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JOURNAL 


AND 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ROYAL SOCIETY 


NEW SOUTH WALKS, 


FOR 


18938. 
INCORPORATED 1881: 


WOT xe VLE. 


EDITED BY 


THE HONORARY SOT eB 


- 


~- 


;  'FHE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS 
. MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. 


™"> 
a e 
SYDNEY: 
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH. 
LONDON : 
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., Lrurep. ; 


PaTERNOsTER House, Cuarina CrossjRoaD, Lompom, W.C. 


poe wet TE 


NOTICE. 


THe Roya Sociery of New South Wales originated in 1821 as 
the “Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of 
inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the 
‘¢ Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known 
until 1856, when the name was changed to the “ Philosophical 
Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her 
Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, it assumed its present title, 
and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South 
Wales in 1881. 


NOTICE TO AUTHORS. 

The Honorary Secretaries request that authors of papers (to be 
read before the Royal Society of New South Wales) requiring 
illustrations by photo-lithography, will, before preparing such 

drawings, make application to the Assistant Secretary for patterns 
of the standard sizes of diagrams We. to suit the Society’s Journal. 


ERRATA. 
Page 200, line 2, after ‘expression ” insert ‘ Neglecting H in 
comparison with B”, 
Page 205, Corollary (1i.), line-5, . 
= —}*(BH—}H?) 


3 
UE = LeU)? 
or faa | 
should read 
B2 — H? 1 
t ss (IR BE aa en Bre 

Sar rea 2) 

BB? 2-8 A 


or 
Sir 


Page 227, line 18 from top, for “ points,” read ‘“ joints.” 


= 


PUBLICATIONS. 


O. 


Transactions of the Philosophical Society, N.S.W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print. a 
Vol. I. Transactions of the Royal] Society, N.S. W., 1867, pp. 83, —,, 


” II. ” ” ” ” ” 1868, ,, 120, ” 
” IIT. 2” ” a ” ” 1869, ,, 173, ,, 
” IV. ” ” ” ” ” 1870, ,, 106, ” 
We ry) » ” ” ” 1871, ,, 72, — 55 
” Vi. » ” 2» ” ” 1872, ,, 123, ,, 
” Vil. 2” ” » » ” 1873, ,, 182, ” 
9 VIIE- ” ” ” ” ” 18745 ee ” 
2» IX. ” sitg als: » 20 1875, ,, 235, ” 
is X. Journal and Proceedings 55 1876, ,, Seeage cas 
” XI. 2» » ” ” ” 1877, ,, 305, 
Soa Pexett 4 “yh: < i" ¥ "1878 ,, 394 price 10m GAs | 
” XIII. 9 ” 2» »” 2 1879, ,, 255, ,, 10s. 6d. [- 
ee eXaNyS Tanai . . ‘ 7 1880, ,, 391, ,, 105) 6da nn 
” XV. ry) ” 295 ” ” 1881, ,, 440, . »» 10s. 6d. 
2» XVI. 2” ” ” ” » 1882, ,, 327, ,, 10s. 6d. 
PL Xavi Ae. Bi a s ; 1883, ,, 324, ., isu eden 
Pex vari) ae i . a 1884, ,, 224, 44 OSs ein 
eS a ener a Ms >. 1885, 4, 240, 25, Jeune 

98 XX. » ” ” 2» ” 1886, ,, 396, ,, 10s. 6d. 
29 XXII. ” ” ” ” ” 1887, ,, 296, ,, 10s. 6d. ; 
S Woeaner ime i . 4 »» _-1888,,, 300. ,. 1Oeseceaniae 
» XXII. ,, 09 9 > > —«:1889, ,, 534,” 55 Weed ee 
» XXIV. yr ” ” »” ” 1890, ,, 290, ,, 10s. 6d. 
zy) XXV. ” ” ” ” i 1891, ,, 348, ,, 10s. 6d. | d . 
3 XVI. 9 53) Se eh ” ” 1892, ,, 426, ,, 10s. 6d. , 
» XXVIT ” ” 9 ” 1893, ,, 520, ,, 10s. 6d. me 


CE fee 


CON EN AS: 


VOLUME XXVII. 


OFFICERS FOR 1893- GAs. 


ART. 


ART. 
ART. 
ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 
ABT. 


ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 


ART. 


I.—PRESIDENT SADDRESS. By Prof. W. i, Waren, M. Inst.C.E, 
Wa. Sc., M. Am. Soc. CE. 


II.—Light Railways for New eouth Wales By avec: 
Ormsby Burge, M. Ins-. C.E. 

IlI.—Flying-Machine Motors and Cellular Kites. By 

Lawrence Hargrave [Four Plates].. 

IV.—Notes and Analysis of a Metallic Meteorite from 
Moonbi, near Tamworth, N.S.W. By John C. H. Mingaye, 
F.C.S., M.A.I.M.E. [Two Plates]... 

WV. = (Plants with their Habitats, diseovered to be indigenous 
to this Colony since the publication of the Handbook of the 
Flora of New South Waies; chiefly furnished by Baron von 
Mueller, from unpublished Herbarium notes. By Charles 
Moore, F.L.s., &¢.. Ae is 

VI.—On the Whip- Worm of the Rat’s Liver. "By whos: 1G: 
Bancroft, u.B., Edin. [Two Plates.] Communicated by 
J. H. Maiden, F.L.s., &e. os Ree Lon = 

VII.—Small Whirlwinds. By Hugh Charles Kiddle ; 

VIIl.—The Languages of the New Hebrides. By Sidney 
H. Ray, London; revised by Dr. John Fraser, Sydney 
[One Plate] 

IX.—Unrecorded Genera of the Older Tertiary Fauna of 
Australia, including diagnoses of some New Genera and 
Species. By Prof. Ralph Tate, F.G.s., F.L.s.. Hon. Memb. 
[Four Plates | : 

X.— On an Approximate Method of finding the forces acting 
in Magnetic Uircuits. By Richard 'Vhrelfall, m.a., Professor 
of Physics, University of Sydney; assisted by Fiorence 
Martin, Student in the University of Sydney [Two Plates] 

XI.—Light Railways for New South Wales. By Charles 
Ormsby Burge, M. Inst. C.E-—Discussion ‘ 

XII.—The Treatment of Manufactured Iron and Steel for 


Constructional Purposes. By Wm. Field How., Assoc, M. Lysr. . 


C.E., M.I. Mecuw. E,,Wu.sc.... 

XIII.—On the ‘Origin of Moss Gold. " By A. Liversidge, 
M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of 
Syduey [Two Plates) + 

XIV.—On the Condition of Gold in Quartz atid ‘Calcite 
Veins. By A. Liversidge, m.a., F.R.S., Professor of 
Chemistry, University of Sydney a 58: aes 

XV.—On the Origin of Gold Nuggets. By A. Liversidge, 
M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of 
Sydney 4 

XVI.—On the Crystallization of Gold in Hexagonal Forms 
By A. Liversidge, m.a., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in 
the University of Sydney a aE Se oe ae 

XVIT.—Gold Moiré-Métallique. By A. Liversidge, m.a., 
F.B.8., Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney sen 


101 


167 


197 


219 


263 


287 


299 


303 


343 
346 


Art. 


ART. 


ART, 


ART. 


ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


Vi. 


XVIII.—A Combination Laboratory Lamp, Retort, and 
Filter Stand. By A. Liversidge, u.a., F.R 8S., Professor of 
Chemistry in the University of Sydney , 

XIX.—Results of Observations of Comet VI. (Brooks) 
1892,at Windsor, N.S. Wales. By John Tebvutt, F.R.A.s. 

XX.— Rock Paintings by tae Aborigines in Caves on Bulgar 
Creek, near Singleton. By R. H. Matthews, Licensed 
Surveyor [Three Plates] 

XXI.—On the Probability of Extraordinarily ‘High ‘Spring- 
Tides about the December Solstice of 1893. By John 
Tebbutt, F.R.AS., ae. =. 

XXII.—Ona Meteorite No. 2 from Gilgoin Station. By H. 
Russell, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S. . 

XXII.—Pictorial Rain Maps. "By Ene, “Bussell, B.A., 
C.M.G., F.B.S. [One Plate] 

XXIV.—Note on the Oucurrence of a New Mineral at 
Broken Hill. By Edward F. Pittman, a.R.s.M. ... 

XX V.—Artesian Bores on Bunda Station in Queensland. 
By the Hon. W. H. Suttor, M.L.C. 

XXVI.—On the Occurrence of Triassic Plant Remains in; a 
Shale Bed near Manly. By B. Dunstan, F.c.s. [One Plate] 

XXVII.—The Orbit of the Doubie Star h5014. By R. P. 
Sellors, B.A., Sydney Observatory : a se 
XXIX.—Occurrence of Evausite in Tasmania. ai Henry 
G. Smith . 

XXX.—The Progress and Position of Irrigation in New 
South Wales. By H. G. McKinney, M.E., M. Inst, C.E, ee 

XXXI.—Preliminary Note on the Octurrence of a Chromite- 
Bearing Rock in the Basalt at the Pennant Hills Quarry 
near Parramatta. By Prof. David, B:a., F.a.s., W. EF. 
Smeeth, M.A., B.E., Assoc. R.8.M, aad J. Alexander Watt, M.A. 

XXXII. ote on the Oceurrence of a Calcareous Sandstone 
allied to Fontainebleau Sandstone at Rock Lily, near 
Narrabeen. By Prof. David, B.a., F.a.s.. 

XXXIII.— Note on the Occurrence of Barytes ‘at Five- dock, 
and also at the Pennant Hills Quarry near Parramatta, 
with a suggestion as to the possible origin of Barytes in 
the Hawkesbury Sandstone. By Prof. David, B.A., F.G.s .. 

XXXIV.—Notes on Artesian Water in New South Wales 
and pms (Part II.) By Prof. T. W. Ek. David, 
B.A., F.G.S. AY of ads 

XXXV. = Notes on ane Cremerite Bony By Prof. David, 
B.A., F.a.s., and HE. F.. Pittman, a.n.s.M. : 

XXXVI.—On Artesian Water in connection aie Treipaiiens 
By W. A. Dixon, F.4:c., F.c.s8. 


ADDENDUM TO MR. Ray’s PaPer + (Pp. HOt -167) ON THE LANauAGEs 


oF THE New HEBRIDES. 


PROCEEDINGS nicl 
PROCEEDINGS OF THE incense Snogtoee. 
PROCEEDINGS OF THE MepicaL SECTION 
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY 


EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS MADE BY THE aera Saaunee 


oF New SoutH WALES, 1893... 


INDEX TO VoLUME XXVII. 


401 


4.06 


407 


408 
4.43 
466 


469 
471 
485 
488 
490 


513 
523 


Royal Society of Mey South ales. 


OFFICERS FOR 1893-94. 


Honorary President: 
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR R. W. DUFF, P.c., c.c.m.a. 


President: 


Pror. T. P. ANDERSON STUART, m.p. 


; Vice-Presidents: 
Cc. W. DARLEY, M. Inst.C.E. - H. C. RUSSELL, B.a.,c.M.G., F.R.S. 


Pror. LIVERSIDGH, m.a., F.R.s. Pror. WARREN, M. Inst. C.E., &. 


Hon, Treasurer: 
A. LEIBIUS, Ph. D., u.a., F.c.3., (Deceased, June 19, 1898). 
. SUCCEEDED BY 
H. G. A. WRIGHT, m.r.c.s. Eng., u.s.a. Lond., (Hlected June 28, 1893). 


Hon, Secretaries: 
Pror. T. W. E. DAVID, B.a., F.a.s. | J. H. MAIDEN, F.us., F.c.s. 


Members of Council: 


H. DEANE, M.A.,M. Inst. C.E. Ae MOOS uanls M. Inst. C.E. 
JAMES GRAHAM, m.a., u.p. CHARLES MOORE, ¥.1.s.; F.Z.S. 
W. M. HAMLET, F.c.8., ¥.1.¢. E. F. PIPTMAN, Ascoc.R.8.M., F.G.8. 
LAWRENCE HARGRAVE. Pror. THRELFALL, m.a. 


F. B. KYNGDON. 


Assistant Secretary: 
W. H. WEBB. 


AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL. 
Established in memory of 
THE LATE Revp. W. B. CLARKE, m.a., F.R.s., F.G.8., &e., 
Vice-President from 1866 to 1878. 


To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the 
Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. 


1878 
1879 
1880 


1881 
1882 


1883 
1884 
1885 


1886 
1887 


1888 
1889 


1890 
1891 
1892 


1893 


Professor Sir Richard Owen, k.c.B., F.R.S., Hampton Court. 

George Bentham, c.m.G., F.R.S., The Royal Gardens, Kew. 

Professor Huxley, F.R.s., The Royal School of Mines, London, 
4 Marlborough Place, Abbey Road, N.W. 

Professor F. M‘Coy, F.n.s., F.a.s., The University of Melbourne. 

Professor James Dwight Dana, tu.p., Yale College, New Haven, 
Conn., United States of America. 

Baron Ferdinand von Mueller kK.c.M.G , M.D., PH.D., F.R.S., F.L.8., 
Government Botanist, Melbourne. 

Alfred R. C. Selwyn. uu.D., F.R.8., F.G.S., Director of the Geological 
Survey of Canada, Ottawa. 

Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, &.c.s.I., ¢.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., &C., 
late Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. 

Professor L. G. De Koninck, u.p., University of Liége, Belgium. 

Sir James Hector, K.c.M.G., M.D,, F.R.S., Director of the Geological 
Survey of New Zealand, Wellington, N.Z. 

Rev. Julian E. Tenison- Woods, F.G.s., F.L.S., Sydney. 

Robert Lewis John Ellery, r.r.s., F.R.a.s., Government Astronomer 
of Victoria, Melbourne. 

George Bennett, u.v. Univ. Glas., F.R.c.S. Hng., F.L.8., F.zZ.S., William 
Street, Sydney. 

Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, r.a.s., Curator, Canterbury 
Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand. 

Professor William Turner Thiselton Dyer, c.M.G., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., 
F.L.s., Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. 

Professor Ralph Tate, ¥F.u.s., F.a.s., University, Adelaide, S.A. 


hare aunt 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 


By Pror. W. H. WARREN, M. Inst. C.E., Wh. Sc., M. Am. Soc. C.E. 
[ Delivered before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, May 3, 1893. | 


In appearing before you as President of the Royal Society of 
New South Wales, on the Seventy-second Anniversary of its 
existence, it becomes my duty, following the custom established 
by my predecessors, to address you in the first place on the various 
matters more closely associated with the work of our Society ; I 
propose afterwards to review briefly the progress of scientific 
research and discovery in New South Wales, and also the various 
engineering works which have been executed in connection with 
our Public Works during the period I have had the honour to 
occupy the President’s Chair. 


Notwithstanding the unparalleled depression which has affected 
more or less every interest in the Colony, it is gratifying to be 
able to state that the financial position of the Society is most 
satisfactory. The total receipts for the past year were £1256 9s. 4d.; 
and the expenditure £1150 lls. 1ld.; the amount transferred to 
the building and investment fund was £84 16s., leaving a balance 
of £59 13s. up to the 3lst of March. The Building and Invest- 
ment Fund now amounts to £892 16s. ld. and the “Clarke 
Memorial Fund to £330 16s. 8d., which amounts are invested as. 
fixed deposits in the Union Bank. 


The number of members on the roll on the 30th of April, 1892 
was four hundred and seventy-eight ; thirty-three new members 
were elected during the past year. The Society has lost one 
honorary member, and six ordinary members through death ; 
fourteen from resignation, nine from non-payment of subscription, 
five from failure to take up their membership as per Rule [Xa., 
so that the total number on the roll up to the end of April 1893 

A—May 3, 1893. 


oy W. H. WARREN. 


is four hundred and seventy-seven. There are in addition to the 


above, seventeen honorary and two corresponding members. 


Obituary.—The following is a list of members lost through death — 


Honorary Member - 
Elected. Died. 


Owen, Prof. Sir Richard, &.c.B., F.R.s. 1879, Dec. 18, 1892 
Ordinary Members - 


Cracknell, E. C., M. Inst. C.E., 1865, Jan. 14, 1893 
Halliday, Hon. William, M.L.c., 1891, Aug. 25, 1892 
Harrison, L. M., 1877, May, 1892 
Hunt, Robert, 0.M.G., F.G.S., 1878, Sep. 27, 1892 
Starkey, J. T. 1881, Nov. 21, 1892 
Tulloh, W. H. 1875, Sep. 30, 1892 


Professor Sir RicHARD OwEN, one of the most distinguished 
scientific men of this century, died at the age of eighty-eight years. 
His labours in the departments of zoology and anatomy are of 


world-wide reputation. He wrote the quarto-volumes of the ~ 


Catalogue of the Hunterian Museum; the great work with its 
one hundred and sixty-eight plates on odontology ; the anatomy 
of the vertebrates ; the four volumes which contain the memoirs 
on British fossil reptiles; the twenty-five memoirs on the Dinornis; 
the five memoirs on the osteology of the marsupials ; the essays 
on the fossil mammals of Australia, and the fossil reptiles of South 
Africa ; and many other valuable works which I have not time 
to refer to. From 1834 to 1856 he was Hunterian Professor to 
the Royal College of Surgeons, he was also for a long time 
Fullerian Professor to the Royal Institution. He wrote a manual 
of Paleontology, and contributed to Orr’s Circle of Sciences and 
the famous Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology. From 1856 
to 1884 he was Superintendent of the Natural History Depart- 
ments of the British Museum. He served on Royal Commissions, 
was Chairman of a Jury at Paris Exhibition; President of the 


British Association in 1857, and the first President of the Micro- | 
scopical Section. Of the honours conferred upon him the most 


notable are the Royal (1842) and the Copley (1846) Medals of the 


“1g 
ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 3 


Royal Society, the Légion d’ Honneur 1855, the Foreign Associ 
ateship of the Institute of France (1859), and the Prussian Ordre 
pour le Mérite (1851); he was one of the eight zoologists and 
physiologists who are the foreign members of the American 
Academy; he was decorated by the King of Italy and the 
Emperor of Brazil; he was in various ways connected with innu- 


merable scientific societies, and a doctor of several universities. 


Mr. Epwarpd CHARLES CRACKNELL was born at Rochester, 
England in 1831, and was educated at Oxford. In 1848 he went 
to London and devoted himself to scientific pursuits. In Novem- 
ber 1855 in company with Mr. Charles Todd, c.m.a. (head of the 
South Australian Post and Telegraph Departments), Mr. Cracknell 
came to Adelaide, and took up the duties of Assistant-Superin- 
tendent of Telegraphs. In 1858 he was appointed Assistant- 
Superintendent of Telegraphs in New South Wales, and in 1861 
on the retirement of Captain Martindale, he was appointed to the 
position of Superintendent. He introduced into Australia the 
duplex and quadruplex systems, and deserves the credit of organis- 
ing the present service. He took a great interest in the Torpedo 
or Submarine Miners Corps; he received a commission as lieu- 
tenant in 1874, and attained the rank of Lieutenant Colonel 
Commanding in 1886. He was a member of the Institution of 
Civil Engineers, and of the Institution of Electrical Engineers of 
England, and was the first president of the Electric Club of 
Sydney. He was elected a member of the Council of the Royal 
Society five times, viz., in 1867, 1868, 1872, 1875, and 1879, and 
read two papers before the Society :— 


July 14, 1869—On the Electric Telegraph between England and India, 
and how to connect the Australian Colonies with the Telegraphic 
‘Systems of Europe and America. 

July 20, 1874—On Duplex Telegraphy. 

The illness which proved fatal was caused through over exertion 


during an all day parade; he was buried with military honours. 


Wm. Hatuipay, M.L.c., was born in 1827 at Dumfries in Scot- 
land, he arrived in Victoria from England in 1852, and entered 


4 W. H. WARREN. 


the employment of Messrs. Wilson Brothers, then large squatters 
in Victoria. Subsequently he came to New South Wales, where 
he purchased the property known as Brookong. Mr. Halliday 
took a close interest in connection with the affairs of the Colony, 
and was appointed a member of the Legislative Council in 1885. 
He held the Commission of the Peace in Victoria and New South 


Wales, and was a liberal subscriber to local charities. 


Rospert Hunt, c.M.G., was born in London in 1830, he was 
appointed chief clerk of the bullion office in the Sydney Mint in 
July 1853, and served in the melting and refining departments 
till September 1870; he was then transferred to the Melbourne - 
Mint as superintendent of the bullion office under General Sir 
Edward Ward, where he remained until June 1876. On the 
departure of Sir Edward on leave of absence, Mr. Hunt was 
appointed Acting Deputy Master, which position he held until 
the end of 1877, when he was appointed Deputy Master of the 
Mint at Sydney. He was a member of the Council of the Royal 
Society from 1880 until his death, and was Hon. Treasurer since 
the year 1885. He was madeao.m.c. in 1888. Mr. Hunt dis- 
played a warm interest in philanthropic matters and was for some ~ 
years Honorary Treasurer of Prince Alfred Hospital. He was 


a Trustee and took great interest in the Australian Museum. 


It is not usual for the President of this Society to refer to the 
death of anyone not a member, but [ am sure that you will all 
agree with me in expressing profound regret at the great loss 
which science has sustained in the death of the Rev. Dr. Woo.z.s. 
Tam aware that a full reference will be made to his life and work 
in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, of 
which he was Vice-President. He passed away at the ripe age 
of seventy-nine years, and he was working at his favourite science 
of botany up till within a few days of his death. His practical 
and extensive knowledge of New South Wales plants was only 
equalled by the kindness with which he freely imparted his inform- 


ation to others. 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 5 


Meetings.—During the past year eight general meetings have 

been held, at which twenty papers were read, viz.— 

1892. 

May 4. (1) Presidential Address by H.C. Russell, B.A.,0.M.G., F-R.S. 
June 1. (2) On the Importance and Nature of the Oceanic Lan- 
guages, by Sidney H. Ray. 

vs (3) On certain Geometrical Operations—Part 1, by G. 

| Hleuri. 

:. (4) A determination of the Magnetic Elements at the 
Physical Laboratory, University of Sydney, by C. 
Coleridge Farr, B.xe. 

‘ (5) Analyses of some of the Well, Spring, Mineral, and 
Artesian Waters of New South Wales, and their 
probable value for Irrigation and other purposes, 
by John C. H. Mingaye, F.c.s., M.A.1.M.E. 

July 6. (6) Ventilation of Sewers and Drains, by John M. Smail, 
M. Inst. 0.E. 

Aug. 3. (7) Flying-Machine Work and the 3 1 H.P. Steam Motor 
weighing 34 lbs, by Lawrence Hargrave. 

a3 (8) The Venom of the Australian Black Snake ( Pseudechis 
porphyriacus), by C. J. Martin, M.B.,B.Sc, and J. 
McGarvie Smith. 

Sep. 7. (9) On the effect which Settlement in Australia has pro- 
duced upon Indigenous Vegetation, by Alex. G. 
Hamilton. ; 

Noy. 2.(10) Some Folk-songs and Myths from Samoa. Translated 
by the Rev. G. Pratt, with introduction and notes 
by John Fraser, LL.D. 

» (11) Preliminary Note on Limestone occurring near Sydney, 
by Henry G. Smith, Communicated by J. H. 
Maiden, F.c.s., F.L.S. 

», (12) Hail Storms, by H. C. Russell, B.a., o.M.G., F.R.S. 


Dec.7. (13) Observations on Shell-heaps and Shell-beds. Signifi- 
cance and importance of the record they afford, by 
E. J. Statham, A.1.¢.5. 


6 W. H. WARREN. 


Dec.7. (14) Notes on the recent Cholera Epidemic in Germany, 
by B. Schwarzbach, m.p. Wiirzburg, L.¥.p.&8. Glas. — 


» (15) On Native Copper Iodide (Marshite) and other 
Minerals from Broken Hill, New South Wales, by 
C. W. Marsh. Communicated by Prof. Liversidge, 
M.A., F.R.S. 

», (16) On the Comet in the Constellation Andromeda, by © 
John Tebbutt, F.z.a.s. Xe. 

» (17) Results of Observations of Wolf's Comet (IT.) 1891, 
Swift’s Comet (I.) 1892, and Winnecke’s Periodical 
Comet 1892, at Windsor, New South Wales, by 
John Tebbutt, F.R.A.S. 

» (18) On the Languages of Oceania, by J. Fraser, B.A., LL.D. 


» (19) Notes on some Australian Stone Weapons, by Prof. — 
Liversidge, M.A., F.R.S. 
», (20) Is Mars inhabited? by H.C. Russell, B.a.,c.M.G., F.R.S. 


Exhibits at General Monthly Meetings.— 
1892. 
June 1-—Photographs of Sun-spots by Mr. H. C. Russell. 


July 6—Model of the Cowra Bridge by Mr. Robert Hickson. 
5, —Weather Forecasting Diagram by Mr. H. C. Russell. 


Aug. 3—A new form of Blowpipe apparatus by Mr. W. M. Hamlet. 
»  —Photograph of Winnecke’s Comet by Mr. H. C. Russell. 


Sept. 7—Coloured drawings illustrating the various modes of 
burial practised by natives of the Alligator River, 
Northern Territory, by Mr. C. Hedley. 
» —An improved form of apparatus for demonstrating the 
nature of a sound-wave by Prof. Anderson Stuart. — 


Oct. 5—A Steam Engine for a Flying Machine by Mr. Lawrence 
Hargrave. 
5  —Drawings of the Planet Mars. 
Nov. 2—Two Extensometers to measure yo$00 part of an inch in i 
connection with the testing of the elastic limit and 
modulus of elasticity of materials by Prof. Warren. 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 7 


Nov. 2—A series of photographs and micro-photographs illustrat- 
ing the geology of New South Wales by the Rev. J. 


Milne Curran. 
Dec. 7—Australian Stone Weapons by Prof. Liversidge. 


—Implements &c. from the South Sea Islands by Mr. C, 
A. Benbow. 


9 


Sectional Meetings.—A very important branch of the work 
done by the Royal Society consists in the establishment of 
Sections for the more detailed consideration of scientific and 
professional subjects. The Sections at present in active operation 
are as follows :— 

' Chemical and Geological Section. 

Civil and Mechanical Engineering Section. 
Medical Section. 


Microscopical Section. 


The meetings of the Sections are held monthly, and are open to 
all the members of the Society. The papers, exhibits, and dis- 
cussions for the last year demonstrate the thorough character of 
the work undertaken, and the attendances throughout have been 
most satisfactory. Here the various subjects are dealt with in a 
more special and technical manner than would be possible at 
the general meetings. I am personally most interested in the 
Engineering Section, which has been during the two years of its 

existence remarkably successful. I hope that during the coming ; 
Session the papers and discussions will be equal to those of the 


past. 


LInbrary.—The amount expended upon the Library during the 
past year was £240 5s. 2d., this included for books and periodicals 
£128 17s. ld., binding £73 18s. ld, and large cedar bookcase 
£37 10s. Apart from the usual periodicals subscribed to, sixty- 
two volumes and fourteen parts were purchased at a cost of 
£42 18s. ‘The Society was unable to obtain any back volumes 
to complete serial publications, with the exception of Vols. 1, IL, 
Iv. and vy. of the Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute, and 
Vol. 1. of the Transactions of the Philosophical Institute of 


8 W. H. WARREN. 


Victoria. In addition to the usual books bound for the library 
shelves, one hundred and seventy-five volumes of incomplete sets 
of American and Continental scientific publications have been 
placed in cloth covers, thus rendering them available for reference, 
—three hundred and sixty volumes in all have been thus treated, 
and it is hoped that the remainder will be completed this year. 


Hachanges and Publications.—During the past year we have 
exchanged our volume with three hundred and ninety-two kindred 
societies, receiving in return one hundred and seventy-one volumes, 
seven hundred and thirty-nine parts, seventy-seven pamphlets, 
fifty-eight reports, thirty-one meteorological charts and diagrams, 
four hydrographic charts, one photograph, and one engraving,— 
a total of one thousand and eighty-two publications. ‘Twenty-one 
societies have been added to the Exchange List as follows :— 
1. Académie des Sciences, Cracow. 2. Naturwissenschaftlicher 
Verein fiir Steiermark in Graz. 3. Société Géologique de Nor- 
mandie, Havre. 4. Faculté des Sciences de Marseille. 5. Société 
des Sciences Naturelles de Ouest de la France, Nantes. 6. 
Wurttembergischer Verein fiir Handelsgeographie, Stuttgart. 
7. Literary and Historical Society, Quebec. 8. Institute of 
Jamaica, Kingston. 9. Royal Geographical Society of Austra- 
lasia—N.8. Wales Branch. 10. Royal Geographical Society of 
Australasia—South Australian Branch. 11. Royal Geographical 
Society of Australasia— Victorian Branch. 12. Geological Survey 
of Queensland. 13. Geological Survey of South Australia. 14. 
Geological Survey of Tasmania. 15. Geological Survey of Wes- 
tern Australia. 16. St. Andrew’s University, Scotland. 17. 
Colonial Museum, Haarlem. 18. United States Artillery School, 
Fort Monroe, Va. 19. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts 
and Letters, Madison. 20. American Institute of Mining En- 
gineers, N.Y. 21. Geological Society of America, Rochester, N.Y. 


Clarke Medal.—At the meeting of the Council on the 30th 
November last, it was resolved that the Clarke Memorial Medal 
for 1893 be awarded to Prof. Ralph Tate, F.c.s., F.L.s., University, 
Adelaide, in recognition of his long continued scientific labours, 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 9 


and more particularly of his valuable contributions to the Geology 
and Paleontology of Great Britain, and the Natural History and 
Geology of South Australia. 


Honorary Member.—At the General Monthly Meeting of the 
Society held 2nd November last, on the recommendation of the 
Council, William Huggins, D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., 90 Upper Tulse 
Hill, London, was unanimously elected an Honorary: Member of 
the Society, in recognition of his distinguished scientific researches 
in astronomical spectroscopy, and more particularly on account 
of the leading part always taken by him in the development and 
application of methods of applying the spectroscope to the increase 
of our knowledge of the composition, condition, and motions of 


celestial objects. 


Original Kesearches.—In continuation of the practice originated 
in 1881, to publish yearly a list of subjects peculiar to Australia, 


‘the investigation of which would be of great interest and value 


to the Colony, the Council invited original contributions, and 
offered its medal together with a grant of £25 for the best 
original paper on the following subjects, viz. :— 


Series X1.—To be sent in not later than Ist May, 1892. 
No. 37—On the Iron Ore Deposits of New South Wales. 


No. 38—On the Effect which Settlement in Australia mS 
produced upon Indigenous Vegetation. 
No. 39—On the Coals and Coal Measures of Australasia. 


No papers were received on the first subject, No. 37. One 
paper was received on the last subject, No. 39, but the Council 
did not consider it of sufficient merit to receive the award. Six 
papers were received on No. 38, ‘“‘On the Effect which Settlement 
in Australia has produced upon Indigenous Vegetation,” and at 
its meeting on the 5th October, 1892, the Council awarded the 
prize of £25 and the Society’s medal to the successful competitor, 
viz. :—Mr. Alex. G. Hamilton, Public School, Mt. Kembla. 


The list of subjects for prizes now offered is :— 


10 W. H. WARREN. 


Series XIT.—T7o be sent in not later than 1st May, 1893. 
No. 40—Upon the Weapons, Utensils, and Manufactures of 
| the Aborigines of Australia and Tasmania.’ 
No. 41—On the Effect of the Australian Climate upon the 
Physical Development of the Australian-born 
Population. 
No. 42—On the Injuries occasioned by Insect Pests upon 
Introduced Trees. 


Series XIII.—To be sent in not later than 1st May, 1894. 

No. 43—On the Timbers of New South Wales, with special 
reference to their fitness for use in construction, 
manufactures, and other similar purposes. | 

No. 44—On the Raised Sea-beaches and Kitchen Middens 
on the Coast of New South Wales. 

No. 45—On the Aboriginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in 
New South Wales. 

Series XIV.—To be sent in not later than 1st May, 1895. 

No. 46—On the Silver Ore Deposits of New South Wales. 

No. 47—On the physiological action of the poison of any 
Australian Snake, Spider, or Tick. 

No. 48—On the Chemistry of the Australian Gums and 


Resins. 


The competition is in no way confined to members of the 
Society, nor to residents in Australia, but is open to all without 
any restriction whatever, excepting that a prize will not be 
awarded to a member of the Council for the time being ; neither 
will an award be made for a mere compilation, however meritorious 
in its way. The communication, to be successful, must be either 
wholly or in part the result of original observation or research on 
the part of the contributor. The Society is fully sensible that 
the money value of the Prize will not repay an investigator for 
the expenditure of his time and labour, but it is hoped that the 
honour will be regarded as a sufficient inducement and reward. 
The successful papers will be published in the Society’s annual 
volume. Fifty reprint copies will be furnished to the author 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 11 


free of expense. Competitors are requested to write upon foolscap. 
paper—on one side only. A motto must be used instead of the 
writer’s name, and each paper must be accompanied by a sealed 
envelope bearing the motto outside, and containing the writer’s. 
name and address inside. All communications to be addressed 
to the Honorary Secretaries. 


Abercromby Fund.—It will be remembered that at the Decem- 
ber meeting of last Session, a sum of £100 was placed in the 
hands of our Council by the Hon. Ralph Abercromby, with the 
object of promoting the study of some phases of Australian 
weather. Since then a Committee has been appointed consisting — 
of the Hon. Ralph Abercromby, Professor Liversidge, Professor 
David, and Mr. Russell, to carry out the donor’s wishes, and one 
subject for a prize essay has been chosen and competition invited 
under the following conditions :— 


The distinguished Meteorologist, the Hon. Ralph Abercromby, 
has given to the Royal Society of. New South Wales the sum of 
£100, which is to be offered as prizes, with the object of bringing 
about exhaustive studies of certain features of Australian weather. 
So far only one feature has been selected, and a prize is now 
offered of £25 for an exhaustive study of our well known 
“southerly burster.” It is understood that no essay which does. 
not deal fully with the following points will be considered :— 
1. The motions of the various strata of clouds for some hours. 
preceding, at the time of, and following the “burster.” 2. The 
weather conditions which lead up to and follow the “burster,” 
with weather charts of Australia for the day of and day following 
it. 3. The general conditions which modify the character of the 
“)burster.” 4. The area of the “burster” and its track. 5. 
Barograph traces shewing the changes of pressure during the 
“burster.” 6. The direction and character of wind preceding it 
7. The relation of ‘“‘bursters” to rainfall. 8. The essay must 
not exceed fifty pages of foolscap. 9. The essay must be sent in 
not later than 31st March, 1894. 10. A photograph of each 
“burster ” described, giving a characteristic view of the cloud-roll: 


12 W. H. WARREN. 


should if possible be sent with the essay. The essay must embody 
studies of several “bursters,” and must be chiefly the result of 
original research of the author, but authors are not debarred from 
availing themselves of any available information published or 


otherwise on the subject. 


Original Scientific Research.—I will now direct your attention 
to some of the scientific work which has been accomplished in the 
Colony during the past year, or is still in progress. At the 
University Biological Laboratory, Prof. Haswell has been chiefly 
engaged in some investigations on the structure and affinities of 
some of the lower groups of Vermes. These have proved interest- 
ing, as they have resulted in the establishment of a more intimate 
connection than was previously supposed to exist between the 
classes Turbellaria and Trematoda. Temnocephala, a dweller for 
the most part on the surface of Australian crayfishes, proves to be 
almost as much a Rhabdocele Turbellarian as a Trematode, and 
can only arbitrarily be assign ed to the one or the other of these two 
classes; and the same may be said to hold good of Actinodactylus, 
an entirely new type, occurring in the gill-chambers of the 
Gippsland burrowing crayfish. The detailed account of Temno- 
cephala and Actinodactylus will appear in the forthcoming Macleay 
Memorial Volume. 

Short papers on various points have been published during the 
year in the “‘ Zoologischer Anzerger,” and the ‘“Abhandlungen der 
Naturfordschenden Gesellschaft in Halle.” Among the “ Jottings 
from the Biological Laboratory,” published during the year, are 
“* Notes on the occurrence of a Flagellate Infusorian as an intra- 
cellular parasite,” “On the occurrence of a second species of 
Phoronis in Port Jackson,” and ‘On an Alloiocele Turbellarian 
inhabiting the underground waters of Canterbury, New Zealand.” 


Professor Wilson and Dr. Martin, at the University Medical 
School, have in hand the following papers for the Macleay 
Memorial Volume :—‘ On some points in the anatomy of the 
muzzle of the Ornithorhynchus,” “On the rod-like tactile organs 
in the skin of the muzzle of the Ornithorhynchus.” 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 13 


Two papers by Professor Wilson are in course of publication 
in the Transactions of the Intercolonial Medical Congress of 
Australasia; one ‘‘On the development of the central canal of 
the spinal cord in the lamb,” and the other upon “A number 
of variations in human anatomy.” A first contribution to the 
myology of Wotoryctes, by the same author, will shortly appear in 
the Proceedings of the Royal Society of South Australia. 


Professor Wilson has recently written a short abstract on the 
Craniology of the Australian Aborigines, which was appended to 
Dr. Fraser’s account of that race, published by the Government. 
Printer for the Chicago Exhibition. 


Professor Threlfall has been engaged in the Physical Laboratory 
on the following matters, in most of which he has had the 
assistance of senior students and of Miss F. Martin, to whom he is 
- particularly obliged for most constant assistance :— 


Nitrogen.—He has finally proved that this gas cannot be con- 
densed like oxygen by any known kind of electrical discharge. 
It can, however, be caused to combine with mercury directly, 
forming a substance which was originally studied by Plantamour, 
from the action of ammonia on mercuric oxide, as mentioned last. 
year. The mercury nitride is found to be irreversibly dissociable 
in a peculiar manner. An account of this work was published in 


the Philosophical Magazine for January, 1893. 


Sulphur.—A. most exhaustive study of the electrical properties. 
of pure sulphur has been made in conjunction with Mr. Brearley 
and Mr. Allen (Exhibition Scholar of the University of Adelaide). 
Data were obtained upon the resistance, mode and condition, residual 
effect of charge and specific inductive capacity for different modifi- 
cations of pure sulphur. Some of the dielectric properties are so 
remarkable as to promise to render sulphur of importance in 
practical electrical work in the near future. An account of the 
theory and construction of sensitive galvanometers forms a part — 
of the paper. The galvanometer constructed by Prof. Threlfall 
some years ago is quite successful, and he is enabled to measure 


14 W. H. WARREN. 


currents of the order .— 10—** amperes, and so push the examina- 
tion of sulphur much further than: would otherwise have been 
possible. It is believed that this investigation is the first thorough 
and precise examination that has ever been made on the electrical 
properties of a pure non-metallic substance. This work has been 
_written out, but is not yet published. 


Electro-magnetic Mechanisms.—A method has been devised of 
obtaining complete information as to the electric and magnetic 
behaviour of one type of such a mechanism during action. From 
the data obtained, Mr. Pollock has been able to deduce some 
‘interesting facts as to the efficiency and sources of loss in such 


mechanisms, in addition, to the work done last year. 


Magnetic Traction.—An investigation of the principles of 
magnetic traction has been just completed from what is believed. 
to be a novel point of view. The predictions of theory have been 
shown to agree (with one remarkable exception) with experiment, 
and a new method of calculating the forces between magnetic 


poles has been reduced to a form suitable for easy computations. 


Gravity Meter.—Mr. Pollock’s investigations of the secular 
variations and temperature corrections of the instrument have been 
sufficiently satisfactory to embolden Professor Threlfall to design, 
(with the assistance of Mr. Cook), a practical and portable form 
of instrument, which is in course of construction in the workshop 
as opportunity offers, and which is about half-way on the road to 
completion. The accuracy arrived at is about the same as that 


obtainable by good pendulum experiments. 


Professor Liversidge, during the year, has been occupied in 
arranging the chemistry and metallurgical work in connection 
with the new course in mining engineering. At the Hobart 
meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of - 
Science, he read two papers, one ‘‘On the presence of Magnetite 
in certain minerals and rocks,” and another “On Iron rust 
possessing magnetic properties.” He also read a paper before 
this Society ‘‘On Native Weapons.” He is at present investi- 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 15 


gating the mode of occurrence and crystallization of gold, in 


addition to his researches upon the minerals of New South Wales. 


Dr. Martin and Mr. J. McGarvie Smith have in the Physio- 
logical Laboratory at the University, and at Mr. Smith’s private 
laboratory, Woollahra, demonstrated the nature of, and separated 
the toxic principles contained in Australian snake venom, and 
investigated the various conditions which are capable of altering or 
destroying its virulence. Since then Dr. Martin has been engaged 
in further chemical research of an interesting nature dealing with 
the same subject, and also has gone far to answer the question 
“* How does it act!” by means of the most accurate methods of 
experiment known to modern physiological science. These in- 
vestigations into the action of snake venom have been greatly 
assisted by the generous aid of the New South Wales Branch of 
the British Medical Association in granting £50 to assist in 


defraying expenses. In addition to the above, during the past 


year he has been engaged in completing an investigation into 


some points in the dynamics of the circulation, more especially 


concerning the pressure in the systemic and pulmonary veins under 
various conditions. 

_ In the Geological Department at the University of Sydney, in 
addition to the usual practical work for teaching purposes, a certain 
amount of research work has been accomplished. Geological 
Excursions have been held to Euroka Creek, near Penrith, the 
Pyrmont Sandstone Quarries, and the Bulli Coal Mine; and during 
the September vacation the Third Year students were taken to 
Kiama for a fortnight for the purpose of collecting rocks and 
fossils, and constructing geological maps and sections of the 
surrounding district. At Euroka Creek conclusive evidence 
was obtained of the intrusive character of the circular mass of 
eruptive rock about one-quarter-mile in diameter, which forms the 
amphi-theatrical depression amongst the Hawkesbury Sandstone 
Hills, known as Euroka Farm. 


At the Bulli Coal Mine some fine specimens of secondarily 
formed crystals of epsomite were obtained from a dolerite dyke, 


16 W. H. WARREN. 


which had intersected the coal measures. At the Pyrmont Quarry 
it was ascertained that between the bed of sandstone known to the 
quarrymen as the “bottom block” and the top of a bed of shale 
immediately underlying it, there occurred a well-marked layer of 
barytes, exhibiting on its surfaces a number of large well-formed 
crystals; the layer was about half-an-inch in thickness. Mr. Smith, 
the Mineralogist to the Technological Museum, had a short time 
previous recorded a somewhat similar occurrence of barytes in 
Hawkesbury Sandstone, near Cook’s River. 


During the Geological Examination of the Kiama District, a 
sketch map and sections were prepared showing the relation of the 
highly interesting series of volcanic rocks of that neighbourhood to 
the Bulli coal-measures, and also to the associated marine strata. 
The details of this examination, when elaborated, are intended to 
form the subject of a paper for the Society during this year. A 
brief summary, however, of the conclusions already deduced may 
be given here. Towards the close of that portion of the Permo- 
Carboniferous period, when a shallow ocean extended from Ulla- 
dulla on the south, to Port Stephens on the north, and inland as 
far as Mittagong, Rydal, and Somerton, near Gunnedah, volcanic 
eruptions of a violent paroxysmal character broke out in the 
neighbourhood of Kiama. The approach of the lavas, which flowed 
from the centres of these eruptions, is heralded by the presence in 
the uppermost of the marine Permo-Carboniferous mudstones of 
large lumps of lava and isolated crystals of black augite, bedded 


side by side with marine shells. 


Solid sheets of basic lava succeed, the highly brecciated character 
of which considered in conjunction with the presence of numerous 
and very large amygdaloids, implies that the lava flowed into the 
ocean, where the steam, generated by the contact of the molten 
rock with the sea water, occasioned a series of violent explosions, 
which completely shattered in places the already partially cooled 
crust in the ipper portion of the lava flow. South of Kiama there 
is evidence that there were three lava flows of this kind, probably 
almost synchronous, each newer flow over-riding its predecessor, 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 17 


and each having a thickness of from thirteen to twenty feet. The 
phase of the eruption then changed, and volcanic dusts alone were 
_ outpoured. These were blown high into the air, so that when they 
settled down they covered a considerable area with a layer of red 
tuff twenty feet deep. In the next phase of the same eruption, 
or at the commencement of a second eruption, which must have 
succeeded the first after only a short interval of time, sheets of 
lava having a total thickness of two hundred and sixty feet rolled 
down and completely buried the first bed of red tuffs. It is in 
this massive sheet of basalt that the Kiama Blowhole is situated. 
A second bed of red tuff was then formed having a thickness of 
from one hundred to two hundred feet. This bed can be traced 
from the Cambewarra Range, above Nowra, on the south, to a 
mile beyond Wollongong on. the north, a distance of about fifty 
miles ; and these two points are by no means the extreme limits 
of the tuff bed. The eruption, therefore, which produced it was 
probably on a far grander scale than the celebrated eruption of 
Tarawera, in New Zealand, in 1886. 


Evidence collected last year points clearly to the fact that all 
the above described members of the volcanic series were erupted 
before the formation of any portion of the Bulli coal-measures, 
There followed an immense outflow of lava, which formed the 
thickest sheet as yet known in New South Wales, its thickness. 
being about six hundred feet. This lava (an andesitic dolerite), 
appears to have been also older than the Bulli coal-measures. 
The relation of the still newer lavas above the andesitic dolerite 
to the Bulli coal-measures has not yet been worked out; but the 
evidence proves that after the Bulli coal-measures had formed 
above the volcanic series, both coal-measures and lavas were inter- 
_sected by doleritic dykes, which have either coked or destroyed 


large areas of coal in the Illawarra coal-field. 


At a still later period, the Illawarra coal-field was further 
disrupted and intersected by a newer set of dykes, some of which, 
as pointed out by Mr. Evans, the manager of the Bulli Coal Mine, 
have cut their way completely through the older dykes. Micro- 

B—May 3, 1893. 


18 W. H. WARREN. 


scopic sections of the dykes, prepared in the Geological Laboratory, 
show that the dolerites of which they are composed contain 
sanidine, and they may therefore be possibly related to the mass 
of intrusive syenite near Mittagong, which contains a similar 


felspar. 


Several interesting sections of glass slags from the Camperdown 
Glass-works, Sydney, have lately been prepared by the students. 
These sections show some well-developed microlites arranged in 
sheaf-like or fibrous radial aggregates, closely resembling similar 


structures in lavas. 


An examination of a collection of fossils, obtained some years 
ago in the Vegetable Creek District of New England, has led to 
the discovery in them of the shell Productus, so that a very large 
area occupied by rocks containing these fossils will now need to 
be coloured on the geological map as Carboniferous instead of 
Silurian, as coloured at present. This alteration will harmonise 
the geological maps of New South Wales and Queensland along 
the valley of the Dumaresq River, where previously a great dis- 


crepancy existed. 


A recent examination in company with Mr. E. F. Pittman, the 
Government Geologist, of the country in the neighbourhood of 
Rydal, has led to the discovery that Lepidodendron occurs in situ 
in the Devonian rocks associated with Spirifera disjuncta, a shell 
of undoubted Devonian age. Mr. Clunies Ross, B.Sc., of Bathurst, 
has recently made a similar discovery nearer Bathurst, and thus 
the question as to whether Lepidodendron in New South Wales 
descends into Devonian strata or not may be considered as 
definitely settled. These discoveries confirm the views as to the 
geological age of the above plant in New South Wales, held by 
the Rev. W. B. Clarke, F.r.s., and the late Government Geologist, 
Mr. C. 8S. Wilkinson, F.a.s. 


Astronomical Photography.—The work accomplished at the - 
Observatory under Mr. H. C. Russell, Astronomer of New South a 
‘Wales, may be briefly summarised as follows :—The past year has 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 19 


been cloudy and unfavourable, so much so that only one night in 
five has been fine enough for photography, and many of these only 
fine for one or two hours. By securing photographs upon every 
available night, four hundred and seventy have been obtained. 
The star camera has been almost confined to the catalogue plates 
of part of the survey of the whole heavens ; but in December an 
important experiment was made, it was shown that a photograph 
of a comet with surrounding stars can be taken in five (5) minutes 
and thus is secured a permanent record of the comet’s position 
with reference to surrounding stars, which can be measured with 
extreme accuracy. In this way the comet’s position is determined 
from each star with as much accuracy as it could be by the old 
method in an hour, even when large telescopes are used. One 
photograph, then, taken in five minutes will fix the comet’s place 
with as much accuracy as can be attained by many hours’ work 
with a large telescope ; this is obviously an important adaptation 
of photography, for the saving of time, and for the possibility it 
affords of fixing a comet’s position in cloudy weather. 


One remarkable cluster of stars, 3315 in Herschel’s list, has 
been subjected to a searching examination with the star camera 
to see if any nebulous matter could be found amongst the stars, 
but none has been found by long exposures of eight hours, and 
with the most sensitive plates we have ever used. The stars stand 
outlined on a background of space. Herschel called this object 
“a, glorious cluster of immense magnitude, the most brilliant 
object of the kind I have ever seen ; there are at least two hundred 
stars in it.” But its magnificence when photographed under the 
searching power of the large star camera may be judged from the 
_ fact that the camera records more than ten times as many stars 
as Herschel said. Meridian observations and double star work 
have also been carried out during the year, and a number of new 
double stars discovered. 


Meteorology.—The daily weather charts published at the Obser- 
vatory for four and a half years, have been submitted to careful 
examination, and some very important facts brought to light. 


20 W. H. WARREN. 


Mr. Russell has published the results in an elaborate paper before 
the Royal Meteorological Society. It is there shown that 
Australian weather, south of Latitude 20°, is the product of a 
regular series of anticyclones moving rapidly (four hundred iniles 
per day) from west to east. These anticyclones travel across 
Australia in from six to seven days, generally seven, and since 
each part of them is marked by its own weather, we have the 
well known fact of recurring weather in seven day periods explained, 
and the moon is once more relieved of the responsibility of causing 
it. It is also shown that the persistent dry weather for many 
months past is caused by the character of the cyclones, which by 
their modifications bring dry or wet weather, also that this inves- 
tigation explains why the best meteorological atlases show a fixed 
anticyclone on Western Australia, which does not exist; altogether 
it is perhaps the most important paper that has yet been published 
upon the meteorology of Australia. 

The question—whence the anticyclones and their peculiarities 
and latitudes? conditions which control our weather, is now being 
investigated with good prospect. The question is of the greatest 


importance, and is receiving the attention which it deserves. 


During the year the Observatory has published a map of the 
Colony, showing isotherms of mean temperature for each degree. 
The following have also been published—General Meteorological 
Results 1880 to 1884 inclusive, the same for 1890. Rain and 
River Results for 1891. A new edition of the Physical Geography 
and Climate of New South Wales. Results of the Transit of 
Venus 1874. Results of observations with the Meridian Instru- 
ment for three years. Results of Double Star Measures and the 
Daily Weather Charts. Four thousand four hundred and twenty 
copies of the books and pamphlets published have been distributed 
to various institutions and observatories, and more than one 
thousand additions to the library have been received in exchange. 


The current-paper service has yielded some interesting facts 
during the year. On January 31, 1892, the captain of the 8.8. 
Port Adelaide when in Latitude 46° 4’ south and Longitude 103° 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. on 


14’ east, threw over a bottle containing one of these papers, and 
on March 3, 1893, it was picked up on the east coast of New 
Zealand in Latitude 44° 0’, Longitude 172° 20’ east, having 
travelled, even if it took the shortest road, three thousand six 
hundred miles, or at the rate of nine miles per day. Another 
thrown over by the captain of the 8.8. Port Caroline, on August 
14, 1892, in Latitude 44° 6’ south and Longitude 105° 46’ east, 
‘was picked up at sea in Latitude 41° 31’ south and Longitude 
130° 32’ east, having made one thousand two hundred miles at 
the rate of six miles per day. 


Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.c.s., F.u.s., Curator of the Technological 
Museum, has prepared the first part of a valuable Bibliography 
of Australian ‘Botany, in which he has made the very scattered 
literature of this subject available for ready reference. He read 
a paper at the Hobart meeting of the Australasian Association 
for the Advancement of Science “On the exudations from Aus- 
tralian species of Pittosporum.” He also read the following papers: 
“On Panax gum,” before the Linnean Society of N.S. Wales ; 
and “Some of the pale Hardwoods of New South Wales,” before 
the Sydney Architectural Association. He prepared a report “On 
the Vegetable Exudations collected by the Elder Exploring Expedi- 
tion,” for the Royal Society of South Australia, in which it is 
shown that the indurated sap of the Dogwood (Myoporum platy- 
carpum ) is identical with the manna of commerce. 


Mr. W. W. Froggatt, of the Technological Museum, has prepared 

_ the following papers during 1892 :— 

41) ‘“ Notes on Australian Cynipide, with descriptions of several 
new species,” Part 1.—Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, Vol. 
vit. (Ser. 2). March 30, 1892. 


(2) “Catalogue of the described Hymenoptera of Australia,” Part 2. 
—Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, Vol. vir. (Ser. 2). May 25, 
1892. 


(3) “Gall-making Buprestide.”—Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, 
Vol, vu. (Ser. 2). 1892. 


As W. H. WARREN. 


(4) “Notes on the Family Brachyscelide, with some account of 
their parasites, and descriptions of new species.”—Proc. 
Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. vir (Ser. 2), September 21, 
1892. 


(5) “ Hymenoptera.” Elder Exploring Expedition, Report on 
Collection.—Trans. Royal Society of South Australia. 
1892. 


The various papers written by the members of the staff of the 
Australian Museum are as follows :— 
J. Douglas Ogilby. 
(1) ‘Description of three new Australian Lizards.”—Records 
Australian Museum, Vol. 11., No. 1. 
(2) “On some undescribed Reptiles and Fishes from Australia.” 
Records Australian Museum, Vol. 1, No. 2. 


C. Hedley, F.L.s. 
“On the structure and affinities of Panda atomata, Gray.” 
Records Australian Museum, Vol. 11, No. 2. 


John Brazier, C.M.Z.S., F.L.S. 
‘“‘ Catalogue of the Marine Shells of Australia and Tasmania. 
Cephalopoda and Pteropoda.” Australian Museum Cata- 
logue, No. 15. 1892. 


A. J. North, F.L.s. 

(1) “Supplement to the Descriptive Catalogue of Nests and 
Eggs of Birds found breeding in Australia and Tasmania.” 
Records Australian Museum, Vol. 1. Part 1. April, 
1892. 

(2) “ Additions to the Avifaunas of Tasmania, and Norfolk 
and Lord Howe Islands.”—Records Australian Museum, 
Vol. 11., Parts. 

(3) “ Notes on the nidification of Hanucodia comri, Sclater.” 
(Comrie’s manucode).—Records Australian Museum, 
Vol. 1, earte2: 


Netals and Minerals.—1I am indebted to the Deputy Master of 


the Mint for the following interesting data :—The estimated pro- __ 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 93 


duction of gold in the Colony of New South Wales during the 
year 1892 was not marked by any increase as compared with the 
figures for 1891, being 147,263 cunces of the value of £534,352, 
as against 153,336 ounces of the value of £558,306 ; but the out- 
put has been fairly well maintained. The weight of gold received 
at the Sydney Branch of the Royal Mint in the year 1892 was 
785,208 ounces, the value of which was determined at £2,780,829. 
To this large sum Queensland contributed £2,015,549 and New 
Zealand £223,937. Of the total weight ninety per cent. was in 
the form of bullion, six and one-third per cent consisted of retorted 
gold, and three and two-thirds of alluvial. It may be of interest 
to compare these proportions with those of the year 1873, when 
the bullion was only twenty-seven per cent. while that of retorted 
gold was twenty-nine per cent., and of alluvial no less than forty- 
four per cent. The weight of alluvial coined in 1873 was 189,758 
ounces, and in 1892 only 28,711 ounces. During the last twenty 
years the percentage of alluvial gold has also steadily diminished, 
and this must be attributed to the rich alluvial fields having 
gradually been worked out to a great extent, but principally to 
the advancement in the methods of treating quartz and other ores 


which science has since introduced. 


The annual report of the Under Secretary for Mines furnishes 
much valuable information which the time at my disposal for this 
address will only allow me to refer to very briefly. The number 
of applications to lease Crown lands for mining purposes during 
1892, including applications for special gold leases was one thousand 
and sixty-eight, being one thousand one hundred and forty-two 
less than the number in 1891. The total value of the metals and 
minerals won during the year 1892 was £5,305,815, being a 
decrease of £1,348,195 on the value won during the year 1891. 
The value of the gold won, however, is the greatest on record, viz. 
£569,178. This value represents the gold received by the mint 
and that exported. The decrease in the value of the metals and 
minerals for 1892 occurs mainly in silver and silver-lead ores, 
which together amount to £1,141,753, and this I censider is 


24 W. H. WARREN. 


accounted for by the disastrous strike in Broken Hill. The total 
value of minerals produced in the Colony up to the end of 1892 
is £98,842,779. 


Diamond Drills.—The demand for diamond drills was not nearly 
so great in 1892 as in previous years, yet the aggregate depth 
bored was four thousand one hundred and thirty-nine feet at a 
cost of 16s. 10;%d. per foot. 


The Government Geologist, Mr. Pittman, has furnished a valu- 
able report on the geological occurrence of the Broken Hill ore- 
deposits, in which he shows the geological formation and origin of 
the Broken Hill lode and the saddle reefs of Bendigo appear to be 
analogous in several important respects, and that if this analogy 
hold, the eastern and western legs of the Broken Hill lode may 
be expected to thin out in depth. Also that there is a possibility 
of other similarly shaped lodes being found more or less vertically 
underneath the Broken Hill lode, which might be tested by putting 
down diamond drill bores through the cap of what is locally known 
as the “intrusion.” Another report of Mr. Pittman’s gives some 
interesting facts and figures on the mode of manufacture and 
quality of coke made in New South Wales, which shows :—l. 
That there is room for material improvement in the manufacture 
of colonial coke, both in the direction of reducing the ash, and 
increasing the density or capacity for resisting pressure, and these 
improvements can best be achieved by a more perfect system of 
coal washing, and by the use of a more modern type of coke oven. 
2. That some of the cokes at present manufactured in New South 
Wales are nearly equal (as regards ash), to the average of the 
imported cokes in use at the Broken Hill smelting works. 3. 
That several of the cokes at present manufactured in New South 
Wales are superior (as regards percentage of ash), to some of the 
imported cokes in use at Broken Hill. 4. That in regard to 
strength or capacity for resisting pressure, the cokes manufactured 
in New South Wales are superior to some of the imported cokes 
at present in use at Broken Hill. 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 25 


I consider that the high crushing resistance of the New South 
Wales cokes (as shown by my experiments in the University 
testing machine), justifies the more extended use of coke-concrete 
in the floors of bridges and buildings where strength and lightness 
combined are necessary. The crushing resistance of the New 
South Wales cokes varied from one thousand one hundred and 
twelve to three thousand one hundred and twenty-five pounds per 
square inch, while the greatest strength of the imported cokes 
tested was only seven hundred and sixty-five pounds per square 
inch. 

Mr. J. B. Jaquet, a.R.s.M., F.G.S., has during the past year 
completed his geological survey of Broken Hill, and has furnished 
reports upon the Nuntherungie silver-field, the platinum deposits 
near Broken Hill, and the opal-fields at White Cliffs near Wilcannia. 


Mr, Robert Etheridge, Jun., has done a large amount of useful 
work in determinative and descriptive paleontology during the 
year, and has published another valuable memoir on the carboni- 
ferous and permo-carboniferous invertebrata of New South Wales. 
Mr. Etheridge has written about twenty papers this year for the 
Records of the Geological Survey, the Linnean Society, and 
other societies, the titles of which would occupy more space than 
I can afford for this address, 


Mr. C. W. Marsh of Broken Hill has discovered a new mineral 
having a definite crystalline form, and consisting of iodide of 
copper. Professor Liversidge has given to this mineral the name 
“ Marshite ” in honour of the discoverer. 


Appointment of Metallurgist.—In June, 1886, it was decided 
that efforts should be made to secure the services of a thoroughly 
competent metallurgist, to take charge of the metallurgical works 
to be established on a suitable site in Sydney. Advertisements 
were published, and inquiries instituted in Europe and America, 
which resulted in a number of applications. A Board was 
appointed to make a selection, consisting of Mr. Cosmo Newbery, 
C.M.G., of Melbourne, Professors Liversidge and David, Dr. 


26 W. H. WARREN. 


Leibius, Mr. Pittman, and Mr. Harrie Wood. The Board 
appointed Mr. James Taylor, who has arrived in New South 
Wales and commenced his duties. The Board also advised that 
on account of the costliness of erecting smelting works and 
carrying on smelting operations for the purpose of satisfactorily 
testing bulk samples of ores, the Government should not in the 
first instance erect such works, but should erect suitable crushing 
and concentrating apparatus, sampling-floors, and appliances for 
the extraction of gold, silver, and other metals by processes other 
than smelting, and that persons duly authorised be allowed to 
see the working of any process he may use in the extraction of 
metals from ores and the separation of metals so extracted. 


School of Mines.—The necessity for the establishment of a 
complete School of Mines has long been recognised by those who 
realize the enormous value of our mineral resources, and the 
failure of so much mining enterprise for want of sufficient tech- 
nical knowledge. The fact that up to the end of 1892 the total 
value of metals and minerals won nearly reached one hundred 
millions sterling speaks for itself. A complete course in mining 
engineering was contemplated by the Senate of the University in 
1883, when the engineering department was established, and 
mining engineering has always been associated with civil and 
mechanical engineering in the certificates and degrees offered-by 
the University, as may be seen by referring to the Calendars 
since 1883. The necessity for a mining school at the University 
has always been warmly advocated by Professor Liversidge. The 
Senate was, however, unable to provide for the necessary teaching 
until the year 1892, when lectureships were founded in mining 
and metallurgy. This year a demonstrator has been appointed 
in the department of geology chiefly for mineralogy and petrology. 
Hence we have now a complete School of Mines established at 
the University ; and it should be noted that the extra expendi- 
ture incurred, in addition to that of the teaching staff which 
already existed, was only about £950 a year. If a distinct 
School of Mines had been established independent of the Uni- 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. QF 


versity, of equal efficiency, the annual cost could not have been 
less than £7,000, while there would have been the initial cost of 
buildings, for lecturerooms laboratories and alsothecostof apparatus. 
and appliances, all of which existed at the University. Taking 
the University mining school in conjunction with the metallur- 
gical works proposed to be established by Government, in which 
students may obtain valuable practical knowledge under able 
supervision, it is clear that there is now no longer any necessity 
for students to leave the Colony in order to qualify themselves 
as mining engineers. 


Considering our School of Mines as the training ground for our 
future mining engineers, I think it must be conceded that the 
advantages derived by our students in studying the theory and 
practice of mining, under the special conditions and circumstances 
which are peculiar to this Colony, should render them better able 
to cope with the difficulties in mining work which present them- 
selves in New South Wales, than mining engineers trained in 
other countries where these conditions and circumstances are 
necessarily less perfectly realised. The same argument applies 
with equal force to other branches of engineering, and should 
secure a preference for Australian trained engineers for Austra- 
lian work. In regard to the nature and extent of the instruction 
undertaken by the University Mining School and at the Sydney 
_ Technical College, there need not be any overlapping, as the 
instruction provided at the Technical College, Sydney, and at 
the various mining centres is of great importance, and should 
meet the wants of those engaged in mining pursuits, and those 
who from deficiency in preliminary scientific training, means, and 
other causes, are unable to devote the time necessary to obtain a 
degree in mining engineering, and I fully concur with the report 
recently issued by the Board appointed to consider the subject in 
connection with the Department of Mines, ‘‘that special facilities 
in the shape of bursaries be provided for successful students of 
the Technical College, in order to enable them to complete their 


education by graduating in mining engineering at the University.” 


28 W. H. WARREN. 


It will not be out of place for me to repeat here what I stated in 
my address on Engineering Education, delivered at the meetings 
of the Engineering Section of the Australasian Association for the 
Advancement of Science, held in Melbourne in 1890 :—‘“ The 
function of the Technical Colleges (such as those in Sydney and 
Melbourne), is to deal with the technical education of artisans, 
and for the Universities to deal with the professions. Both are 
equally important, and each should be encouraged by Government 
and other endowments to enable it to do its special work efficiently, 
and the two should be united in such a manner that they will 
work harmoniously together.” During the time which has elapsed 
‘since delivering this address, I have become more than ever con- 
vinced of the truth of the words quoted, and I consider that the 
recognition of the proper functions of the Technical College and 
the University of Sydney, both in mining and in other branches 
of engineering, would be a great advantage to both institutions, 
and would result in a very large saving in expenditure. 


The experience of the numerous engineering schools in America 
shows that graduates in mining engineering as a rule find profit- 
able employment more readily than those in other branches of 
engineering, and it appears to me in these days of keen competi- 
tion in every profession, and the evils of overcrowding which 
become more apparent in times of depression, that mining 
engineering in New South Wales offers a fair field for remunera- 
tive work in the future, which should not be lost sight of. 


Department of Agriculture.—The pathologist, Dr. N. A. Cobb, 
has commenced a systematic enquiry into the nomenclature of 
wheat. He has collected all the wheats cultivated in Australia, 
and has grown them side by side in experimental plots, and has 
‘devised a scheme of describing and illustrating them all for refer- 
ence purposes. Full notes have been made of the comparative 
value of each for resisting rust and for milling purposes. He has 
also investigated all kinds of plant diseases affecting fruit trees of 
all kinds, and has published the results of these investigations. 
He has devoted especial attention to the subject of ‘“‘Take-all ” in 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. . 29 


wheat, and his original investigations have been published in the 
Agricultural Gazette issued by the department. In order to 
investigate the life-history of worms in sheep, he has commenced 
work in a small laboratory fitted up near Moss Vale by the Stock 
Department. His scheme of operation consists in examining the 
fodder plants for their microscopic fauna, and comparing the same 
with the larval stages of worms parasitical in sheep, an entirely 
new line of work, from which interesting and important results 
have already been obtained which will be published in due time. 
Dr. Cobb has determined that the losses in crops throughout New 
South Wales due to plant diseases, average annually no less than. 
a quarter of a million sterling, from which can be gathered the 
value of the work being undertaken by this branch of the depart- 
ment. 


The chemist of the department, Mr. F. B. Guthrie, has been 
engaged upon a systematic examination of many of the typical 
soils of the Colony, of which he has done seventy. He has made 
a complete examination of all the fertilisers used in New South 
Wales, with a view to having them valued for commercial purposes. 
on a fixed basis. He has examined a large number of milks in 
order to arrive at a fair standard for adoption by the different 
factories and dairymen’s associations throughout the Colony. He 
has determined the feeding value of a number of samples of ensilage 
and other foods used for cattle, also the gluten percentage of a 
number of wheats noted for their rust-resistant qualities, but not 
appreciated by the millers. He has also conducted a series of 
original investigations upon the Darling Pea, Swainsonagalegifolia, 
with a view to determining, if possible, the causes of the evil effects 
produced in sheep, horses, and cattle, which have taken to this 
food and have become indigo eaters, as they are called. 


The botanist of the department, Mr. F. Turner, has published 
an illustrated work on the “ Forage Plants of Australia,” the first 
Australian work dealing with that important subject, and in the 
columns of the Agricultural Gazette, descriptions and illustrations 
of thirty-seven. of the principal Australian grasses. A series of 


30 : W. H. WARREN. 


illustrated articles on new commercial crops has alsobeen published, 
and has done good in directing attention to new industries suitable 
for our farming operations. The botanist has initiated a scheme 
of experiments with the principal native grasses of Australia, to 
be grown side by side under equal conditions, with many of the 
best exotic grasses that have been introduced into this Colony. 


In the Entomological Department, Mr. A. Sidney Olliff has 
made a most valuable collection of noxious and beneficial insects. 
During the past year about three hundred different insects have 
been bred in the laboratory, and many of them are now preserved 
in their several stages for future display. Apart from the species 
bred, the additions to the collection have been considerable, 
amounting to not less than the following estimate :—Coleoptera 
three thousand two hundred; Lepidoptera, nine hundred and 
thirty ; Orthoptera, fifty-nine; Neuroptera, forty-five ; Hymen- 
optera, one thousand three hundred and seventy-five ; Diptera, 
four hundred and twenty-five; Hemiptera and Homoptera, nine 
hundred ; unmounted specimens in spirits of wine, about one 
thousand three hundred ; and various microscopic preparations. 
A considerable number of notes and papers dealing with the life- 
histories and habits of various injurious and_ beneficial insects, 
have been published in the Agricultural Gazette of New South 
Wales for 1893, of which the following is a summary :—Woolly 
Aphis or American Blight (Schizoneura lanigera); Pear-tree Slug 
( Selandria cerast ),; Salt-bush Scale ( Pulvinaria maskelli ); Crickets 
(Gryllus servillec) injuring fruit-trees; Bronzy Orange Bug 
(Oncoscelrs sulciventris); Cherry-tree Borer (Cryptophasa wni- 
punctata); Introduction of the Fig Insect ( Blastophaga psenes ) 
into Australia ; Gayton’s Bee-disease at Lismore ; Walking-stick 
Insect (Acrophylla tessellata ) destroying Forest-trees ; Orange-stem — 
Borer (Uracanthus cryptophagus); Mussel Scale (Mytilaspis 
pomorum),; Pernicious Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus) on Pear ; 
Greedy Scale (Aspidiolus rapax) on Pear and Apple; Banded 
Pumpkin Beetle (Aulacophora hilaris); Two-spotted Monolepta, 
(4. rosea, Blk.); Potato Moth (Lita solanella) destroying tobacco; 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. Ay)! 


Migratory Locust (Acrydiwm migratoriwm). The Codling Moth ; 
its life-history and habits (being a revised and enlarged edition of 
a paper previously published in the Agricultural Gazette ). 


Public Works: Railway Progress.—Nothing is so intimately 
connected with the commercial, industrial, and social life of the 
world as the great railway systems that run like arteries through 
all lands settled by progressive populations. One great feature 
of the railways has been the consistent and steady improvement 
that has been made in regard to the spreading out in the first 
- place of the iron ways, and then internally in the improvement of 
the permanent way, the bettering of the rolling stock, and the 
methods taken to ensure the safe working of the traffic, and to 
preserve from any danger the many millions of passengers who 
are carried annually. 


The earliest and latest railway appliances show wonderful 
changes in a comparatively short period. Contrast the young 
giant invented by Stephenson with the latest powerful engines 
running on the railways of our own Colony ; the light iron rails 
resting on stone blocks, with the substantial road of to-day; the 
open four-wheeled coaches of the Liverpool and Manchester Rail- 
way of 1830, with the latest Pullman Cars; the earliest goods 
waggons, with the most modern waggons of to-day; the very 
primitive signals of early days, with the complete system of 
signals and interlocking now in use. To attempt to give a 
history of the enormous development that has taken place would 
occupy too much time, and I shall therefore content myself by 
dealing with the improvements that have been made within the 


last few years in our local railway world. 


Probably the work of the greatest magnitude, and one that 
therefore most calls for attention, has been the quadruplication 
of the suburban line between Redfern and Homebush, which has 
only been opened as a completed work during the last few 
months. Yearly seventeen millions of passenger journeys are 
made over our suburban lines, the greater portion being made 
between Homebush and Sydney; and when it is remembered 


32 W. H. WARREN. 


that the single pair of rails had formerly to bear the traffic out 
of Sydney not only for the local suburban stations, with the 
necessarily frequent-stopping trains, but also the through traffic 
to the south, west, and north of the Colony, as well as the goods 
to and from Sydney, it can be seen how urgently a quadruplication 
of the road was required. 


Until the quadruplication was inaugurated and carried out by 
the Commissioners, four lines only existed between Redfern 
station and Illawarra junction, a distance of one mile thirty- 
eight chains; two being for the main suburban, and two for the 
Illawarra line. The Commissioners having apparently recognised 
that the lines as they then existed were inadequate to the require- 
ments of the business done, decided to carry the four roads on to 
Homebush. I have ascertained that the first contract was let 
on the 30th October, 1890, and the whole work was completed 
and opened for traffic on the Ist July, 1892. Owing to the 
limited area available at the various stations, and to the extremely 
valuable properties adjoining the same, it was found advisable to 
reconstruct the platforms and station buildings to a very great 
extent, and advantage was taken of the opportunity to design 
these upon the most modern principles, introducing the “barrier” 
system for passengers, whereby there is only one means of ingress 
and egress to the platforms at each station, thus enabling a 
thorough check to be kept upon the tickets. 


The works in connection with the quadruplication were very 
heavy, and comprised a number of bridges and viaducts. For 
bridges carrying vehicular traffic over the railway, the design 
consists generally of wrought iron girders and jack arches, differ- 
ing according to the nature of the approaches. In several cases 
cast iron girders have been used in the construction of these road 
bridges, which were made in the Colony, and contributed very 
materially in expediting the completion of the work. 


The permanent way received great attention, owing to the 
heavy and increasing traffic, and consists of eighty pounds bull- 


headed rails, with forty-two pounds cast iron chairs on ironbark ~— 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 33 


sleepers nine feet by ten inches by five inches ; the bottom ballast 
is sandstone four inches gauge nine inches thick, and the top 
ballast is bluestone two and a half inches gauge laid to a depth 
of six inches under the sleepers and brought up to two inches 
above. 


An outsider is unaware of the great economy in what is termed 
“cutting out” a grade; but as the strength of a chain is measured 
by its weakest link, so in like manner the economical working of 
a length of railway is determined by its steepest grades. For 
instance, taking the line from Singleton to Murrurundi, on 

account of the existence of grades of one in thirty-three and one 

in forty-four the load of an ordinary engine was formerly limited 
to twenty-one waggons, but since the grades have been reduced 
to one in seventy the load has, I am informed, risen to thirty- 
eight waggons. I have been favoured with the statement of a 
week’s working between these points, which shows an estimated 
saving in the train miles run at the rate of twenty-seven thousand 
four hundred and four miles per annum between the points 
mentioned, as a practical result of the improvement of the 
grades. | 


Considerable attention has been paid to the improvement of 
grades and curves in other places. Those that have been carried 
out on the Southern line, between Granville and Picton, have 
been reduced from one in sixty-six to one in one hundred; on 
the Western line, between Dubbo and Minore, the grades have 
been reduced from one in fifty-five to one in seventy. Between 
Lawson and Wentworth Falls, about half-a-mile of one in thirty- 
three has been cut out and a grade of one in seventy-three 
substituted. In many places where eight chain reverse curves 
occurred on the Blue Mountains, these have been improved by 
making extensive deviations with transition curves. To enable 
the traffic to be worked economically and expeditiously, the Lap- 
stone Hill Zig-Zag has also been cut out by a deviation which 
admits of heavier train loads, and also saves the time which 
formerly was required by the stops on the Zig-Zag. The most. 


C—May 3, 1893. 


or fy 


34 W. H. WARREN. 


important part of this undertaking is a tunnel, which is thirty- 
two chains long. The permanent way consists of eighty pound 
T rails, laid as already described. 


The safe working of a railway intimately concerns all travellers, 
and few probably have observed the extent of the safety appliances 
at present in use on our lines, or the vast improvements that have 
been made in this direction during the last few years. To the 
uninitiated passenger the sounding of the engine whistle, the 
movement of a signal, or the varying coloured lights exhibited by 
night, seem to embrace all that apparently is necessary to enable 
the train, with its living freight, to travel over the rails in safety. 


The interlocking of points and signals, which provides for the 
economical and safe working of station yards, junctions, and 
sidings, has been largely extended, at the present time being in 
use at about three hundred places, or fifty-five per cent. of the 
total number. By this system the points and signals at stations 
and junctions are manipulated either from an elevated signal-box, 
lever frame fixed on platform, or ground levers, controlled by 
keys or rod locking from the main apparatus, which places the 
whole of the points and signals under the control of one man, 
giving almost absolute safety. The points of outlying sidings 
are secured by what is known as the Annett’s lock, the key of 
which is attached either to the “ staff” or “tablet,” so that it is 
impossible for a second train to be on that part of the line while 
the siding is being used, and ensures that the points must be 
properly set and locked before the staff or tablet key can be re- 


moved for the train to continue on its journey. 


Most travellers are familiar with the rows of rods and wires, 
with their innumerable cranks, wheels, and rollers by which the 
gear is actuated; but the arrangement known as the “absolute 
block system” is to most persons an absolute mystery. Briefly, 
the block system means the dividing of a line of railway into 
sections, all of which are in electrical communication with one 
another, the object of which is to prevent more than one train at 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 35 


a time being in any section. This is accomplished on double 
lines by what are called ‘“‘ block instruments,” by which means a 
telegraphic communication is established between each section, and 
the various signals such as ‘line clear,” “train on line,” or other 
information as to the description or position of each train is given 
from one box to another. The instruments consist of movable 
lettered discs and bells, and are worked under a special code of 


_ “beats on the bell,” or otherwise. On the single line, where the 


risk of collision is obviously increased, and where greater pre- 
cautions are necessary, other means are adopted, such as the 
“ staff and ticket,” “electric staff,” and “electric tablet,” which | 
ensures that no engine or train shall leave one station for another 
unless the driver is in possession of either a wood or metal staff, 


a ticket, or a metal disc or tablet. 


When the Commissioners took office they at once saw the 
necessity for improving the primitive method of working the 
trafic. The increase of traffic, and the necessity for providing 
greater means of safety, has led within the last few years to the 
adoption of more modern safety appliances, with the result that 
the ‘absolute block system” on double lines has been extended 
over the whole of the passenger lines, increasing from twenty-eight 
miles at the end of 1888, to one hundred and fifty-two miles at 
the present date; while on single lines the electric staff and 
tablet, which are both also absolute blocks, has been provided 
over seven hundred and twenty-two miles of line, superseding the 
old staff and ticket system. ‘The lines included in these systems 
embrace the Great Southern, South Coast, and North Coast 
throughout; the Great Western as far as Dubbo, and the Great 
Northern as far as Tamworth, 


Electricity now plays an important part in the safe working of 
the railway. This is effected under an electric system of working 
the tablet or electric staff. The authority an engine-driver has 
to obtain before he can proceed on a section is either a metal 
tablet or staff, taken from a machine controlled by electricity ; 
each section of the line, which may be ten miles more or less in 


36 W. H. WARREN. 


length, having a similar machine at each end, and the tablet or 
staff cannot be taken from the instrument at any station without 
the concurrence of the station-master at the station to which the 
train is going to proceed. For instance, assume a section between 
A and B; there is an instrument at each station containing a 
number of iron tablets or staffs. These two instruments are 
electrically interlocked, the one with the other, in such a manner 
that A cannot obtain a tablet from his instrument without per- 
mission from B; nor can B get one from his machine without the 
concurrence of A. When one tablet or staff has been withdrawn 
from either instrument, neither the station-master at A nor the 
station-master at B can obtain another until the one already re- 
moved has been restored, and until this has been done the section 
between A and B is completely locked up. Now, as no train is 
allowed to proceed from A to B (or vice versa) without carrying. 
the tablet, it is evident that only one train can be on that section 


of single line at one time. 


Under the old staff system, unless the trains ran with regularity 
there always existed a possibility that the train staff would not 
be in possession of the station which first required the use of the 
road, and as no means existed to restore the staff to the station 
requiring it, recourse had to be made to a system of procuring a 
“line clear” message to permit of the train passing over the 


section. 


By the electric tablet or staff any desired number of trains 
can be despatched consecutively in either direction, there being a 
number of tablets or staffs in the instruments at both ends of 
the section, but only one can be obtained at once, consequently 
only one train can be in that section of line at one time, and 
what is known as the “absolute block” is maintained. 


The progress made since 1888 may be better explained by the 
following table, which shows the advances made yearly :— 


Double Line. Single Line. 


October, 1888 ... 28 miles ... Nil. miles 
October, D389 623.47 Slyy,, eet 3) ae 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 37 


Double Line. Single Line. 
October, 1890 ... 72 miles ee eo Ommailes 
October, 1/89 bea 12t .,, ee Lol mee 
October,1892.:. 149 - ,, Sr opts OD) Aa & bs 
Warchs 1893.1... 152. ,; Shahi oe 


Locomotive EHngines.—During the last year a number of engines 
have been introduced of exceptional power for passenger and 
freight service ; the object aimed at being the economical working 
of the traffic over the heavy grades and sharp curves, which are 
characteristic of our railway system. Formerly two engines were 
employed for passenger trains, whereas now, one engine not only 
does the work better, but effects a very large saving in working 
expenses. Twelve of these engines were made by the Baldwin 
Engine Company, America, and fifty by Messrs. Beyer & Peacock 
of Manchester, England. As the power developed by these 
engines in hauling trains up steep grades is probably greater than 
has been accomplished by engines working under similar conditions 
in other parts of the world, a few facts and figures concerning 
them may be interesting to the members of this Society. One of 
the engines made by the American firm was carefully tested on 
the steep grades of one in forty and one in thirty between Picton 
and Mittagong on the Southern Line, and the maximum perform- 
ance during the trial consisted in hauling a train weighing one 
hundred and fifty-six tons (in addition to the weight of the engine 
and tender), up a long grade of one in forty at a speed of nineteen 
and a half miles an hour. The indicated horse power obtained 
from diagrams taken throughout the trial averaged eight hnndred 
and eighty, while the maximum-horse power developed was nine 
hundred and twenty-five. A trial of one of the English engines 
was made on the Sutherland Bank, Illawarra Line, where a train 
weighing two hundred and twenty-five tons (in addition to the 
weight of the engine and tender), was hauled up a grade of one in 
forty-two, at a speed of twenty miles an hour. The indicated 
horse power developed averaged one thousand and nineteen, 
while the maximum indicated horse power was one thousand and 


38 W. H. WARREN. 


eighty, which I think exceeds the performance of passenger engines 
in any part ofthe world. The ordinary load of these engines over 
the Southern Lines is one hundred and sixty-five tons, and the 
speed attained daily on the one in forty grade is twenty-two and 
a half miles an hour, and on the one in thirty grade the speed 
falls to eighteen and a half miles an hour. Both the American 
and English engine consist of six coupled wheels, and a double 
bogie in front on four wheels, ten wheels in all. The weight of 
the American engine and tender, in steam, is ninety-three tons : 
and of the English engine eighty-eight and a half tons. 


The Commissioners are making an enormous improvement in 
the safety of working heavy goods trains by fitting them with the 
new Westinghouse automatic quick acting freight brake. This 
brake is a most powerful appliance, as will be seen by the results 
obtained during an exhaustive trial which took place in 1891. 
A long train of loaded trucks weighing five hundred and eighty- 
nine tons, travelling at: a speed of thirty-four and a half miles an 
hour, was stopped on a level line in a distance of four hundred 
and seventy-nine feet. On a down grade of one in thirty, a train 
weighing two hundred and fifty-eight tons, travelling at twenty- 
four miles an hour, was stopped in two hundred and ninety-seven 
feet. This brake is five times as powerful as ordinary hand brakes, 
and is very necessary for controlling the speed of heavy trains 
down steep gradients, as well as stopping in case of an emergency 
in the shortest possible space. The whole of the rolling stock is 
not yet fitted, but the work will be completed, I understand, as 
soon as possible. 


Railways in Progress—The railway works in progress at the 
beginning of the year 1892, under Mr. H. Deane, Engineer-in- — 
Chief for Railway Construction, were as follows:—Nyngan to-_ 
Cobar, eighty-two miles ; Culcairn to Corowa, forty-seven miles ; 
Kiama to Nowra, twenty-two miles; Milson’s Point Extension, 
two and three-quarter miles ; Lismore to the Tweed, forty miles. 


Of the above, Nyngan to Cobar was opened for traffic on the Ist 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 39 


July, and the Culcairn to Corowa on the 3rd October. The 
former is a light cheap railway, a large portion of the earthworks 
consisting of mere forming, the fencing is left out except at the 
extreme ends, and the rails are sixty pounds to the yard. The 
ruling grade is oneinone hundred. The Culcairn to Corowa line 
is also comparatively cheap, costing about £4,000 per mile, but 
the undulation of the ground did not permit of so much ‘forming’ 
and the line is fenced throughout. The rails are as in the last 
mentioned, steel flat bottomed sixty pounds to the yard. The 
Kiama to Nowra line is one of the most interesting now in pro- 
gress, as not only does it pass through very rich and fertile country, 
but the works themselves are varied in character. There are five 
tunnels, all of them laid with concrete, and two iron bridges— 
one on a curve over Terralong street in Kiama, and the other a 
single span over the South Coast road near Gerringong. The 
terminus of the line is on the north side of the Shoalhaven River 
opposite Nowra. The Milson’s Point extension brings the present 
North Shore Railway down to Port Jackson. It is a double line 
throughout, laid with seventy-one and a half pound rails, each 
thirty feet long with twelve sleepers to the pair of rails, bottom 
ballast of coarse sandstone, top of bluestone, the height from 
formation to rail level is one foot nine inches. The ruling grade 
is one in fifty, and the sharpest curve, of which there are several, 
of ten chains radius ; without such curve a heavier gradient must 
have been adopted. The ends of the curves are in all cases tapered 
carefully on to the straight. There are two tunnels, the longer 
one under Blue’s Point Road is on a reversed curve, and the 
accurate meeting of the two headings during construction was a 
feat for which the engineers in the field deserve the highest credit 
as it was a most difficult piece of setting out. The other works 
of note are two steel girder bridges on brick abutments, and two 
brick viaducts and the terminal station at Milson’s Point, which 
is constructed partly on the solid ground, partly protected by a 
heavy sea-wall and partly built on ironbark piles sheathed with 
Muntz metal. 


40 W. H. WARREN. 


The Lismore-Tweed Railway is part of the Grafton to the 
Tweed Railway, which was first submitted to Parliament as long 
agoas 1884. It passes through some of the most fertile country in 
New South Wales, the vegetation being most luxuriant in character 
and unequalled anywhere in the Colony. The works are for the 
most part heavy in character, the country being difficult for rail- 
way construction—the flats are subject to floods, so that heavy 
embankments are necessary to keep the line at all times out of 
the water, and the higher ground consists of spurs too sharp to 
get round, and to get through which heavy cuttings, and in some 
cases tunnels, have tobe driven. At the beginning of 1892 about 
forty miles of line had been opened up, viz., from Lismore to 
Mullumbimby on the Brunswick. During the year however the 
last contract was let, and the works are now in hand as far as 
the Tweed. There are eight tunnels on the works between 
Lismore and the Tweed, and ten bridges with steel super structure 
resting on cast iron or concrete pieces and abutments. As an 
engineering work this line presents greater points of interest than 
most of the railways hitherto constructed in this Colony. The 
central point of the line is Cavanba the Government township at 
Byron Bay, which even now is a fair port, but when the break- 
water is constructed may be expected to form the most important 
harbour on the north coast, and the second in the whole Colony 
to Sydney. 


In addition to the above mentioned lines the following were 
taken in hand last year, and rapid progress is being made :—l. 
Marrickville to Burwood Road, a double line, four and a half 
miles long, forming portion of the much talked of St. Peter’s to 
Liverpool loop line. The permanent way of this line will be 
similar to that described for the Milson’s Point extension. The 
works are heavy, and include a bridge of iron and steel over Cook’s: 
River at Canterbury ; the curves are easy and the ruling grade 
one in one hundred. 2. Molong to Parkes and Forbes railway, 
seventy-two miles long, a line of the less substantial class, with 
sixty pound steel rails; the earthworks near Porcupine Gap are 


; 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 4] 


heavy. The timber openings are designed to carry the heaviest 
locomotives in use. The ruling grade is one in sixty. 3. Coota- 
mundra to Temora, forty miles long, a line of similar character 


but less expensive, as the country is easier. 


Some of the Tramway works in hand are well worthy of notice. 
There are two extensions of the cable system—North Shore 
Tramway to Falcon-street and Lane Cove Road. The construc- 
tion of this work has necessitated the enlargement and rearrange- 
ment of the present power plant; the engines and gearing which 
with the exception of a few parts were made by Messrs. Hudson 
Brothers, are well worth inspection, as they appear to be of excel- 
lent design with the latest modern improvements introduced. The 
King and Ocean-street Tramway is probably the most difficult 
example of cable tramway design in the world ; for a combination 
of crookedness of route and undulation of level it has no equal. 
The design of permanent way is arranged to suit the Vogel gripper, 
which gives a top instead of a side grip; the tunnel is very shallow 
and therefore economicalin cost. The power plant of about eight 
hundred horse power will be placed in Rushcutters Bay, and will 
be made in the Colony by Messrs. Hudson Brothers. The plant 
will be sufficiently powerful to work some future extensions of 


the system. 


I may mention here that a steamboat has just been finished by 
the Mort’s Dock Engineering Company from the designs of Mr. W. 
Cruickshank, m.1.m.£., Chief Surveyor to the Marine Board. The 
boat is intended for the pilot service, and is fitted with all 
the modern improvements. It is named the s.s. Captain Cook 
and the principal dimensions are as follows :—Length between 
perpendiculars one hundred and fifty-five feet, beam moulded 
twenty-five feet, depth moulded fifteen feet, built of steel to 
Lloyd’s 100 Al Class. Flush deck with bridge amidships, raised 
forecastle, clipper bow and elliptic stem, schooner rig. Engines 
triple expansion type, having cylinders sixteen inches, twenty-five 
inches, and forty-one inches diameter, thirty inches stroke, the high 
and intermediate cylinders are fitted with piston valves, and the 


49 W. H. WARREN. 


low pressure cylinder with a double ported D valve. The cooling 
surface in the condenser is one thousand one hundred and fifty 
square feet, air pump, single acting, fifteen inches diameter, fifteen 
inches stroke, circulating pump, double acting, eight inches 
diameter, fifteen inches stroke, two feed pumps, three inches 
diameter, fifteen inches stroke, and two bilge pumps of the same 
dimensions. The whole of these pumps are driven by levers from 
the low pressure crosshead. The reversing gear is actuated by 
one of Brown’s patent steam and hydraulic reversing engines, 
Steam is supplied at one hundred and sixty pounds pressure from 
a boiler fourteen feet nine inches inside diameter, eleven feet 
six inches long, having three Fox’s patent furnaces each four feet 
diameter and two hundred and forty-six tubes three and a half 
inches diameter. The shell plates are 1,” thick, and the end 
plates seven-eighths inch. The longitudinal seams are butt 
jointed, with in and outside straps treble rivetted, rivets one 
and a quarter inches diameter. A donkey boiler is also provided 
nine feet high, four feet six inches diameter. For circulating the 
water in the main boiler a large duplex pump is fitted, also a 
donkey pump. The ship is fitted throughout with the electric 
light, and a search light of twelve thousand candle-power. She 
will also be of service in case of fire on vessels or wharves, and 
for salvage operations, having a powerful fire pump capable of 
delivering thirty-six thousand gallons per hour. For all the 
auxiliary engines the steam pressure is reduced to ninety pounds 
by one of Auld’s patent reducing valves. For automatically 
controlling the main engines in heavy weather Dunlop’s patent 
governor is fitted. ‘The highest indicated horse power so far 
attained is eight hundred and thirty-five. The work reflects 
great credit upon the designer and Mort’s Dock Engineering 
Company. 


Harbours and Rivers.—Mr. Cecil Darley, M. Inst. C.E., has 
supplied me with particulars of the work done during the year 
in connection with the harbours and rivers of the Colony, from 
which it appears that the necessity at present for restricting the 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 43 


expenditure of public moneys usually payable from loans is some- 
what limiting the extent of harbour improvement works along 
the coast, nevertheless some important works are in progress. 
Commencing in the north— : 


On the Tweed River important river improvement works are in 
progress, and are already showing very satisfactory results. Nearly 
two miles of stone training walls have been constructed, chiefly 
along the concave bank of the river; parallel with the walls, a 
sand pump dredge is at work cutting a channel and depositing 
the silt behind, thus in one operation dredging a channel and 
reclaiming land. About two miles of good direct channel, with 
a depth of from twelve to sixteen feet of water is now available, 
where formerly there only existed a very tortuous channel, carry- 
ing but as many inches of water. 


On the Richmond River, the scheme outlined by Sir John 
Coode is being carried out and is making fair progress. On the 
north side a breakwater has already been run out for a distance 
of one thousand six hundred and fifty feet, leaving about nine 
hundred feet still to be completed to reach the limit proposed by 
Sir John Coode to which the breakwater should be extended in 
the first instance. On the south side, the southern training wall 
has been extended about three thousand three hundred and fifty 
feet, and now reaches the point where the southern breakwater 
proper may be said to commence ; this will have to be extended 
three thousand two hundred feet to reach the end of the first 
section of Sir John Coode’s proposal. This work cannot be 
carried on very expeditiously, seeing that all the stone has to 
be loaded into punts and brought down the river a distance of 
eighteen miles. Fair progress is, however, being made, and as 
more appliances shortly to be available are brought into use, the 
work will no doubt advance in a satisfactory manner. Already 
the works so far complete have a marked influence for good 
in maintaining a deeper and straighter entrance to the river, 
which has hitherto been the dread of all masters trading to the 
Richmond. 


44 W. H. WARREN. 


At the Clarence River a contract has been let for a portion of 
the scheme outlined by Sir John Coode, it being proposed to con- 
struct the long southern training wall only in the first instance. 
This will be constructed by tipping stone from an elevated timber 
staging on piles, the stone being brought up to about half tide 
level. The first stone was tipped into the wall last month. The 
quarry is about four miles from the work, but is connected direct 
‘by a railroad. | 


Various river improvement works are taking place on the 
Bellinger and Nambucca Rivers; and at Trial Bay the break- 
water to enclose a space to form a harbour of refuge is in 
progress by prison labour. This work is in a very exposed 
situation, and in deep water, so that the apparent progress is not 
very marked. 


At Newcastle the principal works in progress are confined to 
dredging, and removal of rocks near the entrance of the harbour 
at a point locally known as the Black Buoy Reef. The situation 
is exposed, and the current being very strong, it would have been 
a most difficult and costly undertaking to remove it by the 
ordinary process of drilling, blasting, and lifting by divers, so it 
was determined to procure what is known as Lobnitz’s Patent 
Rock-cutting Plant; the iron cutter bars (of which three are at 
work at one time), each weigh eight tons and are in various 
lengths up to about forty feet; they have a heavy steel chisel- 
shaped cutting edge, and are raised by steam power and allowed 
to drop from a height of from eight to ten feet by releasing a 
trigger, as in the ordinary pile-driving monkey. The whole 
machinery, which is necessarily of an unusually substantial and 
heavy nature, was made by the patentee, and erected on a large 
iron punt constructed in this harbour. The machine is doing 
good work in cutting and pulverizing the rock, and leaving it in 
a state in which it can be easily removed by an ordinary ladder 


or grab dredge. 


In connection with the harbour works, dredging plays a most 
important part, as the commercial prosperity of New South Wales 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 45 


depends so largely upon the facilities afforded for river and coastal 
traffic that the Parliament cheerfully votes from revenue over 
£100,000 annually for dredging expenses, an amount not exces- 
sive when it is considered that operations have to be carried on 
at twenty-one ports and rivers on a sea-board of six hundred 
miles, extending from the Victorian to the Queensland border. 
Employment is found for about four hundred men on the fourteen 
ladder dredges, nineteen grab bucket machines, seven suction 
dredges, twenty-one tugs, and ninety punts, continuously worked 
by the Harbours and Rivers Department in increasing harbour 
accommodation, deepening river channels, reclaiming land, and 
removing the enormous quantities of silt deposit left by floods. 
The estimated value of the dredging plant exceeds £500,000. 


The application of the centrifugal pump to dredging purposes 
having passed the experimental stage of development, the New 
South Wales Government, in 1888, resolved to cease building 
bucket dredges, and to adopt the pump system. Already six 
powerful suction dredges are at work, with conspicuous success,. 
one at each of the following ports or rivers :—Sydney Harbour, 
Newcastle Harbour, Myall River, Nambucca River, Clarence. 
River, and Tweed River. Two additional machines are nearly 
completed at the Fitzroy Dock. 


Not only has the actual cost of dredging been reduced one-half 
by the adoption, where practicable, of the new system, but (inci- 
dental to the pumping) large areas of valuable land have been 
reclaimed by the material deposited at a cost of 2d. per ton, 
which under the old method of working could only be utilised by 
hand labour at about 8d. per ton, four times the cost of spreading 
it, as now, direct from the pump. 


In crowded harbours, where it is undesirable to impede naviga- 
tion by mooring a pipe-line on pontoons from the suction dredge, 
the ladder dredges have to be used, but by a method first adopted 
in this Colony, the silt instead of being dumped at sea can be 
utilised for reclamation by being deposited alongside a suction 


46 W. H. WARREN. 


dredge to be pumped on shore. Large areas have been so treated 
at the following places :— 


White Bay (half done by hand labour) ... about 125 acres. 


Snail’s Bay (two-thirds done by hand labour) » Oye 
Leichhardt (two-thirds completed, all by sand 


pump) a ae ne as » on eae 
Careening Cove (wholly by sand pump) ee ss 32 Cs, 
Neutral Bay (wholly by sand pump) ... Sih - (Pe 


The last-named place has just been converted from an insanitary 
foreshore into a health promoting park in the short space of six 
weeks, by pumping on shore one hundred thousand tons of silt 
lifted by ladder dredges and dumped alongside the Weptune, 
instead of (as previously) being towed to sea. 


Mr. Hickson, M. Inst. C.E, Commissioner and Engineer-in-Chief 
for Roads, Bridges and Sewerage, has kindly supplied me with 
the following particulars of the work done in his department :— 
‘The Colony is divided into eight districts, seven of these embrace 
generally the eastern and central divisions, while the eighth covers 
most of the thinly populated west. The total area under the con- 
trol of the department is two hundred and three thousand seven 


hundred and six square miles. 


foads.—Two hundred and seventy-one miles of new metalled 
roads were formed during the year, while twenty-six thousand 
four hundred and seventy-seven miles of road have been dealt 
with and maintained. The most important of the new roads con- 
structed during 1892 are in the north, the Don Dorrigo road run- 
ning from the Bellinger River to the rich tablelands in the New 
England District, and that from Coff’s Harbour to give access to 
the scrub lands of the upper Orara. These roads will open up 
valuable country hitherto almost inaccessible. Other roads have 
been construced to improve the facilities for access to the rich 
aountain scrub lands on the Richmond, Brunswick, and Tweed 
Rivers, and from the railway line towards the west. In the 
southern coast districts attention has been principally paid to 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 47 


improving the location and grading of the old roads, fifty-eight 
miles having been formed, fifty-one miles formed and metalled, 
and sixty miles surveyed and graded. Of the new roads in the 
western and south-western districts, perhaps the most important 
is the mountain road between Tumut Valley and Kiandra, formed 
in heavy side cutting for twenty miles. In ascending the Talbingo 
Mountains it rises two thousand five hundred feet in five and a 
half miles. This road besides opening up country hitherto inac- 
cessible from Tumut, forms a means of direct communication 
between the south-east coast and the south-western interior; a 
branch three miles in length connects the Yarrangobilly Caves 
with the main road. In many districts great difficulty is experi- 
enced in obtaining satisfactory material for ballasting. The cost 
of metal is prohibitive ; vitrified clay, sand, and a red soil found 
in some parts have been used with fair success, while recently a 
corduroy of pine saplings covered with nine to twelve inches of 
the soil from side drains has been tried, and though not yet fully 
tested is expected to prove very satisfactory. In constructing 
roads in the drought-infested area, every opportunity is seized of 
forming them in embankment, with storm overflows, so that they 
shall serve as dams for the conservation of water, and this policy 
has been amply justified by its results. 


Bridges.—The total length of bridges and culverts under the 
control of the department is about one hundred and thirteen miles; 
one hundred and fifty-six bridges and one thousand two hundred 
and ninety-six culverts were built during the year 1892. The 
majority of these are of a simple character spanning the small 
coastal rivers and creeks, but several very substantial and elegant 
structures have been erected, as for example those over the Hunter 
River at Elderslie and Aberdeen, over the Lachlan River at 
Forbes, and over the Murray River at Mulwala, Tintaldra and 
Corowa. Others such as the Tocumwal Bridge over the Murray, 
and the Wilcannia and Wentworth Bridges over the Darling are 
now in course of construction. The majority of the larger bridges 
are of the lattice type with eighteen feet roadway. Where on 


48 W. H. WARREN. 


coastal rivers sailing vessels have to pass, the leaf type of lifting 
bridge with a clear opening of forty feet is adopted, in which the 
lifting span is hinged at one end and raised by means of chains 
passing over timber towers and connected to balance weights, so 
geared that one man can raise the spanin ten minutes. In rivers 
in the interior where traffic is carried on by means of steamers 
and barges, the opening span is raised by wire ropes passing over 
towers at the four corners. The clear width of opening is fifty 
feet, and the lift twenty-five feet above flood level. The lift span 
is of steel and is raised by machinery carried on the top of the 
towers ; one man is required, the lift taking five minutes. One 
hundred punts and ferries are under the control of the depart- 
ment, six of which are worked by steam. The latest addition is 
that for the Hunter River at Hexham, which on its trial trip 


gave a speed of seven and a half miles per hour. 


Sewerage.—The total length of sewers completed or in progress 
at the end of 1892 in connection with the sewerage of Sydney 
and its suburbs was 4835°47 chains, and of storm water channels 
95441 or a total Jength of seventy-two miles 29°88 chains. Of 
this length five miles 10°61 chains of sewers and three miles 20°55 
chains of storm water channels were completed during the year, 
while on the 3lst December, four miles 52:13 chains of sewers 
and four miles 7:29 chains of storm water channels were still in 
progress. Amongst the most important of the sewers completed 
was the extension of the George-street West sewer, through the 
Glebe to Annandale (with its branches) which will ultimately tap 
the whole of Leichhardt and Balmain. It is unfortunate that 
owing to the present depression it has been found impossible to 
proceed with the reticulation of this district, as if this could be 
done it would not only be a boon to the residents, but would 
render the trunk sewers already constructed, revenue producing. 
An extension of the Prince Alfred Hospital sewer through Cam- 
perdown to Liberty-street Newtown has also been completed. It is 
designed to drain Camperdown, and parts of Newtown and Peter- 
sham ; some portions of the latter areas have already been reticu- 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 49 


lated. In the eastern suburbs a branch from the main Bondi 
sewer to Elizabeth Bay and Potts’ Point was finished, which with 
the Victoria-street branch already constructed, will completely 
drain that locality. 


Of the contracts in progress the most important are the two 
embracing the tunnels and aqueducts on the main western outfall 
sewer to the sewage farm at Botany ; these form the key to the 
whole western drainage ; they extend from the farm to the pen- 
stock chamber at the Warren, where the western, northern, and 
eastern branches unite, a distance of 90°6 chains. The sewer will 
be carried by three circular ducts, each six feet in diameter, and 
will cross three valleys on brick arches, and two iron and steel 
bridges.span the Woolli Creek and Cook’s River respectively. In 
the eastern suburbs, the first contract of the Waverley and 
Woollahra branch sewer is practically completed ; 1t extends from 
the Bondi sewer to the end of Denison-street Randwick, and will 
drain the western slopes of that borough. Its extension to the 
Randwick race-course and the Kensington Hstate is contemplated. 
The Darling Point branch from the main Bondi sewer has also 
been undertaken, and its construction is well advanced. In view 
of the fact that the sewerage system would necessarily take some 
years to complete, it was resolved to at once construct a system 
of storm water channels supplementary to the scheme, which 
would in the mean time serve to reduce to a minimum the nuisance 
arising from the discharge of house slops and defiled water into. 
the street gutters, besides expeditiously carrying off flood waters. 
The Iron Cove and Long Cove Creeks on the northern slopes, and 
several areas on the southern slopes subject to sudden flood, have 
been dealt with during the year. At the end of 1892 eleven 
miles seventy-four and a half chains of these channels had been 
constructed or were in progress, the length completed during the 


year being three miles twenty-one chains. 


Irrigation and Water Conservation.—The importance of the 
part which water conservation and irrigation must hold in the 
development of the Colony, has long been universally admitted.. 


D—May 3, 1893. 


50 W. H. WARREN. 


Those who have given even a moderate amount of thought to 
this subject have not failed to see that the British law of riparian 
rights completely blocks the path of irrigation enterprise. In 
England, questions relating to irrigation are practically unknown ; 
but river conservancy for purposes of navigation, drainage, and 
reclamation, is a matter of great public moment, and for the 
determination of questions relating to even these matters the 
cumbrous law referred to is an expensive failure. France has a 
larger extent of land under irrigation, subject to suitable laws 
and regulations ; but irrespective of this, it would probably be 
no exaggeration to state that in regard to its laws for and 
method of dealing with river conservancy it is half-a-century 


ahead of England. 


Among European countries, the conditions of Spain are probably 
nearer than any other to those of the western districts of New 
South Wales. In both cases the rainfall is light, the climate in 
summer hot and dry, and the discharge of the rivers more or less 
uncertain. Irrigation in Spain has for many centuries been 
regarded as a matter of the first importance, and the laws 
bearing on it have been framed with such care and comprehen- 
siveness, that they were in a large measure adopted as the best 
model for dealing with the great irrigation systems in India. 


In New South Wales we have the successful legislation of 
Spain, Italy, France, and India, to guide us, and the ancient - 
bungling of England, and the recent bungling of America, to act 
as warnings. ‘There are doubtless differences of opinion as to 
points of detail, but it is very generally admitted that the State 
should be regarded as the owner of all great natural supplies of 
water, and that it should so administer these supplies as to make 
them of most benefit to the public. As the law stands, every 
dam on every river and creek in the Colony exists on sufferance 
only, and the same remark applies to the numerous pumping 
engines which enterprising settlers are using for irrigation purposes 
on every important river, and also on some creeks in the western 
districts. When any landowner or lessee of land thinks, or pro- 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 51 


fesses to think, that the continued existence of a dam in his 
neighbourhood is detrimenta] to his interests, he does not appeal 
to the law, but adopts “the good old rule, the simple plan” of 
collecting a mob of men and proceeding to cut the dam. If the 
owner of the dam has timely warning he also, knowing the futility 
of appealing to the law, collects a mob of men if possible more 
numerous than the attacking party. This is the old style, which 
has not yet disappeared, but as it is now generally known that 
the spirit of the law is opposed to any work for conserving or 
utilising the waters which run to waste in our rivers, the risk 
involved in the construction of any work for conserving these 
waters is generally sufficient to prevent the undertaking of any 
such work. Such a state of affairs is, to say the least, most 
unsatisfactory. 


In the absence of legislation, the construction of large irriga- 
tion works which would utilize an important portion of the waters 
of our rivers cannot be proceeded with. The attention of the 
Water Conservation Department has hitherto been chiefly con- 
fined to carrying out systems of surveys and levelling, together 
with gauging the discharge of the rivers. This preliminary work, 
which may now be considered as almost complete, is shown in an 
elaborate series of contour plans, which include all the great 
alluvial plains west of the Dividing Range. The information 
thus collected must form the groundwork of all the great projects 
which can be carried out for utilizing the waters of our western 


rivers. 


The nature and scope of the schemes which are specially re- 
commended in the cases of the Murray, Murrumbidgee, Darling, 
and Macquarie Rivers have already been made public; but owing 
chiefly to the exceptionally favourable character of recent seasons, 
these schemes have attracted much less attention than their 
importance demanded. It is in some respects unfortunate that 
a very large proportion of the land which can be irrigated most 
easily and economically and with the best results has been 
alienated. This remark applies particularly to the land which 


52 W. H. WARREN. 


can be irrigated from the Murray and the Murrumbidgee. The 
conditions are remarkably favourable to irrigation from both of 
these rivers. In the case of the proposed Lower Murrumbidgee 
Southern Canal, the head of which would be about a mile below 
Narrandera, no weir is required, but merely regulating gates to 
prevent excessive inflow of flood waters to the canal. Mr. 
McKinney estimates that the cost of the whole system of canals 
proposed in this case, for the irrigation of the districts bounded 
on the north by the Murrumbidgee River, and on the south by 
the Billabong Creek and Edwards River, and including work for 
fling Lake Urana would be £548,000. This is for a system of 
canals which would carry 2,000 cubic feet of water per second. 
It is worth while to consider what these figures mean. The 
capital outlay on a flow of one cubic foot per second is £274. 
Assuming that interest on the capital expended would be four per 
cent. and the cost of maintenance three per cent.—a very high 
rate—the cost of water per cubic foot per second for a year would 
be slightly over £19. This supply, on the evidence collected by 
Mr. McKinney, can be depended on throughout the spring months, 
and a diminished supply can be obtained throughout the greater 
part of the other seasons. When in Southern California, Mr. 
Deakin ascertained that the capitalized value of a cubic foot of 
water per second in perpetuity was reckoned at £8,000. Now 
there are many points of similarity between the conditions exist- 
ing in California and those in New South Wales, and there are 
some points of difference. Admitting all the latter, it may be 
asked whether if a cubic foot of water per second is worth £8,000 
in California, the same quantity should not be worth £274 or 


even double that sum in the western plains of this Colony ? 


The last river reported on by Mr. McKinney (in this case in 
conjunction with Mr. Ward), was the Darling. It proves that so 
far as regards the practicability of large irrigation schemes, the 
conditions of the Darling are much less favourable than those of 
the Murray or the Murrumbidgee ; but by combining the interests 
of irrigation and navigation, it is claimed that on the river Darling _ 


there is a great field for remunerative engineering work. 


ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 53 


Of the work carried out by the Water Conservation Depart- 
ment, the most important is the crib-work overshot weir on the 
River Lachlan, the object of which is to divert a portion of the 
waters of that river down the Willandra Billabong, an important 
natural effluent of the Lachlan, through which, in 1870, the flood 
waters of this river reached a point within about thirty miles of 
the waters of the River Darling. The weir has proved a most 
useful work, and though constructed under most disadvantageous 
circumstances, the work is a decided success. Constructed in 
friable alluvium resting on a great deposit of sand, it was not 
quite complete when the great flood of 1890 passed over it and 
stopped further work for months. After that a series of moderate 
floods interrupted the work repeatedly ; but the work, including 
an earthen dam across the Lachlan and the improvement of the 
first six miles of the Willandra Billabong have been completed at 
a gross cost of about £10,000. It is now reckoned that permanent 
water will be maintained in the Willandra Billabong throughout 
a length of two hundred miles, while in addition the weir holds 
back a supply in the Lachlan to a distance of over twelve miles. 
The improvement of Yanko Creek is a work of the same descrip- 
tion, and has proved extremely beneficial to a large tract of rich 


country. 


In regard to underground water supply, a bore is being put 
down under this Department at Coonamble. The immediate 
object is to afford a supply of water to that town; but it is ex- 
pected that if successful it will lead to much further enterprise of 
the same description in that district, thereby promoting settlement 


and enhancing the value of Crown lands. 


I will conclude this long address by thanking you for the patient 
attention with which you have listened to it, and in vacating the 
Chair in favour of the newly elected President, Prof. Anderson 
Stuart, I need not say anything by way of introduction, as he is 
so well known to the members of this Society. Iam sure that 
the Society will prosper under his able direction, and I ask that 
you will give him the same support which has always been 
accorded to me. 


a 
— 
¢ 
' " 
é 
* £ 


54 C. O. BURGE. 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 


By CHARLES OrmsBy BurRGE, M. Inst. C.E. 
Principal Assistant Engineer-in-Charge, Railway Surveys, N.S. W. 


[ Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, 
December 21, 1892. ] 


THE question of light railways has been often to the front, not 
only in New South Wales, but in all countries where there is any 
railway construction at all; but it has become more especially 
pressing latterly, when the difficulty of raising loans for public 
works has increased, and the necessity has arisen for opening up 
new districts at the lowest possible first cost. The meaning of 
the term “light railways” has almost as many variations as the 
sorts and conditions of men who do not hesitate to give their 
Opinions on the matter. It seems to some people extraordinary 
why engineers cannot design a railway which shall have light 
rails, steep gradients, light works and light working expenses, 
nearly all of which things are necessarily more or less antagonistic 
to each other. 


People in the country say, why cannot we have a tramway like 
the Sydney ones? all we want is a train of one or two vehicles 
and a small engine, not knowing or apparently caring, as other 
people have to pay, that such an arrangement is just about as 
expensive a one for a country line as could possibly be devised for 
working, giving the maximum of wages with the minimum of loads. 


Nevertheless there are points which it is the purpose of this 
paper to show, in which our railway construction, as hitherto 
carried out, can be considerably cheapened, and made more appro- 
priate to the light traffic in outlying districts for which such lines, 
in the future, must be provided. The author of this communica- 
tion has had to do, either in survey, construction, or maintenance, 
with heavy and light railways of all kinds, from the five feet nine 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 5D 


inch gauge of Spain, five feet six inch gauge of India, five feet 
three inch gauge of Ireland, four feet eight and a-half inch gauge 
of England and New South Wales, three feet six inch gauge of 
the Cape Colony, down to the one foot eleven and a-half inch 
gauge of North Wales, so that some knowledge of the subject may 
be expected to be brought to bear upon it. 3 


The engineer, in designing such a cheap system of lines ag those 
now in question, has to deal with and satisfy four, more or less, 
distinct sets of people, whose interests are not always identical, 
at least from their own several points of view, and therein lies 
his chief difficulty. First and chiefly, there is the whole colony 
as represented by the Government, and, it may be added, its 
creditors. Secondly, the people of the district to be served. 
Thirdly and fourthly, the locomotive and traffic branches of the 
railway department. The Colony, as a whole, wants the value 
of its lands increased, and the interest of its debt to be met, and 
its credit upheld, by satisfactory dividends; and a question as to 
this arises whether, if cheap construction does in some points 
involve greater working expenses, it is not advisable to incur such 
heavier working expenses, and save interest to the same amount. 
In other words, if, by saving £100 of the capital expenditure, and 
therefore say £4 annually in interest, we incur £4 additional 
annual working expenses, though the immediate financial result 
is exactly the same, would it improve the credit of the colony by 
lessening its voracity for loan assistance? This however is a 
financial question, outside the scope of this paper, and it is merely 
adverted to, to show how many sides there are to questions like this. 


The question of the advantage of raising the value of lands is 
so obvious that it need hardly be touched upon, but it is evident 
that even where branch railways do not pay their own expenses 
and interest, still they may be a source of income indirectly from 
the increased value of unsold land, and increased trade and popu- 
lation, large populations being obviously governed at a much 
cheaper proportionate rate than small ones. It is a question, if 
these sources of income could be tabulated and credited, how 


56 C. O. BURGE. 


many of the branch lines now regarded as non-paying from the 
Railway Commissioners’ necessarily partial outlook, might be 
looked upon as at all events meeting their expenses and interest. 
Again, even taking railway receipts alone on the credit side, 
though there is a considerable list of non-paying lines in the 
Commissioners’ reports, it is to be presumed that the figures given 
are the results of setting the passengers and goods receipts for the 
particular mileage of the branch, and those alone, against the 
corresponding working expenses of that mileage only. It may be 
impossible, and undoubtedly it would entail great trouble, to do 
otherwise, but clearly a more equitable plan would be to credit 
the branch also with the extra profits which its contributions 
bring to the main line. These contributions can easily be con- 
ceived to be carried over the small mileage of the branch at’a loss, 
but over the longer mileage of the main line at a gain. A main 
line more or less fully occupied is a machine working up to its 
full capacity, and therefore working economically; a branch line 
is often the reverse. A dozen waggon-loads of traffic can be 
shunted on to the main line from a branch, and run over the main 
line with very slight extra cost, while they are paid for at their 
mileage rate. In fact it might cost two pence or three pence per 
ton per mile to carry these waggons over the short mileage of the 
branch, while the same waggons might be drawn over the long 
mileage of the main line for a fraction of a farthing of actual nett 
additional expenditure. 

As regards the national creditor, while the construction of 
absolutely hopelessly non-paying lines is against his, as it 1s against 
all, interests, 1t does not follow that it is necessary for a line to 
pay more than its working expenses and interest to satisfy him. 
The indirect gains to the Government already alluded to ina 
larger population and production, are distinct advantages to his 
security, even supposing that, what is after all only a subdivision 
of the cost of production, namely :—its short carriage to the main 
line, is proportionately heavy. 

With regard to the other three sets of interests with which 
the constructing engineer has to deal, if a lighter class of railway 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 57 


than has hitherto been in use, has to be provided, they will, each 
of them, have to give way, on some points, for the general good. 


The people of the district to be served must be content with 
slower speed, irregular running to time, less accommodation at 
stations and goods sheds, and notwithstanding getting less, they 
must be prepared to pay more, than those using the main lines, 
to cover the extra cost of working. At present, the people of a 
district, such as those now under consideration, have to pay 
indirectly the coach drivers’ wages, the feed of the horses, etc., 
and the coach proprietor’s interest on his capital, which surely is 
generally more than the modest four per cent. which the British 
capitalist demands; and in the case of goods, they have to pay like 
charges to the waggoner. They may fairly then be asked to pay 
that which, though more than others do on the main lines, is still 
a large reduction on their present charges. Of course this matter 
has its limits, as if too high charges were made the development of 
the district would cease, and the ultimate increase of traffic, and 
lowering of rates to correspond, would never be arrived at. But 
there is certainly a great margin of difference between the ordinary 
road charge of six pence to one shilling per mile for passengers 
and one shilling to one shilling and six pence per ton per mile for 
goods, and the ordinary, or even increased, railway rates, intensi- 
fied as this contrast is by the frequent interruption to road traffic 
by the weather, which practically does not exist in the case of the 
railway. It has been proposed, instead of the people who use the 
line paying for the extra cost of its use, which is of course the 
fairest way, to tax the whole district either by an extension of the 
betterment principle, or by a rate. As to the betterment, as 
applied to the whole district benefited, in most country lines the 
purchase of the land occupied by the railway is a very insignificant 
item of its cost, and there does not seem to be any intelligent 
reason why the district should pay for the land which is a neces- 
Sary requirement, any more than for the sleepers or ballast, or 
any other material which contributes to the result. As to an 
acreage rate, it may be remarked, in passing, that an average rate 


of three pence per acre per annum, levied on all lands within ten 


58 C. O. BURGE. 


miles of a line costing £4,000 per mile, would pay the full interest 
on its cost, not counting any contributions from townships, which 
however might pay interest for the first ten miles of the branch, 
which generally is of no benefit to its neighbours. Such a tax 
would cost little to collect, as the machinery exists already in the 
gathering in of the sheep tax. So much for the district. 


Next, the locomotive department has to be dealt with. If we 
are to have true light railways, not those in which lightness of 
cost of construction is to be more than balanced by exhausting 
maintenance, and other annual expenditure, locomotive engineers 
must design engines that will turn round sharp corners so as to 
enable sharp curves to be used, and thus minimise works, even — 
though such engines entail more complication of machinery and 
more parts to keep in repair than the ordinary types. In con- 
nexion with this, it may be mentioned, that two estimates were 
recently made for a considerable length of line in this colony 
through a moderately rough country, taking curves of twelve chains 
radius for one, and six chains for the other. One half the earth- 
work and one-third of the culvert work were saved, and the grades 
improved on the sharper curved line, the length being increased 
thirteen per cent. and the saving in cost on the original mileage 
amounted to about £2,400 per mile. Now if we take as an 
example a line of this kind of fifty miles long, and assume say half 
of this £2,400, that is to say £1,200 per mile to be saved, we have 
£1,200 x 50 equal £60,000, the interest of which, at four per cent., 
is £2,400 per annum. Now supposing two engines, which is an 
outside estimate, to be in use on such a branch, and the total 
annual repairs per engine under ordinary circumstances to be 
£350, that is to say £700 for the two, and, by reason of the com- 
plication introduced, fifty per cent extra repairs to be required, 
still the balance in favour of the cheaper line would be enormous. 


Increased train resistance by sharper ruling curvature need 
hardly be considered, as this would probably be more than com- 
pensated by the easing of grades, which the extra length involved 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 5D 


by the greater curvature would entail. It has been found also 
that the tires of rolling stock do not suffer much by curvature, the 
flanges get worn instead of the treads; that is the chief difference. 
As regards grades, it is like asking incompatible things to say that. 
an engine is to be flexible and also that all or nearly all the wheels 
are to be coupled drivers, so as not only to utilize all weight for 
adhesion, but to lighten load on a single pair of wheels, and thus 
to enable the constructing engineer to increase his grades and 
lighten his works and permanent way. Nevertheless it must be 
done, if we are to have light railways in heavy country. In fact 
we want an engine as like a snake as possible, sinuous in motion 
and using all its length for adhesion and propulsion. Some time 
ago there were some successful experiments made in obtaining 
adhesion by means of a current of electricity from wheel to 
rail, but nothing seems to have resulted from it. If such a con- 
trivance were effectual without counterbalancing defects, it would 
do more to make light railways possible in undulating country 
than anything else. The author is quite aware of the evil of 
introducing additional types and of limiting, as regards engines, 
the economical advantages of reserving the branch lines as asylums 
for aged and infirm locomotives unfit for the main line service, 
but this latter disadvantage tends to disappear, as the present. 
policy, which is no doubt a good one, is to increase the power and 
weight of main line engines to such a degree as to render it hope- 
less to use them eventually on any line having any pretension to 
be called a light line at all, and there are a good many existing 
substantial branch lines which could use them up with slow speeds. 


As regards the traffic department : if we are to have such light 
railways as this paper contemplates, passenger stations, in the 
existing sense of the word, must be cut out, the guards doing for 
the most part what is now done by the station masters. Shelter 
will be only provided for goods, and that only which is absolutely 
necessary to prevent damage. As slow travelling only is in view, 
signals and interlocking, the latter being a most expensive item, 
would be unnecessary. Passenger platforms should be abolished, 


a 
Fi 


‘60 CO. O. BURGE. 


as is done in America generally, even on main lines, travellers 
entering and leaving the train at rail level, and junction arrange- 
ments must be reduced toaminimum. Fencing should generally 
be dispensed with, and where the line cuts through a boundary 
fence separating holdings, a cheap cattle stop or gridiron as used in 
the United States, would sufficiently prevent trespass. On the Cape 
railways, where the author had several years’ experience, fencing 
~-was successfully dispensed with, and in India, a curious instance 
may be quoted, also within the author’s actual experience, in 
which, to use a hibernicism, the worse fence was found to be the 
better, leading to the inference that none at all would be better 
still. The Madras railway, a system of over eight hundred miles, 
was Closely fenced throughout with iron posts and wire, or with 
aloes. Notwithstanding that there was a heavy fine inflicted by 
law on all owners of cattle which trespassed, gates were constantly 
left open, and cattle, attracted by the protected herbage within, 
being unable to get away at the side, on account of the formidable 
fence, were frequently overtaken and killed by trains. On the 
East Indian line, which was very badly fenced by a mere ditch and 
mound, straying cattle, though not generally willing to cross it, 
did so freely when a whistling engine was behind them, so that 
the statistics shewed, that the cattle run over, per train mile, was 
very much less on the badly fenced line. Most of the newer lines 


in India are unfenced. 


And now having enumerated the principal concessions to be 
made by the several interests concerned, it will be pointed out in 
what way cheapness of construction may be arrived at by thus 
lessening the obligations of the constructing engineer. It is 
necessary, in order to do this, to divide the contemplated lines 
roughly into two classes. Firstly, those which pass through as 
heavy country as that which it is possible to locate what may be 
called a light railway at all; for there are districts, and in New 
South Wales especially, through which no conceivable line is 
possible except with heavy earthworks, tunnels and viaducts. 
This class would therefore comprise lines through moderate un- 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 61 


dulating country only, and where either no large river bridges 
occur or, where they do, existing road bridges can be availed of 
without serious additional expense. Secondly, those lines which 
are entirely or chiefly on the surface, such as in most of the 


Riverina and western plains. 


Now as to Class 1. The question of curves is very important, 
and the probability is, from what has been already said, that if 
the locomotive designers meet us, nearly half of the earthwork 
and one quarter to one-third of the culvert work might thus be 
saved ; items which form, in many of this class of line, a large 
proportion of the total cost. As to the practicability of sharp 
curves on the standard guage, the following instances may be 
quoted. In Mr. Mosse’s paper ‘“ Minutes of Proceedings Institu- 
tion of Civil Engineers, Vol. Lxxxv.,” it is stated that “In 
America, with a gauge of four feet eight and a-half inches, curves 
of from three hundred and thirty to four hundred feet radius” (five 
to six chains) “‘are traversed by four wheel coupled engines having 
a wheel base of six or six and a half feet,” and he states that, on 
the Nana Oya extension of the Ceylon railway, gauge five feet 
six inches... a large portion of the curves vary from five to 
eight chains radii, and are worked by engines having six wheels 
coupled four feet five inchesin diameter with a wheel base of nine 
feet six inches, but as the leading drivers are flangeless the fixed 
wheel base is four feet five inches. The bogie has however a 
wheel base of six feet. The resident engineer reports that these 
engines work remarkably well, with practically no flange wear ; 
they are a perfect success for working on five chain curves. In 
the same volume, in Mr. Gordon’s paper, Forney’s type of engine 
is described as having four coupled drivers forty-two inches 
diameter, working round curves of ninety feet, or less than one 
and a-half chain radius, on the New York Elevated (standard 
gauge) Railway, and also as much used on suburban lines in the 
United States. The following is quoted from the same authority. 
‘The most eminent and experienced American engineers however 


attach more importance to the free use of curvature even of great 


'62 Cc. O. BURGE. 


sharpness” (than to steep grading) ‘“‘in attaining economical con- 
struction for cheap lines.” A table is given below of curves actually 


employed in four feet eight and a-half inch roads :— 


New York, New Haven and Hartford... ... 6°21 chains radius. 
Lehigh and Susquehanna ... ... ... 4:60 to 5:80 ss 
Baltimore and Ohio, ... «2 “... “. 4:00'to 68 us 
Warcinia Central... 9... <1) ) sss) “ey o,00lUOMew os 
Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago ..._ ... 3°73 mS 


Enough has been said to shew that, as regards sharp curves, 


locomotive and construction engineers can meet one another on 


common ground. 


As to the question of steep grades, a special design of locomotive 
for light lines, where such grades are necessary, is indispensable, 
but independently of this, the following considerations suggest 
themselves. There has latterly been a strong set of opinion in 
this Colony against heavy grades, arising perhaps from their 
former rather indiscriminate use in more or less important lines ; 
but we should be cautious in insisting on easy grading every where; 
proportion having been rather lost sight of in this matter. No- 
body is more convinced than the author of this paper that, on main 
lines and heavy traffic branches, easy grades should prevail, and 
that large expense may be economically incurred to attain them. 
In a recent instance it was estimated that an expenditure of 
£53,000 in reducing the ruling grade of a portion of the main 
Southern Line from one in thirty to one in forty, would result in 
a saving of about £9,000 a year, even with the existing traffic, 
and, with the increase of the future, still more saving would follow. 
On the London and North Western, on the Liverpool and Man- 
chester Section, one thousand one hundred and twenty-eight trains 
are moved per day. It is evident that, if the sight reduction in 
ruling grades were made on such a section which would enable 


one extra vehicle to be taken in each train, and, assuming the 


average train to consist of thirty vehicles, the number of trains 
could be reduced by about thirty-seven over each mile every day, 
over the thirty-one and a-half miles. This would amount toa 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 63 


reduction in running train miles of one thousand one hundred and 


sixty-five daily, which would represent about £15,000 per annum. 


Now take a small branch of our system, say the Cootamundra 
to Gundagai, thirty-four miles, where there is an average of about 
two and a-half trains moved daily, as against the one thousand 
one hundred and twenty-eight of the London and North Western 
section referred to. It is clear that even if the present ruling 
grade of one in fifty, which is good for say twenty-two vehicles, 
were increased to one in forty, with sixteen vehicles, the trains 
moved, to carry the same daily traffic, would be only increased by 
one, or taking the running expenses at even double the English 
rate, £887 per annum additional would be incurred, and if the 
time of the trains’ crew is not at present fully occupied, as is likely, 
probably very much less. Now £887 capitalized at four per cent. 
represents £22,175 or £652 per mile. So that if £652 or more, 
per mile could have been saved by adopting one in forty instead 
of one in fifty, it would have been justifiable to do so. As the 
country, in this particular instance, is flat, probably not even that 
amount would have been saved by keeping closer to the surface, 
and of course, in this as in nearly all cases, the traffic realized 
cannot be accurately determined beforehand. The instance there- 
fore is only brought forward as an illustration. The conclusion 
therefore is, that in dealing with such light railways as those in 
which an average traffic, probably of one train per day each way, 
can only be reckoned on, considerable boldness in steep grading, if 
money is to be saved by it in the first instance, may be displayed. 
Culverts and bridges would be modified by the closer alignment 
to surface which the adoption of steep grades and sharp curves 
imply, and their consideration, in this light, closes that of those 
items which are affected by the roughness of the country. 


We now come to the lines through flat country, and to the works 
common to both classes. Harthwork may be reduced to what is 
called forming, but in a great many instances flooding may rise 
above it, and this contingency must be put up with. Culverts 
and bridges, apart from their modification as already mentioned, 


an m4 


64 C. O. BURGE. 


by the closer surfacing in the rougher country, cannot be much 
lightened from the present types. The difference between the 
dimensions of an ordinary small timber bridge to carry a heavy, 
and a light engine, could only apply to the beams, and not to the 
generally more expensive substructure, and is so trifling as to be 
practically out of consideration, and in masonry culverts the same 
may be said. Very large bridges are not in question, as they 
would not be encountered in any line contemplated in this paper 


as a light railway. 


The lightening of permanent way should chiefly take the form 
of diminishing the number of the sleepers, and certainly not their 
size or quality. As regards their size, among other items which 
go to make up the cost of a sleeper there are :—l. Choice ofa 
suitable tree to cut down. 2. Hewing into shape. 3. Clearing 
and making tracks to get the sleeper from the forest to the line. 
4. Handling, possibly two or three times, unloading, and laying in 
the road. Nowa great deal of the cost of these are, within limits, 
entirely independent of the size of the sleeper, and if the bearing 
surface of the road can be diminished it is certainly more economical 
to do so by reducing the number, than the size of the sleepers, 


assuming that the safe limit of rail span is not exceeded. 


There are strong economical reasons why quality should be 
maintained. Some people argue that sleepers cut down at random 
from the neighbouring bush, would be so much cheaper in cost 
that this would over-balance the extra cost of the more frequent 
renewals, but thisis not so. An ordinary bush half round sleeper 
would certainly cost half as much as the first-class iron bark one 
which is in use at present, and would not last half the time, so 
that, when the labour of renewal is added, the financial result of 
the supply of the so called cheap sleeper would be eventual loss. 
This has been amply proved by the ascertained life of inferior 
sleepers on the Mudgee, and on the Great Northern Line, north of 
Tamworth, which have had to be taken up after ten years, the first 
class ironbark ordinarily lasting twenty-two to twenty-five years ; 


moreover, the fastenings would not hold so well, and, independently 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 65 


of renewal, maintenance would be thus increased. It may be said 
that in America, sleepers are often cut from the nearest forest, 
but that is because generally in such cases they have no timber 
fairly accessible of the magnificent kind we have, or it is certain 
it would be used. In a discussion on this subject at the Institu- 
tion of Civil Engineers, Vol. uxxxv, Mr., now Sir Benjamin 
Baker, said that on the Erie railroad, the price for sleepers was 
three shillings and three pence for oak, lasting seven years, two 
shillings and ninepence for chestnut, lasting five years, and one 
shilling and ninepence for hemlock, lasting three and a-half years; 
the average was therefore about sixpence per annum per sleeper 
for renewals. Now our ironbark sleepers will cost on an average 
about four shillings and sixpence, and last over twenty years, 
which will give about twopence farthing per annum, besides sav- 


ing the labour of three to six relayings. 


So called economy must not take therefore the form of the supply 
of inferior material in sleepers, the best being emphatically the 
cheapest. But if light engines be used their number may be 
reduced. The bearing area of the sleepers on the ballast on the 
New South Wales railways is about twelve thousand square feet per 
mile. On the Midland, and London and North Western this area 
is fourteen thousand five hundred and twenty and thirteen thousand 
two hundred square feet respectively, but very high speeds have 
to be dealt with in these cases. On the narrow gauge railways in 
India the same area is eight thousand square feet, on those of the 
Cape Colony it is nine thousand two hundred and forty square 
feet, and on the Festiniog two feet gauge, about six thousand five 
hundred square feet. The author is no advocate for a change of 
gauge, as will be shewn later, but there seems no reason why the 
supporting power, as represented by the area of contact of the 
sleeper with the ballast, should not be reduced in the same pro- 
portion as the weight on the axle is reduced. 


The true criterion of a light line is the weight per axle it has 
to bear, and not the distance between the rails, or gauge, in fact a 
narrow gauge line might be nearly as heavy as a broader gauge 

E—May 3, 1893. 


Ais a.) 4 
‘ at 
- 
Fay 
' 
a, « 


66 C. O. BURGE. 


one in this respect. For example, the gauge of the Indian branch 
lines is seventy per cent. greater than that of the Festiniog line, 
but the bearing surface is only twenty-eight per cent. greater. 
The gauge of the New South Wales lines is one hundred and forty- 
four per cent. greater than the Festiniog line, but the bearing 
surface is only ninety-two per cent. more. The Festiniog line of 
two feet gauge carries five tons on an axle, while the Lombardy 
four feet eight and a-half inches gauge light lines carry only four 
and a-half tons per axle, the bearing surface being only slightly 
more. Now reducing the number of the sleepers is the best way 
of lightening the road, as, should the axle weights be increased by 
growth of traffic, or other cause, subsequently, the addition of 


extra sleepers is comparatively easy and cheap. 


Diminishing ballast is also a convenient way of lightening the 
road; ballast serves not only as a means of drainage for the 
sleepers, and as a cushion between the load and the formation, but 
distributes the load through the sleeper, carrying it down toa 
wider base on the formation, as it spreads out; the deeper the 
ballast under sleeper level the wider therefore this base is, of course, | 
under each sleeper. ‘This reduction of ballast also has the advan- 
tage of enabling reversion to a heavier construction being con- 
veniently and cheaply made when a stronger road is required. — ; 


On the other hand, caution should be used in diminishing the 
weight of the rail, the strength of the rail decreasing much more 
rapidly than its weight and cost. Should we find our traffic 
increasing beyond the power of the rail to bear it, we have, 
assuming no, addition to the number of the sleepers, to take up 
what may be comparatively unworn rails and replace them with 
heavier ones, an operation costing, with the extra freights, 
probably quite as much as the difference in original cost between 
light and heavy rails. ‘The difference between the cost of a sixty - 
pound and forty-five pound rail, at present prices, does not 
amount to more than about four to five per cent. on the total cost 
of even the cheapest line, and looking at it in another way, the 
saving in interest, at say four per cent. by adopting the lighter __ 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 67 


rail would be between £6 and £7 per annum per mile, but against 
this would be the extra labour in maintaining the lighter road. 


Now looking at the advantages of the heavier rail, in holding up 
the road, and taking the labour of maintenance at £60 to £70 per 
annum per mile, it is certain that more than ten per cent would 
have to be added to the last figures in the case of the lighter rail. 
Then, independently of strength, there is the greater life as regards 
wear of the heavier rail, and, what is not often considered, its 
greater advantage in the carriage of material and ballast’ during 
construction, over unfinished road beds, possibly in this alone 
recovering a considerable portion of its first cost. 


The actual bearing surface of the sleepers per mile should be 
fixed by the maximum weight on an axle, and some actual examples 
may guide us in this. On the Indian narrow gauge lines, seven tons 
on an axle are supported by two thousand sleepers per mile of eight 
thousand square feet bearing surface, forty-one pound rails being 
used. In the Cape, the author worked thirty ton tank engines, 
having nearly eight tons on an axle, on one thousand seven hundred 
and sixty sleepers per mile, having a bearing surface of nine thousand 
two hundred and forty square feet, forty-five pound iron rails 
being used, these latter were then as dear as sixty pound steel 
rails are now. On the Festiniog one foot eleven and a half inch 
gauge, the axle weight is five tons, the bearing surface about six 
thousand five hundred square feet per mile, and the rail forty- 
eight and two-thirds pounds. In New South Wales, if a few 
vehicles, mostly unsuited for light traffic, were excluded, the axle 
weight, exclusive of locomotives, would not exceed eight tons on 
an axle, and is generally much less ; if therefore suitable engines 
could be designed to have no greater axle weight than say eight 
tons, a permanent way equal in bearing power to that of the 


Cape lines would be sufficient. 


Taking the standard gauge eight feet sleepers as against the 
seven feet Cape ones, their other dimensions being the same, it 
will be found that sixty pound rails with one thousand five 


68 i OC. O. BURGE. 


hundred and forty sleepers to the mile will be rather stronger than 
the Cape permanent way with the same bearing surface, and with 
the advantage of having the strength more concentrated in the 
rails as already advocated.* The Cape rails were of iron, whereas 
the present sixty pound rails are of steel, which gives another 


advantage to the road now advocated. 


Now as to ballast, in the sense of increasing bearing surface on 
the formation, The present bearing surface of sleepers in New 
South Wales is twelve thousand square feet per mile, and, if the 
ballast may be taken to spread out at say one and a-half to one 
slope, the six inches depth which is now the standard under the 
nine inch wide sleeper, trebles the bearing on the formation, which 
is approximately therefore thirty-six thousand square feet per 
mile. If we reduce the maximum axle weight by about one half 
of that now imposed on the road, which is the proposal, we may 
reduce the latter item one half, or to eighteen thousand, and this 
divided by one thousand five hundred and forty the proposed 
number of sleepers will give nearly twelve square feet under each 


sleeper or equivalent to three inches depth of ballast. 


* The comparison of forty-five pound raiis with one thousand seven 
hundred and sixty sleepers to the mile, as against sixty pound rails with 
one thousand five huadred and forty sleepers is arrived at in the follow- 
ing way. The weights of these rails are as three to four, and as the 
stiffness of ruils of same material with same distance between supports, 
varies approximitely as square of weight of rail; therefore stiffness of 
forty-five pounds rail : stiffness of sixty pounds rail::9:16. Now, if 
required stiffness be taken as represented by 9, and as the stiffness of any 
rail varies inversely as the cube of the distance between the supports, or 
what is the same thing, directly as the cube of the number of sleepers 
per mile, then, if N be the required equivalent number, 

16 (the stiffness of 60Ib rail with 1760 sleepers) : 9 : : 1760% : N* 


3/9 x 17608 
and N = / 16 = dae 


so that a sixty pound rail with one thousand four hundred and fifty-three 
supports per mile would be as stiff as a forty-five pounds one with one 
thousand seven hundred and sixty; but to preserve same bearing surface 
of sleepers asthe forty-five pound road, with which it is compared, namely 
nine thousand two hundred and forty square feet per mile, we must have 
one thousand five hundred and forty sleepers, so we have a slight excess - 
of stiffness in the sixty pound road proposed. a 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 69 


_ Another item which might be reduced is the fastenings of rail 
to sleeper, and this is one of those parts which can be readily 
increased in strength to meet possible enlargement of traffic. 
For such a load and speed as that now contemplated four half 
pound dog spikes per sleeper alone without screws, even in soft 
wood sleepers, have been used successfully, but as heavier rails 
are in question it would be better to provide screws at the joints. 
This would reduce the present weight of all the fastenings from 
eight tons three hundred weight, to six tons fifteen hundred 
weight, per mile. 

Taking these reductions into consideration, and at rates taken 
from estimates, on a fair system of averages not including extreme 
or exceptional cases, of lines aggregating over two thousand miles, 
we may arrive at the following limits of cost, the first column 
shewing results under the most favourable circumstances, and the 
second those where the reverse is the case. As itis most unlikely 
that either of these conditions will apply to all items, the probable 
cost will generally le between the two. 


The price of steel rails and the freight from sea-board to destina- 
tion, which are both variable items, are taken together at £7 per 
ton in both columns; it is obvious that if the outside probable 
limits of these were taken the range between the lower and higher 
estimate might be separated still more by £400 or £500 per mile. 
As to these estimates, it may be said that, owing to the absorption 
of practically all public works by the Government in this colony, 
the experience as to cost of railway work here is almost exclusively 
in the possession of the Public Works Department, and that 
experience may be fairly said to be especially trustworthy, being 
based on the lowest tenders of numerously competing practical 
contractors for many years back. 

Estimated cost per mile exclusive of land and rolling stock :— 


& £ 
Earthwork ... ms aN Me aise sie 300 to 1,500 
Culverts hls oe 5c Bah oh ee: 25 to 260 
Timber Bridges Sa #0 sie 4a i33 80 to 700 


Road Diversions noe eh ahd feok ite 20 to 100 


70 C. O. BURGE. 


Permanent Way :— £ 
Ballast 1,100 cubic yards se bee wo. 276 
Rails ws ste aid tne a ... 660 
Fastenings abe eos 3b ine cine ete 
Sleepers ... we ee ee as .-- 346 
Laying ... 8 ... 154 
Sidings 4 per cent: on dor iene ae aoe yon 
Points and Crossings ... aoe Soe ieee £ £ 
— 1,606 1,606 
Shelter for Goods... ia aa “od ae 20 20 
Water Supply she “ee ee B03 15 to 60 
Cattle Stops in leu of Wen cine a5 BAC owe 20 to 40 
Triangles in lieu of Turntables... Se fae 24 24 
Engine Shed, etc. ... a se dnd vt 20to 40 
2,130 to 4,350 
Engineering and Contingencies 10 per cent. ... 2138 to 435 
£2,343 to£4,785 


Allowing for difference of requirements, debits and credits, to 
make the comparison fair, £3,343 per mile was the actual expen- 
diture on an average light section twenty-five miles long under 
the author’s superintendence at the Cape, having the same weight 
to carry. This, though of narrower gauge, has the same support- 
ing power on the sleepers as the above, but more ballast, there 
being ten inches under the rail, amounting to two thousand four 
hundred and sixty-four cubic yards per mile ; reducing the ballast 
to same basis as above would bring the cost down to £3,166 per 
mile. There has been constructed a considerable mileage of light 
surface tramways or railways on the level plains of Lombardy, on 
the standard gauge, having many features analogous to those pro- 
posed in this paper, and costing on a average about £2,750 per 
mile, but they have a bearing surface of between seven thousand 
and eight thousand square feet only, per mile, and are called on 
to support only about four and a-half tons on an axle, which would 
be too light for New South Wales waggon and coaching stock. 
It must also be remembered that wages in Lombardy are about 
one third of those in this colony, while the work done for them, 
from the author’s own experience, is from seventy-five to ninety 


! 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. ii 


per cent. of that of an Englishman. The northern Italians differ 
widely from the southerns in this respect. In fact high wages 
and cheap railways are antagonistic elements. 


There is no doubt that safe railways can be made cheaper than 
the minimum here set forth, even in this country, but it will be 
with the disadvantages of being insufficient to carry the present 
carriage and waggon stock, without very heavy charges for main- 
tenance ; or, by constructing with inferior material, with the same 
result in more frequent renewals. Policy might possibly shew 
that a more important diminution of capital expenditure and 
interest might be obtained by this proceeding, but it is one that 
should be entered on with full knowledge of its results. 


A paper on light railways can hardly conclude without alluding 
to the proposals which have been made to add to the drawback of 
break of gauge already experienced by Australian intercolonial 
lines, by introducing a gauge smaller than the standard one for 
future branch lines of this colony. This paper embodies the 
results of experience on nearly all gauges, and expresses no 
preference for any one of them; each has its appropriate function to 
which it is applied, but it desires to express a strong opinion against 
mixing them, in one country or colony. A long and fruitless dis- 
cussion took place, a few years ago, at the Institution of Civil 
Engineers on the relative merits of the two Indian gauges, after 
several years’ experience of both ; but there need be no hesitation 
in saying that, notwithstanding the number of distinguished 
authorities who took part in it, there was absolutely no result 
of the slightest good to anybody, from it. 


They were comparing two essentially different things. The 
broad gauge lines were carrying main line traffic, were bridged 
across wide rivers for such essential connection with capital towns, 
etc., as their conditions demanded, and they had an average age 
of seventeen and a-half years, implying many renewals of way and 
stock. The narrow gauge lines were chiefly branches, most of 
which would not have been made at all, if large rivers or other 


engineering difficulties had to be met, and they were' only five 


72 C. O. BURGE. 


and a-half years old, with consequently little or no renewals. It 
was like asking which is better, an ocean steamer, or a ferry boat, 
without stating whether you want to cross the Atlantic or the 
Thames. 


There was “much throwing about of brains,” as Shakespeare 
says, on that occasion. In fact the solitary fact in the whole of 
the paper, that would be of any use to any controversy on the 
subject, was the uncontradicted statement, which was certainly 
not to be expected, that the proportion of paying to dead load was 
slightly in favour of the broad gauge. But the excellence of any 
particular non-standard gauge is not now in question, unless the 
advantages of it are shewn to over-balance the drawbacks of the 


break, and it will now be briefly stated what such drawbacks are: 


First, there is the cost of transhipment, which perhaps is the 
least important. This amounts to four pence per ton on an aver- 
age on the Irish lines, and taking difference of wages into account, 
would probably be seven pence here, equivalent to about seven 
miles of haulage. Now on every branch railway there is about 
ten miles of it, next. the parent line, which, though it has to be 
constructed, is wholly unprofitable as a feeder, the local traffic 
still going to the main line direct. Should transhipment of goods 
and cattle be necessary at the junction, this unprofitable distance 
is thus practically increased to seventeen miles, a goodly proportion 


of many a branch. © 


Secondly, there is the shutting out of the branch as an asylum 
for old rolling stock. <A serious objection to the present proposals 
of this paper is the closing of the branch lines to old locomotive 
stock, but a break of gauge would increase this objection enormously 
by closing them to all stock. An idea of this may be formed from 
the fact that on June 30, 1892, while there were on the New South 
Wales lines four hundred and eighty-nine engines, there were 


eleven thousand five hundred and nine carriages and waggons. 


Thirdly, everyone knows that traffic on all lines varies with the 
seasons. Not only is the wool traffic intermittent, and at different 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. Ve 


times in each district, but even the occurrence of races, agricul- 
tural shows, etc., makes an important variation in the business to 
be done. On standard gauge branches, the want of rolling stock 
on one, may be met by the superfluity of another, or of the main 
line, and an average stock suffices for the whole. If narrow gauge 
branches existed, isolated from each other, either every branch 
would have to be provided with its maximum requirements, which 
might be wanted only for one month in the year, with the extra 
stock lying idle between times, or, during pressure, the wants of 
the traffic could not be met, to the great loss of the department 
and the dissatisfaction of the public. 


Fourthly, the last drawback to be mentioned 1s perhaps the most 
fatal of all. In the Railway Commissioners’ report for the year end- 
ing June 1890, out of a total of four hundred and forty-two engines 
running all over the lines no less than two hundred and twenty 
were put through the main repairing shops at Eveleigh and New- 
castle for repairs. In the year ending June 30, 1891, out of four 
hundred and thirty-nine, two hundred and seventy-two were so 
dealt with, and in the last year’s report out of four hundred and 
eighty-nine, two hundred and thirty were repaired in the main 
shops. Now the Commissioners know their business better than 
to bring no less than fifty-three per cent. of their engines for 
repairs, up to Sydney and Newcastle, unless it is clearly more 
economical to do so, and this is intelligible, because it saves multi- 
plying expensive machinery, and maintaining highly paid artisans 
in outlying districts, where they might not be fully employed, 
whereas the engines are probably utilized in their journeys to the 
shed and back. With regard to coaching, goods, and cattle stock, 
out of an average stock of ten thousand nine hundred and forty- 
six vehicles, for the three years mentioned, no less than sixty-six 
per cent, were through the two main shops for repairs. After 
deducting from these figures the stock which in any case, from 
their nearness, would have gone to the Sydney and Newcastle 
shops for repairs, small and great, there still would remain a very 
large percentage (for the above figures are exclusive of what are 


74 C. 0. BURGE. 


called mere running repairs), of all classes of stock being brought 
up to head quarters, for repair, from branch lines. 


’ Now in the case of break of gauge, either expensive repairing 
shops with all their appliances would have to be established with 
a staff of skilled mechanics at every small branch ; or else the 
branch engines and other stock wanting heavier repairs would 
have to be loaded up, on specially made trucks, and carried to and 
fro, as dead weight, to head quarters. 


Those who advocate narrow gauge branches will have therefore 
to show that their advantages over-balance these drawbacks, 
and in this connection, it may be repeated that the lightness or 
cheapness of a railway does not so much depend upon the mere 
width between its rails, as upon the axle weight it has to carry, 
and the speed of its traffic. Itis no argument to say that branches, 
with change of gauge, have served their purpose in France and in 
Treland, unless it is also shewn that, if they had been of the 
standard gauge of those countries, they would not have served 
their purpose better ; and even if this were proved in favour of 
the break, it would not be a conclusive argument in the case of 
places so differently circumstanced as these Colonies are from 
those older lands. We have a population in this country of perhaps 
three or four to the square mile, they have probably three hundred 
or four hundred, the latter indicating an amount of traffic sufficient 
to neutralize, to a large extent, the evils of isolation. It is com- 
paring things which are totally unlike; it is the special care 
of this paper to compare like with like, as far as possible, and to 
take the opposite course is likely to lead to very false conclusions. 
Isolation, which is intensified by smallness of traffic, is the great 
objection to break of gauge; it is a popular objection to the 
narrower gauges that they are insufficient for their work, but 
this is a mistake, certainly as regards the traffic of any branch in 
New South Wales, as the author’s experience with such lines shews 
them to be ample. The little Festiniog line used to carry over 
four hundred tons per day. The objection is not to the insufficiency, 
but to the isolation. 


FLYING-MACHINE MOTORS AND CELLULAR KITES, 75 


The conclusion therefore, which this paper maintains is, that, 
generally, considerable cheapening of branch line construction 
can be made by lessening requirements and by improved locomo- 
tive design ; but that there is a limit, beyond which any consider- 
able cheapening in capital expenditure will be more than over- 
balanced by excessive working expenses. An attempt has been 
also made to indicate what that limit is, as far as can be done, 
without having the ever varying circumstances of each particular 
project in view. In conclusion, the author would add that he 
presents this paper with the full concurrence of the Engineer-in- 
Chief for Railways, who however is not necessarily in agreement 
with it in every particular. 


FLYING-MACHINE MOTORS AND CELLULAR KITES. 
By Lawrence HarRGRAVE. 
[With Plates I.—IV.] 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 7, 1893. | 


No. 18 Engine (Plate 1.)is the second steam motor for a flying- 
machine made by the writer. Its total weight without spirits, 
water, or body plane, is five pounds eleven ounces. This weight 
includes six feet nine inches of one and a-half inch by one-quarter 
inch redwood forming the strut for the body plane. 


Eleven different burners have been tried. The most reliable 
arrangement is to put all the spirit on at once. The flame is 
steadier than that of No. 17, in consequence of the spirit being 
heated by its own flame before it has passed between some of the 
turns of the water boiler. The flame striking the water boiler 
first has a tendency to vary the supply of heat to the spirit holder. 
Some of the first burners were supplied with spirit by a feed pump. 


76 LAWRENCE HARGRAVE. 


Four boilers have been made. The one shown in Plate 1 has 
three coils, 1:6 in., 2°6 in. and 3°6 in. respective diameters, 
made of twenty-one feet of copper pipe, ‘25 in. external, and ‘18 
in. internal diameters, weighing thirty-seven ounces. It is now 
known that a coil of equal capacity can be made weighing only 


eight ounces, and still be excessively strong. 


The cylinder of No. 18 is 2 inches diameter, and the stroke 
is 2°52 in. The feed pump ram is ‘266 in. diameter. The piston 
valves are ‘3in. diameter. The 54; in. steel linkwork and brackets 
on the cylinder bottom are too light, and will not stand the rough 


usage required of them. 


The wings are fourteen inches from the fulcrum to the inner 
edge of the paper surface. The paper is twenty-two inches long, 
four inches wide at the inner end, and nine inches wide at the 
tip. The dimensions are the same as in No. 17 with the addition 


of thirty-two and a-half square inches area at the tip of each wing. 


On one occasion this motor evaporated 14:7 cubic inches of 
water with 4:13 cubic inches of spirit in forty seconds. During 
a portion of the time it was working at a speed of one hundred 
and seventy-one double vibrations per minute. The indigram 
shows a nett mean pressure of 95°6 lbs. per square inch, which 
makes the maximum indicated horse power ‘653. Could this 
speed be relied on continuously for a few minutes, the comparison 
between Nos. 17 and 18 would stand thus :— 


No. 17 with 5 oz. of fuel and water indicates -169 H. P. and weighs 34lbs. 
No. 18 ,, 21 oz. a = se °653 Hi. P. a 7}bs. 


That is, roughly, the weight of motor has been doubled and the 
power increased fourfold. 


Comparing the area of wings, the speed of the engines and the 
wing arcs being nearly the same, the extra -48 H.P. is absorbed. 
in driving the sixty-five square inches of extra surface at the tips 
of the wings. The following tabular statement of some of the 
results of No. 18 will be a guide to anyone experimenting with 
engines of this size and quality of workmanship :— 


FLYING-MACHINE MOTORS AND CELLULAR KITES. Th 


Date of Trial | Spirits burnt, Water pumped, Double Time— 
1892. Cubic inches. Cubic inches. vibrations. Seconds. 
Nov. 25 A413 14°7 74 40 
Dec. 5 3°03 15°57 104 80 
en Mee SO 23°78 248 240 
aaah y 3°46 19:0 152 116 
eal OY, |* 3°46 20°76 160 140 
» 14 3°46 10°81 100 70 
se 3°03 13°84 85 63 
Bd AG 3°46 30°27 206 152 
» 16 3°46 19) 100 56 


Some thrust diagrams were taken from No. 18, showing that 
1:75 double vibrations per second produced a thrust of one pound. 
Tt takes 2°36 double vibrations per second of No. 17 to produce 
one pound of thrust. 


Three steam two-bladed screw motors (Plate 2), were made; 
the screw arms being hollow with steam jet holes 5.5 in. from the 
boss and the jets reacted at right angles to the direction the blades 
were moving in. When the water was pumped into the boiler by 
hand, a thrust of over half a pound was obtained, but the bearing 
soon got hot and stuck. When a feed pump was attached, driven 
by an eccentric on the boss of the screw, the speed of revolution 
was reduced so much that the motor was practically ineffective, 
besides which there was great difficulty in getting a very small 
pump to work at a high speed. 


Before beginning another motor it was thought advisable to try 
whether a better disposition of the supporting surface, or body- 
plane as the writer terms it, could not be found out; and at the 
same time to see if any foundation could be discovered for the 
assertion that birds utilize the wind in soaring. No amount of 
observation of birds will solve the soaring problem; it can alone 
be done by making some form of apparatus that will advance 
against the wind without losing its elevation. 


The expense of constructing and erecting a large whirling 
machine similar to Prof. Langley’s or Mr. H. S. Maxim’s being 
too great, and knowledge of the fact that planes or other things 


78 LAWRENCE HARGRAVE. 


moving at the end of an arm through still air are not under the 
same conditions as bodies flying in disturbed air, determined the 
selection of kites as the best means to the desired end. 


Plates 3 and 4, are some of the kites, and are sufficient to indi- 
cate the extent of the field now open for experiment. The novelty, 
if any, consists in the combination of two well known facts. 


First, that the necessary surface for supporting heavy weights 
may be composed of parallel strips superposed with an interval 
between them. (Described by Wenham in 1866 and adopted by 
Stringfellow in 1868. The writer made an experiment in 1889 
with superposed planes, but failed to show that any additional 
support was obtained. Prof. Langley showed by inference that 
there is an additional support, pages 33 and 47 of “ Experiments 
in /Hrodynamics,” 1891.) 


Second, that two planes separated by an interval in the direc- 
tion of motion are more stable than when conjoined. (Patented 
by Danjard in 1871, made and exhibited by D. 8. Brown in 1874.)* 


The form the complete kite assumes is like two pieces of honey- 
comb put on the ends of a stick, the stick being parallel to the 
axes of the cells. The cells may be of any section or number ; 
the rectangular cells are easiest to make, and, if the stick or strut 
between the two sets is placed centrally, as in kites B. ¢., it is 
immaterial which side is up. Practically, the top or bottom is 
~ determined by imperfections in the construction, This is of 
particular advantage for flying-machines driven by a single screw. 
The rectangular form of cell is also collapsible when one diagonal 


tie is disconnected. 


* In ‘*The American Engineer and Railroad Journal” Vol. uxvit., No. 
3, Mr. O. Chanute states, that, Mr. H. F. Phillips patented in 1890 an 
serial vehicle with superposed surfaces in two or more series, the surfaces 
might be fifteen feet long, six inches wide, and two inches apart; no 
mention being made of vertical surface which the writer finds essential 
to stability. Prof. Langley shows that the distance apart of the super- 
posed surfaces cannot, with advantage, be less than eighty-three per 
-cent. of the width of the planes. 


FLYING-MACHINE MOTORS AND CELLULAR KITES, 79 


These kites have a fine angle of incidence, so that they corres- 
pond with the flying-machines they are meant to represent, and 
differ from the kites of our youth, which we recollect floating at 
an angle of about 45°, in which position the lift and drift are 
about equal. The fine angle makes the lift largely exceed the 
drift and brings the kite so that the upper part of the string is 
nearly vertical. Theoretically, if the kite is perfect in construc- 
tion and the wind steady, the string could be attached infinitely 
near the centre of the stick, and the kite would fly very near the 
zenith. It is obvious that any number of kites may be strung 
together on the same line, and that there is no limit to the weight 
that may be buoyed up in a breeze by means of light and hand 
tackle. 


The next step is clear enough, namely, that a flying-machine 
with acres of surface can be safely got underway, or anchored and 
hauled to the ground by means of the string of kites. If the 
string of kites gets into contrary currents of air, kites and suspended 
weight may be disconnected from the earth and will remain sup- 
ported, drifting in a resultant direction determined by the force 
of each current and the number of kites exposed to it. 


Kites z. and F. are of equal weight and area. In kf. the hori- 
zontal surfaces are curved, with the convex sides up; F. has all 
the surfaces plain. Roughly, £. pulls twice as hard on the string 
as F. does. So that a flying-machine with curved surfaces would 
be better than one with a flat body plane, if the form could be 
made with the same weight of material. This is proved in another, 
the old windmill, shown in the paper last year; this was fitted with 
four flat sails which could be changed for four curved ones. When 
the flat sails are turned so that they and the axis are in two planes 
no rotation takes place. But when the curved sails are put on 
symmetrically with the chords of the curves and the axis in two 
planes, there is a slow and powerful rotation in the direction of 
the convex sides of the sails. Rotation ceases when the sails are 
twisted in their sockets, so that the wind is tangential to the curve of 
the sails about three-fourths of their width from the forward edge. 


80 LAWRENCE HARGRAVE. 


There 1s no doubt that the wind drawing into and striking the 
concave side of the sail is more powerful than the current impinging 
direct on to the forward part of the concave side, although the hollow 
surface is altogether masked by the rounded surface. Both the 
kite and the windmill experiments refer to moving air passing 
stationary bodies. 


When the kites E. and F. are discharged from the crossbow in 
calm air, they both have the same trajectory. It is difficult to 
imagine a more convincing or simpler proof that the laws govern- 
ing the motion of a body through still air are distinct from those 
that determine its action when moving through wind. Evidently 
a machine with curved surfaces flying against the wind would 
come to grief if the wind fell calm, unless provision had been 
made for either increasing the surface or the driving power. No 
experiments have been made here yet to determine what support 
disturbed air gives to surfaces travelling in the same direction 
and faster thanthe wind. Weare therefore on sure ground when 
we make our surfaces as flat as possible, and of sufficient size to 
support the machine in calm air; should the air become disturbed, 
the same horizontal speed by log could then be maintained by 


reducing the driving power and the angle of incidence. 


As to the solution of the soaring problem, the only fact observed 
is, that on a gusty day, kites u. and F. both shoot up nearly over- 
head and slack the string into a deep bight, then drift away to 
leeward until the string brings them upagain. ‘This wants careful - 
and undisturbed observation—the writer unfortunately had to 
experiment in public. Itis clear that the wind must be considered 


as volumes of air of different densities. 


Kite z. has four flat planes four inches by fifteen inches. The 
angle between each pair of planes is 108°. A similar one with 
curved sails was difficult to adjust ; both flew fairly well but they 
cannot be compared with the cellular form for steadiness ; and it — 
is certain that the numerous accidents that have happened to the 
india-rubber, and compressed air driven machines have been solely 
due to imperfections in the flat or V-shaped body planes. 


FLYING-MACHINE MOTORS AND CELLULAR KITES. 81 


PARTICULARS OF KITES. 


ot (dm (Sa, 82 | s; ® ee 40g a 
ales (foe (ee /e2 |38,| wid (eesl 2 | 
ie) odo oe ewlO San fe) Be @ on ppHo a4 
=. Ga eects = ay & A =| Pn Dd 
Besos (Sotsysis os OBO 10% a #2) Sa 

or — 

sla Saas ISEB. oS a) OR (o°S| Bee [sesz] 28 
2) og [Hao ySemoe wee! ss | HL Bd an feBs| a 
@| O98 |B oS/o— Hoa h| GES | gso eas STE) se 
Al4o {osc msesm ses ass | Aas aes Awe, Bs 
Peleena etal Pas | 31 24” | paper 4” 2°5 
ie ease Fs?) Eler 30” | aluminium | 11” 14°75 
| 162) 3” ay 3” 22” | cardboard 65" | 105 
Die oa eset 13213"), 47 45” | 31°63") wood & paper| 12” | 11° 

EE} 1| 4° |107” | 6:25”) 4:5” | 21:25") wood & paper| 7°25") 3:25 
en an | 10%" | 6:25. 21°25"| wood & paper| 7:25”) 3°25 

* Distorted cylinder. + Cylindrical. 


The motor exhibited embodies all the latest improvements, 
notably the boiler, which is a fourteen feet length of one-quarter 
inch solid drawn copper pipe, which has been reduced from one 
and a-half pounds to thirteen and a-half ounces at one cut by the 
cutter, which is also exhibited. This is one of those trifles that 
render it possible to use the ordinary materials of commerce with- 
out having to send to Europe for the finished article specially 
drawn to gauge. By using the cutter, the job was done in one 
and a-half hour ; by sending home forit the pipe might have been 
here in four months. The hollow steel screw shaft 10°8 m. 
diameter and 3 m. gauge seems to be all that is required. The 
sample shown was tested to destruction ; one hundred and forty 


pounds at two inch radius wrung it as you see. 


F—June 7, 1893. 


82 JOHN C. H. MINGAYE. 


NOTES AND ANALYSIS OF A METALLIC METEORITE 
FROM MOONBI, NEAR TAMWORTH, N.S. WALES. 


By Joun O. H. MinGaye, F.c.s., M.A.LM.E., Analyst and Assayer 
to the Department of Mines. 


[With Plates V. and VI. | 
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 7, 1893.] 


THis meteorite was discovered by a Mr. Langston about twelve 
months ago, on the top of one of the ridges of the main Moonbi 
Range, about eighteen miles from Moonbi township, on the 
Northern Railway Line. It attracted attention from the fact 
that all the country around is of granite formation. The meteorite 
was not embedded, but was found lying on the surface, and had 
been probably placed in that position by the blacks of that neigh- 
bourhood. . 

An average sample of the meteorite in the form ofa fine powder 
obtained by boring a hole in it, was sent by the Government 
Geologist (Mr. E. F. Pittman, a.r.s.m.), to the laboratory for 
analysis on the 24th March, 1892. The total weight of the 
meteorite was about twenty-nine pounds, the specific gravity of the 
mass being 7°681; the specific gravity of fragments was found — 
to be slightly higher, viz., 7-833 at 15:5° C. 

The following is the result of an analysis :— 

Chemical Composition— 


Metallic Iron Loe” 
Metallic Nickel ace a oye) ABBE 
Metallic Cobalt we ae me 564 
Metallic Copper ued ... @ minute trace 
Metallic Tin ... a me nee 003 
Metallic Chromium ... aa ao trace 
Carbon (Graphite) ... sie veo 068 


Combined Carbon ... fa ae trace 


NOTES AND ANALYSIS OF A METALLIC METEORITE, 83 
Silica ... ete nee she 13s 039 
Sulphur ae ae ey ... absent 
Phosphorus ... His Fat ee ‘217 
Ory Senge)... Si va se trace 

100°127 


The surface is coated with a black hard skin of magnetic oxide 


of iron, about the thickness of ordinary writing paper. 


The occluded gases were kindly determined by Mr. W. M. 
Hamlet, F.1.c., F.c.s., but as I found out afterwards that the 
meteorite had been heated in a blacksmith’s forge, prior to reach- 
ng the Department of Mines, the results obtained are of little 
value, although showing the presence of occluded gases; the amount 
would have no doubt been much higher if the meteorite had not 
been heated. 
Occluded Gases— 
100 grammes gave 55:37 cc, of gas at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure 
Hydrogen 31:42 is 
Nitrogen 23°95 a * 


55°37 


The composition of this meteorite is somewhat similar to one 
found at Bingera,* New South Wales, but containing less iron, 
and more nickel. It may be described as a metallic meteorite 
of the class known as siderites. 


I am indebted to the Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.c.s., for particulars 
as to the finding of the meteorite, he having kindly made enquiries 


during a visit to the district. 


* Minerals of New South Wales—Prof. Liversidge, p. 218. 


84 C. MOORE. 


PLANTS WITH THEIR HABITATS, 
Discovered to be indigenous to this Colony since the publication 
of the Handbook of the Flora of New South Wales; chiefly 
Surnished by Baron von Mueller, from unpublished Herbarium 
notes. 


By CuaruEs Moors, F.1.s., &. 
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 7, 1893. ] 


Ficus puatypopa, Cunn.—Benth. Fl. Austr. i. 169. North- 
western interior. 

ATRIPLEX LOBATIVALVE, F.v.M.—Victorian Naturalist, April 1893. 
Murray River. 

Bassia LoNGIcusPiIs, F.v.M.—Victorian Naturalist, April 1893. 
Murray River. 

Bassia TRICORNIS, F.v.M.—Benth. Fl. Austr. v. 191 (as Chenolea). 
Murray River. 

Kocuia PLANIFOLIA, F.v.M.—Benth. Fl. Austr. v. 187. Murray 
River. 

CROTALARIA CUNNINGHAMII, R. Br.—Benth. Fl. Austr. ii. 182. 
Near Grey Range. 

POTENTILLA ANSERINA, Linn.—Benth. Fl.’ Austr. ii. 429. Table- 
land south of Cooma. i 

DECASPERMUM PANICULATUM, Baill.—Benth. Fl. Austr. iii. 279. 
Richmond River. 

Haxkea Baxkertana, F.v.M. & Maiden—Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W. 
1893. Wallsend, near Newcastle. 

GREVILLEA Barktyana, F.v.M.—Benth. Fl. Austr. V. 436. 
Southern parts of Dividing Range. 

XYLOMELUM SALICINUM, Cunn.—Benth. Fl. Austr. V.408. Warrego 
River. 

Coprosma REPENS, J. Hook.—Benth. Fl. Austr. iii. 430 (as C. 
pumila). Mount Kosciusko Range. 


PLANTS WITH THEIR HABITATS. 85 


ASTER PICRIDIFOLIUS, F.v.M.—Benth. Fl. Austr. ii. 487 (as 
Olearia). Murray River. 

Cuscuta Tasmanica, Engelm.—Benth. Fl. Austr. iv.441. Murray 
River. 

BracHyLomA ScortTecHini, F.v.M.—Fragm. Phytogr. xi. 126, 
Point Danger. 

CyMODOCEA ZOSTERIFOLIA, F.v.M.—Benth. Fl. Austr. vii. 177 (as 
C. antarctica). 'Twofold Bay. 

ScH@NUS CAPILLARIS, F.v.M.—Benth. Fl. Austr. vii. 377 (as 
ELlynanthus capillaceus). Twofold Bay. 

ANDROPOGON ANNULATUS, Forsk.—Benth. Fl. Austr. vii. 531 
Northern interior. 

ANDROPOGON EXALTATUS, R. Br.—Benth. Fl. Austr. vi. 532. 
Northern interior. 

IscoHm=mMuM LAxuM, R. Br.—Benth. Fl. Austr. vii. 522. Near 
Tamworth. 

Psitorum compLtanatum, R. Br.—Benth. Fl. Austr. vii. 682. 
Richmond River. 

ANGIOPTERIS EVECTA, Hoffm.—Benth. Fl]. Austr. vii. 694. Mount 
Sea View, 

MARATTIA FRAXINEA, Smith—Benth. Fl. Austr. vii. 695. Mount 
Sea View. 

CYSTOPTERIS FRAGILIS, Bernh.—Benth. Fl. Austr. vii. 752. 
Sources of Genoa River. 


DESCRIPTION or 4s NEW MYRTACEOUS TREE INDI- 
GENOUS to NEW SOUTH WALES. 
EUGENIA PARVIFOLIA, C. Moore. 

A tall compact bushy shrub or small tree, quite glabrous, with 
pinkish coloured young shoots. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, one to 
one and a-half inches long, tapering to a long but obtuse point. 
Flowers white, small, in short racemes, terminal, or more rarely 
in the upper axils, generally in pairs on the slender pedicels. 
Calyx-lobes and petals five, the calyx much attenuated towards 
the base. Fruits coral-red, pear-shaped but flat at the top, almost 
turbinate, about half inchan long; seedsglobular, solitary in the fruit. 

Habitat Richmond River, in thick brush forests. 


86 THOMAS L. BANCROFT. 


A handsome, neat, compact growing tree, distinguished from all 
other New South Wales species of the genus by the pear-shaped 
bright red fruits. 


ON THE WHIP-WORM OF THE RAT’S LIVER. 


By Tuos. L. Banorort, u.s. Ldin. 
[With Plates VII. and VIII. | 
Communicated by J. H. Maiden, F...s., &e. 


[ Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 7, 1898. | 


Ear.y in 1891, masses of worm eggs were discovered in the liver 
of the common rat; to the naked eye they appeared like the 
psorospermal nodules of Cocctdium oviforme. Almost every rat 
had its liver so affected, even individuals of two months old 
were not exempt. White rats in my possession were free from 
this parasite, which was a fortunate circumstance, allowing of feed- 
ing experiments to be made upon them with the prospect of 
following the worm through its different stages. At an early 
period of this investigation no parent worms were found in the 
livers. Livers containing eggs were given to white rats and were 
eaten by them; their dung afterwards contained the eggs unchanged. 
Several months later these rats were killed, and search made for 
the parasite, but no trace of it could be found; evidently some 
further development of the egg was needed. Healthy rats living 
with affected ones in cages do not contract the disease. 


On April 2nd, 1891, some egg masses were put into water and 
examined microscopically every few days, but up to three months, 
when the experiment was abandoned for a time, no change had 
manifested itself. No further examination was made until on 
July 6th, 1892 ; the yelk substance was then seen to have differ- 


ON THE WHIP-WORM OF THE RAT’S LIVER. 87 


entiated into a worm, which was coiled up in a figure of eight ; 
gentle pressure of the cover glass caused expulsion of the embryos; 
fig. 1 shews the mature eggs, fig. 2 after pressure of the cover glass. 


Two white rats were fed with the mature eggs on August 23, 
24, 25, 1892; in three weeks these rats were seen to be ill, they 
suffered from dyspnoea, were emaciated, refused food and had 
diarrhea ; on September 19, one was killed, and on September 22, 
_ the other died ; their livers were diseased to an extent far exceed- 
ing anything previously seen, due of course to the large number 
of eggs which had been swallowed. The liver was pale yellow in 
colour, and was riddled with long thread-like worms and contained 
their eggs in thousands. The worms when microscopically 
examined were seen to be the parents of the eggs; it was impossible 
to dissect out a specimen unmutilated, so intricately were they 
intertwined and attached to the liver substance. I succeeded best. 
by squeezing pieces of the liver between two plates of glass, and 
afterwards teasing them under water with needles. Hardening 
the liver previously in alcohol increases the difficulty ; livers of 


very young rats are the best for this purpose. 


Many feeding experiments have been made, and with the result 
that if a large number of eggs are given, the rats die in three 
to four weeks ; if only a small number of eggs they recover, and 
if their livers be examined some months later, they will be found 
to have regained the normal state, but have white spots [egg 


masses | dotted over them. 


If a piece of the liver in which the 7richocephalus is burrowing 
to deposit its eggs be hardened and sections cut, many of the cells 
are seen to be in process of absorption, many have entirely dis- 
appeared, connective tissue elements taking their place. Those 
cells, which have not atrophied, are increased in size and have 
large nuclei, probably due to extra work being thrown upon them, 
either as scavengers of the dead cells or in carrying on the normal 
function of the liver, see Fig. 7. Atrophy of the cells is due to 
pressure of the worms, and seems to occur without cloudy swelling 


or fatty degeneration ; the protoplasm becomes absorbed, nothing 


88 THOMAS L. BANCROFT. 


being left but the enlarged nucleus, this then becomes fainter and 
fainter until it has disappeared. Extravasation of blood occurs 
along the tracks of some of the worms. Pieces of the worm are 
seen throughout the liver substance, apparently not following any 
particular vessels, although the great mass of eggs seem to be 
deposited in the portal canals, frequently in the hepatic artery. 
During the invasion of the worms the liver is in a state of acute 
atrophy, but after they have deposited their eggs, died, and been 
absorbed, which takes two or three weeks, the organ rapidly recovers 
itself, and but for the resultant cirrhosis, presents a normal appear- 
ance. Fibrinous pericarditis was present in those that were 
seriously affected by the parasite, and probably accounts for the 
dyspnoea, which is so marked a feature. 


The eggs die and become calcareous if a long interval elapse 
between infection and the rat’s death. One rat was examined six 
months after having been fed with a small number of mature eggs, 
and many of the eggs in its liver were found in a calcareous state. 
The eggs having been deposited in the liver remain there until 
the death of the rat; they never seem to occasion abscesses, nor 
pass to the intestine by the bile duct. Eggs in water placed in 
the sun die, and their protoplasm contracts to a ball. No experi- 
ments have yet been made to try if maturity can be hastened by 
recourse to the incubator. 


To ascertain how soon the eggs mature in water in the shade, 
the following experiment was made :—On July 13, 1892, some 
eggs were put into water, and on September 1, they were examined 
but no apparent change had occurred :—on October 11 they were 
again examined, the protoplasm was noticed to be altered slightly, 
in some it appeared to have divided into four :—on November 24 
the alteration was more pronounced, and in many faint traces of 
the embryo worms could be seen :—on December 12, perfect worms 
were visible. In five months therefore the worms appear, still 
they are even then not mature, for great pressure is required to 
cause their extrusion from the shells. 


ON THE WHIP-WORM OF THE RAT’S LIVER. 89 


It appears that after maturing, the worms do not escape from 
the shells whilst in water, and they live for a considerable time ; 
at the time of writing, April 17, 1893, the eggs placed in water 
two years ago are still alive. Several experiments were made to 
trace the embryos after their introduction to the stomach of a rat. 
It was thought that they would live for a time in the intestinal 
tract. Rats were fed with eggs and killed in two days, in seven, 
and in fourteen days, but these experiments did not give me much 
information. No trace whatever could be found of the worms 
until a fortnight had elapsed after feeding, when they were seen 
to be in the liver, not mature however, Jt would appear then 
that the embryos find their way to the liver atan early date and 
there develop to maturity, pair, and after impregnation the 
females lay their eggs ; the worms then die. 


I have hitherto, neither been able to find the presence of 
Trichocephalus nodosus in the intestinal canal, nor of Trichosoma 
crassicauda in the bladder of rats. No account is given by Cobbold 
or Leuckart, in their excellent treatises on worms, of a parasite 
similar to the subject of this paper. Had they been acquainted 
with it they would, in all probability, have made mention of it. I 
have no opportunity, living in Brisbane, to consult many works on 
helminthology, to find out if this parasite had been described. 
Mr. Henry Tryon has kindly searched through what books there 
are in the Brisbane Museum, and has found one reference 
apparently to it, viz.:—(in the “ American Microscopical Journal” 
of 1889, Vol. x. pp. 193-196, E. A. Bulloch had found the ova 
of a Trichocephalus in the liver of a rat, which he regarded as 
those of T'richocephalus dispar). If the subject of this paper be 
new, I propose to name it 7'richocephalus hepaticus. In length the 
eggs are 5dand 30u to 35u in breadth, they have a perforation at 
each end; mature eggs are exactly the same size. The yelk sub- 
stance is divided in the undeveloped eggs, but all markings dis- 
appear and the yelk is homogeneous in structure in those 
thoroughly developed. The embryo when extruded from the shells 
measure 156y in length and 7 in breadth, with one end blunter © 


90 THOMAS L. BANCROFT. 


than the other ; five micro-millimétres from the ends, one extremity 


which probably is the head, is 3 across, whilst the other is 5p ;_ 
there is no intestinal canal, the protoplasm is transparent at places. 


whilst at others there are numerous highly refractive particles, 


probably of a fatty nature. 


The parent worms are one and a-half to two inches (40 — 50 mm) 
long, white in colour, with one portion tapered gradually to an 
extremely fine lash, the termination of which is invisible to the 
naked eye, being only 7p to 10u across at the head. The body is 
tapered for half its length in the male, but for only a third in the 
female. The skin shows very fine striz, the whole structure of 
the body is more delicate than that of Z'richocephalus dispar, and 
more resembles that of the genus /ilaria. The genital pore is 
situated 6 or 7 mm. from the head, there is a membraneous funnel- 
shaped vulva. The male organ is prolonged from the caudal 
extremity and appears to consist of a membraneous sheath without 
any spicule. Width of middle of body of mature females 100p to. 


120p, across tail of females, which is blunt 65,, across tail of males. 


28. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 
Plate VII. 


Fig. 1—Mature eggs (alive) x 160. 

Fig. 2—The same, cover glass pressed down to expel embryos. 

Fig. 3—A mature egg (alive) x 650. 

Fig. 7—Is a photograph of a section of the diseased liver hardened in 
Muiler’s fluid, stained by logwood and mounted in canada balsam; it was. 
taken by Zeiss’ apochromatic objective 2‘0 mm. 1°40 apert. and the No. 2: 
projection eye-piece on an Ilford isochromatic plate, x 270. 


Plate VIII. 
Fig. 4—A section of liver shewing masses of eggs x 50. 
Figs. 5 and 6—Eggs from liver (alive), some with divided yelk not. 
quite developed, magnified respectively 300 and 400 diameters. 


SMALL WHIRLWINDS. id 


SMALL WHIRLWINDS. 
By Huau Cuarztes Kippis, Public School, Walbundrie, N.S.W. 


[ Read before tne Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 7, 1893. |] 


It isa matter of common remark that numerous small whirl- 
winds are noticeable, during the summer months, in that portion 
of New South Wales which lies to the westward of the Great 
Dividing Range. These small whirlwinds, or dust whirls as they 
are commonly called, are not peculiar to Australia; they have 
been observed on the plains of India, and in other portions of the 
world during certain seasons of the year. As I am unaware 
whether meteorologists have given these phenomena a place in 
Australian “ weatherology,” further than that they exist, I submit 
the result of observations made during the months of January, 
February and March, in this Southern Riverina District. 


At first sight, and to a casual observer, these whirls seem to be: 
very erratic in their motion and appearance, light winds and 
warm weather being the only apparent requisites for their brief 
existence ; but if the whirls that are seen in this district may be 
taken as a type of those that are seen elsewhere, I conclude that 
they appear under very definite circumstances. 


The most prominent characteristics that I have observed in 
connection with these whirls are :— 

Firstly—The difference in their appearance according as the 
weather happens to be windy or calm. 

Secondly —The difference of direction in which they revolve on 
their axes. 

Thirdly—The atmospheric conditions at the time they appear. 

Fourthly—tThe effects produced on them by coming in contact 
with external bodies. 


I will deal with each of these characteristics in detail. With 
regard to the difference in their appearance, I find that these small 


92 HUGH CHARLES KIDDLE. 


whirls may pass over clean grass without any visible vortex column, 
and that their aspect depends very much upon the nature of the 
loose material they pass over, for instance, if one cross a dusty 
road, instantly the vortex is outlined in dust swept up from the 
road ; if dry loose grass or leaves be in its path, the grass or leaves 
serve to make evident to the eye what is going on. Their appear- 
ance then, depends firstly, upon the matter they gather up, and 
secondly, upon the overhead wind current, as will appear farther 
on. I take it for granted that those whirls that are seen during 
calm weather may be taken as a type of the others, so I will describe 
the appearance of one as seen on a dusty road. The base is 
generally about two feet in diameter, and the column ascends to 
a height varying from forty to one hundred feet or more, as 
measured by the eye only. These whirls seldom remain stationary, 
however, as even in apparently calm weather, there is a slow pro- 
gressive motion. After the dust, or other loose material has been 
passed, and the supply from below thus cut off, the head of the 
column is still visible, revolving the particles of dust etc., till they 


are carried out of sight. 


When there is a light or moderate breeze blowing, these whirls 
-have a progressive motion, estimated at a rate as high as twenty 
miles an hour, during a moderate to fresh breeze. ‘The column is 
not so clearly defined as in calm weather, being shorter and broader 
in appearance, and, as a rule, not exceeding twenty or thirty feet 
in height. At this altitude the head of the whirl appears to be 
carried forward bodily and broken. This may be accounted for 
by assuming that at a certain height the directive force of the 
wind is greater than the rotatory force of whirl about its axis, | 
consequently the particles of dust etc. in the head of the whirl 
are carried forward, and present a broader appearance as they are 


(again) scattered by the wind. 


This widening out at the head is not characteristic of the “windy 
weather” whirl only, as I have observed some whirls, and large 
ones too, during calm weather, which presented the same appear- 
ance. These appeared to be about two feet in diameter atthe 


SMALL WHIRLWINDS. 93 


base, and increasing in width with altitude, gave the appearance 
of an inverted cone. These cannot be considered as parallel cases, 
however, as although the visible effects resemble one another, the 
causes are different, there being wind in one case, calm in the 
other. <A description of the appearance of these whirls can only 
be considered general, however, as each particular one has its own 
peculiarities derived from the nature of the locality over which it 
passes, and the condition of the wind, if any, at the time, as 
previously alluded to. 


The second characteristic, viz., the difference of the directions. 
in which these whirls revolve on their axes—relatively—is by far 
the more important, and is peculiar and difficult to investigate. The 
observer may see two of these whirls appear, within a few minutes, 
in nearly the same place, each revolving on its axis in an opposite 
direction to the other. If one be represented as revolving right 
handedly, as in Fig. 1, then the other will be revolving in a left. 
handed direction as in Fig. 2. 


Compass t North Compass i) North 


Compass Compass 


Compass. 
East West 


East 


Compass South Compass South 


Now, in order to conform to the general law of storms for the 
Southern Hemisphere, a whirl produced by an ascending current 
of air should revolve in a right handed direction, or in the same 
direction as the hands of a watch, as in Fig. 1. The whirls seen 
in this district, however, are very erratic in their rotatory motions, 
and it was this apparent disregard for the manner in which they 
ought to revolve, in order to follow the general law, that attracted 
my attention to them in the first instance, and prompted the 
question : how is this irregularity to be accounted for? To strike 


‘9 4 


HUGH CHARLES KIDDLE., 


an average of all the whirls, large and small, that I saw during 


the period of observation, I estimate that about fifty per cent.. 


turned from right to left, and fifty per cent. from left to right. 
The nature of my duties in Half-time Schools prevented me taking 


barometrical readings with all the whirls I observed, but on the 
‘subjoined list I have noted those that I was enabled to record fully. 


Date. 
Jan. 16 
sis Wee 
Mar. 12 
2 15 
Ravi ie 
amine] 0) 
ay al 
4) 
a PAS) 
math 
ay AS) 
April 4 
Avia AS) 
e740) 


Hour. 


3 p.m. 


noon 
8 a.m. 
noon 


5 p.m. 


4:p.m. 
noon 


2p.m. 
noon 


10a.m. 
noon 

10p.m. 
noon 


7 ani. 
lla.m. 
noon 
noon 


10a.m. 


noon 
4 p.m. 


Bar. 


29-54, 
29°50 


29°31 


29°17 
29°33 


29°30 
29°31 
29°32 


29°38 
29°37 


29°35 


29°30 
29°26 


The barometrical 


‘Sydney Observatory last July, hence are taken as locally correct _ : 


Wind. Force. 
calm 
N.N.W. mod 
S.S.W. 
S.W. light 
N.W. light 


N.W. light] ... 


N.W. toS.W. var. 
S.W. to W. fresh 
West var. 


variable from 


N.W. to S.W. 
S.S.E. mod. 
South light 
East and 
North var. 
North 
West 
West 

variable from 
E.-N.W.-W. 


Motion. 
“Rt. | Left 

i 

1 

1 

5 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 

HEH tee 

] 

1 1 
itt 
3 


Remarks. 


very fierce; stood in 


it, did not disperse, 
2 ft. base, alt. 150 ft. 
very large and fierce 


wind variable, after- 
noon. 

chasing one another 
round in a ring, 
ultimately con- 
joined, dispersed 
among bushes; left 
handed. 

broken among bush. 

probably eddy, oppo- 
site currents. 

in Albury, many ed- 
dies, street corners. 

dispersed on stand- 
ing in them. 

both small; prob. 
opposite currents. 


very fierce, 4ft. base 
15ft alt., viewed it 
100 yards through 
bush 

walked in it, did not 
disperse. 

very fierce, 6ft across 
80ft alt., opposite 
currents. 

at Germanton, wind 
light at surface ;} 
clouds travelling 
opposite directions 
and ascending. 

small and travelling 
as per wind record 
respectively. 


readings are from an Aneroid, compared at 


SMALL WHIRLWINDS. 95 


for an altitude of seven hundred feet above sea level. During 
the month of February, I had no opportunity of observing whirls 
at times that I could note the barometrical readings, which accounts 
for that month being unrecorded on the above table. 


With this explanation, I will proceed to summarize from those 
that were practically observed. On looking over the table, and 
taking the five whirls seen on March 15th—which conjoined and 
then proceeded onwards as one left handed whirl—to represent 
one of the phenomena only, it gives a total of nine whirls which 
revolved in a right-handed direction, and ten that were left-handed. 
Although but few have been tabulated, this result gives a colour 
to my rough estimate of fifty per cent. each way, which was 
deduced from all the small whirls and eddies that I have observed 
for a long time before these special observations were made. 


Tf the “Remarks” column of my table be perused carefully, it 
it will be noted that I have marked the words “opposite currents” 
against certain whirls; at the same time the “ wind” column is 
marked as “variable.” My reason for doing so is that on 
those particular days I was so struck with the peculiar form of 
the generally small whirls observed, that I came to the conclu_ 
sion they were nothing more or less.than mere eddies. Some 
seemed to run a considerable distance along the ground before 
they were definitely formed. They dispersed immediately on 
coming in contact with a bush or tree, or any other obstruction. 
This feature led me to sub-classify them under the same heading, 
and with this object I divided them into (a) whirls formed by 
ascending currents of air, and (6) those whirls which were eddies 
produced by variable winds, or in other words, opposing currents 
of air. 

Now when two opposing currents of air meet, the stronger wind 
will control the direction in which eddies, produced thereby, 
revolve. Hence these eddies may revolve either right-handedly 
or left-handedly without causing any surprise at their apparent 
irregularity. This fact, however, does not throw any light on the 
reason for whirls, produced by ascending currents, revolving either 


96 HUGH CHARLES KIDDLE. 


way indifferently. Although the majority of such whirls revolve 
right-handedly (or in the same direction as the hands of a watch 
move), yet I have seen others, which showed every sign of being 
purely ascending currents of air, revolve in a left-handed direction, 
or decidedly the wrong way for the theory. The whirl seen on 
January 16th, 1893, at Burrumbuttock, is an instance. Wind 
light from west all forenoon, no barometrical reading. About 
three o’clock p.m. on that day, I heard a rustle amongst the leaves, 
and, on looking out saw a whirl two or three feet in diameter, 
revolving at a great rate, in a left-handed direction (Fig. 2), about 
twenty yards in front of the door. As the whirl seemed almost 
stationary—it being then calm—lI walked over, and stepped into 
the middle of it, to see if a centre was perceptible, but did not 
discover any. I remained standing in the whirl for upwards of a 
minute or so; but this seemed to have no effect on it as the rota- 
tion was as brisk as ever after I stepped out again; in fact had 
never decreased. The whirl was revolving at the time on hard 
ground, the few dry leaves on it being spun round in a circle about 
six feet in diameter. A light air which sprang up, carried the 
whirl in a S.E. direction. Passing along that side of the school 
on which the windows are, it strewed the floor with leaves etc. A 
few yards past the school the whirl turned to the south, and crossed 
a dusty road at right angles. While passing over the dust, the 
whirlwind, which had hitherto only made its effects visible a few 
feet above the ground, now made its presence known by sucking 
up the dust in a spiral column to the height of about one hundred 
and twenty feet at the least, as calculated by eye measurement. 
The column was very clear and distinct, and increased slightly in 
width as itascended. After the dust pool was passed, the particles 
which had been drawn up were seen revolving till the altitude 


rendered them imperceptible. . | 


The distance passed over by this whirl from the time I first saw 
it, till it crossed the road was about forty yards, the time occupied 
in traversing that distance being about fifteen minutes. The 
whirl then crossed a brush fence, through a clump of dead timber, _ 


SMALL WHIRLWINDS. O7 


and was lost to sight on the clear grass country. This was a good 
type of the calm weather whirl. From the fact of it being calm, 
and that the whirl did not disperse on my standing in it, I classi- 
fied it as caused by an ascending current of air. On January 24, 
1893, in the same spot as I have just described, I witnessed a fine 
specimen of the “windy weather” whirl. It revolved left handedly, 
and as the breeze was steady from N.N.W., I classified it as 


caused by an ascending current of air also. 


This whirl also crossed the road previously mentioned, and the 
dust was sucked upasbefore. At the height of about thirty feet, 
however, the head of the whirl was broken and dispersed, being 
carried bodily forward in a cloud of dust. Having noticed this 
as a general effect common to all whirls of this class, I formed 
the conclusion, as hitherto stated, that the directive force of the 
wind was greater than the rotatory force of the whirl, and that 
when this was the case the whirl would be dispersed. Many 
small whirls that I noticed only rose a few feet above the surface, 
and were dispersed by the wind before they had travelled many 
yards. Thus it may be concluded that whether a whirl is caused 
by an ascending current of air, or in an eddy caused by opposing 
currents, the force of the wind is an important item with respect 
to their existence. If the force of the wind be moderate to fresh, 
the eddy or whirl produced will be soon dispersed, as may be seen 
by those produced at street corners, etc., on windy days. If the 
force be greater, the whirls will be dispersed as soon as formed. 
In making this statement I refer principally to “variable” winds, 
for if two steady currents of air meet each other obliquely, there 
is no reason why eddies produced thereby should not exist till 
they disperse themselves. It must also be borne in mind that 
those destructive tornado hailstorms, which visit us periodically 
with high winds, belong to an entirely different section of cyclonic 
disturbances. — 


Thus it may be seen that to thoroughly investigate our second 
section is a difficult matter, and the result arrived at from my 
observations is that whirls which are caused by ascending currents 

G—June 7, 1893. 


98 HUGH CHARLES KIDDLE. 


of air should (but do not always), revolve right handedly, while 
those that are produced by opposing winds may revolve indiffer- 
ently in either direction. 

The third section, viz., the atmospheric conditions at the time 
these whirls appear, must be subdivided into (a) prevailing winds, 
(6) height of barometer. (a) These whirls nearly always occur 
when the wind is between the north and south-west points of the 
compass, and are very seldom seen when the wind is blowing from 
the north-east or south-east quadrants. Generally speaking it 
may be said that they occur with the westerly winds ; which, it 
must be remembered, is also the prevailing direction of our summer | 
winds. (6) During the early part of March I noticed no whirls 
at all. At the same time the barometer was exceptionally high 
in this district. The highest local reading noted was on March 
11, 1893, when the 
Aneroid barometer stood at Burrumbuttock 29°54, altitude 700ft. 
Standard barometer stood at Albury 295615 5.) Eadie 
Wagga Wagga 29°56, y),. OOnee: 


This high pressure period was coincident with the cyclonic 


99 99 


disturbance which, after passing the New Hebrides, visited our 
Australian coasts with south-east gales. Possibly our high pressure 
was directly caused by the air being heaped up by the cyclone on 
its outer edge while progressing, but whether or not, my object in 
alluding to this circumstance is to point out that a high barometer 
is not a favourable condition for the formation of these whirls. The 
average local reading from my tabulated list, on page 94, is 
29°30 in. for this district. Our westerly winds are accompanied 
with low barometrical readings as a rule, and as I have already 
said that these dust whirls are usually seen when the prevailing 
wind is westerly, we may look in that direction for their origin, 
and with very good reason suggest the intimate relationship of 
cause and effect, 

The fourth characteristic, viz., the effect produced on these whirls 
by coming in contact with external objects, requires more than 
passing notice. Obstructions in the track of these whirls . will 


SMALL WHIRLWINDS. 99 


sometimes cause them to collapse and be dispersed, while at 
other times whirls may be seen passing through trees, bushes, 
fences, and even coming in contact with houses without being in 
any way affected. By observing these effects I was assisted in 
arriving at the cause of these whirls as mentioned in section two, 
viz., whether caused by ascending or opposing currents. ‘Those 
eddies caused by opposing currents of air are easily dispersed 
either by standing in them or by coming in contact with bushes 
etc., but a whirl produced by an ascending current is more violent 
in its rotatory motion, and on meeting with any temporary 
obstruction, and being broken, this violent up-current is very 
likely to restore the form of the whirl by reuniting with its upper 


part. 


Hence those whirls produced by ascending currents are not, as 
a rule, much affected by coming in contact with obstructions, for 
as soon as the axis of rotation has passed the object, the up-current 
is restored as suggested. As an example of each I may mention 
that I saw one large whirl pass through a two rail fence, but on 
coming in contact with a paling fence about ten yards further on 
it completely collapsed. On the other hand I saw one, apparently: 
no larger or different to the general species, come in contact with 
the Walbundrie Hotel (February 1892), and instead of being 
dispersed, it carried away two of the verandah posts and sent the 
sheets of iron flying. I have only seen one instance of whirls 
coming in contact with one another, viz., that mentioned on my list 
for March 15, 1893. In that instance, five small whirls (left 
handed), were chasing each other round in acircle about seven feet 
in diameter. They eventually conjoined, and proceeded as one 
_ whirl, still revolving in a left handed direction (as in Fig. 2). I 
watched it travel about fifty yards through the bush, when I lost 
sight of it. 


Sometimes these whirls are seen under circumstances that make 
them very striking. For example, on Saturday March 19, 1892, 
(no barometrical record) wind south—I was walking through a 
stubble paddock that had been burnt off during the day, but was 


F's 1 
Ri 
, 
. ie 


100 HUGH CHARLES KIDDLE. 


still smouldering in places. Hearing an unusual noise, I looked 
around, and perceived a large whirlwind that had settled over a 
floor, about one hundred yards away. I must explain that a — 
“floor” is a place (in the paddock), where the farmer stands his 
winnower to clean the grain as it is brought in by the stripping 
machines. The chaff is left on the ground, and forms a floor of 
about a foot in depth. On this floor the chaff was damp under- 
neath and therefore only smouldering, The whirlwind sucked up 
the smoke, forming a greenish-black column about three feet in 
diameter and fifty feet in height. As there was very little wind 
at the time, the whirl remained over the “ floor ” for the space of 
a few minutes, and it was accompanied by a roar audible from the 
place where I first noticed the whirl, a distance of one hundred 
yards. I did not attribute the roar to the whirl alone; in this 
case it was doubtless caused by the combined action of the smoulder- 
ing fire and the whirl, thus producing a huge natural draught. 
After passing the floor, the whirl proceeded as a comparatively 
small specimen of its class, as the ground it then passed over had 
very little loose material left on it to make the column visible at 
any distance. Even from this example it will be seen that a large 
percentage of these phenomena must necessarily pass unnoticed, as 
the greater part ‘of the surface furnishes none of the material 
required to make their presence perceptible. This fact alone will 
help to account for the paucity of the observations recorded, as I 
only noted down those I could ascertain some definite result from. 


IT am informed that dust whirls occur with greater frequency 
and violence in the northern and western parts of New South 
Wales than in this district, a fact which may be partly accounted 
for as the soil isin parts more sandy. Their violence being greater 
would indicate them to be caused by ascending air currents, the 
outcome of the westerly wind and low barometer as previously 


advanced or suggested as the origin of these whirls. 

Thus the more prominent characteristics of these whirls have 
been detailed from observation. It would doubtless be easy to 
build up a theory with regard to their origin, by assuming the 


LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 101 


differences of temperature and pressure in the Western Districts 
to produce currents both at the surface and high in the air, and 
to assume that the currents may be descending as well as ascend- 
ing in order to produce a whirl. But without facts I take it that 


theory goes for nothing. 


These whirls are looked upon here as portents of a dry season, 
but then our summer is generally dry, as is well known. In con- 
clusion, I can only add that their insignificance and brief existence 
makes these phenomena difficult to observe, and if this paper will 
aid in building up the system of our Australian ‘‘ weatherology,” 
the labour spent thereon will be amply rewarded. 


‘THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 


By Sipney H. Ray, London; revised by Dr. Joun Fraser, Sydney. 
| [With Plate IX.] 


[ Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, July 5, 1893.] 


ContTENTs :—1. Introduction. 

2. Classified list of Languages. 

3. Comparative Vocabulary. 

4. Notes on the Vocabulary. 

. J. INTRODUCTION. , 

Tur New Hebrides consist of about thirty inhabited and many 
uninhabited islands in the south-western part of the Pacific Ocean, 
and are situated between 14° 29’ and 20° 4'S. latitude, and 166° 
41’ and 170° 21’ E. longitude. The most southerly island, Aneit- 
yum, is distant from Sydney, New South Wales, about fifteen 
hundred miles, and from Auckland, New Zealand, about twelve 
hundred miles.* 


* For a general account of the productions of the New Hebrides, the 
reader is referred to the following works :—“ The New Hebrides,” by the 
Rev. Robert Steel: London, 1880; “Islands of Melanesia,” by the Rev. 
Rh. H. Codrington, in Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1889; ‘‘ The Western 
Pacific,” by Walter Coote: London, 1883; “Missions in Western Poly- 
nesia,’ by the Rev. A. W. Murray : London, 1863. 


102 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


There is a considerable amount of variation in the languages of 
‘the New Hebrides, and this corresponds to differences which 
have been noted in the physical characteristics of the islanders. 
All accounts, though these are very few, agree in describing the 
natives of the southern islands of the group as darker in colour 
and inferior in culture to those of the north. An examination of 
the languages shows that the inhabitants must be regarded as 
sprung from not one, but several sources. The languages of 
Tanna and Eromanga, though agreeing in some instances with 
those of the Central and Northern districts, contain much that is 
different. This is especially seen in the long and complicated 
verbal forms they have, and in various points of grammatical 
detail. In the nouns, for example, we are told that the removal 
of what in the northern tongues would be a separable particle, 
will destroy the meaning of the word. In Tanna, nig7 is ‘tree,’ 
and nigum is ‘fire.’ In Efate, these words appear as nekaw and 
nakabu ; in Malekula, nice, nokambu. But na, ne, no are separ- 
able, being forms of the article, leaving kau, ce (the Fiji kau, 
Araga cai), and kabu, kambu as the roots. But in Tannese, ‘‘if the 
m be taken away, there would be no longer any sense in these 
words, gi and gum.”* Other points of divergence in the details 
of grammar and vocabulary render the languages of Aneityum, 
Tanna, and Eromanga distinct from those further north, while 
they are equally distinct from the languages of the Loyalty Islands 
and New Caledonia. Whether the southern languages of the New 
Hebrides represent an archaic form of the primitive Melanesian 
speech, or show traces of admixture with some other linguistic 
stock, is a subject well worthy of investigation, but it is beyond 
the scope of the present paper, which deals with facts rather than 
with speculations. 

The languages of the Central portion of the group—those of 
Efate and the neighbouring islands—are much simpler in struc- 
ture than those found north and south of them. Their vocabu- — 
laries contain a large number of Polynesian words, and in their 


* Rev. W. Gray, in Macdonald’s “ South Sea Languages,” p. 134. 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 103 


general character these languages are very similar to those of the 
Solomon Islands. The Epi and Malekula dialects, though locally 
not far removed from those of Efate, contain notable differences, 
especially in the verbal forms. 


In Espiritu Santo, Whitsuntide Island, Lepers’ Island and 
Aurora, the languages though distinct are not very dissimilar. 
The Santo dialects, to some extent, form a connecting link between 
these and the Efatese. 


The language of Ambrym alone among those of the northern 
islands is difficult to connect, but, as it is the least known of all, 


many of its difficulties may disappear upon closer knowledge. 


Polynesian languages are spoken on the islands of Futuna and 
Aniwa in the south of the New Hebrides group, and at Mae or 
Three Hills, Mele, and Fila in the Central district. Aniwa and 
Futuna, though purely Polynesian in vocabulary, are strangely 
different in grammar. Their complex and numerous forms, though 
showing no community of origin, appear to be imitations of Tanna 
expressions. The languages of Mae and Mele, are very nearly 


pure Maori. 


The following classification is founded upon the grammatical 
structure of the languages and not upon the vocabulary alone, 
though the latter has necessarily been considered in the distinction 
of dialects. It will be advisable here to point out the leading 
features of grammar in each part of the group, reserving details 


for separate treatment. 


1. Nouns:—All the languages agree in the distinction of nouns 
by means of demonstrative particles which may be called articles. 
In the Southern division, the article often coalesces with the noun, 
and in Tanna it is said to be inseparable, without destroying the 
meaning. With common nouns the article is some form of the 
syllable na (ne, ni, in, no, nu, n ). Inthe north, a is sometimes 
found as an article used with common nouns. A personal article 
a is also found in the north and south, but does not appear in Epi 
and Efate. 


1 . < « 
‘ 
4c 
. 
‘ 


104 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


Two classes of nouns are everywhere distinguished. One of 
these is used with suffixed possessive pronouns, the other without. 
The class taking suffixes is usually restricted to nouns denoting 
parts of a whole, but includes much more in Espiritu Santo than 
in the other islands. For the forms of the suffixed pronouns, see 
the Vocabulary. 


2. Pronouns :—These are all from the same roots, as are also 
the words used as possessives. The forms found will be seen in 


the Comparative Vocabulary. 


3. VERBS :—Particles are used with common. words which are 
thus made verbs as to their grammatical form. The commonest 
particle is, in all the languages (except Espiritu Santo and Efate), 
some form of the syllable mo. 


The future tense usually is clearly distinguished, but the past 
and the present require definition by an adverb. Person and 
number are defined by particles, which appear usually as abbrevi- 
ated forms of the pronouns. The use of the particles in the 
several languages may be summarized as follows :— 

a. Aneitywm.:— Distinct words for each tense, number, and person. 

b. Tannaand Kromanga:—Combinations of pronominal forms with 
particles expressing the condition of the action (in progress, 
completed, continuous, customary, &c.). 

c. Efate and Espiritu Santo -—Verbal particles appear to be simply 
abbreviated pronouns and indicate only person and number. 
Tense is shown by adverbs. 

d. Hpi:—Particles expressing person and number as in Efate, but 
with prefix m (or modification of initial consonant), to mark 
actual action (present or past), the verb without a particle 
being future. 


e. Malekula:—Variation of number made by change of vowel, the 
tense sign being invariable. This is the verbal use in the 
Solomon Islands. 


f. Arag, Omba, Maewo -—Particles asin Tanna and Hromanga. 
Also invariable particles denoting tense, used with pronouns. 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 


g. Ambrym:—Same as in (f.) 


105 


The singular present (or past) and future of the verb ‘to go,’ 


will illustrate the use of the particles, which is here made the chief 


basis of classification. 


INDEFINITE ‘TENSE. 
Anertyum 
1. ek apan ainyak (pres. ) 
2. na apan aiek (pres. ) 
3. et um apan alien (pres. ) 


Tanna 
1. iau yak-even 
2. ik ik-even 
3. in r-even 
Hromanga 
1. iau yakam-ampe 
2. kik kikem-ampe 
3. iyi kem-ampe 
LE fate 
1. (kinau)* a ba 
2. (nago) ku ba 
pe (mat) 1° Wa, 


Espiritu Santo (Tangoa dialect). 


1. na thano 
2. ko thano 
3. mo thano 
Lipi (Baki dialect). 
1. (kiniu)* na mbano 
2. (jau) ko mbano 
3. (nai) mbano 
Malekula (Pangkumu dialect). 
lemejo 
2. mu jo 
3. mi jo 


Future TENSE, 


. ekpu apan ainyak 
. napu apan aiek 


. etpu apon alien 


. lau tak-even 


2. ik tik-even 


. In tir-even 


. lau yak-ampe 


2. kik kik-ampe 


Lt; 
2. 
3. 


. lyl k-ampe 


. (kinau) aga wo ba 
. (nago) kuga wo ba 
. (nai) iga wo ba 


. ha pa thano 
2. ko po thano 
. 1 pa thano 


. (kiniu) na vano 
. (jau) ka vano 
. (nai) ni vano. 


be jo 
bu jo 
bi jo 


* The pronouns may be omitted. 


106 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


INDEFINITE TENSE. Furure TEnsgE. 
Malekula (Aulua dialect). 
1. anu ne pen 1. anu ne pen bagcea 
2. egco u pen 2. egco u pen bagcea 
3. ‘ena ti pen 3. ‘ena ti pen bagcea 
Arag 
1. nam ban 1. nav ban 
2. gom ban 2. gov ban 
3. ma ban 3. vi ban 
Omba 
1. nom van 1. nain van 
2. gom van 2. gon van 
3. mo van 3. no van 
Maewo 
1. nau u ras 1. nan ras or nau ni ras 
2. niko u ras 2. gon ras or go ni ras 
3. ia u ras 3. In ras or la ni ras 


4. Prepositions :—These are common in the Northern languages 
and are often plainly seen to be nouns and verbs. They are very 
few in number in the South, where their place is usually supplied 
by verbal suffixes. These verbal suffixes are most extensively 
used in Efate. 


The following Table shows all the known languages and dialects 
of the New Hebrides. To it I add a Comparative Vocabulary 
with notes; for comparison the Vocabulary has corresponding 
words from the nearest Melanesian and Polynesian tongues. 
Throughout the Vocabulary, I have used the following Alphabet, 
and have transcribed all the words into it.* 


* [It is a pity that so many different systems of phonology have been 
used by the missionaries in writing the dialects of the New Hebrides. 
But, as the Scriptures in part have now been printed in many of these 
dialects, the evil is, I fear, past remedy. Hence, Mr. Ray’s labour here 
in transcribing his examples according to a uniform system is a service 
to philology.—J. F.] 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 107 


Vowels. a, e, 2, 0, u, all as in Italian. Consonants: b, d, f, h, 


7, k, 1, m, n, p, 7, 8, t, v, wW, y, aS in English. 


cas English g in go dh as English th in the 
g a ng ,, sing th 3 th ,, thin 
ee te. ng ,, finger gmasa nasal m, nearly equal to mw. 


The Melanesian q is written at length according to its sounds as. 
kw, pw, kpw, kmbw, gembw, &c. The Melanesian g, a guttural 
trilled consonant, is written g‘. The nasal dis written nd; nasal 
b, mb, z as English dz in adze. Diphthongs: arias in aisle; au 


as English ow in house, e1 as a in day. 


This method of transcription is also applied to the Mota, Fiji, 


Lifu, Samoan, and Maori words which are added for comparison. 


II. TABLE OF THE KNOWN LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS USED IN THE 
ISLANDS oF THE New HEBRIDES. 


SOUTHERN Division. 
I. Anerryum ; (1*) the most southerly island of the group. 


II. Tanna ; dialects—1. Kwamerat (2), at the south end of the 
island, in the neighbourhood of Port Resolution; 2. .... 
on the south-west coast, between Kwamera and Naviliang ; 
3. NMaviliang, on the west coast, south of Metautu or Black- 
beach ; 4. Weasisi (3), on the east coast, from Sulphur Bay 
to within a short distance of the north end of the island ; 5. 
Iteing, on the north coast. 


III. Eromanea; dialects—1. Yoku (4), at Dillon’s Bay; 2. Ura 
(5), on the north coast; 3. Sie or Sorung, 4. Utaha (6), 5. 
Novul-Amleng. 

CENTRAL DIvISION. 
I. Epr; dialects—1. Vastko or Lemaroro (7), at the south-east 
end of the island ; 2. Maluba, on the east coast ; 3. Lamenu, 


* The numerals in brackets are the reference numbers used in the first 


column of the Vocabulary that follows, to indicate the dialects. 
+ These are the names of the localities where the dialects are used. 


108 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


on the north coast; 4. Mari, the inland districts; 5. Biert 
(8), on the south coast; 6. Baki (9), on the west coast; 7. 
Bierebo, on the north-west coast; 8. Paama, the island of 
Paama, north of Epi. 

IT. Amprym (10); dialects—1. Hmbululi, a bay on the east coast 
of the island; 2. Lambol or Loliwari, on the north-west coast, 
opposite Whitsuntide island. 


III. Mauexuta; dialects—1. Port Sandwich (11), at Sandwich 
Harbour, on the east coast ; 2. 4ulwa (12), on the east coast, 
north of Sandwich Harbour ; 3. Pangkumu (13), on the east 
coast, north of Aulua; 4. Rukumbu, north of Pangkumu ; 
De Bia clit Bak os Co , at Port Stanley, on the north-east coast; 6. 
Lamangkau (14), at South-west Bay. 

IV. Erate circuit; dialects—1. Hfate (15), at Havannah Harbour; 
a cess Pees Jon theleast coast: 3. eae , inland ; 4. Hrakor 
(16), at Erakor and Pango, on the south coast; 5. Vguna 
and Tongoa (17), Montague Island and the neighbouring 
islets of Pele and Emau with part of Tongoa ; 6. Sesake (18), 
at the east end of Emae or ‘Three Hills’ island; 7. Livara 
or Lrara (19), in two villages of the Taszko district of Epi ; 
8. Makura (20), on the island of Makura and part of Tongoa, 
with Tongariki, Buninga, Ewose and Mataso. 


NortHern Division. 

I. Esprriru Santo ; dialects—Savan, St. Bartholomew island, 
on the south coast of Espiritu Santo; 2. Malo (21), on the 
west side of Malo island, south coast ‘of Espiritu Santo; 3. 
Eralado (22), at Cape Lisburn, south coast of Espiritu Sante ; 
4. Tangoa (23), the central district of the south coast; 5. 
Nogogu (24), 6. Valpay, 7. Wulua, all on the west obaeee 8. 
Marina (25), Bay of SS. Philip and James, on the north coast. 

II. Ompa (26); dialects—I. Walurigi, 2. Tavalavola, 3. mo 
4, Longana, all on the north coast. 

III. Arac; dialects—1l. Qatvenua (27), at the north end of the 
island ; Vuwnmarama and Loltavola (28), at the north end of 
the hae Sh , at the south of the island. 

IV. Marwo (29); dialects—1. Tanoriki, 2. Qaranggave, 3. Tas- 
mourt, to the north; 4... . . , to the south. 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 109 


Other Melanesian dialects in the Vocabulary are :—(34) Mota, 
in ‘Banks’ islands’; (35) yz; (36) Lefu, in the Loyalty Islands, 
off New Caledonia. 

PoLYNESIAN DIALECTS IN THE New HEBRIDES. 
I. Furuna island (30), to the east of Tanna; Anriwa island (31) 
to the north-east of Tanna. 7 
II. Emaz island (32) (Central district) or ‘Three Hills’ island, 
to the north of Efate. 
III. Metz island (33) and Fix island, in ‘South-west Bay’(Efate). 

Other Polynesian dialects in the Vocabulary are:—(37) Samoan, 

(38) Maor. 


CoMPARATIVE VOCABULARY OF THIRTY-THREE DIALECTS OF THE 
New HEBRIDES, COMPILED BY SIDNEY H. Ray. 


—————— 


[To Mr. Ray’s list I have added a few lines, numbered 39, 40, 
4], 42, drawn from personal sources* which are not available in 
London, but which may be useful to philologists in tracing the 
connection of the Ebudany dialects with others. These are ex- 
amples of the :—(39) Tazan dialect of Uvéa (Loyalty Islands), the 
Nengonese of (40) Maré Is. (Loyalty Islands), (41) the language of 
New Britain Is., to the east of New Guinea, and (42) of DuKE 


oF York IsLAND, a small island which lies in the narrow strait 
between New Britain and New Ireland; as an example of the 
dialects spoken on the south coast of New Guinea, I add (43) the 
Motu dialect of Port Moressy, the best known on that coast. 


These examples I have written in Mr. Ray’s alphabet. In the © 
Taian dialect, most of the personal nouns are here given with the 
suffix consonant of the third person, as kamen, ‘his father’; the 6 
is very broad, something like or in sound, and @ is like éu,; g is 
only g hard in this dialect, and ng represents the nasal g, the in- 
verted comma, as in ‘veto, marks a nasal sound. In Lifuan, éisa 
subdued nasal, like the last sound in the French b6i-en, and 6 is 
nearly the German 6.—J.F.] 

* See list of authorities at the end of this paper. 
+ It is awkward to have to use New Hebrides as an adjective. I there- 


fore substitute Ebudan and Ebudans formed from Ebudes, the classical 
name for the old Hebrides.—JaF. | 


* Also—*nathbiat; 


1. Sun. 


nagesega, nethig 
meri 

muti-gar 
nipmi-nen 
nihmi-umugkum 
nimnim-ugkum 
ndae 

meti-ki-au 
mare-gi-0 

yial 


alo 
meta-ni-alo* 
maso 

aho 

alo 
mata-ni-al 
aloa 

ra 

ra 
mata-ra 
ra 

loa 
mata-ni-siga 
dho 

la 

ra 

seuno 

du 

lapap 
make 

dina 


5 


SIDNEY H. RAY. 


2. Daylight. 


apnyin?* 
eran 
lenyan 
mran, dan 
lin 

lin 


lani a 
ligian 


uta-nrien 
ute-rin 


aliati 
aliat 
aleati? 
aleati 
aleati 
maram 
rane 


ranl 
roni 


ran 
maran 
maran 
maranl 

a0 

au 

aso 

a0 

maran 

siga 

drai, lai 

40, aSO 

ra 
hauolan, lan 
ran 

bug, keake 
kapa 


diari 


3. Moon. 


mohoc 
mokwa 
mauug 
itais 
umova 

irlis 
kubario? 
ka-mbatiau 
si-mberio 
ola 


a-mbisia 
bur 

vul 
atu-lagi 
at-lag 
ate-lagi 
masina 
ate-lagi 
ki-mbati 
vitu 
wulu 
vitu 
wula 
vula 
vule 
vula 
vula 
wula 
mrama 
mrama . 
masina 
marama 
vula 
vula 
meleme, teu 
masina 
marama 
tehi 
chekol 
kwal 
kalag 


hua 


=" TP 


4, Star. 
moijeuv 
ku-mahau 
mahau 
mosi 

umse 

umse 

erue 
a-mahoi 
mari-bitano 
moho 


mose 
majo 
mosel 
masel 
masei 
gmasoe 
masoe 
masoe 
gmahe 


vitu-sarasara 


vitu-sarasara 
matsol 
vitul 
visiu 
visiu 


vitiu 
fatu 

fatu 

fetu 
masol 
vitu 
kalokalo 
wétesidh 
fetu 
whetu 
okhti 
wadhekol 
takwul 
nagnag 
hisiu 


5. Stone. 


hat 
kapir 
kabil 


vat 


kilavaru 
vatu 
veru 


var 
vit 
vit 
vet 
fatu 
fat 
vatu 
vatu 
vatu 
vata 
takase 
suli 
thatu 
sule 
sule 
vetu 
vatu 


vatu 
fatu 
fatu 


fatu 

vat 

vatu 

eté , 

fatu 
ko-whatu 

‘veto 

ete 

wat, lika 

wat 

nadi 


*varlu; *marama; *meta-n-maso; *siga. + Seep. 107. 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 


i 
oc 


Se GON She? eee is 


pig 
napen 
laben 
pumrok 


gsbwog 
mbogi 
bogian 


uta-meligco 
ambug 


bog 
bog 
pwogia** 
bogi 


bogi 
ecbwog 


dodo 


bogi 

pon, pons 
pog ii 
bogi 
kpwog 
bog 
kmbwog 
po, pugi 
po, pogi 


. | lit, nigheit 


rid 
marum 
marum 


. | hanua-boi 


apat, mehcim] nimtinjap 


nepitevien 
nabinabu 
nelebokevat 


m aliko 
mbombogio 
meligco 


uta-mi-bug 
meligk 


‘maligo ~ 


malko 
maligo 
maligco 


malig 
dodoca 


po 
ndondo 
maligco 
bog 


pauri 
pourl 


po 

silig‘a 

buto 
melohlem 
pogisa® 
pouri 
meneholem?® 
nashin 
kokodo 
boboto, adj. 
dibura, adj. 


nematagi 
nemtagi 
nemetagi 
wavelau 


lagi 
lagi 
jegi 
leg 
ag 
lag 
rig 
leg 
lagi 
lag 
lagi 
lagi 


lagi 


lag 


lage 


ea 
loni, lana 


lagi 
lag 
lag 
lago 
mtagi 
mtagi 


matagi 
lag 

dhagi 
enyl 
matagi 
hau 

as 

yego 
vuvu, ubar 
dadaip 


lai 


nohatag 
neal 

neal 
neial, pokop 
naiyal 
pokup 


peni 
iogobu-mabi 


mon 
mao 
mamarin 


elagu 
elagsau 
koroatelagi 
koroatelagi 


rikitilagi 
tukaelagi 


tug‘a? 
toloni, rontro 


mMmawe 
mare 


wogana 
rag 

ragi 

ragi 

ragi 

tuka 

lagi* 
hnegodrai 
lagi 
kikoragi 
dran 

awe 

bakut, lagit 
lagit, maua 
guba 


6. Night. | 7. Darkness. | 8. Wind. 9. Sky. 


111 


10. Rain. 
incoptha 
nesan 
nu‘wun 
noisap, nebip 
nebip 


yuwa 
Et as 


O 
Us © 


.| USa 


us 
ue 
US - 
us 
usa 
usa 
usa 
ih 


kiri 


usa 
usa 
usa 
uhe 
uhe 


reu, usa 
ua 
owa 


ele 
bata 
polo, adj. 


medu 


* Also—*chwogi; *tug‘akeza; *pouliuli; *lomalagi; ‘lit. 


112 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


BeE111, Water.| 12. Sea. | 13. Land.t |14. Harth,soil,| 15. Fire. 


1. | wai jap pece nobo-tan cap 
2. | nul tasi tana tuprana nap 
3. | nahu nitahi tani nafu-tani nigum 
4. | nu tok nuru nemap nom 
5. | ne de dena nampevag 
6. | uyu novonau Si yumup See 
7. | wi Si buru-vanua | tono kabi 
8.'| ual sahi fiko, vanua | san kam 
9. | ue tel venuo tano sembi 
10. | we tie vir, Viri tan av, marum 
11. | we ras ee ran cambr 
12. | bui tis batic-venua | tan g‘amp 
13. | ui tis, aror batin-fenu | tan kambu 
14. | uei tis ue tan amp 
15. | oai tasr fanua tano kabu 
16. | ai tas fanu tan kab 
17. | oai tasi vanua, wre | tano kapu 
18. | oai tasl vanua tano kapu 
19. | oai tasi vanua tano kapu 
20. | ran tah ure kam 
21. | reu tas!* mbatui-nsara| tano g‘ambu 
ena tas vanua ambrr 
23. | wal tas thanua ose g‘abu 
24. | pe-ra, rei| tosi? oa lepa,ono,tano| ... 
25. | pei, tei | g‘etja vanua bod g‘apu 
26. | wal wawa, tahi| vanue tano avi 
27. | wal tahi vanua tano g‘api 
28. kag taihi vanu wae aie 
29. | mbei tas, lama | vanua tano avi 
30. | vai tai fenua kele afi 
31. | vai tal fanua kere afi 
32. | Val moana | fenua a: 
oo. | val tal | fenua ae afi 
34. | pel lama vanua tano avi 
35. | wal tadhi vanua gcele mbuka® 
36. | tim hnacedhé | noédhe hnadro eé 
Dien Val tal fanua ‘ele‘ele afi 
38. | wai moana whenua oneone — ahi 
39. |koianam*! koia ‘nel konha meich 
40. | tin chele nod rawa iel 
Al. |tava, polo} ta wanua pia yap 
‘42, |polo, pala} waga, tai | wanua pia ugan 
43, | ranu davara tano tano lahi 


* Also—tarusa; ?tarusa; *wagea; *koia. + That is, Country. 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 


Ret.) 16. Smoke. 


ee ee ee ee 


nathran-cap 
nese-nap 
naha 


yopua 
jlahau 
i0U 
wa-lehi 


g‘amp-basua 
esi-gkumbu 
ritu-la-amp 
asu 

asu 

asua 

asua 


ah 


asu 


asu-habu 
osun-Ovi 
asu 

ahu 

aho 


asu 
aus-afi 


asu 


: kumbou, kumb 


hach 

asu 

au-ahi 

hau 

kale 
pitmur, mi 
mi 
kwalahu 


17. Shade.t+ 


nai, nalmu 
nanumu 
narumun 


molu 
fo-melu 
va-melu 


mor 
molemol 
melu 


melu 
meelu 


mela 
mala 


nuniu 


malu 


malumalu 
warumaru 


malu 
malumalu 
ahnuen 
malu 
marumaru 
menon,hanu 
wahae 
maluru 
ma-daudau 
kerukeru 


18. Pry. 
picath 
puka 
puka‘ 
pekase 


bukahi 
bue 

bue 
baramban 
mbui 

bue 
mbele, bue 


/ Wago 


wak 
wago 


| wagco 
| wagco 


mboi 
puaka 
boi 
pol 
poe 
mboe 


| kpwoe 


boe 
kmbwoe 
pakasi 
pakas 


| poaka 


kpwoe 
vuaka 


‘puaka 


pua‘a 
poaka 
buaka 
puaka 
boro 
boroi 
boroma 


19. Dog. 


kuri 
kurl 
kuri 
kurl 


lekoli 
kuliu 
kuli 
kuli 
lipaeh 
kuli 
kuri 
anmbur 
koria 
kurl 
koria 
koria 
korla 


vuria 
viriu 
wurl 
owol 


aa 


kuli 
kuri 
kurut 
koli 
kuli? 
uli 
kurli 
kurl 
pailai 
pap 
pap 


sisia 


3 


11 


90. ut. 


, cetho 
asuk 
kahau 
lakis 


souo 
tomo 


goba 
g‘asup 


kusue 
kusu 
kuswe 
kusuwe 
kusue 


kahow 


arivl 


g‘aribi 
keriu 
varivi 
g‘arivl 
g‘arivi 


o‘ariv 
kimoa 
kimoa 


kimoa 
g‘asuwe 
kalavo?* 
adhi 
imoa, Isumu 
kiore 

tep 

g‘ele 
geulag 
kaupa 
bita 


* Also—'cadho; ?nailai. + That is, Shadow. 


H—July 5, 1893. 


114 

Rel. Bord. 

l. | man 

2. | manu 

3. | manug 

4. | menok 

5. 

6. “ 

7. |manu, menu 

8. | manu 

9. | menu 
10. | behel 
Ihit 
12. | min 
13. | min 
14. ne 
15. | manu 
16. | man 
17. | manu 
18. | manu 
19. | manu 
20. | man 
21. | mansi-auau 
22. | karai 
23. |nazi-abuabu! 
24. ia 
25. | nanu 
26. | manu 
27. | manu 
28. ae: 
29. | manu 
30. | manu 
ol. | manu 
32. | manu 
Oo! La 
34. | manu 
35. | manu 
.36. | wacho 
.37. | manu 
38. | manu 
39. | ‘meno* 
AQ. | ia meded 
41. | beo 
42. | pika 

. | manu 


22. Fowl. 


man, jaa 
manu 
manug 
tuo 


to 


so 
tu 
to 


to 
to 
tau 
toa 
tu 
toa 
toa 
toa 


toa 
toa 
toa 
toa 
toa 
toa 
toa 


kur 
moa — 
moa 


toa 
toa 
cutu 
moa 
manu 
khoto 


titewe 


kakaruk 
kereke 


23. Snake. 
nimyiv 
gata 

gata 
neskil 


le-mwara!* 
mata 

maro 

mar 


mat 
mat 


mata 
mat 

gmat 
mata 
mata 


moata 


mata 


mata 


gata 
gata 


gmata 
gata 
une 
gata 
nakahi? 
on 

une 

ul 

ul 


kokorogu| _ 


* Also—'minya; -*neke; *malie; *(sc. ni dran, ‘of the sky’). 


SIDNEY H. RAY. 


24. Fish. 


numu 
namu 
namu 
nomu 
nomu 
numu 
ika 

ika 
niadro 
ika, malo 


nazi-ki-tas 
iga, mats 
natj 

10% 

igte 

1g‘e 


masi 
eika 
ika 
ika 
ika 
ig‘a 
ika 
ie 
1‘a 
ika 
woa 
wale 
| ian 
en 
kwarume 


25. Shark. 
nipciv, pai 
pauwun | 
+ ey: 
bekeu 


biauo 
bi 


bace 


bake 


pakoa 


bacio 


kumiru 


mbag‘eo 


pag‘oa 
gclo 
e0t 
tanifa? 


kwalah 


115 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 


Ret.| 96. Fly. |27.Mosquito|28. Butterfly.| 29. Louse. | 30. Tree. 
1. | lag inyum mokemoke**| necet cal 
2. si ee ae mee nel 
3. | kiug | kumug paubauuk | kiget nigi 
4. | lag ce sie neil 
5. nyl 
6. ae ane we sit nokuwai 
7. | lago /namu pepepe kuru laki, geki 
8.}alago — dia ae wih lakai 
9. | jago iomo bémbe suru bur-iesi 
10. _ : liye 
oe las tongas care gut ki 
13. | rag num ceri-kakas_ | cut ce 
14. | lig a aos ys Mele 
15. | lago namu bebe kutu kasu 
16. | lago namu bebe kutu kas 
17. | lago namu pepe kutu kau 
18. HS, kau 
19. se bis ae kau 
20 | lag mamamam!tambembe | kit keh 
21. | lago mohe vebe utu wucal 
23. | lago modke mpwempwe | utu bita-g ‘al 
24. | lano Sa kau 
25. | lago namugi sath cut cau 
26. | lago g‘ag‘asi | mbembe wutu g‘al 
27. | lago namu pepe gutu g‘ae 
29. | lago namu mbembe | wutu g‘elg‘a 
30. | rago namo pepe kutu rakau 
31. %; ae rakau 
32. rakau 
33. ts ae oe Bes rakau 
34. | lago namu rupe wutu tang‘ae 
35. | lago namu mbembe kutu kau, kadhu 
36. | neg tesit fenifen? ote sinde 
37. | lago namu pepe ‘utu la‘au 
38. | rago waeroa, pepepe | kutu rakau 
39. | lago mina, walalaba utu uto, uo 
40. | nego nine kag | ue serele 
4]. | lag gatigat dawai 
42. | lag - ee caer diwai 
43. | lao namo kaubebe utu au 


* Also—'teijig ; [*a species; *» *no generic name—J.F.]. 


116 


He 
&. 


COMM ABorH | 3 
copors | | 


* Also—'numa; ?nicvan; *pirai; *gcasika; [*thetree is meteun; ttree—J.F.] 


SIDNEY H. RAY. 


31. Leaf. | 32. Root. 
rin neucvan? 
numai-nei |nuku-ne-nei 
numalin?* | nakin 
nugkelin | noatnin 
lova-ri, gma} pia 
lu-te kabwate 
mati mbati 
ra‘te bulukte 
raun ram buin 
ula koa 
uli ko 
ulu lake, koa 
lau, li lake 
mitiau kili 
rau oro 
rau kwari 
rurua keri 
rau g‘oe 
raug‘t g‘oarig 4 
rau g‘aro 
ndoul g‘oaril 
rau koga, kai 
naul Sacivs a 
drau waka, vu* 
dro, dén iwan 
lau | a‘a, pogai 
rau pakiaka 
len, le wechin 
rune lewén 
pil? okorina 

es akara 
rau ramuna 


nohwan 


33. Fruit. |34.Cocoanut|35. Banana. 


nukwan 
nowan 
novuan 
nimil 


raki, ndaki 
masakte 
marati 


vana‘te 
fanan 


ua 
ua 


wa-na-kau 


wa 
wa 
witi-na-ke 
vira 


bua 

pegini, tou 
va 

wal 

wal 


Ol 
fua 
hua 


woal 
vua 
wen 
fua 
hua 
whau 
wawen 
vuaina 


Huis 


nealg 


nien 
noki 


novau 
meru, niu 


marou 
ol 
maru 
kula 
nl 
metu 
Niu 
niu 
NIU 
niu 
niu 
niw 
niu 
niu 
niu 
kolo, metui 
matui 
matui 
niu 
niu 
matua 
niu 
niu 
niu 
ono 
matig‘ 
niu 
ono 
niu 


nut, whanu 
wanu 


nohos 


nipin 


paravi* 
vihi 
barabi 
v1 


ves 
Vij 
igeut 
atse 
anr 
andi 
andi 
andi 
vih 
vetal 


Weed 


vetali 
votali 
ihi 


ae | 
fuji 


vetal 
vundi 
wahnawa® 
fal, mo‘e 


Hovibh 
hnamacho 


lama (tree )} vudu 
lama (tree )} wundu 


niu, garu 


diut, bigu 


-|Breadfrutt.| 37. Yam. | 38. Taro. 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 


Sugarcane. 


117 


40. House. 


$$ renee 
| 
=  ———————————————— SS 


pirevi?* 
mbatai 
berebi 
peta 
arab 


betiv 
bataf 
bitam? 
ptum 
mbatau 
mbatau 
batau 
mbatava 
baico 


lewu 
pata 


Gena ¥ 
ulu 


kuru 
patau 
uto 
on? 
‘ulu 


oun 

on 
kapiaka® 
bere 

anu 


yuwi, ul 
iobu 
yubi 
dim, rem 
ram 

tim 

rum 


ul 

ul 

uwl 

wul 

uvl 

nao 

dam, ram 
ram 

ram 


sinara 
ndamu 
damu 
dam 
ndamu 
ufi 

ufi 

ufi 

uf 

nam 
uvi, ndam 


koko 


femnretn 


taro 
taro 
taro 
taro 
kpweta 
ndalo 
inacath 
talo 
taro. 
konyin 
waanl 
pa 

pa 

talo 


potovi 
sob 
botobi 
su 


tif 
tuv 


paral 
porai 
mbarai 
mbarai 


tou 


tovu 
tov 
tovu 


toro 
toro 


toro 
tou 
ndovu 
wia 
tolo 


‘aku 
waea 
tup 
tup 
tohu 


yimo 
ima, hale 
im 
imwa 
im 
ium 
suma 
sum 
sugma 
kopu 
suma 
igma 
vanua 


ima 

ima, venua 
ima 

vale 

igma 


vale 
fare 
fare 
hare 
fare 
igma 
vale 
uma 
fale 
whare 
uma 
‘ma 
pal 
ruma 
ruma 


* Also—*parai; *bitau; [Sthat is the tree—J.F.]. 


118 
No 41. Road. 
1. | nefalaig 
2. | swatuk 
3. | swaru 
4. | selat 
5. 
6. Ss 
7. | rapa’ 
8. | hamau 
9. | mara-mbo 
10. 
11. Sk 
12. | ‘avila 
13. | sar 
14. eh 
15. | bua 
16. | bu 
17. | sala, mbua 
18. | mbua 
19. | mbua 
20. | hale 
21. | sala 
AAO}, Bsa 
23. | nalele 
24. 
25. | rio 
26. | mata-hala 
2ieiehala 
28. | halo 
29. | tur-sala 
30. | retu 
31. | retu 
32. | ara 
33. Mi, 
34. | mate-sala 
35. | salatu, sala 
36. | codhen 
37. | ala 
38. |huarahi, ara 
39. | gethen 
40. | len 
41. | ga 
42. | akapi 
43. | dara 


te 
* Also—'nefana; *mopul; *mira-vandapa; *ndakai; ®gasau; ®sol; 


Fivau; *bior. 


SIDNEY H. RAY. 


42. Bow. 


fana 


faga 
fane 4 


levenahan 
viyu, viu 


yu 


rus 


vih “ 
baka 


baka 

e e A 
vini, too 
vus 
vuhu 
ihu 


usu 
fana 


fana 

us 

vudhu * 
tane-pehna 
au-fana 
kopere 
chafana 
toa-pehna 
panak 


peva 


43. Arrow. 


nithjan* 
kuankuan 


gasau 
ndai 


wu 

wu 
netu-n-bal 
ul 

tu-n-bal 
tipwa, usu 
us 

ticbwa 
tipwa 


e 
ivini 


evina 
wusu, vina 
tinana 
liwal 


lio 
rage 


gasao 


gasau 
kpwatia 
luveluve® 
pehna 

u 

pere 

fana 
pehna 


rumu 


diba 


44, Spear. 


iraklup? 
tel 


sau 

180 
kwila-mira 
meta 


sare 
metas 


ola; soka(v) 
ola 

10 

10 


toke 
sare 


zari 

meur, soki 
cole, sari 
sarl 

sarl 


mataso 
foitao 
tao 


tao 
isar 
moto 
dho 
tao 
tao 

dé 
chaach 


10 


45. Club. 


nelop 
neap 


nirum 
pulaki 


bor 

buts 

mbor 
hemaramar 


mbat 
cbwe, tiko 
mbwe, gcue 


ogm 
mansa 


maza 
watsa 
maja, tig‘o® 
rogcmbwi 
irukpwe 


kere 

foiraka 

rakao 

mbatu 
lakau 

kere 
malumu’ 

dhia 

uatogi 
patu 
utamhu, bon 
hmu 

ram, palau® 


gahi(stone Se 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 


Ref. 

No.| 46. Boat. 
1. | (alav)elcau 
2. | entata 
3. | gau 
4, | lo 
5. | lai 
6. | lo 
7. | wa, wagea 
8. | oagea 
9. | uako 

10. | bulbul 

11. | uagea 

12. | aki 

13. | ce, matarah 

14. | uagk 

15. | rarua 

16. | raru 

17. | rarua 

18. | rarua 

19. | rarua 

20. | raru 

21. | aka 

22. | aka 

23. | aka 

24, | ovo 

25. | ovo 

26. | agea 

27. | wagea 

28. ar: 

29. | aka 

30. | boruku, vaka 

31. | vaka 

32. | vaka 

33. | paci, pogi 

o4. | aka 

35. | wagca 

36. | he (canoe ) 

af. | va‘a 

38. | waka 

39. | hu 

40. | he (canoe) 

41. | mon 

42. | mon, tampag 


vanagi, asi 


* Also—* nikmeij ; 


47. Paddle.|48 Outrigger’ 49. Basket. 
hev nijmaig** § cat 
| ve tanarup 
vea rimel numahan 
velyu 
velua “nt ae 
voho ihama | atinbo 
babeluo | iame | basaro 
pos | | gonta, 
bos jam cat 
obo | Ree xen 
wos semen bolo, ala* 
wos | semen ala 
ae | lasa 
wose | vigira” 
vose | 
1lwose isama cete 
ebose taga 
lua 
| tag 
foi lama kato 
foi _ kato 
wose sama | g’ete, taga 
ivodhe dhama _ kato 
calu (hn)epan (wa)teg 
foe | ama ‘ato, taga 
hoe ama kete 
wasadro | fe tag 
g‘aru eden cucheg 
WoO aman rat 
wo aman ka 
bara | bosea 


“vevana ; 


LY 


50. Pood. 


haig 
vegenien 
nuge 

vag 

ven 

vug 
kinaniena 2 
vagana 
senanien 


yewwe 


vagan 
tincan? 


finaga 
finag 

vinaga 
vinaga 
vinaga 


sinaca 
kanikani® 


sinag‘a,’ 

hinag‘a 
(fy ¢ 

ginag‘a 


sinag‘a 
akai 


kai 


sinag‘a 
kakana 
g‘en-1 
mea-e-‘al 


kai 


jeu, nahan 


kaka 


makwit 


-utna, nian 


ani, mala 


Shenan; *taga; *ndaga; °sinaka; ‘Kani. 


‘ 51. Father. 


etman 

rema, tara 
tim1 

itemen, nate 
rimen, dera 
timen, timo 
arima, ata 
tama 
ka-rama, teta 


temen, teta 
ta, tata 


tema, mama 
tema 

tama, mama?® 
tama 

tama, mama 
ke-tama° 
tama 


tama, tata 
tama, tata 
tama, tetal 
tama, mama 
tama, tata 


tama, tata 
tama, tata 
tama, tata 
tama 

ma 

tama, mama 
tama, tata 
kem, kaka® 
tama 
matuatane, pa 
kamen 
chechen 
tamana 
tamana 
tamana 


SIDNEY H. RAY, 


52. Man. 


natimi 
nermama 
yetamimli 
neteme 
yirema 


aririna, yeru 
atatu 

toro 

ta, vantin 


asamagk 
haris 
murut 

ta, tamole 
tamol 

ta, tagmoli 
ta, tamoli 
tamoli 

ata 
tamaloci 
olo (2) 
tamloci 
leman 
tatsua 
tagaloe 
atatu 

ata, atatu 
tatua 
tagata 
tagata 
tagala 
tagata 
tanun 
tamata 
ate, trahman 
tagata 
tagata ; 
at; tavat(pl.) 
ngome 
tutana 
muana 
tauna 


* Also—atamnyu; 
8 wanakat. 


*sisiwa; *popo; *natu; >°ke-popo; *tetetro; ‘tama-riki; 


54.Husband| 55. Child. 


atmehgan**} halav 


53. Male. 
atamaig 
neruman yeruman 
yeruman | au‘wa‘li 
temen asuon 
auin 
erumune oa 
atamani ohoa 
sumano koa 
asamagk | asunu 
fe-mokoman! teuan 
nanol wota 
nanul nanul 
nanoal wota 
wota 
muera tamanatu 
lamani tua 
leman kuaworesl 
mera 
ataman 
tatua oe 
tane nuane 
tane | nunwane 
siete | 
tagata 48 
gmereata | rasoal 
atagane wati 
trahmanyi | trahmanyi 
tane | tane 
tane tane 
btica alan 
chahman § chahman 
tutana tau 
muana Mey 
maruane adavana 


nate 

netin — 
nalau, nitu 
nehni 


nucariki? 
nati 
ki-neri 
terera 


neti 
netin 


nani 

nani 
ka-ririki* 
natu 

natu 
natu-ruseh 
natu 


natu 
notu 
paule 
natug 4 
nitul 
natu 
natui 
tama 
tariki 
tama-titi 
tama 
natul 
gone, luve 
nekon 
tama 
tama-iti” 
nokon® 
tenen 
bul 

nat 
natuna 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 


121 


No.| 56. Mother. | 57. Female. | 58. Wife. | 59. Chief, | 60. Head. 
1. | risin takata, tahig] ehgan natemarith| pek, ithjinin 
2. | ri‘na bran rukwei yerumanu | nukwane 
3. | iti petan nuwei yerumanug| kaba 
4. \dineme, name asiven retepon | natemonok|) numpug 
5. | ihnin arlareven livan yarumne 
6. sof yatumu ee 
7.) ane, awia | sira oa supwe pwa, cbwa 
-8./ Ja fafine ohoa sumba bati 
9. | ka-ine tira, buvino | k-oa tumbo baru 
10. vihin yafu botu 
ale Eee at oe sum std 
12. | gansen, nina| tambaluk asunu namal bati 
13. | are fe-nevseven’| g‘ason namar karu 
14, =A8 momo she bati 
15. | bwile garunl garunl wot bau 
16. | rait matu matu ot pau 
17. | pwila, tete | goroi gorol wota pwau 
18. | bwila, tete | g‘oroi g‘orol wota mbau, cbwau. 
19. | bwila, tete | koroi koroi wota bau 
20. | ke-pila, anu | vavine Us as cbwal 
21. | tina vavini tabaloci | teriki batu 
22. ee vavine sacle he wd 
23. | tina, nana o‘aral narau mol, supe | patu 
24. | tina, meme | geai, levina | kan-mena| mul, mulisa| potu 
25. | tina, tiai |g‘ajae,wahine ... varese ie 
26. | g‘aruweg‘i? | vaivine g‘aihora, | ratahigi gcmbwatug4 
27. | ratahi vavine tasala Ee kpwatu 
28. fe vaivine ba turaga ec 
29. | veve tawone taima nagonago | kmbwatu 
30. | jina, moma | fine nofune teriki uru 
x tina, nana | fine inahune | teriki uru 
33. | shina fafine ye Tike) ) || aoa 
34, | veve tavine, vavine} rasoai tavusmele | kpwatui 
35. | tina, nana | lewa wati turaga ulu 
36. | thin , nena | foe ifenekon?| dhog‘u he 
37. | tina fafine ava, ali‘ ulu 
38. |matuawahine| wahine wahine ragatira upoko 
39. | hinyen momo aian-momo} than ban, bo 
40. | hmaien foe hmenue | doku hawo 
41. | tinana vavina taulai luluai* uluna, lor 
42. | nana tebuan ne tadaru lorina 
43. | sinana haine adavana | lohia. bada | kwara 


* Also—*nevseven ; 


*inde; *fie, if barren; *uviana. 


J 


* Also—‘meri; *ndaliga. 


12 SIDNEY H. RAY. 
Ref. ; 
No.} 61. Hye. 62. Har. | 63. Tooth.| 64. Nose. |65. Tongue. 
1. | nesganimtan| tikgan neijin githjin man 
2. | nanimen nakwaregen | reven peseg ta‘ru 
3. | nuganemtin | numa-teligen| ne‘lu noamige min 
4. | nipmi telugon nugon, nis worokolag | lua-men 
5. 
7. | ko-mara'* | kiliga jua kuna, konw | pu-mene 
8. | mata seligo livo kinihu mena 
95) mira tiline mari-juvo} sunu buru-mina 
10. | meta rigi lowo cuhu meen 
11. | mera taliga libu nusu meme 
12. | meti arsi elfa gunse leme 
13. | meta ririga ribo honsi nori-me 
14. | mata taliga elfo gunse melambuga 
15. | mita taliga bati gusu mena 
16. | met talge mbati gurin mne 
17. | mata raliga? pati gisu mena 
18. | mata daliga mbati gisu mena 
19. | mata daliga bati gisu mena 
20. | mata tiliga se kinihi mena 
21. | mata boro udu bona meme 
22. | mata a fa malesu te 
23. | mata pero oru, pati | galisu meme 
24. | meta anla peti nono, mansun| meme 
25. | nata salig‘a uju, utsu | g‘og‘o meme 
26. | mata gcmbwerog ‘| livog4 gcmbwanog‘i] meag4 
27. | mata kpwero liwo kpwerigano | mea 
29. | mata kmbworoi | liwoi lisui lue-mei 
30. | foimata tariga nifo isu rero 
31. | foimata tariga Br isu rero 
32. ae ee niho ‘es 
33. | mata teriga nifo tus li-mona 
o4. | matai kpworoi liwoi manui g‘ara-meal 
35. | mata ndaliga bati udhu ya-me 
36. | (ala-)ymek | hnagenyé nyo (hna-)fidh | thinem 
37. | mata taliga nifo isu arero 
38. | kanohi tariga niho iho arero 
39. | emakan nikonyen nyion bahoin bomen 
40. | waecoco wabaiwa ce cupied cutinen 
41. | mata-na taliga-na palagie-na| bilauna karamea-na 
42. | mata-na sia loko-no | gigiro-no karamenawa 
43. \| mata tala hise udu mala 


Ref. 
No.| 66, Belly. | 67. Hand. 
1. | etgan** ikman? 
2. | tubu raga 
3. | ner‘fu, nisiga} nel‘limi 
4. | netnin koben 
5. 
7. | togmocbwo?| lima, jima 
8. | bembe, tne | ma 
9. | mambo, tinie; juma 
10. vera 
De . 
12. | tamba ver 
13. | damba, jini | fera 
14. | veti vari 
15. kwela Tu 
16. | marte ru 
17. |pwele, cbwele} ru 
18. | mbwele ru 
19. mbwele Tu 
20 | mbwele, tia Ae 
21. | bage, tine | lima 
22 wa lina 
23. | page lhma 
24, | page, tia lhma 
25. i g‘ave 
26. | tagembagig‘i| limeg4 
27. | sikpwegi | lima 
28. oe _ ae 
29. | takmbwagii | lima 
30, | jinai rima 
SA rima 
33. | sinae lima 
34, | tokpwe,tinae} panei,lima 
35. | kete hga 
36. | hni, oe ime* 
37. | Mmanava lima 
38. | kopu riga 
39. | nyeakon benyin 
40. | ore wanin 
41. | bala-na lima-na 
42. | bala-na lima-na 
43. | boka ima 


68. Foot, leg.| 69. Blood. 


ethuon 
nesu 
nel‘ki 
nowon 


la 
le 
ja 
le 
lua 


bura-gco 
mbulu 


tuo, mwele 


tu 

tua 
mwele 
tua, mweli 
lao 

karu 

sarl 

balo 

serl 

para 
g‘arug 4d 
kpwalag‘t 


rogo 
vae 
val 


vae 
ragol 
yava 
(wa-)cha 
vae 

wae 
chan 
wata 
kake-na 
kaki-na 
ae 


LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 


ja 
ta 
ra 


de 


unde 
ta 
ta 
ja 


Yl 
re 


tra 

ra 

ra, nda 
nda 
nda 
ndah 
dai 


ral 


tsae 
ndai 
dag‘a 


ndal 
toto 
toto 


toto 
nara 
ndra 
madra 
toto 
toto 
dra 
dra 
cap 
gcap 
rara 


123. 


70. Bone. 


ethuon 
nekakarin 
nikikili 
novian 


cbwuri-yu 
hio 


bur-iu 


bolo-gkont. 
bura-gco 


fatu 
fatu 
vatu 
vatu-na-ta. 


su 
sul 


sul 
sul 
sul 
huig‘l 


hui 


suri 
elvl 
lvl 


suriu 

sul 

dhun 

lvl 

wheua 
jeien, jo 
dun 

ur, ura-na. 
uri-na 
turia 


* Also—‘auwintin; *ijman; %sine; *iwanakoim. 


124 


Ref. 

No.| 71. Skin. 
1. | narasin 
2. | teki 
3. | nosi 
4. | nokolistan 
5. me 
6. ae 
7. | iobou 
8. | kul, kuku 
9. | kulu 

10. 

Joke he 
12. | kalukte 
13. | firarembi 
14. | aulse 
15. | wede 
16. | bulei 
17. | wili 
18. | wele 
19. | weli 
20. 

21. | uri 

DD. a 
23. | kwuri 
24. | kuri 
25. | tinina 
26. | vinug’t 
27. | vinui 
28. cae 
29. | vinui 
30. | kiri 
il 

32. 

oo: es. 
o4, | viniu 
385. | kuli 
36. | kupein 
37. | pa‘u, iliola 
38, | kiri 
39. | unyin 
AO. | nenun 
41. | palina 
42. | panina 
43. | kopi 


SIDNEY H. RAY. 


72. Flesh. |73. Name. 
nemihtan | nithan 
nupra na‘gen 
nuvahege | narige 
fan nin 
; nivana 
nin 
Re ki, ¢1 
vioko kia 
buru-moi | sia 
sa 
rambanta | ag‘se 
vusico cis 
As la, 
bwakas agie 
fsik agl 
pokasi gisa 
bokasi gisa 
bokasi gisa 
ete Ae kiha 
visico cisa, 18a 
| visiko kiza 
Visgo 
visig‘o nes 
vihig‘ogi | hena 
visog‘ ihan 
oh ihan 
visig‘ol sasal 
nohkano | igoa 
konouri igo 
igoa 
vis0g ‘ol sasal 
lewe yadha 
idhon atesi, édhe 
‘a ‘ano igoa 
kiko igoa 
utio ien 
laile ielen 
viono ya-na 
kamanog | ya-na 
anina ladana 


auakak, koina 
namo 


74. Good. 75. Bad. 
imrihin, upene*| has 
amasan reraha 
amasan, tauwer) tera, ra 
aremal ur 
aremal wat 
aramal rat 
cbwo, wo, 0?* | pioroa® 
mbohi sa 
mbho boba 
bua hacavi 
navol oi 
embu esamp 
bu jy 
wia sa 
ul sa 
wia, cbwia sa 
kwia | Sa 
wila sa 
woh, cbwoh taha, aha 
ducu sat ’ 
ruku sati 
mertai, leli ovun 
pel oso 
rea esi 
tavuha hantai 
tavuha hantai 
wia seseta 
rufie sa 
erefia sa 
wia 
vinaka 
loi 
lelei 
pal 
e€ so 
rol 
boina 


* Also—'esjilid; *sumara; *pecbwerua. 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 


125 


No.| 76. Great. | 77. Small. | 78. Red. |79. White. |80. Black. 
1. | alupas haklin, tintin | cap, tanana | ahi apig 
2. | asori auar, auhi rerverev pusan piter 
3. | asoli, teabut akaku ervarev gh aben 
4. | tamas virok, urekis | navilara | nesebo nakomsu 
5. | lamapa 
7. | taura, kevin, keu| otakisi bilili miyuwowo| mekoliko 
8. | sombi biliki bilbil arara 
9. | toru teliki, kiri bilibili miubu 
10. | tlam, kon rakakre** 
12. | lumbon kakas miel | embusa miet 
13. | pareh, bimbut | kakas, keril | parpar visvis metamet 
14. | mbau vare miel mevus metimet 
15. | kwila giki miel tare maeta” 
16. | tob ses miel tar got 
17. | warua, tauwata’| kiki, kirikiri | miela, miala | tare, ndare| gogota* 
18. | mbula gciki, kiki, riki) miala ndautau | gogota 
19. | mbula gciki, riki miela dare, tau EX 
20. | lam susugm lulu pilavili maete 
21. | tauera, lewu uoruore dai-ca lulu urica 
23. | tabera rikiriki kakara lulu | berika. 
24. | tuga-lav, pulpa | tage-rigi kgara wuo, lovu | metu 
25. | tag‘a-suel tag‘a-plu gag‘ara voke naeto 
26. | lawua mbiti | memea mavuti® | maeto 
27. | g‘ai-vua tirig‘i 'memea maita meto 
28, | kai-vua itiricl 238 aa ae. 
29. | lata riki | memea sigara OSOOSO 
30. | sore sisi “mea kego uriuri 
31. | sore sisi -emea kego uri 
32. | lasi titi | Ke. Nee ny 
33. ae 'kalukalu te kelekele 
04, | poa mantag‘ai § nemea akpwag‘a | silsilig‘’a 
39. | levu lailai ndamundamu| vulavula | loaloa 
36. | tru, atrawhat | cho | palulu 6| Wie wetewet 
37. | tele, latele laitiiti ulaula,mumu| sinasina’ | uliuli 
38. | nui iti, ririki _whero ma magu 
39. | e can inukog ve dra e hau e lit 
40. | hmaiai walam | dera-dera cada diwe-diwe 
41. | cala, cir a-ikilik’® meme, tara | kabag marut® 
42. | cala knialik tara kabag marut 
43. | bada maragi kaka-kaka | kuro-kuro) korema 


* Also—*kakerega; *gota; *lapalapa; *loa; * pita; ‘totototo; "pa‘e-pa‘e; 


*marakan; °korog. 


81. Holy. 
itap 
amasan 
asim 
tumpora 
uvuhnumu 
etura 
ki-e-ki-wa 
hambo 
lu 


Kembui 
ukon 


De te 
tab 
tapu 


tabu, ducu 


tabu, ruku 


g‘og‘ona 
sapug‘a 
rogorogo 
tapu 

tapu 

tapu 

rogo, tapu 
tabu 
hmitot 


SIDNEY H. RAY. 


82. See. 


ecet, almoi 
ata 

asal, eru 
kesi 


malia, luali 
mhove, mleo 
miali 


lehe 


lise 
risi, coro? 


libi, lo 
lek, hms 
leo, vunusi 
punusi 
punusi 

loh 

leo, sori 


lukilau, kite 
varuo, V1 
reni, kile 
lehe 

g ita 


ete 

sira, safe 
citi 

kute 


ilo 

ral, sarasara 
coeene, wag 
va‘al, iloa 
kite 

vad 

ule 

na, kwire 
bobo, wako 
italia 


ahgei 
aregi 
atetelig 
rigi 


logo, loge 
mlogo 
mjogi 
rogta 
enrogo 
mire, irir 
rogi 
nrog 
rogo, ndog 
dogo 
dogo 
ndog 


rogo 


rogo 
ronoa 


rorogtag ‘1 
rogo 
rogo 
rogo 
rogo 
rogo 


rorogo 
rogo 
rogo 
deg 
logo 
rogo 
leg 
taedegi 


83. Hear. | 84. Speak. 


asaig, tas, ika 
anl 
ani, agahadi* 


nuwil 


pisa, visa, luc 
mhou, mbetin 
mili, mbere 


fie 


sur 
rij, forei® 


bisa . 

fsa, til 
vasa, noaki 
pasa, noa — 
pasa, noa 
mbetog’ 
viti, sora 


retl 

veti 

veti, aso 
veve® 

vey, avo 
veve, vosa 
veti,lakmbwa 
visau, tukua 
fasao, utucua 
muna 

vet, vava 
vosa, muna 
hape, eweké 
gagana, fai 
ki, korero 
ha, fuj 
negoche 


wa-logore | tata, biti 
vatorome | piri 


kamonai 


koau 


85. Know. 


ato 
urkuren 
ahovein 
kili 

ocori 
ocori 
gkilia, cili 
mkile 
mjiki 
kelea 


lise-mbose 
refasai* - 
rogurve 
atal 

tae 

atae 

atal 

atal 

ata 
mata-uosae 


rogo-bosaki 
pisia 


iloilo 
iloilo 
ilo 
gig ilea 
iro 
ilo, fakarogo 


tae 
g‘lala 
kila 
ate 
iloa . 
matau, taea 
hana, hata 
ule-kachen . 
-nukure 
numere 


diba 


*Also— anus; *mbunsi; *simbwe; *rukere; ‘calakala; °lagcmbwa. 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 


| 
| 


CO COMI Or WO LD 


86. Barter. 87. Hat. 
auanimtam | caig, hag 
avahi-namri | sani 
os-emti un 
va-sigi enl 
ligani kani, kinana 
mbuli kani 
mbuli jenano 
cene, drog** 

gceole ganl 
fuirl hani, rol 
fa-gkota bami, fami 
ba-kot fam 
vaga-tovi® | ganikani 
vaga-koto | kani 

a5 kani 
sori cinikan 
uolia cancan 
wolwol, woli sla 
volvoli kani 

fe gongoni* 
voli kani 
voli g‘anl 
vol g‘anl 
vul gangan 
tunu ee 
fa-mata kai 
faka-mata | kei 
wol g‘anag‘ana 
voli kana 
itd g‘en 
fa‘a-tau ‘al 
hoko kai 
uchoa han 
itich kaka 
bua an, yan 
kuli an 
hoi-hoi ania © 


88. Drink. | 89. Dig. 
umnyl irar 
sanumi erl 
amanum il 
moneki kol 
muni kili 
muni mkili 
muni mkili 
cali 
min aa 
min, minige | kiri 
min e 
muni gili 
min kil 
munugi kili, cole 
munugl gili 
sorovi* ae 
munum eili 
inu cele 
enu, inu stats 
oomi, un keli 
00 Melee 
g‘eli 
me gili 
elnu vere 
inu 
ima gil 
gunu, unuma| kelia 
idh sin 
inu ‘eli 
inu keri 
ij hin 
kua kin 
mome kalia 
inim kili 
inua gela 


127 


90. Bury. 


ati, atelmoi 
enumi 
anum 
tenumi 


sini 
mMSivini 
jivini 

fo 

durse 
teven 
ofaki 
tanumia 


ovaki 
guatuni 


tanomia 


tabuni 


tuleg‘inie 
taua 


taua 
tanumi® 
tanumea 
tanomi 


saloa 
buluta?® 
kelem 
tanu 
tanumia® 
khonom 
cherigid 
punag 
punag 
guria 


* Also—*yen; *sori; *genia; *munugi; *‘lovona; *tanu. 


Ref.) 

No.| 91. Weep. 

1. | taig 

2. | abi 

3. | asuk 

4. | tugi 

5. 

6. ee 

7. | tagi 

8. | mkai 

9. | jegi 
10. | mdurig 
i. ee 
12. | ntag 
13. | teg 
14. a3 
15. | gei, tagi 
16. | kai, tagi 
17. | cae, tagi 
18. | geai 
19. | geai 
20. | are 
21. | tagtage 
22. ra 
23. | tagi 
24, | toni 
25. ee 
26. | tagi, gara. 
27. i 
28. es 
29. des 
30. | tagi 
31. | tagi 
32. dee 
34, | tagi 
30, | tagi 
36. | teidh 
37. | tagi 
38. | tagi 
39. | tegi 
40. | mane 
41: | tagi 
42. | tagi 
43, | tal 


SIDNEY H. RAY. 


92. Fear. 


imtac, imtitaig 
ehekeru 

agen 

metet 


metaku, marau 
mataku 

merou 

meteha‘, tine 


metoh 
metoh 


mitaku 
metak 

mataku 
mataku 


matacu 
nataku 
wotoa 


matag‘u 
matag‘u 
mataca 
matawu 
mataku 
mtacu 
mataku 
matawu 
rere-vaka 
whou 
mata‘u 
wahi, mataku 
oten 
pareu 
burut 
burut 
garl 


93. Lave. 


umoh 
umuru 
umyuga 
murep 


mali 
maulli 
meouli 


eee 


maur 
maur 
moli 
mol 
maurl 
mauri 


mauru 
nauru 
méurl 
masol 
rahu 
dro 
aowe?* 
mauri 
mouri 
mauri 
esu 
nibula 
mele 
ola 

ola 
moat 
chiroi-ko 
nilaun 
Jaloun 
mauri 


94. Die. 


mas 
e‘ma 
imis 

amas 


mate 


| mat 


nate 
mati 
mate 
mate 
mate 
mate 
mate 
mate 
mate 
mate 
mate 
mate 
mate 
mechi 
mate 
mate 
mokut 
tago 


mat, inul? 


mat? 
mate 


*Alsom—'‘mauri; *wirua; *wirua. 


95. Sleep. 


umjeg 
apuri 
buli 
aleiepo 
naleimpa 
nahlumrag 
momalio 


mionomban 


monomelio 
fwer 


ien 
metur 
metur 
maturu 
matur 
maturu 
maturu 


matiri 
maturu 
zuruve 
manoro 
surubli 
maturu 
maturu 
matura 


maturu 


moroa 
mero 


eee 


matur 
modhe 
mekol 
moe 


| moe 


mokut 
thaet 
wa, diop 
inep 


‘mahuta 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 129 


Ref. 


No.| 96. Stand. | 97. Stay. 98. Sot. gD) Go: 100. Come. 
1. | aiji atapanes? | ateuc apan, han | ham, apam 
2. | arer** amaro akure even uvehe 
3. | utul aharug? aharug uven uva 
4, | tur tendowl tesep ampe, ve ve-lum 
5, amenda @. enim 
6. sae a uy enim 
7. | su,su-malu | to totono peno pimi, viru-mi 
8. | mtu-mau | mtoko mtoko-san |mbene, mlobo| mbei-ma 
9. | ju-molu jo jo-a-tano | mbano mbini-me 
10. ae ru, ro, to* | ro, to va, mul mai, lo 
ine. a7 ee sth van ‘| vani-mai 
12. | ndu tok sagceali? mben bene 
13. | tu tok non, sagcer| jo vine 
15. | tu toko to-a-tan bano bana-mai 
16, | tu-leg tok tok-e-tan | fan mai 
17. | tu, tuleana} toko ta-sake® va, pano umai, rumai 
18. | ndu-leana | toko, tuna | to-na-tano | va, pwa ve, pwa 
19. | do Pe mee va, pa vel 
20. | batok ay: arah ndow dah 
21. | turu Ovi ate vano mai 
22. as He ee maimai mal 
23.|\turu - | toko sa-kele thano, mule} nai 
24, | tup-toko oe toko-siwo’ | va, mule* | vanai, si-mai® 
25, | turi tog‘ me van, mule | mai, so-mai 
26. | tu tog‘a tog‘a van - | humei 
20. | tu se dog‘o vano mai 
28. es togo tono val, vano ba 
29, | tu tog‘a tog‘a vano, rasu | vano-mai*® 
30. | tu nofo puku fano hmai 
31. | tu nofo nofo fano, roro | mai 
32. | to nofo, noho | noho saere mai 
34, | tira tog‘a pute vano, mule | van-ma*? 
35. | tu, toka tiko tiko lako, mbau | lako-mai 
36. | chil lapa-pe lapa tro-tha tro-he-mi 
37. | tu, tula‘i | nofo _ | nofo aga, alu sau | 
38. | tu noho noho haere haere-mai 
39. | toat laba laba he-but o-tho, he-jem 
40. | ser hnedi meneg hue hue-bot 
41. | turu ki ki wan uti 
42. | turu ki ki wan urin 
43, | gini noho hela lao mai, aoma 


enn eae onetan  W aa 
*Also—*esekamter; amen; ?a‘nin; mobo; ‘ambalok; ®ndoko-na-tano; 
Tsoko; *lako, noa; °sa-mi; 1°su-mai; }1mule-ma. 


I—July 5, 1893. 


130 


Ref. 
No. 


——— 


ROCHON ASRS S wre 


101. One. 


ethi 

iti, kwati 
kadi 
kilik, kerik 
ke-ri 

sal 

sal 

sokei 

tai, taga 
sakai 

tai, takurano 
hu, hu 
tal 

sikai 
bokol 
soko 

1-se 

iskei 
sikei 
sikai 
sikai 

iti, sikitik 
a-tea 

es 

ma-tea 
tewa, ke-tea 
mo-tea 
g‘a-tuwale 
g‘ai-tuwa 
tewa 

tasl 

tasi 

tasi 

tasi 
tuwale 
e-ndua 
chasi, chas 
e-tasi 
ka-tahi 
khacha 
sa 

tikai 

ra 
tamona 


SIDNEY H. RAY. 


102. Two. | 103. Three. 
ero, ohwat | eseij 
ka-ru ka-har 
kai-yu ki-sil 
ki-lalu ki-sisel 
ki-yu ki-sel 
du-ru de-sel 
ce-lu ce-heli 
ka-lu kj-hili 
lua tolu 
i-lua 1-tou 
juo tolu 
ru, ru sul, sul 
e-lua e-tolu 
eru, eyu | e-rel 
e-nrua e-ntil 
‘e-ru e-tir 
e-ru e-til 
rua tolu 
nru tun 
rua, ndua | tolu, ndolu 
ndua ndolu 
1-ru i-tole 
a-rua a-tolu 
e-rua e-tolu 
mo-rua ma-tolu 
rua, ke-rua | tulu, ki-tulu 
mo-rua mo-tol 
g‘ai-rue g‘ei-tolu 
g‘ai-rua g‘ai-tolu 
irua tolu 
rua toru 
e-rua e-toru 
rua toru 
rua toru 
ni-rua ni-tol 
e-rua e-tolu 
lue-te konit 
e-lua e-tolu 
ka-rua ka-toru 
lo kun 
rewe tini 
a-ura a-utul 
ruadi tuldi 
rua tol 


a 


104. Four. 


emanowan 
ke-fa 
ku-vert 
ku-vas 
ku-ver 
de-vat 
lemelu 
lemelu 
vaerl 
i-vase 
veri 

vir, 2¢ 
e-hati 
e-vads 
e-mbis 
‘e-ve] 
e-ves | 
bate 

pat 

pati 
pati 
i-vati 
a-vate 
e-vate 
mo-thati 
vate 
mo-vati 
g‘el-vesi 
g‘al-vasl 
ivat 


e-va 
eke-te 

e-fa 
ka-wha 
‘vak 

eche 
a-lwat 
watdi 
hani . 


* No. 19—No information. 


105. Five. 


ikman 
kari-rum 
kari-lum 
kilkilep 
kadi-lum 
suk-rim 
suo-rem 
suk-rim 
lima 
iL-lima 
jimo 

lim 
e-lime 
e-rlm 
e-lima 
e-rim 
e-lim 
lima 

lim 

lima 
lima* 
i-lime 
a-lima 
e-lim 
mo-lina 
ki-lima 
mo-lina 


g‘ai-lima —28 
tava-ligma 
rima 
e-rima 


rima 
tave-ligma 
e-lima 
tripi 
e-lima 
ka-rima 
thabun 
se-dongo 
a-ilima 
limadi 
ima 


Ref. 
No. 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. Tar 


106. Six. 


ikman-melidet-eti 


karirum-riti 
karilum-hadi 
sukrim-mé-sekal 
mi-sal 
si-m-sokeli 
o-ral 
log-tagkai 
a-rl 

lise, lisa 
a-hitai 

sukai 
ro-bokol 
rub-tis 

sau-se 

la-tesa 

la-tis 

la-tesa 


la-ti 

a-10no 

ars 
mo-linarave 
ono, kai-oni 
arave 
g‘ai-ono 
g‘al-ono 
g‘al-ono 
lava-tea 

ono 

e-0ano 


ono 
lavea-tea 
e-ono 
cha-ge-men 
e-ono 


ka-ono 

thabun ke nua khacha 
sare-che-men 
lep-tikai 
nomdi 
tauratol 


107. Seven. 


ikman et ero 


karilum-kaiyu 
sukrim-na-ru 
si-mhe-lu 
si-mna-lu 
o-lua 

lok-ua 

a-luo 

luru, duru 
o-lu 

Wwu-ll 
ro-ku-rua 
rub-ru 

sau-ru 

la-rua 

la-ru 

la-rua 


la-ru 

a-bitu 

a-rua 
mo-linarabi-rua 
pitu, kai-pitu 
ve-rua 
g‘ai-mbitu 
g‘ai-vitu 
g‘ai-vitu 
lava-rua 

fitu 

e-fitu 


vitu 

lavea-rua 
e-vitu 
lue-ge-men 
e-fitu 

ka-whitu 

thabun ke nua lo 
rewere-che-men 
levurua 
limadimaruadi 
hitu 


108. Hight. 


ikman et eselj 


karilum-kisil 
sukrim-de-sel 
si-m-heli 
si-mni-heli 
o-rolu 
loku-tou 
a-rolu 

lusul, lisul 
o-tolu 

wu-rel 
ro-k-til 
rub-tur 
sau-til 
la-tolu 

la-tul 


la-tolu 


la-tole - 
a-ualu 
a-rolu 


mo-linarabi-tolu 


olu, kai-alu 
ve-tou 


o‘ai-welu 
g‘ai-welu 
lava-tol 
varu 
e-varu 


varu 

lavea-tol 
e-walu 
k6oni-ge-men 
e-valu 
ka-wharu 
thabun ka nua kon 
tinire-che-men 
levutul 

limadi ma tuldi 
taurahani 


109. Mine. 


karilum-kuvert 
sukrim-minde-vat 
si-ni-vat 
sl-mni-vat 
O-Veerl 

loku-vase 
ko-verl 

liaver, wafer 
a-hati 

wu-bats 

ro-k-bis 

rup-e 

sau-vel 

la-fiti 

le-fut 

lo-veti 

.. —19 
lu-vite 
a-sua 
a-thare 
mo-linarabi-thati 
diwo, kai-sua 
ratati 


g‘al-Slwo 
g‘al-slwo 
la-vat 
iva 

e-lva 


Siva 

lavea-vat 
e-dhiwa 
eke-ge-men 
e-iva 

ka-iwa 

thabun ka una ‘vak 
echere-che-men 
levuwat 

limadi ma watdi - 
taurahani ta 


SIDNEY H. RAY. 


noe 110. Zen. 111. J, my. 112. Thow, thy. 
1. | ikman ero ainyak ; -k; ek, kis | aiek; -m; na, as* 
2. | karirum-karirum | iau; -k; - yak ik ; -m; ik, tik 
3. | karilum-karilum | iau; ie: yak ik ; mM; Hye 
a. ie lau; -ks.. ik 5 =e 
b. bo lyas -K; 3. yik; =z 
C. en IO) plg 3 Gan Lk 5 eee 
4, | na-ro-lem lau; -g kik; -m, -mu, -mi 
5. | lu-rem TAU: 12= 5 1 ca; ...; ken- 
6. | na-ro-lem yo; -ko; imn- ko; -m; kumn- 
7. | lua-lima u; -u; ne ko; gma; o 
8. | lua-lima nagku; -ku; ne, na | aiko; -ma; ku 
9.| duti-limo kiniu; -ku; na jau; -mo; ko, ka 
10. | sagaul, ahu na, ino; -g; na- neg; -M; o- 
d. | ha-lua-lim inau; -k; na keiko; mn: ko, ki 
11. | sigiab oe sata 
12. | sagabul anu; -k, gk; ne egco; -m; u 
13. | sagabur g‘ina;-g; ma, me | g‘au; -m; mo, mu 
14. | gabul anne lteter egk: i) Aes 
15, | re-lima kinu; -geu; a, te nagco ; -ma; ku 
16. | ra-lim kenu; -k; a ag; -m; ku 
17. | rualima kinau; -gu; a nigo; -gma; ku 
18. | ndua-lima kinau; -gcu; a, ta | niigco; ma; ko, ku, tu 
18). ae. kinau; -gcu; a 5 Maa 
20. | ndua-lima keino; -g; ni kaig; -gma; ko 
21. | sagavulu iau; -ku; ku ' | nico; =m sie 
22. | senavul hs oan 
23. | ma-sagavulu enau; -ku; na, a egco, enico; -m; ko,o 
24. | sunuvulu nau; -u, -u; + nigo; -m; + 
25. | sogovul inau; -ku, -k; + inig‘o; -mu, -m; TF 
26. | hagavulu inew ; -gcu; no- inigco; mu, m;3 ‘o- 
27. , hagvulu inau;-gcu, -ku,-k; na-| igigco; -gma; ‘o- 
28. | hagwul inau ; -gu,-ku,-k; na-| g4g¢co; -ma; kho- 
29. | sagwulu, sawul inau; -ku, -k; + iniko; -ga; 
30. | tamtagafuru avau; -ku; akoi; -u; + 
31. | imtagahuru avau; -ku; + akoi; -u; + 
o2. 5a aku; -ku; ku koe; -u; ke 
30. | nofuru avau akoe 
34. | sagavul TMA ke iniko; -gma, -gm; u 
35. | e tini, sagavulu au; gceu; TF iko; -mu ; t 
36. | lue-pi ini; -nge; Tf CO; Tei 
37. | e-sefulu ab ce, | OU Ley: oe 3-u; tT 
38. | ka-tekau, ngahuru) ahau, au; -ku; + koe; -u; f i 
* This table of PRonowuns is explained at the end of the Notes on the — 
Vocabularies. On pages 130, 131 and here, a means the South-west, bg , 


Naviliang, c Iteing—all of Tanna, en dis the island of Paama. 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 


133 


e ° e 


OODNOOPa WR Whe 


! 


113. He, his. 
alien ; -n; et, 1s 
fe ST eS a 
BOs. th st ie 
BES T'S. <5,3 
WLELs -so. 
LO a 
lyl; -n, -ni 
lyi; -ni; k- 
lyl1; -nl; umn- 
naga; -na; + 
nigana; -na; f, (ti) 
nai, naiu; -no; f,(ri) 
g‘e, ge; “na, 1; T 
kei; -n;e 


g‘ena; -n, na; ti 
Sin; 1; mi;|} 
amatag ; Baye 
nal; -na; e, te 
ga; -n;1 

nae; -na;e 

nae; -na;e, u, te 
Et ER 
kinini; -n;1 
nia; -na; mo 


enia; -na, -N; ma, MO, me, mu, 1 


nigina; -na; 7 

; 6 . o of 
itug‘a, ken; na, -n; f 
wen nea, ne, 2: | 
kea; -na, n; + 

g‘eko, keko; -na; f 
la; -na; } 

ela; -na; T 

ala; -na; + 

ia; -na;e 

ela 

Ineia; -na, -n; f 
kokoya ; -na; t 
nyéne; -n; + 

1a; -na; t 

1a; -na; fT 


114. Thou and J, etc. 


akaijau ; -ijau; intau, intis 
krau; -rau; krau 

ki‘lau; -lau; kw, ku, ki 
kelau; .. 


°9 eee 


eee ») eee >) eee 
eailanhss cee soe 
kosenduru; -nt 


Ita; ..3, te 
airavelua; ...: to 
BREA are a Le 

kenrog; -gkenro; ... 
SOE ROCA 


anturua; -ntarua; tur 
raru; -raru; ruma 
veep need eee 

nigita ; -gita; ta 
nigita ; -gita; ta 
nigita ; -gita; toro 

sen ch Sane 

algsgt seu 32COLU, -LOLO 
keigcite; ...; taandu 
gidacarua; ...; ... 
endra-rua; ...3... 
urua; -rua; + 

g‘ijerua; -jerua; + 
g‘nderu; -nderu; nderu 
g‘itaru; -ndaru; ... 
g‘idaru; -ndaru; taru 


OS) 00% 


ee 9 ee0 


Bret 
akitaua ; -taua; + 
acitawa; ...3 7 
taua;...5 ta 

taua 

inarua; -nara; tf 
endaru ; -ndaru; fT 
eésho; T; T 

i taua; -taua; T 
taua; -taua; fT 


~ 


SIDNEY H. RAY. 


ae 115. He and I (etc. ). 116. You two. 
1. | aijumrau; -mrau; ecrau, ecrus | aijaurau ; -mirau; ekau, akis 
2. | kimrau; ...; yarau kimirau; ...; irau 
3. | iti‘mlau; -ti‘mlau; yakwa, ku, ki) itu ‘lau ; -tu‘lau; nukwa, ku, ki 
Goyal cs eee kimilu ; See 
bku Imlads ece eee ku ‘mitlaus year 
Col che ae ee ilu ‘lan; Seer 
4. | kamenduru; -mam kimenduru; -me 
Dyisal she scunpea wae dung ee 
O.4) Sarees: ES Soc 
7. | memi; ...; me amMiu; ..2; a 
8. | amaivelua; ...; mo amunuvelua; ...; ko 
Qa es eae ae tie Sen eee 
10. | g‘emaro; -maro; ... g‘omoro; -mro; ... 
Zh; || 2008 0653, cos EN) tS 
ale ee Mie 
12. | amarua; -marua; mar amurua; -muru; mur 
13. | nemuru; -nemuru; duma g‘amuru; -muru; ruma 
Ae iomaae Nee goa sts Sune 
AD 6 oe eee ares was$ oo 5 KOKA, KOLO 
16. | komam-ra; ...; ara akam-ra; ...; kora, koro 
17. | kinami; -gami; aro nimu ; -mu; koro 
Boh Resaeeae ore, ot rck see 5 4a. SUL 
NO. ..25 ses ATU, aro +23 a.»3 Koru, kore 
20. | keigcem; ...; gmoandu kami; ...; kia 
21. | kamamecarua;...; ... kamimcarua; ...; ... 
Diol ts ces ees se «seg one 
232 | ess eens sved eee gt ome 
24. | umurua; -murua; T umrua; -mrua; fT 
25. | kanamirua; ...; T kanirua; ...; + 
26. | g‘amaru; -meru; maru g‘miru ; -miru; miru 
27. | kamairu; -maru; ... kimiru; -miru; ... 
28. | kamaru; -maru; karu kimiru ; -miru; kiru 
i SW eek adie a te Ae ee 
30. | akimaua,; -maua; fT akorua; -rua; Tt 
31. | acimawa,; -omawa; fT akorua; -orua; f 
32. | maua; ...; ma korua; ...; kore 
33. | maua korua | 
34, | ikarua; -nkara; + ikamurua; -murua; f 
35. | keirau; -irau; f kemundrau ; -mundrau; + 
36. | nyiho; +; ¢ nyipo; +; t 
37. | i maua; -maua; Tt ‘oulua; -‘oulua; + 
38. | maua; -maua; T | korua; -korua; t+ 


bh 
ROHSBNHOMP sa O88 WHY 


— 
— 


PR ee ee Oe ee ee 
CODA OP wh: 


bo bd dO dD bY bd} 9 bo 
SOU Seo ite See ss 


© bo 
S 


-keniare; 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 135 


117. They two. 


arau; -rau; erau, erus 
irau; -nrau; krau 
ilau; -lau; kw 
UU iene 2 

SR eee 

eT ig REN Lis 
iroranduru; -ndi 

2 een 


oeey BIO $) eee 
nagala; ...; a 
nigavelua; ...; lo 
=p aan 
neero; -raro; ... 


soy 8804 200 


oronrua; -rua; or 
raru,; -raru; ruma 
2s Araceae 
ratrua; ...; ra 
Fae... 2. 5 Fa 
rara; -ra; ero 
rarua; ...; eru 

ees erty CLO 
oon 5 EIS 
MI ACATM A'S 215) 2’. 
25.5 Sees 


cde Re 
rurua; -rurua; 


ge irerua;”. 2.4 

eds... Saru 

oe Larus 3% 

kerag‘airua; -nira; ramura 
ee fi cRs 

akiraua ; -raua ; ¢ 
acrawa; -rawa; T 
raua; ...; kire 

raua 

irarua; -rara; -nrara; + 
erau; -drau; Tt 

nyido; +; T 

i laua; -laua; + 

raua; -raua; Tt 


akaija; -ija; inta, intis 


118. You and I (plur.) 


kitaha‘; -taha; sa 
kita‘; -ta‘; kot 
KAGAWA! Slee 
atainn. caw .a. 
ketats... 3... 
kos; -nt 

gis; -kis; n- 

cis; -gkis; lemn- 
ita; -ta; te 

alra; -ra, -re; te 
kito; -dro; ra, ro, re 
ken; -gken; yi- 


00 5) oO 5) ° 


antil ; -ntil; til 
riti; -riti; rama 


Aer cece 
gcita; -gcita; tu 

akit; -kit; tu 

nigita; -gita; tu 

niginda ; -ginda; tu 

sacs) eeoey OU 

keigcite ; -igcite; ti 
g‘ida; -da; ka 

Se eae 

endra; -ra; ra 

rie; -rie; T 

igtje; ja; 7 

ig‘inde; -nda, -nde; nda- 
ig‘ita; -nda; ta- 

gida; -nda; ta- 

iginda; -nda; f+ 

akitea; -tea; T 

acitia ; -oteia; Tt 

tatou; ...; tu 


tatou 
inina; -nina; + 
eda ; -da 


eéshe ; T; Tt 
itatou ; -tatou; T 
tatou ; -tatou ; T 


136 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


No.| 119. They and I (plur.). 120. You (plur.). 
1. | aijama; -ma; ecra, ecris aijaua; -mia; eka, akis 
2. | kimaha‘; -maha; yah kimyaha‘; -myaha; hi 
3. | iti‘ma,; -ti‘ma‘; yakot itu‘ma ; -tu‘ma; nukot 
GoW KAMA Wes Jenn ee Kimilas \.s-\eee 
De || SUOTTNENES 3559 one kuSmiars.) sue 
CH) br ohidaste crs THUNB OME DG) AA Bec 
4. | kam; -mam kimi; -mi 
5. | gim; -kim; uhn- gimi; -nimi; kihn- 

6. | kum; -gkum; lemn- kimi; -gkimi; kimen 

7. | memi; -memi; me amiu; -miu; a 

8. | amai; -mai; me amunu; -munu; ke 

9. | kumemi; -mem1; ni kamiu; -miu; ku , 
10. | g‘ema; -ma; ma- gImi; -m; mi- 

d. | komei; ...; mo, me kamol 3203 ad 

1. ae a 

12. | amintil; -mintil; mil amuntul; -muntul; mul 

13. | nemdi; -nemdi; dama g‘amdi; -mdi; tama 

Ea eee et r se eee ante 

15. | geami; -gcami; u, tu kumu; -mu; ku 

16. | komam ; -nami, -gami; au akam ; -mus; ku 

17. | kinami; -gami. -ginami; au nimu; -mu; ku 

18. | nigcami; -gcami; a, u nimui; -mui; ko, ku 

ale eer vat wig Ses SS ee 

20. | keigcem; -igcem; gmo kami; -igcam; ki 

21. | kamam; -mam; ka kanim ; -mim; no 

vie Na SpE Ciaran 2 ae 

23. | kanam; -nam; kana, ana kanim ; -nim; ka, a 

24, | emam; -maman; f emiu; -miu; Tf 

25. | ikanam; -nam; + ikaniu ; -niu; 

26. | ig‘amai; -mai, -mel; g‘a- ig‘imiu; -miu; mi- 

27. | ikamai; -mai; g‘a- ikimiu; -miu; g‘1- 

28. | kama; -mai; ka- kimi; -miu; ki 

29. | kami; -mami, mi; f ikamu; -mu; t+ 

30. | akimea; -mea; { akaua; -ua; T 

31. | acime; -ome; fT acowa; -owa; -T 

32. | matou; ...; matu kotou; ...; kote 

33. | matou koutou 

34. | ikamam ; -mam; { ikamiu ; -miu; + 

35, | keimami; -imami; + kemuni; -muni; + 

36. | eéhun; +; T nyipunie; +; + 

37. | 1 matou; -matou; fT ‘outou; -‘outou; fT 


38. | matou; matou; + koutou; -koutou; + 


Ref. 
No. 


_—. 


a — 
NMQOHONOWPsa SS WHe 


! 


| 
| 


= 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 


ara; -ra; era, ecris 
iraha‘; -nraha; h 
ila‘; -la; kot 
LIE aan Gt: WR Se 
MUI ah thee ss che 
nenie 
irora; -nda 

lel; -nil; kihn- 


 yoril; -kor, -ra; lemn- 


nagala ; -la; a 
niga; -la; le 
nalo; -lo; a 
geira; -ra, ry 
Keatlays 05 U, 1 


g‘era; -ra; ar 
Goan See on . 
gWniri; -r; rama, 
oop eee TA 
nara, kita; -ra; ra, ru 
nigar; -r; rw 
nara; -ra; eu 
nara; -nda; e, u 
eet. 5 C. Uy Ell 
keniare; -niare; ri 
nira; -ra; na 


enira; -ra; la, ila 
rire; -rire; 
ig‘ire; -ra ; 7 
gere; -ra, “re; ra- 
ikera ; -ra; ra- 


. kera, nira; -ra; ra- 
| 
| 


ira, iri; -ra; T 
akiria ; -rea; ft 
acre; -ore; + 


. | ratou; ...; kite 
. | latou 

. ineira; -ra, r; 7 
. | era; -ndra; t 


angate ; 7; 


. | 1atou; -latou; ft 


ratou ; -ratou; 


12). They (plur.) 


137 


122. Sign of Plural. 
Prefix ilpu or ra, r 
Suffix wai 
Suffix min, Prefix n 


ovun preceding 


lala (plur. pron.) following 
Adjective following 
By plur. pron. following or adj. 


By adjective or numeral 
By plural pronoun following 


mau, laba following 

mera wan follow. (combin. dial). 
maga, mamau, lapa following 
mau, mamau, maga following 


emag, abau following 


Prefixes va,vei,ra. Adj. foll. 


Adjective following 
Prefix ro or adjective 
naure or vao following 
teri 

g‘aha following 


gmaraga following, or ririki 
Prefix a or aga 

a prefixed 

nga prefixed 


gag following; prefix ra, re 
Prefix vei, or adjectives 

Prefix 0 or i. Plur.pron.oradj. 
By particles or lengthened vowel 
By particles or lengthened vowel 


re 
* | a 


138 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


IV. NorTes ON THE VOCABULARIES. 


In the languages of Aneityum, Tanna, and Eromanga, the words 
in this Vocabulary are often given in the form in which they 
appear in the lists of the missionaries, and the reader should keep 
it in mind that an initial ~ or an represents a demonstrative, the | 
article, and a final nm the possessive suffix, third person singular. 


The relationship of many of the following words to those found 
in Malaysia and other parts of Oceania is commented upon in the 
work of the Rev. Dr. Codrington on “The Melanesian Languages.” 
Reference is accordingly made to the pages of that work for fuller 
evidence of the connection of the languages of the New Hebrides 
with those of Oceania generally. What is intended in this list is 
chiefly to show the relations of the New Hebrides dialects to one 
another. 


[As it may be of interest to some readers of this Journal to trace 
the origin of the words used in these dialects, I have supplemented 
Mr. Ray’s notes by some notes of my own, which are offered to 
assist in determining the origin of the races in Oceania. Apart 
from language, the traditions and history of these races give us no 
sure evidence on that point. My notes are enclosed in square 


brackets.—J.F. | 


1. Sun—The word common is some form of alo. In mutv-gar, 
nipmi-nen, nihmi-umugkum, nimnim-ugkum, meti-ki-au, mare-gr-0, 
meta-ni-alo, mera-t-ali, the first member of the compound is mata, 
the common word for ‘eye or face,’ and the expression is a parallel 
one to the Malay mata-ari. The Aneityum thigo, Fiji saga are 
forms of sina, a common Polynesian word for ‘shine,’ ‘white,’ seen 
also in the Sesake masina, ‘moon,’ Efate san, ‘to burn splendidly’ 
asa great fire. The Marina maso is the usual New Hebrides | 
word for ‘star.’ Of. Mel. Lang. p. 93. | 


[Words for ‘sun’ come from roots meaning (1) ‘to shine,’ ‘to 
burn’; cognate ideas are :—(2) ‘bright, clear, manifest’; (3) ‘red, 
red-hot, scarlet, blood’; (4) ‘white, a sail, splendid, beautiful’; (5) 
‘heat, passion, love’; (6) ‘sharp, acrid, sour,to cut.’ 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 139 


The simple roots which express these ideas are:—ka, by meta- 
thesis ak; ba; da, di, and, by change of consonant, Ja, ra,; by the 
addition of formative syllables, chiefly suffixes, these roots produce 
a great variety of words which are spread all over Oceania. All 
these roots exist in Sanskrit and other Aryan languages; thus :— 
KA :—Sk.* kam, ‘to burn,’ kdéma, ‘love, desire,’ Gr. ka-to. 
AK:—Sk. agni, ‘fire, Lat. ignis, ‘fire,’ acer, ‘sharp,’ ocwlus, ‘eye.’ 
BA:—Sk. bhd, ‘to shine,’ bhdlu, ‘sun,’ maha, ‘light,’ Lat. (b)uro, 

Spars. | 

DA:—Sk. ddha, ‘burning,’ Gr. daio, ‘burn,’ dais, ‘torch,’ daélos, 
délos, ‘clear, manifest.’ 

pi:—Sk. dip, ‘to shine,’ div (dya), ‘day.’ 

RA:—This form has many representatives in Sanskrit, and as these 
forms illustrate the process by which variations in the mean- 
ing of the original root are acquired, several of them may be 
given here ; as :— 

Sk. ranj, raja, ‘to colour, to glow’; rakta, ‘red, agitated by 
passion, fond, pure, blood, vermilion, copper, saffron.’ 

rajata, ‘white, silver, gold, ivory, blood.’ 

rdj, ‘to shine’; rdga, ‘red colour, love, wrath, passion, envy.” 

rdma, ‘beautiful, black, white’; ravana, ‘sharp, hot’; rave 
‘the sun.’ 

ruch, ‘to shine, to please, to desire, to like’; ruchita, ‘bright, 
sweet’; rukma, ‘clear, bright, gold’; ruch, ‘light, lightning, 
beauty, desire’; ruch-aka, ‘agreeable, sharp, a tooth, salt.’ 

rudhira, ‘blood, sattron’; Gr. eruthros, ‘red.’ 

roka, ‘light’; rochana, ‘irradiating, splendid, sharpening’; 
rochani, ‘red arsenic; the aether’; rochis, ‘light, flame.’ 

roshana, ‘angry,’ quicksilver, a touchstone’; rohita, ‘red’; 
rohini, ‘blood.’ 

raudra, ‘irrascible, acute, heat’; rupya, ‘silver.’ 

Examples of most of these meanings are to be found in the 
Oceanic languages. 


* Abbreviations :—Dr. for Dravidian; Gr. Greek; Lat. Latin; Sam. 
Samoan; Sk. Sanskrit; Tukiok is the native pronunciation of Duke of 
York (island); A.-S. Anglo-Saxon; rt. root. 


er 
ie 
} 40 
5. 
? 
' 


140 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


In the Dravidian languages of Southern India, the root KA is 
represented by kay, ‘to burn’ (Telugu dialect, kd-lu, kd-gu, Tamil 
kanger), kin, ‘to see,’ kan, ‘ the eye,’ kadu, ‘to be sharp, pungent, 
fierce, swift, to be hot, to ache,’ kadz, ‘to bite,’ kavi, ‘red ochre,’ 
_ kaveri, ‘turmeric,’ chem, ke-n, se, ‘to be hot,’ sembu, ‘red,’ ti, ‘fire,’ 


avd (for kava), ‘desire.’ 


Now, in Mr. Ray’s list of words for ‘sun’ and ‘daylight,’ the 
most common is some form of alo, and the nearest approach to 
that is the Dravidian Adlu, ‘to burn, to shine.’ The loss of an 
initial & is no uncommon thing in Oceania, but the & still remains 
in the Samoan ‘alo-‘alo, ‘a sunbeam’; it remains also in several 
words used in the Indian Archipelago to mean ‘sun,’ as haliha, 
kluh, and kat, kila, gawak, ‘daylight,’ kalap, chaleret, ‘lightning.’ 
Even the negrito Samangs of Malacca say kael for ‘sky,’ and Fiji 
has kalo-kalo, ‘a star.’ And ‘ula (kula), ‘red,’ is another word in 
Samoa which I trace to the Dr. kdlu, for metathesis is common 
there. Brightness is the original idea in all these words. 


In the list, da, ra is the common Polynesian word for ‘sun.’ It 
is immaterial whether we take this from the root KA or the root 
DA, for both changes of sound are legitimate; I prefer to take it 
from KA, for that is the form which appears to have spread most 
to the East, the £ often changing into 7. The connection of Ja, 
‘sun, with words for ‘blood’ /q¢.v.) is manifest, and the reason 
why is shown by the Sanskrit meanings under the root RA, as 
above. But in Samoan, /a also means a ‘sail’; here again you 
may see the reason why in the Sk. rajata and rdma; the Sk. ruch 


also, when written in Greek, is lJeukos, ‘white,’ and the Greek 
lampros, ‘bright,’ if written /amb-ara, might pass as a pure Oceanic. 
word. The Maori ko-ma, ‘whitish,’ and ko-maru, ‘sun,’ ‘sail’ (from 
the root BA, MA) illustrate the Samoan double meaning of Ja. 


From this root Ma come other words for ‘sun’ in Mr. Ray’s list, 
ma-80, ma-re, me-rt. In some parts of Oceania this root also means 
‘to see’; whence the ma-ta, ‘eye,’ of our lists, and that corresponds 
with the Dravidian kan, ‘eye,’ from the verb kan, ‘to see,’ and the 
root KA. Under this head also come ma, ‘ white’ /q.v.), mast (Fiji) 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 141 


‘native cloth’ made from the ‘ white’ fibre of the mulberry tree, 
the Samoan words masi-na, ‘the moon,’ and masoa, ‘ arrowroot.’ 


The root DA gives dhé, du, ndae, dan, drat, in our list, nnd DI 
gives di-na, di-art, ne-thig, na-diat, with which compare the Latin 
di-es, ‘day,’ sub di-o, ‘in the open air,’ d-vus, ‘a god,’ and the Sk. 
deva, ‘a god,’ Dyauspater, Lat. Jupiter. Compare also the Fijian 
diva, dia, ‘to look.’ The gar of line 3 I take to be for kar, whence 
the Malay arin mata-ari, ‘the sun.’ This connection is supported 
by the Motu gara-gara, ‘hot,’ Efate, giri-girt, ‘bright,’ Tukiok, 
garo, ‘to desire earnestly,’ (cf. Sk. ruch, and Sam. alo-fa, ‘love a 
kwire, ‘to see, look,’ Maori, koro-tu, ‘desirous,’ koro-pupu, ‘to boil,” 
(cf. Malay, goring, ‘broil’), New Britain, karat, ‘to bite,’ kara-gap, 
‘rage,’ Motu, koria, ‘to bite’ (cf. Dr. kadi, Sk. ruchaka). With 
gar compare also the Ebudan words for ‘ red,’ No. 78, lines 23 — 25. 
Consult also Curtius (‘‘Greek Etymology”) on the roots ghar, bha, 
bharg, rag, arg, lamp, ‘to shine.’ The Sk. has ghr-ansas, ‘heat of 
of the sun,’ and the Keltic has gr-van, ‘the sun.’ 


I now wish to show how widely the root ka has spread in 
Oceania. Thus the Malay chaya is ‘bright, clear,’ and garam is. 
‘anger’; the Motu kaka-kaka is ‘scarlet,’ halaka is ‘scorch’; New 
Britain has kolot, kan-kan, ‘anger,’ ka-ka, ‘bright red,’ ka-pa, ‘to 
shine’; Tukiok has kal-kalawap, ‘to burn,’ kup, ‘to blaze,’ kum-ala 
‘to shine, and wa-kupt, ‘to light’; Maori has kan-apa, ‘bright’ and 
the words with koro as given above. A longer form of ka-ka is. 
the Samoan ‘a‘asa (kakasa), ‘to be red hot,’ and to-‘asd, a chief’s. 
‘anger,’ from the same root ka. The Aneityumese, which delights 
in dethroning an initial root-consonant so that the word may begin 
with a vowel, says ef-ehcas (for kakas), ‘bright, shining,’ eh: (for 
kali), ‘to singe’; it also has aces, ‘to bite,’ acas, cas, ‘burning, hot, 
pungent, sour,’ acas, ‘to burn,’ acen, ‘sour, angry.’ This acas, cas 
or kasa (cf. Samoan ‘a‘asa) is the Fijian ngesa, ‘to burn’ in cooking, 
and seems to me to be the body of the word nagesega (line 1), ‘the 
sun,’ as if ‘the burning one,’ for it may be resolved into na-agese-ga 
of which na and ga are formatives. Again, if, following the 
analogy of the Sk. derivatives of raj (supra) and the meaning of 


142 SIDNEY H. RAY, 


the English expression ‘brand new,’ we take the Samoan kakasa in 
the sense of ‘bright,’ it brings us close to hakoso, ‘the sky’ in the 
ancient language of Java, and angkasa, ‘sky’ in the neighbouring 
island of Bali. 


The root TI also has a place in Oceania. In Maori, t-aho and 
ti-t2 mean ‘to shine,’ while to-to is ‘sharp’; in Samoan Zio is 
‘sharp,’ said of the eyes, t7-ga is ‘pain,’ 7/-te‘e is ‘to be angry,’ “¢‘zla 
(ki-kila) or ‘cla-“la is ‘to shine, to glisten,’ said of the eyes; in 
Fiji dhila is ‘to shine’; in Motu, /va-ma is ‘bright.’ The Malay 
has kilu, gilang, ‘to shine,’ figilu, ‘to ache’; the Pali of India has 
tikkho, tino, ‘sharp, acrid,’ and the Dravidian has tindu, ‘to kindle,’ 
tidu, ‘to whet,’ and #2, ‘fire.’ Another Oceanic form of 11 is sI, 
whence the Samoan s?-sz/a, ‘to look, to see, to know,’ s¢-na, ‘white,’ 
sisifo (as if sisi-ifo, ‘to look down’), ‘the west,’ si-sz/7, said of ‘shoot- 
ing pains.’ From the same root come the Fijian siga-sigau, ‘white,’ 
the Fijian name for ‘sun,’ mata-ni-siga, and the Malay sig, ‘torch.’ 
Still another root form is sE, but this corresponds more with the 
Dr. s’e, ‘to be red’ where the s’, as in Sanskrit s’ona, ‘to be red, 
represents an original &, From s’e the Samoan has se-ga, ‘the 
crimson parroquet,’ se-gz, ‘to burn a scar,’ sega-vale, ‘to shine dimly’ 
(said of the sun), sega-sega, ‘ yellowish’ (ef. Sk. rudhira, ‘saffron’), 
sege-segi, ‘twilight,’ se-sega, ‘to dazzle.’ The Dr. se-mbu is ‘red’ 
and the Malay sé-rah is ‘red.’ At Baki (New Hebrides) se-mbz is 
‘fire.’ From the same monosyllabic roots as above come many 
Oceanic words for ‘fire,’ ‘smoke,’ ‘eye’ (qq.v.), as ka-p, ka-pt, ka-bu, 
ma-ta, la-hi, and, dropping the 4, afi, ahu, asu; also words for 
*“burn,’ ‘ashes,’ ‘oven,’ and the like. In Aneityum, cap, cop is 
*hot, red, beloved; cf: Sam. ‘alofa, ‘love.’ 


I have thus examined at considerable length the words in Mr. 
Ray’s first column, for the purpose of showing how intimate is the 
connection between the Oceanic languages and root-words which 
may be found in India; for my belief is that the races of Oceania, 
both black and brown, came thither from their original homes in 
India. The ancient literature of the Javanese shows that Kalinga 
of the Madras coast (Dravidian) was well known to them, and that 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 143 


they had intercourse with the people of that country. Similar 
results could be obtained by a careful survey of the words in other 
columns of these lists; but the labour would be a long one and 
this is not the place for it. In the rest of these notes I shall 
merely indicate the direction in which inquiries might be carried 
to ascertain the sources from which the words have come. | 


2. Daylight—The proper word is ran, maran. In Malekula, it 
it is combined with wa, ‘place,’ so that uta-n-rien, ute-rin is Splace- 
light,’ just as in Motu (New Guinea), hanua-bo1, ‘land-dark,’ is 
night. The word ran is seen in the Efate ran melu, ‘daylight 
shadowed,’ ‘evening.’ 

[For ra-n see ‘blood,’ and my notes on No. 1. La, ra in Poly- 
nesian is ‘sun,’ ra-ngi, la-ngi is ‘sky.’ In New Britain rag is 
‘scorch,’ and ro, rau is ‘dazzle.’ | 

3. Moon—The widely spread Oceanic word vula is found in the 
Northern languages and in Ambrym. A common word for ‘star,’ 
vitu, which is betuch, ‘sun,’ in Dayak, is ‘moon’ in Malo and 
Tangoa. The Eromangan dats, iris is probably the same word. 
The Tasiko varww suggests that in ku-bario, Bieri ka-mbatiau, 
Aulua a-mbisia and (by regular change of & to s) the Baki sv- 
mberio, we have vitiw with a prefix, which is found in Kwamera 
with the word for ‘star.’ In the three Southern languages mohoc, 
mokwa, mauug may be the mag‘ag‘a of Torres and Banks’ Islands. 
Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 82. 

[For vula see ‘white,’ line 35. In Samoa pu-pula is ‘shine.’ In 
Duke of York Island pua is ‘sun, moon, lamp.’ The Sanskrit root 
is bhd, ‘to shine. With mohoc compare (Ambrym) moho, ‘star,’ 
(Sesake) masoe, ‘star,’ Samoan ma, ‘clear, pure,’ Epi ma, ‘see,’ 
New Britain bo-bo, ‘see.’| 

4, Star—Some form of masoe is the usual word in the Southern 
and Central languages. JVitw is found in the North, in Tasiko 
erue, and, with adjective sarasara, in Maloand Tongoa. Cf. Mel. 
Lang. p. 92. 

[The same root word in different languages may mean ‘sun,’ 
‘moon,’ ‘star,’ the idea common to all being ‘shine’; words for 


144 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


‘lightning’ also come from such a root, Fa-tu is the original form, 
from root bhd, ‘to shine’; from fa-tu come fetu and vitu, with which 
compare Malay bintang, ‘star,’ the body of that word being dzéa. | 


5. Stone—The Polynesian fatu is seen everywhere, except in 
Tanna, where, however, kabil (properly ‘limestone’) seems to be 
New Britain 6i/, a verb, ‘to cast stones,’ with an instrumental 
prefix ka. The same prefix is seen in the Tanna ka ‘kil, ‘a digging 
stick,’ from 7 ‘to dig.’ This prefix, as ga, is common in the Banks’ 
Islands. [See notes on ‘bone,’ No. 70.] 


6. Night: 7. Darkness—The common word is bog in various 
forms. This word also means ‘black,’ in Aneityum apig, Tanna 
dialect arabug. In Tanna niipug is a ‘cave.’ In the Malekulan wéa- 
meligco, uta mt bug, uta is the Malay wtan, common in Melanesia 
for ‘land, bush, etc.,’ (see words for daylight). The Efate and 
Malekula meligko is in Baki meliju, ‘cloud.’ Malo dodo, Omba 
ndondo is also ‘cloud,’ and in Florida (Solomon Is.) rorodo, ‘blind.’ 


Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 85. 


[ Bog should be ‘day’—from Sk. rt. bhd, ‘to shine,’ Dr. pag-al, 
‘day’—but bug, ‘night,’ from Sk. rt. mu, ‘to bind,’ hence ‘to 
cover, to close,’ as in Maori pun, ‘to cover,’ Malay bunt, ‘to con- 
ceal’; cf. ‘‘surely the darkness shall cover me.” | 


8. Wind—The Polynesian matagz is found in the three Southern 
languages. All others have a form of lagz which in Polynesia-is . 
‘sky.’ } 

[The rt. idea in ‘sky’ here is ‘brightness,’ from da, ma, as in 
No. 1; da-gi gives ta-gi, lu-gi. Ma-tagi, ‘wind,’ probably equals 
‘from sky.’ But three Pali words mean both ‘air’ and ‘sky.’] 

9. Sky—The Malo, Tangoa tug‘a, tuka is the Mota tuka, properly 
meaning the ‘firmament.’ Aulua mao is Omba mawe, Baki madi, 
‘above,’ Duke of York Is., mawa. 


10. Rain—A form of usais common. The Maewo rew is ‘water’ 
in Malo and Nogogu. Eromanga bip may be the Lamangkau verb 
‘to rain, in na ue 2 bop, ‘it is raining,’ the rain falls. Cf. Mel. 


Lang. p. 86. 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 145 


11. Water—The common word is wai. eu, rau, ra are the 
Maewo reu, ‘rain,’ and probably also the Santa Cruz luwwe. Cf. 
Mel. Lang. p. 97. 

[Sk. rts. are ap, am, ma, and su, of. Hebrew ma(i), mo, ‘water,’ 
Indian pa-ni, ‘water,’ su-mas, ‘milk,’ ‘water,’ Samoan sua, ‘juice,’ 
‘liquid.’ | 

12. Sea—The usual word is ¢asi or taht. Pangkumu aror is 
the sea breaking on the beach, ‘waves’; in Ponape (Caroline Islands), 
oror is ‘the shore,’ the water’s edge. Omba wa-wa is ‘ the open sea.’ 
Maewo lama is local in the Banks’ Is., but as daman it is found 
also at Nusa on the Northern extremity of New Ireland. Marina 
getyja is Lifu cedha. Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 89. 

[‘Sea, salt, bitter, sharp ’ are cognate ideas, and ‘sharp’ is cog- 
nate to ‘shine, ‘burn’; hence Aneityumese acen is ‘salt’ and acas 
is ‘burn’; so fa-si, ‘sea,’ may come from rt. da, ka, as in Note 1. 
The Sk. has tad, ‘to shine,’ é, ‘to be sharp,’ ¢kta, ‘bitter.’ Cf. 
Gr. tha-l-assa, Lat. ma-re, sa-l. | 


13. Zand—All except the Southern tongues have some form of 
vanua. In Tasiko buru-anua, burw is ‘mass,’ ‘lump.’ The Male- 
kula batic-venua, batin-venua, which is also in Malo, is properly 
* ‘the country belonging to a chief.’ Tanna ¢ano is the common 
word for ‘ground.’ 

[Fanua probably for fau-na; a Sk. rt. is bhi (bhav), ‘to be,’ 
whence bhumis, ‘earth,’ and Gothic bau-an, ‘to dwell’; cf Sam. 
mau, ‘to dwell.’| 

14. Zarth, soil—The common word is tano. Tanna nafu-tanr 
is probably ‘earth-dust’; afw being the Fiji kuvu, ‘dust,’ Efate 
afu-afu ‘to be dusty.’ In the Weasisi district there isa continual 
rain of black volcanic dust. The Aneityum noboh-tan is apparently 
the same word, tan being ‘red earth.’ Nogogu Jlepa is in Efate 
‘clay.’ Futuna, Aniwa, Fiji and Samoa kele, kere, gcele, etc., is 
‘earth,’ ‘dirt.’ Wulua ono, Maori oneone, is very common in 
Melanesia for ‘sand, beach.’ 


15. Lire—The word kabw is in general use, except in the north, 
where afi, which is also Polynesian, takes its place. The Fiji wagca 
J—July 5, 1893. 


a ge 
et 
Ww 
‘ 
‘ ' 
~ 


146 SIDNEY H. RAY. * 


in mbuka-wagea (Ura vag in nampe-vag) is ‘burning.’ ‘The fire 
burns’ is in Efate nakabu 2 faga, in Pangkumu nokambu pagpag, 
Baki sembi-bo vago. Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 67. [See Note 1.] | 


16. Smoke—The usual word is asu, with or without the word 
for fire. Of. Mel. Lang. p. 90. [See Note 1.] 


17. Shade—The list is very imperfect, but some form of malu 
is distributed over the whole region. In Epi fo-melu, va-melu are 
verbs ‘to shade’; fo and va are the causative particles. 

[The rt. idea of most is ‘soft’ (Tukiok malu-a, Efate nia el 
that is, away from the burning rays of the sun. Others are’ 
‘leafy, shady.’] 

18. Pig—The original word was no doubt poe. Puaka, puka 
are probable introductions from Polynesia. The Efate, etc., wagco, 
wak may be forms of puaka, since pu or pw is there interchange- 
able with w. Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 86. 

[The rt. idea is ‘fat’; a Sk. rt. is pa, pi-van, ‘fat.’] 

19. Dog—The origin of the common word kurz is obscure. It 
is probably of recent introduction in many of the islands, certainly 
so in Tanna, Eromanga, and Aneityum. In Mota the word kurut, 
says Dr. Codrington, was in the language when first known to 
white men, though the islanders had no dogs. 


[In the Dravidian of India kudz is ‘to leap, to run,’ and kuderet 
is a ‘horse’; the dog and the horse are ‘leapers’; they leap in 
running. | 

20. Rat—The word kuswwe appears in many forms as hasup, 
goba, kaue, sowo, kahau, asuk, cetho, adhi. Cari is found only 


in Santo, Omba, Arag and Maewo. Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 86. 


21. Bird—The word manu, which is in general use, is in a few 
eases used indefinitely of any animal. In Malo and Tangoa, man- 
si-auau, nazi-abuabu is ‘flying animal’; cf. Efate kuvanguva, ‘to 
fly.’ Tangoa ‘fish’ is nazt-ki-tas, ‘animal of the sea.’ Eralado 
karat is applied in Malekula to the ‘flying fox,’ and, in Aulua, 
the same word care is a ‘butterfly.’ Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 56. 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 147 


[Manu =‘an animal’ (hence the addition ni dran, line 39); 
the Indian root is bhi, ‘to be,’ bhav-ati, ‘to exist,’ Pali pani, 


‘a, creature.’ | 


22. Fowl—The common term is foa. Of the three Southern 
languages Aneityum and Eromanga alone have jaa, two, = toa; the 
others have the general term manu, ‘bird.’ Of. Mel. Lang. p. 70. 


23. Snake—The word mata is very common, with variations to 


gmata and gata. 


24. Fish—The distinctive word is 7ka. The Marina natj is the 
Tangoa nazi, and since 7 in those languages represents a common 
m, these are the Malo mansi, Maewo masi, Nogogu mats, and all 
are probably forms of manu; see notes on ‘bird.’ The three 
Southern languages have numu or namu. Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 68. 


[New Guinea dialects show the rt. ma (‘water’!), as ma‘a, wa- 
pt, ma-gam; Admiralty Is., wka (for v-uka 2), ‘fish,’ thence tka. An 
Australian dialect has makoro, ‘fish,’ and Sk. has makaras, ‘a sea 
animal,’ matsya, ‘fish’; cf. mansi, nazi; and nazi-ki-tas in No. 21.] 


25. Shark—An imperfect list shows bako, bekeu, bace, bacio, 
peiv as forms of Mota pag‘oa. Biauo, pia, bt, bat, pauwun may 
possibly be the same word. 


26. Fly—All the words found are forms of Jago. The Tanna 
has a prefix kz which is also seen in the names for ‘mosquito’ and 


‘louse.’ Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 69. 


27. Mosquito—The common term is namu, The Tangoa moke, 
Malo mohe, is possible a general term for ‘insect.’ In Aneityum 
moke-moke is a ‘butterfly.’ Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 83. [Rt. mu is ‘buzz.’ ] 


28. Butterfly—A form of bebe is found in the Northern and 
Central regions. In Malekula cert, care are also applied to the 
‘flying-fox.’ In ceri-kakas, kakas is the adjective ‘little.’ Cf. 
Mel. Lanq. p. 62. 


29. Louse—All the languages have the word kutu, with little 
variation. In Baki & becomes s by a change which is there com- 


mon. Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 81. 


vo oe oe 


148 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


[In the Pali of India khuddo means ‘small.’ South Australian 
aborigines say kutta, ‘louse.’] 

30. Tree—The common term is kau or kat. In Baki bur-iesi, 
bur is a prefix meaning ‘body, mass,’ and is seen also in buru-jo, 
‘neck,’ buru-suku, ‘mountain.’ The Epi prefixes Ja, je, Polynesian 
la, ra; Ambrym iz has a similar meaning. Another prefix is the 
Utaha ku, Malo wu. Cf. Hel. Lang. p. 95. 


31. Leaf—The Northern and Central tongues have rau, of 
which the Aneityum 77, Maewo ndouz, Mota nauwi are extreme 
forms. The Nguna wlu, Efate uli are properly used of blades of 
grass, or as a verb ‘to grow, sprout,’ and are the words commonly 
used elsewhere for ‘hair.’ Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 89. 

[One Australian tribe uses the same word for ‘hair and grass’; 
cf. also the Latin coma. | 


52. Root—Aneityum, Tanna, Efate and the Northern languages 
have koa in various forms, which may be Mota g‘ariu, Malay akar, 
etc. Baki mbatz is in Fiji and Nguna ‘tooth,’ the original meaning 
being ‘spike.’ Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 88. 

33. Fruit—The word vua or wa is the usual term. Malo vira 
is ‘flower,’ the Tangoa bzra, Nogogu vira, etc. Malo has also wa- 
i-ca, ‘fruit of tree. Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 71. 


34. Cocoanut—The word niu is very widely spread throughout 
Oceania. The Aulua kula, Nogogu kolo, Ambrym o/ suggest the 
name of the island Malekula, ‘the place of cocoanuts.’ Malo in 
Neguna is ‘place,’ and male in Florida of the Solomon Islands has 
the same meaning. It is a common custom to name places from 
their productions, e.g., Aniwa is ‘full of cocoanut’. Tanna and 
Futuna are called respectively in Aneityum, Jnpece ran ma, ‘land 
of breadfruit,’ and IJnpece ran has, ‘land of badness.’ (See also 
Codrington, Mel. Lang. p. 252). The words matua, metut, metu, 
maru may probably be the cocoanut when ripe. Cf. the Polyne- 
sian matua, ‘ripe, mature, full-grown.’ Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 64. 


35. Banana—There being several species of bananas with dis- 
tinct names, it is by no means certain that the words given all — 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 149 


represent the same thing. The word vetal, noted by Dr. Codrington 
as local in the Banks’ Islands, is here found in Savan, Santo, and 
Malo. The Sesake andi, Maewo wndt, is the Fiji vundi, the com- 
mon word in the Solomon Islands, and found also in Malay. The 
Epi barabi, paravi is nearly the same word as that for breadfruit. 
Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 54. [For Sam. futz, ‘banana,’ see ‘white,’ No. 79. | 


36. Breadfruit—Central and Northern languages have patau, 
the Southern have mar. The Savan and Malo baico is nearly the 
Epi and Malekula biako, biagh, ‘taro.’ 


37. Yam—The Northern languages have dam in various forms. 
The Efate and Epi wz, Sesake wuz are no doubt the Polynesian uf. 


38. Taro—The common Epi and Malekula words are forms of 
buagk or biako, to which the Malo baico, ‘breadfruit,’ may perhaps 
be also referred. The Malo and Santo dweta, and similar words 
in Omba and Mota, are connected with words for breadfruit, bitau, 
 batau, by the Ambrym peta. The Southern languages have the 
Polynesian taro. 


39. Sugarcane—Tovu, tou, to is the common word, except in. 
the Efate dialects, where porai is found with the meaning of 
‘sweet.’ In Fiji vuravura are the shoots of the sugarcane or of 
any kind of reed. 


40. House—The common word is rwma, with which is found in 
Ambrym and Omba hale and vale, the Polynesian fale, fare. The 
Sesake kopu is ‘inside,’ in Maori kopu, ‘belly.’ Malo vanua, 
Nogogu venua is a ‘dwelling place’; the Baki vonua. [See ‘land,’ 
No. 13.] Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 77. 


[Indian rts. are gam, fal, ‘to cover’; gam, travelling to the 
West, produced Lat. dom-us, ‘a house,’ to the East, Zum-a, ‘house.’] 


41. Road—A representative of the common word sala is found 
in the Centre and North of the group. Bua appears to be local 
in the Efate district. In Epiand Omba mira, mara or mata, also 
in Mota mate-sala, is the ‘eye’ or surface of the ‘path,’ and is the 
word common for ‘eye’ or face. Cf, Mel. Lang. p. 87. 


= 
ea. 
* 
‘ 


150 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


42. Bow; 43. Arrow—The words for Bow, Arrow and Shoot 
cross one another. Hana, used for ‘bow’ in the three Southern 
languages, is ‘arrow’ in Tangoa and Lifu, ‘bow and arrow’ in 
Nogogu; ‘shoot’ in Pangkumu is pen, Aulua binea, Maewo vene, 
Malo vinz. In the Efate dialects fana does not appear, but ¢ali- 
Saga is ‘bowstring.’ In Aneityum anceen-ne-fana, ‘the stock or 
tree of shooters’ is bow and arrows, nithjan-ne-fana, ‘point of 
shooters’ is arrow. Samoan du-fana, ‘bow,’ is of similar construc- 
tion, from ‘au, ‘tree.’ Some form of vusu is used in the Northern 
languages and Malekula for ‘bow’ and is possibly the same as the 
WUSU, USU, US, wu, used for ‘arrow’ in Nogogu and Efate. In the 
latter language and in Samoa, wsu, uw is a ‘reed,’ as is also the Ero- 
mangan, Fiji, Aniwa and Mele gasay. The Efate tipwa is in 
Banks’ Island and in New Guinea (Motu) dipa, a verb ‘to shoot.’ 
The Tangoa and Malo baka is the bag‘e, etc., of Florida and Isabel 
in the Solomon Islands. Omba and Arag liwai, lio is the common 
word liwo, ‘tooth,’ used in a general sense for ‘spike.’ Cf. Mel. 
Lang. p. 61.] 

44, Spear—The word sare, found in Mota, Arag, Omba, Santo 
and Malekula, is properly ‘pierce.’ As, which is ‘stab’ in Mota, 
may explain metas, mataso. Mat may be ‘point.’ Cf. Mel. Lang. 
p. 91. 

45. Club—The Efate mbat is probably the Maori word patu, 
Mota kpwat, and really means ‘knob’; ¢f words for ‘head.’ Nguna 
tiko is Marina tig‘o. Otherwise there is little agreement. 

46. Boat—Some form of vaka, ‘a boat’ built up with planks, is 
very common, except in the South, where canoes are merely 
hollowed out logs. Here the words cau, gau are those common 
for ‘tree.’ The Efate rarua is a local term, but may possibly be 
connected with the Fiji rara, ‘a board,’ deck of a canoe. The 
Futuna boruku is probably Samoan /dlau, ‘ship, voyage,’ Efate 
borau, ‘one carried on a ship,’ the New Britain parau, ‘a ship,’ 
Malay prau. In Efate, ibarau is now applied to any mode of loco- 
motion by horse, ship or carriage. The Marina ovo is probably in 
mistake for ‘paddle.’ Cf. Mel. Lang. p.59. The Ambrym bulbul 
may be the Mota welewele, ‘a dug-out.’ . a 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 151 


47. Paddle—The Aneityum and Tanna hev, vea may be the 
common wose which appears as bose, vose, vos, vcho, obo. The Baki 
verb beluo, ‘to paddle,’ Efate balus explain the Marina lua, Tasiko 
velua. 


48. Outrigger—An imperfect list shows the word sama very 
widely distributed. 


49. Basket—The Fiji and Polynesian kato appears as cat, gouta, 
cete in Aneityum, Malekula and Malo. The tag of Tangoa and 
Arag, the Efate toga, the taga of Mota and Samoa, the Loyalty 
Islands teg, is a widely spread word for ‘a woven or plaited basket 
or bag.’ 

50. Food—A common word is sinaca, hinag‘a or vinaga. Tangoa 
kani-kani, Lifu g‘en, is the common verb ‘to eat,’ which may also 
be in Tasiko vevana, Bieri va-gana, Aulua va-gan, Kwamera ve- 
genien, with causative particle va. In Nguna va-gani is a verb 
‘to make eat,’ ‘to feed.’ 


[A Sk. rt. ad (by metathesis ta) is ‘to eat,’ Lat. ed-o ; ta gives 
ka, whence many Oceanic words for ‘eat’ (q.v.) and ‘food.’| 


51. Hather—The common noun is tama, almost without excep- 
tion. The vocative, used only in addressing is tata, rarely mama. 


Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 66. 


52. Man—The word fa is very generally used, mostly in com- 
position. Malekula haris is ‘person,’ male or female. Cf. Mel. 
Lang. p. 81. 

53. Male—-The word denoting male is no doubt mane, usually 
combined with fa. 


[‘ Father, man, male ’—all from rt. ta, ‘male’; hence Samoan 
ta-ma is either ‘father’ or ‘boy’; the Polynesian ta-ga-ta (ka-na-ka) 
is ‘men’in general. ‘Male,’ ‘female’ are often expressed by their 


physical peculiarities, as trahman, line 36.] 


54. Husband—The Epi hoa, koa, oa is explained by the Maori 
hoa, ‘a companion,’ and is applied to both husband and wife. In 
origin and use, the Mota soa in ra-suai, Lifu foe, Futuna and Aniwa 


152 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


wa, wa are the same. The Efate wofa is also ‘chief,’ perhaps the 
Fiji wate. 

[| Atmeh-gan is from ta-ma, by metathesis common in Aneityum. 
For soa, ‘companion,’ cf. Sk. sama, ‘together.’ Ta-ne is from fa, 
(see ‘male’), our mode of address to ‘father’ as ‘the man.’] 


55. Child—The common word is natu. Tasiko sisi, Nguna ririki, 
the Aniwa riki, Mae titi, Maori 2d (in ka-ririki, ta-riki, tama-ttt) 
are adjectives ‘little,’ fa being man, and tama the relationship 
between father and child—a word also used for ‘father.’ Cf. Mel. 
Lang. p. 63. 


56. Mother—There is apparently no common term. The words 
tete, tial, nina, nana, mama, inde are vocatives. Tina, ina, which 
are in Solomon Islands and New Guinea, appear in Aneityum, 
Tanna, Malo and Santo, and with the Efate bwzle, etc., may be 
connected with words for ‘belly, bowels.’ The plural prefix ra 
(upon which see Dr. Codrington, Mel. Lang. p. 83), appears in 
Aneityum, Tanna, Erakor, and Arag. Weasisi 7¢7 is also in Efate.* 
Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 83. . 

[Zina, sina are from ‘belly (q¢.v.), womb’; ef Maori tia, ‘abdo- 
men,’ Tasmanian tiana, ‘faeces.’ Ve-ve, mo-ma, and the fe-, va- of — 
the next column, ’are the same as in Lat. ma-ter, ‘the producer’; 
the Sk. rt. is bha (bhav), ‘to be, to come into being, to exist.’ 


Matua-wahine is ‘grown woman.’ | 


57. Woman, Female—The common Oceanic word vavine or fine 
is found in the North and in Epi. Tangoa g‘arai is Efate gorod. 
Pangkumu navseven is Eromanga nasiven. Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 98. 

58. Wife—This word is frequently the same as that for husband 


(see note on 54). In other cases it is the word for ‘woman.’ 
Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 89. | 


59. Chief—The words are usually distinct. The Tangoa supe, 
Tasikosupwe,is Nguna supwe,a word used in translations for ‘God.’ 
The same word is in Banks’ Island swkpwe, as the name of a club 


* In one of the Efate dialects ert is ‘mother’—Macdonald, “‘ Oceania,” 
p. 126. et 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 153 


or society which has a house in every village. To rise to a high 
position in this society requires a great deal of influence and 
expense, and, according to native ideas, some supernatural power. 
The members of the ‘Sukpwe’ exercise considerable control over 
affairs ; hence the use of the word as equivalent to ‘chief.’ In 
Maewo, Sukpwe-matua is a being who spoilt things when Tagar, 
the legendary maker of various articles was doing them aright. 
In Arag and Omba the same opposing nature is ascribed to Sukpwe.* 
The Omba ra-tahigt is ‘mother,’ in Arag ra-tasiu, is ‘brothers,’ 
and in Mota ftasi is a common word for ‘brother.’ The Efate, 
Nguna wota, wot may be connected with the Mota verb wot, ‘to be 
prominent. 

[Several of these words mean ‘first, before,’ as arzki (=Sam. 
ali_l) and lu-dwaz. | 

60. Head—The usual word is some form of kpwatu or batu, 
literally meaning a ‘knob’ (see No. 45), and the Kwamera wa is 
no doubt the same word ; Weasisi haba is also ‘knob.’ Cf. Mel. 
Lang. p. 76. 

[Some of these words come from ma, ‘a beginning,’ ‘ top or end’ 


(cf. the meaning of Hebrew résh); ‘ulw may be a corruption from 
Sk. kapala, ‘head.’ 


61. Hye—-The word mata is seen everywhere. In Aneityum 
nesgan-imtan, nesgan is said to be the essence, the most important 
part, ¢e. the pupil. The Weasisi nugan may be of similar mean- 
ing to nesgan. 


[I take nesganimtan to be n-sega-ni-mata, ‘the sheen of the eye’; 
see Note 1.] 


62. Har—In various forms taliga is the common word. In the 
Northern languages kpwero, boro,pero and allied words are properly 
applied to the tip of the ear. Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 66. 


[The Dr. rt. 4éd means ‘to hear,’ hence Oceanic tal-iga, ‘ear’; in 
Polynesian, poro means ‘to end,’ ‘to be finished.’ 


* Codrington, “Religious Beliefs in Melanesia ’’—Journ. Anth. Inst. 
Vol. x., p. 287, 292. 


7 
a 


154 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


63. Tooth—The word liwo is found as livo, libu, lowo, ribo, juvo, 
jua, elfo, reve. The same has already been noticed in Arag and 
Omba as ‘arrow.’ In Efate, Santo, and Fiji pati is also ‘spike.’ 
Udu and uju of Malo and Santo are udu, ‘nose,’ in New Guinea 
(Motu), and may probably be referred to the common gusw, ‘nose.’ 
Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 94. 


64. Nose—The three Southern Languages have different words. 
Gusu or gisu is the only word at all common elsewhere. In Fiji, 
gusu is ‘mouth’; gusu is in Mota, ‘lip.’ Of. Wel. Lang. p. 85. The 
Malo bona is probably ‘his smeller,’ 60 being a common word for 
‘smell’ and na the suffixed possessive pronoun. Omba gembwanog‘t 
is ‘nostril.’ 

65. Tongue—The Northern languages have mea or, reduplicated, 
meme, the others mena. The Baki prefix buru is ‘lump. A 
similar meaning may attach to other prefixes. The Eromanga Jua, 
Maewo Jue, Aulua Je may be compared with Efate and Mota 
adverbs lua, lue, ‘out.’ Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 94. 


66. Belly—There is little agreement in the words for ‘belly,’ 
though Malekula tamba, damba, which is probably the Mota word 
tokpwe, is found in three of the Northern languages. The word 
tana, ‘bowels’ is however in very general use. The Fiji kete is ‘bag,’ 
z.e., ‘stomach.’ Maori kopy is used in Sesake for ‘inside of house.’ 
_Efate mbwele is perhaps Duke of York Island (New Britain) bala, 
Santa Cruz bole. Itis worth notice that tina and pwile (i.e., bele) 
are also used for ‘mother.’ Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 55. 


67. Hand—Lima is the usual Oceanic word. In Tanna raga 
and Aneityum zkma are probably the extreme forms. The Male- 
kula ver, fera, vari, Ambrym vera, are the Mota ta-veraz, ‘the palm 
of the hand.’ Eromanga kobe, Marina g‘ave, is probably the ‘hand’ 
stretched out. In Mota g‘ave is a kind of crab, Nogogu ave 
‘wing,’ Efate man kabe, ‘pigeon,’ winged animal. Cf. Mel. Lang. 


p. 73. 


[‘Finger’ is from Ger. fangen, ‘to seize hold, and hand I take 
from A.-S. hadd, ‘to hold’; a Sk, rt. gam, gab, is ‘to hold,’ usually 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 155. 


~ hardened into grabh,; we speak of a grasp of the hand’; the French 
say ‘serrerla main.’ In Old Assyrian khams-a, kham-iltu is ‘five,’ 
and there khams is the root gam. In Java, limo and gangsal, 
‘five,’ both come from the root gam, just as (Hromanga) no-kob-en 
and (Santo) /ima-na, (Marina) g‘av-e, all come from the rt. gam, 


gab. | 


68. Hoot, Leg—Little agreement appears in the words given, 
and there is probably some confusion between ‘leg’ and ‘foot.’ 
The Aneityum ethuo, Kwamera esu appears in the Efate dialects 
as tuo, tu, tua, which is Lifu cha, as the latter language substitutes 
a palatal fora more common dental. (Cf father, die, stand, one.) 
The Weasisi el‘kz may be the Omba g‘arug, the Malo karu. 
Tangoa balo, Marina para, is the Arag kpwalag‘i, gv being in Arag 
and Omba a noun terminal. The Lamangkau mbulu suggests. 
that the Efate, Sesake mwele may be the same as balo. In Livara, 
na mweli na rugku is ‘my hand,’ na mwelt na tuagku, ‘my foot,’ a 
use which suggests comparison with the Efate, Nguna pwele, etc., 
‘belly, and refers to the bulge. The Eromangan nowon is more 
exactly ‘calf, Aneityum nohwanalek an nethuon, ‘calf of the leg.’ 
Maewo rogo is Mota ragoi. In the neighbourhood of Epi, various 
forms of Jaare found. In Aneityum and Pangkumu, the word for 
‘foot’ is the same as that for ‘bone.’ 


69. Blood—All the words may be regarded as forms of the 
common root ra, except the Nogogu megavina. Cf. Mel. Lang.p. 58. 


[See Note No. 2. ] 


70. Bone—There is no agreement among the Southern lan- 
guages. The Northern have suri. The Efate vatw is ‘stone,’ 
Sesake vatu ni ta, ‘stone of man.’ In Epi and Malekula, chwurt, 
bur, bol are forms of the prefix buru (See Tongue). Cf. Mel. Lang. 
p-. 60. 


[The original meaning of fatu is ‘strong,’ ‘firm,’ ‘hard’; Sk. 
bd-la, ‘strength,’ Pali ba-lz, ‘strong,’ Malay baligh, ‘mature,’ New 


Brit, pat-wan, ‘strong,’ Sam. matua, ‘strong,’ ‘mature.’ 


— - h . ; 


71. Skin—The Fiji kuri is in Santo, Efate, and Epi, and probably 
is Yoku kolistan. The vinui of the Northern languages, Mota 
viniu, is pin in Duke of York Island. Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 90. 

72. FPlesh—Vhe word visiko is common in the North. The 
Erakor fsik, Pangkumu vusiko, Bieri visiko are the same word. 


156 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


The other words are strange. Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 69. 


73. Name—The Efate has gisa, Malo and Tangoa cisa, hiza, 
Pangkumu cis, Aulua ag‘se. The omission of the guttural gives 
Ambrym sa, Malo isa, Aneityum itha, Arag tha, Omba hena, 
Lamangkau za, Fiji yadha. The Maewo and Mota may show isa 
reduplicated. The loss of the sibilant gives the Epi kia, Efate 
agie. The Baki sia is the Bieri Aza by a regular change from & 


to s. See words for Moon, Fire, Nose. 


74. Good—There is little agreement in the words found. The 
Mota wia is in Maewo and Efate. The Epi and Malekula agree 
in the use of some form of 60, which is also in the district of 
Raluana New Britain. Cf. A/el. Lang. p. 72. 

[The Sydney aborigines of Australia said bw-jari, ‘good’; Sk. is 
bha-dra, Pali pun-no, Lat. bon-us, Malay ba-ik, Maori pa-t. | 

75. Bad—The commonest word is some form of sa. Pangkumu 
Jy is probably the Banks Island tist. Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 53. 

[Sk. rt. words for ‘bad’ are ka (prefix) and kash-ta (adj.); of. 
Aneityumese has (for kas), ‘bad,’ eh-ka, ‘very difficult,’ and Efatese 
sa, ‘bad.’] 

76. Great—There is a great variety of terms, with little agree- 
ment. The Savan leww is Fiji /evu, also found in Santa Cruz levu 
and Banks’ Islands Juwo. Omba lawua, and Mota liwoa may be 
forms of lewu. The Aulua lwmbo, Ura lamapa, is in Efate, Nguna, 


daba, lapa, ‘many.’ Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 79. 


77. Small—A form of riki, giki is very common. Cf. Mel. 
Lang. p. 81. | 

[Bengali kichhi is ‘small,’ Pali khuddo, Malay kechil. | 

78. ked—The Efate miel is found also in Malekula. The Omba, 
Arag, and Maewo memea is explained by Mota mea, ‘red earth,’ 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 157 


reduplicated. The Malo dai-ca is ‘blood,’ dai with adjective ter- 
mination, ca. The same word is in Baki 72e-k7i, a kind of purple. 
Eromanga navilara is from vila, ‘lightning.’ Aneityum cap is. 
‘fire,’ but there is also tanana, formed like memea from tan, ‘red 
earth.’ Tanna ervarev is the ‘red glow of sunset,’ which as ravi- 
ravt, afiaft is a common word in Oceania for ‘evening.’ Cf. Jel. 
Lang. p. 87. [See rts. ma, me, ka, ra, and ravi, in Note No. 1.] 


79. White—Vuti or vusi is the common word, which is also in 
Malagasy and Malay Archipelago. With prefix ma, this is Omba 
ma-vuti, Malekula me-vus, embusa, Epi mi-wowo, mi-ubu; Efate tare 
is properly ‘clean, pure,’ Omba ma-sara, ‘clean.’ Malo duly is 
Torres Island lui, ‘white,’ Mota ‘fair.’ Santo voke is Pangkumu 
vogvog, ‘clean,’ Mota woke, ‘an albino.’ The Maewo sigara, 
Samoa sinasina, is from a root meaning ‘shine,’ in Fiji, s¢ga ‘sun,’ 
sigasigau, ‘white,’ Sesake ma-sina, ‘moon.’ Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 97. 

[Sk. valaksha, ‘white,’ Dr. vel, Slavonic velt, Hungarian vilag,. 
‘light’; another rt. is pw (ba), ‘shine,’ g.v.] 

80. Black—The word maeto, seen in Arag, Santo, and Malekula,, 
is very widely spread, and is also in Malagasy and Malay. In 
Efate, Sesake, maeto is ‘angry.’ The Fiji Joais in Nguna. Malo. 
urica is ‘skin colour’ (uri ‘skin,’ ca the adjective termination). 
This suggests the Polynesian uwr7 as ‘skin,’ but skins are not black 
in Polynesia. Cf. po-uri, ‘dark.’ Aneityum apigq is also used for 
‘night,’ as is the Mota silsilig‘a for ‘dark.’ Mele kele-kele is ‘dirty,’ 
kele, ‘earth.’ Maewo oso-oso is 0-0, ‘cloud,’ in Nogogu; soso, ‘dirt,’ 
in Fiji. Cf. Mel. Lang. p. 57. 

[‘ Black’ is often ‘burnt’ (cf. the name Ham); hence ma-eta,. 
‘uli, &c. may come from rts. ma, ka; see Note 1; Sk. kala, ‘black.’| 

81. Holy—The word tapu, which is also Polynesian properly, 
means ‘prohibited, set apart,’ and is found in Aneityum, Eromanga, 
Efate, Malo, and Tangoa, and also in the Arag sa-pu with adjec- 
tive termination. The Pangkumu wkon may be Malo ducu, Santo 
ruku, Maewo rogorogo, Mota rogo, and the meaning is ‘sacred.’ 

82. See—There is no doubt a great variety of terms for ‘see,’ 
and all may not have exactly the same meaning. An example 


ie 


158 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


from Pangkumu may be given in illustration. Coro is ‘to open 
the eyes and look for’ (Nguna leogoro); bunsi (Nguna, etc., punusi, 
Florida of Solomon Is. buguti) is ‘to look at,’ e.g. a ship, a picture; 
nunuri, ‘to stare, gaze at, as in reading a book. The Mota is zlo 
nurnur, ‘to look carefully.’ Rag‘arag‘, ‘to be present at’ and there- 
fore ‘see’, as a dance, a person’s house. The word kite, which is 
Maori, is seen in Aneityum ecet, Tanna ata, eru, Tangoa kite, 
Arag g‘ita, Maewo ete, Aniwa cit1, Mae kute. Marina Kile is the 
common word for ‘ know.’ 


[The Aneityumese alum, ‘to look at,’ and ecet, ‘to see,’ ucni, 
‘to burn,’ show that the rts. in this column are the same as in alo, 
kan, ma of Notes 1 and 61 /qq.v.); see also ‘know,’ No. 85. ] 


83. H+ar—The word rogo is very widely distributed in Oceania, 
and in its simplest form means ‘to feel a sensation,’ as pain or a 
noise. When meaning ‘to hear,’ it often takes a suffixed transitive 
termination, as in Ambrym 7og-ta, Omba rorog-tagi, Mota rogo-tag, 
Samoa logo-na. The Aneityum ahget, Tanna aregi, Eromanga 
rigt, Lifu dege, are all forms of rogo. In the Weasisi ate-telzg, telig 
is the word common for ‘ear,’ and ate, no doubt, means ‘to turn’; 
in Mota ate is ‘to turn to,’ ate-nagot, ‘to turn the face to.’ 


[See ‘ear.’ Malay is dangar, ‘to hear,’ cognate to logo, rogo. | 


84. Speak, Say, Tell—It is by no means certain that all the 
words here given are exactly synonymous. The Fiji vosa is seen 
in Tasiwo, Efate, etc., and in Futuna and Aniwa visa, fasa, Lifu 
whadha, and Ambryin fie. Vosa is also in Malo the word for ‘know.’ 
We have vet in Mota, Maewo, Santo, Malo, and Epi, in Makura 
mbetog, and Tanna ani is Lifu dni, ‘to say.’ Malo soraisin Pang- 
kumu sur, but is there only used in compounds, as sori-menemen 
‘speak kindly,’ sur-papagis, ‘speak angrily,’ etc. Mai and Fiji 


muna is Samoan muna, ‘to grumble.’ 


[Some of these words have an extraordinary resemblance to 
Sk. vad, ‘speak,’ Latin fat-us. Cf. also Malay bhasa, Pali bhasa, 
‘speech,’ Dr. pesu, ‘to speak,’ Sk. bhdsh, ‘to speak.’ | 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES, 159 


85. Know—A representative of the Fiji fla, Mota g‘ilala, is 
seen in Maewo g‘ig‘tlea, Ambrym kelea, Bieri ki/1, Eromanga kili, 
The Aulua lise-mbosa is ‘see-speak,’ Tangoa rogo-bosa, ‘hear-speak.’ 
The atae of Efate, etc., is in Mele ¢aea, and in Lifu ate, and is also 
in South Cape (New Guinea) ata, and Ponape (Caroline Islands) 
aja. Arag ilo, Omba ilotlo is ‘see’ in Mota, Efate, etc. 

[Cf ‘See’; cognate is ‘know’; ef. Lat. vid-eo, Gr. oid-a. | 

86. Barter, Buy, Sell—The common Oceanic word is voli. This 
is seen in Epi and the Northern languages of the New Hebrides. 
There is an interesting correspondence of idiom in the word used 
in the Southern languages and Polynesia. In Aneityum and in 
Tanna, ava and vahai are causative prefixes, the same as faka, fa‘a 
in Futuna, Aniwa and Samoa. The second part of the compound 
is the ordinary word in use for ‘eye,’ nimtan, namri, mata, but 
used as a verb. Hence aua-nimtam, faka-mata, etc., mean ‘to cause 
any one to eye.’ The same idiom is found in New Britain (Ralu- 
ana district) wa-mat, ‘to sell, offer for sale.’ In the Duke of York 
Island mata is ‘price,’ in Florida (Solomon Islands) mate. In 
Efate, Nguna, Sesake, the first part of the compound is also the 
causative. Nguna ¢ovi is ‘distribute,’ Futuna tufa, Aniwa tufwa, 
‘give out,’ Samoan tufa. 

[Some of these words mean ‘to exchange’; ¢f. Tukiok we-kelei. | 


87. Hut—All the dialects have some form of kani or kai. Pang- 
kumu /anz is restricted to the eating of cooked food, roz is ‘to eat 
raw food.’ Ambrym drog is perhaps the same as roz. [See ‘food.’] 


88. Drink—The common word is mwnz in various forms, and 
often with the transitive suffix gi. Jnw is also found. 


[Rt. ma, mi, ‘water,’ g.v. Cf. Lat. bi-bo, Gr. pi-no. Oceanic 
inu (for mi-nu) perhaps gives niu, ‘cocoanut,’ by metathesis. | 

89. Dig—aAll the words found are forms of kali, except Futuna 
vere, which is Fiji were, ‘a garden,’ were-dha, ‘to garden,’ dig up 
weeds, etc. 


90. Bury—The Polynesian tanu, with transitive suffix, is seen 
in Tanna, Eromanga, Efate, and Malo. The original meaning is 


160 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


‘to cover with earth,’ with Mota tanu, ‘to cover’; cf. tano, ‘earth,’ 
In Tanna and Eromanga, the word is probably of recent introduc- 
tion, as the heathen custom was to bury in the sea. The Fiji 
bulu-ta, from bulubulu, ‘grave,’ may be compared with Baki bulu, 
‘pit,’ bulu-si-maro, ‘pit of dead, grave.’ Lifu kelemi may be an 
extreme form of tanumi, or be from kele, ‘earth,’ with transitive 
suffix. 

91. Weep—The only departure from the common fagi are in 
Lifu and Tanna. Kazi, gcat, get, which are local in the Efate 
district, are also used for the buzzing of a fly, mosquito, etc. The 
same use is found in Pangkumu keke, ‘to buzz,’ ke, ‘to shout,’ gceir, 
‘to scream,’ Malo gara, ‘to scream.’ 

[The root idea is ‘shrill, sharp, keen’; see rts. gar, ka in Note 
1; cf. the Irish ‘keen-ing. | 

92. Kear—There are variations from the common Oceanic 
mataku in Tanna, Nogogu, Fiji, and Lifu. 

93. Life—The word mauri is common, with a few exceptions. 

[The rt. is ma, ‘to live, to breathe’; ¢/. Sk. bhai (bhav), ‘to be, 
to come into existence’; Pali pa-no, ‘life, vitality, a creature,’ 
Sam. ma-nava, ‘ breathe.’ | 

94, Die—Only one word mate, varying in form to mar, mas, 
and mech. 

[The root is ma, ‘fade away,’ as in Gr. ma-r-aino. The old 
Assyrian is ma-atu, ‘to die,’ Hebrew ma-veth, ‘ death,’ Australian 
ba-lun, ‘dead,’ Keltic bas, ‘death.’ The Aryans add 7, as Sk. mri 
(mar), ‘to die,’ Lat. mor-s. | 

95. Sleep—The Central and Northern tongues have maturu, 
which is Lifu mekéle. There is no agreement among the Southern 
languages. | 

96. Stand—The usual word is tw, in most cases joined to a word 
meaning ‘upright,’ as in Sesake ndu-leana, Efate tu-leg, Epi tu- 
mau, ju-molt, su-malu. 


[‘Stand, Stay, Sit’ are allied ideas; ¢w is Sk. s-thd, Lat. s-to. | 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 161 


97. Stay—The word toko does not appear in Tanna and Ero- 
manga, but is present in the Aneityum ateuc, ‘to sit.’ 


98. Sit—This word is usually the same as that for ‘stay,’ often 
with the word for ‘ground’ added, as in ¢ok-e-tan, jo-a-tano, toko- 
san, etc. The Malekula sagcer, sagcali, Tangoa sakele, mean ‘to 
sit on something high,’ Mota sage, Ambalok non means ‘to sit 
on something low.’ Sake is a very common directive, meaning 


‘upward; to ascend.’ 


99. Go—Vano and va in various forms are widely distributed. 
The notion is probably that of motion only. Pangkumuo is Lifu 


tro in tro-thu, where tha denotes motion from the speaker. 


100. Come—The word maz is probably never a verb, but rather 
an adverb ‘hither.’ It is commonly used with verbs of motion, as 
in Lifu tro-mi, Malekula and Maewo, vani-mat, vano-mat, ete. 

[‘ Go,’ ‘Come’ are allied ; cf Dr. pé, ‘to go,’ vd, ‘to come,’ Gr. 
ba-o, ba-ino,’ ‘I go,’ Lat. va-do. | 

NUMERALS. 

These require little notice and many are fully discussed in Dr. 
Codrington’s “Melanesian Languages.” There are three methods 
of numeration in use. 1. Pure quinary.—‘‘ No word for ten is in 
use, except such a one as shows five to be the number really in 
view.”* 2. Imperfect decimal.— There isa word for ten; after 
five is reached there is no further mention of the five.”+ 3. 
Decimal.—‘“ Each number is expressed by a different word.”t 
The vigesimal system, which among the languages here shown is 
only found in Lifu, has no representatives in the New Hebrides. 

Tabulated according to numeral systems, the New Hebrides 
Languages appear as follows: 

1. Quinary: Distinct words from one to five ; the remaining 
numbers expressed by addition. Mxamples :—Aneityum, Tanna, 
Eromanga. In Tanna, ten is ‘five-five,’ in Eromanga ‘two-fives.’ 

2. ImperFect Decima.: (a) Distinct words from one to five; 
Six, seven, eight, and niné are expressed by one, two, three, four, 

* Codrington, Melanesian Languages, p. 222. + Ibid p. 223. tf Ibid p. 228. 

K—July 5, 1893. 


a 


162 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


with a prefix; ten is ‘two-fives.’ Haamples :—Epi, Efate, Sesake, 
Paama, Nguna, Makura. (6) The same formation, but a distinct — 
word for ten. Hxamples:—Ambrym, Malekula, Espiritu Santo 
(Eralado, Tangoa, Marina). 

[There the -ul, -bul, -vul is the Polynesian fulu; see ‘ ten.’] 

3. DecimaL: Distinct words for each number. Hxamples:— 
Malo, Espiritu Santo (Nogogu), Omba, Arag, Maewo, Fiji, and all 
the Polynesian dialects. 

The numerals are generally used with a prefix, which is separated 
from the root in the vocabulary by a hyphen, | 

101. One—The words seem to be divided among three principal 
forms, tas?, sikat, and tuwa. In the New Hebrides ¢asi seems only 
to be found in Paama, Epi, Lifu, and perhaps the Southern Lan- 
guages. The commonest New Hebrides word is a form of szkai, 
which is also in the Solomon Islands. The Arag tuwa, Maewo; 
Mota tuwale, tewa, is Fiji ndua. 

[In ¢a-st and si-ka-1, the original root is ka, Sk. éka, ‘one.’] 

102—104. Two, Three, Four—tThese are rua, tolu, and vat, in 
various forms. The chief variations are the Lifu kdni for tolu, 
and the Lifu eke, and the Polynesian fa (va), for vati. 

[For lua, tolu (t‘lu) of Sk. dva (Lat. duo) and tri] . 

105. Five—Lima in various forms is found everywhere, and is 
the common word for ‘hand.’ ‘Tanna kari-lum and the Eromangan 
suk-rim are ‘one hand.’ | 

[It has been shown (see note on the word ‘hand’), that the old 
root-word gab, gam, ‘to lay hold of’ (cf. Eng. finger, Ger. fangen), 
is the source of dima, ‘hand.’ The nearest approach to this root 
are the Aneityumese tkm-an for kum-an and the Epi jam-o. The 
Trish Jam, ‘the hand,’ and the Greek e-lab-on, ‘I took hold of,’ 
are from the same root. | 

106 — 109. Six, Seven, Hight, Nine—Where these numbers are 
distinct, there is an agreement in the use of the words ono, fitu, 
walu, siwo, or some form of them. When formed by prefix, a form 


i THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 163 


of Ja is commonly seen. In the Tangoa linarave, linarabi, lina is 
the word for ‘hand.’ 


[The Aneityumese for ‘six’ is (n)kman wm elid et ethr, which 
means ‘his-hand and added is one,’ for the Oceanic numerals of 
the second hand are got by addition ; the Motu ‘eight,’ ta-ura- 
hani is ‘atwo-fours.’ The prefix /a in some words is for lama, ‘the 


(first) hand.’ | 


110. Zen—The separate word for ‘ten’ is in all cases a form of 


sagavalu. In Mele it is nofuru, Samoan se-fulu. 


[The Oceanic ful is ‘all,’ sc. the fingers ; Sk. pi-par-mi, ‘T fill’; 
the Pali puro, Malay punnuh, Efate bura, all mean ‘full’; New 
Brit. para, vuru, ‘all’; New Guinea (one dialect) mura, ‘all.’ 
The Maori has poro, ‘to end or be finished,’ with which cf. Pali 
puro, ‘full.’ The Malay has also bulah, ‘complete.’ The prefixes 
are sa, ‘one,’ nga (ngo, go, ko), the article ; so that sa-nga-fulu 
means ‘once-the-whole,’ sc. fingers. The Ebudan lwa-lima is ‘two 


hands,’ and kari-lum-kari-lum is ‘one-hand-one-hand. | 


PRONOUNS: 

In the Vocabulary three forms of pronoun are given, separated 
by semi-colons. Of these the first is the full form, the second is 
the possessive suffixed to nouns, the third is the shortened form 
used with verbs. Any form which I have not found to be now 
in use, is marked ...; when it does not exist it is marked f. 


1. PersonaL Pronouns: These show a general use of personal 
and demonstrative prefixes, 7, ki, n2, ke, etc. The root-forms seem 
to be the following : 


Sing. 1. au, nau Plur. 1 (inclusive) kita, ita 
5 2. ko, o 1 (exclusive) ma, mi 
3. la, e 2. mul, mu, mi 
3. ra, la 


The dual forms may mostly be referred to the plural roots, with 
the numeral ‘two’ suffixed. In the same way, three or a few persons 
are often denoted by a suffixed numeral. In Aulua (Malekula) 
and in the Polynesian dialects, however, the suffixed ntil, tow used 


164 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


in the plural are the numeral tolu, ‘three,’ used indefinitely of 


any number more than two. 


2. PossessivE Pronouns: In the singular, these are all forms 
of ku, ma,na, and are suffixed to nouns denoting relationship or 
parts of a whole. The dual and plural forms do not appear to be 
distinct from those used as personal pronouns, but are in most 
cases abbreviated. 


3. VERBAL Pronouns: These are usually shortened forms of 
the personal pronouns, and are sometimes combined with the verbal 
particles. (See Introduction). In the third person, the word must 
often be regarded as a particle rather than a pronoun, especially in 


the consonantal forms m, ¢, 4, ete. 


PLURAL. 
The methods of forming the plural are-various. They may be 
tabulated as follows :— 
l. By prefix ra, ro, 0, o:—Malo, Santo, Futuna, Aniwa, Lifu. 
vet, 1:—Malo, Fiji, Lifu. 
2. By adjective following :—Commonly. 
3. By plural pronoun following :—Epi and Malekula. 
4, By noun preceding :—Eromanga. 
§. By lengthened vowel :—Samoa and Maori. 


SOURCES OF THE FOREGOING VOCABULARIES AND SPECIMENS. 


1. Aneityum—Dictionary by Rev. J. Inglis. 
Translations by Rev. W. Watt. 
2. Tanna-Kwamera— < ‘ Nineteen years in Polynesia’ by Rev. 
G. Turner. 

Grammar and Vocabulary by Rev. W. Gray 
in Rev. D. Macdonald’s ‘South Sea 
Languages.’ 

Translations by Rev. W. Gray. 

Translations. 

‘Nineteen years in Polynesia’ by Rev. G. Turner 


‘Three New Hebrides Languages’ by Rev. 


3. Tanna-Weasisi— 


4, Eromanga—} 


4. 5. 6. Hromanga— D. Macdonald. 
24. Santo-Nogogu—  ) (Nogogu words in Italic are Wulua dialect, 


words marked * are Valpay dialect). 


30. 


31. 


33. 
32. 
34. 


35. 
36. 


oF. 
38. 


. Epi, Livara— 


. Nguna— 


THE LANGUAGES OF THE NEW HEBRIDES. 165 


(Tasiko words in Italic from a slip printed by 
Bishop Patteson). 


. Epi, Tasiko— MS. by Rev. R. M. Fraser. 


Also Grammars 


pe 
Hpi, Biers \ as. by Rev. R. M. Fraser }and Vocabularies 


et, BOR by the same in the 
. Malekula-Pangkumu—MsS. Rev. A. Morton Ree. ieNcaeaalats 
. Malo—MS. by Rev. J. D. Landels ORean cles, josie 
. Tangoa—MS. by Rev. J. Annand guages.’ 

{ ‘Melanesian Languages’ by Rev. Dr. Codrington. 
. Ambrym— ~ ‘Die Melanesischen Sprachen’ by H. C. von der 

Gabelentz. 

© EOE tae Journal of Commodore Goodenough. 
. BLralado— = 
. Makura— |\ , , 
5a ee ; MS. by Rey. O. Michelsen. 


. Aulua—MS. by Rev. T. W. Leggatt. 
. Lamangku—MS. by Rev. T. W. Leggatt and the Journal of 


Commodore Goodenough. 


16. Hfate—Translations by Rev. D. Macdonald. (Words in 
Italic are from ‘South Sea Languages.’) 


( Translations by Rev. Milne. 
( Tongoan in Italics by Rev. O. Michelsen, MS. 


. Marina—‘ Melanesian Languages’ by Rev. Dr. Codrington. 
. Vunmarama—Bishop Patteson. 


: ‘Melanesian Languages’ by Rev. Dr. Codrington 
; — Be Melanesian Prayerbooks and MS. 


Grammar and Vocabulary by Dr. Gunn in Mac- 
donald’s ‘South Sea Languages.’ 


Translations by Rev. J. G. Paton. 
‘Nineteen Years in Polynesia’ by Rev. G. Turner. 


Translations by Rev. J. Copeland and Dr. Gunn. 
Futuna— 


Aniwa— | 
Mele—‘ Nineteen Years in Polynesia’ by Rev. G. Turner. 
Mae—MS. by Rev. Dr. Codrington. 

Mota—MS. Rev. Dr. Codrington, and ‘Melanesian Languages.’ 


f'yji—Dictionary by Rev. D. Hazlewood. 


Lifu—MS. by Rev. J. Sleigh; now revised by Rev. 8S. M. 
Creagh, of Sydney. 

Samoa—Dictionary by Rev. G. Pratt. 

Maori—Dictionary by E. Tregear. 


166 SIDNEY H. RAY. 


39. Lai* or Uvéa—Communicated by Rev. 8. Ella, Sydney. 
40. Maré—Communicated by Rev. S. M. Creagh, Sydney. 


*[The native name of this island is Iai (not Tai as on page 109). The 
following account of the manner in which brown Polynesians came to 
settle on this island is worth preserving ; itis communicated by the Rev. 
S. Ella :—On the island of Uvéa (properly Iai), in the Loyalty group, 
some castaways, both from Tonga and Wallis’ Island, have long been 
settled; one party, Uvéans (Wallis Is.), occupying the northern end of 
the island, to which they gave the name of Uvéa, and the other on the 
southern extremity, which they call Tonga. The original inhabitants 
(Iaians) occupy the central portion. The correct name of the island is 
Iai, but navigators, from first having had intercourse with the immi- 
grants at the northern end, have misnamed the island from the intro- 
duced name of that district. The description given by some of the natives 
of the Union Group ina measure accounts for the manner in which these 
waifs get driven away to distant islands. They were accustomed to move 
from island to island, long distances apart, in times of scarcity of food 
or other emergencies; and the night time, when the sea is calmer and 
the wind lighter, was generally selected for voyaging. They steered by 
the stars; but if the night became cloudy, or a strong wind arose, they 
would simply lower their sails, entreat the protection of their gods, and 
then quietly resign themselves to drift whither sea and wind might bear 
them. 

These Iaians were the original occupants of their island, but whence 
they came or when they settled there, I never could ascertain. They 
are Papuans, not negritoes, and resemble the peoples on the coast of New 
Guinea. 

As on Iai, so in the New Hebrides; immigrants have been drifted 
thither from Eastern Polynesia. For instance, some forty years ago, 
missionaries from Samoa discovered a tribe of Samoans occupying a dis- 
trict on the island of Efaté (Sandwich Is.), with whom easy intercourse 
was held in their own language. The account of their emigration was to 
this effect :—In one of the sanguinary conflicts which took place in Samoa 
before Christianity was introduced into that group, a large canoe party 
effected their escape from their. conquered district, and fled to seek refuge 
in Tonga. Owing to adverse winds they missed that group, and were 
carried to the New Hebrides, and made the island of Efaté. Here, after 
several conficts with the natives, they were enabled to establish them- 
selves. Many years afterwards they were visited by the John Williams, 
missionary ship, and some elected to return to their former home. The 
islands of Aniwa and Futuna, in the New Hebrides, are peopled by 
natives of Tonga and Futuna proper, westwards from Samoa, and also by . 
emigrants from Tanna. Islands at the north of the New Hebrides also \ 
are inhabited by immigrants probably from the Eastern Pacific. ] 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA. 167 


41. New Britain— Communicated by Rev. B. Danks, of 
42. Duke of York Is.— the New Britain Mission. 


43. Motu—Grammar and Vocabulary of the Motu Language, 
New Guinea, by Rev. W. G, Lawes, second edition ; 
Chas. Potter, Government Printer, Sydney. 


£2 The Council of the Royal Society wishes here to acknowledge 
the courtesy of the Rev. Dr. Cosh, Sydney, Chairman of the Board 
of New Hebrides Missions, in granting the use of the Mission 
map (See Plate 9) to illustrate the localities mentioned im Mr. 
Ray’s paper. 


UNRECORDED GENERA or tar OLDER TERTIARY 
FAUNA or AUSTRALIA, INCLUDING DIAGNOSES OF SOME 
New GENERA AND SPECIES. 


By Professor Rautpu Tart, F.G.8., F.L.8., Hon. Memb. 
[With Plates X.- XIII.] 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, July 5, 1893.] 


Iv is now nearly five years ago that the Society published my 
‘Census of the Fauna of the Older Tertiary of Australia.” During 
that interval much additional material has been acquired, and 
observations in the field touching the stratigraphical phenomena 
have been recorded, and it now seems desirable to make known the 
new facts by way of a Supplement to the Census, including corri- 
genda as well as addenda. 


The beds at the following sections, which had been tentatively 
included in the Miocene, are now transferred to the Eocene, viz., 
those at Cheltenham, Port Philip Bay; those in the Moorabool 
Valley, Geelong; the Turritella beds of Table Cape; and the 
marbles of the Great Australian Bight. These removals limit the 
Miocene to the oyster-beds of the Aldinga and River Murray 


168 RALPH TATE. 


Cliffs, the upper beds of the Muddy Creek section and the low- 
level fossiliferous beds around the Gippsland lakes, which last 
repose against the escarpments of the Hocene-limestones, well- 
exposed in the cliffs of the Rivers Mitchell, Tambo, &c. A marine 
fauna of Pliocene Age has been discovered and recorded by me in 
Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Austr., Vol. xr, p. 172, 1890. 


An examination of the fossils of the Oamaru Series in New 
Zealand brings to light many previously unknown specific com- 
munities with our Older Tertiary ; and in the case of the echino- 
derms, the generic grouping is absolutely identical, though the 
species are for the most part different, which leaves no room to 
doubt that the Oamaru Series is correlative with the Eocene of 
this continent, and is homotaxially related to the lowest members 
of the European Eocene, if it be not somewhat older. 


The additions to the specific representatives of the various 
genera, recorded in my Census are too numerous to record here, 
but I have described an exemplar species of each of the majority 
of the genera now added. 


Class MAMMALIA. 


The skeleton of a marsupial is recorded by Mr. R. M. Johnston 
from the ‘“ Turritella beds” at Table Cape, and by him referred 
to the living genus Halmaturus without specific name. At the 
time of writing my Census, I had thought it possible that the 
specimen might be of recent date, and had reached its position by 
way of a vertical fissure from the surface, and it was accordingly 
omitted. During the meeting of the Australasian Association for 
the Advancement of Science at Hobart, the slab containing the 
skeleton was carefully examined by Professérs Hutton and Spencer 
and myself, and by us was unhesitatingly pronounced to be lying 
in the bedding plane of the rock. Subsequently Professor Spencer 
and myself visited Table Cape to study its stratigraphical features, 
with the result that this extensive vertical section represents one 
period of deposition, gradually passing from the basal conglomer- 
ates and coarse grits, rich in marine fossils, to the “ Turritella-— 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA. 169 


beds,” in which the species have been greatly reduced in number, 
and to estuarine or fluviatile beds with plant-remains only. This 
discovery is of the highest interest, as hitherto no marsupial 
remains are known older than the age of the Diprotodon or Plio- 
cene ; and leads us to hope that other progenitors of the modern 
Marsupialia of this Continent may yet be found, and so help to 
solve the question of their geographic origin. Professor Spencer 
has promised to investigate the fossil with the view to determine 
the classifactory position of the oldest known Australian marsupial. 


Class PIsces. 
Genus Strophodus. 
S. Eocenicus, sp. nov., Pl. xii, fig. 6. 


I am not aware if representatives of this genus have been 
signalled in rocks younger than Upper Cretaceous, yet I have no 
hesitation in referring to it some fish-plates, which are not of 
uncommon occurrence at Cheltenham, Port Philip Bay, and also 
have been found by mein the Lower Murravian, and by Mr. 
Sweet from the limestones of the Moorabool River. The species 
is somewhat comparable with S. magnus, Agassiz, but is narrower 
with coarser reticulate rugosities and the inner margin is very 
finely reticulate-punctate ; the outline is subtrapezoidal, about 
three times as long as wide, broader at one end, which is con- 
vexedly truncate and narrower at the other which is truncated; 
uniformly depressedly-convex above. Length 30 mm., width 8, 
increasing to 11 mm., thickness 7 mm. 


Genus Otodus. 


This genus is now merged in Lamna. 


Genus ? of Chimeride. 
Dental plates belonging toa Chimeroid fish have been collected 
at Grange Burn, Hamilton, by Mr. Sweet, but the material avail- 


able is not sufficiently complete to permit of generic determination. 


Class CEPHALOPODA. 
Genus Spirulirostra. 


; a 
| 


170 RALPH TATE, 


S. curTa, sp. nov., Pl. x., fig. 1. 

This genus was founded by D’Orbigny in 1841, and its type- 
species, S. Bellardi, from the Older Miocene of Turin has remained 
till now unique, <A good figure of it is given in Fischer’s Manuel 
de Conchyliologie, but is more fully illustrated in Nicholson’s 
Manual of Palxontology. 


Nicholson placed the genus in Sepiade, Fischer in Belopteride, 
Tryon in Belemnitide ; this last location seems to me to be the 
best, as Spirulirostra may be viewed as a Belemnite with a sub- 
spiral phragmacone lying obliquely within the alveolar cavity. . 


An example of the present species was collected by me at Bird- 
rock Bluff, near Geelong, in January 1890, and I announced its 
discovery to the Royal Society of South Australia at its April 
meeting of that year; during the following summer I was suc- 
cessful in obtaining a second example at the same locality. 


The rostrum of the Australian species is more robust, is shortly- 
pointed, and is less arched dorsally and ventrally, where it is more: 
or less truncated. Lateral axis of rostrum 8, ventro-dorsal axis 12, 
length to apex of phragmacone 16 ; length of alveolar cavity above. 
plane of apex of phragmacone 29 (incomplete). 


Class GASTROPODA. 
Genus Murew. 
Subgenus DMuricidea. 
Of the described species of T'rophon, only 7’. icosiphyllus, makes. 
an approach to the characters of the genus, the rest belong as also. 
do some species of Ocinebra, e.g. O. biconicus, to Muricidea. 
Subgenus Muricopsis. 
Murex (Ocinebra) alveolatus and I. crassiliratus belong here. 
Genus Clavilithes. 
_ This genus, so characteristically Eocene, is represented in the: 
Kocene-beds of Australia by F. incompositus, F. bulbodes, and F. 
Tateanus, whose relations to the type-species of the genus, /usus- 
longaevus, Solander, I had already indicated. 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA. 171 


Genus /usus. 
Subgenus Tectifusus, nov. 


As suggested by M. Cossmann, I remove my Fusus tholoides 
and I’, Aldingensis to form a new subgenus, Tectifusus, charac- 
terised by the tectiform and costulated pullus. 


Genus Latirofusus. 

This genus was founded by Cossmann in 1889 for the reception 
of Fusus funiculosus, Lk., and ’. decussatus, Desh., of the Parisian 
Eocene; he refers to it the living /. lancea, Gmelin, placed by 
Tryon in Latirus. As suggested by Cossmann J. aciformis, mihi, 
proves to belong to Latirofusus. I have recently described a 
species inhabiting Southern Australian waters under the name of 
Latirofusus nigrofuscus. Species of this genus have a narrow 
elongate spire with a hemispheric embryo, the aperture is small 
and rounded, the canal straight and nearly closed, the columella 
obliquely plicated. 


Genus Concholepas. 


C. ANTIQUATA, sp. nov., PI. x., fig. 2. 

This aberrant genus of Purpuride is represented by C. Peru- 
viana, Lk., ranging from Peru to Patagonia, and C. Deshayesi, 
Rambur, of the Miocene of Touraine. The discovery of a third 
species by Mr. G. B. Pritchard in the clays at Mornington, Port. 
Philip Bay, and in the calcareous sands at Muddy Creek, Hamilton, 
extends the stratigraphical range to the Eocene. 


J am unacquainted with C’. Deshayesi, either by description or 
figure; but compared with C. Peruviana our fossil presents the 
following differences:—The great variability of the ornament of 
the living species and the fact that the fossil species is known to 
me by only two examples make it difficult to select a character 
which may prove to be specific rather than individual. In respect. 
of shape, the fossil is more tumid with a larger spire, the suture 
of which appears deeply impressed (arising from the steep slope 
intervening between the actual suture and the convex rib which 


ends at the posterior angle of the aperture). The prominence of 


172 RALPH TATE. 


the posterior angulation gives the posterior part of the aperture a 
truncated outline; the margin of the aperture is only feebly 
denticulated anteriorily. The anterior groove is broad and deep, | 
and the columella-expansion is broadly concave and not horizontal. 
The ornament consists of linear grooves unequally placed, divid- 
ing-up the surface into flat ridges, which become somewhat angu- 
lated towards the front ; the whole crossed by growth-iines, giving 
place to slight lamellae in the neighbourhood of the basal rib. 
There is a total absence of a fenestrate ornament as in most 
individuals of C. Peruviana. Length 26, breadth 22, height 14mm. 


Genus Distortio. 
D. INTERPOSITA, sp. nov., Pl. x., fig. 3. 

This genus is represented in living creation by three species, 
one of which D. anus, Linn., of the Indian Ocean, is a familiar 
shell, remarkable for its ringent aperture. Among described 
species D. septemdentata, Gabb, from the Hocene of Texas is the 
most ancient ; in the European Tertiary beds, it is represented by 
D. tortuosa, Borson, in the Piedmontese Miocene. Our Australian 
species is from the Eocene at Bird-rock Bluff near Geelong, whence 
a few examples have been obtained ; it has the general aspect and 
latticed ornament of D. cancellina, Roissy, but has a very short 
canal, the spiral ribs are flat and alternate with riblets (there are 
about seven on the penultimate whorl, the third, fifth, and seventh 
more prominent), subgranose at the intersections of the primary 
spirals and costze (most prominent in the early whorls). D. septem- 
dentata has three spirals on the penultimate whorl. Length 25, 
breadth 15, length of aperture and canal 13-5 mm. 


Genus Argobucconum. 

If this name is accorded generic rank, then it should replace 
fanella, as the only species in the Australian Eocene, &. Pratt, 
Ten.-Woods, has the distinctive characters of Argobucconum as 
already implied by me when redescribing the species. 


Genus 7ritonidea. 
IT here refer Pisania obliquecostata and P. brevis, Tate; whilst 
LP. rostrata and P. semicostata, Tate,. are’ better placed under 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA. 173 


Cantharus, and Pisania purpuroides (Johnston), Tate, may be 
replaced in Aicinula. These transferences eliminate the genus. 


Pisania from our list. 


Genus Harpa. 
HarpPA PACHYCHEILA, spec. nov., Pl. xi., fig. 5. 


This species belongs to the Section Kocithara, Fischer, to the 
type of which H. mutica, Lamk., of the Parisian Eocene, it bears 
some resemblance, differing by its angulated whorls and the 
absence of the delicate clathrate ornament between the costae. 
It resembles also H. abbreviata, mihi, but has angulated whorls, 
acute not lamellate costae, intercostal spaces distantly cross-barred,. 
pullus small, and outer lip excessively thickened (which ascends. 
to near the keel of the penultimate whorl. Length 27, breadth 
17 mm. Locality : Eocene, Spring Creek (common). 


Genus Pyrula. 


This genus is represented in the Eocene beds of Table Cape, 
Tasmania, by a large species, known to me by two examples in the 
collection of Mr. T. Atkinson ; it is undescribed. 


Genus Dolium. 
DoLIuM BIORNATUM, spec. nov., Pl. x., fig. 5. 


Shell thin, elliptic-oval ; spire elevated; imperforate ; whorls. 
Six, ventricose, slightly flattened posteriorly, suture linear. Penul- 
timate and body-whorl with narrow flatly rounded encircling ribs 
(six or seven on penultimate whorl), anda riblet or thread usually 
interposed, crossed by rather distant growth-lines. Posterior 
whorls ornamented with slender spiral ribs, alternating with threads, 
tessellated by raised strie, which produce crenatures on the 
principal lirae. Outer lip narrowly expanded and slightly reflected, 
crenate-dentate. Columella simple, long and straight; beak short, 
narrow and slightly oblique and upturned. Length, 48 ; width, 
45; length of aperture, 37. Localities—Eocene: Fyansford 
(Mulder), Muddy Oreek (Pritchard). | 


74 RALPH TATE, 


In general appearance it resembles D. Testardi, Montrz.; but 
has somewhat tabulated whorls ; whilst the apertural characters 
are so distinctive as almost to warrant generic separation. 


Genus Lburnopsis. 

This generic name was proposed by me in Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. — 
Austr., 1888, p. 117, for a fossil having certain affinities with 
Lburna,; in addition to the type HL. awlacoéssa, two other speciés 
have since become known, all are Eocene, one of which is here 
described. 


EBURNOPSIS TESSELLATUS, sp. nov., Pl. xi, fig. 10. 

Shell like #. awalcoéssa, mihi, but very much smaller, base im- 
perforate, suture narrowly excavate, spire-whorls ornamented with 
linear spiral and axial sulci, which divide up the surface into 
rhombic flat nodulations. A well-marked revolving sulcus on the 
body-whorl terminates on the outer lip, a little in front of the 
middle, in a small tooth-like projection. Length 8:5, breadth 5. 
Locality—Eocene: Spring Creek, near Geelong (common). 


Genus Cyprea. 


Subgenus Cypredia. 
CYPREDIA CLATHRATA, Zate, Tr. Roy. Soc. 8. Austr., Vol. xm, 
tab. 9y mead, L892: 

The subgenera Cypredia and Cypreovula include the cowries 
with raised ornamentation, the former is distinguished from the 
latter by the absence of a posterior notch in the aperture. Five 
species have been described from the European Eocene; and the 
Australian congener is most like C. elegans, Defrance, but it is 
not so regularly clathrate in its ornamentation. 


Genus Genotia. 

This genus forms part of the Pleurotomide, and includes the 
oval-fusiform species having a slightly twisted columella, a short 
canal, and the sinus at the peripheral keel. The genus is best. 
represented in Eocene and Miocene strata. The Australian species 
of corresponding age, known to me, agree best with Dolichotoma, 
but I am not satisfied that it is clearly definable from Genoftia.. 


ad 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA. 175 


All our species have a globulose pullus, its tip immersed and 
slightly lateral; three of the following are near alliances to 


D. cataphracta, Brocchi. 


GENOTIA FONTINALIS, spec. nov., Pl. x., fig. 4. 

Fusiform, angulated at or a little behind the suture; the posterior 
area concave axially and ornamented with (about eight) slender 
lirze, tessellated by oblique threads, more or less granulose at the 
interstices ; the keel is granose-crenate, compounded of three or 
four equal-sized threads. Body-whorl in front of periphery with 
subgranose ribs (twenty) with interposed threads. Length 23, 
width 10, height of last whorl 17. Hocene:—Spring Creek near 
Geelong (common). 


The sutural position of the keel, its composite nature, and the 
tessellated ornament separate this species from G’. cataphriacta. 


GENOTIA DECOMPOSITA, spec. nov, Pl. x, fig. 8. 

This differs from G’. cataphracta by its shorter and stouter snout, 
by its shorter spire, more ventricose and bluntly angulated whorls, 
and in the absence of nodose crenatures on the periphery and at 
the posterior suture. The transverse ornament consists of slender 
arched threads which are not confluent in small groups at the 
suture. In its ornament it approaches more to G’. engonia, Watson, 
but that shell is slimmer and its whorls angulated. Length 28, 
width 12, length of aperture and canal 17:5. Localities—ocene: 
Gellibrand River, and Fyansford near Geelong. 


GENOTIA PRITCHARDI, spec. nov., Pl. x., fig. 9. 

Has a short stout snout and therein differs from G. fontinalis; 
it approximates to G'. cataphracta in the position of the keel which 
is however composed of three threads, Length 27, width 18. 
Locality—Miocene, Gippsland Lakes. 


Named in compliment to my young friend Mr. G. B. Pritchard, 


in whose company the species was s collected. 


GENOTIA ANGUSTIFRONS, spec nov., Pl. x., fig. 7. 
(Dolichotoma atractoides, Tate, M.S., non G. atractoides, Watson). 


176 RALPH TATE. 


Biconic ; keels two, elevated; the posterior keel overlapping the 
suture, sharply crenate on the edge ; the peripheral keel is triplic- 
ate and granose-dentate, anterior to it on the body-whorl are 
largely elevated encircling ribs (about twelve) narrower than the 
sulci which are transversely wrinkled and produce crenatures as 
they pass over the ribs. Outer lip with a deepish and broad slit 
at the periphery, anterior to which it is very strongly arched in 
marginal outline and declivous towards the columella contracting 
the aperture to narrow-elliptical. Length 35, greatest width (at 
one-third of the whorl from the aperture) 17, height of last whorl 
24-5 mm. Localities—Eocene: Muddy Creek, Gellibrand, 
Fyansford, Mornington. 


G. angustifrons is a variable species, in respect of length and 
details of ornamentation, but my description applies to the more 
commonly prevailing form, which is fairly intermediate between 


the extremes of variability. 


Family CerITHIuD®. 
Genus Diastoma, Deshayes. 


This name is in substitution for Mesalia, to which I referred 
our only species, M/. Provisi (inedit.), because congeneric with 
Mesalia melanoides, Reeve, Icon. Conch., 1849. My valued cor- 
respondent M. Cossmann, to whom the fossil was sent under the 
above name, informs me that it is a Diastoma, from him I have 
received examples of several species of Diastoma and Mesalia from 
the Parisian Eocene. This material permits me to affirm that I. 
Provisi, mihi, and Jf, melanoides, Reeve, are congeneric with D. 
costellatum, Lamk.; whilst Mesalia sulcata, Lamk. (non sulcata, 
Gray, = brevialis, Lamk.), is of a totally different type. Diastoma 
simulates Mesalia, but the latter has a sinuated outer lip, whilst 
the spiral carination of the columella of Diastoma is quite a 
different feature from the slight twist of the columella-margin of 
Mesalia; moreover Diastoma is more or less variced. Reeve in his 
figure and description of Jf, melanoides omits the slight varices 
on the posterior whorls ; at any rate the examples of this species 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA. 174 


obtained in South Australia, as well as D. Provisi, exhibit this 
character. MMesalia belongs to Turritellide ; Diastoma, which 
has been located in at least two families, finds a resting place in 
- Cerithiide, it may be viewed as a Melania-like Cerithium. 


Until now the genus has been known only in a fossil state, in 
the Eocene and Oligocene of the Paris basin; D. Provisi occurs 
jn the Australian Miocene and Older Pliocene, and D. melanoides, 
Reeve, is living in South Australian waters. The transference 
of Mesalia melanoides, Reeve, to Diastoma will avoid the dual 
employment of the species name in J/esalia, so that IL. melanoides, 
Deshayes, may be retained. 


The genus Mesalia will however stand, as a small species, pre- 
viously overlooked, occurs in the Hocene marly clays of the 


Aldinga Cliffs. 


Drastoma PRrovist, spec. nov., Pl. x., fig. 6. 

Test very thick (in adult body-whorl 1 mm.). Shell resembling 
D. melanoides, but the coste are more slender and numerous, the 
spiral threads more neatly crenulating the coste ; the early spire- 
whorls subquadrate (not convex), whorls slightly over-lapping at 
the posterior suture (not lightly channelled), and the spiral orna- 
ment interrupted in the posterior four-fifths by a very narrow 
impressed track. In D. melanoides, the seventh spire-whorl has 
five equidistant lire; in D. Provisi, the corresponding whorl has 
five anterior equal and equidistant lire with an intervening thread- 
let, and posterior to the revolving impressed track there are about 
four slender lire; whilst there are twenty coste. The lire and 
cost increase in numbers with the revolution of the spire. 


Aperture loop-shaped, somewhat angular and slightly depressed 
in front, not detached behind ; outer lip thin; basal lip slightly 
incurved ; columella thickened and obliquely bevelled on anterior 
and inner face, callously spreading behind the columella-ridge 
(which is more sharply defined than in the recent shell). 


Dimensions :—Total length 46; width 14; length of aperture 
from posterior angle to base, 15; greatest transverse width of 
L—July 5, 1893, 


eo 
‘“ 
= ie. 


178 RALPH TATE. 


aperture 7mm. The ratio of these measures are approximately 
the same in D. Provist and D. melanoides, being for the former 
100; 30°4; 32:6; 15; for the latter 100; 33:3; 33-3; 14-2, 
Localities :—Miocene—Hallett’s Cove, St. Vincent Gulf; Older 
Pliocene—Dry Creek bore near Adelaide (very abundant). 


Named in compliment to Mr. Provis, the late Manager of the 
Dry Creek Smelting Works, to whom the writer is indebted for 
the extensive collection of fossils obtained from the bore-holes at 
that place. 


Subgenus Semivertaqus. 


This name was established by Cossmann in 1889 (Annales de la 
Soc. Roy. Malac. de Belgique, Vol. xxiv., p. 28), for such species 
of Cerithiide resembling Vertagus, but which are distinguished by 
the absence of a plication on the columella, and by having a short 
canal ; he includes in it six species from the Eocene of Paris. No 
species has as yet been met with by me from our Eocene beds, but 
the genus is represented by one species each in the Miocene and 
Older Pliocene strata in the neighbourhood of Adelaide. Both agree 
with the type species, C. unisulcatum, Lamk., from comparison of 
actual specimens, in the general outline and apertural characters, 
put their spires taper more rapidly, the body-whorls are rather 
more conspicuously contracted, and the sutures well-defined. 


SEMIVERTAGUS SUBCALVATUS, spec. nov., Pl. x1., fig. 3. 

Shell pyramidally turreted, apex somewhat acuminate ; whorls 
thirteen, slightly flatly rounded at the posterior suture, incon- 
spicuously ornamented by seven spiral threads, with two to four 
threadlets in the interspaces. Length 21, breadth 6 mm. 


Locality:—Miocene: Calciferous sandstones, Aldinga Cliffs. 


SEMIVERTAGUS CAPILLATUS, spec. nov., Pl. xi., fig. 1. ,; j 

Shell pyramidally turreted, apex somewhat acuminate; whorls ; 
twelve, separated by a conspicuous suture; ornamented by twenty 
‘or more spiral graved lines, separated by wider intervals which 
increase in width towards the anterior suture, crossed by slightly 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA. 179 


arched stria which are more distant than the revolving lines. 
Length 17, breadth 5 mm. 
Locality:—Older Pliocene: Dry Creek bore, near Adelaide. 


Genus Ataxocerithium, nov. 


Type :—Cerithium serotinum, A. Adams in Sowerby’s Thes. Conch. 
sp. 48. f. 102 ; id Reeve, Icon. Conch. f. 146. 
Etymology :—Ataxos out of order, and Cerithium. 

Shell like Cerithium. Columella lamellar and elevated, con- 
tiguous with the outer lip and forming a tubular canal of moderate 
length, shortly but abruptly bent to the left and backward at the 
tip. The peristome is almost complete posteriorly. There are 
no varices and there is no posterior canal. The outer lip is 
expanded anteriorly and laterally projecting as in Certzthidea, 
behind which the whorl is peculiarly contracted. 


The aperture suggests Terebralia, e.g. T. sulcata, but its tubular 
canal is formed by the extension of the basal lip on to the colu- 
mella; it has also varices, at any rate there is a large variceal 
thickening at the posterior-third of the body-whorl against which 
the recurved basal margin is fused. The resemblance is greater 
in the young, or even better with Campanile, the sudden twist in. 
the columella simulates a plica at its base. It has some analogy 
with Vertagus, but the absence of a posterior canal and varix on 
last whorl forbid its association therewith. It differs from Colina 
by the short reverted canal, complete peritreme, and the absence 
of a variceal dilatation of the outer lip. The pullus is globulose © 
of one-and-half turns, with a bulbous free tip. 


ATAXOCERITHIUM CONCATENATUM, spec. nov., Pl. xi., fig. 6. 

Shell triangular-oval, spire somewhat acuminate of seven flat 
whorls separated by a deeply furrowed suture ; apex apiculate of 
about three small rounded whorls, ornamented with arched trans- 
verse threads, tip a little excentric. Spire-whorls ornamented 
with oblique, broad, flatly-rounded, transverse ribs (about twenty- 
four on penultimate whorl), and about five similar but narrower 
lirae, the intersections of which produce oblong pits. Last whorl 


oe ae 
ae 
‘ “hh 
; 


80 . RALPH TATE. ; 


contracted, the fenestrated ornament gradually obliterated on the 
anterior-half. Length 11; diameter of penultimate whorl 4:5, of 
body-whorl 4 mm. Locality—Hocene: Adelaide-bore. 


Genus Colina. 

This genus founded by the Messrs. Adams in 1853, of which 
four living species are known, has been signalled in a fossil state 
by Cossmann in 1889, who refers to it eight species of the Parisian 
Kocene which had been described as Cerithiums by Deshayes. The 
characters bring it in near relation to Zovenella (as distinct from 
Cerithiopsis ), from which it is distinguished by its straighter canal, 
dilated aperture, and reflected peristome. 

Some of our Hocene Lovenelle may eventually prove to belong 
to Colina. 

CoLINA APICILIRATA, spec. nov., Pl. xii., fig. 7. 

Shell slender, elongate ; whorls slightly convex, with six slender 
lire crossed by transverse threads of about equal strength, which 
produce square interspaces; aperture broadly dilated ; columella- 
border thin and slightly reflected ; canal rather long (about:5 mm.), 
slightly upturned, and just perceptibly bent to the left. Apex 
obtuse of two-and-a-half lirate whorls. Length 7, width of penul- 
_ timate whorl 2, of body-whorl 2°5 mm. 


Eocene clays at Gellibrand River (Mr. Dennant). 


This species closely resembles C. Mfwniert, Desh., but differs in 
_its embryonic whorls, which in the Parisian fossil form an acute 
pyramid of four to five smooth and slowly decreasing whorls. 


CoLINA FENESTRALIS, spec. nov., Pl. xii., fig. 11. 
Shell pyramidal of eleven flat whorls separated by a canaliculate 
suture ; apex of two small smooth inflated whorls; penultimate 
whorl! with five flat spiral threads, crossed by perpendicular coste, 
which are nearly equally stout as the lire, thus dividing up the 
surface into square pits (six in a length of 2 mm.). Length 
9:5; breadth 3 mm. 
Locality :—Eocene: Gellibrand River. With it occur two other 
closely-allied species, and a fourth is in the Table Cape beds. 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA, 181 


Genus Ampullina. 

This name is in substitution for Ampullaiia, conchologically I 
do not know how to separate the one from the other ; but as our 
fossil is marine, the transference becomes necessary. Only one 
species occurs with us, A. effusa, mihi, which will be described in 
my forthcoming Part iv. of the “ Gastropods of the Older Tertiary 
of Australia”; it is restricted to the Eocene at Adelaide. 

Genus Sigaretus. 

This genus, which commenced in the Chalk has a few Eocene 
species and about twenty in recent seas, is an addition to our 
Eocene Fauna through the discovery of two examples of an un- 
described species by Mr. G. B. Pritchard in the Spring Creek beds 
near Geelong. The new species will be figured and described in 
my forthcoming Part iv. of the ‘Old Tertiary Gastropods” as 
S. microstirus. 

Genus Calyptropsis, nov. 
Examples:—Trochita turbinata,’ Ten.-Woods; Eocene, Muddy 
Creek. Crepidula umbilicata, Johnston; Hocene, Table Cape. 
Calyptropsis arachnoideus, Tate, (M.S.); Hocene, Adelaide. 

Shell like Calyptrea, but umbilicated and with a columella- 

insinuosity at the umbilical border. 


Family PyRAMELLIDZ. 
Genus Acteopyramis, Fischer, 1885. 
This is in substitution for Myonia (Fam. Actzonide) in which 


the species was wrongly placed, the heterostrophe apex removes it 
from that family. 


ACTHOPYRAMIS OLIVELLEFORMIS, spec. nov., Pl. xi., fig. 2. 


Shell elongate-oval, body-whorl longer than spire ; aperture a 
little less than half the total length. Whorls seven, shining; 
suture concealed by a slight thin imbrication from preceeding whorl. 
Surface sculptured with microscopic graved spiral lines; the basal- 
half of the body-whorl deeply sulcated, the width of the interven- 
ing bands decreases somewhat towards the base. Aperture 


Bs 
' 
a ' 


182 RALPH TATE. 


elliptic ; outer lip thin, arched medially ; peritreme incomplete ; 
columella with a fold-like twist, medially sulcated. Length 13, 
breadth 4:5 mm.  Localities—Eocene: Muddy Creek; Spring 
Creek, Geelong (an uncertain identification. 


Genus Jsapis, H. and A. Adams. 

The fossil which I refer to this genus has the general aspect of 
Isapis fenestratus, Carp., as illustrated in Tryon’s Man. Conch., 
Vol. 1x., p. 273, t. 52, f. 11, but it possesses a revolving plait on 
the columella ; whereas that genus is described as having a small 
median tooth on the columella, Mayer says of Raulinia alligata 
in establishing the genus, ‘‘sa columelle non tordue, aplatie, et 
qui porte 4 lintérieur, une dent tuberculeuse independante pour 
ainsi dire, et qui n’a absolutement rien a faire avec le pli des 
Odontostoma.” Specimens of Raulinia alligata, Desh., from the 
Middle Oligocene of Pierrefitte, which I owe to the generosity of 
M. Cossmann, all exhibit a revolving plait on the columella, and 
if the so-called tooth of Lsapzs proves to be a plait, then the only 
distinction between the two genera is that Jsapis is umbilicated 
and Raulinia imperforate. A second species, having the facies of 
the other, hasa closed umbilicus; I cannot call one Jsapis and the 
other Rauwlinia, as I think the presence or absence of an umbilicus 
is a character too unstable for generic distinction. If I am right 
in my conjecture as to the presence of a plait in J/sapis asin 
Raulinia, then the latter must merge into the former ; if I am 
wrong, then the two species here described must belong to Raulinia 
and its characters amended in respect of the umbilicus and embryo, 
as also by the substitution of a “revolving plait” for a “ tooth” 
on the columella. The heterostrophe pullus of Zsapis eothinos, mihi, 
places it in Pyramellide, whilst the slightly arched and concave 
columella brings it in the neighbourhood of Yossarus ; Lacunodon, 
Cossmann, among Littorinide, is closely simulated by it. 


IsAPIs EOTHINOS, spec. nov., Pl. x., fig. 11. 

(Raulinia eothinos, Tate, MS.) 
Shell oval-oblong, test thin, apex obtuse, embryo obtuse with 
a looped tip. Whorls five, rapidly increasing, convex though 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA. 183 


slightly flattened at the posterior suture, suture channelled ; spir- 
ally flatly-sulcated, separated by narrower truncated elevated ribs, 
the sulci seven or eight on penultimate whorl (the posterior one 
double), with oblique distant threads; body-whorl with about 
fifteen spiral flat ribs, tessellated in the interspaces. 


Aperture large, oval, posteriorly angulated, slightly effuse basally; 
peristome entire; collumella arcuate, somewhat flattened, slightly 
reflected over the umbilicus, with a revolving median plait which 
does not extend to the free margin of the columella; umbilicus 
moderate, conspicuous. Length 7:5, width 4:5, length of aperture 
4-5 mm. 


Locality :—Eocene: Spring Creek, near Geelong (several 
examples). 


ISAPIS ELATUS, spec. nov., Pl. x., fig. 10. 
(Raulinia elata, Tate, MS.) 
Differs from the foregoing in its elongate bulimoid shape, non- 
canaliculate suture and closed umbilicus; the ornamentation is 
the same ; whorls five-and-a-half. Length 8-5, width 3°75. 


Locality:—Hocene: Muddy Creek, near Hamilton, Victoria. 


Family Lrriopipm. 
Genus Litiopa. 
LITIOPA PUNCTULIFERA, spec. nov., Pl. xi., fig. 9. 


Whorls four-and-a-half, of which the apical one-and-a-half are 
smooth ; the rest of rapid increase, concave, ornamented by trans- 
verse arched and spiral threadlets of about equal strength, which 
produce the appearance of punctures in the narrower interspaces. 
Aperture obliquely oval; outer lip thin, nearly straight posteriorly, 
slightly expanding in front; peristome entire; columella arched, 
slightly reflected to form a false umbilical chink, terminated at a 
little in front of the middle by an acutely angular notch which 
runs on the free margin into a short acute tooth-like projection. 


The species has the general outline of LZ. bombyx, but its punct- 
ate sculpture and sharp columella tooth separate it from the few 


184 RALPH TATE, 


known species. The genus is represented by one species in the 


Parisian Eocene. 
Length 3°75, width 1:75, length of aperture 1°75 (vix). 
Locality:—Eocene: Gellibrand River. 


Family Lirrorinip&. 
Genus Asella. 
RISELLA ALTA, spec. nov., Pl. xi., fig. 4. 


Shell conical ; whorls slightly concave; suture linear-impressed, 
margined on each side by a prominent spiral undulose rib, and 
presenting the appearance of being crossed by axially elongated 
nodulations ; the intervening area is traversed by two to four 
slightly undulose rounded threadlets, rendered somewhat nodulose 
by the intersecting oblique folds of growth. Base flat, the peri- 
phery flatly and thinly extended ; umbilicus minute ; there are 
from three to four concentric folds on the base. Length 5:5, 
breadth 6 mm. Localities—Eocene: Spring Creek and Muddy 
Creek. 


Family CyYCLosTREMIDZ. 
Genus Jinostoma. 


The species in the Australian Eocene referred to under Hthalia | 
belong to Tinostoma which is as well-represented in the European 
Eocene as in modern seas. 

Genus Adeorbis. 

This genus is represented by two or three species. Adeorbisaster, 

T.-Woods, is an Astralium ( Carinidea ). 
Genus Delphinula. 

This is represented by one if not two species in the Eocene at 

Muddy Creek, Gellibrand River, Fyansford and Mornington. 


Family TrocH1pD2&. 


Genus Cantharidus. | 
No species of T'rochus (sensu stricto) are known to me from the 
Australian Tertiary, those referred thereto belong to Cantharidus. 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA. 185 


Genus Humargarita, Fischer, 1885. 

To this genus must be referred the species included under 
Minolia, one of which EZ. lucens, mihi, from the Eocene of Spring 
Creek, belongs to the genus in its restricted definition, the others 
fall into the subgenus Solariella, 8. Wood, 1842, they are Margarita 
Keckwicki, Ten.-Woods, Hocene, Table Cape, Minolia strigata, 
Ten.-Woods, Eocene, Muddy Creek, &c., and 8S. rhysa, mihi, 
Eocene, Adelaide. 


Genus Basilissa, Watson, 1878. 

Since the establishment of this genus, which originally included 
seven recent species, five have been signalled in the Parisian 
Eocene. It is especially distinguished by the sinus in the outer 
lip near its insertion. When describing Sequenzia radialis, Trans. 
Roy. Soc. 8. Austr., 1890, p. 192, I referred to an undiagnosed 
species of Lasilissa, obtained from the Hocene clayey sands in the 
Adelaide bore which simulated it ; I add here a brief description of 


BasinissA CossMANNI, spec. nov., Pl. x1., fig. 8. 

Shell broadly conical ; whorls flat except a slight angulation at 
the posterior suture, ornamented with slender lire (about seven on 
penultimate whorl) which increase in strength from behind forward 
latticed by slender oblique transverse threads, minutely granulated 
at the intersections. Base flat, ornamented with about nine 
depressed concentric ribs, the intervening sulci of about equal 
width to the ribs are traversed by radial threads; umbilicus 


moderate, its margin crenulated. Length and breadth 4 mm (vix.) 


The species-name of this pretty shell of a very interesting genus 
is given in acknowledgment of valuable help in the elaboration of 
our Tertiary Mollusca rendered by the author of a “ Catalogue 
Illustré des Coquilles Fossiles de ’Eocene de Paris.” 


Family FissurELLID&. 


Genus Scutwm. 
ScUTUM ANATINUM, Donovan. 
Examples of this recent shell have been collected from the Eocene 
beds of the Moorabool Valley by Mr. Sweet ; they are very little 


‘ iit. 
: , i, 


186 RALPH TATE 


more than casts, but the comparative dimensions of the recent and 
fossil specimens are almost absolutely the same. 


Family Actmonip&. 
Genus Triploca, nov. 


Shell like Acteon, but with three revolving plaits on the 
columella. 


TRIPLOCA LIGATA, spec. nov., Pl. xi., fig. 7. 


Shell oval, thick, spirally linear-sulcate. Sulci impunctate ; 
whorls six and a-half, a little elevated at the suture and distinctly 
margined in front of it by an elevated band defined by an anterior 
impressed track ; suture impressed. The linear sulci are close 
together, but vary in their prominence, and are sometimes almost 
obliterated. Outer lip thickened internally, but is bevelled to a 
sharp entire edge ; columella triplicate, slightly reflected and pro- 
ducing a false umbilical fissure. Length 8, breadth 4. Locality— 
Eocene: Adelaide bore. 


Class LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 
Family NucuLip. 
Genus Poroleda, nov. 


Examples :—Scaphula (?) elongata, Hutton, Trans. N. Z. Inst., 
XVII, p. 332, 1885. Poroleda lanceolata, Tate. 


Shell like Zeda, having an oblique internal cartilage-pit and a 
small pallial sinus ; the hinge-line (nearly straight) with a series 
of longitudinal imbricating teeth on each side. 


POROLEDA LANCEOLATA, spec. nov., Pl. xii, fig 6. 


Shell depressed, pellucid, shining, transversely elongate, con- 
centrically striate-ridged ; posterior side much produced and 
narrowly roundly-truncated at the end; hinge-line straight ; 
anterior side very short, rounded, rapidly sloping to about the 
middle of the ventral margin, thence sloping upwards but less 
rapidly to the posterior extremity. The post-dorsal area linear- 
lanceolate slightly flattened but not defined by a conspicuous 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA. 187 


angulation. Cartilage-pit linear with about seven teeth on each 

_ side. ; 

- Dimensions:—Antero-posterior diameter 11-25, anterior radius 

2:5, posterior radius 8:75 ; ventro-dorsal diameter 3°75. 
Locality:—Eocene, Gellibrand River. 


Externally Poroleda lanceolata is exceedingly like Leda Huttoni, 
but the anterior side is shorter and not so acuminate, the posterior 
hinge-line is straight not incurved, and the post-dorsal area not 
defined by a keel. It differs from P. elongata by its attenuate 
posterior side and by its straight hinge-line, which is sensibly 
divergent in that species; and though about half as large again 
yet offers the same proportionate dimensions. 


Family ARCID&. 


Genus Plagiarca, Conrad, 1875. 
This is in substitution for Macrodon, so that our species will be 
quoted as Plagiarca cainozoica, Tate. 


Genus Area. 


Subgenus Fossularca, Cossmann. 
Arca equidens, Tate, and Barbatia dissimilis, Tate, belong to 
the group typified by Arca quadrilatera, Lamk., on the authority 
of M. Cossmann, the author of the subgeneric name. 


Family UNGULINIDA. 

The generic name Scacchia should be expunged, the species 
erroneously referred to it belong to the group Felania of the genus 
Diplodonta = Mysia. 

Family ANATINIDA. 
Genus Pholadomya. 


PHOLADOMYA AUSTRALICA, spec. nov., Pl. xii., fig. 2. 

This is an important addition to our Eocene fauna, as though 
the species in the Older Tertiaries are few in number yet all the 
chief localities in Europe have a representative of the genus, the 
Oomaru formation in New Zealand contains P. neozelanica, 
Hutton. The present species occurs at Fyansford near Geelong, 


Fe * eo A a ee 

v , ‘ A ‘ 7 
‘ 

¢ a 


188 RALPH TATE. 


where it has been collected by Messrs. G, B. Pritchard and Mulder, 
and by the former also at Muddy Creek near Hamilton. 


Shell oval-oblong 


g, slightly inequilateral, moderately ventricose, 


the post-dorsal margin rapidly sloping to the somewhat narrowed, 
compressed, and roundly truncated posterior margin. Medial 
portion ornamented with slender simple ribs, eighteen in number, 
inclusive of five or six smaller interposed ones, crossed by a few 
slight concentric folds and coincident flat threads. Antero- 
posterior diameter 46—ant. side 20, post. 26,—dorso-ventral 


diameter 35, thickness 31 mm. Proportions:—length 1, height 4, 


thickness $. 


Among Tertiary species, P. australica comes nearest to 
P. virgulosa, Sow., and it seems to differ from P. neozelanica 
in its flat concentric folds, less inequilateral, and its simple (not 
beaded) ribs. 


Genus Anatina. 


A. DOLABRAEFORMIS, spec. nov., Pl. xii, fig. 3. 


The discovery of a species of this genus in the Kocene at 
Belmont is due to Mr. Mulder of Geelong, who has been instrum- 
ental in adding largely to our knowledge of the Eocene fauna of 
that part of Victoria in which he resides. 


The species belongs to that section of the genus characterized 
by inequality of the valves, whilst its triangular-rotund shape and 
acute umbos separate it from all described species. The outline 
is rather equilaterally triangular, but shortly produced and trun- 
cated behind ; the anterior dorsal margin is very sloping, the post- 
dorsal is incurved in front of the umbos, but is otherwise nearly 
straight, then sharply bent at an oblique angle to form a flat 
broadish triangular post-dorsal area; the ventral margin is gently 
curved upwards to the acutely rounded anterior margin. The 
umbos are about central and acute. Antero-posterior diameter 
48 (less breadth of posterior area 38), ventro-dorsal diameter 36, 
sectional diameter 18. 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA. 189 


Genus Phragmorisma,* nov. 
Examples:—Thracia Watsoni, E. A. Smith, Challenger Lamell., 
p. 69, t. 6, figs. 5-55; Bass Strait in 38 to 40 fathoms. 
P. anatineformis, Tate; Eocene, Spring Creek near Geelong, 
and Table Cape, Tasmania. 


Shell externally like Thracia or Anatina. Internally with a 
large subumbonal plate in each valve. The plate is broad, con- 
cave on its superior face, pendent from the umbo and more or less 
parallel with the umbonal cavity, its anterior side is confluent 
with the test, but ventrally and posteriorly it is free. 


The shelly process in the umbonal cavity is peculiar in the 
family Anatinide, though a certain similitude is offered in Mya, 
but in that genus the plate is horizontal and not perpendicular ; 
Asthenotherus, Carpenter, is doubtlessly related, but of it the 
information accessible to me is not decisive enough to permit of a 


critical comparison. 


Thracia perscabrosa, mihi, does not belong here, and is I think, 
rightly located generically. 


PHRAGMORISMA ANATINAIFORMIS, spec. nov., Pl. xii., fig. I. 

Shell inequilateral, inequivalve, right valve compressedly con- 
vex, left valve flat ; rounded in front, perpendicularly truncated 
behind, a slight angulation defines the post-dorsal area ; the post- 
dorsal margin is straight, hardly sloping; the antero-dorsal margin 
is obliquely rounded; the ventral margin is straightish to about. 
the middle, whence it gradually rises to the front margin. The 
surface is plicately wrinkled concentrically (the wrinkles are 
distant, narrow and low, except in the umbonal region where they 
are subangular and crowded), granular-striated in the umbonal 
region and thence half-way to the front in the medial area, the 
rest of the surface densely granulated (the granulation larger on 
the post-dorsal area. Umbos small, acute, and turned backwards. 
Hinge-line of left valve projecting as a thin plate before and behind 
umbo, the posterior projection much wider and forming a lunule- 


* Phragmos, blocking-up, and ereisma, a support. 


190 RALPH TATE. 


like depression beneath the umbo, the anterior projection narrow 
lanceolate. The medial shell-layer is pearly. Umbo-ventral 
diameter 33, antero-posterior diameter 58, anterior radius 26, 
posterior radius 32. 


The example of this fossil analogue of Thracia Watsoni, which 
has served for the foregoing measurements, has approximately the 
same length and breadth as it; however the fossil is more inequi- 
lateral as indicated by the following measures of the anterior and 
posterior radii, in 7. Watsoni they are 28-5 and 29-5, in 
P. anatineformis they are 32 and 26; moreover the fossil is 
more attenuated posteriorly and the plications are slender. It is 
noteworthy that the successional type of this genus occupies the 
same area as its ancestor and in an intermediate latitudinal 
position. 

Genus Myochama. 

IT am not aware if this genus, peculiar to Australia, is known 
in a fossil state, the discovery therefore of species in our tertiary 
deposits is of interest. The fossil representatives are I. rugata 
in the Eocene of Spring Creek and Gellibrand River, and IL. plana 
in the Miocene of Reeve’s River, Gippsland Lakes, and possibly 
the same species in the Older Pliocene at Dry Creek bore. 


MyYocHAMA PLANA, spec. nov, Pl. xii, fig. 4. 

Left valve almost flat ; triangular, the sides diverging at about 
100°, posterior side the longer, anterior margin slightly arched, 
Surface with irregular, narrow, flat, concentric plications and faint 
radial markings, except in the umbonal region, which is lightly 
corrugated. Right valve flat, attached by the whole surface or 
partially only. Dimensions:—Antero-posterior diameter 38 ; 
anterior side 22, posterior side 22, umbo-ventral diameter 30 mm. 


Localities:—Miocene : Gippsland Lakes (five examples). Older 
Pliocene: Dry Creek bore (one attached valve). 


MyYocHAMA RUGATA, spec. nov., Pl. xii., fig. 5. 
Right valve oval-triangular, flat, wholly or partially attached. 
An example (from Gellibrand River), growing on a polyzoon by a 


Ws 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA. 191 


limited surface of the dorsal region, has the umbo quite free and 
resembles a cuneiform M/yadora ornamented with sharp concentric 
ridges ; the rest of the unattached surface has broadish flat con- 
centric folds intricately wrinkled. Left valve slightly convex 
with wrinkled corrugations, antero-posterior and umbo-ventral 
diameters approximately equal from 17 to 20 mm. 


Class PALLIOBRANCHIATA. 
Genus Crania. 


CRANIA QUADRANGULARIS, spec. nov., Pl. xi, fig. 12. 

Attached valve unknown. Free valve with a transversely 
oblong outline, test very thick; the hinge-line is straight with 
sharply rounded angles, anterior and posterior margins nearly 
straight, ventral margin slightly outwardly curved, greatest width 
medially in a transverse direction ; apex blunt and tumidly elevated 
varying in position from nearly central to about the dorsal one- 
third; surface with subimbricating growth-folds and fine close 
radial striz; interior with the ventrally situated scars rhomboid 
and separated by a stout septal ridge. Dimensions:—(Ex. 1) 
diameters 15 and 10, height 3:25; (Ex. 2) diameters 14:75 and 
12, height 4 mm. 
’ Locality:—Eocene: Waurn Ponds near Geelong (Mr. Mulder). 


The more or less regular convexity of the free valve separates 
it from that of all living species which are distinguished by an 
apiculate vertex ; however, it is only with C. anomala that I have 
made comparison with actual specimens. The tumidly convex valve 
and the septal ridge in the interior may prove to be distinctive 
characters. 

Class ECHINODERMATA. 


Genus Celopleurus. 
This name replaces my Murravechinus; the species represented 
has been described by Gregory as C. paucituberculatus. 


Genus Paradoxechinus. 
The two species quoted under Temnechinus belong here and are 
varieties of one species, P. novus, Laube. 


192 RALPH TATE. 


Genus Seutellina. 


The genus is restricted to the Eocene: S. patella, Tate, Trans. 
Roy. Soc., 8. Aust., 1891, p. 279, uniquely represents it in the 
Australian beds. 


Genus Monostychia. 


Laube’s genus should be restored ; whilst Arachnoides can be 
still retained, as a representative of this more modern genus has 
occurred in the Miocene of the Gippsland Lakes, which I describe 


as follows— 
Genus Arachnoides. 
ARACHNOIDES INCISA, spec. nov., Pl. xiii. flg. 3. 


Test very flat, rising slightly towards the apical disk, the long- 
itudinal and transverse diameters are approximately equal; the 
apical disk is slightly in front of the centre. The ambitus is 
sharp and incised at the end of each interambulacral groove 
between which it is wndulose. The ambulacraare slightly sunken 
and abruptly declivous at the sides, they occupy about an equal 
space with the interambulacra. The poriferous zones reach about 
two-thirds way to the ambitus. The ornamentation in the inter- 
ambulacra is obliquely banded and minutely granular ; the granu- 
lations are without order in the ambulacral areas. The periproct 
is supramarginal, with a concave depression between it and the 
ambitus, which is here slightly incurved. The actinal area is flat. 
Antero-posterior diameter 544, transverse diameter 56°5, height 
6°5 millimetres. 


Localities:—Miocene: Red Bluff and beyond Meringa, Gipps- 
land Lakes, (three examples). 


The incised ambitus, which most markedly separates this fossil 
from the two known living species, recalls Monostychia from all 
species of which it is separable by the superior position of the 
periproct. | 

Except A. zealandie, Gray, which dates back to the Newer 
Tertiary of New Zealand, this is the first occurrence of an extinct 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA, 193 


species of the genus ; A. conica, Hutton, of the Oamuru formation 
(= Eocene) in New Zealand, is a Monostychia. 


Genus Laganum. 
I avail myself of this opportunity to make diagnostically known 
a species which belongs to our Older Tertiary ; the genus is 
essentially of recent date, as only one fossil species LZ. multiforme, 
Martin, is recorded, which belongs to an unknown horizon of the 


Javanese Tertiary. 


LAGANUM -PLATYMODES, spec. nov., Pl. xiii., fig. 4. 

Outline of test subquinquangulated, varying from nearly circular 
to broadly elliptic, rarely moderately narrow-oval ; margin not 
inflated or very slightly so; upper surface flat or a little elevated 
apically; petals elongate, extending three-fifths of the distance to 
the ambitus, lanceolate, closed; genital pores four; periproct cir- 
cular, situated at about two-fifths the distance between the margin 
and the peristome from the margin. Dimensions of a specimen of 
average size and shape :—length 34, breadth 31, height 6 mm. 


Localities:—Miocene: Hallett’s Cove and Aldinga Cliffs, east 
side of St. Vincent Gulf, South Australia (common). 


The form of this species varies from that of Z. Bonani, Klein, 
to L. ellipticum, Ag., but it has not the tumid margin of those 
species ; from the first it further differs, as also from LZ. depressum 
and L. multiforme, Martin, in its closed petals, four genital pores 
and submarginal periproct, and from the latter in its closed petals 


and four genital pores. 
Genus Sismondia. 


SismonDIA Murravica, spec. nov., Pl. xiii, fig. 5. 
Outline subdecagonal, broadly elliptical, being a little longer 
than wide, width greatest in front of apex coinciding with a plane 
through the ends of the antero-lateral ambulacra; actinal and 
abactinal surfaces flat with a high abruptly-rounded margin ; 
apical disc subcentral, posterior, forming a slightly raised boss ; 
genital pores four ; petals elliptic, the width about two-thirds the 
length, not closed, extending for about two-thirds of the radius 
M—Suly 5, 1903, 


194 ; RALPH ‘TATE. 


of the upper surface. Ornament finely and closely scrobicular. 

Periproct at about one-half the distance from the peristome to the 

margin. Length 19, width 16-5, height 7. | 
Locality:—Hocene: River Murray Cliffs (several examples). 


This echinoid differs from 8. occitana, Defr., by its less tumid 
margin, more depressed shape, and raised (not sunken) apical disk. 


Genus Conoclypeus, Agassiz. 

The urchin which I refer to Conoclypeus has all the essential 
characters proper to the genus, viz., long open ambulacra, pores 
conjugate by grooves, central peristome with tumid bourrelets and 
without phyllodes, periproct marginal and transversely oval, 
ornamentation of small equal sunken scrobicules; but it differs in 
its depressed form and the flat apical disk (the unique specimen 
is, however, somewhat eroded in this part), and thus simulates 


Plesiolampus. 

The hard matrix filling the peristome of the single specimen does 
not permit me to ascertain whether a perignathic girdle is present 
or not ; but apart from this, the absence of phyllodes removes our 
fossil from the conoclypoid genus Phylloclypeus. On the other 
hand the imperforate and non-crenulate tubercles are not consonant 
with Conoclypeus, but rather with Plesiolampas; however I must 
not lay much stress here, because the somewhat defective condition 
of the surface makes it possible that I may be mistaken. 

The genus is most fully represented in the Eocene, but there 
are a few Cretaceous and Miocene species. 


CoNOCLYPEUS ROSTRATUS, spec. nov., Pl. xiii., fig. 1. 

Test moderately depressed, slightly longer than broad, broadly 
elliptical in marginal outline, broadest close behind the apical 
system ; posteriorly with a conspicuous though slight truncated 
projection margined on each side by a concave depression just 
posterior to the postero-lateral ambulacra. The highest point of 
the test is at the apical system, which is a little anterior to the 
geometric centre, the surface slopes thence to the slightly tumid 
margin which is less tumid at the ambulacra. Under surface ~ 


UNRECORDED GENERA OF THE OLDER TERTIARY FAUNA. 195 


slightly sloping to the somewhat deeply seated peristome. The 
peristome is central, transversely oblong, with bluntly pointed 
bourrelets. Periproct is transversely lunate, inframarginal, the 
superior border just touching it. The ambulacra are long, 
narrowly open, the anterior is the shortest, and the postero- 
laterals are the longest ; zones of paired pores are flush or very 
slightly sunken, extend to near the ambitus and show a tendency 
to inequality of length. Ornamentation of small imperforate and 


apparently noncrenulate tubercles in sunken subpentagonal scro- 


bicules, which are very close together but not discontinuous. 
Height 24, length 57, breadth 54, major diameter of periproct 8 mm. 


Locality:—Eocene: Table Cape, Tasmania. 


Genus Cardiaster. 

This Cretaceous genus has been extended in its range by the 
discovery of two species in the Eocene beds of the Aldinga Cliffs, 
viz., C. tertiarius, Gregory, and C. latecordatus, Tate ; and though 
the announcement of its occurrence in the Eocene fauna of South 
Australia was made as early as 1877 (Q. J. Geol. Soc. Vol. xxxut. 
p. 257), yet by an oversight it was omitted from my ‘ Census.” 


Genus Cyclaster, Cotteau. 
The species included under Micraster and Brissopsis are one, 
which is referable to the above named genus as I have already 
indicated (Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Austr., 1892, p. 193). 


Genus Gualteria. 
Is represented in our Older Tertiary by G. australie, Cotteau, 
“Mem. Soc. Zool. de France, 1890.” 


Genus Rhynchopygus, Duncan. 
This generic reference must be expunged, as it was applied by 
Duncan to a distorted example of his Holaster australia. 


Class ZOANTHARIA. 
Genus Astrangia. 
ASTRANGIA TABULOSA, spec. nov., Pl. xiii, fig. 2. 
Colony incrusting. Corallites not sensibly raised above the 


ccenenchyma, which consists of thin bands supported by extremely 
in’ 


196 RALPH TATE. 


thin perpendicular plates ; the corallites are separated by varying 
distances, but usually less than that of their diameter. Calices 
circular (6-5 mm.) or elliptic (7x6 mm.), shallow. Columella of — 
intertwisted trabecule in various degrees of compactness, but 
always more or less vesicular, about 1:25 mm. diameter. Septa 
not exsert (margin apparently entire), 18 to 21, those of the 
fourth cycle only slightly projecting into the interseptal spaces ; 
the faces of the septa of the other cycles are distantly granulated, 
the granules are large and disposed in linear series on oblique 
faintly defined ridges; the principal septa of the cycles are con- 
tinued on to the ccenenchyma as feeble ridges. The interseptal 
loculi are transversely septate at intervals of about 1 mm. 


Kocene : Table Cape. 


I venture to describe this species as new, for I am unable to 
compare it with all known species, because of its well-developed 
dissepiments. This is the first occurrence of a reptant Astreid 
in our Tertiary, though Scolangia, Ten.-Woods, is recorded from 
the correlated Ototara formation in New Zealand. 


Class RHIZOPODA. 
Genus Fabularia. 


This genus of Foraminifera, hitherto represented uniquely by 
F.. discolithes, Defr., in the Eocene of Paris and Egypt, is repre- 
sented in the Miocene beds at Muddy Creek by & Howchini, 
Schlumberger, described in Trans. Roy. Soc., South Austr., 1891, 
p. 346. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 


Plate X. 
Fic. Fig. 
1. Spirulsrostra curta 7. Genotia angustifrons 
2. Concholepas antiquata ; 8. Genotia decomposita 
3. Distorsio interposita 9. Genotia Pritchard 
4. Genotia fontinalis _ 10. Isapis (Raulinia ?) elata 
5. Dolium biornatum 11. Isapis (Raulinia 2) eothinos 
6. Diastoma Provisi ie, ie 


FORCES ACTING IN MAGNETIC CIRCUITS. 197 


Plate XI. 
Fig. Fig. 
1. Semivertagus capillatus 7. Triploca ligata 
2. Acteopyramis olivelleformis 8. Basilissa Cossmanni 
3. Semivertagus subcalvatus 9. Litiopa punctulifera 
4. Risella alta 10. EHburnopsis tessellatus 
5. Harpa pachycheila 11. Colina fenestralis 
6. Ataxocerithium concatenatum 12. Crania quadrangularis 
Plate XII. 
1. Phragmorisma anatineformis 5. Myochama rugata 
2. Pholadomya australica 6. Poroleda lanceolata 
3. Anatina dolabreformis 7. Colina apicilirata 
4. Myochama plana 
Plate XITI. 
1. Conoclypeus rostratus 4, Laganum platymodes 
2. Astrangia tabulosa 5. Sismondia Murravica 
3 


. Arachnoides incisa 6. Strophodus eocenicus 


ON AN APPROXIMATE METHOD OF FINDING THE 
FORCES ACTING IN MAGNETIC CIRCUITS. 


By RicHarD THRELFALL, M.A., Professor of Physics, University 
of Sydney. 
Assisted by FLtorenceE Martin, Student in the University of 
7 Sydney. 
[With Plates XIV. and XV.] 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, July 5, 1893. ] 


Durine the last three years I have had occasion to design a good 
many reciprocating electro-magnetic mechanisms, and have fre- 
quently felt the want of some simple method of making the neces- 
sary approximate calculations of magnetic forces. I have obtained 
very little satisfaction from the attempts I have made to calculate 
tractions proceeding by the method of finding poles and applying 
the law of inverse squares. This ill success led me to investigate 
the applicability of the methods established by Maxwell in the 


vee 


198 RICHARD THRELFALL. 


chapter “On Energy and Stress in the Magnetic Field,”—(Elec- 
tricity and Magnetism, Vol. 11., §§. 641 — 644)—-with the follow- 


ing results :— 


§1. Theoretical considerations.—The problem for solution in its 
simplest form is as follows: “Given an iron anchor-ring uniformly 
wound and interrupted at one point by an air gap of any given 
dimensions, to calculate the forces tending to draw the ends of the 
iron ring together when the strength of current flowing in the 


magnetising circuit and the data of winding are given.” 


2. The position established by Maxwell is as follows :— 
(i.) The laws of magnetic force are such that magnetic forces 
may be regarded as the expression of a state of stress in 


the magnetic medium. 
(ii.) The medium is stable under such a distribution of stresses. 


(i1i.) A series of expressions may be found for the stresses at 
any point in the magnetic field. 


3. Maxwell’s investigation does not explicitly include the case of 
a body with inconstant permeability, but I can not find that this 
in any way vitiates the argument. Professor J. J. Thomson shows 
(applications of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry, §. 33), that 
Maxwell’s results may be considered as being derived from the 
existence of a term _ H Bin the Lagrangian function for unit 
volume of a magnetic field. If the permeability is a function of 
the induction, however, in any part of the field, the more general 
expression < = Ws H d B must be substituted for the above and the 
results modified accordingly. 1 have not succeeded in doing this. 
It appears therefore that Maxwell’s system as applied to iron does 
not cover all the ground, because a modification must be introduced 
on account of the inconstancy of the permeability, and also on 
account of the Villari effect as shewn by Prof. Thomson. There 


may also be other undiscovered additions. to make. 


4. A great step is necessary to pass from Maxwell’s position, 
that magnetic forces may be regarded as the expression of stresses 
in the field, to the position that magnetic forces are such an 


FORCES ACTING IN MAGNETIC CIRCUITS. 199 


expression. There is all the difference that exists between a 
theory and a fact.. Everything however tends to show that the 
fact is that. the theory is probably true so far as it goes, and we 
will therefore provisionally adopt it and see first what additional 
hypotheses are necessary. It is obvious at once that the stresses 
are “stresses in a medium” while the forces are mechanical forces" 


acting on matter. We must therefore consider that the medium 


is “‘attached ” to matter so as to allow the stresses to appear as 


forces. Now the stresses in the medium depend on the nature of 
the matter which is permeated by the medium. | Thus in the cut 
anchor-ring referred to above (1), the stresses in the medium in 
the air gap 4re not at all the same as the stresses in the medium 
in the iron. In our entire ignorance of the connection existing 
between the medium and matter, it is not at all clear to me that 
in calculating the magnetic forces tending to close the ring, we 
ought to consider the stresses in ether in air, and these alone. It 
is at all events conceivable that the nature of the connection 


_ between the medium and the iron may be modified in some manner 


by the internal stresses in the iron; also the ordinary laws of 
magnetic and electro-magnetic action received their experimental 


demonstration at low inductions, and we have no right to say 


-without experimental evidence that some terms not contemplated 


by Maxwell might not begin to produce effects on the stresses in 
air at high inductions. In the parallel case in iron such stresses 
do in fact occur. I therefore attribute great importance to the 
experimental verification of the results deduced from Maxwell’s 
theory as applied to the traction between iron bars in general and 


especially at high inductions. 


5. Experimental position.—The simplest case is that of the 
traction between two plane faces of iron, the faces being either 
the terminals of an otherwise closed iron circuit, or of very long 
bars. The case of the ring has been implicitly investigated by 
Bidwell, (Phil. Proc. 1886), and the case of short bars by Bosan- 
quet explicitly (Phil. Mag. 1886). The latter is the only investi- 
gation I know of in which simultaneous observations of induction 


200 RICHARD THRELFALL. 


and tractive force were made. In both cases Maxwell’s theory 
2 
leads to the expression i — 


for the force in air between two opposing plane faces of iron— 
infinitesimally separated—A being the area of one of the equal 
faces ; and B the (uniform) induction density. 


The net result of Bosanquet’s work was to show : 
(i.) When Bis below 5,000 the tractions observed are gener- 
ally much too large. 
(ii.) The formula does not hold when the air gap is appreciable. 
(iii.) It holds within about 5'/ up to very high inductions, 
(18,000). 
It is obvious therefore that there is room for more work on the 


subject. 


6. For the reasons given I felt very strongly that it was necess- 
ary to establish the truth or rather the approximate exactness of 
the theory in the simple case studied by Bosanquet before going 
on to apply it to other and more complicated cases. Consequently 
I investigated the following matters : 

(i.) Influence of length of bars. 

(ii.) Influence of kind and size of pole pieces. 

(ii1.) Influence of imperfections in the ballistic method. 

(iv.) Cause of Bosanquet’s failure to obtain agreement with 
theory at low inductions. 


(v.) Cause of similar failure (?) with an appreciable air gap. 


7. Method of experimenting—I wound a number of solenoids 
on brass tubes ; placed the iron bars to be investigated axially in 
these solenoids—observing the usual precautions ; and measured 
the force (by calibrated spring balances), requisite to pull the bars 
apart—the force being applied scrupulously parallel to the axes of 
the bars by means of links, pulleys and strings. Great attention 
was paid to the state of the cut surfaces. I tried surfaces of all 
kinds : 

(a.) Merely filed by watchmakers’ finishing files. 
(6.) Ground on flat whetstones to a surface plate. 


FORCES ACTING IN MAGNETIC CIRCUITS. 201 


(c.) Scraped to a surface plate. 

(d.) Ground by emery wheels. 

(c.) Turned flat to a surface plate—this takes a little skill. 

(7) Optically ground by emery and diamond dust and finished 
with putty powder. 

This last requires a note. Of course the bars must be provided with 
shoes of many times their diameter to make the process a success, 
and these shoes must be of similar material to the bars. In order 
to save circumlocution I may state that both I and my assistant, 
Mr. Cook, are fairly expert at this kind of work and we met with 
no real difficulty. The use of diamond dust instead of emery . 
saves a little time but makes it more difficult to get a good result. 
I obtained two sets of bars with properly ground faces, one of 
these sets was of hard iron and was not so good as Brashear’s 
celebrated test plates, on account of a slight convexity on the part 
of one surface and a corresponding concavity on the part of the 
other. The other pair of bars were of soft Swedish iron well 
annealed ; they were less than 1 cm. in diameter and about sixty 
em. long. The surfaces were as good as the test plates—z.e. per- 
fect according to the present state of the art. I have little doubt 
they are as good soft iron surfaces as have ever been prepared. 
This means that there was no inequality comparable with a wave 
length of sodium light on either surface. 


The bars were kept straight and aligned by well fitting glass, 
or brass, or fibre tubes at the plane of contract. The fit was 
always just so good that no correction for friction was necessary. 
The magnetising current was measured by a Siemen’s Dynamo- 
meter which was compared with suitable members of a chain of 
Kelvin balances, it was found that in this dynamometer the read- 
ings were correct within the limits of accuracy of reading. The 


current was supplied by storage cells. 


The induction coils were wound on brass bobbins with proper 
precautions. The bobbins were of different diameters, and were 
compared ballistically and found to give identical results—hence 
it was concluded that they were all free from leakage errors. 


nati i. \ ae 


. 


202 RICHARD THRELFALL. 


The ballistic galvanometer was a fine instrument specially made 
for this kind of work. It was calibrated by turning over a large 
coil which was splendidly wound and which has been checked in 
many ways. I made use of the values for the vertical force 
obtained about nine months ago by Mr. Farr from a long series 
of experiments in my laboratory, under the best and most careful 
conditions and with the Kew apparatus. In all cases the induc- 
tion thrown on the galvanometer was checked by reversal of the 
galvanometer connections—except when experiment showed that 
nothing was gained by such reversals—the instrument being in 
another part of the laboratory to the magnetic system. In all 
cases large resistances from a box of coils constructed and cali- 
brated by myself from Cambridge standards, were inserted in the 


circuit so as to give the best range for the galvanometer. 


Results of eeperimenting.—The general result was that I got 
rather worse agreement than was noted by Bosanquet—especially 
at low inductions. I therefore set myself to find out the reason 
of this. Jam ashamed to say how long it took me to clear up the 
difficulty. I investigated the following possible causes : 


(i.) Imperfection of galvanometer law. This was got over 
by adjusting resistances till the same deflexion was 
obtained both on turning over the earth inductor and 


on magnetising the iron. 


(ii.) Effects due to residual state of the iron. This was got 
rid of by demagnetising the iron by an alternator and 
slide resistance, and observing magnetisations with 
the current in both directions, and also on reversal. By 
comparing the three sets of deflections I assured myself 
that the discrepancy was not due to any error of this 
kind. <A similar procedure when taking the tractions 
led to a like result. 


(iii.) By using induction coils of different diameters I assured 
myself that I was really measuring the operative induc- 
tions. | 


FORCES ACTING IN MAGNETIC CIRCUITS. 203: 


(iv.) The state of the surfaceof the barsis an important matter. 
If the ends are rough of course the contact is at the 
points. This leads to a concentration of induction at 
these places, and is a very constant source of error. My 
best bars however gave just as anomalous results as my 
roughest ones, so that the deviation could not be attri- 
buted to this cause. | 

(v.) Finally I tried—without much confidence—the effect of a 
small indirectness of pull. This was done by winding 
two wide solenoids and leaving sufficient space between 
their ends to see what was going on at the plane of 
junction of the iron, a gas flame was put on the side of 
the junction remote from the observer. 


It was then found that one side of the bar which was being 
pulled off invariably remained in contact after the other side had 
slightly separated—when this was prevented by slightly guiding 
the spring balance by hand the agreement was as good as at higher 
inductions. The explanation is now obvious, if the bars separate 
slightly at one side, two things happen: (1) The total reluctance 
of the circuit increases; (2) the induction concentrates at the 
parts in contact. At low inductions the effect of (2) overpowers 
that of (1); at high inductions when the permeability of the iron 
becomes less the induction is less free to distribute itself and also 
the traction of the bars being greater, the phenomenon does not 
begin to manifest itself till rupture is just about to be produced 
or it produces a very much smaller percentage error. Of course 
all this might have been foreseen, but one’s experience with strong 
magnets—in which case it is notorious that it is much more 


difficult to pull off an armature straight than slightly sideways— 
misled me. 


On examining other bars which had given similar results at low 
inductions, I found I could similarly diminish or increase the 
apparent traction by varying very slightly the direction of pull. 
Thus with a pair of flat ended bars and an induction density of 
about 3,000C.G.8. the calculated pull was one pound seven ounces, 


s.r 
, “4 
ba > 


204 RICHARD THRELFALL. 


but the observed pull was always over two pounds, and in some 
experiments about three pounds. On guiding the bars so that no 
wedge-shaped gap appeared, the traction could be got down to 
about one pound eight ounces. I do not think it is possible to 
get much closer than this, for if proper arrangements are made to 
absolutely insure a really true and rigid separation, friction would 
inevitably come in to introduce errors. My results at higher 
inductions were so similar to Bosanquet’s that they are not worth 
reproducing. 

7. With regard to the reduced formula not applying to the case 
of non-magnetic gaps of sensible dimensions parallel to the lines 
of induction—as when Bosanquet separated the bars by wood and 
paper—the explanation is obvious. The lines of induction no 
longer leave the surfaces normally and the conditions postulated 


by the formula are not in existence. 


8. Resulting position of the theory. When the bars are in 
contact, the stress theory and what I will call the magnetic fluid 
theory, lead to the same results, which is true certainly within 
about five per cent. and may be exactly true. In any case 
measuring tractions is not the way to get accuracy, though I have 
no doubt that rather better results could be got by going into the 
matter more elaborately than was done either by Bosanquet or 
myself. In what follows I shall suppose that the theory is true, 
and that the real cause of magnetic forces is to be sought in some 
condition of the ether mechanism which receives a sufficient 


mean definition from the induction diagram. 


9. The effect of varying the kind of iron employed should be 
the same as varying the induction density, at least in so far as the 
phenomenon can be considered to depend on permeability. I 
used induction densities of from 2,000 to 18,000 but could not 
detect any effect, when the cause of error referred to above was 
eliminated. I also used all kinds of iron, from annealed Swedish 
iron to ordinary cast iron. I varied the lengths of the bars from 
60 cm. to 6 cm., and the diameter from about 2 cm. to about °6 
em. In no case could I detect any deviation from the predicted 


FORCES ACTING IN MAGNETIC CIRCUITS. 205 


traction which could not be explained by unavoidable experimental 
errors. With short bars and high inductions necessitating the use 
of very strong fields, some induction is included by the testing 
coil which does not help the traction and which tends to make the 
calculated traction appear too large. When this source of error 
was eliminated no greater discrepancies were observed with short 
bars than with long ones. 


10. I conclude therefore : (i.) The traction produced by a given 
tube of induction when running out of air into iron and crossing 
the surface normally is independent of the nature of the iron or 
of its form. I had a difficulty in bringing myself to believe this, 
but the conclusion seems inevitable. 


Corollary (i.) The magnetic forces are independent of the stresses. 
in ether inside the iron. 


Corollary (ii.) Setting aside Prof. J. J. Thomson’s stresses, the 
ether stress in air is less than that in iron—assuming that Max- 
well’s “ Magnetic Material” sufficiently represents iron. The 
difference of tensions is 


B? 
3, 47 (BH — 3H’) 
ps 2 
or (ey 
8 ir 


This is an unbalanced stress, and if the lines of induction in 
the iron give rise to forces similar to those produced in air, this. 
must mean that the boundary tends to be pulled off the iron. 
Taking Prof. Thomson’s stresses into account, this effect may easily 
be reversed in any actual case. 


Referring to Prof. Thomson’s investigation, (Physics and 
Chemistry), I cannot avoid the impression that there still remains 
a set of stresses depending on the variation of elastic constants 
with temperature. This would further complicate matters. 


11. Each tube of induction is therefore a tube of force within 
the usual definition, but it does not follow that the only forces 
are those represented by the tubes of induction. If the tubes 


206 RICHARD THRELFALL. 


leave the iron surface normally, then the pressural forces are tan- 
gential, and we get the formula we have been using, and similarly 
if the tubes of induction are tangential (2.e. when the infinitesimal 
air gap separates similar poles), the pressures operate alone, and 
we have a repulsion equal to the former attraction, as in the 
elementary theory. If the tubes of induction leave the iron at 
any angle to the surface between 0 and 7/2 we must consider the 
effect of the pressural forces. 


To calculate these effects, it is convenient and perhaps correct 
to assume, that just as the internal stresses of the iron do not 
affect the forces which are the expression of the external ether 
tensions, so they do not affect the forces corresponding to the 
hydrostatic pressures. If, therefore, we consider a line of force 
running out of iron into air and making an angle 0 with the 
normal, we can estimate the direction and magnitude of the 
magnetic forces at once, thus : 


Let A B be the trace of a plane boundary between air and iron, 
and O N a normal drawn outwards into air. Let O Pbea vector 
in the plarte of the paper representing the tensional force on an 
infinitesimal area about O. Draw O Q perpendicular to O P and 
in the plane of the paper. Then the pressural forces lie in a semi- 
circle of which O Q is a radius and whose plane contains O Q, 
Since the pressures are symmetrical with respect to O Q, O Q is 


FORCES ACTING IN MAGNETIC CIRCUITS. 207 


their resultant, and by the theory this is equal to O P, so that OQ 
isthe vector representing the pressures. A force represented by 
O M equal and parallel to P Q is therefore the resultant force, 
and clearly in this case is a repulsion whose magnitude along 
the normal produced is 
@LDy 4/2: Cos (Fee 0) 

an expression which gives no normal component at all when 
6=7/4. The force is therefore an attraction or repulsion accord- 
ing as Ois less or greater than 7/4, and isashear at this point. I 
tried to observe this, but could not get the lines to leave the 
surface at the exact angle. However the above way of looking 
at the matter is convenient when filings are used to trace the 
direction of the induction. This expression has been pointed out 
to me by Mr. Pollock as being identical with that given by Max- 
well in Section 643 for the special reduced case here considered. 


It is now evident why it was that Bosanquet got results ditfer- 
ing from those calculated from the formula for normal inductions; 
because as filings show, a very small gap is sufficient to produce a 
marked spreading of the field. 


12. By observing the distribution of filings about different air 
gaps it appeared probable to me that the following proposition 
might be true as referring to bars of different diameters. ‘ With 
similar pole faces and the same permeability the induction (or 
filing) diagrams are similar when the length of the air gap is the 
same fraction of a standard dimension of the pole faces.” 


If this be true, it follows as a consequence that, with similar air 
gaps, the traction is the same fraction of the traction with the 
poles in contact, whatever be the actual dimensions of the poles. 
The greater part of the experimental work I have to offer refers 
to this point, for if established, we clearly have a method which 
will enormously facilitate the calculation of magnetic forces. 


13. The observations made on this subject are sufticiently 
detailed in the tables, (Nos. 1 to 13) and the results will be under- 
stood by looking at the curve. The tractions were measured by 


=o 
: 
id ‘ 4 a 


sf 


208 RICHARD THRELFALL. 


spring balances as before—measured pieces of brass being inserted 
between the pole faces. In a series of obseryations the induction 
was kept constant by varying the magnetomotive force. The 
observations were taken just as in the previous case. A little care 
is necessary in defining what is meant by the total induction. If 
the bars are long and thin then of course the solenoidal condition 
is fulfilled pretty closely, and there is no ambiguity, but with large 
air or brass gaps, say amounting to two diameters of the bars, the 
lines begin to leave the iron just in front of the middle point of each 
bar (at all events when the bars are about fifty diameters long). 
The “total induction” therefore has no very exact meaning with 
respect to the iron unless it be specified where it is to be measured. 
At the time the experiments were made I did not (as I now 
consider), sufficiently attend to this point, though I used a testing 
coil of about four times the diameter of the bars and kept this coil 
just to one side of the gap when the latter was large. It is prob- 
able, therefore, that I have considerably over estimated the trac- 
tions with the larger air gaps, for the induction must have been 
greater than I took it to be. I have decided not to reinvestigate 
this point, for the curve is of use in giving approximate ideas of 
traction only ; and no one, after looking at it would design a 
mechanism with air gaps so long as those which are probably 
inaccurate. I have made a little allowance for this (most un- 
scientifically of course), in drawing the curve. In fact my suspic- 
ions were first aroused by examining the part of the curve corres- 


ponding to the larger air gaps. 


It will be seen that I examined a good many cases and the 
results show that when the non-magnetic field is of sensible 
dimersions, the differences in the permeability of the samples 
examined do not lead to any very abnormal results. The curve 


is drawn by reduction for a bar one centimeter in diameter, and 
the air gaps which must be expressed in diameters appear there- 
fore in centimeters. The ordinates give the values of the tractions 
at corresponding points in terms of the calculated tractions when 
the surfaces are in contact. One set of observations refers to 


FORCES ACTING IN MAGNETIC CIRCUITS. 209 


square bars. In order to utilise the results I assumed that the 
field would be distributed very much asif the bar were round and 
of a diameter equal to the mean of the diameters of the inscribed 


and circumscribed circles. 


To use the curve it is only necessary to express the length of 
the air gap as a fraction of the diameter of the pole face, and 
refer to the table to find the proper factor to multiply the traction 
when the bars are in contact at the proposed induction. 


14. In general, itis more convenient to take the magnetomotive 
force as given, and in this case the induction cannot be estimated 
without a knowledge of the reluctance of the circuit. Now 
methods of building up the characteristic curve of the magnet have 
been given when the air gaps are narrow, by Drs. J. and E. 
Hopkinson and others, but I thought that I might possibly be 
able to extend the method of similar systems, so as to include 
air gap reluctances. In similar induction systems the reluctances 
of the gaps should be roughly inversely as the linear dimensions. 
I examined three sets of bars to see how near such an approxima- 
tion really was, but it will be noticed that the results would not 
reduce so as to give a single curve by any such simple process. 
The curves are therefore kept separate ; they cover bars of from 
about one to three cm. in diameter. The induction was in these 
cases correctly measured at the centre of the bars. It was neces- 
sary to use the Ampere Balances to get a sufficiently accurate 
knowledge of the magnetising currents. The results are contained 
in tables 14—19, and are also plotted for the mean of all induc- 
tions. The reluctance of the iron and air circuits was measured 
before the bars were cut and plotted against inductions. It was 
assumed that, using bars of the length employed, the air reluctance 
(other than that at the gap) would not be materially changed by 
pushing the bars up to two diameters apart. The proper reluc- 
tance for the iron and air circuit was taken from the curve in 
finding the reluctance of the air gap. 


Except with the largest bar there is no definite indication of 
the reluctance depending on the induction density. In this case 
N—July 5, 1993, 


¢ 


x oe a 
. Sal p 


210 RICHARD THRELFALL. 


separate curves might have been drawn, but I did not think it 
worth while to introduce a fresh sheet of curves. 


Iam not sure that a real reduction in air gap reluctance at 
about one diameter has not been smoothed out, but as the 
observations are marked on the curves every one will be able to 
form his own opinion. 


It will be noticed that the curvature becomes very great when 
the air gap amounts to about ‘3 diameters. It is perhaps not 
too much to say that the reluctance increases very fast as the gap 
increases to one and a-half diameters, after which it remains 
nearly constant. 


15. I do not know whether a unit of reluctance has yet been 
adopted. It has been necessary for me to use one however. I take 
as unit reluctance, that reluctance through which unit magneto- 
motive force produces unit induction. By unit magnetomotive 
force I mean that magnetomotive force whose C.G.S. value is unity 
—i.e. that produced by 47 C.G.8. current turns. If the perme- 
ability of air be taken as unity, then one cubic centimeter of air 
has unit reluctance on this system. There are of course other 
ways of defining unit reluctance, but this is, I think, the only 
one that gets rid of the 47. 


16. The reluctance curves and traction curves are not unlike 
each other in general form, and enable us to draw some practically 
valuable conclusions as to the design of magnets intended to oper- 
ate over air gaps. For instance, with a given induction the force 
at contact is inversely as the area, but the traction curve shows 
that this principle must not be pushed too far when we consider 
traction over an air gap. Thus I am told (though I do not believe 
it), that rock drills will not work with a shorter stroke than five 
inches, the traction curve shows at once that for a given induction 
(a case which does not practically occur in every instance), it is 
possible to make the pole pieces too small, if we wish to get the 
maximum work done during the stroke. This is independent of 
considerations arising when magnetomotive force is given. 


FORCES ACTING IN MAGNETIC CIRCUITS. 911 


17. We can make a comparison between the work done by a 
ring magnet when it is divided at one point, and the work done 
when the ring is divided at two points, but the reluctance data 
show that though the mean air gap reluctance may be larger than 
that of the iron, itis not very greatly so in any practical case, and 
we can therefore obtain no information by supposing that one is 
much greater or less than the other, but must proceed by actual 
trial from the curves to find out which is the most efficient 
arrangement. 


18. In the case of a mechanism represented by a ring divided 
at one point only, we must remember that this involves a “sliding” 
magnetic contact, and if friction on the bearings is to be avoided, 
this practically ties us down to iron of symmetrical form. 


19. Incidentally, I had occasion to observe the change of reluc- 
tance caused by cutting a bar and then grinding and polishing 
the ends. The reluctance corresponded to a separation of the bars 
by about twenty wave lengths of sodium light, but I am certain 
that the bars could not have been half so far apart as this, so the 
‘surface reluctance is still unaccounted for. 


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LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 219 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES.* 
By Cuar.Les Ormsspy BurGzs, M. Inst. C.E. 


Principal Assistant Engineer-in-Charge, Railway Surveys, N.S. W. 


[Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, 
December 21, 1892. | 


Discussion. 

Mr. C. O. Buras, in opening the discussion, submitted the 
following comparison of cost of construction and working of pro- 
posed light standard gauge railways, according to the egtimate 
contained in the paper, with that of the two feet gauge lines of the 
type now constructed in France, applied to similar country, and 
on the basis of Colonial rates. In making this comparison he 
took the figures, converted into English equivalents, of M. Regis 
Tartary, an engineer in the French Government service, who had 
written on the latest extensive development of the two feet gauge 
system, of which there is over three hundred miles in France, and 
who, being strongly in favour of that system, was not likely to 
hide any of its advantages. 


The only items substantially affected by gauge, as regards 
construction, were :—1. Earthwork; 2. culverts and bridges ; 
2. ballast; 4. sleepers; 5. rails and fastenings; 6. laying road. 
1. Mr. Burge made the saving in earthwork for the two feet 
gauge, for a light surface line to amount to per mile about £91 ; 
2. culvert and bridges, about £21; 3. ballast, about £67; 4. sleepers 
about £92; 5. permanent way material, about £491; 6. laying 
the road, about £118 ; total per mile £880. The two first items 
of the above, which were about one-eighth of the whole saving, 
would be the only ones affected by the roughness of the country. 


Working Expenses.—Excluding, for the present, the question 
of break of gauge, and merely comparing one gauge with another, 
it would be found that, practically, traffic expenditure was inde- 


* The paper on which this discussion is based appears on pp. 54 - 75. 


220 DISCUSSION ON 


pendent of gauge. Maintenance, the same volume of traffic being 
assumed, was very slightly, if at all, affected. The narrower road 
took less labour to lift it, but on the other hand, a better top was 
required on the two feet road, as the lateral overhang of the roll- 
ing stock was so much greater. The lowest maintenance rate 
on the New South Wales lines with the present heavy engine 
stock, was 0°48 man per mile. On the French two feet lines, with 
about a quarter of the axle weight to bear, it was 0:44 man per mile, 
and if the standard gauge axle weight were reduced to eight tons 
as was proposed in the paper, it is probable that the French allow- 
ance of 0-44 would be sufficient on the standard gauge. On the 
Cape main lines, with much less traffic than on the New South. 
Wales main lines, the maintenance force was 1:20 man per mile 
on the three feet six inches gauge, as against 0°82 on the latter 
standard four feet eight and a-half inches gauge, both main lines, 
but considering the comparative value of the white labour here 
and the black labour there, the rate would be about the same in 
each case. The total maintenance charges per train mile under 
the little Festiniog engines was only eleven per cent. less than on 
the London and North Western, according to statistics of the 
time when he was connected with the Festiniog line, both having 


ee 


heavy traffic, showing how little gauge had to do with maintenance. 


With regard to locomotive power, wages, with that of the guard 
and including supervision, made up from three-quarters to four- 


fifths of the train mileage expenses of running and repairing an 


¢ > si 2 


engine, and these wages and salaries did not practically alter 
much with the size of it. If therefore they had to deal with a 
long line having moderately heavy traffic, as some of these branches 
might eventually have ; so far from having a saving by the narrow 
gauge they would have a serious loss, as the same wages would be 
spent over less than one-third of the tonnage hauled and paid for. 
But they were now considering a light traffic on a short line, where 
in the case of the standard gauge, the train’s crew would not be | 
fully occupied, so he was content to leave the two gauges on equal 
terms in this matter. 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 221 


Except therefore the saving in cost of construction there was 
practically no set off against the serious evils of break of gauge, 
and he would nowcompare the extra working expenditure, incurred 
by the break, with that saving. 


Take for instance a short branch surface line of thirty-four 
miles on the two feet gauge, the saving in first cost would be 
£880 x 34m. = £29,920, and the interest at four per cent. 
about £1,200 per annum. 


The extra annual expenditure incurred by break of gauge would 
chiefly arise from— 


1. Transhipment and demurrage. 


2. Extra cost of providing sufficient rolling stock for inequality 


of traffic, and extra cost of repairs due to isolation. 


As regards the first, he had calculated that 24,000 tons goods 
annually, with a similar proportion of passengers as obtains on 
country branches at present, will be required to be moved to pay 
working expenses and interest, on such a two feet line as that 
supposed ; and the transhipment of this at seven pence per ton, 
will amount to £700 per annum. Demurrage arises from the 
fact that instead of the trucks as at present, at a standard junc- 
tion, being merely shunted and taken on by the next main or 
branch train, as the case may be, they may be delayed during 
transhipment beyond that time. Counting the equivalent of only 
one truck load of the standard gauge being so delayed daily for 
twenty-four hours, £313 would be incurred annually. Quite 
as important a cause of demurrage would be the practical impossi- 
bility, through the exigencies of traffic, of always having the 
proper proportion of small trucks, and of the particular type, to 
suit the load, at the junction, to meet the standard trucks with 
loads for the branch, and vice versd. While this adjustment was 
being made either demurrage would go on, or to release the trucks, 
a second and third transhipment at seven pence per ton each must — 
be made. Though hardly calculable, the amount incurred was 
not likely to be less, and probably would be a good deal more, 


232 DISCUSSION ON 


than that resulting from the other cause of demurrage already 
mentioned, viz., over £300 a year. So that these traffic charges 
alone, due to break of gauge, and taken at minimum figures, 
would exceed the saving in interest on first cost of the cheaper line. 


Now they had to add No. 2, the expenses of providing and 
maintaining the additional rolling stock necessary to meet occas- 
ional extra traffic, instead of being able to draw from over 11,000 
trucks already in use on the main lines, and secondly, the serious 
increase to the repairs, due to isolation. Apart from break of 
gauge, the repairs of the narrow gauge stock would probably, for 
the same duty, be greater than the larger stock, for the repairs 
would not decrease in the same proportion as size, and, for the 
same duty, nearly three times the train mileage would have to be 
run. But when they added to this the necessity of maintaining 
separate appliances and skilled labour on the branches, which 
would be only partially employed, and when it was considered 
that under present circumstances when the main sheds were 
accessible, the average annual repairs to an engine, carriage, and 
truck were £350, £50, and £9 respectively, or say about £1,200 
to £1,500 a year for such a branch as that supposed, it could 
easily be conceived how these items would mount up. 

He had purposely taken the two feet gauge, as that gave the 
maximum of saving in first cost. The intermediate gauges would 
diminish this, while the expenses of the break in working would 
be as great. It must not be forgotten that while the saving in 
interest on first cost is constant on the credit side, every item he 
had mentioned on the other side, which had been calculated on the 
"basis of the line just meeting its expenses, would increase as the 
traflic increased. 

The figures of course in the foregoing calculations are neces- 
sarily approximate—the saving in construction might be more, 
the expenses due to break of gauge less—no calculation on these 
points can be decisive unless they could deal with each particular 
branch on its own data, but enough is shown to prove that before 
such a momentous change be taken, in the railway policy, as 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 223 


break of gauge would involve, very great consideration should be 
given to the question. 


Mr. H.W. Parkinson—considered that as the function of a rail- 
way was to remove goods and passengers from one place to another, 
the line that enabled that to be done with the least expenditure 
of time, labour, and money, was the true light railway. To con- 
fine attention solely to first cost, and neglect working expenses, 

‘would therefore be wrong. In considering the possibility of 
reducing the first cost of lines, it would be well to divide that 
cost into two parts: (A), a known and for any given line constant 
cost, and (X), an unknown and variable amount. (A) consisting 
of the cost of forming, ballast, sleepers, rails, etc., which for 
different designs might vary from £2,000 to £4,000 a mile, or a 
total variation of £2,000. (X) consisting of earthworks and 
waterways might vary from £1,000 or less to say £17,000, or a 
possible variation of £16,000. There was, therefore, generally 
far greater scope for reduction in (X) than in (A), although 
attention was more often directed to the latter. A so-called 
reduction, however, would be no reduction at all if it entailed an 
equal or greater expenditure in working expenses. The suggested 
reduction in the depth of the ballast to three inches seemed to 
him of questionable utility—certainly on portions of many roads 
it would prove very inadequate. If the line were designed for a 
definite and constant axle load, then since the stiffness increased 
inversely as the cube of the span but only directly as the square 
of the weight of the rail per yard, evidently economy would be 
consulted by using as many sleepers as possible. This number, 
to leave proper room for tamping, would be about two thousand 
five hundred per mile. He was glad to note that the author was 
in favour of sharp curves as a means of reducing capital expendi- 
ture in construction. There could hardly be any doubt that the 
adoption of five chain curves on branch lines would very materially 
reduce their first cost without any corresponding increase in work- 
ing expenses. The mechanical difficulty of running round such 
curves with locomotives had been practically overcome, the greatest 


224. | DISCUSSION ON 


drawback being the limited speed due to the fact that it was not 
feasible to put in the enormous superelevation necessary for high 
speed. This would be certain to make such lines locally unpopular, 
however beneficial to the country as a whole. The money cost of 
loss of time was difficult to estimate, but was probably not great 
in country districts. In the location of lines where it was desired 
to avoid earthwork by adopting sharp curves, the contour grade 
line was of the greatest value. After curvature, the most im- 
portant method of reducing (X) was by grading, but here great 
care was necessary, curvature and distance might be increased 
with but little addition to working expenses, but increasing the 
ruling grade altered the whole constitution of the line. The 
method of determining the most economical ruling grade was as 
follows :—Estimate the cost of building the line on several different 
ruling grades, and plot a curve represeriting the annual interest 
on first cost. (See Diagram). Then determine the curve of 
annual traffic cost, varying with the grade, and plot curve 


inversely. 
DIAGRAM. 


ANNY 
AL 
INTEREST ON FIRST cosp 


t 
GRADE IN FEET PER: MILE. 


: | | | | taste al re | 
to | 60 80 100 | 120 140 


ANN 
UAL WORKING | on 
—~ ENsy 
S. 


The position of the shortest vertical line intercepted by the 
two curves would indicate the ruling grade in feet per mile. 


Thus in the diagram the dotted line is the shortest vertical line 


; 
% 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 225 


it is possible to draw between the two curves, and cuts the grade 
line at one hundred and five feet per mile, or a ruling grade of, 
say, one in fifty. This solution, which he believed was due to 
Mr. W. H. Searles, assumed that trains could always be fully 
loaded, and referred only to goods traffic, but the number of 
goods trains was generally a fair indication of the number of 
passenger trains ; if not, the correction could be made. Should 
the tonnage “up and down” differ greatly in amount, the branch 
or section must be considered as two lines, A to B, and B to A, 
and graded accordingly. Closely allied to fixing the ruling grade 
-came grading in general, or location in elevation as it might be 
termed. The first cost could often be reduced without affecting 
working expenses by the adoption of momentum grades. Since 
an initial velocity of twenty-five miles per hour would lift a train 
through a height of twenty-two feet before bringing it to rest, 
wherever in ordinary working such a velocity could be relied on 
it was possible to introduce a hump in the ordinary grading to 
this extent, and thus often materially reduce cuttings. Sags to 
the extent of nearly twenty feet might also be introduced in the 
banks, since the velocity gained in descending served to carry the 
train over the corresponding rise. The switch-back formed a good 
illustration of momentum grading. Such grading was particularly 
applicable to undulating country, as some portions of the Western 
Plains. On the question of gauge, he fully agreed with the author 
that the narrow gauge per se reduced the first cost by only a small 
percentage, about five per cent., according to Mr. Wellington. 
The great reduction in first cost in the case of narrow gauge lines 
generally arose from the fact that sharp curves were adopted, but 
curves almost if not quite as sharp might be used on the standard 
gauge. As pointed out by the author, the question generally was 
not simply the standard versus the narrow gauge, but the standard 
versus a break of gauge. 


Mr. G. R. Cowprry agreed with the author with regard to 
_ the gauge and curves, but was, however, of opinion that it was 
undesirable to depart from the minimum grade even where it 


O—July 5, 1893. 


" a 
‘ 
i rr 


226 | DISCUSSION ON 


could be shown that by adopting a steeper grade the working 
expenses in relation to the capital expenditure were actually 
lessened, and would remain so for the first few years. He con- 
sidered that it was wiser to anticipate by a few years a heavy 
increasing traffic, than do that which would probably be a heavy 
drag on the working expenses for a life-time. Any one who has 
had any experience would know the difficulty and expense involved 
in lowering a grade, while that of increasing the radius of a curve 
was ordinarily a much more simple and less expensive matter. 
The adoption on light railways of motors similar to those used in 
Sydney was worthy of consideration. It might not be generally 
known that the strongest motors in use, with eleven inch cylinder, 
sixteen inch stroke, and thirty-five inch driving wheel, were 
capable of drawing six hundred and sixty-two tons on the level, 
one hundred and sixty-five tons on a one in one hundred grade, 
and ninety tons on a one in fifty grade. Taking a loaded truck 
to weigh ten tons, it would be seen that these motors were capable 
of taking nine loaded trucks up a one in fifty grade. As ona 
light line the services of a fireman were not required, the running 
expenses of a train were by this alone reduced thirty per cent. 
These motors were also capable of running round very sharp 
curves, even up to eighty-six feet radius. This, of course, was 
with the assistance of a guard rail, but were the depth of flange 
increased to the same as an ordinary railway line, they would 
successfully run round curves three and four chains radius without 
the assistance of the guard rail. A further saving would be in 
the capital cost of the motor, for which about £1,000 was a fair 
price, probably half the cost of an engine as described by the 
author ; the cost of repairs also would probably be less. Motors 
had one great disadvantage, viz., their small water carrying 
capacity, which however, might be largely increased without 
much extra expenditure. He was unfavourable to the reduction 
in the number of sleepers, and considered that the Americans had 
_shown their wisdom by keeping their sleepers close together rather 
‘than increase the depth of ballast. On the tramways he had 


ao 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 227 


found that where eight feet by nine inches by four and a half 
inch sleepers were placed two feet four inches centres apart, there 
was less difficulty in keeping a good top and line on the road, 
even where the traffic was three times heavier than on a similarly 


constructed road and like formation, but where the sleepers were 
two feet eight and a half inch centres. The question appeared 
to be one of low maintenance cost, rather than one of “‘safe limit” 
of rail span. Reducing the depth of ballast appeared to him one 
of the least objectionable methods of reducing the cost of a light 
line; it was an improvement to any line to be periodically lifted 
and repacked, as it improved the drainage and gave adhesiveness 
to the sleepers and ballast. The gradual ballasting of the line 
could therefore be carried out as the traffic and earnings increased, 
especially as the development of the country by the railway would 
probably make the ballast more easily procurable. A further 
considerable saving in first cost could also be effected by discon- . 
tinuing the practice of cutting the low rail on curves in order to 
bring the points opposite. Although theoretically correct, an 
adjustment of the sleepers at the points would meet all practical 
purposes, the rails being cut only at the tangents. This had been 
done to great advantage on the tramway curves, for the wear on 
the inside of the head of the high rail was so severe that in order 
to obtain the most economical results the rails had to be changed 
from side to side, which of course could not be done if the rails 
were cut. He was opposed to the reduction of the weight of the 
rail to less than sixty pounds to the lineal yard, and would not 
favour any reduction in the weight of the sleeper fastenings, as 
it was essential in order to reduce the cost of maintenance to 
avoid frequent re-spiking and consequent damage to the sleepers. 
He had found that where forty-two pound rails were in use on 
the tramways, even on lines where the traffic was comparatively 
light, the ordinary maintenance had been greatly reduced by the 
use of heavy sleeper fastenings. He considered that the greatest 
disadvantage to any railway were steep gradients over which no 
mechanical device could economically work. 


228 DISCUSSION ON 


Mr. C. VANDEVELDE advocated the adoption of the two foot 
gauge for branch lines. The author stated that he had experience 
with several gauges, from the five feet nine inches gauge of Spain 
to the one foot eleven and a half inches of Festiniog, but he would 
be better qualified to speak if he had seen the latest and most 
improved development of the two feet gauge in France. These 
lines had been made for from £1,600 to £1,800 per mile, including 
rolling stock. They had rails of nineteen pounds to the yard, and 
curves of thirty metres. He thought the Government here should 
send an expert to France to report upon those lines and their 
adaptability to these Colonies. He considered that such lines 
would be superior to our present standard gauge branches, and if 
sharp curves were introduced with the present gauge, the existing 
carriages must be altered. Mr. Vandevelde would ask the author 
if he would now recommend that the Festiniog two feet line should 

be altered to the standard gauge. The author had said that light 
rails, steep gradients, light works, and light working expenses 
were nearly all more or less antagonistic to each other, but if the 
two feet gauge were adopted this would not be the case. 


Mr. W. F. How was convinced that engineers who had to 
construct railways in foreign and thinly populated countries, 
which were expected to produce good financial results at an early 
date, were justified in adopting a very light and cheap construc- 
tion in the first instance, and to do this sharp curves, heavy 
gradients, and lght rails were necessary. As the population 
increased, the modification of the curves etc.; could be carried out 
when desirable. He considered that as the lines proposed by the 
author would probably be constructed by a Government, the pro- 
posal to use fairly heavy rails, and to adhere to the existing gauge 
of railway would be justifiable. He pointed out that for many 
years English manufacturers could not see any advantage in 
departing from their long established practice with regard to the 
design of locomotives, but appeared to think’ that the types they 
had always made to suit the British tracks should work well 
everywhere, and the consequence was that in many instances, on 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 229 


cheaply constructed lines abroad, engines of English make were 
replaced by the more flexible American type, with the result 
that to this day the American engines have had a preference in 
most new countries. He once blamed an old friend and fellow 
apprentice, who had been for some years engineer and locomotive 
superintendent for a South American railway, for having ordered 
numbers of locomotives from the States, when he had obtained all 
his experience as an engineer in England, and he was assured that 
this was done with the greatest reluctance, because the road was 
so sinuous and had so many sharp curves, that the wear and tear 
upon the English engines was excessive ; that English makers had 
been asked to modify their designs, but without avail, and there. 
fore engines had to be purchased from the United States. This 
occurred about ten years ago, but matters had changed since then, 
as the British engineers had become more alive to the require- 
ments of such railways, and some of the best of them manufactured 
locomotives with bar frames, bogies, and short rigid wheel bases 
to suit any requirements, equally effective upon rough and cheap 
roads, and superior in quality of material and workmanship to 
any that could be made in America. He had looked up some 
information relating to locomotives suitable for a four feet eight 
and a-half inches gauge of railway, and capable of meeting most 
of the requirements suggested in the paper, and tabulated the 
leading points of five such engines, which were capable of passing 
round curves of from three to six chains radius. They weighed 
from twenty-eight and a-half to thirty-nine tons when in working 
order, and the loads upon the axles could be arranged to be from 
five and a-half to eight and a-quarter tons. Theloads they would 
draw upon an incline of one in forty at eight. miles per hour varied 
from one hundred and twenty-two to one hundred and fifty-one 
tons exclusive of the engine. 


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LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 231 


Mr. W. THow agreed with the objections expressed by the 
author against the introduction of a narrow gauge of railways 
into this country. In South Australia experience of both the 
five feet three inches and the three feet six inches gauge led 
everyone to regret that the country had the burden of two gauges 
to carry. Healso agreed with the author that the expedients 
tried for overcoming the break of gauge difficulty, of which many 
were put to actual test in South Australia, had all, so far, proved 
inadequate to lessen the evil. The only scheme of the sort that 
seemed to possess merit was to change the bogies of vehicles at the 
break of gauge stations. He had had plans worked out for doing 
so by hydraulic lifts.. The carriages would be simply lifted (with- 
out any uncoupling) all at the same moment and the bogies of one 
gauge replaced by those of another. But this plan could only 
apply to bogie stock, and if required for merchandise traffic it 
would compel the employment of that stock in place of the short 
four-wheeled waggons now so common both in this colony and 
Victoria. He could not agree with some of the author’s views, 
in their application to locomotives and rolling stock, that the 
tyres of rolling stock did not suffer much-from curvature. That 
was entirely against his experience and, he thought, erroneous. 
He considered curvature was one of the most active destroyers of 
tyres, and of rails, as well as an enemy to economical working. In 
consequence of the rapid grinding away of flanges and rail-heads 
on curves, they had frequently to turn more material off tyres by 
the lathe in one day than would be worn off them in five years of 
running on straight lines. Sketch ‘‘A” would explain his meaning. 


One fourth size. 


232 DISCUSSION ON 


The original form of the flange was shown, and the effect of 
curvature was to cut into it, reducing it (as shown by the dark 
section), rendering it unsafe for the road and apt to lift over the 
rail. ‘Tyres in that condition had to be brought into the shops 
and the flanges restored by turning off the metal of the tread in 
the manner shown by the lower section; the space between the 
two lines being absolutely wasted material. Sometimes the tyres 
had to be reduced more than an inch in diameter in that manner, 
and the loss was entirely due to curvature. He was afraid the 
idea that curvature did not destroy tyres was a phantom, often 
responsible for inducing the constructive engineer to adopt curves 
in many cases where, by a little extra expenditure, straighter lines 
might have been used. 


There was another remark by the author, which he scarcely 
understood. It was “an engine should be as like a snake as 
possible, using all its length for adhesion and propulsion.” But 
that statement seemed to be contradictory in itself. An engine 
which used all its length for adhesion and propulsion must 
necessarily be a coupled engine, all its wheels must be coupled, if 
_ they are used for adhesion ; and it must be without any bogie or 
flexible wheel base. But probably the author intended to direct 
attention to some of those abnormal machines, such as the 
‘‘ Fairlie” locomotive, which made some stir twenty or twenty” 
five years ago. That machine was really a double locomotive; it 
consisted of two complete engines, entirely independent of each 
other, except that they were pinned to one boiler. Such arrange- 
ments had been found to be deficient, and they were consigned to 
the scrap-heap long ago. The author incidentally referred to the 
engines used on the New York elevated railway as machines 
which possessed the virtue of being able to work readily round 
very sharp curves. They certainly could turn round very sharp 
corners, but then they were mere toys of locomotives, about as 
powerful as our tramway engines. They did not weigh seventeen 


tons in working order, which was less than the load on the driving 
axle of ordinary sized locomotives, and the adhesive weight of the 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. ea 


four coupled wheels was only ten and a half tons. Such engines 
were useless for lifting paying weights over grades. The total 
gross weight that an engine of this sort could lift behind it over 
grades of one in forty at ten miles an hour was fifty tons of 
waggons and loading, so that to meet all expenses for wages, fuel, 
and stores, repairs of rolling stock, maintenance of way, supervision, 
interest, etc., they would get the rates derivable from only twenty 
to twenty-five tons of merchandise per train hauled. He gave 
these figures to show that the elevated railroad engines, which did 

so well under the conditions for which they were designed, would 
be practically useless on any light lines in New South Wales. But 
there was no difficulty in making locomotives flexible enough to 
work freely round any reasonable curves, provided a sufficiently 
good track was laid for them. They had, at the present time, 
English-built locomotives in this Colony, which weighed fifty-seven 
tons, carried on twelve wheels, spread over a wheel base of twenty- 
nine feet two inches, but of which the rigid base was not necessarily 
more than six feet two inches. These engines were certainly 
flexible enough, but they were no more disposed naturally to run 
in circles than the most rigid engine ever built. Locomotives, 
like other bodies in motion, followed the laws of nature, and 
moved in straight lines unless forced to change their direction by 
pressure and loss of power. This law of nature could not be 
overcome by merely making each axle radical to the curve. The 
pressure between the wheel flanges and the rails remained the 
same, and that pressure, with sharp curves, meant destruction of 
tyres and rails, limitation of loads, and high working costs. 


In South Australia many miles of light lines had been built on 
the five feet three inches gauge. They were laid with iron rails 
originally of only forty pounds to the yard, but considerably worn, 
and engines were specially designed for moving a fairly heavy 
traffic over these light rails. They were tank engines, with six- 
teen and a half inch cylinders, carried on ten wheels, on any pair 
of which the greatest load was eight and three-quarter tons. The 
total weight of each engine was forty and a half tons, and they 


234 DISCUSSION ON 


answered the requirements of the light road remarkably well. 
Tank engines were certainly the most economical for use on rail- 
ways where conditions permitted of their employment. It was 
important to get rid of the tender, which was a mere carrying ~ 
' machine, and so much dead weight; but it often happened that 
water supplies were not sufficiently frequent to suit tank engines. 
The construction engineer said, “I cannot aftord to give you water 
supplies every twenty miles, my estimate only provides them every 
thirty-five or forty miles ;’ therefore the locomotive man had to 
make tender engines for lines which could be worked more 
economically by tank locomotives. | 


He observed the author referred to the use of electricity as a 
possible method of increasing the bite or traction of locomotives, 
but he did not think there was anything likely to arise from that. 
When the Americans first started electrical traction, they were 
surprised at the success of their first attempts, and at the loads 
which they moved up steep inclines. They fancied that the 
electric currents, passing from wheel to rail, increased the tractive - 
power of the motor ; but when they put their machines to test at 
the friction brake, they found them developing such horse powers 
as readily accounted for the results observed. There were one or 
two other matters of sufficient importance to mention. The first 
was superelevation on curves. When passing through America 
two or three years ago, he met Mr. Theodore Ely, who was 
general locomotive superintendent of the Pennsylvania railroad. 
He was at one time resident engineer on that line, and therefore 
fully acquainted with the superelevation given by American 
engineers. He mentioned to Mr. Ely a peculiar action of some 
of the first American consolidation engines (brought to this 
Colony some years ago) when working round the sharp curves of 
the mountain line: the wheel of the bogie on the inner rail of the 
curves was found to lift clear off the rail, when running smartly, 
and spin round in the air. Mr. Ely said their practice was to 
give much greater superelevation than ours—as a rule, one inch 
elevation to the outer rail for every degree of curvature—and 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 235 


accounted for the peculiar action mentioned, by the insufficiency 
of superelevation. He might here mention that this lifting of 
the wheel off the inner rail was an evidence of the extreme 
pressure between flanges and rails caused by curvature. The 
pressure between the bogie wheel flange and the outer rail, due 
to the forcing of the engine out of the straight line of motion, 
was sufficiently great, when acting through the leverage of half 
the diameter of the wheel and the length of axle, to compress 
the bogie spring over the inner rail and allow the wheel to lift. 
Another matter, which had always appeared to merit more atten- 
tion than it received, was the width of gauge on curves. He was 
of opinion that it was a mistake to widen the gauge, and would 
prefer to give no play. When vehicles were running round curves, 
the leading axle always slewed over towards the outer rail and 
the trailing axle went in the opposite direction or towards the 
inner rail, until their respective movements were checked by the 
pressure between the tyre flanges and the rails. Thus a short 
_ vehicle took np a position diagonal to the curve, and the wider 
the gauge the greater that divergence, which in many cases made 
the flange cut into the edge or side of the rail like a knife, and 
where the head had been worn away (as shown by the sketch ““B”), 
which was always the case more or less on curves, the inclined 
direction of the worn head readily assisted the wheel to rise 
(especially under light loads or empty vehicles) and lift over the 
outer rail. He considered that many derailments, otherwise 
inexplicable, were due to that cause. 


Colonel WELLS said that having been for some years principal 
road engineer in the Colony, a few words from him in that rela- 
tion might not be out of place. Since inland communication had 
of late been demanded and carried so far into the western interior, 
the necessity of other connections than common roads had become 
apparent to such an extent that the late Commissioner for Roads, 
Mr. Bennett, and himself had deprecated all attempt at making 
roads on the great black plains, but bad advocated light railways 
instead. In many localities road material, even of the poorest 


936 DISCUSSION ON 


description could not be met with for scores, even hundreds of 
miles, and all that could be done to maintain communication was 
to bridge the watercourses and allow traffic to plough its way over 
the black soil in the best way it could. Even this was very 
expensive, as in the case of embanked bridge approaches, and other 
places where traffic was necessarily confined. The expedient of 
using burnt clay in lieu of stone had been resorted to, but the 
expense even for such material was very great, varying from £1 
to £1 10s. per cubic yard. As the swallowing capacity of the 
black soil was enormous, an idea might be formed of the cost of 
making and maintaining a road on the plains. It was manifest 
that in the plains country a common road would cost twice as 
much to construct and twice as much to maintain as a light rail- 
way. On such country he would in the matter of gauge give 
preference to the normal one, four feet eight and a-half inches, as 
works in general would be light, and double handling of cargo— 
principally wool and live stock—would be saved. Jn ridgy 
country, requirements might be met for many years by the com- 
mon roads, which in the more settled parts of the colony would 
always be required, even after a railway had been constructed 
parallel with them, as witness their experience of the main Western 
and other roads which were maintained in better order than when 
carrying the main traffic of the interior. Should however light 
railways be required in such country as he spoke of, it might be 
advisable on account of cost entailed by heavy cuttings, curves, 
etc., to adopt a narrow gauge as advocated by Mr. Vandevelde, 
more particularly as such line might have its origin in some special 
local requirement, as a mine, etc., whose cargo could on light lines 
only be carried in small trucks, and would receive no damage by 
tipping into larger trucks on main lines. 


Mr. J. W. GrimsHaw considered that light railways really 
meant cheap railways for light traffic. For railways to be really 
cheap it was necessary that the trains be run at a slow speed in 
the day time only and be self-governed. Slow speed allowed of 
sharp curves, steep grades, lighter engines, lighter rails, fewer 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. Tai 


sleepers, less ballast, cheaper bridges ; and when the trains were 
run in the day time, fences, gates and gate-keepers, signals and 
signal-men, could be dispensed with and lower wages paid. By 
the trains being self-governed, expensive buildings, station masters, 
ticket clerks, and porters could be dispensed with, and trains could 
more readily adapt themselves to the requirement of the traffic in 
their stopping places. It was not only the first cost of station 
buildings, fences, gates, and signals that was saved, but the cost 
of maintaining them in good repair. These points were fully 
realized in America and many railways were constructed and 
worked on these principles. Although the speed might be slow 
there was no reason why the passengers’ comfort should be neglected 
or why the trains should not easily compete with coaches and 
drays, which had to contend with all the difficulties of country 
roads, What was really wanted were low freights. There was 
no economy ina break of gauge, and very little in a narrower 
gauge, but where the greatest of all economy could be obtained 
was in the careful selection of the route. It was inadvisable to 
open up a country by going over high mountains and through 
barren land when by going a somewhat longer distance, good 
country could be traversed ; what an economy there would have 
been if the Western District had been opened up by a line from 
Dubbo to Muswellbrook, and into Newcastle, instead of having 
to haul everything over the barren mountains to Sydney. How 
easily could that terrible line from Wallerawang to Mudgee have 
been avoided. The lines could be shortened when the trafic 
justified it, as was constantly being done even in older countries 
with settled population. It must be remembered that in a new 
and rapidly growing country like New South Wales, what appeared 
to be but an insignificant branch line would probably, within a 
very few years, be part of an important main line, and they should 
endeavour to so construct the line, that the requirements of an 
increased traffic could be added without any expensive work 
already done becoming useless. As to the resistance of railway 
curves, he referred to the experiments made by the French 
Government, which appeared in Engineering, 23rd Sept., 1892. 


a 
’ « 
. * 


238 DISCUSSION ON 


Mr. RENNICK was satisfied that narrow gauge railways for 
a national system would be a mistake. This was exemplified in 
America, where much money had been spent in converting the 
narrow gauge into the standard. In India, also, the metric 
gauge had not been a success. The capacity of a railway might 
be measured by the gauge, all other things being equal; thus, in 
coping with a certain amount of traffic, the capacity of a five feet 
three inches gauge to a three feet six inches gauge would be sixty- 
three to forty-two. For small traffic the effect would not be felt, 
but when the the traffic was fully developed the difference became 
very perceptible. The greater the number of trains required for 
a certain volume of traffic, the greater the working expenses 
would be, consequently any little saving in the construction of a 
narrow gauge line, would soon be more than balanced by the in- 
creased working expenses. Advocates of the narrow gauge seemed 
to overlook the fact that light rails and light rolling stock could 
be used as readily on standard as on narrow gauge lines, and 
would do more work because they would be better supported. In 
any ordinary country the increased cost of standard over narrow 
gauge lines would not be more than five or six percent. Certainly 
sharper curves could be used on narrow gauge lines, but the num- 
ber of places that it would be economical to adopt the sharpest 
curves possible would be but few, and would be a small proportion 
of the total cost. In America, curves as sharp as two hundred 
or three hundred feet radius were frequently adopted in rough 
country, and no difficulty was found in running over them, even 
with eight-wheeled coupled engines. So far as he was aware, 
curves sharper than that were never adopted for any gauge roads. 
In Australia, five chain radius curves were the sharpest in use. 
He considered that everywhere but in the most difficult country | 
the standard construction should be adhered to, the rails to be 
not less than sixty pounds, minimum curves ten chains, and grades 
of one in thirty, where necessary, to keep down the cost, and 
eight-wheeled coupled engines should be used for freight trains. 
In very difficult country, such as North Gippsland, it would be 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 239 


necessary to adopt five chain curves, and grades of one in twenty, 
for the sake of economy. In very steep parts a central rack rail 
might be laid and worked by a locomotive on the adhesion and 
pinion principle, as had been successfully tried in Germany and 
South America, where they had grades of one in twelve and a 
half. For the sake of economy, steep grades and sharp curves 
were necessary in very rough country, and in such places the 
standard gauge had greater capabilities than the narrow, because 
apart from grades and curves, the narrowness still further re- 
stricted the train loads. 


Mr. J. Trevor JONES said that the author had been careful 
to give separate consideration to the two heads into which the 
subject divided itself, viz., light lines on a narrow gauge, and 
those on existing gauges. Mr. Higinbotham, who was Engineer- 
in-Chief in Victoria in 1872, unequivocally advocated the retention 
of the five feet three inches gauge, though favourable to the adop- 
tion of light lines, and the whole Department supported his views; 
though there was a general understanding that in isolated country, 
with very steep and tortuous tracks, the narrow gauge might be 
found suitable. The lines, however, then under consideration 
were in no way such as to call for that treatment, being the 
Ballarat and Ararat line over undulating country. The then 
Minister, however, attributed the objections of officials to a re- 
pugnance to leaving beaten tracks, and directed that plans be 
prepared on the three feet six inches gauge. He afterwards 
relented so far as to order that alternative plans, with estimates, 
should be prepared, believing that the results would show a great 
economy of the narrower gauge over the broader. In this he was 
disappointed, and indeed the result rather surprised the Depart- 
ment, as the saving amounted to only about five per cent. There 
was considerable discussion among the public and the press as to 
whether this estimate was not in some way misleading, and the 
arguments which carried most weight in favour of the Department 
were somewhat as follows:—Assuming that rails of the same 


weight were used, no saving could be made by adopting the 


"ee oa 


240 DISCUSSION ON 


narrow gauge; nor could any saving be effected in the fences, 
which would be the same length in each case. In the bridges 
(timber in this case) and culverts there would be no saving on 
the longitudinal beams, or vertical timbers, or iron-work, and 
very little on the transverse timbers. There would admittedly 
be a saving on earthwork, but not so great as would appear at 
first glance, because the great bulk of the cost of a cutting was 
the opening of the gullet so that waggons could be taken through, 
when its width could be amplified at a cheaper rate. There would 
be saving in cubic measurement of earthwork, but the rate must 
be higher in order to compensate for the smallness of the payable 
cutting. The course would be longer, owing to its tortuousness, 
on the narrow than on the broad gauge, entailing more length of 
way and therefore increased cost for rails, sleepers, and main- 
tenance. The saving in length of sleepers and transverse timbers 
on bridges was but trifling. These arguments, added to the very 
weighty ones of the interruption to passenger and freight traffic 
by break of gauge, and the difficulty of sending damaged rolling 
stock to central repairing shops, totally reversed public opinion, 
and the Minister heartily adopted this view and sanctioned the 
five feet three inches gauge, He was of opinion that the reasons 
just enumerated, added to the numerous and weighty ones adduced 
in the paper, left no room for the advocacy of the narrow gauge, 
excepting such arguments as have already been referred to. It 
was to be regretted that, in view of the intention to make light 
locomotives and rolling stock generally, and to run at low speeds, 
the first light lines in Victoria were made with fifty pound rails. 
Probably, if the low speeds had been maintained, the rails would 
have carried the traffic for a long time, but the exigencies of the 
traffic soon over-rode the instruction. The station accommodation 


was indifferent, the number of hands on an economical scale en 


tailed long delays at the stations, and therefore greater speed in 
the intermediate spaces to make up for lost time; so that ina 

very short time a message came from the resident engineer that 
the rails were too light, and recommending that nothing less than 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 241 


sixty pounds should be used in future. He believed that no more 
fifty pound rails were laid thereafter, and that sixty pound rails 
were now considered the minimum, 


Mr. P. Auuan had anticipated that mention would have been 
made of the danger in narrow gauge railways, of overturning due 
to wind pressure, accidents from that cause having actually 
occurred in New Zealand. He had been informed by one of the 
engineers connected with New Zealand railways that the under- 
side of the carriages had since been loaded with rails, and that a 
wind fence had been erected on either side of the line. Having 
been intimately connected with the designing of some seven 
hundred traffic bridges throughout this colony, he might perhaps — 
be permitted to offer a few remarks on this important item in 
connection with railway construction. Hitherto the use of timber 
in railway bridges had been in most cases restricted to small span 
structures, but as good sound ironbark had on the average an 
ultimate tensile strength of eight tons per square inch, or one- 
third that of wrought iron, there was no reason why full use—in 
the construction of timber bridges with fair sized spans—should 
not be made of this material, which oftentimes was in close prox- 
imity to the route of the proposed railway. If it could be shown 
that the annual cost of maintenance, plus the interest on prime 
cost, plus an amount per annum as a sinking fund to liquidate the 
cost of a timber bridge at the end of its life, was less than the 
maintenance and interest for an iron or steel bridge, then from a 
financial point of view, there could be little reason why such a 
saving in the revenue should not be taken advantage of. For 
the sake of comparison he had estimated the cost of the super- 
structure of a steel truss bridge and a timber truss bridge each of 
one hundred and twenty feet span, and to make the case favour- 
able to the steel bridge he had assumed that the proposed site was 
three hundred miles by rail from Darling Harbour, and that, there 
being no suitable timber in the locality, the whole of the timber 
had to be brought from one of the northern rivers. Omitting in 
each case the rails and fastenings, the superstructure of a steel 

P—July 5, 1893. 


242 DISCUSSION ON 


bridge would cost for one hundred and twenty feet span £3,000 
including painting. Assuming the life of a steel bridge at one 
hundred and fifty years and taking interest at four per cent. the 
annual charge for interest, sinking fund and maintenance would 
be £150. The total cost of timber superstructure for one hundred 
and twenty feet span would be £1,870 for a truss bridge twenty- 
feet deep with twelve feet panels. Assuming the life of the iron 
work at one hundred and fifty years, and taking the life of the 
timber work at twenty-five years and interest as before at four 
per cent. the annual charge for interest, sinking fund and main- 
tenance would be £125. In connection with the timber bridge 
it might be noted that provision only had been made for the 
liquidation at the end of twenty-five years, of the prime cost of 
the timber work and re-erection of iron work, the whole of the iron 
work being again utilised when timber superstructure was replaced 
at the end ofits life. To recapitulate, the steel superstructure of 
one one hundred and twenty feet span would cost £3,000 as 
against £1,870 for a timber superstructure, or a saving in prime 
cost in favour of the timber bridge of £1,130 whilst the charge 
against revenue by the adoption of the timber bridge—after allow- 
ing for sinking fund—would be reduced from £150 to £125 per 
annum. Ifa saving of 37-7 per cent. could be effected in the 
prime cost, and 16-7 per cent. in the annual charge against revenue 
when timber had to be carried two hundred miles by water and 
three hundred miles by rail, how much more noticeable would this 
saving be when timber was in abundance close at hand. 


Mr. G. FiscHer considered that the paper might be divided - 
into two portions, viz., a way was indicated how a cheap standard 
gauge railway ‘could be constructed in New South Wales, and 
secondly, the author gave his reasons why he objects to a break 
of gauge. He could not agree with the author in the means 
employed to make a saving in first cost, by spacing the sleepers 
about three feet six inches centres, and putting only three inches — 
-of ballast under them. It was no doubt all correct according to 
-calculations, but he considered that in practice it would not give 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 243 


satisfaction, the cost of maintenance of such a lightly ballasted 
line would be comparatively large, and as the ballast was calcu- 
lated to cost only five shillings per cubic yard, the material could 
not be expected to be of very high quality, and such a thin layer 
would soon be converted into pulp by the sleepers, or disappear 
in the formation, and although the cost per mile taking it for the 
cheaper of the estimates, would be about ten per cent. higher, and 
by keeping to the present number of sleepers and allowing six 
inches of ballast under them, the additional interest on capital 
would be only £9 per annum per mile, and this would be fully 
saved in maintenance, besides giving a better and safer track on 
which higher speeds could be run with perfect impunity. Another 
point on which he disagreed with the author was the proposal to 
use existing road bridges for railway traffic. He did not think . 
that many of the existing road bridges could be sufficiently stiffened 
to carry the loads which trains of the weight proposed would 
impose upon them ; besides in the majority of cases the approaches 
were entirely unsuited for the projected purpose. With regard 
to the author’s objections to break of gauge, he would admit that 
he was not in favour of it so long as a standard line could be made 
to pay, even if only after some years. A railway was only a 
machine, and if a two,hundred horse power engine would do all 
the work required, a five hundred horse power one would not be 
used, and similarly if it was found that a railway with say a two 
feet gauge could carry all the traffic that was ever likely to come 
on to it, and calculating all the drawbacks set forth by the author 
and capitalising the extra cost per annum due to them, it was 
then found that the two feet gauge would still leave a fair margin 
of profit, while the standard gauge would shew a loss, he would 
unhesitatingly say change the gauge. A properly designed two 
feet gauge line could be constructed at from one-half to two-thirds 
the cost of standard gauge lines; the saving with the metre or the 
three feet six inches gauge was not so large proportionately, and 
once a change of gauge was decided upon, the one which could do 
the work desired with the least capital outlay should be adopted. 


“ee 
ae 


944 DISCUSSION ON 


The author had given some very strong reasons why the narrow 
gauge should not be introduced in New South Wales, and a great 
point was made of the fact that the asylum for old rolling stock 
would be closed up, but he himself had discarded the old engines 
by adopting a new design. The author proposed that passenger 
stations be cut out, guards doing the work of station masters, 
these duties no doubt would include sale of tickets. How was it 
proposed to manage this with our old rolling stock, excepting 
perhaps the comparatively few suburban carriages? If passenger 
platforms were to be abolished, how could passengers get in and 
out of the carriages without re-building them to suit the purpose? 
and if they were so re-built, how could an interchange be made 
with the main line passenger stock on the special occasions men- 
tioned, such as shows, races, etc. These difficulties could no doubt be 
overcome, but if the cost of making these changes were calculated, 
it might be found in the end that it would be cheaper to construct 
special passenger stock for branches, as had been done for the 
Campbelltown to Camden and the Yass tramways, on which lines 
goods are taken on the main line trucks without transhipping. 


Mr. Tuomas Mippueron said that he understood the author 
to express the fear that locomotive designers had not quite 
complied with his requirements; but there was no difficulty in 
designing engines for light lines, which would be “as snake-like 
as possible,” have great hauling power, and be easy upon the road 
—indeed, such engines were actually in use at the present time. 
He supported Mr. Fischer’s views, and would urge a three feet 


six inches gauge as a standard for light lines. Sir Edwin 
Watkin had last year supported the introduction of a third rail 
in Northern India, where five feet six inches and three feet three 
and three-eighths inch gauges abound. The metre gauge had 
proved itself in working equal to the performance of very useful 
work. ‘The transhipment difficulty at junctions could be readily 
dealt with by using suitable appliances, such as cranes, etc.; the 
cost and inconvenience of handling goods could then be reduced — 
to a minimum. As to sending all narrow gauge engines and 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 245 


rolling stock to Sydney and Newcastle for repairs, that would be 
unnecessary, for at the present time very extensive repairs were 
done to the four feet eight and a half inches gauge stock at many 
country stations. When it became absolutely necessary to send 
an engine up, it could be done by the use of temporary wheels 
and axles of four feet eight and a half inches gauge. In reference 
to what had fallen from one speaker, he would point out that in 
Japan, on a three feet six inches gauge, there were running loco- 
motives having eighteen by twenty-two inch cylinders, which were 
more powerful than many of our Mogul engines here on lines of 
four feet eight and a half inches gauge. 


Mr. T. R. Firtx considered there was no doubt that some 
parts of the Colony could be satisfactorily served by a less expen- 
Sive description of railway than had hitherto obtained, but few 
places could be so treated and enjoy the regularity that now 
existed in the railway traffic throughout the Colony. In parts of 
the interior, where the country for miles around appeared to be 
as level as a bowling-green or. dead level, the rails might be laid 
with only a few inches of ballast under them, at a cost for earth- 
works of only about £100 per mile, or, including clearing and 
grubbing, of say £150 per mile, but such a line would only be 
available during dry weather for the lightest locomotives to pass 
over, and half a day’s rain would be sufficient to stop all traffic 
for several days, as well as incurring heavy expense in putting the 
road in good order. No engineer of any experience would advise 
the construction of such a line, and the author’s estimate of £300 
a mile for earthworks on the most favourable country might be 
taken as the lowest at which a railway could be satisfactorily 
and economically made. Where thesurface was apparently level 
or undulating only the higher portions should be on what is 
termed “forming ” or surface levelling, and all depressions should 
have not less than one foot of embankment so as to raise the for- 
mation and keep a dry base for the ballast. In making the 
embankment from the side cutting it would also assist in draining 
the subsoil as well as giving the means of allowing the water to 


246 DISCUSSION ON 


cross the line wherever there was a slight fall. On the Nyngan 
to Cobar line a very considerable portion was originally made as 
a surface line, but the first rains clearly showed that if left in 
that form, the expense of keeping the line open for traffic would 
be almost equal to remaking, every time there was rain, with a 
more than probable stoppage of the traffic and an element of 
danger as well, it was consequently deemed necessary to make 
the line in accordance with the views just enunciated. In hilly 
country of course no rough estimate of the cost could be given 
that would at all serve any good purpose, it depended first on the 
nature of the country, that is in its physical and geological 
characters, second on the curves and gradients that were to be 
adopted. A light line must necessarily have sharp curves and 
steep gradients, otherwise the only saving in first cost that could 
be made was by reducing the width of the cuttings, and from 
previous experience this small saving could not be recommended. 
The next item of importance was waterways; of whatever kind 
of material they were made they could not be restricted as to 
size, they must be large enough to carry off the heaviest rainfall, 
and the material must depend toa very large extent on the means 
of renewal when required without interfering with the traffic, 
thus in shallow banks timber might be used with safety, but when 
the earth-works were heavy or there were large streams or rivers 
to cross, concrete or steel must be used, and as these latter were 
comparatively everlasting, the question must be considered 
whether the light line was likely to become of sufficient impor- 
tance to require heavy rolling stock. The bridges also should be 
designed either of the required strength or in such manner that 
they could be strengthened when necessary. He assumed that 
trains over light lines would not be run at great speed and in 
daylight as much as possible, so that fencing to a very great extent 
might be dispensed with, and as in the case of the Nyngan to 


Cobar line at the boundaries of property cattle stops which would 
not allow even a rabbit to pass, could be made across the line. 
The design of the permanent way must be guided by the description 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 247 


of rolling stock to be run over it or vice versa, and again this would 
depend entirely on firstly, gradients, secondly, probable amount of 
traffic, and thirdly length of line, whether a short branch service 
or the prolongation of a main trunk line with intermittent heavy 
traffic ; if of the latter, it should be of sufficient strength to carry 
the usual class of rolling stock in use on that line. In any case it 
would be a fatal error to have the line so weak that only one 
special class of engine could be run over it as in the event ofa 
break-down duplicate stock must be kept ready. As the tendency 
in the past had been always for enlarging and not diminishing 
the weight and power of the locomotives it must be taken as a 
self evident fact of the beneficial result which has been gained by 


experience, of having powerful motors. 


He was of opinion that for intermittent heavy traffic the ballast 
might be four inches under the sleeper, and except on sharp curves 
three inches up the side or seven inches altogether, and on curves 
of small radii the sleepers should be covered. The number of 
sleepers taken with the weight of rail must be entirely guided by 
the weight to be carried on each axle. It was on the item of. 
permanent way where a very large percentage of saving or other- 
wise could be made. The difference in cost in rails only between 
a forty pound and a sixty pound was £200 per mile, but with the 
same number of sleepers the latter would carry double the load of 
the former, and would therefore allow of steeper gradients if 
required, and be capable of doing more work, at the same time 
employing the usual rolling stock. Ifthe light rails were adopted 
every ten miles would approximately pay the first cost of a light. 
engine to work it for the same amount of money. Yet except. 
under peculiar circumstances of, say a short branch line, it seemed 
the best policy and the most economical to have at the least sixty 
pound rails with eleven sleepers for each thirty feet of rail, equal 
to one thousand seven hundred and sixty sleepers per mile. The 
author of the paper proposed to use screws only for the joints, 
they might be dispensed with altogether, the dog spikes being 
quite as good ; he also proposed to abolish platforms, this being 


248 DISCUSSION ON 


done on the Lismore-Tweed railway, but this line was quite 
isolated at present and carriages were being prepared specially 
for it. Where the usual passenger carriages were run there must 
be passenger platforms or the whole of the carriages altered. 
Waiting sheds could take the place of stations and the expensive 
items of signalling and interlocking could be very much reduced. ; 
The real foundation of economy in making a railway except in 
flat country was in surveying and laying out the line, fixing 
curves and gradients. There was no doubt that frequently with 
a little more care and spending a few pounds more per mile in 
the survey thousand of pounds might be saved. Both curves and 
gradients must be guided by the natural features and without 
imposing any great strain on the locomotive engineers ; curves of 
eight chains radius and even gradients of one in thirty could 
be overcome in the future as they had been in the past. Although 
the author quoted an instance where by the expenditure of 
£53,000 a saving of about £9,000 a year would result, it must 
be borne in mind that the £53,000 had to be found, and if this 
course had been adopted when the line was originally made, the 
railways of New South Wales would have been kept back ten or 
fifteen years. It was only the bold stroke of Mr. Whitton, the 
late Engineer-in-Chief for Railways, of introducing curves and 
gradients that were then unknown and considered by many to be 
impracticable that the Colony was in a position to have the rail- 
ways made, therefore although it might not be the most economical 
from a purely monetary consideration to have steep gradients at 
a moderate first cost, yet in very many instances it was better 
than being saddled with a heavy debt or perhaps have the work 
retarded for years. There was really no difficulty in making 
railways at prices from £2,000 per mile for fine weather lines in 
flat country to good, all the year round, lines at £20,000 per mile 
in broken country, but there was a strong objection to making 
lines that required their own special rolling stock and motors. 
One item of extra expense had always troubled the engineer viz., 
in not being allowed to lay ont the lines in the best direction. In — 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 249 


order to meet the views and interests of unimportant places he 
was frequently compelled to increase the cost very considerably 
without receiving an equivalent in the form of revenue, and 
another item in the past had been the cost of land. Taking for 
instance the Illawarra line, the first twenty miles from Sydney to 
Heathcote, including four miles of the National Park cost an 
average of £7,000 per mile, and at the time the land was resumed 
there were very few buildings along any portion of the line. The 
question of gauges need scarcely be referred to as it was not 
probable that any change would ever take place in this Colony, 
and in order to reduce the cost of construction they must be con- 
tent with sharp curves, steep gradients, save a little in ballast, 
dispense with fencing, and reduce the station expenses to a mini- 
mum, as well as private concessions in the shape of bridges and 
crossings. 


Mr. W. TuHow in some further remarks, referred to Mr. 
Higinbotham’s opinion respecting the relative cost of five feet 
three inches and three feet six inches gauges. Either in 1870 or 
1871, Mr. Higinbotham strenuously opposed the introduction of 
the three feet six inches gauge into Victoria. He was almost 
alone in his opposition to that suggestion, with the exception, of 
course, of the leading officers of his staff, and no doubt the people 
of Victoria had to thank him more than any one else for prevent- 
ing the mistake being made of introducing a mixed gauge into 
that colony. Mr. Higinbotham had made very elaborate estimates 
of the relative costs of the two gauges for parliamentary purposes 
and the small difference between them surprised most people. It 
was the intention of the Government to extend the main lines 
then existing in various directions, and the opinion arrived at by 
Mr. Higinbotham was that so far as those lines were concerned, 
the increase would not be more than £261 per mile if made upon 
the five feet three inches gauge instead of the three feet six inch 
gauge, and he pledged himself not to exceed £350 per mile. His 
estimates were subsequently supported by the experience of South 
Australia. At the time that this discussion was going on in 


. i ae "> 
i 
‘ 


250 DISCUSSION ON 


Victoria, South Australia had only one gauge, viz., the five feet 
three inches, but the three feet six inches was afterwards intro- 
duced, and an extension on the five feet three inches gauge thirty- 
nine miles in length was constructed for £5,427 per mile, includ- 
ing rolling stock and all costs. Another line on the same gauge 
fifty-seven miles long, which for two-thirds of its distance was a 
heavy line having grades of one in sixty and one in sixty-five, 
cost including rolling stock and everything else, £5,600 per 
mile. Taking the narrow gauge lines which existed in South 
Australia and which embraced some of the heavier portions, as 
well as very easy roads through the long stretches of desert, nine 
hundred and fifty-six miles were constructed at a cost including 
rolling stock of £5065 per mile. For both these grades forty-one 
pound steel rails were used. 


There was no special effort made to reduce the cost of the lines 
on either to the minimum, but they were made sufficiently strong, 
as it was thought, to meet the requirements of the country. It 
was however, very difficult to estimate the growth of traffic in 
some cases. One of these narrow gauge lines was built from Port 
Augusta which is at the head of one of the gulfs in South Australia 
and it extended to a place called ‘‘Government Gums” two 
hundred miles north. The contractors expressed the opinion and 
every one believed them at the time, that one train each way per 
week would carry all the traffic likely to go over the line, but as 
a matter of fact within two or three years the traffic necessitated 
as many as nine trains a day to accommodate the carriage of 
passengers, stores, and live-stock. He agreed with the views of 
the author of the paper, in his opposition to the introduction 
of the three feet six inch gauge into this country, and with his 
proposal to use sixty pound rails for the light lines in New South 
Wales. There would be no difficulty whatever in making engines 
flexible enough to suit that road or indeed to suit a lighter road, 
but it must be admitted that sharp curves and steep gradients, 
especially when combined, were antagonistic to light locomotive = 
construction. If paying loads were to be hauled over. roads of. 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 255 


that construction character the locomotive must be powerful and 
therefore could not be light. The three feet three inches gauge 
in South Australia was originally laid with forty pound rails, and 
there were some powerful engines running upon them. The 
original Liverpool and Manchester road was laid with a thirty- 
five pound rail, and portions of the English North Eastern between 
York and the north had for many years forty pounds iron rails. 
There was really little advantage gained in making a three feet 
six inches gauge line in point of cost as compared with the four 
feet eight anda-half inch. It has been shown that the seven feet. 
Great Western gauge in England only cost from seven to eight 
per cent. more to construct than the four feet eight and a-half 
inch gauge. The principal saving to be made by adopting the 
smaller gauge was in cuttings and embankments, and even there 
the narrow slice of earthwork saved amounted to very little. It 
has been shown by estimates made that for cuttings or embank- 
ments five feet deep the saving was 8-2 per cent., ten feet deep 
6:2 per cent., fifteen feet 5 per cent., twenty feet 4:2 per cent., 
and so on up to fifty feet when the reduction is little more than 
one per cent. The saving in land required did not exceed one 
quarter of an acre per mile of railway. With regard to the break 
of gauge objections, it was quite possible to transfer without much 
difficulty, the ordinary merchandise and passengers, which could be 
changed readily ; but, of course there was expense incurred in 
doing it. .The greatest difficulty experienced in South Australia 
was with live stock, the bullocks coming from the north were so 
wild that when once taken out of a truck at the break of gauge 
stations it was difficult to get them into another, and that could 
be only effected by damaging their value considerably through 
rough usage. To obviate this evil, bogie trucks with duplicate 
bogies to them, suitable for each gauge were built. At the break 
of gauge stations the bogies were changed and the cattle brought. 
down to Adelaide over the broad gauge without transhipping. 
The great objection often expressed to the three feet six inch. 
gauge arose from the fact that the limit of capacity and utility 


was very early reached. It was found that to meet the circum- 


952 DISCUSSION ON 


stances of the South Australian narrow gauge lines the largest 
cylinders that could be put into the engines were fourteen or 
fifteen inches in diameter, and when these engines were tested by 
loading them to their limit and working them at their greatest 
power at a uniform speed up a gradient, the average maximum 
power obtained was equal to three hundred and twenty horses at 
thirteen and a-half miles per hour, whereas in this country there 
were engines working daily which could give a maximum average 
power of one thousand and twenty horses at a mean speed of 
twenty miles per hour. This difference of capacity was something 
to look forward to in connection with the standard gauge which 
the three feet six inches gauge could never hold out. It was 
ascertained by the Great Western Railway of England that the 
cost of working the seven feet gauge was less than on the four 
feet eight and a-half inches gauge for equal speeds, but he was 
unable to say whether that would apply to the three feet six inches 
gauge. The cost of working in South Australia on the narrow 
gauge was less than on the broad, but for very different speeds 
and accommodation. In railway expenditure as in other things, it 
was speed which killed. One matter that the author appeared to 
favour in his paper was the abolition of fencing upon light lines. 
If trains travelled at night, that would in his opinion, be a risky 
thing to do; for day travel fencing might be abandoned, but dur- 
ing the night and in hot parts of the country cattle are attracted 
by the cool ballast and frequently trespassed on an unfenced line 
lying down between the rails and endangering the safety of the 


trains. 


Mr. H. Deane said that the name “ Light Railway ” was not 
a scientific term, but a popular one, and it was generally employed 
in a very loose manner, but was always supposed to imply the use 
of a minimum of material in structure and permanent way with 
the minimum of labour in fixing, and light rolling stock. He had 
heard many people say when asking for a railway in their district, 
“all we want is a tramway just laid along the road.” That how- 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 253 


ever was not how a cheap line could be made. A line laid along 
a main road must have its surface even with the road and a trench 
had then to be cut to let in the ballast, sleepers, and rails, and in 
_order to preserve the track in good order for the rolling stock and 
still allow other wheeled traffic to pass over it, a guard had to be 
fixed to each rail, and the ballast had to be brought up to the 
level of the surface of the road, so that the cost of this kind of 
line was increased by having more costly formation, additional 
steel in guard rail and additional material and labour in its assorted 
ballast for the top surface. When completed this kind of railway 
seldom had good grades, as it had to adhere to those which hap- 
pened to exist on the roads, which were very likely to be bad ones. 
The maintenance of such a line was always very costly, for unless 
the rest of the road was metalled and keptin very excellent repair 
all the wheel traffic would be attracted towards the tramway on 
account of the good surface, and the wear and tear would be 
enormous. As the grades were those of ordinary roads, traffic 
expenses would be high because the loads would be small. It was 
clear therefore that it would generally be better to go off the road 
to find a location for a light railway. The cheapness of sucha 
line must necessarily depend upon the possibility of following the 
surface with easy grades and curves of not excessively sharp radii. 
Ifeasy grades could not be obtained without running into cut- 
tings, there would not be much cheapness about it. If the sixty 
pound rails were adopted as the minimum, then it would be in 
any case undesirable to use steeper gradients than one in sixty. 
This was the ruling gradient on the Molong, Parkes, and Forbes 
line. It was only obtained there with some difficulty. Curves of 
ten chains radius might be taken as comparatively unobjectionable. 
This was the radius of many of the curves on the Milson’s Point 
extension railway, and was there adopted in order that the 
requisite distance to give as flat a gradient as one in fifty, might 
be obtained. As regards number and kind of sleepers, it was 
undesirable to put them wide apart, the spacing produced by 


putting eleven sleepers to the ten yard sixty pounds rail gave a 
very good result, 


¢ 


254 DISCUSSION ON 


As a rule iron bark was the best timber to use, but in some 
parts red gum or even white box, which were very durable timbers 
might be employed with advantage. For the cheapest class of 
line there was no objection to a rough sleeper shaped like a fencing 
post but stouter, in place of a rectangular one. These would be 
much cheaper as they could be obtained in some parts of the 
country at the rate of about two shillings each delivered, in others 
they would cost more on account of carriage. The quantity of 
ballast the author mentions would no doubt be quite enough at 
the outset. He himself had proposed to use for this class of line 
one thousand two hundred cubic yards per mile, which did not 
differ much from the author’s quantity. The depth under the 
sleepers would be three inches, but this would have to be added 
to afterwards. In any case it would not be advisable to lay the 
ballast direct on the ground as had often been advocated. Such 
a practice would be contrary to all sound experience in railway 
or road making, as the formation required draining and it would 
only get into a state of bog unless a low embankment, even if 
only a few inches in depth was thrown up. He mentioned this 
because it had actually been proposed to lay the ballast on the 
surface over the plains in this country. Those who knew the 
black soil would never have suggested such a method. 


In country where the surface of the ground could be strictly — 
adhered to the cost of such a line would be about £2,000 per mile. 
He would be sorry to say a word which might lead anyone to 
think he would advocate the adoption ofa different gauge, but he 
thought that the disadvantage of a break of gauge had sometimes 
been overstated. There might be circumstances when it would 
be better to risk the difficulties and inconvenience likely to arise 
after twenty years, than not to have a railway at all. He was 
strongly of opinion however that to make any extension or branch 
of the present system on any other gauge than the standard one ~ 


would be a fatal mistake. In those parts of the country where 
light railways, that is cheap railways, were applicable there would 
be little necessity for curves sharper than, or even as sharp as 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES, 255 


those he had already mentioned, viz., of ten chains radius, but 
using the term in a relative sense and calling a railway costing 
£6,000 or £8,000 per mile, a light railway compared with one 
costing double those amounts, a great deal could be said about 
methods by which this cheapness could be obtained. It had been 
said by the advocates of the Eden-Bega railway, that all they 
wanted was a light railway. Anyone who knew the district and 
had any railway engineering experience, was also aware that in 
such a country a cheap railway was impossible even with a two 
feet gauge. There were numerous important watercourses to cross 
and the spurs of the hills were so sharp and steep that it was not 
possible to go round them with anything like ordinary curves, and 
constructing with very sharp curves such as of two chains radius, 
would greatly increase the length of line. The connection of the 
coast with the tableland had been attempted in several places, 
but after the most careful surveys it had in all cases been shown 
that the connecting railways would cost from £12,000 to £20,000 
per mile. This was of course due to the rugged nature of the 
country traversed, and the heavy earthworks, tunnels and bridges 
necessitated. Were it possible to run curves of five or six chains 
radius the cost of construction would be greatly lessened, possibly 
in some cases by one-half, in others by one.third. Mr. Thow had 
told them how objectionable sharp curves were in the wear and 
tear they caused to the flanges of the wheels of the rolling stock, 
but granting this, might it not sometimes be worth while to risk 
such wear and let the cost of repairs go against the interest saved 
in construction. Suppose for instance, that by the adoption of 
sharp curves the cost of a heavy mountain section of a line fifty 
miles in length could be reduced by £4,000 per mile, thus affect- 
ing a saving on the whole length of £200,000, the interest on 
this sum at four per cent. would be £8,000 annnally, surely this 
would pay for the turning up of a good many worn out tyres and 
for keeping a stock of spare wheels in readiness to replace those 
worn, He thought that this was a matter which deserved much 
attention from locomotive engineers, especially in a country like 


256 DISCUSSION ON 


this where parallel to the coast for its whole length ran a moun- 
tain barrier from two thousand to four thousand feet in height. 


As bearing on this part of the subject, he would like to make a 
few remarks with regard to certain types of engines, but not pre- 
tending to be a locomotive engineer he submitted them with all 
modesty. The Fairlie Engine which he first saw running on the 
Festiniog line in North Wales, was designed for the double purpose 
of getting flexibility, for working sharp curves, and of utilising 
the whole weight of the locomotive for adhesion. The first of this 
type looked like two engines back to back, and really consisted of 
two boilers rigidly connected, placed on two bogies provided with 
separate pairs of cylinders. The improved Fairlie had one boiler 
and fire box, but the use of the bogies was continued. There was 
a serious difficulty in connection with all these engines, viz., that 
of keeping its steam connections tight. High pressure steam had 
to be conveyed down through the centre pivot to the cylinder, 
and this was a source of great trouble, therefore it was quite 
possible that as Mr. Thow said, engines of this type had often 
been consigned to the scrap heap. There was another type of 
engine however which seemed more promising, and was doing 
good work on the St. Gothard, Central Swiss, and other lines, 
and this was the Mallet type. In this the high pressure cylinders 
with the main framing were made with a fixed connection to the 
boiler, while the low pressure cylinders which were placed at the 
front end on a bogie were made to swivel under the boiler. The 
steam pipes were said to give no trouble, flexible connections were 
only required to convey steam of reduced pressure to the low 
pressure cylinder, and to take the exhaust steam to the blast pipes. 
On the Central Swiss line tank locomotives of sixty tons distri- 
buted on four axles in two pairs were used. On the St. Gothard 
line locomotives of eighty-five tons on six axles in two sets of 
three were being run. These must be very powerful machines, 
as all the weight was available for adhesion, instead of from only 
fifty-five to sixty per cent. as in the cases of the usual type of 
engines, and they must possess great flexibility. It followed that 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 257 


by the adoption of a flexible type of locomotive, great economy in 
railway construction would result, and even if the type were more 
costly and the repairs heavier, it was a question whether this 
disadvantage could be said to weigh against the saving in interest 
on construction, especially when on the other hand the advantage 
of using the whole weight of the locomotive for adhesion was 
borne in mind. It seemed to him that only by the adoption of 
some such type of locomotive could the principles of light railways 
be extended to rough countries. 


Mr. C. O. BurGe in reply, said the discussion had displayed an 
interest in the subject which had justified him in taking it up, 
and had amply repaid the trouble taken over it. Messrs. Parkinson 
and Cowdery both regarded the proposed spacing of sleepers as 
too wide, the characteristic of the proposed permanent way being» 
comparatively heavy rails and wide spacing. Mr. Parkinson said 
very truly, that, as the road was weakened in proportion to the 
cube of the spacing, but only to the square of the weight of rail, 
economy would point rather to reverse the process, increasing the 
sleepers, and reducing weight of rail. Now, looking into this 
matter in its practical light, which Mr. Parkinson apparently had 
not done; with two thousand five hundred sleepers, as he suggests, 
he could have the same stiffness as proposed in the paper with 
twenty-nine pound rails, and the cost would be reduced by £100 
per mile, justifying his theory so far, but, having put the £100 in 
his pocket, he would find that during the ordinary life of a sleeper, 
he would have to renew nine hundred and sixty more sleepers, 
the capitalized cost of which would amount to over £200, so he 
would have made a loss, so to say, to begin with; then he would 
have only half of the material for rail head wear and tear, and 
lose the easiest means of strengthening the road afterwards, 
according to increase of traffic, which should be one of the main 


eharacteristics of any proposal for light lines. 


Mr. Cowdery followed by stating that he had found, presumably 
with the same axle wéight and rails and other conditions, that a 
saving of mamtenance took place with more sleepers. Of course 

Q—July 5, 1898, 


958 ° DISCUSSION ON 


it did, it was a truism—but this was not the question. The 
question was, having to lighten your railway, presupposing 
decreased axle weight and decreased speed, what was the best 
way todo it? It had been shewn in the paper that what was 
proposed as regards stiffness in the road, bearing surface, and 
fastenings, had been actually for years in successful operation 
elsewhere under similar axle weights. It was not a theoretical 
proposal. And, in proportion to axle weight, the proposed railway 
was a heavier one, and therefore lighter for maintenance than 
most existing roads. It may be mentioned here, that, in propor- 
tion to its duty, which must always be kept in mind, the total 
weight of the proposed road, including sleepers, was high in com- 
parison to existing ones. The London and North Western road 
with heavy axle weights and high speeds, weighs, per mile, three 
hundred and forty-four tons ; the New South Wales present lines 
with about sixteen tons axle weight, weighs two hundred and 
eighty-two to three hundred and eighty-four tons; the Madras 
Railway, main lines, with twelve tons axle weight, weighs two 
hundred and sixty-nine tons ; Cape railways, main lines, eight 
tons axle weight, weighs one hundred and twenty-six tons ; pro- 
posed light branches, eight tons axle weight, weighs two hundred 
and twenty-six tons. The inertia of these weights in proportion 
to the duty, which is greatly in favour of the last, had an impor- 


tant effect on cost of maintenance. 


Mr. Vandevelde was an able advocate of the introduction of 
the two feet gauge into the Government railway system of this 
‘Colony, and he has shewn his wisdom in keeping clear altogether 
“of the break of gauge question, which was the only objection to 
that system raised in the paper, or in the opening of the discussion. 
Since the paper was read, Mr. Burge had ascertained that tran- 
‘shipment costs in France four pence per ton, with labour at two 
shillings and seven pence per day, sevenpence therefore, estimated 
in the paper, p. 72, as the cost here of transhipment, might have 


‘been considerably increased. 


@ 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 959 


Mr. Vandevelde’s figures as to the cost of two feet lines in 
France, allowing for the difference in rate of wages, agreed closely 
with the £880 per mile saving in first cost over standard gauge 
lines estimated by Mr. Burge in opening the discussion. Mr. 
Vandevelde had asked him if he would advise now, that the 
Festiniog line should be altered to the standard gauge, evidently 
thinking that he was hostile to the smaller gauges, whereas his 
hostility was only to the mixture of them. He should not only 
oppose the change he refers to, but would probably adopt the two 
feet gauge if the line had to be made anew. Besides a small tourist 
traffic, the great business done was conveying slates from the 
quarries to the seaport. When he was engaged on it, there were 
eight hundred and fifty trucks specially made for slates, out of a 
total of eight hundred and ninety-two, weighing thirteen to nine- 
teen cwt. each, and carrying two to three tons of slates, a ratio of 
dead to live load impracticable for this heavy material in the wider 
gauges; there was no connection with any other line, and if there 
was, there could be no interchange of traffic, as it was crowded to 
its utmost capacity in the conveyance of slates from quarry to port. 
‘There was no analogy whatever in this to New South Wales 
branch lines generally, and the reference only showed the mistakes 
which might be made by founding arguments on conditions 
essentially different. The paper was not on light railways 
generally, but on light railways for New South Wales. 


The remarks of Mr. Thow, from his experience as head of the 
Locomotive Department in New South Wales, and formerly in 
South Australia, carried great weight. There was no difficulty 
as regards the engine question for the flatter country. It was 
where heavy grades and sharp curves occur, to obtain light con- 
struction that locomotive engineers hesitated about meeting them. 
Mr. Thow would see, on looking at the paper again p. 59, that 
Mr. Burge did not ignore, as he thought, the difficulty of combin- 
ing flexibility and adhesive length, nor, in the previous page, that 
extra complication of parts and increased expenditure for repairs 
would have to be faced. The question was not between good and 


ee wale a oak 


260 DISCUSSION ON 


bad types of engines, as to which no one in the Colony was such 
an excellent practical authority as Mr. Thow, but what would 
‘make the best balance sheet on the whole Government expenditure 
in the matter; in fine, was it not better to incur extra annual 
repairs on special type locomotives, than to pay more than that 
annually in interest on expensive construction, to accommodate 
superior engines? It was a matter for calculation, and he had no 
fear of the result, and others would, he thought, agree when they 
considered it in this way ; on the Western main line, mountain 
section, for instance, which had excessive curvature, there was 
probably twenty-five to thirty engines passing daily over every 
mile. It was obvious that large expenditure was justified there, 
in making things easy for them, and cutting out curves, every 
curve telling on that number of engines daily. In the lines now 
considered, probably two engines would be the daily average, 
whereas the cost of such improvement to a main and branch line 
would, ceteris paribus, be the same. Again, one of the helps 
against curve resistance—superelevation—could only be fixed for 
one average speed, and on the main line great varieties of speed 
were unavoidable, from slow goods to fast expresses. On the light 
branch, the one or two mixed trains daily could be at uniform 
speed generally, and superelevation could be fixed to that speed. 


The English locomotive was oneof the most magnificent machines 
the world had yet seen, and he quite understood the reluctance 
with which one, ike Mr. Thow who knew them so well, would 
see admittedly inferior types in one respect—complication—pre- 
ferred, but he did not think the development of the country by 
light lines should be retarded, because, by a transfer of expenditure 
favourable on the whole to the Government, it should fall on one 
branch rather than on another. Mr. Thow, he was sure, had no 
such narrow view, though he might not agree with Mr. Burge in 
expecting the results to be as favourable as he did. 


‘ 


Professor Warren quoted from Professor Bowes that it was a 


safer plan to make a line light at first, strengthening gradually 


_ as might be required, rather than to make it equal to a standard, — 


\ 


5 
2 


LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 261 


the necessity for which might never be reached, and from which 
there was no drawback. Assuming that it was done with judgment, 
he entirely agreed with this, and thought, especially when money 
was getting dearer, that they might take a lesson from America 
in this respect, though without going to her extremes. As to the 
transition curves mentioned by Prof. Warren, they were already 
provided for in all the later construction and surveys in this 
Colony, on the principle of the cubic parabola, the practical 
application of which was brought before the Royal Society a few 
years ago by Mr. Walter Shellshear, M.Inst.c.e. They were 
therefore not mentioned in the paper. There is no doubt that 
they would reduce the severity of sharp curvature in a high degree. 


Mr. Rennick, whose high authority as Engineer-in-Chief for 
Railways in Victoria, added much to the interest of his contribu- 
tion, paid, unconsciously, a great compliment to the paper, as 
though he had not seen it when he supplied the information which 
had been now read, he agreed with the conclusions of the paper 
mainly, especially in the matter of maintaining at least a sixty 
pound rail, going as far as five chain curves and shewing that 
light lines are everywhere possible without meddling with the 
gauge. 


Mr. Trevor Jones’ information as to what decision had been 
arrived at in Victoria, on this matter, and the grounds for it, 
some years ago was a very valuable addition to the paper. 


Mr, Fischer and other speakers questioned the wisdom of the 
wide spacing, and of the small depth of ballast suggested, but the 
reduced axle weight must be had in view, and though some 
definite figures must be put forward in a proposal such as that in 
the paper, these must not be supposed to be unalterable. Where 
good timber was plentiful and ballast was scarce and vice vers§, 
modifications might be made to suit, without violation of the 
general principle. > 


Mr. Middleton, who spoke as a locomotive engineer, said, Mr. 
Burge was glad to see that there was no difficulty in designing an 


262 DISCUSSION. 


effective engine to meet the requirements set forth in the paper. 
Mr. Middleton thought that narrow gauge proposals should be . 
considered with regard to extensions, where it was a question of 
narrow gauge or nothing. This is a frequent argument, but 
rested on false premises in this case. Mr. Middleton had not had * 
the opportunity of hearing the author open the discussion, when 

he was enabled to show that where change of gauge occurred, the 
ultimate cheapness, on which this argument rested, did not exist. 


Mr. Firth objected to any line which main line engines could 
not run over without danger, and also to the proposed omission of 
platforms. These were admittedly defects, but a mechanical 
device might easily be contrived to prevent a heavy engine going 
on the branch, and if they were to have cheap lines they must do 
without many conveniences, of which platforms were one. They 
were rarely used in America. 


Mr. Thow thought fencing should not be omitted when there 
were night trains, but such branches as were now in view were not 
likely to be used at night. Should the traffic become so important 
as to necessitate night trains, the light railway would become a 
heavy one, when this and other things would be added. 


Mr. Burge was glad to have the high authority of the Engineer- 
in-Chief for Railways, Mr. Deane, generally in accord with the 
principles advocated in this paper, with the important exception 
of the sleeper spacing,—but it must not be forgotten that this is 
based entirely on the limitation of the axle weight to eight tons, 
and, as regards support, was surely justified by long experience 
in the Cape, where, even in main lines, the same weight was 
supported by the same area as now proposed. He thanked the 
Society for the close attention they had given to this paper, and 
for the valuable additions they had made to it in the discussion 
now closed. 


TREATMENT OF MANUFACTURED IRON AND STEEL. 263 


THE TREATMENT OF MANUFACTURED IRON AND 
STEEL FOR CONSTRUCTIONAL PURPOSES. 


By Wm. Fiextp How, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., M. I. Mech. E., Wh. Se. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 6, 1893. ] 


Durine the execution in Great Britain of contracts for the New 
South Wales Government and other large purchasers of material 
and works of various descriptions, the author had to deal with 
constructional work built of iron and steel, and this paper has 
been prepared with the hope that members of the Royal Society 
of New South Wales will be interested in matters relating to 
some of the methods adopted by firms of the highest repute, when 
executing such contracts in accordance with strict specification 


S 
and instructions. 


No attempt is made to describe the manufacture of the iron 
and steel, that being entirely beyond the scope of this paper, 
rolled material and the treatment to which it is subjected only 
being considered. 


Wroucut Iron. 


Wrought iron is largely used for the manufacture of light 
girders, roofs, &c., owing principally to the fact that the superior 
strength of steel cannot be taken full advantage of by using thin 
plates, angles, channels, &c.; as those details are not at present 
rolled from that material of the small dimensions required, unless 
at a considerable extra cost. Again, in some instances, thicker 
plates than actually required are used to ensure rigidity in light 
structures. 


It is therefore cheaper in such cases to use the thicker iron, 


which also possesses an advantage where oxidation occurs to any 


St aa 
ene 


264 WILLIAM FIELD HOW. 


extent. The loss by rust of iron and steel being practically the 
same, the percentage of reduction of the effective strength of the 
thinner steel plates would be greater if that material were used. 


Good iron is more reliable than steel where much forging of the 
rolled material is required, and it is undoubtedly preferable to 
use it for details that have to be welded. Again, iron being 
structurally of a laminated character, it is but slightly injured by 
punching and shearing. 


Owing to the fibrous formation of wrought iron its strength 
across the length in which it has been rolled is generally consider- 
ably less than in the direction of the length of the plate, bar, &e., 
and care has to be taken that the rivets in long and compara- 
tively narrow details, such as the webs and tie bars of girders, 
are kept well from their edges and ends. 


The author has found from experiments that in iron work, 
where the ultimate tensile strength and elongation in the lengths 
of the web plates of iron girders have been twenty-two tons and 
twelve per cent. in ten inches respectively, specimens cut from 
such webs at an angle of forty-five degrees (that is, in the direc- 
tion in which the stresses from the tie bars act), possess a tensile 
strength of nineteen tons per square inch, and only 6°8 per cent. 
of elongation in a length of five inches. Such specimens have 


broken across in the direction in which the iron has been rolled. 


When the stress has been directly at right angles to the length 
of the plate, the ultimate tensile strength was only eighteen tons 


per square inch, and elongation four per cent. in five inches. 


Mitp STEEL. 

During recent years, so much progress has been made in the 
manufacture of mild steel, that it can now be produced having a 
tensile strength and ductility of surprising regularity, and owing 
to its uniformity in these respects and great tensile strength, it is 
being rapidly adopted by the most eminent we” for the 
construction of bridges, roofs, boilers, etc. 


TREATMENT OF MANUFACTURED IRON AND STEEL. 265 


Steel has the advantage of possessing the same tensile strength 
and elongation with and across the’ length of the plates, and it 
will be readily understood that this is especially valuable in many 


cases of constructional work. 


6 


It is of the greatest importance that material of a ductile and 
reliable character, such as mild steel, should be used in the manu- 
facture of bridges &c., because no matter how carefully the design 
may be prepared, some unforeseen events may arise, such as a 
slight movement in the foundations &c., that will throw greater 
stresses than were anticipated upon some member of the structure. 
As an instance of this, the author has known of cases in Australia 
where the outside tension members in the bottom boom of a truss 
girder, have had to be protected from the sun’s rays, by boarding; 
as they became bent owing to their expansion by heat, and stresses 
they were designed to carry, were thrown upon the adjacent and 


similar members. 


There are two descriptions of steel largely manufactured for 
constructional purposes; one generally termed the ‘‘ Siemens 
Martin,” and the other known as the ‘“ Open Hearth Basic.” The 
former is made by the open hearth process from high-class hematite 
iron practically free from phosphorous ; and the latter by the same 
process from iron possessing an amount of that element which 
would produce cold shortness in the finished material if it were 
not eliminated in the furnaces during the process of manufacture. 
The former, or as it is frequently termed, open hearth steel made 
by the “Acid Process” is in the best practice, specified for boiler 
plates where steel is used, and steel produced by both methods 
is employed for bridges and works of that character. 


TESTs. 


The following are the tests usually required by some of the best 
known British engineers, for iron and steel for bridges, and steel 


for boilers. 


266 WILLIAM FIELD HOW. 


Iron for Bridge Work. 


With length of Plate. | Across the Plate. 
Stress per| Ultimate || Stress per| Ultimate 
sq. in. with-| Elongation |/sq.in. with-| Elongation 
outfracture| in 10”. outfracture| in 10”. 
Plates ... ose See ...| 22 tons | 10°/, || 18 toms) 
Angles, tees and flat bars ...) 23 tons Zhe 
Rivet and bolt iron ... .... 24 tons asp cips 


The iron plates and bars must also be capable of being bent 
cold, without signs of fracture, to an angle of forty-five degrees, 
the radius of the inner angle being not more than twice the thick- 
ness of the plate. The rivets must be capable of being bent 
double, when cold, without signs of fracture. 


Steel for Bridges. 
The steel for bridges must be manufactured by the open hearth 
process, and have an ultimate tensile strength of not less than 
thirty tons or more than thirty-three tons per square inch, with 


an elongation of at least twenty per cent. in eight inches. 


Strips cut lengthwise or crosswise, one and a-half inches wide, 
heated uniformly to alow cherry red, and cooled in water at 
eighty-two degrees Fahr. must stand bending in a press to a curve 
of which the inner radius is one and a-half times the thickness of 
the steel tested. 


Steel rivets must be capable of being bent double when cold, 
and also after having’ been heated to a low cherry red, and 
quenched in water, the water having a temperature of eighty-two 
degrees Fahr. 

Steel Plates for Bowlers. 

The steel plates for boiler shells are to be manufactured by the 
open hearth process from hematite ore, and must have an ultimate 
tensile strength of from twenty-six to twenty-nine tons per square 
inch, with an elongation of not less than twenty-five per cent. in 
eight inches. 


Strips cut lengthwise and crosswise, one and a-half inches wide, 
must stand being bent in a press to a curve of which the inner 


TREATMENT OF MANUFACTURED IRON AND STEEL. 267 


radius is one and a-half times the thickness of the plate, and 
similar pieces must stand the same test after having been heated 
uniformly to a low cherry red, and cooled in water having a 
temperature of eighty-two degrees Fahr. 


Some engineers, instead of the first bending test described, 
stipulate a ‘punch test,” and in the case of an ordinary locomo- 
tive boiler plate, require strips to be cut from it, three and a-half 
inches wide, having a five-eighth inch hole drilled in it equidistant 
from the three edges at one end, which must withstand being 
drifted to one and five-eighth inches without fracture. 


For steel boiler flues the same bending tests are required, but 
the ultimate tensile strength is kept between twenty-four and 
twenty-seven tons per square inch. 


The tests of iron for boilers are omitted, as the requirements of 
engineers, with regard to the strength, ductility, and brands of 
material used, vary considerably, but it may be mentioned that 
three classes of iron are frequently adopted, namely: “ Best 
Yorkshire,” for the furnaces, “ Flanging Plates,” for the ends, 


and a less expensive quality for the shells. 


Many locomotive boilers are still manufactured entirely of best 
Yorkshire iron, which material can certainly have the holes made 
in it by punching, and the forged portions can be safely dealt with 
by workmen who have not the special knowledge of the proper 
treatment required by steel during and after forging ; but this 
knowledge is now very general, and it is becoming the practice of 
most of the highest locomotive authorities to make boiler shells of 
mild steel, costing about one-half the amount of Yorkshire iron, 
and as it is at the same time, of a more uniformly strong character 
and free from laminations, it is believed, that in the near future, 
steel for locomotive boilers will be universally adopted. 


When specifying tests for material, it is most usual to state 
the “ultimate tensile strength” and “elongation ” required, but 
in some cases the “ tensile strength” and “reduction of area” are 
stipulated. It is not advisable to state the tensile strength per 


ii 3 bs 


268 ‘WILLIAM FIELD HOW. 


square inch and elongation, and also the reduction of area, as this 


only creates indecision in the minds of the inspecting officers. 


For instance, if any particular metal will withstand the required 
number of tons per square inch, and elongate the stipulated 
amount, it would be unwise to reject such iron or steel if it were 
not to give the required reduction of area. Yet this occasionally 
has to be done if the inspecting officer is not at liberty to exercise 
his own judgment, or cannot readily communicate with his 


principals. 


In dealing with the results of tests, engineers usually take the 
whole of the results into consideration, before accepting or reject- 
ing iron or steel, and their decision is guided by the purpose for 
which the material is to be used. 


As an instance ; if it be specified that certain bridge iron shall 
withstand a stress without fracture of twenty-two tons per square 
inch, and elongate ten per cent. in ten inches, they would not 
hesitate to accept it if the tests showed that the specimens broke 
under a stress of 21:5 tons and elongated fifteen per cent. in the 
ten inches. Yet this iron, which is really of a more reliable 
character than that stipulated for, would have to be condemned 
if the specification were literally adhered to. 


The test of tyres is also a case in point. These portions of a 
wheel are usually required to stand being deflected by blows from 
a falling weight until they are bent one-sixth of their internal 
diameter, and pieces cut from them are required to have a tensile 
strength of from forty five to forty-eight tons per square inch, and 
elongate not less than ten per cent. in two inches. Now, if the 
tyre deflects the required amount, surely this is a sufficient 
guarantee of its ductility, and it is exceedingly hard upon manu- 
facturers to have numbers of such tyres rejected simply because 
the required elongation has not been recorded by the tensile test- 
ing machine. There are many other instances of daily occurrence 
where material has to be condemned which capable supervising 


' TREATMENT OF MANUFACTURED IRON AND STEEL. 269 


officers know to be perfectly good and reliable, and suitable for 
the purpose intended. 


Where falling weight tests are not required, the elongation is, in 
the author’s opinion, the best criterion of the ductility of material, 
because the metal that has given a good extension generally shows 
that it must have stretched fairly over the whole length of the 
specimen before the “ yield” point was reached; whereas, a piece 
of an irregular character might have a soft place in it which would 
give a great reduction of area at the breaking point, but the other 
part of the bar might be hard. 


When tests are to be made from steel boiler plates the most 
strict specifications require six strips to be selected from the rolled 
steel before it is sheared to its required size, viz., three with and 
three across the leagth of the plate. Two of these, one with and 
the other across the length, are tested by tensile stresses, two by 
cold bending or some other experiment such as punching and 
drifting to ascertain the ductility, and the other two by bending 
cold after having been heated to a cherry red and quenched in 
water having a temperature of eighty-two degrees Fahr. Should 
the specimens so tested comply with the specification, the plate 
is accepted. 


This apparently large number of tests is insisted upon to pro- 
vide against the possibility of a brittle steel plate being used in 
the manufacture of a boiler, but from the material to be used for 
the manufacture of bridges, roofs, and work of that character, it 
is usual to test only a limited number of specimens taken from 
plates made from the same cast of metal. 


With regard to the specified tests for bridge plates ; the tensile 
specimens being cut from the plates and tested in the exact con- 
dition in which they are to be used, ensures the character of the 
metal being correctly ascertained as regards its ultimate strength 
and ductility. 

If all the strips were heated and quenched, and then tested, a 
plate that might have been worked when tao cold, viz., at a blue 


270 WILLIAM FIELD HOW. 


heat, would, by the heating and quenching process, become 
annealed, and after having been so treated, both tensile and 
bending tests would be satisfactory. 


If the plate be hard, a high tensile result and low elongation 
‘would be obtained and consequently show the material to be 
unsuitable for constructional works. 


Elastic Limit. 

When testing a specimen,: under a certain stress the metal will 
sensibly yield, and this “yield point” may, for all practical pur- 
poses, be considered to be the “Limit of Elasticity,” and is 
recorded as such by many experienced experimentalists ; but it is 
well known that the term “Limit of Elasticity” should be applied 
to the lowest stress to which a specimen can be subjected without 
creating a permanent set, and this is reached before the yield point. 


Material used for constructional purposes should have an elastic 
limit of at least twice the stress the member is designed to carry, 
but it has been found from experiments that if material is loaded 
frequently, its elastic limit and ultimate tensile strength are 
increased, and it is not, therefore, actually dangerous should the 
‘stresses occasionally exceed the original elastic limit of the material, 
but it is not advisable to so strain iron or steel, as by so doing, its 
‘ductility is decreased. 


Ultimate tensile strength and elongation appear to be sufficient 
recommendation of iron and steel for constructional purposes ; a 
high elastic limit can be obtained from hard and brittle material. 
In fact, the elastic limit varies with the treatment to which the 
material or specimens have been subjected before testing. 


Considerable inconvenience has been caused by some engineers 
adopting different standards of length in which to ascertain the 
elongation of specimens. Mr. David Kirkaldy, the pioneer of 
scientific mechanical testing, introduced the system of taking the 
elongation in a length of ten inches, and this was generally 
adopted until mild steel began to successfully compete with iron, 
when for some reason unknown to the author, eight. inehes — 


TREATMENT OF MANUFACTURED IRON AND STEEL. OFT 


became to be considered the correct length for a specimen of that 
material to be put under tensile stress. 


Some people do not understand that the length of the specimen 
is of the greatest importance in recording the extension, and omit 
to state the length in which the elongations have been taken. 


To obtain some idea of the difference in the percentages of 
elongation with specimens of various lengths, the author had 
samples cut from two bars of steel. From each of these bars, 
pieces were cut of suitable lengths to enable specimens to be turned 
from them, having lengths under tension of ten, eight, six, five 
and two inches, and the results are attached hereto. ach of 
the specimens were marked off in inches, and the percentage of 
elongation was taken in the total length and also in the two 
inches at the point of fracture, as per sketch. 


These results have been of use upon many occasions, but they 
can only be considered to give general information. To obtain 
very accurate and more reliable data, a series of such tests should 
be carried out; but, as indicated, they have proved of service 
where an elongation in a lengthof, say five inches, has been recorded, 
and it has been desired to obtain some idea of the elongation of 
similar metal in a length of eight inches. 


The author would suggest for the consideration of Professor 
Warren, who has such admirable testing plant at the University, 
the advisability of carrying out a number of experiments in this 
‘direction. 


It has been proved that when specimens of the same material 
are being tested, the percentage of elongation is exactly the same 
until the maximum load the sample will carry has been reached, 
no matter what the length may be. They then begin to fail and 
generally elongate at one point. It is due to this local elongation 


_ that the recorded results vary so much in the different lengths 
under stress. 


It will be noted that. the breaking strength of the specimens 
_ two inches long, was greater in both cases than in the other samples 


i «4 
\ ; ey 7 
- ‘ 


272 WILLIAM FIELD HOW. 


and that the elongation was less when it was taken in two inches 
than in the longer bars. These results surprised the author until 
it was explained to him that very short lengths of fair diameter, 
such as the samples referred to, invariably give higher tensile 
results than is the case with longer test pieces from the same 
material. ‘This is considered to be due to the close adjacent sides 
supporting the metal in the short samples, and it has been found 
that if holes be drilled in a straight line across a plate, the metal 
of which has a certain tensile strength, the strength of the plate 
across the holes is not reduced in proportion to the sectional area 
removed, but, owing to the fact referred to, is about ten per cent. 
greater. 


Owing to the circular form of tyres, it is not, in many cases, 
possible to machine pieces out of them that would permit of a 
greater length than two inches being under tension, and as the 
test specimens are usually -25 inch in area, the high tensile 
strength and low elongation recorded are no doubt different to 
that which would be obtained if longer lengths were possible, and 
one would naturally think this would be the case from the manner 
in which such tyres bend and stand shocks under the falling 
weight tests. 


As the tensile and bending qualities of iron and steel have a 
distinct relation to each other, engineers who have had practical 
experience in the testing and examination of material, can obtain 
a fairly good idea from the behaviour of the iron and steel when 
bent and from the appearance of the fracture, if it is likely to 
stand the specified tensile tests. Such bending tests afford a 
ready means of judging, at the site of delivery, if material 
supplied is equal to that ordered and suitable for the purpose 
intended. Bending tests should not be carried out by people 
inexperienced in the proper treatment of iron and mild steel. Such 
persons, through unreasonable treatment and faulty preparation . 
of specimens, cause the material to break when bent through very 


stnall angles; and again, it is possible by sharp and repeated 
blows to cause iron to break with a crystalline fracture, whereas, 


TREATMENT OF MANUFACTURED IRON AND STEEL. 273 


if it were treated more kindly, it would have a fibrous and satis- 


factory appearance. 


To show the different fractures of good, bad, and indifferent 
material, the author has had specimens placed upon the table for 
the inspection of those members who have not had opportunities 


of observing such fractures. 


It is occasionally desirable to obtain some idea of the quality of 
material, such as rolled joists used for building purposes, when it 
would be too costly and inconvenient to cut any of them for the 
purpose of obtaining specimens sufficiently large for tensile tests. 
In such cases it is recommended that some tests be made by bend- 
ing and breaking the corners of the top flanges, in the manner 
shown on some of the samples, and this would not usually interfere 
with the fixing of the girders, or impair their strength. Iron joists 
are frequently rolled from brittle and dangerous material, and it 
is particularly important to architects who use them to a very 
considerable extent, that such simple tests as have been described 
should be carried out. 


The author believes that, as a rule, architects do not take 
sufficient care in ascertaining the quality of the iron and steel of 
the girders they purchase, but rely upon the statements they receive 
regarding it from the importers. It is certain that they would 
be exceedingly cautious if they were aware of the very inferior 
character of some of the iron joists that are supplied, especially 
those made on the Continent of Europe. 


With regard to the bending tests of plates &c., required by the 
specifications, the engineers who carry out such tests usually pro- 
vide themselves with a sheet of paper upon which to place the 
specimen and scribe round it with a pencil directly signs of fracture 
are noticed. It is then usual to continue to bend the sample until 
the two halves are about to separate, when another scribing is 
taken within that first made, and thus a record of the bending tests 
is kept. 

R—July 5, 1893, 


274 WILLIAM FIELD HOW. 


Records of bending tests are, however, never so reliable as those 
made by an accurate tensile testing machine, where the treatment 
of the prepared samples cannot be varied as they may be by the 
different operators when the bending experiments are carried out. | 


Preparation of Test Specimens. 


Care is required in the preparation of specimens for testing 
purposes, and particular attention is given to the selection of 
samples from plates, bars, &c., to see that they are free from flaws. 
The selected pieces are then cut out by a parting tool, or, if 
more convenient, punched out, and the punched portions planed 
off about one quarter of an inch beyond the edge of the punched 
holes. This is especially necessary in dealing with steel plates. 


The samples should not be sheared from the plates, as it invari-- 
ably distorts the pieces and makes it necessary to straighten them 
before they can be tested; and although this straightening is of 
little moment in the case of bending tests, it is not advisable in 
any case to distort the material to be tested, by hammering it 


before the experiments cominence.. 


Specimens for tensile testing are most carefully prepared. The 
edges are usually milled, and when finished, no roughness is per- 
mitted to provide starting points for fractures. This is particularly 
avoided in the case of experiments with steel. The points between 
which the elongations are to be taken are of a very light character. 
When deep centre punch marks-are made in specimens of steel, 
they really constitute flaws. Not only should deep marks not be 
made in specimens for testing purposes, but brands of only the 
very lightest description should be made upon finished steel articles 


such as tyres, axles, &c. 


As the experiments are to ascertain the qualities of the steel 
proposed to be used in a structure, it should be tested exactly as 
it is cut from the material, and in the case of plates, flat bars, &., 
no planing of the surfaces or annealing is permitted. If the pieces 
are annealed the character of the material is altered, the tensile 


TREATMENT OF MANUFACTURED IRON AND STEEL. 275 


‘strength being reduced and the elongation increased. Consequently 
they would bend better than the plates from which they were cut, 
-and could not be a criterion of the material proposed to be used. 


For tensile tests it is usual to keep the sectional area of the 
sample as near a square inch as possible, but it is not advisable to 
‘test wide widths of thin plates &c., because the stress is seldom 
uniformly distributed over such specimens, and then fractures will 
‘first commence from one edge, unless special precautions be taken 
with the grips or other means employed to hold the sample. 


The usual method of fixing a specimen cut from a plate or bar 
‘an a tensile testing machine, is by means of two taper wedges 
provided with serrated teeth on the faces placed next to the 
_ specimen, and it is of great importance that these serrated wedg«s 
should be perfectly accurate and that the portions of the specimen 
they grip be quite parallel. Otherwise, a bending stress is thrown 
- upon the sample, one side of it will be strained to a greater extent 
than the other, and in such cases, it is natural to suppose that the 
fracture will first take place from the side subjected to the greater 
‘stress. Strips of plate to be subjected to bending tests, have the 
edges planed as previously mentioned, and the edges are carefully 
rounded at the corners. Ifthis removal of the angles is not carrie l 
out, cracking will commence at the sharp corners and rapidly 
extend across the pieces of plate, whereas the samples will bend 
through an angle of many more degrees if the edges are taken off. 


When in England, the author had brought before his notice 
‘some bending tests that were carried out upon a mild steel plute 
one and one-eighth inch thick. A specimen sheared from the 
plate broke like cast iron when bending was attempted, but a 
sample cut from the same plate bent in a most satisfactory manner 
after it had had its sheared edges planed off and the sharp corners 
rounded. 


With regard to the number of tests required, that is usually 
decided by the engineer. Ina light structure, composed of few 
bars and plates, the number would be limited, but in larger works 


276 WILLIAM FIELD HOW. 


where there are many similar members, a greater number of tests 

are made. It is not possible, in constructional work, to stipulate . 
the percentage of tests as is done in the case of tyres, axles, and 

such like details. 


Manufacture. 


Before the material is dispatched to the bridge yard, manu- 
facturers frequently arrange to have it inspected at the rolling 
mills by a reliable man who will carry out tests, and if it complies 
with the specification, he will carefully examine the plates &c, to 
see that they are free from flaws, that they have been carefully ~ 
and truly sheared, that their dimensions are correct, and that their 
weights do not exceed the permitted deviation, which is usually 
two and a-half per cent. above or below the calculated amounts. 
Payment is generally made upon these weights, unless some 


arrangements are made. 


The inspection to ascertain the weight of material is of impor- 
tance, because if the manufacturers are to be paid by weight and no 
estimated quantities are to be worked to, the plates are frequently 
rolled “ full,” the result being that the girders &c. made from them 
exceed the engineer’s estimates. This is anadvantagetothemanu- \ 
facturers if the actual weights are paid for, but a loss to them if 
only a small deviation from the estimated weights is permitted. 


The plates, with the results of the tests, are sent to the bridge 
manufacturer’s works, where other tests are usually required by 
the engineer to confirm those already recorded, and if the tests 
carried out at the rolling mills are confirmed, the manufacture of 
the work is allowed to proceed. 


Plates of large area are always slightly thicker at their centres 
than at their edges, owing to the bending of the rolls, and this is 
particularly noticed in thin plates where it is desirable to keep 
down the total weight of manufactured articles, such as gas 
holders for railway carriages, and at the same time ensure a 
maximum strength at the welded joints by keeping up the 
thickness of the edges. 


TREATMENT OF MANUFACTURED IRON AND STEEL. MET 


The chief officials in good firms are invariably anxious that no 
material shall leave their works that will not give perfect satisfac- 
tion and reflect credit upon the works over which they have charge; 
but the workmen, who would be blamed for turning out a quantity 


of faulty material, naturally endeavour to dispose of it when made, 
and it is, therefore, advisable to employ an inspector who has no 
connection with the works, and who is perfectly independent with 
regard to giving offence to any of the works contractors, and who 
will do his best to see that no faulty material leaves the rolling 
mills for his employers. 


Steel requires to be most rigidly examined for flaws, because, 
owing to its homogeneous character, a defect would cause a frac- 
ture in that metal which would only extend a short distance in 
iron. Steel is therefore rejected for defects that would be passable 
in iron. The harder the steel is, the more closely should the 
inspection for flaws be carried out, and in such articles as rails) 
where the steel has a breaking strength of about forty tons per 
square inch, they are not accepted if they have defects that have 
a sharp appearance or of such a form that would start a crack. 


All plates, bars, &c., that may have been bent in transit are 
straightened either by rolls or press. None of them should be 
warmed ; the smiths term this “taking the chill off,’ but by so 
raising iron or steel to what is termed the “blue heat,” about 
six hundred degrees Fahr. and then working it at that temperature 
the character of the material is altered and it becomes brittle. 
This is especially noticeable in steel. Again, iron and steel both 
deteriorate if heated to too great an extent, and if iron is made 
too hot and burnt, it becomes both “red short” and “cold short.” 
Steel is more easily injured when raised to a high temperature ; 
and the harder the steel the greater the injury; and not only 
does the raising of such material as tool steel to a high tempera- 
ture permanently alter its character and make it “cold short,” 
but if the heat be lower than the burning point and is main- 
tained for a considerable time, the same injury is effected. 


278 WILLIAM FIELD HOW. 


In high class bridge and boiler work, the plate edges are planed, 
and although this is not very necessary for wrought iron flange 
plates for bridges, yet it adds greatly to the appearance of a 
structure, and is usually specified when well finished work is. 
required. ; 


For bridges made of steel, it is of the greatest importance that. 
the plates and bars constituting the tension members should be: 
planed or have rolled edges; because such members, if left sheared, 
constitute a real weakness, and it would be far better to plane up 
any sheared edges that might otherwise exist and so slightly reduce 
the effective sectional area, than permit the sheared edges to 
remain, having starting points of rupture due to the slight initia] 
cracks caused by shearing, which are so serious to steel subject to 
tensional stresses. | 


It is usual to have all plate edges in a steel bridge planed, as. 
well as the butting surfaces ; but the planing of the longitudinal 
plates in the compression members is not of great importance. It 
is, however, invariably insisted upon for work of the best character 
on account of the improved appearance it gives. 


For built up iron girders used by architects, it is not necessary 
to have expense incurred in planing the plate edges, as such 
girders are seldom exposed to the sight; but if steel plates are 
used in their construction, it is of great importance to the strength 
of independent girders, that the edges of the bottom flanges should 
be planed, and if the girder be continuous, the edges of both top 
and bottom flange plates should be machined. 


For boilers, all plate edges are planed, whether the material be 
steel or iron; and when lap joints are employed, the edges have an 
angle of about seventy degrees, to enable the plates to be “fullered” 
both inside and outside, special attention being given to the inside. 


Caulking used to be adopted for completing joints in boilers, in 
which case a tool, somewhat similar in shape to a cold chisel, but 
instead of having a cutting edge, that end was made about one 
quarter inch deep and was driven into the edge of the overlapping 


TREATMENT OF MANUFACTURED IRON AND STEEL. 279 


plate of the boiler shell, closely against the outer surface of the 
adjacent shell plate, with the effect of temporarily stopping leaks, | 
but permanently separating the two plates between the rivets and 
edges. To provide against this defect, deep flat ended or deep 
convex ended tools are used, which, when driven against the planed 
edges of the plates, force the bottom surface of the outer plates to 
bear, within some little distance from the edge, against the adjacent 
ones, instead of tending to force them apart as is the case when 


the old fashioned caulking tool is used. 


Rivet Holes. | 

For cheap bridge work and ordinary builders’ girders built up 
of wrought iron plates, and wrought iron joists, or wrought iron 
plates and angles, the rivet holes are usually made by punching, 
and if carefully done the material is little injured ; but if the holes 
are carelessly made, then very rough treatment is required to 
enable the rivets to be passed through them. In such cases of care- 
less workmanship, the workmen have to use drifts having a long 
and acute taper, and the author has seen such drifts used; with 
satisfaction to the workmen; when they have been just able to see 
daylight through the holes in two or three thicknesses of plates. 


Punched holes should in all cases be marked off from carefully 
prepared templates, clamped over the plates or bars to be dealt 
with, and a centre punch used, the body having nearly the diameter 
of the hole in the template. Accurately punched holes are made by 
nipple punches, care being taken that the plates &c. are adjusted 
so that the projection or nipple, enters the centre punched holes in 
the plates. This system is adopted in the best works in England 
and on the Continent of Europe, where the work is treated with 
so much care, that the author has seen girders having as many as 
four thicknesses of five-eight inch plate and an angle iron, so truly 


punched that at first sight they appeared to have been drilled. 


The dies at the works referred to are carefully made and attended 
to, and have such little taper in them that the punchings are almost 
parallel, the taper being hardly noticeable with the callipers. 


Leal 
re 


280 WILLIAM FIELD HOW. 


Many manufacturers of rough girder work make a wooden tem- 
plate of doubtful accuracy, through which they make a circular 
white mark upon the plate or bar to be punched, and the material 
So marked is guided by a workman under the flat ended punch, 
and it depends upon the experience of the workman in adjusting 
the plate, if the punch makes the hole in the place required, or not. 
In such works no time is lost after punching one hole in throwing 
the punch out of gear and adjusting the plate for the next hole. 
The plate is simply moved forward, and if it is not in the right 
position when the punch comes down, the hole is made in an 


incorrect place. 


In steel plates all holes should be drilled, but if the steel be of 
a mild character, such as is used for constructional work, they may 
be accurately marked off, punched small in the manner recom- 
mended for iron plates, and then drilled out to the required finished 
sizes, the largest diameter of the punched holes being three-six- 
teenths of an inch less than the finished sizes. In steel of a harder 
character, such as is used for permanent way rails, drilling out of 
the solid should invariably be adopted. 


To roughly ascertain the effect of punching some of the New 
South Wales Government seventy-one and a-half pounds steel rails, 
the author had pieces, each six feet long, cut from the same rail. 
One of these pieces was tested as cut from the rail; the second 
piece had a one and one-eighth inch hole drilled through the centre 
of the web in a similar position to that occupied by a fishing hole ; 
and the third specimen had a hole of the same size and in a similar 
position punched through it. When these pieces were placed upon 
bearings three feet six inches apart, with the holes adjusted directly 
under the drop, the first and second pieces, being without hole 
and with hole drilled, respectively, withstood three blows from a 
ton weight falling six feet, followed by two twelve feet blows from | 
the same weight, and the deflections in each case were practically q 
the same; whereas, the punched specimen broke under the first 
blow and after the ton weight had fallen upon it from a height of 


only two feet. This experiment, which was carried out upon 


TREATMENT OF MANUFACTURED IRON AND STEEL. 281 


pieces cut from several rails and always with practically the same 
result, shows how dangerous it is to punch holes in any position 
in steel if it be at all hard. 


The falling weight test described—modified to suit varying 
sections—is invariably applied to rails, and is the most reliable 
that can be adopted to ascertain the capabilities of such material 
to withstand the jars and shocks to which it will be subjected 
when in use. The amount of deflection under the blows readily 
informs the inspector of the quality of the rolled steel, and if the 
deflection is too great, the steel is too soft and has inferior wear- 
ing properties. With tyres and axles, as their dimensions vary 
considerably, the hardness of the material is usually ascertained 
by carrying out tensile tests after the falling weight experiments | 
have been performed. Although these remarks relate to material 
that is not used in constructional work, the author has referred to 
them, as he thinks they may be of interest to some members. 


Reverting to constructional work ; in dealing with plates for 
boilers, after having been planed, they are bent by small increments 
at a time to the required curvature and not in one operation, as 
such treatment is unfair and injurious to the material. Small 
holes are then made to bolt the work together and the rivet holes 
drilled out of the solid and through the plates when coupled 
together. 


For wrought iron boiler shells, the plates are frequently punched 
before being bent, but this is not a good practice, as a flat place 
is formed at the ends of the plates due to the metal bending more 
readily at the punched holes, and the joints are not, in consequence 
so perfect as they would have been had the plates been bent before 
the holes were made. With regard to the flanged ends of boilers, 
the best practice is to form them by hydraulic pressure and to 
thoroughly anneal them after forging. This annealing is especially 
necessary if any of the forging &c. is done by hammer. Angle 
and tee stiffeners for girder work are also best manufactured if 
bent in presses or under a hammer having suitable dies. 


282 WILLIAM FIELD HOW. 


In dealing with large forgings, such as crank and propeller 
shafts, the plan now adopted in the largest English works is to 
use hydraulic squeezers, which takes the place of the hammer and 
treats the metal in a more satisfactory mamner. The effect of 
blows from a hammer upon a mass of metal such as a shaft, is felt 
principally upon the outer surface, and this is shown by the ends. 
of the shaft so forged being concave; but when such a shaft is 
forged by the hydraulic squeezers the effect is felt throughout the 
- whole mass, including the portion at the axis which is forced out- 
wards, and the ends of a shaft so forged are convex. 


The treatment of rolled steel by fire is avoided as much as 
possible, and angles, channels, tie bars, &c. for bridge and roof 
work, are cut to the required lengths by cold saws. When it is. 
necessary to weld and forge, the portions so treated are heated 
and allowed to cool gradually after the operation, otherwise, initial 
stresses might be set up in the metal and cause fractures. Many 
cases of failure of forged mild steel plates and steel forgings have 
occurred which seemed inexplicable at the time, but were ultimately 
traced to the worked pieces not having been carefully and uniformly 
annealed, after portions had been treated in the smithy. 


With iron, the treatment by fire is not so injurious; but the: 
appearance of a structure is improved if the ends of the bars are. 
cut off by a cold saw instead of by a smith, and it is frequently 
found that smithing in such cases is more costly, as bars are 
occasionally split and spoilt when cutting them by fire, and this is. 
especially the case when the material is ‘‘red short.” 


. Rivetting. 

Where possible, rivets are now put in by machines, in prefer-. 
ence to the older practice of hand rivetting. In nearly all cases. 
the latter have the best appearance, but they are not so effective, 
as they do not completely fill the holes. There are, however, many 
boiler makers who maintain that they can make tighter work by 
punching holes in the plates—arranging the larger ends of the 
holes outwards—and rivetting by hand ; but as most engineers now 


TREATMENT OF MANUFACTURED IRON AND STEEL. 283 


particularly require holes in boilers to be drilled, the hand rivetting | 
has, in nearly all cases, been superseded by hydraulic or steam 
rivetters. Many machine rivetters have been invented, but the 
majority of those in use are worked by hydraulic pressure and 
were invented by Mr. Tweddell. 

Before any rivetting is done, the drilled plates are separated and » 
the burrs removed. The plates are then drawn metal to metal by 
the free use of service bolts. If the work is not bolted together 
at every third or fourth hole, faulty rivets will result, and spaces . 
between the plates will exist for oxidation to take place. For 
boiler work the best rivetting machines are arranged to force the 
plates together before the rivets are closed, but the machines used 
for bridge work are not so designed. 


Mild steel rivets having a tensile strength of from twenty-four 
to twenty-seven tons per square inch are usually used where steel 
plates are adopted, but the author thinks that for boiler work, 
superior wrought iron rivets are preferable. The tensile strength, 
shearing resistance and ductility of such iron varies very slightly 
from the rivet steel referred to, and it is known that iron is not 
injured to the same extent as steel when it is worked at a low 
temperature. There is certainly some advantage with regard to 
first cost in favour of mild steel, and there is no reason why steel 
rivets for bridge and such like work should not be adopted. 


During rivetting, care is taken to heat the rivets in a clean fire 
and to knock them while held in the tongs, with the object of 
removing as much of the scale from them as possible. The rivet 
boy is instructed to do this. If this scale is not removed, the 
rivets, when put in place, will appear sound to the tap of the 
hammer, but if the head be cut off by a cold set, the resulting 
jarring will pulverise the cinder and oxidized surfaces, when the 
body can be easily pushed out. The rivets are well heated all 
over the shanks ; if this is not done and the ends only are made 
hot, the portions near the original heads will not fill the holes, even 
when put in by hydraulic machinery, and the rivets will appear 
to be loose, if those forged heads are tried by the hammer. 


ST ae 
™ " 
‘ | r) 
‘ 


284 WILLIAM FIELD HOW. 


To obtain sound rivetting when hydraulic machinery is employed, 
the rivets are the exact length required to fill the holes and form 
the correctly shaped heads. If they are too short, mere buttons 
are formed instead of heads, and the bodies of the rivets are not 
forced out laterally—the consequence being loose rivets. When 
the rivets have been correctly made, it is usual, in boiler work, to 
keep the pressure on them until they have become slightly cold. 


In some well known firms steam rivetting for boilers is still 
employed, and the manufacturers maintain that by so closing the 
rivets, they ensure tighter work than could be obtained from 
hydraulic pressure, the blows from the steam rivetter being sharp 
and decided, whereas the hydraulic machine forms the rivet more 
slowly. 


Before concluding these remarks about rivetting, the author 
desires to state that he is satisfied too much attention is usually 
given by inspectors to the perfect shape and appearance of rivets. 
It is of course, advisable to insist upon manufacturers paying 
particular attention to the neatness and finish of the rivets, but 
practical engineers would prefer sound and reliable work to that 
having a neat appearance but being of a less substantial character. 
‘When it is remembered that rivets in the flange plates of a bridge 
are mostly in shear, and that many of those put in principally 
serve the purpose of keeping the plates together and weather- 
tight, it will be acknowledged that, to cut out a rivet in a tension 
member of a bridge which has been put in by hydraulic machinery, 
only serves to injure the plate around the rivet hole, and that, 
when such a rivet has been replaced, the actual strength of the 
work is seriously impaired by the injury done to the plates when 
the rivet was being removed. Again, when work has been rivetted 


by hand, in many cases it would be better to leave a few loose 
rivets in place, rather than cut them out and loosen the adjacent 
ones during the operation, and this nearly always happens. 
In manufacturing girders of small spans, it is usual to completely 
erect them at the manufacturer’s works. The main girders, cross 
girders, &c., being in position, every possible care is taken that 


TREATMENT OF MANUFACTURED IRON AND STEEL. 285 


the holes in the joints are perfect and that there will be no 
trouble in re-erecting the structure at the site it is to occupy. 
If this is not done, complaints may be made by those who have 
charge of the completion of the bridge, which complaints are in 
many cases justified, but are seldom reasonable if the work has 
been carefully coupled together before leaving the maker’s hands. 


Manufactured Work. 

When the work has been manufactured and passed for accuracy 
of dimensions W&c., it should, if possible, have all the black oxide 
scale scraped or knocked off and be thoroughly cleaned before 
any paint is placed upon it. Many people stipulate that the 
plates shall be coated with oil before being manufactured into 
bridge work, &c., but in the author’s opinion this is a mistake 
unless such plates be exposed to severe oxidation during a long 
transit, such as from Great Britain to Australia. If the scale is 
not removed, no matter how good the paint may be, or how care- 
fully the work may be coated with it, some galvanic action will 
take place between the black oxide and the iren or steel, and the 
former will peel off, carrying with it all protecting coating that 
may be upon its surface. The importance of carefully removing 
this coating of oxide from iron and steel work manufactured in 
Great Britain for exportation, was mentioned to the author many 
years ago by our past Chairman of the Engineering Section of this 
Society, Mr. Darley, and it was found that there were fewer com- 
plaints made about faultily painted exported work, when it was 
allowed to weather during manufacture, until it could be effectively 
scraped before being painted. 


When the completed work has been temporarily erected at the 
manufacturer’s yard and carefully drawn together at the joints by 
correctly shaped drifts having but a slight taper at the points, the 
remainder of the body being parallel, well fitting service bolts are 
then used and all the work properly coupled up. Some specifica- 
tions stipulate that no drifting will be allowed, but practical men 
know that a, little drifting to bring the work properly together is 
very necessary, and in some cases good work could not readily be 


5 « 


286 WILLIAM FIELD HOW. 


ensured if this were not done. Engineers occasionally require 
bridges to be tested by loading them at the manufacturer’s works, ° 
in which case, turned bolts to fit the rivet holes must be used ; 
but such testing is very seldom insisted upon. ay ¥ 


When erected on the maker’s premises, the work is carefully 
painted, and in the case of bridges, considerable facilities are 
afforded to those who have the handling of the work at the site of 
delivery, if the main girders are painted different colours, and the 
portions of the cross girders adjacent to them also coated with the 
same shades. In lattice bridges, it is advisable to paint the bottom 
portions of the bars, and the webs of the booms to which they are 
fixed, black, upon which the stencil marks show up clearly ; and 
in addition to the stencil marks, the figures and letters are also 
stamped into the work, to provide against any painted marks being 
obliterated in transit. Plans showing the colouring and marking 
of the work are also supplied for use of the erectors. 

In concluding this paper the author would point out that to 
ensure good workmanship and material, it is advisable to place 
contracts in the hands of reliable firms. If they are let to manu- 
facturers who have not a high reputation, who will, if possible, — 
scamp their work and evade portions of the specification, then it 
is impossible to obtain reliable and uniform material and work- 
manship, no matter how capable and strict the supervising officers 


may be. 


Results of some experiments made upon five pieces of Spike’ 
Steel, three-quarter inch diameter, cut from one bar, and five pieces 
of Bolt Steel, seven-eighths inch diameter, cut from one bar. 


Date. 


3) 


3) 


| Test No. 


Ore to be 


Cup 0 bo 


THE ORIGIN OF MOSS GOLD. 


Original Cae diy 

Dimensions. | Specimen 
—____——|_ under 
Diam.| Area. | Stress. 

sqr.in 

*564| °25 |10inches 
564) °25 Sis; 
SO) or | Or.” 3, 
"564| °25 ORT As 
"564 °25 ai ees 
ade 2 NON be. 
"564 "25 Sings 
"564 °20 Ghiray 
564 “25 By) sare 
564| -25 12. ,, 


Breaking 
Strength 


per 


Square 


Inch. 


32 tons 


32 
32 
32 
34 


40 
40 
40 
40 
41 


33 


3) 


33 


Elongation. 
Reduc- 
On In tion 
Speci- two of 
men. | inches, | Area. 


per ct.|per ct.|per ct. 


240 | 40°0 | 64°7 
2550) | 39°08 26273 
25°0 | 37-7 | 61:9 
26:0 | 38:0 | 60°6 
32°0 | 32°0 | 60:0 
20°5 | 33°0 | 57:4 
20°0 | 35°0 | 57°4 
22°71 | 340 | 58-1 
22°4 | 33°5 | 56°9 
30°0 | 30°0 | 53°6 


L—_~-—~ U—-~-— 


287 


Remarks. 


‘reqourvip ,£ ‘xeyouterp ,F 
“ToaIg Wom Jo ‘Toa7g eATdg Jo 


Ivq oo WOAJ ABQ oO WoOAT 
qno stieuttloadg + yno sueuttoedg 


Each of the specimens tested was marked off in inches, and the 


elongation per cent. taken in the total length and in the two inches 


at point of fracture, as per above sketch. 


ON THE ORIGIN OF MOSS GOLD. 


By A. LiIvERSIDGE, M.A., F.R.S., 
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. 


[With Plates XVI.- XVII.] 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 6, 1893. ] 


In 1876 I had the privilege to read a paper before this Society 

“On the Formation of Moss Gold and Silver” (Jour. Roy. Soc. | 
N.S. Wales, 1876, Vol. x., p. 125); since that time the matter 
has had to be more or less laid aside ; but as opportunity offered, 


the investigation as to the cause of the moss like form of gold 


met with during the roasting of auriferous mispickel has been 


proceeded with, and in this note the results are given of additional 


experiments which appear to afford a solution as to the peculiar 


forms assumed by the gold, described in the above mentioned 


paper. 


288 : A. LIVERSIDGE. 


Without going into details, it may be mentioned that the paper 
referred to contained the results of experiments made with the 
object of ascertaining the condition in which the gold existed in 
certain rich specimens of mispickel, obtained from a mine near 
Orange in New South Wales ; these specimens were roasted in a 
muffle so as to drive off the arsenic and sulphur, and with the 
intention of afterwards dissolving away the iron oxide with hydro- 
chloric acid so as to ascertain whether the gold was crystallized ; 
on removing the specimens from the muffle, exudations of ochre 
coloured matter were seen on their surfaces. These exudations on 
closer examination were found to be gold in cauliflower-like 
aggregations, and under the microscope these were seen to be | 
made up of spicules and spirals of gold [See Plates 16, 17] (after- 
wards proved to contain some arsenic), the temperature of the 
muffle was kept between the fusing points of tin and zine, so as 
to make quite certain that it was never hot enough to fuse gold. 


The residual iron oxide never showed any traces of fusion. 


For these and other reasons I concluded, in my former paper, 
that the gold had not been fused ; my later experiments, however, 
show that although the temperature was insufficient to fuse gold, 
it was quite high enough to melt the very fusible compound of 
gold and arsenic, which was either present in the specimens under 


examination or formed during the roasting. 


In the Mineralogical Magazine for 1877 and following years, 
there are several communications from Mr. T. A. R. Readwin 
upon the formation of moss gold. He is of opinion that metallic 
growths of gold, silver, electrum and native copper take place at 
ordinary temperatures, and cites a number of cases of specimens in 
his cabinets which appear to have ‘“‘ grown ” since they have been 
in his possession. In the case of easily oxidisable sulphides rich 
in gold, this is probably not impossible. 

In the former paper an experiment is given in which gold was 
fused in a crucible with mispickel under borax ; on roasting the 
auriferous button moss gold was obtained as from the natural 
specimens but of much smaller dimensions. The following 


oy 


THE ORIGIN OF MOSS GOLD. 289 


additional experiments have been made which more conclusively 
prove that mispickel, iron pyrites and other sulphides take up 


_ gold when fused with it, and in the case of the mispickel give up 


the gold, on roasting, in moss-like forms. 


The following experiments with gold and various sulphides were 
made in 1877; in each case the sulphide was loosely mixed with 
the gold (sovereign gold roiled into a thin ribbon and cut up into 
minute squares) or the gold was only laid on the top and the 
whole covered with a layer of borax and fused. 


iption and weight Weight ot Percentage of Weight of gold | Percentage of 
Baiada in grammes. | coe te gold aged: Raced ee goldin Teenie: 
30 Mispickel .... 3°25 10°80 ¢*) none 3°60 @) 
30 o Ste 1:20 4-00 1:05 not assayed 
30 8 Bi. 90 3°00 °75() | not assayed 
25 i ra 50 2°00 0B} °80 () 
30 a oe °30 1:00 "15(6) | not assayed 
30 Iron Pyrites ... 3°25 10°80 none ~ 12°25 
25 Ss a “50 2°00 39 4.4, (2) 
80 =) o Lily 1°46 none 80 (4) 
80 Copper Pyrites Le, 1°46 none 1:00 
80 Antimonite ... EZ 1°46 none 4°42 
80 Galena Getty RET 1°46 none 1:20 


The regulus of mispickel in each case showed a crystalline 
structure on fracture, and the fracture under the microscope, was 
seen to be studded with gold; there was also some moss gold over 
the surface of the button and in the cavities. On roasting, the 
mispickel regulus always yielded moss gold. 


©) A white brittle button separated during fusion, containing 
streaks of gold—weight ‘3 grammes. 

©) Precipitated spongy gold was used in this case. 

“) Yellow malleable button. 

©) Very brittle, intersected with a white crystalline vein. 

€°) Colour nearly white. 


In some cases the percentage of gold found in the product or 
regulus was greater than that added ; this, of course, was due to 
a part of the original mineral having been removed in the slag or 
volatilized. Moss gold was only obtained from the regulus of 
mispickel, none of the other sulphides yielded any. 

S—Sept. 6, 1893, 


a 5% 
? 
oti"s 
. . 


290 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


The above experiments however only show that an artificial 
mixture of gold and mispickel will yield moss gold. 


The next series of experiments was upon the preparation of 
sulpharsenide and arsenide of gold and the production of moss 


gold from them. 


Gold, Arsenic and Sulphur. 

Experiment 1.—A solution was made of sodium chloraurate and 
sodium arsenite and hydrogen sulphide passed ; the precipitate 
of the mixed sulphides of arsenic and gold and free sulphur, was 
dried and roasted, a cauliflower-like residue of gold was left similar 
to that exuded by auriferous mispickel, which under the microscope 
was seen to contain a few fine filaments. 

Experiment 2.—The experiment was repeated with the same 
result. 

Experiment 3.—Some of the mixed sulphide of gold and arsenic 
was compressed into small cylinders, by means of a steel diamond 
mortar and two of these were carefully roasted at the mouth of 
the muffle. In both cases the gold was left as a porous mass with 
sponge like perforations running through it in all directions— 


with filaments of gold, visible under the microscope. 


Gold and Sulphur. 
Experiment 4.—Some experiments were made in 1878, upon 
gold sulphide obtained by passing hydrogen sulphide through 
the solution of the sodium chloraurate, this sulphide on roasting 
yielded ordinary dull brown gold, but in parts it appeared to be 
more or less crystallized. This experiment was repeated more 
than once with the like results. ; 


Experiments with Gold and Arsenic. 

In making the arsenide of gold, in the first experiments in glass 
tubes, the gold foil was placed in a porcelain boat and the vapour 
of arsenic driven over it, but it was afterwards found that the 
boat could be dispensed with. A piece of hard glass three-quarter 
inch* combustion tubing was closed at one end and some metallic 


THE ORIGIN OF MOSS GOLD. 291 


arsenic filled in to about one inch, then a plug of asbestos and 
upon this the spirals of gold foil were placed, the tube was held in 
an inclined position in a retort stand and the arsenic volatilized 
by a bunsen flame, when the air had been displaced by the arsenic 
vapour the gold was heated to redness by the blowpipe; it quickly 
began to fuse and to run down upon the asbestos. (The blowpipe 
flame was quite incapable of fusing the gold by itself in the tube, 
even when the blast was kept up for an hour or so and the tube 
softened out of shape, but in the arsenic vapour the gold ran down 
with great readiness at a dull red heat.) The compound of gold 
and arsenic formed is very fusible and remains liquid for some 
little time after removal from the flame and when it has much 
cooled down ; the globules are large and much rounded so that its 
Surface tension is great, like that of the liquid alloy of potassium 
and sodium, in fact the appearance of the fluid arsenide reminded 
me very much of that alloy, except that the arsenide is ofa 
yellow colour. 


The gold arsenide solidifies suddenly on cooling (superfusion) 
and sometimes spirts a good deal, the small projected globules 
attach themselves to the glass tube, but can be readily removed. 
The cooled mass is often coarsely crystallized on the surface, 
when it presents a bright lustrous gold colour and appearance, but 
underneath it is seen to be honeycombed in every direction. In 
the cavities the microscope shows spirals and spiculee of gold or 
of the gold-like arsenide. It is very brittle and breaks readily ; 
inside it is crystalline and may be cavernous, in places there are 
patches of a bright metallic grey colour. This may be due to 
the presence of free arsenic or to a grey alloy, but I have not yet 
had time to determine this. In other cases the resulting com- 
pound has the dull ochre colour of moss of precipitated gold. 


The alloy first formed by simple fusion seems to greedily absorb 
more arsenic, 2.¢., when a piece of arsenic is pushed up against it; 
the alloy wets the arsenic and on slowly withdrawing the arsenic 
the alloy follows it like a streak of water, for from one quarter 
to half an inch. The apparent absorption of the arsenic may be 


| eee th, 
| , 


292 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


partly due to the arsenic being volatilized by contact with the 
fluid alloy. See experiment No. 9. 


Experiment 5.—In the next experiments for the formation of 
the gold arsenide, arsenic was filled intoa hard glass three-quarter 
inch tube to the depth of one to one and a half inch and a plug of 
glass wool placed upon it, the gold plate or foil was next dropped 
in, followed by another plug of glass wool, the tube was then 
rendered vacuous, sealed and heated to redness in a combustion 
furnace. On cooling, the spirals of gold were seen to have fused 
down into one large globule one-third inch across, scattered about 
were a number of small globules which were flattened and attached 
to the glass tubing, extending over two inches of the length of the 
tube, this scattering seems to have taken place on the solidifica- 
tion of the large globule and was probably due to the expulsion 
of an excess of arsenic. This experiment was repeated with a 
similar result ; in the next experiment mispickel was used as the 
source of arsenic. On cupellation the first globule yielded 90:367% 
of gold and 9-64 of arsenic (by difference). ‘The globule of gold 
arsenide from the mispickel yielded only 1:82'% of arsenic. 


It was afterwards found that the combination could be brought 
about by heating the arsenic and gold, separated by an asbestos 
plug, in an ordinary small hard,glass tube of one-quarter inch bore, 
in the first trial the alloy melted down into a pear shaped globule, 
which was very brittle, and crystalline. On cupellation, the loss 
was equal to 554% of arsenic. 


Experiment 6.—Next °411 g. of pure gold was treated asin the 
last experiment, on removal from the lamp after I thought it 
had solidified, the globule still remained fluid, for an air bubble was . 
seen to slowly make its way through the globule, (as in a tube | 
containing mercury) the globule solidified immediately, but the 
channel caused by the bubble was left. In this channel, minute 
spicules and spiral filaments of gold (moss gold) were seen when 


examined under the microscope. 


THE ORIGIN OF MOSS GOLD. 293 


The globule was weighed and found to have taken up 6:167 of 
arsenic, the amount was really larger but some of the alloy was 
lost by spirting on solidification. On cupellation of part of this 
globule the loss was equal to 7:5 of arsenic. 


Afterwards larger amounts of gold were converted into arsenide 
in this way. On introducing cold gold into the arsenic vapour it 
became coated with a grey deposit of metallic arsenic, but as it 
became hotter the gold recovered its usual colour and lustre, but 
as soon as the gold became just red hot it rapidly fused down at 
the edges, just as when a strip of lead is held in a flame. In 
dealing with this larger quantity of gold in the large combustion 
tubing (three-quarter inch diameter) it was found necessary to 


use a gas blowpipe as a bunsen was not quite sufficient. 


Experiment 7.—In this case the globule from 1:3627 g. of gold 
was shaken just as it was about to solidify, the whole suddenly 
became solid, with strongly marked crystalline surface and of a 
very bright lustrous gold colour, but cavernous at the base and 
exceedingly brittle. On cupellation it lost weight equal to 4°617/ 
arsenic. 


Experiment 8.—On roasting and fusing a portion of the alloy 
obtained in this experiment ina muffle without cupellation it lost 
weight = 3°297/ of arsenic, although it showed, when fractured, 


grey specks of either arsenic or a grey alloy. 


Lxperrment 9.—In this case aftera globule of the arsenide had 
been formed, fresh supplies of arsenic were pushed down against 
the molten alloy (the supply of arsenic vapour from the bottom 
of the tube being still kept up) when it was apparently rapidly 
absorbed by the fluid alloy, the alloy “ wetted ” the plate of arsenic 
at once, and when the plate was drawn slowly backwards followed 
it as a streak (like water) to about one-third inch in distance. 


As the quantity of arsenic increased the alloy became less fluid 
and less brilliant in lustre; whether much more arsenic was really 
absorbed and whether the arsenic was only volatilized by contact 
with the fluid alloy is difficult to tell. On solidifying, the alloy 


294 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


seems to expel arsenic vapour and this condenses on the inside of 
the tube, but it is difficult to watch the operation because, the 
atmosphere of arsenic vapour used for producing the alloy also 
condenses on the sides of the tube soon after its removal from 
the lamp. 

This specimen on cooling was of a dull brown colour just like 
‘the moss gold from mispickel, very hollow and blown out into a 
secondary globule on one side, the cavities contained spicules and 
spirals of moss gold. 

It was very brittle and on cutting it with a sharp chisel more 
or less powder was produced, the fracture was coarsely crystalline 
and of a dull gold colour, which under the microscope was seen to 
be intermingled with grey. On cupellation it lost weight = 3:27 
of arsenic. 

ELaxpervment 10.—In this case a weight of 7°3674 g. of fine gold 
was alloyed with arsenic; on the gold first fusing down or “ burn- 
ing” in the arsenic vapour a very fusible alloy was formed, but 
this like the last became less fusible as more arsenic (solid) was. 
pushed into it (the arsenic had been previously sublimed in glass. 
tubes for this purpose) and on cooling it lost its metallic lustre,. 
became covered with cauliflower-like growths and spirted a good 
deal ; the cavities contained the usual spicules and spirals of moss. 
gold. On cupellation the loss was equal to only 2°87 of arsenic. 


EHapervment 11.—This arsenide was of the colour and lustre of. 
freshly cast bronze. Loss=5:9%/ As. on cupellation. 
Experiment 12.—Also of a bronze colour. Loss= 4:9 of As. 


Experiment 13.—Of a bright gold colour and matt lustre ; 
this had formed directly in contact with the arsenic and had 
solidified on the arsenic itself—the alloy was pitted in places and — 
had a very strong resemblance to a nugget. Its fracture showed 
a few grey streaks mixed with the gold, on cupellation it lost 
weight =9-97 arsenic. 

Experiment 14.—The moss gold obtained by roasting the 
auriferous mispickel from the New Reform Mine, Lucknow, was 
cupelled with lead when 2°3668 grammes lost :057 or 1-987. 


THE ORIGIN OF MOSS GOLD. 295 


From the foregoing experiments it will be seen that the amount 
of arsenic taken up by the gold varies very much: thus the alloy 
from Experiment 5 (from arsenic and gold) lost 9:647 arsenic, 
and from mispickel and gold 1°82 of arsenic. 


Experiment 6 (from arsenic and gold) lost 7:57 of arsenic 


a Gs ‘3 . 1 ORO Z is 
‘s 8 " “ fe Gera. Fs 
0° ) ” ” ” 3°27 ” 
s, 10 as ., by acre " 
me ial - Fa ce OO) *; 
nf 12 , . un ays * 
er 13 - 3 eee aed. ae 
+ 14 5 5 se lleSlo/, be 


The lowest containing only about 2’/ and the highest nearly 
10% of arsenic. 


While the arsenic is hot it feels sticky when touched with an 
iron wire and the fragments cohere to a certain extent. 


The excess of arsenic left in the lower part of the tube as well 
as the sublimed arsenic shows well developed crystals. 


Experiment 15.—Precipitated gold was mixed with powdered 
purified arsenic in about equal bulks, and compressed into small 
cylinders by means of a diamond mortar and then roasted slowly 
in a muffle ; the gold was left as a porous cylinder, but with 
excrescences of moss gold in places and lining the cavities. 


Experiment 16.—Moss gold was also obtained by roasting a 
cylinder composed of mispickel 1 g. and ‘75.g. of precipitated gold. 


Eaperiment 17.—Gold :75 g. arsenic ‘5 g. and sulphur °5 g. 
were compressed, on roasting, it at once fused down into an 
irregular cake with a very cavernous and spongy structure ; the 
surface was like that of moss gold and under the microscope the 
usual spicules and spirals were seen. The cupel used as a support 
was stained of a purple tint and this penetrated to nearly one- 
eighth of an inch deep, just as if the gold had been in solution. 


296 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


_ Lxperiment 18.—To ascertain if finely divided gold would burn 
in arsenic vapour, I introduced some. gold leaf; it combined in 
much the same way,as the foil, but more quickly. 


Experiment 19.—Gold leaf introduced into the vapour of 
sulphur was apparently unchanged. 


Baperiment 20.—Thin sheet sold, thinner than that nied for 
making the gold arsenide was heated in a piece of combustion 
tubing for nearly an hour, with the hottest flame obtainable with 
the blowpipe lamp used for making the experiments on gold and 
‘arsenic, but without fusing it or causing any signs of fusion to 
appear on its edges, hence there is no possibility of the gold 
having been fused in previous cases, 1.¢., its fusion was due to 
the formation of a fusible compound with the arsenic. This test 


was repeated with the same result in both cases. 


Experiment 21.—Some precipitated gold was made into an 
amalgam and roasted at a low temperature in the front part of a 
gas muifle, the gold was left as an ochre coloured lustreless cauli- 
flower-like mass ; under the microscope, however, it is seen to 
have the usual colour and lustre of metallic gold ; the innumerable 
bright points which reflect the light being too small to be seen by 
the unassisted eye ; the general appearance is much like that of 
the excrescences of gold from roasted auriferous mispickel ; but 
the spiral and moss like growths are almost absent, although a 
number of hair like filaments of gold are seen in the cavities and 
recesses of the mass. | 


When the pieces of amalgam were roasted at a high temperature 
they fused and coalesced, the appearance was rougher from the 
boiling and more rapid expulsion of the mercury, but the number 
of capillary growths and filaments was not increased. Doubtless 
most or all of the compounds of gold with volatile elements would 
yield moss gold on roasting. 


Compounds of gold and arsenic do not appear to be mentioned 
in modern English works of reference upon chemistry. In 
Aiken’s Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy, p. 537,_London 


THE ORIGIN OF MOSS GOLD. 297 


1807, there is an account of Hatchett’s experiments upon them 
from Phil. Trans. 1803, as follows :— 


“Tf a small crucible containing gold be inserted in a larger one 
containing arsenic and an inverted crucible be luted on by way of 
a cover and the apparatus be heated strongly in a wind furnace, 
the arsenic will be raised in vapour, and the gold being fused in 
the arsenicated atmosphere, will combine with a small portion of 
it. The alloy hence resulting is of a grey colour, a coarse granular 


fracture, and very brittle. 


“‘ A heat equal to that of melting gold is by no means necessary 
to effect this combination, for if a plate of gold is merely brought 
to a full read heat in an atmosphere loaded with arsenic, the latter 
will unite superficially with the gold, and the alloy hence resulting 
being very fusive, will trickle in drops from the plate, till the 
whole of it is thus arsenicated. The alloy is scarcely .decompos- 
able by mere heat, and at a high temperature the arsenic that is 
driven off, carries a considerable proportion of gold with it.” 


An abstract of the above appears in Gmelin’s Handbook of 
Chemistry, Vol. vi., p. 238, London 1852, after which such com- 
pounds are ignored by more modern English writers, except a 
bare statement in Watt’s Dictionary of Chemistry Vol. 1, 1872, 
that gold combines with arsenic. 


In Brough Smyth’s Gold Fields and Mineral Districts of 
Victoria, Melbourne 1869, there is a statement that a quantity 
of arsenical gold was found by some Chinamen in the rubbish from 
disused roasting kilns at Stawell in Victoria, this was examined 
by Mr. Newbery, who stated that the gold had probably taken up 
the arsenic (when the latter was in a state of vapour) during the 


roasting of arsenical ores, as native arsenides of gold were unknown 
in Victoria. 


_A. Deschamps (Comptes Rendus lxxxvi., 1022-3 and 1065-6), 
states that Au, As. is formed asa dark red powder when metallic 
arsenic is placed in a solution of gold chloride: By fusion with 


298 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


potassium cyanide a yellow metallic button of Au, As,, sp. gr.16°2,. 
is obtained. 


The above references were made after I had completed the: 
experiments given in this paper, and they are quoted merely as. 
of historical interest. 


Asa result of the foregoing experiments and observations I 
conclude that the peculiar form of the moss gold is due to the 
formation of a fusible compound with arsenic, which behaves in. 
much the same way as fused bituminous coal—to which I referred: 
in my first paper (Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. x., 1876, p. 125) as. 
follows :—‘‘ The general appearance of these peculiar cauliflower- 
like excrescences of gold would at first sight tend to give one the: 
impression that they had been formed in somewhat the same way 
as the blebs and excrescences often observed on coke, which are: 
so familiar to us in a fire made of the so-called bituminous coal,. 
1.e., caking coal, in which we constantly see portions of the coal! 
fuse and swell up into fantastic blebs and bladders until the 
imprisoned gas breaks through the outer thin skin and inflames: 
with a brilliant light. After the more combustible portions have 
been volatilized and consumed a hard clinkery and more or less. 
cauliflower-like excrescence is left.” In the cavities of such cinder’ 


we may often see spicules and acicular threads of coke. 


In that paper I came to the conclusion that the moss like forms: 
of gold could not be due to fusion, because the experiments were: 
conducted at temperatures far below the fusing point of gold or 
mispickel, but my later investigations show that the moss gold. 
is due to the fusion of the very fusible gold arsenide and to the: 
escape of arsenic from it, blowing it up into excrescences, spicules: 
and spiral threads, and that the crystallised appearance in places 
is due to the ready crystallization of the alloy on solidification. | 


In the auriferous mispickel the gold appears to be in the free J 
condition, but to be converted into gold arsenide during the roast- 
ing, and it is from this gold arsenide that the moss gold is produced. 


CONDITION OF GOLD IN QUARTZ AND CALCITE VEINS. 299 


ON THE CONDITION OF GOLD IN QUARTZ ANB 
CALCITE VEINS. 


By A. LIVERSIDGE, M.A., F.R.S., 
Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 6, 1893.] 


THE condition in which gold occurs in veins and other matrices 
has long been a matter of interest to me, and from time to time 
I have made occasional experiments, as opportunity offered 
between other duties, to ascertain whether the gold, scattered 
through quartz veins and other gangues, is crystallised or not. 


When the gold occurs in a soft matrix like calcite or serpentine 
it very often is crystallised, so also when it occurs in cavities, 
such as those left by the removal of iron pyrites, but it is rather 
difficult at times to decide whether gold present in a hard matrix 
is or is not crystallised. Toanswer the question one cannot crush 
the specimen under a hammer or in a mortar, because this treat- 
ment would destroy the form of the gold as well as remove the 
enclosing matrix. 


In order to remove the gangue, usually quartz, the auriferous 
specimens were placed in the form of fragments, as large as 
possible, in a platinum crucible, or dish according to size and con- 
dition, and acted upon by the ordinary solution of hydrofluoric 
acid, until all the quartz or gangue was either removed, or so 
much disintegrated as to be easily removed or washed away from 


the gold. 


A piece of the porous white siliceous matrix resembling geysirité 
from Mount Morgan was attacked by hydrofluoric acid, but only 
one speck of gold was left, and that was not visible untif after the 
residue from the mineral had been crushed in an agate mortar. 


On treating the stalactites of auriferous brown hematite from 
Mount Morgan with hydrochloric acid, as described in a paper 


Bee hh oi 
te f 
r - 
, 


_ 


300 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, December 2, 1891 
(On some New South Wales and other Minerals, Note No. 6), 
a residue of silica was left. In some cases the residue consisted 
of gelatinous silica, in others of porous quartz resembling the so- 
called geysirite, although before such treatment in most cases 
no quartz was visible nor was. there anything to indicate its 
presence ; the original colour of the stalactites being dark brown ~ 
to lustrous black, as in the typical brown hematite, neither did 


the fracture reveal the presence of silica. 


As the solution went on and the iron oxide was removed the 
stalactites gradually presented an outline in soft transparent 
gelatinous silica, this increases until finally nothing but gelatinous 
silica, or a mixture of it and ordinary silica, was left. No gold 
was visible in the residue, either in the first or second sample 


tried, even after crushing the residue in an agate mortar. 


In a third specimen the silica also was got rid of, by hydro- 
fluoric acid ; on grinding the residue, mainly insoluble iron oxide, 
in an agate mortar, no traces of gold could be seen. This appears 
to indicate that the particular specimens were either free from 
gold, most unlikely, or that owing to its finely divided condition 
it had floated away during the treatment. 


When acted upon by hydrofluoric acid the stalactitic brown 
hematite soon acquired a white appearance, and the various 
fragments became more or less cemented together into rounded 
masses, with numerous vent holes, through which the volatile 
silicon fluoride, acid and steam escaped, so that they looked like 
many a New Zealand Hot Spring in miniature. The quartz is 
rendered soft and friable long before it is removed by the hydro- 


fluoric acid. 


A fourth specimen left a residue of very finely divided gold, 
but without any recognisable crystalline form. A fifth specimen ; 
left the gold as a dull brown powder, j 

. 


A rich specimen of gold quartz from New Caledonia Reef, : 


Queensland, was treated in the same way ‘when a considerable 


CONDITION OF GOLD IN QUARTZ AND CALCITE VEINS. 301 


amount of dull brown gold was left; but with no traces of 
crystallisation. 


A specimen of quartz from Armageddon Reef, Gilbert River, 
Queensland, showing ‘‘ spider leg” gold, was treated with hydro- 
fluoric acid to remove the quartz; the gold set free was seen to 
consist of striated wire-like forms and of cavernous octohedrons 
joined together into chains. 


An exceedingly rich specimen of water worn quartz and gold, 
containing more gold than quartz which was thought might show 
the gold crystallized, was next treated, but after removal of the 
quartz, the gold, although presenting a very bright and lustrous 
appearance did not show any recognisable crystalline form, it and 
the quartz had apparently solidified together and neither had 
been free to crystallise. Several other specimens were examined, 


but in none was any distinct crystalline form recognisable. 


The gold set free from vein quartz by hydrofluoric acid shows 
no sign of fusion (the old theory that the quartz of veins had 
originally been in a molten condition and had been ejected from 
below into fissures is of course nowadays no longer held) neither 
does it as a rule show any well marked cavities or in other favour- 


able condition for assuming such forms. 


It usually presents the appearance of irregular films, plates, 
threads and masses which are more or less connected together, 
sometimes so closely, that when the quartz is wholly removed, a 
rough spongy or cavernous mass of gold is left retaining more or 
less completely the outlines possessed by the fragment of auriferous 
quartz before it was acted upon by the acid. 


A specimen of the auriferous mispickel in calcite, from Lucknow, 
weighing about three ounces, was treated with hydrochloric acid 
to dissolve away the calcite ; the residue consisted of mispickel, 
quartz, and a white asbestiform mineral, the latter was not pre- 
viously visible; in addition to the more massive pieces thin plates 
of mispickel were left, and these had apparently surrounded 
crystals of calcite since some of them were arranged so as. to form 


; 
« 
ss 
' 
= 


302 A. LIVERSIDGE. | : 


hollow rhombohedrons, some of the rhombohedrons were cut in 
yhalf by diagonal films of mispickel. 

On treating these plates with nitric acid to see if they contained 
_any free gold, they were in some cases found to consist of quartz, 
merely coated with mispickel. In this instance no free gold was 
yleft, neither by the calcite nor by the mispickel. 

Another piece of the auriferous mispickel in calcite from Luck- 
now, was roasted and yielded large excrescences of moss gold, this 
“was removed and the residue of iron oxide, lime, silica and unde- 
composed mispickel was treated with hydrochloric acid until only 
some silica and a little gold were left. The gold was very finely 
_divided and floated readily on water, but appeared as if some- 
. what crystallised. 

The calcite from another specimen, but unroasted, was removed 
- by hydrochloric acid, and a small amount of fine free gold was 
, left together with some powdery mispickel and silica which had 
. been enclosed within the calcite—under the microscope the gold 
_-was seen to be more or less crystallised. 

In the rich gold calcite specimens from the above and other 
- New South Wales mines, as well as those from Gympie, Queens- 
| land, the gold can be seen to be crystallised, so also in the serpentine 
_ from Gundagai and Lucknow, and some of the clear auriferous 
_ quartz from New Zealand, but in the majority of cases, for I have 
only quoted a few out of numerous trials, the gold embedded in 

massive quartz, is remarkably free from any traces of crystalline 
_ form, and the larger the fragments of gold the less crystalline form 
_ does it present. 

A splinter of gold with octohedral faces on both ends, enclosed 
in a small rock crystal is stated by Selwyn and Ulrich (Phys. 
. Geog. Geol. and Mineralogy of Victoria, 1866, p. 43) to have 
been obtained from the M’Ivor Gold Field, together with other 
2 erystallised specimens of quartz containing non-crystallised gold. | 

Crystallised gold is not usually met with in the quartz of the 
_ reef itself, but in the upper portions of the ferruginous and argil- 
4 laceous casing of the reef and in the detritus near its outcrop. 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. 303 


Some alluvial gold which I obtained on the spot at Fairfield, 
New England, N.S.W. was examined; on removing the fine sand 
from this by washing, the gold under the microscope did not look 
waterworn but obscurely crystallised, a more or less complete 
.octohedral face being occasionally seen. The gold was obtained 
from a spot close to the reef, and had evidently not travelled 
many feet. 


The really good crystals of gold all appear to have formed in 
what are now cavities, usually left by the removal of iron pyrites, 
or else in very soft matrices like iron oxides, clay, calcite, and 
serpentine as already mentioned. 


ON THE ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. 


By A. LIVERSIDGE, M.A., F.B.S. 
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 6, 1893. | 


From time to time various theories have been put forth to account 
for the existence of alluvial gold and nuggets, i.e., other than the 
dld and generally accepted one, viz., that such gold has been 
derived or set free from mineral veins and rocks by the ordinary 
processes of disintegration and denudation. 


The one first propounded by Mr. A. R. C. Selwyn, c.M.G., F.R.S., 
when Government Geologist to Victoria, has always interested 
me, and within the last two years I have been able to make some 
experiments bearing upon the matter, but before stating the 
xesults I will refer briefly to some of the theories above referred to. 


Simpson Davison advanced a theory (The Discovery and 


Geognosy of Gold Deposits in Australia, p. 132, London 1860)— 
“that alluvial or placer deposit gold has been distributed and 


304 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


deposited horizontally by means of an igneous liquid or perishable 
lava, and that quartz veins as well as some other dykes traversing 
constants had been the fissures of discharge,—the only unchanged 
existing solid remains of the ejected matter being gold, quartz, 
and some few other minerals besides clays and ferruginous earth ;” 
he advanced the theory because alluvial or placer deposit gold has 
often a fused appearance, and the metallic grains frequently 
present ragged and irregular surfaces, such as must have been 
destroyed by abrasion. He also gives other reasons, but they 
are equally valueless and unimportant. 


Mr. C. S. Wilkinson, F.G.s., formerly Government Geologist of 
New South Wales, refers in a paper read before the Royal Society 
of Victoria, 11 Sept. 1866 On the Theory of the Formation of Gold 
Nuggets in the Drift, p. 11, to Selwyn’s hypothesis viz. :—‘ that 
nuggets may have been formed, and generally that particles of 
alluvial gold may gradually increase in size through the deposition 
of metallic gold (analogous to the electroplating process), from the 
meteoric waters which circulate through the drifts, and which 
must have been, during the time of our extensive basaltic eruptions 
of a thermal, and probably highly saline, character, favourable to 
their carrying gold in solution,” and states that “ Daintree had on 
one occasion prepared for photographic use a solution of chloride 
of gold, leaving in it a small piece of metallic gold undissolved. 
Accidentally some extraneous substance, supposed to be a piece 
of cork, had fallen into the solution, decomposing it, and causing 
the gold to precipitate, which deposited in the metallic state, as. 
in the electroplating process, around the small piece of undissolved 
gold, increasing it in size to two or three times its original dimen- 
sions.” Wilkinson then made certain experiments to test 
Daintree’s theory. ‘‘ Using the most convenient salt of gold, the 
terchloride, and employing wood as the decomposing agent, in 
order to imitate as closely as possible the organic matter supposed 
to decompose the solution circulating through the drift, I first 
immersed a piece of cubic iron pyrites taken from the coal forma- 
tion of Cape Otway, and therefore less likely to contain gold than 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. 305 


other pyrites. This specimen (No. 1) was kept in a dilute solution 
for about three weeks and is completely covered with a bright 
film of gold.” - 


He also used galena, copper, and arsenical pyrites, antimony 
(ce., antimonite ?), molybdenite, zinc blende and wolfram, with 
similar results. Brown iron ore only gave a deposit of gold powder. 
He found that when iron pyrites was tried with metallic copper, 
zine and iron, the gold was only deposited as a fine powder at the 
bottom of the vessel, and came to the conclusion that organic 
matter was necessary to form a coherent coating of gold on the 
nucleus, for without the presence of wood, or similar organic 
matter, he found that the six sulphides were unaltered. 


in his second experiment with iron pyrites, he found that the 
gold was deposited on it in a mammillary form, analogous to that 
presented by the surface of nuggets. 


To sum up Wilkinson’s paper, his points are 1° that gold is 
deposited upon sulphides in the presence of organic matter ; 2° 
that the organic matter is essential ; 3° that the coating is mam- 
millary in some cases ; 4° that gold is probably present in solution 
in mineral waters; 5° that nuggets are purer than vein gold and 
that this may be due to the nuggets having been deposited on situ 
from a solution of gold. 


The next to take up the subject was Mr. J. Cosmo Newbery 
in a paper On the introduction of Gold to, and the formation of 
Nuggets in, the Auriferous Drifts (Trans. Roy. Soc. of Victoria, 
1868, p. 52). In this he admits that some nuggets and alluvial 
gold may be derived from the denudation of reefs, but points out 
that the largest masses are sometimes found at great distances 
from the reefs and in the sand overlying the gravel, both of 
which are inexplicable when the very great specific gravity of 
gold is taken into account. He also states that the presence 
of gold in pyrites which has replaced the roots, branches and 
stems of recent trees, is a proof of the existence of gold in 
meteoric waters of the Tertiary Times. 


T—Sept. 6, 1893. 


L bale aot 
‘ j a me. 
- 
5 
a] 


306 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


He quotes Selwyn’s hypothesis, and Selwyn and Ulrich( Physical 
Geography, Geology, and Mineralogy of Victoria, 1866) to the 
effect that all the large nuggets have been found on the western 
gold fields where extensive basaltic eruptions have taken place, 
while on the eastern and northern fields, where basaltic rocks are 
wanting or only of limited extent, the gold is usually fine and 
nuggets of more than one ounce are rare. He also states that 
Bischof has found gold sulphide to be soluble in pure water, and 
he has suggested that it may occur in that form in meteoric 


waters. | 

Newbery dissolved some gold sulphide in an alkaline bicarbonate 
and found that when a cube of pyrites and a chip of wood were 
introduced that small irregular grains of gold were deposited, and 
states that the gold is not deposited without the organic matter 
(ze. the wood). 

Newbery repeated and confirmed Wilkinson’s experiments. 
Newbery points out that there is little proof in nature of pyrites 
having acted as a nucleus; it carries gold both internally and 
attached externally, but we do not meet with gilded pyrites such 
as are obtained in laboratory experiments, and that in nature the 


two appear to have been deposited together. 


Newbery, out of one hundred samples of pyrites, found none 
with any coating of gold such as is obtained experimentally, but 
it was present in irregular grains and small octohedral crystals; 
in exceptional cases pieces of gold were found projecting, but all 
proved that the pyrites had not formed a nucleus for the gold 
but the reverse has been the case in the majority of instances, 7.e., 
the gold has been deposited first ; and he suggests that the gold 
may have been deposited first in the drift wood, as seen when 
organic matter, flies, &c., fall into a gold solution, and the pyrites 


afterwards deposited around it. 


He also refers (Laboratory Report, Melbourne, 1876) to Dain- 
tree’s discovery- of an enlarged fragment of gold in a bottle 
containing chloride of gold, and states that ‘“‘ Ulrich, who was 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. 307 


present when Daintree discovered the enlarged piece of gold, says 
that the original piece was a small fragment which remained 
undissolved after making some chloride and the bottle was closed 


with a cork, when again observed the solution was colourless and 


the fragment of gold of such a size that it could not be removed 


from the bottle through the narrow neck.” 


Newbery, like Skey, found that hammered pieces of gold did 
not increase in size, but he had little doubt of others with a rough 
or natural surface doing so. 


Mr. Newbery was followed by Mr. W. Skey, F.c.s., Analyst to 
the Geological Survey of New Zealand, ina paper On the Reduction 
of Certain Metals from their Solutions by Metallic Sulphides, and 
the relation of this to the.occurrence of such Metals in a Native State. 


' (Trans. N. Z. Inst., 1870,. p. 225), Mr. Skey also repeated 


Wilkinson’s experiments and obtained the deposits of gold on 
various sulphides and arsenides, and further found that the pres- 
ence of organic matter is quite unnecessary for bringing about the 
deposition of gold upon the above minerals. He also found that 
silver nitrate and acetate, and the salts of one or more of the 
platinum group of metals, are reduced by the metallic sulphides 
and arsenides. He points out that the metallic sulphides possess 
much greater reducing power than organic matter, and that a 
single grain of iron pyrites will reduce 8% grains of gold. And 


that although organic matter may have had a share in the reduction 


_of gold, he is of opinion that the greater portion of the deposits— 


especially the deep seated ones—have been due to the deoxidising 
effects of pyritous minerals. 


In a succeeding paper, On the Electro-motive Power of Metallic 
Sulphides (Trans. N. Z. Inst., Nov. 12, 1870, p. 232), Mr. Skey 
describes experiments which he made to show that when such 
sulphides as pyrites and galena are placed in dilute acids or saline 
solutions and connected by a platinum wire, the current generated 
is sufficient to throw down gold in separate vessel from its chloride. 
He points out from these experiments and Mr. Fox’s statements 


‘ 


308 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


as to the existence of currents of electricity in the earth’s crust 
that each pyritous vein or mass with its surrounding walls and 
exciting solutions may constitute a true voltaic pair on a grand 
scale. 

A third paper by Mr. Skey is entitled, On the Mode of Pro- 
ducing Auriferous Alloys by Wet Processes. (Trans. N. Z. Inst. 
1872, p. 370). He states, amongst other matters, “that when 
chloride of gold is added to an alkaline argentiferous solution of 
this nature (silver chloride in alkaline chlorides ; silver ehloride 
in either acid or neutral solutions is not reduced by iron pyrites,) 
such mixed solution is capable of depositing the metals contained 
in it in the form of coherent alloys upon metallic sulphides.” Also 
that such alloys can be formed by voltaic action. Further “that 
as the water permeating rocks is usually alkaline it seems probable 
that native alloys of gold and silver have been deposited from 
alkaline solutions by the metallic sulphides.” 


He further remarks, that many substances will reduce gold from 
solution, but the only common ones likely to occur in the interior 
of rocks are ferrous sulphate, organic matter and the metallic 
sulphides, these also reduce metallic silver from certain of its 
solutions, but only the sulphides will reduce the two metals 


simultaneously and throw them down in coherent forms. 


Mr. Skey continued his investigations and published still further 
results in the following paper—Critical Notes upon the Alleged 
Nuclear Action of Gold upon Gold reduced from Solution by Organic 
Matter (Trans. N. Z. Inst. 1872, pp. 372-5.) In this paper Mr. 
Skey gives the results of his attempts to confirm Daintree’s and 
Wilkinson’s experiment, but, as he says, unsuccessfully; he 
accordingly describes minutely the methods which he adopted, and 
found that when a weighed piece of sheet gold was placed in a 
dilute solution of sodium chloraurate with organic matter until 
all the gold was precipitated, that the piece of gold only mereased 
in weight -0005 of a gramme, and by calculation he found that 
no more gold in proportion was deposited upon the gold plate than 
upon the sides and bottom of the glass vessel, and even the surface 


——— = 7 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. 309 


of the liquid itself—the experiment was repeated four times. He 
points out that the conditions in Daintree’s accidental result are 
so vague and uncertain that it is impossible to credit the organic 
matter with producing the phenomena described. Neither the 
volume nor the weight of the undissolved gold was taken, hence 
he considers that the statement that after some time the fragment 
of gold had increased in size is of but little value, as it depended 
entirely upon the eye memory of the original size of the gold 


particle, and an ocular estimate of its increased dimensions. 


In his next communication, On the Formation of Gold Nuggets 
in Drift. (Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 
Oct. 23, 1872—Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. v. for 1872, pp. 377 - 383). 
Mr. Skey says, “ we cannot avoid the conclusion that gold 1s now 
being deposited and aggregated in many of our drifts, and that 
such depositions have been going on from remotest times.” He 
thinks that this gold is derived from the metal disseminated 
through slate, sandstone or schist rocks rather than from that of 
our reefs, and that we may reasonably suppose it is present as 
sulphide and is brought into solution by alkaline sulphides from 
which it is again eventually redeposited as nuggets etc., by the 
reducing effects of metallic sulphides—a mass of iron pyrites only 
two pounds in weight being sufficient to cause the deposition of a 
nugget such as the “ Welcome” weighing one hundred and eighty- 
four pounds troy. 


Sir Rod. J. Murchison (Siluria, 5th Edition, 1872, p. 465) after 
referring to Mr. A. C. Selwyn’s suggested explanation as to the 
formation of nuggets, and to Mr. Wilkinson’s experiments, says 
that he ‘ prefers to remain in his old belief, that the large nuggets 
found in the drift are simply the reliquiz of the chief masses of 
gold which once occupied the uppermost parts of the reefs, and 
that like the blocks of many an ancient conglomerate, they have 
been swept from the hilltops into adjacent valleys by former great 
rushes of water.” 

Mr. Brough Smyth, F.¢.s., in his work on The Gold Fields and 

Mineral Statistics of Victoria, 1869, p. 361, discusses the origin 


310 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


of nuggets and points out that most of the large nuggets have had 
a great quantity of quartz adhering to them or intermixed with 
them, clearly indicating that the nuggets must have come from a 
quartz reef, or else the gold and quartz must both have been 
deposited together from meteoric water in the drift. 


In Mr. W. Birkmyre’s list of nuggets quoted by Mr. Brough 
Smyth, he says of the Welcome nugget, weight one hundred and 
eighty-four pounds nine ounces (Troy) that it was apparently 
water worn and contained about ten pounds of quartz, clay and 
oxide of iron. 


The Blanche Barkley which weighed one hundred and forty-five 
pounds three ounces, apparently contained two pounds of quartz, 
clay and oxide of iron. 


The next in his list weighed one hundred and thirty-four pounds 
eleven ounces, contained dark coloured quartz. 


In fact he mentions the association of quartz with nearly all 
the very large nuggets, and expressly states that many of the. 
smaller ones were free from quartz; as we might naturally expect. 


Brough Smyth remarks that, ‘“‘ much stress is laid on the fact 
that nuggets are sometimes found at a considerable distance from 
a quartz reef”; but it may be, that the reef from which the nugget 
has been set free may have been completely denuded away, its 
matrix need not necessarily have been the nearest now existing 
reef. He quotes Ulrich’s remarks in support of Selwyn’s 
hypothesis of the formation of gold nuggets im sifw in alluvial 
deposits: ( Notes on the Physical Geography, Geology and Mineralogy. 
of Victoria by Alfred R. C. Selwyn and Geo. Ulrich, Melbourne, 
1866, p. 43), but points out that if such is the case in the present 
day, then the older sedimentary rocks ought from the greater 
lapse of time to contain large masses of gold. Moreover large 
nuggets are not confined to deep leads, but many have been found 
only a few inches below the surface. He also says that the state- 
ment that all the large nuggets have been found on the western 
gold fields where basaltic eruptions have been prevalent is errone- 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. SLE 


ous, many large nuggets have been found remote from basaltic 
areas, and Mr. Birkmyre’s list shows that the fields most remote 
from basaltic areas have produced the most large nuggets; in 
Gippsland if not large they are numerous. 


Mr. G. Attwood in a paper on Gold from Guayra, Venezuela, 
S. America—(Journ. Chem. Soc. London, 1879, p. 427-9), con- 
cludes, from an examination of one particular specimen, that gold 
nuggets do gradually increase in size owing to the accumulation 
of fresh particles of finely precipitated gold. 


Prof. Whitney, in. a paper—TZhe Auriferous Gravels of the 
Sierra Nevada of California, Cambridge, U.S.A., 1880.—says 
that “it does appear as if there was some truth in the idea that 
the finding of large pieces of gold in the gravel is not justified by 
what we see of the occurrence of the metal in the quartz. It is 
certain, at all events, that the form of the ordinary nugget is 
something different from that which is offered by the gold as 
originally deposited. In quartz it is either quite invisible or else 
it is scaly, foliated, filamentous, arborescent, or crystalline, quite 
unlike the rounded and smooth or flattened pieces met with in 
alluvial deposits.” He, however, points out that this difference 
could be produced by attrition, and he thinks it highly improb- 
able that masses of gold in gravel could be enlarged by any 


chemical influence. 


The bark of some of the tree trunks found buried in the blue 
gravel (Cal.) is largely replaced by iron pyrites and this is rich in 
gold, ‘hence we cannot deny that some gold has been deposited 
in the placers from solution, but this certainly does not include 
the nuggets and gold dust.” He also says, “‘if the gold of placers 
were deposited from solution, we should necessarily find much of it 
crystallized and forming strings and sheets running through the 
porous material; whereas, as a matter of fact, crystals are never 
found in placer gold, nor are sheets or threads. Scales, grains, 


pebble-like nodules, round battered masses, these are what we 
find.” 


a” *'* 
’? 
4 
“a 
; é : 


Prof. J. 8. Newberry, in a paper—On the Genesis and Distri- 
bution of Gold (Sch. of Mines Quarterly, 111., New York, 1881), 
does not support Selwyn’s hypothesis. He points out that a mass 


og A. LIVERSIDGE. 


of vein gold was obtained, weighing ninety-five and a half pounds, 
and originally one hundred and forty pounds, from the Monumental 
Mine, Sierra Buttes, Cal., which proves that large masses do occur 


in veins as well as in the form of nuggets. 


He thinks that the proportion of large masses from veins is 
quite equal to that from placers or alluvial deposits. The smaller 
proportion of silver in alluvial gold, he thinks, is accounted for 
by the greater solubility of silver in various solutions, and its 
consequent removal just as in the process of “pickling” by 
jewellers. 

Other “nuggets” from veins might be cited ¢.g., a mass of gold 
and quartz celebrated. as Dr. Kerr’s ‘“‘ hundred weight of gold ” 
was found in 1851 in the Meroo or Louisa Creek, River Turon, 
N.S.W., at a place now known as Hargraves. Although in three 
pieces when discovered, it apparently had formed one mass ; the 
three pieces weighed one and three-quarter hundred weight and 
yielded one hundred and six pounds troy of gold. Another mass 
of gold and quartz which yielded one hundred and twenty pounds 
of gold on being pounded with a hammer was found at Burrandong 
near Orange, in New South Wales, in 1858. Some very large 
masses of gold were found in Beyers and Holtermann’s quartz 
reef at Hill End, N.S.W. From ten tons of quartz 102 ewt. of 
gold were said to have been obtained. (A. Liversidge—Minerals 


of V. S. Wales, p. 21, London 1888). 


Walter B. Devereux, E.M., in a paper—On the occurrence of 
Gold in Potsdam Formation, Black Hills, Dakota (Trans. Am. 
Inst, Mining Engineers, 1881, p. 465), states that careful observa- 
tion in the field and consideration of the facts have led him to 
reject the theory that the gold has been deposited in the con- 
glomerates from solution, and he regards it as a purely mechanical 
constituent; but states, p. 471, that ‘the larger the grain of the 
alluvial gold the greater the amount of silver it contains.” 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. oe 


Prof. Egleston, in his work upon Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, 
and Mercury in the United States (New York, 1887, Vol. 11., p. 57) 
takes up the question of the origin of nuggets, and quotes a letter 
from Mr. Selwyn, 28th March, 1882, in which Mr. Selwyn stands 
by his original hypothesis as follows :—‘“ The cause (7.e. of nuggets) 
was the percolation through the gold bearing strata of very large 
quantities of saline and acid thermal waters, during the period of 
great volcanic activity, which produced the basalts. This action 
accompanied, but to a great extent succeeded, the phenomena 
which produced the present placer deposits. This gold from 
meteoric waters deposited on that already in the sands, produced 
the nuggets. He further states that his opinion is confirmed by 
the fact that large nuggets only are found in the western gold 
fields, as at Ballaarat, Daisy Hill, &c., where immense basaltic 
eruptions had taken place all over the district. In the eastern 
and northern districts, as Gippsland, Ovens, &c., where streams 
of basalt occur only to a very limited extent, or are altogether 
absent, the gold is generally very fine, and nuggets over one ounce 
in weight are of the greatest rarity.” Brough Smyth, however, 
states otherwise (see p. 311). 


Prof. Egleston urges that in cases where the ‘gold does come 
from the destruction of veins, the surfaces are rounded and worn 
smooth.” .. . “This is in entire contradiction to the mammillary 
structure of the nuggets.” . . . They would have been water worn 
on the outside, and the cavities “‘ would have been in the condition 
in which they left the vein, and the edges of any crystals found 
there would have been sharp; while in the nuggets the mammillary 
form exists even where crystals or the commencement of crystallisa- 
tion is observed, the edges of the crystals are very often blunted 
or rounded, showing both deposition and solution on these edges.” 


Egleston also urges, as others have done, that if the gold had 
come from the eroded rocks it should have the same composition 
as that of the veins of the district in which it is found ; whereas 
he says it is well known that vein gold is usually poorer than the 
alluvial gold of the same district, e.g , 


314 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


— CALIFORNIA AUSTRALIA TRANSYLVANIA Nevapa 
Nuggets ........ 800 to 980| 9925 to 966 ps ee 5 
Weiss iene 730 to 860 AES 600 333 to 554 


Egleston states, ‘“‘ that the violence of the old placer currents 
was very much greater than that of the ordinary streams of these 
days,” and that ‘‘if this were the whole process and no further 
action had taken place, the gold would have been found in the 
comminuted condition exclusively.” Further “that, gold is, 
however, also found as nuggets, and in small particles in rocks 
which have never been disturbed from their original positions, but 
which have been decomposed to a considerable depth and it then 
has the same mammillary form, occupying positions which make 
it evident that it must have been formed in situ, and never have 
undergone any abrasive action. The nugget found in 1828 in 
Cabarrus Co. N.C., which weighed thirty-seven pounds, and 
also the one found in the valley of Taschku Targanka near Miask 
in Siberia, which weighed ninety-six pounds were both found under 
such circumstances in a decomposed dioritic rock. In some few 
cases it has been definitely ascertained that the gold has been 
dissolved and precipitated in the decomposed rocks, for it has 
penetrated only just so far as the decomposition has allowed it, 
the yield in gold ceasing entirely at the point where the rock 
allowed no further filtration; while in other rocks of a more 
porous nature in the same district the gold has penetrated to a 


depth not yet ascertained.” 


‘There is a tradition prevalent in all the shallow placer gold 
mines of the south, and in those of some other districts, to the 
effect that gold grows from the seed gold which is not extracted, 
so that every few years the tails of the old mines are reworked, 
generally with a profit ; the quantity separated each time, accord- 
ing to the local tradition, being in proportion to the length of 
time the material has remained undisturbed.” This admits of an 
easy explanation, although Prof. Egleston does not offer one, viz., 
that the gold is, of course, not wholly removed by the ordinary 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. 315 


processes of extraction, and some, although a smaller amount, is 
almost certain to be obtained by each successive treatment, more- 
over the material becomes more broken up by the further handling 
and weathering, and more gold is thus set free both mechanically 
and probably by chemical changes also. 


He then cites, page 64, experiments of his own similar to 
Wilkinson’s, Newbery’s, and many others, to show that gold is 
precipitated from its solution as chloride by petroleum, cork, peat, 
leather, leaves, &c. The petroleum threw down long crystals of 
gold resembling Chester’s hexagonal crystals, and the peat a 


mammillary mass resembling the form of nuggets. 


He then tried, p. 65, the solubility of gold in solutions of salts ; 
ammonium sulphate and chloride, potassium chloride and bromide 
placed in sealed tubes with spongy gold for eight months gave no 
reaction ; on heating them for five hours at 150° to 200° ©. only 
the potassium bromide gave a reaction. 


Pure sponge gold was sealed up for three months with ammon- 
ium sulphide with no reaction; but both potassium and sodium 
sulphides gave black precipitates and a strong reaction for gold 
was given by the: liquid in each case; the ammonium sulphide 
heated for six and a-half hours at 145° to 180° C. was unchanged 
but reacted strongly for gold ; the solution of potassium sulphide 
also reacted and the glass was much attacked, further there wasa 
black precipitate of gold ; the sodium sulphide acted much more 
feebly. Other salts and solvents were used but with no very 
striking results. 


He states, p. 72, that, ‘‘the same conditions which cause the 
solution of the gold in certain cases cause also the solution of the 
silica.” And ‘many of the causes which produce the precipitation 
of the gold would also cause the reduction of soluble sulphates to 
insoluble sulphides, the gold being retained within the mass. This. 
would account for the almost constant presence of gold in pyrites.” 


“No single agent is so powerful a solvent of gold as chlorine. 
Very few drainage waters are free from some compound of it, and 


316 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


no soil is without the nitrogenous materials necessary to set the 
chlorine free, and therefore capable of attacking the gold and 
rendering it soluble.” . . . . ‘‘The readiness of filtration through 
the relatively easily permeated gravel causes the gold to precipitate 
so rapidly that there is no time for any but a mammillary deposit, 
which in vein deposits the extreme slowness of the deposition 
allows the gold to assume the crystalline shape.” 


Melville Attwood, E.M., in a paper—On the Source or Origin of 
Gold found in Lodes, Veins, or Deposits (Report of the State 
Mineralogist of California, 1884, Vol. vir1., p. 773) quotes that 
‘M. Laur (On the Origin and Distribution of Gold in California, 
communicated to the Academy of Sciences, Paris) mentions having 
found metallic gold in deposits, evidently derived from some hot 
springs.” 

M. A. Daubrée, in his Les eaux souterraines a Pepoque actualle 
(Paris, 1887, p. 33) says :—‘“ Plusieurs géologiques (MM. J. P. 
Laur, A. Phillips, et Egleston) ou cru reconnaitre qu’en Californie 
de Vor se dépose encore actuellement, particulierement dans des 
graviers. On prétend aussi avoir trouvé ce metal dans l’eau de 
Loueche et plus récemment, d’apres Gotll, dans eau de Gieshiibl 
et dans celle de Carlsbad.” 

Posepny Zur Genesis der Metallseifen (Cisterr. Zeits. f. Berg. 
und Huttenwesen. 1887, xxxv.) is of opinion that the formation 
of large masses of gold in the vein are more easily accounted for 
than in alluvial deposits. 


EK. Cohen—On the Genesis of Alluvial Gold (Jahr. f. Min., 1889, 
i, Ref. 439-440 from Mit. Ver. f. Neuvorpommern u. Riigen, 19, 
198) is of opinion that the greater part of alluvial gold is derived 
by the disintegration of older deposits, but that separation from 
solution also occurs in a subordinate manner. | 

Mr. H. P. Washburn in a paper entitled—A Theory on the 
formation of Gold into Specks and Nuggets (Trans. N.Z. Inst., 
1889, p. 400) opposes the hypothesis that nuggets have been 
formed tn situ in alluvial deposits. 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. S17 


Composition of Vein and Alluvial Gold, 


In the preceding references there are several statements as to 
the greater purity of alluvial gold over vein gold, and this is by 
many assumed to be a proof that the nuggets and other forms of 
alluvial gold have had a different origin to the vein gold and that 
- the alluvial gold has been deposited in the way suggested by 
Selwyn and other writers.. 


If we examine some of the assays of vein and alluvial gold, we 
shall see that there are differences but that they are not very 
material, and further the vein gold is sometimes richer than the 


drift gold. 
Selwyn and Ulrich (P.G. G. and Min. of Vict., 1866) p. 42, 


refer to the greater richness of alluvial gold. 


D.C. Davis, F.4.s.—Metalliferous Minerals and Mining ( London, 
1880, p. 50) in speaking of “the gold bearing drift of the Sierra 
Nevada says, the particles of gold are found of larger size and 
contain more silver at the bottom than at the top of the ancient 
drift, and are worth less by two shillings and sixpence per ounce. 
It is supposed that their difference in quality is caused by the 
larger size of the fragments below resisting more effectually the 
action of sulphuric acid which, set free by the decomposition of 
pyrites, has eaten the silver out of the smaller grains at the top 
of the deposit. 


He also says, p. 36, “Gold is most plentiful in it (drift in the 
Urals) where the drift is most largely charged with iron ;” and 
Brough Smyth, in a Report on the Gold Mines of the S.E. portion 
of the Wynaad, &c. (London, 1880) states that “ the gold obtained 
in the Wynaad is unequal in fineness, that from the soils being of 
the best quality. It has been observed in other countries that 
the finer the particles of the gold procured from alluvial deposits 
the higher is the quality.” 


»P. Nisser—On the Geol. Distribution of Gold, with special 
reference to some Auriferous Rocks in South America (Trans. Phil. 
Institute, Vict., 1v., 1860, read 30th March, 1859) points out 


od geen 
7 ~ r 4 
’ ii 
‘g —— 


318 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


(p. 17) that in the province of Antioquia, North Granada, the. 
gold from the veinstones differs very greatly from the alluvial 
gold: the former averaging 14}? carats fine, and the latter 
eighteen to twenty-two carats. He states that W. Birkmyre 
found that vein gold from Clunes, Victoria, was poorer than the 
alluvial gold, and that the same thing was observed by other 
assayers ; and he finally concludes that since the South American 
alluvial gold differs so much from the vein gold that it must have 


had a different origin. 


Bernhard von Cotta in his treatise On Ore Deposits, New York 
1870, in speaking of the placer deposits of the Urals, says that 
the gold is generally more or less argentiferous, the amount of 
silver varying according to G. Rose’s examinations between ‘16 
and 38:747/. It has been sometimes thought that the placer gold 
was purer (less argentiferous) than that extracted from deposits 
an situ, but G. Rose has shown that such is not the case in the 
Ural Mountains. He found that the amount of silver was very - 
variable in both cases, although the highest amount of silver was 
found in gold from veins, which contained even in the same lode 


very variable quantities.” 


Mr. Geo. Foord, F.c.s., of Melbourne, could find no difference 
between the quality of the internal and external portions of nug- 
gets ; but in one case he found a vein which was of a greenish- 
yellow in the centre, from the larger amount of silver present in 
that part of the gold.—Brough Smyth, Gold fields and Mineral 
Statistics of Victoria, p. 359 — 60. 


Mr. Birkmyre, p. 371 of the same work, points out that the 
““Welcome” Nugget weighing one hundred and eighty-four pounds 
nine ounces gave him 23 car. 3% grs. gold or 99-20%, or it was 


nearly as rich as the finest gold dust viz,, 23 carats 33 grs. 


The following analyses of gold from the North Transvaal, (E. 
Cohen, Jahr. f. Min. 1889) show a slight difference between the 
vein and the alluvial gold; but much importance cannot be 
attached to it:— | 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. 319 

Residue. Ag. Au. Cu. Fe. Total. 
1. Vein gold ...°02 5:16 9448 25 trace 99-91 
2. Alluvial gold ‘78 6°49 91°38 -09 by 98°74 
3. 3 she o504). Bb-16 re % 99°87 
4, - A ORO Rae to emma oF 93 99°62 
iL. Vein gold, Button’s reef, Marabastad, North Transvaal. 
2. Alluvial gold, Button’s Creek, derived from above. 
3. and 4. Alluvial gold, in flakes and grains. 


Hapervments. 


Freshly fractured pieces of the following sulphides were placed 
in cylinders of the photographer’s gold toning solution (fifteen 
grains of the double chloride of gold and sodium in fifteen ounces 
of water) viz., iron pyrites, molybdenite, mispickel, galena, copper 
pyrites, blende, argentite, dc. 


In some eases the sulphide reduced the gold at once and became 
gilt or coated with the reduced gold, either as a bright coherent 
‘deposit or else as a dull ochre-coloured one. Successive quantities 
of the gold solution were added from day to day as it became 
colourless, and in this way quite thick and strong deposits of gold 
were formed on the sulphides. 


In the case of the molybdenite, MoS,, the gold deposit was at 
first lustrous and metallic, but as time went on it became of a 
-dead brown aspect, although this under the microscope was seen 
to be made up of brilliant metallic points of light. Blue and 
white oxides of molybdenum separated out. 


The deposit on the mispickel was not compact and coherent 
dike that on the molybdenite, galena, and other minerals, but 
loose and easily rubbed off. 


The deposit on the iron pyrites was also bright and metallic 
looking at first but as it thickened it became dull and ochre-like 
‘In colour. 


The deposit on the galena was similar to the above; under the 


‘microscope, the surface, as in other cases, is seen to be minutely 


21 ed — 
’ ¥ 
/ : 


i 
* 


320 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


mammillated, and it is on that account that to the unassisted — 
eye, the gold has a dull brown or ochre colour. 


The preceding experiments are not numbered because they are 
merely qualitative ones, but the next series of experiments were 
quantitative; weighed pieces of pure sheet gold were put up with 
various organic reducing substances; sulphides and other naturally 
occurring substances which I thought might form a galvanic 
couple, and which would throw down the gold from solution upon 
the plate as in the electroplating process. 


A.— With a Gold Nucleus and Organic Matter. 


In the following experiments, pure gold specially prepared 
by the late Dr. Leibius, Senior Assayer of the Sydney Mint, and 
assaying 1000 was rolled out into fillets of $5 inch thick, so as 
to expose a large surface and yet be strong enough to handle, these 
were heated in a cornet crucible to burn off impurities and then 
boiled with nitric acid, and well washed to get rid of any sulphur 
or other contaminations from the gas flame. The nuggets and 
specimens of native gold used as nuclei were also cleaned in the | 
same way. ‘The fillets were next weighed and placed in stoppered 
glass cylinders with a solution of the sodium chloraurate, supplied 
for photographic purposes, and made up of the usual strength of 
a fifteen grain tube of the salt to fifteen ounces of water. 


The reducing substances were similar to those used by Wilkinson, 
but as will be seen with results just the reverse of what he obtained, 
i.e., the gold foil or other nucleus weighed less instead of more ' 


after the experiments. 


Experiment 1—A water worn nugget was used as a nucleus 
the dust of the air was allowed to fall in, and the experiment 
was continued for one hundred and sixty-eight days, with an 
occasional addition of gold solution as the liquid in the cylinder 
became colourless from the reduction of the gold. Although a 
good deal of gold was precipitated on and around the nugget none 
of it was adherent, and on reweighing it was found to have lost 


002 gramme. 


/ 


‘ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. © 321 


Experiments 2 and 3—A plate of pure gold was used as a 
nucleus in each case, and the solution was exposed to the air as 
above ; one plate lost ‘0042 and the other -0038 gramme. 


Experiment 4, with cork.—The gold solution was left in a 
stoppered cylinder with a slice of clean new cork until the yellow 
colour of the solution had disappeared, showing that all the gold 
had been removed from it. Some gold was precipitated at the 
bottom of the cylinder, some on the sides, and a little floated 
as films on the top, there was also a small quantity of gold precipi- 
tated on the gold plate, but this was non-adherent and came away 
on washing the plate in a jet of water. This plate underwent no 
change in weight. 


Note.—All of my experiments were carried out in full daylight, 
and not in the dark like those by Wilkinson, Egleston, and others. 


Experiment 5, with Swedish filter paper.—The yellow colour 
soon disappeared from the solution, and the paper acquired a 
purple colour. The gold plate lost 0036 gramme in weight. 


Experiment 6, with phosphorus in ether.—The solution soon 
became colourless, and a black precipitate of gold was thrown 
down, on the bottom of the cylinder and on the gold plate. Float-. 
ing films of gold also formed on the surface. On washing the 
gold plate with a jet of water all the gold deposited on it was 
washed away, and on drying and weighing it was found to have. 
lost ‘0004 gramme. 


Haperiment 7—In this case a freshly broken jagged fragment. 
of gold in quartz was used as the nucleus instead of a gold plate, 
but cleaned with the same care. Cuttings from a cedar pencil. 
and some scraps of paper were added, these acted in the same 
way as the cork and were ‘mineralized ” by the reduced gold ;. 
the gold and quartz nucleus lost (0021 grammes in weight. 


EHaperrment 8—Paper and wood were used as in experiment 7, 
with a nucleus of jagged gold set free from quartz by means of | 
hydrofluoric acid ; the nucleus lost ‘(0013 gramme. 


U—Sept. 6, 1893. 


va, oe ee 


322 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


Experiment 9—Similar to experiment 8 with a nucleus of 
native gold from Sandhurst (Bendigo). This showed a loss of 


0001 gramme. 


On incinerating the cork, cedar, &c., which had been used for 
reducing the gold, the residue retained the original form, but 
much shrunken and as has been observed by others, the micro- 
scopic structure of a cut section presents the appearance of 
burnished gold from the pressure of the knife. 


6 Nucleus. Reducing matter. es ne Tueleus. Difference) Number 
muclane! pee hal in gms. | of days. 
1| Nugget ...| dust from air ...| 3°4920 | 3:4900 | —-0020 168 
2|Gold foil... 95 op 15152 | 15110 | —-0042 168 
3 - oie Dee hae 1:1713 | 1:1675 |—-0038 | 168 
4 i ...| with cork ...| 11410 | 111410 | none 273 
5 5 ...| with filter paper} °8500 °8464 | —:0036 273 
16 ye .| phosphorus in 
ether Son BBO) "9326 | —:0004 273 
7| Gold in quartz} paper and wood | 1°7630 | 1°7609 | —:0021 58 
|8| Gold from ,, ip » | 28487 | 28474 |—-0013.| 58 
19 “9 » 99 ” "6574 °6573 | —:0001 58 


The above experiments all show that instead of the nucleus or 
nugget of gold increasing in weight and size in the presence of 
organic matter, there is a decrease which is just the reverse of the 
effects obtained by Wilkinson, Daintree, and others. 


The loss in weight of the nucleus may have been due to the 
removal of small quantities of impurity in the gold used asa 
nucleus, the native gold would of course contain silver and other 
impurities, but the gold foil was regarded as particularly pure by 
the late Dr. Leibius of the Sydney Mint, by whom it had been 
assayed. This will be the subject of further experiment, the point 
of chief interest at this stage is that the nuclei did not show any 
increase in weight. 

B.— With a Gold Nucleus and Inorganic Matter. 

Experiments from Nos. 10 to 49 form the third series, in which 


a galvanic couple was formed. y 


Ce 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. BYR 


Experiment 10, with molybdenite.—No gold was visible on the 


-molybdenite, but on closer examination some was seen between 


the cleavage planes of the mineral, and this under the microscope 
had a vermicular and matted structure. On removing the gold 
plate and cleaning with a brush, it was found to have increased 
0038 grammes in two months. 

Experiment 11, with mispickel.—The solution was decolourised 
in twenty-four hours, and this went on continuously for many 
successive days. Increase in weight in fifty-nine days -0006 gram. 


Experiment 12, with mispickel.—The gold foil was stained nearly 
black on both sides, over about two-thirds its area; the black 
deposit had a blistered or mammillated structure, very marked 
under the microscope, and readily felt with the finger nail. It - 
increased ‘0260 gramme in fifty-nine days. The gold on the 
mispickel was also dull and mammillated, but in part showed traces 
of cubes joined in strings, and in one place there were hexagonal 


plates (microscopic) of bright lustrous gold. 


Experiment 13, with mispickel.—The gold deposited on the 
mispickel was black and pulverulent, and without crystals. The 
gold on the gold foil was of a bronze-green tint. The plate 
increased ‘0089 gramme in weight in nine days. 

Experiment 14, with recent iron pyrites, Loffley’s, Taupo.—Con- 
tained a very large quantity of ferrous sulphate and sulphuric acid, 
probably none of the pyrites left unoxidised. It reduced a very 
large quantity of the gold solution, but none was permanently 
deposited on the plate, and its weight remained unchanged. On 
dissolving out with hydrochloric acid, a residue of spongy gold was 
left together with some particles of a white mineral, probably 
silica, as the springs at Loffley’s deposit this mineral. 

Hxperiment 15.—With cubical iron pyrites. Decolourised in 
twenty-four hours. The gold foil or plate was dull from the 
gold which had been deposited upon it. Increase in weight ‘0028 
gramme in fifty-nine days. | 

Expervment 16, with pyrites, Joshua’s Spa, Lake Taupo, N.Z.— 
Several charges of gold solution were reduced. The foil was 


e 


324 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


blackened, and a black powder came away on rubbing with the 
finger, but some permanent brown coloured gold was left on the 
foil. The foil increased -0060 g. in weight in fifty-nine days. 


A certain amount of loose gold was thrown down with some: 
of the minerals, but no account was taken of this, as the chief 
object was to ascertain whether a nucleus of gold would have a 
coherent film of gold deposited upon it when the nucleus formed 
one element of a couple, and this was found to be the case—the 
deposit of gold on the foil was usually of a dull reddish-brown 
colour, felt rough to the nail, and under the microscope was seen 
to be mammillated, and when rubbed with a hard substance like 
agate or a glass rod, presented a series of bright points. 


Experiment 17, with iron pyrites.—Part of an uncrystallised 
mass. The coating of gold was dull, with here and there a bright 
speck, something like the hexagonal plates on the copper pyrites ; 
but the outlines rather irregular; bright gold also along the cracks 
in the pyrites. The deposit on the plate was of a full copper colour, 
very rough, and weighed 0708 g. 

Experiment 18, with iron pyrites.—Part of a pentagonal 
dodecahedron, acquired a dull brown deposit of gold, but no 
crystals were detected. A similar brown film on the plate in- 
creased ‘0633 g. in weight. 

Experiment 19, with rhombic iron pyrites or Marcasite.-— 
Became coated with dull brown gold which gave it the appear- 
ance of a coating of rust, there were a few bright specks but no. 
distinct crystals of gold. The gold plates acquired a bronze colour, 
with a greenish shade, became rough and increased ‘0328 g. in 
weight. 

Experiment 20, with brown hematite.—Decolourised several ' 
charges. Foil became dull and increased ‘0003 g. weight in fifty- 


nine days. 

Experiment 21, with limonite.-—Decolourised seven ounces. 
of the gold solution. Foil became dull and increased -00025 g. in 
weight in fifty-nine days. The deposited gold was dull and mam- 


millated. 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. 325 


Experiment 22, with rust.—A mixture of black and brown 
oxides from old sheet iron. The gold foil became very dull and 
dirty looking. Increased -0011 g. in fifty-nine days. On dissolv- 
ing the residue in hydrochloric acid, only dark coloured spongy 
gold was left. 


Experiment 23, with yellow copper pyrites.—After fifteen days 
the gold plate was dull from deposited gold. Increase in weight, 
0059 g. in fifty-nine days. 


Experiment 24, with copper pyrites.—Reduced several charges 
of the gold solution. The foil became deeply stained, and acquired 
a rough appearance and feel, of the usual brown colour; under 
the microscope it was seen to be much mammillated; and increased 

°0185 g. in weight in fifty-nine days. A large amount of gold 
was also thrown down on the pyrites, which under the microscope 
was seen to havea matted vermiform appearance; a certain amount 


of loose powdery gold was also precipitated. 


Experiment 25, with copper pyrites, Walleroo,S.A.—The deposit 
of gold was almost black but mixed with it were a few very bright 
microscopic hexagonal plates of gold. The deposit of gold on the 
plate was very rough and almost black in places, and it had 
increased in weight 0666 g. 


Haperiment 26, with redruthite (copper subsulphide).—The gold 
was deposited on the sulphide as a black powder, with a little dull 
yellow in parts. The gold plate became of a dull brown colour 
near where it had been in contact with the mineral, the upper 
part was merely stained. Increase = ‘0836 g. 


Experiment 27, with silver sulphide (argentite).— No change for 
some time, but between June 28, and November 30, it reduced 
five ounces of the gold solution and became coated with gold. 
Some of the gold was crystallised in microscopic imperfect hexa- 
gonal scales. The gold plate increased :0083 .g. in one hundred 
and fifty-five days. 


Experiment 28, with fused artificial silver sulphide.—The gold 
deposited upon it was vermiform, and a thin coating of dead 


7 a 
< 
ies 1 
ie 
. 


gold formed on the plate, which increased :0082 g. in weight in 


>) 


026 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


nine days only. 

Eaperiment 29, with galena.—The cleavage planes became gilt 
almost immediately, 7.e., in a minute or so; without the gold 
nucleus the gilding takes an hour or two. As the deposit of gold 
thickens it loses its brilliancy. After a fifteen days action the 
gold plate had become dull from the gold deposited upon it; 
increase ‘0049 in fifty-nine days. 


Experiment 30, with galena, Broken Hill, N.S.W.—The gold 
deposited on the galena was black, but brown in places, with a few 
rectangular specks of bright gold ; some lead sulphate had also 
formed. The gold on the gold plate was of a copper colour. The 
foil increased ‘0281 g. in weight. 


Experiment 31, with zinc blende.—Decolourised several charges. 
The foil was unchanged. On dissolving the blende, much dull 
spongy gold was left mixed with a few bright crystallised points 
seated on the gold, one St. Andrew’s cross was very distinct, also 
some with six rays, but all microscopic. 


Experiment 32, with zinc blende.—Increase in weight of plate 
was ‘0086 g. Mixed with the dull vermicular gold on the blende 
were scattered hexagonal crystals of bright gold. 

By vermicular or vermiform gold is meant a more or less close 
net work of worm-like rounded and irregular threads of gold, 
which eventually coalesce in the thicker deposits and form a 
mamumillated surface. 

Heaperiment 33, with graphitic casing from an auriferous vein-— 
It decolourised two ounces of the solution in five days and suc- 
cessive quantities afterwards. The surface of the graphitic 
_ casing became completely coated with a very thick deposit of dark 
coloured mammillary gold, but in a few places were some minute 

crystals of bright gold showing up most brilliantly; they appeared 
tobe hexagonal plates. The gold foil did not show any increase 
in weight. 

In this instance as well as in that of the coal, graphite and 
charcoal, the gold appeared to be thrown down entirely upon the 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. ond 


precipitants, and none came down as 4 loose powder nor upon the 
sides of the glass vessel. The miners at Ballaarat and other places. 
attach a good deal of importance to the graphite casing of veins, 
and speak of it as the “indicator.” It usually contains iron 
pyrites; the carbon and the pyrites together reduce the gold 
very quickly. 

Plates of pure gold, cleaned by ignition and boiling potash, were 
also placed in photographer’s gold solution with the following 
non-metallic substances ; they were shaken daily and refilled with 
fresh gold and sodium chloride solution as often as the solution 
became colourless. 

" Experiment 34, with graphite, Ceylon.—Decolourised several 
charges of solution. The gold plate was frosted (moiré métallique) 
on one side, and had increased -0001 g. in fifty-nine days. 


Experiment 35, with charcoal.—Decolourised many successive 
two ounce charges of gold solution, and the charcoal became 
thickly coated with dull brown gold, under microscope this was 
seen to be mammillated. The plate increased ‘00005 g. only in 


fifty-nine days. 


Experiment 36, with coal powder.—The gold plate was still 
bright when removed, on the 31st May 1893, i.e., after thirty-five 
days, and had lost (0019 g. On burning off the coal spongy 
brown gold was left mixed with the coal ash. 


Haperiment 37, with white sandstone, Sydney.— The gold plate 
gradually acquired a frosted appearance and became stained of a 
dull brown colour. Under the microscope the frosting was seen 
to be due to the gold having crystallised in the same way that 
zine crystallises on galvanized iron and tin in the moiré-métallique; 
the crystals on the gold plate were nearly all square or rectangular 
in outline and about 1 mm. across. From April 26 to May 31, 
1893, the plate increased ‘0007 gramme in weight. 

Laperiment 38, with reddish coloured sandstone, Sydney.— Foil 
became very dull and acquired a rough incrustation of gold. The 
foil increased -0060 g. in weight in fifty-nine days. 


328 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


Experiment 39, with sand, from April 26 to June 1.—Although 
one charge of two ounces of the gold chloride was decolourised 
and another about half decolourised, the plate underwent no 
change in weight. The solution was doubtless reduced by organic 
matter present in the sand. 


Experiment 40, with gravel, from Bingera Diamond Mines.— 
Solution not decolourised, but the plate lost -0008 g. in fifty- 
nine days. 

EHaperiment 41, with wash dirt, Inverell, N.S. Wales.—Minute 
flakes of bright gold were found intermingled with the clay from 
this dirt. Foil increased :0003 g. Decolourised two charges, 


4.e., four ounces of the solution. 


Experiment 42, with granite, Hartley, N.S.W.—Foil became 
dull and stained on one side, and had increased -0006 g.in weight 
in fifty-nine days. 

Experiment 43, with granite, Hartley, N.S.W.—The powder of 
this granite turned brown like a pale clay ; the foil became dull, 


much stained, and increased ‘0002 g. in weight in fifty-nine days. 


Experiment 44, with white quartz.—Decolourised two ounces 
of the solution, and a second two ounces partly ; increase in gold 
plate, -0002 g. in fifty-nine days. 

Experiment 45, with clay, University Paddock.—Decolourised 
several charges. Foil became dull, and increased -0019 g. in 
weight in fifty-nine days. 

Experiment 46, with statuary marble.—This decolourised two 
ounces of the solution before the addition of the gold plate and 
several successive charges after; the plate darkened in colour and 
increased ‘0002 g. On dissolving the marble in hydrochloric acid 


a residue of brown mammillated gold was left. 


Experiment 47, with apatite, Canada.—As the solution was not 
decolourised after twohundred days, the gold foil was not reweighed. 


Experiment 48, with serpentine, containing a little magnetite. — 
Decolourised four ounces of gold solution, but the plate only 


showed an increase of ‘0001 g. in fifty nine days. 
* 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. 


329 


Experiment 49, with plate glass, in powder.—Before the plate 
of gold was added the glass reduced two ounces of the solution ; 


No. | 


10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


and on June | it had reduced the second two ounces. The plate 
increased -00005 g. in weight in fifty-nine days. 

Name of substance placed with the gold plate. eeen ees a eet ; 
Molybdenite + ‘0038 | 59 days 
Mispickel ... +0006 | 59 ,, 

5 soe +'0260| 59 ,, 

ef wa # ae +0089 | 9 ,, 
Recent iron pyrites, Loffley’s NOME eae 
Cubical iron pyrites +0028 | 59 ,, 
Iron pyrites, Joshua’s Spa. +0060 | 59, 
Iron pyrites SS -O703 19 
Iron pyrites ecalope 1 Oo 5. 
Rhombic iron pyrites or Marcasite Be ORAS HG en 
Brown hematite ... +0003 | 59, 
Limonite ... +:00025 | 59 ,, 
Rust a OOMks OO ay 5, 
Copper pyrites +°0059 | 59 _,, 
Copper pyrites.... +:°0185 | 59 a, 
Copper pyrites, Walleroo, isabel & 4206616) | (99s; 
Redruthite (copper subsulphide) +0836) 9 ,, 
Silver sulphide (argentite) +0083 |155_,, 
Fused artificial silver sulphide ... OOS2) |= 
Galena... +0049 | 59 ,, 
Galena, Broken Hill, N.S. W. 0281) |) One 
Zine lengs none DM) ks 
Zinc blende a2 O00 SG) 2OMsee. 
Graphitic casing ... none 
Graphite, Ceylon... +0001 | 59 ,, 
Charcoal ... ay + :00005 | 59 ,, 
Coal powder —'0019 | 35 ,, 
White sandstone, Pyrmont +0007 | 35 ,, 
Sandstone, reddish +0060 | 59 ,, 
Sand : al One. oO: 
Gravel, Bingera Dimond Fields, N. S. W.| —-0008 | 59 4 
Wasbh- chee Taverell; N.S. W. wale + OO0S2 On 5 
Granite, Hartley, N.S.W. +OO00G O93 
Granite, Hartley, N.S. W. +:0002 | 59 ,, 
Quartz, white... + 0002 | 59 _,, 
Clay, University Paddock +°0019 | 59, 
Statuary marble ... +:0002 | 59 ,, 
Apatite, Canada ... none /|200 ,, 
Serpentine | ae OOO li tao ms. 
Plate glass + °00005 | 59 =, 


330 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


The above table shows that in forty experiments there was 
a loss of gold from the nucleus in two cases, in five others 
there was no change, but in thirty-three there was an increase in 
weight, this increase varying from ‘00005 g. to ‘0836 g. The 
heavier deposits could be separated as a continuous film by bend- 
ing the gold plate backwards and forwards a few times. 


The foregoing experiments show that gold is deposited from 
solution upon a nucleus of gold in contact not only with metalli- 
ferous sulphides and arsenides, which form strong galvanic couples 
but also with such substances as iron oxides, charcoal, graphite, 
sandstone, granite, quartz, clay and marble, which form but weak 
galvanic couples with the gold plate, and as we might expect, the 
deposition goes on more slowly in the latter cases. In Daintree’s 
experiment the glass of the bottle may have formed a couple with 
the gold fragment. 


Gold in Natural Waters. 

Very little is accurately known as to the solution of gold by 
natural waters, we know, it is true, that gold has been deposited 
from solution, and we also know that its deposition from such is. 
still going on, and several references are made to its deposition 
in this paper, but the search for gold in meteoric and mine waters 
has not met with satisfactory results; the analyses which have 
been made do not absolutely prove that gold is present in solution, 
the presence of gold has been detected but it nay have been held 
there mechanically. Accordingly I have thought that it would 
not be amiss to give a brief resumé of the papers which I have 


come across upon this matter. 


In the case of sea water, however, E. Sonstadt published a 
communication in the Chemical News, Oct. 4th, 1872, upon the 
presence of gold in sea water, and stated that he had not determined 
the amount, but that it was less than one grain perton. A letter 
appeared from him upon the same subject in the Chemical News 
of March 11th, 1892, confirming his previous statement, both as 
to its presence and to the smallness of the amount, “being far less. 


than one grain to the ton.” 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. Son 


The presence of gold (and silver) in sea water as alleged by 
Sonstadt is confirmed by the presence of gold and silver in the 
sheathing from old vessels and piles—one specimen which I 
examined from a vessel which had long traded along the Australian 
coasts, contained traces of gold and silver, but in much larger 
proportion than one would expect in Muntz metal, but as none 
of the unexposed metal could be obtained, the difference or 
increase if any could not be determined. 


The sheathing was dissolved in pure sulphuric acid and the 
insoluble residue examined for gold and silver; with the lead 
sulphate was a comparatively large quantity of iodine, the latter 
evidently derived from the sea water. Lately I have obtained 
through the kindness of Mr. C. W. Darley, Engineer-in-Chief 
for Harbours and Rivers, specimens of sheathing from piles in 
various places along the coasts of New South Wales so that the 
age and conditions of exposure of the sheathing are known, and 
he has also been good enough to have plates of Muntz metal 
attached to piles in the following places, viz :—at Newcastle and 
on the Richmond, Clarence, Macleay, Shoalhaven and Moruya 
Rivers ; and a section through the plate has been sent to me to 
determine the silver and gold before immersion in sea water, so 
that when the immersed plates are analysed after a certain number 
of years time, any accumulation of gold and silver can be rigidly 
determined. 


One of the earliest writers in Australasia, the Revd. W. B. 
Clarke, m.a., in his Southern Gold Fields (Sydney 1860) ina letter 
to the S. M. Herald, 15th June, 1858, says p. 55, “It, 2.e., gold, 
is elaborated by vegetable growth in soils where there are no 
pretended geological indications ; it is found occasionally in rain 
water ; it may, for anything I know to the contrary, exist in the 
air, vapourized and afloat, as reguline.” 

Gustav Bischof, in his Elements of Chemical and Physical 
Geology (Car. Soc. 1859, Vol. 111., 534) says: “A silicate of gold 
may be prepared artificially, and it appears that under certain 
circumstances it may be dissolved in sensible amount. The... 


332 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


quartz associated with gold certainly originates from the decom- 
position of silicates in rocks, and it may be conjectured that the 
gold has the same origin, possibly existing as silicates.” 


I have verified Bischof’s statement by digesting gold leaf with 
sodium silicate and potassium silicate solutions under a pressure 
of ninety pounds to the square inch, and found that the solution 
gave a brown precipitate with oxalic acid, and that this acquired 
the metallic lustre and colour of gold under a burnisher. 


The reduction of gold chloride in solutions of sodium and 
potassium silicates, also mentioned by Bischof, was verified, but 
I do not attach much importance to these experiments, for gold 
chloride is so easily reduced that its reduction is brought about 
by almost anything; the fact that gold is dissolved by sodium 
silicate is a matter of much greater importance. The solution in 
sodium silicate turned blue in about thirty minutes, that in 
potassium silicate took a longer time, and the separated gold 
was of a reddish tint. 

J. Cosmo Newbery states that an amethystine colour is some- 
times seen in quartz reefs and in wash dirt. Aplin, at Beechworth, 
Victoria, found that such clay, after exposure to light, lost its 
colour and showed the presence of gold although none was visible 
before ; a successful miner, Clement, observed the same thing at 
Maldon. This appears to indicate that the clay was moistened 
with a solution of a gold salt. No chemical examination was, 
however, made. 

Lock (p. 558) quoting from Prof. Hutton On the Thames Gold 
Field, says: ‘‘Of the time when the veins were first charged with 
gold, Hutton can offer no opinion ; but there are one or two facts 
which make it appear probable that gold is still in circulation 
throweh*the rocks.) M7 24 3s In the Niau claim, above the 
Hokianga, on the Karaka, open quartz veins are seen partly filled 
with black humus that has filtered down from the vegetable soil 
above and this humus, on being carefully washed, yields fine gold, 
which Hutton supposes had been precipitated from solution by 
the organic matter of the humus.” 


—— 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. 333 


C. Délter, Solubility of Minerals (Monatsh. 11, p. 149), found 
that gold at 200C. in a sealed tube with a 5‘/ solution of Na,CO, 
or Na,SiO, is dissolved to the extent of 1-57 of the weight of 
the gold taken. 


Bischof also found that gold sulphide is slightly soluble in 
meteoric waters, and still more soluble in a saturated solution 
of hydrogen sulphide; and that it is also slightly soluble in 
persalts of iron. 


Newbery tested this by dissolving gold sulphide in a weak 
solution of an alkaline bicarbonate, and found that on introducing 
a chip of wood and a cube of pyrites that the gold was deposited 
on the pyrites. (See his paper On the Formation of Nuggets, 
Roy. Society, Victoria, 1868). 

I find that gold foil is attacked by a strong solution of sodium 
sulphide, in nine days a fillet of gold foil exposing about four 
square inches of surface, and weighing ‘6181 gramme, lost :0021 
gramme. Gold leaf treated with sodium sulphide still more 
readily yielded a solution containing gold. 


R. Daintree in his Geology of the Ballan District, Victorra, 1866 
says :—‘‘I had long come to the conclusion that most, if not all, 
the gold in the quartz reefs was derived from the rocks in which 
these reefs occur. That the strata themselves received their 
supply of gold at the period of their deposition from the ocean in 
which they were deposited. That the organic matter and the 
gases generated therefroin on decomposition, sulphuretted hydrogen 
&c. were the cause of the precipitation ; and that the amount of 
metallic deposit was in proportion to the amount of organic matter 
deposited with the organic sediment.” 


Sir. W. Logan says, (quoted by Daintree) ‘“‘ The observations 


_ among the gold bearing rocks of the Southern States seem to show 


that the precious metal was originally deposited in the beds of 
various sedimentary rocks, such as slates, quartzites and limestones, 
and that by a subsequent process, it has been, in some instances, 
accumulated in the veins which intersect these rocks.” 


334 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


An additional proof of the solubility of gold in natural waters 
is given in A treatise on Ore Deposits by Bernhard von Cotta. 
Translated from the second German Edition, New York, 1870, 
p. 198, says, “the gold at Hisenberg near Corbach, Rhine, 
occurs partly in the clefts of the quartz siliceous slate in thin 
dendritic incrustations ; or (and this is the most common occur- 
rence) it encrusts the very small rhombohedrons of spathic iron, 
which are found on the limestone incrustations of the clefts; these 
consequently have the appearance of gold crystals.” 


Orville A. Derby, in a paper on Peculiar modes of occurrence 
of Gold in Brazil, (Am. Jour. Sci., Dec. 1884, p. 440) affords still 
another example of the recent deposition of gold from solution. 
In this paper an account is given of a specimen of gold on limonite 
from Ponte Grande, Sabara, Minas Geraes. The limonite is 
botryoidal, lustrous, in parts of an iridescent bronzy colour and 
in others black and brown, and on various parts of the specimen 
are minute detached films of gold; the author points out that 
these films of gold have apparently been deposited from solution 
upon the limonite, which is also a mineral of aqueous origin. 

Similar thin films of gold as thin as gold leaf are seen on the 
limonite at Mount Morgan, Queensland, and upon quartz at Oura 
near Wagga Wagga, New South Wales. 

J. Cosmo Newbery, B.Sc., in a paper Upon the Mineral Waters 
of Victoria, (Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict., 1867, p. 278) gives the 
analyses of several mineral waters, and amongst them those of 
certain auriferous quartz mines of Maldon, which are remarkable 
for the large quantity of potassium chloride present, but gold in 
solution does not appear to have been met with. He investigated 
the question of the presence of gold in the waters of gold mines; 
and found gold in mine timbers, boiler deposits, etc., but stated 
that it was difficult to make sure that the gold had not found its 
way in mechanically. Other observers also have failed to prove 
the presence of gold in solution in mine waters by chemical tests. 


Plates of copper connected with a battery were placed in mine 
waters, but although gold was found on the crust which coated 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. 335 


them, the trial could not be relied on as the copper was not tested 
before the experiment was started. — 


The following quotation from Sterry Hunt is still another proof 
that gold does exist in solution in natural waters :—‘ I have in 
my possession a portion of a small trunk taken from the mud of 
a spring in the province of Ontario, in which the yet undecayed 
wood of the centre is seen to be incrusted by hard and brilliant 
iron pyrites. In like manner the trees found in the New Jersey 
sandstone became incrusted with copper sulphide, which, as decay 
went on, in great part replaced the woody tissue. Similar deposits 
of sulphides of copper and of iron often took place in basins where 
the organic matter was present in such a condition or in such 
quantity as to be entirely decomposed, and to leave no trace of its 
form, unlike the examples just mentioned. In this way have 
been formed fahlbands and beds of pyrites and other ores. The 
fact that such deposits are associated with silver and with gold 
leads to the conclusion that these metals have obeyed the same 
laws as iron and copper. It is known that both persalts of iron 
and soluble sulphides have the power of rendering gold soluble, 
and its subsequent deposition in the metallic state is then easily 
understood.” —Chemical and Geological Essays, 2nd Edition, 1879, 
p. 232. | 

J. C. Newbery analysed similar recent tree trunks from the 
Victorian Gold Fields, converted into pyrites, and found gold 
present. 


In 1876, when in New Zealand, I collected some iron pyrites, 
from a hot spring at Taupo, which was being deposited upon some 
twigs and branches of wood, the wood was much decayed, black, 
and quite rotten, but it still retained its form and character. The 
iron sulphide was on assay found to contain traces of gold, which 
must have been in solution in the water.—(Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S. 
Wales, 1877, p. 264). The waters from the Hot Springs occurr- 
ing in different parts of New Zealand, have been carefully analysed 
from time to time by Mr. Skey, F.c.s., Government Analyst, but 
I think that gold has not been detected in any of them, although 


/ 


336 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


we know it must be there, because it is contained in the pyrites 
deposited from the waters, by decaying organic matter reducing 
the sulphates in solution. 


The following extract from the Mining and Metallurgy of 
Gold and Silver, by J. Arthur Phillips. Foot-note, p.p. 10, 11, 
is given because it refers to the recent deposition of gold from 
solution and apparently also by volatilization :— 


“The moulds of cubical crystals of iron pyrites are frequently 
found in the quartz of auriferous veins, and more particularly so 
near the surface, thus showing that the formation of the pyrites 
must have been as old as that of the vein itself. In such cases, 
although the iron has often been entirely removed by chemical 
action, the cavities left sometimes contain finely divided goid, 
obviously liberated by the decomposition of pyrites. The gold 
contained in crystallised pyrites enclosed in quartz, is readily 
rendered apparent by placing the specimen, for a few hours, in a 
warm place in nitric acid, by which the pyrites is dissolved, and 
finely powdered or filiform gold will partially occupy the resulting 
cavities. With regard to the age of auriferous quartz veins, it 
has been already shown that many of them must evidently be of 
comparatively recent date, but in some cases the deposition of 
gold bearing quartz would appear to be taking place even at the 
present time. At Steamboat Springs, near Virginia, in the State 
of Nevada, and in other localities on the Pacific Coast, numerous 
parallel deposits of quartz, assuming the form of veins, are taking 
place along a line of boiling springs now in a state of great activity. 
The quartz from this locality exactly resembles that of the ordinary 
auriferous quartz veins of California, and besides small quantities 
of iron and copper pyrites, contains oxide of iron and traces of 
manganese. On making an examination of this quartz for gold 
and silver, we were unable to find an appreciable quantity of 
either of these metals ; but Mr. Laur, who made a similar investi- 
gation of this quartz, succeeded in finding specimens containing 
small quantities of gold.—(Annales des Mines, Sixiéme Série, iii. 
p. 421.) These facts would, therefore, not only tend to lead to the 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. 330 


conclusion that auriferous veins are under certain conditions 
deposited from siliceous solutions, but also to explain the action 
by which many of the slates of the auriferous period may have 
become metamorphosed and silicified.” 


“We are indebted to Dr. Oxland, formerly manager of the 
works belonging to the Borax Lake Company, Lake County, 
California, for the following note on the occurrence of gold and 

silver in that locality :—“In the Sulphur Bank at Borax Lake, 
sulphur is constantly in course of formation, with the evolution 
of aqueous vapour, carbonic acid, and boracic acid, but without 
any sulphuretted hydrogen, which might have been expected to 
be present. The smell of carbonic acid is remarkably pungent. 
The gaseous matters issuing from the “ Soffioni” in gentle blowers 
are usually at the temperature of about ninety-five degrees Fahr. 
They appear to be the agency by which gold, silver, mercury, and 
iron are brought up from below and deposited in cavities near the 
surface. Sulphur is deposited on the sides of the cavities, either 
in groups of crystals or in highly translucent amorphous masses 
of a beautiful light lemon-yellow colour. Sometimes the sulphur 
is intermixed with cinnabar, but more frequently with very fine 
crystals of iron pyrites, and with pulverulent silica in masses 
blackened by some hydro-carbon which is difficult to isolate. The 
iron pyrites may be separated by dissolving off the sulphur with 
bisulphide of carbon, and washing off the silica with water. It 
is found associated with silver and a trace of gold. 


“On the sides of the cavities of the blowers, gelatinous silica 
is sometimes found coating opalised silica in varying degrees of 
induration, according to its depth from the surface, presenting 
examples of opal or hydrated silica in its various stages of forma- 
tion, from gelatinous silica up to the hardest opal. The indurated 
silica is sometimes colourless, but is more frequently permeated 
with cinnabar or iron pyrites, and blackened by the tarry matter 
before alluded to. Sometimes from a diffusion of cinnabar through- 
out the mass in minute quantity, it is delicately tinted of a pinkish 
colour. The cinnabar is also found in striz, and occasionally even 

V—Sept. 6, 1893. 


338 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


in veins and concretionary masses of some thickness. Where the 
bituminous matter occurs in the largest quantity, and the mass is 
quite black and friable, cinnabar is replaced by metallic mercury. 


‘‘In another locality of similar character, about ten miles dis- 
tant, gold has been found with cinnabar in crystalline masses of 
some size. In the same place, a vein of apparently compact 
quartz, about ten inches in thickness, was found to be so friable . 
that it could be easily taken out with the hand in small conchoidal 
fragments, most of which rapidly fell into fine powder. From its 
great resemblance to a vein, occurring in the Mexican Mine, 
Virginia City, which is many feet in thickness, and contains $20 
to $30 of gold and silver to the ton, attention was drawn to it, 
and it proved on being assayed, to contain with a trace of gold, 
to the value of $15 per ton. 

“These phenomena present indubitable evidences of the volatility 
of gold, silver, mercury, and iron, in presence of aqueous vapour: 
associated with sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, and boracic 
acid. Whether the contemporaneous association of these sub- 
stances may produce a definite compound possessing peculiar 
powers of solution and volatilization under the influence of elevated 


temperature, although probable, yet remains to be proved.” - 


Conclusion. 


When the metallic sulphides and arsenides are used to reduce 
the gold solution, there is no real necessity for the gold plate or 
nucleus, since the film of gold which immediately forms on the 
mineral acts as the negative element of the couple ; but it is con- 
venient to use the gold nucleus, inasmuch as the gold is deposited 
more quickly, and in a form convenient for weighing, as it is free 
from admixture with other substances, the nucleus merely requires 
to be washed, dried and weighed. When substances like powdered 
granite, glass, clay, sandstone, etc. are used, the gold plate or 
nucleus is necessary to form the galvanic couple, (although a 
weak one) and to collect the gold. 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. 339 


The gold reduced by means of phosphorus in ether from very 
dilute solutions has quite a different appearance to that reduced 
by the sulphides and other substances given in the preceding 
experiments, the gold is reduced in such a finely divided state 
that it imparts a blue or purple tint to the water, and may take 
many years to completely precipitate and yield a clear solution. 
Some which I precipitated as far back as 1884 still have the gold 
in suspension. (A. Liversidge—On the Removal of Gold from 
Suspension and Solution by Lungoid Growths.—Report of the 
Aust. Assoc. Advt. of Science, 1890, p. 399, e¢ seq.) 


When the solution of gold is stronger, the gold comes down 
more quickly, and after a time becomes more or less crystallised, 
as in the following case :—The gold reduced from a one per cent. 
solution of the chloride of gold and sodium by phosphorus in 
ether, and which had been standing from September 1889 to April 
28, 1893, or three and a-half years, was seen under the microscope 
to be made up of a mass of narrow ribbons of gold—more or less 
matted together. The ribbons were of bright, lustrous, metallic 
gold, and fairly uniform in size; mixed with them were a few. 


rounded particles or beads of gold and some octohedral crystals. 


In another and weaker solution (fifteen gn. of the double sodium 
and gold chloride to fifteen ounces water) which was also allowed 
to stand for three and a-half years, from October 1889 to April 
1893, the gold was deposited in the form of masses of octohedrons, 
more or less well formed and large enough to be seen with an 


ordinary pocket lens. 


In the preceding experiments only the difference in the weight 
-of the nucleus is taken into account, the amount of gold reduced 
and deposited upon the sulphide or other reducing agent is 
neglected; in some cases the quantity was very large, but no 
attempt was made to ascertain the amount as the results were not 
required in this investigation. The question to be answered by 
‘the experiments was merely whether a nucleus of gold immersed 


in a solution of gold and in the presence of, or in contact with, a 


340 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


substance (such as might be met with under natural circumstances) 
would increase in weight, this has been answered in the affirma- 
tive, and I think we can safely say that a nucleus of gold in an 
alluvial deposit or in a vein in contact with any of the foregoing 
substances or other similar bodies, would tend to increase in size 
so long as the supply of gold in solution was maintained, and 
that masses as large as the largest known nuggets, or indefinitely 
larger, might be so formed. My own opinion, however, in spite 
of this is that the large nuggets have not been so formed, but 
have been set free from veins, and have acquired their rounded 
and mammillated surfaces by attrition ; the main outline being 
due to the original form of the mass when liberated from its matrix. 
Nuggets may have also received deposits of gold from solution, but 
such deposits have I think made no material alteration in the size 
of the larger nuggets. 

The advocates of the hypothesis is that the large nuggets have 
been formed in situ, support it by the following amongst other 
arguments :— 

1. That the large nuggets have been found to have a different 
chemical composition to the vein gold. 

Undue weight seems to have been attached to this, the dis- 
similarity in composition between nuggets and vein gold is usually 
but small and immaterial, and sometimes the vein gold is even 
richer than the alluvial. The variations certainly do not show 
that the nuggets have necessarily had a different origin. 


With finely divided alluvial gold there is a greater difference 
in composition, this may be due to the silver and other impurities 
having been partly removed by solution, the greater surface 
exposed by the gold dust and grains would of course facilitate 
their elimination. 

2. That the large nuggets have all been found far removed from 
the nearest vein. This is an argument of no great importance ; 
and it is already answered in the preceding pages; the reef from 
which they have been derived may have been entirely denuded 
away or so covered with other material as to be inaccessible. 


ORIGIN OF GOLD NUGGETS. ey! 


3. It is urged that if nuggets had been derived from veins that 
their forms would be different, and especially that they would 
retain traces of crystalline form and roughness within the cavities, 
and would not possess mammillated surfaces. 

As I have pointed out in another paper, (On the Condition of 
Gold in Quartz Veins, p. 301) it is very unusual to find any trace of 


crystalline structure in the gold set free from veins. Roughness 
of course, we do meet with in vein gold, but when the gold 


weathers out from the reef this is gradually lost by abrasion; the 
projecting points of soft malleable gold are flattened down and 
rounded off rather than ground away in powder, as in the case of 
hard and brittle substances, and the nuggets would necessarily 
acquire a mammillated appearance. 


It is quite true thac heavy nuggets would not be so easily 


carried by currents as ordinary pebbles and boulders, still they 
would be moved and rolled occasionally, by masses of rock forced 


against them, also by being undermined and falling over; further, 


although perhaps not moving much themselves, they would be 
subjected to nearly as much abrasion by the constant attrition 
of other and lighter pebbles grinding over them. The cavities 
in such nuggets would also be smoothed off and rounded out by 
the constant stream of water-borne sand and pebbles searching 
every crevice, acting much like the sand blast, but less quickly; 


as the nugget fell over from time to time all parts of its surface 
would be abraded in turn. 

To bring this about, I do not think it is necessary to assume 
with Sir Roderick Murchison and Prof. Egleston, that the violence 
of the old currents was greater than that of those of the present 
day; when in flood, streains of the present day are quite powerful 
enough to shift, in the manner described, the largest nugget which 
has yet been found; even in their normal condition existing streams 
would eventually bring about the form and general appearance 
possessed by nuggets. 

4. It is stated that large nuggets are much more common than 
large masses of gold in veins. As I have already shown, large 


342 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


masses, nearly equal in weight to the largest nuggets, have been 
met with in veins, and probably will again ; the gold found in 
alluvial deposits may represent the contents of hundreds of feet 
(in height) of vein stuff which has been removed by denudation. 


The vein-stuff removed by the miner is infinitesimal in com- 
parison with the amount which has been removed by geological 
agencies, and if we could by any means make a fair comparison 
between the two, we should probably find that the proportion of 
large masses met with in veins is not unequal to that found in 


alluvial deposits. 


After answering the arguments brought forward to show that 
nuggets have had a different origin to vein gold, many reasons may 
be brought forward to show that nuggets have been derived from 
veins.. It has already been pointed out that all the large nuggets. 
have had more or less quartz attached to them, which shows that 
they have either been set free from quartz veins or else that the 
two substances had been deposited together in the alluvial, and as. 
we have no proof of quartz, 7.¢., of the particular kind associated 
with gold nuggets, being deposited otherwise than in reefs, the 
latter explanation is hardly tenable. 


Many of the water worn quartz boulders, pebbles, and sand 
found with gold are admitted to have come from gold bearing 
rocks and reefs, that being so, why should we seek for another 
origin for the associated water worn pebbles of gold ? 


Further if it be contended that all the large nuggets have been 
formed in sitw, from gold in solution, then we may ask, what has. 
become of the large masses of gold which must have been set free 
from the veins by denudation? Masses, which we know must 
have been comparable to the largest nuggets, for several such 
have been mined, and as Prof. Whitney has pointed out,—why is 
alluvial gold not found as plates and strings if it has been deposited 
in situ? 


There is no doubt in my mind, first that gold is present in 
meteoric waters, although, as already stated, no absolute chemical 


CRYSTALLISATION OF GOLD IN HEXAGONAL FORMS. 343 


proof of its presence has been brought forward (except in the case 
of sea water), for it is found in recently formed pyrites and other 
deposits, and could only have got there from solution. In sea 
water it is thought to be held in solution by iodine, but its 
condition in land waters is uncertain, it may be as chloride, 


sulphide, silicate, or other compound. 


The recently formed pyrites containing but a trace of gold 
might, in theory, eventually be wholly replaced by a mass of gold 
possessing a mammillated structure and the appearance of a 


nugget, but practically I do not think this has occurred. 


Artificial nuggets of quite large size, | am sure, could be made 
in a few years by almost any of the methods followed for obtain- — 
ing thin films of gold on sulphides, plates and particles of gold as 
detailed in this paper, and I think that in places gold is being so 
deposited at the present day, but I feel sure that the large nuggets 
have not thus been formed in situ; they have been set free from 
reefs, and any small addition of gold that they may have derived 
from meteoric water has been quite immaterial, and may be 
neglected. In the case of gold grains and dust it may be different, 
for such expose a much greater surface, and the “electroplating” 
may have had an appreciable effect in increasing the amount of 
such gold. 


On THE CRYSTALLIZATION or GOLD in HEXAGONAL 
FORMS. 


By A. LIVERSIDGE, M.A., F.B.S. 
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 6, 1893. ] 


WHILE experimenting upon the reduction of gold, from a solution 
of the double chloride of gold and sodium in water, by various 
metallic sulphides, (On the Formation of Gold Nuggets, Jour. 
Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1893, p. 303), I found that in certain cases 


344 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


the gold was deposited on the sulphides in the form of minute 
prisms and six rayed stars. 


The solution used was the ordinary one employed in toning 
photographs, 2.¢., fifteen grains of the AuCl,,NaCl,2H,O to 
fifteen ounces water ; freshly fractured fragments of the sulphides 
were immersed in this and left until a sufficient amount of gold 
had been reduced and deposited upon them, as stated in the paper 
referred to; the gold was usually deposited in ochre coloured 
lustreless mammillated films, but when copper pyrites was used, 
the gold was in some cases, also deposited in minute prisms, 
. beautifully sharp and well defined; many of the prisms were 
grouped in tufts, and in the form of exquisitely arranged six 
rayed stars or in groups of three fan-like rays, the rays in both 
forms meeting at angles of 60° and resembling snow crystals in 
miniature, but of a most brilliant metallic lustre and of the colour 
of the purest gold. In other instances the gold was in the form 
of six sided plates. 


When a “ graphitic casing” from an auriferous vein was used, 
as the reducing agent, the gold was in part deposited in the form 
of minute very brilliant hexagonal plates. 


With zinc blende in one instance, a few bright apparently 
crystallised points of gold were intermingled with the dull mam- 
millary gold, also a few well defined six rayed stars and one very 
distinct St. Andrew’s Cross, 2.¢., a six rayed star with one trans- 
verse pair of rays left out, these may have been broken off or 


never formed. 

Microscopic hexagonal stars of brilliant gold were also deposited 
on mispickel and on native silver su'phide associated with mam- 
millary gold. 


On marcasite a few bright specks were deposited, probably 
incipient crystals, but no recognisable forms. 


In no case were there any traces of gold in forms belonging to 
the cubical system, although these are so readily obtained by 


CRYSTALLIZATION OF GOLD IN HEXAGONAL FORMS. 345 


» reducing gold with ether, phosphorus in ether, oxalic acid, ferrous 
sulphate etc. 


The occurrence of gold in prismatic and hexagonal forms has © 
been observed by others: Prof. W. P. Blake describes Crystallised 
— Gold in prismatic forms—(Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. xxvii, 1884.) 
From near Clancy, Clancy Creek, Jefferson County, Montana, 
were obtained prismatic crystals of gold terminated by an octo- 
hedral head or knob, the whole having a comet-like appearance. 
The total length is about 3 m.m. or } inch, the prism portion is 
hexagonal in section. (Figures are given in the paper). They 
are extremely brittle, and appear to cleave or break at right 
angles to their length. Hence probably an alloy or amalgam. 


Small brilliant hexagonal crystals of gold, terminated at each 
end by pyramids, were found at Sonora, in Tuolumne County, 
California, and they resemble the artificial prismatic gold crystals 
obtained by Prof. Chester (Am. Jour. Sci., July 1878). It is 
possible that these crystals are also artificial, although similar 
erystals obtained at Angel’s Camp in the same district were said 
to have been obtained from a cavity in quartz, but Prof. E. 8. 
Dana in a paper on the Crystallisation of Gold from White Bull 
Mine—(Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. xxx11., p. 132), points out that the 
rhombohedral and hexagonal pyramid forms are due to planes of 
the 303 which are elongated in the direction of the octohedral axis. 


In another paper On the Crystallisation of Gold—(Awm. Jour. 
Sci., August 1886, p. 138.) Prof. E. 8. Dana refers to hexagonal 
depressions in gold crystals and of crystalline ribs meeting at 60° 
and 120°, which are also quite consistent with the cubical system. 


Prof. vom Rath in Groth’s Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie und 
Mineralogie 1877, describes some crystals of gold from Transyl- 
vania, and amongst them a star like formation from Felsé-banya, 
each ray being a twin of the four faced cube (0 O2) round a 
trigonal axis and extended along the diagonal of a face of the 
octohedron. He states that the acicular and capillary forms are 
usually rhombic in section, and consist of elongated cubes termin- 


346 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


ated by faces of the tetrakis hexadron (2% On), the striations of 
the prisms being due to oscillatory combinations of the cube 
(« Ooo ) and four faced cube (~ On), 


A hexagonal prism of gold closed at both ends by a hexagonal 
pyramid is said to have been found at New Bendigo; this may 
have been a pseudomorph after quartz.—(Selwyn and Ulrich, 
Phys. Geog. Geology and Mineralogy of Victoria, Melbourne 1866). 


Prof. Chester described some hexagonal crystals of gold (Am. 
Journ. Sci. 3rd Series xvi. p. 32), but as they consisted of an 
amalgam containing 6°/ of mercury, they can hardly be cited in 
support of the apparent hexagonal nature of the crystals obtained 
on the sulphides by reduction. 


Prof. Egleston states that petroleum throws down hexagonal 


crystals of gold from gold chloride. 


The crystals obtained by me up to the present are unfortunately 
very small and require further investigation, it may also prove to 
be that the hexagonal plates and stars are incipient cubical forms 
or even gold containing sufficient foreign matter to afféct its 
crystallisation. 

I hope to have an opportunity to lay before the Society the 
results of some further experiments upon the formation of these 


hexagonal crystals as soon as they are completed. 


GOLD MOIRE-METALLIQUE. 
‘By A. LIvVERSIDGE, M.A., F.R.S., 
Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 6, 1893. | 


In experimenting upon the reduction of gold from solution, to 
test the theories of the formation of gold nuggets, I found that 
the pure gold plates and foil which I used (as described in another 
paper, see p. 327), in many cases presented a moiré-métallique 
appearance, such as is so familiar to us in tin plate and galvanized 


2 =. _, 


COMBINATION LABORATORY LAMP, RETORT, AND FILTER STAND. 347 


iron. The whole surface of the plate became dotted over with 
more or less regular crystals like those often seen on tin plate, 
they are however, much more regular and rectangular in outline 
and very small, the majority being less than 1 mm. square. 


Afterwards I found that this crystallisation could be brought 
about by merely boiling the pure gold foil or plate in hydrochloric 
acid. The acid, although free from nitric acid, dissolved traces of 
the gold, probably due to a little free chlorine. 


This moiré-métallique gold may have been observed before, but 
I have not come across any reference to it. Advantage might be 
taken of it for decorative purposes on jewellery and other articles 
made of gold plate. 


A COMBINATION LABORATORY LAMP, RETORT, 
AND FILTER STAND. 
By A. LIVERSIDGE, M.A., F.R.S., 
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. 


[Exhibited before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 6, 1893. ] 


THE stand, as will be seen from 
the figure, is fitted with :— 


A brass screw clamp (a) 


Two or more adjustable brass 
retort or filter rings, which can 
be placed on the rod by the 
lateral slit at (0). 


An Argand burner (c), on its 
peg (a), withregulator and copper 
chimney or shade, this is_per- 
forated so as to allow of its being 
used as a support for dishes, 
watch glasses, orcrucibles. With 
a glass chimney the Argand can 
be used forillumination purposes. 


. ’ 7? 
. i 
@ ‘ 
wl 


348 A. LIVERSIDGE. 


A support or peg for the Argand or bunsen burner when not 
in use (d). 

Retort and filter ring rod (e), this is attached to the foot (7) of 
the lamp by a bayonet joint not shown in the woodcut. 

An ordinary fish tail jet (/), on its peg, for glass bending or 
illumination. 

A. blowpipe jet (g) on its peg. 

A bunsen burner (A), provided with an air regulator at (7), and 
a gallery for the support of the draught shade or chimney (/). 

The foot (7) is made of lead instead of iron for the sake of 
increased stability and to prevent rusting ; it also is made to rest 
on three points for greater steadiness and to keep it out of liquids 
which may happen to be spilt on the bench, 

A more convenient position for the supply tap (A) is at the side 
at (J). 

There is also a rose burner, not shown in figure, to drop over 
the bunsen burner. 

All the parts are interchangeable and are provided with ground 
joints so as to avoid the inconvenience of their becoming fixed as 
often happens with screw joints. 

When the Argand or other jet is required for use, the bunsen 
burner is placed on the peg at the back, from which the former 
burner or jet has been removed, so that there is no need for any 
of the parts to get astray when not in use. 


RESULTS or OBSERVATIONS or COMET VI. (BROOKS) 
1892, ar WINDSOR, NEW SOUTH WALES. 
By Joun TEBBUTT, F.R.A.S., &. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 6, 1893. ] 


THE comet was discovered at Geneva, New York, by Mr. W. R. 
Brooks, on August 28, 1892, and was well observed in the Northern 
Hemisphere down to the close of November. Observations of it 


RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS OF COMET VI. 349 


were commenced at my observatory on the morning of November 
29, civil time, and were continued, with interruptions from strong 
moonlight and cloudy weather, to June 19. The comparisons 
of the comet were made throughout by means of a square bhar- 
micrometer in a dark field, the four and ahalf inch equatorial 
being employed on the first two dates, and the eight inch instru- 
ment on all subsequent dates. In November and December the 
comet had a fairly bright condensation in its centre, but this 
gradually grew fainter and smallers The gradual diminution of 
the condensation facilitated its observation at the edges of the 
micrometer-bars. A faint tail was seen in the telescope during 
November, December and January. In consequence of cloud or 
haze, observations were unsatisfactory on December 20, 21, Janu- 
ary 7,25, February 28, March 13, 20, 24, 26, April 19, 21, 23. 
The observations of February 14, March 20, April 17, in conse- 
quence of the proximity of small stars, were made with difficulty. 
In the first seven comparisons of April 17, the comet gradually 
approached a star of the eighth magnitude, and in the last three 
comparisons both objects were observed as one. After March the 
comet was reduced to a very small hazy speck without the usual 
coma, and in May was observed with difficulty in consequence of 
its projection on a bright branch of the Milky Way. In June the 
comet was, notwithstanding its increased distance from the sun 
and earth, quite as conspicuous as in the month of May. This 
circumstance was due to the fact that the comet was now projected 
on a comparatively dark sky. After the withdrawal of the moon 
an attempt was made to re-observe the comet in July but without 
success, as it was again projected on one of the branches of the 
Milky Way. I may add that the parallax corrections furnished 
in this paper are based on an equatorial horizontal parallax of the 
sun = 8°85” and on the ephemerides published in the Astronomische 
Nachrichten, Nos. 3127, 3131, 3155, 3162, by Dr. F. Ristenpart 
of Carlsruhe, whose parabolic.elements closely represent the 
comet’s movements down to the close of my observations. 


350 


Date. 


Windsor 
Mean 


Time. 


h. m. s. 
15 49 38 
15 24 8 
14 38 20 
15 17 40 
15 44 36 
15 7 25 
15 7 25 
14 33 26 
15 34 25 
15 12 43 
15 12 43 
15 27 49 
15 30 54 
15 30 54 
14 59 26 
14 50 33 
14 46 14 
14 46 14 
14 46 29 
14 46 29 
14 23 6 
15 17 48 
15 17 48 


14 13 49 
15 19 43 
14 53 35 
14 53 35 
15 22 2 
14 51 58 
Sy 3) 
15 17 35 
15 17 35 
14 48 22 
14 48 22 
15 39 29 
15 20 26 
15 20 26 
15 8 48 
15 8 48 


15 35 29 
15 45 42 
14 43 33 
14 43 33 
16 717 
15 41 20 
15 41 20 
15 41 20 
15 56 14 
15 7 31 
15 7 31 
15 21 50 
15 21 50 
15 23 43 
15 23 43 
15 23 43 
15 26 42 
15 26 42 
15 43 7 
15 43 7 
15 43 7 
15 52 43 
15 59 56 


JOHN TEBBUTT. 


COMET VI. (BROOKS) 1892. 


Comet—Star. 


S OC 0 = 0 GOH > Oo 


. 


AWNONCDNOD RWW BP Boe TH COW NNW OWNDNPWNo NOD WE OT 


a 


WOE NE AUSOCOCURAAWAARAHSYVSNNY SNE ONIATE WAR KO WNT AIHOM 


DOABNWOOGCHDHAHWANWDONARAWDSOSTWHOHDORURWDNOTIESONNOEN OS 


eb 


—10 7°86 
—12 30°23 


n 
6 Comet’s Apparent. 
eg 
Fs 
a 
8] : 
h.m. s. RN 
6] 11 16 44:00 |—13 30 2°2 
8] 11 21 43°44 |\—14 30 71 
10} i2 9 1:10 |—23 14 28°7 
10} 12 9 9°59 |\—23 16 2°8 
4,12 9 15°86 |\—23 17 5:5 
15] 12 14 34°40 |—24 9 48°9 
15} 12 14 84°36 |\—24 9 49°1 
12} 12 30 58:17 |\—26 44 2:1 
10} 12 31 11°93 |—26 46 9°6 
20} 12 86 40°83 |—27 84 44-2 
20) 12 36 41°05 |\—27 34 47:0 
12] 12 42 19°50 |—28 23 18°9 
6| 12 47 56°15 |—29 10 4°6 
6| 12 47 55°80 |—29 10 42 
10) 138 16 2°63 |—82 40 49-4 
14] 13 21 40°30 |\—33 18 30°6 
20] 18 32 59°42 |—34 29 55°4 
20) 138 32 59°47 |—34 29 54:5 
10} 13 38 40°09 |—35 3 21-4 
10} 13 38 39°47 |\—35 3 25:0 
5} 14 1 5°73 '—37 2258 
5} Be hee. 
5| 14 6 54°50 |—387 29 4€°4 
4) 14 28 46°80 |—38 58 35°8 
12] 14 55 52°09 |\—40 26 48:9 
16 ae ae 
16 as fi 
20) 15 26 80°61 |—41 33 12°4 
7|15 86 9°59 |\—41 47 30°5 
20} 15 40 59-89 \—41 53 32°4 
12/15 45 45°11 |—41 58 44:7 
12 5b ses 
2 BS 
2 i Ba 
8115 55 4°03 |—42 6 45:5 
10 ae aM 
10 re Ba 
2 16 21 5°36 'i—42 1418-7 
10 3 . 
6 nae eae 
2116 83 8°34 |—42 10 23°5 
2/16 33 8:25 |—42 10 22°9 
10] 16 55 42°99 |—41 50 29°2 
4 sab , 
4 aie 
4, 
10 ee 
i0| 17 27 28°29 | 40 52 35° 2 
10) 17 27 28°46 |—40 52 342 
11) 17 30 20°32 |—40 45 31°9 
11] 17 30 20°43 |—40 45 31:3 
10] 17 48 26°85 |—39 52 30 2 
u 17 48 26°80 |—39 52 28°8 
i fis 
11) 17 57 28°43 |—39 19 55°5 
11| 17 57 28°30 |—39 19 56:7 
8/18 1 40°22 |—39 3 95 
8 abo x 
8} 18 1 40°12 |—39 3 88 
i 18 3 41°50 |—38 54 42°2 


Parallax 
Corrections 
in 


| 
i 


ele Fl Pt tt Ul eI ae et P| 


Le eideine naa laiua eae koneneoteiaadeeonedmaaus 


NWOSOOSHENNNWWADOE KHON H HWY RADWOHHEDADHOHEHAISG OBOARAHAHATMAKMHDHALNMNOSNDNIDS 


SOSSSSRRP REE ER ERP ORPERONN BRE HHH ENN PH HDHD Dre 


Pewee meen lel A LM be ele ae ke 


star Saeesl 


Star Places. 


| Comp. “Star. 


| © 


7 
ROWE Sem OoR we 


(octesT ST asl SR Taal ela estas Teh ala at 


diedaled dal ae dees Lied ih delve aa 


WOMDSONWWWARDOAD WNOHOOUINABDGOOCOCHODONIAUIAMIAAD 


++++44+4+4+444444 
22 C9 C9 C9 HH HA HA OVD D> OD 


BOD DOD OIRHAIAYV AW OH OH BIR 00000 WDD 


+++4++4++ 
co ATE ETSI EU ay ele oe a aa 


Piet LT | | |]: | 


RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS OF COMET VI. 351 


COMET VI. (BROOKS) 1892.—continued. 


nd: Z Parallax | Reductions 4 
ysndsox Comet—Star. 9 Comet’s Apparent. Corrections of 3 
eel 1 4 

| Date. .| Mean a in var Places. a 
me i | 
Time. mies AS g a iS Be 5 - 8 

1eoss elem. Sse.) mM. : Plt hom. \s. Sate Nee S. My S. MW 
(Mar. 13| 14 41 36 | +0 51:40 |—10 54°6 | 4) 18 24 46°97 —37 3 49°8 |—0°39| —1°4 |—0°18; —3°8 55 
14115 35 6|+2 9°67) —2 4°6 |23|18 26 5:28 |—36 54 59°8 |—0°33] —0°7 |—0°14| —3°8 55 
” 38| 15 38 8 | +3 5548| +6 45°0 |10) 18 30 37°94 |—36 20 31°6 |—0-31| —0°6 | 0-00| —3'8 56 
om .. 18)/ 15 38 8 | —1 28:74 | —1 32:9 |10| 18 30 38°08 |—36 20 49°3 |—0-31| —0°6 |—0°03| —3 9 57 
ape ts 15) 37 | —o 31:52 | —6 188 | 6] 18 32 36°50 |—36 4 9°9 |—6:33} —0°8 |+0°02) —3°9 58) 
Aes ear a —4, 39:42 | +1 52:1 |10] 18 33 28°63 |—35 55 59°0 |_0°37| —1°3 |+0°05| —3'9 |58 
BAU 14 27 7 —3 40°52 a 10} 18 33 28°94. aun —0°37| —1°3 |+0°06 an [BY 
* 93| 1446 1|—L59-09| +5 452 |20| 18 25 10-44 |—35 39 5-0 |—0-35| —1 1| +0°13| —3:9 59 
? 94| 15 10 36 |+10 22-78) —5 7-2 |10| 18 35 56°62 |—85 30 89-5 | 0-32] _0°8 | + 0-23] —4°0 60 
», 24] 15 10 36 +6 40°11 | +1 18°5 |10| 18 35 56°54 |—35 30 37°3 |—0°32} —0-8 |+0 21) —4-0 61 
>, 24] 15 10 36 43 25°31 | —7 27:1 |10/ 18 35 56°46 |\—35 30 40-0 |—0-°32) —0°8 }+0:19| —4:0 |62 
? 26 | 15 46 35 | +4 4900| +9 22°6 | 5| 18 37 20-23 |—35 18 50°2 [0°20] 0-4 | +027] —3°9 |62 
1 4, 26| 15 46 385 | +4 10°28 | +1 280 | 5 ne Hee —0°26| —0°4 |+0°27) —40 |63 
Y 96) 15 47 21 | +1 57°71] +1 33°8 | 4 es he —0-26| —0°4 |+0:25| —4:0 |64: 
jApr. 18 | 14 53 17 +0 26°35 | —8 56°3 |15|18 41 7-00 |—32 49 32°1 |—0:23} —0°6 |+0°87| —4°3 |65 
, 13 | 14 53 17 |—0 57-78| +0 11-2 |15| 18 41 7-19 |—32 49 35:0 |0-23) 0-6 | +087] —4-2 |66 
» 17 | 14 24 50 | —6 51:27 —11 0-2 10/18 39 54:27 |—32 18 18°7 |—0-25| —0-7 | +0:98) —4°1 67 
95 19) 14 30 39°) —0 38°75 | —1 181 | 4 ee Be —0°23} —0°6 |+1-:08) —4-4 68 
”” 39| 14 30 39 |—2 26-16]... 4/18 39 0-97 i —0 23} —0°6 |+1:08] .... 69 
», 19| 14 30 39 | —7 44°71] +4 512 | 4118 39 090 |—32 2 27°3 |—0-23) —0°6 |+1:05| —4:1 67 
ee20)) $3.58 26-1 787 | +6 161 |11 ie Noe —0°26} —0°8 }+1°12| —4°3 68 
3 20| 13 58 26 | —2 55°51) +3 59°9 |11] 18 38 31°65 |—31 54 54-4 |—0:26] —0°8 |+1:11) —4°3 69 
»9 621 |.14 538 14 | +1 35°61 —?; 16:1 | 2) | tga as —0'18) —0°5 |+1:17)| —4°5 |70 
5 2l| 1453 14 | —2 19°50 +4 32°6 | 2118 37 57°62 |—31 46 41-9 |—0-18) —0°5 |+1:15| —4°3 71 
” 991 15 37 31 | +2 17°06] —4 1° | 9] 18 37 19-73 |—31 38 45:7 |—0-10) —0-3 | +121] —4°6 72) 
3) 22|-15 37 31 | +0°58°20) +5 42°3 | 9| 18 37 19°89 |—31 38 44-0 |—0-10} —0°3 |+1°20) —4:5 73, 
Peeze IE oo Al | Pl 423i 43 296 [18] 18 36 45°01 |—81 31 143 |—6-24) — 0-7 |4+1:24| —46 72) 
» 23| 14 5 21|—0 58°74; —0 47°3 /18) 18 36 45°27 |—81 3117°6 |—0-24 —0°7 |+1°23) —4°5 74 
| May 8| 10 29 51 | +0 25:00 | —6 6-2 |10) 18 22 49°90 |—29 31 1°4 ey —2°1)/+1°75) —5°6 75, 
meeees)| IL-2 31) +0: 23-04 —l1 18°8 |10} 18 22 48°13 |—-29 30 51°6 |—0°35| —1°S |+1'74| —5°6 76 
Se LE 857 | —0 49°58 | —2 510 | 2) 18 21 35°55 |—29 22 23°8 —0'34. —1'7 |+1°78| —5°6 |76 
>» 11] 10 49 51 | +5 28:14] +0 59:2 | 81/1819 7:08 |—29 5 42°6 |—0:34| —1°8 |+1:86) —6:1 77) 
peat) 10 49 51 | —6 20:27 |+10 15-7 | 8} 18 19 7:22 |—29 ‘5 43:1 |—0:34| —1°8 }4+ 1°83] —d5°4 78 
ie IE 19 7 | —5 12:85 | +2 16°1 |10} 18 16 30°10 |—28 48 29°8 |—0°31| —1:4 |4+1°89] —5°7 79 
» 13/1119 7 |—7 15°68 | +3 30°6 |10) 18 16 30°21 —28 48 29°6 |—0°31] —1°4 |+1°89] —5°6 80 
», 16) 10 52 21 | +1 49°53 | —3. 16°9 |14!| 18 12 28°06 |—28 22 31°6 |—0°31| —1°6 |+2:00) —6°4 81 
», 16| 10 52 21 | —2 47°42] +6 101 |14/ 18 12 28°46 |—2e 22 37°6 —0°31} —L°6 |+1°99) —6"1 82 
» 18} 11 455 | +3 4638)+10 34-7 |10)/18 9 40°39 |—28 5 86 |—0:29) —1°4 |+2:07| —6°7 '83 
», 181k 455 | +0 44°41 | +1 39°2 |10/ 18 9 40°43 |—28 5 8°8 |—0°29| —1-4 |+2:06} —6°6 (84 
» 19|10 7 &5 | —1 5640 |—11 29°9 |10) 18 8 19°26 —27 56 25°8 |—0°33} —1°8 | +2°07| —6°6 |85 
» 19|10 7 55 | —2 33°68} —2 1570 |10) 18 8 19°79 |—27 56 29°3 —0°33} —1°8 | +2°07| —6°5 86 
jJunel5| 9 37 55 | +4 57°75 | —1 58°9 |10) 17 29 53°54 |—23 54 534 —0:18} —1:2 |+2°57| —9°8 87 
>», 18| 8 37 37 | +1 3029] +4 36°8 |10) 17 26 15°08 |—23 30 0°5 —0°22) —1'4 |+2°60; —9°9 (88 
» 18| 9 34 25] +1 27°61! +5 0:0 /10) 17 26 12°40 |—23 29 37°3 —0°16] —1:1 |+2°60} —9-9 \88 
4, 19! 10 30 43} +2 33°99' +0 6:4 !10' 17 24 58°74 |—23 21 6°6 '—0-08] —0'9 !+2°60|/—10°0 '89 


MEAN PLACES OF THE COMPARISON STARS FOR THE 
BEGINNING OF THE YEAR OF OBSERVATION. 


3 (o4 3) Authorities. 
nm 
en am s. Clee ee: Neat, 

1) 11 15 43°17 |—13 29 30°1| Lalande, 21639. 

2| 11 13 56°43 |\—14 11 38°7| Greenwich Nautical Almanac, 1892. 
3|12 9 52°02 |—23 11 1°'7| Arg-Oeltzen 12024. 

4) 12 10 15°64 |—23 14 32°8) Arg-Veltzen 12034. 

5| 12 12 19°72 |23 24 47°5| Lalande 23027 ; Arg-Oeltzen 12058-9. 
6] 12 17 22°94 |—24 16 24:0) Yarnall, 5255; Stone 6880. 


352 


JOHN TEBBUTT. 


Mean places of the Comparison Stars for the beginning of the Year of 


a 


h. m. sg. 
12 17 44°00 
12 31 58°47 


12 30 33°99 
12 37 46°40 


12 38 15°16 


12 41 4°74 


12 41 35°59 
12 41 53°91 


13 17 4:89 
13 20 20°52 
13 31 22:79 
13 31 36.57 
13 42 42°84 
13 47 14°23 
13 59 28°61 
14 4 39 
14 13 59°42 
14 29 43°05 
14 57 46°86 
15 2 28 
15 32 
15 23 12°52 
15 39 57°34 
15 44 10 
15 46 10 
15 47 57°15 
15 55 24 
15 56 29 
16 11 50°85 
16 19 43 
16 46 26°85 
16 46 53:48 
16 53 33°26 
17 615 
17 13 34 
17 17 12 
17 24 10°69 
17 26 43-99 
17 41 14°70 
17 42 42°09 
17 49 22 
17 52 53°12 
18 5 3:14 
17 50 15°98 
17 52 33 
18 5 33°62 
18 13 49°99 
18 16 13 
18 23 55°75 
18 26 42°46 
18 32 6°85 
18 38 8:00 
18 37 9:40 
18 25 23°61 
18 29 16°22 
18 32 30 96 
18 33 9 
18 35 22 
18 40 39°78 
3118 42 4°10 


6 


sot 


14 27°6 
32 28°7 


49 57:0 
35 30°3 


43 51:0 


23 40°1 


0 39 
12 19°6 


37 29°7 


bh bo 
Neko) 
ob oo OOO 
D9 SO BOS 
DN Ode C 


DPE 
SiR co 


57 2 


nr 
—_ 
oe) 

0p 2 DBO 


14.1 


bo 

am 

Or 
NI G2 02 


Ro on 
Dr a ist = Salles Basie. : 
OCHOwWwWNMaoOR NT Seo WORDS 


25 2 
31 51° 


Observation—continued. 


Authorities. 


Cape Cat. 1850, 2221; Yarnall, 5260; Stone 6885. 

Arg-Oeltzen 12289-90; Yarnall,5365; Quetelet 5169; Stone 
7000 ; Greenwich Cat. 1880, 1971. 

Arg-Oeltzen 12270 ; Wash. Mural Cir. Zone 112, 21. 

Arg-Oeltzen 12368; Wash. Merid. Tr. Zone 234, 2; Wash. 
Mural Cir. Zone 105, 128. 

Cape Cat. 1850, 2276; Arg-Oeltzen 12377; Wash. Merid. 
Tr. Zone 234, 3; Wash. Mural Cir. Zone 105, 124; 
Yarnall, 5413 ; Greenwich Cat. 1880, 1988; Stone 7043. 

ash Merit Cir. Zone 92, 66; Wash. Mural. Cir. Zone 

64, 9. 

Wash. Merid. Cir. Zone 91, 91. 

Arg-Oeltzen 12420; Wash. Merid. Tr. Zone 116, 22; Wash. 
Merid. Cir. Zone 91, 92. 

Stone 7332. 

Stone 7359. 

Yarnall, 5713; Stone 7462. 

Yarnall, 5714; Stone 7466. 

Yarnall, 5782 ; Stone 7556. 

Cape Cat. 1850, 2471; Yarnall, 5829; Stone 7604. 

Yarnall, 5916 ; Stone 7711. 

Equatorial. 

Yarnall, 6016 ; Stone 7821. 

Yarnall, 6119; Stone 7945. 

Stone 8189. 

Equatorial. 

Equatorial. 

Stone 8421. 

Stone 8564. 

Equatorial. 

Equatorial. 

Stone 8635. 

Equatorial. 

Equatorial. 

Stone 8860. 

Equatorial. 

Cape Cat. 1850, 3129 ; Stone 9160. 

Cape Cat. 1850, 3185; Stone 9169. 

Stone 9242. 

Equatorial. 

Equatorial. 

Equatorial. 

Stone 9537. 

Stone 9565. 

Stone 9683. ‘ 

Cape Cat. 1850, 3388; Stone 9707. 

Equatorial. 

Stone 9798. 

Stone 9904. 

Stone 9772. 

Equatorial. 

Stone 9908. 

Stone 9990. 

Equatorial. 

Yarnall, 7982; Stone 10078. 

Wash. Mural Cir. Zone 49, 3. 

Wash. Murai Cir. Zone 49, 5. 

Yarnall, 8087 ; Stone 10194. 

Sydney Obs. 1859; Stone 10183; Melbourne, 934. 

Wash. Merid. Tr. Zone 44, 47; Yarnall, 7993 ; Stone 10086. j 

Wash. Merid. Tr. Zone 44, 48. 

Wash. Merid. Tr. Zone 44, 49. 

Equatorial. 

Equatorial. 

Wash. Mural Cir. Zone 25, 77. 

West an Cir. Zone 25, 78; Cape Cat. 1850, 3668; 


Brighter comporent employed. 


Stone 


ROCK PAINTINGS BY THE ABORIGINES. 353 


Mean Places of the Comparison Stars for the beginning of the Year of 
Observation—continued. 


x 6 Authorities. 


hema Si 
ia 18 46 44°56 |—32 7 14-4| Cape Cat. 1850, 3692; Wash. Mural Cir. Zone 25, 79: 
| Stone 10275. 


68; 18 39 38 —32 1 Equatorial. 
69| 18 41 26°05 |—31 58 50°0, Wash. Merid. Tr. Zone 30, 79. 
70' 18 36 21 —31 44 Equatorial. 


71/18 40 15°97 |—31 51 10-2; Wash. Merid. Tr. Zone 30, 78. 

72'18 35 1°46|—31 34 39:3, Wash. Mural Cir. Zone 39, 24; Yarnall, 8063. 

73| 18 36 20:49 |—31 44 21:8 Yarnall, 8072. 

74:18 37 42°78 |—31 33 25°8' Wash. Mural Cir. Zone 39, 26. 

75.18 22 23°15 |—29 24 49°6 Wee oe Cir. Zone 261,18; Wash. Merid. Cir. Zone 


76| 18 22 23°35 |—29 19 27:2, Wash. Mural Cir. Zone 261, 19; Wash. Merid. Cir. Zone | 

97,168; Yarnall, 7972 ; Quetelet 7504 ; Stone 10061. 

77| 18 13 37°08 |—29 6 35:7) Wash. Mural Cir. Zone 27, 62: 261,11; Wash. Merid. Cir. | 

Zone 97, 162; Arg-Oeltzen 18045. 

78 18 25 25°66 |—29 15 53:4 Arg-Oeltzen 18329; Wash. Mural Cir. Zone 261, 22; Wash. 
Merid. Cir. Zone 97, 170; Yarnall, 7997; Quetelet | 

7540; Stone 10088. 

79, 18 21 41-06 |—28 50 40°2 Wash. Mural Cir. Zone 47,9; Yarnall, 7962. 

80. 18 23 44:00 |—28 51 54:6 Cape Cat. 1850, 3582; Arg-Oeltzen 18291-2; Wash. Mural 

Cir. Zone 47, 10: 182, 25; Yarnall, 7981; Stone 10076. 


81118 10 36°53 |—28 19 8°3 Cape Cat. 1850, 3517; Wash. Merid. Tr. Zone 51, 33 ; Wash. 
Merid. Cir. Zone 117, 184; Yarnall, 7880; Stone 9965. 
Declinations very discordant ; probable proper motion 
in declination. 

82' 18 15 13°89 |—28 28 41°6 Cape Cat. 1850, 3540; Wash. Mural. Cir. Zone 27, 63: 

117, 188; Wash. Merid. Cir. Zone 94,90; Wash. Merid. |. 
Tr. Zone 51, 36; Yarnall. 7914; Stone 10002. 

83:18 5 51°94 |—28 15 36°6 Cape Cat. 1850, 3493; Arg-Oeltzen 17803; Wash. Mural). 
Cir. Zone 117, 1830; Wash. Merid. Tr. Zone 51, 293) 
Yarnall, 7826; Stone 9913. Wash. Mural Cir. Zone}, 
Declin. rejected. 

84.18 8 5396 |—28 6 41:4 Arg-Oeltzen 17896; Wash. Mural Cir. Zone 117, 132; Wash.| 

Merid. Tr. Zone 51, 32. 

85, 18 10 13°59 |—27 44 49°3 Cape Cat. 1850, 3513; Yarnall, 7870; Stone 9960. 

86,18 10 51°40 |—27 54 7:8 Arg-Oeltzen 17964; Wash. Mural Cir. Zone 45, 13. : 

87| 17 24 53°22 |—23 52 44:7; Cape Cat. 1859, 3313; Arg-Oeltzen 16877-8 ; Yarnall, 7407; 

| Stone 9544. 

88, 17 24 42°19 |—23 34 27°4 Arg-Oeltzen 16873-4. 


89 17 22 22°15 |—23 21 30 Arg-Oeltzen 16826. 


ROCK PAINTINGS BY THE ABORIGINES IN CAVES: 
ON BULGAR CREEK, NEAR SINGLETON. 


By R. H. Martuews, Licensed Surveyor. 
[With Plates XVIII. - XX.] 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 4, 1893.] 


ABxouT eighteen months ago I was engaged on some extensive: 

surveys under the Real Property Actin the Parishes of Whybrow 

and Milbrodale, about fifteen miles from Singleton, and whilst so’ 

employed my attention was drawn to the existence of some caves: 
W—Sept. 6, 1893. ] 


354 R. H. MATHEWS. 


in the vicinity, containing aboriginal drawings. Being anxious 
to obtain all the information I could on the subject, I got some 
of the residents to act as guides, and visited two of the most 
interesting of these caves. Thinking that the result of my inspec- 
tion may be of some interest to the members of this Society, I 
have prepared a few notes, with illustrative diagrams, which I 
will now place before you. 

I will first deal with the cave shown on Plate 19. This cave 
or rock-shelter, is a large overhanging ledge of Hawkesbury 
Sandstone on the west side of Bulgar Creek, a tributary of the 
Wollombi Brook, and is situated within Portion No. 2 of six 
hundred and forty acres, in the Parish of Milbrodale, County of 
Northumberland, about a quarter of a mile southerly from the 
old road from Sydney, over the Bulgar Mountains, to Singleton, 
and is about fifteen miles south-westerly from the latter town. 


The cave or shelter, is in one of the ordinary low rocky escarp- 
ments of the Hawkesbury Sandstone which are very numerous in 
this part of the district ; the direction of the escarpment being 
north-westerly, and the dip north easterly. The cave is about 
eighty feet above the adjacent valley, and faces the north-east, 
consequently the sun shines into it, on fine days, all the year 
round. There is also a good drainage from the front of the cave, 
which keeps it dry and free from moisture. The shelter is about 
fifty-eight feet long, and is twenty-three feet high from the ground 
to the top of the ledge, the depth from the front to the back of 
the interior being twenty-two feet at the widest part. The thick- 
ness of the overhanging rock at the front is about three feet, 
. gradually getting thicker as it goes back. The floor of the cave 
is, in places, sandstone, 7m siéw, in others, disintegrated sand, but 
too shallow for burials to have taken place. There is no trace of 
any hearth-rubbish, leading to the belief that the recess has not 
been used to any great extent as one of residence. 

I will now proceed to briefly describe the figures. Standing in 
front of the cave with the face towards it, the most prominent 
object is the grotesque figure of a man about eight feet high, with 


ROCK PAINTINGS BY THE ABORIGINES. 355 


the arms and legs extended, and out of all proportion to the rest 
of the body. It is generally supposed by old colonists who have 
been a good deal among the aborigines in the early days of the 
Colony that the figure of a man represents either a good or evil 
spirit, and generally were those who presided over the ceremony 
of the Bora. The figure in this cave, having the legs and arms 
fully extended, seems to represent a man lying on the ground. 
It is known that, at the ceremonies of the Bora some of the 
aboriginal tribes were in the habit of making a colossal figure of 
a man on the ground with sticks, and covering them over with 
earth, so as to show the outline distinctly. Such a figure repre- 
sented Baiamai, or the Great Spirit. In front of this cave there 
is a large level valley, timbered with large and lofty trees, well 
suited for a Bora ground, and I think it more than probable that 
Boras were held here, and that the figures in the cave are con- 
nected with the ceremonies which took place on such. occasions. 
There was plenty of good water in the Bulgar Creek close by, and 
good hunting grounds all around. 


But to proceed with our description of the figures. On either 
side of the body, just below the arms, there are perpendicular 
lines about eight or nine inches long, three being on the right 
hand’ side, and four on the left. It is not clear what these lines 
are supposed to represent, but I think a very feasible theory is 
that they are intended to show the upper ends of spears, the lower 
ends being on the ground, with their tops resting against the rock. 
Close to the body on the right hand side is a native tomahawk 
with handle, and on the left, a boomerang, with another boomer- 
ang a little further to the left. A short distance below the right 
hand there is another tomahawk with handle, and what appears 
to be intended fora waddy. There are four impressions of hands 
in the immediate vicinity of the figure of the man, and one hand 
and a boomerang at some distance, in the upper left hand corner 
of the cave. It will thus be seen that all the figures in this cave 
consist of one rude drawing of a man, seven spear heads, three 
boomerangs, two tomahawks, and a waddy. The plate shows all 


356 R. H. MATHEWS. 


these drawings exactly as they are in the cave, being accurately 
drawn to scale from actual measurements, and in the proper colours. 


The figure of Baramaz, or Devil Devil, or whatever the image 
represents, is drawn in red, by a number of strokes drawn in the 
direction of the different limbs, not one mass of red colour, and 
appears to have been done with some red substance held in the 
hand. The apple tree, and also the grass tree of Australia, yield 
a red gum or resin, which has the property of staining anything 
with which it comes in contact when in a wet state. The eyes, 


and the lower part of the body of the man, are drawn in white. 


The seven perpendicular marks, which we have supposed to be 
the upper ends of spears resting against the rock, are drawn in a 
whitish grey colour, probably with a white stone held in the hand. 
All the rest of the figures are drawn in what has been called the © 
“ stencil” or “splash-work” method. These drawings appear to 
have been made by placing the extended hand, or other object, 
flat on the rock, and then squirting a whitish colour over it by 
means of the mouth, or in some other manner. It will be observed 
that three of the hands in this cave are right hands, which is 
rather unusual in these rock drawings, the impression being 
generally that of the left hand. | 


After the “splash-work” drawing was completed, some dark 
substance appears to have been applied to the rock within its 
margin, because all the splash work figures in this cave are darker 
than the surrounding sandstone. The height of the lowest of 
these figures above the floor of the cave is about four feet, and 
that of the highest about twelve feet. 


I was informed by Mr. W. G. McAlpin, who is now eighty-four 
years of age, and has resided in the neighbourhood for the last 
fifty years, that the figures in this cave were there when he first 
came to the district; and even at that time the drawings were 
beyond the knowledge of the local blacks. Mr. McAlpin further 
states that the figures on the rock are now in about the same 
state of preservation as when he first saw them upwards of fifty 


ROCK PAINTINGS BY THE ABORIGINES. 357 


years ago, having suffered very little in that time. It may be 
mentioned that the Hawkesbury Sandstone is not very durable, 
even under the most favourable circumstances, and when located 
in damp situations, and subjected to much moisture, it crumbles 
away rapidly. It is owing to the very favourable situation of this 
cave, pointed out in the early part of this paper, that its walls 
are now apparently in very nearly the same state as when the 


drawings were made upon them. 


Going on now to describe the drawings shown on Plate 20, 
which is drawn to the same scale as Plate 19, it will be observed 
that they are not so interesting as those we have first noticed ; 
the cave is not so large, and the drawings are confined to impress- 
ions of the hand. This cave is situated on Crown land, in the 
Parish of Whybrow, County of Hunter, on the south side of 
Bulgar Inlet, a tributary of the Wollombi Brook, about a mile 
south-westerly from Thomas Hayes’ forty acres, being Portion 34 
in the Parish just named. ‘The caveis on the side of a hill facing 
the north-east, about one hundred and fifty feet above the level 
of the creek, and about one hundred yards back from it. It isin 
one of a number of large rocks a little way above the sandstone 
escarpment which bounds the creek, which bears at this place 
nearly east and west. There is good natural drainage, and the 
sun shines into the cave from sunrise till past mid-day, thus keep- 
ingit very dry. The cave is about sixteen feet long, and extends 
back into the rock about nine feet; it is about five feet high 
inside, but on account of its dome shaped interior, is only about 
four feet at the entrance. The formation of the rock containing 
the cave is sandstone conglomerate. The figures are drawn on the 
back wall of the cave, near the roof, and are in an excellent state 
of preservation. There are ten hands altogether, all being left 
hands, with the exception of one. Each hand is of the dirty 
yellowish-brown colour of the surrounding sandstone, but the 
surface of the rock, outside the margin of the figures, is smeared 
with a whitish or ash-coloured substance after the manner of 
*splash-work,” which causes the figures to stand out in relief. 


358 R. H. MATHEWS. 


As arule, very little more than the hand is ever depicted in 
the native drawings, and the hand with part of the arm attached 
is considered very rare. It will be observed that two of the figures 
in this cave show the arm as far as the elbow, which makes them 


unusually interesting. 


Mr. W. G. McAlpin who resides on the Wollombi Brook about 
three miles from these caves, told me that he used to know of 
another cave with aboriginal drawings on its walls, similar to 
those which I have been describing, some miles further to the 
westward, but of late years the rock in which the cave was situated, 
has fallen over on its face covering the entrance to the recess in 
which the drawings appeared. 


The practice of rock painting by the aborigines has been observed 
from the time of the earliest explorers and is universally distributed 
over Australia, having been observed in different parts of New 
South Wales, in Queensland, and in Western Australia, but there 
appears to have been very little attention paid to it. 


I have confined myself as much as possible to descriptions only 
of these drawings, and have not attempted to connect them with 
the myths and superstitions of the Australian aborigines ; neither 
have I speculated on their supposed totemic or symbolical mean- 
ings. I have left these researches for those better qualified to 
follow them out than I am, or have more time at their disposal. 


I have prepared a plan (see Plate 18) drawn to scale, which 
shows the correct position of the caves with regard to the nearest 
purchased lands, with the names of the Parish and County in 
which each is situated, so that anyone wishing to visit them can. 
do so with facility. 


PROBABILITY OF EXTRAORDINARILY HIGH SPRING-TIDES. 359 


On THE PROBABILITY or EXTRAORDINARILY HIGH 
SPRING-TIDES aspour tHE DECEMBER 
SOLSTICE or 1893. 


By Joun TEBBUTT, F.B.AS,, &e. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 1, 1893 | 


A BRIEF paper by me on the High Tides of June 15 - 17th 1889, 
was read before the Royal Society on July 3rd of that year, and 
published in the twenty-third volume of the Society’s Journal. It 
treated of the extraordinary tides which occurred at and near 
Sydney, at the period referred to, and of the astronomical con- 
ditions which combined to produce them. It also referred to 
another instance of the registration of a very high tide by the 
Fort Denison gauge on May 26, 1880, and stated the astronomical 
conditions to which that tide was also due. During a few 
moments of leisure from my ordinary observatory work, my 
attention was drawn to a consideration of this interesting subject, 
and as a result, I found that the approaching summer solstice 
would present conditions much more favourable for the production 
of high tides than even those referred to in my former paper. 


It is well known that there are two astronomical conditions 
which are especially favourable for the production of high tides, 
namely, the conjunction or opposition of the moon and her passage 
through her perigee. Speaking of the earth generally, we expect 
that if the new or full moon occur simultaneously or nearly so 
with her perigeal passage, there will be an unusually high tide. 
But if we speak of Sydney in particular, there is another condition 
which sometimes coincides with those just mentioned, and which 
has a very marked effect on the magnitude of the tide wave. I 
refer to the moon’s maximum declination. When I treated of 
the conditions which combined to produce the tidal phenomena 
that formed the subject of my former paper, I showed the close 


360 JOHN TEBBUTT. 


coincidence of the moon’s opposition with her passage through 
her perigee. In addition to these general conditions, I further 
pointed out that the moon nearly at the same time attained her 
‘greatest declination, namely twenty-four and a-half and twenty- 
three degrees in May 1880 and June 1889 respectively, and that 
the vertex or crest of the tide-wave therefore approached more 
than ordinarily near to the latitude of Sydney. But decisive as 
these maxima of declination were in producing the high tides of 
May 1880, and June 1889, they were not so potent as will be the 
corresponding condition at the next summer solstice. A little 
consideration will show that if at the time of the moon’s opposition 
at the summer solstice the longitude of her ascending node be 
approximately that of the vernal equinox, the moon’s north 
declination will be its greatest possible, and that as a consequence 
the crest of the tide-wave will also make its nearest possible 
approach to the latitude of Sydney. | 


In order that the members may understand at a glance the 
eminently favourable conditions which will obtain for a very high 
tide at next December full moon, I give them in the following 
table in juxtaposition with the similar conditions for the full 
moons of May 1880 and June 1889 :— 


1880. 1889. 1898. 

: d. h.m. de eheemr a. h. m. 
Full moon, Sydney mean time |May 24 444/June13 12 3/Dec. 23 2 41 
Perigee is 55 May 2416 O|Junel13 14 0)/Dec. 231 0O 
Moon’s opposition declination | —23" 39° | —21° 30' + 2825 a 
Sun’s declination at opposition) +20 51 ape 16) —23 27 
Moon’s distance at perigee in ; : 

equatorial radii of the earth } BOTTE poe 55°89 


I may add that the diurnal inequality of the high tides about 
the approaching solstice will be very great, and that it is the day 
spring-tide or that which occurs when the moon is below the 
horizon that we must look forward to as the extraordinary one. 


In the course of this paper I have referred to those conditions 
only which may be regarded as strictly astronomical, but there are 


METEORITE No. 2 FROM GILGOIN STATION. 361 


causes which are more strictly meteorological that have to do with 
the magnitude of the ordinary tides. Winds and atmospheric 
pressure have much to do in modifying them. If in addition to 
the astronomical] conditions announced for the December full moon, 
a strong easterly gale prevail witha very low barometer the expected 
high tides will be increased, but if on the other hand strong 
westerly winds prevail with a very high barometer they will be 
diminished. In conclusion, [ shall myself look forward to the 
records of the Fort Denison tide gauge with much interest, and I 
trust that the remarks which I have written down during a few 
leisure moments, may not be without interest to the members 
generally. 


On METEORITE No. 2 rrom GILGOIN STATION. 


By H. C. Russet, B.A., C.M.G., F.B.S. 
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 1, 1893. | 


Ir will be remembered that at the June 1889 meeting of the 
Society, I exhibited a meteorite weighing sixty-seven and a-half 
pounds, sent to me by J. F. Yeomans Esq., of Gilgoin Station, 
situated forty miles towards east-south-east from Brewarrina. 
This meteorite had been long exposed to the weather, and the 
chemical action of air and rain had broken up its surface to such 
an extent that pieces fell off each time it was handled. | 


On the 8th February this year, Mr. Yeomans again wrote to 
me, and said, ‘‘we have in our possession an aerolite, found a short 
time since, about two miles south of the one we sent you some 
time ago, I can have it sent to you by train from Byrock.” Various 
delays occurred and I did not get it until September 5th. The 
meteorite had been very carefully packed, and had not suffered 


‘= 
“~< 
a 
- . 


362 H. C. RUSSELL. 


much loss on the journey, although like the previous one from this 
locality it is much cracked, and many parts of the surface are 
ready to crumble away. All the parts together weigh seventy- — 
four pounds five ounces, and its specific gravity as a whole is 
3757. The No. 1 Gilgoin meteorite weighs sixty-seven pounds 
five ounces, and its specific gravity is 3°857. It seems probable 
from the fact that they were found so close together, that they 
originally formed parts of the same meteorite, and this view is 
strengthened by the similarity in outward appearance and in 
specific gravity. It is but right, however, to add that if so, they 
must have travelled through the atmosphere together a sufficient 
distance to cause the usual melted surface, which, although in 
parts lost by subsequent slow effect of oxidation, is yet too exten- 
sive to admit the alternative that they divided as they fell. . 


This recently found No. 2 Gilgoin meteorite is roughly double 
convex, and measures seven inches through the thickest part, and 
fourteen by fifteen inches diameter. The surface has been melted 
but is not so smooth nor glassy as others I have seen. When a 
part of it that has not been oxidized is broken, it is dark grey in 
colour, and shows a great abundance of fine bright white metallic 
particles. No analysis has yet been made. 


PICTORIAL RAIN MAPS. 


By H. C. RvssE tt, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S. 
[With Plate XXI.] 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 1, 1898. } 


RAIN maps made with the object of presenting to the eye ina 


shape easily received, the results of volumes of figures, may be 
divided into three kinds. First, those in which varying shades or 
intensities of colour convey to the mind’s eye the amount of the 
rainfall in different parts of a country, or it may be of the whole 


PICTORIAL RAIN MAPS. 363 


world. For example we have the rain maps published by the 
Meteorological Department of India, in which nine shades of the 
same colour (blue) are used to indicate districts in which different 
quantities of rain fall, the amount varying from 0 to 100 inches. 
The same method with variations has been adopted in America, 
Canada, Victoria, South Australia, France, Germany and other 
countries, and the same method was used by Professor Elias 
Loomis in picturing on a map of the world the amount of rainfall 
in every place where it is known. 


This method undoubtedly is invaluable to the student who is 
looaing at the question of general distribution of rain over large 
areas, but it does not give the practical and easily read details 
wanted by the agriculturalist and others. The jump from one 
shade to another is sometimes as much as ten inches, and it must 
be admitted that this method of picturing the rainfall fails to give 
that fullness of information which other methods afford, and I 
think I shall be able to show you to-night a rain map, which, 
gives the rainfall to within a quarter of an inch for each part of 
the country ; it at the same time shows the areas of equal rainfall. 


Second, we have the diagram form of rain map. One of the 
earliest of these was our own spot map as it is familiarly called, 
in which a round spot indicates the locality of each observer, and 
the quantity of rain recorded. This avoids shading in, on the 
assumption that rain has extended over districts where no measures 
have been taken. A similar method is followed in Queensland and 
Tasmania, and for some years was in use in South Australia. In 
Java a spot is used, but all are the same size, and the quantity of 
rain is shown by the number of rings in a spot not by the diameter 
of the spot, and it does not convey to the eye the relative quantity 
of rain so well as that in which the size of the spots is in propor- 
tion to the amount of rain, 


In 1880 Mr. G. J. Symons the well known author of “ British 
Rainfall,” adopted a diagram form in which a simple spot indicates 
an average quantity of rain. The signs + and — show excess or 


ae 
fe 5: 
7 
. i, 


364 H. C. RUSSELL. 


defect of rainfall from ten to twenty-five per cent., either sign 
enclosed by a ring quantities over twenty-five per cent. The same 
author in 1884 made a diagram in which the length of a vertical 
line shows the quantity of rain in each month, and twelve such 
lines placed side by side show the rainfall for the year for each 
district in which they are placed. The Meteorological Office of 
the United States draws on some rain maps lines of equal rainfall 
in addition to the shading, which define more clearly the limit 
over which the same quantity has fallen. 


Third, those in which the quantity of rain is shown by actual 
figures located so that they indicate the rainfall for the district 
in which they are placed. One of the first of these, if not the 
first, forms part of the report on the Meteorology of the Bombay 
Presidency for 1878, and shows the rainfall there for 1874 and 
previous years. In this the country is divided by red lines into 
small areas, in which each individual record is given in black ink, 
and the mean of all is given in red ink, but the effect is not pleas- 
ing and the information not rapidly assimilated. In New South 
Wales we first used this method in 1883 to indicate the mean 
rainfall over this colony. ‘The figures were large and can be read 
at a distance of six or eight feet, the object being to make it 
possible to see the quantities easily, and they are so conspicuous 
that they remain as a mental picture not easily forgotten. At 
that time observers were not so numerous as they are to-day, and 
for considerable areas there were no observers, the number has 
gradually increased and is now more than twelve hundred ; and 
in the new edition of the 1883 map, which I have brought to 
exhibit to-night, we have been able to get several stations in each 
square degree of the Colony, save one exception in the extreme 
north-west. The mean of the records in each square degree has 
been taken as the average rainfall for that area, and this quantity 
is shown to the nearest quarter of an inch in large figures on the 
degree, while other smaller figures show the number of years over 
which the observations have extended, and the number of stations 
used to find the mean. 


PICTORIAL RAIN MAPS. 365 


This rain map gives the most complete information about the 
average rainfall of a country of any that I have seen, at the same 
time it shows in a conspicuous manner lines of equal rainfall and 
outlines of large areas of heavier rainfall like the shaded rain map, 
but it gives at the same time what the shaded map cannot give, 
viz., the variations in the rainfall of these areas of heavier rain. 
It was specially prepared to meet the wants of the pastoralist and 
agriculturalist, but now that it is made it serves also the wants 
of the student better than any other form of rain map with which 
I am acquainted. 


It will be noted that the amountof rain increases with remarkable 
regularity in each latitude from west to east, save here and there 
a slight irregularity due to differences of elevation, and in one or 
two instances to the records not having extended over a sufficient 
number of years to eliminate the effect of dry periods. There are 
however one or two places where the variation from this regularity 
cannot be explained in this way, notably the head of the Hunter 
River valley, where proximity to the sea and the mountainous 
character of the country would lead us to expect a greater rainfall 
than thatshown. There are ten stations there, and records extend 
over twenty-one years, so that there must be some local condition 
affecting the rainfall of which I am not aware, but hope soon to 
find out. 

It will be observed that the lowest average annual rainfall in 
the whole Colony is found in the extreme west, and is nine and 
a-half inches. Along the valley of the Darling it is from ten to 
eighteen inches, and along the valley of the Murray it is from 
twelve to twenty-six inches, while our heaviest average rainfall 
(seventy-three and three-quarter inches), is found on the Tweed 
River, which runs at the foot of a range of mountains, some of 
which rise to a height of five thousand feet, and cause this heavy 
rainfall by intercepting the east and south-easterly winds. 

This average rainfall map includes all the rainfall records up 
to the end of 1892. It has been published by the Government 
Printer in a convenient form, and will I hope serve the purpose 
for which it was designed. See reduced copy of the map, Plate 21. 


™ a 
. 
fir 
. 4 


366 E. F. PITTMAN. 


NOTE ON THE OCCURRENOE OF A NEW MINERAL 
AT BROKEN HILL. 


By Epwarp F. Pirrman, A.R.8.M., Government Geologist. 
[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, November 1, 1893. } 


Ir is only a few months since Professor Liversidge read a paper 
(by Mr. C. W. Marsh), before this Society, describing ja new 
mineral which he named ‘marshite.” The composition of the 
mineral was iodide of copper, and.it was discovered by Mr. Marsh 
in the celebrated Aldridge Collection at Broken Hill. I have 
now much pleasure in recording the occurrence of another interest- 
ing mineral from the same district, viz, from the Australian 
Broken Hill Consols Mine. The composition of this mineral is 
sulph-antimonide of cobalt and nickel. The credit of discovering 
the mineral is due to Mr. George Smith, M.a.1.m.z., Sub-Manager 
of the Broken Hill Consols Mine, and it is at his request that I 
am bringing the mineral under the notice of this Society. 


I propose to name the mineral Willyamite (pronounced Willy- 
ah’-mite) after Willyama the official name of the Broken Hill 
township, and the aboriginal word meaning a hill with a broken 
contour. Complete analyses in duplicate of the mineral have been 
made by Mr. J. C. H. Mingaye, r.c.s., Analyst and Assayer to 
the Department of Mines, and the results are as follow :— 


No. 1. No. 2. 
Sb Bee 56°85 56°71 
Co Sat 13°92 13°84 
Ni NAD 13°38 13°44 
Fe a trace trace 
Cu ..- Minute trace minute trace 
Pb ... Minute trace minute trace 
S Ne 15°64 15:92 


99°79 9991 


OCCURRENCE OF A NEW MINERAL AT BROKEN HILL. 367 


These analyses correspond almost exactly with the formula 
CoS,, NiS,, CoSb,, NiSb,, or a sulph-antimonide of nickel and 
cobalt. When first discovered the mineral was supposed to be a 
sulph-antimonide of cobalt, but Mr. Mingaye’s analysis shows it 
to contain equal quantities of cobalt and nickel, although it is of 
course just possible that future discoveries may show that these 
two metals may replace one another in varying proportions. The 
mineral which agrees most closely with willyamite is ulmannite, 
a sulph-antimonide of nickel NiS,, NiSb,. In the last edition 
of Dana’s ‘System of Mineralogy,” several analyses of ulmannite 
are quoted which show that mineral to contain a trace of cobalt, 
and one specimen is quoted as containing 1:06 per cent. of cobalt 
in connection with twenty-six per cent. of nickel. The presence 
of equal quantities however of cobalt and nickel in willyamite 
appears to justify its recognition as a new mineral. Mr. Smith 
informs me that a small quantity of the new mineral only was 
found associated with a lump of dyscrasite in a gangue of calcite 
and siderite at a depth of one hundred and fifty feet (vertical). 


I have tested the physical and pyrognostic characters of the 
mineral, and they are as follow :—System of crystallisation, 
isometric. Cleavage, cubic, perfect. Fracture uneven, brittle. 
Hardness, about 5:5. Specific gravity (mean of a number of | 
experiments) 6°87. Lustre metallic. Colour between tin-white 
and steel-grey. Streak greyish-black. In the closed tube and 
next to the assay yields a dark red sublimate, which is orange 
coloured on cooling, and this is surmounted by a faint white 
sublimate. In the open tube decrepitates, yields antimonial and 
sulphurous fumes; near the assay the white sublimate shows in 
fern-like forms. Before the blowpipe on charcoal, fuses readily to 
a globule, which boils and emits sulphurous and antimonial fumes. 
With borax glass gives at first the cobalt blue colour, but after 
oxidising all the cobalt, the nickel reaction is subsequently obtained. 
Decomposed by nitric acid with separation of antimony trioxide. 


The Australian Broken Hill Consols Lode in which this mineral 
was found, differs materially from the other lodes on the field, 


ht i? 


368 E. F. PITTMAN. 


and has more the appearance of a true fissure lode. It has an 
east and west course, and the working shaft is situated about 
three-quarters of a mile in an east-south-east direction from that 
part of the main Broken Hill Lode known as the British Mine. 
The width of the Consols Lode varies from a few inches up to ten 
feet and it dips to the south at an angle varying from 24° near 
the surface to 60° at a depth of five hundred and fifty feet. The 
lode traverses gneisses and schists and an intrusive (1) basie rock, 
which has been examined by Mr. J. B. Jaquet, Geological Sur- 
veyor, and found to consist essentially of hornblende, triclinic 
felspar and bronzite. According to Mr. George Smith, the lode 
is productive only where it intersects this hornblende rock. The 
gangue or veinstuff consists chiefly of limonite down to a depth of 
one hundred and thirty feet, which appears to be about the limit 
of the zone of oxidation, below that depth the gangue consists of 
chalybite and calcite. 


Mr. George Smith, who is an enthusiastic mineralogist, has 
dentified a considerable number of rare minerals occurring in this 
mine, and I am indebted to him for the following notes upon their 
occurrence, and also for specimens illustrating a number of the 


minerals :— 


Norrs sy GEORGE SMITH, M.A.1.M.E., Sub-Manager, 

Upon the minerals occurring in the Australian Broken Hill 
Consols Mine. 

Dyscrasite or antimonial silver has been found in slugs or masses 
at all depths. Photographs are exhibited of two of these masses 
known respectively as the Turtle and the Flitch of Bacon. The 
former weighed sixteen hundredweight, and contained eighty 
per cent. of pure silver. The latter weighed eighty-seven pounds 
and contained eighty-three per cent. of silver. A piece still larger 
than the Turtle was found weighing twenty-three hundredweight, 
but was not photographed. The proportions of silver and antimony 
have been found to vary considerably in different specimens of 
dyscrasite from the mine. The formule of the most common 
varieties were found to be Ag;Sb, Ag,Sb, Ag,Sb, Ag, .Sb. 


OCCURRENCE OF A NEW MINERAL AT BROKEN HILL. 369 


Argentite—Silver Sulphide (Ag,S).—Very rare, only small 
specimens met with, contained generally in dyscrasite, sometimes 
in small crystalline masses, showing a well marked cubical struc- 
ture ; rarely in cubes possessing the peculiar shrivelled appearance 
reported by Cox and Ratte (Mines and Minerals). The purest 
specimens were never tested; a typical piece gave seventy-eight 
per cent. silver, the impurity being probably lead sulphide. 
Very soft, sectile, but not perfectly so. Depth about one hundred 
and twenty feet (vertical); lode-gangue principally limonite. 


Stephanite—Antimonial Silver glance (Ag,;SbS,).—Found in 
one part of the mine only in small quantity, in soft puggy ground 
between two veins of mixed calcite and siderite. Specimens 
detached and small, all crystallised. Rhombic six sided prisms 
and tables; macles frequent. Specific gravity 6°23. Contains 
67:1 per cent. silver; no silver compounds associated. Depth 
between three hundred and eighty and four hundred feet (vertical); 
lode-gangue calcite and siderite. 


Pyrargyrite—Ruby silver ore, (Ag;SbS,). Also found in small 
quantity only; very rarely crystallised in hexagonal prisms. Small 
amorphous pieces apparently very pure, translucent on edges, gave 
56:3 per cent. silver. Mostly in films in cleavages of siderite, 
rarely dendritic in calcite, the latter very dark in colour, rather 
sectile with the characteristic streak. Always with or near 
tetrahedrite, rarely with pyrite and pyrrhotite. Various depths; 
lode-gangue siderite and calcite. 


Sternbergite—Sulphides of silver and iron (AgFe,S,).—Very 
rare, found encrusting a piece of dyscrasite weighing over fifty 
pounds, at a depth of one hundred and fifty feet. Several lumps 
(detached slugs) of dyscrasite were found in close proximity, but. 
only with one was this rare ore associated. Amorphous and more 
or less impure through admixture with pyrargyrite. The purest. 
piece tested gave silver 33°94 per cent., iron 30°76 per cent., and. 
contained a little antimony, quantity not determined. Fused 
B.B. to metallic globule; marked paper slightly ; streak black ;. 

X—Nov. 1, 1893.] 


>) Ae 
ti oy) 
Paya 


370 E. F. PITTMAN. 


colour bronze tarnishing blue. Rather brittle, but some pieces 
almost sectile in places. 8.G. 4°34, H. about three. Associated 
minerals dyscrasite and pyrargyrite. Lode-gangue siderite and 
calcite. 

Stromeyertte—Sulphide of silver and copper (Ag,S. Cu,8.)— 
The principal ore of the mine and the most uninteresting miner- 
alogically. Never crystalline, but very uniform in appearance, 
and fairly consistent in silver value, viz., about thirty per cent. 
Colour bluish- and greenish-black to black. Tough ; often anti- 
monial. So common in the past that no special tests were made 
of it. Depth (where it occurred in large quantities) one hundred 
to one hundred and forty feet (vertical); associated minerals 
principally azurite, malachite, volgerite and galena. Lode-gangue 
limonite and rarely siderite. 


Argentiferous Tetrahedrite.—Sulphide of copper and antimony. 
This and stromeyerite are the only silver ores found in quantity 
(excepting the antimonial chloride mentioned later). The others 
are so rare as to be considered curiosities. The bulk of this ore 
contained about twenty per cent. of silver, though small deposits 
have been found at various parts of the mine giving about thirteen 
and a-half per cent. At our deepest level however some of this 
class of ore has been found containing the same amount as the 
bulk, viz., twenty per cent. Large quantities have been found in 
siderite, but the richest and largest masses have always been found 
enclosed in calcite. The rich varieties have a lighter colour and 
brighter lustre than the poorer kinds. An isolated imperfect 
tetrahedron was found, but this was the only appearance of 
crystalline form observed up to the present. Depth, various, 
Associated minerals galena, pyrargyrite, chalcopyrite, bournonite 
and dyscrasite. Lode-gangue siderite and calcite. 


Brongniardite—Sulphide of lead, silver and antimony (PbS, 
Ag,S.Sb,8,).—Very rare; only met with associated with the upper — 
portion of a large deposit of stromeyerite. Gave very distinctive 
reactions before the blowpipe, but contained a large quantity of 
silver—thirty-four and a-half per cent. Encrusted with a grey 


OCCURRENCE OF A NEW MINERAL AT BROKEN HILL. 371 


carbonate of lead into which it was being changed. Purest speci- 
mens crypto-crystalline, structure somewhat resembling argentite 
but very indistinct. Depth about one hundred feet; associated 
mineral stromeyerite ; lode-gangue limonite. 


Antimonial Silver Chloride—Silver chloride (or chloro-bromide) 
is of comparatively rare occurrence, considering the quantities 
found elsewhere on this field. A silver chloride has been found 
in large masses which differs from the ordinary chloride of the 
other mines, and in fact from any yet reported. This ore is 
always massive and antimonial; of a uniform grey colour and 
fairly constant value of about fifty-five per cent. silver. Some 
Jumps enclosed veins of the ordinary chloride, and others patches 
of dyscrasite ; some of the latter showed that it had undoubtedly, 
in my opinion, been altered from the dyscrasite. A specimen in 
my collection shows the antimonial chloride enclosing a kernel of 
unaltered dyscrasite, round the edge of which can be seen the 
chloride in the granular form of the other. A very interesting 
mineral deserving further attention and analysis. Associated 
minerals stromeyerite, bindheimite, azurite and volgerite ; lode- 
gangue limonite. Depth one hundred to one hundred and forty 
feet (vertical). A round lump (detached slug) of this mineral 
was found in a soft formation, and was coated with small crystals 
of ordinary chloride. <A large slug was unearthed before I came 
to the mine, and which I did not see, weighing four hundred and 
seventy-five pounds. These pieces were shipped to London intact 
and were presumably homogeneous. 


Bournonite—Antimonial lead and copper ore. Entered here on 
account of its high silver value. Occurs in limited quantity in 
upper portion of vein forming small bonanzas in limonite, often 
perfectly isolated from other ores ; always impure containing from 
about five to seven per cent. silver. Generally associated with 
various lead ores and malachite ; sometimes showing mechanical 
mixture with tetrahedrite from which the silver has doubtless 
been derived. An analysis gave a friend who kindly undertook 
to determine a specimen of this ore, the following :— 


372 E. F. PITTMAN. 


Je)o) a a Aide 5) 
Cu. me aM Beco) 
Sb. fy nee ee 2080) 
Fe. fat aS, seh Poa) 
Ag. ne ae sath Some 
8. ee a3 none aes 
94:1 

Insoluble Mere em) 

_ Moisture by difference... 2°9 
100-0 


Always amorphous ; too impure to be interesting. Associated 
minerals galena, anglesite, cerussite, bindheimite, tetrahedrite, 
malachite, and rarely brochantite ; lode-gangue limonite. Depth 


about eighty to ninety feet, vertical. 


Kerargyrite—Silver chloride—Comparatively scarce. Some 
very pure specimens were found with the antimonial chloride, 
which were colourless, and in thin pieces quite translucent. 


Assayed 73°1 per cent. Depth various ; lode-gangue limonite. 


_ Lodyrite—Silver iodide—Fairly plentiful in various parts of the 
mine. Always with limonite. Some found at shallow depth was 
associated with a bright red mineral readily tarnishing on exposure 
to sunlight, which was found to be sulphide of mercury. No 


special tests made. Various depths. 


Galena including Anglesite—Almost all grades of granular 
form have been met with, from the finest grain—very like chalco- 
cite—to cubes six inches across, but contrary to the general 
opinion, comparatively little assistance in discrimination was 
afforded by the differences in crystalline structure. Some samples 
very rich in silver were exactly similar in appearance to many of 
the poor ores, occurring sometimes within a short distance of each 
other in the same matrices. As an instance of their similarity 
might be mentioned two classes of galena which were being stoped 
simultaneously within a short distance of each other, and which 


OCCURRENCE OF A NEW MINERAL AT BROKEN HILL. Bie 


could not be separated by any difference in their appearance, and 
yet their respective assays were (bulk samples) one thousand and 
forty-five ounces and forty ounces, the richer ore in silver strangely 
enough containing about seventy-five per cent. of lead as compared 
with sixty-five per cent. in the other ore. Some fine crystals were 
found, principally cubo-octahedrons, the finest specimens occurring 
in calcite. Pseudomorphs of anglesite, after galena, were found 
rather plentifully in the upper portion of the vein, some specimens 
showing a kernel of unaltered galena when broken, the sulphate 
often containing a crust of carbonate into which it was being 
altered. A few assays show the great range in silver value :— 


Coarse grain—Ag. 10 ozs. fairly plentiful es Dy Oa, 
ie = 40 ,, plentiful Ss: Boh hei Olas 
bs Pee Od ATC | oc ae Nasa ha lg iiess 

Fine grain a 40 ,, plentiful Pee Sao LO Ores 
as » 20 ,, found in fair quantity, ,, 80,, 
‘. ee OOM. A if eS Ohe 
ms Peo SOw 2 A ‘ ae FON, 

Very fine grain,, 690 ,, very rare Af we baen ions 


Cerussite—Carbonate of lead (PbCO,)—Very little found. Few 
erystals in upper levels. Grey variety resulting from the altera- 
tion of other ores was found near the rich ore assaying over one 
thousand five hundred ounces silver, and about sixty per cent. lead. 


Phosgenite—Chloro-carbonate of lead (PbCO, PbCl,)—Very 
rare; amorphous. No special trialsmade. Contains little silver, 
about five ounces. Found in upper levels. 

Lindheemite—Hydrous antimonate of lead.—Found in good 
quantity ; generally earthy ; always amorphous ; sometimes very 
rich in silver. No special tests made of any specimens from this 
mine. Found in upper levels associated with all the silver ores. 

Caledonite—Cupreous sulpho-carbonate of lead.— Very rare and 
impure, mixed with carbonate and sulphate of lead ; amorphous. 
No special tests made. 

Vanadinite—V anadate of lead.—Occurs as an incrustation on 
the crystals (pseudomorphs after siderite) of limonite, not plentiful. 


374 E. F. PITTMAN. 


A qualitative determination showed presence of phosphoric acid, 
chlorine, a little sulphuric acid, and antimony. 


Johnstonite 1—Variety of galena—Some peculiar pieces of 
galena were found from which some of the lead had been eliminated 
leaving the sulphur free. This variety is possibly identical with 
the “ Johnstonite” reported by Dana. 

Stibnite—Antimony trisulphide (Sb,S,)—Rare, in fine capillary 
crystals on siderite associated with mispickel. 


Volgerite—Hydrous antimonic acid.—A white earthy oxide of 
antimony, occurring in small quantities with stromeyerite and 
sometimes chloride of silver ; earthy. Quantity too small to test. 
thoroughly. Contains nine or ten per cent. water. Rather a 
doubtful species ; insoluble or nearly soin HCl. The only sample 
assayed for silver gave one hundred and seventy-four ounces. 


Stibiconite—(Sb,0,H,O.)—-Very rare, earthy. Found enclosed 
in one lump of silver chloride. 


Mispickel—Arsenical pryites.— Rather rare, found scattered in 


small amorphous lumps through siderite. 


Cobalttte—Sulph-arsenide of cobalt (CoS,CoAs,)—Rarely in 
crystals. Amorphous variety common; generally argentiferous. 
through admixture with dyscrasite and sometimes fahlerz. Occurs 
at various depths in calcite. On exposure soon oxidises to the 


arsenate (erythrite). 


Lrythrue—Hydrous cobalt arsenate.—One specimen found only 
am situ, crystallised in stellate form on siderite. 


Copper ores—None interesting; only small quantities found. 


Varieties consist of malachite, azurite, chenevixite, brochantite, 


bornite and chalcopyrite, the latter most plentifully. 


Aurichalcite—Basic carbonate of zinc and copper.—Rare; very 
handsome specimens were found forming stalactite shaped masses 
in a vugh near the deposit of rich ore. The inside of these speci- 
mens was filled with dyscrasite, iodide of silver and gossan. 


OCCURRENCE OF A NEW MINERAL AT BROKEN HILL. 375 


Calamine—Carbonate of zinc.—Rare; in small globules on 
limonite. 

Willyamite—Curiously enough this mineral was found associated 
with one lump of dyscrasite only, about forty pounds. This lump 
was found near the piece which contained the sternbergite, 
although other lumps were found in the near vicinity, none of 
this mineral was found with them, a remarkable coincidence, 
seeing that the lumps were so close im situ. Associated mineral 
dyscrasite ; depth one hundred and fifty feet vertical. Lode- 


gangue calcite and siderite. 


Calcite, Siderite, Limonite—Vein material, often well crystal- 
lised. The limonite being of course pseudomorphous after siderite ; 
the change taking place at about one hundred and thirty feet, 


which may be considered the water level. 


Aragonite—In well developed crystals ; rare. The best speci- 
mens being found at about three hundred feet in a cleft of the 
enclosing country, viz., amphibolite. All the above minerals were 
found enclosed by this rock in which the whole shoot of ore exists. 


Mercuwry—Sulphide.—Found as a red hard mineral associated 
with iodide of silver in limonite in one locality, in upper levels ; 
also three hundred feet lower, coating dyscrasite of a brownish- 


red colour. All varieties readily tarnish on exposure to sunlight. 


Manganese —Manganese dioxide, pyrolusite and wad !—Rather 
plentiful in upper levels. The former sometimes in stalactitic and 


branch-like forms, making good cabinet specimens. 


Quartz—Small perfect crystals with double terminations; rather 
rare. Agate and amethyst, both well coloured ; the former was 
common in upper workings. 

Native Sulphur—tIn small crystals associated with cerussite in 
vughs in galena, from the decomposition of which it has no doubt 
been derived. 


376 W. H. SUTTOR. | 


ARTESIAN BORES ON BUNDA STATION IN 
QUEENSLAND. . 
By the Hon. W. H. Surtor, M.L.c. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, November 1, 1893. | 


Wir reference to No. 1 Bore on this station I find that boring 
operations were first commenced on 4th November 1892, and it 
was completed by the 19th December following. Some delay was 
caused from want of cable, the estimated quantity is 1,500,000 
gallons per twenty-four hours, which gives, as well as I am able 
to calculate, about 1,040 gallons per minute. 


No. 1 Bore cost as follows :— & Sues 
By drilling 682 feet at 15/- per foot ... .. DiiSiie 
Stewart’s well joints, 267 feet at 7/4 per foot... Boas © 
Seventy-two eight inch conductor at 11/2... 4015 2 
Four hundred weight of coal ... Sate Ee Ries 2. 19% 
Twenty cords firewood ... os am ..  LORRORER 
Men’s wages account ... ae at, oie.» ORES 
Ration account ... oa as ole . , Jou 

£16k ae 

Completed on 19th December, 1892. i dads 

No. 2 Bore. £ | Sade 
By drilling 613 feet at 15/- per foot ... .. 459. 1a 
Stewarts well joints, 294 ft. 6in. at 7/4 perfoot 107 7 8 
Ninety-four conductors at 11/2 ee .. OZR 
Three hundred weight of coal ... i ee 1 owas 
Men’s wages... nee BE ke. . “SL UTORRS 
Rations ... te ea Se Bie 31 ae 

£732 12 


Telegrain sent on 8th February re this bore. 


No. 1 Bore is in the creek in Nimro paddock, after running 
some five to six miles through it, it runs about a mile and a-half 


through the corner of Britchy paddock, and then some six miles 


ARTESIAN BORES ON BUNDA STATION IN QUEENSLAND. 377 


through Black Bull paddock, and going through the fence across 
the road into the unfenced country, which will make a large area 
available to the cattle. The water has been helped along by 
ploughing and deepening the drains from one water hole to 
another. The outflow from this bore is estimated at 1,500,000 
gallons. Where the water flows the grass is growing quite green 
along the banks of the creek, and the same at the other two bores. 
The water is clear and sparkling as distilled water, and does not 


contain much mineral of any kind. 


No. 3 Bore is well up in the south end of Black Bull paddock, 
and runs some ten or twelve miles through it, as yet the water 
has not passed into the outside country, but it is expected to do 
so shortly. The outflow from this bore is estimated at 1,500,000 
gallons per day, the same as No. | Bore, and is seven hundred 
and forty-two feet in depth and was completed some time in the 
end of March, 1893. No. 2 Bore is on the north-east side of the 
Saxby River and is on what is now used as the cattle country 
about eight miles from the head station up the Saxby and some 
four miles out from the river. The outflow from this bore is 
estimated at 1,000,000 gallons per twenty-four hours. Owing to 
their being no well-defined creek channel to carry the water, 
and very little fall in the country, this water does not run more 
than three miles; the water spreading itself out into swamps. 
As soon as possible drains will be made to bring this water a 
longer distance for the benefit of the cattle and stock generally. 
The finding of such a good supply of water at such a shallow 
sinking has put a value on the run of many thousands, and 
has reduced future operations and the watering of the place to a 
certainty. 

Mr. Leslie J. de Gruchy, informs me that Richmond Downs 
Township is seven hundred and ten, decimal fifteen (710-15) feet 
above sea level. 

Bunda Bunda is about eighty miles from Richmond Downs 
Station, probable fall in the Flinders River four to six inches 
per mile. 


378 B. DUNSTAN. 


On tHE OCCURRENCE or TRIASSIC PLANT REMAINS 
InASHALE BED NEAR MANLY. 


By B. Dunstay, F.G.s. 
[With Plate XXII.] 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 6, 1893. | 


For sometime past the fossil fern Tniopteris, to which is allied 
Oleandridium, has been known to occur in the beds both above 
and below the Hawkesbury Sandstones, but as far as I know, 
there has been no record made of its occurrence in these particular 


beds. 


Professor David has noted the presence of Macrotceniopteris in 
the Narrabeen Shales, and Mr. R. Etheridge, Junr., the Govern- 
ment Paleontologist, has informed me he found traces of Tent- 
opteris and Macroteniopteris in some of the many lenticular 


patches of shale occurring in the sandstones around Sydney. 


Oleandridium, however, until now has not been found anywhere 
in our sedimentary rocks, and judging from the number of impres- 
sions which may be seen on single blocks of stone, the deposits 
which I have discovered, when opened out, would prove to be 
immensly rich in these plant remains. All the fossils obtained 
by me were from exposed places, and probably, by further excavat- 
ing much better preserved specimens would be found. 


The locality in which the deposits of these plant remains occur 
is about a mile and a quarter north of Manly, and is known as 
Freshwater, being the second point on the coast line north of 
Manly Ocean Beach. (See accompanying sketch plan.) 


The outcrop of the fossiliferous bed, which is shale and shaly- 
sandstone of about twenty-five feet in thickness, is very conspicu- 
ous on the south side of the point, where a good natural section 
isexposed to view. The sketch section on the accompanying plan 
will show its relation to the beds above and below it. 


TRIASSIC PLANT REMAINS IN A SHALE BED NEAR MANLY. 379 


With regard to the horizontal extension of the shale bed, I 
find the rocks at Freshwater Point have decidedly a dip of 4° in 
the direction W. 40° S., that the rocks at Curl Curl Head to the 
south have a dip in the direction slightly north of west, and that 
the rocks at Deewhy Head have a dip almost the same as those 
at Freshwater, both in direction and inclination. Consequently 
the shales should outcrop on Deewhy Head but not at Curl Curl 
Head, and this I find to be the case. At Deewhy they are some- 
what altered in character, being much more arenaceous than those 
at Freshwater. 


At Curl Curl Head, although the shale bed is not to be seen 
yet traces of plant remains are to be found, and probably Olean- 
dridium and other forms may occur above the geological horizon 
of the shale beds at Freshwater Point. 


Between Freshwater Point and Deewhy Head occurs a large 
lagoon, and when visiting the locality I was struck with the idea 
that perhaps the existence of this lagoon may in some measure be 
due to the presence of these soft shales. On studying the question 
Iam convinced that not only does the lagoon owe its existence 
to the shale bed, but that also the contour of the coast line in 
this locality has been influenced by it. A visit to the spot will 
show that both marine and subaerial denudation has taken place 
—that the sea in the past has made encroachments where the 
soft shales dip below sea level south of Freshwater Point, and 
that streams have eaten away the shales to just below sea level, 
between the Point and Deewhy Head, and that the wide channel 
formed has been closed, and is now being gradually filled up by 
the accumulation of deposits of blown sand and alluvial. 


Mr. Etheridge has kindly undertaken to work out and describe 
the plant remains, and his results will be published subsequently. 
Provisionally his classification of the different forms is as follows: 

Macroteniopteris wianamatice (Feist.) 
Oleandridiwm, sp. nov. 

Phyllotheca, sp. non det. 

(2) Podozamites. 


380 R. P. SELLORS. 


(?) Seed vessels. 
(2) Seed scales. 


In conclusion I must tender my thanks to Mr. W. W. Froggatt 
of the Technological Museum and to Mr. E. Avdall, a geological 
student of the Sydney Technical College, for assistance kindly 
rendered. 


THE ORBIT OF THE DOUBLE STAR h5014. 
By R. P. Senrors, B.a., Sydney Observatory. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 6, 1893. ] 


Tus double star, which was discovered by Herschel at the Cape 
of Good Hope in 1836, has now described about half its apparent 
orbit, so I thought I would try ifa set of elements could be found 
which would represent fairly well the observations. I accordingly 
collected all the measures to which I had access, and think the 
accompanying list is complete. It will be seen that the observa- 
tions from 1836 to 1886 are very few and unsatisfactory ; this is 
no doubt to be accounted for by the closeness of the pair at that 
time ; Herschel describes it as “‘ excessively close and difficult,” 
and Jacob compares it to ‘a dumpy egg.” It is to be regretted 
that more attention has not been devoted to this star, as it is an 
interesting binary, and with more measures to work from, a toler- 
ably good orbit might now be obtained. The elements which I 
have the honour to submit to the Society are, of course, only 
provisional, but seem as satisfactory as can be expected from such 
data. The distance measures are so scanty that I had to draw 
the apparent ellipse from the position angles alone, after the 
method devised by Herschel. Mr. Burnham has pointed out that 
by thus rejecting the distance measures one may be misled by an 
apparent agreement between the observed and calculated positions, 


THE ORBIT OF THE DOUBLE STAR h 5014. 


381 


and conclude that the result must be the best that is obtainable 
from the given measures when really it is not. so. In the present 


instance no other course is open, there being no distance measures 


at all over a great part of the arc described. The elements were 


deduced from the apparent ellipse by the formule given by Prof. 
Glasenapp in Vol. xurx. of the Monthly Notices of the Royal 
Astronomical Society. 


The Right Ascension and South Declination for 1900 are, 
18h. Om. and 43° 24’, and the components are equal and of 6°5 


magnitude. 


Elements. 
Os 39 
i eemeabely cag ie 
N=) 199,36 


a 


0-499 


cee OOK 

T= '3859'00 

P = 141-69 years 
pb = —2°:5408 


The following is the comparison between the observed and cal- 


culated positions :— 


Epoch. 


57:28 
80°46 
80°53 
86°57 
87°75 
90°61 
91°63 
93°64 


1836-73. 


Observer. 


Herschel 
Jacob 
Russell 
Cruls 
Pollock 
Pollock 
Sellors 
Sellors 
Sellors 


6 


co) 
Observed 


6, 
Calcula- 
ted Pos. 

Angle. 


251°2 
133°8 
82°5 
82:4 
75°0 
73'8 
TO 
ET 
67:7 


0, —0 


O 


—2:°0 
+1:3 
—3'2 
+20 
—0°2 
—0°'8 
aOon 
+ 0:2 


+ 0:4 


e|* 


No, of 
Nights. 


wonmnmnwrnwnrnwiaA 


Po 


Observed 
Distance. 


0:67 
0°55e 
0°81 
0:6e 
12a 
1°38 
IRA 
1:10 
1°02 


Pe 


Calculated 
Distance. 


0°43 
0°63 
1:05 
1:05 
1:14 
1:16 
LSU) 
1°20 


1°23 


PoPe 


wore hw bd 


382 HENRY G. SMITH. 


OCCURRENCE OF EVANSITE IN TASMANTA. 


By Henry G. SMITH, 
Laboratory Assistant, Technological Museum, Sydney. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 6, 1893. | 


THe Sydney Technological Museum having come into possession 
of a small collection of minerals from the mines of Zeehan and 
district, in Tasmania, I found when investigating them for the 
purpose of classification, that this specimen gave different reactions 
than those expected. It came from the Mount Zeehan Company’s 
Mine, and was stated to be known locally as “soda crystals.” 


The small globular excrescences covering the surface, somewhat 
botryoidal in appearance, are entirely amorphous and without a 
trace of crystallization, colourless, and these have a vitreous lustre 
resembling glass, or milky-white and slightly opalescent, often 
translucent, very brittle, streak white, hardness near 4, specific 
gravity 1:842 at 60° F. 

Heated in a closed tube it decrepitates and gives off much water 
which has an alkaline reaction. When heated with nitrate of 
cobalt solution, gives an intense blue colour. Heated before the 
blowpipe, gives a greenish flame. Soluble in sulphuric, nitric, 
and hydrochloric acids. These properties only differ slightly in 
some respects from the original Evansite from Zsetcznik, Hungary; 
examined and described by David Forbes, F.R.s.* 


The specific gravity of the Tasmanian specimen isa little lower 
than the original, given as 1:939, although two of Mr. Forbes’ 
determinations gave 1:872 and 1°822. The water given off in the 
present specimen is alkaline, while that of the original specimen 


was neutral. 


In all the determinations and analysis only the perfectly glassy 
beads were taken. No fluorine, silica, or iron were detected in 
these. The mineral is a basic aluminium phosphate. 


* Phil. Mag., Iv., XXVIII., p. 341, 1864. 


OCCURRENCE OF EVANSITE IN TASMANIA. 383 


The phosphoric acid determined by molybdate of ammonia gave 
17:996 percent. By citric acid and precipitating with sulphate of 
magnesia 18-232 per cent., mean 18-114 per cent. The amount 
of water present was 41-266 per cent., the greatest precaution 
being taken to prevent loss by decrepitation. The loss equalled 
-434 per cent., this may be considered principally as alkalis; all 
attempts to detect ammonia, as indicated by the alkaline water, 
failed. On evaporating the filtrate from which the phosphoric 
acid and the alumina had been removed, the minute quantity left 
gave a strong sodium flame. The white opaque cellular portions 
of the specimen are very siliceous. The rock appears to be a slaty 
one, and a few particles of galena are present. 


The formula Al,P,O,,+18H,O gives 


Theoretically :—Alumina ... 39°87, Found:—40:186%. 
ty Phosphoric acid 18°35, i 181147. 
% Water... eee eae $ 41-2667. 


loss °4347. 
100-00 


100-000 


Since the above paper was read, my attention has been directed 
to a ‘Catalogue of the Minerals of Tasmania” by Mr. W. F. 
Petterd, published during the present year. On page 27, under 
Evansite from Zeehan is the following :—“ A rare species, occurr- 
ing as botryoidal incrustations which are often almost colourless 
but sometimes milky-white, at all times having an attractive 
pearly lustre. It appears to differ from the typical form in having 
a proportion of silica chemically combined. ‘The examples were 
obtained in a silver-lead lode, with galena and sphalerite.” 


From a courteous communication since received from Mr. 
Petterd, it appears that the above is all the information published 
in regard to the Tasmanian mineral, so that my analysis and 
observations will prove acceptable. 


384 H. G. McKINNEY. 


THE PROGRESS AND POSITION OF IRRIGATION IN 
NEW SOUTH WALES. 


By H. G. McKInney, M.E., M. Inst. C.E., 


Chief Engineer for Water Conservation. 
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 6, 1893. | 


It is not generally realised that notwithstanding the remarkable 
succession of good seasons which this Colony has enjoyed since 
1888, irrigation is being more widely adopted every year, and its 
benefits are becoming better understood. The wet seasons have 
in a number of cases, led to a diminution of the irrigated areas in 
the Eastern and Central Divisions in recent years, but the number 
of irrigation plants has increased, and there are strong indications 
of a more rapid increase in the near future. The importance of 
developing the export trade is beginning to be generally under- 
stood, and as a natural consequence every means of increasing 
the productiveness of the land is receiving increased attention. 
Irrigation is, however, still in its infancy here, so that it is not 


necessary to go far back in tracing its development. 
fo) fo} 


When, as a visitor from India, I first travelled over the plains 
in the southern and south-western districts, about seventeen and 
a half years ago, the miserable appearance of the herbage where 
any was to be seen, and the numerous skeletons of sheep and 
cattle to be seen in all directions, showed much better than any 
words could do, the necessity for providing means for sustaining 
the live stock in dry years. When I ventured to suggest to some 
enterprising and successful pastoralists, that it would be well worth 
while to try irrigation of fodder crops at suitable places in their 
runs, these pastoralists, with all the assurance of superior know- 
ledge informed me that such a suggestion coming from an Anglo- 
Indian who did not understand the conditions of labour in 
Australia was not surprising ; but that in reality it was absurd 
to entertain the idea of carrying on irrigation with profit in these 


PROGRESS AND POSITION OF IRRIGATION IN N.S.W. 385 


colonies. A second visit to the south-western plains showed that 
these same pastoralists had come to the conclusion that the 
absurdity was all on their side. In fact some of those who in 
1876 had ridiculed the idea that irrigation might prove profitable 
in the western districts of this Colony had themselves adopted 
that means of reducing the losses occasioned by lack of rainfall. 
This change of ideas had occurred without any appreciable altera- 
tion in the conditions of labour. 


Doubtless, questions connected with the tenure of the land had 
an important effect in curbing enterprise and preventing the 
adoption of any course which would tend to show the value and 
productiveness of the land. There was certainly abundant 
evidence in 1876 that the pastoralists in the Murrumbidgee and 
Murray Districts were not wanting in enterprise in regard to 
providing water for their stock. The Burrabogie run near Hay, 
now the property of Mr. Wentworth, but then the property of 
Messrs. McGaw & Co., was perhaps as good an instance as could 
then be found in the Colony of the extent to which the stock- 
carrying capacity of the land could be increased by the adoption 
of suitable means for conserving and utilising the available supply 
of water. Dams, tanks, and wells were extensively used, and with 
them a remarkable variety of water-lifting appliances from the 
centrifugal pump to an ingenious adaptation of the balance lever 
worked by horse power. In short, throughout the districts adjoin- 
ing the Murrumbidgee and the Murray, a very creditable amount 
of enterprise and ingenuity was shown in providing water for 
stock requirements; but the idea that irrigation was financially 
feasible, even with the drought then prevailing, was universally 
scouted. 


A settler from one of the Western States of America would 
scarcely credit the statement that men of intelligence and enter- 
prise under such conditions, would hold such opinions. The 
explanation is, however, not difficult to find. The policy adopted 
in the Western States of America was to sell the land at a price 
little more than nominal, and to grant to the purchasers extensive 

Y—Dec. 6, 1893. 


rights to river waters free of charge. In New South Wales, 
immense areas of land were sold to pastoralists above their true 
market value, the purchasers being practically compelled to buy 
to prevent their runs from being ruined by selection. Where the 
land was not sold to the pastoralists, the conditions of tenure were 
not such as to eucourage the runholders to develop the capabilities 
of the soil. While charging a higher price for the land or letting 
it on terms which did not encourage its development, the Govern- 
ment of this Colony conceded no rights whatever in regard to 
river waters. The results of these widely different policies in this 
Colony and in the Western States of America are such as might 
have been anticipated from the commencement thus made. The 
landowners in the Western States soon understood what a valu- 
able property they had in the waters of their rivers, and they lost 
no time in turning this property to account. Having obtained 
their land at a very moderate cost, they were the better able to 
proceed with works for increasing its productiveness. Not having 
a Government which they could look to for assistance with any 
hope of obtaining it, they quickly learned how to help themselves. 
Thus in Wyoming, which became a State only in 1891, and which 
has a population of only 65,000, the sum of ten million dollars, or 
say two millions sterling, has been expended on the construction 
of channels for diverting water from the rivers. In 1889, before 
this Territory was constituted a State the area of irrigation was 
nearly 230,000 acres of crops, without reckoning irrigated pasture 
land. The total area of crops irrigated in the year mentioned in 
what is termed the Arid Region in the Western States of America 
amounted to over three and a half million acres. In this Colony 
the landowners, by constructing tanks, dams, and wells have made 
provision—in some cases sufficient, in others not so—for watering 
their live stock ; but as they cannot obtain any legal authority 
for increasing the stock-carrying capacity of their holdings, by 
irrigation, comparatively few are willing to incur the necessary 


386 H. G. McKINNEY. 
4 


risk and expense. 
What the landholders of New South Wales and the Colony at 
large, lose by this backward state of irrigation may to some extent 


PROGRESS AND POSITION OF IRRIGATION IN N.S.W. 387 


be inferred from the returns of the United States Census Office. 
In a report of that office, dated 20th August, 1892, the following 
passage occurs :—‘“‘The average value of the land irrigated in 1889 
with the improvements thereon, is found to be $8328 per acre, 
and the average value of products for the year stated $14°89 per 
acre. By correspondence with over 20,000 irrigators, fairly dis- 
tributed throughout the arid and subhumid regions, it has been 
ascertained that the average first cost of irrigation is $8:15 per 
acre and the average value placed upon the water rights, where 
separable from the land, $26-00 per acre, or over three times their 
original cost. The average annual expenditure for water, as 
distinguished from the purchase of water rights, is $1-07 per acre, 
and the average cost of the original preparation of the ground for 
cultivation, including the purchase of the land at the Government 
rate of $125 per acre, is $12°12 per acre. By applying, with 
necessary modifications, to the enumerator’s returns, the averages 
obtained for each separate State and Territory, it has been found 
that in round numbers the total investment in productive irriga- 
tion systems utilized in 1889, in whole or in part, was up to June 
Ist, 1890, $29,611,000. Their value at that date was $94,412,000 
showing an apparent profit of $64,801,000, or 218-84 per cent. 
In the same manner the aggregate first cost of the irrigated areas 
with their water rights, not including the farms of the subhumid 
states, has been ascertained to be $77,490,000, and the value of 
the same on June Ist, 1890, $296,850,000, showing an increase 
in the value of land and water rights of $219,360,000, or 283-08 
per cent. In other words, the land irrigated in 1889 was worth 
nearly four times what it cost, no allowance evidently being made 
for failures. The total expenditure for water, including the 
maintenance and repairs of ditches, in the arid states in 1889 was 
$3,794,000 and the total value of products $53,057,000.” 


It is quite beyond question that the development of this Colony 
and especially of the fertile plains west of the Dividing Range, is 
and has been seriously retarded through want of suitable legisla- 
tion on the subject of water rights and the utilisation of our 


TT ae 
ii 
. 
‘ A, 
+ 


388 H. G. McKINNEY. 


rivers. On the other hand, it is equally beyond question that 
legislation or legalised customs of a somewhat reckless character 
have given an unhealthy stimulus to the construction of channels 
for diverting water from the rivers of the Western States of 
America. The ill-considered design and wasteful working of many 
of the channels was referred toin Mr, Deakin’s interesting and in- 
structive report on American Irrigation. These faults are doubt- 
less due in a large measure to the haste involved in acting on the 
principle ‘first come, first served.” The working of this principle 
in Colorado, and of the useful modification of it adopted in 
Wyoming, has been described as follows :—‘ In Colorado, A taps 
a stream and runs his ditches as far as he pleases. Then B taps 
the stream above A and runs his ditches in the same or another 
valley or locality. Farming is carried on along both sets of 
ditches ; but when there exists a scarcity of water, A appeals for 
his priority rights and gets all the water his ditches will carry. 
B has his ditches closed, and the orchards and gardens and grain 
fields along his ditches must die of drought, even though A’s 
territory may not be all under cultivation, or though he may have 
twice the water he needs. Under the Wyoming system, priority 
rights prevail, but only water that is actually benefiting land is 
at any man’s disposal.” I may here remark parenthetically, that 
I have never been able to discover on what grounds the Americans 
apply the term “ditch” to an irrigation canal or distributary. Jf 
this term were used regarding American irrigation channels by a 
hostile critic, the meaning would be obvious, though in many cases 
the application would be unfair, as there are many American 
irrigation canals which certainly do not deserve to be called 
“ditches.” 


The wholesale waste, both in water and the cost of construction 
of works, arising from such a system as that described is at once 
apparent. With reference to this, an American might very 
pertinently ask us whether such a state of affairs is not preferable 
to the backward condition of this Colony through want of suitable 
legislation. On the one hand we have in Western America 


PROGRESS AND POSITION OF IRRIGATION IN N.S.W. 389 


wholesale waste and extravagance, due chiefly to the haste with 
which settlers naturally avail themselves of their water rights ; 
but to counterbalance this waste, there is the great progress of 
agriculture and of horticulture. On the other hand in New South 
Wales the development of agriculture and horticulture has been 
greatly retarded, owing to the fact that no person has any right 
to use the river waters for irrigation. The free use of the river 
waters in Western America has led to remarkable progress in the 
cultivation of the land, but it has created objectionable monopolies, 
has caused much useless expenditure through ill-considered design 
and faulty construction of works, and has laid the foundation for 
endless disputes and litigation. Mr. Deakin has described how in 
California and Colorado, canals were constructed without engineers 
and even without surveys. Under such circumstances it is not 
surprising to find a more recent writer on the same subject, stating 
that he saw on a map of one of the counties in Wyoming a place 
where, to use his own words, “one hundred and fifty ditches, 
paralleled and duplicated one another in land which two ditches 
would have served thoroughly well.” A comparison of Mr. 
Deakin’s report on Irrigation in America with his recent admir- 
able work on Irrigated India is very instructive on this and 
kindred points. 


Notwithstanding the exceptionally favourable seasons which 
this Colony has lately experienced, and the absence of any legal 
right to irrigate from our rivers, the spread of irrigation since 
1884 has been much greater than is generally supposed. In that 
year the Royal Commission on the Conservation of Water was 
appointed under the presidency of the present Minister of Works, 
Mr. Lyne. Up till that time, with a very few exceptions, irriga- 
tion in New South Wales was practised only by Chinamen, who 
in this respect may, and very possibly do, claim to have been the 
pioneers of civilisation. Now there are pumping appliances for 
irrigation purposes to be found on every important river, and on 
a number of creeks and lagoons west of the Dividing Range; and 
not only so, but even in the coast district, irrigation, particularly 


oe 
¥ 


390 H. G. McKINNEY. 


of orchards, is regularly carried out. This is highly encouraging 
progress, especially when it is borne in mind that since records of 
the rainfall and of the river levels began to be kept no such suc- 
cession of wet seasons as we have lately been favoured with was 
ever experienced. Ina number of cases in which irrigation of 
fodder crops was carried on in dry or ordinary seasons, such irriga- 
tion has in recent years been wholly or partially suspended ; but 
this is more than counterbalanced by the increase in the number 
of cases in which pumping machinery for this purpose has been 
brought into use and by the extension of knowledge of the subject 


and its importance. 


During three years, from 1889 till 1892, prizes were awarded 
by the Government for the best irrigated farms and orchards. 
Having had the honour of being one of three judges in the first of 
these years, and sole judge in the other two, I had excellent: 
opportunities of observing the progress which is being made. The 
competitors west of the Dividing Range represented properties on 
the Namoi, Lachlan, and Murrumbidgee Rivers and the Gilmore 
Creek, a tributary of the Tumut River. Those east of the Dividing 
Range represented the Hawkesbury, the Parramatta, and the 
Bega districts. From some cause or other a number of irrigators, 
particularly on the western rivers, did not compete, although their 
properties would have attracted favourable notice if they had 
been entered. The properties which were entered showed in a 
number of instances a highly creditable class of work, and showed 
also that the irrigators had the ability and judgment to select the 
methods best adapted to their circumstances. 


The properties entered, though not numerous, embraced orchards, 
mixed farms, and farms specially intended for providing fodder on 
pastoral estates. In some cases the conditions were all in favour 
of the irrigators, but in others it was surprising that irrigation 
was ever attempted. The most remarkable case of irrigation 
under difficult circumstances which I have seen, was that success- 
fully carried out by Mr. Wren, Manager of the Kameruka Estate 
near Bega. As a considerable quantity of fodder was required on 


PROGRESS AND POSITION OF IRRIGATION IN N.S.W. 391 


that property, and a stock of it had to be maintained, Mr. Wren 
went into the question whether he could produce lucerne hay in 
a central position in the estate. He came to the conclusion that 
he could do so with advantage, notwithstanding the serious 
difficulties to be overcome. Owing in a great measure to the high 
cost of carriage, lucerne hay could seldom be obtained for less 
than £6 per ton, and had cost as much as £8 per ton. The 
problem to be solved was how to produce lucerne hay at a lower 
cost than this on land which consisted of low but steep hills with- 
out any intervening valleys. A good supply of water was avail- 
able, but the soil on these hills was only from five to nine inches 
deep, underlaid by disintegrated granite, the depth of which was 
seldom less than two to three feet, and asa rule was considerably — 
more. Under these unpromising circumstances not only were 
good crops of lucerne of a high quality obtained, but on account 
of the admirable manner in which the water was distributed, the 
crop was more even than almost any crop of lucerne I have ever 
seen on the plains. The secret of this uniform distribution of the 
water lay in the fact that the channels were skilfully marked out 
with the aid of a simple but effective water level, which was made 
by Mr. Wren’s engineer, and were constructed in a proper manner. 
As a rule, in the construction of distribution channels in these 
colonies and America, economy in first cost is attained with con- 
siderable sacrifice of efficiency and economy in the subsequent 
working. At Kameruka, the channels were neatly cut with the 
Hornsby draining plough, and very little hand dressing was 
required. The water had to be raised two hundred and forty-six 
feet, and the pumping plant was guaranteed to deliver 30,000 
gallons per hour at that height. The circumstances here were 
most exceptional, and though the experiment was successful and 
satisfactory, it is unlikely that irrigation will be attempted in 
many other cases where like difficulties exist. 


Another irrigated property in which I found features of a some- 
what unusual character was the farm in the pastoral estate of 
Mr. Wills Allen at Gunnible, near Gunnedah. Here also the 


— 
— 
" 
° . 
« 


392 H. G McKINNEY. 


chief crop irrigated was lucerne, but maize and other grain crops 
were grown successfully. This is a class of irrigation which 
deserves to be widely imitated, as on it will depend, in an impor- 
tant degree the increase of production and settlement on our 
western rivers. The source of supply in this case is the river 
Namoi, and the water is raised by a centrifugal pump to a maxi- 
mum height of slightly over thirty feet. This is one of those 
cases in which economy in the construction of distributary 
channels has been carefully considered, while economy in water 
has been left out of account. The style in which the irrigation is 
done would not be allowed on any canal in Upper India—in fact 
it is just such a case as would be deemed to require the application 
of the penal clause in the Canal Act relating to waste of water. 
Yet the result is highly successful and no one is at present injured 
by the extravagant use of the water. The soil is of a very porous 
character and is underlaid by drift and shingle, so that the natural 
drainage leaves nothing to be desired, and no damage is done by 
over-watering. On the contrary, as the water contains certain 
fertilizing properties, the land is really manured as well as watered 
by the copious floodings. All this has been taken into account, 
and there is no doubt that the results obtained amply justify the 
practice adopted. Not only is the supply of water actually used 
with the crops unusually large, but there is extensive loss of water 
in the distributary channels. Like the case of the pumping, this 
also was a matter which was carefully considered by Mr. Wills 
Allen, who came to the conclusion that the broad and shallow 
channels while wasteful of water, were, as compared with channels 
constructed on more scientific principles, a source of convenience 
and economy in working his irrigation paddocks. Viewed in this 
light, the position was a perfectly sound one. The results of the 
irrigation are highly satisfactory, and the system followed is 
undoubtedly warranted by the circumstances, though there are 
many places in which such watering would kill the crops, and 
others in which it would turn the land into a marsh. 

In the Central and Western Divisions, wherever a supply of 
water is available, irrigated gardens and orchards are to be seen 


PROGRESS AND POSITION OF IRRIGATION IN N.S.W. 393 


beside the homesteads of a large proportion of the landowners. 
But in addition to this, irrigation has been in many places suc- 
cessfully adopted by professional fruitgrowers. In the western 
districts it may be stated that as a rule fruit cannot be grown 
except by this means, but it is somewhat surprising that the best 
managed irrigated orchards which I have seen are in the coast 
district. 1t is improbable, however, that this supremacy will be 
long maintained. When the owner of an orchard ten acres in 
extent spends nearly £200 ona steam boiler, pump, and piping 
for irrigation, and finds that his outlay gives a highly profitable 
return, there is clearly a good field for such enterprise and a fair 
margin to allow for mistakes. Such outlay under such circum- 
stances has actually been incurred in several instances in the 
coast district and with the result stated. 


In connection with irrigation of orchards it may be here men- 
tioned that great advantages to intending irrigators are likely to 
be obtained in the Irrigation Trusts at Hay, Balranald, and 
Wentworth. The Municipal Council of each of these towns has 
been constituted an Irrigation Trust by special Act of Parliament 
and in each case a highly valuable grant of land has been given 
free by Government for subdivision among intending settlers. 
The Trusts have to obtain the necessary pumping plant for raising 
the water, and have to construct the works for its distribution. 
The settlers will ve required to fulfil certain reasonable conditions 
as to residence and cultivation and to pay interest, working 
expenses, and sinking fund. ‘The present time is very unfavour- 
able for starting new enterprises like these, but there is a strong 
probability that notwithstanding this fact two of these Trusts 


will soon be in a position to commence operations. 


The question of utilising for irrigation the surplus water from 
artesian bores, is one with which I had to deal when it first 
attracted attention, three or four years ago. I then suggested 
the advisability of using the available supply of water at every 
artesian bore for the purpose of raising crops—fodder by prefer- 
ence—which might be required in a time of drought. The district 


beyond the River Darling, in which nearly all the successful 


394 H. G. McKINNEY. | 


artesian bores are situated, is not likely to be used to any con- 
siderable extent for other than pastoral purposes. This being so 
the object to be aimed at here is the increase of the stock-carrying 
capacity of the land. The attainment of this object depends mainly 
on the provision of an ample supply of water for the stock and of 
reserves of fodder for assisting in tiding over dry seasons. Through- 
out a large portion of the north-western district, these require- 
ments can be met in part by artesian supplies of water. There is 
therefore, strong reason for drawing on these supplies to their 


fullest extent, and making use of them to the greatest advantage. 


As already mentioned, irrigation in connection with pastoral 
properties has in some cases, particularly in the Central Division, 
diminished in recent years owing to the exceptional rainfall. 
Since 1886 the record of maximum annual rainfall has been twice 
broken, namely in 1887 and 1890; not only so, but, with the 
exception of 1888, every year since the beginning of 1887 has 
been above the previous average in regard to rainfall and to floods 
in the rivers. <A resident of the Gwydir district of twenty-seven 
years’ standing, lately informed me that during the whole of that 
period there was no such succession of floods as that experienced 
in the last few years. The most sanguine will scarcely expect 
this state of affairs to last much longer. Since the last severe 
drought the number of sheep in this Colony has nearly doubled, 
other live stock have increased very largely in number, and the 
importance of agriculture, dairying, and fruit growing have 
advanced in at least a corresponding degree. Under these circum- 
stances the question suggests itself, ‘‘ How are we now prepared 
for a drought”? This is a question of the first importance and 


one which requires to be examined from several points of view. 


In the last ten years the number of sheep in this Colony has 
increased from 36,115,000 to 58,080,000, and other live stock 
have also increased largely, though not in the same proportion. 
Selectors in the Central Division and homestead lessees in the 
Western Division constitute an important increase in the number 


PROGRESS AND PUSITION OF IRRIGATION IN N.S.W. 395 


of settlers. While the seasons have, on the whole, been unusually 
favouralle, the low prices for wool and for live stock and produce 
generally, and the loss and expense caused by rabbits, have, in 
many cases, more than counterbalanced the benefits which might 
have been expected from increased rainfall. Bearing these facts 
in mind, and also taking into account the present state of the 
money market, there is no doubt that regarded from the purely 
financial point of view, the Central and Western Divisions are 


not so well prepared for a drought as they were ten years ago. 


There is another point in regard to which the Western Division 
particularly has deteriorated; namely the quantity of edible scrub. 
When grass was not to be had, the rabbits quickly discovered all 
the most useful and nutritious kinds of edible bushes aud scrub, 
and they sustained themselves on the bark of these and as much 
of the leaves as they could reach. In this way the edible scrub 
was killed over very extensive areas, and in a number of instances 
the resumed areas of pastoral holdings were abandoned by the 
lessees, largely on this account. As a striking instance of depre- 
ciation of the value of pastoral holdings owing to the presence of 
rabbits, and to the destruction caused by them, it may be mentioned 
that in March 1892, a station in the south-western part of the 
Colony, comprising about 1,200 square miles of country and in- 
cluding 5,000 acres of freehold land with a good woolshed, home- 
station and garden, and 10,000 sheep, fifty horses, and fifty head 
of cattle was sold for £3,250. 


Thus, as compared with the position ten years ago, we havea | 
largely increased number of live stock, diminished carrying 
capacity of large areas of country, and a much more stringent 
money market. But on the other hand, railway communications 
have increased largely during that period, and the facilities for 
transferring live stock from one part of the Colony to another 
have increased in a corresponding degree. This is a very impor- 
tant matter, as it rarely happens that there is not some part of 
the country which escapes a drought, and to which stock in large 
numbers can be transferred. Another important redeeming 


396 H. G. McKINNEY. 


feature in the present position is the large number of pumping 
engines on the rivers and the increased knowledge of the capabili- 
ties of irrigation. There is no doubt that as soon as the pinch of 
drought begins to be felt, the irrigation plants in the Central and 
Westrn Divisions will be worked to their full capacity, and a 
great stimulus will be given to irrigation enterprise. It is to be 
regretted that the favourable seasons have had the effect of making 
very many of our landholders forget what a drought is like, and 
of luling them into a feeling of security which the statistics of 
the rainfall do not warrant. In each of the three classes of country 
landholders—pastoralists, farmers, and fruit growers—there are 
men to be found who stand in the front rank in the knowledge 
and practice of their business, but they constitute only a small 
minority. Landholders asa rule are the most conservative portion 
of a community, and the slowest to adopt altered methods or new 
expedients. Still it is not likely to happen again that on rich 
alluvial land fronting on a permanent river, mattresses will be 
ripped up for the fodder which they contain, or flour used in the 
absence of other available food to keep horses alive, as has actually 
happened in times past ; but it may be confidently expected that 
when a drought does come, many of the landholders will be badly 
provided with reserves of fodder to meet it. While many have 
neglected excellent opportunities of collecting large supplies of 
bush hay—that is, hay made from the natural grasses—it is not 
surprising that those who have pumping engines have frequently 
contented themselves with producing lucerne and other fodder 


crops in quantities very little above current requirements. 


Respecting this question of irrigation for pastoral purposes, it 
is worth while to examine how it is dealt with in the Western 
States of America. In the references to American irrigation which 
have appeared in the press in this Colony, the fruit growing 
industry is so frequently referred to as to create an impression 
that irrigation there is confined chiefly to orchards. As a matter 
of fact, with the exception of California and New Mexico, all the 
States in which irrigation is practised have a larger area in fodder 


al 


PROGRESS AND POSITION OF IRRIGATION IN N.S.W. 397 


crops than in all others combined. Not only so, but in some at 
least of the States, in addition to these crops, extensive areas of 
grass land are watered merely for pasture. In this country, though 
we are beyond the stage at which intelligent persons will be found 
to make the bald statement that irrigation will not pay, there are 
still many who will state that irrigation of grass land or of cereals 
will not pay. Such a statement is really absurd and meaningless, 
unless the rainfall is so abundant that further watering would 
not be beneficial. If by supplementing the rainfall an increased 
growth of grass or an increased crop of cereals resulted, clearly 
there would be appreciable benefit from this watering. If the 
value of this benefit exceeded the cost of the watering it would be 
clear that it did pay to have the watering. For instance, if by 
irrigating wheat the average yield were increased by five bushels 
per acre, while the cost per acre of applying the water was 
equivalent to the value of two bushels, there would be no question 
as to the watering being remunerative. It is extraordinary that 
so much misapprehension exists in regard to a point which seems 
so obvious. As a matter of fact there are places in this Colony 
in which irrigation of grass land is practised with great advantage, 
and there are others which present nearly equal facilities for it. 
In short where water is available or can be made available, what 
the landholder has to ascertain before he can come to a conclusion 
on the subject of irrigation is in the first place the most suitable 
crop to produce, in the second place the cost per acre of irrigating 
that crop, and in the third place the value of the increase of crop 
owing to watering. If this method of taking up the subject were 
generally adopted, there would be no doubt as to the results. I 
have not met with or heard of a single person in this Colony who 
has tried irrigation in a rational and business-like manner, who 
has not been thoroughly satisfied with the experiment. 


When the railway system of India was much less extensive 
than it is now, the importance, in times of famine, of what were 
termed ‘protected areas,” was recognised, and as far as possible 
the principle of providing for such areas was acted on. A district 


398 H, G. McKINNEY. 


was protected against famine when there was a sufficient area of 
irrigated land to supply food for the population within its bounds. 
Notwithstanding the rapid increase in the population of India, 
famines are becoming less frequent and less severe. This is due 
almost entirely to the extension of irrigation and of railway con- 
struction. The same system is wanted here, not in our case for 
the protection of human life, but chiefly for the protection of live 
stock. Ifthe western districts were dotted over with irrigation 
farms, wherever water is available, and pastoralists would adopt 
the principle of having at least one acre of irrigation to every five 
hundred acres of land in its natural state, the position of the 
country in time of drought would be immensely improved. In 
land which in its natural condition cannot be depended on to feed 
more than one sheep to every ten acres, the importance of patches 
of lucerne, every acre of which will supply feed for twenty sheep 
isat once apparent. This is the class of irrigation which is likely 
to prevail throughout a large part of the colony; but on some of 


our rivers, and particularly on the Murrumbidgee, Murray, and 


Macquarie, there is scope for projects which in point of magnitude 
will take rank with the more important irrigation systems of the 


Western States of America. 


I was glad to find that there is a paper by an expert in agri- 
cultural chemistry to follow this one, the subject being Irrigation 
from Artesian Wells. The same branch of the irrigation question 
was dealt with last year in a valuable paper read before this Society 
by Mr. Mingaye, the Chemical Analyst attached to the Depart- 
ment of Mines. While it would be out of place for me to attempt 
to dealin any way with questions which belong to experts in 
chemistry, it is only right that I should refer to the saline efflor- 
escence found in many places in India, and attributed by some to 
irrigation. Having had the advantage of living for years in 
districts largely affected by the efflorescence, which is known in 
Upper India by the various names, ‘“reh,” ‘usur,” “shor,” and 
‘‘kullur,” and having been in immediate charge of irrigation works 


in these districts, I am in a position to speak from actual know- 


PROGRESS AND PUSITION OF IRRIGATION IN N.S.W. 399 


ledge of the facts. The subject is one which received much 
attention, both from the irrigation engineers and from the land 
settlement officers. For many years it has been well known in 
India that irrigation should not be allowed in places where the 
soil is much impregnated with salts or where the’ subsoil drainage 
is defective. So long ago as 1862, General Strachey of the Royal 
Engineers, lucidly stated the case as follows :—“ The salts known 
as “reh” are contained in the soil. If canal percolation takes 
place, it may at length proceed to such an extent as to saturate 
the subsoil with water. The surface being at the same time 
exposed to sun and air, becomes heated, and continual evaporation 
goeson. The. water lost by the surface evaporation is replaced 
by moisture drawn up from below by capillary action. The water 
coming from below contains a certain quantity of the soluble salts 
of the soil which it has taken up on its way: as the water evapor- 
ates at the surface the salts must be left behind, and a constant 
accumulation of the salt takes place on the evaporating surface. 
Where such efflorescence takes place at a distance from a canal, 
and where no free percolation takes place, it may possibly be 
explained by the action of an impervious stratum of clay (or kun- 
kur) at some depth below the surface, which arrests the descent 
of water derived from the fall of rain (or irrigation), and accumul- 
ated from a large area into some natural depression, and held, as 
it were, in a basin, though of course diffused in the subsoil from 
which the great summer heats at length extract the whole of it 


with the same result as before suggested.” 


This theory may not meet all cases, but it is recognised that it 
has very wide application. Hence, when it fell to my lot to take 
charge of the first irrigation which was started on the Lower 
Ganges Canal, I had special instructions in accordance with the 
principles here laid down. In the early days of the large irriga- 
tion works in India, and before this question was understood, 
there is little doubt that in some instances the saline efflorescence 
was spread by injudicious irrigation ; but precautionary measures 
were subsequently instituted, and more recently the Indian 


Government, not content with preventing the spread of the reh, 


400 H. G. McKINNEY. 


has been conducting experiments with a view to its extirpation. 


The river waters of this country, like those of India are highly 
suitable for purposes of irrigation, and all that is required in 
utilising them is to make certain that they are used only on 
suitable land. The waters from some of our artesian bores con- 
tain such proportions of salts that caution will be required in 
making use of them for irrigation. In some casesin India where 
the rainfall was insufficient to produce crops with any degree of 
certainty, while the only water available was more or less brackish, 
I have seen such water used to a limited extent for irrigation, the 
salt being in sufficient quantity to form a deposit in the small 
distributaries. This irrigation was adopted as the best of a choice 
of evils—possible privation on the one hand and probable injury 
to the land on the other. A similar choice of evils may have to 


be met sometimes in the western districts in this Colony. 


In conclusion, I may point out that in regard to irrigation we 
have only passed the period of experiment, and have yet to deal 
with it on a scale commensurate with our opportunities and 
requirements, this fact contains much ground for consolation and 
encouragement in such a time of depression as we are now passing 
through. The immense resources of this Colony, and particularly 
of its soil, are altogether undeveloped. The necessity for increased 
production is now apparent to all, and the means to that end are 
therefore certain to receive more attention. As one of the most 
potent aids to production, irrigation will command its share of 
consideration ; but while our settlers are held back by the curb 
of antiquated and unsuitable laws, they cannot be expected to 
show their capabilities to advantage. 


OCCURRENCE OF A CHROMITE-BEARING ROCK IN BASALT, 40] 


PRELIMINARY Note on THE OCCURRENCE or a CHROMITE- 
BEARING ROCK in toe BASALT at tHE PENNANT 
HILLS QUARRY near PARRAMATTA. 


By Professor Davin, B.A., F.G.S., W. F. SMEETH, M.A., B.E., Assoc. 
R.S.M., and J. ALEXANDER WATT, M.A. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 2, 1893. | 


Tue basalt quarry at the Pennant Hills has been described by 
Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, F.c.s., the late Government Geologist.* 
With reference to this quarry Mr. Wilkinson states (loc. cit. ):— 


“Tt is an immense excavation from which the road metal is said 


_to have been taken for over fifty years. The rock consists of a 


dense but jointed basalt, containing small fragments of other rocks 
and some large masses of coaly shale, from which it would appear 
that this spot is the site of an ancient volcanic point of eruption.” 
Subsequent examination of this quarry by ourselves, inclines us 
to confirm Mr. Wilkinson’s opinion as to its having probably at 
one time formed part of a volcano, or at any rate having been 
definitely related to some veicanic outburst. 


General Geological Features. 

The Pennant Hills Quarry is distant about three miles north- 
easterly, from Parramatta, and about one and a-half miles westerly 
from Eastwood Railway Station on the Northern Line. The 
quarry has been worked intermittently for road metal, for which 
purpose the rock there is well adapted, for about sixty-three years, 
during which time an excavation has been formed about three 
hundred feet long, one hundred and fifty feet wide and seventy 
feet deep, which affords an excellent geological section. 


The rock quarried is seen to be an eruptive mass of basalt 


apparently of elongated oval shape, and more or less surrounded 


* Annual Report of the Department of Mines for 1879, page 218, Ap- 
pendix A. 


Z—Deec. 6, 1893. ] 


a 


402 . W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. WATT. 


by the sedimentary rocks, which it has intruded. No distinct 
evidence however was obtained to prove that the eruptive rock 
was shut off in every direction by sedimentary rock, and it is 
probable that it is prolonged in the form of tongue-like apophyses 
or as dykes, in one or more directions. This supposition is con- 
firmed by the statement made to us by a local observer to the 
effect that at a distance of about one and a-half miles from the 
Pennant Hills Quarry a rock occurred, which he considered similar 
to the chromite-bearing rock, which forms the subject of this 
paper. The sedimentary rocks seen at the quarry belong to the 
Wianamatta Shales, the uppermost division of the Hawkesbury 
Series, and are admitted to be probably of Triassic Age. The 
junction line however of the under surface of the Wianamatta 
Shale with the top of the underlying Hawkesbury Sandstone 
cannot be far below the level of the bottom of the quarry, as a 
comparison of the latter level with that of the junction line 
between these two formations, as seen in the neighbouring road 
cuttings proves. It is possible that the deepest portion of this 
quarry is already below the junction line of the Wianamatta Shale 
with the Hawkesbury Sandstone, but as this portion of the quarry 
is situated wholly in the eruptive rock, this question cannot be 
settled at present. The section on the east side of the quarry 
shows that the eruptive mass of basalt has distinctly intruded the 
Wianamatta Shales, the line of junction between the two rocks 
being almost invariably characterised by the presence of a “crush- 
breccia,” composed of angular fragments of Wianamatta Shale, 
bleached to a light grey colour, and otherwise altered by the dark 
grey to black eruptive rock, in which they are imbedded. 


In addition to the angular fragments of Wianamatta Shale, 
forming the crush-breccias, there are numerous enclosures in the 
basalt (upon the eastern and south-eastern faces of the quarry), 
of other rocks, including lumps of clay shale, pieces of Hawkes- 
bury Sandstone conyerted into quartzite, and two varieties of 
eruptive rocks, both of which are foreign to the district, and one 
of which at least is not known to occur elsewhere in New South 


OCCURRENCE OF A CHROMITE-BEARING. ROCK IN BASALT. 403 


Wales. The last mentioned rock, which contains chromite, occurs 
in the form of irregularly rounded blocks, the rounded character 
of which is probably not due to the mechanical action of water, 
but rather to a partial fusion of the rock in the magma of the 
originally molten basalt, which by corroding the edges and angles 
more than the other portions would rapidly convert angular 
fragments into rounded, just as mineral splinters become rounded 
buring the process of fusion in a borax head before the blowpipe. 
These blocks vary in diameter from a few inches up to about 
twenty inches. As they decompose less readily than the basalt 
they weather out from it, and can be readily separated from the 
matrix, when the latter is much decomposed, but less decomposed 
portions of the matrix are found to adhere very tightly to the 
blocks, and in such cases small fragments of the partially fused 
blocks appear to be present in the basalt near its contact with 
the enclosed blocks. 


Macroscopic Characters. 

At first sight there appear to be two distinct varieties of chrome- 
bearing rock present, the one a hard dense grey rock, like a very 
fine grained granite or felstone, which on freshly broken surfaces 
shows small particles of a jet-black mineral, with minute crystals 
of pyrites, and what appears to be small greenish stains, the other 
a greenish-grey rock, showing on freshly fractured surfaces patches 
of a green mineral, at first presumed to be malachite, intermixed 
with grey to brownish-grey material. A detailed examination 
however of these two varieties of rock shows that they probably 
belong to one and the same type, the difference in their general 
appearance being due partly to the relative amount of decompo- 
sition, which they have respectively undergone, and partly to the 
comparative variety or abundance of the mineral which has yielded 
the greenish decomposition products, and which was probably a 
chrome-bearing diallage, similar to that about to be described. 


One block of the chromite-bearing diallage and felspar with 
chromite passes gradually at the periphery into an external zone 
about three inches in thickness composed of the greenish-brown 


a 


404 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. WATT. 


rock. In some cases the central portions of the blocks are more 
decomposed than the external, and exhibit very clearly the 
granular structure of the rock. 

Some of the chromite-bearing fragments, which are much 
decomposed, are rusty-brown in colour mottled with green, the 
former tint being due to the conversion of the iron pyrites into 
hydrated ferric oxide. 

In one fragment, the black particles of chromite appear to be 
agoregated in parallel bands. Some of the fragments are coated 
with a thin layer of calcite, and the same mineral is found travers- 
ing the rock in the form of minute veins formed by segregation 


or infiltration. 


Hardness.—The undecomposed portions of the rock, which are 
chifly felspar, can be scratched with a steel penknife only with 
great difficulty, and the hardness must be nearly 7. The chromite 
has a hardness of between 5 and 6, and the green mineral a hard- 


ness of about 3. 


Specific Gravity.—The specific gravity of the less decomposed 
fragments comparatively free from the green mineral and from 
diallage, but comparatively rich in chromite, was found to be 2:92, 
while that of a more decomposed fragment containing less chromite 
and more of the green mineral was found to be 2°76. The specific 
gravity, therefore, decreases in proportion to the extent of the 
decomposition. The specific gravity of the felspar approaches 
that of anorthite, being about 2-7, and that of the green mineral 
is slightly less, while the specific gravity of the diallage is about 3. 


In structure the rock is crystalline granular, felspar predomin- 
ating and forming the grey coloured areas. ‘The chromite occurs 
in grains from +4; of an inch up to as much as ¢ of an inch in 
diameter. The diallage crystals are about half an inch in longest 
diameter, and the green patches representing the decomposed 
diallage are approximately of the same size, but show a tendency 
to become blended with one another owing to the spreading of the 
colouring ingredient. The iron pyrites for the most part is of 


microscopic dimensions. 


OCCURRENCE OF A CHROMITE-BEARING ROCK IN BASALT. 405 


Blowpipe characters.—The diallage is slightly fusible and reacts 
strongly for chromium in the borax head. The green mineral 
also reacts strongly for chromium. The chromite was found to be 
almost infusible except at the ends of very thin splinters. The 
felspar is slightly fusible, and tested by Szabo’s method did not 
give any potash reaction. From this circumstance, taken in 
conjunction with the fact that the rock effervesces somewhat 
briskly in hydrochloric acid, and that the specific gravity of the 
mineral approaches that of anorthite, it is probable that the 
felspar belongs to the lime or lime-soda series. 


Microscopic Structure. 


Thin sections of this rock when viewed under the microscope 
have shown it to bea holocrystalline granular aggregate of felspar 
and chromite, with iron pyrites and a greenish mineral, the green 


colouration of which is due to the presence of chromium. 


Constituents.—The felspar, which is greyish-white to colourless, 
and belongs probably to the lime-soda series, is present in the 
form of granular particles with polygonal outline, which are either 
traversed by numerous irregular cracks, such as are common in 
the felspars of troctolite, or show a zig-zag banding probably pro- 
duced later than the formation of the felspar. The felspars 
especially those which exhibit the zig-zag banded structure, include 
a fine dust of iron pyrites, which is frequently disposed in layers 
following the banding. In some cases curious dendritic forms, 


resembling cabbage-stalks, of iron pyrites bisect the angles of the 
folds. 


The chromite appears in thin sections as more or less translu- 
cent reddish-brown grains of irregular outline, having a very high 
index of refraction. These seem to occupy a central position from 
which radiate out in all directions lines which represent the edges 
of the felspar granules. The crystals are traversed by irregular 
cracks, no true cleavage planes being present. 


The green particles, which seem to represent some decomposition 
mineral containing chromium, are of a dull pale green colour, and 


406 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. WATT. 


in places show a fibrous structure. The green mineral appears to 
be au altered diallage. The evidence upon which this statement 
is based, has been derived from one of the sections, which shows 
the transition from a diallage to that of the green mineral under 
consideration. ’ 

Diallage. 

This mineral occurs in grains of irregular outline having a well 
marked parallel structure due to prismatic intergrowth, which in 
the coarseness of its structure resembles that of bronzite rather 
than that of typical diallage. The colour by transmitted light is 
a pale yellowish-green. The granules show cleavage cracks and 
microscopic inclusions, and a well-marked parting parallel to the 
orthopinacoid. Cleavage flakes taken parallel to this parting have 
straight exstinction, and exhibit the excentric emergence of an 
optic axis in convergent polarised light, a feature specially charac- 
teristic of diallage, and this admits of the determination of the 
optical sign of the mineral as positive. The double refraction is 
high, as indicated by the polarization colours, and the index of 
refraction is also high. The majority of the sections give oblique 
exstinction up to angles of 39°. 


NoTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A CALCAREOUS SANDSTONE 
ALLIED TO FONTAINEBLEAU SANDSTONE art 
ROCK LILY, near NARRABEEN. 


By Professor DavID, B.A., F.G.S. 
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 2, 1893. ] 


CaLcaREous Sandstone has previously been recorded as occurring 
in the Tomago Series of East Maitland, the calcite being erystal- 
lised out in the mass of the sandstone, and also in rocks of the 


OCCURRENCE OF A CALCAREOUS SANDSTONE AT ROCK LILY. 407 


Narrabeen Series, as evidenced by the cores from the Holt Suther- 
land Diamond Drill Bore. 


At Rock Lily at the first headland to the north of the sandy 
beach there are several beds of a very calcareous sandstone, in 
which the calcite is crystallised out in the mass of the sandstone 
in isolated crystals. These crystals exhibit the characteristic 
cleavage of calcite, and in freshly fractured specimens the cleavage 
surfaces reflect the light uniformly over areas an inch or so in 
diameter, showing that the optical orientation of the calcite is 
not interrupted by the large number of enclosed sand grains. The 
origin of the calcite in this rock has not yet been determined. 
Possibly it has been derived from dissolving up of the valves of 


ostracods. 


NOTE ON THE OccURRENCE OF BARYTES ar FIVE-DOCK, anp 
ALSO AT THE PENNANT HILLS QUARRY near 
PARRAMATTA, WITH A SUGGESTION AS TO THE 
POSSIBLE ORIGIN OF BARYTES IN THE 
HAWKESBURY SANDSTONE. 


By Professor DaviD, B.A., F.G.8. 
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 2, 1893.] 


THE first reference made to the occurrence of barytes in the 
Hawkesbury Sandstone is that made by Mr. H. G. Smith, F.cs., 
the Mineralogist to the Technological Museum, who recorded its 


occurrence at Cook’s River. 


At a recent excursion to Five Dock held by myself for my 
second year geological students, some of the quarrymen presented 
to us specimens taken from the quarry, showing small crystals of 
barytes associated with quartzite, and in close proximity to the 


408 T, W. E. DAVID. 


eruptive rock, which there occurs in the form of a dyke of decom- 
posed basalt about twenty feet in width. This barytes has 
probably been derived from the basalt. 


At Pyrmont Sandstone Quarries barytes occurs under similar 
circumstances, and at the Pennant Hills Quarries it occurs in thin 
segregated veins in the basalt itself, at a depth of over fifty feet 
below the surface. 


Norres on ARTESIAN WATER tn NEW SOUTH WALES 
AND QUEENSLAND. 


(PARE EIS) 
By Professor T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.G.S. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 4, 1893. | 


In some previous notes communicated to this Society on November 
Ath, 1891, the author referred specially to natural artesian water 
in the form of mud or mound springs. On the present occasion 
it is his intention to read a few short notes explanatory of the 
lantern views exhibited to-night illustrative of artificial artesian 
water, and the principal artesian bores of New South Wales. The 
photographs from which the lantern slides have been prepared, 
were taken by Mr. Kerry during a recent tour in the artesian 
water district. A working model is also exhibited illustrative of 
the convexity of the curve of the hydraulic grade in the artesian 
basin of the Darling River. 


I. Artres!AN WELLS OF THE SAHARA. 
In the first place attention might be called to the experience 
lately gained by the French engineers in artesian boring in the 


Sahara. According to an official report,* the geological forma- 


* Rapport a Monsieur le Governeur Général del’ Algerie sur les Forages 
artésiens exécutés dans la Division de Constantin, de 1860 4 1864. 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. 8S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 409 


tions represented between the Atlas Mountains and the Sahara 
are Cretaceous, Miocene, Pliocene and Quarternary. With the 
exception of the Lower Cretaceous, none of the members of the 
Cretaceous system appear to be thoroughly pervious. The Cre- 
taceous rocks under a large area of the Sahara are covered under 
too great a depth of Post-Cretaceous deposits to be readily access- 
ible to artesian bores. The Miocene system, divided into the (1) 
Pecten numidus Beds (Lower) and Ostrea crassissima Beds (Upper) 
are water-bearing in places, and not too deep to he accessible, 
but by far the greater portion of the artesian water in the Sahara 
is obtained from the Pliocene Formation. 


The Pliocene strata of the Sahara are formed of white, grey, 
red, and yellow sand with clay beds and gypsum. The last is in 
places, as at Bard’Ad in the Oued Rir District, over eighty feet 
in thickness. Beds of hard limestone over a yard in thickness 
are met with occasionally. Immediately overlying the water- 
bearing sands and gravel is a very hard band of rock, a siliceous 
cement a foot or more in thickness. These Pliocene strata are of 
lacustrine origin, and lie in a broad basin, which through earth 


movements has veen thrown into a succession of folds. 


Mr. G. Rolland, in a paper read before the Geological Society 
of France, 14th of September 1885, entitled ‘‘ Ou et comment s’ 
alimentent les eaux artésiennes du bassin de |’ Oued Rir?” states 
that these strata derive their supplies of water partly from direct 
percolation of rain, partly from rivers, especially from those which 
take their rise in the Atlas Mountains on the north. Part of 
this water percolates into the permeable soil and finds its way into 
the deep alluvial deposits, which dip towards the interior of the. 
basin. The Pliocene strata are also partly supplied with water 
by springs rising from the Cretaceous strata, as for example the 
beautiful springs of Western and Central Zab and those of the 
Djerid. The massifs of the Cretaceous Formation attain an alti- 
tude in Aurés of over 7,500 feet, and the porous beds of the 
Cretaceous Formation which outcrop in these ranges are fed by 


the rain and melting snow on the higher ranges, and the under 


410 T. W. E. DAVID. 


sheets of water derived from this source drain towards the south, 
and give rise to numerous springs along the whole length of the 
northern edge of the low lying Sahara. 


The waters from the Cretaceous springs disappear in the alluvial 
deposits of the Pliocene Formation and form small underground 
rivers, which flow towards the south and become united at a depth 
to form a main stream draining towards the south-south-east, 
under the lacustrine basin of the Pliocene Formation. The Oretace- 
ous beds being continuous under the Pliocene basin and dipping 
towards the Sahara, some of the springs derived from their porous 
strata break out considerably below the surface, and these of 
course assist the superficial springs in supplying water to the 
permeable beds of the Pliocene. The underground streams of the 
Pliocene basin flow in a number of reticulated underground 
channels like meshes of a net. These have been distinctly traced 
by means of bores for a length of one hundred and twenty kilo- 
meters (about seventy-four and a half miles) and a width of from 
four to eight kilometers. 


That the water circulates in distinct channels has been proved 
not only by the distribution of the successful bores, but also by 
the fact that small fish possessing perfect eyes, river crabs, and 
freshwater mollusca are brought up in considerable quantities at 
some of the bores. These have been caught in netting placed for 


the purpose over the discharge pipes at the bores. 


The presence of artesian water in the Pliocene strata of the 
Sahara has manifested itself in the form of “ behour,” natural 
Springs corresponding to the mound springs or mud springs of 
Australia. There is a tradition that artesian wells were first 
sunk in the Oued Rir District of the Sahara by the Arabs as far 
back as 1341. These native wells seldom exceeded two hundred 
feet in depth, many being not more than one hundred feet deep. 
They were timbered with logs cut from the date palm, and owing 
to the decay of the timber the native wells usually fall in and 
become completely choked up in from twelve to twenty years. 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 4\} 


The Pliocene basin, as already stated, has been found to be 
traversed by a number of anticlinal folds, and these folds have in 
places been subjected to a considerable amount of denudation, so 
that in some cases all the impervious beds overlying the water- 
bearing strata have been removed, springs of course breaking out 
along such areas. In other cases after the tops of the anticlines 
have been denuded down to the water-bearing strata the water in 
these strata has been sealed up and its escape prevented by a 
subsequent deposit of quarternary clay. Now the French engineers 
have taken advantage of these partially denuded anticlines, or of 
those which are completely denuded down to the horizon of the 
water-bearing strata but covered with quarternary clay beds, and 
have sunk their artesian wells on the top of such anticlines with 
the result that by this means supplies of artesian water have been 
obtained at a far shallower depth than would have been possible 
had the wells been sunk in the depressed areas representing 
synclinal troughs. This is a feature in artesian boring which 
should specially commend itself to the consideration of Australian 
hydraulic engineers, inasmuch as the Cretaceous strata of Aus- 
tralia have been considerably tilted in places, and although they 
have not been sharply folded, still there is evidence to show that 
as illustrated on Mr. J. B. Henderson’s section from Thargomindah 
to Warwick in Queensland,* there exist some broad and gentle 
anticlinal curves and synclinal troughs. 


The depth of the French wells varies from about one hundred 
and fifty feet up to about eight hundred feet, the average depth 
being about two hundred and fifty feet. The highest recorded 
temperature of the water flowing from these artesian wells is 


Te Bah. 


The French artesian bores are provided with iron casing, where 
requisite, and some had been flowing continuously from 1856 


* Water Supply Report of the Hydraulic Engineer to the Colonial 
Treasurer—Government Printer, Brisbane, 1898. Section at foot of first 
plate at end of report. 


ae a 
e 
‘ a 
‘ : 


until the date of Mr. H. Jus’ Report in 1890,* and were still 
flowing at that time without showing any evidence of diminution 
in yield of water. It is stated however (Joc. cit. p. 10) that the 
artesian wells of the Sahara had almost attained their maximum 


412 T. W. E, DAVID. 


in 1890, and that if the supply were drawn upon any further the 
outflow at the individual wells would probably be diminished. 
The distance of the furthest artesian wells in Algeria from their 
chief source of supply, the Atlas Mountains, is over three hundred 
and fifty miles. 


The water in the Pliocene is evidently in circulation, and its 
pressure is therefore hydraulic not hydrostatic ; but what natural 
outlet there may be for the water from these reticulated subter- 
ranean undersheets is not at present known, as far as the author 
is aware, but the principal direction of the circulation appears to 
be from north to south. Possibly the circulation is partly main- 
tained through the “‘dehour,” just as in the Australian Cretaceous 
strata it was partly maintained through the mud springs, previous 
to the sinking of the artesian bores. One of the largest artesian 
wells, the Fontaine de la Paix yields 1,278,720 gallons per twenty- 
four hours. 


The total quantity of water obtained from artesian and sub- 
artesian wells in Algeria in 1890 was 317,414 litres per minute = 
70,452 gallons per minute = 101,450,880 gallons per twenty-four 
hours. This quantity is almost exactly equal to the total capacity 
of outflow of the Queensland artesian bores as estimated by Mr. 
J. B. Henderson in his report for 1893, already referred to. 


II, Artesian Basin or New South WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 


All the artesian bores of New South Wales, with the exception 
perhaps of the Coonamble Bores and those near Gunnedah, derive 
their supplies of water from the sands and fine gravels of the 
Lower Cretaceous Formation, the equivalent of which in Queens- 


* Résumé Graphique des Soudages Exécutés dans la Provence de Con- 
stantine, De ler Juin 1856 au ler Janvier 1890. Suiveé d’ une Notice 
sur la Region de l’ Oued Rir—Par H. Jus, Constantin 1890. 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. §. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 413 


land is known as the Rolling Downs Formation. This formation 
covers about 62,000 square miles in New South Wales, as estimated 
by Mr. E. F. Pittman, a.n.s.m., the Government Geologist, and 
the enormous area of 376,832 square miles in Queensland, equal 
to over fifty-six per cent. of its total superficial area, as calculated 
by Mr. R. L. Jack, F.a.s., the Government Geologist. Out of 
this area of Rolling Downs Formation in Queensland 88,300 square 
were considered by Mr. Henderson in 1893 to have been proved 
to contain artesian water, and in New South Wales artesian water 
has been proved to exist at intervals over an area of about 20,000 


square miles. 


In Queensland the estimated total capacity of outflow of all the 
wells was quoted by Mr. Henderson in 1893 as 105,000,000 
gallons daily ; amounting to 38,325,000,000 gallons per annum.* 
In order to replenish this volume of water an amount of rainfall 
would need to percolate equal to twenty-nine inches per annum 


over an area of ninety-one square miles. 


Mr. Henderson estimates that the aggregate breadth of the 
outcropping edges of the water-bearing beds of the Lower Cretace_ 
ous are not likely to be more than a few chains, and on the 
assumption that the average width is ten chains, and the length 
1,600 miles (measured from the boundary between New South 
Wales and Queensland to the northern limit of the beds in about 
Lat. 18° South, and including the western edges of the Rolling 
Downs Beds on the flanks of the McKinlay Ranges) Mr. Henderson 
estimates that the total superficial area of the porous beds of the 
Cretaceous Formation in Queensland available for intake does not 
exceed perhaps two hundred square miles. He adds (Joc. cit. p. 5), 
‘“‘ Tf the basis of this simple computation is correct ; if the supply 
is not greatly supplemented by water percolating through the 
surface strata on the hill sides immediately above the several out- 
crops and by streams that cross them, and if the number of wells 


* Queensland Water Supply—Report of the Hydraulic Engineer to the 
Honourable the Colonial Treasurer, Brisbane, 25th January, 1893. 


d 
bes a 
’ é 
; 


414 T. W. E. DAVID. 


is largely increased, and the practice of allowing a large proportion 
of them to continuously flow at their full capacity is persevered 
in, it is probable that the demand will soon overtake the supply, 
and that there will be a diminution of flow. Indeed it may.be— 
but I do not advance what I am about to say as probable but — 
merely as a possibility—that now the output of the wells equals, 
nay exceeds, the inflow, and that the output is maintained by 
accumulations of water stored in the porous beds. Supposing 
either of these possibilities to exist, it is only a question of time 
when the higher wells will, one by one, cease to flow with the 
lowering water-level, until there is an approach to an adjustment 
between the supply and demand. At all events, whether either 
of these probabilities exist or not, there seems to me to be a strong 
element of danger, and as there does not appear to me to be any 
sound reason why injudicious and wasteful use of the water should 
be allowed, I venture to submit the matter for serious consider- 
ation before such a calamity as the failure of the supples should 


happen.” 


The above passage has been quoted at length as being of grave 
importance to those who are interested in the artesian water 
supply of New South Wales. Mr. R. L. Jack substantially agrees 
with the views expressed by Mr. Henderson, as to the compara- 
tively limited extent of the artesian water supply of Queensland, 
and if these statements are applicable to Queensland, it would be 
interesting to consider how far they may be applicable to New 
South Wales. 


Mr. Henderson cautiously states that it is impossible to measure 
at present with any degree of accuracy the superficial area of the 
outcropping edges of the porous beds of the Rolling Downs 
Formation, owing to their being to a great extent overlapped by 
newer formations. In order to form an accurate estimate of this 
superficial area it is obviously necessary to know (1) the thickness, 
(2) the angle of dip, and (3) the angle of slope of the surface of 
the outcrop of the porous beds, (4) the actual area available for 
intake, 7.¢e., not covered by newer and impervious beds. 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 415 


As regards (1) the strata of the Rolling Downs Formation are 
chiefly clayey, as far as proved at present by the artesian bores. 
The basal beds however, are sandy, and even gravelly in places. 
Few data are available for estimating the thickness of these basal 
beds, for the following reason :—as soon as the top of the basal 
beds are struck the artesian or sub-artesian water in them rises in 
the bore to about its maximum height, and the object of the bore 
having been attained, the bore is discontinued and is not carried 
down through the whole thickness of the basal beds to the bed- 
rock. In afew cases however, the water-bearing drifts have been 
penetrated, and their thickness has been proved, as far as the 
author is aware, not to exceed from fifty to one hundred feet. No 
bores to his knowledge have been sunk in the basal-beds of the 
Rolling Downs Formation, where they abut against the Lower 
Mesozoic and Paleozoic Rocks of the Main Dividing Range. The 
approximate thickness therefore of the porous beds along their 
outcrops can at present, until more data are available, be merely 
a matter of inference based on certain broad facts. The Rolling 
Downs Formation is of vast superficial extent and of considerable 
thickness. 


At Malvern Hills 3,926 feet of strata of this age had been 
been proved in an artesian bore up to February 20th, 1894 (as 
the Hydraulic Engineer kindly informed the author while this 
paper was being revised up to date for press), the bore being still 
in progress, and the high temperature of the water at some of 
the bores proves that some portions of the Cretaceous Basin 
must be considerably thicker. For example, at No. 3 Boise, 
Darr River, Queensland, the temperature of the water is 172° 
Fah. If the mean surface temperature at the Darr River be 
70° Fah. there is an increase of 102° Fah. in the temperature 
-of the water flowing from this bore, as compared with the surface 
‘temperature. Ifthe downward rate of increase be 1° Fah. for 
every sixty-three feet in depth, the depth below the surface of the 
locality where the water acquires this high temperature would be 
over 6,400 feet. It is extremely improbable that so vast a forma- 


416 T. W. E. DAVID. 


tion where it rests with strong unconformability on Paleozoic 
Rocks, or even where resting conformably on Lower Mesozoic 
Rocks, should not consist largely of gravel and coarse sand. In 
many parts of Queensland, and possibly in portions also of New 
South Wales, there is a conformable upward passage from the 
strata of the Trias-Jura to the Rolling Downs Formation, and in 
such cases the sand and gravel beds will as a general rule be found 
to be very much thinner than in the case of the unconformable 


junction just mentioned. 


During the whole of the Rolling Downs Period large rivers, 
flowing from east to west, must have entered the margins of the 
Cretaceous Ocean, and must have spread their gravels over exten- 
sive areas, and these rivers, in New South Wales at all events, 
continued to flow down to the present time, their channels of 
course being subject to oscillations of position and various modifi- 
cations, as one geological period succeeded another. It cannot of 
course be affirmed that such rivers as the Dumaresq, the Gwydir, 
the Namoi, the Castlereagh, the Macquarie, and the Bogan were 
represented in Cretaceous times by rivers flowing in approximately 
the same latitudes as these modern rivers, but it can confidently 
be affirmed that in all probability several rivers, of which the 
above mentioned are the modern equivalents, must have existed 
in Cretaceous Time and have drained westwards into the Cretace- 
ous Ocean. Extensive gravels, must therefore, have been con- 
tinuously in course of deposition from early Cretaceous Time until 
the Present, and unless the latitude of the main valleys has altered 
since Cretaceous Time, the gravels belonging to successive geological 
periods must in places be superposed on one another, and so they 
would afford means of ingress for large bodies of water, which 
sink through the older gravels forming the channels of the modern 
rivers above mentioned, It is probable then, that a considerable 
amount of water finds its way into the artesian beds of the Rolling 
Downs Formation through percolating through ancient river 
gravels. There certainly is a considerable difference in the amount 
-of water discharged by these rivers near the foothills of the Main 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. ALT 


Dividing Range, and at a distance of fifty to one hundred miles 
westwards of the foothills. This fact is partly due to percolation 
and partly perhaps, to evaporation and transpiration through 
the leaves of trees. 


The statements of Mr. H. G. McKinney, M. Inst.c.E., Chief 
Engineer for Water Conservation and Irrigation, New South 
Wales,* are worthy of being quoted here :—‘‘ When the discharge 
of the river (Macquarie) at Dubbo was 1144 cubic feet per second, 
at Warren it was only 52 cubic feet, and when the discharge at 
Dubbo fell to 20 cubic feet per second the current ceased at about 
eighteen miles above Warren. I also showed that of the total 
loss of water between these places, sixteen and a half per cent. in 
the former case, and thirty-eight per cent. in the latter, might be 
due to evaporation, while by absorption the trees on the river 
bank could account for 125 cubic feet per second. The opinion 
which I formed regarding percolation in that part of the Macquarie 

was that at least, when that river is low, very little loss is due to 
that cause. It is in fact unlikely that any considerable proportion 
of the waters of our western rivers is lost by percolation, except- 
ing in the higher parts of their courses for the natural tendency 
of a river flowing through alluvium is to tamp up all interstices 
in its channel.” 


On the other hand the tunnel carried below the channel of the 
Macquarie River at Bathurst, which tapped the water in the 
extensive gravel beds below the level of the river yielded large 
volumes of water without any evidence of the supply becoming 
diminished. In the opinion of the author there is a considerable 
quantity of water in these gravels which underlie the channels of 
the modern rivers, and perhaps as much (if not more), water 
drains through them into the delta gravels formed by the Cretace- 
ous rivers, and so into the vast sand beds of the Cretaceous Form- 
ation further west, as drains into all the outcropping edges of the 


—~ 


* Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. 1., p- 
399—Rivers of New South Wales by H. G. McKinney, M. Inst. C.E. 


A a—Decr. 6, 1893. 


418 T. W. E. DAVID. 


Cretaceous porous beds occupying the areas intermediate between 
the positions of the former estuaries of the Cretaceous Rivers. 


If the same formula, which Mr. Henderson has suggested as 
being possibly applicable to the artesian beds of Queensland be 
adopted for estimating the area of the intake beds of the New 
South Wales Cretaceous Formation, the figures would be about 
350 miles x } = 44 square miles in round numbers, with an 
average rainfall of about one-quarter less than that for the Queens- 
land outcrops, viz., about twenty-two inches. This would equal | 
an outflow of about 38,000,000 gallons per day for one year. Now 
the present estimated capacity of outflow of all the artesian wells 
of New South Wales, as I am informed by Mr. Boultbee, the 
Officer-in-Charge of the Water Conservation Branch of the 
Department of Mines and Agriculture, is about 41,000,000 
gallons daily, so that according to this estimate the outflow should 
already have more than counterbalanced the supply, and the 
sinking of any further flowing wells would be at the expense 
of existing wells and would tend to lower the hydraulic grade. 
Tf however, allowance be made for the water which probably 
drains into the Cretaceous outcrop through the ancient valley 
gravels the estimates are capable of being considerably altered. 
For example, from Bathurst to Narromine there is a length of 
about 130 miles of ancient valley gravels of Post-Tertiary Age, 
and covering Tertiary, and perhaps even Cretaceous gravels for 
the last thirty miles. These gravels would average probably at 
least half a mile in width, having a total area therefore of about 
sixty-five square miles, and the water draining into them would 
be derived not only from the annual rainfall of about twenty-two 
inches on their surface, but also from the rain falling upon an 
area at least twenty times as great, even after allowing for the 
rain which is lost by evaporation and discharged by the river and 


its tributaries. 


Instead therefore of adding an area of sixty-five square miles 
with an average rainfall of twenty-two inches to the area of intake 
of the porous beds of the Rolling Downs Formation in New South 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 419 


Wales, we might perhaps add an area of as much as 1,300 square 
miles with an annual rainfall of twenty-two inches. To allow 
however, for evaporation, one-half of this area might be taken 
for the Macquarie River = 650 square miles, and to this must be 
added the ancient gravels of the Bogan, Castlereagh, Namoi, 
Gwydir, and Dumaresq Rivers. The total area might be very 
approximately summed up as follows :— 


Macquarie River—65 square miles of gravel x 10 on 


account of area draining into sq. m. 


the gravels ... Ae is = 650 

Bogan River— 20 LOR: uF ey bee ee) 
Castlereagh River—30 x 10... ue iy. x = 300 
Namow River— 30% LO... ee we Joel i 
Gwydir River— 20 x 10... 1 wk eo ah == 00) 
Dumaresq River— 50 x 10... oa ee A = 500 
2,150 


These numbers must be taken as only very approximate, but 
they serve to show the possibility and even probability of the 
intake area being very much larger than forty-four square miles, 
and instead therefore, of the outflow equalling the annual supply, 
when the daily yield of the wells in New South Wales has reached 
38,000,000 gallons a day, it may be possible to increase the yield 
to fifty times that amount, that is to 1,900,000,000 gallons per 
day without exceeding the annual supply. Even if the amount 
be halved in order to allow for the Cretaceous Beds being partly 
covered by impervious beds, or having become locally tamped 
through fine sediment carried into it by the percolation through 
several periods of geological time, it would still be possible to 
increase the quantity of water supplied by the artesian wells of 
New South Wales by at least twenty times the present amount. 
It is hardly fair however, to apply a formula applicable to the 
‘Queensland artesian beds to those of New South Wales, where 
the conditions are somewhat different. 


oe. oe 
ae 
rae 
° 
+? 
’ 


430 T. W. E. DAVID. 


The question however, is capable of being attacked from another 
direction, as Mr. H. C. Russell has done in his excellent paper on 
the ‘Source of the Underground Water in the Western districts,” 
read before this Society August 7, 1889. On p. 4 of this paper Mr. 
Russell states :—‘‘ The mean rainfall on the Darling River catch- 
ment for the past ten years has been 22°14 inches, and of this, as 
we have seen, only 14 per cent. or = 0°33 inches of rain passes 
Bourke in the river. If twenty-five per cent. of it, which is equal 
to 5°53 inches of rain passed away in this river as it does in the 
Murray there would be seventeen times as much water passing 
Bourke as now actually does pass; . . . and we ought there- 
fore to have an underground water supply at least equal to six- 
teen times as much water as passes Bourke now, and this or at 
least a great part of it should be useful for irrigation. That we 
do not find it in the Darling, is to my mind proof that it passes 


away to underground drainage.” 


The mean daily discharge of the Darling at Bourke is equal to 
about 1,400,000,000 gallons, so. that a volume of water flowing 
underground sixteen times as great, as required by Mr. Russell’s 
hypothesis, would amount to 22,400,000,000 gallons, equal to 
about five hundred and forty-six times the present capacity of all 
the artesian wells of New South Wales, a quantity as far in excess 
of that stated provisionally by the author as his own estimate 
exceeds that which results from an application of Mr. Henderson’s 
formula for Queensland, to the artesian beds of New South Wales, 
and yet Mr. Russell’s estimate may be the most correct. 


The whole of the above statements show that our present know- 
ledge of the actual amount of water draining into the artesian 
beds is only very approximate, but that it is certainly far in excess 
of what would be received by the mere rainfall on a strip of out- 
crop sands and gravels one-eighth of a mile wide and about three 
hundred and fifty miles long. It must not of course, be thought 
that because any particular artesian well begins to fail that there- 


fore the whole outflow from the artesian basin is in excess of the 
annual intake. The amount of outflow from a well is governed 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 421 


not only by the amount of water present in the surrounding sand 
beds and the pressure to which it is subjected, but also by the 
amount of frictional resistance which the sand offers to the passage 
of the water. The effect of multiplying the number of large bores 
in a restricted area would be undoubtedly to drain the water out 
of the sands faster than it can drain into that particular district, 
and so all these wells might become sub-artesian instead of artesian, 
just as the Native Dog Bore in New South Wales has had the 
effect of drying up the adjoining mud springs; and at the same 
time it might be the case that the total outflow from all the 
artesian bores in the artesian water basin did not amount to more 
than one per cent. of the total annual supply. 


In the future, therefore, if the hydraulic grade is found to fall 
in a special district, there should be no widespread panic amongst 
all the proprietors of artesian wells lest the whole supply of artesian 
water should fail, as such a failure will affect that district only 
where the wells have been overcrowded, and will not necessarily 
make its effects felt over the whole basin. 


(2) As regards the angle of dip of the Rolling Downs strata, this 
must be but slight, If the case of the Muckadilla Bore be taken 
as an example, the bore is 3,262 feet deep, and it is distant about 
fifty miles from the base of the Rolling Downs Formation at the 
nearest point, there being little difference in the surface levels 
between these points and the Muckadilla Bore being in Cretaceous 
strata throughout. The maximum dip might therefore in this 
case be 3,262 feet in fifty miles, that is a dip of about one in eighty- 
one, provided the amount and direction of dip between these two 
points is uniform. A bed of porous rock, therefore, one hundred 
feet thick would have an outcrop, if the surface were level, 8,100 
feet wide, that is a trifle over a mile and a half in width. At the 
Darr River the Rolling Downs Formation, as judged from the tem- 
perature of the water, may be as much as 6,000 feet thick, but as 
this is over one hundred and thirty miles from the edge of the 
Cretaceous basin at the nearest point, the general dip, (allowing 
that the surface level at the bores at the Darr River is about five 


492 T. W. E. DAVID. 


hundred feet lower than that of the edge of the basin) would be 
about one in one hundred and six. As regards (3), the surface 
level would be practically flat, and as regards (4), there is at 
present, insufficient evidence to warrant any kind of inference. 


As regards the question as to whether the water in the artesian 
beds of New South Wales is hydraulic or hydrostatic it must be 
confessed that even now the question is far from settled. In any 
case the question does not probably materially affect the economic 
aspect of the artesian water question. Ifthe pressure is hydraulic 
there must be a natural outlet somewhere for the artesian water, 
and the water must have been undergoing for ages a slow process 
of circulation. The freshness of the artesian water has been 
quoted as an argument by many writers on this subject, the author 
included, in favour of the artesian water being able to circulate, 
but it must be remembered, that to a limited degree, the mud 
springs have afforded a means of circulation for this water for ages 
in the past, and the author is informed by Mr. E. F. Pittman, 
that numbers of extinct mud springs are to be seen on the Western 
Plains of New South Wales in the vicinity of existing mud springs, 
showing that the outflow of artesian water from them has pro- 
ceeded uninterruptedly for a vast period of time. The proportion 
however, of water discharged by the mound springs must be very 
small as compared with the enormous quantities of water which 
must percolate annually into the Cretaceous beds. It is probable 
in the author’s opinion, as stated in his previous paper, that the 
artesian water has outlets, and its pressure therefore, especially 
near these outlets is hydraulic, rather than hydrostatic, but of the 
three possible outlets previously suggested by him, (1) to the Gulf 
of Carpentaria under the Dividing Range at the head of the 
Flinders River in Queensland ; (2) to the Great Australian Bight 
vid Lake Eyre; (3) Under the present channel of the Darling- 
Murray to the Coorong coast, he now considers that the last 
mentioned may be abandoned. It follows then that the outlets, 
if any, must be situated at the Gulf of Carpentaria or at the Great 
Australian Bight under the Tertiary Limestones of the Nullarbor 
Plains ; or very probably in both these directions. 7 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 423 


Some of the deepest portions of the Cretaceous basin in Queens- 
land have been proved to exist at Malvern Hills, and, if high 
temperatures are a test, at the Darr River, Westland, Tara, and 
Toorak. It is interesting to note that water having a temperature 
of 140° Fah., though the bore is only 1,550 feet deep, has been 
obtained at Toorak on the north side of the Main Divide at the 
head of the Flinders River. This water is therefore probably 
derived from a depth of over 4,000 feet below the surface of the 
Cretaceous rocks. The surface level of Toorak is not known to 
the author, but judging from the levels in its vicinity, given by 
Mr. Henderson, it would be about 600 feet, the bottom of the 
bore then is nearly a thousand feet below sea-level, and the base 
of the Cretaceous strata in its vicinity would probably be 3,000 
feet below sea-level. At Strathfield also, in the same neighbour- 
hood, the high temperature of the water implies a considerable 
depth for the Cretaceous strata. The bore is only 841 feet deep, 
but the temperature of the water flowing from it is quoted as 
130° Fah. which would give a depth for the Cretaceous strata 
in its vicinity of 3,780 feet. There is probably therefore a deep 
outlet between Cloncurry and Croydon for the underflow of 
artesian water to the.bed of the Ocean in the Gulf of Carpentaria, 
the artesian water probably working its way into the sea through 
the porous beds of the Cretaceous as through an inverted siphon. 


There can, however, be little doubt in the author’s opinion that 
the main outlet for the water, if there be any outlet at all, is in 
the direction of the Great Australian Bight. 


At Malvern Hills the Cretaceous strata, (if the surface level be 
about 700 feet), have already been proved to extend to at least 
3,200 feet below sea-level, and at the Darr River, if the tempera- 
ture of the water can be relied on as a test, the thickness of the 
Cretaceous strata must exceed 6,000 feet and the base of the 
series must be at least 5,000 feet below sea-level. At Westland 
also, which is not far distant from Malvern Hills, whereas the 
surface level of the bore is 600 feet and the depth 2,848 feet, the 
temperature is 162° Fah., and this implies a depth for the source 


5 
~ @ 
~ 


- 


424 | T. W. E. DAVID. 


of the water of 5,200 feet. This locality would appear to be the. 
deepest as yet proved in the Cretaceous basin. 


None of the artesian bores in New South Wales have so far 
attained a depth of 3,000 feet, the deepest bore at present being 
2,573 feet, viz., that situated at Moongulla on the Collarendabri 
to Angledool road, and there is no direct, nor indirect evidence 
so far to show that the base of the Cretaceous anywhere in New 
South Wales is much over 2,000 feet below sea-level. The general 
dip therefore of the bed-rock in New South Wales is in a northerly 
direction towards Malvern Hills, as far as proved at present. 


The surface of the Rolling Downs Formation has however a 
general inclination to the south-west from the Dividing Range at 
the head of the Flinders River towards the Lake Eyre Basin. 
The altitude of the Dividing Range is a little over 1,000 feet, 
whereas few portions of the Lake Eyre Basin exceed 200 feet 
above the sea, the surface of Lake Hyre itself being thirty-nine 
feet below sea-level. But although the present fall is slight in a 
south-westerly direction, in early Tertiary Time it was probably 
greater for since the close of the Cretaceous Period, and chiefly 
subsequent to the deposition of the Eocene (?) limestones of the 
Nullarbor Plains, the southern portion of South Australia, Victoria 
and part of West Australia have been elevated from 600 to 800 
feet, while possibly the northern portion of the Cretaceous basin 
near the Gulf of Carpentaria has partaken in the downward move- 
ment of the northern portion of Queensland in the neighbourhood 
of the Barrier Reef, but of this latter movement, as far as known 
to the author, there is no good evidence. The effect of this tilting 
up of the earth’s crust from the south-west extremity near the 
Australian Bight towards the north-east would have the effect of 
reducing the amount of surface slope from the head of the Flinder’s 
to the Great Australian Bight. It is more than probable then, 
that a submarine outlet exists for part of the artesian basin vid 
Lake Eyre. 

The fact should here be mentioned that there is undoubted 
evidence of a movement in an opposite direction to that referred 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 495 


to above in the northern half of the Cretaceous basin ; but beyond 
the fact that the elevation was subsequent to the deposition of the 
Upper Cretaceous rocks, the Desert Sandstone, little is known as 
to the date of the upheaval. The radiolarian earths elevated toa 
moderate height above the sea, described by Mr. J. G. Hinde* 
are thought to be of probable Tertiary Age, but it is stated that 
these earths are the equivalents of the so called “‘ magnesites,” 
described by the late J. E. Tenison-Woods. These magnesites 
are now several hundred feet in places above sea-level to the south 
of Port Darwin, and if the above suggested identity can be proved, 
portions of the northern coast of Australia must have been elevated 
by a similar amount since some portion of the Tertiary Era. 


It is at any rate certain that whereas the top of the Marine 
Cretaceous strata are not more than about 700 feet above sea-level 
at the south-east extremity of the Cretaceous basin near Narromine 
in New South Wales, the same horizon is over 1,300 feet above 
sea-level in the latitude of Roma, 1,200 feet in the latitude of 
Hughenden, and 1,020 feet above sea-level at the top of the Divide, 
between the Flinders and Thomson Rivers. The Marine Cretaceous 
rocks therefore are about five or six hundred feet higher to the 
north of Roma, at Darby Point, and to the east of Hughenden 
than in New South Wales. It would seem then, that since the 
close of the Cretaceous Period, the northern end of the basin was 
first uplifted 1,300 to 1,400 feet, then the south-west extremity 
since Miocene or early Pliocene Time underwent a total elevation 
of six to eight hundred feet, and possibly the north-east extremity 
of the basin has shared with Cape York and the Great Barrier 
Reef in a downward movement during perhaps late Tertiary and 
Post-Tertiary Time. 


Some have found a difficulty in the way of accepting the opinion 
that the water in the artesian basin is in circulation through sub- 
marine outlets because of the smallness of the fall in the surface 
between the level of the intake and the level of the overflowing 
wells. For example, the surface level at the Muckadilla Bore is 


* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., London 1893, Vol. x1LIx., pp. 221 - 26. 


496 T. W. E. DAVID. 


1,139 feet, a level probably nearly as high as that of any portion 
of the Cretaceous intake in its neighbourhood, for the level of the 
intake in few places in Queensland attains a greater altitude than 
1,200 feet, excepting where it is capped with the Desert Sandstone 
(Upper Cretaceous), and the Muckadilla Bore is distant about 
fifty miles from the intake outcrop. The flow however, at the 
Muckadilla Bore is but feeble, and the pressure slight on account 
of this small difference in level. 


Charleville is distant about one hundred and forty miles from 
the probable edge of the artesian basin, and its surface level is 
966 feet, whereas that of the intake is probably not more than 
1,200 feet, which allows a fall of only one foot eight inches per 
mile, and the pressure of the water at the surface of the bore is 
exqual to 100 ibs. to the square inch, which would raise the level 
of the water at Charleville to about 231 feet, so that it should. 
stand at a level of 966 + 231 = 1197 feet, which is about equal 
to the level of the intake. Possibly however, part of the water 
may be derived from rain falling on the high ridge of Cretaceous 
rocks between Charleville and Mitchell, where the Rolling Downs 
Formation attains an altitude of about 1,380 feet, but this sup- 


position is extremely doubtful. 


At Cunnamulla, with a surface level of 627 feet, the pressure 
is 165 Ibs. to the square inch, so that the water would rise here to 
a level of 1,008 feet. Cunnamulla is about two hundred and twenty 


miles distant from the principal intake. 


At Noorama, the surface level being approximately 550 feet, 
the pressure of the water per square inch is 200 lbs., so that it 
would rise to approximately a level of 1,012 feet above the sea, 
which is nearly about the same level as that to which the water 
would rise in the Cunnamulla bore. At Weelawurra, about thirty- 
three miles E.S.E. from Cunnamulla, with a surface level of 625 
feet, the pressure is 150 ibs. per square inch, which would produce 
a column of water, the top of which would be about 972 feet above 


the sea, 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 4p 


An artesian bore is shown on Mr. Henderson’s map at Darby 
Point, on the Nive River, at an altitude of 1,360 feet, but it is 
not stated whether this is an overflowing well or not. Ifit bean 
overflowing well it is difficult to find any intake beds sufficiently 
high to give the necessary amount of fall, unless the source be in 
the high ridge of Cretaceous rocks referred to above, between 
Charleville and Mitchell, and trending towards Springsure. 


The decrease in the hydraulic grade between Muckadilla and 
Noorama is due, not necessarily to any actual flow of the artesian 
water in the beds towards a submarine outlet to the south-west, 
or to north-north-west, but may be owing to the gradual decrease 
in the level of the outcrop of the intake beds from north to south, 
between the latitudes of these respective bores. At Dulacca for 
example, on the railway line, between Dalby and Roma, the level 
of the outcrop is 1,050 feet. Whereas on the southern border of 
Queensland where the outcrop crosses the Dumaresq River, the 
level is only about 900 feet, and in New South Wales it is probably 
not more than about 700 feet above sea-level near Narrabri, and 
about the same near Narromine. In view therefore, of the very 
slight amount of fall (only about one foot per mile in the case of 
Cunnamulla) between the intake and point of discharge, and the 
vast frictional resistance which would be offered by the beds of fine 
sand, which would have to be traversed by the artesian water 
from the east central portion of the basin for a length of eight 
hundred miles in either direction, before the water could reach 
either the Gulf of Carpentaria or the Great Australian Bight, it 
must be the case that, in its central portions at all events, the 
basin behaves like a sealed basin, and the pressure of the water in 
the central portions of it is therefore probably more hydrostatic 
than hydraulic. Approaching however, the Gulf of Carpentaria 
or the Great Australian Bight, the artesian water may be ina 
state of somewhat stronger circulation oozing slowly through the 
porous strata until it finds an outlet in the bed of the ocean. 


As a possible explanation of the smallness of the fall between 
the intake and some of the artesian bores, if the hydraulic 


428 T. W. E. DAVID. 


hypothesis be adopted, the model exhibited might serve as an 
explanation. It has the form of a bent pipe with the convexity 
downwards, like an inverted siphon in shape, with the short leg 
however placed upperinost, so that following the gradient of the 
pipe from the highest point downwards, the curve is at first steep 
then more gradual to imitate the curve of the Cretaceous strata 
as they dip off the impervious Paleozoic and Mesozoic Rocks, 
forming the axis and foothills of the Main Dividing Range, into 
the Western Plains. The lower end of the pipe is filled with sand, 
then succeed coarse lead shot, and lastly marbles, this arrange- 
ment being intended to imitate the decreasing porosity of the 
water-bearing beds of the Rolling Downs Formation as they recede 
from the foothills of the Main Dividing Range towards the 
Western Plains. Three glass tubes ascend vertically from the 
pipe, tapping respectively the parts of the pipe filled with sand, 
shot, and marbles. Water coloured by permanganate of potash 
is now poured in at the upper end of the pipe until the pipe is 
filled, and the water at once begins to ooze out through the sand 
at the lower end of the pipe, to replenish which loss more water 
is being continually added at the upper end of the pipe. It will 
be observed that the water gradually ascends each of the three 
vertical glass tubes, which communicate at their lower ends with 
the lead pipe, until the water eventually becomes stationary at a 
certain level in each of the tubes. A line drawn from the point 
of intake through these points in the glass tubes to the point 
of outlet represents the hydraulic grade, and it will be noticed 
that under the conditions arranged, the hydraulic grade has the 
form of a convex curve (the convexity uppermost). Ifthe artesian 
basin of Australia be hydraulic rather than hydrostatic, the 
hydraulic grade would probably have the above form, and conse- 
quently very little fall might be expected in the hydraulic grade 
near the central portions of the basin. 


In writing these notes the author would express his special 
indebtedness to the valuable report accompanied by map and 
sections prepared by Mr. J. B. Henderson, and to the similar 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 429 


report prepared by Mr. J. W. Boultbee, on the “Artesian Water 
Supply of New South Wales. He has also to acknowledge having 
‘received much valuable information personally communicated to 


him by Mr. Boultbee. 


Since writing the above paper, the author has been informed of 
a curious phenomenon relating to oscillations of the hydraulic 
grade in New South Wales. Mr. E. F. Pittman, on the authority 
of Mr. T. T. W. Mackay, Acting Inspector of Stock, Wanaaring, 
informs him that at Urisino Station, a bore which has proved 
to be sub-artesian was sunk to a depth of 1,680 feet. The water 
in this bore now stands at a mean height of about seventeen feet 
below the surface, but rises and falls with a rhythmical pulsation 
for two feet on either side of this mean level every two hours, that 
is it is subject to a tide of four feet every four hours. 


Mr. J. W. Boultbee has also informed the author that a similar 
phenomenon has been observed on Urisino Station, at ninety-one 
miles on the Milparinka-Wanaaring Road in the water from a 
bore 2,000 feet deep. The water in this bore, which is also sub- 
artesian, is subject to six tides of about four feet each, every 
twenty-four hours. No explanation of these phenomena has as 
yet been afforded. 


The following are some recent observations of these tidal move- 
ments made by Mr. T. T. W. Mackay :— 


Depth to surface of water 


Time, below surface of ground. 
5°30 p.m. as ms ... 19 feet 24 inches 
735... WR oe ree yey CD bg! O10. 
90 ,, Seapine tii 8 Nagy POR vient Bio ag 
La ,; Meee On MGI DS aoc F2 Liisa, 
10 am. ame cae rca 1D a dda 
210 .., Lig Rg or ae 
BO, oh ES et a ee 
i... ee ee eG). 
90 4, ee 8! PAIGE gE TOT 
PICO is 5 in Te bie hovigak? ye 
12°45 p.m. ee a Ae OS) Re eee 
2°45 ,, Aes oe ANGE ME ix: * 
4°45 ,, vee ae ok whl AS) 3) 


Mr. Boultbee says that he has excellent authority for stating 


430 T. W. E. DAVID. 


that live fish were thrown out of the Youngerrina Bore in New 
South Wales when the water was first struck. The statement 
however, has not yet received confirmation. It is to be hoped 
that steps will be taken to test this question by allowing the water 
from the bore to flow through fine netting. He also states that 
by direction of Mr. Harrie Wood, steps are being taken to gauge 
the flow and pressure at all the Government artesian bores. 


With regard to the suggestion by Mr. R. L. Jack, that increase 
in temperature of the water, aided presumably by capillarity, may 
assist in forcing artesian water to the surface, and as possibly 
having some bearing upon the tide phenomena described above 
the following calculations might be given :—The superficial area 
of the Cretaceous rocks in New South Wales is estimated as 
62,000 square miles, but the area of the porous beds is less by 
perhaps as much as about one-third. The area of the porous beds 
of the Lower Cretaceous in New South Wales being taken as 
40,000 square miles, and the average thickness of the porous beds 
as ten feet, (a minimum estimate) and the imbibition of the porous 
beds being taken as about two and a-half gallons per cubic foot, 
then the quantity of water stored in these beds would amount to 
27,878,400,000,000 gallons, a quantity which, (if the supply were 
being continually replenished so as to maintain a constant pressure) 
would supply the whole of the present yield of the artesian wells 
of New South Wales for 1,863 years, and an expansion of the 
water to the extent of about 3+; of an inch vertically in this thick- 


sheet, would keep the whole of the artesian wells of New South 
Wales overflowing for one year. Such an expansion would be 
caused by raising the temperature of the water in the undersheet 
from 70° Fah. to 744° Fah., and the water at several of the wells 
as has been shown, has had its temperature raised by over 70° 
Fah. The resulting expansion would be twenty-six times as much 
as in the case first mentioned, and would be sufficient to keep the 
present artesian wells supplied with water for twenty-six years, 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 431 


on the assumption of course, that it did not expend itself in forcing 
the water out at the intake. 


DIscusSsION. 

Mr. F. B. Grpps—Professor David in the course of his interest- 
ing paper remarked on my difference of opinion as to the generally 
accepted theory that the origin of artesian supply is due to hydro- 
static or hydraulic pressure. My objection to such a conclusion, 
which becomes the more strengthened the more I examine artesian 
basins, is the impossibility of tracing, except in few instances, a 
direct connection or continuity of strata between the artesian 
basin and the presumed source of supply. For instance, take the 
artesian well at Grenelle near Paris, which is 2,000 feet deep. 
Water was struck at 1,798 feet, and burst up with a pressure of 
1,160 ibs. per square inch equal to a column of water 2,673 feet 
high. If this artesian supply is due to hydrostatic pressure, where 
is its source? The Vosges Mountains about two hundred miles 
distant, have a limited area above that height, but after accounting 
for frictional and capillary forces, the extra head would not be 
sufficient to account for such pressure. The Jura Mountains, 
about two hundred and thirty miles south-east, afford the only 
area of sufficient height and extent to provide it, but there is no 
evidence of a continuity of strata from the Jura to the Paris 
basins. In the case of the well at Kissingen in Bavaria, 1,878 
feet deep, where the jet rises four feet higher than at Grenelle, 
the projecting force has been distinctly proved to be due to carbonic 
acid gas generated along the junction line of gypsum with lime- 
stone. The rise of the oil in the petroleum wells of America most 
certainly cannot be attributed to hydrostatic pressure. The oil 
collects in free sand enclosed between an impervious shale or slate 
at bottom, and a shell of siliceous schist with quartz febbles at 
the top thus occupying the same position as most artesian waters. 
The average depth of these wells is from 1,600 to 1,800 feet. 
Some shallow wells are only 500 feet, whilst the deepest well is 
3,000 feet deep. The force which compels these wells to overflow 


432 T. W. E, DAVID. 


has given rise to many conjectures but no certain proof. In 
opposition to the hydrostatic pressure theory I would suggest the 
great dynamical effects of the contraction of the earth’s crust 
acting on the superincumbent as well as subterincumbent strata, 
as offering a more probable solution of the cause and origin of 
artesian supply. Geologists tell us that this contraction accounts 
for the flexures of the earth’s crust and strata, and for fractures 
and earthquakes, even for climatic changes. The evolution of the 
earth’s features is therefore almost controlled by it. This con- 
traction induces lateral pressure, which acting in a horizontal 
direction produces those flexures which originate mountain chains 
and valley depressions. Its effect has been distinctly proved by 
geological science to have occurred at different periods up to and 
even after the lignitic period of the Tertiary. The action of the 
wind on the sea gives in a modified degree some impression of the 
effect of this contractive force on the earth’s surface. Now 
artesian basins, whether of large area, as in the Cretaceous System, 
or of smaller dimensions as in the Tertiary, represent in their 
overlying strata a series of broad tabular masses which are 
subject to very gradual flexure by this lateral pressure inducing a 
depression in the centre, and it is this force combined with expan- 
sion from heat which causes artesian supply in most instances 
rather than hydrostatic pressure. Lyell calculates that sandstone 
one mile thick raised in temperature 200° Fahrenheit, would have 
its upper surface elevated ten feet, showing the great force of this 
expansion. Professor Tate’s paper, recently read in Adelaide, 
seems to me somewhat to strengthen my conclusions. He premises 
that the isolation of West from East Australia which existed 
while Central Australia was a marine area was partially continued 
into late Tertiary times, not by geological but by climatic con- 
ditions, first by the conversion of the depressed area into a vast fresh 
water sea to be followed in our own time by utter desiccation. In 
my opinion it is this fresh water sea, or contemporaneous inland 
lakes, filled in by the wasting and erosion of surrounding strata, 
and then completely sealed by a siliceous crust probably formed 


> 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 433 


by the overflowing of numerous thermal springs, which is the 


principal source of the water supply of our Cretaceous artesian 
basins. During the long period between the sealing of these basins 
and the formation of the superincumbent strata, the action of the 
earth’s contraction must have induced a certain degree of lateral 
pressure. In consideration that the weight of ordinary sandstone 
is 150 ibs. per cube foot, it would require but little thickness of 
overlying strata to induce, in conjunction with the vast indefinable 
dynamical action of lateral pressure, all the propelling force 
evidenced by artesian flow independent of any other agency. 


Mr. G. H. Knisps—In accounting for the velocity of flow from 
artesian wells, said the theory of expansion of the water by heat can 
only apply where the water is actually imprisoned, as assumed by 
Captain Gipps. Its effect moreover must soon pass off, and con- 
tinued flow would have to be accounted for in some other way, as 
by superincumbent pressure. If, however, there be a point of 
intake where the water-bearing stratum is covered only by perme- 
able strata, the heat-expansion cannot raise the effective head 
above that point. In considering the efficiency of the head it is 
necessary to distinguish between ‘hydraulic’ and ‘hydrostatic’ 
head and pressure. Were there no outlet, the hydrostatic head, 
2.€., the elevation of 1,000 or 1,100 feet of the point of intake, 
would more than account for any known flow in the artesian wells 
of the Colony. But if there be an outflow, the head will be 
hydraulic and not hydrostatic. Then assuming that the sectional 
area of the region of subterranean flow is constant, the hydraulic 
gradient will be a curve with its convexity upwards, provided 
that the condition of increasing resistance to flow by diminution 
in the porosity of the stratum as the point of outflow is approached, 
is as postulated by Professor David, a geological fact. For the 
hydraulic head is expended not only in producing the velocity of 
outflow, but also in overcoming resistances to flow. This result 
of hydro-dynamic theory, it seems to me, is correctly and interest- 
ingly illustrated by Prof. David’s apparatus. In regard to the 
effect of superincumbent pressure, it cannot promote flow except 

B s—Dec. 6, 1893, ] 


434 T. W. E. DAVID. 


the water-bearing stratum be regarded as more or less collapsible 
or sponge-like. Were the water-pressure hydrostatic, it is interest- 
ing to notice that, assuming a density of 2:5 for the overlying 
strata a depth equal to two-thirds of the elevation of the point of 
intake above the general surface in the vicinity of the wells would 
be supported. For example, an elevation of 1,000 feet above the 
general level would give at a depth of six hundred and sixty-seven 
feet a pressure (forty-six and a-half tons to the square foot), equal 
to the weight of the overlying stratum. At less depths, the head 
ought to raise the surface till an equilibrium was established 
through the inflow into the stratum and the consequent reduction 
of the head. Im all cases however, with a collapsible stratum, 
the weight of the overlying strata will serve to maintain the 
artesian flow, until the point of maximum consolidation is reached, 
and that too, whether the head be hydrostatic or hydraulic. 


Mr. H. C. Russet remarked that he had understood Mr. Gipps 
to say, that the origin of our artesian water was an old fresh-water 
sea, which by the action of hot ‘springs on its shores had been 
slowly covered over with a layer of silica, and that this supported 
the denuded gravel and soil carried down to the sea by rain-water 
until the present strata overlying the water was formed, and 
pressing on the water caused it to rise in bores artificially made. 
He could not understand how this was possible, for it had been 
proved that the water beds extended hundreds of miles, and Mr. 
Gipps’ theory obliged us to assume that the hot springs had covered 
this enormous area with a deposit of silica, thick enough to carry 
the gravel and other matter carried down by the rains on to it, 
which deposits would be very thick at the rivers and very little 
in other places. The theory seemed to him contrary to all experi- 
ence, and also to what one would expect from the laws governing 
such deposits, and he therefore could not accept Mr. Gipps’ view 
of the origin of our artesian water. 

Mr. J. W. Grimsuaw did not consider that Capt. Gipps had 
given them any information which would justify them in discard- 
ing the theory of the hydrostatic pressure of artesian water. The 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 435 


statement that there were wells at a higher level than the intake 
or source of the supply had not been proved. If the pressure of 
the water was caused by the shrinkage of the surrounding earth 
or by the generating of carbonic acid gas, the supply of water 
would be driven back towards the intake, and the pressure would 
not exceed the hydrostatic pressure, except in cases where the 
intake got blocked, in which cases the supply could not be 
replenished and would be intermittent and not continuous as in 
most artesian wells. Oil was not artesian water and the hydro- 
static pressure theory was not applied to it. The pressure was 
probably due to chemical action, that was the generating of gas. 
In most cases the pressure of oil wells was found to decrease after 
atime. The experiment shown by Professor David was very 
instructive, especially as the results were too often overlooked, 
although it was well known that where the velocity of water 
flowing through a conduit was checked (in this case by sand), the 
pressure would rise, and where the velocity increased the pressure 
would fall ; the explanation of this could be obtained from text 
books on hydraulics. 


Mr. H. G. McKinney remarked that the apparatus exhibited 
by Professor David to illustrate the flow of artesian water, made 
clear not only the ordinary features of the underground flow, but 
also the cause of the rise of artesian water under certain conditions 
to a greater height than might have been anticipated. He pointed 
out that popular opinions regarding the extent of land likely to 
be irrigated from artesian bores were generally wide of the mark. 
If the flow froma successful artesian bore were expressed in cubic 
- feet per second instead of gallons per day, exaggerated anticipa- 
tions would often be avoided. Among the highly successful bores 
there are very few which yield more than five cubic feet per 
second—that is 2,700,000 gallons per day. The area which a flow 
of a cubic foot per second will irrigate depends on a variety of 
conditions; but taking average circumstances and high class 
management, it is unlikely that that area would exceed one 
hundred and fifty acres. Hence an artesian well with the flow 


436 T. W. E. DAVID. 


mentioned, would irrigate only seven hundred and fifty acres.. 
Still the question of irrigation from artesian wells is an important. 
one, as it affords the means of producing fodder and other crops 
on a moderate scale at intervals through a large district which is 
badly provided with surface water. The cost of artesian water is 
another point on which there is much misapprehension. Ifa flow 
of three cubic feet per second, or 1,620,000 gallons per day, were 
obtained from an artesian well at a cost of £3,000, the result. 
would be considered very satisfactory. If interest on the outlay 
be taken at six per cent. this would make the cost £60 per annum 
for every cubic foot per second. This is just double the rate at. 
which it is estimated that water could profitably be supplied by 
the proposed Murrumbidgee Southern Canal. With reference to 
a remark of Mr. J. Wilson of Dunlop Station, on the river Dar- 
ling, Mr. McKinney pointed out that a study of the conditions 
existing on the higher parts of the catchment areas of the tribu- 
taries of the river Darling, shows that there is nothing in regard 
to either the volume or the pressure of the artesian flow which is 
not easily accounted for. The elevation of the higher parts of 
these catchment areas and the rainfall are sufficient to account 
for a much larger quantity of water than has yet been struck. 
Regarding the danger of the spread of a salty efflorescence by the 
water used for irrigation, while such a danger undoubtedly exists, 
whether the source of the salts be the water or the soil, many state- 
ments publicly made with more or less authority, have certainly 
given an exaggerated idea of this danger. During a considerable 
part of Mr. McKinney’s service in the Irrigation Department in 
India, he was in districts which suffered much from the saline 
efflorescence locally known as ‘“reh.” Large areas of land im- 
pregnated with this salt, or rather mixture of salts were well 
known long before the canals were constructed. It was also well 
known that if careless irrigation were allowed, the “reh” would 
spread, and every precaution was therefore taken with, it is 


believed, satisfactory results. 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. © 437 


Mr. W. M. Hamtet, said, that the theory set forth by Mr. 
Gipps, that one of the causes of the flow of water from artesian 
bores was caused by large quantities of carbon di-oxide in the 
earth is not borne out by facts here in Australia, since most of the 
artesian waters examined contain little or no carbon di-oxide to 
speak of, hence the pressure at the outflow has to be accounted 
for in some other way. 


Mr. W. A. Dixon said, that before beginning to build castles 
in the air as to the great results likely to be obtained from irriga- 
tion with artesian water, it is necessary to be sure of its source. 
In some cases water may arise from a porous stratum which forms 
merely an underground reservoir. One case of such a condition 
came under his notice in connection with the sinking of coalpits 
near Hamilton in Scotland, when at a depth of about sixty fathoms 
a water-bearing rock was cut in four shafts almost at the same 
time. The water rose high in the shafts and was simply pumped 
out at the rate of about twenty thousand gallons per minute from 
the four together, working night and day for nine months, and 
now the pits are quite dry. Another point in connection with 
the use of water for irrigation is that it is necessary to be sure of 
efficient drainage which is not to be relied on with certainty every 
where. All the salts held in solution in water, (and these may 
amount to over one hundred grains per. gallon in fresh water) 
would gradually accumulate in the soil and render it absolutely 
sterile as has been the case in some places in India. This effect 
might not be noticed or act injuriously for ten, twenty, or fifty 
years, but under the conditions stated it is sure to come sooner or 
later according to the quantity of matter held in solution. As to 
the rise of the water being caused by pressure of carbonic acid, it 
is impossible that gas could be generated by the action of gypsum 
on dolomite or limestone as suggested by Mr. Gipps, as these 
substances have no action on one another. 


Prof. LiversipGE stated, that, from what he had seen of the 
action of siliceous springs and geysers, he must oppose Mr. Gipps’ 
explanation that the artesian waters of Australia had been covered 


438 T, W. E. DAVID. 


over and preserved by a layer of siliceous material or of sand and 
gravels cemented together by silica. Siliceous springs on the — 
contrary tend to choke up their basins by continually depositing 
silica in successive films on their walls and around their margins, 
and not to form a crust over the surface and thus enclose supplies 
of water. He also stated that the artesian wells of Christchurch, 
New Zealand, were not in a true artesian basin, such as those of 
London and Paris, but that at the former place there is a bed of 
gravel and sand charged with water, overlaid by a less porous 
stratum and that it is thought that the water is in part squeezed 
up through the comparatively shallow bores by the superincum- 
bent pressure [just as water would be forced up through a perfor- 
ated board pressed down upon a sponge charged with water], and 
this idea is borne out by the shallow wells gradually giving out. 
The main bulk of the water is however probably forced up by 
hydrostatic pressure from the higher outcrops of the porous beds 
along the hills. 


Mr. L. WHITFELD said, if the theory put forward by Professor 
David is correct, it should be easy to test it. The highest point 
to which the water will rise at the bore can be easily ascertained. 
The lower end of the subterranean channel being open to the sea, 
the height to which the water can rise at the bore must in the 
absence of further supply be continually diminishing. The extent 
and locality of the intake area are given by Professor David and 
the rainfall upon it can be ascertained, and thus it can easily be 
determined whether a period of dry weather over the intake area 
is accompanied by a constant diminution in the height to which 
the water will rise at the bore, and whether a fall of rain causes 
a rise in the height to which the water will flow. Also by observing 
which bores are affected by the rainfall on particular spots of the 
intakearea, the direction of the subterranean flow can bedetermined. 


Professor Davin stated with regard to the first theory put for- 
ward by Captain F. B. Gipps that one cause of the rise of artesian 
water was gas pressure, that the instance cited, that of the artesian 
well at Kissingen in Bavaria, was of a very exceptional character. 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 439 


It was true that at Kissingen carbon dioxide probably played an 
important part in the forcing of the water to the surface. It was 
generated, not of course, as Mr. Dixon had already shown, by any 
possible action of the gypsum beds on limestone, but probably by 
the same cause which originally converted the limestone into 
gypsum, which might be still in operation at a depth, the cause 
possibly being the action of weak sulphuric acid on limestone, 
In New South Wales carbon dioxide was rarely met with in 
artesian water. The group of mud or mound springs on the 
Lower Flinders River in Queensland, referred to in his previous 
paper were an exception, as bubbles of carbon-dioxide were con- 
stantly rising through the water at these springs, but it was never- 
theless not present in sufficient quantities to justify the supposition 
that this gas exercised any material expulsive force on the water. 
It was probably generated by the action of sulphuric acid resulting 
from decomposing pyrites in the lignitic beds or brown coals of 
the Lower Cretaceous rocks on the associated marly clays. He 
did not consider the oil wells of America a fair parallel to cite for 
comparison with the artesian wells of New South Wales. It was 
the fact that gas pressure contributed largely to force the oil to 
the surface at the American oil wells, but the gas pressure was 
assisted by hydrostatic pressure, as it was commonly the experi- 
ence that when the gas and oil in the well became exhausted, 
brackish water took their place, and this rose to some height in 
the bores. ‘The actual amount of pressure measured at any of the 
bores in New South Wales or Queensland, did not much exceed 
200 ibs. per square inch, a pressure which could easily be explained 
by the difference in level between the hydraulic grade and the 
level at the point where the pressure was experienced. 


The theory as to the artesian water having its origin in great 
subterranean lakes, which had become crusted over with siliceous 
sinter had already been shown to be untenable by Professor 
Liversidge and Mr. Russell. He would like however toadd that 
it was a geological anachronism to assume that artesian water 
could be derived, as suggested by Captain Gipps, from the lakes 


Te 


440 T. W. E. DAVID. 


described by Professor Tate of Adelaide as formerly occupying 
large areas of Central Australia, inasmuch as these lakes were of 
Tertiary Age, whereas the age of the strata yielding the artesian 
water was Lower Cretaceous. As Mr. Knibbs had pointed out, 
neither expansion of the artesian water nor of the associated strata 
consequent on increase of temperature at a depth, could raise the 
hydraulic grade of the artesian water. The expansion of the 
strata would be irresistibly powerful, and would force the artesian 
water once it had filled the water-bearing strata back towards the 
intake, but once the expansion had taken place it would be subject 
to fluctuations so slight as to be practically a negligible force in the 
dynamics of artesian water. If the pressure of the artesian water 
of New South Wales was hydraulic and not hydrostatic, then the 
expansion of the water as it descended to lower levels by gravita- 
tion would perhaps help towards increasing the pressure, but only 
to a slight degree. The theory that the artesian pressure was 
due to secular contraction of the earth’s crust compressing sealed 
beds of deep-seated water-bearing sands was open to the following 
objections :—(1.) The Lower Cretaceous water-bearing beds had 
been folded, only to a very limited extent, over the vast areas 
where they had hitherto been geologically examined in Australia, 
so that the segments of the earth’s crust, where they had been 
deposited, could not be held to have been materially shortened 
since the Cretaceous Period. (2.) Had the shortening and com- 
pression been material, the pressure it would have exercised on 
the water-bearing beds would again have been irresistibly strong, 
and would have come on too gradually to account for the continu- 
ous flow of water from the mud springs throughout a large portion 
of the Tertiary and probably the whole of Post-Tertiary Time. 
In his opinion the chief question at issue was, is the supply of 
artesian water hydrostatic or hydraulic? In his opinion it was 
probably hydraulic, the deep-seated water flowing sea-wards as 
already explained, as through an inverted siphon. The central 
portions however of the basin must be practically hydrostatic. No 
other hypothesis seemed to account satisfactorily for the freshness 


ARTESIAN WATER IN N. S. WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 44] 


of the water in the artesian basins, unless possibly it were the case 
that the outflow of artesian water through the mound springs had 
in itself been sufficient to maintain its freshness. In his opinion 
the supply of artesian water was entirely dependent upon the 
rainfall of the country near the intake of the artesian strata, and 
the chief force which made the water artesian was gravitation, 
assisted perhaps, but to a very limited degree, by the expansion 
of the water as it gravitated to lower levels. 


Mr. McKinney had alluded to the “ reh” of India, which had 
been quoted by some as a possible example of the danger, which 
might be incurred by using our artesian water for irrigation. He 
agreed with Mr. McKinney in considering that this danger had 
been much exaggerated. Mr. Harrie Wood, the Under Secretary 
for Mines and Agriculture, had proved by actual experiment, that 
various fodders, fruits, and vegetables could be successfully grown 
by means of artesian water, as had been detailed in the reports 
published by Mr. J. W. Boultbee the Officer-in-Charge of the 
Water Conservation Branch. The artesian water did not contain, 
as a rule, much mineral matter in solution hurtful to plants, with 
the exception of, in a few cases, carbonate of soda. There would 
however, no doubt be a danger of the ground suffering from an 
excess of alkali in areas which had been subjected to irrigation 
with artesian water for a number of consecutive years. The 
source of this alkali was twofold. It was partly derived from the 
artesian water itself, and partly was contained in the ground at 
a depth of a few feet below the surface. Rain had washed it 
down for perhaps two or three feet or more below the surface of 
the ground, but it had been the experience in America that ground 
of this kind, after it had been irrigated for a few years, became 
subjected to ‘‘black alkali,” that is carbonaceous material dissolved 
by an excess of carbonate of soda. The ground being kept con- 
stantly saturated with water, and there being no means of escape 
for the water downwards by soakage, the saline material dissolved 
by it at a depth of about three feet below the surface was circu- 
lated upwards by capillarity etc., until the surface soil, out of 


442 T. W. E. DAVID. 


which the alkali had previously been leached by the rainfall of 
ages became re-impregnated with alkali. The remedy in Australia 
as in America was no doubt sub-drainage. 

Mr. J. C. H. Mingaye, F.c.s., M.A.I.M.E, Analyst and Assayer 
to the Department of Mines, in his valuable paper read before the 
Royal Society of N.S. Wales, June Ist, 1892, p. 100, has sug- 
gested the addition of a small quantity of gypsum to the soil 
previous to irrigation as a remedy against an excess of alkaline 
carbonates, the resulting sulphates being less hurtful to plant life. 

In Queensland Mr. R. L. Jack, F.a.s., the Government Geologist, 
and Mr. J. B. Henderson the Geren Hydraulic Engineer, 
had with remarkable foresight and courage spoken in no uncertain 
tones as to the comparatively limited extent of the artesian water 
supply, and he would like once more to emphasise the fact that 
in New South Wales also the supply was limited, so that possibly 
by the time that the quantity of water drawn from the artesian 
wells had been increased ten or twenty-fold, it would be found that 
the demand had overtaken the supply, that the annual outflow had 
equalled the annual intake of rain water into the artesian water 
beds. It was daily becoming more urgent that the pulse of the 
artesian water supply should be felt with a view of ascertaining 
whether the hydraulic grade was already being lowered or not by 
the existing wells. This end would probably be best attained by 
the application of pressure gauges to all the available artesian 
bores. The results of accurate measurements taken by means of 
these gauges would probably not only be of considerable economic 
importance, but would also, as stated by Mr. Whitfeld, throw 
more light on the questions (1.) as to whether the supply was 
hydrostatic or hydraulic; (2.) as to whether it was directly 
dependent on the amount of rainfall, and if so as to how long a 
period was necessary for the percolation of the rain from the 
intake to the artesian wells, and (3.) as to the principal channels, 
if any, through which the artesian water flowed. The application 
of pressure gauges and the desirability of locating new bores along 
axes of anticlinal curves were the two points to which he hoped 
attention might in future be specially directed. 


NOTES ON THE CREMORNE BORE. 443 


Professor ANDERSON StTuarT said, that upon the whole, the 
theory as described by Professor David appeared to him to best 
explain the conditions as he understood them. . He thought that 
Mr. McKinney’s remarks as to the hopes entertained by some 
that artesian water would yet convert the dry arid back country 
into verdant fields should be emphasized, for he too considered 
that the hope was vain. One had only to see what vast construc- 
tions, what great pipes were needed to irrigate what was after all 
a mere patch of the surface, to be convinced that artesian water 
would never be able to do more than make fertile oases in the 
vicinity of the bores. Further, that even depended, as had been 
said on efficient drainage being possible—and it was not always 
so. He concluded by appealing to the Under Secretary for Mines 
and Agriculture (Mr. Harrie Wood), who was present, to use his 
influence in fitting all the bores systematically with pressure 
gauges, so as to give the important information spoken of by 
Professor David. 


NOTES ON THE CREMORNE BORE. 


By T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.G.8., Professor of Geology, Sydney 
University, and E. F. Pirrman, 4.R.s.M., Government Geologist. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 6, 1893. | 


I. Introduction.—The problem as to the exact relation between 
the Newcastle and Illawarra Coal-fields having been at last 
practically solved by the results of the Cremorne Bores, the 
present opportunity seems to usa favourable one for bringing 
before the Society a subject of so much scientific, as well as 
economic interest. The detailed section of the strata penetrated 
at the second bore is given by one of the authors in the Annual 
Report of the Department of Mines for 1893,* now in course of 


* Annual Report, Department of Mines, 1893—Progress Report by E. 
F, Pittman, a.R.s.m., the Government Geologist. 


444 T. W. E. DAVID AND E. F. PITTMAN. 


publication. The present paper, however, is intended to be a 
short summary of the chief results attained by these bores. 


The proving of a magnificent seam of steam coal over ten feet 
in thickness, at the second bore on the shores of Port Jackson, 
should mark an epoch in the history of the development of the 
coal resources of Australia, and shows that the estimates previously 
formed as to the available coal supply of this country have been 
probably under estimated. 


Il. Previous References to the probable occurrence of Coal under 
Sydney.—The late Rev. W. B. Clarke was probably the first who 
argued on scientific evidence, the probable occurrence of coal 
under Sydney. In his evidence before the Select Committee of 
the Legislative Council on coal enquiry held in Sydney in 1847, 
Mr. Clarke said, ‘‘ If we take a dip of only 1° from Newcastle to 
the South and from Illawarra to the North, the synclinal curve 
will meet at the entrance to Broken Bay, which is exactly half- 
way (the extremity probably of the minor axis) at a depth of 
4,680 feet, the depth of the coal seams if continuous.”* 


The late Examiner of Coal-fields, Mr. William Keene, prepared 
a geological section illustrative of the manner in which the coal 
seams in the Newcastle and [llawarra Coal-fields respectively, 
dipped under Sydney. We are not aware whether this section 
was ever published, but it was exhibited to one of the authors by 
Mr. T. Adams, the late Mayor of Raymond Terrace. 


Mr. J. Mackenzie, F.a.s., the present Examiner of Coal-fields, 
as early as 1866, referred to the probable occurrence of coal under 
‘Sydney, in a lecture delivered in Sydney, and in ‘“ Mines and 
Mineral Statistics 1875,” published some sections of the coal 
measures of New South Wales, dividing them in descending order 
into (1) Upper Upper Coal Measures, (2) Lower Upper Coal 
Measures, (3) Upper Marine Series, (4) Lower Coal Measures, 


* Appendix, Report from the Select Committee Legislative Council on 
Coal Enquiry, 1847. Vide also, “ A Sketch of the Physical Structure of 
Australia,” by J. Beete Jukes, m.a., F.a.s., London 1850, pp. 19-22. 


NOTES ON THE CREMORNE BORE. 445 


(5) Lower Marine Series. Each of the three groups of productive 
coal measures above: mentioned, is specially characterised by the 
enormous predominance of Glossopteris or of Gangamopteris in its 
flora. 

Summarising the result of his later researches Mr. Clarke 
classifies the productive Glossopteris coal-beds of Australia and 
their associated strata as follows :—-1. Upper Coal Measures. 
2. Upper Marine Beds. 3. Lower Coal Measures. 4. Lower 
Marine Beds.* | 


These productive coal measures are most extensively developed 
in the Hunter River or Northern Coal-field, the Lithgow or 
Western Coal-field, and the Illawarra or Southern Coal-field. Mr. 
Clarke did not definitely state his views as to the correlation of 
these various coal-fields, but it is clear that he regarded the 
Illawarra Coal Measures as being newer than the Upper Marine 
Series and than the Lower (the Greta) Coal Measures, inasmuch 
as in the work above referred to (loc. cit., p. 169, Section to 
illustrate the structure of Burragorang), he speaks of the marine 
beds underlying the coal measures of the Mittagong Coal-field as 
the ‘‘ Muree Beds,” a name which he had previously given to the 
Upper Marine Series, or at any rate to a portion of them, which 
in the type district at Greta in the Hunter River Coal-field overlie 
the Lower Coal Measures, as illustrated by Mr. Clarke in another 
Section (loc. cit., p. 171). Mr. Clarke also in his Section of Mt. 
Victoria (Joc. cit., p. 167), refers to certain hard shales occurring 
there as being like the ‘‘Silicated clay of Nobby Island.” The 
island of Nobbys at Newcastle is formed of Upper Coal Measures. 
It is evident that Mr. Clarke considered the productive coal 
measures of the Neweastle, the Lithgow, Mittagong, and Illawarra 
Coal-fields as belonging to the Upper Coal Measures, and Mr. 
Mackenzie concurred with him in this opinion. 


Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, the late Government Geologist subse- 


quently adopted the following divisions for the Glossopteris Coal 


* Remarks on the Sedimentary Formations of New South Wales, Fourth 
Edition.—Gova@rnment Printer, Sydney 1878, p. 66. 


446 T. W. E. DAVID AND E. F. PITTMAN. 


Measures of New South Wales together with their associated 
marine strata :— 
"eee , Upper Coal Measures or Newcastle Coal Measures. 
Middle Coal Measures or East Maitland Coal Measures. 
Upper Marine Series. 
Carboniferous « Lower Coal Measures or Greta Coal Measures. 
Lower Marine Series. 

With regard to the relation of the Illawarra Coal Seams to 
those of Newcastle, Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, the late Government 
Geologist, wrote in 1887,* that in his opinion the former belonged 
to the series below the Newcastle beds, probably to the Lower 
Coal Measures, that is to the Greta Coal Measures. Mr. Wilkin- 
son was led to this provisional conclusion from a consideration of 
the fact that kerosene shale had been proved to occur in the Greta 
Coal Measures alone out of the three sets of coal measures developed 
in the type district, that of the Hunter River, and he thought 
therefore that as kerosene shale had been proved to exist there and 
also at America Creek, Mt. Kembla, in the Illawarra Coal-field, that 
the two deposits occupied an identical horizon. This inference 
appeared to be corroborated by the fact that at the head of the 
Clyde River some coal measures, at first considered to be the 
equivalents of the Illawarra Coal Measures, were found to be 
capped by marine strata similar to those covering the Greta Coal 
Measures, and also to contain a seam of kerosene shale. 


A subsequent examination however by Mr. Wilkinson of the 
Clyde Coal Measures in the southern extremity of the Illawarra 
Coal-field, while it convinced him of the probable identity of these 
measures with those of Greta, proved at the same time that the 
Clyde Measures were quite distinct from the Illawarra Coal 
Measures at Mt. Kembla, and the fact was thus established that 
in the Permo-Carboniferous strata of New South Wales there 
existed at least two distinct kerosene shale horizons. 

The question still remained to be settled as to whether the 
Illawarra Coal Measures were a continuation of the Newcastle 


* Mineral Products of New South Wales, etc., Department of Mines— 
Government Printer, Sydney 1887, p. 68. 


NOTES ON THE CREMORNE BORE. 447 


Coal Measures or of the Tomago Coal Measures of the Hunter 
District. The abundance of bands of clay ironstone in the Tomago 
as well as in the [llawarra Coal Measures inclined Mr. Wilkinson 
towards the latter opinion. 


A later examination of the Illawarra Coal-field, however, by 
one of the authors,* revealed the fact that there was an uncon- 
formability between the top of the Upper Marine Series and the 
base of the Illawarra Coal Measures, as seen in the coast section 
between Wollongong and Bellambi. ‘This suggested the proba- 
bility that the Middle or Tomago Coal Measures had been over- 
lapped by the overlying coal measures (the Upper or Newcastle 
Measures) in the manner illustrated in the sections accompanying 


the report above quoted. 


An examination of the section at the top of the Newcastle 
Coal Measures confirmed the opinion that the Illawarra Coal 
Measures were probably chiefly the equivalents of the Newcastle 
Measures, and the inference was drawn that the Bulli Coal Seam, 
the uppermost in the Illawarra Coal Measures, was identical with 
the Wallarah Coal Seam, the uppermost seam in the Newcastle 
Coal Measures at Wallarah near Catherine Hill Bay, Lake Mac- 
quarie. On paleontological evidence alone, Mr. R. Etheridge, 
Junr., the Paleontologist to the Geological Survey of New South 
Wales and to the Australian Museum, had previously arrived at 
somewhat similar general conclusions. 

The classification at present adopted by us is as follows :— 

(6) Newcastle Coal Measures typically developed at Newcastle, 
Lithgow, Mittagong, and in the Illawarra District. 

(5) Dempsey Beds. 

(4) Tomago Coal Measures typically developed at Tomago and 
East Maitland. 

(3) Upper Marine Series. 

(2) Greta Coal Measures typically developed at Greta, West 
Maitland, and at the Clyde River. 

(1) Lower Marine Series. 


Permo-Carboniferous. 


The following is a table showing the relation of the new classi- 
fication to those formerly adopted :— 


* Annual Report, Department of Mines, 1890, p. 234, 


448 


T. W. E. DAVID AND E. F. PITTMAN. 


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_ NOTES ON THE CREMORNE BORE. 449 


The following are sections of the seams at Amos Brothers 
Bore near Wallarah and at the No, 2 Bore, Cremorne, placed side 
by side for comparison :— 

Amos Brothers Bore 


near Wallarah.* Cremorne. 
Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches. 
0 3 shale 0 1 coal, clay, shale 
5) 9 coal 0 8 coal, splint, somewhat inferior 


with minute veins of calcite 
0 02 sandstone 2 9 (about) coal splint and bituminous 
of good quality 
0 01 band dark brown clay shale 
adhering firmly to coal. 

6 81 coal 6 D+ coal splint and bituminous of 
good quality, the last 3 inches 
rather soft and bituminous. 

4 coal, soft bituminous, a trifle 
clayey. 


10 9 10 3 


Not only do the sections of these two seams agree tolerably 
closely, but the section of the two seams next below this top seam 
in the Newcastle and Illawarra Coal-fields respectively, also 
agrees, a seam four feet in thickness usually underlying the seam at 
Wallarah in the Newcastle Coal-field and at Bulliin the Illawarra 
Coal-field, and a seam fourteen feet in thickness underlying the 
four feet seam in places at both these coal-fields. The last men- 
tioned seam however, in the Jllawarra Coal-field is split up into a 
number of smaller seams at several localities. It is typically 
developed at Wongawilli near Dapto. 


One important scientific result of the Cremorne Bore is there- 
fore the practical settlement of the question as to the identity of 
the Newcastle Coal Measures with those of the Illawarra Coal- 


* Annual Report, Department of Mines, 1882, p. 128. 
C c—Decr. 6, 1893. 


450 T. W. E. DAVID AND E. F. PITTMAN. 


field, and it may now be considered almost an established fact 
that the Tomago Coal Measures have been overlapped by the 
Newcastle Coal Measures and have thinned out against a rising | 
surface of the Upper Marine Series throughout the greater por- 
tion of the Illawarra District. 


III. Previous Bores for Coal in the neighbourhood of Sydney. 

(1.) A bore was put down to a depth of 1,312 feet at Newington 
near Parramatta, by Mr. Coghlan, with a view of reaching the 
coal measures.* According to this report, which was made by 
the late Government Geologist, Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, the coal 
measures were reached near the bottom of the bore, and a specimen 
of Glossopteris was found in part of the core. We are of opinion 
however, that Mr. Wilkinson in making this statement was merely 
quoting the information supplied to him, and did not intend to 
record them as the result of his own observation, as he never, as 
far as we are aware, alluded to this statement, although he on 
more than one occasion discussed the subject of this bore with 
one of the authors. It seems incredible that: the coal measures 
should lie at a depth of only 1,300 feet at Newington, near Parra- 
matta, when they are 2,500 feet deep at Liverpool, about twelve 
miles southerly from Parramatta, and over 2,900 feet deep at 
Cremorne, about sixteen miles easterly from the same locality, 
there being little difference in the respective surface levels, and 
there being probably but very little dip between Liverpool and 
Parramatta. In all probability therefore this bore did not reach 
the coal measures. 

(2.) At Moore Park a bore was carried down to a depth of 
2,170 feet without striking the coal measures.f 

(3.) At Botany a bore was put down toa depth of about 2,200 
feet without penetrating the horizon of the coal measures. The 
chocolate shales were struck at a depth of 1,000 feet. t 


* Annual Report, Department of Mines, Sydney, 1878, p. 155. 
+ Annual Report, Department of Mines, 1880.—Report by Mr. C. S. 


Wilkinson, p. 241. 
t~ Annual Report, Department of Mines, 1879, p. 208, and Mineral 


Products etc. of New South Wales, 1887, plate vi. 


NOTES ON THE CREMORNE BORE. 451 


(4.) At Narrabeen a bore executed by Mr. Coghlan attained a 
depth of about 1,985 feet and failed to reach the coal measures.* 
The chocolate shales were struck at a depth of 379 feet 6 inches, 
and the purple and green tuffaceous shales representing the horizon 
of the cupriferous tuffs at a depth of 1,715 feet. Natural gas is 
stated to have been struck in this bore at a depth of 1,560 feet, 
and also at a depth of 1,200 feet in a bore within a few yards of 
the first. This natural gas was probably coal gas mixed with 
atmospheric air. The height of the bore above sea-level was 


about four feet. 


(5.) At Rose Bay near Sydney, Mr. Coghlan bored on the 
Cowper Estate, to a depth of approximately 1,700 feet. Neither 
coal measures nor gas were obtained at this bore. 


(6.) At Camp Creek, near the present site of the Metropolitan 
Colliery, about twenty-seven miles from Sydney, a bore executed 
by Mr. Coghlan was successful in reaching the Bulli coal seam, 
there about twelve feet thick, at a depth of 846 feet. Height 
above sea-level 336 feet. 


(7.) The bore put down by the Department of Mines between 
Waterfall and Heathcote, about twenty-three miles southerly from 
Sydney, struck the upper portion of the Bulli seam at a depth of 
1,513 feet, thickness four feet eight and a-half inches, and the 
lower portion six feet one inch thick at a depth of 1,583 feet ten 
‘inches. The chocolate shales were struck at a depth of 307 feet, 
and the cupriferous tuffs at a depth of 1,047 feet. Height above 
sea-level 4674 feet. + 


(8.) At Dent’s Creek near Holt Sutherland, the Diamond Drill 
belonging to the Department of Mines, struck the upper coal seam 
proved at the Heathcote bore at a depth of 2,228 feet, the seam 
being four feet two inches thick, and the lower seam at 2,2964 
feet, the thickness of the latter being five feet three inches. The 


* Annual Report, Department of Mines, 1890, pp. 233 —- 237.—Report 
by T. W. E. David. 
+ Annual Report, Department of Mines, 1885, [1866] p. 176. 


452 T. W. E. DAVID AND E. F. PITTMAN. 


chocolate shales were struck at 787 feet, and the cupriferous tuffs. 
at 1,728 feet. The total depth of this bore was 2,307 feet. 


The results of these bores 6, 7 and 8 proved the Bulli Seam to 
have a dip from Coal Cliff, where it outcrops near sea level, to 
Holt Sutherland at arate of about 139 feet per mile. The height 


above sea level is 132 feet.* 


(9.) At the Liverpool Bore, situated on the Moorbank Estate,. 
three miles southerly from Liverpool near Sydney, three small seams. 
of coal, probably representing in the aggregate the upper division 
of the Bulli seam, were struck at depths of 2,4932 feet, 2,507 
feet 7 inches, and 2,532 feet 8 inches ; their respective thicknesses 
being one foot five inches, one foot four inches, and two inches, 
and the lower division of the Bulli Seam six feet six inches thick 
was struck at 2,584 feet 10 inches. 


(10.) The first Cremorne Bore put down by the Department of 
Mines on the shores of Port Jackson, near Mossman’s Bay, struck 
the main Bulli Seam, here probably representing a combination of 
the two seams struck at Heathcote and Holt Sutherland, and of 
the four seams struck at Liverpool at a depth of 2,801 feet 9 inches. 
As however, the seam was much intermixed with dyke material 
and wholly calcined, this thickness must be considered as only 
approximate. Ata depth of 2,838 feet 9 inches a dolerite dyke 
was struck, which was not completely penetrated until a further 
distance of thirty-four feet four and a-half inches had been bored. 
The bore was continued to a depth of 3,095 feet without proving 
any other coal seams of importance. The following small seams 
however were penetrated :—one foot one inch of clayey calcined 
coal at 2,829 feet 6 inches; one foot two inches of dirty splint 
coal at 2,898 feet 3 inches ; one foot of coal at 2,941 feet 2 inches; 
five feet of carbonaceous clay shale passing downwards into about 
one foot of clayey coal at 2,947 feet 2 inches ; two feet four inches 
of coal at 3,020 feet 2 inches; one foot four inches of coal and 
bands at 3,030 feet ; five inches of coal at 3,054 feet 11 inches. 


* Annual Report, Department of Mines for 1883, p. 197. 


NOTES ON THE CREMORNE BORE. 453 


The chocolate shales were struck at a depth of 943 feet 4 inches. 
The surface level at this bore was fifty-four feet above the sea. 


(11.) Second Cremorne Lore.—In consequence of the coal in the 
seam struck at the first bore having been damaged by the dolerite 
dyke, the syndicate resolved to put down a second bore, and with 
a view of avoiding the dykes in the second bore, applied for a 
geological survey of the neighbourhood with the object of deter- 
mining the exact trend of the dykes. An examination was 
accordingly made by the Geological Survey, and it was found by 
the authors that a dyke of dolerite about five feet wide outcropped 
near the first bore, dipping towards the borehole at a rate which 
would make it approximately intersect the bore at the depth at 
which the dolerite dyke was actually encountered in the bore. A 
subsequent examination by one of the authors led to the discovery 
of a second dyke, trending so as to almost exactly intersect the 


spot where the bore was commenced.* 


The site for the second bore was accordingly placed as far as 
possible from the outcrops of these two dykes, though the boun- 
daries of the Syndicate’s property did not admit of its being 
distant more than a quarter of a mile from either outcrop. At 
a depth of 2,917 feet a seam of coal was struck, which proved to 
be ten feet three inches in thickness. The upper eight inches of 
this seam was slightly damaged through the action of superheated 
water carrying mineral matter in solution from the dyke, but the 
remainder of the seam proved to have been quite unaffected by 
the dyke, and the analysis of the coal shows it to be a steam coal 
of very good quality. The following is a section of the seam :— 

Roof, clay shale. 


Feet. Inches. 
0 1 coaly clay shale. 


0 8 splint coal somewhat inferior, with minute veins 
of calcite (?). 
2 10 coal splint and bituminous of good quality. 


* Annual Report, Department of Mines and Agriculture, 1892, p. 109- 
110—Report by E. F. Pittman, a.z.s.u., Government Geologist. 


454 T. W. E. DAVID AND E. F. PITTMAN, 


Feet. Inches. 
0) 04 band dark brown clay shale, adhering firmly to 


coal. 

6 41 coal, splint and bituminous of good quality, the 
last three inches rather soft and bituminous. 

0 3% coal, soft bituminous, a trifle clayey. 


Total 10 3 


Floor black carbonaceous clay shale passing downwards into a. 
hard mudstone. This bore was carried to a depth of 2,929 feet. 


The quality of the coal in this seam is shown by the following 
analyses by Mr. J. C. H. Mingaye, r.c.s., Analyst and Assayer 
to the Department of Mines :—2572 No. 1. Average sample from 
the first eighteen inches of coal next below the eight inches of 
coal with calcite veins at the top of the seam :— 


Hygroscopic moisture ... oP 65 

Volatile hydrocarbons ... Sei 0) 

Fixed carbon ... ae ey io Ae 

Ach > che eee ae 10.30 f Coke ae 
100-00 


Sulphur in coal :795%. Specific gravity 1:207. Ash, reddish 
tinge, flocculent. 


One pound of this coal by experiment in a Thompson’s calori- 


meter will convert 12:7 ibs. of water into steam. 


2573 No. 2. Average sample from the next eighteen inches of 


coal :— 
Hygroscopic moisture... ee ‘70 
Volatile hydrocarbons ... tel eco 
Fixed carbon ... a Ned Allis ol} “KA 
BA Midas ts G8, Oe 5.90 f Coke ae 
100-00 
2574 No. 3. Average sample from the next fourteen inches of 
coal :— 
Hygroscopic moisture... ee 80 


Volatile hydrocarbons ... ... 16°90 


NOTES ON THE CREMORNE BORE. 455 


Fixed carbon _... a Be GOD ) pase 
PeeWee ed. tibas.§, Cole 82°907, 
100-00 


Sulphur in coal 617%. Specific gravity 1:398. Ash, reddish 
tinge, flocculent. 


One pound of this coal will convert 12°9 ibs. of water into steam. 


2575 No. 4. Average sample from the next fourteen inches of 


coal :— 
Hygroscopic moisture... de ‘70 
Volatile hydrocarbons ... snk ROS 
iced carbon, | ... dale pa (ne 745) Paes 
La (ee ae 11-00 f Coke —— 


100-00 


Sulphur in coal 8097. Specific gravity 1:374. Ash, reddish 
tinge, flocculent. 


One pound of this coal will convert 12:9 ibs. of water into steam. 


2576 No. 5. Average sample from the next fourteen inches of 


coal :— 
Hygroscopic moisture... adi 65 
Volatile hydrocarbons ... ee. Oo 
Fixed carbon ... ot Jeu) HOLD, | Re 
Ash Ce ie arti p re Or 


100:00 
Sulphur in coal :8787. Specific gravity 1373. Ash, reddish 
tinge, flocculent. 
One pound of this coal will convert 13-1 tbs. of water into steam. 


2577 No. 6. Average sample of the last fourteen inches of 
coal :— 


Hygroscopic moisture... ne “45 
Volatile hydrocarbon _... ... 18:45 
Fixed carbon .... Rh Soe Malena) 10° 
PE Uee tn pers 6 60) gga GOKe BEI, 


a 
aa 


456 T. W. E. DAVID AND E. F. PITTMAN. 


Sulphur in coal -686%. Specific gravity 1:362. Ash, reddish 
tinge, flocculent. 


One pound of this coal will convert 13:2 tbs. of water into steam: 


Mean analysis of the six samples :— 


Hygroscopic moisture... Sea 66 

Volatile hydrocarbons ... a, Som 

Fixed carbon ... & soo bd LEO 

Ach ce, 2 ee 10.88 ¢ Coke ot 
100-00 


Mean sulphur °7247/. Mean specific gravity 1°346.. Mean 


calorimetric value 13:0. 


The above analyses prove the coal to be a steam coal of good 
quality, slightly superior to the Bulli coal, but resembling it in 
general physical characters, as might have been expected, seeing 
that it belongs to the same seam. The Bulli coal however, con- 


tains at least two per cent. more ash than that from Cremorne. 


Mr. Mingaye adds that the Cremorne coal forms an excellent 
coke. The mean percentage of ash in the coke would be 13:06. 


General character of the Coke of the Bulli Seam.—The coke 
hitherto made from coal taken from the Bulli Seam contains a 
rather higher percentage of ash than that made from the Northern 
or Newcastle coal, and although at the Bulli Colliery Coke Works 
the coal was passed through a Sheppard Coal Washing Machine 
prior to its introduction to the coke ovens, the percentage of ash 
in the resulting coke amounted to 13:4.* This is said to be due 
to the fact that the dirt.or ash-forming material is intimately 
mixed with or distributed through the Bulli coal in a very fine 
state of division. Nevertheless it appears probable that if the 
washing were preceded by sufficiently fine crushing, a very 
material reduction in the percentage of ash would result. One 
distinct advantage possessed by coke made from the Bulli Seam 
is its capacity for resisting crushing strain, or in other words, its 

* Vide Report on Colonial Coke by EH. F. Pittman, a.x.s.m., Government 


Geologist—Annual Report of the Department of Mines and Agriculture 
for 1892, pp. 35-37. 


NOTES ON THE CREMORNE BORE. 457 


excellence for smelting purposes in those cases where it has to 
resist a heavy furnace burden. It will be seen by reference to 
the report last quoted, that in some tests made by Professor 
Warren, samples of the Bulli coke resisted a pressure of from 
2,400 to 3,100 ibs. per square inch—a pressure which was largely 
in excess of that withstood by any of the other specimens of foreign 
or colonial coke experimented with. 


G'as.—Coal gas was given off abundantly from the coal core for 
over two hours after it had been drawn to the surface. The coal 
dust floated up in the water which was being circulated in the 
borehole by the force pump in the process of drilling, discharged 
coal gas so copiously that it bubbled up strongly through the 
water, and was readily ignited, burning with a bluish flame six to 
eight inches in length. It will be recollected that gas, probably 
coal gas mixed with atmospheric air, was given off from both the 
bores for coal at Narrabeen. It was probably derived from the 
Same seam as that struck at Cremorne, and was conducted into 
the Narrabeen bores possibly by an oblique joint in the strata, 
which intersected one bore at a depth of 1,200 feet, and the other 
at 1,560 feet. 


IV. (a) Details of No. 2 Cremorne Bore.—The following is a 
generalised section of the strata penetrated in this bore from the 


surface down to the total depth 2,929 feet :— 
Thickness. Total depth. 
iu. ine - Aine 

(Hawkesbury Sandstone ... 1,020 6 1,020 
( (a) Chocolate shales... 1638 6 1,184 O 
| (b) Sandstones, shales } 

and conglomerates, 
with Thinnfeldia, | . 
Sphenopteris, Sagen- 11,112 6 2,296 6 
opteris, Macroteniop- f°” 2 
teris, Odontopteris, 
Schizoneura, and 
Estheria. 5) 
(c) Tuffaceous dark ) 
green gritty shales— | 
horizon of the Cupri- U 
ferous tuff of the { 
Holt Sutherland and | 
Heathcote bores. J 


(d) Sandstones, shales : 
| and conglomerates i 560 0 2,917 0 


Triassic—Hawkesbury + 
Series. | 


ee 


Narrabeen Beds. 


—— 


60 6 2,357 O 


458 T., W. E. DAVID AND E. F. PITTMAN. 


Thickness. Total depth. 
Ft. In. Bt. aie 


Coal seam ... 10 3 2,927 3 
Permo-Carboniferous—Newcastle 
Series. 


Clay shale and 
mindstone with 1 9 225° eo 


Vertebraria. 

The line of division between the Mesozoic and Paleozoic rocks 
has been drawn at the top of the coal seam for the reason that 
the horizon of the ironstone nodules, which is well marked as 
forming the basal bed of the Hawkesbury Series, was found to 
descend at this bore to within a few feet of the coal seam. 


(b) Dip of the Seam.—At the No. 1 Cremorne Bore the surface 
level was fifty-four feet above the sea, and at the No. 2 Bore one 
hundred and forty-three feet above sea-level. At the No. 1 Bore, 
the coal was struck at 2,801 feet 9 inches, and at the No. 2 Bore 
at 2,917 feet. Consequently the seam at the No. 2 Bore was one 
hundred and fifteen feet deeper (in round numbers) than at the 
No. 1 Bore, whereas there was a difference in the surface levels 
of only about eighty-nine feet. The seam has therefore dipped 
from the No. 1 Bore towards the No. 2 Bore twenty-six feet ina 
distance of forty chains in a direction of North 34° West. 


At the Narrabeen Bores the chocolate shales were struck at a 
depth of three hundred and seventy-nine feet six inches, the 
distance from the No. 2 Cremorne Bore being nine and a-half miles 
and the bearing North 5° 45’ Hast. The surface level being about 
four feet above the sea. 


At Holt Sutherland, the surface level being one hundred and 
thirty-two feet above the sea, the depth to the first seam of coal 
was 2,228 feet, and to the second seam 2,2963 feet. If the authors’ 
opinion be right that these two seams come together and become 
united to form the single ten feet three inches seam at Cremorne, 
the depth to the top of the lower seam with the thickness of the 
upper seam subtracted from it should be taken as the level from 
which to measure the dip of the seam from Holt Sutherland towards 
Cremorne, that is 22964 feet — 4 feet 2 inches = 2,292 feet in 
round numbers. The total dip therefore from the Holt Suther- 
land Bore to the No. 2 Bore at Cremorne has been six hundred 


NOTES ON THE CREMORNE BORE. 459 


and fourteen feet, the bearing being N. 21° 30’ E. and the distance 
sixteen and a-half miles. The chocolate shales at the Holt Suther- 
land Bore were struck at a depth of seven hundred and eighty- 
seven feet,* whereas at the No. 2 Bore at Cremorne they were 
struck at 1,020 feet, a total dip of two hundred and twenty-two feet, 
so that, whereas the coal measures dip six hundred and fourteen 
feet, the top of the Narrabeen beds and base of the Hawkesbury 
Sandstone has dipped only two hundred and twenty-two feet, 
which proves that the Narrabeen Beds thicken between Holt 
Sutherland and Cremorne three hundred and ninety-two feet in a 
distance of sixteen and a-half miles. 


The surface level at the Liverpool Bore is about forty feet, and 
the depth to the top of the main seam 2,584 feet 10 inches, so 
that the main seam dips from Liverpool towards the No. 2 Bore, 
Cremorne, two hundred and twenty-nine feet, the bearing being 
N. 53° E., and the distance twenty miles. 


These data are not sufficient to admit of the exact amount and 
direction of dip of the coal measures at Cremorne being calculated. 
From Coal Cliff to Holt Sutherland the dip is northerly at about 
one hundred and thirty feet per mile ; from Lithgow to Liverpool 
it is easterly at about sixty feet per mile without allowing for the 
downthrow fault and sharp monoclinal fold at Lapstone Hill, 
which amounts to perhaps about six hundred feet. If this six 
hundred feet be added, the dip from Lithgow to Liverpool would 
be about sixty-seven feet per mile. 


The general dip from the coast towards the No. 2 Cremorne 
Bore is westerly at one hundred and ten feet per mile. At 
Wyong, about forty miles northerly from Cremorne, the same 
chocolate shales which are about eight hundred and seventy-seven 
feet below sea-level at Cremorne, are at sea-level, dipping in a 
southerly direction. It is obvious from these facts that Sydney 
cannot be far from the centre of the great coal-field, which extends 
from near Ulladulla to Port Stephens, and from the sea coast to 


* Annual Report, Department of Mines, 1883, p. 197. 


460 T. W. E. DAVID AND E. F. PITTMAN. 


beyond Lithgow. The westerly dip at Cremorne proves that the 
bore is situated on the eastern half of this coal basin, and as the 
seam is rising in an easterly direction at Cremorne at the rate of 
about one hundred and ten feet per mile, it should outcrop at sea 
level at a point about twenty-four and three-quarter miles from 
the coast eastwards from the bore. The ocean however here is 
about one hundred fathoms deep, so that the submarine outcrop 
of this seam should lie approximately nineteen and a-quarter miles 
easterly from the entrance to Port Jackson. 


It may be safely predicted that in the near future the coal 
seam at Cremorne will be worked far under the ocean, and already 
a company “The Sydney and Port Hacking Coal Company Limd.,” 
name since changed to ‘‘ The Sydney Harbour Collieries, Limited,” 
has acquired the right to mine for coal under an area of about 
8,000 acres of Port Jackson, Middle Harbour, and Manly Cove. 


V. Temperature.—With a view of ascertaining the temperature 
as accurately as was practicable in the short space of time avail- 
able for the experiment, by the advice of Professor Threlfall and 
Mr. H. C. Russell, the Government Astronomer, some maximum- 
register thermometers were hermetically sealed in a strong piece 
of wrought iron water pipe about two feet three inches in length. 
A. cap piece was ‘sweated on” to the lower end of this tube, the 
threads of the screw in the cap piece and pipe being filled with 
molten solder and the cap piece being screwed on, while the solder 
was still molten. By this means a joint was formed capable of 
withstanding the great pressure to which it would be subjected, 
when lowered to the bottom of the bore, the bore being full of 
water from a level of 2,900 feet to within about three hundred 
feet of the surface, and it being necessary therefore to protect the 
bulbs of the thermometers against this water pressure, in order to 
preclude the possibility of their registration being unduly high 
from that cause. The lower end of the pipe was then filled to a 
depth of about two inches with brass turnings. The thermometers 
were next carefully lowered into the tube. Three of these were 
maximum registering overflow thermometers, made by Negretti 


= 


NOTES ON THE CREMORNE BORE. 461 


and Zambra, two of them kindly lent for the purpose by Mr. H. 
C. Russell, and being Kew-certificated. A fourth was a combined 
spirit and mercury thermometer registering both maximum and 
minimum temperatures by means of small steel pistons washered 
with vulcanite. 


The three overflow thermometers were placed with their bulbs 
uppermost to facilitate the breaking of the mercury column when 
the maximum temperature had been reached. Brass turnings 
were then packed around them in order that the heat might be 
conducted rapidly to their bulbs from the water in the bore. 
Strings were fastened to the bulbs to facilitate the withdrawal of 
the thermometers from the tube after the experiment of taking 
the temperature had been completed. The ends of these strings 
were carried close up to the top of the pipe, the brass turnings 
being packed around them like tamping around a fuse in a shot- 
hole. A few card-board wads and a layer of loose paper two 
inches in thickness were inserted in the upper portion of the tube 
to prevent the conduction downwards of the artificial heat, which 
would otherwise travel down to the thermometers from the upper 
end of the tube when it was dipped in the molten solder, previous 
to the upper cap-piece being ‘“‘sweated on.” <A ring-bolt for 
attaching the lowering cord was screwed into the upper cap-piece 
with molten solder sweated into it; and the whole cap-piece was 
then screwed and sweated on to the upper end of the tube in the 


same manner as the lower cap-piece. 


The tube carrying the thermometers was then lowered down 
the borehole by means of about five hundred feet of piano wire 
attached to two thousand five hundred feet of tarred rope. Owing 
however, to the fact that the bulbs of the two Kew thermometers 
(these two alone were used on the occasion of the first experiment) 
having a few thicknesses of soft paper around their bulbs it was 
found on raising the tube after it had remained near the bottom 
of the bore for about an hour, that no sensible alteration had 
taken place in the level of the mercury. Considerable delay 
however had occurred between the time that the thermometers 


462 T. W. E. DAVID AND E. F. PITTMAN. 


reached the surface and the time that the reading was taken, as 
it was necessary to convey the tube from the site of the bore back 
to the plumber’s in order to have the upper cap-piece removed. 
It is just possible therefore that as both thermometers were in a 
vertical position in the tube, the mercury may have become 
gradually sucked back into the bulbs after having been forced up 
the graduated tube to the temperature of the water near the 
the bottom of the bore. 

On the occasion of the second experiment all the four ther- 
mometers previously described, were employed, no paper being 
wrapped around the bulbs, but the brass dust being continuous 
from the bulbs to the side of the iron pipe. On that occasion, 
however, owing to an obstruction in the bore at a depth of 2,733 
feet, the piano wire became slackened, as the lowering was con- 
tinued until it was estimated that the tube with the thermometers 
had reached a depth of about 2,880 feet. Consequently about 
one hundred and sixty-seven feet of rope was paid out after the 
tube had reached the depth of 2,733 feet, the reduction in weight 
on the rope consequent on the tube becoming lodged at that level 
not being sufficiently perceptible to apprise those in charge of the 
lowering that the bore had become blocked. When, therefore, 
after the tube had remained down the bore for over an hour, the 
work of winding up was commenced, the slackened coils of piano 
wire kinked, and the wire snapped, and the tube was left remain- 
ing in the bore at the depth above mentioned. After an immersion 
of about twenty-seven hours, the tube together with over a hundred 
feet of tangled wire was brought to the surface by the Superin- 
tendent of Drills, Mr. W. H. J. Slee, with the assistance of his 
foreman, Mr. Ayles, who succeeded in grappling the wire with an 
improvised recovering tool in the shape of a heavy iron coupling, 
terminating downwards in an iron prong about a foot long, armed 
at the sides with stiff springs riveted on to the prong at one end, . 
and with the free ends pointing outwards and upwards, like the 
barbs of a harpoon. | 

The upper cap-piece was then rapidly heated in a chafing dish 
of charcoal made of an old nail can with a hole cut out of the 


NOTES ON THE CREMORNE BORE. 463 


bottom just sufficiently large to admit of the upper end of the 
tube being passed up it, and oxygen gas from a compressed cylinder 
was blown through a Fletcher’s Blowpipe on to the charcoal, so 
that in less than half a minute the solder in the threads of the 
cap-piece was melted—the lower portion of the tube containing 
the thermometers being meanwhile wrapped in wet cloths to 
prevent the heat travelling downwards. The cap-piece having 
been unscrewed and the thermometers withdrawn, the highest 


temperature registered was found to be 97° Fah. 


In spite of the tube having remained for twenty-seven hours 
under the great hydrostatic pressure it must have sustained at a 
depth of 2,733 feet, not a drop of water had found its way into 
the tube, a fact, which speaks for itself as to the excellence of the 
work done by the plumber, Mr. James Gilchrist, of 174a Pitt 
Street, Sydney. 


On the following day the experiment was repeated, the tarred 
rope alone being used with a weight of only about thirty pounds, 
including that of the tube. This time the tube was withdrawn 
after it had remained down the bore one hour. The stoppage of 
the tube in the bore at a depth of 2,733 feet, was this time dis- 
tinctly perceptible, and so the cause of the kinking of the piano 


wire on the previous occasion was explained. 


The maximum temperature registered by the three overflow 
thermometers was 96° Fah. The maximum and minimum ther- 
mometer was found to have been shattered, probably through the 
jarring of the tube against the sides of the borehole. The lower 
temperature recorded on the occasion of the third experiment as 
compared with that of the second, was probably due to the tube 
carrying the thermometers and the sheet lead wrapped round it, 
(in order to increase its weight) having slightly chilled the water 
at the point where the temperature was taken, and the time 
allowed (one hour), before the tube was withdrawn having been 
too short to admit of the water around the tube in the bore 
resuming the normal temperature of the surrounding rock. 


464 T. W. E. DAVID AND E. F. PITTMAN. 


The above experiments were conducted without any special 
precautions having been taken against convection currents. It is 
impossible, however, that convection currents would obtain to 
such an extent as to materially alter the temperature in a bore- 
hole only four inches in diameter from 2,400 feet to 2,929 feet, 
and five inches in diameter from 2,400 feet to the surface. If 
therefore 97° Fah. be assumed to be the correct temperature of 
the earth’s crust at Port Jackson at a depth of 2,733 feet, (and 
the authors do not think there is likely to be an error of more than 
half a degree in the temperature above quoted), the mean surface 
temperature being 63° Fah., as determined by Mr. H. C. Russell, 
the rate of increase in temperature down to a level of 2,733 feet 
would be 1° Fah. for every eighty feet, after the zone of mean 
temperature, at about thirteen feet below the surface, has been 
passed. The temperature therefore at the depth at which the 
coal seam was struck, 2,917 feet, should be 2°3° Fah. higher 
than that registered ac 2,733 feet, that is 99:3° Fah. 


At the Metropolitan Colliery near Sydney, the rate of increase 
of temperature was found to be approximately 1° Fah. for every 
seventy-eight feet. This result however, can be considered as 
only approximate. Experiments were also made with a view of 
ascertaining whether the water in the deeper portions of the 
harbour may have had any chilling effect locally on that portion 
of the earth’s crust nearest the bore, so as to depress the isogeo- 
therms. The temperature however of the water in the harbour 
at the greatest depths near Cremorne, varying from forty-five feet . 
to sixty-three feet, was uniform at 68° Fah. The experiment 
was made on December 6th, 1893. The abnormally low rate of 
increase in temperature in the earth’s crust downwards at Cre- 
morne cannot therefore be attributed to any chilling effect of the 
water in the harbour. More observations will be needed before 
any definite conclusions can be arrived at. The comparatively 
low temperature at the horizon of the coal seam will obviously 
materially lessen the cost of ventilation, as compared with what 
it would have been, had the rate been 1° for every sixty-three 


NOTES ON THE CREMORNE BORE. 465 


feet, as has so often been experienced in other countries under 


somewhat similar conditions. 


VI. Possibility of Working the Seam,—With the efficient ven- 
tilation which can be secured by means of the most modern 
ventilating fans, there does not appear to be any reason to doubt 
that the temperature of the mine workings under the harbour at 
Sydney, can be reduced to 80° or even less. At the Metropolitan 
Colliery, Helensburgh, with a Schiele fan twenty feet in diameter 
working at the top of the upcast shaft, a ventilation of about 
350,000 cubic feet per minute is said to be obtained, and the con- 
dition of the air in the mine is very satisfactory. The depth of 
the coal below high watermark at Cremorne—about 2,774 feet is 
undoubtedly great, but it is not by any means the greatest depth 
at which coal has been worked. Thus in England at the Ashton 
Moss pit, at Dukinfield, the workings were carried to a depth of 
2,850 feet, while in Belgium at a Colliery near Charleroi a depth 
of 3,411 feet was attained.* 


It may therefore be reasonably expected that the difficulties of 
working the coal under Sydney harbour can all be overcome with 
the aid of the most improved appliances for ventilating and hoist- 
ing. ‘The only other question to be considered, viz., whether the 
trade that may be looked for in the near future will be sufficient 
to pay interest on the capital required to develop the mine, is a 
commercial rather than a scientific one, and is therefore outside 
the limits of this paper. 


* Vide Prestwich’s Geology, 1888, Vol. 11., p. 100. 
D p—Dee. 6, 1893.] 


Oe ae 
. - 
” ae 


466 W. A. DIXON. 


On ARTESIAN WATER In connection with IRRIGATION. 
By W. A. Dixon, F.1.C., F.C.S. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 6, 1893. ] 


FoLLowineG on the interesting paper by Prof. David on Artesian 
Water, I have ventured to put down a few remarks in their con- 
nection with irrigation. This is required, because very loose and 
wild ideas as to the results likely to be achieved float through the 
minds of many people, and often find expression through the press. 


Prof. David states as his opinion, that the water which now 
rises in our artesian bores has hitherto been flowing to the sea by 
underground channels, and that the rise of water to the surface is 
caused by the friction of the material of the porous beds on the 
water, the outlet to the sea being much below the level of the land 
surface, He also says that the intake area at the outcrop of the 
Cretaceous beds is about two hundred square miles (so far as the 
drainage into New South Wales is concerned I understand). The 
rainfall on this area is about twenty-two inches per annum on the 
average, and it is stated by Mr. Russell, (Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. 
Vol. xxitl., pp. 57 — 63), that probably half this rainfall percolates 
into the soil. 

It must not be thought that because vegetation exists with a 
rainfall of eight inches per annum, and flourishes with three times 
that amount, that even the larger quantity applied to the ground 
by irrigation would produce the same effect. When rain falls the 
atmosphere is saturated with moisture and evaporation is checked, 
but successful irrigation is practised when the air is dry and 
evaporation at its greatest, so that it is best applied thoroughly to 
small areas instead of to large ones merely watered. The cost of 
laying out channels is kept at a minimum, as is also the loss by 
adycuii»r. relatively to the crop. 


A | 


ARTESIAN WATER IN CONNECTION WITH IRRIGATION. 467 


The quantity of water used for efficient irrigation is very large, 
as, for example, in Italy the hay land gets twelve floodings each 
six inches deep during the summer six months, of which one-third 
to one-half is retained by the land, the remainder being utilized to 
similarly flood land ata lower level. The land thus gets seventy- 
two inches, and if one-third of this, viz., twenty-four inches is 
retained by the soil, this is two inches more than the fall on our 
catchment. In some other countries more is used. 


Supposing that half of the rainfall which passes into the soil 
could be made available it would only irrigate something under 
60,000 acres. If the cause of the upward pressure is as stated, 
long before this maximum was reached the bores would cease to 
be artesian. 

It seems more probable that only about one-fifth of the rainfall 
on the catchment area could be made available after allowing for 
loss by streams, evaporation, and the requirements of vegetation 
locally, and the unavoidable escape through the old channels to 
the sea, This reduces the avaz/able catchment area to forty square 
miles, giving water enough to irrigate 25,000 acres. This area 
would produce 75,000 tons of hay per annum by growing grasses 
of the largest yield, such as Timothy, taking the result as the same 
as that of Italy, viz., three tons per acre. Mr. Coglan gives the 
yield of hay in New South Wales as 1°73 tons per acre and the 
area aS 131,153 acres, so that the total crop at present is, say 
227,000 tons. Other crops could of course be raised instead, but 
hay would probably be the most valuable on the spot for conversion 
into live stock. 


Water for irrigation is not required all the year round, so that 
it would be necessary to construct reservoirs to contain and store 
it when it is not required. It is evident that no advantage can 
arise by closing down the bores either completely or partially, as 
the water would then simply find its way to the sea by the old 
channels instead of on to the land. The only possible advantage 
of closing would be that of giving other bores a chance of getting 
pressure, but this would only happen if the wells were too numer- 


468 W. A. DIXON. 


ous, and would make no difference in the area that could be 
irrigated. Probably half the water would have to be stored, and 
the reservoirs would require, for the irrigation of 25,000 acres, a 
capacity of 6,806,250,000 gallons, or one hundred and twenty-one 
million cubic yards. ‘This is a work of some magnitude and with © 
ditches and other capital work would cost at least £5,000,000, or 
£200 per acre, the interest on which alone would come to £2 6s. 8d. 
per ton on the hay. 


In Mr. Boultbee’s report on artesian bores published in the 
beginning of 1892, the flow of water is stated to be 10,750,000 
gallons per day, but these figures are misleadingly large when 
used in connection with irrigation, when the water has to be 
measured in inches of depth on the surface. Put into this form 
it would be twenty-four inches per annum on 7,230 acres or the 
rainfall on twelve and one-third square miles on the catchment 
area, or nearly one-third of supply available. 


I would be glad to find that the results are better, but they are 
those derivable from the information available and can only be 
increased by enlarging the catchment or the rainfall. As I said 
in the discussion on Prof. David’s paper a month ago, we must be 
sure of our supply. It seems folly to build castles in the air at 
present, and to dream as some people seem to do of cultivating 
millions of acres and settling hundreds of thousands of agriculturists 


on the soil. 


ADDENDUM TO MR. RAY’S PAPER. 


469 


AppENDUM TO Mr. Ray’s paPer (pp. 101-167) on THE 
LANGUAGES OF THE NEw HepriDEs. 


III. Matexuta ; dialects—1. Port Sandwich (additional); 


Sun—meriu Yam—dram 


Moon—rambatsi Taro—buagk 
foad—buse 
Club—mbat 


Food—hanian 


Star—matsoi 
Night—ur-e-marin 
Wind—ean 
Water—vai 
Man—arar 


Child—ruari 


Sea—ras, tes 
Land—ur 


Lather —ramagk 


Numerals. 
One—tsika 
Two—e-u 
Three—e-roi 
four—e-vats 


Five—e-rim 


Siz—ma-tsukai 


Seven—hou-e-u 


Smoke—basu-amp 
Pig—boas, baramban 
Shark—bag‘co 
Banana—buts 


Breadfruit—barap 


Female—rambaik 
Wife—sua 
Bad—e-samb 
Great—mbau 
Smali—kikei 


Light—wu-rol 
Nine—wu-vats 


Ten—sungeav 


III. Marexuta ; dialects—5. Uripiv Island, off Port Stanley, on 
the north-east coast. 


Sun—ial 

Moon—il 
Night—ata-mu-bog 
Wind—lig 
Rain—us 
Water—nui 
Sea—ndis 


Land—vanua, ure 


Smoke—us 
Pig—birbir (fem. ) 
Shark—bai 


Cocoanut—ni 
Breadfruit—betiv 
Yam—dram 
Taro—buak 


Road —sel Small—walili 
Club—nai Holy—on 
Boat—ndrav_ Barter—mboili 
food—hanin Bury—tevini 
Father—tata Numerals. 
Man—tsinib One—i-tes 
Male—oroman Two—e-ru 
Child—natu Three—i-tul 


Female—nevseven Four—i-wits 


Wife—nevseven Five—e-lim 


Chief—numal 


Six—o-won 


Name—ise Seven—a-mbut 
Good—eres Light—o-wil 
Bad—isits Nine—e-su 


Great—elep Ten—e-snavil 


470 


Page 107, 
» 109, 
oe alli: 
sy) pe lal 
seus oaluled: 
55. | wkh3; 
by I 
we lela. 
ors, ellis 
sy 1 16; 
alae: 
3 tls: 
be 0 ORO) 
ee mle 4 
eg SY 
at 1.26, 
ew ohh Dale 
sy A Die 
A 28; 
a. L229, 
Bie leet 
aL, 
ela D: 
5 or: 
yn lane 
a9) 


ADDENDUM TO MR. RAY’S PAPER. 


CoRRIGENDA, 


line 7, for gembw read gcembw. 


18, 26, for Taran read Taian. 
42, for make read mace. 
42, add bata, ‘rain.’ 
35, read mbuka-wagea, ‘fire’; line 42, dele waga. 
11, add boas, ‘ pig.’ 
41, read ui, vui; ian, en. 
42, read pika-rowo, ‘ animal-tfly.’ 
34, for matig‘’, read noki. 
41, for pil read mapinai. 
1, for nithjan read nithjan-ne-fana. 
11, for buts read mbat. 
32, for tagala read tagata, ‘man.’ 
7, for pioroaread piowa; line 31, read kanouri. 
34, read memea ; line 41, read gala, gir. 
42, for numere read nunurai. 
26, add tunu, ‘barter.’ 
28, transfer gangan to line 29. 
41, for nilaun read laun ; line 42, read lalaun. 
26, for humei read himeti. 
13, dele+; page 138, line 26, for thigo read thig. 
22, for sege read segi. : 
20, for batin-venua read batin-fenu. 
7, for gouta read gonta. 
7, read , properly not properly, 
12, for vahai read avahi. 


Also, in the Comparative Vocabulary, in line 41 throughout, 


wherever kw occurs substitute c; in line 42 throughout, read g 


for c; in line 43 throughout, read c for g. 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 


WEDNESDAY, MAY 8, 1898. 


ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING. 


Prof. WARREN, M. Inst. C.E., Wh. Sc., President, in the Chair. 
Sixty members and two visitors were present. 
The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed, 


The following Financial Statement for the year ending 31st 
March, 1893, was presented by the Hon. Treasurer, and adopted:— 


GENERAL ACCOUNT. 


RECEIPTS. £ s. +d. i aSe, ud 
One Guinea ... ae oe LUS2Z014: O 
fia { ae Guineas ... as «. 443 2 O 

Subscriptions Arrears ... 600 on BOC 24 3 0 eben I 
Advances mee ee ose 23 74) 

Entrance Fees... a 58 16 O 

Parliamentary Grant on Subscriptions: reeeiad duvine 1892 500 0 0 

Rent of Hall wuts she ean he one aa es 32 0 6 

Sundries... ae se bg ae bs aes Me 13 11 10 

Total Receipts ae ste wae ... 1256 9 4 

Balance on 1st April, 1892 ar ea ae nee Se sisal Y/ 

£1295 0 11 

PAYMENTS. ey Sa Os £ Sa0 Gd: 
Advertisements ... es ts ss es 30 15 O 
Assistant Secretary ee 30 whe oeZoO Ono 
Books and Periodicals ... oe ivr wee, WABI 1 
Bookbinding ie as es ae 7318 1 
Freight, Charges, Eackinte) Ee, sae as 913 7 
Furniture and Effects... sist oo wee 68 5 6 
Gas ... ti. ae wae aa sie His 29 6 6 
Housekeeper oe ar ee sais eae 10 0 O 
Insurance ... se nee nie Sale See 910 0 
Office Boy ... 5 See sei nee See 25 9 2 
Petty Cash Expenses gas oe ea 600 14 1 O 
Postage and Duty Stamps si dee xe 55 4 0 
Pratineg .., ss eae be2 bce a 39 11 0 


Carried forward Sas we £744 10 11 


a Pan a od 


472 PROCEEDINGS. 
PaymMEents—continued, & ieee £a. d. 
Brought forward ... 744 10 11 
Printing and Publishing Journal 292/197 
Prize Essay Award on a 25° 02 
Rates “a “30 25 6 38 
Refreshments and nitendanes a Mostinee 19: “So5e 
Repairs 919 0 
Stationery ... TilS ae 
Sundries 2h ho ee 
Total Bavihente ._ 1150 1a18 
Transfer to Building and Investment Faads ‘ 8416 0 
Balance on 31st March, 1893 59.415 6 
£1295 One 
BUILDING AND INVESTMENT FUND. 
RECEIPTS. £ sy Od 
Transfer from General Account ... 8416 0 
Interest on Fixed Deposit : 38 10 O 
Amount of Fund on Ist April, 1892 769510755 
e £892 16 1 
2, UBegie 
Fixed Deposit in Union Bank 892 16 1 
£892.16 1 
CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND. 
ReEceEIPTS. Bee ae 0 
Interest on Fixed Deposit : 15 15 0O 
Amount of Fund on Ist April, 1892 315 1°78 
£330 16 8 
2 se 
Fixed Deposit in Union Bank 330 16 8 
£330 16 8 
ABERCROMBY FUND. 
RECEIPTS. £ Bede 
Amount received from the Hon. Ralph Abercromby to be 
offered as Prizes for Competitive Essays on various 
phases of Australian weather 100° OG 
£ gs. d. 
Fixed Deposit in Union Bank 100." Oe 


AuDITED, P. N. TREBECK. 
S. MACDONNELL. 
SypNEy, 12th April, 1893. 


x LEIBIUS, Honorary Treasurer. 
W. H. WEBB, Assistant Secretary. 


PROCEEDINGS. 473 


Messrs. P. N. Trebeck and J. T. Wilshire were appointed 


Scrutineers for the election of officers and members of Council. 


A ballot was then taken, and the following gentlemen were duly 
elected officers and members of Council for the current year :— 


Honorary President: 
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR R. W. DUFF, P.c., G.c.M.G. 


President: 
Pror. T. P. ANDERSON STUART, m™.p. 


Vice-Presidents : 
C. W. DARLEY, m. Inst. c.E. ' H.C. RUSSELL, B.A., c.M.G., F.B.S. 
Pror. LIVERSIDGE, M.a., F.R.S. Pror. WARREN, M. INST. C.E., WH. SC. 


Hon. Treasurer: 
A. LEIBIUS, PH.D., M.A., F.C.S. 


Hon. Secretaries: 


Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, B.A., F.G.S. | J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S., F.c.s. 
Members of Council: 

H. DEANE, M.aA., M. INST. C.E. J. A. McDONALD, m. INST. ¢.E. 

JAMES GRAHAM, m.a., M.D. CHARLES MOORE, F.1.s., F.Z.S. 

W.M. HAMLET, F.c.8., F.I.c. ' EH. EF. PITTMAN, assoc. R.S.M., F.G.S. 


Pror. THRELFALL, m.a. 
H. G. A. WRIGHT, m.R.¢.s.£., &. 


LAWRENCE HARGRAVE. 
F. B. KYNGDON. 


The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members 
of the Society : 
Henderson, John, Civil Engineer ; North Sydney. 
McKay, William J. Stewart, B.Sc. M.B., Ch.M.; Sydney. 
Nangle, James, Architect ; Newtown. 
Orr, Alexander, Analytical Chemist ; Sydney. 
Owen, Percy Thomas, Lieut., Assistant Engineer, Military 
Works ; Sydney. 
Smith, Charles Walter, Civil Engineer ; Sydney. 
Smith, Henry George, Laboratory Assistant, Technological 
Museum ; Sydney. 
The certificates of two new candidates were read for the second 


time, and of ten for the first. time. 


The names of the Committee-men of the different Sections were 


announced :— 
Section H.—Medical, 
Chairman—Hon. Dr. H. N. MacLaurin, m.t.c., M.A. 


Secretaries—Dr. G. E. Rennie and Dr. Huxtable. 


a 


474 PROCEEDINGS. 


Committee—Dr. Fiaschi, Prof. Anderson-Stuart, u.p., Dr. W. Chisholm, 
Dr. James Graham, Dr. P. Sydney Jones. 


Three Meetings will be held, viz.— June 16th, August 18th and October 20th 
1893, at 815 p.m. 


Section K.—Engineering, 
Chairman—H. Deane, M.A., M. Inst. C.E. 


Secretary—J. A. McDonald, M. Inst. C.E. 
Treasurer—D. M. Maitland. 


Committee—Cecil W. Darley, M. Inst. C.E., Professor Warren, M. Inst. C.E., 
J. W. Grimshaw, M. Inst. C.E., W. F. How, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., 
J. M. Smail, m. Inst. 0.B. 


Meetings held on the Third Wednesday in each month, at 8 p.m.. 


Fifty volumes, four hundred and thirty-three parts, one hundred 
and twenty-eight pamphlets, twenty-four reports, three atlases of 
maps, three hydrographic charts and one photograph received as 
donations since the last meeting, were laid upon the table and 
acknowledged. 


The following letter was read from Prof. Ralph Tate, F.a.s., 
Adelaide University, acknowledging the award of the Clarke 


Medal for 1893 :— 


The University, Adelaide, 
January 10, 18938. 


Gentlemen,—It is with unqualified pleasure that I acknowledge the 
very high honour which you have conferred upon me by the award of 
the Clarke Memorial Medal. 


I care not to disguise the fact that I have been ambitious to win this 
prize, but I had hardly hoped to have been thought worthy of it at so 
early date, as on reviewing my Australian work I recognize only an 
aggregate of small and diverse efforts, but as you are aware, the role of 

ne scientific pioneer, or that of a promoter of scientific investigation in 
an almost unexplored country, is not conducive to a concentration of 
purpose likely to evolve an opus magnum. Therefore, [ will not regard 
your estimable favour in the light of a retiring allowance but as an 
incentive to continue those investigations, to which you have alluded, to 
some measure of completeness as far as time and opportunity will allow. 
Yours faithfully, 
RALPH TATE. 


To the President and Members of Council of the Royal Society of N.S.W. 


PROCEEDINGS, 475 


Also one from William Huggins, D.c.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 
&c., London :— 


90 Upper Tulse Hill, London, S.W., 
17 December, 1892. 

My Dear Sir,—It is indeed a very high gratification to me to receive 
the unexpected news of the very high honour which the Royal Society of 
New South Wales has conferred upon me. 

So welcome and distinguished a recognition of what little I have been 
able to do for science, from your Society which represents the highest 
intellect and science of the Colony, is indeed a tribute which I am proud 
to receive. Next to the delight of any new conquest however small, in 
the realms of Nature, the most acute pleasure which a worker in science 
can receive comes from the recognition and approval of his fellow workers. 

May I ask you to convey to the Society my best thanks and the express- 
ion of my very high appreciation of the honour conferred upon me. With 
many thanks to yourself for the kind words in which you have conveyed 
the news of the honour done me. 


I remain yours very truly, 
WILLIAM HUGGINS. 
To the Honorary Secretary of the Royal Society of New South Wales. 


Prof. WARREN, M. Inst. C.E., Wh. Sc., then read his address. 


A vote of thanks was passed to the retiring President, and 
Prof. T. P. ANpERson STUART, M.D., was installed as President — 
for the ensuing year. 


Prof. Stuart thanked the members for the honour conferred 
upon him, and hoped to prove himself worthy of their confidence. 


Mr. RussEut proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. F. B. Kynepon 
for his valuable services as Honorary Secretary for so long, and 
who had been compelled to resign office on account of his removal 
from Sydney ; the vote was carried unanimously. 


WEDNESDAY, JUNE 7, 1893. 
Prof. T. P. ANpDERson STUART, M.D., President in the Chair. 
Thirty-seven members and two visitors were present. 
The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. 


The certificates of two new candidates were read for the third 
time, of ten for the second time, and of one for the first time. 


476 PROCEEDINGS. 


The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members 
of the Society :— | 
Noyes, Edward, Civil Engineer ; Sydney. 
Roberts, W, 8. De Lisle, Civil Engineer ; Sydney. 
Thirty-five volumes, one hundred and eighty-nine parts, four 
pamphlets, nine reports, and fourteen meteorological charts 
received as donations since the last meeting were laid upon the 
table and acknowledged. 


The following papers were read :— 
1. “ Flying-machine Motors and Cellular. Kites,” by Lawrence 
HarGrave. Some remarks were made by the President. 


2. ‘Notes and analysis of a Metallic Meteorite from Moonbi, 
near Tamworth, New South Wales,” by John C. H. 
“MINGAYE, F.C.S., M.A.I.M.E. 

Remarks were made by Prof. T. W. E. David, Rev. J. Milne 
Curran, and the Author. ? 


3. “Plants with their habitats, discovered to be indigenous to 
this Colony since the publication of the Handbook of the 
Flora of New South Wales; chiefly furnished by Baron von 
Mu. tier, from unpublished Herbarium Notes,” by CHARLES 
Moorg, F.L.8., &c. 


4, “Description of a new Myrtaceous tree indigenous to New 
South Wales Hugenia parvifolia,” by CHARLES MOORE, F.L.S. 


5. “On the Whip-worm of the Rat’s Liver,” by Tuomas L. 
Bancrort, m.s. Ldin., (Communicated by J. H. Marpsn, 
F.L.s., &c.) Some remarks were made by the President. 


6. “Small Whirlwinds,” by HugH CuHartes KIpDLE. 

A discussion ensued in which the following gentlemen took 
part, viz., Mr. H. C. Russell, Rev. 8S. Wilkinson, Messrs. W. 
F. Bell, C. W. Darley, W. 8. Campbell, C. A. Benbow, Prof. 
T. W. E. David, L. Hargrave, and P. N. Trebeck. 

} EXHIBITS : 

Mr. H. ©. Russe1, ¢.M.G., F.R.S., exhibited several beautiful 
photographs of star clusters and the Milky Way, taken with the 


PROCEEDINGS. 477 


large star camera at the Observatory. The largest cluster—one 
of the finest in the heavens—had been photographed with the 
double object of showing its beauty and seeing if there were any 
nebula connected with the stars. Long exposure of six and eight 
hours were given without sign of any nebula ; but where Herschel 
estimated 200, there were considerably more than 2,000. Several 
of the other photographs exhibited were taken with the object of 
still further exploring the depths of the Milky Way, and the 
result was surprising. The earlier photographs taken at Sydney 
with a smaller instrument were very perfect ; in fact, the best of 
the kind that had been published. As a means of showing the 
difference between these earlier and later photographs, it might 
be stated that in one space where one of the earlier photographs 
showed forty-three stars, the later one taken in May last, showed 
1,166, or twenty-seven times as many, and the scale was so large 
that each star stood separate from its neighbours. The smaller 
scale had two serious drawbacks—first, the stars were so crowded 
together that it was impossible to see separate stars that it was 
now known ought to have been visible ; and, secondly, the crowd- 
ing of the stars helped to mislead the eye by presenting apparent 
lines, curves, and forms which were not found when the stars 
were conveniently separated and clearly shown, as in the later 

photographs. j 


Mr. L. HarGrave showed a new 2°8ib. steam screw motor, of 
about one-quarter horse power. 


_  WHEDNESDAY, JULY 5, 1898. 
Prof. T. P. ANDERSON STUART, M.D., President, in the Chair. 
Twenty-seven members and six visitors were present. 
The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. 


The certificates of ten new candidates were read for the third 
time, of one for the second time, and of six for the first time. 


The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members 
of the Society :— 


478 PROCEEDINGS. 


Allman, Edward McCarthy, Civil Engineer ; Mudgee. 

Beal, Latham Osborn ; New Zealand. 

Blomfield, Charles E., B.c.z. Mel. ; Sydney. 

Bowman, John, Civil Engineer ; Homebush. 

Brownless, Anthony Colling, M.B. et ch. B. Mel. ; Sydney. 

Cameron, John MacDonald, F.a.s., F.c.8., F.I.c., Deputy 
Master Royal Mint ; Sydney. 

Hope, Joseph, Civil Engineer ; North Sydney. 

Purser, Cecil, M.B., Ch. Mm. Syd.; Sydney. 

Rygate, Philip W., m.a., et B.E. Syd.; Sydney. 

Townsend, George W., Civil Engineer ; Sydney. 


Six volumes, seventy-seven parts, nine reports, sixteen pamphlets 
and six charts, received as donations since the last meeting were 
laid upon the table and acknowledged. 


The following letter from Baron von Mueller was read :— 
24 June, 1893. 

It is my mournful duty, dear Prof. Liversidge, to convey my profound 
condolence to the Royal Society of New South Wales at the death of its 
distinguished member and Past-President, Dr. Leibius. This triste in- 
telligence comes to me with sudden sadness, in as much as I was not even 
aware of any serious ailing of his. Much will he be missed by us, for he 
was not only a sterling man of knowledge, but also a genial sympathetic 
friend, as I experienced myself, and all the more as I had so little claim 
on his generosity. 

If his friends unite to erect a monument at his grave, I will readily 


contribute. 
With regardful remembrance, yours, 


FERD. von MUELLER. 
The President referred to the great loss the Society had sus- 
tained by the death of Dr. Leibius, who had served it 50 long and 
so faithfully in the various offices of Honorary Secretary, President, 
Honorary Treasurer and Member of Council, and stated that a 
letter of sympathy had been forwarded by the Council to Mrs. 
Leibius and family in their bereavement. 


The following papers were read :— 
1. “On the Languages of the New Hebrides,” by Mr. Sipnny H. 
Ray. 


PROCEEDINGS. 479 


2. “ Unrecorded genera of the Older Tertiary Fauna of Australia, 
including diagnoses of some new genera and species,” by 
Prof. RaupH TATE, F.G.S., F.L.S., Hon. Memb. 

3. “On an approximate method of finding the forces acting in 
Magnetic Circuits,” by Prof. RicHarp THRELFALL, M.A., 
assisted by FLrorENcE Martin, Student in the University of 
Sydney. Some remarks were made by Mr. H. C. Russell. 


EXHIBIT : 
Mr. L. O. Beat exhibited and described some specimens of 
granite with markings attributed to glacial action. 


WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 2, 1898. 
Prof. T. P. ANDERSON STuaRrtT, M.D., President, in the Chair. 
Thirty-eight members and five visitors were present. 
The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. 


The certificate of one new candidate was read for the third 
time, of six for the second time, and of one for the first time. 


The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member 
of the Society :— 
Spencer, Thomas Wm. Loraine, Resident Engineer, Roads 
and Bridges ; Muswellbrook. 


Thirty-six volumes, one hundred and thirty-seven parts, eight 
reports, ten pamphlets, five meteorological charts and one photo- 
graph received as donations since the last meeting were laid upon 
the table and acknowledged. 


The following papers were read :— 

1, “Notes on the Bingera Diamond Field,” by the Rev. J. Minne 
CurRAN, F.c.s. Some remarks were made by Prof. Liversidge. 

2. ‘Preliminary Note on the occurrence of a chromite-bearing 
rock from the Pennant Hills Quarry near Parramatta,” by 
Prof. T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.G.8., W. F. SMEETH, M.A., B.E., 
Assoc. R.S.M., and J. A. WArtT, M.A. 

3. “ Note on the occurrence of Barytes at the Five Dock Sand- 
stone Quarry,” by Prof. T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.G.s. 


480 PROCEEDINGS, 


4, ‘Note on the occurrence of Calcareous Sandstone allied to 
Fontainebleau Sandstone from Rock Lily near Pittwater,” 
by Prof. T. W. E. Davip, B.A., F.G.s. 
EXHIBITS : 

Photographs and specimens of diamonds by Rev. J. Minne 
CuRRAN, F.G.8.; the Moonbi Meteorite by J. C. H. Mineayg, F.c.s. 
and specimens, microscopic sections and micro-photographs 
relating to the papers read by Prof. Davin. 


WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6, 1898. 


H. C. Russe, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. 

Twenty-nine members and six visitors were present. 

The Chairman said that before the business of the evening was 
gone on with he wished to announce a fact in which those present 
would, no doubt, be greatly interested. That this was the two 
hundredth meeting of the Society, which he hoped would go on 


for a good many more hundreds. 


The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. 
The certificates of six new candidates were read for the third 
time, of one for the second time, and of two for the first time. 


The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members 
of the Society :— 
Clark, Charles Dagnall, m.p. Lond.; Sydney. 
Cobbett, Pitt, Professor of Law ; Sydney University. 
Cohen, Algernon A., M.B., M.D. Aberd., M.R.c.8. Hng.; Sydney. 
Martin, Charles James, B.Sc., M.B. Lond., M.R.c.s. EHng., 
Demonstrator of Physiology ; Sydney University. 

Millard, Reginald Jeffery, M.B.,ch.M. Syd., Parramatta, 
Money, Angel, m.D., F.R.c.P. Lond.; Sydney. 


Fifty-five volumes, ninety-four parts, ten reports, nine pamphlets 
and two photographs received as donations since the last meeting 
were laid upon the table and acknowledged. 

The Chairman announced that a bust of the late Professor 
Hoffman of Berlin, had been presented to the Society by Mrs. 
Leibius. 


PROCEEDINGS. 481 


The following papers were read :— 

1. (a) ‘On the origin of Moss Gold”; (6) ‘On the condition of 
Gold in Quartz and Calcite Veins”; (c) ‘On the origin of 
Gold Nuggets”; (d) ‘On the Crystallization of Gold in 
Hexagonal Forms”; (¢) “Gold Moiré-métallique,” by Prof. 
LIVERSIDGH, M.A., F.R.S., Yc. Remarks were made by Mr. 
P. N. Trebeck and the Chairman. 


2. “Results of observations of Comet VI. (Brooks) 1892 at 
Windsor, New South Wales,” by Joun TEBBUTT, F.R.A.S. &e. 


3. “The treatment of Manufactured Iron and Steel for construc- 
tional purposes” by WiLtiaAmM Fretp How, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., 
M. I. Mech. E., Wh. Se. 


Some remarks were made by Prof. Warren, and the Chairman 
stated that this paper would be further discussed by the 
Engineering Section on Sept. 20, 1893. 


EXHIBITS. 

Prof. LiversipGe exhibited a combination laboratory lamp, 
retort, and filter stand, provided with bunsen, argand, fishtail and 
blowpipe jets, all with ground joints, screws being liable to corrode. 
Besides this he showed an example of the purple-coloured alloy of 
gold, 787%, and aluminium 227, as recently described by Prof. 
Roberts-Austen ; also, a speaimen of the purple alloy of copper 
and antimony. 


The Rev. J. Minne Curran showed “nature prints” of the 
Widmanstatten figures on a slice of the Moonbi meteorite. The 
plates were printed direct from the iron meteorite itself. 


WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 4, 1898. 
Prof. T. P. Anperson Sruart, m.pD., President, in the Chair. 
Forty-seven members and three visitors were present. 
The certificate of one new candidate was read for the third time, | 
of two for the second time, and of two for the first time. 
The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member 
of the Society :— 


E E—Dzec. 6, 1893. 


482 PROCEEDINGS. 


Smeeth, William Frederick, M.A., B.E., F.G.S., A.R.S.M., Demon- 
strator in Geology ; Sydney University. 
Eighteen volumes, one hundred and twenty-nine parts, two 
pamphlets, five reports, and one geological map, received as 
donations since the last meeting were laid upon the table and 


acknowledged. 


The following papers were read :— 
1, ‘‘ Rock paintings by the Aborigines in caves on Bulgar Creek 
near Singleton” by R. H. Maruews, ts. 

A discussion ensued in which the following gentlemen took 
part, viz., Messrs. D. M. Maitland, Prof. David, Judge Docker, 
C. Moore, J. Trevor Jones, B. H. Purcell, G. R. Cowdery, 
W. M. Hamlet, W. D. Campbell, and the President. 


2. “Notes on Artesian Water in Australia,” by Prof. T. W. E. 
DAVID, B.A., F.G.S.; illustrated by lantern views. 


Some remarks were made by the President, Messrs. F. B. 
Gipps and P. N. Trebeck, when it was resolved that the dis- 
cussion be postponed to the next meeting. 


: EXHIBITS :— 

By E. F. Pirrman, 4.R.8.M., Government Geologist, Carborun- 
dum, a newly discovered abrasive, stated to have the hardness of 
the diamond, and a collection of agates cut and polished, from 
New South Wales. 


By Professor Davin, petrological specimens from the Ipswich 


Coal’ Measures, Queensland. 


WEDNESDAY, NOVEMBER, 1, 1898. 
Prof. T. P. ANDERSON STUART, MD., President, in the Chair. 
Forty-seven members and six visitors were present. 
The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. 


The certificates of two new candidates were read for the third 
time, of two for the second time, and of two for the first time. 


PROCEEDINGS. ) 483 


The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members 


of the Society :— 
Taylor, James, B.Sc. A.B.S.M., Government Metallurgist ; 


Sydney. 
Wright, John, Civil Engineer ; Sydney. 

Forty-eight volumes, seventy-seven parts, twenty-one reports 
and six pamphlets received as donations since the last meeting 
were laid upon the table and acknowledged. 

The following papers were read :— 

1. ** Notes on Artesian bores at Bunda Bunda Station in Queens- 
land,” by the Hon. W. H. Surror, M.L.c. 

2. “On the probability of extraordinarily high spring tides about 
the December solstice of 1893,” by Joun TEBBUTT, F.R.A.S., Ke. 

3. “On Meteorite No. 2 from Gilgoin Station,” by H. C. Russett, 
Ese CoM. Ga. EER. 


4, ‘‘ Pictorial Rain Maps,” by H. C. RussELt, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S. 


Or 


. © Note on the occurrence of a new Mineral at Broken Hill,” 
by Edward F. Pirrman, a.R.8.M., Government Geologist. 


Prof. T. W. E. David, B.a., F.G.s., in opening the discussion 
upon the paper read by him at the previous meeting on “Artesian 
‘Water in Australia,” exhibited and described a model designed to 
account for the various levels of Artesian flows. The following 
gentlemen took part in the discussion :—Messrs. F. B. Gipps, 
G. H. Knibbs, H. C. Russell, J. W. Grimshaw, James Wilson, 
H. G. McKinney, W. M. Hamlet, W. A. Dixon, Prof. Liversidge, 
Lewis Whitfeld, the President, and Prof. David. 


Mr. E. F. Prrrman exhibited and described some specimens and 
photographs of some of the rarer minerals occurring in the Aus- 
tralian Broken Hill Consols Mine. 


Prof. LIVERSIDGE exhibited a collection of Tasmanian Minerals. 


WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 6, 1898. 


Prof. T. P. ANDERSON STUART, M.D., President, in the Chair. 


484 PROCEEDINGS. 


Fifty-one members and four visitors were present. 


The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. 


The certificates of two new candidates were read for the third 
time, of two for the second time, and of four for the first time. 


The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members 
of the Society :— 
Bowman, Reginald, MB., et Ch. Mm. Hdin., M.R.c.s. Eng. > 
Parramatta. 
Sinclair, Russell, M.1.m.z., &c., Consulting Engineer; Sydney. 


It was resolved that Messrs. P. N. Trebeck and W. C. W. . 
Bartels be appointed Auditors for the current year. 


Fifteen volumes, ninety-three parts, seven reports and twenty 
pamphlets received as donations since the last meeting were laid 
upon the table and acknowledged. 


The following papers were read :— 

1. “On the occurrence of Triassic plant remains in a shale bed 
near Manly,” by B. Dunstan, F.c.s. Some remarks were 
made by Prof. David. B.A., F.G.S. 

2. “The orbit of the double star h 5014,” by R. P. sires B.A. 


3. ‘Occurrence of Evansite in Tasmania,” by Henry G. Smira. 


4, ‘On the separation of gold, silver, and iodine from sea-water 

by Muntz metal sheathing,” by Prof. LivERsIpGs, M.A., F.R.S. 
_ Some remarks were made by Mr. W. A. Dixon. 

5. “Notes on the Cremorne Bore,” by Prof. T. W. E. Davin, 
BA. F.G.S.. and EK. F. Pirrman, A.R.S.M., F.G.s. Remarks 
were made by Messrs. J. T. Wilshire, — Roberts, E. F. 
Pittman and H. C. Russell. 

6. “The Progress and position of Irrigation in New South Wales,” 
by H. G. McKinney, M.E., M. Inst. C.E. 

7. “On Artesian Water in connection with Irrigation,” by W. A. 
Dixon, F.1.¢., F.c.8. [Taken as read. ] 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS. 485 


EXHIBITS : 

Mr. J. W. BouttBes, Officer-in-Charge of the Water Conserva- 
tion Branch, Department.of Mines, New South Wales, exhibited 
samples of produce grown at the Barringun and Native Dog 
Artesian Bore farms, also a number of photographs of Artesian 
Bores in different parts of the Colony. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS 


(IN ABSTRACT.) 


ENGINEERING SECTION. 


At the preliminary meeting held on April 12th, the following 
officers were elected for the 1893 Session :—Chairman: Mr. H. 
DEANE, M.Inst.C.E. Hon. Secretary: Mr. J. A. McDonatp, 
M.Inst.C.E. Hon. Treasurer: D. M. MAITLAND, L.s. Committee: 
Mr. C. W. Dar.ey, M. Inst.c.E., Mr. J. W. GRIMSHAW, M. Inst. C.E., 
Mr. W. F. How, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Mr. J. M. Smatt, M. Inst. C.E., 
Professor WARREN, M. Inst. C.E. 


It was resolved that the subscription to the Printing Fund be 
raised to £1 1s. 


Monthly meeting held May 17, 1893. 
Mr. H. Drang, in the Chair. 


Twenty-five members present. 


The evening was devoted to a discussion in connection with 
the printing of Mr. Buran’s paper on “ Light Railways,” and the 
discussion on Mr. Houguton’s paper on the “ Economical Use of 
Steam,” which was opened by Professor Warren, and continued 
by Messrs. Grimshaw and Haycroft, and further adjourned until 
next meeting. 


486 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS. 


Monthly meeting held June 21st, 1893. 


Mr. Deang, in the Chair. 
Twenty-five members present. 


The Chairman alluded to the death of Dr. Leibius and mentioned. 
the great services he had rendered to the Society, as Honorary 
Secretary, President, and Hon. Treasurer ; and also announced 
the retirement of Mr. McDonald from the position of Honorary 
Secretary, and that the Committee had nominated Mr. Grimshaw 
for that position. The nomination was approved and Mr. Grim- 
shaw elected. 

The adjourned discussion on Mr. HovuGuton’s paper on the 


2 


‘¢ Economical Use of Steam,” was resumed by Messrs. How and 
Grimshaw, and Professors Threlfall and Warren, and replied to- 


by Mr. Houghton. 


The adjourned discussion on Mr. Burce’s paper on “ Light 
Railways for New South Wales,” was opened by the Author and 
continued by Mr. Parkinson, and then adjourned to the next. 
meeting. 


Monthly meeting held July 19th, 1893. 


Professor WARREN, in the Chair. 
Twenty-six members present. 


The Chairman stated that the Committee had nominated Mr. 
Houghton, to fill the vacancy caused by the retirement of Mr. 
McDonald; the nomination was approved and Mr. Houghton 
appointed. 


The adjourned discussion of Mr. BureGe’s paper on ‘ Light. 
Railways for New South Wales,” was resumed by Messrs. Cowdery, 
Vandevelde, How and Thow, Col. Wells, Messrs. Noyes, Grimshaw 
and Professor Warren, and adjourned to next meeting. 


Mr. How exhibited photographs of the types of engines he 


referred to, and Mr. VANDEVELDE exhibited photographs of the 
“ Dechanville ” system of light railways. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS. 487 


Monthly meeting held August 16th, 1893. 
Mr. Deane in the Chair. 


Twenty-eight members present. 


The discussion on Mr. BurGe’s paper on ‘“ Light Railways for 
New South Wales,” was resumed by communications from Mr. 
Renwick, Engineer-in-Chief of Railways, Victoria, and Mr. Trevor 
Jones being read, and continued by Messrs. Allen, Fischer, Poole, 
Middleton, Firth, Thow, Vandevelde, and the i iinet: and 
replied to by Mr. Burge. 


Monthly meeting held September 20th, 1893. 
Mr. DEANE in the Chair. 


Twenty-one members and visitors present. 


The discussion on Mr. How’s paper on “The Treatment of 
Manufactured Iron and Steel for Constructional Purposes,” was 
continued by Messrs. Thow, Houghton, Grimshaw, H. Hunt, 
Mansfield, Farr, Cowdery, Noyes, Col. Wells and the Chairman. 
Mr. How then replied. 


Monthly meeting held October 18th, 1893. 
Mr. Dar.ey in the Chair. 


Nine members present. 


A paper by Mr. Haycrort, on “ Highway Construction and 
matters pertinent thereto,” was read and the discussion adjourned. 


Monthly meeting held November ldth, 1893. 
Mr. DEANE in the Chair. 


Sixteen members present. 


The discussion of Mr. Haycrort’s paper on “ Highway Con- 
struction and matters pertinent thereto,” was opened by Col. 
Wells, and continued by Messrs. Statham, Smail, Trevor Jones, 
W.S. Wells, Cowdery, Grimshaw, and the Chairman, and was 
adjourned to next meeting to give Mr. Haycroft an opportunity 
of replying. 


488 : PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS. 


Mr. Trevor Jonus tlren explained the nature of his paper “A 
Hydrostatic Paradox,” and the diagrams ; further discussion was 
adjourned to next meeting. 


Monthly meeting held December 20th, 1893. 


Mr. Deane in the Chair. 
Thirteen members present. 


Mr. Haycrorvt replied to the discussion of his paper on ‘‘ High- 


way Construction and matters pertinent thereto.” 


Mr. SELMAN read his paper on ‘‘ Oil Engines,” and the discussion 
was opened by Mr. C. W. Darley. Messrs. Houghton, How, 
Grimshaw, and J. A. Griffith, took part. As the paper required 
carefully reading through before it could be fully discussed it was 
decided to adjourn it to the next meeting, but before doing so 


Mr. Selman rephed to the remarks made. 
It was resolved that Mr. Trevor Jones’ paper ‘‘ A Hydrostatic 
Paradox” be postponed to the next meeting. 


During the Session thirty-one (31) members have subscribed 
£32 9s. to the Printing Fund, and the disbursements for printing 
amounts to £23 16s., a further expenditure of £1 7s. 4d. for type 


writing having also been incurred. 


MEDICAL SECTION. 


At the provisional meeting held on April 21st 1893, the follow- 
ing officers were elected :—Chairman: Hon. Dr. MacLauvrin, 
LL.D., M.L.c. Committee: Drs. FrascH1, ANDERSON STUART, 
CHISHOLM, SYDNEY JoNzES, J. GRAHAM. Secretaries: Drs. L. R. 
HuxtTasie and G. E. RENNIE. 


It was announced that the New South Wales Branch of the 
British Medical Association intended to approach the Council of 
the Royal Society in the hope of obtaining certain concessions, 
with a view to the establishment of a Medical Library ; a Com- 
‘mnittee consisting of Dr. SypNey Jones, Prof. ANDERSON STuART, 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS. 489 


and Dr. HuxTaBLE was appointed to draw up a report upon the 
matter. 


It was decided that in leu of the monthly meetings of the 
Section only three meetings be held during the year at suitable 
intervals. 


First meeting, June 23, 1898, at 8:15. 
Hon. Dr. MacLaurin in the Chair. 


This was the largest meeting of the Section ever held. 


Dr. SypnEy Jones exhibited a patient suffering from myxoe- 
dema. 

Dr. JAMES GRAHAM read a paper on “ Peripheral Neuritis” as 
it occurs more specially as an endemic disease amongst the China- 


~ men of Sydney. 


Prof. J. T. Witson read a paper on “‘ Recent Investigations on 
the Structure and Development of the Nervous System.” The 
paper was illustrated by numerous diagrams and microscopical 
specimens. The discussion on the papers was adjourned until 
July 21st. , 


The recent additions to the University Museum of Anatomy 


and Pathology were on view during the evening. 


Adjourned meeting, July 21, 1893. at 8-15. 
Hon. Dr. MacLavrin in the Chair. 
At this meeting, Prof. J. T. Witson completed his remarks on 
“Recent Investigations on Structure and Relation of Nerve 
Fibres, etc.” 


At the discussion which followed, Drs. SHzwEN, SYDNEY JONES, 
ANGEL Money, STEEL, WILKINSON, C. J. Martin, and the Chair- 
man took part. 

Second meeting, October 18, 1893, at 8:15. 
Dr. Fiascut1 ex-Chairman, in the Chair. 

Dr. C. J. MartIn, B.Sc., read a paper on “ Recent Development 

of the question of the Coagulation of the Blood,” illustrated by 


some experiments on animals. 


490 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS, 


Dr. Martin was accorded a very hearty vote of thanks for his — 
interesting paper and for the trouble he had taken in preparing 
the experiments. 


Third meeting October 20, 1893, at 8:15. 
Hon. Dr. MacLaurin in the Chair. 


Drs. Craco and Morcan Martin exhibited a female patient 


suffering from myxoedema. 


Dr. F. N. Mannine and Dr. Buaxtanp also exhibited a female 
case of myxoedema. 


Dr. C. J. MARTIN, B.Se., showed a case of sporadic cretinism, in 
which, he in conjunction with Dr. Renniz had performed thyroid 
grafting with marked beneficial results. Dr. Marvin also read 
notes of the case, and exhibited photographs and temperature 
charts. 


Dr. G. E. Renniz read a paper on Myxoedema. 


Dr. F. N. Manninec made some very interesting and suggestive 
remarks on sporadic cretinism. 


The Chairman made a few remarks, and this closed the meetings 
for the year. 


As on a previous occasion the recent additions to the University 
Museum of Anatomy and Pathology were on view during the 


evening. 


ADDITIONS 
TO THE 
LIBRARY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 


DONATIONS—1893. 


.(The Names of the Donors are in Italics.) 
TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c. 


ABERDEEN—University. The Aberdeen University Calen- . ha 
dar for the year 1893-94. The University 


ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 49} 


ADELAIDE—Observatory. Meteorological Observations dur- 
/ ing the years 1884-5 and 1890. The Observatory 

Royal Society of South Australia. Transactions, Vol. 

xv., Part ii., 1892; Vol. xv1., Partsi., ii, 1892-93 ; 

Vol. xvur., Part i., 1893. Proceedings of the Field 


Naturalists’ Section, 1889-90, 1890-91. The Society 
University. The Adelaide University Calendar for the 
Academical Years 1892 and 1893. The University 
Acram—Société Archéologique Croate. Viestnik, Godina 
xiv., Br. 4, 1892. The Society 


AtBany—New York State Library. Annual Report (104th) 
of the Regents of the University of the State of 
New York, Vols. 1., 11., 111., 1890. State Library 
Bulletin, Legislation No. 3, Jan. 1893. The Regents 


AmstTeRDAM—Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen. 
Jaarboek, 1892. Verhandelingen Sectie 1., Deel 1.; 
Sectie 11., Deel 1., 11. Verslagen der Zittingen, 
1892-93. Verslagen en Mededeelingen Afd. Natuur- 
kunde, Derde Reeks, Deel 1x., 1892. Register, 

Derde Reeks, Deel 1. - rx. The Academy 
Nederlandsche Maatschappij ter bevordering van Nij- 
verheid. Wekelijksche Courant de Nijverheid, 


Jahrgang 1., Num, 1 — 38, 1893. The Association 
Annapotis—United States Naval Institute. Proceedings, 
Vol. x1x., Nos. 2, 3, Whole Nos. 66, 67, 1893. The Institute 


AvuckLtanp—Auckland Institute. Annual Report for 1892-93. 


Austin—Texas Academy of Science. Transactions, Vol. 1., 
No. 1, Nov. 1892. The Academy 


Battimore—Johns Hopkins University. American Chemical 
Journal, Vol. x1v., Nos. 2-11, 1892. American 
Journal of Mathematics, Vol. x1v., Nos. 2, 3, 1892. 
American Journal of Philology, Vol. x11., No. 4, 1891; 
Vol. x111., Nos. 1- 3, 1892. Studies in Historical 
and Political Science, Vol. x., Nos. 4-11, 1892. 
Register for 1891-92. University Circulars, Vol. 
xur., Nos. 101 — 1038, 105 — 107, 1893. The University 


Brercen—Bergen Museum. Aarsberetning for 1891. The Museum 


Breritin—Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Verhandlungen, Band 
xix., Nos. 8-10, 1892; Band xx., Nos. 1-7, 1893. 
Zeitschrift, Band xxvil., Nos. 4-6, 1892; Band 


33 


xxvitl., Nos. 1, 2, 18938. The Society 
K. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften. Sitzungs- 
berichte, Nos. 1-55, 1892, and Index. The Academy 


Koniglich Preuss Meteorologische Instituts. Beobach- 
tungen an den Stationen 11. und 111. Ordnung 1893. 
Bericht tiber die Thatigkeit im Jahre 1891-92. 
Ergebnisse der Meteorologischen Beobachtungen, 
Heft 11., 1892. Ergebnisse der Niederschlags- 
Beobachtungen im Jahre 1891. The Institute 


Berne—Department de |’ Interieure de la Confédération 
Suisse. Die Wildbachverbauung in der Schweiz, 
Heft 2, 1892. Graphische Darstellung der schwei- 


492 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 


BERNE—continued. 
zerischen hydrometrischen Beobachtungen, Bl. Ia - 
1d, Ila — 11d, IIl., IV., Va, Vb, VI., 1892. Tabellarische 
Zusammenstellung der Haupt-Ergebnisse fiir das 
Jahr. 1889. Tableau graphique des observations 


hydrometriques suisses Pl. 1, 2, 3, 1891. The Department 
BirMincHam—Birmingham and Midland Institute. Pro- 
gramme for Session 1898-94. The Institute 


Birmingham Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. 
vir., Part i., Session 1891-92. Report presented 


by the Council, Oct. 12, 1892. The Society 
Botogna—R. Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di . 
Bologna. Memorie, Serie v., ‘lomo 1., 1890. The Institute 


Bonn—Naturhistorischer Vereines der Preuss. Rheinlande, 
Westfalens und des Reg.-Bezirks Osnabriick. Ver- 
handlungen, Jahrgang xurx., Folge 5, Jahre. ix., 
Halfte 2, 1892; Jahrgang u., Folge 5, Jahrg. x., 
Halfte 1, 1893. The Society 


Boston (Mass.)—American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
Proceedings, New Series, Vol. xviu1., Whole Series 
Vol. xxvi1, 1890-91; Vol. xrx., Whole Series, Vol. ; 
XXVII., 1891-92. The Academy 
Boston Society of Natural History. Memoirs, Vol. tv., 
No. 10, 1892. Proceedings, Vol. xxv., Parts 3 and 


4, 1891-92. The Society 
BRAUNScCHWEIG—Vereins ftir Naturwissenschaft. Jahres- 
bericht vir., 1889-90, 1890-91. is 
Bremen—Meteorologische Station I. Ordnung. Ergebnisse 
der Meteorologischen Beobachtungen, 1891, Jahr- 
gang II. The Director 
Naturwissenschaftliche Vereine zu Bremen. Abhand- 
lungen, Band xu., Heft 3 and Beilage 1893. The Society 


Brispane—Chief Weather Bureau. Meteorological Report 
for 1888, 1889, 1890 and 1891. Meteorological 
Synopsis, Oct. - Dec. 1891, Jan. - Oct. 1892. Table 
of Rainfall, July—Dec. 1891, Jan.- Sept. 1892. 
Meteorology of Australasia—Climatological Table 
July, August, 1893. Standard Weather Chart of 
Australasia and Surrounding Regions, May 16, 
June 2 and 15, July 1 and 15, 1893. Government Meteorologist 


Department of Agriculture. Annual Report for the 
Year 1891-92, Bulletins Nos. 10 - 18, 1891-92; Nos. 
20, 21, 1898. A companion for the Queensland 
Student of Plant Life by F. M. Bailey, r.u.s. The Department 


Geological Survey of Queensland. Annual Progress 
Report of the Geological Survey for the years 1891 
1892. Geological Observations in British New 
Guinea in 1891 by A. G. Maitland, r.¢.s. Geological 
Observations in the Cooktown District by W. H. 
Rands 1898. Report on the Grass-Tree Gold Field 
near Mackay, by R. L. Jack, F.a.s., 1893. Report 
on the Kangaroo Hills Silver and Tin Mines by R. — 


ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 493 


BRIsBANE—continued. : 
L. Jack, F.G.s., 1892. Report on the Russell River 
Gold Field by R. L. Jack, F.a.s., 1893. Second 
Report on the Normanby Gold Field, by R. L. Jack, 
F.G.S., 1898. The Government Geologist, Queensland 
Natural History Society of Queensland. Report of 
Council and President’s Address for the year 1892. 
Report of Meeting, Dec. 1 and 15, 1892, and Jan. 


19, Mar. 23, April 20, May 18, Oct. 5, 19, 1893. The Society 
Queensland Acclimatisation Scciety. Transactions, 
Vol. 1., Part i., 1892. Me 


Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Proceed- 
ings and Transactions of the Queensland Branch, 


Vol. vitr., 1892-93. ‘e 
Royal Society of Queensland. Proceedings, Vol. 1x., 

Session 1892-93. a 
Water Supply Department. Report of the Hydraulic 

Engineer on Water Supply, 1893. The Department 


Bristot—Bristol Naturalists’ Society. Annual Report &c. 
30 April 1893. Proceedings, N.S. Vol.vit., Part ii., 


1892-98. The Society 
Brooxvitte (Ind.)—Indiana Academy of Science. Pro- 

ceedings, 1891. The Academy 
Brunn—Naturforschende Vereines in Briinn. Bericht der 

Meteorologischen Commission 1892. Verhand- 

lungen, Band xx1x., 1890. The Society 


BRussELS—Société Royale Malacologique de Belgique. 
Annales, Tome xv., Ser. 2, Tome v. Fase 2, 1880; 
Tome xxvi., Ser. 4, Tome v1., 1891. Procés-Verbaux 
des Séances, Tome xx., 1891, pp. 57-112; Tome 


XXI., 1892, pp. 1 - 66. » 
Bucuarest—Institutul Meteorologic al Roumaniei. Buletin 
Meteor, Oct. 1892, Anul 11. Foia 1-10, 1893. The Institute 
' Buenos Airzs—Instituto Geogratico Argentino. Boletin, 
Tomo x111., Cuadernos 1-6, 10 - 12, 1892. is 


CautcuTrra—Asiatic Society of Bengal. Journal, Vol. uxt., 
Part i., Nos. 3,4, Extra Number and Index, Part ii., 
No. 3, 1892; Vol. uxtr., Part i., Nos. 1, 2, Part ii., 
Nos. 1, 2, 1898. Proceedings, Nos. 8, 9, 10, 1892; 


Nos. 1-7, 1893. The Society 
Buddhist Text Society of India. Journal, Vol. 1., Part 

1., Jan. 1893. 9 
Geological Survey of India. Records, Vol. xxv., Part 

IV OU a VOle Xavi. Parts 1, 11.,, 11t,, L893, The Director 


CamBorne—The Mining Association and Institute of Corn- 
wall. Transactions, Vol. 111., Partsi., ii.,and Extra 


Number; Vol. 1v., Part i., 1893. | The Institute 
CamsBripce—Cambridge Philosophical Society. Proceedings 
Vol. viur., Part i., 1892. The Society 


Cambridge University Library. Annual Report (39th) 
of the Library Syndicate for the year ending 31st 
Dec. 1892, The Library 


494 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 


CamBRIDGE (Mass.)—Cambridge Entomological Club. Psyche, 
Vol. vi., Nos. 199 — 210, 1892-93. The Club 


Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. 
Annual Report of the Curator for 1891-92. Bulletin, 
Vol. xvi. [Geological Series, Vol. 11.] Nos. 11-14, 
1893; Vol. xxi1r., Nos. 4-6, 1892; Vol. xxiv., Nos. 
1-7, Vol. xxv., No. 1, 1893. Memoirs, Vol. xtv., 


No. 3, 1893. The Museum 
Carpe Town—South African Philosophical Society. Trans- 
actions, Vol. vr., Parts 1., 11., 1889-92. The Society 


CARLSRUHE— Grossherzoglich Technischen Hochschule. Die 
Freiheit des Willens Festrede von Dr. C. Wiener, 
1891. Festgabe, 1892. Inaugural Dissertations (11) 
Letionsplan, 1893-94. Programm fiir das Studien- 


jahr 1892-93, 1893-94. The Director 
CassELL—Vereins fiir Naturkunde zu Kassel. Bericht, 
XXXVIII., 1891-92. The Society 


CincINNATI—Cincinnati Society of Natural History. Jour- 
nal, Vol. xv., Nos. 2, 3, 4, 1892-93 ; Vol. xv1. No. 1, 


1893. zi 
CoLtompo—Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of the Ceylon 
Branch, Vol. x1., No. 40, 1890; Vol. x11., No. 438, 1892. x 


Corpospa—Academia Nacional de Ciencias. Boletin, Tomo 
x., Entrega 4, 1890; Tomo x1., Entrega 4, 1889.  2'he Academy 


Cracow—Académie des Sciences de Cracovie. Bulletin 
International, No. 9, 1892; Nos. 1—5, 1893. oe 


DENvER—Colorado Scientific Society. A Review of the 
RusseJl Process, by L. D. Godshall. A volumetric 
method for the determination of Lead. Certain 
Dissimilar Occurrences of gold-bearing Quartz by 
T. A. Rickard. On a series of peculiar schists near 
Salida, Colorado, by Whitman Cross. The Latest 
Method of Electric Car Control by Irving Hale. 
The Post-Laramie Beds of Middle Park, Colorado 


by Whitman Cross. Th2 Society 
Drespen—K. Sichs. Statistische Bureaus. Zeitschrift, 
Jahrgang xxxvill., Heft. 1 and 2, 1892. The Bureau 
Vereins fiir Erdkunde. Jahresbericht, Band xx1r1., 1892; 
Band xx111., 1893. The Society 


Dusiin—Royal Irish Academy. Proceedings, Third Series, 
Vol. u., No.3, 1892. Transactions, Vol. xxx., Parts 
i.—iv., 1892-98. Todd Lecture Series, Vols. 111. 
and Iv., 1892. The Academy 


Royal Dublin Society. Scientific Proceedings, Vol. vi. 
N.S. Parts iil. and iv., 1892. Scientific Transactions 


Vol. tv., Ser. 2, Nos. 9-13, 1891. The Society 
EpinsureH—Botanical Society. Transactions and Pro- 
ceedings, Vol. xvi1z., Vol. x1x. pp. 1 - 68. 35 


Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Trans- 
actions, Fifth Series, Vol. v., 1893. List of Members 
1898. ” by 


ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 495 


EDINBURGH—continued. 
Royal Physical Society. Proceedings, Vol. x1., Part ii. 
Session 1891-92. The Society 
Royal Scottish Geographical Society. The Scottish 
Geographical Magazine, Vol. vi11., Nos. 10-12, 1892 
and Index; Vol. 1x., Nos. 1-9, 1893. 


Royal Society of Edinburgh. Proceedings, Vol. xvuit., 
Session 1890-91. Transactions, Vol. xxxv1., Parts 
li. and iii., Session 1890-91. 

University. The Edinburgh University Calendar 
1893-94. The University 


Fiorence—Societa Africana d’ Italia. Bullettino della 
Sezione Fiorentina, Vol. vitr., Fasc. 4-8, 1892; 
Vol. rx., Fase 1 - 3, 1893. The Society 

Societa Entomologica Italiana. Bullettino, Anno xxtv., 
Trimestre 8, 4, 1892; Anno xxv., 'Trimestre 1, 2, 1893. 


Societa Italiana di Antropologia, Etnologia e Psicologia 
Comparata. Archivio, Vol. xx11., Fasc 2, 3, 1892. 
Vol. xxxt11r., Fase 1, 1893. 


Fort Monroe (Va.)-—United States Artillery School. 
Journal, Vol. 1., Nos.1, 2, 4, 5, 1892; Vol. mm. Nos.1, 
2, 3, 18938. The School 


FRANKFURT A/m.—Senckenbergische Naturforschende 
Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen, Band xvi11., Heft 1, 
1892. Bericht, 1893. Katalog der Reptilien-Samm- 
lung im Museum Teil 1., (Rhynchocephalen, Schild- 
kroten, Krokodile, Eidechsen, Chamlileons) von 
Prof. Dr. O. Boettger. The Society 


FREIBURG 1.8B.—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Berichte, 
Band vi., Heft 1 -— 4, 1891-92. 

GEELONG—Gordon Technical College. Annual Report for 
1892. The College 


_Gznoa—Museo Civico di Storia Naturale. Annali, Serie 2, 
_ Vol. x. (xxx.), 1890-92; Vol. x1. (xxx1.), 1891-92. The Musewm 


GIESSEN—Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur-und-Heil- 
kunde. Bericht, Band xxrx., 1893. The Society 


Guasgow—Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xx1iI., 
1891-92. Index Vols. 1.—xx., 1841 - 89. 


University. The Glasgow University Calendar for the 


3) 


33 


33 


33 


33 


year 1893-94. The University 
Goruitz—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen, 
Band xx. [1893] The Society 


GoTTinceN—Koniglich Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. 
Nachrichten, Nos. 1 - 14, 1893. 


GRatTz—Naturwissenschaftliche Vereins fiir Steiermark. 
Haupt-Repertorium, Heft 1. - xx., 1863 - 83. Mit- 
theilungen, Band 11.-xxvil., 1870-90; Band 
ROM OO. 


Hamsure—Deutsche Seewarte. Archiv, Jahrgang xv., 
1892. Deutsche Ueberseeische Meteorologische 


33 


496 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 


HamBure—continued. 
Beobachtungen, Heft v., 1886-91. Ergebnisse der 
Meteorologischen Beobachtungen, Jahrgang xtv., 
1891. Resultate Meteorologischer Beobachtungen 
von Deutschen und Hollindischen Schiffen fiir 
Hingradfelder des Nordatlantischen Ozeans. 
Quadrat 77, No. xi., 1893. The Observatory 


Naturhistorische Museum. Mitteilungen, Jahrgang x., 
Halfte 1, 1892. The Museum 


Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein in Hamburg. Abhand- 
lungen, Band xi1., Heft 1. The Society 


Har.tem—Colonial Museum. Bulletin, Jan. Juni, 1893. 
Gesteenten en Mineralen van Nederlandsch Oost- 
Indié. No. 111. Steenkolen, No. tv. Petroleum door’ 
Dr. D. de Loos. Le Musée Colonial de Harlem par 
M. F. W.van Heden. [Revue des Sciences Naturelles 
Appliquées, No. 16, 1893. | The Museum 


Musée Teyler. Archives, Serie 2, Vol.iv., Part i., 1893. = 


Société Hollandaise des Sciences. Archives Néerlan- 
daises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Tome 
xxvi., Liv. 3-5, 1892-93; Tome xxvit., Liv. 1 - 2, 


1893. The Society 
HeipevBerc—Naturhistorisch-Medicinische Vereins. Ver- 
handlungen, N.F. Band v., Heft 1, 1893. A 


Heisincrors—Société des Sciences de Finlande. Acta, 
Yomus xv1ii.,189]. Cfversigt, Forhandlingar Vol. 
XxXxIII., 1890-91. Observations publieces par 1’ Insti- 
tut Météorologique Central, Vols. 111., Iv., V., IX., 
x., Liv. 1. Observations Meteorologiques faites 
a Helsingfors, en 1884, 1885, 1886, 1890, 1891. es 


Hopart—Office of Mines. Report of the Secretary of Mines 
for 1892-3. Report on the property of the Mount 
Lyell Mining and Railway Company Ld. by Dr. 
EK. D. Peters, Junr. (1893). The Secretary for Mines 
Royal Society of Tasmania. Monthly Notices of Papers 
and Proceedings for June - Nov. 1873. Prof. Liversidge, M.A.,F.B S. 


Papers and Proceedings for 1892. The Society 


Iowa Crry—Iowa Weather and Crop Service. Monthly 
Review, Vol. 1v., Nos. 1-4, 1898. Reports for the 
years 1888, 1890, 1891. The Director 


JEFFERSON City, (Mo.)—Geological Survey of Missouri. 
Biennial Report of the State Geologist for 1891 
and 1892. Vol. 11. A Report of the Iron Ores of 
Missouri by Frank L. Mason, 1892. Vol. m1. A 
Report on the Mineral Waters of Missouri by Paul 
Schweitzer, 1892. Report on the Higginsville 
Sheet, Lafayette County, 1892. The Survey 


_ Jena— Medicinisch - Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft. 
Jenaische Zeitschrift, Band xxvi1., N.F. Eand xx., 
Heft 1, 2, 1892, Heft 3, 4, 1893. The Society 


Krw—Royal Gardens. Flora Hongkongensis by George 
Bentham, 8° London, 1861. Hooker’s Icones Plan- 


ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 497 


Krw—continued. 
tarum, Third Series, Vols. 1. — x., 1867— 1891, Fourth 
Series, Vol. 1., Partsi. —iv., 1890-92; Vol.11., Parts 


i.—iii.; Vol. m1., Parts i. - 1i1., 1892-93. The Director 
Kierr—Société des Naturalistes. Mémoires, Tome x11., Liv. 

1 and 2, 1892. The Society 
Kinaston—Institute of Jamaica. Journal, Vol.1., Nos. 1—7 

1891-93. The Institute 


KoéniasBerc in Pr.—Physikalisch-Okonomische Gesellschaft. 
Fuhrer durch die Geologischen Sammlungen des 
Provinzialmuseums, 1892. Schriften, Jahrgange 
XXXIII., 1892. The Society 


La Prata—Museo de la Plata. Revista, Tomo 111., 1892. The Museum 


LAUSANNE—Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles. Bul- 
letin, 3 Ser. Vol. xxviir.. Nos. 108, 109, 1892; Vol. 
xxix., Nos. 110-112, 1893. The Society 


Leeps—Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 
Constitution and List of Members, Jan. Ist, 1893. 
Journal, Vol. vir., Nos. 4 - 6, 1892-93. 

Philosophical and Literary Society. Annual Report 
for 1892-3. 


Lzrpzig—K. Sichsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. 
Berichte tiber die Verhandlungen mathematisch- 
physische Classe, Nos. 3 - 6, 1892; Nos 1-3, 1893. 

Vereins fiir Erdkunde. Mitteilungen, 1892. 


Lirce—Société Geologique de Belgique. Annales, Tome 
xvi., Liv. 3; Tome xrx., Liv. 3 and 4, 1891-92. 


Litite—Sociéte Géologique du Nord. Annales, Vol. xx., 1892. 


Lincoun (Neb.)—University of Nebraska. Annual Report 
(Sixth) of the Agricultural Experiment Station, 
1892. Bulletin of the Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Vol. v., Nos. 25 and 26; Vol. v1., No. 27. The University 


LiveRPoot—Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. Meteoro- 
logical Results, deduced from Observations taken 
at the Liverpool Observatory, during the years 
1889-90-91. The Board 


Lonpon—Aéronautical Society of Great Britain. Phillips’ 

Aerial Machine [ The Times 24 May, 1893]. Phillips’ 

Flying Machine [Engineering, Mar. 10, May 5, 19, 

1893 |. The Society 
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.. 

Journal, Vol. xx11., Nos. 1 - 4, 1892-93; Vol. xx111., 

No. 1, August 1893. Index to the Publications of 

the Anthropological Institute of Great Brit. and 

Irel. [1843-1891] by George W. Bloxam, m.a. 

[S° London, 1893. | The Institute 
British Museum (Natural History). Catalogue of the 

British Echinoderms by F. J. Bell, w.a. Guide to 

Sowerby’s Models of British Fungi in the Depart- 

ment of Botany, 1893. The Museum 


F r—Decr. 6, 1893. 


498 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 


Lonpon—continued. 
Geological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. xiviit., 

Part iv., No. 192, 1892; Vol. xuux:; (Parts ds--a 

Nos. 193 - 195, 1892. List of Fellows, Nov. 1,1892. The Society 
Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. 

Regulations for admission to Membership and 

Register, April 1893. The Institute 
Institution of Civil Engineers. Brief Subject—Index 

Vols. tix. to oxiv., Sessions 1879-80 to 1892-93. 

Charter &c., 3 June, 1893. List of Members, 1st 

April, 1893. Minutes of Proceedings, Vol. cx1.— 


CxIv., Sessions 1892-93, Parts 1-4. S53 
Institution of Naval Architects. Transactions, Vol. 
XxXxiv., 1893. > “s 


Iron and Steel Institute. Journal, Vol. xu11., No. 2, 

1892; Vol. xuii., No. 1, 1893. List of Members, 

1893. Special Volume of Proceedings, The Iron 

and Steel Institute in America in 1899. ft 
Linnean Society. Journal, Botany, Vol. xxrx., Nos. 

202 - 204, 1892-93; Vol. xxx., No. 205, 1893; Zoology, 

Vol. xxiv., Nos. 153 — 155. 1892-93. List of Fellows 

1892-93. ’ The Society 


Meteorological Office. Meteorological Observations at 
Stations of the Second Order for 1888. Report of 
the Meteorological Council to the Royal Society for 


the year ending 31 March 1892. The Meteorological Council 
Mineralogical Society. Mineralogical Magazine and - 
Journal, Vol. x., No. 46, March 1898. The Society 


Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Journal and 
Transactions, Vol. t11., Nos. 1167 - 1200, 1892-98 ; 


Vol. uir., Nos. 1201 - 1218, 1893. Calendar, 1893. en 
Physical Society. Proceedings, Vol. x1., Partiv., 1892 ; 

Vol. xu., Part 1., 1893. es 
Quekett Microscopical Club. Journal, Ser. 1., Vol. v., 

No. 32, July, 1893. The Club 


Royal Agricultural Society of England. Journal, 3 
Series, Vol. 111., Part iv., No. 12, 1892; Vol. tv., 
Parts i., i1., Nos. 13, 14, 1898. List of Governors 


and Members, 31st Dec. 1892. The Society 
Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 
Journal, Vol. xx1., 1889. s 


‘Royal Astronomical Society. Memoirs, Vol. t., 1890-91. 

Monthly Notices, Vol. ui1., No.9; Vol. ur11., Nos. 

1-8, 1892-98. » 
Royal College of Surgeons. Calendar, July 7, 1893. The College 
Royal Colonial Institute. Proceedings, Vol. xxiv., ' 

1892-93. The Institute 
Royal Geographical Society. Proceedings, Vol. x1v., 

Nos. 10—12,1892. ‘lhe Geographical Journal, Vol. 

1., Nos. 1—6; Vol. 11., Nos. 1 - 4, 1893. The Society 
Royal Historical Society. Transactions, New Series, 

Vol. vi., 1892. Fe 


aoe 


ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 499 


Lonpon—continued. 
Royal Institution of Great Britain. Proceedings, Vol. 
x1i., Part 11., No. 86, 1898. Vhe Institution 


Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. 
xviut., No. 84, 1892; Vol. x1x., Nos. 85 - 87, 1898. 
The Meteorological Record, Vol. x1., No. 44, 1891 ; 
Vol. xur., Nos. 45 - 48, 1892. The Society 

Royal Microscopical Society. Journal, Parts v. and vi., 

Nos. 90 and 91, 1892; Parts i.—iv., Nos. 92-95, 
1893. Charter, Bye Laws and List of Fellows 1892. 2 

Royal Society. Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 
CLXXXIII., Parts A.and B.,1892. Proceedings, Vol. 
LI., LII., LI., 1892-93. List of Fellows, 30 Nov. 1892. 


Royal United Service Institution. Journal. Vol. xxxv1., 
Nos. 176-178, 1892; Vol. xxxvu1., Nos. 179 — 187, 
1893. The Institution 

Sanitary Institute. List of Hon. Fellows, Fellows, 
Members and Associates, 1893. Transactions, Vol. 
x111., 1892. Congress at Portsmouth. 


Zoological Society of London. Proceedings, Part iv., 
1892, Part i., 1893. Transactions, Vol. x111., Parts 

Wis) Vics LO98, The Society 
Lusreck—Naturhistorische Museum. Jahresbericht fiir das 


Jahr 1891. Mitteilungen der Geographischen 
Gesellschaft und des Naturhistorischen Museums, 


33 


Reihe 11., Heft. 3, 1891. The Museum 
Lymer Reeis—Rousdon Observatory, Devon. Meteorological 
Observations, Vol. 1x., 1892. The Observatory 


Mapras—Government Observatory. Hourly Meteorological 
Observations made at the Madras Observatory, 
from Jan. 1856 to Feb. 1861. [4° Madras, 1893. ] 
Madras Meridian Circle Observations 1877, 1878 
and 1879. 


Maprip—Instituto Geografico y Estadistica. Censo de la 
Poblacion de Espana, 1887. EHstadistica de la 
Emigracion é Inmigracion de Espana, 1882 - 1890, The Institute 


Mancurster—Manchester Geological Society. Transactions, 
Vol. xxu1., Parts i. - x1., Session 1892-93. The Society 
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. 
Memoirs and Proceedings, 4 Ser., Vol. vir., Nos. 
1-3, 1892-93. 


Marsure—Gesellschaft zur Beforderung der gesammten 
Naturwissenschaften. Schriften, Band xu., Ab- 
handlung 4, 5, 1891-92. Sitzungsberichte, Jahr- 
gang, 1891-92. coe 
University. Ninety (90) Inaugural Dissertations. The University 


MarsEItLes—Faculté des Sciences de Marseille. Annales, 
Tome 11., Fasc 2-6. The Faculty 


MeELBourNE—Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, Vol. v., 
Nos. 49 —54, 58, 60, 1890; Vol. vi., No. 70, 1891; 
Vol. vir., Nos. 81, 84, 1892; Vol. vizr., Nos. 85 —- 91, 
93 — 95, 1893. The Proprietors 


33 


500 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 


MeELBOURNE—continued. 
Broken Hill Proprietary Company, Limited. Half 
Yearly Reports 1 - 16, 15 Dec. 1885 to 31 May 1893. . 
Report on the Metallurgical Treatment of the Sul- 
phides of the Barrier Ranges by C. Schnabel, 1892. The Secretary 


Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. The Victorian 
Naturalist, Vol. 1x., Nos. 8-12, 1892-98; Vol. x., 


Nos. 1 - 7, 1898. The Club. 
Government Statist. Victorian Year-Book, Vols. 1., 11., 

1892. Disturbance of the Population Estimates by 

defective records. The Concentration of Popula- 

tion in Australian Capital Cities. The Government Statist 


Mining Department. Annual Report of the Secretary 
for Mines, 1892. Reports on the Victorian Coal 
Fields by James Stirling, r.a.s. Special Reports : 
Report on the Bendigo Gold Field by E. J. Dunn, 
F.a.8. Report on the Treatment of Tailings by the 
Lithrig System by J. Cosmo Newbery (1892). 

The Secretary for Mines 

Public Library, Museums, aud National Gallery of 
Victoria. Report of the Trustees for 1892. The Trustees 

Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Victorian 
Branch). Transactions and Proceedings, Vol. vt., 

Parts i. and ii., 1888-89; Vol. vir., Parts i. and ii., 
1889-1890; Vol. vi1r., Part i1., 1890; Vol. x., 1893. The Society 

Royal Society of Victoria. Proceedings, New Series, 


Vol. v., 1893. sy 
Mfripa— Universidad de Los Andes, Venezuela. Anuario, 

Tomo 11., 1890-92. The University 
Merrz—Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Metz. Jahresbericht xrv. 

fiir 1891-92; xv., 1892-93. The Society 
Merxico—Sociedad Cientifica *‘ Antonio Alzate.”” Memorias 

y Revista, Tome vi., Num 3—10, 1892-93. be 


Observatorio Astronomico Nacional de ‘Tacubaya. 
Anuario para el Ano de 1893, Ano x111. Boletin, 


Tomo f:, Num 12, 13. The Observatory 
Observatorio Meteorologico-Magnetico Central de 
Mexico. Boletin Mensual, Tomo 111., Nim 4, 1890. 5 
Mitan—Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere. 
Rendiconti, Serie 2, Vol. xxiIv., 1891. The Institute: 
Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali. Atti, Vol. xxxiv. 
Fasc 1 - 3, 1892-93. The Society 
Montreat—Natural History Society of Montreal. The 
Canadian Record of Science, Vol. v., Nos. 4- 7, 1892-8. Re 
Moscow—Société Impériale des Naturalistes. Bulletin, N.S. 
Tome vi., Nos. 2—4, 1892; Tome vit., No. 1, 1893. Pe 


MunuHovuse—Société Industrielle de Mulhouse. Bulletin, 
August - December 1892, Jan. - Sept. and Supple- 
ment, 1893. Programme des Prix proposés en 
Assemblée Générale le 31 Mai 1893. A décerner 
en 1894. ales oe 


ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 501 


Municu—Bayerische Botanische Gesellschaft. Berichte 
zur Erforschung der heimischen Flora, Band I1., 

1892. The Society 
K. B. Akademie der Wissenschaften. Abhandlungen, 
der math-phys. Classe, Band xviz., Abth 3, 1892. 
Sitzungsberichte, der math-phys. Classe, Heft 1 — 3, 
1891; Heft1,2,1892. Ueber alleemeine Probleme 

der Mechanik des Himmels, von Hugo Seeliger 1892. The Academy 


Nantrres—Société des Sciences Naturelles de l’ Ouest de la 


France. Bulletin, Tome 11., No. 3, 1892. The Society 
Napirs—Societa Africana d’ Italia. Bollettino, Anno xIr1., 
Fase 3 - 6, 1898. 5 


Societ&i Reale di Napoli. Atti, Serie 2, Vol. v., 1893. 
Rendiconto dell’ Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche 
e Matematiche, Serie 2a, Vol. vi1., Fasc 7-12, 1892; 
Vol. vir., Fase 1 - 7, 1898. 


Stazione Zoologica. Mittheilungen, Band x., Heft 4, 
1893. The Director 


NeEwcastL£-uPpon-TyneE—North of England Institute of 
Mining and Mechanical Engineers. Annual Report 
of the Council 1891-92, 1892-93. ‘Transactions, Vol. 
XXxXIx., Part ili.; Vol. xu., Part v.; Vol. xu1., Parts 
v., Vi., 1892-93 ; Vol. xu11., Parts i. —iv., 1898. The Institute 


33 


New Haven—Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
Transactions, Vol. vir1., Part ii., 1898; Vol. 1x., Part 
1., 1892. The Academy 


New Yorx—American Chemical Society. Journal, Vol. 
xiv., Nos. 8—10, 1892; Vol. xv., Nos. 1-6, 1898. The Society 


American Geographical Society. Bulletin, Vol. xxiv., 
Nos. 3 and 4 Parts 1., 11., 1892; Vol. xxv., Nos.1, 2, 
1893. 


American Institute of Mining Engineers. Transactions, 
Vols. 1. — VilI., XI. - xvi1. Memorial of Alex. Lyman 
Holley, ¢.z. The Institute 


American Museum of Natural History. Annual Report 

(24th) of the President for the year 1892. Bulletin 

Vol. 1v., 1892. The Museum 
New York Academy of Sciences. Annals, Vol. v1., Nos. 

1 - 6, 1891-92; Vol. vir., Nos. 1-5, 1898. Transac- 

tions, Vol. x., Nos. 1, 7, 8, 1890-91 ; Vol. x1., Nos. 


33 


1-5, 1891-92. The Academy 
New York Microscopical Society. Journal, Vol. vi11., 
No. 4, 1892; Vol. rx., Nos. 1-3, 18938. The Society 


School of Mines, Columbia College. The School of Mines 
Quarterly, Vol. x1v., Nos. 1 - 4, 1892-98. The School of Mines 
OTTawA—Geological Survey of Canada. Contributions to 


Canadian Paleontology, Vol.1., Part iv., by J. F. : 
Whiteaves, F.a.s., &c., 1892. The Director 


Royal Society of Canada. Proceedings and Transac- 
tions, Vol. 1x., 1891; Vol. x., 1892. The Society 


502 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 


Pato Auto (Cal.)—-Geological Survey of Arkansas. Annual 
Report, Vols. 1., 11., 111., 1888; Vols. 1., 11., 1890; 
Vol. 1,, 189: Vola. 892, The Survey 


Paris—Académie des Sciences de l Institut de France. 
Comptes Rendus, Tome cxv., Nos. 18 — 26, 1892, and 
Index ;. Tome cxvi., Nos. 1— 26; Tome cxvit., Nos. 
1-17, 1893. The Academy 
Ecole d’ Anthropologie de Paris. Revue Mensuelle, 
Année 11., Nos. 11, 12, 1892 ; Année 111., Nos. 1— 10, 
1898. The Director 
Ecole Nationale des Mines. Statistique de I’ Industrie 
Minérale et des Appareils 4 vapeur en France et en 
Algérie pour l année 1891. Ministére des Travaux Publics 
Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes. Catalogue de la 
Bibliothéque Fasc. No. 14, 1892; Fase. No. 16, 1893. 
Revue Mensuelle d’ Histoire Naturelle, Année xxiil., 
Nos. 266—276; Année xxiv., No. 277, 1892-93. The Editor 
Institut Pasteur. Annales, Tome vi., Nos. 9—12,1892. The Institute 


Observatoire de Paris. Rapport Annuel, pour l année 


1892. The Observatory 
Société de Biologie. Comptes Rendus, Serie 9, Tome tv., 
Nos. 32-40, 1892 ; Tome v., Nos. 1 —29, 1898. The Society 


Société d’ Anthropologie de Paris. Bulletins, Série 4, 
Tome 111., Fase 1 - 38,1892. Catalogue de la Biblio- 


théque, Parts 1., ii., 1891. Ps 
Société Entomologique de France. Bulletin des Séances 

Nos. 15 and 16, 1892. 2 
Société Francaise de Minéralogie. Bulletin, Tome xv., 

Nos. 7-9, 1892; Tome xv1., Nos. 1-4, 1893. 5 


Société Francaise de Physique. Bulletin Bimensuel, 
Nos. 11—28, 1892-98. Séances, Avril— Decembre, 
1892; Jan. — Avril, 1893. 4 


Société de Géographie. Bulletin, 7 Serie, Tome x11r., 
.Triméstre 3, 4, 1892; Tome xiv., Triméstre 1, 1893. 
Comptes Rendus des Séances, Nos. 15-18, 1892; 

Nos. 1-14, 1898. a3 


Société Géologique de France. Bulletin, 3 Ser. Tome 
xx., Nos. 2-7, 1892; "Tome xx1., No: 1, 1893: 


Compte-Rendu, Nos. 4—7, 9, 11—18, 1898. bs 
Société Zoologique de France., Bulletin, Tome xviz., 
Nos. 3, 7, 8,1892. Mémoires, Tome v., No. 5, 1892. a 
_ PHILADELPHIA—Academy of Natural Sciences. Proceedings, 
Parts i1., 111.,:1892; Part i., 1893. The Academy 


American Entomological Society. Transactions, Vol. 6 


xvit., No. 4, 1891; Vol. x1rx., Nos. 1—4, 1892; Vol. 


KK NOS. 2 89a. The Society 
American Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xxx., 
No. 139, 1892; Vol. xxx1., No. 140, 1893. y 


Franklin Institute. J ournal, Vol. cxxxiv., Nos. 803, 
804, 1892. Vol. cxxxv., Nos. 805 — 810, Vol. cxxxv1., 
Nos. 811 - 814, 1893. Me The institute: 


ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 503 


PHILADELPHIA—continued. 
Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. Atlas, Southern 


Anthracite Field A.A. Parts ivB., v., and vi. The Survey 
University of Pennsylvania. Contributions from the 

Botanical Laboratory, Vol. 1., No. 1, 1892. The University 
Wagner Free Institute of Science. Transactions, Vol. 

Mh ear i..) Loon. The Institute 
Zoological Society. Annual Report (21st) of the Board 

of Directors, 27 April, 1893. The Society 


Pisa—Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. Atti, Memorie, 
Vol, xir., 1893. Processi Verbali, Vol. vi11., pp. 85 
— 232, 1892-98. ” 


Prymoutsa—Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall 
Natural History Society. Annual Report and 
Transactions, Vol. x1., Parts 11., 1i1., 1891-93. The Institution 


Port Lovis—Royal Alfred Observatory. Annual Report 
of the Director for the years 1889 and 1890. Mau- 
ritius Meteorological Results for 1890. Mauritius 
Meteorological Observations taken during the year 
VSO The Observatory 


Potspam--K. Geodatisches Instituts. Die HEuropiaische 
Langengradmessung in 52 Grad Breite von Green- 
wich bis Warschau, Heft 1., 18938. Jahresbericht 
des Direktors, April 1891 bis April 1892. The Institute 


QuxrBrec—Literary and Historical Society. Transactions, 
Nos. 19, 20, 21, Sessions 1887-1892. List of Pub- 
lications. The Society 


Rio DE JANEIRO—Observatorio do Rio de Janeiro. Annuario 
para o anno de 1892, Anno vit. O Clima do Rio 


de Janeiro por L. Cruls (4° 1892). The Observatory 
RocwHeEstTER (N.Y.)—Geological Society of America. Bulletin, 

Vol. 111., 1892. The Society 
Rochester Academy of Science. Proceedings, Vol. 11., 

Brochure 1, 1892. The Academy 


Romz—Accademia Pontificia de Nuovi Lincei. Atti, compilati 
dal Segretario, Anno xuiv., Sessione viia, 1891; 
Anno xuv., Sessione i., 1892. op 


Biblioteca e Archivio Tecnico. Giornale del Genio 
Civile, Anno xxx., Fasc. 8—12, 1892; Anno xxxI., 
Fasc. 1-8, 1893. Minister of Public Instruction, Rome 


Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Atti, Serie Quinta, Rendi- 
conti, Vol. 1., Semestre 2, Fasc. 8—12, 1892; Vol. 
11., Semestre 1, Fasc. 1—12, Vol. 11., Semestre 2, 
Fasc.1- 7,1898. Rendiconto dell adunanza solenne 
del 4 Giugno 1893. The Academy 


R. Comitato Geclogicod’ Italia. Boilettino, Vol. xxm1., 
3e Serie, Vol. 111., Nos. 3, 4, 1892; Vol. xxiv., 3¢e 
Serie, Vol. 1v., Nos. 1, 2, 1893. The Committee 


R. Ufficio Centrale Meteorologico e Geodinamico Itali- 
ano. Annali, Serie 2, Vol. x1., Parts 1, 2, 1889. The Director 


504 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 


Rome—continued. 
Societa Geografica Italiana. Bollettino, Serie m1., Vol. 
v., Fasc 8 - 12, 1892; Vol. v1., Fasc 1—7, 1893. The Society 
Societa Romana per gli Studi Zoologici. Bollettino, 
Vol. 1., No. 6, 1892. 


SacRAMENTO—Lick Observatory of the University of Cali- 
fornia. Contributions from the Lick Observatory 
No. 3—Terrestrial Atmospheric Absorption of the 
Photographic Rays of Light by J. M. Schaeberle, 
1893. Publications of the Lick Observatory, Vol. 
1., 1887. The Observatory 


SaLEm (Mass.)—American Association for the Advancement 
of Science. Proceedings, Vol. xu., 1891 (Washing- 
ton Meeting); Vol. xu1., 1892 (Rochester Meeting). The Association 


SantTraco—Société Scientifique du Chili. Actes, Tome 11., 
Liv. 1-3, 1892. The Society 
Museo Nacionale de Chile. Anales, Primera Seccion, 
Zoolojia :—1. HE] Guemul de Chile. 2. Algunos Peces 
de Chile. 3. Las Focas Chilenas del Museo Nacional 
por Dr. R. A. Philippi. The Museum 


St. Lovis— Academy of Science. Transactions, Vol. v., Nos. 
3, 4, 1888-91; Vol. v1., No. 1, 1892. ‘The Academy 

Missouri Botanical Garden. Fourth Annual Report, 
1898. The Director 


St. Prrerspura— Académie Impériale des Sciences. 
Mémoires, 7 Série, Tome xu., No. 2 et dernier 1893; 
Tome xu1., No. 1, 1892. The Academy 


Comité Géologique Institut des Mines. Bulletins, Vol. 
x1., Nos. 5-10 and Supplement 1892; Vol. xiz., 
Nos. 1, 2, 1898. Mémoires, Vol. x11., No. 2, 1892; 
Vol. rx., No. 2, Vol. x., No. 2, 18938. The Committee 
Russisch-Kaiserliche Mineralogische Gesellschaft. Ver- 
handlungen, Serie 2, Band xx1x., 1892. Materialien 
zur Geologie Russlands, Tome xvt1., 1898. The Society 


33 


SANn FRancisco—California Academy of Sciences. Occasional 
Papers. Vol. 111., Evolution of the Colors of North 
American Land Birds by C. A. Keeler. Zoe, Vols. 
1. and 11., 1890, 1891. The Academy 


Geographical Society of California. Bulletin, Vol. r., 
Part i., March 1893. Special Bulletin, “ Did the 
Phenicians discover America”? by T. C. Johnston. The Society 


Scranton (Pa.)—The Colliery Engineer Co. The Colliery 
Engineer, Vol. x111., Nos. 4-12; Vol. x1v., Nos. 1, 


2, 1892-93. The Proprietors 
SincAPoRE—Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of the Straits 
Branch, No. 24, Decr. 1891. The Society 


STRASSBURG I.E.—Centralstelle des Meteorologischen Lan- 
desdienstes in Elsass-Lothringen. Ergebnisse im 
Jahre 1891. The Director 


Stutreart—K. Statistische Landesamt. Wiirttembergische 
Jahrbiicher fiir Statistik und Landeskunde. Jahr- 
gang, 1892, The “* Landesamt ” 


ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 505 


STUTTGART—continued. 
Vereins fiir Vaterlindische Naturkunde in Wiirttemberg. 


Jabreshefte, Jahrgang 49, 1893. The Society 
Wiirttembergische Vereins fiir Handelsgeographie. 
Jahresbericht, 111. and Iv., 1884-86. _ 
Sypney—Australian Economic Association. The Australian 
Economist, Vol. 111., No. 7, 1893. The Association 


Australian Museum. Annual Report (89th) of the 
Trustees for the year 1892. Catalogue of the 
Marine Shells of Australia and Tasmania, Part iii., 
Gasteropoda Murex (Catalogue No. 15). Catalogue 
of Australian Mammals with Intrductory Notes on 
General Mammalogy by J. Douglas Ogilby, F.u.s. 
(Catalogue No.16). Records, Vol. 11., Nos. 4, 5, 1893. The Trustees 


British Medical Association. Report of the Annual 
Meeting, 3 March, 1893. The Association 


Chief Secretary. Handbook of the Flora of New South 
Wales by Charles Moore, F.u.s. [8° Sydney, 1893. ] 
The Chief Secretary 


Department of Mines and Agriculture. Agricultural 
Gazette of N.S.W., Vol. 111., Parts xi. and xii., 1892 ; 
Vol. 1v., Parts i. — xi., 1893. Annual Report for the 
year 1892. Geological Map of New South Wales, 
1893. Records of the Geological Survey of N.S.W., 
Vol. 11., Parts li. —iv., 1898. The Department 


Department of Public Instruction. The New South Wales 
Educational Gazette, Vol. 11., Nos. 7-12, 1892-98 ; 
Vol. 111., Nos. 1-7, 1893. y 


Engineering Association of New South Wales. Minutes 
of Proceedings, Vols. vi. and vit., 1890-91, 1891-92. The Association 


Free Public Library. Annual Report (22nd) of the 
Trustees for 1892. The Trustees 


Government Printer. The Statutesof New South Wales 
(Public and Private) passed during the Session of 
1892-3. The Government Printer 


Government Statistician. A Statistical Account of the 
Seven Colonies of Australasia, 1892 and 1893. 
Statistical Register for 1891 and previous years, 
1892 and previous years, Parts 1-10. The Statis- 
tician’s Report on the Eleventh Census of New South 
Wales (1891) First Instalment. The Wealth and 
Progress of New South Wales, 1892 (Sixth Issue). 
The Government Statistician 
Horticultural Society of New South Wales. The Horti- 
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Institution of Surveyors, N.S. Wales. The Surveyor, 
Vol. v., No. 12, 1892; Vol. v1., Nos. 1-11, 1898. The Institution 
Linnean Society of N.S. Wales. Proceedings, Second 
Series, Vol. vir., Parts iii., iv.; Vol. vi1., Parti., 
1893. The Society 
New South Wales Board of Health. Coast Hospital, 
Little Bay, Report for 1892. Leprosy in New South 


506 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 


SyvnEyY—continued. 
Wales, Report for 1892. Maintenance of Sick 
Paupers, Report on Vote for 1892. Typhoid Fever 
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leaving ports of N. 8. Wales for 1892, Returns 
respecting. The Board 


Observatory. Diagram of Isothermal Lines of New 
South Wales, 1893. Moving Anticyclones in the 
Southern Hemisphere by H. C. Russell, B.a., F.R.s. 
Observations of the Transit of Venus, 9 Dec. 1874, 
made at Stations in New South Wales under the 
direction of H. C. Russell, b.A., c.M.G., F.R.8., &c. 
Results of Astronomical Observations in 1879-80-81. 
Results of Meteorological Observations made in New 
South Wales during 1890. Results of Rain, River, 
and Evaporation Observations made in New South 
Wales during 1891. The Observatory 


Public Works Department. Annual Statement of works 
carried out by Public Works Department during 
the year 1891. The Department 


Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Proceed- 
ings of New South Wales and Victorian Branches, 
Vol. 1., First Session 1883-4, Vol. 11., Second Sess- 
ion 1884. J. H. Maiden, ¥.t.s., &e. 


Royal Mint (Sydney Branch). Annual Reports, (22nd 
and 23rd) of the Deputy Master of the London 
Mint 1891, 1892. The Deputy Master, Sydney 


United Service Institution of New South Wales. Journal 
and Proceedings for the year 1892, Vol. rv. The Institution 


University. Calendar of the University of Sydney for 
the year 1893. The University 


TarpiIne—Secretary to the Government. The Perak Govern- 
ment Gazette, Vol. v., Nos. 86-39, 1892 and Index ; 
Vol. v1., Nos. 1 — 26, 1898. Secretary to the Government 


Toxio—Asiatic Society of Japan. Transactions, Vol. xx., 
Parts 1., li. ; Supplement Parts i., 11., 111. Section 1, 
v., 1892-93. - The Society 
Imperial University, Japan. The Journal of the College 
of Science, Vol. v., Part iii., Vol. vz., Parts i. — 111., 
1893. The University 
Seismological Society of Japan. The Seismological 
Journal of Japan, Vol. 1., 1893 (Trans. Vol. xvir.) The Society 
Troronto—Canadian Institute. Transactions, Vol. 111., Part 
1., No. 5 and List of Members, 1892. The Institute 
University of Toronto. Calendar for the year 1892-3. The University 
TRENcsIN—Naturwissenschaftliche Vereines des Trencsiner 
Comitates. Jahresheft, Jahrgang xiv. —xv., 1892-3. The Society 
TriestE—Osservatorio Marittimo di Trieste. Rapporto 
Annuale, Vol. 111., 1886; Vol. vi1., 1890. The Observatory 
Societa Adriatica di Scienze Naturaliin Trieste. Bollet- \ 
tino, Vol. xtv., 1893. The Society 


ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 507 


Tromso—Museum. Aarsberetning for 1890 and 1891. 
Aarshefter, Vol. xv., 1893. The Museum 


Turin—Reale Osservatorio Astronomico di Torino. Ef- 
femeridi del Sole e della Luna per Vl orizzonte di 
Torino e per anno 1893 dal Tomaso Aschieri; e per 
Vanno 1894. Calcolate dal Dott. Alberto Manaira. 
Tl Clima di Torino dal Dott G. B. Rizzo. Osserva- 
zioni Meteorologiche fatte nell anno 1891-92. Pub- 
blicazioni No. 1i1., Latitudine di Torino determinata 
coi metodi Guglielmo Struve dal FE. Porro, 1893. The Observatory 


Venice—Reale Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. 
Atti, Serie 7, Tomo 11., Dispensa 10, 1890-91 ; Tomo 
111., Dispensa 1 — 8, 1891-92. Memorie, Tomo xxIv., 
1891. The Institute 


Vienna—Anthropologische Gesellschaft. Mittheilungen, 
Band xxu1., N.F. Band x11., Heft 3-6, 1892; Band 
_ =xxi., N.F. Band xur., Heft 1-3, 1898. The Society 
Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. Sitzungs- 
berichte, math-naturw. Classe— 
Abth.1., Bd. c., Heft 10, 1891, Bd. cr., Heft 1 — 6, 1892 
» Ila, 33 oy) 8- 10, 29 29 29 yes 3, 29 
” 11b, oy) oy) 3- 10, oy) 29 29 hice 3» 29 
Nop BEL a io LO. a5 » 1-5, ,, The Academy 
K. K. Central-Anstalt ftir Meteorologie und Hrdmag- 
netismus. Jahrbiicher N. F., Band xxvi1., 1891. The Institute 
K. K. Geographische Gesellschaft in Wien. Mitthei- 
lungen, Band xxxv. (N.I’. xxv.) 1892. Lhe Society 


K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt. Jahrbuch, Band xtiz., 
Heft 1-4, 1892. Verhandlungen, Nos. 11-18, 1892, 


Nos. 1—5, 1893. “ The Reichsanstalt ”? 
K. K. Gradmessungs-Bureau. Astronomische Arbeiten 
Band iv., Langenbestimmungen, 1892. The Bureau 


K. K. Naturhistorische Hofmuseums. Annalen, Band 
vit., Nos. 1, 2,3, 4, 1892; Band viit., Nos. 1, 2,1893. The Museum 


K. K. Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft. | Verhand- 
lungen, Band xui1., Quartal 1-4, 1892. The Society 


Osterreichische Gradmessungs-Commission. Verhand- 
lungen Protokolle tiber die am 17,18, 19, Dec. 1885 ; 
9, 10, 11 Dec. 1886; 13 Jan. 1887; 28, 29 Dec. 1887; 
26 March 1888; 24 April 1889; 4 April 1891; 21 
April, 2 Sept. 1892; 6 April 1898; abgehaltenen 


Sitzungen. The Commission 
Section fiir Naturkunde des Osterreichischen Touristen- 
Club. Mittheilungen, Jahrgang tv., 1892. The Section 


Wasuineton—American Historical Association. ~Annual 
Reports (Seventh and Highth) for years 1890-91. The Association 


Bureau of Ethnology. Annual Report (Seventh) 1885-6. 
Bibliography of the Athapascan Languages by J. 
C. Pilling. Contributions to North American Eth- 
nology, Vol. vir.—A Dakota-English Dictionary by 
S. R. Riggs. The Bureau. 


508 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 


W AsHINeton—continued. 

Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Animal Industry, 
Bulletin No. 2, 1898. Division of Chemistry—Bul- 
letin, No. 13, Parts i. — vili., 1887 — 98:—Parti. Dairy 
Products; Part iu. Spices and Condiments; Part 
ili. Fermented Alcoholic Beverages; iv. Lard and 
Lard Adulterations; v. Baking Powders ; vi. Sugar, 
Molasses, and Sirup Confections, Honey and Bees- 
wax; vil. Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Preparations ; viii. 
Canned Vegetables. Bulletin, Nos. 17, 18, 21, 25, 
26, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 1888-98. Division 
of Ornithology and Mammalogy—Bulletin, Nos. 3, 
and 4, 1893; North American Fauna, No. 7, 1898. 
Division of Statistics—Miscellaneous Series, Report 
No. 5, 1898; New Series, Report Nos. 101 — 108, 1893; 
Report on the Condition of Crops &c., Sept. and Oct. 
1892; Oct. and Nov. 1892; Jan. - March, 1893. 
Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, 1892. 
Weather Bureau—Monthly Weather Review, Jan. 


~— May, June - July, 1893. The Department 


Department of the Interior.—Census Office. Compen- 
dium of the Eleventh Census, 1890, Part i., Popu- 
lation. Report on Mineral Industries in the United 
States at the Eleventh Census, 1890. Report on 
Wealth, Debt, and Taxation at the Eleventh Census 
1890, Part i., Public Debt. 

Director of the Mint. Annual Report (20th) 1892. 
Report upon the Production of the Precious Metals 
in the United States during the calendar year 1892. 

Engineer Department, U.S. Army. Annual Report of 
the Chief of Engineers for the year 1892, Parts i. — 
iv.,and Atlas. Professional Papers, No. 26—Notes 
on Mitering Lock Gates by First Lieut. Harry F. 


33 


The Director 


Hodges. The Department 


National Academy of Sciences. Memoirs, Vol. v., 1891; 
Vol.v., Fourth Memoir, The Embryology and Meta- 
morphosis of the Macroura by W. K. Brooks and 
F. H. Herrick. 

Philosophical Society of Washington. Bulletin, Vol. x1., 
1888-91. 

Secretary of the Treasury. Annual Report on the 
state of the Finances for the year 1892. 


Smithsonian Institution. Report of the U.S. National 
Museum, year ending June 380, 1890. Smithsonian 
Contributions to Knowledge, Vols. XXVIII., XXIX., 
No. 842, 1892. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec- 


The Academy 


The Society 


The Secretary 


tions, Vol. xxxv., 844, 18938. The Institution 


U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Bulletin, No. 25, 1892. 

U. S. Geological Survey. Mineral Resources of the 
United States, 1889 and 1890, Day. 

U. 8. Hydrographic Office. Notice to Mariners, Nos. 38 
—53 and Index, 1892; Nos. 1-37, 1893. Pilot 
Charts of the North Atlantic Ocean, November, and 


Supplement, December 1892. Publications, issued, 


The Survey 


33 


ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 509 


Wasuineron—continued. 
cancelled &c., since publication of the Catalogue, 
July 1, 1891. The U. 8. Hydrographer 
War Department. Annual Report of the Secretary for 
1891, Vols. 1., 1 (Parts 1—6) I11., Iv., v. The Department 
We.uuineton, N. Z.—Colonial Museum and Laboratory. 
Annual Report (27th) 1891-92. The Museum 
Mines Department. The Mines Statement and Gold- 
fields’ Report 1893. The Under Secretary for Mines 


New Zealand Institute. Manual of the New Zealand 
Coleoptera, Parts v., vi., vil., by Capt. Thomas 
Broun, 1898. Transactions and Proceedings, Vol. 


xxyvy., N.S. Vol. virr., 1892. The Institute 
Polynesian Society. Journal, Vol. 1., No. 4, 1892; Vol. 
11., Nos. 1 — 8, 1893. The Society 


Zurich—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Generalregister 
der Publikationen, 1892. Neujahrsblatt, auf das 
Jahr 1893, Part xcv. Vierteljahrschrift, Band 
xxxvil., Heft 3, 4, 1892; Band xxxvitt., Heft 1, 2, 
1893. 


33 


MIscELLANEOUS. 
(Names of Donors are in Italics.) 


Anderson, H.C. L., w.a.—Sulphate of Ammonia as a Manure. 
Australian Gas-Light Cos 


Calvert, Albert F.—The Aborigines of Western Australia, 
(London, 16mo, 1892.) The Early Discovery of 
Australia; with 6 Charts. (The British Australasian, 
Dec. 8, 1892). The Author 


Fritsche, Dr. H.— Ueber die Bestimmung der geographischen 
Lange und Breite und der drei Elemente des Erd- 
magnetismus durch beobachtung zu Lande sowie 
erdmagnetische und geographische Messungen an 
mehr als tausend verschiedenen Orten in Asien und 
Europa ausgefiihrt in den Jahren 1867 — 1891. os 


Hadfield, R. A.—Alloys of Iron and Chromium, Including a 
Report by F’. Osmond (Reprinted from Journ. Iron 
and Steel Inst. No. 2, 1892). 


Hedley, C., F.u.s.—On the Relation of the Fauna and Flora 
of Australia to those of New Zealand. (Reprinted 
from “ Natural Science.’’) 


Henry, James—Aeneidea, or Critical, Exegetical, and’ Aes- 
thetical Remarks on the Aeneis. Indices. [8° 
Meissen 1892. | The Executors of the Author 


Hyman, Coleman P.—An Account of the Coins, Coinages, 
and Currency of Australasia. Catalogue of Coins, 
Coinages, and Currency of Australasia. The Author 


Jack, Robert L., F.c.s., and Etheridge, Robert Jr.,—The 
Geology and Paleontology of Queensland and New 
Guinea, 2 Vols, Text and Plates and Geological Map 
of Queensiand. [4° Brisbane, 1892. ] The Authors 


33 


510 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 


Jackson, James—Tableau de Diverses Vitesses exprimées en 
métres par seconde. The Author 


Kiddle, Hugh Charles—Small Whirlwinds. “ 


Krupp, Fried. (Essen.)—World’s Columbian Exposition 1893 
Chicago. Statistical data of Krupp’s Cast Steel Works 
including the Mines and Blast Furnaces. Edward Noyes, c.z. 


Lubbock, Rt. Hon. Sir John—A Contribution to our know- 
ledge of Seedlings, Vols. 1. and y1. [8° London, 1892.] The Author 


Maitland, D. M., u.s.—Detail Surveys of Cities and Towns. 
(Reprinted from Report of Aust. Assoc. for the Advance- 


ment of Science, Hobart 8 Jan., 1892.) = 
Peal, 8S. E.—The Communal Barracks of Primitive Races. re 
Perrin, George 8.—Australian Timbers, 1893. P 


Ray, Sidney H. and Haddon, Alfred C., m.a.—A Study of 
the Languages of Torres Straits, with Vocabularies 
and Grammatical Notes, Part i. The Authors 


Reyer, Prof. Dr. E.—Allgemeine Geschichte des Zinnes. 
Eruptiv-und Gebirgstypen. Kupfer in den Ver- 
einigten Staaten. Notiz tiber die Tektonik der 
Vulcane von Béhmen. Zwei Profile durch die 
Sierra Nevada. Public Library, Sydney 


Tebbutt, John, r.z.a.s.—Report of Mr. Tebbutt’s Observatory, 
The Peninsula, Windsor, New South Wales for the 
year 1892. The Author 


Thomson, J. P., F.R.8.4.8., &.—The Geographical Work of oF 


Topinard, Paul—De I’ Evolution des Molaires et Premolaires 
chez les Primates et en particulier chez ’ homme. 


(Extrait de V Anthropologie, No. 6, Nov. Dec., 1892.) 3 
Warren, W. H., Wh. Sc., M. Inst. C.e.—Australian Timbers, 1892. bs 
Medical Press and Circular, Vol. cvi1., No. 2836, 1893. The Publishers 
The Muses, Nos. 3 and 4, 1893. vr 


DONATIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S CABINETS, &c. 
Bust of the late Professor Hofmann of Berlin. ~ Mrs. Leibius 


Widmanstatten Figures on a slice of the Moonbie Meteorite. 
(Nature Print direct from the Iron.) Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.G.8. 


Photographs of the Moonbi Meteorite (2). John C. H. Mingaye, F.1.¢. 


Photographs from the Sydney Observatory—1. Flashes of 
Lightning. 2. Sunset in Winter. H.C. Russell, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.8. 


P=ERIODICALS PURCHASED IN 1893. 


American Journal of Science and Art, (Silliman). 
American Monthly Microscopical Journal. 
Analyst. 

Annales des Chimie et de Physique. 

Annales des Mines. 

Annals of Natural History. 

Astronomische Nachrichten. 


ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. Due 


Atheneum. 
Australian Mining Standard. 


British Medical Journal. 
Building and Engineering Journal of Australia and New Zealand. 


Chemical News. 
Curtis’s Botanical Magazine. 


Dingler’s Polytechnisches Journal. 


Electrical Review. 

Engineer. 

Engineering. 

Engineering and Mining Journal. 
Engineering Record. 

English Mechanic. 


Fresenius Zeitschrift fiir Analytische Chemie. 
Geological Magazine. 
Industries and Iron. 


Journal and Transactions of the Photographic Society. 

Journal de Médecine. 

Journal of Auatomy and Physiology. 

Journal of Botany. 

Journal of Morphology. 

Journal of the Chemical Society. 

Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. 

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 
Journal of the Society of Arts. 

Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry. 


Knowledge. 


L’ Aéronaute. 
Lancet. 


Medical Record of New York. 
Mining Journal. 


Nature. 
Notes and Queries. 


Observatory. 


Petermann’s Erganzungsheft. 

Petermann’s Geographischen Mittheilungen. 
Philadelphia Medical Times. 

Philosophical Magazine. 

Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association. 


Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. 


Sanitary Engineer. 
Sanitary Record. 
Science. 

Science Gossip. 


512 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 


Scientific American. 
Scientific American Supplement. 


Zoologist. 


Booxs PuRCHASED IN 1893. 


Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres de Bruxelles—Mémoires 
Couronnés et autres Mémoires, Tomes xLVI., XLVII. 

American Institute of Mining Engineers—Transactions, Vols. Ix., x., 
XVIIN., XIX., <x, and Index, Wols, i —exv;, 

Australian Handbook, 1893. 


Braithwaite, J— The Retrospect of Medicine, Vols. cvi., cv11., 1892-93. 
British Association Report, 1892. 
Buckler, W.—Larve of the British Butterflies and Moths, Vol. v. (Ray Soc.) 


Cameron, Peter—A Monograph of the British Phytophagous Hymenoptera 
Vol. tv. (Ray Soc.) 

Clinical Society—Transactions, Vol. xxv. Supplement and Vol. xxv1., 
1893. 


Dermatology, Monographs on. (New Syd. Soc., Vol. cXutit.) 
Hann, Dr. Julius—Aitlas der Meteorologie. 

International Scientific Series, Vols. LXxII. - LXXIV. 
Jahresbericht der Chemischen Technologie, 1892. 


L’ Aéronaute, 1868 — 1892 inclusive. 

Laveran, Dr. A.—Paludism. (New Syd. Soc., Vol. cxtvt.) 

Lowne, B. Thompson, F.R.c.s.—Anatomy, Physiology, Morphology and 
Development of the Blow-F ly, Part iv. 


Medical Officer’s Annual Report for 1891-2 and Supplement 1891. 
Medico-Chirurgical Society—Transactions, Vol. Lxxv., 1892. 


Nautical Almanac, 1896. 
New Sydenham Society’s Publications, Vols. cXLi1I. - CXLVI. 


Obstetrical Society—Transactions, Vol. xxx1v., 1892. 


Pathological Society—Transactions, Vol. xu111., 1892. 
Pozzi, S.,u.p.—A Treatise on Gynecology, Clinical and Operative, Vols. 
Ir. and IL. (New Syd. Soc., Vols. CXLIV., CXLV.) 


Ray Society’s Publications for 1893. 
Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland—Journal, 1890 — 1892. 


Scientists’ International Directory, 1892. 
Société Géologique du Nord—Annales, Tome xvI. 
Stebbing, Rev. T. R. R.—Crustacea. (Int. Sci. Ser., Vol. LXXIv.) 


Thompson, Edward Maunde, p.c.u.—Handbook of Greek and Latin 
Paleography. (Int. Sct. Ser., Vol. LXXII1.) 


Whitaker’s Almanack, 1893-94. ; 
Wright, G. F.—Man and the Glacial Period. (Int. Sci. Ser., Vol. LEXI.) 


Year Book of Learned Societies, 1893. ‘ 


EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 513 


EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS 
MADE BY THE 


ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, 1893. 


The Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of N.S.W. for 1893 
Vol. xxvir., has been transmitted through the New South Wales 
Government Board for International Exchanges, Public Library, 
Sydney :— 

The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A.,and Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, 

Tribner & Co., Limited, Paternoster House, Charing Cross Road, London, W.C., have 


kindly undertaken to receive and forward to Sydney all communications and parcels 
intended for the Royal Society of New South Wales. 

Presentations to the Society are acknowledged by letter, and in the Society’s Annual 
Volume. 


* Exchanges of Publications have been received from the Societies and Institutions 
distinguished by an asterisk. 


Argentine Republic. 


1 CoRDOBA ... ...*¥Academia Nacionale de Ciencias. 

2 La Prata ... ...* Directeur-Général de Statistique de la Province 
de Buénos Ayres. 

3 a Sx ...* Museo de La Plata. Provincia de Buenos Aires. 


Austria—Hungary. 


4 Acram (Zagyrab) ...*Société Archéologique Croate. 
De rieeweeee ae oe *Direction der Gewerbeschule. 
enbtirgen) 
6 CRACOW... ...*Académie des Sciences. 
7 GRATZ die ...*“Naturwissenschaftliche Vereins fiir Steiermark 
in Graz. 
8 PRAGUE ... ...*Koniglich Béhmische Gesellschaft der Wissen- 
schaften. 
9 TRENCSIN ... ...“Naturwissenschaftliche Verein des Trencsiner 
; Komitates. 
10 TRIESTE ... ...*Museo Civico di Storia Naturale. 
Va 55 ah ...*Societa Adriatica di Scienze Naturali. 
12 VIENNA ... ...*Anthropologische Gesellschaft. 
13 ss mae ...*Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. 
14 i aoe ..™“K. K. Central-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und 
Erdmagnetismus. 
15 ce nite ...*K. K. Geographische Gesellschaft. 
16 ny oh ...*K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt. 
17 a a ...*K. K. Gradmessungs Bureau. 
18 3 ae ...*K. K. Naturhistorische Hofmuseum. 
19 os Ar ...¥K. K. Zoologisch- Botanische Gesellschaft. 
20 “A He ...“Section fiir Naturkunde des Osterreichischen- 
Touristen Club. 
Belgium. 
21 BRUSSELS ... ..."Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des 


Beaux Arts. 
G a—Dec., 31, 1893. 


514 EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS, 
22 BRUSSELS ... ...¥Musée Royal d’Histoire Naturelle de Belgique. 
23 3 oes ...*Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles. 


AS sie ...*Société Royale Malacologique de Belgique. 
25 Lince ass ...* Société Géologique de Belgique. 
...*Société Royale des Sciences de Liége. 


27 LUXEMBOURG ...*Institut Royale grand-ducal de Luxembourg. 
28 Mons as ...*Societé des Sciences, des Arts et des Lettres du 
Hainaut. 
Brazil. 


‘29 Rio pE JANEIRO ...*Observatoire Impérial de Rio de Janeiro. 


Chili. 


80 SANTIAGO ... ...” Sociedad Cientifica Alemana. 
Denmark. 
31 CoPpENHAGEN ...* Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. 
France. 

32 BoRDEAUX... ...*Académie Nationale des Sciences, Belles-Lettres 
et Arts. 

33 CAEN See ...*Académie Nationale des Saiences, Arts et Belles- 
Lettres. 

34 Dison ume ...* Académie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres. 

36 HAVRE sieis ...*Société Géologique de Normandie. 

36 LILLE ies ...* Société Géologique du Nord. 

37 MARSEILLES ...¥Faculté des Sciences de Marseille. 

88 MoNTPELLIER ....* Académie des Sciences et Lettres. 

39 NANTES... ...*Société des Sciences Naturelles de l’Ouest de la 
France. 

40 Paris ae ...“Académie des Sciences de l'Institut de France. 

AL. gs Ree! ... Annuaire Geologique Universel. 

A2aie., Be ... Bibliothéque de ’ Université 4 la Sorbonne. 

AS is ka ...*Depot des Cartes et Plans de la Marine. 

44g, aaa ...*Ecole d’ Anthropologie. 

AD | 455 ae ...*EHcole Nationale des Mines. 

46, ae ... Ecole Normale Supérieure. 

AG; vial ...“Ecole Polytechnique. 

48 5, is ... Faculté de Médecine de Paris. 

AO aes see ...*Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes. 

50 3; diets ...* Institut Pasteur. 

Sl 55 Kes ...*Musée d’Histoire Naturelle. 

625, ae ...*Ministére de l’Instruction Publique, des Beaux 
Arts, et des Cultes. 

53 gy oi ...“Observatoire de Paris. 

54) 5, see ... Société Botanique. 

550, 5 eee ...* Société d’ Anatomie. 

56." 5 bes ...*Société d’ Anthropologie de Paris. 

BL | tis wide ...* Société de Biologie. 

58 SC, se ... Société de Chirurgie de Paris. 

SOA, aah ...* Société d’ Encouragement pour I Industrie 
Nationale. 

60 Gs, wisp ...* Société Entomologique de France. 

Ole tgs he ...* Société Francaise de Minéralogie. 


E2103 oe ...* Société Francaise de Physique. i 


63 Paris 
et ,; 
65 5, 
G6 SC, 
67 


68 Sr. Ermnne 
‘69 TouLOUSE 


70 VILLEFRANCHE- 
suR-MeER (Alp. 


Mayr.) 


“1 BREMEN ... 
72 BreRLIn 

GS) “39 

74: 33 


75 be 
76 Bonn 


77 BRuNSwIckK 
78 CARLSRUHE 
79 93 

80 CASSELL ... 
81 CHEMNITZ 
82 DRESDEN ... 


83 29 
84 3) 
85 


393 eee 
86 ELBERFELD 


EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 515 


...* Société de Géographie. 

...*Société Géologique de France. 

... société Météorologique de France. 

... société Philotechnique. 

...*Société Zoologique de France. 

...*Société de l’ Industrie Minérale. 

...*Académie des Sciences, Inscriptions et Belles- 


Lettres. 


Laboratoire de Zoologie. 


Germany. 


...* Naturwissenschaftliche Vereine zu Bremen. 


. Deutsche Chemische Gesellschaft. 


...*Gesellschatt fiir Erdkunde. 
...*Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissen- 


schaften. 


...*Koniglich Preussische Meteorologische Instituts. 
...“Naturhistorischer Vereines der Preussischen 


Rheinlande, Westfalens und des Reg.- 
Bezirks Osnabriick. 


...* Vereins fiir Naturwissenschaft zu Braunschweig. 
...*Grossherzoglich-Badische Polytechnische Schule. 
...” Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Carlsruhe. 
...* Verein fiir Naturkunde. 

...* Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft zu Chemnitz. 
...*Konigliches Mineralogischund Naturhistorisches 


Museum. 


...*Offentliche Bibliothek. 
...*Statistische Bureau des Ministeriums des Innern 


zu Dresden. 


...*Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Dresden. 
...*Naturwissenscheftlicher Verein in E]berfeld. 


87 FRANKFURT A/u...*Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 
88 FreiBpeRG (Saxony) Koniglich-Sachsische Berg-Akademie. 
89 FrerpurRG (Baden)*Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 


90 GIESSEN 


91 GoRLITZ 
92 GOTTINGEN 


‘93 Hatz, A.S. 


94 HAMBURG... 


95 Ap 
‘96 re 
Ph. 5» 
98 as 


99 HEIDELBERG 


100 JENA 
101 KoénIGgsBERG 


...“Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur-und-Heil- 


kunde. 


... *Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Gorlitz. 
...*Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in 


Gottingen. 


...*Kaiserliche Leopoldina—Carolina Akademie der 


Deutschen Naturforscher. 


...* Deutsche Meteorologische Gesellschaft. 

...” Deutsche Seewarte. 

...*Geographische Gesellschaft in Hamburg. 
...*Naturhistorische Museum. 

...* Verein fiir Naturwissenschaftliche Unterhaltung 


in Hamburg. 


...“Naturhistorisch Medicinische Verein zu Heidel- 


berg. 


...*Medicinisch NaturwissenschaftlicheGesellschaft. 
...*Konigliche Physikalisch-Okonomische Gesell- 


schaft. 


516 


_ 


¢ - « 


EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 


102 Lxrpezia (Saxony) *Koénigliche Sichsische Gesellschaft der Wissen- 


103 
104. 


105 MARBURG... 


106 
107 
108 
109 


110 
IEE 
112 


113 


LupcK 


Marz 


MvuULHOUSE 


MuniIcH 


cy) eoe 
STUTTGART 


39 


33 


BIRMINGHAM 


339 


BrRIstTou 


CAMBORNE 


schaften. 


...*Vereins fiir Erdkunde. 


...* Naturhistorische Museum. 


...*Gesellschaft zur Beférderung der gesammten 


Naturwissenschaften in Marburg. 


...*University. 
...* Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Metz. 


...*Société Industrielle de Mulhouse. 


...“Koniglich Bayerische Akademie der Wissen- 


schaften in Miinchen. 


... Société Botanique Bavaroise. 
...*Konigliches Statistische Landesamt. 


...*Verein fiir Vaterlindische Naturkunde in 


Wiirttemberg. 


...“Wiirttembergische Vereins fiir Handelsgeo- 


Great 


graphie. 


Britain and the Colonies. 


...“Birmingham and Midland Institute. 


...*Birmingham Philosophical Society. 
...“Bristol Naturalists’ Society. 


CAMBRIDGE 


33 


oe) 


33 
HALIFAX ... 


Krew 
LEEDS 


33 


a hae 
7 LIVERPOOL 


LONDON 
33 


33 


...*Minine Association and Institute of Cornwall. 
. Philosophical Society. , 
. Public Free Library. 


...*Union Society. 


,.. University Library. 
...*Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society. 


...*Royal Gardens. 
...*Conchological Society. 
...* Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society. 


...*¥ Yorkshire College. 
...*Literary and Philosophical Society. 


... *Aéronautical Society of Great Britain. 


. Agent-General (two copies). 


...* Anthropological Institute of Great Bite and. 


Ireland. 


... British Museum. 
...* British Museum (Natural History). 


. Chemical Society. 


i Colonial Office, Downing Street. 
...*Geological Society. 


. Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and 


Ireland. 


...*Institution of Civil Engineers. 
...*Institution of Naval Architects. 
...*Iron and Steel Institute. 

... Library, South Kensington Museum. 
...*Linnean Society. 

... London Institution. 

...*Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. 
...*Meteorological Office. 

...*Mineralogical Society. 

... Museum of Practical Geology. 

... Patent Office Library. 

...¥ Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 


EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 517 


149 LonpDon ... ...* Physical Society of London. 


150 3 - ...*Quekett Microscopical Club. 
151 cp _ ...*Royal Agricultural Society of England. 
152 =e ae ...*Royal Astronomical Society. 
153 3 _ ...*Royal College of Physicians. 
154 eH ee ...*Royal College of Surgeons. 
155 5 ee ...“Royal Colonial Institute. 
156 ae ae ...“Royal Geographical Society. 
157 se ots ...*Royal Historical Society. 
158 of et ...*Royal Institution of Great Britain. 
159 es See ...“Royal Meteorological Society. 
160 Bs oA ...“Royal Microscopical Society. 
161 AF oss ... Royal School of Mines. 
162 is ae ...“Royal Society. 
163 $3 Ss ... Royal Society of Literature. 
164 = an ...*Royal United Service Institution. 
165 “p cas ...* Sanitary Institute. 
166 5 sch ... Society of Arts. 
16? 0 sis ... University of London. 
EOS ss ade ... War Office—(Intelligence Division). 
169 a ...*Zoological Society. 
170 MANCHESTER ...“Literary and Philosophical Society. 
171 BS ...*Manchester Geological Society. 
172 Owens College. 
173 NEWCAsTLa-UPON- ’*Natural History Society of Northumberland, 
TYNE.. ...5- Durham and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
174, A ...“North of England Institute of Mining and 
Mechanical Engineers. 
175 ... Society of Chemical ingest: 
176 OXFORD ... ...* Bodleian Library. 
7 ae ...* Radcliffe Library. 
178 sie ...“Radcliffe Observatory. 
179 PENZANCE ...* Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. 
180 PrymoutTsa ...*Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall 
Natural History Society. 
181 WINDSOR ... ... The Queen’s Library. 
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 
182 Care Town ...*South African Philosophical Society. 
CEYLON. 
183 CoLomBo ... ...“Royal Asiatic Society, (Ceylon Branch). 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 
184 Hatirax (Nova 
Scotia) 
185 Hamiutron (Ont.)...*Hamilton Association. 
186 MontTREAL... ...“Natural History Society of Montreal. 


\ *Nova Scotian Institute of Science. 


187 - ape ...* Royal Society of Canada. 

188 OTTawa ... ...* Geologicaland Natural History Survey of Canada. 
189 3 ae ... Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society. 

190 QuEBEC ... ...*Literary and Historical Society. 

191 Toronto ... ...*Canadian Institute. 

192 - ...*University. 


193 WinNIPEG.. ...¥Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society. 


518 


194 CaALcuTTA 
195 mt 


196 DuBLIN ... 
197 ry) eco 
198 a 


199 KINGSTON ... 


200 Port Louis 
201 “ 


202 SYDNEY 


203) 
204, a, 
205 
206, 
207 20 
208, 
209" .,, 
210%; 
211.4, 
S10 
OTS ween gt 
214 
S15 ane, 
FIG 6,5 a 
217 3 site 


218 AUCKLAND.. 
219 CHRISTCHURCH 
220 DUNEDIN 

221 WELLINGTON 
222 e 

223 i 


224 BRISBANE ... 


225 a 
226 ie ei 
227 Ss ae 


228 ” see 
229 ” ees 


230 ABERDEEN ... 
231 EDINBURGH 


EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 


INDIA. 


...¥Asiatic Society of Bengal. 
...*Geological Survey of India. 


IRELAND. 


...¥Royal Dublin Society. 
...* Royal Geological Society of Ireland. 
...*Royal Irish Academy. 


JAMAICA. 


...* Institute of Jamaica. 


MAURITIUS. 


...¥Royal Society of Arts and Sciences. 
. Société d’Acclimatation de l Ile Maurice. 


NEW SOUTH WALES. 


...* Australian Museum. 

...“Department of Mines and Agriculture. 

...* Department of Public Instruction. 

...*Engineering Association of New South Wales.. 

...*Free Public Library. 

...*Government Statistician. 

...*Linnean Society of New South Wales. 

...*Mining Department. 

...*Observatory. 

... N.S. Wales Government Railways Institute. 

...*Public Works Department. 

...¥ Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (New 
South Wales Branch). 

. School of Arts. 


.*Technological Museum. 
...*United Service Institution of New South Wales. 
...*University. 


NEW ZEALAND. 
...“Auckland Institute. 
. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 
. Otago Institute. 
...*Colonial Museum. 


...“New Zealand Institute. 
...* Polynesian Society. 


QUEENSLAND. 


...¥Acclimatization Society of Queensland. 


...“Geological Survey of Queensland. 

... Parliamentary Library. 

...*“Queensland Museum. 

...*Royal Geographical Society of Australasia 
(Queensland Branch) 

...*Royal Society of Queensland. 


SCOTLAND. 


...¥University. 
...*Editor, Encyclopedia PUR ILEE (Messrs. A. and. 
C. Black). 


EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 519 


232 EDINBURGH ...¥Edinburgh Geological Scciety. 
233 sD _...¥Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. 
234 af ..."Royal Botanic Garden. 
235 - ...¥Royal Observatory. | 
236 #. ...*¥Royal Physical Society. 
237 a ...¥Royal Scottish Geographical Society. 
238 Fs ...*Royal Society. 
239 Ms ...* University. 
240 GLASGOW ... ...*Geological Society of Glasgow. 
241 iS ns ...* Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
242 Bs a, ...*University. 
243 St. ANDREWS ... University. 
SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 
244 ADELAIDE ... ...*Geological Survey of South Australia. 
245 35 eae ...*Government Potanist. 
246 3 ae ...*Government Printer. 
24.7 a oe ...*Observatory. 
248 af ae ...*Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery of 
. South Australia. 
249 5 Kes ...*Royal Geographical Society of Australasia 
(South Australian Branch). 
250 i a ...* Royal Society of South Australia. 
251 - ia .. *University. 


STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 
252 SINGAPORE... ...* Royal Asiatic Society (Straits Branch.) 


TASMANTA. 
253 HoBaRT ... ...” Royal Society of Tasmania. 
254 LAUNCESTON ...*Geological Survey of Tasmania. 
VICTORIA. 
255 BALLAARAT ...*School of Mines and Industries. 
256 MarysoroucH .,.. District School of Mines, Industries and Science. 
257 MELBOURNE .. ®eld Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. 
258 os ...*Government Botanist. 
259 aft ...*Government Statist. 
260 - ...*Mining Department. 
261 e ...*Observatory. 
262 A ...* Public Library. 
263 M ...* Registrar-General. 
264 53 ...¥Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Vic- 
torian Branch.) 
265 3 ...¥ Royal Society of Victoria. 
266 oe ...*University. 
267 ae ...* Victorian Institute of Surveyors. 
268 ...¥Working Men’s College. 
269 STAWELL oer ...*School of Mines, Art, Industry, and Science. 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 
270 PerRtH mee ...* Geological Survey of Western Australia. 
Hayti. 


271 Port-au-Prince ... Société de Sciences et de Géographie. 


520 


272 BoLoana 


273 %» 
274 FLORENCE 
275 BS 

276 _ 

277 GENOA 
278 Minan 
279 eo 

280 MopENna 
281 NAPLES 
282 35 

283 nS 

284 PALERMO 
285 ne 

286 Pisa 

287 Rome 
288°. 55 

239) as 
290. 

291 an 

292 ae 

293 SIENA 
294 TuRIN 
295 is 

296 VENICE 
297 ToxKIo 
298) 
299); 


300 BATAVIA 


8301 Mexico 


302 AMSTERDAM 


303 .. 
304. HARLEM 
305 i 

306 35 


307 BERGEN 


3808 CHRISTIANIA 


309 55 
310 Tromso 


EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 


Italy. 


...“Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologna: 

... Universita di Bologna. 

...*Societa Africana d’ Italia (Sezione Fiorentina). 

...*Societa Entomologica Italiana. 

...*Societa Italiana di Antropologia e di Etnologia. 

...*Museo Civico di Storia Naturale. 

...*Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze Lettere ed - 


Arti. 


...*Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali. 

...*R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. 
...*Societa Africana d’ Italia. 

...*Societa Reale di Napoli(Accademia delle Scienze 


Fisiche e Matematiche). 


...*Stazione Zoologica (Dr. Dohrn). 
...“Reale Accademia Palermitana di Scienze Lettere 


ed Arti. 


... Reale Istituto Tecnico. 

...*Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. 
...*Accademia Pontificia de Nuovi Lincei. 
...*Biblioteca e Archivio Tecnico (Ministero dei 


Lavori Pubblico). 


...*R. Accademia dei Lincei. 
...*R. Comitato Geclogico d’ Italia. 
...*R. Ufficio Centrale di Meteorologico e di Geo- 


dinamico. 


...*Societa Geografica Italiana. 

...*R. Accademia dei Fisiocritici in Siena. 

... Reale Accademia della Scienze. 

...*Regio Osservatorio della Regia Universita. 
...*Reale Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. 


Japan. 


..." Asiatic Society of Japan (formerly in Yokohama). 
...* Imperial University. 
...*Seismological Society of Japan. 


Java. 


...*K. Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Nederl Indié. 


Mexico. 


...* Sociedad Cientifica *‘ Antonio Alzate.”’ 


Netherlands. 


...¥Académie Royale des Sciences. 
...*Société Royale de Zoologie. 

...* Bibliotheque de Musée Teyler. 
...*Colonial Museum. 

...*Société Hollandaise des Sciences. 


Norway. 


...* Museum. 

...*Kongelige Norske Fredericks Universitet. 
...“Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiania. 

...* Museum. 


EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 521 


311 BucHAREST 


312 HELSINGFORS 
313 KIEFF 4 
314 Moscow .. 
SED 55 


316 Sr. PETERSBURG .. 


alz op 
318 Maprip 


319 StTocKHOLM 
320 be 


321 BERNE 

322 GENEVA 
323 LAUSANNE 
324 NEUCHATEL 
325 ZURICH 


Roumania. 


...*Institutul Meteorologic al Roumaniei. 


Russia. 


...* Société des Sciences de Finlande. 

...*Société des Naturalistes. 

...*Société Impériale des Naturalistes. 

...*Société Impériale des Amis des Sciences Natur- 


elles d’ Anthropologie et d’ Ethnographie 4 
Moscow (Section d’ Anthropologie). 


.*Académie Impériale des Sciences. 
...*Comité Géologique—Institut des Mines. 


Spain. 


...* Instituto geografico y Estadistico. 


Sweden. 


...“Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademien. 
...*Kongliga Universitetet. 


Switzerland. 


...* Société de Géographie de Berne. 

...* Institut National Genévois. 

...* société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles. 
...*Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchatel. 
...*Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 


United States of America. 


326 ALBANY 


...“New York State Library, Albany. 


327 Annapouis (Md.) *Naval Academy. 


328 BALTIMORE 
329 BrtoiT ( Wis.) 


330 Boston 
301 ah 
332 


...*Johns Hopkins University. 

..."Chief Geologist. 

...*American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
...“Boston Society of Natural History. 


State Library of Massachusetts. 


333 BROOKVILLE (Ind, )* Brookville Society of Natural History. 


334 


335 BurFALo Cid.) -... 


Indiana Academy of Science. 
*Butfalo Society of Natural Sciences. 


336 CamMBRIDGE (Mass.)*Cambridge Entomological Club. 


337 » 


338 CHICAGO . 
339 CINCINNATI 
340 COLDWATER 


...“Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard 


College. 


. Academy of Sciences. 
...*Cincinnati Society of Natural History. 
. Michigan Library Association. 


341 Davenport (lowa)*Academy of Natural Sciences. 


342 DENVER 


...*Colorado Scientific Society. 


343 Fort Monroxn(Va.)* United States Artillery School. 


344 Hopoxen (N.J.) .. 


.*Steven’s Institute of Technology. 


345 Iowa City (Iowa) *Director Iowa Weather Service. 
346 JEFFERSON CiTy...*Geological Survey of Missouri. 


347 Mapison (Wis.).. 


348 MINNEAPOLIS 


.*Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. 
...*“Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences. 


349 NewHAveEN (Conn) *Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. 


350 New YorK 
351 fi 
352 ss 


...*American Chemical Society. 
...“American Geographical Society. 
...¥American Institute of Mining Engineers. 


522 EXC 


353 New YorE 
354 33 
355 
356 
357 
358 a, 
359 Pato Auto (Cal.).. 
860 PHILADELPHIA 
361 
362 
863 
364: 
365 
366 
367 
368 
369 
370 


Rocuzstsr (N.Y.) 
SaLEem (Mass.) 


33 
Sr. Louis... 


371 ao 
372 San FRANCISCO 
373 


33 0 
ScRANTON (Pa.) ... 
WASHINGTON 


33 


374: 
375 
376 
377 
378 
379 
380 
381 
382 
383 
384: 
385 


386 
387 
388 
389 
390 
391 


392 
393 


394 
395 


33 


N nner of Public 


33 


HANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 


...¥American Museum of Natural History. 
...*Editor Journal of Comparative Medicine and- 


Veterinary Archives. — 


... Editor Science. 

...“New York Academy of Sciences. 
...*New York Microscopical Society. 
...*School of Mines, Columbia College. 


.*Geological Survey of Arkansas. 


...*Academy of Natural Science. 
...¥American Entomological Society. 
...“American Philosophical Society. 
...*Franklin Institute. 

...*Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. 
...“Waener Free Institute of Science. 
..*Zoological Society of Philadelphia. 


*Geological Society of America. 


...* American Association forAdvancement of Science, 
...*Hssex Institute. 

...*Academy of Science. 

...“Missouri Botanical Garden. 

...*California Academy of Sciences. 

..*California State Mining Bureau. 


*The Colliery Engineer Co. 


... American Medical Association. 

...*Bureau of Education (Department of the Interior). 
... *Bureau of Ethnology. 

...*Chief of Engineers (War Department). 
...*Chief of Ordnance (War Department). 
...*Department of Agriculture, Library. 

...* Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau. 
...*Director of the Mint (Treasury Department). 

... Library (Navy Department). 

...*National Academy of Sciences. 

...*Office of Indian Affairs (Department of the 


Interior). 


...¥ Philosophical Society. 

...*Secretary (Department of the Interior). 

...* Secretary (Treasury Department). 
...*Smithsonian Institution. 

...*Surgeon General (U.S. Army). 

..*U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Treasury | 


Department). 


...*U.S. Geological Survey. 
..*U. S. National Museum ( Department of the 


Interior). 
. U.S. Patent Office. 
.*War Department. 


ations sent to Great Britain 84. 
a India and the Colonies 72 
e. America 43 74 
Europe 155 
ae Asia, &c. bah a3 5 
as Editors of Periodicals 5 

Total ee ... 395 


T. W. E. DAVID 
J. H. MAIDEN 


ek } Hon. Secretaries. 


The Society’s House, Sydney, 31st December, 1893. 


INDEX. 523 

INDEX, 
A PAGE PAGE 
Abercromby Fund 11,472 | Artesian wells of the Sahara... 408 
Aboriginal rock carvings and Aspidiotus eB 5 30 
paintings in N.S. Wales 10, rapax 30 
3038, 482 | Aster picridifolius ie a? 180 
Acrophylla tessellata 30 | Astrangia tabulosa - 195,197 
Acrydium migratorium ... 31 | Astronomical photography 18 


Actéopyramis olivelleformis 181, 197 


Additions to the Library . 490 
Agate... . 375 
Agriculture, Department of ... 28 
Alluvial gold Sesll7/ 
Amethyst . 375 
Ampullina effusa... 181 


Analysis of a metallic pee 


from Moonbi cote 
Anatina dolabreformis ... 181,197 
Andropogon annulatus ... .. 85 
exaltatus ... sas ges OO 
Angiopteris evecta yt OO 
Anglesite d : ore 
Anniversary Address ... 1 
Antimonate of lead, hydrous. _ 373 
Antimonial silver . 368 
chloride . 371 

—— —— glance .. 369 
—— lead and copper ore . 371 
Antimonic acid, hydrous . 374 
Antimony trisulphide ... . 374 
Arachnoides conica waide 
incisa 192, 197 
zealandic eo WSR 
Aragonite .. B75 
Arca equidens so AKsiai 
quadrilatera 5 dliss7/ 
Argentite ... 369 
Argentiferous tetrahedrite ... 370 
Arsenic sulphur and oo . 290 
Arsenical pyrites .. 374 


Artesian basin of N. S. "Wales 
and Queensland 412 
—— bore farms, produce from 485 
— bores on Bunda Station, 
Queensland 376, 483 
tidal movements of... 429 
— water in connection with 
irrigation 466, 484 
in N.S. Wales 408, 482 
in Queensiand 408, 482 


——e 


eee 


————= 


Ataxocerithium concatenatum 179, 197 


Atriplex lobativalve 84 
Aulacophora hilaris . 380 
Aurichalcite 374 


Australian Broken Hill ‘Consols 
Mine, rare minerals at 368, 483 
—— gumsandresins, chemistry of 10 


—— snakes, poison of ... 10 
species of Pittosporum 21 
Azurite . 874 
Bancroft, Thomas L., u.B. Edin. 
On the whip-worm of the 
rat’s liver ... Ade, 86, 476 
Barbatia dissimilis 200 ASF 
Barytes at Five-Dock and Pen- 
nant Hills Quarry... 407,479 
—— in the Hawkesbury sand- 
stone, possible origin of ... 407 
Bassia longicuspis . 84 
tricornis Jeg) Oe 
Basilissa Cossmannt 185, 197 
Bindheimite : ... 873 
Bingera diamond field .. .. 479 
Blastophaga psenes ae SSO 
Blood coagulation ... 489 
Books purchased in 18938 . 512 
Boilers, steel plates for . 266 
Bornite . we O74 
Bouronite ae : oad 
Brachyloma Scortechini. 85 
Bridges, work done in 1892 47 
iron and steel for.. . 266 
Brochantite 374 


Broken Hill, new mineral at 366, 483 
Brongniardite “ 370 
Building and Investment Fund 472 
Burge, Charles Ormsby, M. Inst. 
c.E., Light Railways for N. 
S. Wales 
—— —_ —— Discussion 


Beeb. 3 
. 219 


524 INDEX. 
C PAGE PAGE 
Calamine.. : 375 | Cupreous sulpho-carbonate of 
Calcareous sandstone at Rock lead . .. 373 
Lily .. 406, 480 | Curran, Rev. J. Milne, F.G.8., 
Calcite . 875 Notes on the Bingera dia. 
veins, condition of gold i in 299 mond field ... . 479 
Caledonite 7 . 373 | Cuscuta tasmanica 85 
Calyptropsis arachnoideus . 181 | Cymodocea antarctica 85 
Carbonate of lead . 373 zosterifolia ... pie =| 
of zine ; . 875 | Cypredia clathrata suet ee 
and copper, bassic ... 374 elegans . 174 
Carborundum a . 482 | Cystopteris fragilis 85 
Cardiaster latecordatus ... 5 ISIS 
tertiarius ... 195 D 
Cellular kites 75, 476 | § Darling Pea’ 29 
Cerithvide unisulcatum ... .. 178 | David, Prof., B.A., F. @. 's. * Pre- 
Cerithium serotinum Seal Zh9) liminary ‘note on the occur- 
Cerussite.. . 873 rence of a chromite-bearing 
Chalcopyrite RS: 374 rock in the basalt at the 
Chemistry of the aerraling Pennant Hills Quarry, near 
gums and resins Ree 0) Parramatta... 401, 479 
Chenevixite se . 374 | —— Note on the occurrence of 
Chloro-bromide ... wt) OUL a calcareous sandstone allied 
carbonate of lead... . 8738 to Fontainebleau sandstone 


Chromite-bearing rock, Pennant 


Hills... 401, 479 
Clarke Medal 8, 4:74 
Memorial Fund .. 472 
Coagulation of the blood . 489 
Coal under Sydney . 444 
Cobaltite.. és . OFA 
Cobalt arsenate, hydrous . 874 
Coccidium oviforme : we soO 
Coke of the Bulli Seam . 456 
Celopleurus paucituberculatus ... 191 
Colina apicilirata 180, 197 
fenestralis .. 180, 197 
— Munieri ... ees O 
Comet VI. (Brooks) 1892 348, 481 
Concholepas antiquata ... 171,196 
Deshayesi “vali 
Peruviana ... son neal 
Conoclypeus rostratus 194, 197 
Coprosma pumila spe coe 
repens .. 84 
Cracknell, Bdward Charles, 
obituary notice... 3 
Crania anomala .. 191 
quadrangularis 191, 197 
Cremorne bore, Notes on the... 443 
temperature... ... 460 
Crepidula umbilicata St 
Crotalaria Cnnninghamir 84 
Cryptophasa wnipunctata 30 
Crystallization of gold in hexa- 
gonal forms . 343 


at Rock Lily near Narra- 
been ... 406, 479 
— Note on the occurrence of 
Barytes at Five Dock, and 
also at the Pennant Hills 
Quarry near Parramatta, 
with a suggestion as to the 
possible origin of Barytes 
in the Hawkesbury sand- 
stone.. : 407, 479 
Notes on ‘artesian water 
in N.S. Wales and Queens- 
land [Part II. ] 408, 482 
Notes on the Cremorne 


Bore ... ope 448, 484 
Decaspermum Cee 84 
Diallage ... . 406 
Diamond drills . one gumerent 

field Bingera ... 479 
Diastoma costellatum. ... 176 
melanoides ... 177, 178 
Provisi 177, 178, 196 
Distortio ancellina ole 
anus... ee veal ge 
interposita ... 172, 196 
septemdentata woe lage 
tortuosa 4 oe 


Dixon, W. A., F.1.¢., F.C.S., On 
artesian water in connection 
with irrigation 466, 484 

‘Dogwood’ indurated sap of the 21 

Dolichotoma atractoides... Pls rs 


| : 
« 

a «s 
¥ 


INDEX. 525 
PAGE PAGE 
Dolichotoma cataphracta . 175 | Genotia cataphracta igo 
Dolium biornatum 173, 196 decomposita... 175, 196 
Testardi... 174 engonia . 175 
Double star h 5014, orbit of 380, 484: fontinalis 175 5, 196 
Dunstan, B.,F.G.s., On the occur- Pritchard. ... . 196 
rence of Triassic plant re- Gold and arsenic ... 290 
mains in a shale bed near —— and sulphur be AY 
Manly 378, 484 arsenic and sulphur . 290 
Dyscrasite . 368 erystalization in hexagonal 
forms 343, 481 
; Fs from sea-water . 484 
Eburnopsis aulacoéssa . 174 Pace RA RES FA 330 
tessellatus ... 197 ae : 


Elder Exploring Resi 
vegetable exudations col- 


lected by the 21 
Electro-magnetic mechanisms 14 
Elynanthus capillaceus ... 85 
Engineering Section, peoreas 

IMGs ... - . 485 
Erythrite . 374 
Kugenia parvifolia 7. 86 
Eumargarita lucens abo Itoi) 
Evansite .. 382, 484 
Exchanges : fe Hee) 

and presentations ee 513 

EF 
Fabularia discolithes cy LLEXD 
Howchint cm A ]6) 


Fauna of Australia, Older Ter- 
tiary, unrecorded genera of 167 
Ficus platypoda ... ... 84 
Flying-machine motors 75, 476 
Fontainebleau sandstone 406, 480 
Forces acting in magnetic cir- 
cuits.. a | LOGS 
Fraser, Dr. J ohn, The languages 
of the New Hebrides by 
Sidney H. Ray, revised ee 101 


Fusus aciformis ... ealiak 
Aldingensis... scam ly 
— bulbodes bee lr) 
decussatus ... ceeleg 
—— funiculosus... aco Lh 
incompositus ae LAO 
lancea nee bg 
longaavus ... 170 
— Tateanus epo Je) 
— tholoides 5 alyal 
G 
Galena . 374 
including anglesite Hon O Ue 
Genotia angustifrons of 5, 17 6, 196 
atractoides ... BS . 175 


—— in quartz and calcite veins 


299, 481 
moiré-métallique... 346, 481 
moss, origin of 287, 481 


— nucleus and organic matter 320 


— inorganic matter ... 322 
— nuggets, origin of... 303,481 
vein and alluvial... PCAle/ 
Graham, James, M.D., M.A., on 
‘ Peripheral Neuritis * . 489 
Gravity meter ... 14 
Grevillea Barklyana 84: 
Gryllus servillet ... ih OU 
Gualteria australie . 195 
Gums, Australian 10 
H 
Hakea Bakeriana 84, 


Halliday, William, m. L. O., obit- 
uary notice.. ‘ 3 
Harbours and Rivers, work dune 


in 1892 42 
Hardwoods (pale) of N. S. Wales 21 
Hargrave, Lawrence, On flying- 

machine motors and cellular 

kites ... Soe AO 
Harpa abbreviata. A ts 
mutica Us ae AS 

pachycheila... 173, 197 
Haycroft, J. I., M.B., A.M.I.C.E., 

On highway construction 

and matters pertinent 

- thereto .. 487 
Highway construction... . 487 
Holaster australice . 19% 


Honorary Member ... : S) 
How, Wm. Field, Assoc. M. Tite: 
c.E., &c., The treatment of 
manufactured iron and steel 
for constructional purposes 
263, 481 
Huggins, William, D.c.L., F.R.S. 
elected Hon. Member 9, 475 


‘526 INDEX. 
PAGE PAGE 
Hunt, Robert, c.m.a., Anita Leda Huttoni 187 
notice ; 5 4 | Leibius, A., Ph. D., F.C.S., obituary 
Hydrostatic paradox ve . 488 notice its . 478 
Hydrous antimonate of lead ... 373 Library ... tao 7 
antimonic acid .. 374 additions to , 490 
— cobalt arsenate . 374 | Light Railways for New South 
Wales oe ts 54, 219 
Limit of elasticity sano 
Todine from sea-water.. . 484 | Limonite... . 875 
Iodyrite ... 372 | Lita solanella ee) 
Ipswich Coal Measures (Q’ land) Litiopa bombyx ... 183 
petrological specimens ... 482 punctulifera 183, 197 


Irrigation, artesian water in con- 


nection with 466, 484 
—— from artesian wells . 398 
inl 892) ww. 49 
—— in New South Wales 384, 484 
of orchards and farms . 390 
—— pastoral properties . 394 


Trusts in N. 8. Wales ... 393 
Tron for constructional purposes 


263, 481 

rust possessing magnetic 
properties ... se won’ LA: 
Isapis elatus 183, 196 
(Raulinia ?) eothinos 182,196 
fenestratus ... . 182 
Ischemum laxum 85 

J 

Johnstonite 374 


Jones, J. Trevor, ¢. E., A hydro- 


static paradox . 488 
K 
Kerargyrite Ae 372 
Kiddle, Hugh Charles, On amall 
whirlwinds . Ae 91, 476 


Kitchen maidcncs on the coast 


of New South Wales 10 
Kites cellular Ms 75 
Kochia plunifolia 84 
Laboratory lamp, retort and 

filter stand... 347, 481 
Laganum Bonani . 193 

depressum ... . 193 
ellipticum ... . 193 
-—— multiforme... fay 98 

platymodes ... .. 1193, 197 

Languages of the New Hebrides 
101, 478 
addendum ... . 469 
Latirofusus nigrofuscus... Boal bra! 


Liversidge, Prof., M.A., F.R.S., 
A combination laboratory 
lamp, retort, and filter 
stand B47, 481 
Gold Moiré- Métallique 346, 481 
—— On Iron rust possessing 
magnetic properties : 
—— On the condition of gold in 
quartz and calcite veins 299, 481 
— On the crystallization of 
gold in hexagonal forms 3438, 481 
— On the origin of gold nug- 
gets .. 303, 481 
—— —~ Moss Gold 287, 481 
— On the presence of Mag- 
netite in certain minerals 


14 


and rocks 14 
——- On the separation of gold, 
silver and iodine from sea- 
water by Muntz metal 
sheathing .. 484 
Locomotive Engines : in New 
South Wales ee 
M 
Macroteniopteris wianamatte ... 379 
Magnetic circuits, forces acting 
in se 197, 479 
properties of iron rust... 14 
traction cae wa. «14 
Magnetite in certain minerals 
and rocks ... 14 
Maiden, J. H., F.L.S., On Panax 
gun .. 21 
——"On the exudations from 
Australian species of Pittos- 
porum 21 
—— Vegetable exudations 
collected by the Elder Ex- 
ploring Expedition 21 
—— some of the pale hardwoods 
of New South Wales woul, 
Malachite wikia be . O74 


“Mingaye, John C. H., F.c.s. &e., 
Notes and analysis of a 
metallic meteorite from 


Moonbi hear Tamworth, 

N.S. Wales 82, 476 
_Minolia strigata.. . 185 
Mispickel 374 
Moore, Charles, F. Ee s., “Plants 


indigenous to N. S.W. 84,476 
—— Description of a new myr- 

taceous tree indigenous to 

N.S. Wales (Eugenia parvi- 


folia) 85, 476 
_ Monolepta rosea, Bik. 30 
_Moss gold, origin of 287 


Mueller, Baron Ferd. von. x.c. 
M.G., F.R.S., letter of con- 
dolence re late Dr. Leibius 478 

_ Murex alveolatus... eae 


vee O 


INDEX. 527 
PAGE PAGE 
“Manganese ... 875 | Murex crassiliratus sls O 
Marattia fraxinea ... 85 | Myochama plana... 190, 197 
Margarita Keckwickii . 185 rugata 190, 197 
Martin, C. J., B.Sc., M.B., on recent Myoporum platycarpum... 21 
development of the ques- Mytilaspis pomorum 30 
tion of the coagulation of 
the blood ... . 489 N 
—— Notes on thyroid grafting Native sulphur ... ; 375 
in a case of ee cretin- Nerve fibres &c., structure and 
ism ... 490 development of : . 489 
Mathews, R. H., u. ‘S. , Rock paint- New Hebrides, panbe see of 
ings by the Aborigines in the ... : 101, 478 
caves on Bulgar Creek, near —— addendum .. : . 469 
Singleton 353, 482 | New mineral at Broken Hill ... 366 
“McKinney, H. G., M.E., M.Inst. C.E.s N. 8. Wales, aboriginal rock 
The pebuness and position carvings and paintings in 10 
of irrigation in New South artesian water in... . 408 
Wales a8 384, 484 | ——- irrigation in 384, 484: 
‘Medal, Clarke ... s 8| —— Trusts : 393 
Medical Section, proceedings... Ges) | light railways for 5A, 219 
Mercury sulphide 375 pale hardwoods ie Wea 
Mesalia melanoides 176, 177 raised sea-beaches and 
Provisi sen L7G kitchen middens on the 
sulcata es coast of ae 10 
“Meteorology... ‘ sand gels) silver ore deposits 10 
Meteorite No. 2 from Gilgoin timbers... ibis nO 
Station Mat "361, 483 
from Moonbi ...82, 476, 481 O 
Metals and minerals, production Observations of Comet VI. 
of during 1892 22 (Brooks) 1892 at Windsor, 
Mild steel _ 264 N.S. Wales 348, 481 
Minerals rare, at the Australian Occurrence of a chromite-bear- 
Broken Hill Consols Mine ing rock, Pennant Hills 
368, 483 Quarry 401, 479 
— Tasmanian 483 | —— new mineral at Broken 
Mines, School of, for N. 8. Wales 26 Hill . 366, 483 


—- barytes at Five-Dock and 
Pennant Hills Quarry 407, 479 
calcareous sandstone at 
Rock-Lily seis . 406 
chromite-bearing rock | in 
basalt 401, 479 
Evansite in Tasmania 382, 484. 
—— Triassic plant remains near 


Manly 378, 484 
Ocinebra biconicus . 170 
Oil Engines ‘ 488 
Older Tertiary Fauna of Aus- 

tralia he soa, 2 OT 4a 
Oleandridium, sp. nov. . 379 
Oncoscelis sulciventris ... 30 
Orbit of the double star h 5014, 

380, 484 
Origin of gold nuggets 303, 481 
moss gold ... «. 287,481 


528 INDEX. 

PAGE PAGE 
Original Researches... .. 9/ Railways (Light) for N.S. W. 54 
scientific research during discussion ... a . 219 
1892. 12 | Ranella Pratti . 172 
Ostrea crassissima Beds (Upper) 409 | Raulinia alligata 182 
Owen, Prof. Sir Richard, obitu- elata . 183 
ary notice ... : 2 | —— eothinos tte 182 

Ray, Sidney H., on the lan- 

Pp guages of the ‘New Hebrides 


Paintings in caves byAborigines 353 


Panaz gum : 21 
Paradoxechinus novus of SUS 
Pecten numidus Beds (Lower)... 409 
Periodicals purchased in 1893 510 


‘Peripheral Neuritis’ ... 489 
Pholadomya australica 187,188,197 


neozelanica .. 187, 188 
virgulosa : as . 188 
Photography, astronomical 18 
Phosgenite : 373 
Phragmorisma anatinceformis 189, 
190, 197 
Phyllotheca sp. non det. .. 379 
Pictorial rain maps 362, 483 
Pisania brevis eee 
obliquecostata 2 
purpuroides... Sine ies) 
rostrata ie, L72 
semicostata ... eli 
Pittman, Edward F., a.R.s.M., 


Note on the occurrence of a 
new mineral at Broken Hill 
366, 483 
— Notes on the Cremorne , 
Bore... 443, 484, 
Pittosporum, exudations from 


Australian species of 21 


Plagiarca cainozoica spats 
Podozamites ? . o19 
Poison of Australian snakes . 10 
Poroleda lanceolata 186, 187, 197 
Potentilla anserina 84 
Proceedings of the Society | 471 

of the Sections 485 
Psilotum complanatum ... 85 
Publications... ee Bearer c: 
Pulvinaria maskelli 30 
Pyrargyrite 369 
Quartz crystals ... . 375 


veins, condition of gold in 299 


Queensland, artesian water in 408. 


Railway progress in New South 


Wales in 1892 38 


eee eco 


101, 478 
—— addendum ... . 469 
Rennie, G. E., B.A., M.D., on 
Myxoedema . 490 
Resins Australian ee | 
Risella alta 184, 197 
Rivet holes .. 279 
Rivetting . 282 
Roads, work done i in 1892 46 


Rock paintings by Aborigines 


353, 482 

Royal Society of N. S. Wales, 
exhibits in 1892 ... {56 
—— —— in 1893 ... 476 
papers read in 1892 Jeo es 
proceedings 1898 ... . 471 
Ruby silver ore ... . 369 


Russell, H. C., B.A., C.M.G., F.B.S. 
On Meteorite No. 2 from 


Gilgoin Station 361, 483 
—— pictorial rain maps 362, 483 
Ss 
Scaphula (?) elongata . 186 
Schizoneura lanigera 30 
Schenus capillaris 85 


School of Mines for N.S. Wales 26 
Scientific research during 1892 12-53 


Scutellina patella . 192 

Scutum anatinum . 185 

Sea-beaches on the coast of N. S. 
Wales 10 


Sectional Meetings, Chemical if 


Engineering 7, 485 
—— Medical 7, 488 
pers ose, eee 
Selandria cerasi . 30 


Sellors, R. P., B. Ne The ‘orbit of 
the double star h 50L4 380, 484 
Selman, D. C., Wh. Sc, On oil 


engines d a . 488 
Semivertagus capillatus... 178, 197 
subcalvatus.. 178, 197 
Sequenzia radialis 185 


Sewerage, progress work in 1892 48 
Siderite ... a . 375 
Silver chloride .. 37) 1, 372 


4 


INDEX. 


529 
PAGE PAGER 
Silver from sea-water ... . 484} Tate, Prof. Ralph, rF.a.s., &c., 
iodide . 372 |—— Unrecorded genera of the 
ore deposits N.S. Wales... 10 Older Tertiary Fauna of 
sulphide - 369 _Australa .. 167, 479 
Sismondia Murravica _ ...<. 193, 197'| Tebbutt, John, F.R.a.s., &c., On 
occitana . 194 the probability of extra- 


Smeeth, W.F., m.a., B.E., A.B.S.M., 
Occurrence of a chromite- 
bearing rock atthe Pennant 
Hills Quarry 401, 479 

Smith, George, M.A.I.M.E., Notes 
upon the minerals occurring 
at the Australian Broken 
Hill Consols Mine... . 368 

— Henry G., Occurrence of 
Evansite in Tasmania 382, 484 

Snake, spider or tick, poison of 


Australian ... 10 
Solariella rhysa ... 185 
Spirifera disjuncta 18 
Spirulirostra Bellardi 170 


Cunta- ... a 170, 196 


Sporadic cretinism 490 
Spring-tides.... 359, 483 
Star (double) h 5014 380, 484. 
Steel for bridges 266, 481 

plates fow boilers ... . 266 
Stephanite . 369 
Sternbergite > 869 
Stibiconite we O74 
Stibnite ... ... 874 
Stromeyerite oO 
Strophodus Eocenicus 169, 197 

magnus : nao GY) 
Sulph-arsenide of cobalt . 374 


Sulphide of copperandantimony 370 
~ lead, silver and antimony 370 


—— mercury ‘ Jn Ove 
silver and copper... . 370 
— and iron ... 369 
Sulpho-carbonate of lead, cupre- 
ous .. 373 
Sulphur, arsenic and gold 290 
and gold 290 
native : 506 OND 


Suttor, Hon. Ww. Ee “ML. C., 
Artesian bores on Bunda 
Station in Queensland 376, 483 


Swainsona galegifolia 29 
ae 
Tasmanian minerals . 483 


Tate, Prof. Ralph, F.«.s., &e., 
Awarded Clarke Medal fon 
ES9s°.3; 8, 474 


ordinarily high spring-tides 

about the December solstice 

of 1893 359, 483 
— Results of observations of 

Comet VI. (Brooks) 1892 at 

Windsor, N.S. Wales 348, 481 
Terebralia sulcata see Lio, 
Testing iron and steel for bridges 265 
Test specimens, preparation of 274 


Tetrahedrite argentiferous ... 370 
Thracia perscabrosa san 189 
Watsoni 189, 190 
Threlfall, Prof. m.a., On an 
approximate method of find- 
ing the forces acting in mag- 
netic circuits 197, 479 


Thyroid grafting in a case of 
sporadic cretinism ... ... 490 

Tidal movements of artesian 
bores 

Timbers of New South Wales. 

Treatment of manufactured iron 
and steel for constructional 
purposes 2638, 481 

Triassic plant remains near 


. 429 
10 


Manly ne 378, 484: 
Trichocephalus dispar 89 
hepaticus 89 
nodosus 5a) ew) 
Trichosoma crassicauda... sgn SY 
Triploca gata 186, 197 
Trochita turbinata a SH 
Trophon icosiphyllus 170 
U 
Uracanthus cryptophagus 30 
V 
Vanadate of lead 373 


Vanadinite ; see 
Vegetable exudations collected 
by the Elder Bere 


Expedition .. 21 
Vein gold 317 
Volgerite... 374 


Warren, Prof. W. H., M. Inst. C.E,, 
Wh. Se, M. Am. Soc. C.E., Anni- 
versary Address ... et! 


530° 


ws 


¢ 
\ 


INDEX, 


aes PAGE hy 
Water conservation in 1892 ... 49 Wilson, Prof. J.T, 
Waters, goldin natural __... 330 On recent investi 
Watt, J. Alexander, m.a., Oc- | on the structure 

currence of a chromite- _ velopment of the 

bearing rock at the Pen- system. bi, 

nant Hills Quarry... 401, 479 | Woolls, Rev. Dr., obituary notice 
Wheat, nomenclature of ... 28 | Wrought iron . 
Whip-worm of the rat’s liver 86, 476 


‘Whirlwinds small ae GI, A7GE pan 
Willyamite wet .- 866,375 | Xylomelum salicinum BOOTS 5; 


Sydney. i ee 
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= NEW SOUTH WALES 


Prepared in Sydney Observatory under the direction of 
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Scale 32 Miles to | inch - 


Showing the Average Rainfall in each Square| Degree 
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Years jover which the Mean is taken; and the second, the 
Number of Stations used. 


Example how figures are|to be read:— 


123 Average Annual| Rainfall. 
9 Records extend prer 9 Years. ; 
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Square Degree. 


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Seale 32 Miles to | inch 


jozing the Average Rtinfall in each Square] Degres 

in large figures, and under \Yhese —First, the Nupnber of 

Years|ocer which the Mean ts laken; ond the sechnd, the 
Mambfr of Stelios nse 


Exgmple how figures are\lo be read — 
(124 Average Anaval| Rainfall. 
| 9 Records extend prer 9 Years. 
| 3. Stations used fo find the Mean for | 
| Square Degree, 


NSWVol XXVU PlateAXH = (1893. 


REFERENCE 


See OS Blown-sand Deposifs. 
Ag’) Hard Grilly Sandsfones, 
So ce\ Soft Sandsfones. 


°#4 Hard Griffy Ferruginous Sandstones . 


wo" 
* y 


: te Fossiliferous Shales and Sandstones. 


‘ Oo! ve 
Wy oe ro 
oR Py 
" oS 


0 8me & 
S689 Ferruginovs and Shaly Sandslones. 


2 Miles 


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Journal Royab Society NSW Vol XXVI— PlateAXI = 1893 


CEoLOCICAL SKETCH PLAN or FRESHWATER near MANLY 


SCALES of PLAN « SECTION 
[200 er 


HorizonrTAL.. 
VERTICAL ..... 


REFERENCE 
PLAN 


Blown-sand Deposils . 

Hard Grilly Sandsfones. 

Soft Sandstones. 

J Hard Gritty Ferruginous Sandstones . 
Fossiliferous Shales and Sandstones. 


Section ar A 


SEcTION on A.B. 


B.Dunsrar, del. 


rol. XXVIL | 1893. 
| a JOURNAL & PROCEEDINGS 
ROYAL SOCIETY 


NEW SOUTH WALES, 


EDITED BY 


THE HONORARY SHCRETARIES. 


THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. 


SYDNEY: 
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH: 
LONDON : 
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., Limitrp. 
PaTERNOSTER HovusE, CHaRING Cross RoaD, Lonpox, W.C. 


F. White, Typ., Sydney 


PS 


| 
i 
4 
i 
H 
i 
{ 
| 
i 


oS | CONTENTS. 
VOLUME XXVII. 


OFFICERS FOR 1893-94 .. 
Arr. I.—PRESIDENT’ Siamese. By Prof. W. H. Wrastucn, M. Inst. C.E, 
Ws. Sc., M. Am. Soc. C.E. 


Art. II.—Light Railways for New South “Wailes, By ‘hanes 
Ormsby Burge, M. Inst. C.E. 
Art. IIJ.—Flying-Machine Motors and Cellular Kites. By 
Lawrence Hargrave [Four Plates] .. 
Art. IV.—Notes and Analysis of a Metallic Meteorite from 
. Moonbi, near Tamworth, N.S.W. By John C. H. Mingaye, 
F.C.S., M.A..M.E. [Two Plates]... 
Art. V. EP iants with their Habitats, discovered to be indigenous 
: to this Colony since the publication of the Handbook of the 
Flora of New South Waies; chiefly furnished by Baron von 
Mueller, from unpublished Herbarium notes. By Charles 
Moore, F.u.s., &¢.. aie 33 
Art. VI.—On the Whip- ‘Worm of the Rat’s Liver. | By Thos. L. 
Bancroft, m.s:, Edin. [Two Plates.| Communicated by 
A a Mieiden,, F.L.S., &e. 
Art. VII.—Small Whirlwinds. By Hugh Charles Kiddle 


Agr. VIII.—The Languages of the New Hebrides. By Sidney 


H. Ray, London ; revised by Dr. John Fraser, Sydney 
. [One Plate] 

Art. IX.—Unrecorded Conor cee the Older Tertiary Fauna A: 
Australia, including diagnoses of some New Genera and 
Species. By Prof. Ralph Tate, F.G.s., F.L.S., Hon. Memb. 
[Four Plates | sta 

_ Art. X.—On an Approximate Method of finding the forces acting 
in Magnetic Circuits. By Richard Threlfall, u.a., Professor 
of Physics, University of Sydney; assisted by Florence 
Martin, Student in the University of Sydney [Two Plates] 

Agr. XI.—Light Railways for New South Wales. By Charles 
Ormsby Burge, M. Inst. C.E-—Discussion : 
Art. XII.—The Treatment of Manufactured Iron and Steel for 
Constructional Purposes. By Wm. Field How., Assoc, M. Ins, 
| 5 C.E., M.I. Mecu.E,,Wa.Sc, ... 

ART. XIU.—On the Origin of Moss Gold. "By A Liversidge, 

M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the amd of 

| Sydney [Two Plates] .., 

_ Art. XTV.—On the Condition of Gold in “Quartz and “Calcite 

Veins. By A. Liversidge, m.a., F.R.S., Professor of 

Chemistry, University of Sydney ... 

_ Agr. XV.—On the Origin of Gold Nuggets. By A. Liversidge, 

: M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of 

Ee: ‘Sy dney ; 

ART. XVI. On the Crystallization of Gold in Hexagonal Forms 

By A. Liversidge, m.a., F.R.8., Professor of Chemistry in 

f the University of S ydney oS ai ee = 

Agr. XVII.—Gold Moiré- Métallique. ' By A. Liversidge, m.a., 

F.B.S., Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney 


101 


167 


197 


219 


263 


287 


299 


303 


343 
346 


[OVER 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 
ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


CONTENTS TO VOLUME XXVII.—continued. 


XVIII.—A Combination Laboratory Lamp, Retort, and 
Filter Stand. By A. Liversidge, m.a., r.n s., Professor of 
Chemistry in the University of Sydney er 

XIX.—Results of Observations of Comet VI. (Brooks) 
1892, at Windsor, N.S. Wales. By John Tebbutt, F.R.A.s. 

XX.— Rock Paintings by the Aborigines in Caves on Bulgar 
Creek, near Singleton. By R. H. Matthews, Licensed 
Surveyor [Three Plates] 


XXI.—On the Probability of Extraordinarily High ‘Spring- | 


Tides about the December Solstice of 1893. By John 
Tebbutt, F.R.A.S8., &e. .. 

XXII.—On Meteorite No. 2 from Gilgoin Station. By H.C. 
Russell, B.a., C.M.G., F.R.S. Ry 

XXIII. —Pictorial Rain Maps. By eC. “Bussell, B.A. 
C.M.G., F.R.S. [One Plate] : 

XXIV. Note on the Occurrence of a New Mineral at 
Broken Hill. By Edward F. Pittman, a.R.s.™. ... 


XX V.—Artesian Bores on Bunda Station in Queensland. 


By the Hon. W. H. Suttor, M.L.C. 
XXVI—On the Occurrence of Triassic Plant Remains in a 
Shale Bed near Manly. By B. Dunstan, r.c.s. [One Plate] 
XXVII.—The Orbit of the Double Star h5014. By R. P. 
Sellors, B.a., Sydney Observatory 


XXIX.—Occurrence of Evansite in Tasmania. By Henry 


G. Smith ... 

XXX.—The Progress and Position of ‘Irrigation ‘in New 
South Wales. By H.G. McKinney, M.E., M. Inst, C.E, as 

XXXI.—Preliminary Note on the Occurrence of a Chromite- 
Bearing Rock in the Basalt at the Pennant Hills Quarry 
near Parramatta. By Prof. David, B.a., F.a.s., W. F. 
Smeeth, M.A., B.E., Assoc. R.S.M, and J. Alexander Watt, m.A. 

XXXII.—Note on the Occurrence of a Calcareous Sandstone 
allied to Fontainebleau Sandstone at Rock Lily, near 
Narrabeen. By Prof. David, B.A., F.G.s.... 

XX XITII.—Note on the Occurrence of Barytes at Five-dock, 
and also at the Pennant Hills Quarry near Parramatta, 
with a suggestion as to the possible origin of Barytes in 
the Hawkesbury Sandstone. By Prof. David, B.A., F.G.s.. 

XXXIV.—Notes on Artesian Water in New South Wales 
and Queensland. (Part II.) By Prof. T. W. E. David, 
B.A., F.G.8. cae ni. Hac 

XXXV.—Notes on the Cremorne Bore. By Prof. David, 
B.A., F.G.S., and E. F. Pittman, A.R.S.M. 

XKKVI. —On Artesian Water in connection with Irrigation. 
By W. A. Dixon, F.1.c., F.c.s. 


ADDENDUM To Mr. Ray’s PapER * (PP. 101-167) ON THE LANGUAGES 


PROCEEDINGS a By: age a aa 
PROCEFDINGS OF THE ENGinrrrine SECTION .. ate 00 
PROCEEDINGS OF THE MEDICAL SECTION ... wa se ee 


oF THE New HEBRIDES . 


ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY 


EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS MADE BY THE "RovaL Socrery 


INDEX To VoLUME XXVII. 
TITLE Pace, Contents &c. 


oF New SoutH WALES, 1893 .. 


"1 36 g 


: 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES 


“HOANIEATIEATIE 


3 9088 01308 4199 


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