than 5 per cent. The values of the fractional increase in the effective resonance integral relevant to this paper (section 7) have been obtained from the empirical formulae given by Keane et al. (1960). In that paper a statistical model of Thorium 232 resonances was considered and scattering was taken into account. Some changes in the recommendations may be made when the resonances of Thorium 232 have been better resolved experimentally. A 216 A. REICHEL AND A. KEANE 3. Temperature Distribution in a Cylindrical Fuel Rod The thermal flux at a point in a cylinder of radius a distant 7 from the axis is given by where @, is the flux incident on the cylinder, Jy is the zero order tena ales Bessel function and yu is the solution of the equation where &, is the thermal scattering cross section and & is the total thermal cross section (Murray, 1959). Since the number of fissions occurring at a point in the cylinder is proportional to the flux at the point, the volumetric heat source distant 7 from the axis is given by O(r)= OS oy ivssho very (3.3) (assuming heat is produced at the point of fission). The temperature T at any point in the cylinder is given by —kA?7=(Q(r), where & is the thermal conductivity, considered constant. Since we have cylindrical symmetry, @T 1dT — Qylolpr) GA? @® kia). © rr (3.4) On solving equation (3.4), using the boundary conditions re Gyn when aK ee 8.) 7 — 7 when: 7—a and eliminating 2 using the result T=T, when 7=0 we obtain i Teal o( Ua) — —I o( v7) | Epon a d- G00 Cb-6 oon (3.6) bt If x is small, I(x) e1 +7 so that ig ta Lc i) ee (3.7) which is the same result as would be obtained if instead of (3.3) we assumed that the volumetric — heat source was constant. In the interests of analytic simplicity, equation (3.7) is taken to represent the temperature distribution within the cylinder. 4. Temperature Distribution Along a Chord of the Cylinder The temperature at a point distant z along a chord of length L is the same as the temperature at a point distant y along the projection of the chord on a diametral plane. The distance 7 from the centre of the circle in the diametral plane is given by : ri=—a?—VYy+y". RESONANCE ABSORPTION IN A CYLINDRICAL FUEL ROD 217 /p eed Fic. 1 Thus from equation (3.7), and putting y=TY, we have De ORY 5 a TV a) oie oie 6 @) 6 006 6 ohio! sf ere) « «Pe (4.1) r, where on PA ese oret ole g e hee isc Ries nS OS a eke ee Os Gees BG wie ara yn Paes (4.2) 5. The Average Doppler Broadened Capture Cross Section In the neighbourhood of an isolated Breit-Wigner resonance the effective resonance absorption cross section is Og= Sob (%, é) where (x, &) =5-| e eee Pins eae eee aera (5.1) i ee or | — 74E,RT\! > AT REC ieueuers: hele toieren ener ete (5.2) (r-) where o )=peak cross section at the centre of the resonance, E=energy of neutron, E,=energy of neutron at the centre of the resonance, I'=the width of the resonance at half maximum, M=ratio of nuclear mass to neutron mass, k=Boltzmann’s constant, T=absolute temperature. When account is taken of the resonance broadening due to a temperature variation along the path of a neutron (i.e. along a chord of the cylinder), )(x, €) must be replaced by its average value along a chord of length L, the temperature along which is given by (4.1). The evaluation of this average 218 A. REICHEE AND: A. KEANE is given in Appendix 1, and is almost identical with the evaluation carried through by Keane (1958) where a parabolic temperature distribution in a slab was investigated. It is found that = | ube, demyle, Ema PY 0s csv (5.3) 0 where. y(%, 6, 2 ))— areal #)tant(x4 9] —tan-a( x +} erf fr dp (5.4) 0 : where €max in (5.3) is given by 2 e perks + being given by (4.2). Ys When 1’ is replaced by t, equation (5.4) becomes identical with the function +(*, &, t) discussed by Keane (1958). In that paper (section 8) it was shown that for low energy resonances the uniform temperature 7T,, to be taken in the slab, giving the same absorption as the parabolic distribution of temperature, is given approximately by 6 4 T = =a (ae +1) oe. (5.6) where é, is the value of € corresponding to 7,. For the slab, equation (5.6) gives Ty=T RTT) ek see eee (5.7) which is the arithmetic mean temperature through the slab. It was shown also that for high energy resonances the corresponding uniform temperature does not vary significantly from (5.7). The same analysis applies to equation (5.4). In this case the uniform temperature 7, along a chord (length L) of the cylinder giving the same absorption as the parabolic temperature distribution (4.1) along L is given approximately by 6 4 oe >= sn 1 — ee H1Y:COC#C¥‘(§N(( kw www ee ee ee wes 5.8 ae aey") ie Y2 SO that 1,=1,+¢all.—1;) ae ee oa Ae bo a OO (5.9) and this value of T, is the arithmetic mean temperature along L. Numerical calculations (Keane, 1958) would appear to indicate that when W(x, &,), where & corresponds to the mean temperature Ty, is used instead of y(x, Emax, tT) to calculate the absorption per resonance as a function of resonance energy, the error involved is less than 5 per cent. Thus, in calculating the effective resonance integral in the idealized case when scattering is neglected, the error involved using (x, &) as against y(%, Emax, tT’) is not expected to exceed 5 per cent. This applies only to the contribution to the effective resonance integral for neutrons travelling the path L. Since 7, given by (5.9) is a function of Y, the effective resonance integral (and the fractional Doppler increase in the effective resonance integral) must be averaged over all projections Y of all chords L. RESONANCE ABSORPTION IN A CYLINDRICAL FUEL ROD 219 6. Distribution of the Projections of All Chords of a Cylinder on a Diametral Plane Let L be a chord of the cylinder, taken to represent any neutron path, and let Y be the pro- jection of L on a diametral plane. Suppose Y subtends an angle m—g at the centre of the circular cross section of the cylinder. As shown in Appendix II (equation 1), if 9(Y)dY is the probability that a projection chord has length between Y and Y+dY, then ONE Coton exfatne tc. ahh bay (6.1) Also, from Appendix II, the average value of Y is ee Thus, if we define an average chord of the TA y ona diametral plane, the average temperature on an cylinder as one having a projection of average chord is (from 5.9) 2 10 eh Ih) ay ch ee eee (6.2) 7. The Fractional Doppler Increase in the Effective Resonance Integral Theoretical investigations have shown that the effective resonance integral for a heterogeneous lattice is equal to that in a homogeneous system for which the scattering cross section per fertile atom, o,,, 1S given by where o, is the potential scattering cross section per fertile atom for the material in the fuel rods of the lattice, 1 is the mean chord length of the fuel rod and N is the number of fertile atoms/cm#® of the fuel rods (Chernick and Vernon, 1958; Keane, McKay and Cox, 1959). By considering a model absorber whose resonance structure approximates that of Thorium 232, Keane et al. (1960) were able to calculate the Doppler increase in the effective resonance integral as a function of o,,, for absolute temperatures of 300°, 600° and 900°. In that paper, empirical formulae were given for the Doppler increase AJ as a function of temperature and also for the effective resonance integral J(0) of Th?? at 0° A as a function of a, Using these results and equation (7.1) above, Table 1 has been compiled giving the fractional Doppler increase in the effective resonance integral, AJ/J(0) as a function of chord length 1 and of o,,, for temperatures of 300° A, 600° A and 900° A. The last column in the table gives the ratio AI(300) AZ(600) _ AI(900) I(0) * 10) ~ LO) ’ and from this ratio for different chord lengths the overall temperature variation law for AJ///(0) can be obtained. The last row in the table sets the limiting values for very long chords. TABLE I l cms (ores barns AI(300) AI(600) AI(900) AI(300) A1I(600) | AI(900) 1(0) 1(0) 1(0) 1(0) ; 1(0) 1(0) 0:25 149 0-553 0-706 0-803 1 1-28 1-45 0-5 80 0: 465 0-613 0-715 i 1-32 1-54 1 46 0-398 0-538 0-641 1 1-35 1-61 Bs 29 0-355 0-491 0-598 1 1-38 1-68 3 De 0-333 0-469 0-575 1 1-41 = igics 4 at | 0-328 0: 462 0-568 1 1-41 1-73 co 14 0-293 0-424 0-542 ] 1-44 1-85 220 A. REICHEL AND A. KEANE These table entries must be studied in conjunction with Appendix III where an expression is given and a graph drawn for the fraction of neutron paths in a cylinder less than or pane to any fraction 6 of the diameter. For convenience we consider these results as they apply to a 4-cm diameter cplindee The inferences are that for the fuel rod as a whole, (i) the value of AJ/IJ(0) can be taken as being independent of the path length and (ii) AZ/Z(0) behaves with temperature like T?. These assertions may be argued as follows : (i) From Appendix III we see that about 90 per cent. of chords of the cylinder have lengths above 2 cms, and for these chords AJ/J(0) is reasonably constant. Suppose we choose 0-33 as the constant value of AI (300)/Z(0). This estimate is too low for the short chords (the 24 per cent whose length is less than 1 cm) and slightly too high for the 42 per cent. of chords whose length is greater than 4cms. Indeed if we take moments about 0-33, the moments being weighted in accordance with the percentage of chords having lengths in a suitable range around each value of I, we see that the overall error involved in taking 0-33 as the constant value of AJ(300)/I(0) is almost negligible. Similar arguments apply to AJ(600)/Z(0) and AJ(900)/Z(0). The error estimate actually improves for cylinders of diameter greater than 4 cm, but increases for smaller cylinders. For cylinders down to 2 cm in diameter the overall error is not expected to exceed 2 per cent. (ii) In order that AJ/I(0) behave like T?, the ratio AI(300) _AZ(600) AZ(900) L(G) sO) Fs (G) should be 1: 1/2: 4/3. Clearly this is almost true for the large majority of chords which have lengths from about 24 cm upwards. For the 0-25 cm chords, AJ/I(0) obeys a T°-5 law, the 0-5 cm chords a T°-#° law and so on. The very long chords approach a 7°*3 law. Thus in taking the overall temperature law as T?, the error involved in the small percentage of chords for which the index 4 is too large is compensated by an error in the opposite direction from those chords for which the index 3 is too small. The moment weighting process used in (i) for cylinders of 4-cm diameter, indicates that the overall error is very small. The error improves for larger diameter rods and for rod diameters down to 2 cm the overall error is less than 2 per cent. Thus from (i) and (ii) we see that a constant A can be found which best fits all results, such that where A is independent of path and T is the temperature on the path. A conservative estimate of the overall error in (7.2) is 5 percent. In the cylinder the temperature varies along the path and equation (5.9) gives the constant temperature on any path for which the absorption is the same as the actual temperature distribution. 8. Average Temperature for Computing Fractional Doppler Increase in the Effective Resonance Integral Section 7 shows that for any neutron path in the cylinder, we may take AI Y? , 70) Be), Lh 2 eee (8.1) where A is a constant for all paths. Since from equation (6.1), o(Y)dY = cos 9/2dq@, and since Y =2a cos 9/2, the average value of AJ/J(0) for all paths is given by I (rin), [T,+% cos? 9/2(T,—T,)}#-} cos @/2d¢ AA = (a—Bu?)*du RESONANCE ABSORPTION IN A CYLINDRICAL FUEL ROD 221 where a=}7,+3T,, 8=3(T.—T,) arhence (Tm), =a Ft 8 sin-! ve Ao: a Therefore, by analogy with equation (8.1) the appropriate average temperature to use when calcu- lating the average fractional Doppler increase in the effective resonance integral is ea, Da) nt | Ge a = | Tay ea VilT.—T) sin FaF—T)$ Fr ete (8.3) To obtain some indication of the trend in Tay, we consider some special values of 7, and T,. 2 If T,=0, Tay=}(V3T, sin 1) =5,T.. If 7,=100, 7,=550, we find Tay=T,+0-425(7,—T,). For T,=600, T,=900, Tay=7,+0-437(7,—T,). Various other combinations of 7, and T, have been taken, and the calculations show that if (T,—T,)/T, is not too large, say <2, we may take fou Oa C1 ea 0h aoe er (8.4) 9. Conclusion In recommending the formula Tay=7,+0-44(7,—T,) as the temperature to use in evaluating the Doppler increase in the effective resonance integral for cylindrical fuel rods containing Thorium 232, it is expected that within the framework of the assumptions made, the error involved will be less than 5 percent. More precise numerical calculations may show some error in the recommendation but the error will be far less than that involved in the suggestion that the surface temperature T, should be used in calculating the Doppler increase. This suggestion is based on an erroneous interpretation of the surface and volume terms appearing in Wigner’s treatment of resonance absorption. To minimize the error, the function y(x, & +t’) would need to be tabulated. This laborious task may not be warranted unless y(%, &, t’) can be modified so as to make allowance for scattering and for the actual temperature variation given in equation (3.6). The possibility of allowing AI/I(0) to have a variation with path length must not be overlooked, as well as the possibility of a temperature variation law slightly different from T°. APPENDIX 1 Derivation of the Average Doppler Broadened Function on a Chord From equations (5.2) and (4.1) : C “Gave paL AE A where C= Try Etats he Dig ane ea eee (1) and A-is a constant. The value of & corresponding to maximum temperature at z=L/2 is given by C Smax—(a2y2 pay SRE Me acta oot el wie “ss anatr agepeeens (2) C and ere = {ra2/Y24 ga eee gee Coe (sine) MES ie eke ey eud a reiie corresponds to minimum temperature at z=0. Note that Emax< Emin. 222 A. REICHEL AND A. KEANE Now [. U(x, &)dz re) L —C2(x—y)? ( G | dy | Byer Viecigeeier Fei TORY real tod, 1+y?J 0 {ta?/Y?+-2/L —z?/L?}4 00 ee —C2(x—y)? CL | dy | Fis | aaa eat WOR ell ed 1+y?J 0 {ta?/Y*+u—u?3 Thus 7 dz is independent of L but is a function of Y, the projection of ZL on a diametral plane. 0 Denoting by J the integral with respect to u, we write C B={ra}/Y?4+Piae— max and making in turn the substitutions ~—4=B sin 0, t=tan 0, we find Vpeye Seay e) 7; I[=2 é 4B* 2 e ; 144 Since : e—K*1+#) me ae T " e—?* erf abd 0 | K| we find co Yp [=2\/n e—?* erf a vy, Spec 2ar/t P 2B whence 2Bp L oo A Ypdp (*+c = dy == —p = I dz cL e~?* erf TA) cooley ‘enino We have finally 1 L TI), Ye Bdemale, Emwe 7 0 =(r0%/V24 Baa | ee ytan (xt ee le 0 max —tant(x— ae )t erf ae AP.~ cans apps ye eee (4) Cae 2ar/t 2 ; ve If in equation (4) we write agree we find 0 where Ce hele fice ola bbls ot 2 oe ee (6) V7’ +1 APPENDIX II Average Length of the Projection of All Undeflected Neutron Paths in a Cylinder on to a Diametral Plane (Cylinder Infinite in Length) Let 0 be a point on the cylinder and Q a direction from a surface element ds at 0 such that the chord in the direction Q is of length R. Referring to Figure 2 RESONANCE ABSORPTION IN A CYLINDRICAL FUEL ROD 223 cos 0 -adedz = is aQ where cos 0=Q.n, and dQ is an element of solid angle around the direction Q. The number of undeflected neutron paths of lengths between R and R+dR from dS is proportional to Qn dQaS (Case, de Hoffman and Placzek (1953)), i.e. to ~ cos? §.adodzdS re Let Y be the length of the projection of R on the diametral plane through 0, and Y+dY the length of the projection of a chord of length R+dR. The number of projection chords of lengths between Y and Y+dY (corresponding to the angle between » and »-+4d¢) is proportional to 2 cos? 0.adodzdS ie (There will be an equal number of projection chords from the solid angle about A’, the image of A in the diametral plane.) Now Y =2a cos 9/2 and R?=4a? cos? 9/2+2%. The geometry of the figure then gives 2, 2 -—/2 cos Oa OS” PI? Therefore the number of projection chords of lengths between Y and Y+4dY is proportional to 2.4a% cost 9/2 — adgdzdS_~——_—8a* cos* w/2dodsdS z2+4a? cos? 0/2 2?-+4a? cos? 9/2 ~— (22 + 4a? cos? ¢/2)? * The total number of projection chords is proportional to [Qna0as =tmS where S signifies the total surface area. Therefore if o(Y)dY is the probability that a projection chord is of length between Y and Y+dY we have 224 A. REICHEL AND A. KEANE val 8a3 cos /2dodzdS PONY AS ay OEE Ct OF __ 8a cos* o/2do dz ra ™ » (22+4a? cos? 9/2)? ° Thus (Y)dY =} cos tq lb sets once (1) Therefore the average value of Y is 2m [vemay =a] 2a cos* /2de@ 0 APPENDIX III Fraction of Neutron Paths in a Cylinder Less than any Fraction of Diameter All chords of the cylinder less than or equal to 2a6, where 0<8<1, starting from 0, will end on the cylinder at a point between or on the curves of intersection of the cylinder with a sphere of radius 2a6, centre 0. Referring to the diagram, and from Appendix II, the number of chords of lengths R>R+dR is proportional to 2 cos? §.adgdzdS (z?-++-4a? cos? o/2) Le. to 8a cos p/2dgdzdS (z2-+-4a? cos? ~/2)? © Fic. 3 RESONANCE ABSORPTION IN A CYLINDRICAL FUEL ROD 225 rate < 2 aie ann 8 d TT) Oe w W mS BG aa4 ra oO = TO UW Le 06 Zz Ove ie ran fa re O a4 “4 S 6 8 1-0 Fic. 4 The total number of chords is proportional to zS so that the fraction of chords of length less than or equal to 2a6 is given by 3 iS 2a(5° —cos? /2)% Mie { cos! o/2d@ | - eee (1) TES Oey Bees 5 (22-44? cos? @/2)? aa a (lo. ee On) ek ae ae eine eae ts ee oe (2) where K=K(6d) and E=E(6) are the complete elliptic integrals of the first and second kinds respectively. As $1, the fraction approaches i As §->0, the fraction approaches 0 [since lim ioe oes 530 0 OF 4 The fraction of chords less than any fraction of the diameter can be read from the graph (Figure 4). References KEANE, A., 1958. A.E.R.E. R/M. 198. CASE, DE HOFFMAN AND PLaczEK, 1953. “ Intro- KEANE, A., McKay, M. H., ann Clancy, B. E., 1960. duction to the Theory of Neutron Diffusion.”’ A.A.E.C./E49. Vol. 1. U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington. CHERNICK, J., AND VERNON, R., 1958. Nuc. Sci. and Eng., 4, 649. Murray, R. L., 1959. ‘‘ Introduction to Nuclear KEANE, A., McKay, M. H., ann Cox, C. D., 1959. Reactor Theory.”’ (Macmillan.) A.A.E.C./E43. School of Mathematics University of New South Wales Sydney 7 2 } } \ \ 7, * ‘ emt me tate F eA i n ‘ 1 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 94, pp. 227-232, 1961 The Palaeomagnetism of some Igneous Rock Bodies in New South Wales R. BoEseEn, E. IRVING AND W. A. ROBERTSON * (Received April 5, 1960) Introduction The directions and intensities of magnetization of rock specimens from four igneous bodies in eastern New South Wales have been measured. These are labelled A, B, C and D in Figure 1. To ensure freshness samples were taken from as far below the natural surface as practicable, all specimens being taken from road cuttings and quarries. The bodies studied do not appear to have suffered any appreciably post-con- solidation tilting. The collecting sites are located by map references which are taken from the one-inch-to-the-mile military series and are given by the sheet title followed by the six-figure grid reference. The results indicate a Mesozoic age for these bodies which is older than had been previously supposed. A. Prospect Intrusion—This is a dish-shaped sheet of teschenitic dolerite convex downwards, intruded discordantly (at least in part) into WOLLONGONG e@ GOULBURN Shoalhaven River Fic. 1 Locality sketch-map. The localities are labelled as follows: A, Prospect Dolerite ; B, Gibraltar Syenite ; C, Gingenbullen Dolerite; D, Tertiary Basalts (D1 Berrima, D2 Robertson, D3 Moss Vale) the upper beds of the Liverpool Subgroup (Lovering, 1954) of the Wianamatta Group, which is of Upper Triassic age. It has a chilled envelope enclosing a main mass which is variable in texture and composition. David (1950, p. 578) states that on petrological grounds this dolerite, among other basic hypabyssal intrusives in eastern Australia, is usually regarded as Tertiary. Samples taken from three quarries (Liverpool 920215, 914205, 916216), included specimens from the chilled envelope and the more pegmatitic facies. B. Gibraltar Syenite—This is thought to be an asymmetric laccolith and is intruded into Hawkesbury Sandstone (Stevens, 1956). It is composed of an aegerine-augite microsyenite with deuterically altered phases and narrow pegmatitic veins. On petrological grounds it is regarded as probably early Tertiary (David, p. 581; Stevens, 1956). The samples were obtained from the two operating quarries on the southern face (Mittagong 426426, 427424). Another disused quarry a little east of these (Mittagong 431421) and much nearer the roof showed signs of weathering and was not sampled. C. Gingenbullen Dolerite—This is a 350 ft thick horizontal tabular body composed of columnar dolerite. The mass is either a denuded sill or a dyke. It hes on the uppermost beds of the Liverpool Subgroup and is thus of post- Upper Triassic age. Samples were taken at various heights in the exposed face of the disused quarry on the northern side of the body (Moss Vale 317347). D. Some Tertiary Basalts—These have been sampled from the Berrima, Moss Vale and Robertson areas. At Berrima the basalt occurs as a horizontal sheet overlying shales of the lower part of the Liverpool Subgroup. It probably represents a residual of a now exten- sively dissected flow. Fresh rock was found in only one road cutting which was sampled at regular intervals over a distance of about fifty yards (Mittagong 370473). The rock is a * Department of Geophysics, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. 228 18O Fig. 2 Directions of NRM in the Prospect Dolerite North-seeking directions of magnetization are plotted as circles on the upper hemisphere. In this, and all subsequent figures, polar stereographic projections are used, and the dipole (P) and present (F) field directions are marked porphyritic olivine basalt, variable in texture and containing phenocrysts of olivine in a ground- mass of microlitic plagioclase, augite, magnetite, and occasional glass. The basalt of the Robertson flow is petrographically very similar 270 R. BOESEN, E. IRVING AND W. A. ROBERTSON 180 Fic. 3 Directions of NRM in the Gibraltar Syenite North-seeking directions are plotted as circles on the upper hemisphere to the Berrima rock. Samples were taken from road cuttings (Kiama 627294, 594275, 560284). The weathering in most exposures was severe but large unweathered nodules could be obtained in some exposures. The samples from Moss Vale were taken from a disused quarry (Moss Vale 364337). In addition to these localities Fic. 4 Directions of magnetization in the Gingenbullen Dolerite North-seeking directions are plotted as circles on the upper and dots on the lower hemisphere. the spread of points towards the dipole field (P), is due to partial instability in some specimens. tions after treatment in an alternating peak field of 150 oersteds which removes this instability (a) NRM, (b) Direc- PALAEOMAGNETISM TAN 270 180 (2) OF SOME IGNEOUS ROCK BODIES IN N.S.W. 229 180 (2) Fic. 5 Direction of magnetization in some Tertiary basalts (a) Berrima basalt, stable magnetization. (b) Robertson and Moss Vale flows, randomly directed unstable magnetization other basalts in the Robertson-Exeter-Mittagong district were examined, but were found to be extensively weathered. Similarly on the Illawarra scarp and _ adjoining highlands exposures of the Cordeaux teschenitic dolerite, the Bong Bong basalt on and near Saddleback Mountain (Kiama 817516 west to 787163, and 783155 west to 773159), and the whole of the exposed Kangaroo Mountain basanite, were visited but found to be too decomposed to be of use. Remanent Magnetization The hand specimens were oriented prior to extraction from the rock face. Cylinders were machined from these with non-magnetic tools. The directions of magnetization were measured using an astatic magnetometer. The experi- mental error involved throughout all these operations is about 5° in the determined direction. The directions of natural remanent magnetiza- tion (NRM) are plotted in Figures 2 to 5 on TABLE 1 Mean Directions of N.R.M. The values given refer to the four igneous occurrences listed in the first column. In the case of the Gingenbullen Dolerite the values obtained after removal of the unstable magnetization by treatment in 150 oersteds peak alter- nating field are also given. S is the number of oriented rock samples, N is the number of specimens cut from these samples, D and J are the declination and inclination of the mean direction, FR is the resultant giving each specimen unit weight, « is the 95% error in the mean direction (Fisher, 1953) and & is Fisher’s precision parameter. AP and AF are the angular distances between the mean directions and the dipole and present field respectively Ss N 7D) I A. Prospect Dolerite 10 18 359 —8l (33° 49’S, 150° 49’ E) B. Gibraltar Syenite 10 20 27 —86 (34° 28’S, 150° 26’ E) C. Gingenbullen Dolerite 8 16 (34° 22’S, 150° 20’ E) 1. N.R.M. 56 +71 2. After treatment 191 +80 D1. Tertiary Basalt, Berrima | 1l 187 +76 1Re a k ISS Ee IED Pole (P=0-05) Positions 17-40 6-8 28 Pal 16 §=6515S, 151E 17-94 11-7 9 32 22 41S, 146E 12-89 19-6 5 147 165 _ — 15-33 8:0 23 154 166 £53S, 144E 10-78 6-9 44 158 169 — — 230 R. BOESEN, E. IRVING AND W. A. ROBERTSON 0.8 Gibraltar 0.2 x 300 400 100 Peak Alternating Field in Oersted (2) Pp ee rospect " Bases 100 200 300 Peak Alternating Field in Oersted (0) Fie._6 Alternating field demagnetization (a) Prospect Dolerite and Gibraltar Syenite specimens, M/M, is plotted against peak alternating field ; M is the intensity of magnetization after treatment and M, is the intensity of NRM. (6) Gingenbullen Dolerite, M is plotted against alternating field. The upper curve is from a specimen with a predominantly stable magnetization and the lower curve is from a specimen in which the stable and unstable components are of comparable magnitudes. stereographic projections, the convention adopted being to plot the north-seeking direction of magnetization as circles on the upper hemisphere and as dots on the lower hemisphere. The mean directions are given in Table 1. The directions in the Prospect Dolerite (Fig. 2) and Gibraltar Syenite (Fig. 3) are well grouped, the scatter being greater in the latter. Both have steep negative inclinations. The directions at Gingenbullen are for the most part almost vertical with positive inclination. There are, however, a few results with northerly declina- tions and less steep inclination which are strung out towards the geocentric axial dipole field. The directions in the Berrima basalt show a close grouping with steep positive inclinations. The directions of magnetization at Robertson and Moss Vale (Fig. 5b) show a wide scatter, the resultant R for 15 specimens being 1-32 and from the tables given by Watson (1956) the distribution is random at P=0-05. At Prospect the intensities of natural remanent magnetization (in emu/cc X10-%) range from 1 to 8, at Gibraltar from 0-1 to 1-0, at Gingen- | bullen from 0-1 to 1-2 and in the Tertirya Basalts from 1-10. The saturation isothermal remanence (M j,sat)) and the field required to saturate (H¢at)) and the coercivity (H) of Misat) for specimens from the three intrusives are given in Table 2. TABLE 2 Magnetic Properties M is the intensity of the natural remanent magnetiza- tion, Mi(sat) is the isothermal remanent magnetization both in emu/cc X10-%. Hgat) is the field required for saturation and Hceis the back field needed to remove Mi(sat) in oersted M M i(sat) A (sat) He A. Prospect 6°3 263 1500 200 Dolerite B. Gibraltar 0-5 208 2000 250 Syenite C. Gingenbullen 0-1 62 1000 200 Dolerite PALAEOMAGNETISM OF SOME IGNEOUS ROCK BODIES IN N.S.W. 231 Stability Remeasurement of the Robertson and Moss Vale specimens showed changes of direction of up to 20° outside the limits of experimental error, and this, together with the observed wide scatter of directions, shows that these basalts have a highly unstable magnetization. The mean directions of magnetization at Prospect, Gibraltar, Berrima and Gingenbullen differ from the directions of the present (AF) and dipole (AP) fields by amounts which exceed the errors by a factor of 2 or more (Table 1), indicating that for most of the specimens the magnetic directions have remained little changed in the Earth’s field (0-6 oersted) for periods of the order of hundreds of years. However, the “strung” distribution observed at Gingen- bullen is of a familiar type associated with partial instability, the vertical reversed magnetization being, in some specimens, substantially affected by a viscous component imposed by the present Earth’s field during the past few hundreds of years. Tests have been made by treating specimens in alternating magnetic fields in the absence of any steady field using the apparatus and methods described by Irving, Stott and Ward (1961). In fields up to 300 oersteds (peak) the effect in direction on specimens from Prospect is negligible. The effect in Gibraltar specimens is negligible up to 200 oersteds. All specimens in these two intrusions were treated in alternating fields of 150 oersteds with no important effects on the two distributions. The effect on intensity is illustrated in Figure 6. In the specimens from Gingenbullen the viscous components due to the present earth’s field are removed in fields of about 100 oersteds. All specimens have been treated at 150 oersteds and the results are plotted in Figure 40. The associated changes of intensity are given in Figure 6) for two specimens ; one in which the initial direction is vertical and stable, being little changed in direction in fields up to 300 oersteds, and a second in which the initial direction has only a shallow dip, and is substantially affected by an unstable component. In the first case (upper curve) there is a very small increase of intensity due to the removal of a small unstable component, and in the second case the removal of the much larger unstable component causes an increase of intensity by a factor of four after treatment in low alternating fields. The magnitudes S and U of the stable and unstable components S and U in this latter case may now be estimated. The NRM has a direction of (52, +18) and a magnitude 114 x10-6 B emu/cc. and is the vector sum S+U. U is directed along the dipole field (0, —54) and the direction of S (202, +75) is obtained after U is removed by treatment in low alternating fields ; in this case 75 oersteds was used. (The intensity measured after this treatment does not, of course, give S directly, since the latter is somewhat diminished by this treatment). The value obtained for S is 722 x10-® (see extra- polated dotted curve Fig. 6b) and for U is (2 ~NO=eemujce. It may be noted “that 3 and U have each about half the magnitude of the NRM (1150 x10-°) of the stable specimen (upper curve in Fig. 60). Although the demagnetization characteristics of these specimens do not show the high stability which is associated with the NRM of some igneous rocks the results do, nevertheless, conform to the initial palaeomagnetic condition for stability, namely, that the directions, in most cases, have been little affected by a component due to the earth’s field in recent times, and in those cases where a substantial unstable component is present its effect may be removed by treatment in low alternating fields. The stability of the basalts of the Berrima, Moss Vale and Robertson areas has been studied as part of a general palaeomagnetic study of the Tertiary Basalts of New South Wales. O 9OW Fic. 7 Pole Positions The pole positions for the three intrusions studied are labelled as in Table 1. The Cenozoic and Mesozoic poles previously obtained from Australia are numbered as follows: 1, Newer Volcanics of Victoria (Upper Pliocene, to Recent); 2, Older Volcanics of Victoria (Lower Tertiary) (Irving and Green 1958); 3, Tas- manian JDolerite Sills (Late Triassic, Jurassic or Cretaceous) (Irving 1956) 232 The results, which have been described by Irving, Stott and Ward (1961), are not discussed further in this paper. Discussion The, directions. of NRM an) the Prospect Dolerite, the Gibraltar: Syenite,” and”. the directions in the Gingenbullen Dolerite after treatment in 150 oersteds are stable, and may be identified with the direction of the geo- magnetic field at the time these intrusions cooled. On this assumption, and _ further assuming that the geomagnetic field at these times was on average that of a geocentric dipole, the pole positions (south) consistent with these directions may be calculated (Table 1). These poles are the points at which this geocentric dipole intersected the earth’s surface. It has to be remembered that errors are present in these determinations since the time span of several hundreds of years necessary to average out the secular variation of the earth’s magnetic field is not certainly represented in each case. In the larger bodies (Prospect and Gibraltar) this error is possibly quite small since these bodies may have taken a long time to cool. The pole positions for the three intrusive bodies are plotted in Figure 7. They are in the R. BOESEN, EL IRVING AND WAU CROBER ISON region of Tasmania near the pole obtained for ~ the Tasmanian dolerites (pole 3) but in a lower. latitude than that obtained from the Older Volcanics of Victoria (pole 2). This suggests that these intrusions are older than the latter, and of an age comparable to the former, and are therefore Mesozoic. References Davin, T. W. E., 1950: wealth of Australia. Arnold, London. FISHER, R. A., 1953. Dispersionsen’a Sphere: Roy.Soc.,, Ay 2AV e295: Geology of the Common- Proc. IRvING, E., 1956. Magnetization of the Tasmanian Dolerites. Pap. and Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, QO} eto7, Polar Movement Jo Rey... Asim IRVING, E., and GREEN, R., 1958. relative to Australia. Geophys. Soc., 1, 64. IRVING, E., Stott, P. M., AND Warp, M. A., 1961. Demagnetization of Igneous Rocks by Alternating Magnetic Fields. Phil. Mag. (in press). LovERING, J. F. 1954. The stratigraphy of the Wiannamatta, Group, Triassic System, Sydney Basin. Rec. Aust. Museum, 23, 169. R D. 1956. Observations on Mount J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N:S:W.,' 90; 100; Watson, G. S., 1956. A Test for Randomness of Directions. Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc., Geophys. Supp 7,160: STEVENS, Gibraltar. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 94, pp. 233-236, 1961 in a Dolerite Drill Core from Prospect, N.S.W. S. A. A. KAzMI (Received February 29, 1960) ABSTRACT— Using an astatic magnetometer the magnetic intensity, direction and susceptibility in a dolerite drill core were measured at intervals of five feet. Dip values mostly ranged between —70° and —80° except in the region 75 ft-140 ft where they ranged between —50° and —70°. The values of the intensity of magnetization (/) and susceptibility (#) were substantially uniform, but were somewhat higher in the region 5 ft to 80 ft than elsewhere. The degree of fluctuation in values is very high in some regions. The ratio //k has a mean value 0-66 and varies between 0:2 and 1-1. It is suggested that the rock has undergone a partial change in magnetization since this magnetization was first acquired, and that the observed intensity and direction of magnetization are the effective sum of thermo-remanent magnetization and A Study of the Variation with Depth of the Magnetic Properties isothermal remanent magnetization. Remeasurement after A.C. washing to eliminate I.R.M. would be necessary for the determination of true T.R.M. Introduction Igneous rocks are known to acquire most of their magnetism as they cool through the Curie temperature at the time of their formation. It is most probable that the present direction of magnetization of igneous rocks coincides in general with the direction of the geomagnetic field at the time the rocks solidified (provided we allow for any subsequent modification the rocks might have undergone physically, chemically and magnetically). By measuring changes in intensity and direction of magnetiza- tion through a continuous sequence of rocks the history of the geomagnetic field and of rock formation in the geologic past can be traced. The variations of magnetic properties with depth in a dolerite drill-core from the intrusion at Prospect, N.S.W., have been studied and are described in this paper. The core came from a vertically drilled borehole 190 ft deep and 1jin. diameter. In a similar investigation Jaeger and Joplin (1954) studied the vertical distribution of magnetic properties in cores from Tasmanian tholeiites of Jurassic age. The Measurements The intensity and direction of magnetization and magnetic susceptibility were determined at five-foot intervals. Three cylindrical samples of length=diameter=1}in were cut at each level and their mean values were taken to represent the dip (J), the intensity of magnetiza- tion (J) and susceptibility (k) at that depth. Measurements were made on a total of 100 samples. Since no horizontal orientation had BB been obtained for the core during its recovery from the borehole declinations could not be measured. Intensity and direction of magnetization—The measurements were made on the astatic magnetometer constructed by the author in the Department of Geology and Geophysics, Sydney University (Kazmi, 1960). The instru- ment was set at a sensitivity of 9-3 x10-7 emu per mm deflection. The specimen could be rotated beneath the magnet system around a vertical and two mutually perpendicular hori- zontal axes. When a minimum response was obtained from the magnet system the dip could (By yor Degrees fa) 50 100 150 Depth - Ff eet 200 Fic. 1 Distribution of magnetic dip in dolerite core from Prospect. All values are negative (dip directed upwards). - mean value for three adjacent samples at each 5-ft level ; -— mean value over 20-ft interval 234 Shay AN. be read directly from the calibrated circle at the base of the specimen holder. The intensity of magnetization was calculated from the magnitude of the deflection. The deter- mination of dip is correct to about +2° and of intensity of magnetization to about +4%. The dip is reckoned negative when directed upwards and positive when directed downwards. The vertical distribution of dip with depth is shown in Figure 1. The dots indicate the mean values at each 5-ft interval, and the dashes the mean values over 20-ft intervals. Between 5 and 75 feet and 140 and 180 feet the dip values are reasonably uniform, lying between —70° and —80°. In the ranges 75 to 140 feet and 180 to 190 feet the values are relatively low and fluctuating. The mean values over 20 ft intervals show a gradual decrease of dip from —78° to a minimum of —60° in the vicinity of the 120 ft level then increasing gradually to —78° at the 180 ft level. In the region 180-190 ft there is again a decrease of dip value. The point and mean values for the intensity of magnetization are plotted in Figure 2. Between 5 and 80 feet the values are high and fluctuating; unusually large values exist between 20 and 30 feet, the greatest measured being 83:6 x10-* emu. In the regions 80-150 ft and 180-190 ft there is a general reduction in the level of the intensity of magnetization but apart from minor fluctuations the values were fairly uniform. Comparatively higher values occur in the region 150 to 180 ft. Susceptibility—The volume susceptibility, 2, of the samples was determined in a field of 0:46 Oe. The method of measurement involved the application of the magnetizing field while JO - Fol yy 10) Intensity of Mognetisation, J C2775... 10 = oO JO 700 Depth~ Feet Fie. 2 Distribution of intensity of magnetization with depth in Prospect core. Symbols as for Fig. 1 KAZMI keeping the specimen at rest (Kazmi, 1960). — As most of the samples were not uniformly magnetized this method was preferred over the conventional one. The determination of k is correct to about +8%. In Figure 3 is shown the variation of suscepti- bility with depth. Values of susceptibility at each five-foot sampling level are shown by a dot and the average value over a 20-ft interval byadash. It will be observed that the suscepti- bility is high and fluctuating in the region 5 to 75 ft; thereafter the values are appreci- ably lower and apart from a few minor departures are relatively uniform. All the measurements are summarized in Table 1. J, and I, denote the dip values for the same sample calculated by two independent methods. The last column of the table gives values of J/k, the ratio of intensity of magnetiza- tion to susceptibility. Discussion of Results If the magnetization of an igneous rock is due wholly to the thermo-remanent magnetiza- tion (T.R.M.), its direction of magnetization should be essentially uniform, although intensity may vary from point to point. Especially for palaeomagnetic studies the fluctuation of direc- tion must be less than 10°. Long after their formation rocks may undergo changes in the direction in the intensity and direction of magnetization by the process of isothermal remanent magnetization (I.R.M.). Dolerite is well known to become greatly magnetized by this process even in a very weak field of the order of the Earth’s field, so that the measured intensity and direction will be the effective sum of the primary and secondary magnetization. ~ aU ~ = Q = os Se uv Yy » S ) 9 ~~ O 50 JOO ISO 200 Depth-—Feelt Fic. 3 Distribution of volume susceptibility in Prospect core. Symbols as for Fig. 1 VARIATION WITH DEPTH IN A DOLERITE DRILL CORE Although the measured mean value of dip (—71°) is approximately in conformity with the present direction of the geomagnetic field at the site, the fluctuations in individual values is suggestive that the magnetic properties of the rock have suffered modification since their first formation. All samples were normally magnetized and no case of reversal was observed. The intensity of magnetization in a rock sample depends on the grain size and the composition of the ferromagnetic minerals present. The high degree of fluctuation in the values of intensity of magnetization and suscepti- bility in individual samples only a few metres apart is probably due to non-uniformity of 235 distribution of ferromagnetic minerals. There is a fair correlation between values of J and A. large values of J generally being associated with large values of k, and vice versa. Stabtlity—If the initial direction of magnetiza- tion in igneous rocks has remained unchanged the ratio of intensity of magnetization to susceptibility (/J/k) has in general a value equal to or greater than unity. A rock which has lost its initial direction of magnetization or has suffered modification of this direction usually yields a value of J/k less than about 0°5. In the present case J/k varies between 0-2 and 1-1, with an overall mean value of 0:66. TABLE I Magnetic Properties of Dolerite Drill Core Dip Intensity of Depth Magnetisation Susceptibility Ratio ft I ik I=4(1,+1,) 104] 104k J /k emu *5 —8l° —83° —82° 9-1 17°8 0-51 10 —8l —79 —80 12-0 20-6 0-58 15 —7T7 —75 —76 13-6 34:1 0-40 *20 —78 —72 —75 10-5 16-6 0-63 $25 —84 —80 —82 83-6 81-0 1-03 *30 —79 —79 —79 48°5 44.°5 1-09 35 —72 —75 —74 12-2 23°8 0-51 40 —74 —76 —75 9-4 13-2 0-71 45 —69 —69 —69 17-2 17-1 1-00 50 —72 —72 —72 22:7 19-8 1-10 - 55 —80 —77 —78 10-4 18-1 0-57 *60 —8l —80 —80 12-6 17-6 0-72 65 —70 —70 —70 9-0 17-1 0-52 70 —T7 —79 —78 11-5 12-8 0-90 75 ~ —74 —71 —72 oo 19-8 0-50 80 —68 —66 —67 9-4 13°4 0-70 *85 —68 —70 —69 5:3 16-3 0-32 90 —82 —83 —82 5:3 13°8 0°38 95 —63 —66 —64 6:6 18-1 0-36 *100 —52 —55 —54 4°3 10-5 0-41 105 —58 —59 —58 4°7 15-4 0:30 110 —63 —63 —63 8:6 14-3 0-60 115 —60 —56 —58 3°6 14-9 0-24 *120 —63 —61 —62 8-8 13-0 0-68 125 —56 —54 —55 5:6 12-2 0:46 = E30 —66 —69 —68 6-3 13-5 0:47 *135 —73 —75 —74 6-6 10-7 0-62 140 —70 —70 —70 3:4 10-7 0-32 145 —73 —73 —73 4-6 12-3 0-37 150 —8l —79 —80 5:°7 14-2 0-40 *155 —75 —T7T7 —76 9-8 18-5 0-53 *160 —66 —69 —68 12-7 14-2 0-89 165 —74 —75 —74 12-4 13-8 0-90 *170 —78 —718 —78 96 11-7 0-82 175 —79 —79 —79 12-1 16°3 0:74 180 —80 —80 —80 11-7 14-4 0-81 185 —66 —68 —67 6-8 13-5 0:50 190 —5l —49 —50 5-2 12-1 0-43 Mean Values —71 pa 18-2 0-66 * Mean of two samples only. ft Only one sample. 236 One of the main difficulties in the analysis and interpretation of rock magnetic data is to decide to what extent rocks have undergone modification physically, chemically and mag- netically since they were first formed. It is suggested that the present material has partially changed both in direction and intensity of magnetization in the long period since its consolidation. In confirmation of this con- clusion it was found that some specimens underwent a change of magnetization when stored for a period of about one month in the vicinity of a permanent magnet. It will be of interest to remeasure the material after they have been treated with an A.C. field of 50-100 Oe. I.R.M., being unstable, should be washed out and a much greater uniformity of dip should then be observed. Sy Jae) 28 KAZMI Acknowledgments I am grateful to Blue Metal and Gravel Pty. Ltd. for permission to use the core, and to Drs. A. A. Day and H. G. Wilshire for advice and encouragement in the project. References JAEGER, J. C., AND JoPLiNn, G., 1954. J. Geol. Soc. CAUSE eee Kazmi, S. A. A., 1960. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, University of Sydney. Department of Geolog) and Geophysics, University of Sydney Sydney Present address: Geophysical Observatory, Quetta, West Pakistan Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 94, pp. 237-238, 1961 An Appraisal of Absolute Gravity Values for Gravity Base Stations in Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide I. A. MUMME (Received February 2, Sydney: University Base Station An absolute gravity value here of 979-6884 gals was obtained by Muckenfuss by gravimeter tie with the gravity base station in the Commerce Building in Washington, D.C., U.S.A., where, a value of 980-1190 gals is accepted by Pendulum measurements. The Commonwealth Bureau of Mineral Resources established a Pendulum station in the C.S.I.R.O. Buildings, Sydney, and obtained a value of 979-6841 gals based on a Cambridge value of gravity of 981-2688 gals. Gravity measurements with a Worden gravi- meter carried out by the University of Sydney show a difference of 2-8 milligals between the C.S.1..R.O. Pendulum station and the Sydney University base station, giving a value of gravity equal to 979-6813 gals. for the latter station. This suggests that a probable value of gravity at the Sydney University base station is 979 -6829 gals. Melbourne: Footscray National Gravity Base Station The writer obtained a gravity interval by gravimetric survey of 255-8 milligals between the Adelaide and the Melbourne absolute gravity base stations. This gives a value of 979-9790 gals for the Melbourne base station, based on a value of 979-7237 gals for the Adelaide base station. (See Mumme, 1960.) An absolute gravity value was determined at Footscray of 979-9776 gals by E. McCarthy with Cambridge Pendulum equipment. Dr. A. H. Cook of the National Physical Laboratory has carried out a comparison between results obtained with gravimeters in various countries. His conclusions indicate that the interval between Cambridge and Melbourne adopted by the Bureau of Mineral Resources 1960) TABLE | Summary of Results — Probable City Station gravity value gal. Cambridge Pendulum House 981-2688 Washington Commerce Building 980-1190 Sydney University 979-6829 Melbourne Footscray Laboratories 979-9791 Adelaide New Observatory 979-7237 may be 1-7 milligals too large, and suggests a value for Footscray of 979-9792 gals. A probable value of 979-9791 gals is accepted for this station. Adelaide: New Observatory Gravity Base Station From a comparison of absolute gravity pendulum values obtained by E. McCarthy (on behalf of the B.M.R.), and gravimeter observations by Muckenfuss (on behalf of Wood’s Hole Oceanographic Institute), Narain (University of Sydney), and Mumme (University of Adelaide), a probable absolute gravity value of 979-7237 gals was obtained. References MARSHALL, C. E., AND NARAIN, H., 1954. Regional eravity Investigations in the Eastern and Central Commonwealth. Univ. Sydney Dept. of Geology and Geophysics, Monogr. 54/2. MummgE, I. A., 1960. Absolute gravity Determinations in Adelaide and recommendations for a new permanent absolute gravity base station. Aust. J. Set., 22, 350. MummngE, I. A. (in press). Absolute gravity Deter- minations on the Summits of a number of prominent Hills in the Mount Lofty Ranges. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust. Geology Department University of Adelaide Adelaide, S.A. 238 Comment The value adopted for the acceleration due to gravity at the External Base Station, Dept. of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, for all surveys conducted by the University is g=979-6821 gal. This is based on the latest available value for the Bureau of I. A. MUMME Mineral Resources pendulum station, in the National Standards Laboratory, of g=979-6849 gal. Since this paper was submitted a note on the value of gravity at the Adelaide reference station has been published : DooLeEy, J. C., AND WILLIAMS, L. W., 1960. Absolute gravity value at Adelaide. Aust. J. Sct., 23, 17. An AS DAY Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. 94, pp. 239-242, 1961 Electrode Shape and Finish in Applied Spectroscopy S. C. BAKER (Received April 8, 1960) ABSTRACT—In the spectrochemical analysis of low alloy steels a satisfactory compromise between sensitivity, reproducibility and ease of sample preparation is achieved by sparking, in the case of rods, 150° cone-ended self-electrodes and in the case of blocks, a flat face finished on a 100 grit wet aluminium oxide wheel with 150° cone-ended graphite counter electrode. sensitivity is associated with large deviation and vice versa. is described. Introduction When installing spectrographic equipment on a steelworks chill cast samples in various forms are readily available from established chemical procedures but the shape to which the ends of rods should be machined and the requisite quality of the finish on a flat surface of blocks for spark excitation has to be determined. This was done as follows. Spark Generators Two “uncontrolled” spark source units were employed, one of 0:25 kVA rating and the other 7-5 kVA. The former has been described ‘¢ KD > <= <> Kas> => SS SS <> =>

—_ =D,

= > SS <5 High An efficient 7-5 kVA spark generator in B.I.S.R.A. Special Report No. 47 (1952) and Ilford thin film half-tone plates were used as recommended in that report. However, a Hilger E185 quartz spectrograph and a Leeds and Northrup recording microphotometer were used here. The 7:5kVA generator is illustrated by Figure 1, in which 77 is an oil-cooled transformer designed to deliver 60 kV continuously. The leakage inductance together with the variac A, inductance L and condenser bank C (of total capacity 0-013 wF) comprise a charging circuit of self-frequency 150 c/s, whilst the resistances Re 240 R, and Rk, control the damping. For critical damping of the charging circuit k,=4 ohms and R,=25,000 ohms each. T is a tertiary winding connected to a meter indicating open circuit emf (r.m.s.) at the secondary terminals but when connected to a cathode ray oscilloscope showed that the bye-pass condenser C’ is necessary to eliminate high frequency from the transformer even though the resistances R, are wound inductively. The double beam cathode ray oscilloscope CRO indicates the form of the emf on C by means of the bleeder resistance R and the rate of change of current form in the analytical gap G. The thermo- couple milliiammeter ZA and ammeter A serve to indicate the normal functioning of the unit. Satisfactory results are obtained with 3 sparks per half cycle of the 50 c/s supply with A reading 10, MA 150 and the meter connected to T 32 kV. All connections are made with + inch diameter copper tubing and the junctions are brazed. Subsequently it has been found that the long term variability of analyses is almost eliminated by connecting in series with G an auxiliary gap across which a stream of dried air is blown; the resistances R, are reduced to 1000 ohms each and the generator adjusted to give 5 sparks per half cycle of the supply. 5. C2 BAKA Rod Samples The influence of the shape of the electrode ends on the sensitivity and reproducibility of silicon and manganese determinations in low alloy steels was investigated with both spark generators. In the first instance an # inch diameter drawn rod was cut into 11 pieces each 3 inches long and pairs formed from random positions along the rod, the odd piece being paired with a graphite rod. The ends of the rods were then turned in a lathe to the shapes represented by the figure at the top of Table 1, opposite ends of each rod being given different shapes to increase randomness. Furthermore the spectra from the different electrode pairs were spread over all the plates to minimize the effect of plate variability and any variation in composition along the original rod. Small flats 1 mm in diameter were turned on the tips of the 60° cones because preliminary work had shown that sharp points caused instability ; this applies to the graphite too, which is shaded in the figure. The analysis of the steel was 0-:016%, C, 0-019% P, 0:49% Mn, 0-191% Si and 001897, S. A 2mm spark gap and intermediate slit illumination were used together with a 5 seconds pre-exposure sparking but exposures were varied according to electrode shape to secure approxi- mately equal line densities on the plates. Thus TABLE 1 OU Lae Electrode shapes 0-25 kVA generator Si 2881 tae EorG 25 0:97 1-23 0-96 0-88 0-89 a(S ) 0-016 0-006 0-009 0-006 0-006 0-005 Mn 2933 pues be Fe 9936-9 2. 5 1-72 1-52 1-18 1-46 3(Mn) 0-027 0-009 0-015 0-008 0-010 0-006 7-5kVA generator (underdamped) Si, 2881 Fe 2874 1-25 1-06 1-09 0-99 1-13 1-13 ae) 0-015 0-012 0-036 0-010 0-006 0-013 i hadi 2-43 1-34 1-39 1-25 1-27 1-15 Fe 2936-9 (Mn) 0-022 0-013 0-018 0-018 0:020 0-022 eee hkODP SHAPE AND -PINISH IN APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 241 with the smaller generator the flat-ended electrodes required 100 seconds, the 60° cones 80 seconds and the 60° cone-ended graphite to flat-ended steel rod two superposed exposures of 90 seconds each. In Table 1 3(Si) denotes the standard devia- tion of the mean intensity ratio of the spectral lines Si 2881A/Fe2874A calculated from the expression [2u(%—x,)?/(m—1)]? for 30 individual readings. Similarly 8(Mn) is the standard deviation of the mean intensity ratio of Mn 2933A/Fe 2936 -9A. When the charging circuit of the 7-5 kVA generator is critically damped and the auxiliary spark gap omitted results are _ practically identical with those of the smaller unit given in Table 1 and therefore they are not repeated here. This result agrees with that of Shirley, Oldfield and Kitchen (1950). However, in the underdamped condition the intensities of some lines are enhanced and equal those produced by an A.C. arc. The electrodes glow and boron, for example, can be estimated very satisfactorily. Results in Table 1 show that manganese and silicon can be estimated with sufficient accuracy at the same time. Since electrode shape and exposure were the only variables for a given generator, it is evident that the large changes in the line intensity ratios are due to the different electrode shapes so the deviations have not been broken down into their components as was done by the B.IS.R.A. Spectrographic Analysis Sub-Committee (1952). The results indicate that high sensitivity is associated with large deviation and vice versa. Some thought was given to Kaiser and Sohm’s (1942) electrode “natural shape” but this was abandoned on account of difficult prepara- tion and the 150° cone-ended self-electrodes have been adopted as a compromise between sensitivity and reproducibility and also because they can be machined easily with high accuracy and excellent finish. Block Samples Chill-cast blocks approximately 1” x1” x2” known as “pit’’ samples are suitable for sparking against graphite rods on a Petrey stand when one face is ground flat. To deter- mine the requisite quality of the finish on the flat surface the series of papers and wheels listed in Table 2 were used in turn. The 7-5 kVA generator with auxiliary gap was used in this case. 150° cone-ended graphite counter- electrodes and a 3mm analytical gap were employed to determine the same line intensity ratios as above. Considerable labour was involved in grinding by hand in running water and therefore the standard deviations in Table 2 are derived from only four separate readings—this being the maximum number of separate sparkings that could be made on one block face without over- lapping the spark burns. Block No.1 contained 0:198% Mn and 0-213% Si. The last 4 readings were made independently on Block No. 2, which contained 0-279, Mn and 0-220% Si These results are not as conclusive as desired but they suggest that the finer the surface finish the better the reproducibility and the lower the sensitivity but that there is no marked advantage in extremely fine finish. Wet finishing is slightly better than dry provided the specimen is not unduly heated by the grinding process. The method adopted by the steelworks is to cut a thin slice off one end of the block with a TABLE 2 Si 2881 Mn 2933 Material Grit No. fe 9874 8(Si) Fe 2936-9 6(Mn) Block No. 1 Wet paper 600 1-12 0-014 0-45 0-016 Wet paper 400 1-11 0-014 0-47 0-009 Wet paper 280 1-12 0-015 0-42 0-011 Wet paper 150 1-12 0-020 0-47 0-022 Wet paper .. 100 1-13 0-020 0-47 0-039 Wet wheel .. 60 1-18 0-012 0-46 0-021 Wet wheel .. 30 1-14 0-033 0:47 0-025 Block No. 2 Wet paper 600 1-13 0-009 0-72 0-009 ny paper \.- 600 1-15 0-012 0-76 0-010 Wet wheel. . 30 1-11 0-019 0-76 0-016 Dry, wheel. : 30 1-18 0-018 0-75 0-023 242 water-cooled high speed cutting wheel and then finish the exposed end of the block on a wet 100-grit aluminium oxide grinding wheel. Though the rods are easier to prepare for sparking and give better overall results the “pit ’’ samples cause less confusion on the plant and have been used almost exclusively during the first year of spectrographic operation. Excellent working curves have been established for Nin Voi, Cr Ni MoeCu, Aland Zr an the normal concentration ranges in low alloy steels. 5) C BAKiIN References BRITISH IRON AND STEEL RESEARCH ASSOCIATION, 1950. Spectrographic Analysis Sub-Committee Report. Ivon & Steel Inst. J., 166, 325. BRITISH IRON AND STEEL RESEARCH ASSOCIATION, 1952. Special Report 47. KalIserR, H., and Soum, M., 1942. Spectrochimica Acta 2. SHIRLEY, H. T., OLDFIELD, A., AND KITCHEN, H., 1950. Ivon & Steel Inst. J., 166, 329. Newcastle University College fighes Hall NGS Astronomy : Minor Planets observed at Sydney las alae during 1959. By W. H. Robertson .. ‘ Authors of Papers: Bailey, V. A.—Net Electric Charges on Stars, Galaxies and ‘‘ Neutral’’ Elementary Particles Baker, S. C.—Electrode Shape and Finish in Applied Electroscopy Boesen, R., E. Irving and W. A. Robertson—The Palaeomagnetism of some Igneous Rock Bodies in New South Wales .. ibesworth, R. C. L., and C. M. Crncenee me nece of Chain Reactions Crook, K. A. W.—Stratigraphy of the Tamworth Group (Lower and Middle Devonian), Tamworth-Nundle District, N.S.W. .. Crook, K. A. W.—Stratigraphy of the Parry Group (Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous) Tamworth-Nundle District, N.S.W. .. Crook, K. A. W.—Post-Carboniferous Stratigraphy of the Tamworth-Nundle District, N.S.W. .. Groden, C. M., and R. C. L. Bosworth—Kinetics of Chain Reactions Harper, A. F. A.—Research, Development Ana the Maintenance of Standards in Heat at the National Standards Laboratory Hawkins, C. A., and P. H. Walker—An Oe nc of Buried Soils at Prospect, N.S.W.. Irving, E., R. Boesen and W. A. Robertson— The Palaeomagnetism of some Igneous Rock Bodies in New South Wales .. Kazmi, S. A. A.—A Study of the Vanier ei Depth of the Magnetic Properties in a Dolerite Drill Core from Prospect, N.S.W. Keane, A., and A. Reichel—Resonance Absorption in a Cylindrical Fuel Rod with Radial aoe ature Variation .. Marshall, C. E., and D. K. Pompe coin Characteristics of Selected Australian and Japanese Coals Mumme, I. A.—An Ie oraieal of Absoiits Granite Values for Gravity Base Stations in Pe Melbourne and Adelaide Prokhovnik, S. J.—An iinberpreeatione ‘af the Lorentz Transformation Co-ordinates Reichel, A., and A. Keane—Resonance Absorption ina Cylindrical Fuel Rod with Radial see ature Variation . Robertson, W. A., R. Baceen and 1D iene: The Palaeomagnetism of some voce Rock Bodies in New South Wales .. Robertson, W. H.—Minor Planets Obsenied ae Sydney Observatory during 1959 Thomas, D. E.—The Zonal Distribution of Australian Graptolites; with a Revised Bibliography of Australian Graptolites INDEX al ~I I 239 227 99 _ L735 227 Tompkins, D. K., and C. E. Marshall—Coking Characteristics of Selected Australian and Japanese Coals Walker, 2: H., and C. A. Pari ects rence of Buried Soils at Prospect, N.S.W. Chemistry : Kinetics of Chain Reactions. By Ke. C: Ly Bos- worth and C. M. Groden as uve Engineering (Nuclear Engineering) : Resonance Absorption in a Cylindrical Fuel Rod with Radial Temperature Variation. By A. Reichel and A. Keane ; Fuels: Coking Characteristics of Selected Australian and Japanese Coals. By C. E. Marshall and D. K. Tompkins sins as ae Geology : Post-Carboniferous Stratigraphy of the Tamworth- Nundle District, N.'S.W. By K. A. W. Crook : Stratigraphy of the Tamworth Group (Lower and Middle Devonian), Tamworth-Nundle District, NiS.W:. By K. A. W. Crook Stratigraphy of the Parry Group (Upper Devonian: Lower Carboniferous), Tamworth-Nundle District, N.S.W. By K. A. W. Crook Zonal Distribution of Australian Graptolites, The ; with a Revised Bibliography of Australian Graptolites. Clarke Memorial Lecture by D. E. Thomas a ne Geophysics : Appraisal of Absolute Gravity Values for Gravity Base Stations in Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide, An. By I. A. Mumme Palaeomagnetism of some Igneous Rock Bodies in New South Wales, The. By R. Boesen, E. Irving and W. A. Robertson Study of the Variation with Depth of the Menon Properties in a Dolerite Drill Core from Prospect, N.S.W., A. By S. A. A. Kazmi .. Metallurgy : Electrode Shape and Finish in puaees Razin scopy. By S. C. Baker ; Physics : Net Electric Charges on Stars, Galaxies and ““ Neutral ”’ Enemy Particles. ae V. A. Bailey Research, evelopment av ieee of Standards of Heat at the National Standards Laboratory. Presidential Address ye AL BA. Harper : : 121 115 99 . 215 121 239 59 244 Proceedings of the Society : Abstract of Proceedings, 1959 : Annual Reports by the President and the Council, 1959-60 ae ; Burfitt Prize for 1959, award of Clarke Medal for 1960, award of . Clarke Memorial Lecture for 1959 Cook Medal for 1959, award of Financial Statement for 1959-60 ois ae Geology, Section of. Report for, 1959, and Addendum to Report for 1956 ae se Library, Report for 1959 Medals, Memorial Lectureships and Prizes ‘awarded by the Society. ae Members of the Society, List of .. INDEX Obituary, 1959-60 .. a le leg Officers of the Society for 1960-61 a4 sate Lol Ollé Prize for 1959, award of site 88 Science House Management Committee, "Society Representatives on : - Sar: Society’s Medal for 1959, award of a te oo Soil Science Committee =, si Bch a es Relativity : An Interpretation of the Lorentz Transformation Co-ordinates. By S. J. Prokhovnik wee LOD Soil Science: An Occurrence of Buried Soils at Prospect, N.S.W. By C. A. Hawkins and P. H. Walker ig aS 3 \orary Secretaries, Royal Society of treet, Sydney. Two copies of each manuscript See Sa Ce ee tyle adopted i in this Journal. They — as. concise. as possible, consistent with — ne squate : resentation... 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