eR ak ee ee nl eR agent gee thon eta gee Rea aia, ths Pe ped TB Vi Mn ta Ri I gd Tia wae ani ET cc Pelt Nel tne eT OT ae ee nee nee Me De Penn fen ae ea pT RNa She Ree Me tay aren fit Plat A Me Lee a Pie Tat jet Tact ite nn aah tm ha Ti rt A Mig Ma A i ag BO NBR yen Relea Daa Re My sm trl NAN time NN finite MS. etme Mo ae ge We ae PRM lito phe fhe hn ot tantra Satan a sete SF + ON te Geli: Tha hen MN TIN Tibi dhe SBT aS Fee ea ES Nee FAT ANA ME oT a SiON Oy Mr Bais ig —_ ag ee a ee TE leita phe the tie TT Mba REAM ANA CRESTOR Ie Ee RRNA eA pe i are Moe NN, eda MERSIN Uyihlgg onl PN. a Ps ON Ry RETO ee eA ea Tg lhe Pk Mth mth Neg Ot EE tet ea tne ii te a mnt Pr i NT aE et a NNR Ae Tt Bn A ES RAM el HE, PAR cay PO RL NG BE ce Ae GL oi oP ae Meee Si hye Penge Regen tPA Ye, ote ene earl Re ES 7 wg a dR an ie TACIT Se a re RE We eel a a ea eee ee, en en ee “a eee ag he gel gg Ramage ee ee ye gsi tae lh natn es Pare NH ony ha th tena AEN, on age RNS eR I eT Reg na Myre NI aT ON Hin Sa Nae em Neng am tr yan dite an ATs Alec patie Tey yam Pen Sen dhaetieg aI Pe nae ag Na tia he ASAE Tone Fe tere HT Per St yg a a py me pm Sew agen Ne teeta = Pages at Sh, gst he Ae Ng i Pm TD ao Eat Ny art age pit nem ag Mite Net lay Dentin ing A Te ttt ee Stein sataaint ee an INN MG ge lng TEN Bag Mie TRAM, 5 IO ng Boag nie he na lb H otal, a mr eg a Ape Soe gy BM IM ag yp NN ge MI ATE Tag ot RG LIN ls ae eal AE ONAN En Tet arate Ti EON EEN: Le al i Fer mPa Tate gmp i i Md aol ee Pa Ay 9 Shae Me ed ANAS pO ein Re aA iy Rite PPM ett oate a Vy em Mahe A Tig on te Shen ag Rie DER Tay te Clann eh Nn Een ae a NG gg Oe i gl gE ptt Then hn the she “Lehn ee er se nnn ee ee eicui cities aime aicammieibiie: ab ditenien oe anaes te mn ee irae Dee ee er a eae ee 2 has vast? Be “ aie “ mapibitieabeng titi * > arairorhe ni Sip sng elapieat eal ates a iinitineg Ee a 2 - " , Soe - al aggre ek iH + . os s whe Neate ate a0 Cte hem Deter > SN eT ee ee ee ae ee eee ee pega - he . 7 om eng eee! Ae a elie tee Mawite™ gall as the realise, ed Feet ne ae z -2--F ie Moora wat Bhat ANN pw Pe * areca sly ng Gig S~temel i een gained > " Pe ee ls a! = < a3 * ~ ~ ie “ = _— noite Som Meee NK. tems « i ‘ Va ‘ars eA) Avg i a 4) aCe FOURN AL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 190]. (INCORPORATED 1881. EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. LONDUN AGENTS: GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 17 Warwick SquarE, PATERNOSTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. 1901. NOTICE. Tue Royat Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the “ Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the “ Philosophical Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. TO AUTHORS. Authors of papers desiring illustrations are advised to consult the editors (Honorary Secretaries) before preparing their drawings. Unless otherwise specially permitted, such drawings should be carefully executed to a large scale on smooth white Bristol board in intensely black Indian ink; so as to admit of the blocks being prepared directly therefrom, in a form suitable for photographic ‘“‘process.” The size of a full page plate in the Journal is 4} in. x 62in. Thecost ofall original drawings, and of colouring plates must be borne by Authors. ERRATA. Page 51, last. line, for ‘‘ Macksell,” read “‘ Mackrell.” », 84, fourth line from bottom, transpose northern and southern. » 88, third line, for “ similar,’”’ read “ similarly.” », 92, fifth line, for “such,” read “‘each.’’ », 129, line twenty-seven, for “ gutteral,” read “ guttural.” » 189, twenty-fifth line, for “thou,” read ‘‘ them.” », 145, eighth line from bottom, for “ them,” read “him.” », 158, lines seven to eleven, the words beginning with ‘‘ Un-” should begin with “ Ngun-” PUBLICATIONS. O Transactions of the Philosophical Society, N.S. W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print. Vol. I. Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S. W., 1867, pp. 83, _,, 99 ie 99 99 bP) bi) 99 1868, 9 120, 99 99 fis 39 99 93 99 be) 1869, ” 173, 99> bb) IV. 399 39 99 99 99 1870, ode, 106, ” 99 VE 99 on 99 3° 99 1871, 99 72, bP] 9 VI. ” oe) ” ” ” 1872, ” 128, ” 99 VII. 399 99 393 99 bb) 1873, 9° 182, > 99 VITt. be) 39 99 bi) 9° 1874, be) 116, +B) 99 IX. be) 99 be) 99 99 1875, ” 235, bb) ze X. Journal and Proceedings < as 1876, ,, 333, = 99 XI. 93 29 99 99 99 1877, 99 305, 39 as XII. 3 ee Bs <6 - 1878, ,, 324, price 10s.6d. aA XIII. - ss - 2 5 =e 1879, ,, 255, ,, 10s.Gd. +: XIV. 5 “a a Ys ee 1880, ,, 391, ,, 10s. 6d. ” XV. ” ” ” ” ” 1881, ,, 440, ,, 10s. 6d. 2 XVI. 399 99 $5 be) +) 1882, bP) 327, 39 10s. 6d. soul Oe VALE: 3 7 as a ee 1883, ,, 324, ,, 10s. 6d. hoes EL, a a Me Ad ss = 1884, ,, 224, ,, 10s. 6d. SER OEX TOR: Bs aA HA 5 Ms 1885, ,, 240, ,, 10s. 6d. 399 XX. 99 399 99 99 99 1886, be) 396, bP] 10s. 6d. ”9 XXI. 9 9 9 9 ” 1887, ,, 296, ,, 10s. 6d. Bait Ox ET, _ Py a Hf fs 1888, ,, 390. ,, 10s. 6d. » XXIII, ‘5 Y 5 ne 1889, ,, 534, ,, 10s. 6d. ep LV <3 i aa a 1890, ,, 290, ,, 10s. 6d. 9 XXV. 9 9 9 ” 9 1891, ,, 348, ,, 10s. 6d. Bee XVI: i a es aa ts 1892, ,, 426, ,, 10s. 6d. Bee ee VL. a Bi pi a np 18938, ,, 530, ,, 10s. 6d. » SX VIII. “i m5 *; = *, 1894, ,, 368, ,, 10s. 6d. GO LX, Re ee a or a 1895, ,, 600, ,, 10s. 6d. ” XXX, ” ” ” ” ” 1896, ,, 568, ,, 10s. 6d. 99 XXXI. be) by) 99 99 99 1897, 9 626, 99 10s. 6d. » AXXXIT, . Ph a i ~ 1898, ,, 476, ,, 10s. 6d. » XXX ITT. on pa 55 a - 1899, ,, 400, ,, 10s. 6d. A. ©. =. Ga @ 35 vf = P ty 1900, ,, 484, ,, 10s. 6d. 99 XXXV. 99 99 39 99 > 1901, ” 581, 99 10s. 6d. CONTENTS. VOLUME XXXYV. OFFICERS FOR 1901-1902... List or Mempers, &c. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. I.—PrestpDEnT’s ApprEss. By A. Liversidge, LL.D., F.R.S.... II.—Current Papers, No. 5. By H.C. Russell, B.a., c.m.e., F.R.S. [With Diagrams] . III.—Preliminary Notes on he Toerde dint, ‘Host of Filaria imitis, Leidy. By Thomas L. Bancroft, m.B.. IV.—Two Historical Notes in regard to Capit Cook the Circumnavigator. By J. H. Maiden, Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney a — V.—Notes on the Analyses of Air from Coal Mines. By F. B. Guthrie, F.1.c., F.c.s., and A. A. Atkinson, Chief Inspector of Mines Ji ie Bs HAs 3 VI.—Theory of City Degen By G. H. Knibbs, r.R.a.s. VII.—“ Recurrence of Rain,” the relation between the Moon’s Motion in Declination and the Quantity of Rain in New South Wales. By H.C. Russell, B.a., c.m.¢., F.R.Ss. [With Diagrams] . VIII.—On the Balaton eeieed Leaf eeation oye ihe Presence of Certain Chemical Constituents in the Oils of the Eucalypts. By R. T. Baker, F.u.s., Curator, and Henry G. Smith, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. [With Illustration. | aire IX.—Note on the Sesquiterpene of Eucalyptus Oils. By Henry G. Smith, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney .. wae Sao Ween ave X.—The mieeow ad eens 2 Ty R. H. Mathews, L.s., Corres. Memb. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A. ... XI.—The Gums, Resins, and other Vegetable Exudations of Australia. By J. H. Maiden, Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney XIT.—Rock-holes used by the Aborigines for Siena Water. By R. H. Mathews, t.s., Corres. Memb. Anthrop. Society, Washington, U.S.A. aes XIII.—Some Aboriginal Pikes of Westout neta: By R. H. Mathews, t.s., Memb. Assoc. Etranger. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris __... oa vi Fach 3 Sie os Ne wee Paae. (vii.) (xi.) 1 30 41 47 52 62 113 116 124 127 161 213 217 (vi.) Paar. Art. XIV.—Projects for Water Conservation, Irrigation, and Drainage in New South Wales. By H. G. McKinney, m.z., M. Inst. C.E. . 500 os 223 Art. XV.—On fhe princisis of Conte in the Genarahian of Geometrical Figures in Pure and Pseudo-homaloidal Space of n-dimensions. By G. H. Knibbs, F.r.a.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney pete 243 Art. XVI.—Some Theorems concerning Gsomananal Figures in Space of n-dimensions, whose (n — 1) dimensional generatrices are nic functions of their position on an axis, straight, curved or tortuous. By G. H. Knibbs, r.z.a.s., Lecturer in Surveying University of Sydney _... 319 Art. XVII.—Symmetrically Distorted Crystals am Weatam Australia. By W. G. Woolnough, B.a., F.a.s. [Illustration] 332 Art. XVIII.—Current Papers, No. 6. By H. C. Russell, B.a., C.M.@., F.R.8S. [With Diagrams]... 336 Art. XIX.—On the Occurrence of a Variety of “Tea - Kosciusko, New South Wales. By Prof. David, B.a., F.a.s., F.R.S., F. B. Guthrie, F.1.c., F.c.s., and W. G. Woolnough, B.Sc, F.G.8. [With Plates i., ii.] ... a w. B47 Art. XX.—Annual Address to the Rarinecrine Seetion: By J. M. Smail, M.Inst.c.E.... Ei ART. XXI.—Some Notes on the Parineation of Bumage: By Fi G. s. Purvis si 3 sae sd Sein | ale Art. XXII.—The Strength fi iGonteske. By W. H. Warren, M. Inst. C.E., M. Am. Soc, C.E, Challis Professor of Engineering, University of Sydney _... A .. XXIII. Art. XXIII.—Notes on the Undersroutd Morkives of a ‘Coltneae in the Western Coalfields of New South Wales. By J. Haydon Cardew, Assoc. M. Inst."C.E, vee xL. ART. XXIV.—Sydney Sewerage: Testing Sieveeaea Pines Fed in Reticulation Sewers. By W. E. Cook, M.C.E., M. Inst. C.E.... LIII, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS ~ oh A oa ees i. PROCEEDINGS OF THE Economic Secu ne e Be ... LXXV. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERING SECTION... ae nes .. LXXVi. INDEX To VoLUME XXXV. ar nee oo ae = (xlix.) Royal Society of Hee Fouth ales. OFFICERS FOR .1901-1902. President: H. C. RUSSELL, B.a. c.M.G., F.R.8. Vice-Presidents: Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, 8.4., v.z.s. | W. M. HAMLET, F.1.c., F.c.s. HENRY DEANE, m.a., M. Inst. C.E. | Prof. LIVERSIDGE, m.a., ut.p., &e. Hon. Treasurer: H. G. A. WRIGHT, m.x.c.s. Eng., (deceased 14th Sept., 1901) succeeded by D. CARMENT, ¥.1.4., F.F.A. Hon. Secretaries: J. H. MAIDEN, F..x:s. | G. H. KNIBBS, F.R.a.s. Members of Council: _F. B. GUTHRIE, F...c., F.c.s. GEORGE E. RENNIE, B.a., m.p. H. A. LENEHAN, F.R.a.s. HENRY G. SMITH, F.c.s. CHARLES MOORE, F.z.3.s. ANDERSON STUART, m.p., uu.p. E. F. PITTMAN, a.p.s.m. J. STUART THOM F,. H. QUAIFE, m.a., mv. Prof. WARREN, M. Inst. C.E.,Wh.Se. Assistant Secretary: W. H. WEBB. FORM OF BEQUEST. E bequeath the sum of £ to the RoyaL Society oF New Souta Watss, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within ~ calendar months after my decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose. | Those persons, who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society of New South Wales by Legacies, are recommended to instruct their Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest. | ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. ACT OF INCORPORATION. An Act to incorporate a Society called “The Royal Society of New South Wales.” [16 December, 1881. | ye a Society called (with the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen) “The Royal Society of New South Wales” has under certain rules and by-laws been formed at Sydney in the Colony of New South Wales for the encouragement of studies and investigations in Science Art Literature and Philosophy And whereas the Council of the said Society is at the present time com- posed of the following office-bearers and members His uxcellency the Right Honorable Lord Augustus Loftus p.c. G.c.B. Honorary President The Honorable John Smith -C.M.G. M.D. LLD. President and Charles Moore Esquire F.L.s. Director of the Botanic Gardens Sydney and Henry Chamberlaine Russell Esquire p.a. (Sydney) F.R.A.S. F.M.S. (London) Government Astronomer for New South Wales Vice-Presidents and H. G. A. Wright Esquire M.r.c.s. Honorary Treasurer Archibald Liversidge Esquire Associate of the Royal School of Mines London Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland and Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Sydney and Carl Adolph Leibius Esquire Doctor of Philosophy of the University of Heidelberg Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland Honorary Secretaries W. A. Dixon Esquire Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland G. D. Hirst Esquire Robert Hunt Esquire Associate of the Royal School of Mines London Deputy Master Sydney Branch Royal Mint Eliezer L, ¢ Preamble (x.) Montefiore Esquire Christopher Rolleston Esquire o.M.«, Charles Smith Wilkinson Esquire Government Geologist Members of the Council. And whereas it is expedient that the said Society should be incorporated and should be invested with the powers and authorities hereinafter contained Be it therefore enacted by the Queen’s Most Excellent Majesty by and with the advice and consent of the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly of New South Wales in Parliament assembled and by the authority of the same as follows:— 1. For the purposes of this Act the following words in inverted commas shall unless the contex otherwise indicate bear the meaning set against them respectively— “Corporation” the Society hereby incorporated. “Council” the Members of the Council at any duly con- vened meeting thereof at which a quorum according to the by-laws at the time being shall be present. “Secretary” such person or either one of such persons who shall for the time being be the Secretary or Secretaries honorary or otherwise of the said Society (saving and excepting any Assistant Secretary of the said Society.) 2. The Honorary President the President Vice-Presidents Officers and Members of the said Society for the time being and all persons who shall in manner provided by the rules and by-laws for the time being of the said Society become members thereof shall be for the purposes hereinafter mentioned a body corporate by the name or style of “The Royal Society of New South Wales” and by that name shall and may have perpetual succession and a common seal and shall and may enter into contracts and sue and be sued plead and be impleaded answer and be answered unto defend and be defended in all Courts and places whatsoever and may prefer lay and prosecute any indictment information and prosecution against any person whomsoever and any summons or other writ and any notice or other proceeding which it may be requisite to serve upon the Corporation may be served upon the Secretary or one of the Secretaries as the case may be or if there be no Secretary or if the Secretaries or Secretary be absent from the Colony then upon the President or either of the Vice-Presidents. (xi.) 3. The present rules and by-laws of the said Society shall Tie and be deemed and considered to be and shall be the rules and by-laws of the said Corporation save and except in so far as any of them are or shall or may be altered varied or repealed under the powers for that purpose therein contained or are or may be inconsistent or incompatible with or repugnant to any of the provisions of this Act or any of the laws now or hereinafter to be in force in the said Colony. 4. The Corporation shall have power to purchase acquire Power to and hold lands and any interest therein and also to sell and goauine fail sell dispose of the said lands or any interest therein and al] #745 & lands tenements hereditaments and other property of what- ever nature now belonging to the said Society under the said rules and by-laws or vested in Trustees for them shall on the passing of this Act be vested in and become the property of the said Corporation subject to all charges claims and demands in anywise affecting the same. 5. The ordinary business of the Corporation in reference Ordinary business to be to its property shall be managed by the Council and it shall managed by the not be lawful for individual members to interfere in any C°™%! way in the management of the affairs of the Corporation except as by the rules and by-laws for the time being shall be specially provided. 6. The Council shall have the general management and Powers of superintendence of the affairs of the Corporation and except- ae ing the appointment of President and Vice-Presidents and other honorary officers who shall be appointed as the by-laws of the Society shall from time to time provide the Council shall have the appointment of all officers and servants required for carrying out the purposes of the Society and of preserving its property and it may also define the duties and fix the salaries of all officers. Provided that if a vacancy shall occur in the Council during any current year of the Society’s proceedings it shall be lawful for the Council to elect a member of the Society to fill such vacancy for the unexpired portion of the then current year. The Council may also purchase or rent land houses or offices and erect buildings or other structures for any of the purposes for which the Society is hereby incorporated and may borrow money for the purposes of the Corporation on mortgages of the real and chattel property of the Corporation or any part thereof or may borrow money without security provided that the amount so borrowed without security shall never exceed Liability of members Custody of common seal Certified copy of rules and by-laws to be evidence Elections not made in due time may be made subsequently Secretary may represent Corporation for certain purposes (xii.) in the aggregate the amount of the income of the Corporation for the last preceding year and the Council may also settle and agree to the covenants powers and authorities to be contained in the securities aforesaid. 7. In the event of the funds and property of the Corpor- ation being insufficient to meet its engagements each member thereof shall in addition to his subscription for the then current year be liable to contribute a sum equal thereto towards the payment of such engagements but shall not be otherwise individually liable for the same and no member who shall have commuted his annual subscription shall be so liable for any amount beyond that one year’s subscription. 8. lhe Council shall have the custody of the common seal of the Corporation and have power to use the same in the affairs and business of the Corporation and for the execution of any of the securities aforesaid and may under such seal authorize any person without such seal to execute any deed or deeds and do such other matter as may be required to be done on behalf of the Corporation but it shall not be neces- sary to use the said seal in respect of the ordinary business of the Corporation nor for the appointment of their Secretaries Solicitor or other officers. 9. The production of a printed or written copy of the rules and by-laws of the Corporation certified in writing by the Secretary or one of the Secretaries as the case may be to be a true copy and having the common seal of the Cor- poration affixed thereto shall be conclusive evidence in all Courts of such rules and by-laws and of the same having been made under the authority of this Act. 10. In case any of the elections directed by the rules and by-laws for the time being of the Corporation to be made shall not be made at the times required it shall nevertheless be competent to the Council or to the members as the case may be to make such elections respectively at any ordinary meeting of the Council or at any annual or special general meeting held subsequently. 11. The Secretary or either one of the Secretaries may represent the Corporation in all legal and equitable pro- ceedings and may for and on behalf of the Corporation make such affidavits and do such acts and sign such documents as are or may be required to be done by the plaintiff or com- plainant’ or defendant respectively in any proceedings to which the Corporation may be parties. (xiii.) INDEX TO RULES. Annual General Meeting... Annual Report Auditors and Audit of ev ottits Absence from Council Meetings Alteration of Rules Admission of Visitors a of Members Annual Subscription , os in arrears.. when due.. Ballot, Histon by, of Officers sand Council i 5 of Members » a majority of four-fifths necessary Business, Order of... Branch Societies ... : Cabinets and Collections... Contributions to the Society Council, Election of - Members of z Vacancies in Ss Meetings... ; 2 he Quorum Candidates for Admission Committees of Sections Composition Fees ... oe Chairman of Section Gia wattees Documents . ‘ sills Election of New Members hs Notification of ... Entrance Fee Expulsion of Members Erasure of Name .... : Fees and Subscriptions ... Funds, Management of Governor-General, Patron aa Governor, State, Vice-Patron ... ae Grants of Money ... Honorary Members Library 49 27 Pema 9, 10, 14 16, 17 14 ee woe, 40 . 32, 33, 34 4, 5,6 8-15 12 9, 10, 14 sco CAL 17 9, 10, 11 35 : (xiv.) Meetings, Ordinary General ... a ae te Annual General ie aes fae sae Members, Honorary v8 ee ae a a 5s Resignation of see Bas es # - Expulsion of ... = to sign Rules .. A ‘ios oa ste Admission of . ip an Money Grants a $c bee “ac Object of the Society Office-bearers dist ee ane »» Duration of... oes Sa ae ae » Vacancies amongst Order of Business ... Patron President : sible Property of the Sonicty a Quorum at the Council Meetings i. for the Election of Officers and of new s Momterk x Reports 400 Acs ee nie ios 539 » from Sections Resignations Rules, Alteration of Scrutineers, Appoiutment of Sections, Membership of... Sectional Committees Secretaries, Hon., Duties of és of Sections Secretary, Assistant State Governor, Vice-Patron Subscriptions ae by in arrears ... Vacancies in the Council... Vice-Patron Visitors 9, 14, 15, 16 17, 18 7 2 27 (xv) RU LES. (Revisep Oct. 1, 1879.) Rule III. amended June 5, 1890. Rules IV., XIV., XVII., XIX., XXVI., XXXI., XL., XLIX , amended June 1, 1898. Rules III., V., VI., amended May 2. 1900. Rules II., III., XVII., XVIII., XXV., XXXV., amended May ,1901. Object of the Socrety. I. The object of the Society is to receive at its stated meetings original papers on Science, Art, Literature, and Philosophy, and especially on such subjects as tend to develop the resources of Australia, and to illustrate its Natural History and Productions. Patrons and Vice-Patrons. Il. The Governor-General shall be invited to become Patron, and the State Governor of New South Wales, Vice-Patron of the Society. Officers. III. The Officers of the Society shall consist of the President, who shall hold office for not more than one year continuously, but shall be eligible for re-election after the lapse of one year; four Vice-Presidents, an Honorary Treasurer, and two Honorary Secretaries, who, with ten other members, shall constitute the Council for the management of the affairs of the Society. Election of Officers and Council. IV. The President, Vice-Presidents, Honorary Secretaries, Honorary Treasurer, and the ten other members of Council, shall be elected annually by ballot at the first General Meeting in the month of May; hereinafter called the Annual General Meeting. V. It shall be the duty of the Council each year to prepare a list containing the names of members whom they recommend for election to the respective offices of President, Vice-Presidents, Hon. Secretaries, and Hon. Treasurer, together with the names of ten other members whom they recommend for election as ordinary members of Council. oe |S ,f Ls ° Te q is ‘ (xv1.) The names thus recommended shall be proposed at one meeting of the Council, and agreed to at a subsequent meeting. Such list shall be exhibited in the Society’s Rooms at least one calendar month before the day appointed for the Annual General Meeting. Any member of the Society not disqualified by Rules XVI., XVIT., or XVIIT., may be nominated for the position of President, Vice-President, Honorary Treasurer, Honorary Secre- tary, or Member of the Council, provided that his candidature shall have been notified to the Honorary Secretary or Secretaries under the hands of two qualified voters—such notification being countersigned by the nominee—at least fourteen days before the day appointed for the Annual General Meeting. A complete list showing the names of those recommended for election by the Council, and those nominated as in the last pre- ceding clause, shall be sent to each member of the Society, at jeast seven days before the day appointed for the Annual General Meeting. The name of each member voting shall be entered into a book | kept for that purpose, by two Scrutineers elected by the members present. No ballot for the election of members of Council, or of new members, shall be valid unless twenty members at least shall record their votes. VI. The balloting list for the election of Officers and Members of Council shall contain a list of the names of those recommended by the Council and also of those otherwise nominated as provided for in Rule V. Heading the former, the words ‘“‘ Recommended by Council” shall be inserted, and opposite the latter the names of the nominators. Vacancies in the Council during the year. VII. Any vacancies occurring in the Council of Management during the year may be filled up by the Council. Candidates for admission. VIII. Candidates must be at least twenty-one years of age. : aie a. le (xvii.) Every candidate for admission as an ordinary member of the Society shall be recommended according to a prescribed form of certificate by not less than three members, to two of whom the candidate must be personally known. Such certificate must set forth the name, place of residence, and qualifications of the candidate. The certificate shall be read at the three Ordinary General Meetings of the Society next ensuing after its receipt, and during the intervals between those three meetings, it shall be exhibited in a conspicuous place in one of the rooms of the Society. The vote as to admission shall take place by ballot, at the Ordinary General Meeting at which the certificate is appointed to be read the third time, and immediately after such reading. At fhe ballot the assent of at least four-fifths of the members voting shall be requisite for the admission of the candidate. Entrance Fee and Subscriptions. IX. The entrance money paid by members on their admission shall be Two Guineas; and the annual subscription shall be Two Guineas, payable in advance; but members elected prior to December, 1879, shall be required to pay an annual subscription of One Guinea only as heretofore. The amount of ten annual payments may be paid at any time as a life composition for the ordinary annual payment. X. The entrance fee and first annual subscription shall be paid within two months from the date of election; otherwise the election shall be void. The Council may, however, in special cases, extend the period within which these payments must be made. XI. Composition fees shall be treated as capital, and shall be devoted to the Building Fund Account, or invested. New members to be informed of their election. XII. Every new member shall receive due notification of his. election, and be supplied with a copy of the obligation (No. 3 in Bs—May 1, 1901. (xviii.) Appendix), together with a copy of the Rules of the Society, a list of members, and a card of the dates of meeting. Members shall sign Rules—Formal admission. XIII. Every member who has complied with the preceding Rules shall at the first Ordinary General Meeting at which he shall be present sign a duplicate of the aforesaid obligation in a book to be kept for that purpose, after which he shall be presented by some member to the Chairman, who addressing him by name, shall say :—‘‘In the name of the Royal Society of New South Wales I admit you a member thereof.” Annual Subscription when due. XIV. Annual subscriptions shall become due on the first day of May for the year then commencing. The entrance fee and first year’s subscription of a new member shall become due on the day of his election. XV. Persons elected on or after the first day of October in any year shall pay the annual contribution as in advance for the following year, but in every case within two months after notification of their election has been made to them by the Honorary Secretary. Members whose subscriptions are unpaid not to enjoy vrivileges. XVI. An elected member shall not be entitled to attend the meetings or to enjoy any privilege of the Society, nor shall his name be printed in the list of the Society, until he shall have paid his admission fee and first annual subscription, and have returned to the Secretaries the obligation signed by himself. Subscriptions in arrears. XVII. Members who have not paid their subscriptions for the current year, on or before the 3lst of May, shall be informed of the fact by the Hon. Treasurer. No member shall be entitled to vote or hold office while his subscription for the previous year remains unpaid. The name of any member who shall be two years in arrears ‘with his subscriptions may be erased from the list of members, ee —a but such member may be re-admitted on giving a s:tisfactory explanation to the Council, and on payment of such arrears as the Council may determine. At the meeting held in July, and at all subsequent meetings for the year, a list of the names of all those members who are in arrears with their anuual subscriptions shall be exhibited in the Rooms of the Society. Members shall in all cases be informed that their names have been thus posted. XVIIf. Any member in arrears shall cease to receive the Society’s publications, and shall not be entitled to any of the privileges of the Society until such arrears are paid. Resignation of Members. XIX. Members who wish to resign their membership of the Society are required to give notice in writing to the Honorary Secretaries, and are required to return all books or other property belonging to the Society, and to pay all arrears of subscriptions due to the Society. ELxpulsion of Members. XX. A majority of members present at any ordinary general meeting shall have power to expel an obnoxious member from the Society, provided that a resolution to that effect has been moved and seconded at the previous ordinary general meeting, and that due notice of the same has been sent in writing to the member in question, within a week after the meeting at which such resolution has been brought forward. Honorary Members. XXI. The Honorary Members of the Society shall be persons of eminent scientific attainments or distinguished promoters of the objects of the Society. Every person proposed as an Honorary Member must be recommended by the Council and elected by the Society. Honorary Members shall be exempted from payment of fees and contributions: they may attend the meetings of the Society, and they shall be furnished with copies of the publications of the Society, but they shall have no right to hold office, to vote. (xz) The number of Honorary Members shall not at any one time exceed thirty, of whom at the time of election not more than ten (10) shall be domiciled in Australasia, and not more than three Honorary Members shall be elected in any one year. Ordinary General Meetings. XXII. An Ordinary General Meeting of the Royal Society, to be convened by public advertisement, shall take place at 8 p.m., on the first Wednesday in every month, during the last eight months of the year; subject to alteration by the Council with due notice. Order of Business. XXIII. At the Ordinary General Meetings the business shall be transacted in the following order, unless the Chairman specially decide otherwise :— 1—Minutes of the preceding Meeting. 2—New Members to enrol their names and be introduced. 3—Candidates for membership to be proposed. 4— Ballot for the election of new Members. 5—Business arising out of Minutes. 6—Communications from the Council. 8—Donations to be laid on the table and acknowledged. 9—Correspondence to be read. 10—Motions from last Meeting. 11—Notices of Motion for the next Meeting to be given in. 12—Papers to be read. 13— Discussion. 14—Notice of Papers for the next Meeting. XXIV. At the Ordinary General Meetings of the Society nothing relating to its regulations or management, except as regards the election or ejection of members, shall be brought forward, unless the same shall have been announced in the notice calling the meeting, or be otherwise provided for in these Rules. XXV. A special meeting of the Society may be called by the Council, provided that seven days’ notice be given by advertise- ment, or shall be so called on a requisition signed by at least (XX1.) twenty-five members of the Society, to consider any suede business thus notified. Annual General Meeting—Annual Reports. XXVI. The Annual General Meeting of the Society shall be held in May, to receivea Report from the Council on the State of the Society, and to elect Officers for the ensuing year. The Treasurer shall also at this meeting present the annual financial statement. | Admission of Visitors. XXVII. Every ordinary member shall have the privilege of introducing two friends as visitors to an Ordinary General Meeting of the Society or its Sections, on the following conditions :— 1. That the name and residence of the visitors, together with the name of the member introducing them, be entered in a book at the time. 2. That they shall not have attended two consecutive meet- ings of the Society, or of any of its Sections in the current year. The Council shall have power to introduce visitors irrespective of the above restrictions. Council Meetings. XXVIII. Meetings of the Council of Management shall take place on the last Wednesday in every month, and on such other days as the Council, may determine. XXIX. The President or Hon. Secretaries, or any three Members of the Council, may call a meeting of the Council, pro- vided that due notice of the same has been sent to each Member of the Council at least three days before such meeting. Absence from Meetings of the Council—Quorum. XXX. Any member of the Council absenting himself from three consecutive meetings of the Council, without giving a satis- factory explanation in writing, shall be considered to have vacated his office. No business shall be transacted at any meeting of the Council unless three members at least are present. Wr - “ e 4 (XX11.) Duties of Secretaries. XX XI. The Honorary Secretaries shall perform, or shall cause the Assistant Secretary to perform, the following duties :— 1. 9 ale Conduct the correspondence of the Society and Council. Attend the General Meetings of the Society and the meetings of the Council, to take minutes of the proceed- ings of such meetings, and at the commencement of such to read aloud the minutes of the preceding meeting. . At the Ordinary General Meetings of the members, to announce the presents made to the Society since their last meeting ; to read the certificates of candidates for admission to the Society, and such original papers com- municated to the Society as are not read by their respective authors, and the letters addressed to it. . To make abstracts of the papers read at the Ordinary General Meetings, to be inserted in the Minutes and printed in the Proceedings. To edit the Transactions of the Society, and to superintend the making of an Index for the same. . To be responsible for the arrangement and safe custody of the books, maps, plans, specimens, and other property of the Society. . To make an entry of all books, maps, plans, pamphlets, etc., in the Library Catalogue, and of all presentations to the Society in the Donation Book. . To keep an account of the issue and return of books, &c., borrowed by members of the Society, and to see that the borrower, in every case, signs for the same in the Library Book. . To address to every person elected into the Society a printed copy of the Forms Nos. 2 and 3 (in the Appen- dix), together with a list of the members, a copy of the Rules, and a card of the dates of meetings; and to acknowledge all donations made to the Society. j (xxiil.) 10. To cause due notice to be given of all Meetings of the Society and Council. 11. To keep a list of the attendances of the members of the Council at the Council Meetings and at the ordinary General Meetings, in order that the same may be laid before the Society at the Annual General Meeting held in the month of May. The Honorary Secretaries shall, by mutual agreement, divide the performance of the duties above enumerated. The Honorary Secretaries shall, by virtue of their office, be members of all Committees appointed by the Council. Contributions to the Society. XXXII. Contributions to the Society, of whatever character, must be sent to one of the Hon. Secretaries, to be laid before the Council of Management. It will be the duty of the Council to arrange for promulgation and discussion at an Ordinary Meeting such communications as are suitable for that purpose, as well as to dispose of the whole in the manner best adapted to promote the objects of the Society. XXXIII. The original copy of every paper communicated to the Society, with the illustrative drawings, shall become the property of the Society unless stipulation be made to the contrary ; and authors shall not be at liberty, save by permission of the Council, to publish the papers they have communicated, until such papers, or abstracts of them, have appeared in the Journal or other publications of the Society. XXXIV. If any paper of importance is communicated ‘during the recess, the same may be ordered for publication by the Council without being read to the Society. Management of Funds. XXXV. The funds of the Society shall be lodged at a Bank named by the Council of Management. Claims against the Society, when approved by the Council, shall be paid by the Treasurer. All cheques shall be countersigned by a member of the Council. (xxiv.) * Money Grants. XXXVI. Grants of money in aid of scientific purposes from the funds of the Society—to Sections or to members —shall expire on the Ist of November in each year. Such grants, if not expended, may be re-voted. XXXVIT. Such grants of money to Committees and individual members shall not be used to defray any personal expenses which a member may incur. Audit of Accownts. XXXVIII. Two Auditors shall be appointed annually, at an Ordinary General Meeting, to audit the Treasurer’s Accounts. The accounts as audited to be laid before the Annual Meeting in May. Property of the Society to be vested in the President, kc. XX XIX. All property whatever belonging to the Society shall be vested in the President, Vice-Presidents, Hon. Treasurer, and Hon. Secretaries for the time being, in trust for the use of the Society ; but the Council shall have control over the disbursements of the funds and the management of the property of the Society. Keports. XL. It shall be the duty of the President, Vice-Presidents, Hon. Treasurer, and Honorary Secretaries to annually examine into and report to the Council upon the state of — 1. The Society’s house and effects. 2. The keeping of the official books and correspondence. 3. The Library, including maps and drawings. 4. The Society’s cabinets and collections. Cabinets and Collections. XLI. The keepers of the Society’s cabinets and collections shall give a list of the contents, and report upon the condition of the same to the Council annually. *Applicants for money grants are required to supply the following information :— 1. The nature of the research and the scientific results expected to follow therefrom: 2. The amount asked for. ‘ ; 3. Whether any previous grant has been received from any source, and if so with what results. ; 4. Whether any portion of the grant is to be devoted to personal remuneration. 5. What apparatus (if any) of permanent value will be required. (XxXv.) Sections. XLII. To allow those members of the Society who devote attention to particular branches of science fuller opportunities and facilities of meeting and working together with fewer formal restrictions than are necessary at the Ordinary General Meetings of the Society,—Sections or Committees may be established in the following branches of science :— Section A.—Astronomy, Meteorology, Physics, Mathematics, and Mechanics. Section 5.—Chemistry and Mineralogy, and their application to the Arts and Agriculture. Section C.—Geology and Paleontology. Section D.—Biology, 1.e. Botany and Zoology, including Entomology. Section E.—Miscroscopical Science. Section F.—Geography and Ethnology. Section G.—Literature and the Fine Arts, including Architecture. Section H.—Medical. Section L.—Sanitary and Social Science and Statistics. Section K.—Civil and Mechanical Engineering. Section Commitiees—Card of Meetings. XLIII. The first meeting of each Section shall be appointed by the Council. At that meeting the members shall elect their own chairman, Secretary, and a Committee of four; and arrange the days and hours of their future meetings. A card showing the dates of each meeting for the current year shall he printed for distribution amongst the members of the Society. Membership of Sections. XLIV. Only members of the Society shall have the privilege of joining any of the Sections. Reports from Sections. XLV. The Secretary of each Section shall keep minutes of its proceedings. The Chairman and the Secretary shall jointly prepare and forward to the Hon. Secretaries of the Society, on or (XXvi.) before the 21st December in each year, a report of the proceed- ings of the Section during that year, in order that the same may be laid before the Council. Documents. XLVI. The Honorary Secretaries and Honorary Treasurer shall see that all documents relating to the Society’s property, the obligations given by members, the policies of insurance, and other securities shall be lodged in the Society’s iron chest, the contents of which shall be inspected by the Council once in every year ; a list of such contents shall be kept, and such list shall be signed by the President or one of the Vice-Presidents at the annual inspection. Branch Societies. XLVII. The Society shall have power to form Branch Societies in other parts of the State. Library. XLVIII. The members of the Society shall have access to, and shall be entitled to borrow books from the Library, under such regulations as the Council may think necessary. } Alteration of Rules. XLIX. No alteration of, or addition to, the Rules of the Society shall be made unless carried at one Ordinary General Meeting, and confirmed at the next Annual General Meeting, at each of which twenty-five members at least must be present. THE LIBRARY. 1. The Library shall be open for consultation and for the issue and return of books daily (except Saturday), from 9.30 a.m. to 1 p.m., and 2 to 6 p.m., and on Saturdays from 9°30 a.m. to 1°30 p.m. 2. The Library will not be open on public holidays. 3. No book shall be issued without being signed for in the Library Book. (XXvIi.) 4. Members are not allowed to have more than two volumes at a time from the Library, without special permission from one of the Honorary Secretaries, nor to retain a book for a longer period than fourteen days; but when a book is returned by a member it may be borrowed by him again, provided it has not been bespoken by any other member. Books which have been bespoken shall circulate in rotation, according to priority of application. 5. Scientific Periodicals and Journals will not be lent until the volumes are completed and bound. 6. Dictionaries, Encyclopedias, and other works of reference and cost, Atlases, Books and Illustrations in loose sheets, Draw- ings, Prints and unbound numbers of Periodicals and Works, Journals, Transactions and Proceedings of Societies or Institutions, Works of a Series, Maps or Charts, are not to be removed from the Library without the written order of the President or one of the Hon. Secretaries. 7. Members retaining books longer than the time specified shall be subject to a fine of sixpence per week for each volume. 8. The books which have been issued shall be called in by the Secretaries twice a year ; and in the event of any book not being returned on those occasions, the member to whom it was issued shall be answerable for it, and shall be required to defray the cost of replacing the same. 9. No stranger shall be admitted to the Library except by the introduction of a member, whose name, together with that of the visitor, shall be inserted in a book kept for that purpose. 10. Members shall not Jay the paper upon which the year writing on any Book or Map. No tracings shall be made without express permission from the Hon. Secretaries. (xx vill.) Form No. 1. Roya Society oF New SoutH WaALgzs. Certificate of a Candidate for Election. Name Qualification or occupation Address being desirous of admission into the Royal Society of New South Wales, we, the undersigned members of the Society, propose and recommend him as a proper person to become a member thereof. Dated this day of 190 From PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE. From GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. Signature of candidate Date received 190 N.B.—This certificate must be signed by three or more members, to two of whom the candidate must be personally known. The candidate must be at least twenty-one years ofage. This certificate has to be read at three ordinary general meetings of the Society. Form No. 2. Royat Society or New SourH WALEs. The Society’s House, Sir, Sydney 190 I have the honour to inform you that you have this day been elected a member of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and I beg to forward to you a copy of the rules of the Society, a printed copy of an obligation, a list of members, and a card announcing the dates of meeting during the present session. According to the Reguiations of the Society (vide Rule No. 9), you are required to pay your admission fee of two guineas, and annual subscrip- tion of two guineas for the current year, before admission. You are also requested to sign and return the enclosed form of obligation at your earliest convenience. I have, &e., To Hon Secretary. Form No. 3. Royat SocizTy or New SoutrH WALES. I, the undersigned, do hereby engage that I will endeavour to promote the interests and welfare of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and to observe its Rules and By-laws, as long as I shall remain a member thereof. | Address . Signed, Date (xxix.) Form No. 4. List of Members, recommended by the Council under Rule IV., as Members of the New Council. Roya Society oF New SoutH WALEs. WD AILERE cciiiatccheote oes tenaenesee wi Present Council. | Persons recommended as Members of the New Council President. | V ice-Presidents. | Hon. Treasurer. | Hon. Secretaries | Members of Council. | | Any member of the Society not disqualified by Rules XVI., XVII., or XVITI., may be nominated for the position of President, Vice-President, Honorary Treasurer, Honorary Secretary, or Member of the Council, provided that his candidature shall have been notified to the Honorary _ Secretary or Secretaries under the hands of two qualified voters—such notification being countersigned by the nominee—at least fourteen days before the day appointed for the Annual General Meeting. (xxx.) Form No. 5. Balloting List for the Election of Officers and Council. Royau Society oF New SoutH WALES. Date..iccvceveeseee Jenteal Council’s recommendation under Rule IV. Proposed Nomination by Ordinary Name of Nominators. Members of the New Council. Members. President. | President. | Vice-Presidents. Vice-Presidents. | Hon. Treasurer. Hon. Treasurer. Hon. Secretaries. Hon. Secretaries. Members of Council. Members of Council. mee | | Sf | ee | Le | | | ee | ee a Se PNPNANINENANAN AURA RARERA RAVER UARAV IL NA VALERIAN NAN AVAIL ANARANAAANNAANANNAANANNAANANARANANANNANANNANANANNANNANANANNANNANNANNANANAANNNNANANAINANNNANNANARRIU NOTICE. Members are particularly requested to communicate any change of address to the Hon. Secretaries, for which purpose this slip is inserted. Corrected Address : Name...... .... 3 206 SOO KO BOA ORO OR CEEE OLR O OLE BOOTIE SER IMEC NE IT NM pt. RMU gays ns AO a LE ES. 22 Ge ok oct USAC ce AERC SEO Sates : cn LIES Se ce beet CLG SRG ONES AI eR Aa 7 atl oe Po S EG 6s, Oo 2 Sein ne a ree 5 To the Hon. Secretaries, The Royal Society of N. S. Wales, 5 Elizabeth Street, Sydney. beat elt Pei Oats ae at at a al Ss is as we A LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE Ropal Society of of ety South Gales. PLP eae P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s Transactions or Journal; papers published in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society are also included. The numerals indicate the number of such contributions. { Life Members. Elected. ; 1877 | P5| Abbott, W. E., ‘ Abbotsford,’ Wingen. 1895 Adams, J. H. M., Broughton Cottage, St. James’ Rd., Waverley. 1890 | P2| Allan, Percy, M. Inst. C.E., Assoc. M. Am, Soc. C,E., Engineer-in-Charge, of Bridge Design, Public Works Department, Sydney. 1885 Allworth, Joseph Witter, Chief Surveyor, Lands Department, Sydney. 1898 Alexander, Frank Lee, c/o Messrs. Goodlet and Smith Ld., Cement Works, Granville. 1877 Anderson, H. C. L., m.a., Principal Librarian, Public Library of N. S. Wales, 161 Macquarie-street. 1899 | P1| Atkinson, A. A., Chief Inspector of Collieries, Department of Mines, Sydney. 1878 Backhouse, Alfred P., m.a., District Court Judge, ‘ Melita,’ Elizabeth Bay. 1894 | P 8} Baker, Richard Thomas, F.u.s.,Curator,Technological Museum. 1900 Bale, Ernest, c.z,, Public Works Department. 1894 {Balsile, George, ‘Sandymount,’ Dunedin, New Zealand. 1895 | P5| Bancroft, T. L’, u.s. Edin, Deception Bay, vid Burpengary,. Brisbane, Queensland. 1896 Barff, H. E., u.a., Registrar, Sydney University. 1895 | P7| Barraclough, S. H., B.E., M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst.C.E., Memb. Soc. Promotion Eng. Education, Lecturer in Engineering, Sydney University; p.r. ‘ Lansdowne,’ 30 Bayswater Road, Darlinghurst. 1901 Bartholomew, Charles P , 361 George-street. 1894 Baxter, William Howe, Chief Surveyor Existing Lines Office, Railway Department, Bridge-street. 1898 Beale, Charles Griffin, 109 Pitt-street and Warrigal Club. 1877 Belfield, Algernon H., ‘ Eversleigh,’ Dumaresq. 1876 Benbow, Clement A., 48 College-street. 1900 Bender, Ferdinand, ’ Accountant and Auditor, 21 Elizabeth-. street, North. 1869 | P 2} Bensusan, 8. L , Equitable Building, George-st., Box 411 G.P.O. 1895 Bensusan, A. J., A.R.S.M., F.c.s., Laboratory, 12 O’Connell-st. 1901. Birks, Lawrence, B.3c., Assoc. M. Inst.C.E., A.M.I.E.E., F.G.S., 133. Macquarie-street. 1888 ftBlaxland, Walter, F.R.c.s. Hng., L.R.c.P. Lond., Mount Barker, South Australia. aN 7 ik , (xxXxiv. ) Elected 1893 Blomfield, Charles E., B.c.z. Melb., Public Works Department Sydney. 1879 Blunno, Michele, Licenziato in Science (Roma), Government Viticultural Expert, Department of Agriculture, Sydney. 1879 {Bond, Albert, 131 Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-street. 1895 | P1| Boultbee, James W., Superintendent of Public Watering Places and Artesian Boring, Department of Lands. 1891 Bowman, Archer S., B.z., ‘ Keadue,’ Elizabeth Bay Road. 1893 Bowman, John, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., ‘Tramway Construction Branch, Public Works Department. 1893 Bowman, Reginald, M.B. etch. M. Hdin., u.R.c.s. Eng., 261 Eliza- beth-street and George-street, Parramatta. 1876 Brady, Andrew John, Lic. K. &Q. Coll. Phys. [rel., Lic. R. Coll. Sur. Trel. 3 Lyons’ Terrace, Hyde Park. 1891 Brennand, Henry J. W., B.A., M.B., Ch.M. Syd. Univ., 203 Mac- quarie-street. 1902 Brereton, Victor Le Gay, Solicitor, Tattersall’s Chambers, Hunter-st.; p.r. ‘Osgathorpe,’ Gladesville. 1878 tBrooks, Joseph, F.R.A.S, F.R.G.S., ‘ Hope Bank,’ Nelson-street, Woollahra. 1876 Brown, Henry Joseph, Solicitor, Newcastle. 1891 Bruce, John Leck, Technical College, Sydney. 1898 _| Burfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, m.B., chm. Syd., B.A., B.Sc, 311 Glebe Road, Glebe Point. 1891 | P 4| Burge, Charles Ormsby, M.Ist.cz, Principal Assistant En- gineer, Railway Construction, p.r. ‘ Fitz Johns,’ Alfred-st. N., North Sydney. 1890 Burne, Dr. Alfred, Dentist, 1 Lyons’ Terrace, Liverpool-street, 1880 Bush, Thomas James, M. Inst.c.E., Engineer’s Office, Australian Gas-Light Company, 163 Kent-street. 1876 Cadell, Alfred, Coramba, vid South Grafton. 1902 Calder, Robert A., Dentist, 448 Castlereagh-street. 1897 Callender, James Ormiston, Consulting Electrical Engineer, 20 St. James’ Court, Buckingham Gate, London S.W. 1894 Cameron, Alex. Mackenzie, Walgett. 1899 Cameron, R. B., Secretary A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-street. 1900 Canty, M., ‘Rosemont,’ 13 York-street, Wynyard Square. 1876 Cape, Alfred J., m.a. Syd., ‘Karoola,’ Edgecliffe Rd., Edgecliffe. 1897 | P 1} Cardew, John Haydon, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., L.8., 75 Pitt-street. 1901 Card, George William, a.8.s.M., F.4.S,, Curator and Mineralogist to the Geological Survey, N.S.W. Department of Mines. 1891 Carment, David. F.1.A. Gt. Brit. & Irel , ¥.¥.a. Scot., Australian Mutual Provident Society, 87 Pitt-street. . 1879 | P1/fChard, J. S , Licensed Surveyor, Armidale. 1878 Chisholm, Bakvin, M.R.c.s. Eng., L.8.4. Lond., 82 Darlinghurst Road. 1885 Chisholm, William, u.p., Lond., 189 Macquarie-street, North. 1888 Clubbe, C. P. B., u.R.c.P. Gaus M.R.C.s. Eng., 195 Macquarie-st. 1896 | P1| Cook, W. E., u.c.z. Melb. Univ., M. Inst. C.E,, District Engineer, Water and Sewerage Department, North Sydney. 1876 Codrington, John Frederick, m.R.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Lond., L.R.C.P. Edin., ‘Winwood,’ Wahroonga. Elected 1893 |- Hes 1856 1882 1891 1892 | P 1 1886 | 1869 1870 1891 | P5 1875 1893 1876|P3 ‘1877 1886 |P 15 4892|.P 1 1878 1885 | P 2) 1877 ee | 1899 | P1 1894 1875 |P 12 1880 1879 1876 1899 1873 | Pl (xxxv.) Cohen, Algernon A., u.B., M.D. Aberd., M.R.c.s. Hng., 61 Dar- linghurst Road. Colyer, J. U. C., Australian Gas-Light Co., 163 Kent-street. Comrie, James, ‘Northfield,’ Kurrajong Heights, vid Richmond. Cornwell, Samuel, Australian Brewery, Bourke-st., Waterloo. Coutie, W. H., ms, cn.s. Univ. Melb., ‘ Warminster,’ Canter- bury Road, Petersham. | Cowdery, George R., Assoc. M. Inst.c.E., Engineer for Tramways, 72a Phillip-st., p.r. ‘Glencoe,’ Torrington Rd., Strathfield. Crago, W. H., M.B.c.8s. Eng., L.B.C.P. Tonae 16 College- street, Hyde Park. Creed, The Hon. J. Mildred, m.u.c., M.R.¢.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Edin., 195 Elizabeth-street. Croudace, Thomas, Lambton. Curran, Rev. J. Milne, Lecturer in Geology, Technical College, Sydney. Dangar, Fred. H., c/o Messrs. Dangar, Gedye, & Co., Mer- cantile Bank Chambers, Margaret-street. Dare, Henry Harvey, M.£, Assoc. M. Inst. 0.E., Roads and Bridges Branch, Public Works Department. Darley, Cecil West, m. inst.c.u, c/o The Agent General, West- minster Chambers, 9 Victoria- street, London, S.W. Darley, The Hon. Sir Frederick, a.c.m.¢., B.A., Chief Justice, Supreme Court. David, T.W. Edgeworth, B.a.,F.R.S ,F.G.8., Professor of Geology and Physical Geography, Sydney University, Glebe. Vice- President. Davis, Joseph, m.inst.c.z., Under Secretary, Department of Public Works. Dean, Alexander, J.p., 42 Castlereagh-street, Box 409 G.P.O. Deane, Henry, M.A., M. Inst. c.E., Engineer-in-Chief for Railways, Railway Construction Branch, Public Works Department; p.r. ‘Blanerne,’ Wybalena Road, Hunter’s Hill. Vice- President. Deck, John Feild, u.p. Univ. St. And.,, u.R.c.P. Lond., M.R.¢.8. _Eng., 203 Macquarie-st.; p.r. 92 Elizabeth-st., Ashfield. De Coque, J. V, Public Works Department, Sydney. Dick, James Adam, B.A. Syd, u.v., c.m. Hdin., ‘ Catfoss,’ Belmore Road, Randwick. Dixon, W. A. F.c.s., Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland, 97 Pitt-street. Dixson, Thomas, m.B. Hdin., Mast. Surg. Edin , 287 Elizabeth- street, Hyde Park. Docker, Wilfred L., ‘ Nyrambla,’ Darlinghurst Road. Docker, Ernest B., u.a. Syd., District Court Judge, ‘Eltham,’ Edgecliffe Road. Duckworth, A., A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-st.; p.r. ‘ Trentham,’ Woollahra. Du Faur, ¥.R.G.s., Exchange Buildings, Pitt-street. Elected 1894 1896 1901 1879 1876 1892 1896 1877 1896 1868 1887 1889 1897 1881 1891 1891 1888 1894 1900 1879 1881 1899 1881 1899 1876 1879 1896 1891 1876 1883 1859 1896 P4 P4 (xxxvi.) Edgell, Robert Gordon, Roads and Bridges Office, Wollombi. Edwards, George Rixon, Resident Engineer, Roads and Bridges Branch, Crookwell. Enright, Walter J., B.a. Syd., Solicitor, ‘Fairy Lawn,’ West Maitland. Etheridge, Robert, Junr., 3.p., Curator, Australian Museum ; p.r. 21 Roslyn-street, Darlinghurst. Evans, George, Fitz Evan Chambers, Castlereagh-street. Everett, W. Frank, Roads and Bridges Office, Muswellbrook. Fairfax, Charles Burton, S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. {Fairfax, Edward Ross, 8. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. Fairfax, Geoffrey E., S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. Fairfax, Sir James R., Knt., 8S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-st. Faithfull, R. L., u.p. New York (Coll. Phys. & Surg.) L.B.c.P., L.s.A. Lond., 18 Wylde-street. Farr, Joshua J., J.P , ‘Cora Lynn,’ Addison Rd., Marrickville. Fell, David, ca.a., Public Accountant, Equitable Building, George-street. Fiaschi, Thos., u.p., M.Ch., Univ. Pisa, 149 Macquarie-street. Firth, Thomas Rhodes, M. Inst.c.E., ‘Glenevin,’ Arncliffe. Fitzgerald, Robert D., c.z., Roads and Bridges Branch, Department of Public Works, Sydney; p.r. Alexandra-st., Hunter’s Hill. Fitzhardinge, Grantly Hyde, m.a. Syd., District Court Judge, ‘Red Hill,’ Beecroft, Northern Line. Fitz Nead, A. Churchill, Lands Department, Lismore. t¢Flashman, James Froude, mu.p. Syd., ‘Totnes,’ Temple-street, Petersham. tForeman, Joseph, M.R.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Edin., 141 Macquarie- street. Foster, The Hon. W. J., K.c., ‘Thurnby,’ Enmore Road, Newtown. French, J. Russell, General Manager, Bank of New South Wales, George-street. Furber, T. F., Trignometrical Service ; p.r, ‘ Tennyson House,’ 145 Victoria-street. Garran, R. R., m.a., c.u.a., Wigram Chambers, Phillip-street. George, W. R., 318 George-street. Gerard, Francis, ‘ Clandulla,’ Goulburn. Gibson, Frederick William, District Court, Judge ‘ Grasmere,’ Stanmore Road. | Gill, Robert J., Public Works Department, Moruya. Gipps, F. B., c.z., ‘Elmly,’ Mordialloc, Victoria. Goode, W. H., M.A., M.D., Ch.M. Diplomate in State Medicine Dub.; Surgeon Royal Navy; Corres. Mem. Royal Dublin Society; Mem. Brit. Med. Assoc.; Lecturer on Medical Jurisprudence, University of Sydney, 159 Macquarie-st. Goodlet, John H., ‘Canterbury House,’ Ashfield. Gollin, Walter J., Australian Club. Elected 1897 1886 (xxXvii.) Gould, Major The Hon. Albert John, Senator, Holt’s Chambers, 121 Pitt-street; p.r. ‘ Eynesbury,’ Edgecliff. Graham, Sir James, Knt., M.A., M.D., M.B., O.M., Hdin., 183 Liverpool-street. 1891 | P1| Grimshaw, James Walter, m. Inst., C.E., M. I. Mech. E., &c., Australian 1899 | P1 1877 1891 | P4 1900 1880 | P1 | 1899 1892 1901 |. 1887 | P6 1882 1881 Club, Sydney. Gummow, Frank M., M.C.E,, Assoc, M. Inst. C.E., Vickery’s Cham- bers, Pitt-street. Gurney, T. T.,u.a. Cantab., Professor of Mathematics, Sydney University ; p.r.‘Clavering,’ French’s Forest Road, Manly. Guthrie, Frederick B.,¥.1.c., F.c.s., Department of Agriculture, Sydney. Hadley, Arthur, F.c.s., Standard Brewery, Sydney. Halligan, Gerald H, r.a.s., ‘ Riversleigh,’ Hunter’s Hill. | Halloran, A., B.A., LL.B. 20 Castlereach-street. | Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, t.s., Scott’s Chambers, 94 Pitt-st. Hamilton, John William, c.z., ‘ Herrickville,’ Alt-st., Ashfield. Hamlet, William M., F.1.c., F.c.s., Member of the Society of Public Analysts; Government Analyst, Health Depart- ment, Macquarie-street North. Vice-President. | Hankins, George Thomas, m.R.c.s., Eng., ‘St. Romans,’ Allison Road Randwick. {Harris, John, ‘ Bulwarra,’ Jones-street Ultimo. 1877 |P 18 tHargrave, Lawrence, J.P., Woollahra Point. 1899 1844 1899 1900 1890 | P2 1891 1900 1902 1899 1899 1884. 1891 1876 | P2 1896 1892 - 1901 1891 | P2 1879 1891} Pl Harper, H. W., Assoc, M. Inst, C.E., Equitable Buildings, George-st. Haswell, William Aitcheson, m.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University, Sydney ; p.r., ‘Mimihu,’ Woollahra Point. _ Hawker, Herbert, Demonstrator in Physiology, University of Sydney; p.r. 1 Northumberland Avenue, Petersham. Hawkins, W. E., Solicitor, 88 Pitt-street. Haycroft, James Isaac, m.z. Queen’s Univ. Irel., assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Assoc, M. Can. Soc. C.E., Assoc. M. Am, Soc. C.E, M.M. & C.E., M. Inst. C,E. I., L.S,, ‘Fontenoy,’ Ocean-street, Woollahra. Hedley, Charles, rus, Assistant in Zoology, Australian Museum, Sydney. Helms, Richard, Experimentalist, Department of Agriculture. Hennessy, John Francis, Architect, City Chambers, 243 Pitt-st. Henderson, J., Manager, City Bank of Sydney, Pitt-street. Henderson, S.,™.a., Assoc, M. Inst. C.E., Equitable Building, George- street. Henson, Joshua B., Assoc. M.C.E., Hunter District Water Supply and Sewerage Board, Newcastle. Hickson, Robert R. P., M.Inst.c.k., Chairman Harbour Trust, Sydney ; p.r. ‘The Pines,’ Bondi. Hirst, George D., F.R.4.s., 379 George-street. Hinder, Henry Critchley, u.s., c.m. Syd., Elizabeth-st., Ashfield. Hodgson, Charles George, 157 Macquarie-street. Holt, Thomas S., ‘ Holwood,’ Victoria-street, Ashfield. Houghton, Thos. Harry, M. Inst. C.E., M. I. Mech. E., 63 Pitt-street. Houison, Andrew, B.A., M.B., c.M. Edin., 47 Phillip-street. How, William F., M. Inst. C.E., M.I. Mech, E., Wh.Sc, Mutual Life Buildings, George-street. "gi « «7 (xxxviii.) Elected 1877 Hume, J. K., ‘ Beulah,’ Campbelltown. , 1894 | P2| Hunt, Henry A., F.R. Met. Soc, First Meteorological Assistant, Sydney Observatory. é 1894 Jamieson, Sydney, B.A., M.B., M.R.C.8., L.B.C.P., 189 Liverpool- street, Hyde Park. 1900 Jarman, Arthur, A.R.s.m., Demonstrator, University of Sydney. 1884 Jenkins, Edward Johnstone, M.A., M.D. Oxon., M.R.C.P., M.B.C.S., L.s.A. Lond., 218 Macquarie-street, North. 1887 Jones, George Mander, m.R.c.s. Hng., u.R.c.P. Lond., *‘ Viwa,’ Burlington Road, Homebush. 1884 Jones, Llewellyn Charles Russell, Solicitor, Sydney Chambers, 130 Pitt-street. 1867 Jones, P. Sydney, m.p. Lond., F.R.c.s. Eng., 16 College-street, Hyde Park; pr. ‘Llandilo,’ Boulevard, Strathfield. 1876 Jones, Richard Theophilus, u.p. Syd., u.R.c.p. Hdin., ‘Cader Idris,’ Ashfield. 1876 | P2| Josephson, J. Percy, Assoc. M.Inst.c E., Stephen Court, 81 Eliza- beth-street, p.r. ‘ Moppity,’ George-street, Dulwich Hill. 1878 Joubert, Numa, Hunter’s Hill. 1883 Kater, The Hon. H. E., J.p., u.u.c., Australian Club. 1873 Keele, Thomas William, M.Inst.c.E.,- Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works Department. 1877 Keep, John, Broughton Hall, Leichhardt. 1894 Kelly, Walter Macdonnell, L.n.c P., L.R.c.s. Hdin., L.F.P.S. Glas., 265 Elizabeth-street. 1887 Kent, Harry C., m.a., Bell’s Chambers, 129 Pitt-street. 1898 Kerry, Charles H., 3.p., 310 George-street. 1901 Kidd, Hector, ‘ Craig Lea,’ 15 Mansfield-street, Glebe Point. 1892 | P3| Kiddle, Hugh Charles, F. k, Met.Soc., Public School, Seven Oaks, Smithtown, Macleay River. 1891 King, Christopher Watkins, Assoc. M. Inst.C.E., LS. Assistant Engineer, Harbours and Rivers Department, Newcastle. 1874 King, The Hon. Phillip G., u.u.c., ‘ Banksia,’ William-street, Double Bay. 1896 King, Kelso, 120 Pitt-street. . 1892 Kircaldie, David, Commissioner, New South Wales (rovern- ment Railways, Sydney. 1878 Knagegs, Samuel T., m.p. Aberdeen., F.R.c.S. Irel.. 5 Lyons’ Terrace, Hyde Park. 1881 |P 16] Knibbs, G. H., r.n.a.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Avoca House, Denison Road, Petersham. . Hon. Secretary. 1877 Knox, Edward W., ‘ Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Rose Bay. 1878 Kyngdon, F. B., F.x.u,s. Lond., Deanery Cottage, Bowral. 1874| | Lenehan, Henry Alfred, F.r.a.s., Sydney Observatory. 1901 ‘| Lindeman, Charles F., Wine Merchant, Jersey Rd., Strathfield.- 1883 Lingen, J. T., u.a. Cantab., 167 Phillip-street. - Elected 1901 (xxxix.) Little, Robert, ‘The Hermitage,’ Double Bay. 1872 |P 51] Liversidge, Archibald, m.a. Cantab., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. F.R.8. 1878 1892 1887 1887 1874 1892 1897 1878 1868 1877 1891 | 1900 1891 1893 1876 1876 1880 | P7 1876 1901 1901 1894 1900 1899 1882 | Pl Edin.; Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, Lond.; F.c.8., F.G.S., F.B.G.S.3 Fel. Inst. Chem. of Gt. Brit. and Irel.; Hon. Fel. Roy. Historical Soc. Lond; Mem. Phy. Soc. Lond.; Mineral- ogical Society, Lond.; Edin. Geol. Soc.; Mineralogical Society, France; Corr. Mem. Edin. Geol. Soc.; New York Acad. of Sciences; Roy. Soc., Tas.; Roy. Soc., Queensland ; Senckenberg Institute, Frankfurt; Society d’ Acclimat., Mauritius; Foreign Corr. Indiana Acad. of Sciences; Hon. Mem. Roy. Soc., Vict.; N. Z. Institute; K. Leop. Carol. Acad., Halle a/s; Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, The University, Glebe; p.r. ‘The Octagon,’ St. Mark’s Road, Darling Point. Vice-President. ‘| Low, Hamilton, ‘ Lillington.’ Cambridge-street, Stanmore. MacCarthy, Charles W., m.p., F.R.c.8. Irel.; 223 Elizabeth- street, Hyde Park. MacCormick, Alexander, M.D., c.M. meen, M.R.C.S. Hng., 125 Macquarie- -street, North. MacCulloch, Stanhope H., u.z., c.m. Hdin., 24 College-street. M‘Cutcheon, John Warner, ‘ Mayville,’ Wallis-st., Woollahra. McDonagh, John M., B.a., M.D., M.R.c.P. Lond., F.R.c.8. Irel., 173 Macquarie-street, North. MacDonald, C. A., c.z., 63 Pitt-street. MacDonald, Ebenezer, J.P., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co. Ld., 2 Spring-street. MacDonnell, William J., F.R.A.s., 15 Post Office Chambers, Pitt-street. MacDonnell, S., 121 Pitt-street. McDouall, Herbert Crichton, m.R.c.s. EHng., wu.R.c.p. Lond., D.P.H. Camb., Hospital for Insane, Callan Park, Rozelle. McKay, G. A., Chief Mining Surveyor, Department of Mines, Sydney. : McKay, R. T., u.s., Sewerage Construction Branch, Public Works Department. McKay, William J. Stewart, B.Sc, M.B., Ch.M., Cambridge-street, Stanmore. Mackellar, The Hon. Charles Kinnaird, M.u.c., M.B., c.M. Glas., Equitable Building, George-street. Mackenzie, Rev. P. F., The Manse, Johnston st., Annandale. M‘Kinney, Hugh Giffin, m.z. Roy. Univ. Irel., M. Inst. C.E, Exchange, 56 Pitt-st.; p.r. ‘ Dilkhusha,’ Fuller’s Road, Chatswood. MacLaurin, The Hon. Henry Norman, M.tu.c., M.a,, M.D. Hdin., L.R.c.s. Edin., tu.D. Univ. St. Andrews, 155 Macquarie-st. McMaster, Colin J., Chief Commissioner of Western Lands, p.r. ‘Monomie,’ Longueville. McMillan, Robert, 129 Macquarie-street. McMillan, Sir William, ‘ Logan Brae,’ Waverley. MacTaggart, A. H., p.p.s. Phil. U.S.A., King and Phillip-sts. MacTaggart, J. N. C., B.u. Syd., 16 Lugar-street, Waverley. Madsen, Hans. F., ‘Hesselmed House,’ Queen-st., Newtown. Elected 1883 1880 1877 1876 1869 1897 1875 1888 1896 1887 1873 1882 1881 1856 1879 1875 1877 1882 1877 1879 1887 1898 1876 1893 1901 1891 1873 1893 1896 P8 Py P13 P5 P3 PY. Pi (xl.) Maiden, J. Henry, J.pP., F.L.s.,;Government Botanist and Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Hon. Secretary. Manfred, Edmund C., Montague-street, Goulburn. Mann, John F., ‘ Kerepunu,’ Neutral Bay. Manning, Frederic Norton, u.p. Univ. St. And., m.R.c.s. Eng., u.s.A. Lond., Australian Club. Mansfield, G. Allen, Martin Chambers, Moore-street. Marden, John, B.A., MA., LL.B., Univ. Melb., tu.p. Univ. Syd., Principal, Presbyterian Ladies’ College, Sydney. Mathews, Robert Hamilton, t s., Assoc. Mem. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris; Cor. Mem. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A. ; Cor. Mem. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust., Queensland ; ‘ Carcuron,’ Hassall street, Parramatta. Megginson, A. M , m.B., c.m. Edin., 147 Elizabeth-street. Merfield, Charles J., ¥.R.a.s., Railway Construction Branch, Public Works Department; p.r. ‘ Branville, Green Bank- street, Marrickville. Miles, George E., u.R.c.p. Lond., M.R.c.s. Eng., The Hospital, Rydalmere, near Parramatta. Milford, F., m.p. Heidelberg, M.R.c.S. Eng., 231 Elizabeth-st. Milson, James, ‘ Elamang,’ North Shore. Mingaye, John C. H., F.1.c., F.c.s., Assayer and Analyst to the Department of Mines, Government Metallurgical Works, Clyde; p.r. Campbell-street, Parramatta. Moore, Charles, F.R.BS., ¢.M.z.Ss., Australian Club; p.r. 6 Queen-street, Woollahra. Moore, Frederick H., Iawarra Coal Co., Gresham-street. Moir, James, 58 Margaret-street. Morris, William, Fel. Fac. Phys. and Surg. Glas., F.R.M.S. Lond., clo Mr. W. J. Munro, City Mutual Chambers, Hunter-street. Moss, Sydney, ‘ Kaloola,’ Kirribilli Point, North Shore. {Mullins, Josiah, F.R.G.s., ‘Tenilba,’ Burwood. Mullins, John Francis Lane, u.a. Syd., ‘Killountan,’ Challis Avenue, Pott’s Point. Munro, William John, B.A., M.B.,c.M., M.D. Hdin., M.R.Cc.S. Eng., 218 Macquarie-street; p.r. ‘ Forest House,’ 182 Pyrmont Bridge Road, Forest Lodge. Murray, Lee, m.c.z. Melb., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., 16 O’Connell-street. Myles, Charles Henry, ‘ Dingadee,’ Burwood. Nangle, James, Architect, Australia-street, Newtown. Newton, Roland G.,‘ Northleigh,’ Union-street, North Sydney. tNoble, Edwald George, 21 Norfolk-street, Paddington. Norton, The Hon. James, M.L.Cc., LL.D., Solicitor, 2 O’Connell- street; p.r. ‘ Ecclesbourne,’ Double Bay. Noyes, Edward, c.s., c/o Messrs. Noyes Bros., 109 Pitt-street. Onslow, Lt. Col. James William Macarthur, Camden Park, Menangle. Elected 1875 1883 1891 (xli.) | O’Reilly, W. W. J., M.D. M.ch., Q. Univ. Irel., m.z.c.s. Eng., 197 PS Pl Pal Pil Pil P3 Pl Liverpool-street. Osborne, Ben. M., 3.p., ‘ Hopewood,’ Bowral. Osborn, A. F., Assoc, M. Inst. C.E., Public Works Department,Cowra. Palmer, Joseph, 96 Pitt-st.; p.r. Kenneth-st., Willoughby. Paterson, Hugh, 197 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park. Peake, Algernon, 25 Prospect Road, Ashfield. Pearse, W., Union Club; p.r. Moss Vale. Pedley, Perceval R., 227 Macquarie-street. Perkins, Henry A., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co. Ld., 2 Spring-st. Peterson, T. T., Associate Sydney Institute of Public Account- ants, 85 Womerah Avenue. Pickburn, Thomas, m.p., c.m. Aberdeen, M.R.c.S. Eng., 22 College-street. Pittman, Edward F., Assoc. R.S.M., L.S., Government Geologist, Department of Mines. Plummer, John, ‘Northwood,’ Lane Cove River, Box 413 G.P.O. Poate, Frederick, Lands Office, Moree. Pockley, Thomas F. G., Commercial Bank, Singleton. Pollock, James Arthur, B.zE. Roy. Univ. Irel., B.Sc. Syd., Pro- fessor of Physics, Sydney University. Pollitt, J.C. T., Analytical Chemist, Cooperative Wholesale Society Ld., Alexandria, Sydney. Poole, William, Junr., B.E. Syd., Assoc. M.Inst.C.E, F.G.S., L.S., B. H. Proprietary Co. Ld., Port Pirie, South Australia ; p.r. 87 Pitt-street, Redfern. Pope, Roland James, B.A. Syd., M.D., C.M., F.R.C.S. Hdin., Ophthalmic Surgeon, 235 Macquarie-street. Portus, A. B, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Superintendent of Dredges, Public Works Department. Purser, Cecil, B,A., M.B., Ch.M. Syd., ‘ Valdemar,’ Boulevard, Petersham. Purvis, J. G. S., Water and Sewerage Board, 341 Pitt-street. Rae, J. L. C., Manager Sydney Harbour Collieries Ltd.; p.r. ‘Strathmore,’ Ewenton-street, Balmain. Ralston, J. T., Solicitor, 86 Pitt-street. {Ramsay, Edward P., uu.p. Univ. St. And., F.R.S,E., F.L.S., 8 Palace-street, Petersham. Raymond, Robert S., Brewer, Leichhardt. Rennie, Edward H., m.a. Syd., D.Sc, Lond., Professor of Chemistry, University, Adelaide. Rennie, George E., B.a. Syd., m.p. Lond., M.R.c.s. Eng., 40 College-street, Hyde Park. Renwick, The Hon. Sir Arthur, Knt.. m.u.c., B.A. Syd., M.D., ¥.B.¢.S. Hdin., 295 Hlizabeth-street. Roberts, W. S. de Lisle, c.z., Sewerage Branch, Public Works Department, 5 Cumberland-street, Dawes Point. Rolleston, John C., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works Department. (xlii.) Elected 1897 Ronaldson, James Henry, Mining Engineer, 76 Pitt-street. 1892 Rossbach, William, Assoc. M. Inst, C.E,, Chief Draftsman, Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works Department. 1884 Ross, Chisholm, u.p. Syd. u.B,c.m. Edin., Hospital for the Insane, Callan Park, Rozelle. 1895 Ross, Colin John, B.Sc., B.E., Assoc. M. Inst.C.E., Borough Engineer, Town Hall, North Sydney. 1895 | P1/| Ross, Herbert E., Consulting Mining Engineer, Equitable Building, George-street. 1882 Rotbe, W. H., Colonial Sugar Co., O’Connell-st,, and Union Club. 1894 + | Rowney, George Henry, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E., Sewerage Construction Public Works Department; p.r. ‘Maryville,’ Ben Boyd Road, Neutral Bay. 1864 |P 67} Russell, Henry C., B.a. S:d., c.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F. R, Met. Soc, Hon. Memb. Roy. Soc. South Australia, Government Astronomer, Sydney Observatory. President. 1897 Russell, Harry Ambrose, B.a., Solicitor, c’o Messrs. Sly and Russell, 379 George-street; p.r. ‘Mahuru,’ Milton-street, _ Ashfield. 1893 Rygate, Philip W., m.a., B.E. Syd., Assoc, M. Inst. C.E. Phoenix Chambers, 158 Pitt-street. 1899 Schmidlin, F., 44 Elizabeth-street, Sydney. 1892 | P1| Schofield, James Alexander, F.c.s., A.R.S.M. University, Sydney. 1856 | P 1 \{Scott, Rev William, m.a. Cantab., Kurrajong Heights. 1886 Scott, Walter, m.a. Oxon., Prorescor of Greek, University, Sydney. 1877 | P 4| Selfe, Norman, M. Inst. C.E., M.I. Mech. E., Victoria Chambers, 279 George-street. 1890 | P1| Sellors, R. P., p.a. Syd., F.R.A.S., Trigonometrical Service, Lands Department. 1891 Shaw, Percy William, Assoc, M. Inst.C.E., Resident Engineer for Tramway Construction; p.r. ‘Epcombs,’ Miller-street, North Sydney. 1883 | P3/ Shellshear, Walter, M.Inst.C.E, Divisional Engineer, Railway Department, Goulburn. 1900 Simpson, R. C., Demonstrator of Physics, Sydney University. 1882 Sinclair, Eric, m.p., c.m. Univ. Glas., Hospital for the Insane, Gladesville. 1893 Sinclair, Russell, M. I. Mech. £. &., Consulting Engineer, Alliance Chambers, 97 Pitt-street. 1884 Skirving, Robert Scot, m.B., c.m. Hdin., Elizabeth-street, Hyde Park. 1891 | P2| Smail, J. M., M. Inst.c.E., Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. 1893 |P 24) Smith, Henry G., F.c.s., Technological Museum, Sydney. 1874 | P1 |{Smith, John McGarvie, 89 Denison-street, Woollahra. 1875 Smith, Robert, u.a. Syd., Marlborough Chambers, 2 O’Connell- street. 1899 Smith, R. Greig, M.Sc, Dun., B.Sc, Hdin., Macleay Bacteriologist, ‘Otterburn,’ Double’ Bay. 1898 Smith, S. Hague,Colonial Mutual Fire Insurance Co., 78 Pitt-st. Elected 1886 1896 1896 1892 1889 1891 Pel 1900 |" 1883 1901 1893 1899 1862 1896 1896 1878 1879 1875 1885 1896 1898 1892 1886 1888 1894 1876 1894 1873 1879 1877 1900 1883 1884 1896 1890 1892 P3 P19 P2 P5 | aa (xliii.) Smith, Walter Alexander, M. Inst. C.E., Roads, Bridges and Sewerage Branch, Public Works Department, N. Sydney. Smyth, Selwood, Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Merks Department. Spencer, Walter, m p. Bruw., 138 Edgeware Road, Enmore. Statham, Edwyn Joseph, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E, Cumberland Heights, Parramatta. Stephen, Arthur Winbourn, t.s., 12—14 O’Connell-street. Stilwell, A. W., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Public Works Depart., Sydney, Stewart, J. D., m.R.c.v.s., Government Veterinary Surgeon. Department of Mines and Agriculture ; p.r. Cowper-street, Randwick. Stuart, T. P. Anderson, mM.p., LL.D. Univ. Edin., Professor of Physiology, University of Sydney; p.r. ‘ Lincluden,’ Fairfax Road, Double Bay. Stissmilch, C. A., Technical College, Sydney. {Taylor, James, B.Sc. A.R.s.M., Adderton Road, Dundas. Teece, R., F.1.A., F,F.A., Actuary, A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-st. Tebbutt, John, F.R.as., Private Observatory. The Paninsula, Windsor, New South Wales. Thom, James Campbell, Solicitor for Railways; p.r. ‘Camelot,’ Forest Road, Bexley. Thom, John Stearn Solicitor, Atheneum Chambers, 11 Castle- reagh-street; p.r. Wollongong Road, Ardcliffe. Thomas, F. J., Enter River N.S.N. Co . Sussex-street. Thomson, Dugald, M.H.R., ‘ Wyreepi,’ Milson’s Point. Thompson, Joseph, 159 Brougham-street, W oolloomooloo. Thompson, John Ashburton, u.vd. Brux., D.Pp.H. Camb., M.R.C.S. Evng., Health Department, Macquarie-street. Thompson, Capt. A. J. Onslow, Camden Park, Menangle. Thow, Sydney, General Manager, The Hercules Gold and Silver Mining Co., Mount Read, Tasmania. Thow, William, M. Inst.C.&., M.I. Mech. E., Locomotive Department, Eveleigh. Threlfall, Richard, m.a. Cantab., Hagley Road, Edgebaston, Birmingham. Thring, Edward T., F.R.c.s. Eng., u.R.c Pp. Lond., 225 Macquarie- street. Tidswell, Frank, M.B., M.Ch., D.P.H., Health Department, Sydney Toohey, The Hon. J. T., u.u.c., ‘ Moira,’ Burwood. Tooth, Arthur W., Kent Brewery. Trebeck, Prosper N., J.p., 2 O’Connell-street. Trebeck, P. C., F.R. Met. Soc. 2 O’Connell-street. {Tucker, G. A., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co. Ld., 2 Spring-street. Turner, Basil W., A.R.s.M., F.C.S., 14 Castlereagh-street. Vause, Arthur John, u.B., c.m. Hdin., ‘ Bay View House, *T'empe. Verde, Capitaine Felice, Ing. Cav., vid Fazia 2, Spezia. Italy. Verdon, Arthur, Australian Club. Vicars, James, M.C.E., M. Inst. C.E., City Surveyor, Adelaide. Vickery, George B., 78 Pitt-street. Elected 1876 1898 1879 1899 1501 1900 1891 1901 1895 1898 1877 1883 1876 1876 1897 1876 1892 1867 1881 1878 1879 1892 1877 1874 1883 1876 1901 1878 1879 1890 1873 1891 1899 1876 1893 P 12 P2 Pt (xliv.) Voss, Houlton H., J.p., c/o Perpetual Trustee Company Ld., 2 Spring-street. Wade, Leslie A. B., c.z., Department of Public Works. Walker, H. O., Commercial Union Assurance Co., Pitt-street. {Walker, Senator J. T., ‘ Rosemont,’ Ocean-street, Woollahra. Walkom, A. J., A.m.1.e.E., Mem. Elec. Assoc. N.S.W., Electrical Branch, G.P.O. Sydney. Wallach, Bernhard, B.z. Syd., Electrical Engineer, ‘Oakwood,’ Wardell Road, Dulwich Hill. Walsh, Henry Deane, B £.. T.c., Dub., M. Inst. C.E., Engineer-in- Chief, Harbour Trust, Sydney. Walton, R. H., f.c.s., ‘ Flinders,’ Martin’s Avenue, Bondi. Ward, James Wenman, 1 Union Lane off George-street. Wark, William, 9 Macquarie Place; p.r. Kurrajong Heights. Warren, William Edward, B.a., M.D , M.Ch., Queen’s University Trel., M.D. Syd., 263 Hlizabeth-street, Sydney. Warren, W. H., Wh. Sc. M. Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering, University of Sydney. Watkins, John Leo, B.a. Cantab., u.a. Syd., Parliamentary Draftsman, Attorney General’s Department, 5 Richmond Terrace, Domain. Watson, C. Russell, m.R.c.s. Eng., ‘ Woodbine,’ Erskineville Road, Newtown. Webb, Fredk. William, co.m.a., J.p., Clerk of the Legislative Assembly; p.r. ‘ Livadia,’ Chandos-street, Ashfield. Webster, A. S., c/o Permanent Trustee Co. of N.S. Wales Ld., 17 O’Connell-street. Webster, James Philip, Assor.M.Inst.C.E., LS, New Zealand, Borough Engineer, Town Hall, Marrickville. Weigall, Albert Bythesea, B.A. Oxon., m.a. Syd., Head Master, Sydney Grammar School, College-street. tWesley, W. H. Westgarth, G. C., Bond-street; p.r. 52 Elizabeth Bay Road. tWhitfeld, Lewis, m.a. Syd., ‘Oeta,’ Queen-street, Woollahra. White, Harold Pogson, F.c.s., Assistant Assayer and Analyst, Department of Mines; p.r. ‘Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn. {White, Rev. W. Moore, Aa.M,, LL.D., T.C.D. White, Rev. James S., m.A., LL.D. Syd., ‘Gowrie,’ Singleton. Wilkinson, W. Camac, u.p. Lond., u.R.c.P. Lond., M.B.c.8. Eng., 207 Macquarie-street. Williams, Percy Edward, Government Savings Bank, Sydney. Willmot, Thomas, J.P., Toongabbie. Wilshire, James Thompson, F.L.S., F.R.H.S.. J.P., ‘Coolooli,’ Bennet Road, Neutral Bay. Wilshire, F. R., p.m., Penrith. Wilson, James T., u.s., Mast. Surg. Univ. Edin., Professor of Anatomy, University of Sydney. Wood, Harrie, J.p.,10 Bligh-street; p.r. 54 Darlinghurst Road. Wood, Percy Moore, u.k.c.P., Lond., M.R.C.8. Eng., ‘ Redcliffe,’ Liverpool Road, Ashfield. Woolnough, W. G., B.Sc, F.G.S., University of Adelaide. Woolrych, F. B. W., ‘ Verner,’ Grosvenor-street, Croydon. Wright, John, c.z., Toxteth-street, Glebe Point. Elected 1879 1901 1875 1900 1875 1887 1875 1875 1880 1892 1888 1901 1901 1894 1900 1895 1878 1888 1877 1864 1894. 1878 1880 1868 1879 1876 1872 we o2U (xly.) Young, John; ‘ Kentville,’ Johnston-street, Leichhardt. HonoraRgy MEMBERS. Limited to Thirty. M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal. Baker, Sir Benjamin, K.c.M.G., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., etc., 2 Queen Square Place, London, S.W. Bernays, Lewis A., C.M.G., F.L.S., Brisbane. Crookes, Sir William, F.r.s., 7 Kensington Park Gardens, London W. Ellery, Robert L. J., F.R.8., F.R.A.S., c/o Government Astrono- mer of Victoria, Melbourne. Foster, Sir Michael, m.p., F.R.s., Professor of Physiology, University of Cambridge. Gregory, The Hon. Augustus Charles, C.M.G., M.L.C., F.B.G.S., Brisbane. Hector, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., £.R.S8., Director of the Colonial Museum and Geological Survey of New Zealand, Wellington, N.Z. Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, K.C.8.I., M.D., C.B., F.B.S., &c., c/o Director of the Royal Gardens, ‘Kew. Huggins, Sir William, K.c.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S., &., 90 Upper Tulse Hill, London, SW. Hutton, Captain Frederick Wollaston, F.a.s., Curator, Canter- bury Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand. Judd, J. W., ©.B., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Geology, Royal College of Science, London. Newcomb, Professor Simon, Lu.D., Ph, D.. For. Mem. R.S. Lond., United States Navy, Washington. Spencer, W. Baldwin, m.a., Professor of Biology, University of Melbourne. Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William Turner, K.C.M.G., C.1.E., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. Wallace, Alfred Russel, p.c.u. Oxon., LL.D. Dublin, F.RB.s., Parkstone, Dorset. OxsituaRy 1901. Honorary Members. Agnew, Sir James, K.c.M.G., M.D. Tate, Professor Ralph, F.a.s., F.L,S. Ordinary Members. Abbott, The Hon. ‘Sir J. P., K.C.M.G., M.L.A, Adams, P.F. | Carleton, HR. Colquhoun, George Cox, Hon. G. H., m.u.c. Garran, Hon. Dr. Andrew Stephen, Hon. §. A. Tibbits, Dr. W. H. we dee ol a Wright, Dr, H. G. A. To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the (xl vi.) AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL. | Hstablished in memory of THE LATE Revp. W. B. CLARKH, m.a., F.z.s., F.G.8., &., Vice-President from 1866 to 1878. Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 © 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1895 1895 1896 1900 1901 Professor Sir Richard Owen, «.c.B., F.R.S., Hampton Court. George Bentham, c.m.c., F.R.S., The Royal Gardens, Kew. Professor Huxley, F.r.s., The Royal School. of Mines, London. 4 Marlborough Place, Abbey Road, N.W. Professor F. M‘Coy, F.8.8., F.g.S., The University of Melbourne. Professor James Dwight Dana, Lu.p., Yale College, New Haven, Conn., United States of America. Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G , M.D., PH.D., F.R. 8.5 FL. 8,5» Government Botanist, Melbourne. Alfred R. C. Selwyn, Lu.p., F.R.8., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa. Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, k.c.s.1., ¢.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., &C.» late Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p., University of Liége, Belgium. Sir James Hector, K.c.M.G., M.D,, F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand, Wellington, N.Z. Rev. Julian E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.s., F.u.s., Sydney. Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.s., F.B.A. 8.; Government Astrono- mer of Victoria, Melbourne. ‘ George Bennett, u.p. Univ. Glas., F.R.c.8. Eng., F.L.8., F.Z.8., William Street, Sydney. Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.s., ¥.a.s., Curator, Can- terbury Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand. Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, K.c.M.G., 0.1.E.,M.A., B.S¢., F.R.S.y F.L.s., Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. Professor Ralph Tate, F.u.s., F.a.s., University, Adelaide, S.A. Robert Logan Jack, F.a.s., F.B.4.8., Government Geologist, Brisbane, Queensland. Robert Etheridge, Junr., Government Palzontologist, Curator of the Australian Museum, Sydney. Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, ¢.M.G., M.L.C., F.B.G.S., Brisbane. Sir John Murray, Challenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh. Edward John Eyre, Walreddon Manor, Tavistock, Devon, England. AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE. The Royal Society of New South Wales offers its Medal and Money Prize for the best communication (provided it be of sufficient merit) containing the results of original research or observation upon various subjects published annually. 1882 John Fraser, B.a., West Maitland, for paper on ‘The Aborigines Money Prize of £25. of New South Wales.’ 1882 1884 1886 1887 1888 1889 1889 1891 1892 1894 1894 1895 1896 (xlvii. ) Andrew Ross, u.p., Molong. for paper on the ‘ Influence of the Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’ The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25. W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper on ‘ Water supply in the Interior of New South Wales.’ S. H. Cox, F.a.s., F.c.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘The Tin deposits of New South Wales. Jonathan Seaver, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘ Origin and mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated Minerals. Rev. J. E. Tenison-W oods, F.a.s., F.u.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘ The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.’ Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.M.s., Sydney, for ‘ List of the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and Neigh- bourhood. Rev. John Mathew, mu.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper on ‘The Australian Aborigines. Rev. J. Milne Curran. r.c.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘The Microscopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’ Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper on ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has produced _ upon Indigenous Vegetation.’ J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper on the ‘ Timbers of New South Wales.’ R. H. Mathews, t.s., Parramatta, for paper on ‘The Aboriginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales.’ C. J. Martin, B.Sc, M.B. Lond., Sydney, for paper on ‘The physio- logical action of the venom of the Australian black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).’ Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper on ‘The occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of the Deposits in which they are found.’ PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. By A. LIvVERSIDGE, LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S., Hdin. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. [ Delivered to the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, May 1, 1901. } BEFORE resigning the honourable position to which you elected me a year ago, it is according to our custom, my duty to address you upon the affairs of the Society and such other matters as may appear fitting upon the occasion of this our Seventy-ninth Anniversary. The most important event which has happened since we last met is the death of our venerated and deeply beloved Sovereign, Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria ; as the Society was in recess at the time, I, as your representative, forwarded through the kind offices of His Excellency the Governor-General, a tele- graphic message of condolence to His Majesty the King and Royal Family ; to this an appreciative reply has been received from His Majesty. In confirmation of that telegram I may, perhaps, be permitted to say, on behalf of the members of the Society, at this our first meeting since the sad event, that while mourning the loss of our great and good Queen we wish to respectfully offer to His Majesty, our loyal congratulations upon his accession to the Throne and our cordial wishes that his reign may be long, happy and prosperous, also that it may be charac- terized, like that of Her late Majesty, by marked progress in the advancement of science, literature and art, and in the amelioration of the condition of the people. I had intended to address you almost exclusively upon chemical subjects, but after further consideration decided that it might, perhaps, be better to refer to other matters instead, matters which may be of more general interest to our members; some of them are connected with what may be termed the domestic affairs A—May. 1, 1901. > A. LIVERSIDGE. of the Society, and some of the others are objects which I think the members of this Society can do much to promote; such as the introduction and improvement of science teaching in schools, the use of the metric system of weights and measures, the preparations for the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, now being published in London, and commercial education. Financial Position.—The Hon. Treasurer’s Financial Statement shows that the financial affairs of the Society are in a fairly satis- factory condition. The Library.—From the Balance Sheet submitted this evening it will be seen that a large proportion of our limited income continues to be spent upon the Society’s Library, viz, £226 l6s. 4d., of which £106 13s. 8d. was spent upon books and periodicals, £79 8s. 6d. for binding, and £70 14s. 2d. for additional shelving in the lower hall; the Council rightly regards the up-keep of the library as of the utmost importance; a good collection of current scientific literature is one of the greatest necessaries of a society of this kind; it is in fact absolutely essential for its work and well being; fortunately numerous Societies and Institutions, in all parts of the world, regularly forward their publications in exchange for our annual volume, but we still are much in need of funds to acquire the back num- bers of many series, some of these are getting very scarce and the prices will soon become prohibitive, especially now that so many large libraries are being formed in America and elsewhere by wealthy benefactors. Perhaps someone in New South Wales will follow so good an example and earn the thanks of the present and of future generations. Exchanges.—Last year we exchanged our journal with 421 kindred societies, receiving in return 224 volumes, 1669 parts, 85 reports, 263 pamphlets and 5 maps; a total of 2246 publications. The following Institutions have been added to the Exchange List :— Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne. Botanic Gardens, Sydney. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. eo British Economic Association, London. British Medical Association, N.S.W. Branch, Sydney. Department of Agriculture, Cheyenne, U.S.A. Imperial Institute, London. Mason University College, Birmingham. Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Western Society of Engineers, Chicago, U.S.A. Papers read in 1900.—During the past year the Society held eight meetings, at which twenty-one papers were read; the average attendance of members was thirty-five, and of visitors three. The papers will duly appear in the Society’s Journal, so that there is no necessity to repeat their titles here. Four papers were read before the Engineering Section and they have been printed, together with the discussion upon them, in the Society’s Journal; the Section held three meetings at which the average attendance of members and visitors was twenty-two. Lectures—To add variety to the Society’s meetings a course of five lectures has been delivered during the past year: they were so well attended by the members and their friends as to tax the capacity of our hall; as will be seen from the programme for 1901-1902 a course has also been arranged for the ensuing year, and it is to be hoped that similar courses of lectures will henceforth continue to be a feature of the Society’s work. Revision of Kules.—At the meeting held in December last, certain of the rules of the Society were revised, and the amend- ments have since been duly ratified this evening; the most important change is in the rules providing for the election of Honorary and Corresponding Members ; the number of Honorary Members, who must be of eminent scientific attainments or distinguished promotors of the objects of the Society, has been increased from twenty to thirty (twenty of whom must be non- resident in Australia), and three can be elected in the year instead of two as heretofore. Corresponding Members will no 4 A. LIVERSIDGE. longer be elected, as it was found in practice, that the qualifica- tions required of them were much the same as those possessed by Honorary Members. Sections.—It is a matter of regret that nearly all the Sections have ceased to meet, the Engineering Section, however, is doing , good work; itis to be hoped that some at least of the other Sections will be revived and that they will renew their career of usefulness, for there is no doubt that they afford useful opportunities for discussion and interchange of ideas which are not possible at the necessarily more formal meetings of the Society itself. I think that two or three of them could easily be resuscitated and made to do good work if energetic Secretaries for them were forthcoming. I have, however, the pleasure to announce that steps have been taken to form a Section for Economic Science, mainly by the members of the late Economic Association, who recently joined this Society in a body ; the new Section will have the sympathy and support of a large number of our members, and we all look forward to its apparently ensured success. Roll of Members.—The number of members on the roll on the 30th April, 1900, was 374. During the past year sixteen new members were elected,’ the deaths numbered eight and the resig- nation fourteen, leaving a total of 368 on the 30th April, 1901. The names of the members, which we have, to our regret, lost by death are :— Belisario, Dr. John ; elected 1875. Knox, Sir Edward ; elected 1875. Neill, Dr. L. E. F.; elected 1890. Shepard, A. D. ; elected 1879. Shewen, Dr. Alfred ; elected 1882. Steel, Dr. John ; elected 1882. White, Hon. R. H. D.; elected 1888. Wildridge, John ; elected 1898. In 1890, when I was last privileged to address you from the chair the number of our members was 457, now it is only 368, PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. ~ 9) a drop of nearly one hundred, and it is the smallest number of members since 1885 when the roll stood at 494; from that date our members have, with an occasional slight recovery, slowly but steadily decreased. Complete lists of the members of the Society from its first formation are apparently not obtainable, but the following list, showing some of the fluctuations, is of interest, Perhaps some of our older members may have notes or papers from which the gaps between 1821 and 1867 can be filled in. Philosophical Society of Australia, 1821, 10 members. Australian Philosophical Society, 1855, 22 . Philosophical Society of New South Wales, 1856, 153 3 “s Ks sy 5 1858, 174 ve ts a A ss 1859, 186 ss Royal Society of New South Wales— i Year. Members. Year. Members. 1867 108 1884 494 1868 118 1885 494 1869 118 1886 493 1870 | 127 1887 488 1871 129 1888 482 1872 134 1889 471 1873 118 1890 461 1874 155 1891 ABT 1875 264 1892 478 1876 297 1893 477 1877 346 1894 445 1878 408 1895 420 1879 404 1896 409 - 1880 457 1897 420 188] 452 1898 397 1882 475 1899 357 1883 486 © 1900 374 The decrease in the number of members is a matter of some concern and it deserves our serious consideration. It may per- haps, be accounted for in part by the Colony not yet having ir. 6 A. LIVERSIDGE. recovered from the effects of the commercial depression which took place a few years ago; it is also doubtless due to the fact that there are now several societies in Sydney for special subjects, such as the Linnean Society of New South Wales, the Sydney Branch of the Royal Geographical Society of Australia, the Branch of the British Medical Association, the New South Wales Branch of the British Astronomical Association and others, all of which have tended to withdraw members or prevent new members from joining our Society; the Australasian Associ- ation for the Advancement of Science has also probably been a factor in bringing about the present reduction in our members, hence we need not necessarily attribute it to a loss of interest in Scientific matters on the part of the people of New South Wales. Still another reason may be, that the residents of Sydney are now much scattered ; since the opening of the suburban tram lines and the building of additional railways, miles of new suburbs have grown up, and many of the streets conveniently near to the Society’s House, which a few years ago contained only private houses, in which many of our members resided, are now, more or less, occupied as professional offices and business premises ; hence much larger numbers of the population live in the suburbs and as many such find a difficulty in attending our meetings they are deterred from joining the Society. On this account it may be desirable that we should consider whether it would not be_ better to hold our meetings in the afternoon, as is done by some of the more important societies in London on account of the very same difficulty ; our members would then neither have to wait in town until eight o’clock nor make a second tedious journey into Sydney after perhaps a fatiguing day. A further reason, and one which has probably had a great effect, is that the Society has of late years often omitted to give an annual conversazione ; many besides our members are very much interested in the scientific apparatus, natural history specimens, inventions, etc., usually exhibited thereat; I think that the majority of our members much appreciate such evenings, and PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 7 largely because they can bring the ladies of their families ; some of our members, as a matter of fact, only attend on such occasions; although such members do not all contribute directly to the scientific work of the Society they contribute to its resources, and they gain some knowledge of its work and objects; further the annual conversazione did much to interest visitors in the Society’s work, hence I think it is unfortunate that these gatherings have had to be omitted so often of late years. Although rather a strain upon our funds, I am sure that in the end the Society greatly benefitted by the expenditure. I do not think that we need fear a lack of novelties, “‘ necessity > and members will make efforts to is the mother of invention,’ maintain the character of these gatherings and even start their preparations many months in advance, if they know that there is to be a conversazione on a given date ; the notice of a few weeks that we usually give intending exhibitors is insufficient, and many who are unable to prepare anything for exhibition at short notice might be able to do so if they had a longer one. Neither is it necessary to have a large number of exhibits, too many shown at one time tend to interfere with the intentions of the conversazione, as some objects of interest may be overlooked and others may be only imperfectly examined and appreciated. I well remember that when the Society only met when papers had been contributed or promised for reading, it was quite a common thing for our monthly meetings to lapse for want of papers, but ever since we agreed to meet on the regular day, now some twenty-eight years ago, whether there were papers ready for reading or not, we have never failed to have material for the regular monthly meetings, hence I would strongly urge upon the members to do all they can to maintain the annual conversazione and an annual reception as well, in spite of ths difficulty of obtaining scientific novelties and the expense. We have had only’ two or three of the latter, but they have all been successful and have done good in promoting friendship amongst the members. and a mutual knowledge of their scientific predilections and attainments ; results which would never be gained by the limited 8 A. LIVERSIDGE. opportunities afforded by the more formal monthly meetings. I feel confident that if we state on our annual programme, at the beginning of the session that there will be in addition to the regular monthly meetings, certain lectures, a reception, a con- versazione as well as an annual dinner of the members, all on fixed dates, the Society will greatly benefit, and its objects will be largely promoted. Such gatherings are not merely social in their effects, for anything which brings the members together tends to the well being of the Society and to the advancement of science. - Honorary Members.—In December last, Sir W. Crookes and Sir W. T. Thiselton Dyer were elected Honorary Members. Sir WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S., is a past President of the Chemical Society, of the Inst. of Electrical Engineers and of the British Association, and recipient of the Royal Medal and the Davy Medal awarded by the Royal Society of London. He is the editor of the ‘‘Chemical News,” and of many works of reference upon technical chemistry, and is the author of numerous original researches, notably upon radiant-matter and similar subjects. Sir William was knighted in 1897 in acknowledgement of his eminent services to science. He has been elected an Honorary Member on account of his many brilliant and original researches and dis- coveries in chemistry, as well as on account of his great and long continued efforts for the promotion of science, and in recognition of the assistance he has given this Society by republishing our papers upon chemistry and allied subjects in the ‘‘Chemical News.” Sir WILLIAM TURNER THISELTON-DYER, K.C.M.G., C.I.E., B. Se., LL.B., Ph.D., F B.S., Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, and an Hon. Fell. of numerous English and Foreign Institutions and Societies. He is a Fellow of the University of London and a Hon. Fell. King’s College, London, a late Fellow of University College, London, and author of many important botanical works, some of which relate to the flora of the Australasian Colonies. As the Director of the Kew Gardens he has done much, and PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 9 still continues to do everything within his power for Australian Botany. He has also assisted us in other ways; amongst the first collections received by the Sydney Technological Museum was a large series of economic botany specimens presented by Sir William from the duplicates at the Kew Museum, unfortunately these were destroyed in the Garden Palace fire, but happily he was able to send out other specimens to replace most of those which were burnt. Sir William has gathered together at Kew Gardens, after many years labour, a library of Australian scientific journals and works, probably the most complete Public Library of the kind in existence. He has been elected an Honorary Member on account of his eminent services to the cause of science, and especially in recognition of the valuable results of his labours for the advancement of economic botanical science throughout the British Empire. The Clarke Memorial Medal.—The Clarke Memorial Medal has been awarded for the year 1900 to Sir John Murray, K.c B., F.R.S., D.Se., LL.D, Ph.D. Sir John Murray is a Canadian by birth and was one of the Naturalists on board H.M.S. Challenger exploring expedition (1874-1877), he took a leading part in the investigation made by that expedition along the coast of New South Wales and other parts of Australia, and was also on other marine scientific expedi- © tions. He was editor of the Reports of the Scientific Results of the Challenger Expedition, contained in fifty large quarto volumes, and is the author of numerous Reports and Monographs on Geography, Biology, etc. He was made a Knight Commander of the Bath in 1898, he is alsoa Knight of the Prussian Order of Merit and is the recipient of many English and Foreign medals awarded to him in acknowledgement of his services to science. International Catalogue of Scientific Literature.—In an address to the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science given in 1898, I drew attention to the work of the conference held in London by representatives of various countries, who had been appointed by their respective Governments for the purpose 10 A. LIVERSIDGE. of considering a proposal to publish an International Catalogue of Scientific Literature ; since the above date, the arrangements for the preparation and publication of the catalogue have been prac- tically completed, for almost all parts of the world except, I think, for some of the Australian Colonies, the blame for this certainly cannot be attached to the London Central Bureau, which has had charge of the matter, for I understand that they have been in constant communication with the various Australian Govern- ments; that’ the Government of this State is well disposed towards the work is shown by its having subscribed for six copies of the Catalogue, which I understand are to be distributed to Government Institutions ; (the Council has also ordered a full set of the Catalogue for our library), but up to the present, nothing seems to have been done to collect and forward material for the Catalogue from New South Wales and some of the other Aus” tralian States; the matter is of great importance and urgency as it is now May and the first set of volumes are to be issued during the year, hence this Society should at once undertake to do what it can in this direction. It has been decided that the following branches of science shall be included within the scope of the Catalogue, each branch will be indicated by a letter of the alphabet, to be termed Registration Letters, as follows: . Mathematics. . Mechanics. Physics. . Chemistry. . Astronomy. Meteorology (including Terrestrial Magnetism.) . Mineralogy (including Petrology and Crystallography.) . Geology. Geography (Mathematical and Physical.) . Palaeontology. . General Biology. BHR Ut Ose DOW . Botany. “ < PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. LF . Zoology. . Human Anatomy. Physical Anthropology. . Physiology (including Experimental Pathology, Pharm- OHO acology and Experimental Pathology.) R. Bacteriology. The subject-matters of the above sciences will be grouped under a convenient number of sub-headings, each of which wiil in turn be indicated by an appropriate symbol, usually a number. These symbols will be called Registration Numbers or Symbols as the case may be. The Catalogue will be arranged according to subject-matter and to author’sname. Literature published before January lst, 1901, will not be included, neither will the Catalogue include what is termed Applied Science; technical matters of scientific interest will, however, be included and they will be referred to under their appropriate scientific headings. The management of the Catalogue will be in the hands of (1) an International Convention, (2) an International Council, (3) Regional Bureaus, and (4).a Central Bureau in London. (1.) The International Convention will have the supreme direc- tion and control over the Catalogue ; it will consist of delegates appointed by the respective Governments or other bodies which establish Regional Bureaus; (no region or district will be repre- sented by more than three delegates), the convention will meet at regular certain stated times, viz., in 1905, 1910 and afterwards every ten years ; during the intervals the affairs of the Catalogue will be administered by the International Council. (2.) The International Council.—Each contracting Government or body can appoint one person to serve on the International Council, which will meet in London at least once in every three years, and at such other times as the Chairman and five other members may agree upon. The Council will have to submit a balance sheet and a report of its proceedings for publication in 12 A. LIVERSIDGE. some recognised periodical or periodicals in each of the contribut- ing countries or constituent regions. (3.) Organisations, termed Regional Bureaus, may be formed in any Country which declares its willingness to collect, pro- visionally classify and transmit to the Central Bureau, the matter relating to the Scientific Literature published in that country. The catalogue will be edited and published by the Central- Bureau in London, of which Dr. H. Forster Morley has been appointed Director, acting under the direction of the Inter- national Council; so that the publication may be commenced during the present year, the Royal Society of London is advancing the necessary funds (about £4,000) until they are received from the contracting countries. As the New Federal Government is hardly in a position to undertake the formation of a Regional Bureau it will be necessary for the Australian States either individually or collectively to take charge of their own literature. Unless this be done without delay, the scientific literature of some of the Australian States, © including that of New South Wales, will be conspicuous by its absence from the catalogue. I need hardly say that any such omission would be a grave reflection upon us.’ The catalogue will probably contain between 160,000 and 200,000 entries each year and will fill seventeen vols. It is expected that the price will be about £17 per annum for the complete set ; but separate vols., for special subjects will be issued, also copies printed on one side only will be obtainable for cutting up to form Card Catalogues, the original intention to issue the catalogue on cards as well as in volumes had to be abandoned on account of the expense and want of support. Each title will be catalogued at least twice, once in the authors’ list and once in the list of subjects. The subject indexes will in most cases give much fuller infor- mation than that afforded by the title of the paper, that is to say, 1 Since the above was read this Society has undertaken the work for New South Wales. — PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 13 the contents of the paper will also be indexed ; accordingly the authors and editors will be invited to assist in indexing their own publications ; their indexes will of course be edited by the Central Bureau in London, so as to render them uniform in character. Authors in Australia will also, of course, be expected to prepare indexes for their publications, and they will doubtless do every- thing within their power to assist in carrying out this useful and much needed work. This catalogue will be of immense value to original workers, of so great a value that it is quite impossible to express it adequately, as it will relieve them from a vast amount of labour in hunting up references in scientific journals, reports and monographs published in all parts of the world. As I have said on a previous occasion, it wil] be particularly valuable to us in Australasia, as we are so far removed from the great centres of scientific thought and activity as well as from the great public libraries and insti- tutions for research. A National Australian Academy.—I have long thought that a federation of the leading Scientific Societies in the Australian Colonies is desirable, and now that the colonies have been become federated as the Commonwealth of Australia, it would be more easy of accomplishment ; we have something of the kind in the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, but that is peripatetic and has only one short session of a week every two years, further the membership is largely of a very changeable character—it exists for a definite purpose, which differs from that of ordinary societies and it answers that purpose extremely well. The organisation now suggested is of a different character and it would somewhat resemble, as far.as the scope is concerned, the Continental Academies, but under rules more like those of the Royal Society of London. The members would be elected (from all of the States) on account of their scientific and other qualifications, the number of members would necessarily be limited and the seat of the Academy would, of course, be in the Federal Capital when built, where a suitable site for the 14 A, LIVERSIDGE. Academy’s House should be reserved, as well as for Museums, Libraries, Art Galleries, and for other educational and scientific | institutions, and for a Federal University ; although the Academy might be organised upon somewhat similar lines to the Continental Academies, the members should certainly not receive a salary, as they do in some cases in Europe, but just as the English Govern- ment applies to the Royal Society of London for advice and assistance in certain matters, which is always given gratuitously, go the Federal Government might receive the benefit of the deliberations of the Australian Academy upon similar matters. The chief difference between this proposed organisation and the existing Royal Societies in the various Australian States would be its federal character, and that its members would be elected only after having given proof, by original thought or work, of their fitness for membership. A National Academy would, I think, be of great benefit to Australia, not only by its general usefulness, but the hope of election to it in the future would be a great stimulus to the younger scientific men ; further, it would also bring together the best intellect of all the States for more systematic consideration and discussion of matters than is possible at the meetings of the Association for the Advancement of Science. International Association of Academies.—In connection with this I may mention that an international Association of European Academies has recently been formed. A preliminary meeting was held in Wiesbaden in 1899, and another of the Council was held in Paris in July, 1900, at which the Royal Society of London was represented. It was understood at the Wiesbaden meeting of the Association in 1899 that no Society devoted to one subject, or to a limited range of subjects, could be regarded as an “ Academy” and admitted to the Association, unless its scope included both scien-. tific and literary subjects; such a society might, however, be admitted to either the scientific or literary section of the Associ- ation. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 15 Since the above was written an account of the International Association of Academies has appeared (‘‘ Nature,” 28th March, 1901), taken from one by M. Gaston Darboux, permanent secre- tary of the Academy of Sciences, in the Jowrnal des Savants. From this it appears that the Royal Society and the Paris Academy took the initiative in the formation of this important association, the advantages of which were pointed out by Lord Lister, as President of the Royal Society, in a letter dated November 17th, 1898, to the President of the Paris Academy of Sciences. Up to the present about twenty Societies and Academies have been admitted to the Association. Rules have been formulated regulating the admission of new Academies, the constitution of the council and committees, and for the government of the Associ- ation during the intervals between the meetings, which are to take place every three years. At the Paris meeting three propositions were also considered. The Royal Society drew attention to the desirability of connecting Struve’s measurements upon the arc of meridian, 30° east, with those of Gill on the same meridian in South Africa. The Academy of Berlin brought forward the question of how best to facilitate access to manuscript and other documents. At the suggestion of the Paris Academy it was decided to regulate the standardisation of self-recording instruments used in physiology. So much favourable interest has already been taken in the Association of Academies, that intended donations to it have already been announced. ‘There is no doubt that its influence will be world wide. Whether an Australasian Academy, if ‘formed, would be received into the International Association of Academies or not, it is desirable, in framing the constitution of an Australasian Academy, to bear the possibility in mind. There is no immediate need to form an Australasian Academy, but one ought to be founded eventually, and it is not amiss to give some consideration to the matter in good time. Federated 16 A. LIVERSIDGE. Australia should certainly do its utmost to take a fitting position in science as well as in other matters, and this can best be done by organising, for the men will be forthcoming if there are organisations to sympathise and help them with their work. Science Teaching in Schools.—Amongst the subjects of interest to us is the question of science teaching in schools, and it would be very gratifying to many of us if with the new century and the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia, we should be privileged to see increased attention paid to this matter ; it is sometimes suggested to individuals ‘that with the new year they should turn over a new leaf, and it would be appropriate if the community turned over a new leaf with the new century, by insisting upon better provision being made for science teaching in schools. At one time, from 1876 to 1887, a small amount of science was included in the University Matriculation Examination, and there is no doubt that its inclusion was beginning to have the good effect of causing some of the schools to introduce science teaching into their courses, but its subsequent removal in 1887 had the undoubted effect of checking the progress of science teaching in schools generally throughout the colony, and killing it completely in some. I do not quite understand the reasons for its removal, as I was away from the State at thetime. I was informed that its removal was against the wishes of some of the schools, and I am sure that much good would result if it were again included. Our University is probably almost the only modern University which completely excludes science from — its entrance examination. Unfortunately the teaching of experimental branches of science, like chemistry and physics, involves an expenditure for apparatus, and this naturally acts as a deterrent, but I think that all who have any acquaintance with science teaching believe that the advantages warrant this additional expense. Science, even of the most elementary character, when properly taught, induces the pupil to observe and to think, as well as to exercise his memory ; PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 17 to get a pupil to observe, and to think about what he sees and hears, is perhaps the most important and valuable point in any form of teaching ; merely to know is not enough. In order to train the powers of observation and thinking, efforts have been made of late years to so modify the methods of teaching physical science, and especially chemistry, so as to place the pupil in the position of a discoverer, ¢.g., Professor Armstrong’s Heuristic method. This method is very successful with small classes, or where there are plenty of demonstrators. I do not agree with those who think that Qualitative Analysis should not be taught in schools, but I think that instruction in it should be mainly con- fined to the principles involved ; these should be taught very fully, and the experimental work should be so arranged as to illustrate those principles ; practice in analysis can be taken up later on. Some of the teaching in science which is now done at the University ought to be done at school, and it is so done at many schools at Home and on the Continent ; the student thereby gains valuable time at the University for things that he cannot do at school ; the replacement of some elementary science in the matriculation examination would tend to bring this about ; it is, perhaps, a platitude to remark that the University can exercise great influence upon the school teaching, whereas the schools can hardly affect the University curriculum; but it is sometimes beneficial to remind ourselves of well known things. It would probably be better to have a leaving examination for schools instead of a matriculation examination at the Uni- versity, and to include science in the former, but a leaving examination would be much more difficult to institute than re- introduce some science into the matriculation examination. It may be thought by some that these references to science teaching in schools would be better addressed to a different audience, but I think that members of this Society having a knowledge of, or taste for science, naturally wish their children to receive some instruction in it, hence, in addressing you, I feel that I am speak- ing to a sympathetic audience, the members of which can and B—May 1, 1901. 18 A. LIVERSIDGE. will use their influence for the promotion of science teaching in the schools of this State. I do not advocate the teaching of technical or applied science in ordinary schools ; in fact it should not be taught at such schools; but the elementary principles of chemistry and physics should be taught, and taught thoroughly, both orally and by illustrative experiments, not because the latter are interesting and perhaps pretty, although if they are so much the better, but because the experiments either prove something or help to the understanding of something. The experimental demonstrations should in all cases be followed by practical exercises performed by the pupils themselves, Technical education, or the practical application of science, should be reserved for the Technical Schools or Colleges, and to the University for the higher or professional branches. It may be thought that sufficient provision has already been made for technical and professional education in New South Wales, but I do not think that that is the case. It is quite true that New South Wales is not yet a large manufacturing country, but with its wealth of coal it ought to be one in a few years time, and we shall then want trained men to occupy highly responsible positions. Such men require the highest possible training, which must include a good broad foundation of general education upon which the professional education can be built; and it is none too soon for us to see that means for such training is provided, the weakest. point at present being in the schools. The industries of a country cannot be maintained by capital and labour alone, the highly- trained intellect to direct and control is also required ; 2.¢., the co-operation of money, muscle, and brains is. necessary. The Metric System of Weights and Measwres.—Closely con- nected with the subject of science teaching is the necessity for teaching the metric system of weights and measures. The so- called system of weights and measures used in Great Britain and its offshoots, came down to us from the early Egyptian times, but they have deteriorated in the process, for the measures of length, volume, and weight have not that systematic relationship to’ one PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 19 another which they originally possessed ; the earliest records show that the unit of length (or a multiple or a fraction of it) cubed, formed the unit of volume, and the weight of water held by this cube formed the unit of weight. The measures of length have been derived from the body, e.g., the yard or stick in the time of Henry I. was said to be the length of his arm. Originally it seems to have been the ancient double cubit, but the yard has varied in length at different periods ; the fathom is taken from the length of the outstretched arms ; the foot speaks for itself; for smaller measures the width of the middle joint of the first finger was taken, and four of these digits made the palm or hand, still used in the measurements of horses. ‘The width of the thumb was also taken as one of the smaller measures, equivalent to an inch. The pole or rod was a longer stick used for measuring greater lengths than the yard, and it varied from five to six yards in length; afterwards it was defined as five and a half yards, or sixteen and a half feet. The furlong was a furrow long, or the length ploughed by a yoke of oxen before turning. The mile, as is well known, was of Roman origin, and signified 1000 (mille) paces; its length varied con- siderably ; in Scotland it was 1976 yards, in Ireland 2240 yards, and in Wales it was nearly four miles in length. On the Continent it was of even of greater lengths. The term pound (pondus) simply means a weight, and this meant almost any weight between twelve and twenty eight ounces, the ounce being also of variable weight. The stone was originally simply a suitably big stone from a brook or river bed, used for weighing articles usually sold in large quantities ; afterwards the stone itself was replaced by weights, but the term was retained ; even then the weight varied, ¢.g., the stone used for weighing glass weighed five pounds, that for meat weighed eight pounds, another weighed fourteen pounds, and that used for weighing cheese was sixteen pounds, while the stone for hemp weighed thirty-two pounds. Although some of these curious weights and measures have been got rid of, and there are many others 20 A. LIVERSIDGE. which I have not referred to, we still have two legal pounds, the (avoirdupois) lb. of 16 oz., or 7,000 grains, and the troy lb. of 12 oz. or 5,760 grains ; also, two legal ounces, the troy ounce of 480 grains, and the avoirdupois ounce of 437°5 grains ; there are also two drams of unequal weight. But the worst feature is that there is no simple connection between the measures of length, weight, and capacity. James Watt is said to have been the first to propose that a universal system of decimal weights and measures should be employed throughout the world. He suggested the foot as the unit of length, and the cubic foot of water as the unit of weight, both divided decimally ; the suggestion was discussed by English and French representative men of science, but rejected by us; the French adopted the decimal system in 1791, but with the metre as the unit, and it became law in 1799. In the metric system the units of length, capacity, and weight are all directly related to each other. The unit of length, termed the metre, was intended to be a natural standard, and the one ten-millionth part of a polar quadrant of the earth, or arc of meridian, i.¢., of an arc drawn from the equator to the north pole, but subsequent measurements showed that the quadrant contains 10,001,472°5 metres, hence the metre is as much an arbitrary measure as the English yard. As the metre has turned out to be something different from what was intended, the length of the second’s pendulum might after all have been taken as a standard, or even the English yard or the French ell. The metre is 39°37079 English inches, or rather more than three inches longer than our yard. For square or superficial measures the unit is the are, or 100 square metres. The other common measures are centiare, or square metre, and the hectare, or 10,000 square metres, equal to 2°47 acres. The unit for solid measure is the cubic metre or steére. The cube of the tenth of a metre (decimetre) is the unit of volume or capacity, known as the litre, and it contains 0:22 gallon or 1.76 English pints, or 61:027 cubic inches. The unit of weight, ri PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. Ds termed the gramme, is the weight of a cubic centimetre (the zo of a metre cubed) of distilled water weighed at its greatest density (4° O.), equal to 15°432 grains. The multiples of each of these are derived from the Greek, deka for ten, hecto for 100, kilo for 1000, and myria for 10,000. The prefixes for subdivision are taken from the Latin, the tenth of a metre, litre, or gramme, being the decimetre, deci-litre, and decigramme respectively; the hundredth parts are known as the centimetre, centilitre, and centigramme; the thousandth parts are the millimetre, the millilitre (more commonly called the cubic centimetre, and this in turn usually contracted into c.c.), and the milligramme. In every day life many of these terms are not used; lineal measurements, less than one metre in length, are usually given in millimetres only ; it is not usual to state the length in both centi- metres and millimetres, neither are the multiples, deca and hecto- metre, commonly used; such lengths are expressed simply as 10 and 100 metres, and so on for other lengths less than a kilo-metre, but the term kilometre is used because it is a convenient one, and it is employed in much the same way, for measuring distances, as we use the mile, of which it is roughly two-thirds. Myria-metre is also seldom employed. Small cubic measures are usually given in the terms of the cubic centimetre ; for larger volumes the litre and hecto-litre and their multiples are the common commercial measures. So too with weights; practically only the terms milli- grammes, grammes, and kilogrammes are used. It is sometimes convenient to bear in mind the approximate values of some of the metric measurements as compared with English ones, especially for rough mental conversions, ¢.g., the metre is about 10// more than the yard, the kilometre is about two-thirds of an English mile, 25 millimetres are about equal to one inch, or 100 millimetres to four inches. The kilogramme is equal to 24ib., or to 2ib. plus 10%; the limit of the international parcel post is fixed at five kilos (hence the English limit of 11ibs., which is’ practically 5 kilos) ; 1000 kilos equal 2200ibs., or 40ibs. less than a ton. The litre is equal to about 1} pints, or roughly 22. A. LIVERSIDGE. to 2 pints less 107, and the hectolitre to about 22 gallons. Any- one with a knowledge of decimals will find no difficulty in using the system ; a few minutes study enables anyone to understand it, and a very small amount of practice suffices for acquiring its use. The metric system has now been in daily use in the University Chemical Laboratory for many years, and there has never been any difficulty in getting the students to use it intelligently at once. So great are its advantages, and so simple is the system, that it seems almost unnecessary to urge that its use be made compulsory. The principal reasons why it has not been made compulsory are not theoretical but practical ones, and the inertia, naturally presented by large communities. As previously stated this system was introduced into France in 1799 by the First Republican Government, and it has since been made compulsory in the following countries :— Netherlands... 1820 Brazil ... se 188O Columbia me S08 Argentine Republic 1887 Spain, 722. ... 1864 Egypt... see Oe Germany eo Sie Hungary... si Soe Switzerland we 18% Chili Sweden ... Aalst ® Mexico Austria ... shoe dhekslt Servia. Norway ... oe Ses It is also legal, but not compulsory, in Great Britain, the United States, Italy, Greece, Belgium, Hayti, Japan, Turkey, Portugal, New Granada, Roumania, etc., but it has not replaced the local systems in countries where its use is merely permissive. Although employed officially in Egypt, Peru, and Venezuela, it has not come into use commercially. It may be urged that it would be useless to employ a metric system of weights and measures with our present currency ; that, however, is not the case, and if it were the case the difficulty could, I think, be easily overcome by making slight changes (1.¢.. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. Ta as far as the principle is concerned) in the value of some of the coins now in use, although the financial or commercial difficulties may be great. One very obvious way would be to use the half sovereign as a standard (this might appropriately be called a Victoria, after our late Queen, during whose reign it was intro- duced) ; the shilling is already the tenth of the half sovereign ; the penny, which is also only a token, could be used as the tenth of a shilling, and the farthing, another token, could be used as the fifth of a penny, 7.¢., until it was necessary to strike fresh coins ; if necessary the farthing might be renamed the fifthing. The farthing is already of such small value that it would probably not be necessary to provide a still smaller coin, 2.¢., the tenth of a penny (or zoo Of a shilling) corresponding to the continental centime, although it could be used in accounts. With the half sovereign as the unit a sum like £50 Ills. 73d. could be written MaLOl tL 75, or V. 101-75. If the sovereign were retained as the unit, and the florin as the tenth, and it was, I believe, introduced as the beginning of a decimal system of coinage, greater changes would be necessary, as the existing smaller silver coins do not conveniently fall into a decimal system which starts with the sovereign as the unit. All multiplications and divisions would, of course, be exceed- ingly simple, as only decimals would be used. Of course there are objections to a decimal coinage, since 10 yields only two factors, viz., 2 and 5, which latter is rather a large one ; decimal coins are for this reason inconvenient for small purchases, as they do not readily adapt themselves to such fractions as 4, 3, and 3, but the disadvantages do not appear to outweigh the decided advantages possessed by a decimal system. A duodecimal system, as the English is in part, lends itself to the existing duodecimal division of the hour, day, month and year. A consistent and complete duodecimal system of weights and measures, and of coinage, would be probably the most con- venient of any, but the decimal system has been adopted by so many countries, that the introduction of the duodecimal system is 7 24 A. LIVERSIDGE. probably now out of the question. I had no intention of taking up the question of the decimal coinage, but having drifted into it I may, perhaps, let my remarks stand. A recent report of the Decimal Association states that instruc- tion in the principles of the metric system, and the advantages to be gained from it, has now been made compulsory in the upper standards of the English Elementary Schools ; also, that negotia- tions are in progress for holding a conference in Paris of official delegates and others, from Great Britain, the United States, and Russia, to urge the adoption of the metric system of weights and measures in those countries. Active steps are also being taken in the United States, and a bill, now before Congress for the introduction of the metric system, has been favourably reported upon. The Government of Canada is said to be also seriously ~ considering the advisability of adopting it. In Russia and Denmark there is an increasing disposition on the part of the Governments to render its use compulsory. Another report is from the Foreign Office ; this was issued in July last, and contains the replies of Her late Majesty’s representatives in Europe to a — circular addressed to them by the Marquis of Salisbury, asking for information as to the actual experience of nations which had adopted the metric system. The replies which came from over forty countries showed that the changes had, in all cases, been made without difficulty, and that there had never been any wish to return to the former system ; also, that the adoption of the metric system had led to an increase of trade. The teaching of the metric system in schools is naturally made compulsory in all the countries using it. It is not because the English and American nations are less enlightened than some of the smaller countries of the world, and that they fail to appre- ciate the advantages of the metric system, but that they naturally count the cost before taking so serious a step. The English system of measurements for marine engines, bolts, screws, pipes, etc., prevailed until recently all over the world, except in France, but as other countries are gradually adopting PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 25 metric measurements for such, it will be necessary for England to do the same, or much of our trade must gradually pass into the hands of others. It must be borne in mind that to make the change to the metric system would involve a money loss of untold millions both to England and to the United States of America, since nearly all the present machinery would have to be altered ; to take a single case only, instanced by a writer in a recent review, to adapt yard- wide looms to produce metric widths would mean an immense outlay of money, and a great loss of time ; but unless this change be made a still greater loss will eventually ensue. In both countries it is used to a certain extent by some manufacturers and by instrument makers. J need hardly say that it is used by chemists and physicists in all parts of the British Empire, It is quite an easy thing for small, new, and non-manufacturing countries to adopt the metric system ; it merely means a change in the method of buying and selling, and it does not involve the alteration or replacement, at a stupendous cost, of the manufac- turer’s plant and machinery. - I have brought the matter before the Society, although some of you are perfectly familiar with it, partly because it is one of scientific importance, and partly because I think that we should take an interest in the progress of the system, and also do what we can to make its use compulsory in Federated Australia, where I suppose its use is already permissive, as in Great Britain. A strong reason for its compulsory introduction is, that if all our arbitrary systems of weights and measures were replaced by it, children would probably save a year or two of their school time, which could be profitably spent upon other matters, ¢.g., upon modern languages, elementary science and English composition, with the object of teaching them to think, and to put their thoughts into clear intelligible English. But the first step is to make it a compulsory subject of instruction in all schools attaining a certain standard ; until that is done it is useless to think of making it the law of the land. 26 A. LIVERSIDGE. Commercial Hducation.—During the past few years we have been hearing a great deal about commercial education, and steps- have been taken here by the Chamber of Commerce to promote: and provide such education; but, although the matter is com- paratively new to us, elaborate systems of commercial education have long been established, not only in various European countries. but in Japan. The subject of professional commercial education is not only interesting to commercial men and certain educational institutions, but even to statesmen like Lord Salisbury, Mr. Chamberlain, and Lord Rosebery, who have all three drawn forcible attention to the urgent necessity there is for the training of the British merchant, so that he may maintain his position in the world. Unless something is done to enable him to meet his foreign competitors with equal educational and scientific weapons or equipment, it is thought by a few pessimists that it will soon be a question not whether he is to be one of Britain’s proverbial merchant princes, but whether he is to exist at all. I think that this something can be effected, not necessarily by copying German, American, or Japanese methods, but by devising English methods for English needs, 7.e.. we must work out our own salvation, as we have done in other cases, and can do again. We were once taunted with being a nation of shopkeepers, but that was from envy of our wealth and resources; not that we deserve the taunt more than others, for the instinct for petty trading is probably, from what I have seen, more marked in many other countries than in our own. It has long been the aim of certain countries to acquire a knowledge of our commercial methods, and to emulate our successes, and for this purpose it is well known that numbers of foreigners take service in London offices at nominal pay, to the detriment of our own commercial men ; the present systems of foreign commercial education had their origin in this same desire to compete with us, and now we are in danger of being surpassed in a department in which we — formerly stood first. | It may be asked what have the members of this Society to do with commercial education? I think that our members have a PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. a7 great deal to do with it; many of them are engaged in commerce, and their sons will in some cases also follow the same calling, and it is a matter of great importance to them that the education of the latter should be based upon scientific principles, and also include some instruction in science. Practically nothing which concerns mankind is a matter of indifference to us, and if it relates to organised knowledge of almost any kind, 7.¢., ‘‘ science,” then it is a matter in which we are specially interested ; as you are, of course, aware, one of the old titles of this Society was the Philosophical Society of Australasia; the name Philosophical Society was changed to Royal Society (by special permission of Her late Majesty) purposely to widen its scope, because it was considered that the term philosophy was not sufficiently compre- hensive ; under our present title we have no narrow boundaries, The higher forms of commercial education should be of professional rank, and this is the view now being held and advocated in England ; accordingly, at the new University of Birmingham, it is proposed to have a Faculty of Commerce, with a professor, assistant professor, and instructor and special lecturers, in addition to those professors in other Faculties who will also take part in the teaching. The curriculum suggested, includes the usual sub- jects, such as mathematics, modern languages, various branches of science, geography, &c., and in addition instruction in business organisation, the theory and principles of trades unions, associa- tions, trusts, commercial law, accountancy, shipping and railway practice, banking, exchange, etc. The commercial education is not to be a substitute for general education, but a supplement to it, and students are not to be allowed to enter upon it too early ; it is thought that the age of twenty is quite early enough, and it is considered desirable that they should have taken a degree in Arts before proceeding to a degree in the Commercial Faculty, and that under any circumstances the highest commercial degree should only be given to those who have also an Arts degree. Night classes are not recommended, as it is felt that the proposed curriculum will employ. all the energies of both students and teachers. 28 A. LIVERSIDGE. Although I have not seen it specifically stated that the course is to extend over four years, it is probably so intended, as all the other professional and scientific courses, ¢.g., for mathematics, civil, electrical, and mining engineering, etc., are to be four year courses. It is rather expected that the fees will be sufficient to render the Faculty self-supporting, as they will probably amount to £50 a year. Our University also might, perhaps, take part in the higher professional commercial education of this country, without interfering with the work undertaken by the Chamber of Commerce. Co-operation would be of advantage to both, and more economical, for many of the teachers required are already provided at the University. In reference to this subject of com- mercial education, I should state that I am merely expressing my own opinions, and I have no knowledge of the views of other members of the University. The following from “ Nature,” of March 28th, is interesting in reference to this subject :—‘“ The Lord Mayor, in opening the proceedings in connection with the London School of Economics and Political Science, stated ‘that the object of the school was to provide a scientific training in the structure and organisation of modern industry and commerce, and the general causes and criteria of prosperity as they were illustrated or explained in the policy and the experience of the British Empire and foreign countries. Mr. Passmore Edwards had generously contributed £10,000 towards the erection of a building for the Faculty of Economics and Political Science, and Lord Rothschild had given £5000.’ In the course of his address Lord Rosebery said: ‘ From whatever standpoint we may regard the age, I think we must all be aware that we are coming to a time of stress and of competition for which it is necessary that we should be fully prepared. It is not necessary here to indicate what form that stress or that com- petition may take, but in military matters, in naval matters, in commercial matters, in educational matters, we see more clearly day by day that we shall not be allowed to rest on any reputation that we possess already, but that we shall have to fight for our PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 29 own hand in every department of human activity and human industry if we wish to keep our place. It is necessary for a nation in these days to train itself, by every available method, to meet the stress and the competition which is before it.’ The United States Ambassador, in proposing a vote of thanks to the Lord Mayor, said, ‘ there was no doubt that colleges of economics and of political science were the latest development in the theory and practice of that education which was to fit men for the great affairs of life, as they were developing in the complex and rapidly varying phases of modern civilisation. In the United States they regarded them as among the chief means of maintaining the part in that rivalry which they were maintaining, and meant to main- tain with all their force, with their sister nations of the world, and especially with this country, to which they were so much attached ; a rivalry, not of arms or of warfare, but a rivalry of brains, of skill, of courage in the great industries of life.’ ” The above shows what the mother country has to contend with ; this rivalry will extend in due course to Australia, so let us prepare for it in good time. 30 H. C. RUSSELL. CURRENT PAPERS, No. 5. By H. C. RUSSELL, B.A., 0.M.G., F.R.S. [With Diagrams. | [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, November 7, 1900.] Tuis, the fifth list of current papers covers a period of thirteen months, 7.e., from October 1899 to November 1900 inclusive. The greatest number of papers received was 14in February 1900. It is noteworthy that this is the first time I have had the greatest number of current papers:in February. In 1899 the greatest number of papers was 14 in August; in 1898 the majority of papers 12, landed in October. In 1897, 10 papers landed in May; and of those in 1896, 11 landed in December. It thus appears that the majority of current papers has never been twice in the same month of the year so far. This fact may I think be taken to prove that there are changes in the ocean currents, and if this service is maintained, valuable data will be collected on the several tracks leading to Australia. On the mainland our meteorological work shews great changes in the winds from year to year. In paper No. 2 (Vol. xxx., p. 206), I pointed out that an unusually strong prevailing N.W. wind over Australia had altered the distribution of current papers to some extent, and this time an interesting fact bearing upon this subject is found in the drift of No. 550, which was put into the sea off Cape Horn, and found its way on to the West Coast of Africa, in Ashantee. Assuming that the drift was a straight one it travelled 5,350 miles in a N.N.W. direction. Now all the current papers before, which have come to me, from Cape Horn have landed on Australia, and the few papers I have had from the Atlantic Ocean have drifted toward Mexico, excepta few from the English Channel. So far, it has not been possible to say definitely, the percentage of current papers received, compared with those thrown over to drift. But the practice has been very kindly carried out for me CURRENT PAPERS. 31 ‘by many captains of ships, whom I very cordially thank for their assistance, and I think, after this period, 7 years, it may be assumed that, considering the number of ships, about the same number of papers are set afloat each month, and in response for my request for a list of the papers set afloat (see list at end). Sixteen captains have sent me lists, from which it appears that during the period covered by this paper (thirteen months), no less than 448 papers have been set afloat. The papers received during the past thirteen months number 106, of these 20 have been more than thirteen months drifting, so that 86 papers thrown over during the interval come to me, that is, out of 448 set afloat 86, or 1 in 5 came back,‘which is much more than I anticipated. Referring to the effect of N.W. winds in a previous paper and their effect in preventing the landing of papers in the Australian Bight, it may be mentioned that the prevalence of southerly winds has been coincident with the landing of many current papers on the Australian Bight. CURRENT PAPERS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. The following tabular statement, shews the distribution and rates of drift in the Indian Ocean, where the rate of drift is greater, and the same for the Atlantic :— LANDING ON AUSTRALIA. LANDING ON AFRICA. Latitude S. | Latitude S. || Latitude S. | Latitude S.| Atlantic 0° to 10° | 10° to 38° || 33° to 48° | 43° to 50° | Ocean. Number of Charts. | Average Average Average Average Average No. of| driftin |No. 0f| drift in ||/No. of} driftin |No. of| drift in |No. of | driftin Papers| miles per |Papers| miles per ||Papers miles per |Papers| miles per |Papers| miles day. day. day. day. per day. Interval includ in Chart. 0 ZO) Di es 0 0 8:6 Sil Oa QO}; O 0 0 No: 2) 2 8) 0) 2) 161 6 1895-6 : No.3} 2 4,| 10°9 3 | 13°7 4 671 3 | 1071 0 1899 No.4/ 1 0 0) 3 | 15:2 5 9°4 2 | 12°3 4/61 1900 Wo: 5 | 1 1 | 15°6 3 | 21°4 5) 6°7 3 7T°5 0) 0 No. of papers| 5 11 | 21 16 4 Average No, miles per day 13°3 l6o6 i 7-6 9°4. 61 from 1893 to 1900. 32 H. C. RUSSELL. The tabular statement is most instructive, and it is to be regretted that we have so few papers ; with more papers it would be possible to eliminate the effect of uncertainty in the date when the papers actually landed. In 1900, five papers were set afloat, one of these belong to section Lat. 8. 0 to 10, another landed on a small island near Madagascar, shewing a rate of only 7:4, no doubt a case of delay in finding, and three others set afloat near the Cocos Island landed on Africa, shewing rates 18:3 miles, 20°6 miles, and 25:4 miles; extraordinary rates, and interesting in comparison with the paper that went from Cape Horn to Ashantee in the same year. 25°4 miles per day is, so far, the record drift with me; but all the drifts are rapid in latitude 10° to 33° south, in the Indian Ocean. ‘ Referring to tabular list.” Taking the average rates from Equator to 10° south the drift is 13:3 miles per day, mean of six papers; and the greatest 15-6 miles was in 1900, and the lowest rate 10-9 miles. From 10° to 33° south 11 papers have been found in seven years, and the greatest daily drift is already mentioned, 25-4 miles per day, in 1900; and the average rate of the seven papers 16:6 miles per day. From latitude 33° to 43° south:—the aver- < age rate of drift per day in this section is 7:6 miles, and here the greatest rate of drift was in 1899 not 1900. Again in section 43° to 50° S., the greatest rate 12:3 miles per day was also in 1899, These facts are extremely suggestive and it is to be hoped that many more captains may take up the work. What we do know is very instructive. What we may know by increased effort will, I am sure, be most valuable both to commerce and science. MontTHs IN WHICH THE CURRENT PAPERS WERE FOUND. 1899. 1900. Oct. | Nov. | Dec. Jan, | Feb. |March| April| May une | July Sept. | Oct. . DM MT... °c" : 4 5 8 || 10 | 14 9/10 6 eh 6 6 8 7 100 1896—December 11 current papers, greatest“in one month. — : 1897—May 10 9 oo” CURRENT PAPERS. 33. 1898—October 12 current papers, greatest in one month. 1899—August 14 3 - 1900—February 14 p 5 List of current papers extracted from the following list because they have been drifting for more than a year, the daily drift in several of these papers is so small that there can, I think, be no doubt they have been found long after they went ashore. It is an interesting and instructive list of twenty papers :— Number of Rate of Number of Miles travell Saree Days travelling de ripen: (direct). * 4.94, 743 2°5 1870 498 1403 0:6 830 499 1266 0:2 210 SOStie a OK 8°7 6150 510 528 U3 3850 517 432 3°4 1475 518 383 1:4, 540 020 690 0:5 329 524 487 4°0 1960 525 1447 16 2340 527 1195 45 5321 5386 505 0:3 148 538 391 2.3 890 548 392 20 770 550 528 10:1 5350 554 406 1:2 470 557 422 3°7 1570 571 476 2°4 1037 580 687 BIZ 6290 583 853 73 6250 DRIFT OF THE S.S, ‘‘ WAIKATO.” The s.s. Warkato, just after passing the Cape of Good Hope, on June 5, 1899, broke her main shaft, and from that time to Sep- tember 15, drifted about in the Indian Ocean. There will be found attached, a chart, shewing the various changes in direction which the ship made ir the interval. I desire to express here, my very cordial thanks to Captain John M. Hart, for sending me a copy of his log during that anxious period. Other steamers. may have to drift in the same waters, and the experience of the: Warkato may be useful to them. C—May. 1, 1901. 34 H. C. RUSSELL. ABSTRACT OF LOG OF S&.S. “ WAIKATO.” 1899. Noon. 3 H § Lat. S\Lg.E.| Course. | pitt, | Bar. |Air.| 3 Wind. State of Sea. Date. |. slo - per day 5 A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. June 5 | 37 30 | 21 00 | 2a.m. tail} end | shaft} brojke. 4 5 4 4 », 6| 36 48 | 2051 | N. 93 W. 425 | 30°30 S.W. Southerly ; 3 2 2 1 » 7 | 8653 | 2152|S. 843 EB.) 51 *50 Westerly Variable ,» 8| 3744] 2140/S.103W.| 52 | -46/ 62} 68 Calm Calm » 9|38712/2012|N.653 W.| 77 "34 | 63 | 67 6 , ,, 10} 37 23) 1920|S.75 W.| 42 *35 | 69 | 70 93 6d >, 11|38 8|1850|S.28 W.| 51 *45 | 68 | 69 99 ” \ 3 4 4 >», 12|389 3] 1827 8.18 W.| 58 *32 | 68 | 72 N. N. 5 6 6 7 8 ,, 13/3949]1938| S.50 E. | 72 | 29:79} 69 | 68 N. N.W. 7 5 4 Bye 74 val 5, 14| 3987] 2155| N. 84 E. | 110 58 | 55/59} S.W. W. Variable 3) 45 % on », 15] 38853 | 2256| N. 283 EH.) 50 | 30°18] 55) 64; N.N.E. N.N.E. 3 4°5 7 6 5 >, 16] 388 20 | 2252|N.31Z7E.| 39 N.N.E. N. 4 4 4 4 » 17|/3810|2351|N.773B.| 463] -00] 64 | 62 N. N. 4 5 5 4 5, 18/3816|25 3/S8.832 &.| 53 | 29°93) 62 | 6 S.W Ss. 5 5 4 5 5, 19|8726/2513| N.9f. | 51 |30° | 57 | 63 S.E. E.S.E. 5 5 4 4 >» 20|37 21/2511) N.183 W.| 5 -°23| 641 67 | E. N.E. N.N.E. 2 3 4 5 »» 21) 87 87 | 2523) N.472H.| 24 03 | 67 | 67 | N.W. W. Westerly 4 4 4 4 »> 22) 38624] 2625) N.30E. | 84 709 | 64 | 62 Westerly Westerly Mod. | Mod 4 3h 7) 2 1 », 23/8616 |2734|N.812E.| 56 "26 | 58 | 64 |S.W. SS.W. S. Slight | High 7 6 4 SeitiaG »» 24/36 43/2750| 8.26 E.| 30 | -17] 60 | 67 S.8.E. S High | ,, 4 4 2 1 5> 25 | 87 22| 27 41 | S.103 W.| 40 65 | 55 | 65 S. Variable | Mod. | Moa il 74 2 4 5» 26| 87 46 | 27 28/S. 222 W.| 26 -62/ 61 | 61 | Variable E.N.E. Swell | ,. | | AES Bee sae 3» 27| 37 46|2650| West 30 ‘31 | 62 | 60 E.N.E. N.E. Mod a 2 3 45 6 3» 28| 37 54 | 26 30|-S. 633 W.| 18 20; 60|62| N. N.W.| W.N.W. | Slight | ,, 5 6 43 2 », 29| 8723/27 4) N.41 BE. | 41 *22| 62 60 | W. S.W Bence Rough | Swell 3.4 » 30/37 3/2730|N,45E.| 28 | -39| 60 | 58 Calm N.W. W. | Swell | _,, 3 2 0) iB} July 1 | 37 13 | 2756) 8S. 633 BE. | 22 ‘41 | 67 | 60 |3.W. Calm N. -, i 2 3 3 3 » 2|38755|2818)8S. 225 H.| 45 ‘33 | 66 | 64 N. N.W. pee Slight | Slight - 3 3 4 » 8| 8812 | 2850 30 | °20| 65 | 66 N. N. * ¥ 4 4 4 4 »» 4|3819|2928| 8.76 E.| 33 03 | 67 | 66 | Westerly |W. SE: sh 5 4 4 4 » 5|8741/2900|N.30W.] 44 15/62/65] E.N.E. N.E. fe Y, 4 4 a 3 >» 6|388 3/2830| S.47 W.| 32 14 | 68 | 67 N.N.E. Variable un a ees 4 5 67 8 » 7|8911|2840| S.63 E. | 68, | 29°96 | 64 | 66 | N. N. a Rough 8 7 6 6 7 8 » 8|3953/3020/ S.61 E. | 87 *B6 | 64 | 59 N. W.S.W. W.| High | High es) 8-7 8 » 9140 1/3114!S.793 BE.) 44 84! 52) 611 W. S.W. w.S.W. we : / CURRENT PAPERS. Noon. Lat. S ° / | 38 56 Lg. E.} Course. ° / 32 00 | N. 332 E. 32 39 32 20 | N. 552 W. N. 763 W. N. 782 W. S. 563 W. N. 28 E. N. 37 E. N. 843 E. S. 682 E. S. 763 E. N. 87 E. S. 742 E. 31 17 29 53 29 00 29 36 30 03 30 23 31 40 33 20 34 40 35 20 36 45 | N. 863 EB. 37 40| S.63 E 37 24 S. 12 W. S. 633 EB. S. 25 W. S.3 W. 37 52 37 38 37 87 38 50| S. 79 E. N.5 E. S. 40 W. S. 634 E. S. 3} E. 38 52 39 4 39 6 39 22 S. 34 E. N.1E. N. 69 W. N. 80 W. S. 25 W. S. 173 E. S. 27 E. East S. 81 E. S. 53 E. S. 68 E. 39 24 38 00 37 52 37 32 38 10 38 40 39 20 40 4 40 20 41 2 N.533 E. | Dist. eee | ———— |__| | es miles | Bar. |Air. per day 64 | 30°18] 61 48 ‘50 | 60 18 36 | 59 52 | ‘27| 64 67 "05 | 67 51 | 29°86] 62 61 | 30°13} 61 35 26 | 63 20 27 | 62 - 66 "26 | 62 sg | 30] 63 53 "36 | 65 33 32 | 63 68 "30 | 64 48 “37 | 61 60 13 | 60 24 "31 | 57 25 ‘65 | 62 15 “64 | 60 58 -26 | 60 51 "25 | 57 4 17 | 64 11 16 | 64 26 18 | 63 22 | 29°80] 62 20 “79 | 60 70 | 30°52 | 53 6 ‘BT | 57 36 “56 | 58 94 29 | 63 49 ‘02 | 56 30 10 | 52 32 | 29°95 | 52 15 | ‘74 | 55 35 ‘76 ) 58 Wind. A.M. P.M. 7 8 7 6 5 4 W.N.W. W. W.S.W 3 1 23 4 Variable Easterly 2 2 2 2 N.E. N.E. 2 2, 4 5 Westerly N.E. 5 6 6 5 N.E. N.N.E. 6 5 7 8-4 N. W.N.W. 6 54 5 4 3 W. N.W. W.N.W. Calm Calm 1 2 a Westerly a 4b § W.S.W Calm 1.2 °3 Calm N.E. 3 5 6 N.N.E. N N. “i © & , 4 4 N. N.: 4 5 5 6 N. N. 4 Ge N. N.N.W N.W. 7 ie 6 5 4 2 Ww. S.W.| Southerly 2} 1 2 1 2 S.W. Variable 2 3 3 4 N.W. N.W. 2 3 A One: W. W.S.W.| S.E. E.S.E. 4 3 45 4 N.E. N.N.EJN.N.E. N. 4 3 2 3 4 N.W. N. N.W. W.N.W. 4 5 (Sees lan i S.W. S. Ss. 8% 6 5 5 4 Ss. S.S.W S.W. 4 4 S.W. Calm wh LN 6 Calm N. 6 7 7 8 N. ; 7 6 2 1 1 N.N.W. Variable a 1 Variable Calm 1 2 3 2 3 N.W. Ww. N.W. 4 8-6 5 42.3 N.W. N. 4 5 6 5 6 USNEWice Nic N.W. ABSTRACT OF LOG OF S.S. “ WAIKATO,” State of Seu High Swell Tacora hy took forafew Slight Mod. 30 P.M. High Mod. Slight Mod. Rough High Rough Swell Swell Slight standing in tow hours. Slight Mod. Rough Swell Slight Mod. Swell Swell 36 j ~ 1899. | Date. Aug. 14 | 15 16 99 ry) » 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 | Noon. Lat. S|Lg. E. 9° / 42 7 41 38 42 32 43 2 43 7 43 3 43 21 43 35 43 35 .43 11 43 38 43 56 43 56 44 21 44 8 43 33 44 5 44 8 43 57 43 27 42 15 42 2 42 14 ° / 42 6 42 51 43 3 43 52 44 14 43 58 43 18 44 00 44 38 45 20 45 20 45 17 45 25 45 48 46 34 47 20 48 2 48 35 49 54 50 58 51 50 52 34 53 45 No oj bserv 41 54 41 1 41 4 41 4 40 34 40 41 55 34 56 40 57 25 59 00 61 00 61 42 No o|bserv 40 24 39 29 63 36 64 30 Course. S.79 E. N. 49 E. S.9 E. S. 50 E. S.73 E. N. 695 E. S. 60 W. S. 653 E. East N.52 E. South S.7 W. East S. 33 E. N. 683 E. N. 43 E. S. 441 E. S. 83 E. N. 79 E. N. 562 E. N. 28 E. N. 672 E. S. 765 E. ation. N.76 E. N. 43 E. S. 85 E. East N.71 E. 8.78 E.. ation. N.79 E. N.37 E. H. C. RUSSELL. ee Bar. per day 48 89 44 | 30°32 55 28 47 18 17 79 11 AT 26 | 29°72 34 | 30°00 26 | 29:97 39 | 30°37 27 06 18 19 5 13 30 | 29°39 36 "81 48 | 30°17 43 | 29°57 25 | 30°05 59 | 29°88 61 55 "85 30°17 81 °B1 34 54 51 33 05 83 ‘03 72 *44 34 °50 72 °45 93 ‘06 33 15 29°83 90 94 69 | 30°18 Air, ABSTRACT OF LOG OF SSS. “WAIKATO.” Wind. A.M. P.M. 6 5 4 5 5 6 N.W. W.S.W. S.W. 6 5 4 45 6 S.W. Ww. N.W. 6 5 4 4 5 Ww. N.W. 6 5 4 32 N.W. Ww. S.W. 2 2 3 4 S.S.E E. N.E. 4 4 5 6 N.N.E. N. N. 6 " SB 4 3532 N. N.W. W. 1 2 24 5 W. N.N.W. 8 7 6 43 2 West W.S.W. 1 2, 3 4 4 Vble. N N.E. N.NE. 4 5 6 6 5 5 N.W. N.W. W. i at 8} al W. Variable Calm 2 3 4 45 6 N.E. N. N. 6 7 7 v6 N. N.W. W. T 6 6 5 4 W. S.W. S.W. & 9 il 2467 Variable IN.N.E. N. 10 9 8 i) 1 yf al N.N.W. N.W. W. 4567 6 5 7 W. N.W. W.N.W. 6 5 4 4 sy ef W.N.W. W.| W. N.W. 8 7 7 7 W.S.W. W.S.W. q 6 5 4 8 8.W. Southerly 38.4 5 5 6 N.N.W. N.N.W. 6 v6 “65 N.W. N.W. 4 4 43 4 W.N.W. W.N.W. 6 7 7 6 5 4 S.W. S.S.W oF aka 23 4 s. N.N.W. 4 5 6 5 5 N.N.W. N.W N.W. 5 6 6 6 N.W. N.W. 7 8 7 6 5 N.W. S.W. W.S.W. 4 3 4 4 5 E.S.E. E. N. N.N.W. 6 7 8 6 5 4 N.W. N.W. 38.4 5 5 5 S.W. W.N.W. 5 4 4 3) 74 il Sw. S. S.w. —4 State of Sea. A.M. | Pat Swell | Swell 2 ” ” ” ” ” 99 Mod. Slight| ,, High | High Swell | Mod. Mod is Swell | Swell Mod. | Mod Rough | High High by ” Rough ” High Rough | Rough High | High Rough | Rough High | High ” Rough. Mod High | High Swell | Slight Mod. | Mod. Rough | Rough High 33 Mod. | Mod Rough | Rough Mod. | Mod CURRENT PAPERS. Bie LIST OF PAPERS SET AFLOAT BY THE SEVERAL SHIPS NAMED BELOW. Number of Current Date. Name of Ship. Papers thrown overboard, May 2 to Oct. 1, 1900 ...| M.M.S.S. “ Pacifique” shalt © atl Oct. 16 to Oct. 20, 1900 ditto at ee Jan. 11, to May 10, 1900 | 8.8. ‘ Hauroto ” Bes 71 100 Sept. 7 to Sept. 27, 1900 ditto Nas 6a 248) Oct. 4 to Oct. 25, 1900... ditto ee wl ao Dec. 16/99 to Sep. 18,1900) S.S. ‘‘Manapouri” ... veel) ow Oct. 4 to Oct. 24,1900 .. ditto a: nee g April 4 to April 25, 1900) R.M.S. « Victoria ” Soc enh Sep. 8 to Sep. 22, 1900.. ditto ay Se tne! Nov, 22/99 to April 2, 1900| $.8. “Afric ” sea al) March 7 to April 1, 1900) 8.S. “ Gulf of Bothnia” ...| 30 May 27 to June 21, 1900 |: ditto coal) oll) Feb. 16 to March 7, 1900 | R.MLS. “Himalaya” eae) AS Aug. 26 to Sep. 14, 1900 | S.S8. “Indraghiri” ... 17 Jan, 23 to ate 28, 1900 | M.ML.S:S. ‘Ville de la Ciotat” | 50 Oct. 1 to Oct. 4 , 1900 ...| 8.8. “ Yarrawonga ” wale 4 Total ...| 440 22g, SF | Tes's | S6IT ee 66-72 ‘AON | ' BEFT (9 Le) 0 BL ‘99 Lb feyespog “0 'O “I |" Avg soyuvy, “ | 96-21 “Sny| 226 , 92¢ | 9-8 | S9L'T | 126 : oo Avy] ‘ 9g sz} 09 es | “ sczor “os 68 . hae f4 66-ZI Sun’ | 9Bg C@o | 9-T | O'S | LEFT ze 00s ounc | “ SPO] Ee Be) “ Ole “0 OF ie 4 a6 “ 9e-9T OUNL | Seg 7 FES | O-F | O96'T | 28h |weeDGO “WIMO | 66-82 “990 | “ 0S OFT | “086s | “ EGGOL “F OF | TepuLUIUIOD ‘AOqQUTYUIT | |" =, POTUSA JORTNH, “ | g6-€4 enuf | Fzg e2o | 91 | 093 | ZIT |" 9B0D9seM | 00-4 “9deg | “ GEecIL| (968e| “ sT SIT “ozee| « e ie - OO"HL “ATT | €eo zee | 2-8 | 098 | 6IT * 00-08 Av | * 08 SEI | OE ce) “ OT Set ‘osgs| “ a ie a 00-12 “URE | 2eg 12 | 9-4 | 099 | ¥2 3 00°3 “94eg | ‘* GLOFT) 2h 2E| ** OSTEL “GHee| Pe ie 5 00-02 eunt | Tz¢ oes | $0 | Oz | 069 bp (OS “wer | PL PET | | coce| “ FLOst. “2gge|) rs rd zs 86ST “4d | 0S 61g | &-F | sso | 8ZI e 66-0 “eC | ‘* Ge OFL | “99 Ze] <0 Ost ‘08 Be [MOD ‘poomprosty “MOL | «BUM JOFNH, & |eors Ame 619 gig | #1 | OFS | 8S | ISBOD BINOG | 006% “VEL | ** sEgsT | | HS Ee| © oH Ler “Hh 9E ‘omg EM |. Puouwy joy), “ | 66-1T “wer | sis LIS | ¥E | SZPT | eh joprovg yynog | g6-g “qeq | “* Ze Ist | “Os se] “ eFGZT “zg og | TepuvMuU0D ‘qyzIUIg “AY |" . BOOM , “S'S | 96°82 “AON | 219 91g | 0-3 | O8t | 19 =: 00-8 Av | ‘ oo 2eT | “9g Ze] “ cz ont “6 68 |" es i oe 00°8 Tov | 9TS S1¢| 9-1 | OOT | £9 | 98809 YINOG |] 00-83 ‘WEL | “ AT EFT | OF ZE| SF LAT “Bisel toysey_ ‘uogosury q [7 TOUIT, OUNQUBSTAG | G6-9G “AON | GTS IS | 6ST} 02 | ZT | 9sv0D ase} 00-8 Aime | “ 6g OST | “Zee | ‘ O OST ; “oT gg | TopuUIMOD ‘oarasdry “AM |”. ONUIVSUIT, ‘S'S | OO-Ts OuNL | FIs gig | s¢ | 9F9 | SBI | Bog UEMISEL| 00-F “ded | ‘* FHELT| “086 “ GRHOT| “ISH |" ToySUIN “UBSeg qdep /"" — *", Aqueaoq,, onbavg | 66) “900 | eTg zig | $0 | & 18 = 00-08 “AVI | ‘§ €% SST | “GL es | * HG EST | “BT es | B (ae “ 00-8 ‘wee | BIg TIg¢| OL | G8. | F8 |" 98VOD Ise] 008 “Aa | * OT EST | M0893] ‘ ssesT! “2eF8 |" PuMoO Na ‘Ataeg Ae |" TC, ‘SH |00-8 = wel) Tig OIg | $2 | Ogss’s | 8zg [avec UeIpUT | 00-84 “APN |“ O Sh | {OE VT] * Es 101| “2g 0% |" TopuvuraoH “WIT "MM |. BUTAB , “S'S | 86°9T “990 | O18 60S | 0.2 O6T. | $6 | 9SBOD YINOS | GEST “9° | ** SHPEL | (08 | “ CP BET | “os cE OWN “pavyoqrag ynopy |" COMO, SW a 66°8 “349g | 60g g0S | 248 | OST‘9 | 2404 | UBe0Q "YMOG | 66-FS “AON | “* O GAT] SETH! “ SHIS | 18 FF |’ ‘TOMOTE LT ,v0s[ND, S'S | Z6-ZT ‘ed | 80g L0¢ | 9.0 | OST | 182 > oo-g Aine | ** GI GIT | (878) “ 2h T2T | ‘98 ss |" . ore Se 66748 “390 | 209 90¢ | 0-4 | 9S 8 : 00-63 “AVN | “ Co 6ST | OS 98 | “* 11 GET | “Fo 98 | “ x eat: = 00-F1 “281A | 909 c0¢ | 8-F | 8g a1 sf OOF Wore | “* CS CPL | * F288) “ OS IFT | “82 8 | 7 Se den a 00-03 44 | 0s FOS | 9-2 | GF vA nf 66-LZ1 “AON | °° CF TPT | “98 88] “ 8s OPT | ‘OF 88 |" “ anoudeg "HW | 1"), BIUULIITG, ‘SA | 66-18 “990 | 709 €0¢ | 9S | eT | 22 se 66S “ed | ‘ cE BI | “OLE | “ OT LEI | ‘Te Se |" z ‘YOMOIN “YW |“), WOUIOAG, “SIND | 66°93 “AON | £09 cos | ¢-S | 09 IT | asvog ygnog | oo-et ‘wer | “ e¢gtt | “se He| “ ge sit | ‘8 cel” a pecs: om 00% ‘Let | Zos T0¢ | 0-4 | S8T | 93 |98¥0D yS0M'S | 66-98 “9c | * OS OTT] ‘Fo Fs] “ LP SIT | “Ss EE |" : pS 2 66-08 “AON | 109 00g | &-2 | $6 1? % 006 “URe| * O CHT | “Ssess| ‘ Bz LPT | ‘FE 68 |" a ‘uort9A — |", WET[VAYSN'Y, *S'S WI | 66°62 “ACN | 00 66h | 3-0 | O13 | 99BT | ¥SBOD YQNOG | OO-ST “SnV | “ OS VET] “SE FE] ‘* Sh ET | HF GE | Se as 46-1 U IVI | 66h g6r | 9-0 | 0&8 | SOFT |98¥0D 9SAM'S | 0O-ST OUNL | ‘ CG ZIT | “0 Ge| “ OZ SIT | “OT Es |" “ “uostepuy af = 96-6 “£NV | 86h 16 | 6-1 | OF | SBI | 98¥OD YANoG | 00-2 IMdy | “ ZI 9ZT | “ST Ze | “ EZ 8BT | “18 SE |" oe ‘prog rv {= TRaAqSNYV, ‘SW A | 66S “ed | 16h 96h | $-0 | 88 08 | 98¥OD 489M | 00-FS “9H | “ So FIT | “cp és |“ 6SPIT| “SE FE | “ _ouepsog *y | Oded puvmty, “S'S W | 66-9 "99d | 967 G6h | 6-3 | $249 | 08% ONTO’ INOS | 00-28 UNL | * O EST|SE IS | A SE 961 |S 0€ 18 |" TopuvUUOD ‘AU *O * AA | ,wueloy, “| 666 “AON | S6h yor | 6.2 | OST | Sb4 loulowa WIAON| 56-82 “300 |“ OT GIT NG OTM SOT ;NES6 [PUTO ‘dropuede93Q WeA |" BPOUETY, “S'W'A| 26-11 “390 | 67 g6F | 49 | 004 | FOL st 00°F 3008 | “ ST OPI | 8) Ze| “* OT 2et| “0 28 |" is AS ae ae o 00-63 AIC | €6F Zep | 6-T | OFZ | OST | 3S¥OD HINO] OO-T INAV |"HO SFIS 21 8e| “AIS ZET |S £9 Ze |" TepuvmUOD ‘PAoHTW — J COME) “S'S | 66° “AON | GOP so] ran / ° / ° / O° / ° “£eq . be ‘puno,7 ‘Suo “1% ‘Suto “9% , "Bas 09 |. en aod EAD ae & 2 “£YITVOO'T a ea u vert *OUIBN ‘digg JO omvyy ojut gnd aan HH | eungsa| ” 8 uoT A 07¥q Dpeman oom Fete er eee voy oFeqg : a | ‘punoy O10 MA ‘IOAQ UMOIYY, SEINHYANO NVAXOO re io | . RAC SOOAAOASCSM AAA GS & Hin G09 69 4H 19 18 Gao a HOMADSERAMDAMOOAOM HOM AOANHOOSOMAAOM AHH eK COMMS ce © 29 66 19 “she [eAr0zUy *puno,y O10 AA ‘I8AQ UMOITY, SEINAYANO NVAHOO oTgURTTV N | 66-9 TOE “A 08 § (NOSE [M9208 (NOS s roqse ‘uosrepueH *f|'" , TOStattg jouteg , dryg AuojoN aeduy | 66-3 ‘90d | ** ggzs |“ F F8/ “ SLPS |“ 6T PE |PMON ‘SeIsn0g "Hn H'H'V|" a WOpV JO FIMH | 00ST “AAT | S BP | “OTFT) “ Tw | 08 SI e peters “Beg PEM | OO-ZT “AA | “* os Ze | “GS GT] “ 9GOF | “SE oT] e ie er Uepy JOFMH | 66-76 390 | \ seep (NP 2L| © 6 eh | NG Sl | aN “toqsooI0M “GM “ BIpul, SW e200 UIpUy | 00-9 euNne | “ EFIP |'SoOZT | “ Sh68 |S oss e : ySBoH woTse/) | 00-63 “AVI | MOS6L MNGG9 |'HOs 22 |NSZZ jAepuvmuroy ‘mnorg "7 "AM . vkeyeuly , “SW (a) ‘oOo b -19) 16 “puno . . 8 . "AQITVOOT E a Buea Yer en ne ‘ouUeUN ‘diyg jo oulvyy Toy o9eq TIM, ‘S'S S'S'HA'N 66-21 “sny 66°EL "AON L6-F1 AIA 66ST “390 00°72 “sny 0O-Zt Aine 66"¢ oune 66°" oune 66" 9une 86° ‘00d 00-FZ “wee 00-82 ‘wer 66°08 “AON 867Sz “3deg OO-ST “ues 66-81 lady 00S “48a 66-91 ‘3deg oo-st Arne 0O-7T Ane 00-21 eune 66-ZI ‘29d 66-01 ‘2°d 00-1 *2 PTT 00-2 Tady 66-9 “ABTA 00-S% “<8TT S6"SI “AON 00-2 ‘49a 66-01 ‘AON 66-21 Tidy OO-IL “49a 66°62 *99q 66°22 390 66°¢ ‘AON 0072 Wore "vos 09 oqur gnd TOT 09BC, ¥2 | o8¢ | Sh (9 ad 4Mog/00-6 ‘“Ssny, ‘ og 6gT| STS | ‘S IG 291) “ES IT « summa ya |’ '" , BIOMOTTT, "SW | 66°24 ‘99 | 26¢ | oe | 0c2 | #8 | BOS UBTSET, | 00 08 “Ydog | “ Bp CAT | ‘08 SE | “ OF BOT | * BI FE c “TOTEM "MM |"" * BIpuBpeeZ,, "S'S | 00°8 Aine | 96¢ 9F | OSE | 68 jytoea UNOS | 00-01 Aime | ‘ OF OAT] “STT | “ ST 62T| “SPT “ ‘sdutd ‘Sa ‘ef |" *", course, “| 0O-T eune | 96¢ 0-2 | 088 | S61 | BOO WIMOS | 00-S3 “0 | ‘ ¢ GET] “O 9G] M ET BEL! M oF SE ‘< — femerQ HA |") BILOOTA, SIN’ | 00ST Ty | F6S 1-0 | 08 10 7: 00°93 “0 | * 08 ssT | “o¢ 8B | ** 6E EST | * 18 62 ; - ao ee 3: 66-62 ‘aq | 6S €-01 | OFS | && : OOFT “990 | * OS TST] OT FE] * Ze ECT | * HF 62 : : pa anees & * OO-IT “3deg | 26g 88 | SI F | 98BOO VM] 00-2 "990 | * Ge srt | Ter) f Bs GPT | *' Se ST ‘ leaseH MW |". nae Vsnsey, §* | 00S "400 | 169 ‘LI | 08 246 | PUBLBOZ "N | 00-FS “990 | ** GsGzT| SE 98] * 9B CLT] *' 98 gE ? MOFMON "CM |" OgoaneAZ, “* | 00-43 “9dag | 069 G-§ SIL €§ ; 00°82 "390 | ‘S sess | ‘24¢ 8} “ 8E 9ST | “* eF SE ‘uUvMg —|"" —_ , BDIMAA FO JN), “S'S | 00-GS “4deg | 68¢ 0-1 | 08 Tg | 9SBOD GING | 00-6z “3deg | ‘ GF EST | “oT Ze] “* ZT EET | * 2B LE es ‘soaooy “f] *" ereagsny, ** | 00-63 “Sn'V | 889 48¢ | $81 | OF2‘s | c0Z jUveQ UBIpUT | 00-40 Amc] “ os Ip | “PTT | “ 2e96 | 2 st ; peo rv ON yeneny, "| 00:9 “Wer alse 98¢ £3 | 009 | 098 | 3S¥OD WING] 00-2 “99O | A SESS |'SShFS| AL 9 |'S6 S| TopavurutoH ‘urssoT ‘HOV |" *_- BIPBOLY, "SNA | 0008 “URL | 989 | *‘pesiueuue SelM Sulp/eoeud| Gy} VO|UIS pO|AleO0u UBEQq SAEY SAloded SuIMO][OJ GUL see | 02 | ocr BIge |) JSeOOmeeer O08 AGN“ 9 OSt | Sess)“ 6 SSL)“ PC0e | | "a “| 66ST “300 | Seg m8¢ | 3b | O&f | 18 |OpueTeeZ’N| 00-6 “Snv| ‘ og PZ) ‘“GPse| * 9 EZT| “cate; TOTRAA AA | UTpUBTBSZ, — | 006 AmE | 78a €8¢ | €-2 | 0G2°9 | Ec3 jUBeDQ ULIPUT | 008 “AT | O THC] ST 8a] i PLE | Fe Gz : cs 46°6 “990 | €89 ze | 9.8 | OOF | ZIT | 98800 GINOG/ 86-8 “UCL | “ gO Ze] ‘ST ZE| | ST SET | 1 he oe | 3 UIUed "M |" _, OOTOOULOOTIOOM » ‘S'S | 26-81 “3dag | eeg T8¢ | 91 008 | 6r |" 3S¥OD 4svmq | 00-FS “deg | “ 99 OST | “Ga FE | “ 9g SGI | se gz |PUBUIMIOH ‘sd "S CL |" OOMMIEM , “SW | 00-9 “wee | 18g 08S | 26 | 0629 | 289 /Tve00 ‘YINOS | 66-ZT “09 | “* BI PLT | “ ZE9S | “ OL 9G | OT TP) ROE ANIL) || os es reece 86-03 ‘“uer | 08¢ 648 | 0-1 | & € | 98VoO ysvm | 00-13 “API | “ OF IGT | “ogee | * ES IST | * Le aE | < “Oyg Ty |" 7", BAOUTEM , “S'S | 00-81 “TBI | 629 B49 | $9 | OOF | 82 . oor Aine} “ 02 OFT | “Se Ze) * PL Est] “1 98 | os a re a 00-8 Tidy | 829 “1G | T-€ | O61 | 19 ms 00-68 “ABN | ‘ OF ZI | “se ss] \ 1s 6ST | “F388 | peg: a E 00-46 “uBr] LLg 94 | T-T | 128 | 88% A OOFT “URC | “ Fy sel] ‘Fo ce| | 11 S81 | “oe Ss |" a YOST — |". F901) Vl Op STIEA, “WW | 66-12 APT | 929 Gig} pg | G9 | RI | 9880 YyOg | 00% “Ides | ‘ OF TFL | “8 88] (18 OFT| “G sel" rs a ee io 00-13 “sny | oL¢ PLS | 9.06 | OOFF | FIZ |weedQ uLTpuT | 66-26 “340g | “ O OF FSSTE | * 6846 |'Ssgtl| ; ane 66°SS “49d | Lg €1¢| 0.8 | FB {8 \ysvog uozdag | 66-02 IdyW | “ 9G 6L [NGO | “ S¢6d |NSTQ |" TepMEUMUIODH ‘omorD “q |"" ©, PIHOROTA, "SWE | 66-21 [dy | €29 zig} 0.9 | 028 | FFT | 98809 W4nog | 00-F2 Titdy | ‘* oz gFr | “Geee| “ ZEest| “oF IF)”. TOISPIM OavoTH Cj". tesTeyerL, CMS | 66-1 “90d | ale Tzg | #2 | Z2E0'L | 92h javeoQ yynog | 00-8T “Gea | “ esorr| “8 68| ‘oF Zar)‘ Fogp) =f Saume “ddd “AM | , Se[Adow1oyy, , “S'S | 86-73 “990 | Tag 02g | 0.6 | SI 3 a 661 eG | << sl ist | °F ¥8| “° El Ist | inch in breadth. If the proboscis of a filariated mosquito be cut off and mounted on a glass slide in water with cover-glass, and examined under the microscope, a slight pressure on the cover-glass being applied to cause the stylets to leave the labium, the young filariz may be seen swimming up and down the apparent canal in the labium [what Grassi designates “the prolongation of the general cavity of the body within the labium]; a little further pressure on the cover-glass causes the worms to escape at the extreme end of the labium. Whether there be a natural opening at the labellar end of the labium seems doubtful, but in every instance in which the experiment was made the young filariz escaped at this point, and at no other. | In several works on entomology, giving descriptions of the mouth organs of dipterous insects, [that are in my possession | there is no mention of a canal in the labium or of any opening at the tip. It seems to me that should no natural opening exist at the spot indicated, the young filaria would have very little difficulty in making one, and [ believe that they naturally do leave their intermediary hosts at this point; here they could wriggle into the wound made by the mosquito and would avoid any risk of being sucked up with the blood. The young filarie placed in water wriggle about but are quite unable to leave the spot where they happen to lie; it is not unreasonable to conclude that, as they are so helpless in water, they could scarcely swim against the blood stream entering the mosquito. There is still another objection to Grassi’s idea of a rupture; this occurs when the labium is ‘“‘stuffed with filariz,” but it would not be likely to happen when the labium contains a single worm as is frequently the case. INTERMEDIARY HOST OF FILARIA IMMITIS, LEIDY. 45. We are now able to give an exact account of the life-history respectively of Pilaria nocturna and /. ammitis. Starting with the sexually mature worms in man and dog, these produce embryos, which swim in the blood; the mosquito in biting abstracts some of the embryos; these develop in the mosquito’s body and in about three weeks time are capable of entering their final hosts should, they get a chance of so doing. Sooner or later the mosquito may- bite their final or definitive host, the filariz seize the opportunity. and pass into the puncture made by the mosquito in the skin ; they now grow to sexual maturity, which probably takes about a. year. During the metamorphosis in the mosquito’s body the position. taken up by the filarie serves to distinguish which is /ilaria nocturna and which 7’. immitis, the former being in the thoracic muscles the latter in the malpighian tubes; whilst at their maxi- mum development the chief characteristic mark is their size, the young F. inumitis being shorter and thicker than the /. nocturna. We have learnt that mosquitos live long periods, not a few days as was formerly thought but months, and that during their life time they bite frequently. It is a remarkable fact that in Europe the Anopheles maculi-. pennis plays the role of host for the malarial parasite, for /ilaria immitis, and it is believed also for /ilaria nocturna,; whilst in Australia the ‘“ House Mosquito” Culex Skusii, Giles, [formerly thought to be a form of Culex ciliaris, Linn.]' is host for Pilaria nocturna and [. immitis, probably also for the malarial parasite. I have recently found that dates, the dried fruit to be obtained from the grocer, are a most excellent food for mosquitos, very much better than banana [which some years ago I had discovered to be a valuable food for mosquitos in confinement]. Dates, as. food for mosquitos, have these advantages over banana, they may 1 The “House Mosquito”’ of Australia appears to the writer to agree with the description given in Giles’ work on Mosquitos, p. 298 of Culex. fatiguns, Wied. 46 |‘ THOMAS L, BANCROFT. be kept in a jar inthe laboratory and are conveniently to hand at any time; a pound weight of them will serve for numerous experiments; they do not go rotten or even mouldy; and there is no necessity, a3 with banana, to change for fresh every three or four days; asingle date hung in the mosquito cage will serve throughout the experiment however long it might last. Mosquitos fed on dates live longer, and many species that will not live in confinement more than three days on banana, ¢.g. Anopheles musivus, Skuse, Culex vittiger, Skuse, thrive on dates and live for upwards of a month. In studying the life-histories of mosquitos it is often necessary +o induce them to oviposit in confinement. I have found that when the water vessel in the cage contains putrid water mosquitos will often oviposit, whereas they refuse to do so on clean water. It is prudent however, to remove the eggs to cleaner water as the larvee of many species cannot exist in putrid water. The water may be rendered suitably putrid by the addition of a little fresh cow-dung. In a number of experiments made with the object of ascertain- ing whether certain very rare mosquitos [that would not live in confinement in glass jars of the capacity of a gallon of water} would live in larger cages and under more natural conditions; I” made a cage having a capacity of about a cubic yard in which were placed several living plants in pots and large vessels of water both fresh and salt, but the mosquitos lived no longer in it. It seems therefore that nothing is gained by the use of such large cages. TWO HISTORICAL NOTES IN REGARD TO CAPTAIN COOK. 47 TWO HISTORICAL NOTES IN REGARD TO CAPTAIN COOK THE CIRCUMNAVIGATOR. By J. H. Maipen, Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 5, 1901.] a 1. The Club which, vt is believed, partly contributed to his death.— When recently in England, Mrs. Lowther of Shrigley Hall, Macclesfield, Cheshire, was kind enough to permit me to examine the collection of objects brought together by her father Thomas Legh Esquire of Lyme Hall, the Leghs being of course one of the most ancient families in the county. (Mr. Legh was known by his contemporaries as “Traveller Legh,” and was one of the original Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society). The objects are mostly Egyptian and Oriental, but a South Sea Island Club at once attracted my attention. On my displaying interest in the club, Admiral Lowther (Mrs. Lowther’s brother-in-law) was kind enough to say that he would have it and its label photographed and give copies to me. These I exhibit to you to night, after which I shall send them to the Australian Museum, where they will be always available for reference. The label, old and faded, and evidently written early in the last century, is as follows :— “Cap™. Ja®. Cook, the celebrated circumnavigator, born 27 October 1728, at Marton in Cleveland, near great Ayton in the ® County of York. ‘Cap. Cook was killed on the 14 Feb* 1779 by the Indians of Owhyee—he was first stabbed, and with a (the word a is crossed out and the word this inserted) Club gave him a blow on the back . Of the head. 48 J. H. MAIDEN. “This is the identical Club, given to me by the late Admirah John Hunter.” Sir Jos". Banks, Bar*. F.L.s, and K.B., Portland Place. Dr. Solander | Cap". W™. Bligh, R.N.” The original label was written by Mr. Legh, and was, Mrs. Lowther tells me, a copy of an extract of a letter by Sir Joseph Banks to Mr. Legh in presenting the club. How Admiral John. Hunter (Governor of New South Wales, of course) obtained the. club is not known to me, but ever since it was presented to Mr. Legh it has only been at Lyme Hall and Shrigley Hall, places. five miles apart. _ What the object of Mr. Legh was in adding the names of: Solander and Bligh, I do not know. Probably they are mere. memoranda. Mr. F. M. Bladen, to whom I submitted the facsimile of the label, says that it is not in the handwriting of Sir Joseph Banks,, Admiral Hunter nor Captain Bligh, and agrees that it is probably- a copy made by or for Mr. Legh. He points out, however, that the document could not have been written as a whole at any given date. The paragraph commencing “this is the identical club” refers to the /ate Admiral John Hunter, and could not have been. written by Banks, for Hunter survived him (Banks died in 1820, Hunter in 1821). Perhaps however, the club was given by Admiral Hunter to Mr. Legh and the descriptive letter furnished by Sir Joseph Banks. I give an extract from Kippis’ abbreviated work (edition of 1883), and Mr. F. M. Bladen has been good enough to give me the original passage, giving the account of the death of Cook by Surgeon Samwell, an eye witness. The club is of Ironwood (Casuarina equisetifolia), a timber commonly used in the Islands for making such articles. Itis — about three feet long, the diameter at the thicker end is 2 inches and 14 inches at the other end. The photograph is a clear one (two. TWO HISTORICAL NOTES IN REGARD TO CAPTAIN COOK. 49 photographs are of course necessary to show the whole of it), and if the pattern upon the club shows it to be of special interest, no doubt we shall be favoured with some ohservations by the Curator of the Australian Museum, an expert in regard to such objects.’ APPENDIX. A. Kippis—Narrative of the Voyages round the World performed by Captain James Cook (1788) Edited and published by Bickers & Son, 1883, p. 341. ‘*Captn. Cook was making for the pinnace with his hand at the back of his head to protect himself from the stones hurled. A native witha large club or common stake gave him a blow at the back of the head,” Account of the manner of Capt. Cook’s death, by David Samwell, Surgeon of the Ship Discovery. Printed in Kippis’s Life of Cook. ‘< At that time, it was to the boats alone that Captain Cook had to look for his safety; for when the marines had fired, the Indians rushed among them and forced them into the water, where four of them were ~ killed; their lieutenant was wounded, but fortunately escaped, and was taken up by the pinnace. Captain Cook was then the only one remaining on the rock; he was observed making for the pinnace, holding his left hand against the back of his head, to guard it from the stones, and carry- ing his musket under the other arm. An Indian was seen following him, but with caution and timidity; for he stopped once or twice, as if unde- termined to proceed. At last he advanced upon him unawares, and with a large club or common stake? gave him a blow on the back of the head 1 Since the above was written, Mr. R. Etheridge, the Curator, has been kind enough to favour me with the note below; I am further indebted to to him for the critical note in regard to the inscription (infra). “The evidence as far back as Admiral Hunter is no doubt satisfactory, but anterior to that is very weak; Hunter may have obtained it in a dozen different ways. I can find no trace of a Hawaiian club so orna- mented, but both the form and sculpture is decidedly Fijian, Samoan or Tongan, the last for choice. Cook, as you know was at Amsterdam Island (Tonga), and it is on record that great intercourse went on between the Tongans and Fijians. What is more probable than that the club formed part of the Cook-Banksian Collection, taken home by the ‘Adven- ture? It is on record that Mrs. Cook’s house at Clapham was a veritable museum, and there can be no question that specimens were given away freely before her death.” 2 Note—I have heard one of the gentlemen who were present say, that the first injury he received was from a dager, as it is represented in the Voyage; but from the account of many others who were also eye witnesses, I am confident in saying, that he was first struck witha club, I was afterwards confirmed in this, by Kairee Rea, the priest, who particularly mentioned the name of the man who gave him the blow, as well as that of the chief who afterwards struck him with the dagger. Thisisa point not worth disputing about; I mention it, as being solicitous to be accurate in this account, even in circumstances, of themselves, not very material. D—June 3, 1901. 50 J. H. MAIDEN. and then precipitately retreated. The stroke seem to have stunned Captain Cook; he staggered a few paces, then fell on his hand and one knee and dropped his musket. As he was rising, and before he could recover his feet, another Indian stabbed him in the back of the neck with an iron dagger. He then fell into a bight of water about knee deep, where others crowded upon him, and endeavoured to keep him under; but struggling very strongly with them, he got his head up, and casting his look toward the pinnace, seemed to solicit assistance. Though the boat was not above five or six yards distant from him, yet from the crowded and confused state of the crew, it seems it was notin their power to save him. The Indians got him under again, but in deeper water, he was however, able to get his head up once more, and being almost spent in the struggle, he naturally turned to the rock, and was endeavouring to support himself by it, when a savage gave him a blow with a club, and he was seen alive no more. They hauled him up lifeless on the rocks, where they seemed to take a savage pleasure in using every barbarity to his dead body, snatching the daggers out of each others hands, to have the horrid satisfaction of piercing the fallen victim of their barbarous rage.” 2. Inscriptions on a Mural Tablet and Gravestone commemor- ating some of Captain Cook's family. The Church of St. Andrew the Great, Cambridge, is to some extent identified with the family by the great circumnavigator. North of the altar is a handsome mural tablet with the following inscription :— ‘In memory of Captain James Cook of the Royal Navy, one of the most celebrated navigators that this or former ages can boast of, who was killed by the natives of Owhyhee in the Pacific Ocean, on the 14th day of February, 1779, in the 51st year of © his age. “Of Mr. Nathaniel Cook who was lost with the Thunderer Man-of-War, Captain Boyle Walsingham, in a most dreadful hurricane, in October 1780, ayed 16 years. “Of Mr. Hugh Cook of Christ’s College, Cambridge, who died yn the 21st December, 1793, aged 17 years. “Of James Cook Esquire, Commander in the Royal Navy, who lost his life on the 25th of January, 1794," in going from Pool to 1 The “Colonial and Indian” copy says 1794.—R.E. TWO HISTORICAL NOTES IN REGARD TO CAPTAIN COOK. BA the Spitfire Sloop of War which he commanded, in the 31st year of his age. “Of Elizabeth Cook who died April 9th, 1771, aged 4 years. “Of Joseph Cook, who died Sept. 13th, 1765, aged 1 month. “Of George Cook who died October Ist, 1772, aged 4 months. ‘All children of the first named Captain James Cook, by Elizabeth Cook, who survived her husband 56 years and departed this life 13th May 1835, at her residence, Clapham, Surrey, in the 94th year of her age. Her remains are deposited with those of her sons James and Hugh in the Middle Aisle of this Church.” A flat stone in the Middle Aisle (above referred to) bears the record— ; “Mr. Hugh Cook, Died 21st Decr., 1793, Aged 17 years. James Cook Esaqr., Died 25th Jany., 1794, Aged 31 years, Also Elizabeth Cook, their mother, Obt. 13th May, 1835, Aged 93 years.” The inscriptions were previously unknown to me, and are not to be found in any books accessible to me. I therefore hope they may be of interest to members of this Society. Footnote by Mr. Etheridge.—The first paragraph of this inscrip- tion was published by Lieut. C. R. Low, of H.M. Indian Navy, in a small work entitled ‘‘Captain Cook’s Three Voyages round the World, with a sketch of his life,” (London, Routledge & Sons, n.d.), p. 13, and the whole inscription appeared in ‘“‘A Catalogue of the Collection of Relics of the late Captain James Cook, R.N., F.R.S., &c., (p. 7) that were exhibited at the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, London, in 1886, by Mr. John Macksell, one of the 52 J. H. MAIDEN. surviving relations of Mrs. Elizabeth Cook, the great circum- navigator’s widow. This cannot be looked upon, however, as a publication in the strict sense of the word, you are, therefore, as egards all but the first paragraph dealing with new matter.—R.E. NOTES on ANALYSES or AIR From COAL MINES. By F. B. Gururis, Ftc, F.cs., and A. A. Atkinson, Chief Inspector of Coal Mines. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 7, 1901. ] As there are very few analyses of the atmosphere of coal mines to be found in mining literature, the authors have thought that the matter is one of sufficient interest to the members of the Society to give the analyses of a few samples obtained from collieries in the State, briefly explaining the circumstances under which they were collected. SAMPLES OF AIR FROM RETURN AIRWAY, WALLSEND COLLIERY. The management of this colliery requested the miners to travel along the return airway to and from their work—this being much the safer plan—in order to keep them off the engine road ; but it was alleged that by so doing the first general rule of the Coal Mines Act 1896 was infringed. The rule is as follows :— “An adequate amount of ventilation shall be constantly pro- duced in every mine to dilute and render harmless noxious gases to such an extent that the working places of the shafts, levels, stables, workings of the mine, and the travelling roads to and from those working places, shall be in a fit state for working and passing therein. The ventilation so produced shall be the supply of pure air in quantity not less than 100 cubic feet per minute for each man, boy and horse employed in the mine, which air (in ANALYSES UF AIR FROM COAL MINES. 53 that proportion, but with as much more as the inspector shall direct) shall sweep along the airways and be forced as far as the face of and into each and every working place, where man, boy or horse is engaged or passing, main return airways only excepted.” The quantity of air was not called in question, and in order to test the quality in the return airway used as a travelling road, samples weig collected as follows :— Sample 1. From the Lambton heading return near the double doors, 184 yards from the engine plane. Time 3:50 p.m. Tem- perature 70 degrees F. Quantity of air passing 18,700 cubic feet per minute. This return airway receives part of No. 2 split, and the whole of Nos. 3 and 4 splits, and before passing through the working places comes down the Centennial shaft. It travels over 142 men, 14 boys and 14 horses, and consequently each man, boy and horse when travelling in this return at this place would receive 110 cubic feet per minute, if they were all in the return at the same time. The measurement of air was made about 100 yards from where the sample was taken. A second measurement of air was made about 200 yards inbye (further into the workings) from the first measurement, and gave 25,280 cubic feet per minute, or 148 cubic feet for each man, boy and horse. ‘ Sample 2. This was taken on another day in the place where the first measurement of air referred to above was taken, namely, about 100 yards inbye from where sample No. 1 was taken. Time 1 p.m. Temperature 72 degrees F. Quantity of air 19,320 cubic feet per minute, or 114 cubic feet for each individual. Sample 3. This was taken on the inbye side of cross-cut, about 200 yards inbye from where sample No. 2 was taken. Time 1°45 p.m. Temperature 72:5 degrees F. Quantity of air 24,200 cubic feet per minute, or 142 cubic feet for each individual. Sample 4. This was taken near the junction of Nos. 3 and 4 splits and about 300 yards from the working places. Time 2:10 p-m. Temperature 74 degrees F. The shade temperature at the surface taken at 3°30 p.m. was 75 degrees F. 54 F. B. GUTHRIE AND A. A. ATKINSON. Analyses of samples of Air. No. Oxygen. Carbon dioxide. Nitrogen. 1. 20°03 per cent. 0:19 per cent. 79°78 per cent. 2) AOS 2aN9 Fs O21 S041 ae Sp OO) ivan Ora 80°41 3 AL AOR. 4 0-245) 191 ae Tests, with negative results, were made in the mine for marsh gas by means of the Clowes’ hydrogen lamp, which is able to detect the presence of 0:25 of this gas. If present, therefore, it was in less quantity than 17%. Carbon monoxide was absent - in all cases. The amount of moisture in the air was not determined. Ordinary air was also examined by the same methods of analysis as were adopted in determining the oxygen and carbon dioxide in the above samples and gave :— Oxygen. Carbon dioxide. Ordinary air 20-9 per cent. 0-03 per cent. The following table accordingly shows the deficiency in oxygen and the excess of carbon dioxide in the samples examined as compared with ordinary air:— No. Deficiency in oxygen, 7%. Excess of carbon dioxide, 7. 1 0:85 0-16 2 1°55 0:24 3 ems) 0:28 + 0:85 0:21 The quantity of carbon dioxide found in the worst sample (No. 3) is considerably below the amount found to be injurious in dwelling rooms. Professor Lehmann‘ quoting the results of some of the most recent investigations (1493) on this subject, shows that the presence in the air of dwelling rooms of | to 2% carbon dioxide causes only trifling symptoms after several hours. Analyses of samples of air in collieries are not numerous. In the Transactions of the Federated Institute of Mining Engineers, 1 Methods of Practical Hygiene, Translation by Sir W. Crookes, Vol.1., Dp: 270: ANALYSES OF AIR FROM COAL MINES. 55 Vol. xvi, are some analyses by Dr. Haldane of samples of air from the return airways in the Hamstead Colliery, South Stafford- shire, England, which are given in the following table :— Road. AIMS SUES | BOSE GHD MERE A. Main north return airway 150 74 0:37 0°10 B. North return airway 5,850 78 0°36 0:10 C. Return airway 7,920 80 0-77 0:26 D. Return airway 9,150 83 hen) 0:47 E. Main south return airway 150 eh 0:24 0-095 C. Return airway 7,920 ae 1:16 0:29 D. Return airway 9,150 abe 1:20 0°33 F. Return airway 6,900 Ma. 1:26 0:33 In comparing these results it may be pointed out that all the samples taken from the Wallsend Colliery were from the worst part of the return airway, and they cannot be fairly compared with samples A. and E. in the above table, which represent com- paratively pure air close to the shaft. They compare favourably with samples C., D., and F., and are noticeably lower in carbon dioxide. Analyses of air in return airways from other mines are to be found in the Transactions of the Federated Mining Institute.’ These analyses show the air in these places to be of similar com- position to that in the return airways at Hamstead. On account of being safer, the return airways are often used in England as travelling roads, and it is fair to assume that the air in the returns so used does not differ materially from the samples above quoted, nor from the air in the Lambton heading of the Wallsend Colliery. In one of the papers above referred to” Dr. Haldane shows that a considerably greater deficiency of oxygen and a corresponding excess of carbon dioxide can be borne before the breathing becomes noticeably deeper. The point at which the breathing was found ‘Vol, viit., p. 554, and Vol. x1., p. 272. * Trans. Fed. Min. Inst., Vol. vuit1., p. 557. t , : a { to be thus affected, was in air of the following composition, fire- 56 F. B. GUTHRIE AND A. A. ATKINSON. damp being absent :— Oxygen 15:30 Carbon dioxide 3:38 Nitrogen 81°32 100-00 Referring again to the table of analyses from the Hamstead mine, the further point is to be noticed that the temperature in the Lambton Heading, Wallsend Colliery, was considerably lower; it was in fact from | to 3 degrees Fahrenheit lower than the shade temperature at the surface taken 13 hours later, Taking all the above facts into consideration, it appears, that although the air in the Lambton heading was not absolutely pure, it was not sufficiently vitiated as to be injurious to the health of those travelling in it. The inconvenience complained of was probably due to the following causes :— 1. The distance to be travelled was considerable (13 to 2 miles). 2. The walk was at the end of a day’s work. 3. The men walk as rapidly as possible. 4. In going outbye, they are obliged to walk with the air current instead of against it. SAMPLES FROM BurRwoop CoLLiERY. These were taken in consequence of complaints received that ainers suffered from headache whilst undercutting or “holing” che coal, Sample No. 1 was taken from the face of main east cross-cut in the return airway near the Dyke. Time 12 noon. Temper- ature 76°5 degrees F. Air current about 16,000 cubic feet. per minute, for 48 men, 5 boys, and 5 horses; being 272 cubic feet per individual. Sample No. 2 taken in No. 30 A bord, being the last in split and near return. Sample taken from freshly cut holing. Time 12:25 p.m. Temperature 79 degrees F. ANALYSES OF AIR FROM COAL MINES. 57 Sample No. 3 taken from No. 32 A bord, being the fifth from the return end of the split. Time 12°55 p.m. Temperature 79 degrees F. Sample No. 4 taken from No. 6 bord, Merewether’s east boun- dary crosscut district. Time 1:30 pm. Temperature 78 degrees F. Air current about 7,500 cubic feet per minute for 44 men, 4 boys and 4 horses, or 105 cubic feet per minute for each individual. Analyses of samples from Burwood Colliery. ie 2. 3. 4. Oxygen > ».:. 2042 MnO nae) 20:83) wie O a4 Carbon dioxide _... 0:08 0-04 ais 0°13 Nitrogen... Pe oO) FPS vo 79°53 109-00 = 100-00 ae 100-00 Deficiency in oxygen 0:48 0:13 0:07 0:56 Excess of CO, Me 0:06 0:01 as 0:10 Carbon monoxide and marsh gas were absent in all cases. Marsh gas was tested for in the mine by means of Clowes’ hydrogen lamp. ‘The determination of carbon dioxide in sample No. 3 was unfortunately spoilt owing to an accident, there being insufficient of the sample to repeat the experiment. The amount, however, was certainly no greater than was found in No. 2. In the case of samples 2 or 3, the air cannot be said to be con- taminated at all, and is practically as pure as the airin the streets of a town. In the other samples there is an excess of carbon dioxide and a deficiency of oxygen when compared with ordinary air, but not sufficient to produce ill effects upon anybody breathing it. SAMPLES OF AIR FROM GUNNEDAH COLLIERY. ® On the 10th May, 1900, a fire was discovered in this colliery, about 200 yards from the tunnel mouth, in consequence of which | it was decided to seal it off, in order if possible, to extinguish the fire. Whilst this was being done, an explosion took place, injur- ing several men engaged in the work of building stoppings, etc. " “a : 7. } 58 F. B. GUTHRIE AND A. A. ATKINSON. The work was again resumed and completed without further mishap. On the 10th August, 1900, the mine was reopened, prior to which the following samples had been collected from the stopping by means of pipe with tap :— . No. Time of collection. Carbon dioxide. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Ik 11:15 a.m. 1-46 15:88 82-66 2. 11:30 ,, 1-04 16-93 82-03 B. 12-10 ,, 2-09 13:68 84:23 4. 12:20 ,, 1:45 15-79 82-76 Carbon monoxide was absent in all samples, and also all inflam- mable gases. Sample No. 2 supports combustion, but the others do not. Prof. Clowes’ states that air becomes extinctive to a candle when diluted with nitrogen, until the oxygen is reduced to 16-4. This agrees well with the above observations in which only No. 2 with 16°92 oxygen was capable of supporting com- bustion. The carbon dioxide has little or no effect in the extinction of flame, in the proportions in which it is present in the above. It-may here be of interest: to discuss the effects of the diminution of oxygen and the presence of different proportions of CO, and of black damp upon respiration and lights. By black damp is under- stood” the residual gas produced by the oxidation of coal. This has according to Dr. Haldane a fairly constant composition of 13 per cent. CO, and 87 per cent. N. A candle flame is extinguished in an atmosphere consisting of oxygen and nitrogen only, when the percentage of oxygen is reduced to between 16 and 17 per cent. This mixture can, how- ever, be breathed by a man without any ill effects, and it is not until the oxygen percentage has fallen to about 12 that the breath- ing becomes affected. According to Dr. Haldane® the breathing becomes deeper and more frequent, and the face bluish when the oxygen content is diminished to 9 per cent., at 5 per cent. loss of consciousness follows and death. 1 Proc. Roy. Soc.; 1894, Vol. Lv1., p. 2. 2? Haldane—Trans. Fed. Min. Inst., Vol. vu1., p. 549, ete. 3 Report on causes of death in Colliery Explosions, etc., 1896. ANALYSES OF AIR FROM COAL MINES. 59 This report gives in a tabular form, the effects on man and on naked lights of varying proportions of these ingredients, from which we take a few figures to shew the difference in behaviour of carbonic acid and black damp. Carbonic acid in air affects the breathing when it is mixed with air in the proportion of 3°5 per cent. carbonic acid and 96:5 per cent. air, but it does not extinguish flame until 15 per cent. carbonic acid is reached, at which point initial loss of consciousness occurs. Black damp on the other hand extinguishes flame when 16 per cent. is present, but this atmosphere has no effect on the breathing which is not affected until nearly twice the quantity of black damp is present. If we put down the exact composition of these mixtures, the reason of this rather peculiar characteristic will be plain. A mixture of air containing 3:57 CO, has the composition :— Effects on man. Effects on light. Oxygen 20°17 (A.) Nitrogen 76°33 affects breathing no effect CO, 3°50 100-00 A mixture of air containg 167 black damp has the compcrsition: Effects on man. Effects on light. Oxygen 17°56 | (B.) Nitrogen 80°36 no effect extinguished CO, 2:08 100-00 The breathing is affected in (A.) because of the presence of 3°5 per cent. CO, which has no influence on the light. The light is extinguished in (B.) because the oxygen has diminished to 17°95. It is, therefore, clear that if the contamination is due only to diminished oxygen or to the presence of black damp, a man can breathe the air so contaminated at a point far beyond that at which a candle is extinguished. 60 F. B. GUTHRIE AND A. A. ATKINSON. GasEs AT GOB FIRE aT GRETA COLLIERY. Spontaneous fires have occurred at this colliery, and some years ago it was found necessary to seal off the old workings by means _ of stoppings. The gas examined was collected from one of these stoppings (a brick one) by means of an iron pipe with a tap. Temperature of air issuing from pipe 75 degrees F. Temperature of outside air 72 degrees F. Composition of samples. Carbon dioxide. Oxygen. Nitrogen. (A.) 2°14 10°50 87°36 (B.) 2°17 10:60 87:23 The gas instantly extinguished flame. It is noteworthy that these samples did not contain any carbon monoxide. It appears interesting to discuss the question whether the samples of air obtained from Greta and Gunnedah as the result of fire contained any appreciable quantity of black damp, which latter, according to Dr. Haldane is the residual gas left on oxida- tion of coal by the air,' and is of fairly constant composition, containing about 13 per cent. CO, and 87 per cent. nitrogen. In the case of the Greta gas, the residual after deducting the unaltered air contains 4:4 per cent. CO, and 95°6 per cent. nitrogen in the sample (B.), and 4:3 per cent. CO, and 95:7 per cent. nitrogen in the sample (A.), Neither of these approach the composition of black damp, but this may be due to diffusion or to incomplete oxidation. Neither the Gunnehah nor Greta Collieries give off much fire- damp, but the following samples show the composition of gases obtained from the Dudley Colliery, Newcastle, N. S. Wales, and Harecastle, England, both of which make firedamp, after being closed down in consequence of explosion and fires underground. 1 Trans. Fed. Inst., Vol. viil., p. 553. ANALYSES OF AIR FROM COAL MINES. 61 Sample from Dudley Colliery. (Analyses by Mr. W. M. Hamlet, r.1.c., F.c.s. Government Analyst.) Downcast Pit. Carbon dioxide 3:2 per cent. Atmospheric air nil Fire-damp 96°'8 100-00 Upcast Pit. Carbon dioxide 2°8 per cent. Atmospheric air 15:0 9 Fire-damp 82-2 99 100-00 Sample from Harecastle Colliery. (From Dr. Haldane’s “Report on Causes of Death in Colliery Explosions.” Fire-damp Nitrogen oon D°93 Carbon dioxide 3:06 100-00 62 THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. By G. H. Kniss, F.R.a.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 4, 1901.] . Introductory. . General idea of a city. . Radial street-system. . Position of radial centres. . Combination of radial and rectangular street systems. . Curved streets. . Cardinal direction of rectangular streets. . Width of streets. 9. Localisation of the various types of street. 10. Grade and cross-section of streets. 11. Engineering features of streets. 12. Size of blocks between streets. 18. Height of buildings. 14. Theory of aspect. 15. The esthetics of design. _ 16. Sites for monumental buildings aa monuments. ° 17. Treatment of streets from the standpoint of esthetics. 18. Public parks and gardens. 19. Hygienic elements of design. 20. The preliminaries of design. 21. Conclusion. ON anrkwhd 1. Introductory—The duty of designing and setting out an important city,’ is one which, in the near future and in the ordinary course of things, will be cast upon the Commonwealth of Australia. An elaboration of the principles which should govern the design of such a city, and a statement of the several matters which call for systematic consideration in connection therewith, is therefore not mopportune. Neither is it of small moment. Such an office as the creation of a capital city, practi- cally unhampered by any conditions of existing settlement, and a + The Federal Capital. THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 63 limited only by the topographical features of any selected site, is a unique one in the history of a country: the manner in which that office is discharged is of an importance which can hardly be overstated. A capital city, its general design, its utilitarian and zesthetic features, constitute an enduring index of the intelligence and foresight, the nobility of the sentiment, and the dignity of the artistic idea of the people creating it. The achievement must necessarily depend mainly upon two things, one the state of technical preparation, the other what may -be defined as the moment of our esthetic consciousness. Faultless technical knowledge is not in itself sufficient. It is, as it were, merely the instrument necessary for the proper realisation of the higher element; and if a city is to awaken in the beholder a distinct impression of its beauty, if it is to be in this respect one of the silent, subtle, but none the less high and powerful influences on the people who create it, and their descendants, then the artistic apperception, and the recognition of the dignity of the task, must be correspondingly vivid, and the outlook broader than would be dictated by mere utility. The question of the normal elements of motivity I do not, of course, propose to discuss. The beauty and magnificence already realised in some cities are sufficient to remind us that no poverty of conception or present limitation should operate to make it forever impossible to create a beautiful city. It is therefore all-important that the city-designer shall take cognisance of what has already been attained, and further that as far as his instinct of prescience will allow, he shall anticipate the require- ments and probable developments of the far distant future. What I do propose to discuss, are those things that must necessarily command technical attention by way of preparation for what lies before a people when called upon to create a capital or other important city; and shall assume as given, a suitable site or sites, with its sine qua non, an abundant water-supply. 2. General idea of a city.—In order that the concentration of human activity, which is the essential feature of the aggregation 64 G. H. KNIBBS. of human beings in a city, shall be of the highest efficiency, it is necessary that the lines of intercommunication between the build- ings, forming as it were the real theatres of that activity, and also between them and the lesser centres of outlying territory, shall be the shortest possible, and therefore the most convenient. This is nothing more nor less than the affirmation that all systems of roads and streets should provide the greatest possible number of ‘short cuts’ from place to place, and thus economise as far as can -be, human effort in the transaction of business, and in all other features of city life. The other element of importance is the appropriate localisation of the various types of industrial and other activity, so that the necessity for intercommunication itself, shall be reduced to a minimum. ‘These two elements, viz., the street arrangement, and the determination of the purposes for which the blocks so formed shall be available, are the most funda- mental in the development of a city-design. It is at once evident that both are greatly influenced by the topography of the site; a general disposition of streets and buildings which might be most suitable for one site, might be wholly unsuitable for another with different topographical features: any discussion of principles therefore can lead only to general results: these must, in any application, be taken as a general guide, to be modified as occasion demands. It is of course impossible to produce in detail an ideal design applicable to every site. 3. Radial street-system.—If one glances at any territorial map shewing towns and the roads leading therefrom to other similar aggregations of settlement, it becomes at once evident, that the lines of communication are on the whole radzal, that is they tend to occupy the direct lines joining any one centre with those surrounding it: if diverted therefrom, it can be only because of topographical difficulties, or through the arbitrary interferences of the boundaries of real estate, or else from mere caprice. Any four centres forming, say a quadrilateral figure, would be united, not merely by the lines constituting the boundaries of the quadri- lateral, but also by the lines forming its diagonals, at least unless THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 65 some element existed to hinder this. It is obvious from what has been said that the rectangular system of roads and streets so much in vogue in the States of Australia, is inconsistent with what may be properly called, not merely the natural position, but also the position of maximum efficiency, for to travel by any but the shortest way except for some adequate reason, is to waste effort. Given a number of streets radiating from a centre, the shortest system of lines for connecting them one with another will be such as make equal angles with each radial pair: consequently the scheme of cross-streets, necessary to complete the radial system proper, will form a sort of ring-system, or else a polygonal system, like the lines ona geometrical spider’s web.’ This is not identical with a diagonal system, properly so called, as a reference to the illustrative figures hereinafter, Figs. 1 to 5, will shew. A definite HOD ERD es) numerical comparison of the relatlve merits of the various systems in respect to shortness of path of travel from place to place, may be readily obtained, and will serve to fix our ideas. The two squares, Figs. 1 and 3, and the three circles, Figs. 2, 4, 5, have the same area, the length of the side of the square therefore being 4/7, when the diameter of the circle is unity. In each figure therefore the same area is commanded by the series of lines, which may be taken to represent streets. The two elements of import- ance are, (a) the total length of street to be provided, and (d) the 1 This system was advocated by John Sulman, F.R.1.B.a., at Melbourne in January 1890. See his paper on “The Laying Out of Towns.”—Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sc., Vol. 11., pp.730 - 736. In particular, p. 732. It has also been advocated by J. Stiibben, Baurath, Assistant Burgomaster of Cologne, in a masterly discussion of the question.—Das Handbuch der Architektur, Darmstadt 1890. See also Trans. Amer. Soc. C.E., Vol. XXIX., pp. 718 - 736, 1893. . EH —Sept. 4, 190L. * a ee 5 * ‘ 66 G. H. KNIBBS. mean distance of travel from all points to the centres, which are denoted by the letter C. The following table gives the results absolutely, and also in percentages, T.—Mean distances of Travel and Total Length of Street. Kigy 2s ~y) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Mean Distance 443 446 378 348 361" Total Length 5317, 5-142. 7°824 7-420 Gee Mean Distance % 100, say, 1007 85:4 786 86:0 Total Length 7/ 100, say, 96:7 147-1 ~V34:3°aiaes On looking through this Table (I.) it is evident, first that (2) is better than (1), for while the mean distance of travel is increased only seven-tenths per cent., the total length of street is reduced about 34 per cent. Hence for similar areas the ring form has an advantage over the rectangular, in respect of reducing the total | length of street to be provided in a given area, and consequently any approximation to the ring form will exhibit the same feature. _ In order to shew more clearly the relationship between mean distance and total length of street to be provided, Table (II.) is computed, shewing absolutely, and also in the form of a percentage as compared with the rectangular system, the ratio of the total length of street to the mean distance of travel to reach the centre C. II.— Ratio of Total Length of Street to Mean Distance of Travel Fig. dy. @ +.@ 2 oa Absolute 12:00 11°52 20°69 20°51 16°12 Percentage 100:0 96:0 172:4 170-9 134:4 A review of the figures in Table (JI.) shews distinctly the advantage of (2) over (1); an angle of 90° is however too great between the radiating lines, so that any real consideration may be confined to (3), (4) and (5), that is to what may be called the ‘diagonal’ system, the octagonal-radial system, and the hexagonal- radial system. Comparing (4) with (3) it will be noticed first that there is a slight advantage for (4) in respect to the street 1 The quantities are V7, 4+ Jor, (§ + GeV2) Vm, 44+ Am, £+ Sor. 2 Similarly 8V7, 2+ 7, (84+ V2)Vvz7, 44+ 7, 3+ 7. THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 67 lengths: secondly that there is only half the number of acute angles (45°), so that the ‘octagonal-radial’ is distinctly preferable to the ‘rectangular-diagonal’ system. The most striking advantage is seen however in (5). Table (I.) shews that in respect of travel- distance it is practically equal to the diagonal system, and but little inferior to the octagonal-radial system; while in respect to street-length it is vastly superior to either: and still further, it gives altogether better angles, viz. 6 angles of 60° instead of 8 angles of 45°. We conclude therefore, that in order to secure the greatest advantage as to distance of travel, in a radial scheme of streets, the angles between the radiating lines should be approxi- mately 60°, and that the cross-streets should be approximately symmetrical with respect to the centre: and further that such arrangement is to be preferred to the rectangular, so far at least as shortness of communication is concerned. This is very strik- ingly brought out on comparing (5) with (1). The total length of streets is increased only 1537, while the mean distance of travel © is reduced as much as 147; in other words the reduction of dis- tance of travel is practically identical with the increase of street- Jength! The radial system, pure and simple, has however some limitations which will be later considered, it is sufficiently clear that there should be points from which streets should radiate in all directions. 4. Position of Radial Centres.—The first point to be decided in elaborating a design for the streets of a city, is the position of what may be called its chief radial-centres, and its main lines of street. A concrete idea of what is meant by chief radial centres, would be reached by regarding such centres as the Capitol and the White House at Washington; or the Arc de Triomphe at Paris, between the Avenue de la Grande Armée and the Avenue des Champs Elysées. They may be defined as the centres round which either particular types of, or even general activity, will tend to concentrate, or they may be centres of esthetic or intellectual interest, and it is obvious therefore that they should, as a rule, lie on the leading lines of communication between one place and = ay ’ « :) f 68 G. H. KNIBBS. another: in fact the lines joining the centres, and the prolongations of such lines, ought to be the main arteries of traftic—the leading streets of the city. The position both of the centres and the main streets, are consequently dependent, partly on the topographical . limitations of the site, partly on the position of outlying centres and the existing or potential roads and railways thereto, and partly also upon the suitableness of certain localities within the site for the special purposes or activities, for which provision must be made. The selection of the position of the chief radial-centres, requires therefore not only a comprehensive view of the adminis- trative, educational, industrial, residential, military, and other needs of a capital city, not only a due regard for its communication with the outer world and for all the contingencies both in times of peace and war, which that communication involves, it requires also a nice appreciation of the topographical adaptabilities of the site, so that in the design the interdependence and mutual influ- ence of every element shall be fully estimated and the general arrangement made the most convenient possible, and therefore the most economical ; and further that it shall be such as will admit, without detriment, of that expansion which the future will certainly require. Upon an accurate perception of the best treatment of the site, the economy of the creation of the city will largely depend ; and it is but proper that one should desire to have as perfect a result as possible for any given expenditure. This is a point to which we shall later return. The grouping of activities having many points of contact, or , common features, and the locating of one or more groups round a suitable point, as round a radial-centre, is so obviously desirable as to need no advocacy; and when a city can be designed without the embarrassments created by preéxisting occupation, there can be nothing to prevent such grouping, in any form conceived to be desirable. Thus the housing of parliament, and of the great departments of official administration, might very properly be grouped around one centre, those having most frequent need of intercom- THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 69 munication being the nearest together: a university and _ its affiliated colleges might create another centre: technical and high schools still another: an aggregation of great commercial institutions yet another: and soon. Then again the industrial occupations which would develope, might with advantage be relegated to one quarter of the city, the large commercial houses to another, while the environs would normally constitute the residential sites, variously disposed according to the classes of residence allowed to be erected. The study, in the original design, should embrace all possibilities of extension for even remote periods, so far, at any rate, as they can be foreseen ; and the control of settlement should also be sufficient to ensure the possibility of ultimate conformation to the first ideal, even if for any sufficient reasons it be temporarily abandoned. 5. Combination of radial and rectangular street-systems.—A | rigid conformity to the hexagonal-radial system for the streets of a city, would constitute them three series of parallel lines, inter- secting one another at an angle of 60°, and dividing the whole site into equal equilateral triangles, while the rectangular system consists of two sets of parallel lines intersecting at 90°, and dividing the area into squares. The greatest distance to be travelled in passing from any one point to any other, cannot in the former case be greater than the direct distance multiplied by the secant of 30°, nor in the latter than the direct distance multiplied by the secant of 45°, Calling the direct distance 100, the maximum distances of travel are | Direct distance 100-00 Hexagonal system 115°47 Rectangular system 141°42 It might be thought therefore that the advantage in favour of the hexagonal system is so pronounced as to exclude the adoption of the rectangular altogether. It has always been felt, however, that the rectangular system, has from the point of view of build- ing construction much to commend it; it gives too, a better sense of orientation in regard to travelling through acity; hence it may 70 G. H. KNIBBS. very well be combined with the hexagonal and other forms of the radial system. Again it may often happen that the convergence of only six roads upon one point is inadequate. For example, in Paris at the Arc de Triomphe there are no less than 14 avenues or streets converging, at the Place de la Bastille 10, at the Place de la Nation 9: in Washington at the Capitol there are 11 long convergent streets, and 8 and 10 in other places in the same city. When therefore a centre is of more than ordinary importance, it. may he as the site of some great establishment or monument, or as the theatre of intense business activity, the number of con- vergent streets may be increased from say 6 to 12, and such a centre properly constitute a focus both of the radial and rectan- gular systems combined. The City of Washington is an illustration of the rectangular combined with the radial system, the former preponderating, see Fig. 6. (See Fig. 9 for polygonal radial system.) Ss KREG CARS ESOS SI G Sen At NZ S s ® SG NEON COS LLNS > Dx USO RYACD CLLXS IRSOS OSI ES SOERNONG Cpe FONG V AS S re Ge SOLES. SK Se Bx NORRIS EU Gath SS NOKIA G ENS So OO ZOOS UNS Y, ARS LSSKL COSTA PASSO SSO OOS OLS SE " OSCR EES IPO} VY AN > : G When it is considered that the importance of securing the full advantage of shortness in path of travel from point to point diminishes as the total amount of traffic in any street diminishes, THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. ier it will be realized that as long as the radial system is sufficiently employed for reducing the distance from all parts to the principal centres, and for bringing into prominence such esthetic features as great public buildings and monuments, the substantial benefits of the system will have been secured. The adoption then of the rectangular system for the balance of the design, modified only under the compulsion of meeting topographical difficulties, will admit of the advantages of that system being also fully exploited. 6. Curved Streets.—On an undulating site, a strict adherence to any general and supposed ideal scheme for the system of streets is, aS just indicated, often impracticable, because of the resulting severity in the gradient of some of the streets. Conformity to the fundamental design should therefore not be inflexible. If modific- ations of, or departures therefrom, will avoid the difficulty, there can be no valid reason for hesitating to make them, and such positions for the streets as would give uniform gradients might very properly be selected on conical hillsides, and round the heads of small valleys. This selection will involve the introduction of a curved form for the streets, and it may be occasionally, even the adoption of the zig-zag form. The use of curved streets is to be regarded not only as proper means for the alleviation of gradients, but also as an element in the design, capable of enhancing its merit as regards variety and artistic effect; especially in situations where traffic considerations are of less than average moment. The rigid adherence to straight streets and a rectangular system, charac- teristic of towns in the States of Australia, is a signal defect in the prevailing ideas of city-design: and its abandonment in favour of an independent treatment of each site, and an adoption of a radial-rectangular system would be distinctly beneficial even for villages. But to return to the question of curved streets. In situations where traffic is concentrated, where too, street rail and tramways are required, and where moreover the necessity of ameliorating the grade does not exist, curved streets are a disad vantage. Where a lengthy street view is effective, as bringing into prominence a great public building or monument, curved Te. G. H. KNIBBS. streets should also be avoided. It may here be noted on the other hand, that in an hexagonal radial system, if “ ring-streets,” as they have been called, are used to connect the radial lines (e.g. Fig. 5), there is a distinct advantage over a system of hexagons of the same area, the mean distance of travel to the centre being 8:25% more for the latter, Ring and curved streets may conse- quently be advantageously introduced, at any rate occasionally; and there can be no doubt therefore that they should form, if not a marked, at least a minor feature of any future design for a city. 7. Cardinal direction of rectangular streeés.—The cardinal direc- tion of streets, and for the orientation of buildings, is a question which must be studied in relation to the latitude of a site, and to the particular purpose to which buildings are to be applied. Between the tropics, the sun will occupy at some time of the year and day all points of the compass; his northern aspect for the whole year preponderating for places south of the equator, and his southern for places north thereof. Since in that zone his meridian altitude is great, and the meridian shadows are therefore short, the merits of a particular aspect have to be decided on somewhat different grounds to those which apply in temperate regions, where, as we depart from the tropics, there is a great disproportion between the whole lengths of the midsummer meri- dian-shadow, and the similar shadow in midwinter, and where also the sun at noon is not at one time north of the place of the observer, and at another time south. With a view to more clearly illustrating the nature of solar shadows on a horizontal tract of land, Fig. 7 has been prepared, for the nearest 5th degree of latitude to that of this city (Sydney), 2.¢€., for latitude 35° S. The laws of position of the shadow of a vertical line may be thus defined for the temperate zone. For any one interval of time before or after apparent noon (i.e. the crossing of the sun over the meridian of a place) the terminals of the shadows on different days are points in a straight line which, produced, passes through a point defined by drawing a line from the elevated pole of the heavens through the top of the vertical line till it THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. Co meets the ground (supposed a horizontal plane at the bottom of the vertical line), the point P in the figure. For successive hours of the day, «.¢., before or after noon, the terminals of the shadows lie on the corresponding straight line meeting at this point. At the equinoxes, the successive positions of the shadow-terminal during the day lie on a straight line running east and west [o) fo) to) 5) Jee We or Ae cczestial POX DIRECTION ax LENGTH or SOLAR SHADOWS \ LAT. 35S. J so March 21% Jepternber 23° Due U0" 74 G. H. KNIBBS. through the point defined by the terminal at noon, the point F in figure. At any other time, 2.¢., between the equinoxes and the solstices, the shadow-terminals on any day lie on an hyperbolic curve, whose vertex is defined by the position at noon, and whose asymptotes intersect at the equinoctial point E. In the frigid calottes, or zones as they are called, the curves may become ellipses. Turning to the diagram, suppose a vertical line or pole to stand at O, Fig. 7, of the length, equal to OX, (z.e., 1 foot or metre, or 100 feet or metres, or any other unit length): this vertical will be perpendicular to the plane of the page. In latitude 35° S., let the line OP be placed true north and south: then the shadow of the south celestial pole will be the point P; and the noon-shadow of the summit of the vertical, say of the length of 1000 units, will reach the following points on the days indicated :— III.—Length of shadows at noon of a vertical of 1000. Summer solstice. Dec. 22 O-S 204 Jan. 19, Nov.24 O-J 262 Feb. 19, Oct. 24 O-F 433 Mar. 21, Sep. 23 O-E 700 Apl. 21, Aug.23 O-A 1057 May 22, July 23 O-M 1446 Winter solstice. June22 O—W _ 1629 At the hours afternoon denoted by the lines radiating from the point P, the shadow will terminate at the intersection with the curves SS, JJ, etc. ; that is to say, on the 22nd December the shadow of the top of the vertical line will move along the curve SS; on 19th January and 24th November along the curve JJ, and so on, the shadow reaching the intersection with the curve of the line radiating from P at the hour marked on the latter. If now a straight line be drawn from the point O to this intersection, it will shew the length and direction of the shadow at any particular hour after noon.?, The morning shadow for the 1 The declination change being disregarded, at least for each day. ? Measured of course by the uuit height OX. THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 75 same number of hours before noon will be a similar line on the other side of the meridian line WOXP, that is to say, if 0, is the angle of inclination between the south line and the shadow, for the hours before or after noon, then the shadows direction is, in the former case 180°+6,, in the latter 180°—6,. The shadows will never lie outside the curves SS and WW, which are, there- fore, the limiting curves of the solar shadows. Referring to the diagram it will be observed that there are northerly shadows in the morning and afternoon, in the summer interval between the equinoxes, 2.¢. between the 23rd September and 21st March, but none northerly in the winter interval. The shadows are respectively west and east at approximately the following hours of the day, for the different periods of the year opposite each. IV.—Solar shadows east and west (approximate) lat. 35° S. Dec. 22 Jan. 19 Feb. 19 Mar. 21 Solstice. Nov. 24 Oct. 24 \ Sep. 23 } h. m. h. m. h. m. h. m. A.M. 8-30 8:10 7:10 6:0 P.M. 3°30 3°50 4°50 6:0 If, therefore, a rectangular building have its sides directed to the cardinal points, then for six months of the year its southern wall will never have direct sunlight ; so, also, the northern side of an east and west street. Table V, shewing the length of time the sun shines on the southern face of an E. — W. wall, brings this out more clearly. V.—Length of time sun is south of east-west line, in either fore or afternoon. Lat 35° S. Dec. 22 Jan. 19 Feb. 19 Mar. 21 Solstice. Nov. 24 Oct. 24 Sep. 23 h. m. h. m. h. m. h.m. 3°40 3:10 1:43 0:0 There is really no effective sunlight on the southern side of an E-W building for practically seven months of the year. Obviously the buildings and streets of a city should have as much direct 76 G. H. KNIBBS. sunlight as any general arrangement will admit of, and the total absence of such for at least six months must be regarded as a serious defect. Nor is this fact modified by the necessity that may specially exist in some instances for deliberately avoiding direct sunlight. Evidently, therefore, the direction of the streets of a rectangular system should be placed in the N.E. and S.W., and N.W. and 8.E. positions. The diagram will at once shew the effect of this, and the duration of direct sunlight on each face of a rectangular building, making angles of 45° with the principal cardinal points, will be as in the following table :— VI.—Duration of Direct Sunlight in Lat. 35° S., on each face of a rectangular building set 8.E., N.E., N.W., S.W. Time of Year. Face of Building. S.E. N.E. N.W. S.W. December 22 4°50-—11:10 450-—12°50 11:10-7:10 12:°50-7:10 Jan. 19, Nov. 24 50-11°0 5°0-1°0 11:0-7:°0 1:0 - 7°0 Feb. 19, Oct. 24 627-1033 6527-1727 10°33-633 1:27-—6°33 Mar. 21, Sept. 23 60-10°0 6°0 — 2°0 10°0 — 6°0 2°0 - 60 Apr. 21, Aug. 23 6°33-9:27 633-233 9:27-5:27 2-38-5:27 May 22, July 23 7:0-9-0 70-30 9-0 - 5:0 3:0 - 5:0 June 22 710-850 7:10-3:10 8°50-4°50 3:10 - 4°50 The N.E. and N.W. faces have each eight hours of continuous sunlight : and the S.E. and S.W. faces have from 64 to 14 hours or a mean of four hours, which also is the duration of direct sun- light at the equinoxes. The signal advantage of this over the east-and-west and north-and-south positions needs no comment, and, since the case is similar in any part of the temperate zones, it may be affirmed that the cardinal directions of a rectangular system of streets should be inclined 45° to the meridian throughout that zone. 8. Width of streets.—The width of street desirable or necessary in different parts of a city is a question depending on various considerations. From the standpoint of economy of construction and maintenance, and from that of mere convenience in the conduct of business, the narrowest street that will serve the pur- pose, without intense congestion of vehicular and _ pedestrian THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. Gh traffic, is the best. From the sanitary and esthetic standpoints, on the other hand, wide streets are to be preferred; these too, do not subject pedestrians to acute danger in crossing, and the risk of vehicular accident is correspondingly reduced. If provision is to be made for future means of mechanical locomotion, street rail and tramways, greater width will of course be required, a fact which argues the desirability of seeing that the necessities of the future in this respect are liberally anticipated. It is evident at once, not only that the streets should as a whole be somewhat narrower both in the intense business centres, and in the less important parts of the city and its suburbs, but also that the general character of the city must affect the question. Therefore in a Capital city the esthetic requirements are rightly regarded as of commanding importance, and utilitarian consider- ations as secondary, and properly subordinated to the last possible degree consistent with the fact that the general arrangements must of course be really practicable ones. Speaking broadly, the towns of the Commonwealth have been designed with small regard to esthetic features, and the idea of avenues constituting an ordinary feature is practically foreign to us,’ though not absolutely so. The magnificent example however of Paris suggests the pro- priety of the greater radial lines from the chief centres, forming boulevards. It may be questioned whether such examples as the Boulevarts Richard Lenoir, or de |’ Hopital, or the Avenues des Champs Elysées, de la Grand Armée, or de Neuilly in Paris, the Boulevards du Midi, de Waterloo, du Régent, of Brussels, or the Unter den Linden in Berlin, can be lavishly followed. Still Australian experience has shewn that boulevards of considerable size” are appropriate and advantageous, and greatly enhance the beauty of a town. | Coming to actual dimensions, it may be said that lanes or streets of less width than say 10 metres or 33 feet ($ chain) are extremely undesirable. Unimportant roads and streets, so situated 1 There are of course exceptions to this. ? F.g., Sturt Street, Ballarat. 78 G. H. KNIBBS. that they can never become of importance, might be designed with widths of from 20 to 25 metres, or say from 66 to about 80 feet. Roads and streets of moderate importance, likely to require tram. ways, cycle paths, central footpaths, and so on, might be of still greater width, viz., of from 30 to 40 metres, or say of from 100 to 130 feet ; while still wider streets, set out with avenues of trees, flower-beds, etc., might have any width of from 50 to 75 metres, or say from 160 to 240 feet.’ With a suitable restriction as to height of buildings, such widths as have been suggested will not present any difficulties as to quantity of light, or as to suitable approach in cases of fire; while the abundant access of sunlight and the sufficiency of room for the planting of trees in the streets, makes it possible to ensure in the highest degree the fulfilling of the requirements of hygiene. 9. Localisation of the various types of streets.— Whatever care is taken, or however rigorous the control of occupation in the creation of a city, it is hardly practicable to ensure such a dis- tribution as shall conform absolutely to that which might, having regard to the ultimate appearance of the city, be permanently sanctioned: to attempt it would, as a rule, involve excessive scattering of the population, or other injurious features. On the other hand any permitted departure from the distribution, deemed the best in the general interest, tends to establish itself, and there is the jeopardy that return to the original idea will be effectually resisted—a jeopardy that is by no means chimerical in a democratic community. This illustrates the signal importance of securing at the outset a disposition of the general settlement that shall practically accord with the ultimate intention, a result that involves not only the closest study of all the effects of the special localisation of the political, administrative, industrial, com- mercial, scientific, educational, residential, and military centres, but also an apperception of the reaction of each upon the other, + The streets of Washington are from 80 to 120 feet, the avenues from 120 to 160 feet. THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 79 and a clear recognition of the possibilities of every practicable variation of the general design. Since the localisation of occupa- tion involves localisation of the general characteristics of the traffic, and therefore of the particular type of street required, a methodical analysis of each possible variation of the design, in respect to its ultimate effect upon the health and appearance of the city, is essential in any attempt to guard against injury through the limitations of first or early occupation. An important city is not mature even in a century; and the designer, if he is to leave a monument of the perfection of his work, in a general disposition which shall secure the possibility of it presenting permanently attractive features, must, while regarding everything from the standpoint of the remote future, regard it also in the light of present necessity, and only if his genius is equal to the task of harmonizing the two, will the result be satisfactory. During the first few decades it may be absolutely necessary, so as to suitably concentrate population, to allow development to proceed upon lines foreign to the ultimate inten- tion, and to permit narrow streets to be substituted for wide ones. The design in such a case must contain an outline of such temporary modifications as cannot be avoided, in addition to the permanent features to which everything is finally to conform ; and if settle- ment, on the lines of the temporary modification, be permitted only under clearly-defined and rigidly enforced conditions, ensur- ing return after a definite period to the original, no injury but on the contrary rather benefit will result, and one will not, as is so frequently the case, have to deplore the spoiling of the esthetic possibilities of the site. The interdependence of the types of occupation and of street, of settlement and of traffic, and the tendency of each to perpetuate itself without regard to the welfare of the city as a whole, involves, as we see, more than ordinary care in the arrangements of any city that is intended to be ideally beautiful, and no effort is wasted which has for its object the conservation of the higher 80 G. H. KNIBBS. interests in such a way as to involve a minimum of alteration with its attendant expense and difficulty. Outside such comprehensive considerations as the foregoing, the element of localising types of street depends solely upon their main function. For the leading lines of heavy traffic light grades are required, and widths proportionate to the ultimate magnitude of the traffic; special consideration is necessary to guard against inadequate provision at such points of congestion as depéts and freight-yards of all kinds, railway stations, and similar places. It the city is to possess a military centre, ample provision must also be made to facilitate the mobilisation and despatch of troops, war material, etc. The lighter traffic of merely residential streets involves less attention to gradient, their character depending solely upon their intended surroundings. For example, streets leading to each class‘of buildings would be designed in agreement therewith, those to be adorned on each side by palatial buildings possessing a collateral magnificence, whilst streets leading to localities populated by the poorer classes would be less pretentious; though they, too, might well be made picturesque with foliage trees. 10. Grade and cross-section of streets.—Ordinarily a grade of 3% in the longitudinal section of a street will suffice for surface drainage ; for localities subject to tropical downpour this might be slightly increased, and where the rate of fall is unusually light slightly diminished. For vehicular traffic a grade of 10 % may be treated as a maximum, and that design which avoids heavy grades on the main lines of traffic is of course the best in respect thereof. In commercial and industrial, and even in residential parts of the city, the level of the streets may, with advantage, be 1 or 14 metres, say 3 to 5 feet, above the general level ; on the other hand, in suburban residential localities, the street level ought to be the lower. The usual cross-section, viz., a carriage or roadway with raised footpaths, would, of course, in the case of the wider streets, be departed from. In the widest streets of all one part of the roadway might be devoted to heavy, and another THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 81 to light traffic, these being separated from the side walks by a row of trees on each side, while a central avenue or footwalk, with foliage trees.on each side, would complete the section. Where there is little heavy vehicular traffic, strips forming garden or grass plots, lying between the footwalks and the roadway,' might constitute a feature. These could be graced also with shrubs of various kinds, and the centre of the street formed by a line or lines of ornamental trees, with or without footwalks. Roads and streets of less width would permit of a single row of trees on each side and next to the footwalks, or a single or double row in the middle. Cycle paths might well be introduced in many of the streets, in such positions as involve a minimum of interference with other forms of locomotion. 1l. Engineering features of streets—The necessity for some official control of the localisation of the different classes of occupa- tion, which a regard for the general appearance and welfare of a capital city not only justifies but imperatively demands, permits its development to proceed on lines that obviate frequent changes in the constructional features of the streets ; for these can all be thoroughly considered at the outset. The mains, conduits, tunnels, etc., required for water, gas, electric, or various forms of power- supply, for sewerage systems, for telephone and telegraphic services or for underground communication of any sort, can be located so as to involve the minimum disturbance of traffic, and the least expense for maintenance and repair; and the characteristic break- ing up of, and injury to well-constructed streets, in order to reach such mains and conduits, can thereby be rendered an unknown element. Were it publicly realized how dearly we pay for our stolid ignorance and want of foresight in municipal arrangements generally, the constructional features of streets would perhaps be very different to what they are. In future city-design, the opportunity undoubtedly exists for avoiding that continual waste of resource, which, turned to advantage in more lavishly equipping * Or, as in Washington strips may be left between the side walks and the property boundaries. F—Sept. 4, 1901. be FP . 82 G. H. KNIBBS. public institutions, and in making the city ornate, can be so much better expended. Similarly, an exhaustive consideration of the treatment of each street in regard to the necessity for tram or railways, will admit of the construction being developed on lines that avoid waste through the undertaking of various useless works, or injury to necessary ones. It will be a wise economy also to make the foundations of all streets thoroughly, and in no way to stint the means for so doing. The scheme of lighting to be adopted, is an element in which decision antecedent to the development of the design is also requisite. Inasmuch as electric lighting does not involve, except at the generating station, any consumption of oxygen, and as the light itself does not produce those deleterious gases formed in the burning of coal gas, it is to be preferred wherever a start may be made ab initio, More generally, it may be said that the predetermination of the whole of the engineering or constructional features for the streets is essential to the design being so elaborated as to reduce the expense toan absolute minimum, and it is only through the initial location of such features that everything dependent thereupon can be consistently and harmoniously adjusted and the best results attained. 12. Sizes of blocks between streets.—If in any site, the relation between the total area, and that to be occupied as streets, be ante- cedently assigned, the problem of ascertaining the size of blocks becomes numerically determinate, as soon as the general scheme for the streets is decided. In Paris the streets cover an area of about + of the total: in Washington the ratio is still greater. ‘With increase of street area, however, the construction and main- ‘tenance becomes correspondingly costly. The following suggestion as to suitable dimensions will sufficiently indicate the idea of general proportions :— Metres. Public institutions, large factories, and large establish- ments generally ... PPR, 3.500 Bes ... 100x200 THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 83 : Metres. Large suburban residences with grounds _... Peo Ox: LOO Larger business sites, city residences, etc. ... 60 x 120 - 160 Smaller establishments... ee 40 x,60)57 30)x 60 905 20 x 60 BWnrimens dwellings 2.1, 4.) a. a .4-000 10% 30 If smaller areas than these last are admitted the elements of hygiene and beauty must be correspondingly sacrificed. The length of blocks may vary between say 100 and 200 metres, or say between 330 and 660 feet, and rear lanes be from 10 to 15 metres in width, say 33 to 50 feet. 13. Height of buildings.—Apart from the impossibility of ‘adequately dealing with fires breaking out in very high buildings, and the consequent jeopardy to property generally, and apart also from any consideration of the esthetic defects of such buildings; a certain height may be regarded as injurious, as unduly limiting the sky-line, and as preventing sufficient access of direct and diffused sunlight to the properties in the neighbourhood. The following table shewing the lengths of shadow when the direction of the sun is 45° off the meridian, and the directions and lengths when it is three hours off the meridian, will afford the data from which a judgment may be formed as to the limits that may be considered reasonable, in restricting the height of buildings. VII.—Lengths of shadows 45° and at 3 hours off the meridian, Lat. 35° S. vertical 100. | > Jan.19 Feb.19 Mar.21 Apr.21 May 22 : Date. Dee.22 Nov o4 Oct. 24 Sep. 23 Aug.23 July 23 June 22 45° off 27(a) 35 (6) 59(c) 100(d) 166(e) 276(f) 350(g) 2hrs. off 86 90 107 141 197 273 314 Direction 86° 813° (nea 603° Se 45° 43° 84 G. H. KNIBBS. Fig. 8 shews the position of the solar-shadows when the sun lies N.E. or N.W. for the different months of the year; the shadow reaches the point a, b...g at the dates specified in table, The positions of the shadows on buildings, with streets of various widths, is also shewn. If a street have buildings immediately abutting on it, equal in height to its width, the maximum angle of sky transversely to the street is 53° 8’, and the minimum 45°.' A skyline higher than 45° is clearly too high, hence as a maximum limit, the facade of any building abutting on the street should not be of greater height than the width of the street. The facades will be better seen with a less angle, a two-thirds limit would, therefore, be prefer- able, z.¢e., the height to be not more than two-thirds of the street width. Buildings standing back from the street frontage could be correspondingly increased in height. This element will be further considered in dealing with the esthetic elements of city design. 14. Theory of aspect.—The most favorable form for picturesque effect in a site would be a gently undulating surface, surrounded by commanding hills, constituting a sort of semi-amphitheatre.* The desirable aspect in relation to the cardinal points will depend very much on local peculiarities, such as the climate, the prevailing direction and character of the winds, and similar meteorological factors. Consequently it is hardly possible to generalise in respect thereof. So far as mere sunlight is concerned, eastern slopes are cooler than western, and northern than southern ; consequently north- western slopes are to be preferred where heat is desired, and south-eastern when the opposite is the case. These effects may, however, be greatly modified by other factors. 1 Max. = Observer in middle of street. Angle =2 tan 34, 2.e., 53° 8’. Min. = Observer at side of street. Angle = tan—! 1, 1.¢., 45°. 2 See report by Messrs. Mansfield, Vernon, Barlow, and the writer, p. 28 of the report of the Commissioner on Sites for the seat of the Government of the Commonwealth. THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 85 In a city set out on the rectangular-radial system almost every possible orientation in respect of individual blocks exists, and if the site be also undulating, choice of aspect in such a system can offer no difficulty, because of its multitudinous variety. So that whether industrial or other requirements demand the presence or absence of direct sunlight, those requirements are easily met. Buildings in which it is necessary to secure the maximum pene- tration of solar rays, so as to benefit by their heat in winter, and the minimum penetration so as to avoid the heat in summer, should so far as the geometry of solar shadows is concerned, have their long axes east and west in southern latitudes and their windows on the north face of the building. Since, however, the temperature reaches a maximum after noon through the cumu- lative effects of the sun’s heat rays, the axis should, theoretically, be rotated slightly, so as to turn a little to the north on the east side, therefore a little to the south on the west side. The amount of this rotation can be ascertained by taking account of the difference between the apparent noon and the times of maximum temperature; the differences between the noon and maximum temperatures, and the latitude of the place considered, the discussion extending over the changes for an entire year, so as to properly integrate the effects, and hence deduce their mean. The necessary rotation will, however, not greatly modify the E. — W. position for the axis. The designer must, it is evident, take account of these necessities, and for buildings of a large size, and requiring spacious grounds, where aspect is important—as for example hospitals, sanatoria, etc.—provide suitable blocks. 15. The cesthetics of design.A study of those examples of architecture which impress the human consciousness with a sense of beauty, has revealed the fact that their general proportions, and the mutual relationship of their details, conform to simple numerical ratios and to an harmonious scheme. These ratios, spatially realized in the cube, square, the plane or circular equi- lateral triangle, the 3, 4, 5 triangle, the sphere, cube, pyramid, etc., are geometrical forms that constitute, as it were, a skeleton - Bi 86 G. H. KNIBBS. on which architectural features are developed, insymmetrical group- ing, with however such relief in detail.as to obviate too cold and severe an effect, or what may perhaps be called an appearance of excessive symmetry. The proper subordination in the various parts of structures of their mass effects is also essential to awaken that impression of stability and repose which, together with grandeur of form and beauty of outline, and the grace of har- monious ornament, constitute the ideal of architectural design. Although these matters require the immediate and intense atten- tion rather of those charged with erecting the buildings of a city, than of those whose function it is to design its streets and general arrangements, the latter can by no means neglect them. A know- ledge of, and attention to esthetic laws are absolutely necessary in studying a design, for as the eye passes over the contoured plan of a proposed site, the artistic possibilities of every feature must array themselves before the consciousness of the designer, if his work is in any way to exhaust them. Outside the esthetics of Architecture proper, the designer requires moreover to consider, in general, the picturesque effect of masses of foliage, the perspective appearance of monumental buildings and monuments from the points of view where they will be prominently seen, the grouping of buildings and classes of buildings, the effective position for parks, gardens, etc., the spatial provision necessary for the proper viewing of all features of in- terest, and so on ; for it is by attention to such elements of city design that the possibility of beauty is created, and the picturesque capabilities of a site are exploited. Thus eminences and concave surfaces, both of which lend themselves to striking effects, should be exhaustively studied in relation to the general scheme. 16. Sites for monumental buildings and monuments.—The two classes of site that give the necessary prominence to monumental buildings are the summit of hills and the centres of amphitheatres: the one bringing a building into relief against the sky, the other shewing it in relation to its surroundings. In both cases the preservation of space about the building greatly enhances its THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 87 effect, by ensuring for it a sufficient distinctness. Remembering that a considerable time must elapse before any great city can be completed,’ the reservation of sites for future public buildings and requirements generally, and for extension of buildings as the necessity arises, should always be on a most liberal scale, as this not only avoids the need for costly resumptions of land, but also enables the esthetic effects to receive that adequate consider- ation which they rarely do if the element of cost is serious.” The spatial provision for monuments, intended to be of noble proportions, therefore, would be appropriately located at prominent radial centres, while that for those of lesser size would be relegated to more unpretentious positions. It is, of course, important that the magnitude of monuments should harmonize with their sur- roundings ; andas the form they may be expected to take depends very largely upon the contingencies of the future, the spatial pro- vision should be liberal. The essence of the whole matter is that all conspicuous or prominent sites should be appropriated for those great public buildings and monuments upon which a people may be expected to lavish its wealth and artistically express its national feeling. In order that monuments of all kinds may be properly seen, an unobstructed area must be preserved immediately round about them. For viewing detail, an onlooker would stand at a distance from the monument about equal to its height; to see it as a whole, at a distance about twice its height; to see it with its background and immediate surroundings, at say three times its height;* and to see it with its general surroundings at a still greater distance. 1 Tt will, for example, be many years before Australia will be wealthy enough to erect truly monumental buildings. It would be well to com- mence, however, on permanent lines, whenever we do start the substantial buildings. 2 The penalty paid, over and over again, in the States of the Common- wealth, for want of foresight in the matter of public requirements, is not merely a most serious financial loss: the possibility of adequately meeting those requirements has practically vanished. 3 Angles 45°, 26° 34’, and 18° 26’ respectively. It is necessary, therefore, that about every monument the unob- 88 G. H. KNIBBS. structed space should be between a distance equal to its height, and that equal to at least three times its height. Similar monu- mental buildings of noble proportions should stand back a suflicient distance from the street to admit of their being favourably seen. 17. Treatment of streets from the standpoint of esthetics.—Owing to the fact that great lengths of street, especially when unvarying in width, of similar section, and fairly level, produce on the beholder a sense of wearisome regularity, the introduction of spaces for monuments, large street fountains, water-jets, foliage squares, etc., at such points as relieve the view, is a desirable corrective. It is hardly possible to lay down any rule as to the length which may be unrelieved, because so much depends upon grade, width, and general treatment in other respects; a length of from 15 to 25 times the width might be taken asa general indication. Tire- some uniformity can also be avoided by subjecting each street to independent treatment, sothat each may possess some characteristic. Even alteration of width is preferable to excessive symmetry, and may be introduced to counteract its unesthetic effect. The undisguised presence of telegraph wires, telephone cables, etc., besides being unsightly, is a menace to public safety in cases of fire. Overhead electric wires in a tram-system although perhaps less unsightly, are inconsistent with a fine effect, and might well be transferred to underground conduits, as has already been done in some instances. It has been said that monuments, so too, foliage masses, may be employed as a relief to street uniformity: they may also be introduced to obviate the ugly effect which arises from the dis- appearance of buildings etc., over the summit of streets crossing a ridge, for in no case should such effect be unrelieved: their proper situation is of course central, the traffic passing on either side, on a sufficient space provided therefor. If monuments be erected in curved streets, the concave? is the proper side, forasmuch as it has the greater area of visibility, and : That is the side of greater radius. THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 89 moreover the concave side forms an effective background, as is evident on viewing figures in niches. The convexis less effective than even a flat background, to say nothing of the reduction of the area of visibility. Hence spaces for monuments are desirable on the concave side in effective localities. The lighting arrangements of a city are also susceptible of artistic treatment, and lamp-posts or candelabra could be so designed and arranged as to greatly enhance the beauty of streets. The necessity of occasional illumination might, with advantage, be systematically considered, and such permanent installations made as would admit of its more frequent use. This applies no less to the illumination of buildings than to streets, and the expense of permanent constructions would be scarcely greater than the cost of individual illuminations. In streets planted with trees, the effect could be made very pleasing, and the somewhat wanton injury to this formation, common on such occasions, wholly avoided. All these matters may easily be taken account of in the development of the design; they should not be an afterthought, however. The same remark applies to the form and position of drinking stands, pillar boxes for letters, telephone fire alarms, conveniences, letter-boxes, and other furniture of modern streets ; all need to be considered in the design, so as to be made harmonious with their surroundings. Among places admitting of decided improvement as regards the usual treatment, may be mentioned street intersections. Where the blocks have acute angles, a sufficient cut-off to form a facade, or a suitable rounding off, greatly enhances the appearance, and even the intersections of rectangular streets are marxedly benefited by similar treatment. The customary right angle is far from satisfactory esthetically. The cutting off of corners increases of course the diagonals at the intersection, and since the side- walks or footpaths follow the outlines of the blocks (7.e., are equidistant from the building lines) increases diagonally, also, the roadway proper. This enlargement leaves room for street ornamentation at the intersections of the centre lines. By making ss a 90. G. H. KNIBBS. the cut off of corners adequate, provision may be made for a small square, a monument, clump of foliage, or small garden. A still greater cut-off will permit of a central square, circle or ellipse of finer proportions, with roadways round it, and which may be utilized for a more pretentious central feature, and the independent treatment of every intersection will produce a gratifying result. In addition to those at street intersections, spaces are also desirable in front of, and in some cases even on three sides of, certain types of public buildings, especially those in which the architectural elaboration would not normally be restricted to the front, as, for example, museums, theatres, churches, etc. Arcades and approaches thereto are features which, since they can be made very effective in appearance, ought to be provided for in the design ; and further, sites should be indicated for those fine pieces of sculpture or architectural art which the artistic sentiment of any cultured people will eventually require. Since all artistic elements must stand in harmonious relationship to one another, and their distribution be such as to give them a maximum efficiency in relation to their influence in beautifying the city, they ought all to be considered in the original design, so that the necessary provision may be made. The usual practice of either entirely neglecting, or inadequately regarding these matters, and then doing the best possible with the sites that chance to be available, can never be satisfactory, as is obvious when one contemplates the all too common hopeless disfigurement of what were originally ideally perfect sites. 18. Public parks and gardens.—Public parks and gardens are not only an ornament toa city but a necessity to its people, if their health is to be regarded, and considerations of health and beauty may at least have weight in important cities.. Hence we are justified in making liberal provision for public gardens, 1 The antagonism of interest between the estate vendor and the public good should be guarded against. The price paid for cupidity on the one hand and ignorance on the other is serious.! ee THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. : on irregular surfaces are to be preferred, as giving the landscape gardener greater scope for displaying his art, and as possessing intrinsically greater charm. In selecting areas for public gardens therefore, the irregular tracts would always be chosen, provided other parts of the design could be made to accord therewith, and provided also that the positions lent themselves to good effects from every point of view. Whole blocks, or even double, triple, or quadruple blocks, containing suitable features might therefore be devoted to the purpose, the distribution over the entire site being made fairly uniform, but adapted to the general character of the surroundings. Besides these gardens and smaller parks, in the city proper, large parks also are necessary for its environs. The Bois de Boulogne, and the Bois de Vincennes of Paris have each an area of over 2,000 acres, and similarly liberal provision for every important city is to be desired. Parks like these would constitute recreation or picnicking grounds for the peoples of the cities and their areas ought to be ample for the probable ultimate population of the city. The creation of artificial, if there be no natural, lakes, especially for cities not on the sea-shore, would be advantageous, and if the water supplied to them were, on its passage, passed through large fountains of many jets, not only would the feature be very attractive, but the water itself would also be well aérated. By suitably selecting the path for the conduits conveying this water, it could in some cases be made to serve either all or most of the fountains of the city, passing by gravitation from one to the other, subject only to the loss by evaporation at each fountain. I may be here excused for repeating a suggestion made to me in conversation by the Commissioner appointed to report on the sites for the Federal Capital.1_ If the parks were thickly planted with trees whose foliage was beautiful, and whose timber at the same time was of value, then when the demand for the fuller use of the parks arose, necessitating clearing, the trees would have become a valuable asset, and the income from the timber available for removal might be made to materially assist in the more 92 G. H. KNIBBS. elaborate development of the parks. Another suggestion made by the same gentleman is that the parks might to some extent illustrate the types of timber to be found scattered over the face of the earth, not by individual specimens, but by creating small forests of such type. 19. Hygienic elements of design.—Itis not only in the choice of a site that the elements conducing to health need to be studied. However wisely the choice may have been made in respect of climate, of the nature of the surface and subsoil, of the condition of the discharge of surface waters, and the position of the ground- waters, of the possibilities of adequate water-supply and efficient drainage, there still reinains a need for a hygienic as well as esthetic control of the localisation of settlement. And since this reacts upon the whole question, it is not possible to omit the hygienic elements in elaborating a design that is to be as perfect as our knowledge will allow. The first great requisite to general health is the prevention of all settlement on those parts of a site where undesirable hygienic conditions prevail. For example, neither residences nor factories should be allowed to be built or established in depressions or other places where the moisture is excessive, or where water is liable to accumulate in heavy storms. A complete defence against the liability to misapplication of such areas is the converting of them into parks, and planting with types of vegetation that make a maximum demand upon the available moisture. By planting and draining, an area can be quite transformed, both in character and appearance, as the history of the city of Washington, U.S.A., so well demonstrates, and an unsightly feature may be converted into one of beauty. A second requisite is that so far as possible variations in the design permit, those should have weight which lend themselves to convenient and efficient drainage systems, both for storm waters, and domestic, industrial, and other polluted drainage; and the 1 Alexander Oliver, Esq., m.a., President of the Land Appeal Court, State of N.S.W. THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 93 outlines of the scheme for this should therefore be fully considered when the design is being developed, and not afterwards. The third requisite is that the total quantity of breathing space provided in the design should be large, the vegetation made abundant ; and when the building stage is reached, the necessary sanitary provision enforced for every structure, overcrowding being prohibited by requiring a sufficient number of cubic metres of space to each inhabitant. And among the most important of the hygienic elements, I would place that of ample provision for play or recreation grounds in connection with every school, college, or other educational establish- ment; 2.¢., a complete abandonment of the present niggardly notion of what is a reasonable provision in this respect. That the recrea- tion of a people should be under pleasant and healthy conditions is always important, and never more so than in the case of the young, so that the school-grounds of a beautiful city should in themselves be a source of attraction, and exhilarant in their re- action upon those who use them. Similarly hospitals and sanitoria should have bright surround- ings and pleasant aspects, for the cheery and tonic effect of these is by no means the least potent of the remedies available to those charged with the care of our health. The suitable location of industrial occupations which are either noxious or unpleasant, even in a minor degree, is a matter of importance in enhancing the merits of a city, and in dealing with those occupations as they arise, all provisions for diminishing their mischief should be enforced. For example, since a smoky cannot be a beautiful city, at any rate in the highest sense, all smoke in factories ought to be consumed. Where industries are such that they cannot be ameliorated, they can be excluded from the city proper. Therefore provision for abattoirs, and similar establish- ments are preferably omitted. These and similar malodorous occupations, can be concentrated at some convenient but sufi- ciently distant point, for though they may not directly create 94 G. H. KNIBBS. sanitary mischief, their reaction upon human beings is unfavour- able, and they are therefore undesirable. 20. The preliminaries of design.—Imperfect as is the statement given of the elements to be considered in any real attempt to properly design an important city, it will nevertheless be sufficient to indicate that a preliminary topographical and contour survey of the whole of the site is an essential. Such a plan perfectly represents the surface, and if supplemented with geological information as to the depth at which rock is found, the nature of the rock and of the material from the surface down thereto, it would constitute the necessary prerequisite for thoroughly discuss- ing the design. Obvious as this seems, (and it must be equally evident that even in regard to the engineering details alone, the cost of obtaining such information would be far more than com- pensated by the aid it would lend to economy of construction) it has not been the practice in the Australian States to obtain it. The time lost in so doing is gained in the end, and it is only by such systematic procedure that satisfactory results can be achieved. I am well aware that those who have not thoroughly studied this question, are under the impression that what is called the common sense of well educated people is sufficient for the task of designing. That is not the opinion of those who have seriously given the matter their professional attention. If evidence were wanted of the calamity of indifferent design, it is to be had in our own city and suburbs. The topographical features of Sydney would have permitted it to be, if not the most, at least one of the most beautiful cities of the world. No word-painting could too vividly, or with too high a colour, express the magnificent opportunity that once existed for the people of this land to create a city of almost unparalleled beauty : that opportunity has been hopelessly lost through the ignorance, and want of apperception of those whose duty it was to avail themselves of it, leaving at the same time a monument of the dignity of their ideas. And the reason of failure is that no great scheme for the creation of the city was ever heartily entertained. Like Topsy it has ‘growed.’ And any | THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 95 other city that grows by chance will equally exhibit great imper- fections, and fail of its possibilities. 21. Conclusion.—The treatment of the subject of this paper, is by no means exhaustive, and may be taken rather as a general indication of its scope, than as a systematic and complete presen- tation. In concluding I may be permitted to express my indebtedness to the paper by Herr J. Stiibben (Baurath, and Assistant Burgomaster of Cologne) on the same subject, and to that by Mr. J. Sulman, read at the Melbourne meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, more than ten yearsago (1890). Both advocate the radial-ring system. As to the adoption of the radial element there can I think be no question; and I have shewn the great advantage of the ring system. This system may in my opinion well form a feature relieving the uniformity of the rectangular, but since all three can be employed with advantage, it ought not to be dominant. A complete and final abandonment of the present practice of lightly regarding the matter of city design, and a really exhaustive study from every possible point of view of any selected site, as a pre- liminary qualification, is what is desired. Given this, we shall have in each case a noble and far-seeing design, and the cities of the Commonwealth will bid fair to be all that we could wish, so far as the art of city building is concerned. And unique among them should be that which will be known as the Capital of Australia.’ [Added 12th Sept.] Since writing the above my attention has been called? to an article on ‘“‘City Plans” by Horace Bushnell, p.p. Essay V. in his “‘Work and Play.”* He affirms that there can be no absolute plan for cities, each must be designed by itself. The essay is an exposition of the subject from the standpoints of convenience, health, and artistic development. Although the * May I add that it would be easy to introduce and familiarise the people with the metric system, which must inevitably be adopted, if all the measurements, dimensions, etc., are given for the Federal Capital in that system. 2 By Mr. J. H. Knibbs. 7 Lond., Alex. Strahan & Co., 1864. a Peas co ae S » 3.0 TU oy zi 2 ee a eySagee fo} Ge (EY a 3of Pe of & Beet va Te NOON eg. 5 evo oaae & eos SE StS i oso 2 = oF oo oS S) SSE o OH 4 a > g & = = om 4 é a. 3 “we ec tas 5 fa SI NS Beggin 33 ee a Oo Oo nM os) oO - oO fo) wm eee 8 7 25 ef Soe Nn w PS Shaess » & oq © ac Toms a 5 Bee fe ee + ® ~~ = (oy ats) n roo) RQ py C wm gs 2 Se ee gs Bo SS S fo) reas a oo v m Qf mS Sm 6 & © a s fo fd 8 E S nH et ate or ae qd w La 8 ° A mR a a oe oS A : 6a iS Gy eS a gk So & SH tH 4 a] n n Oo © Pp ie i aoc a oF eo 8 ® G56 O O < = ci a a & & oO ane Sg feast ow { os Oe eS Ley. SB ca > a Se ee = 3 4 Ae fal Su. #2 : a eee q > NAES WSL 5 Se ee ee S| o ws oD ey ge sp» F NG A AG ge Ss OF s) (Se Clee a of 9 o a es ay Da, jiasd a en PSau Bx s 5 os} ae ve om PAA 12 Bp ian) Ss (oeic) fo) = 10) TE) ey 9 sw z ; ray, es ni) oe ee ig Masa a3 5 9 oe » Ae fe) @) f Ps Oe RO Fel ak a aS + ss » oa 2 bs o oO g “+ 2 oe g So 0 5 Qa, & g e ea g o eS ee af © = nm o ae] = SS 6 qs pa i = Sen o a, 8 4 eye sole ein ct Cn WA Of On ty ome Sn eg 9 & F- 8 aa ss ee eee iS aw FS yo o 8S 2» gon ar imc o <= sel ~» 02H nev oO Fg w oe a) = 3 oH ARs Ss 85 @Oss Ca + S fs s © ERG oO sae BS o mea © .2 e a oo @ Boas ee a Ss 3S qe 5b 4 YP a ft eae PO ei au 8 5 & peasy Gl Ss (5 q © (Lo) fel Fey OF Orme S “4 TO N - Pp = 2 Ya, & te n & eS ro) ase | Se n S ei ocm El cat be o S co om 5 ° Ss 8 & O M Secon S q ot =) ©) «a oA gS 5 5S 5 Sen oy wm we 0 O THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 97 DISCUSSION. Mr. H. G. McKINNEy, m. Inst. c.—E.—The paper is very compre- hensive in its character and bears every evidence of careful thought and skilful preparation. Any criticism therefore which I have to offer relates to matters of detail and to the order in which action should be taken. The first point to which I feel disposed to take exception is the place given to the paragraph devoted to the preliminaries of design. I concur in Mr. Knibbs’ opinion that ‘‘a preliminary topographical and contour survey of the whole of the site is essential,” but I should have preferred to see this point brought in near the beginning of the paper and greater prominence given to it. The site selected for the Federal Capital is almost certain to be in hilly country, and the contour of the ground will be a factor of the first importance in settling the character of the street system or systems, which should be adopted. Examination merely of the headings under which Mr, Knibbs has discussed the subject shows how much depends on the contour plan. For instance the important question of the positions of radial centres is one which will depend in a very large measure on the natural outlines of the ground, as will also the question of the advantage or propriety of adopting curved streets. As the immediate object in view in establishing the Federal Capital is to provide Houses of Parliament and offices for the use of the Federal Government, it appears to me that all other objects should be subordinated to this. I quite concur in Mr. Knibbs’ opinion that all possibilities of extension should be provided for, but I think that in attempting to make definite provision for various possible developments there would be some risk of losing sight of the main object which should be kept in view, In his statement regarding the fixing of radial centres, I think more stress might be laid on facilities for water supply and drain- age, and on the location of railways and main roads, but Mr. Knibbs may very justly say in regard to this, that the magnitude of the subject compelled him to condense his remarks. G—Oct. 2, 1901. 98 DISCUSSION. Mr. Knibbs very justly condemns what may be termed the so-called ‘Practical Man” principle in regard to laying out the Federal City. There can be no doubt that the best professional advice should at the outset be obtained regarding the surveying, engineering, architectural, sanitary, and horticultural questions which have to be dealt with in founding a model city. Mr. Hersert EH. Ross, B.Sec.—Mr. Knibbs certainly seems to have assembled all the general elements which should determine the design of an ideal city. The consummation of such a design is, however, so beset by the dangers of democratic interference that if only a major part of the theory outlined could be carried into effect the result might well be regarded as a distinct milestone in the march of civilization. Of the difficulties of realization, the greatest would of course be an impatience leading to amendments of the conceived design, sacrificing future perfection to more obvious present expediency, so that continuity of purpose should be an important element in the theory. The radial-ring arrangement of streets is doubtless the best possible economically, and perhaps even esthetically, it has a minor objection however, it would tend to a sense of confusion of locality in the ideas of an average citizen ; a common instance in our own city is afforded by the irregular system of streets surrounding our Government administrative buildings. Of course the radial-ring arrangement, with rectangular subsections, could be systematised to avoid this difficulty to a certain extent, by the streets being named according to consecutive numbers, or other series, and referred to centres or to some popular meridian, thus establishing relative location throughout. The principle of concentration of allied interests is good only to a limited extent. Thus, for instance, the association of administrative systems, and again commercial activities, would be desirable and necessary, but the principle would fail if applied, for instance, to educative institutions, except those which claim the whole attention of their votaries. Thus museums, libraries, and the representative collections of art and industry, should be conveniently scattered in the centres of greatest ————— THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN, 99 -activity, and not set apart where the work-a-day world would gain least from their civilizing influences. In the adoption of curved streets or indirect routes to avoid ‘heavy grades there must be some mean condition, a compromise, as it were, between the direct route of the steep gradient, and the -devious route of the easier grade. The author’s proposal that the ‘maximum grade under these circumstances should be 10% is con- sidered quite excessive; a maximum of 74% under the most unfavourable topographical conditions would entail no special difficulties, and certainly should not be exceeded. The economy of low gradients extends far beyond the immediate section of road considered, and may sometimes determine the load at a distance. Any plan having been duly decided upon, I consider it would ‘be highly dangerous to the satisfactory final completion of that design, if any allegedly temporary amendment be permitted, especially where the building lineisconcerned. It would be quite ‘in the economy of a design that streets be wide and yet not wholly ‘in use. A central strip for instance, not paved and treated as a ‘shrubbery, would entail no great cost, and even if subject to neglect would be better than some other excuse for permanently -crippling the design. Of the broad question of esthetics there is much to be said, and ‘the general principles should never be lost sight of, as they are independent of all accidental features which form only the frame- work for their application. Starting, de novo, it would be possible ‘to introduce principles impossible and unknown to the cities of the past, which have, as Mr. Knibbs graphically puts it—like Topsy— growed. Of these, to my mind, one of the greatest possible zesthetic importance is the question of the weather protection of footpaths. There is nothing associated with the habitations of man so fatal to beauty in design, so hideously excrescent and foreign to every canon of architectural proportion, as the street awning. It is necessary to every climate and is disowned by every style of architecture. The architect excludes it from his drawings, knowing the while, that parasite-like it will attach itself 100 DISCUSSION. j to his building before it leaves his hands. The street awning can have no place whatsoever in a beautiful city; and yet under the- special conditions under which a new city may come into existence- it would be an easy matter to supply its place, and at the same time add new possibilities to the beauty of our street architecture. To this end I would so regulate the conditions of land tenure that there would be two building lines to the side of each street, one line would lie, say, one-third the width of the footpath from the- kerb thereof, and the other or near line would be back at the full distance of the footpath. An invariable condition of building in certain streets would result in two-thirds of the footpath being under cover and one-third open. Instances of this class of con-- struction in this city, though not so applied, are afforded by Victoria House in Pitt Street, and the General Post Office. Such construction is conformable to every recognised style of architecture: and would undoubtedly lend itself to fine effects hitherto impossible. Mr. NorMAN SELFE, M. Inst. C.E.—To discuss within reasonable: limits such a lengthy and masterly paper as that which Mr. Knibbs. has contributed to this important subject, is very difficult. I therefore propose to supplement rather than to criticise; and to- make a few prosaic remarks on some of the commonplace aspects of the question, hardly touched by Mr. Knibbs, but which naturally occur to those who are in daily contact with the practical rather than the theoretical side of such matters. It seems to me to be entirely premature for any one to- dogmatise on the subject of the Federal Capital, before certain definite and important premises have been thoroughly settled. As — a result of having looked upon fifty or sixty of the principal cities. of the world—from Stockholm to Naples, and from Boston to. St. Louis, it has been forced upon me that those cities are all the results of special series of combinations of conditions—unique- in every case. Prague and Chicago, London and Christiania,. what have they in common? Philadelphia, one of the largest cities of the world, appears to be one of the least self-assertive ;. THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 101 ‘but, like its brother Chicago, it owes much of its stateliness and ‘beauty to conditions that, so far, have not arisen in Australia. If the Americans are the sharpest business people in the world, ‘they have also developed patriotic instincts to an extent and in a way totally unknown in this southern land. There speculators and capitalists have purchased and subdivided immense areas around their cities. They have laid out broad avenues, with promenades and intervening parks; the latter containing winter gardens when necessary, to preserve their flowers and delicate plants ‘through an inclement season. This has been done by means of ‘Trusts, whose object was not mere vulgar money making, but the more noble one of securing for all time to its members, faultless residential districts, in combination with the most beautiful and healthful surroundings. Few if any such works have yet been undertaken here, even if such a spirit is animating the wealthy public men of the Australian States. If there is such a desire abroad among us there is some doubt as to the scope for its oper- ations in connection with the Federal City. Before we can deal very much with the site of the Federal City ‘we require to know :—First as to Official Buildings — (a) Legislative Buildings and Vice-Regal Residence. (6) Public Offices of State: as Mint, Treasury, Customs and Internal Revenue, Patents, Military and Naval Depart- ments, etc. (c) Supreme Court and Law Departments. {d) The residences of the principal Officers of the Common- wealth, whether such are to be simply private homes or State mansions to serve as foci for ceremonial functions. (e) The shops and magazines of trade required to supply the wants of the official staff and its servants. {f) The homes of the various grades and classes of servants other than those housed in the public buildings; and every accommodation that appertains to the machinery of government. 102 DISCUSSION. Secondly, Non-Official Buildings.—Prior to taking any steps: with regard to colleges, art galleries, museums or libraries, and before any provision can be made for a non-official population, some determination must be arrived at as to the likelihood of others than the Members of the Senate and House of Represen- tatives—(a) taking up a permanent residence in the district, or (b) paying occasional visit to the city. A permanent non-official population can only grow under one or both of two heads. In the first case the mineral, agricultural or forest resources of the district may be of a character to warrant and favour the establish- ment of manufactories, and the position of the city as a centre of trade may favor the economical distribution of its goods; then, an industrial population may be reckoned on. Or the site may have such beautiful salubrious and economical attractions as to: lead to the city becoming a resort for families of means. It is necessary to consider in any selected site whether any of its natural features should be emphasised or suppressed. For example, a foreground of water, whether river, lake, or creek, although insignificant in the original landscape, might be so. altered by embanking and terracing as to become a characteristic feature of the city. As regards the relative merits of a rectangular hexagonal or radial and circumferential street system; nothing could posibly be settled beforehand, about a site that will in all probability be: in hilly country. The only safe rule is that which provides that. there should be the shortest practicable routes between the most important centres. In old cities we find straight cuts being con- tinually made, with such an object, through slum districts. If there is only one prominent elevation on the site, it should no. doubt be crowned either by the Citadel (if there is to be one) or by the Capitol buildings without the Citadel. There should be- plenty of park and garden surroundings, and if the main centre is too elevated for direct radial roads of approach, then spiral avenues may be necessary. If there are lesser or subordinate elevations, then other State or prominent buildings should crown. ’ THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 103 them; and every endeavour should be made to prevent concentra- tion into too narrow a focus for a commencement. While on the subject of parks, greens and open spaces, a custom which obtains in many cities of the United States may be referred to. It is no unusual thing in that great country to see public parks, the domains enclosing State Capitols, the grounds surround- ing the mansions of the wealthy, and even the gardens bordering the stately rows of villa residences, on their tree lined avenues, all entirely without gates or enclosures of any kind. A great: deal has been said about Washington, D.C., and it is certain that. any authorities that may be appointed, will not forget the lessons to be drawn from it; but the great difficulty will be to design a nucleus, with all the possibilities for expansion and extension, which will not be what—‘‘the city of magnificent distances” was —a ragged and disjointed one for a generation or two at least. When however, the positions of the streets are once settled on, their borders planted and their roadways formed, then no other authority than that charged with their maintenance, should be allowed to pull them up again. We should insist that subways should be imperative in the principal streets of the Capitol. Mr. J. H. Matpen.—Having had no time to make a set report on the subject I can only offer a few remarks at present on my colleague’s valuable paper. I trust that the Federal City will not, at an early stage (or indeed at any other), be overloaded with too many fine buildings. A beautiful building need not necessarily be a costly one and it is to be hoped that free use will be made of bricks of various tints and colours, of tiled and shingled roofs, of wooden outside beams, and other architectural features of wood. In our sunny climate we particularly want lightness, brightness, and colour, particularly in our domestic architecture; any excess of brightness can be toned down by creepers or by judicious plant- ings. The presence of large quantities of building stone does not commend itself to me, in this connection, so much as abundant supplies of first-class brick clays. 104 DISCUSSION, Some of the fine buildings that have been suggested by various writers should be looked upon as ideals, perhaps not to be reached before the lapse of many years. It will be found, when the work of forming the city is set about in earnest, that the inevitable expenditure will be enormous, and therefore we should carefully discriminate between the essentials (as laid down in Mr. Knibbs’ paper) and those suggestions which have been made without due consideration of ways and means. We must remember the vicissitudes of national finance, that the good ship of State at irregular intervals strikes a rock, and then retrenchment is the ‘watchword. Retrenchment is often carried out in a more or less empirical way, and we should guard against the sacrifice of essentials in such a contingency. Washington is a city often quoted to us as an example, but we should not lose sight of the fact that it has a far wealthier and more densely populated territory at its back than we have. I would suggest that the whole of the Federal territory be looked upon somewhat in the light of a gigantic park, the streets and the buildings to be inserted as details and when required. By this I mean that one grand scheme should be kept in view, that all our energies should not be entirely devoted to the official and residential part of the Federal City to the neglect of its suburbs and of its adjacent territory. In planning the roads and other means of access to the Federal territory we should not lose sight of the fact that the design of the city itself, which is of course of supreme importance, should not exclude rational treat- ment of the federal non-urban territory. Design your streets and squares and gardens as soon as you can, and then let the planting begin. You will get more evident results from an artistic and hygienic point of view from planting than by any other means, and planting, amongst other advantages, will give definiteness to the ground plan of the city. There is an old proverb “Trees grow while we sleep”; while other details are being worked out our plants are increasing in size and usefulness. I trust that the crescent will be adopted to some extent, as it is THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 105 capable of very artistic treatment. The crescents should have segmental plantations between them and the busy highways. Crescents in London, Edinburgh, Leeds and other cities, small and great, will readily occur to members. Then there should be a supervising architect to pass all plans of buildings before erection. I do not mean merely as regards compliance with sanitary bye-laws and safety of construction, but in regard to taste. The supervising architect should be an arbiter of taste, and while his ideals would not be too high, they should be high enough to prevent any gross offence against taste. Coming to matters more particularly within my own province, let preparation be deliberately made for the planting of trees by the sides of streets. Is there a street in Sydney where this has been done? Ora noble avenue in New South Wales? The plant- ‘ing of a tree is not the careless making of a shallow hole and the ‘off-hand putting of a tree therein. We must have good soil and good drainage. Ifthe former is not there already, we must obtain it. No trenching or planting of the permanent avenues or plan- tations should be done by contract. When we plant a tree we do it for all time and therefore no inducement should be offered to ‘do anything which would contend against success in this direction. Everyone has experience of irremediable loss, —perhaps of money, certainly of valuable time, inflicted on citizens who have only ‘discovered bad planting by its after effects in wasted years. Amongst public bodies often a labourer is told off either to plant or to tend trees,—a policy that shows that the gardening profession has not attained proper recognition in New South Wales. Asa very general rule the citizen calls in the services of a skilled tradesman to satisfy his requirements, as he knows that such a policy is wise, and the truest economy, but the exception he commonly makes is in regard to his garden. If a man has tried everything else he can still bea gardener; this is an economic heresy which is very widespread in Australia. A good gardener is a trained man and one who has frequently undergone a long and severe apprenticesnip, and it will be in the truest interests 106 DISCUSSION. of this State and of the Federal territory when public opinion is. so educated that the value of a gardener is properly appraised. Much useful work can be done by the garden-labourer or the navvy, under skilled supervision, but the technical skill of the gardener must be employed for planting and its attendant opera- tions, for pruning (some people think that fruit-trees alone require to be pruned), for prevention of disease and for the application of sprays and other technical methods for the arrest of disease. These may seem details, but they are essential, and I invite attention to. them with all the earnestness of which I am capable. The prospect of noble avenues of trees in the Federal City is very pleasing, and I trust that nothing will prevent their extensive adoption. As compared with the results, the expenditure is cer-- tainly most justifiable. The value of the avenue, whether along streets, along approaches to buildings or as promenades in parks, has been but little realized in Australia, although common encugh in Europe. And let me enunciate an axiom ‘One avenue one kind of tree.” The finest avenues in the world consist of one kind of tree, as by that means uniformity of growth and general appear-. ance, which gives the main charm to an avenue, can be alone secured. The pernicious misplaced hankering after variety which causes so many avenues to be spoiled because they are of two or more kinds of trees is responsible for the disreputable appearance of so many avenues and boulevards. Such remind one irresistibly of the “awkward squad.” I would extensively plant fruit-trees (which might be the property of the hospital) along the boulevards, and then the eye would be delighted with the prospect of a magnificent display of blossom in the spring. In the fruit season the public could be educated to respect the crop; this has been done in France. If the work were properly done it should be at least self-supporting. Then clumps of trees and shelter belts from the west and south should be extensively planted, or, if they are there already, very stringent regulations should be adopted in regard to the felling of trees by irresponsible persons. THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 107 We have no grand Arboretum in Australia, and the foundation of the Federal City gives us the opportunity of establishing one that should be fully availed of. This would be of ornamental appearance and of great interest to the average citizen ; it would also be of high value from an educational point of view. The growth of timber trees here would be a matter of deep interest to the Forest Departments of the different States, which would probably join to partly or entirely support it. Mr. Alexander Oliver has suggested a geographical arrangement of trees in the large urban or suburban plantations, an excellent idea that has much to commend it. But I am very anxious to see the trees, in such plantations, arranged in Natural Orders also. For example, what a grand and useful thing a Pinetum would be —when we could get every species of Pine (with other Conifers adjacent) we could secure and compare their growth. The Oak plantations, collected from species indigenous to the United States and Mexico, from Europe, from the Himalayan region and from China and Japan, could become a feature in the Federal City that would attract many pilgrims. The cost would not be great and the economic lessons would be important, and we must let these two points always be with us in regard to the city, otherwise the Federal expenditure will be unduly inflated. Personally I only plant young trees,—so, if my advice were followed special lines of trees could be raised from seeds or cuttings while the surveyors were putting in their pegs. I was much struck with the model village of Port Sunlight' in England, where there are allotment gardens at the backs of blocks, the houses being arranged in a more or less quadrangular method for the purpose. Here is a hint for such gardens at the backs of blocks in the town lots for workmen in the Federal City. Incidentally let me commend the neat, pretty and various domestic architecture at Port Sunlight, much of which could be introduced, with but little alteration into the Federal or other Australian city. I show you photographs in order that you may see how light and ’ The creation of Lever Brothers and Company. 108 DISCUSSION. bright it is. At Port Sunlight, as you will see, great use has been anade of lawns from the houses and other buildings to the roads, the lawns or gardens being protected by light iron railings where mecessary. And finally, let us encourage hedge planting in lieu of railings wherever possible. The Federal site will be not less than 2,000 feet above the level of the sea and the selection of approved hedge plants for that elevation is very great. Hedges can be made most artistic adjuncts to buildings, and, what is very much to the point, they are inexpensive. JuDGE DockER— When the discussion upon Mr. Knibbs’ paper was adjourned I also resolved to taxe part in the debate, as the subject is one in which I have taken a great interest, and as I have already expressed some views upon it in a letter published in one of the Sydney newspapers during the latter part of last year. But having read Mr. Knibbs’ paper, I find myself in the same difficulty as Mr. McKinney. I find that the author has taken up and discussed every point, in a far more forcible manner than I could hope to accomplish, inasmuch as he possesses the technical knowledge which I do not. So it only remains for me to reiterate, and if possible, emphasise one or two of the points already insisted upon. 1. After the site for the Federal Capital has been selected and a contour survey made, an ideal of the city as complete must be evolved before a stone or a brick is placed in position. It ought not to be left to a single mind, however gifted, to create this ideal city, but a large commission should be appointed, including, not only the most distinguished engineers and architects of the Com- monwealth, but also artists and other specialists, whose contribu- tions towards elaborating the general ideal might be valuable. It is difficult to conceive of a higher honour than to be a member of such a commission and to share in the task of evolving the ideal of a Capital City as clear and distinct as was the vision of the “New Jerusalem” to the inspired Seer, but which will take decades perhaps centuries to realise. THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 109 2. I approve of the combination of different systems, the rectangular, the radial, the crescent; modified of course, by the “contour of the surface. I think the nucleus should be rectangular and of considerable extent; und the transition to radial streets could be conveniently made by taking the diagonals of squares for the sides of a series of larger outer squares, the half-squares left by this transition should be reserved for such puklic or semi-public buildings as ought to be detached from other buildings and sur- rounded by plantations or open spaces. I wish to insist particu- larly on the necessity for leaving ample open spaces for recreation etc., not confined to one locality, but distributed uniformly through the occupied area. In fact, my idea of the general plan of the city may be illustrated by a chessboard. Building should be permitted only on the alternate squares, the others being occupied by gardens and plantations, such as outlined by Mr. Maiden, artificial lakes and numerous recreation grounds for cricket and other sports. IT should like to touch upon many other points, but I do not. wish to occupy the time of the meeting by going over matter which has been already so thoroughly and so ably discussed by Mr. Knibbs in his paper, and I will conclude by complimenting him upon the admirable manner in which he has accomplished the task he has undertaken, and by expressing the hope that he may be a member of the commission which I trust will be appointed to evolve the ideal of the Federal Capital. Professor W. H. WARREN, M. Inst. C.—E.—I congratulate my friend Mr. Knibbs on having produced a very complete and thoughtful paper. lam sure the various subjects which he has dealt with at some length will be of great value to those whose duty it will be to arrange for the proper laying out of the Federal City. I am acquainted with all the important cities in America and Great Britain, as well as those of France, Germany, Austria, Italy and Hungary, and I am thus able to fully realize and appreciate the value of the various matters brought forward in the paper. Mr. Knibbs assumes that a suitable site is available, and he places first the fact that an abundant source of water supply is # 110 DISCUSSION. available, to which I should add, of suitable quality, within a moderate distance so that the cost of the necessary works, whether by gravitation, pumping, or a combination of these will not be unreasonable, or at least fairly economical. With an abundant supply of water available at a reasonable cost, a system of sewerage and drainage can be readily designed. _ As to the relative merits of the rectangular and radial systems of laying out the principal lines of communication: these have been clearly dealt with, but it is impossible to deal with this matter more definitely until the site of the proposed city is actually selected. When this is done, I consider that the physical features of the country will indicate the most suitable sites for the main public buildings, and the most desirable combinations of the rectangular and radial systems of streets connecting these impor- tant buildings with the remainder of the city. Such cities as Washington, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and Budapest give valuable suggestions on this head. The cardinal direction of rectangular streets in regard to the latitude of the site has been very fully considered, and I do not propose to add anything to this part of the paper, but in regard to the width of the principal streets, I consider that there should be ample room for a double line of tramway with a thoroughfare on each side for vehicular traffic, and ample width for footpaths. In the main street of the city leading up to the principal Govern- ment buildings, I consider the plan adopted in the Unter-den- Linden of Berlin would be most suitable, as it provides completely for all kinds of traffic, and the rows of trees would be most useful in summer, and add to the beauty of the street. Even George Street near the Town Hall is not wide enough for the principal street of a city such as Sydney. It must always however, be considered that very wide streets, such as King William Street, Adelaide, involve considerable expenditure in construction and maintenance, where the traffic is heavy. There is a practical economical width which should be obtained in every case wherever possible, which depends.upon the THE THEORY OF CITY DESIGN. 111 nature of the street, the height of buildings, and the amount and kind of traffic. The tendency to construct increasingly lofty buildings and the necessity for electric tramways, both involve the construction of wider streets than were formerly required. I con- sider that a single row of trees should be planted next to foot- walks or a double row in the middle of all the principal streets, Engineering feature of streets.—The chief point to be kept in view is to avoid divided authority and as much as possible the ‘construction and maintenance of the streets of our Federal City should be concentrated in one authority, which should control and maintain whatever tunnels and subways were required for telephone service, water supply, gas, sewerage and electrical con- ‘ductors for power and light, so that there would be no possibility of the traffic of the street being interfered with to an unnecessary extent, and the various disturbing elements of this nature, which we are all so familiar with in Sydney, would be avoided, with all their unnecessary expenses and inconveniences to the public. Again, I see no reason why electricity should not be exclusively ‘used for tramway traction, light, and power, so that there would ‘be no real necessity for gas, or for the hydraulic system of trans- mitting power such as we have in Sydney, as all the various matters dealt with under this head could be more efficiently and economically provided for by electricity, and the smoke nuisance would be minimised. Incidentally I consider that measures should be taken to stamp out the smoke nuisance, now that its prevention is better understood. I quite agree with the necessity of public parks and gardens, from the utilitarian, hygienic, and esthetic aspects of the question. The discussion cannot well be carried much further until the site of the city is selected, and then the real work may be commenced in which the principles dealt with by Mr. Knibbs and brought out in the discussion, may be applied ‘in a practical manner. Mr. JAMES TAYLOR, B.Sc., Wh. S., etec.—The paper we have heard from Mr. Knibbs is so well prepared that very little room is left for criticism. One little matter has occurred to me in reading it ‘ S ; . ¥ j= * ¥ 112 DISCUSSION. through since last meeting. Mention is made of the establishment. of manufactories in the city. _No doubt such establishments must arise sooner or later in connection witha large city, and in group- ing them as suggested in the paper, attention should be paid to. prevailing winds, so that the manufactories would be placed as far: as possible, towards the lee side of the city. There is another matter I would just like to notice, although it. does not perhaps, strictly speaking, come within the limits of Mr. Knibbs’ paper, 2.¢., the location of the site. We are hearing a. great deal about this subject just now and I have made a calcula- tion on the subject as follows:—If we suppose the population of each of the Federated States to be concentrated in its capital city and consider each capital to be a heavy point having a weight proportional to the concentrated population, the heavy points. being rigidly connected: then the centre of gravity of the system of heavy points thus formed should give the position of the Federal City. Or, other things being equal, the suitable site nearest the. point thus determined should be adopted. The site thus indicated would be situated about Lat. 35° 30’S., Long. 147° 20’ E., say about thirty miles south of Wagga Wagga. Mr. Henry DEANE, M.A., M. Inst. C.E.—Referring to the recom- mendation of a previous speaker, that an area should be set apart. for manufactures, Mr. Knibbs had not included this as a necessary provision ; and rightly, too. Manufactures, if possible, should be. rigidly excluded from the Federal City area. They were not. wanted there and there was plenty of room elsewhere for them. With regard to the remarks of one speaker, that the city should be under one control so as to avoid the evils that had arisen in Sydney through different authorities breaking up the streets at different times, to lay pipes and make other improvements; the City Council would probably not have done any better had they had full charge of affairs. The Federal City would have chances. that Sydney never had. It would of course be under one central control, either the Federal Government itself or a suitably selected Commission, and it could be laid out with subways for pipes, etc., and all modern improvements from the start. RECURRENCE OF RAIN. Lid “RECURRENCE OF RAIN,” THE RELATION BETWEEN THE Moon’s MorTIOoN IN DECLINATION AND THE QUANTITY OF Rain In N.S. WALES. By H. C. Russet, B.4., C.M.G., F.R.S. [With Diagram. | [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 4, 1901. ] You may remember that on June 3rd, 1896 I read before this Society a paper on the “ Periodicity of Good and Bad Seasons,” I stated “that I had not found time to investigate the question of the moon’s influence upon weather, some of which I had only so far investigated.” The interval between these papers has been spread out with the duty I had to give to official work, but I have got so far that it seems at least one part of the evidence is con- clusive, and fortunately I have found it possible to put the most important parts in the form of a diagram, so that these parts can be seen at once. I think when you have read what follows, you will be induced to believe that the moon must have something to. do with the occurrence of rain, however much the other opinions may have been discarded, because here the changes in the rainfall. are undoubtedly coincident with the positions of the moon; and you will not be asked to believe any statement I may make, but. simply to look at the diagram. However, we will return to this. again, and in the meantime describe the way in which the diagram was made. I first carefully studied our rainfall, and found that inland the rain diagrams gave a very different prospect to those: on the coast. The inland following clearly in cycles of nineteen years, while those on the coast were irregular. The reason for this I found was due to storms coming over sea and depositing rain water in such quantity that they did not bear any proportion to those inland. In other words, whereas inland the monsoonal and winter rains came to us, as parts of the regular offshoots of H—Oct. 2, 1901. 114 H. GC. RUSSELL. the Equator, and are therefore subject to regular distribution, the rains that came on to this coast are often made up of hurricane storms, offsets of equatorial hurricanes of great severity, and therefore are associated with abundance of rain. Attempts to plot in diagrams side by side, the storms of the coast and inland made evident at once the irregularity of coastal rains, and I therefore confined my investigation to the longer records of those inland stations, and I could not but regret that my predecessors had not begun the duty of measuring rain long since. Some few stations in Riverina had fortunately been started there, which assisted very much, more especially one at. Horsham, Victoria, where the observer began to record rain in 1848; our first record at Bathurst began in 1858. With the object of eliminating possible errors in the older records, I have as far as possible, taken the average rainfall of neighbouring stations, for instance Bourke and Charlton, Bathurst and Burrundella (near Mudgee), Yanko and Urana, Murray Downs station (near Castle Donnington) and Wanganella station. From all these I have taken the total rainfall for each year, and in accordance with the scale—5 inches of rain to each vertical space —TI have plotted them in, year after year in their proper order and length. The thick vertical lines between 1850 and 1851, 1869 and 1870, 1888 and 1889, are 19 years apart, and it was at once evident that it divides these records into natural spaces, in which the first 6 years had abundance of rain. More conspicu- ously is this evident from Yanko and Urana, but itis also a feature in the other lines, and then follow a long series of what has been called “the dry period,” which we are now in. For in this present cycle, the first bad year of the series was 1895 witha poor amount of rain, which was dried up by hot N.W. winds, and made the period one of very serious loss, and from that on we have had a most serious drought. From the year 1895 to the end of 1900, we have lost twenty-five millions of sheep by starvation, in addition to the death of all the increase during the past six years, which RECURRENCE OF RAIN. PLS ‘in good years would have amounted to about twenty millions of _ sheep more. Now turning to the diagram of the moon, it was made in this way: the extreme south position of the moon for each year was ‘selected as a convenient way of shewing the motion in declination and marked on the diagram representing that year, and year after year the moon’s extreme declination was plotted on these lines, ultimately all the points were joined together and made the curve you see, which simply indicates the extreme south distance of the moon from the equator each year; and during the southerly motion of the moon for six years there is abundance of rain. Then -drought begins, not wholly for want of rain, but in many cases because we have strong N. to N.W. hot winds; a feature which -does not appear when there is plenty of rain. I do not mean to say that I have demonstrated that the moon is an active point in the weather, but I think, seeing the rain is ‘shown so clearly to come in times of abundance, when the moon ‘is in certain degrees of her motion south, and when the moon begins to go north, then droughty conditions prevail for seven or even eight years, a phenomena repeated for three periods of nine- teen years each, that it is either a marvellous coincidence, or there is a law connecting the two phenomena: I am convinced that there is some connection between the two. 116 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. On THE RELATION BETWEEN LEAF VENATION anp THE PRESENCE or CERTAIN CHEMICAL CON- STITUENTS In THE OILS or toe EUCALYPTS. By R. T. Baker, F.L.s., Curator, and Henry G. Smiru, F.C.S.,. Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, October 2, 1901. ] One of the results of our research on the Eucalypts of New South: Wales, is, that we are able to show that there is a marked agree- ment between the chemical constituents occurring in the oils and the venation of the mature lanceolate leaves of the several species, thus forming the genus into fairly well marked groups. It was. not until the investigation of the greater portion of these oils had been completed that this fact began to develope. The direct bear-.. ing of the leaf venation in the several species of Eucalypts had not previously been demonstrated, although it has been customary to incidently refer to it in the original descriptions.. We think that it has now become necessary to more fully describe this. venation in the future if accuracy of specific characters is desired.. The reproduction of the venation can be carried out very well by photography alone, so that it is unnecessary to diminish the- accuracy of detail by drawing, If the quite fresh leaves be- photographed directly upon the paper, using the leaf as a negative, and placing in strong sunlight, an excellent reproduction of the venation is obtained, and the most delicate reticulation, together with the oil-glands (in those species where they are prominent) is well seen. This detail can be reproduced by well known photo- graphic methods. The venation of Eucalyptus leaves that has perhaps the most. scientific importance is that which is characteristic of the “ Blood woods,” viz., H. corymbosa, EL. intermedia, HL. eximia, LE. trachy- phloia and £. terminalis; of the “Swamp Mahoganies” £. botryoides LEAF VENATION AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF EUCALYPTS. 117 and £. robusta, of the “Blue Gum” Z£. saligna, of ZL. tesselaris, and a few others. This particular venation is of importance because it is also generally characteristic of the Angophoras. The chemical evidence shows that the connection with the Angophoras is directly associ- ated with those Eucalypts that have this particular venation in their leaves. This venation, which is best seen in a photograph, appears to be indicative of a predominance of pinene in the oil, because this terpene is an important constituent in all those species that show this venation, while phellandrene is quite absent, and in the oil that we distilled from the leaves of Angophora lanceolata, pinene was also found, and proved by the formation of its nitrosochloride. This connection between the Angophoras and the Eucalypts is not the only chemical evidence that we can produce. A few years ago the Bureau of Agriculture for Western Australia sent to the Technological Museum a sample of the kino from the ‘Red Gum” Eucalyptus calophylla, and in the investigation of this kino a new substance was discovered, this was named “Aromadendrin.” Its chemistry was undertaken by one of us and the results published in the Proceedings of this Society, August 5th, 1896. In the year 1900 a new species of Angophora from the western portion of this State was described by one of us in the Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W. From the kino of this species (A. melanoxyion) a Substance was obtained chemically identical with aromadendrin obtained from the kino of FE. calophylla, A chemical connection was thus shown to exist between these two genera, at near this point, because eudesmin and not aromadendrin is generally the principal constituent of this character occurring in Eucalyptus kinos. When the additional chemical evidence respecting their oils had been obtained we referred to the venation of LZ. calophylia, and found it to correspond with that characteristic of the Angophoras. We are not aware that the oil has yet been distilled from the leaves of Z. calophylla, but from the chemical evidence and the a 118 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. botanical characteristic of leaf venation it is very probable that- when distilled, pinene will be found to be an important constituent. of the oil and that phellandrene will be absent. The venation of the leaves belonging to those species next in. order is that which characterises the Eucalypts yielding eucalyptol oils. Although tending somewhat towards the venation of that group which give oils containing a predominance of pinene, yet the parallel transverse venation, like that of a feather, which is. characteristic of the pinene group is not marked, and the venation and reticulation are exceeding delicate, the spaces between the- principal veins are larger and a picture of the leaf has a much more graceful and delicate appearance. If we examine the photo- graphs of the leaves of £. Smithi, of EL. globulus, of £. lonazfolia, of E£. goniocalyx, or of any other allied species which gives a first class eucalyptol oil, it will be seen that a great similarity of venation exists between them. ‘The general appearance of the venation of these leaves, however, shows greater affinity to those species belonging to the pinene group than to those species having’ the venation characteristic of the phellandrene-peppermint group,. and thus suggests a closer relationship to the pinene oil group. It has long been known that pinene was a constant constituent in the oil of those Eucalypts rich in eucalyptol, and that phellan- 3 drene was generally quite absent. We think that the results we have obtained offer a very good explanation for the occurrence of pinene in these oils, and also suggest a reason for the varying amounts of that constituent in the oils of the various species. belonging to this group. | All the oils obtained from those species whose leaves show this venation are characterised by the presence of pinene and of eucalyptol, the predominance or otherwise of the former influencing of course the amount of the latter. This group may very well be ‘styled the eucalyptol-pinene group. The majority of the oils in this group do not contain phellandrene, but as the species branch off into the peppermint group, this constituent makes its appear- | ance in increasing amount, but it is then seen that the principal LEAF VENATION AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF EUCALYPTS. 119 veins branchiny from the mid-rib become more acute or inclining towards the venation which characterises those species, the oils of which consist largely of the terpene phellandrene. But besides this portion which connects directly with the phellandrene-peppermint group there is a branching off from the eucalyptol pinene bearing species in another direction, the oils of which species all contain the aldehyde aromadendral and in which phellandrene is absent, this sub-group includes that portion of the mallees which embraces such speciesas L. dumosa, L. polybractea, H. viridis, LE, cneorifolia etc., and which culminates in those species containing a maximum of aromadendral; these may be considered the typical “boxes” as. FE. albens, EH. hemiphloia and EH. Woollsiana. Those species belonging to the eucalyptol-pinene group which branch off into the phellandrene-peppermint group are continued through that group, the peppermint constituent increasing in amount in the oil of the various Eucalypts, until species like &. dives or £. radiata are reached. It will be observed from the photograph that in the venation of the leaves of these species, the lateral velns are more inclined to run parallel to the mid-rib and that the principal marginal vein is far removed from the outer edge of the leaf. Now, the marginal vein of the leaf of 2. melliodora is some- what far removed from the edge, and the value of this evidence is seen in the fact that we discovered phellandrene in the oil of this species long before the importance of the leaf venation in this connection had been demonstrated, and it appears probable that in this species we can detect the road through which the eucalyptol pinene oils branch off into those consisting largely of phellandrene, This constituent is only present in small amount in this species at any time, and is often difficult to detect, but the solubility in alcohol of the oil, although rich in eucalyptol, indicates that we are probably dealing with an oil in which phellandrene may be present. The next group of the Eucalypts which shows a well marked agreement between a characteristic venation of their leaves and the constituents of their oils is that which includes all those species 120 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. whose oils contain phellandrene and the ketone of peppermint taste and odour, and the presence of which constituent in the oil gives the name of ‘‘peppermints” to so many of our Eucalyptus trees. The principal terpene present in the oils obtained from species whose leaves have this venation is (with but one or two exceptions) phellandrene. That it is possible to find species with this venation in which this terpene could not be detected is not to be wondered at, because the constituents found in Eucalyptus oils are present in varying proportions in the oils of the several species belonging to the several groups and pass over into the members of the other groups, and of course we find other species connecting the several groups together. It is thus that we find some oils rich in phellandrene and in which it is difficult to detect the peppermint constituent although it is not possible to decide with absolute certainty when a particular constituent is quite absent from any Eucalyptus oil. It is, too, this closely related connection between numerous allied species, this gradation from one member to another, that makes the botanical study of the Eucalyptus so perplexing. The particular venation to which we are now referring is that which is seen in the leaves of #. coriacea, H. Steberiana, L. vitrea, E. dives, E. radiata, E. amygdalina, E. delegatensis, E. oreades and many others. All the oils from these species contain phellandrene in varying amount, they all contain more or less of the peppermint ketone, while in some of them eucalyptol occurs, varying from traces in some species up to 20 or 30 per cent. in others. This group also contains the species (£. piperita) from which the first Eucalyptus oil was obtained. This was distilled by Dr. White in 1788, and owing to the presence of the peppermint constituent in the oil he gave the name of “Peppermint” to the tree, thus the first Eucalyptus species from this State received both its vernacular and specific names on account of the presence of a particular chemical constituent in its oil, what we have done in these researches is simply to amplify the earlier results of this chemical yyy) a yy “irr, My ye TYPES OF EUCALYPTUS LEAF VENATIONS, WHICH INDICATE THE PRESENCE OF CERTAIN CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS IN THE OIL. Fe Manotel ge ESATO pea fon preset tA es ng tan lh ne my perme Ree utters rt lm ap A . LEAF VENATION AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF EUCALYPTS. 121 evidence. We are now able to demonstrate most fully that of all the numerous peculiarities of the Eucalypts not one is of greater value in indicating differences in the several species or that is more conclusive in its results, than is the practical constancy of chemical constituents in identical species, a fact of the greatest scientific and economic importance. It is thus possible to suggest in the majority of instances and | with some degree of certainty, what the general constituents of an Eucalyptus oil will be, by the simple investigation of the venation of the leaves. By the reverse process, we ought to be able to form a very good idea of any species by the investigation of its products chemically. It has already been stated that a remarkable constancy is found in the chemical constituents of the oil of any particular species wherever grown, even if obtained from material collected from localities 300 or 400 miles apart. We have numerous instances of this constancy. Some time back we called attention to the fact that the oil obtained from a mallee (a shrubby form of Eucalypt) growing on the Blue Mountains at Lawson, Katoomba, etc., and known as JF. stricta was different from that obtained from the supposed JZ. stricta growing around Berrima and Mittagong, but it was not possible to separate them on any known botanical characters, as no morphological differences could be detected, but the fact remained that the oils were different and always so, because to test this we obtained material from Berrima and Mittagong at different times of the year. The leaves of both species are thick and fleshy, so that the venation is externally quite indistinct, but if the leaves are boiled for some time ina dilute solution of potash and the cuticle on one side of the leaf then removed, it will be seen that Z. stricta from Lawson has the venation characteristic of eucalyptol-pinene oils, inclining to the aromadendral group (eucalyptol being the principal constituent of this oil) while the leaves of the species from Berrima has the venation characteristic of H. dives and of the oils belonging to the phellandrene-peppermint group. The peppermint constituent has been found to be a constant constituent of the oil of this Eucalypt, 122 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. while eucalyptol is almost if not entirely absent. It may thus be assumed that organic differences are present and indicated by the venation of the leaves, and we conclude that like differences will be eventually detected in many other species of Eucalypts when the investigation shall have been carried more deeply by systematic recearch. The oil of #. stricta contains a little aromadendral but no peppermint and it is one of the richest in eucalyptol that we have investigated. The matter thus becomes of technical importance, because if the two trees are not systematically separated, then the products would be different, and if worked, disappointment and perhaps loss would necessarily follow. We thus propose to make the Berrima form distinct, and to give it specific rank under the name of Hucalyptus apiculata. In summarising the results there appears every reason to sup- pose that with the Eucalypts a gradual deviation from a type has taken place, and that the formation of characteristic constituents in these oils has been contemporaneous with the characteristic alteration or deviation of the venation of their leaves. That the constituents have been fixed and constant in the oils of the several Eucalypts for a very long period of time is demonstrated by the fact that whenever a species occurs over a large area of country the constituents of the oil are practically identical also, only differ-. ing in about the same amount as is to be expected with the oils. from trees of the same species growing together in close proximity to each other. The venation of the leaves of individual species. is comparatively similar throughout their geographical distribution, and their botanical characters show also a marked constancy. All this comparative constancy is probably accounted for by the long period of time that. must have elapsed before a particular species could have established itself as such over so extensive a range as we find species to-day. The chemical and botanical peculiarities must also have been fixed primarily, because we do not find the differences in characters. LEAF VENATION AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF EUCALYPTS. 123: one might expect by environment. Our researches seem to show that the species are only well marked varieties in which the dis- tinctive characters have become permanent. The well defined chemical groups branching off from a centre, which groups in their several members show gradations in which the chain is in places somewhat complete, demonstrates, we think, most strongly the insignificant part that hybridism could have played in the forma- tion of the several species of Eucalyptus. | We would like to express our thanks to Mr. M. F. Connelly of this Museum, who by his perseverance, has overcome the difficulty of producing the nature photographs of the leaves, and to Messrs. Rumsey and Tremain of the Technical College for the preparation. of the excellent lantern slides. EXPLANATION OF PLATE. Fig. 1.—Leaf of Eucalyptus corymbosa, Sm.—This venation is indicative of the presence of pineneinthe oil. Note the close parallel lateral veins,. the thick mid-rib, and the position of the marginal vein close to the edge of the leaf. The yield of oil from leaves showing this venation is small, there not being room between the lateral veins for the formation of many oil glands. Fig. 2.—Leaf of Eucalyptus Smithii, R. T. B.—This venation is charac-- teristic of species whose oil consists principally of eucalyptol and pinene. Note the more acute lateral veins which are wider apart, thus giving: more room for the formation of oil glands; the yield of oil is thus larger in these species. The marginal vein is further removed from the edge and is slightly bending to meet the lateral veins. Fig. 3.—Leaf of Eucalyptus radiata, Sieb.—This venation is character- istic of those species whose oil consists largely of phellandrene and the- peppermint ketone. Note the still more acute and fewer lateral veins. The marginal vein has also become so far removed from the edge that a second one occurs, and the slight bending as seen in Fig. 2, has culmin- ated in this zroup in a series of loops. The spaces for the formation of oil glands are also practically unrestricted and a large yield of oil is. thus obtainable. 124 H. G. SMITH. Nove on tHE SESQUITERPENE or EUCALYPTUS OILS. By Henry G. Smiru, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 6, 1901.] WHEN an Eucalyptus oil is quantitatively determined for eucalyptol with phosphoric acid a pink or reddish colour is usually given to the mixture. This is particularly the case with the oils of higher specific gravity which consist largely of eucalyptol. The appearance of this reddish colour has often been taken to denote the end reaction for this determination, but the constituent causing it cannot be considered as an indicator for eucalyptol because the greater the proportion of the constituent occurring in a particular oil the sooner the colour will appear. The constituent of Eucalyptus oils causing this colour reaction with phosphoric acid is a sesquiterpene, and it probably occurs in varying amount in all the oils of the series. In some of these it occurs in great abundance, and over fifty per cent. of the oil of EL. hemastoma distilled above 225° C., nor, was this an abnormal sample, because material of this species was obtained from locali- ties nearly one hundred and fifty miles apart, and both the samples of oil were in agreement, indicating that the sesquiterpene follows the general rule with these oils, of identical species of Eucalypts giving practically identical oils irrespective of location. The oils from the following species were also found to contain the sesquiterpene in quantity :—Z. eximia, H. nova-anglica, EL. trachy- phloia, EL. affinis, EL. maculata, E. crebra, EL. viminalis, and £. acmenoides. It may occur in these oils with either pinene or phellandrene as the principal terpene, and eucalyptol may be either present or absent. There appears to be only one sesqui- terpene in Eucalyptus oils, because the product obtained by fractional distillation (finally over sodium) from the mixed higher SESQUITERPENE OF EUCALYPTUS OILS. 125 boiling portions of several of the oils was practically identical with — that obtained from the oil of #. hemastoma in the same manner. Crystallised chemical compounds do not appear easy to produce from it, and attempts to form a crystallised dihydrochloride, a nitrosocnloride, or a nitrosite, were unsuccessful, nor did it appear possible to form a solid sesquiterpene alcohol from it. Having thus to rely upon the product obtained by repeated fractional distillation, finally over sodium, it cannot be considered to be sufficiently pure to determine its constants, with certainty, although the results obtained were fairly satisfactory. The specific gravity of the sesquiterpene from the mixed oils was 0:9229 at 19° C., and of that from ZL. hemastoma at the same temperature (9249. When it shall have been obtained pure it will most probably be found to be inactive to light. It boiled under atmospheric pressure at 260 — 265° C. An analysis resulted as follows:—0:1366 gram gave 0:4388 gram CO, and 0:1502 H,O, equal to 87:6 per cent. carbon and 12:2 per cent. hydrogen. O,;H,., requires 88°23 per cent. C. and 11-77 per cent. H. A vapour density determination, using the vapour of dipheny- lamine, gave 11-8 cc. of moist air at 19° C. and 754 mm. pressure from 0:1027 gram, indicating a molecular weight of 214. C,;H., equals 204. The most characteristic test of this sesquiterpene is the very fine colour reactions it gives with acids and with bromine. If one or two drops of the sesquiterpene be mixed with 2 or 3 cc. of glacial acetic acid and the vapour of bromine allowed to pass down the tube, immediately it reaches the liquid a crimson colour is formed rapidly passing downwards, if agitated the whole becomes crimson at once, soon changing to violet and in about. five or ten minutes it has become of a deep indigo-blue colour, which remains persistent for a long time. A few drops of hydro- bromic acid gives the same colour reactions as with bromine, and as a bromide is formed from the sesquiterpene with the evolution . 2 . *o ae 126 H. G. SMITH. -of hydrobromic acid, it is probably to the formation first of this -acid that the colour given with bromine is due. Hydrochloric acid gives the same colours, but the reaction is slower. In a solution prepared as above, sulphuric acid gives a crimson colour at once, soon changing to a purplish colour. Phosphoric acid in the same manner gives first a pink then a crimson and finally a violet colour. ‘These colour reactions are exceedingly delicate. The evidence so far obtained show this sesquiterpene to have been previously undetermined. It is proposed to give it the name Aromadendrene utilising Dr. Andrews’ name for the genus. I am indebted to my colleague, Mr. R. T. Baker, F.u.s., for the botanical determination of the species which provided the material. THE THURRAWAL LANGUAGE. 1D 76 THE THURRAWAL LANGUAGE. By R. H. Maruews, u.s., Corres. Memb. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, November 6, 1901. | Tue Thurrawal speaking people were formerly spread over the south-east coast of New South Wales from Port Hacking to Jervis Bay, and extended inland for a considerable distance. For some years past I have studied the Thurrawal tongue, and now submit the grammatical outlines of its structure. Considerations of space render it necessary to touch only upon the fundamental elements of the language. I have discovered that many of the nouns, adjectives, prepo- sitions and adverbs—in addition to the verbs and pronouns—are inflected for number and person. This fact has not hitherto been reported, to my knowledge, in any part of Australia, although to ssome extent observed in certain islands of the Pacific Ocean. In verbs, pronouns, and other parts of speech subject to con- jugation and inflection, there is a double form of the first person of the dual and plural, which has also been observed in Polynesia, and among the Amarinds of North America. Two forms of the dual were noticed by Rev. L. E. Threlkeld among the aborigines of Lake Macquarie, New South Wales, but he says this did not extend to the plural.’ | This paper claims to enlarge, in some degree, the circle of Australian ethnology. Exhibiting the general structure of any native tongue must be valuable to philologists, in enabling them to compare our aboriginal languages with each other, and also with those of the people of Polynesia and the East Indian Archi- pelago, whence the primitive inhabitants of this Continent are + An Australian Language (Sydney), pp. 17 and 91. 128 R. H. MATHEWS. supposed by several writers to have come—an opinion which has. also been promulgated by myself.’ In the tables of declensions and conjugations I have given the root words and their suffixes in full, believing that this course will place the whole matter more clearly before the reader than by giving the suffixes separately. I agree with Mr. Sidney H. Ray, when he says, ‘The practice of writing the modifying particles apart from the root in many languages tends to obscure the fact of inflection, and makes the particle appear as a separate: word.” A short vocabulary of the leading nouns, verbs, adjectives and other parts of speech in the Thurrawal language, is now in pre- paration, and will be completed as soon as the pressure of other duties permit. It may be as well to mention that Rev, Wm. Ridley refers? to a language called Turuwul, which he says was spoken at Port. Jackson and Botany Bay, of which he published a brief list of words. A short vocabulary is also given by him of the ‘Language spoken at George’s River, Campbelltown and Appin.” He like- wise gives a brief vocabulary of what he calls the Wodi-Wodi language. Mr. Ridley does not, however, give any rules of the grammatical structure of the dialects under notice. Vocabularies of the Janguage spoken by the aborigines in the neighbourhood of Sydney are given by Mr. D. Collins*® and by Capt. John Hunter.* A perusal of my vocabulary at the end of this article will show that many of the words reported by Mr. Collins and by Capt. Hunter, respectively, more than a century ago are still in use, and recognisable, among the Dharruk natives, 1 Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Phila., Vol. xxx1x., pp. 556-578. (Map). 2Kamilaroi and Other Australian Languages, (Sydney, 1875), pp. 99 — 114. 3 Account of the English Colony in New South Wales, (London, 1798), pp. 610 - 615. + Historical Journal of Discovery in New South Wales, (London, 1793), pp. 407 - 411. BOS oe “lace <>, THE THURRAWAL LANGUAGE. 129 Mr. E. M. Curr! gives abridgements of the vocabularies of Hunter, Collins and Ridley. ORTHOGRAPHY. Nineteen letters of the English alphabet are sounded, comprising fourteen consonants and five vowels, namely, a, 0, d, e, g, h, 4, 4, k, 1, m, n, 0, p, 7, t, u, w,and y. The system of orthoepy adopted is that of the circular issued by the Royal Geographical Society, London. Tt is frequently difficult to distinguish between the short sound of a and that of wu. A thick sound of 7 is occasionally met with, which closely approaches the short sound of uw or a. G is hard in all cases. & has a rough trilled sound, as in hurrah! Ng at the beginning of a word, as ngu in ngu'ra, a camp, has a peculiar sound, which can be got very closely by putting w before it, as wngw’ and articulating it quickly like one syllable. At the end of a syllable it has substantially the sound of ng in the word sing. W always commences a syllable or word, and has its ordinary consonant sound in all cases. The sound of the Spanish @ is frequent, both at the beginning or end of a syllable. Y, followed by a vowel, is attached to several consonants, as dya, lyi, tyu, &c., and is pronounced in one syliable, thé initial sound of the d, /, ¢, or as the case may require, being retained. Y at the beginning of a word or syllable has its ordinary consonant value. Dh is pronounced nearly as ¢h in “that,” with a slight sound of d preceding it. Wh has nearly the sound of th in “that,” with an initial sound of the m. The final h is gutteral, resembling ci in the German word joch. T is interchangeable with d, p with 6; and g with & in most words where these letters are employed. An approach to the sound of 7 is frequently given by the natives, which may be rendered by dy or ty—thus, dya or tya has very nearly the same * The Australian Race, (Melbourne 1886) Vol. 111. pp. 410 — 419. I—Nov. 6, 1901. 130 R. H. MATHEWS. sound as ja. At the end of a syllable or word, dy or ty is sounded as one letter; thus, in ber-rity, sick, the last syllable can be pro- nounced exactly by adding e to the y, making it rit-ye. Then commence articulating the word, including the y, but stopping short without sounding the final, or added e. Dy at the end of a syllable can be pronounced in the same way, the sound of d being substituted for that of ¢ In all cases where there is a double consonant, each letter is distinctly enunciated. ARTICLES. There are no articles corresponding to our “a” or “the” in any Australian tongue with which I am acquainted. Nouns. Number—Nouns have three numbers, the singular, dual, and plural. There are euphonic variations and elisions in the suffixes, according to the termination of the word used : (a) Singular An eaglehawk, mulyan Dual A couple of eaglehawks, mulyanbulali Plural Several eaglehawks, mulyanbuloala (6) Singular A bandicoot, mundu Dual A couple of bandicoots, mundulali Plural Several bandicoots, munduloala Gender—Words for ‘‘male” and “female” denote the gender of animals in most cases: Guraura kaualgang, a male opossum; guraura nunganung, a female opossum." The male of birds is bianhung, as jaula bianhung, a cock pheasant, and jaula nunganung a hen. Different words are used to distinguish sex in the human family, as, yuiii, a man ; mega or ngurrungal, a woman ; bunbari, a boy; yirrauiang, a girl. 3 Case.—The principal cases are the nominative, possessive and objective, the latter including the accusative, dative and ablative forms. 1. There is a double form of the nominative case. When it is only necessary to name the object under attention, as yuifi, a 1 These words are inflected for number, as stated in dealing with the adjectives. a —_ THE THURRAWAL LANGUAGE. 131 man—or when an intransitive verb is used, as yuiii ngulli, the aman sits—the noun is unchanged. But when the noun is connected with a transitive verb, it takes a suffix, as yuifi-dyu bulmaia, the man struck; moreover, the form of this suffix varies according to the termination of the noun, or the vowel sounds contained in it. This has been designated the nominative agent, and will be under- stood from the following examples :—In the simple nominative we have juggarnafi, a boy; mirrigang, a dog; ngurrungal, a woman; bunbari, a youth; wuragal, a young man who has been anitiated. When the subject is performing some act, certain suffixes are employed, as, juggarnafidya dhufi manda, the boy a fish caught. Mirrigangga guraura bubbugaia, a dog an opossum bit. Ngurrungalla mundha gulanya, a woman a snake killed. Bunbari-i gunungwir yurinya, the youth a porcupine hit. Wura- galgangga bundaia, the man chopped. | It will be observed that the agent suffix in the above examples has euphonic changes according to the sound of the word it is attached to; thus, it is dyu after the u in yuifi; dya after jug- garnaii; ga following the gang in mirrigang, la after the gal in ngurrungal; and i following the final 1 in bunbari. 2. The poss2ssive case takes a suffix to the name of the thing possessed, as well as to that of the possessor :—Yuiifiguli nguran- hung, 2 man’s ngura or camp. Bunbariwuli warranganhung, a boy’s boomerang. Mirriganguli wurranyung, a dog’s puppy. Mirriganguli wurranhumbuloala, a dog’s puppies (several). Megawuli gujaganhung, a woman’s child. Megawuli gujagan- gulanhung, a woman’s children (several). Megawulal gujagan- gulandhunnung, the children of several women. Gujagawuli- ngubbamurranhung, achild’s mother, Yuifibulaliwuli warrangan- bulanhung, a boomerang belonging to two men. The name of every object in the universe over which any kind of ownership exists, can be conjugated by means of possessive ‘suffixes for person and number :— lst Person My head, Wollardyen Singular < 2nd _s,, Thy head, Wollarngun OEO ~ 4. His head, Wollarnhung 132 R. H. MATHEWS. Our heads, incl. Wollarngullung Our heads, excl. Wollarngullin f Ist Person , Dual | 2nG a, Your heads, Wollarawulung ord) & Their heads, Wollarwulanu Our heads, incl. Wollarnyinnung Dewan (ag SEOs Our heads, excl. Wollarnyinnin 2nde sue: Your heads, Wollarnhurung ord=sgg_~-~=«Their heads, Wollardhunnang A boomerang, warrangan, can be inflected in the same way. An example in the singular will be sufficient: { lst Person My boomerang, Warrangandyen 2nd, Thy boomerang, Warranganngun ord sy, His boomerang, Warranganhung Singular In these examples the pronominal suffix follows the noun, the words reading, head my, boomerang my, and so on. In the duah and plural, first person, there are two forms of the word—one marked “‘incl.,” including the person spoken to; and the other, “‘excl.,” in which the person addressed is excluded. If a couple, or several, articles are claimed, an infix is inserted between the noun root and the possessive termination, as follows :— Warranganbulalidyen, boomerangs two mine Warranganbuloaladyen, boomerangs several mine. 3. The accusative is the same as the simple nominative in direct statements such as—Yuifidyu gujaga bulmaia, the man the child struck. There are exceptions to this rule, however, when an instrument is the direct object of the verb, as, Warrangandya wawarnang yerriangai, a boomerang at acrow threw I. Here the accusive, “boomerang,” takes a similar suffix to the nominative. Again, Ngurrungalla ngadyungo ngaimilai, the woman water brings; and Wuragalgangga mundubangga bundaia, the man with a tomahawk chopped. Again, in expressions where the instrument is the remote object, the accusative is unchanged, and the suffix is added to the instru- mental case, thus, Yuifidyu warrangandya gujaga bulmaia, the man with a boomerang a child struck. In such instances the nominative suffix is often omitted, and the instrumental only employed. THE THURRAWAL LANGUAGE. 133 4. Examples of the dative case are: Juggarnafi Bunnabiu dhundya ngaimaia, the boy Bunnabi to fish carried. Ngurawulaliu yendingulling, camps two to go we (dual excl.) or, we two go to different camps. Warrangan babamurrawulingun, a boomerang to thy father belongs. Mundubang yuifigunhung, a tomahawk for the man. Babamurrungun nyilli binding, to thy father this give. Frequently the dative case is contained in the verb, as, man- madhan, caught for me; bindadhan, gave to me. In other ‘instances the dative is expressed in the pronoun, as Ngaiagan- gunhung, for me. (See Pronouns). 5. The following are a few specimens of the ablative case :— Negurrungalla buddaiin nadyungo ngaimilai, the woman from the hole water carries. Jaulaidhangu ngurain, he runs from the camp- Yuifidyu Bunnabi-in dhundya ngaimilai, a man from Bunnabi fish earries. Yuifi nyilli warrangandya gungalendin jindama, man this a boomerang from myrtle makes.—Gungalen is the myrtle tree. The ablative is sometimes expressed by a form of the verb, as, bundaiadhan, took from me. The sense of the ablative is often obtained by means of the accusative case, thus, instead of saying, “ dst: 74; We, incl., beat ourselves, Bulmaiilinyang Past Tense. Sing. Ist Per. I have beaten myself Bulmaiilyangai Dual Ist ,, We, incl., have beaten ourselves, Bulmaiilyangul Plural lst ,, We, incl., have beaten ourselves, Bulmaiilyanyang Future Tense. Sing. Ist Per. I will beat myself Bulmaiilungai Dual Ist ,, We, incl., will beat ourselves, Bulmaiilungul Plural lst ,, We, incl., will beat ourselves, Bulmaiilunyang There are forms of the verb for the other persons, but it is thought the foregoing are sufficient to illustrate the rules. Imperative Mood. Singular Beat thyself Bulmaiiling Dual Beat yourselves, Bulmaiilingbul Plural Beat yourselves, Bulmaiilinhur The negative is, Strike not thyself, Bulmaiilingbing. Reciprocal.—There is a reciprocal form of the verb which is of course restricted to the dual and plural, as follows:— We two, incl., beat each other, Bulmullangul We all, incl., beat each other, Bulmullanyang You two beat each other, Bulmullumbul You all beat each other Bulmullanhur They two beat each other, Bulmullainbula They all beat each other, Bulmullainha Modifications of the verb to convey different shades of meaning are very numerous, as will be apparent from the following few THE THURRAWAL LANGUAGE. 145 examples, which are in the past tense, the present and future being omitted. lst Person He struck me, Bulmaiadhan Singular 7 ee He struck thee Bulmaianying a3 3s laa agai He struck him Bulmaianyilla , He struck us, incl. Bulmaiangullun =e - Person ' He struck us, excl. panieecalicen Dries; He struck ye Bulmaiaualung ard) He struck them Bulmaiaulung (REA on a struck us, incl. Bulmaianyannung He struck us, excl. Bulmaianyannin ros ae He struck ye Bulmaianthurung SEG): ,, _ He struck them Bulmaiadhunnung Plural When the striking is done by two persons, the pronominal suffix is varied : ‘Ist Person They two struck me, Bulmaiaulaian Singular < 2nd _,, They two struck thee, Bulmaiaulanying EOEA:, Behind ye Yellungawulung Ora 5, Behind them Yellungawulanhu i ccepareen i oe as eae Yellunganyunnung Plural ehind us exclusive Yellunganyunnin 2nd _,, Behind ye Yellunganhurung ord a5 Behind them Yellungadhunnung ADVERBS. Like the prepositions, adverbs consist of separate words as well as being expressed by means of verbs which are modified in their terminations so as to convey an adverbial meaning. Of time.—Dyedyungalla, a month or moon. Dyedyungbulali, two months or moons. Dyedyung, the moon. Nyillamung, now. Burrenhung, soon. lBurriwalganga, some time. Dhalluga, yesterday. Dhadyilam or dhallugawal, day before yesterday. Nhauwai, to-day. Dhadyawarri, long ago. Dhadyam, by and bye. Burriwurri, this forenoon. Burriu, to-morrow. Burrinhung,. day after to-morrow. Dhurrandhurung, always. Affirmation and negation.—Ngai, yes ; ngargudhung, certain ;. ngaiang or Mirra, nO; murrungai, none I have; mirruguyung, nothing ; ngamurra, perhaps. Interrogation.—Illing, how? Illingjaiabi, how didst thou do it? This word can be inflected for number and person: Illingbi mandha, how didst thou catch (a fish, etc.?) Illingbul mandha, how did you two catch (a fish, etc.?) Illinhur mandha, how did you several catch (a fish, etc.)? Yununggubi yenda, when didst THE THURRAWAL LANGUAGE. 149 thou go? Yunnunggu yenbang, when will he go? Waddha, where? Waddhawia, where is he? Waddhainbi mandha, where didst thou catch it? Waddhana ngura, where is the camp ? Waddhian baulaiabi, whence camest thou ? This word can also be inflected for person and number: Ist Person Waddhungai, where am I ? Singular ( 2nd _s,, Waddhubi where art thou ? Ore 5 Waddhu where is he? and so on through the dual and plural. Another form of the word is as under: Ist Person Wagungai, where gol? — ‘Singular | 2neir",; Wagubi, where goest thou? 50 Sem Wagu where goes he? Yet another form is ‘‘ Which way shall I go? lst Person Waddhawauwangai, which way shall I go? Singular « 2nd _,, Waddhawauwain, which way shalt thou go! EG Fs, Waddhawai, which way shall he go? Another form still is as follows: j lst Person Waddhawaiangai, where have I been ? Singular < 2nd _,, Waddhawaiabi, where hast thou been ? ora 4, Waddhawaia, where has he been 2 These examples can all be conjugated for the dual and plural. Of number: Middhunga, once. Bullaru, twice. Mingarang, how many times ! Of order: Mirramirrang, first. Burru, between or in the - midst. Nguddhunbulali, one on each side. Yellungali, last. Nyadyerri, back. Of quantity: Burramurrung, muchor plenty. Mirragangang, a little. Nauwallung, enough. Burramurrandhurrabi—mirra- guyungai, thou hast plenty—I have none. Mirraguyumbi—bur- rumurrundhurrangai, thou hast nothing—I have plenty. Mirra- gang yundingai, some left I have, or, I have a little left. Burra- murrung yundingai, plenty I have left. Yukun, like. Quality: Janboi, slowly. Gurnumbungai, badly. Nuggum- dungai, well. Idhanyi, quickly. 150 R. H. MATHEWS, Adverbs are compared in a similar way to that used in the comparison of adjectives: —Yuifi nhai jimbai—ngurrunggal nhai jimbowuddhumbai, man this thirsty—woman this very thirsty, or, the woman is more thirsty than the man. Bunbari nhai jauaierra, ma yuifi nhai irrandaia. Boy this very swift, because man this he overtook, or, this boy is faster than the man, because he overtook him. CoNJUNCTIONS. There are very few conjunctions in the language. We often find an erratic syllable, ba, with its euphonic variants ma, ya, etc., interposed between two words to prevent hiatus, and which also serves at times as a conjunction equivalent to “and” or ‘“Sbecause.”’ INTERJECTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS. The use of these is limited. Gwak! is equivalent to “look out.” Ngatkaiang means ‘‘take care.” Yukkaiis an exclamation of surprise. Ngang ngang is about equivalent to ‘‘is that so.” Yai! is calling attention. Ngaiaruifi! you fellows! Ngaiung, calling to one person. Any vocative can be inflected for number, according as one, a pair, or several, are called. -NUMERALS. Middhung, one; bullar, two. The ordinals are, Middhunga, once; bullaru, twice. Wawulli, a few. After the fourth line on page 134, add the following :— The adjective takes the agent or possessive suffix belonging to. the qualified noun; thus: Bunggu gaiandyu guraura gulanya, a squirrel large an opossum killed. Yuifiburnungguli mirriganhung,. the big man’s dog. The dative and ablative cases are expressed in a similar manner,, by their respective suffixes to the adjective. These remarks apply, mutatis mutandis, to the adjectives in the Gundungurra and Dharruk languages. THE THURRAWAL LANGUAGE. 151 APPENDIX. THe GuNDUNGURRA LANGUAGE. The Gundungurra tribes occupied the country to the west of the Thurrawal and Dharruk, as far as Goulburn, where they adjoined the Ngunawal tribes. An abstract of the grammar of the language is now supplied, to show its affinity to the Thurrawal, being the result of my own investigations among the Gundungurra blacks. Nouns.—The dual and plural of nouns are shown by suffix, 1 particles: Singular, Wille, an opossum. Dual, Willewulali, a pair of opossums. Plural, Willedyargang, several opossums. In the human family different words are used for the masculine and feminine, as, Murrin, a man; bullan, a woman. Bubal, a boy; mullangan, a girl. Another name for a man is, baual. Among animals gender is distinguished by placing gaual or gumbaii after the name of the male, and dhuruk after that of the female, thus: Gula gumbaii, a buck bear; gula dhuruk, a female bear. Gumbaji and dhuruk take the same inflection for number as the noun with which they are used. This language has the same cases as the Thurrawal, some only of which will be exemplified: There are two forms of the nomin- ative case, one merely naming the object at rest, as, Murrin ngamburamafi, the man sleeps. When the man is doing some act, a suffix is applied, as, Murrindya gula wobburaii, the man a bear struck. Theexample last given also serves to show the accusative, because in that expression no change takes place in the word gula. In some phrases, however, there is an inflection, as, Berraga yerrimangga, | am throwing a boomerang; Bubal fiin berraga yellimunnin, boy this a boomerang will carry. Again, Baualla berra bubalngura yerririfi, a man a boomerang at a boy threw. In this example the remote object, bubal, the boy, takes a suffix. In the possessive case the name of the possessor and that of the object possessed each take a suffix: Bubalngu ngauangung, a boy’s mother. Baualngu berrawung, a man’s boomerang. Mirrigangu 152 R. H. MATHEWS. gudhawung, a bitch’s puppy. In the possessive case, and in the nominative too, the suffixed particle varies with the termination of, and the vowel sounds contained in, the word to which it is attached. Moreover, these suffixes are applied to the simple nominative form of the noun, not the agent nominative. The name of any object over which possession can be exercised by a native is subject to inflection for number and person by means of possessive suffixes: Berradya, my boomerang (berra). Berranyi, thy boomerang. Berrung, his boomerang; and so on through the dual and plural. In the dative case they say, Ngurane yerrabi, to the camp go thou. The ablative form is, Ngurajea yerrabi, from the camp go thou. Adjectives.—Adjectives are declined for the dual and plural, and are placed after the nouns they qualify:—Wirria buggarabang, an iguana large; Wirriawulali buggarabangbulali, a pair of iguanas large; Wirriadyargang buggarabandyargang, several iguanas large. Comparison is effected in a manner similar to that employed in the Thurrawal ; and certain adjectives, when used as predicates, can be conjugated like intransitive verbs, the same as in that language. Pronowns.—Pronouns have person, number, and case, but are without gender. Some of the nominative and possessive pronouns are as under :— I Gulangga Mine Gulangguya Sing. Thou Gulanjee Thine Gulangunyl ( He, she Dhanuladhu His, her Dhanulangu We, incl. Gulanga Ours, incl. Gulangalung Daal We, excl. Gulangalung Ours excl. Gulangalangun You Gulambu Yours Gulambulung They Dhanudyula Theirs Dhanudyulangu We, incl. Gulambanyan Ours, incl. Gulanyanung Placal We, excl. Gulambanyilla Ours, excl. Gulanyanungun ou Gulambanhu Yours Gulanhurung They Dhanujimalang Theirs = Dhanujimalangu The following are examples in the ablative case :— With me Gulanguria From me Gulangarajia Singular With thee Gulangurunyi From thee Gulangaranyi With him Dhanulangura From him Dhanulangaraji THE THURRAWAL LANGUAGE. 153 Emphatic personal pronouns are: Ist Person Myself Mittimbaldya Singular < 2nd _,, Thyself Mittimbalnyi DEO iy, Himself Mittimbalgung The three last examples can be continued through the dual and plural. Some of the interrogatives are:—Nominative—Unnaga, who? Unnagawula, who (two)! Unnagamulan, who (several)? Possessive —Unnagangu, whose (is this)?’ Ablative—Unnagangureji, who from? The word can be inflected for number and person :— Unnagajiba, who art thou? Unnagaiau, who are you (two)? Unna- gamillanhu, who are those (several)? Nominative—Minya, what? Minyamanja, what’s the matter? Dative—Minyanniba, what for? Ablative—Minyangura, what with ? The following are a few of the demonstratives :— Nominative— Nyin, this; Dhanu, that; Nidyula, those two. Possessive— Nyingulangul, belonging to this; Dhanugulangu, belonging to that ; Waranalangu, belonging to you; Nidyulangu, belonging to those two. Ablative—Nyingulangura, with this ; Nguna, here ; Ngununggula, belonging to here. There are no well defined relative pronouns—the sense of the relative being obtained as already illustrated in the Thurrawal. Verbs.—Verbs have the same numbers, persons, tenses and moods as those of the Thurrawal language, and although the suffixed particles differ, they are dealt with in a similar manner, as represented in the following table of the conjugation of the verb ‘to sit.” The verbal terminations vary to show that the act has only just been done, that it happened some little time ago, that there was @ continuance in its performance, and soon. Ifa native say, “J threw (a boomerang, for example), he may use any of the follow- ing forms of the verb, according to what he wishes to express : Yerrimuingga, yerribalimuingga, yerriringga, yerribaliringga, etc., all meaning “I threw.” 154 R. H. MATHEWS. Indicative Mood. Present, I sit, ete. Past, Isat, etc. Future, I will sit, etc. a Ist Per. Ngullamanya Negullamuringga Ngullamuningga 42nd ,, Ngullamanji Ngullamurinji Ngullamuninji 2 | 3rd » Ngullamaf Neullamurif Ngullamunin | Present, We sit, etc. Past, We sat, etc. Ngullamanga, incl. Ngullamuringa, incl. = | lst Per: eee Mk y a Ngullamangalung, exc]. Ngullamuringalung, excl. a 2nd ,, Negullamanbu Ngullamurinbu ora 5; Ngullamanbula Ngullamurinbula Future, We will sit, etc. lst Person Ngullamuninga, inclusive. Ngullamuningalung, excl. Dual 2nd. \ Negullamuninbu ord, Ngnilamuninbula Present, We sit, ete. Past, We sai, etc. a tee pss Ngullamanyan, incl. Nguilamurinyan, incl. < "| Ngullamanyilla, excl. Ngvllamurinyilla, excl. - 2nd ,, Negullamanhu Negullamurarinhu 3rd ,, Ngullamandyulung Ngullamurindyulung Future, We will sit, ete. Late - en oe pees Plural \ Ngullamuninyilla, exclusive 2nd, Ngullamuninhu one 3, Ngullamunindyulung The negative is formed by infixing the word muga between the verb stem and the suffix, thus:— | ( Ngullamugamanya, I sit not ; Ngullamugamanji, Thou sittest not ; ( Ngullamugaman LHe or she sits not; and so on through all the persons, numbers, and tenses. Singular Imperative Mood— Present Tense. Singular, 2nd Person Sit thou, Ngullai Dual u Sit you, Negullaiul Plural o Sit you, Ngullaianhur The conditional mood, and also the middle and passive voices. are omitted, being similar in structure to those of the Thurrawal. The numerous modifications of verbs to convey different shades of meaning are also analogous to those of the language mentioned. THE THURRAWAL LANGUAGE. 155 Prepositions.— As in the Thurrawal dialect, prepositions may be either separate words, or consist of modifications of verbs to give them a prepositional meaning. Several prepositions can be: inflected for number and person, thus :— Willingaia, behind me (in the rear) Singular , Willinganyi, behind thee Willingawung, behind him. Adverbs.—These consist of independent words and modifications. of adjectives and verbs. A few interrogatives are: Wanjan, how? Wannambalang, how many? Ngundani, where art thou? Ngundaba where is it? Some adverbs can be inflected, as follows: Negundinia, where go I Ngundininyi, where goest thou Ngundiniung, where goes he Singular The dual and plural numbers are omitted in this and the pre- ceding example for want of space. Conjunctions and interjections have their places in the language. Numerals.—Meddung, one; Bulla, two; Irran, a large number. THe DyHarRRUK LANGUAGE. The Dharruk speaking people adjoined the Thurrawal on the north, extending along the coast to the Hawkesbury River, and inland to what are now Windsor, Penrith, Campbelltown, and. intervening towns. A cursory outline of the Dharruk grammar, together with a short vobabulary of some of the most important words in general use, may be of some value to comparative phil- ‘ology. This grammar and vocabulary have been compiled by me from the lips of old natives acquainted with the language. Nouns.—Number—Nouns have the singular, dual, and plural numbers :—Wirriga, an iguana; Wirrigabula, a couple of iguanas; Wirrigadyarralang, several iguanas. Gender.—Dhullai, a man; Dyin, a woman; Wungar, a boy 3 Durungaling, a girl. The gender of animals is denoted by an additional word, kaual for the male, and wiring for the female, as. Walaru kaual, a buck wallaroo; Walaru wiring, a doe wallaroo. ea, - a . t = - . 156 R. H. MATHEWS. Case.—The nominative case has two forms, one of which simply mames the person or thing, as Wungar, a boy. The other form represents the subject, or the instrument, in action, e.g., Wungara bumarangga kerraiba, the boy a boomerang threw. Here the name of the boy and that of the instrument each take a suffix. Again, when the instrument is in the accusative case, a suffix is employed, as, Boomerangga kerraibadya, a boomerang threw I. Moreover, these suffixes fluctuate according to the termination of the word to which they are attached. . The possessive case has two suffixes, like the Thurrawal, as, Dyingu kurungbi, a woman’s child (kurung). Any article over which possession can be asserted is subject to inflection for number and person by means of suffixes, analogously to the Thurrawal and Gundungurra, examples of which are not considered necessary. Adjectives.—An adjective takes the same inflection as the qualified noun, and follows it:—Ngunufi kaual, a flying-fox, male; Ngununbula kaualbula, a couple of male flying-foxes; Ngunun- dyarralang kaualdyarralang, several male flying-foxes. The suffix is often omitted in one of the words, the last one generally taking the inflection. The comparison of adjectives, and their conjugation like intran- sitive verbs in certain cases, is analogous to the Thurrawal. Pronouns.—The following are some of the nominative pronouns in the singular—the dual and plural being passed over for want of space, in this and undermentioned examples. The simple nominative is given in the first column, and the nominative-agent . in the second. j lst Person Negaia Ngaiadya Singular ~ 2nd _,, Nyindi Nyindidya | ord » a Nanu Nanudya Examples of the possessive pronouns are as under: | lst Person Mine Jannunggal Singular< 2nd _,, Thine Nyinnunggai ord) ory, His Nannunggai Dative—Jannawigu, for me, and soon. Ablative—Jannawi, with me, and so on, THE THURRAWAL LANGUAGE. 157 The following are some interrogative pronouns :—Nominative, Nyan, who? Nyanda, who (did it)? Possessive, Nyannungai, whose is this? Dative, Nyangu, who for? Nominative, Ming, what? Dative, Mingangui, what for. Verbs.—The verb has three numbers, with the usual persons, tenses and moods. There are also two forms in the first person of the dual and plural to express the inclusion or exclusion of the individual addressed. As the manner of conjugating these verbs is substantially the same as in the Thurrawal, exigencies of space compel me to omit them. Adverbs.—Yelluii, how? Wattungga, where? Wilguja, whither? Kabu, by and bye; Yuin, yes; Beal, no; Murraga, perhaps ; _ Burrapur, to-morrow. Prepositions, Conjunctions and Interjections.—Space will not admit of examples of these. Numerals.—One, wagulwai; two, buler; three, buriwai; four, wagulwurri, apparently a derivation from ‘‘one-three.” Every part of speech which can be inflected for person and number in the Thurrawal language can be treated in a similar manner in the Dharruk. VOCABULARY OF DHARRUK WORDS. The Family. The Human Body. A man, dhulli Head, kobbara An old man, kaianyung Forehead, ngurran Husband, mullaming Hair of head, gittan Clever man, kuraji Beard, yarring Child, kurung Eye, mibberai Small boy, wungar Nose, nuga Boy carried in bag (on mother’s Neck, kungga back), wungarajuguma Ear, kuri A woman, dyin Mouth, mundu Old woman, wiring Lips, willin Wife, dyinmang Teeth, Yira Girl, durungaling Breast (female), ngubbung Father, bianya Navel, mumbirri Mother, waianya | Belly, bindhi Decrepit old person, harabundi Rump, kurpa 158 R. H. MATHEWS. Anus, bungading Flank, binning Back, buyu Penis, winji Erection, wathuk Testicles, karau Vulva, mundura Hair on pudende, nguruguri Urine, yillabil Excrement, kuni ‘Sexual desire, kuthaling Copulation, nguttatha Masturbation, ganmillutthi Venereal, midjung Arm, nurung Hand, dhummar ‘Thigh, dhurra Knee, kuruk Foot, dunna Paunch, kurrema Blood, mula Fat, kurai Bone, jara Inanimate Natural Objects. Sun, kufi Moon, jillak Stars, kimperwali Orion’s Belt, dhungagil Pleiades, dhinburri Sunshine, bunnal Thunder, murungal Lightning, jerraral Rain, muruku Dew, gillabifi Fog, kurpufi Frost, dalara Hail, kuruwillang Fresh water, bado ‘The ground, dubbar Mud, millufi A stone, kiber Sand, marang Light, killi Darkness, minnek Heat, yuroka Coldness, duggara . Camp, ngurra Fire, kwiang Hut, gunji Smoke, kudjal Food, ngunnui Day, burriang Night, minnek Morning, burpigal Evening, waragal A splinter, dhuraga Hill, bulga Grass, durawai Bark shed by gum and other trees, kurrung-durrung Hole in a tree, kumir Leaves of trees, jirang Bird’s nest, ngurra Eggs, kubbin Honey, kudyung Edible grub, burradhun Pathway, muru Shadow of a tree, bulu Tail of animal, dun Mammals. Native bear, kulamafi Dog, mirri Opossum, wali Kangaroo-rat, kanaming Native-cat (black and white) bulungga Native-cat (black and yellow), muraging Rock wallaby, wollabi Flying-fox, ngunufi Bandicoot, burraga _ Flying squirrel, bangu Sugar squirrel, chubbi_—- Ringtail opossum, bukari Kangaroo, buru | Wallaroo, bitthang or wolara Birds. Birds collectively, bujan Crow, wagun Laughing jackass, kukundi Curlew, warebun THE THURRAWAL LANGUAGE. Quail, moumbi Eaglehawk, burumurring Emu, mariang Common magpie, karuk Black magpie, wibbung Black duck, yurungai Mopoke, binnit Night owl, budhawa Bronze wing pigeon, kutging Lark, murrajulbi Rosella parrot, bunduluk Blue Mountain parrot, warin Greenleek parrot, kuma Parrakeet, jirrang ‘Common hawk, kutthawai ‘King-fisher, jirramba Pee-wee, birrerik ‘Plover, burranjarung -Crane, durali White cockatoo, kirrawe | LPishes. Perch, wuggara ‘Sprat, kumbara Eel, burra -Gudgeon, duru Turtle, kutukulung Muscle, juggung Reptiles. “Iguana, wirriga Water lizard, bidjiwong Sleepy lizard, muggadung -Small lizard, bunburra Black snake, jirrabity Frog, kung-gung Brown snake, murragauan Insects. Large locust, bulla . Small locust, jirrabirrin Blow fly, marang Louse, bundyu Nit of louse, jagara _Jumper ant, juljul Bull-dog ant (red), kut-mut Bull-dog ant (black), wuggajin ~Centipede, jingring Mosquito, dyura Scorpion, dundi Green-head ant, kunuma Trees and Plants. Any leaning tree, bulbi Any dead tree, kwibul Any hollow tree, birreko Ti-tree, (soft bark), budjor Ti-tree (prickly), bunya Apple-tree, bunda Stringybark, buran Wattle, wattungulle Ironbark (broad leaf), dirrabari », (narrow leaf), muggargru Cherry tree, kwigan Gum-tree, yarra Jeebung, mambara Corkwood, kulgargru Bullrushes, baraba Yam, midi. Weapons, ete. Tomahawk, mogo Koolamin, kungun Yamstick, kunni Spear, of wood, kummai Spear, reed, wari Spear-thrower, womra Spear-shield, hilamong Waddy-shield, millathurth Club with knob, kuburra Club, plain, bundi Boomerang, bumaraii Net bag, juguma Adjectives. Alive, muthung Dead, baletti Large, mari Small, ngurrang Tall or long, kurare Low or short, munal Good, ngubaty Bad, kuraji Thirsty, durral Red, jarri White, burrakutti 159 160 Black, butu Full, buruck Quick, baro Slow, wurral Blind, mufiming © Deaf, kumbarobalong Strong, bulbwul Valiant, muttong Afraid, jerrun Right, budyer Wrong, kuraji Tired, wunal Blunt, as an edge, mundhagud Fat, kurai Lean, jarra jarra Cold, tuggara Angry, kular Sleepy, nungga Glad, mujar Sorry, ngandu Greedy, jirra Grey-headed, warunggat Sick, budjil Stinking, kuja Bald-headed, ngurranbulba [lit. forehead bare] Pregnant, bindhiwurra Hollow, as a tree, etc., birreko Verbs. Die, boi Eat, patama Drink, wittama Sleep, nungare Stand, dharage Sit, ngulluwa Talk, paialla Tell, goanyi Walk, yanna Run, wumerra Bring, yalingen Take, maniau R. H. MATHEWS. Make, bunggawurra Break, kidjikbane Strike, dutbara Wound, baiwurra Arise, boraga Fall down, bululbali Observe, nea Hear, ngarra Give, nguyangun Love, ngubaty Sing, burria Weep, dunga Cook, as food, kunnama Steal, karama Request, kullea Blow, with breath, bumbi Climb, kalua Conceal, dutba Jump, karuka Laugh, jandiga Scratch, jirranga Forget, bulala Stare at, mutbi Send, yenna Shine, killi Suck, wittama ngubbung, lit., to drink from the breast. Swim, waringa Search for, pittuma Spit, juki Smell, kunda Throw, kurraibi Roast, kunnama Whistle, woinga Pretend, wangit Kiss, bonge Vomit, muli Dance, dungara Dive, mulbari Sting, windhurrame GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 161 THE GUMS, RESINS AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS OF AUSTRALIA. By J. H. Marpen, Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 4, 1901. ] Bots for the Technological Museum and for the Botanic Gardens Museum, I have been a collector of Australian vegetable exuda- tion for twenty years. These products are valuable for diagnostic botanical purposes apart from their economic uses. The vast majority of our exudations are mere museum curiosities at present, and some of these which are readily obtainable in large quantities, eg. Hucalyptus and Angophora kino, Grass-tree gum, Australian Sandarac, have not obtained that footing in the world’s commerce that it was expected they deserved. There is no doubt, however, that these exudations will for many years provide interesting © material for research, and as many of them doubtless do not con- tain new bodies or are of complex constitution, they may attract the attention of the young man who is feeling his way towards scientific research. Some of them of course require a sound knowledge of organic chemistry and the appliances of a modern laboratory. ~ A botanical classification has been adopted for these exudations; at the present time it will be found most useful, and allied Natural Orders being in justaposition it will be seen to what extent allied Orders yield allied exudations. When the exudations are more comprehensively examined it will be found a simple matter to arrange them in regard to their chemical composition, which will be a very interesting and practical classification, since the user is, as a rule, not much concerned with the origin of his material, so long as it is uniform in composition, properties and appearance. K—Dec. 4, 1901. 162 J. H. MAIDE . The classification of the exudations from some of the species is only intended to be provisional. In the absence of some of the products which I have had no opportunity of examining, I am unable to say, for instance, whether some of them should be grouped as “gums,” or as “gum-resins.” The list of exudations is fairly long, and some of the papers in tne bibliography give reference to species not separately enumer-. ated. Nevertheless it will be-observed that our knowledge of Australian vegetable exudations is only superficial, and if residents in the country will systematically collect all exudations (accom- panied by flowering or fruiting twigs or other botanical evidence), we shall soon be in a position to present further work on this interesting group of substances. A drawback to the collection arises from the fact that the exudation of many of the gums etc. is erratic and accidental, and in our sparsely populated country the gums are often washed away by rain, and the resins often disappear by fire and removal by bees etc, and so escape the attention of the collector. From the time of Governor Phillip our vegetable exudations have been fitfully sent to Europe, but as a general rule they were sent home as curiosities, were not collected in sufficient quantity for chemical examination, and no botanical data nor information as to locality and quantity available accompanied the specimens. Following is an instance in point:—‘“‘I sent to England specimens of five different gums, in order that they might be examined. These consist of an elastic gum, closely resembling India-rubber ; gum tragacanth; another gum yielded by a sort of Capparis (Adansonia) and which I believe to be hitherto unknown ; and two kinds of gum-resin.”! Many Natural Orders yield both gums and resins (or gum-resins). The following are what may be termed gum-yielding Orders, but they exceptionally yield resins :—Pittosporese (DPittosporum ); Rutaceze; Meliacesee (Cedrela etc.); Sapindacese (Dodonea); > Journ. of Two Exped., Grey, p. 275. e GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 163 -Leguminose (Acacia, Galactia); Araliacee (Astrotriche); Prote- acee (Greviliea etc.); to which may be added Myrtacee, the kino- yielding Order par-excellence, but which also contains Syncarpia, a resin-yielding genus. The following may be termed resin-yielding Orders, but they exceptionally yield gums :—Euphorbiacee (Aleurites); Liliaceze (Xanthorrhea); Conifers (Araucaria ). The matter of production of gums, resins, and perhaps kinos in the same Order is of great interest to the physiological botanist in the first place and well worthy of investigation. As regards kinos, the Natural Order Myrtacee is by far the most important, but the following Australian Orders also yield them, and accurate observation will greatly increase the list :— Malvacex, (Adansonia, Bombax); Leguminose, (Lonchocarpus, Mezoneuron, Milletia); Saxifragez, (Ceratopetalum, Schizomerta ), Rhizophoree, (Rhizophora); Myrtacee, (Lucalyptus, Angophora), Euphorbiacee, ( Baloghia ); Casuarinee, (Casuarina ). The following yield useful soluble gums in fair abundance :— Meliaceze, (Llindersia maculosa),; Sapindacese, (Atalaya hemi- glauca); Leguminose, (Acacia, chiefly the dry country species, and Australia is no exception to the general rule which holds that arid countries produce the best soluble gums). The following additional genera are most scientifically and economically important as regards their latex, gums and resins, and it would be a tempting field for a post-graduate course if the University could see its way to reward its students for research jn regard to such of the exudations as have not been thoroughly worked out :—Burseraceer, (Canarium Mueller); Myrtacee, (Eucalyptus, Angophora, Syncarpia); Sapotacez, (Sideroxylon ), Proteaceee, (Grevillea robusta); Urticee, (Ficus); Liliacee, (Xanthorrhea),; Conifer, (Agathis, Araucaria, Callitris ). Certain gums and resins (e.g., Leschenaultia, Triodia) are laboriously collected and used by the aborigines ; it would be desirable to endeavour to procure them in quantity. 164 J. H. MAIDEN. I have taken cognizance of some genera from India and other parts of the world represented in Australia, but which although producing exudations in their native country have not yet been found to yield them in Australia. The line of enquiry is suggestive and if followed up may lead to the discovery of exudations that have hitherto been passed over. As regards those exudations I have included from Polynesia, I have included them for the reason which weighed with me in regard to the Indian genera; I also was guided by a feeling that as these islands are practically _ adjacent to Australia, it would be a convenient arrangement to include them in any general account of the vegetable exudations of that continent. CaPPARIDES. Capparis nobilis, F.v.M., “Wild Lemon.” The gum consists almost wholly of Pararabin and resembles those of the Sterculiaceee. See Maiden and Smith (63)! PITTOSPORES. The genus Pittosporwm is one which yields both gums and resins. See Maiden (56). Pittosporum phallyrceoides, DC., (Syn. P. acacioides, A. Cunn.), ‘‘Native Willow,” etc. “Several Acacie useful . . . for their gum; but the latter is even excelled in clearness and solubility by that obtained from Pittosporum acacioides.” (Mueller, Lirst General Report, 1853, p. 6.) Pittosporum undulatum, Vent. Our common native Pittosporum. For an investigation of this gum-resin see Maiden (56). Dr. Lauterer (33) has also examined a soft resin from this tree. Pittosporum rhombifolium, A. Cunn. Yields a gum-resin apparently similar to the preceding. Pittosporum bicolor, Hook., ‘‘Bonewood,” ‘ Whitewood.” The exudation of this species is a gum-resin which holds an essential oil incorporated with it. See Maiden (56). 1 See “ Bibliography,” at the end of paper. GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 165 GUITTIFER&. Calophyllum inophyllum, Linn., ‘ Ndilo Tree” of India; ‘‘Tumana” of the South Sea Islands. This tree when wounded, exudes a small quantity of bright green gum, which is not collected, nor does it appear to be made use of in any way. (Dymock, Materia Medica of Western India.) For a full account of this oleo-resin see Lauterer (33). Native of Queensland. Calophyllum tomentosum, Wight, ‘“‘Poon” or ‘‘Sirpoon” of India. The gum of this tree is black and opaque, and much mixed with pieces of corky bark; it has a feebly astringent taste, and is very soluble in cold water, to which it yields a yellow-brown solution, exhibiting a strong blue fluorescence. If the gum is steeped in water for some time the solution becomes very dark in colour. . . Ido not know whether this gum is applied to any industrial or medicinal use, but as it is collected by the natives of India it is supposed by them to have some medicinal virtue. (Dymock, Materra Medica of Western India.) Lauterer (33) gives an account of the astringent gum of this tree collected iu Queensland. ' MALVACEA. The three Natural Orders Malvacez, Sterculiacee, Tiliacee all contain a gummy substance, and the twigs exude a slime when placed in water. The normal gum appears to resemble that of Sterculia gum and is white and horn-like; a red astringent gum is also found in these Orders. Adansonia Gregorvi, F.v.M., “Sour Gourd,” “Cream of Tartar ” tree, the ‘“‘Gouty stem tree” of North-west Australia. A dark red gum exudes from the fruit. (Bentham, Flora Aust.) “Upon the bark of these trees being cut, they yielded in small quantities a nutritious, white gum, which both in taste and appear_ ance resembles maccaroni, and upon this bark being soaked in hot water, an agreeable mucilaginous drink was produced.” (Journ. of two Exped. of Discovery into N. W. and W. Australia, Grey, p. 112.) 166 J. H. MAIDEN. Bombax malabaricum, DC., the ‘‘Simool Tree,” or “ Malabar Silk- cotton Tree” of India. | The gum (Mocharas or Mucherus) only exudes from portions of the bark which have been injured by decay or insects; incisions in the healthy bark produce nothing. It is very astringent, and is used both by Hindus and Mahometans in diarrhea, dysentery, and menorrhagia, in doses of from 40 to 50 grains an adult. (Dymock, Materia Medica of Western India), Waring (Pharm. of India), however says that this gum, or rather product of a diseased action, is incorrectly referred to this species, and that its botanical source is unknown. This astringent gum is further described by Lauterer (33). The tree is native of Queensland and Northern Australia. Hibiscus heterophyllus, Vent. Lauterer (33) gives an analysis of this gum. The small tree is a native of Hastern Australia. Thespesia populnea, Corr. A gum sent from Coimbatore (No. 2098) to London in 1873, is- in irregular elongated tears of a dark pitchy-brown colour, shining, of the cherry gum kind, tasteless, but little soluble, swelling in water. The Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods writing on the occurrence of this tree in Northern Queensland, states that the rich yellow gum in the seed-vessels is like gamboge, and ought to be valuable. I believe, however, that its colouring matter is small, and of no value. It is a native of Queensland and Northern Australia. STERCULIACES. For an account of the gum exuded by many species of Stercu- liaceous gums, including exotic, see Maiden (41). For notes on Sterculia gums in general, see Pharmacographia indica, 228, also’ Pharm. Journ. [3], xx. 560, 868. The mucilage of Sterculia platanifolia, (young shoots) consists’ of araban with some galactan, according to K. Yoshimura, Bull. Coll. Agric. Imp. Univ, Tokyo, 1895, 2,207. Journ. Chem. Soc. te Z GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 167 Lxx., (ii.), 60, and doubtless the composition of Australian Sterculia gums will be found to be similar. In addition to the gums described in (41) I have seen gums from the following species, the composition and appearance of them appearing to be identical with those described. Sterculia quadrifida, R.Br. Brachychiton diversifolius, R.Br. (Syn. Sterculia caudata, Hew.) North-west Australia. Brachychiton discolor, F.v.M. (S. discolor, F.v.M. and S. lurida, F.v.M.) Brachychiton acerifolius, F.v.M. (S. acerifolia, A. Cunn.) Tarrietia argyrodendron, Benth., “‘Buyong or Ironwood.” I have seen gum from this and the other New South Wales species and they appear to be all similar to one another and identical with Sterculia gum. Heritiera littoralis, Dryand., a “‘Red Mangrove.” This tree yields a gum called ‘‘Mendora” in Ceylon. It is also a native of Queensland and Northern Australia. TILIACES. Echinocarpus australis, Benth., ‘‘Maiden’s Blush.” For an account of this gum see Maiden (47). Mr. Bauerlen informed me that he has seen it used in the Big Scrub as a stiffener for straw hats. Sloanea Woollsii, F.v.M., ‘‘Carabeen.” I have seen a similar gum from this species. I have seen small quantities of a pale gum which swells up in water exuding from the following species of Hlcocarpus - | #. reticulatus, Sm. (H. cyaneus, Ait.) Blue-berry. E. obovatus, G. Don. £. grandis, F.v.M., “Calhoun” or “Brisbane Quandong.” The Fijian Z#. Storckii, Seem., exudes a gum resin, on the authority of Mr. Storck, (Seemann, Flora Vitensis). This is the 168 J. H. MAIDEN. first time I have heard of such a substance from this Order and it requires confirmation. The Z. copalliferus, Retz., of India is a synonym of Vateria indica, Linn., which of course belongs to the Dipterocarpce. : RUTACES. This Natural Order yields both gums and gum-resins. Maiden and Smith (63a) give an account of the following gums:— Bosistoa sapindiformis, F.v.M. Geyera Muellert, Benth., ‘‘ Axebreaker.” Melicope neurococca, Benth. (Bouchardatia neurococca, Baill.) Pentaceras australis, Hook. f., “Scrub Hickory.” And of the following gum-resins:— Medicosma Cunninghamii, Hook., “Glue gum.” To which I would add the following gum-resins. Evodia accedens, Blume, of which I have seen a small quantity, not sufficient for chemical examination. Zanthoxylum brachyacanthum, F.v.M., and Evodia alata, F.v.M., which are both from Queensland. Lauterer (33) has examined a resin from the latter species. SIMARUBES. Ailanthus imberbifolia, F.v.M. | “From wounds in the bark a resinous substance exudes which burns with a brilliant flame.” (Thozet, in Report. Intercol. Hah. Melb. 1886-7, p. 232) Queensland. It may be the following variety :— , Ailanthus imberbiflora, var. Macartneyi, Bail. For a full account of the soft resin from this tree, see Lauterer (33.) MELIACE. This Natural Order yields both gums and resins. Cedrela australis, F.v.M. The “Red Cedar.” For a full accountof the gum exuded by this tree see Maiden (40). GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 169 Lauterer (33) gives an analysis of this gum. It is considered by some botanists identical with the ‘‘Toon-tree” of India (C. Toona, Roxb.), hence the note of Toon Guin in Pharmacographia Indica, i. 339, 547, will be found of interest. It is worthy of note that a sticky aromatic resin exudes from cedar, ¢.g., when a box or drawer is kept shut up, but only in small quantities. Native of New South Wales and Queensland Melia Azedarach, Linn., (M. composita, Willd.) ‘‘White Cedar.” The tree yields a gum similar to that produced from the Acacia, plum and cherry trees; it may be collected in considerable quantity (Bennett). A specimen of gum, said to be derived from this tree, is in irregular tears, rather adhesive and dull, with a shining fracture, amber-coloured and brownish, rather friable, mixed with fragments of bark, tasteless, soluble in water. (Cooke, Gums and Resins of India. I have seen a small quantity of gum from this tree. Lauterer (33) gives an analysis of it. The tree is found from New South Wales to Northern Australia. Owenia venosa, F.v.M., “Bog Onion.” This tree exudes a small quantity of a gum and there is also a garlic odour of the foliage there being a resinous exudation of the young leaves. Flindersia maculosa, F.v.M., “Spotted or Leopard Tree.” This is probably the tree referred to by Mitchell, in the following passage : ‘“‘In the ground beyond the plains (near the Darling) and an Acacia, with a white stem, and spotted bark, there grows to a considerable size, and produces much gum. Indeed gum acacia abounds in these scrubs, and when the country is more accessible, may become an article of commerce.” (Three Expeditions, i., 303.) For an account of the gum arabic from this tree, one of our best soluble gums, see Maiden (38). lLauterer (33) gives an analysis of this gum. This tree yields a small quantity of gum similar to that of 7. 170 J. H. MAIDEN, Flindersia australis, R.Br., “Cudgerie.” Bennettiana. Flindersia Bennettiana, F.v.M., “Teak.” The exudation is a true gum. The greater portion is soluble in cold water, little more on boiling, but the remainder is directly | soluble in a very dilute soda solution. It consists of arabin with metarabin. In this connection a note on the gum of Khaya senegalensis, a Meliaceous tree from Tropical Africa (Kew Bulletin, 1890, p. 169) will be found interesting. CELASTRINES. Eleodendron australe, F.v.M. Is a common tree of the Sydney district and eastern New South Wales in general, but I do not remember to have found gum on it. The genus, in other parts of the world, however, yields useful gums. For example, there is a gum of Z. orientale, in the, Mauritius, see The Voyage of Francis Leguat, i., 53, (Hakluyt Soc.). Hleodendron glaucum, Pers., of India and Ceylon, would appear, to be a desirable new edible gum. ‘Clear, brittle, light-coloured and soluble in water, forming a good mucilage. The absence of much ash, and adhesiveness and reactions of the solutions are favourable qualities and place it among the gums of the arabin class.” (Report of the Officer-in-Charge, Econ. and Art section | of the India Museum for the year 1900-1.) SAPINDACEX. Atalaya hemiglauca, F.v.M., ‘‘ White-wood.” ais This tree exudes a useful pale-coloured gum. See notes on a gum of this tree collected by the Horn Exploring Expedition (62). Native of the interior of South Australia, New South Wales and Queensland. : I have seen gum exuded from Nephelium sp. (N orthern Rivers), also from Cupania semiglauca, F.v.M., and Cupania pseudorrhus, A. Rich., the product being a hard, beald ea aie: gum in each case. . : GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 17} Dodoneea viscosa, Linn. This common Australian shrub has not been credited in Aus- tralia with yielding a gum or a resin, but a resin in India is noted in Pharm. Indica, 1., 372. ~ _BuURSERACES. Canarium Muelleri, Bail. I have examined the oleo-resin of this tree; see (55). Dr. Lauterer (33) found amyrin in this oleo-resin and describes its . composition at some length. ANACARDIACER. Semecarpus Anacardium, Linn., ‘‘Marking-nut Tree” of India. In India a brown, nearly insipid gum, exudes from the stem. It has otherwise been described as a “coarse black gum.” We have a closely allied species (S. australiensis, Engler) in Queensland and Northern Australia. The so-called Pepper-tree (Schinus molle), so largely cultivated in Australia, freely yields an aromatic resin which has formed the subject of research. It is alluded to in Pharm. Journ. 21st Oct., 1899, p: 377. The Garcinia collina, Vieill., of New Caledonia yields a gum- resin comparable to Gamboge. Heckel and Schlagdenhauffen, Rép. de Pharm. [3] 5, 193; full abstract in Pharm. Journ. [3], xxii. 989. The exudations of the trees of the South Sea Islands have a special interest for us. The genus Garcinia is represented in Queensland by an indigenous species. LEGUMINOS&. Acacia spp., ‘Wattle Gum.” My paper (44) is so comprehensive that it will be sufficient to add a few supplementary notes. Probably the best modern analysis of a Wattle Gum is that by Winthrop E. Stone of 4. decurrens. Wattle Gum undoubtedly possesses nutritive properties. Accord- ing to Wilhelmi, the Port Adelaide tribes lived almost exclusively 172 J. H. MAIDEN. ‘during the summer months on the gum obtained from different Acacias, and the same was true of other tribes. The following extract from the Sydney Morning Herald of the 24th March, 1891 is to the point :—Albury, Monday.—A little boy named Finch, who was lost on the 15th instant, was recovered yesterday by a black tracker engaged from Benalla. The child seemed thin, but was otherwise not much the worse for his eight days in the bush. He was found 10 miles from home, and said the had lived on wattle gum. Over 400 people had been in search of the boy all the week, and were just on the point of abandoning their pursuit as useless.” For a brief description of Wattle Gum see Pharm. Journ. [3], xx., 719. Cherry Tree Gum is in Europe rendered soluble and decolourised by the addition of sulphuric acid (see Pharm. Journ. 29th Oct., 1892) and similar treatment may be applied to some of our less ‘soluble wattle gums. Acacia Bakeri, Maiden. See Maiden and Smith (63a). Acacia Cunningham, Hook. Dr. T. L. Bancroft, states that in Queensland, gum of this Species makes a good adhesive mucilage; it is, however, dark in colour. Lauterer (33) gives an analysis. Acacia dealbata, Link., ‘Silver Wattle.” See Heckel and Schlagdenhauffen (17) for an exhaustive account of this gum. The species is said to yield a soluble gum in Java on the authority of Dr. de Vrij, (Chem. and Drugg., Aug. 20, 1892, p. 260). Lauterer (33) gives an analysis of this gum. Acacia decurrens, Willd., ‘‘Green Wattle,” ‘‘ Black Wattle.” The gum of this species contains a complex carbo-hydrate of the galacto-araban character, and does not differ essentially from gum-arabic, peach-gum or cherry-gum. Winthrop E. Stone (Amer. Chem. Journ. xvii., 196-199; see also Journ Soc. Chem. Ind., July 1895, p. 667). Lauterer (33) gives an analysis of this gum. { . a ~ a“ Pe “% GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 173 Acacia harpophylla, F.v.M. . An astringent gum of this species is described by Lauterer (33).. Acacia leiophylla, Benth. For an analysis of a sample collected by Mr. R. Helms of the Elder Exploring Expedition, see Maiden (61a). Acacia Maideni, F.v.M., “Broad-leaved Sally.” — See Maiden and Smith (63a). Acacia Oswaldi, F.v M., ‘“ Miljee.” This wattle yields a fair gum arabic. See Maiden and Smith (63a). | Acacia penninervis, Sieb. _ Lauterer (33) gives an analysis. Acacia retinoides, Schlecht. See Maiden and Smith (63a). Acacia salicina, Lindl. “We found a curious willow-like Acacia with the leaves slightly covered with bloom, and sprinkled on the underside with numerous. reddish minute drops of resin.” (Mitchell, Three Lxpeditions, ii., 20.) This species also exudes a soluble gum from the bark. The genus Acacia therefore produces both a gum and a resin. Acacia verniciflua, A. Cunn. The original description of this species in Barron Field’s Vew South Wales notes, “‘ ramis junioribus viscidis.” The species was also described under the name of A. exudans, Lindl., ‘‘ the leaves being covered with a clammy exudation resembling honeydew.” (Lindley in Mitchell’s Three Expeditions, etc., 214.) Adenanthera pavonina, Linn. This tree yields in Ceylon a gum called ‘“ Madatia.” It is also. a native of North Queensland. Albizzia procera, Benth., ‘“‘Tee-coma of the aborigines of the Northern Territory.” This tree exudes gum copiously. It is in dull, horny-looking, roundish lumps, usually about the size of a marble. It requires * . F 4 ere . 174 J. H. MAIDEN. { picking, as much of it is dark coloured and inferior. The dull appearance is only superficial, for it has a very bright fracture. It swells up in water to a large extent, and partly dissolves. The soluble portion is clear, and almost colourless. This gum differs in behaviour from such of the Acacia gums as are only partially soluble in water, in that a few hours after placing it in cold water. it disintegrates, forming flaky masses, whereas the partially soluble Acacia gums, while likewise swelling up considerably, preserve a certain amount of cohesion for a day or two. It is found in Northern Australia. Albizzia pruinosa, Benth., ‘ Stinkwood.” See Maiden and Smith (63a) for an account cf the partially soluble gum of this species. Albizzia toona, Bail. Lauterer (33) gives an analysis of this gum. Bauhinia Carroni, F.v.M. From incisions made in the trunk it exudes a large quantity of a yellowish, transparent, tasteless gum, of such wonderful tenacity that, before breaking, it will stretch to a length of two or three feet in threads so fine as to be almost invisible.” (O’Shanesy, Contrib. to Flora of Qd., p. 27.) Bauhinia Hookeri, F.v.M. Lauterer (33) gives an analysis of this gum. Castanospermum australe, A. Cunn., ‘Moreton Bay Chestnut.” Gum shown in N. 8. Wales Court, Paris Exh. 1867. What I have seen is a gum which swells up in water and but sparingly soluble. I have only seen it in small quantities. Lauterer (33) gives a note on it. Derris scandens, Benth. I have seen a small quantity of gum from this climber. Erythrina indica, Lam., ‘Indian Coral Tree.” This tree yields a brown gum.of no value. The species is not endemic in Australia. It is found in Queensland and Northern Australia. GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 175 Galactia varians, Bail. Lauterer notes a resin in this plant in Proc. R. S. Qd., xii., 93. Kennedya rubicunda, Vent. Mr. W. Bauerlen told me that he had seen traces of gum on a vine of K. rubicunda of unusually Jarge size, fully an inch in diameter, on the Richmond River. Lonchocarpus Blacki, Benth. Lauterer (33) gives an account of this astringent gum. Mezoneuron Scortechinii, F.v.M., “The Barrister.” This climber produces a tragacanthoid gum. See Maiden (45). Mezoneuron brachycarpum, F.v.M. ‘ I have seen a small quantity of a similar gum on this species. Milletia megasperma, F.v.M., ‘Native Wistaria.” An astringent gum exudes from this climber. See Maiden (34), **A climbing plant, the stem of which is sometimes a foot in diameter, and which, when fresh cut, exudes a rich red resinous juice, which is very astringent. Not used for any purpose.” (Charles Moore in V.S.W. Catal. Paris Hxh. 1867). Lauterer (33) gives an account of this astringent gun. SAXIFRAGEA. Ceratopetalum apetalum, D, Don., ‘‘ Coachwood.” Ceratopetalum gummiferum, S.M., ‘ Christmas bush or tree.” For an account of the astringent gums of these species see Maiden (39). Schizomeria ovata, Don. This tree is closely allied to C. apetalum, and the exudation appears to be similar. See Maiden and Smith (63a.) Eucryphia Billardiert, Spach., ‘‘ Leather wood.” In 1892 Mr. Alex. Morton wrote me as follows :—‘‘I send you a box containing a few twigs of the ‘Leather tree’ or ‘ Pinkwood.’ You will notice a good deal of gum on several parts. The men in the country districts say the gum has great healing qualities in cases of sore hands. I should be glad if you would let me * > Ye, . - A) baa) 176 J. H. MAIDEN. know what you think of it.” As herbarium specimens were not forthcoming for years afterwards, I put the specimens aside. A native of Tasmania. RHIZOPHORE. Rhizophora mucronata, Lam. A “ Mangrove.” The blood red sap is much used by the natives of Fiji for dyeing their hair. Mixed with the sap of Hibiscus moschatus, Linn., it is used for painting crockery by the native potters. (Seemann, Flora Vitiensis. ) : New South Wales to Northern Australia. CoMBRETACER. Terminalia sp. ‘‘ We collected a great quantity of Zerminalia gum, and pre- pared it in different ways to render it more palatabie. The natives, whose tracks we saw everywhere in the scrub, with frequent marks where they had collected the gum, seemed to roast it. It dissolved with difficulty in water; added to gelatine soup it was a great improvement. . . . But it acted as a good lenient purgative on all of us.” (Leichhardt, Overland Journey to Port Essington, p. 374.) “The Nut trees, a species of Zerminalia, are very plentiful near here. . . . The gum of these trees is readily soluble in © cold water, and is good to eat when pounded very small and dissolved ; three large tablespoonfuls we found would make one quart of thick gum water. In appearance it is very similar to gum tragacanth.” (Waterhouse’s Heport on Stuart's Huped. in Northern Territory.) Terminalia Catappa, Linn. Lauterer (33) has a note on this gum. Kucatyprus Kno. “The origin of the name Kino has not yet been satisfactorily ascertained. As stated by Dr. Pereira, it was introduced into the Hdinburgh Pharmacopeia of 1774, as Gummi Kino, and into the London Pharmacopeia, in 1787, as Kesine Kino. It was described under this designation in the third edition of Lewis’ GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 177 Materia Medica, 1784, but in the second edition, 1768, it is described as Gummi rubrum astringens, from Gambia. I have long been of opinion that the name was derived from the Indian Kuenee, or Kini, applied to a similar exudation from the bark of Butea frondosa, of which the Sanscrit name is Kin-suka.” (Dr. Royle, in Pharm. Journ., V. 496.) Yet, after quoting the above statement, Dr. W. F. Daniel, who, in describing the West African Kino-tree (Pterocarpus erinaceus), says:—‘‘ A more reasonable probability, however, exists that it was derived from the Mandingo Kano or Keno, under which name it was first sold to the Kuropean traders by the natives, and exported by them by this aboriginal expression, and subse- quently retained as a means of distinction from the other kinds of gum brought from the same localities.” (Pharm. Journ. xiv. 60). I have not been able to find a passage which throws more light upon the subject. The general opinion of the authors of dictionaries, however, is that the word is of East Indian origin. According to Bentley and Trimen (Medicinal plants), the term Kino is only strictly applicable to juices inspissated without artificial heat, and not extracts. The use of the term to Eucalyptus exudations is now of long standing; Mr. Smith and I have a note on the subject, this Journal, xxix., 409. The oldest reference to Eucalyptus Kino is as follows :—‘“ Most. of the trees that. we saw are dragon-trees as we supposed ; and these too, are the largest trees of anywhere. They are about the bigness of our large apple trees, and about the same height; and the rind is blackish, and somewhat rough. The leaves are of a dark colour; the gum distils out of the knobs or cracks that are in the bodies of the trees. We compared it with some gum dragon, or dragon’s blood, that was aboard, and it was of the same colour and taste.” (Dampier’s Voyage to N. W. Australia in 1687-8, quoted in Major’s “‘ Karly voyages to Terra Australis,” Hakluyt Soc., p. 101). Perhaps the following also refers to Eucalyptus in spite of the “prickles and thorns.” . . . . the place w here L—Dee. 4, 1901. tral: | J. H. MAIDEN. we were had been planted with a good many shrubs, among which were some quite three and four fathoms thick, but bearing no fruit,—in short, full of prickles and thorns. Several of these yielded a gum nearly like wax, of a brownish red colour.” Op. cit. p. 125. De Brosses in 1756, quoted by UG. B. Barton observed that in the continent were found “trees yielding a gum like dragon’s blood,” —probably following Dampier. An Officer of Marines writing to Sir Joseph Banks in 1788 ‘stated, ‘The country produces five or six kinds of trees, two of which produce the same sort of gum, viz.: a red astringent gum well-known in England.” (Barton, History of NV. S. Wales, i., 504). Part i. Huby Group. Following are additional notes to those contained in my special notes (57) on this group. Old ruby and gummy kinos are often much like lignite in appearance. Eucalyptus acmenoides, Schau., ‘‘ White Mahogany.” This kino occurs in small quantity only, is of an amber colour when recently exuded, passing subsequently to red and black. (Bancroft). I have never found enough for a full analysis although I have searched for it for years. New South Wales and Queensland. Eucalyptus Baileyana, F.v.M., Fragm. xi, 37. “The kino of this species contains about 35 per cent. of gum.” (sic), Mueller, Hucalyptographia, I did not find gum in a sample I examined. Northern New South Wales and South Queensland. EHucalyptus hemastoma, Sm., var. micrantha, Benth., and Eucalyptus Planchoniana, F.v.M. See Maiden and Smith (63a). Part il. Gummy Group. Following are additional notes to those contained in my special notes (57) on this group. GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 179 It appears singular at first sight that whereas all the kinos of this group are practically entirely soluble in cold water, the amounts capable of solution in alcohol vary much. I have found by experiment that these variations are owing to the quantity of kino-tannic acid taken up by the alcohol, and the only explan- ation of this which appears satisfactory is that in some kinos the bond which unites the tannic acid with the gum appears to be looser than in others, in other words, is less entangled in the gum particles, so that in some the alcohol is capable of dissolving out more tannic acid than in others. Whether age is an element in the matter or not, I cannot yet venture to say, as the specimens of the gummy group in my possession are too few, and, since in this group cold water is but of little aid in fixing the age of a kino, I am deprived even of this assistance in coming to a conclusion in the matter. Lucalyptus saligna, Smith, ‘New South Wales Blue Gum.” Kino appears to be very scarce in this species, in fact settlers will tell you it yields none. I have only collected it in little blisters on old trees, and an old bushman ‘‘never knew it had any gum,” although he often cut it up for felloes) New South Wales and 4{Jueensland. The Ironbark kinos all belong to the Gummy Group, and Mr. Forester Allan writing to me says:—‘“I obtained the gum from the Ironbark by boiling the bark and straining the liquor, after which I reduced it toa thick consistency. Large quantities can be obtained by this process at little cost.” Part ii. Turbid Group. - Following are additional notes to those contained in my special notes (57) on this group. Eucalyptus corymbosa, Sm., ‘ Bloodwood.” Lauterer (33) examines this kino at length. Bloodwood kino was formerly used by the blacks for tanning skins of animals. The modus operandi was to skin the animal, put in the kino and 180 J. H. MAIDEN. some water, tie up and shake vigorously and let stand until the tanning is complete. Incidentally I may mention that the young leaves of the Bloo@- wood if pulled asunder contain a substance which appears to be identical in its physical properties to india-rubber; it can be readily drawn into long threads. Jam not aware that it has been chemically examined. New South Wales and Queensland. Eucalyptus incrassata, Labill. For analyses of the kinos of mallees belonging to this species, collected by the Elder Exploring Expedition, see (61a). Eucalyptus leucoxylon, F.v.M., ‘Blue Gum of Victoria and South Australia.” The kino is easily soluble in water, is of slightly acid reaction, becomes turbid, but clear again on heating. (Eucalyptographia J Victoria and South Australia. Eucalyptus maculata, Hook., “Spotted Gum.” Lauterer (33) examines this kino at length. Spotted Gum kino is used in the bush for toothache, and squarers use it to cure sores and cuts. Victoria to Queensland. Eucalyptus microcorys, F.v.M., ‘‘Tallow-wood.” . Lauterer (33) also examines this kino at length. New South Wales and Queensland. Eucalyptus tesselaris, F.v.M., ‘Carbeen.” For an analysis of this Kino collected by Mr. R. Helms of the Elder Exploring Expedition see (61a). “At times one finds a woolly mass in partially burnt logs, which is found to be a white crystalline body, like benzoic acid. This substance may be revolatilized and collected of a pure white ~ colour, under a cold bell-glass. It has the pleasant odour of benzoin, but has not been further investigated.” (Dr. J. Bancroft). Lauterer (33) examines this kino at length. New South Wales and Queensland. The following notes on Eucalyptus kinos show the state of the chemistry of the subject prior to researches begun by re os GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 181 which have been continued and valuably improved by my late assistant, Mr. H. G. Smith. “Dr. A. T. Thomson describes four different kinds of kino, under the names of African, Botany Bay, Jamaica and East Indian or Amboya kino. To the second of these the Botany Bay kino, which is the product of the Hucalyptus resinifera,' or iron- bark tree, he ascribes the property of forming a tincture which gelatinises on keeping.” “Dr. Pereira also in alluding to this property in tincture of kino, says ‘“‘where this occurred, probably the Botany Bay kino (inspissated juice of the Hucalyptus resinifera ) had been employed.” Pereira further states with regard to this species of kino, ‘that when digested in cold water, it swells, becomes soft and gelatinous (like red-currant jelly), and yields a red liquid which reddens litmus, and yields precipitates with lime water, gelatine, acetate of lead, sesquichloride of iron, and, if caustic potash or ammonia be previously added, with the chloride of calcium. Alcohol and emetic tartar occasion no precipitate. Digested in rectified spirit, Botany Bay kino becomes gelatinous as with water, and yields a similar red solution, from which water precipitates nothing, but which reddens litmus, and deposits a copious precipitate when potash, ammonia or lime-water is dropped in. From these and other experiments (says Pereira), I infer that Botany Bay kino consists principally of pectin and tannic acid.” (Redwood in Pharm. Journ., i. 399). The following abbreviated remarks on some qualitative experi- ments with some Eucalyptus kinos are to be found in the Report on indigenous vegetable products, Victorian Intercolonial Exhibition, 1861:—‘“The aqueous solutions of the Eucalyptine gum-resins all give an acid reaction with test paper; but the differences in the behaviour of each, when dissolved by water, subjected to the several reagents, become very manifest.. The precipitate caused by a solution of gelatine indicative of tannic acid does not appear ? A very old error in nomenclature as shown. 182 J. H. MAIDEN. in any case to correspond in quantity with their intense astringent taste; and occasionally the addition of that substance causes no precipitate at all. This fact has an important bearing upon the value of this whole class of bodies under consideration for tanning purposes, and as substitutes for catechu and similar bodies. “With acetate of lead these astringent bodies give copious gelatinous precipitates, and with the salts of iron various shades of green and black. The mineral acids also determine in them bulky flocculent precipitates.” . . . ‘The solvent action of water on these bodies is not the same in the case of gums from different species of trees. If for instance cold water is poured on the produce of #. corymbosa, whether it be in the solid or liquid state, a portion only is taken up, while the gum from the stringy- bark is completely dissolved. When as in the case just cited, a flocculent residue remains after the action of water, a few drops of ammonia render the solution perfect.” By far the fullest experiments on Eucalyptus kinos hitherto made are those of Prof. Wiesner of Vienna, published in the Zeitschr. d allg. oesterr. Apotheker-Vereines. (Wien, 1871). Pharm Journ. [3] ii. 102. Following is a brief extract :— “These samples show a pretty uniform reaction; they all give with sulphuric acid a pale-red, flocculent precipitate; the aqueous solution always' gave with perchloride of iron a dirty green pre- cipitate, with the exception of H. obliqua, which gave a dark violet. coloration. . . . Well known authorities in pharmacognosy have been inclined to doubt the kino-like character and to look upon it merely asa gum-resin impregnated with colouring matter. It therefore became necessary to determine the constituents of Eucalyptus gum; and the author finds the principal part of all samples to be nothing but so-called kino-tannic acid. He obtained by Berzelius’ method a red, amorphous substance identical in all its reactions with kino-tannic acid. ' The following being among the species examined by Prof. Wiesner, E. amygdalina, piperita, leucoxylon, pilularis, together with varieties of amygdalina, these generalizations will not hold good. The italics are mine. GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 183 The gum was dissolved in water, and the flocculent, pale-red precipitate obtained by adding sulphuric acid, was washed until the acid reaction of the wash-water ceased; the precipitate was dissolved in boiling water, and separated after cooling from the insoluble matter. The red liquid was evaporated in vacuo and yielded thin, red, transparent laminz, which under the microscope appeared cracked, and quite amorphous. The mass is slowly soluble in cold but readily in hot water; the solution is astringent. Alcohol, like hot water gave a ruby coloured solution ; perchloride of iron produces a dirty green precipitate. The kino-tannic acid obtained from kino itself gave with the iron-salt a black-violet precipitate; but as the author is far from looking upon this acid as a definite chemical compound, he thinks he has proved the identity of the principal constituent of the gum under examination with kino. He adopts the name Eucalyptus kino, and avoids the expression gum, because’ gums are mostly soluble in alcohol as well as in water. In Bentham and Mueller’s ‘ Flora Australi- ensis,” the many extracts obtained from Eucalyptus are always called gums, and in Vol. ii. 185, it is even stated that the Eucalyptus species yielded gum-resins, and therefore they were named gum-trees.” ‘*Pterocarpus kino contained, besides kino-tannic acid, water, mineral substances, with 13 per cent. of ash, a substance similar to pectine, catechine and a little pyro-catechine, but no sugar. Eucalyptus kino contained from 15 to 17 per cent. of water; it gave only a trace of ash, and no sugar was found. Several samples contained a little catechine. Pyrocatechine appears always to be present. A pectine-like substance could not be detected in any of the samples, but several samples contained a substance soluble in water, similar to gum arabic. The juices of #. gigantea, Hooker, (L. obliqua, L’Hérit.) contained this substance in such quantity that several lumps were quite insoluble in alcohol. 1 The word “ these” is obviously omitted here. ? They are called gum-trees by reason of these exudations, and it is very excusable for Bentham, who was not a chemist, to call them ‘ gum- resins.” Neither are they “ extracts.” 184 J. H. MAIDEN. “The physical properties of Eucalyptus kino nearly agree with those of ordinary kino; it forms dark red, more or less transparent grains; in thin fragments, under the microscope, quite transparent and amorphous. ‘They sink in cold water. Its specific gravity is 1:110; after complete expulsion of the air 1:140. Water dissolves it more or less readily to a red, yellowish or brownish liquid of astringent taste. Shaken with water, all samples give a frothy solution.” In the ‘‘Eucalyptographia,” under Z. longifolia, Baron von Mueller collects together in tabular form the percentages of kino- tannic acid in the bark (not in the kino) of various species of Eucalyptus. In a paper in the Pharm. Journ. [3] xvi., 898 under ‘“‘Hucalyptus Kino” this table is reproduced, but entitled, “The amount of the astringent exudation afforded by different species,” a sentence which is not only incorrect, but which, (since the expression per cent. is used) appears devoid of meaning. I have not been able to find the following papers in the colony: 1. ‘“‘On the astringent principle of xino.” TT. Gerding, Chem. Gaz., 1851, 261. 2. “On Kino.” 4H. Eissfeldt, Ann. Ch. Pharm. xcii., 101. They both refer to the official kino, but they are probably most useful, and I have only been able to obtain a detached statement or two from their contents. Angophora intermedia, DC., One of the “ Rough-barked Apples.” Bees industriously remove this and other apple-tree kinos in the viscid state. For a full.account of this kino see Maiden (60), and of the liquid kino see (50). As regards the latter, the statement is made in the N. S. Wales Catalogue, Paris Exhib. 1867, that ‘‘Apple tree juice is used as a varnish.” Angophora lanceolata, Cav., ‘‘Smooth-barked Apple.” For a full account of the kino see Maiden (60) and Lauterer (33). GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 185 Angophora Woodsiana, Bail. See J. Bancroft, quoted by Maiden (60). Spermolepis gunmifera, Brongn. and Gris. Also belonging to the Myrtacez, is from New Caledonia and yields a kino. See Rép. de Pharm. [v.] (3) 241 (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. xii. 611). Syncarpia Hillii, Bail. Lauterer (33) has examined this oleo-resin and his paper should be referred to. Queensland. Syncarpia laurifolia, Ten., ‘“‘Turpentine-tree.” Is a better known species than the preceding, and its oleo-resin has often been collected. It has been partly examined by Prof. H. H. Rennie of Adelaide, who obtained an acid from it, by boil- ing with potash, which is not cinnamic acid, but other duties have prevented the completion of the research. It is stated that the native bees use the oleo-resin for the purpose of varnishing the interior of cavities in trees before starting to build their nests. It is a substance of special interest for its own sake, apart from . the fact that it is one of the few exudations from our Australian Myrtacez that are not kinos. New South Wales and Queensland. ARALIACE. Astrotriche floccosa, DC. For a note on a gum-resin from this shrub see Maiden (46). Panaz elegans, C. Moore and F.v.M. Panax sambuctfolius, Sieb. For an account of these soluble gums see Maiden (46). This paper contains notes on other exudations belonging to the Araliaceze, A resinous substance from the bark of Aralia spinosa, is recorded in Pharm. Journ. [3] xiii. 305. LORANTHACEA, Nutysia floribunda, R. Br., “Cabbage Tree,” ‘‘Mote-yar” of the blacks (Stokes), ‘‘A Mistletoe.” 186 J. H. MAIDEN. The gum from this tree is said to make good adhesive mucilage. It was sent from Perth to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 1886, and was thus reported upon, . . . “is a tragacanth- like gum, which swells in water but does not dissolve. It might, perhaps, be made to serve as a stiffening material for the calico printer.” It is a native of Western Australia. RUBIACEZ. Gardenia resinosa, F.v.M. Occurs in Australia (Northern Territory), and hence the exuda- tions of Gardenias are of interest to us, particularly those from the South Sea Islands, The following note by Mueller in Rep. Intercol. Exh. Melb. 1886-7 is interesting. The species is. doubtless one of those referred to by Heckel in later years. “Gardenia Resin from New South Wales.’’-—“‘The species of Gardenia yielding this resin remains as yet phytographically unknown. It is probably allied to a species discovered by myself in North Australia, Gardenia resinosa, so called on account of its large amount of resinous exudation. The resin from New Cale- donia had evidently been fused; it is brittle. On fracture, it presents a yellowish colour; it is tasteless but possesses an odour reminding one of ginger. When leniently heated it assumes a waxy consistence. It dissolves almost without residue in cold alcohol, and contains, therefore, only a trifle of gummy substance. The alcoholic solution is limpid and yellow, rendered milky by addition of water. When dissolved in boiled alcohol it forms after cooling a large deposit. Evaporation of spirit leaves a pellucid, greenish- yellow resin. This pure resin dissolves in ether, oil of turpentine, and partly in strong alkaline solutions.” “And again, “Ouliépé is a New Caledonian resin obtained by mastication of the buds of Gardenia oulrépé, Vieill., edulis, Vieill., and sulcata, Gertn.; it is used by the natives for cement and caulking ships; it has a yellow colour, an aromatic disagreeable — taste and a glossy fracture. It is met with in compact lumps, it GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 187 is obtained from the lumps asa yellow powder from quickly dried leaves and pounding them. Soubeiran thinks the Ouliépé resin is similar to Decamali from East India obtained from Gardenia gummiflora, and lucida, Roxb., and there used in the hospitals as a covering for wounds to protect them from insects and to absorb the smell from ulcers. “The last mentioned resin is often taken for Elemi.” Journal de Pharm. et de Chim, March, 1870, p. 242. (Pharm. Journ. [3] iL, 403). Heckel and Schlagdenhauffen describe the resin enclosing the leaf-buds of G. Ouliepe, G. Aubryi, and G. sulcata. Rép. de Pharm. [3] 5 (xlix.) 145 (1893). Full abstract in Pharm. Journ. {3 xxii. 988 and Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., Jan. 1894, p. 47. SAPOTACE. ! Sideroxylon australe, Benth. and Hook., f., (Achras australis, R.Br.), ‘Black Apple.” The remarkable gum which exudes from our Achras australis is worth investigation. I can answer for its disagreeable tenacity when it gets about the hands.” (TZenison-Woods, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., iv. 135). The juice is milky and the Order to which this tree belongs yields the Gutta Percha of commerce. It would not be difficult to collect a quantity of this juice for research, and it should certainly be examined. APOCYNER. Tabernemontana macrophylla, (? Poir.). A gum resin from this species from New Caledonia was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition, 1867. I have not heard of the occurrence of a similar exudation in any Australian Apocynee. GOODENIACE. Leschenaultia divaricata, F.v.M. For a note on a gum extracted from the roots and used by the aborigines as a cement, see Horn Expedition (62). 188 J. H. MAIDEN, MYOPORINEX, Myoporum platycarpum, R. Br. For an account of this resin see Maiden (53). Lauterer (33) has also given an account of this resin. The following unpublished note is by the late K. H. Bennett of “Ivanhoe,” via Hay:—‘‘Another substance called by the natives “‘Tecabalah,” and resembling pitch or wax exudes from this tree at certain times of the year. When it first exudes it is soft and very tenacious and exactly like wax, and assumes the form of drops, varying in size from that of a pea to that of a nut, these gradually harden by exposure to the air and eventually are found lying around the foot of the tree. This substance is used by the blacks for the same purposes as we use wax, and answers just as well, it merely requires heating.” VERBENACEX. Avicennia officinalis, Linn., ““Mangrove.” Forster erroneously supposed this species to produce a resin, which led him to describe it as 4. resinifera, (Kirk). See dgathis australis, wnfra. MyRISTICEA. E. Schauer has desemieedne new kino from Myristica. Pharm. Journ. [iv.| 3, 117. Journ. Chem. Soc. Abstr, \xxii., 278. It should be looked for in our ML. insipida of the Northern Territory. MoNIMIACE. Atherosperma moschata, Labill., “Sassafras,” The resin contained in the bark of this tree has been examined by Zeyer (Pharm. Viertelj., x., 517), an abstract of whose paper appears in Gmelin’s Handbook. The following is his account of it. The bark previously exhausted in water, is exhausted with very weak caustic potash; the solution is allowed to stand till clear, and the resin is precipitated by hydrochloric acid. The precipitate is indigested with alcohol, the extract evaporated, and the residue boiled with water, and dried. Brown-red, melts at 104° C. Dissolves easily in caustic alkalies and their carbonates, GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 189 from which it is precipitated by acids, and also in alcohol, but it is nearly insoluble in ether. Contains at 100° C., on the average 69:38% O, 885% H, and 21:77 O, corresponding to the formula. C,.H;,0,,. A modern analysis is desirable. Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales. PROTEACEA. It will be observed that this is one of the orders which yields. both gums and rezins. r Banksia serrata, Linn. f., ‘Red Honey-suckle.” A dark red gum (? resin) has been observed on this species. See Maiden (42). “The Banksia wood, which produces large quantities of resin.” . . . (Note on the vegetation of W. A. by A. H. Robertson, M.D.) in Prize Essays Edinburgh Forestry Exh. 1884. Grevillea robusta, A. Cunn., “Silky Oak.” For an account of agum and gum-resin from this well-known tree see Maiden (42). Lauterer (33) also gives an account of this. resin. A research on the interesting exudation from this well- known species is a desideratum. The substance was exhibited in the New South Wales Court, Paris Exhibition, 1867. In this connection see a paper, this. Journ. 1896, p. 194, by Mr. Smith on the sap of G. robusta. Following are some notes on the exudation by Mr. W. Bauerlen who collected it for me on the Northern Rivers :—‘‘When quite fresh and soft it is of a peculiar yellow colour, but on hardening it assumes something of a flesh or wine colour. It has an extremely disagreeable smell. . . . The local opinion is that there is. more gum during very rainy weather than during drier times, The country people look upon it as a nuisance as it sticks to the horses’ manes when they rub themselves against the tree.” Grevillea striata, R. Br., “Beefwood.” For an account of the gum-resin of this species see Maiden (42). The Western (Q.) blacks make use of the resin of G. striata to 190 a H, MAIDEN, manufacture a kind of asphalt wherewith to cement on flints to the adzes and carvings. (Dr. T. L. Bancroft in a letter to me). Dr. Lauterer (33) has also examined the resin from this tree. Hakea acicularis, R. Br. Hakea Macreana, ¥.v.M. For an account of the gums exuding from these plants and from Hakeas generally see Maiden (42). I have noticed jelly at the roots of Hakeas either where the bushes have blown down or not, or on the stem, where: insects have attacked or otherwise injured them, forming a transparent OO0Ze. Macadamia ternifolia, F.v.M., ‘Queensland Nut.” I have seen a small quantity of exudation similar to that of Grevillea striata from a log of this species. Persoonia linearis, Andry. For a note on a dark red gum (?resin) from this species see Maiden (42). Stenocarpus salignus, R. Br., ‘‘Beefwood,” “Red Silky Oak” ete. For a note on a gum from this species see Maiden (22). Stenocarpus sinuatus, Endl., ““Yiel Yiel,” ‘Fire tree.” I have seen a small quantity of a reddish gum (?) from this tree. Xylomelum pyriforme, Knight, ‘‘ Native Pear.” For an account of the gum yielded by this small tree see Maiden (42). THYMELACES. Pimelea. ‘The numerous Pimelez are perhaps of greater significance as medicinal plants, (than fibres). The acridity of their bark is more or less analogous to that of Daphne mezerewm, the bark of Pamelea stricta, Meissn., from St. Vincent’s Gulf being the most acrid of all, The proportion of acrid resin on which the blistering pro- perties depend has as yet not been ascertained in any of our species. (Mueller in Rep. Intercol. Exh. Melb , 1866-7, p. 255.) GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 191 KUPHORBIACE. Aleurites molluecana, Willd., ‘“‘Candle-Nut Tree.” “A gum is produced from this tree, both spontaneously and on incisions being made in the trunk; it is of a yellowish or amber colour, inodorous and tasteless; the natives of the South Sea Islands chew it, but the suspicious family to which it belongs ought to make them cautious in its use, I tried it, however, as a mucilage for the suspension of some balsams, and no ill-effects arose from-it.” (Bennett). This species would appear to be one from which both a gum and a resin are obtainable. Queensland. Baloghia lucida, Endl., “Scrub, or Brush Bloodwood,” ‘ Nun-naia” and ‘“‘ Dooragan” of the aborigines. A blood-red sap oozes from the trunk when cut, and was obtained in the following manner in Norfolk Island:—“A knife, similar to a farrier’s is used, but stronger, fixed upon a handle four to five feet long, which enables the workman to reach high up the trunk of the tree. A perpendicular incision is made through the bark, an inch wide at the surface, but tapering to a point near the wood, and from eight to ten feet long, forming the main channel through which the sap flows to the base of the tree where a vessel is placed for its reception; branch channels are cut on each side of the main one, leading obliquely into it, six or eight inches apart, and extending nearly two-thirds round the trunk. The sap generally flows from the channels for about twelve hours, when it is collected. The quantity produced by each tree varies; sometimes about a pint, but on an average about half that quantity. The sap forms an indelible paint, and was formerly used in the island for marking bags, blankets, and other articles.” (Shepherd.) I have seen the inspissated juice collected from New South Wales trees. Lauterer (33) gives an analysis of this substance. The tree is native of New South Wales and Queensland. Bertya Cunninghamii, Planch. The branchlets of this tree exude a clear gum-resin so abundantly as to give dried specimens, when held up to the light, a pretty 192 J. H. MAIDEN. hyaline appearance. ‘The substance is of a yellowish colour, and no doubt would prove exceedingly interesting if examined, but the author has, up to the present, been unsuccessful in obtaining a quantity of it. It has a pleasant bitter taste, something like wormwood. Many of our Euphorbiaceous plants yield resin in greater or less quantity, and will provide useful material for future experiment. Beyeria viscosa, Miq., the “Pink Wood” of Tasmania, also called “Wallaby Bush.” | A resinous substance exudes from the leaves, sometimes so abundantly that characters can be traced in it by means of a style. As we have an Australian Macaranga, the following references will be useful :— 1. Macaranga Kino (Pharm. Journ, 18th May 1901, p. 617). 2. Macaranga ferruginea, Baker. A tree whose stems con- tain an abundant supply of resin, the nature of which requires investigation. Madagascar, (Kew Bulletin, 1890, 210.) URTICEA. Latex. The substance referred to in the following paragraphs is _ neither a gum nor a resin but belongs to what may be termed the ‘“TIndia-rubber group.” It consists of a dried milky juice or latex (of which examples are afforded by other Natural Orders common enough in Australia, eg., Euphorbiacez and Asclepiadacez). For information in regard to the physiology of the subject see “Botany” by Sachs (Vines), pp. 85, 94, etc. . Ficus macrophylla, Desf., ‘Moreton Bay or Large-leaved Fig.” Specimens of the juice of this well-known tree which I caused to be sent to Kew for report in 1894 are reported upon (8), and the correspondence is interesting to those who may be tempted to incur expense in experimenting with it as a rubber producer. Experiments at the Hamma Garden to obtain a coagulable latex have been abandoned, only negative results having been obtained. (Rev. des Cult., Coloniales, 20th Sept. 1901, p. 188). See also F. rubiginosa, which yields a similar juice. GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 193 Ficus rubiginosa, Desf., “Port Jackson Fig.” This fig, like others of the genus, exudes a juice when the bark is wounded. It is put to no useful purpose. It has formed the subject of De la Rue’s and Mailler’s chemical investigation (73). The official catalogue of the N.S. W. Exhibits (Paris 1855), con- tains the following information in regard to this particular specimen :—‘“‘Perforated waxy substance, exuded from the bark of native fig Ficus ferruginea;” (an obsolete name, and the substance is attributed by Sir William Macarthur to &. rubiginosa), exhibited by W. Stephenson, Esq., Surgeon. From the Manning River. “A remarkable substance, possessing the properties of gutta- percha and bird-lime combined, and which can be obtained in the colony in any quantity. It softens by heat like gutta-percha, and like that substance can be moulded while warm into any shape, which it retains when cold, but becomes brittle. When very hot it is so strongly adhesive that it cannot be touched by anything without sticking most obstinately to it.” Mr. P. L. Simmonds said of the specimen, ‘“‘An elastic gum- resin from an Australian Ficus was shown at the Paris Exhibition of 1855 in the New South Wales collection, in small tears of a dingy appearance, which might prove useful. A large portion dissolves in warm linseed oil, but spirits of wine does not act readily upon it. By mastication it becomes tenacious and bleaches thoroughly.” From the above and from statements in the original paper there is no doubt that the substance acted upon was picked already dried from the trees, and, on account of the delay in experimenting upon it, it was a very old specimen when analysed. I procured a small quantity of the milky juice (latex) of this species, and obtained it guite fresh. It was obtained in the spring by auger holes well through the bark. Whether a tree will yield any liquid at a particular time is very uncertain, and can be ascertained only by tapping. It apparently in no way differs from the “ Moreton Bay Fig” juice (£. macrophylla), so M—Dec. 4, 1901. 194 J. H. MAIDEN. familiar to people in New South Wales. It was of the consistency and colour of thick cream and perfectly homogeneous when freshly exuded. It gradually separates into two layers, a lower creamy or grey-colored portion, and a brown liquid of hardly higher specific gravity than water. Both layers continue to darken in colour. Analysis of this milky juice, completed within a month of exudation, remains a desideratum. A specimen I sent to Prof. E. H. Rennie, of Adelaide, was examined by him and Mr. Goyder (71). LILIACEa. Xanthorrhea spp. ‘Grass Tree Gum.” I believe my paper on the aromatic resins known as Grass-tree Gum in Agric. Gazette (49) will supply sufficient information for most enquirers. It contains an extensive bibliography of the subject. See also K. Hildebrand (18), Tschirch and Hildebrand (83), Schimmel (74), the “Garden and Field” (Adelaide), July, 1894, p. 64; the Chemist and Druggist of Australasia, of 11th December, 1897, p. 923, recording some Imperial Institute researches ; and the same journal for February, 1898, p. 63. At the junction of Berowra Creek with the Hawkesbury River I found (27th April, 1889) a true gum exuding from aborted {through insect punctures) flowering-spikes of this species. A larger quantity was also found on the caudices of other individuals and some samples exhibited now show a resin (‘‘grass tree gum”) and a true gum in close juxtaposition. This is another example | of the few instances in which the sample genus is capable of : yielding both a gum and a resin. Xanthorrhea Preissii, Endl. For a partial examination of this Grass-tree Gum, collected by the Elder Exploring Expedition, see (614). It is a native of Western Australia. : CasUARINES. Casuarina Decaisneana, F. v. M. — ~ J GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 195 For a brief examination of this kino, collected by the Horn Exploring Expedition, see (62). Kino in this genus is rare, and the reference to the gum (kino) of C. eguisetifolia ( Pharma- cographica indica, 375) will be useful. GRAMINES. Triodia pungens, R. Br. For an examination of this grass, collected by the Horn Exploring Expedition, see (62). See also my paper on Spinifex Resin (52). “Samples of resinous matter from roots of Spinifex and tunnels made by ants, found here for the first time lying on the surface of the sandy ground between the bunches of Spinifex, apparently made of sand cemented with some agglutinous secretion of the insect, or what is more probably the resinous substance found at the roots of the Spinifex plant.” [W. T. Tietkens’ Exploration of West Central Australia, in Trans. R.G.S. (Vict.), viii. 35). CYCADEs. Macrozamia spp. My experiments and subsequent observations tend to show that the gums of all members of this genus are identical in character. See (43). I note that the gum of MM. Denisoni was exhibited in the N.S.W. Court, Paris Exhibition, 1857. _ CONIFER. Agathis australis, Salisb. (Syn. Dammara australis, Lamb ) The chewing of the fresh gum-resin of the Kauri Pine by the New Zealanders explains the error made by Forster (from Crozet, Voyage de M. Marion), who had named the Mangrove (Avicennia officinalis) A. resinifera, believing that the gum chewed by the natives had been obtained from that tree. The error is repeated by Lindley, Vegetable Kingdom, p. 665 (Colenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., Voli., Essay on the Botany of the North Id. of N.Z., p. 56). For an analysis of the New Zealand Kauri “gum,” see Rennie (70). 196 J. H. MAIDEN. The genus Agathis and its resin is of so much interest to us in Australia that I give the following unpublished letter from me to the Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew, dated 8th July, 1892 :— “In article cxciv. (March, 1891) of the Kew Bulletin, you desire to settle the origin of a supposed Dammara resin in the Kew Museum which came from Canala, in New Caledonia. “Mr. J. Brazier is a resident of Sydney well known to me. Some five or six years ago he gave me samples of resin which he obtained from Canala, telling me that he had given the rest to Professor Moseley years back. He informed me that your sample and mine came from the same tree, and formed part of a larger mass which he picked off the bark. The resin is palpably from a Dammara when examined. He said it was from a very high tree, whose trunk was so long that he could not obtain a twig. He was certain the tree was not an Araucaria ; the resin also is | different from that of Araucarias. “Like you I have arrived at the conclusion that it was obtained from D. lanceolata, and following are my notes on the subject, for I have taken an interest in the resin :— In Plantes utiles de la Nouvelle Calédonie, by E. Viellard, 8vo. pp. 76, are some notes on Dammaras. ‘D. Moorei, Lindl. Cette conifére acquiert des proportions gigantesques; son tronc droit, sang branches, s’ éléve 4 30 et 40 métres de hauteur et mesure souvent 1:50 m. de diameter. . . JD.ovata, Moore. Tronc trés rameux et généralement moins élevé que le précédent. . . . Le D. lanceolata différe du D. ovata par son trone plus robuste. . . . Peu commun dans les bois des montagnes 4 Kanala.” ‘“‘Ainsi qu’ on peut le voir, chacune de ces trois espéces a sa zone de végétation. Le D. Moorei habite la partie nord de la Calédonie. Le D. ovata le sud, et enfin le D. lanceolata les mon- tagnes du centre. ‘Du tronc de ces arbres découle en abondance une résine. connue dans le commerce sous le nom de Kaori (the French spell- GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 197 ing of the better known Kauri gum or resin from D. australis of New Zealand). Les indigenes de la Nouvelle-Caledonie se servent de cette substance pour vernir les poteries grossieres qu’ ils fabriquent.” The information as to D. lanceolata being found (principally or solely) in the neighbourhood of Canala, and Mr. Brazier’s descrip- tion of the tree being very large tends to show the origin of the resin. Without some such evidence I would submit that the precise species could not be determined as there is much similarity in the resins exuded by the different species of the same coniferous genus, ¢.g., Araucaria, Frenela, (Callitris), Danumara. Kaori resin has been sent from New Caledonia to several Inter- national Exhibitions. Thus ‘“‘Resine de Kaori, Dammara ovata” was sent to the London Exhibition 1867 (Rapports du Jury Inter- national (Chevalier) Vol. vi., 337). “Kaori, a gum-resin obtained from the trunks of D. Moorei, Lind1., ovata, Moore, and lanceolata. Yellowish or white, brittle, with a smooth shining fracture; on distillation it yields an essential oil of aromatic odour. It is soluble in alcohol and may be used as a varnish.” (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chimie, March 1870, p. 242; Pharm. Journ. [3] ii. 403.) “Several species of Vammara are given as the sources of kauri resin in New Caledonia. They are D. Cornuz, Raoul, the ‘ Metea” or stunted Kauri Pine; D. lanceolata, Lindl., the ‘Berairou,” “Bora” or Red Kauri; DV. Moorei, Lindl., or ““Duou”; D. ovata, Moore, or “Ninourai,” the White Kauri; D. lanceolata and D. ovata being the chief species.” (Pharm. Journ. [3] xx., 402.) I give one more quotation:—“Kauri resin. A report from Noumea by M. Formet speaks favourably of the use of this resin, —otherwise called Sydney gum and Caledonian balsam, as a suitable medium for the external application of antiseptics. All antiseptics can be mixed with the resin, which forms a coating over wounded surfaces. In cutaneous aftections it is of great service; and also in the treatment of sprains and fractures when 198 J. H. MAIDEN. the limb must be kept rigid.” (Chemist and Druggist of Australasia p. 754, June 7th, 1890.) Agathis robusta, Benth. and Hook.f., yield “Queensland Dammar.” See Lauterer (33) for an analysis. Araucaria Cunninghamii, Ait., “‘White-, Hoop-, Richmond River- or Moreton Bay-Pine.” In my paper (54), I announced that the exudation of this species was a gum-resin. I also stated, ‘‘The only previous instance I can find of arabin being found in a coniferous resin is by Dulk (Morel, [3] ix., 714), who found 0:1 per cent. in White Dammar (Dammara orientalis, Lamb.) In 1893 I received from a Queensland correspondent an extract from ‘“Proces-Verbaux” of the ‘‘Actes de la Sociéte Scientitique du Chili.” Sesion jeneral del 4 de abril de 1892, Tome i1., 1 ere livraison, 1892.” The extract was in Spanish, and not under- standing that language I applied to the Consul General for Chili in Sydney (Capt. W. H. Eldred), who through ill health was _ unable to furnish me with the translation until 2nd June, 1894. I then ascertained that Prof. E. Heckel of Marseilles had announced the discovery of a gum in the exudation of the Aus- tralian Araucaria Bidwilli and in that of the Chilian A. zmbricata. I then wrote to Prof. Heckel under date 19th June, 1894, asking for further particulars, and he very kindly sent me a copy of his paper (14), published 20th August 1891, on 4. Bidwilli, and which paper showed that arabin was present to the extent of nearly 70 per cent. in the exudation of that species, and to a less extent in the exudations of 4. Cunninghamii and A. Cookii. Further correspondence elicited the fact, that MM. Heckel and Schlagdenhauffen had in August 1887 (16) announced the dis- covery of arabin in the exudation of Araucaria. The matter stands thus, that Dulk, in 1878, made the original discovery, while Heckel and Schlagdenhauffen in 1887, and Maiden in 1889 made similar observations independently. GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 199 Mr. W. Biauerlen, botanical collector, wrote to me as follows concerning the collection of the resin (gum resin) of Araucaria Cunninghamii on the Richmond River. ‘The resin of this pine exudes plentifully, and when fresh it is much of the consistency and colour of cream, sometimes rather thinner. It seems that it takes a considerable time to harden when it becomes somewhat clear and yellow-looking. ‘‘T am told that the Pine has another resin the existence of which is not generally known, and the resin has to be looked for under the bark, where it collects in hard dark lumps, which in appearance are certainly quite different from the usual resin, ~though both substances may after all be the same. Mr. James Black of Bexhill told me about the occurrence of this resin and showed me two pieces, one of which on asking for it he pre- sented to me; strange to say, several people of whom I made enquiries respecting it, knew nothing of this hard dark resin. I shall of course follow the matter up and endeavour to find the resin in its natural state. “I was told that the resin (yellow) of the White Pine is used medicinally in kidney complaints and is found very effective in stricture and retention of urine. A gentleman says he finds it gives great relief in very aggravated cases, when three or four doses are usually sufficient. He dissolves the resin in alcohol and gives from 20 to 30 drops in water as a dose.” Araucaria Bidwilli, Hook., “Bunya Bunya.” For an examination of the resin of this plant see Maiden (54). _ I there stated that the exudation of this pine would probably be found similar to that of A. Cunninghamiiif collected under similar conditons. The gum resins of Araucarias are also dealt with by Lauterer (33), who gives analyses of the exudations of 4. Bidwilli and A. Cunninghamii. See also a special paper by Lauterer on A. Bidwilli (32). 200 J. H. MAIDEN. Araucaria Cookii, R. Br. Dr. Schuchardt of Gorlitz informed me that he had found sugar in the resin of Araucaria Cookii from New Caledonia. (Lr. of 11/2/90). Araucaria Rulet, F.v.M. Prof. E. Heckel has recently published a research on the gum- resin of-this New Caledonian species (15). Araucaria brasiliana, A. Rich. ‘The resin of Araucaria brasiliana exudes from the old trees, especially if the bark has been damaged by beetles, and hardens rapidly in the air. Dull white or dark brown irregular pieces, varying in size from that of a bean to that of a walnut, and elon- gated drops. Has a faint lustre, and a smooth waxy fracture. Smells balsamic, somewhat turpentine-like, and tastes resinous, biting and aromatic, sticks to the teeth. Heated on platinum foil it carbonises without melting completely, evolving an odour of incense. In a flame it takes fire and burns, leaving five per cent. of ash. The resin dissolves to the extent of about two thirds in _ water and one third in alcohol; ether and chloroform take up only traces of volatile oil, gum, and vegetable albumen, uncrystallizable sugar, and four different resins. From the mixture of resins, freed from volatile oil and substances soluble in water, cold alcohol takes up alpha, beta, and gamma resins, leaving araucaric acid undissolved. The gamma resin is precipitated from the alcoholic solution by acetate of copper, and the beta-resin from the filtrate by alcoholic neutral acetate of lead, whilst the alpha resin remains in solution.” Further particulars of these bodies are given. (Gmelin, xviil. 19). The analysis of the resin of the Chilian species should now be brought up to date, but is of special interest in view of the interest attaching to those from Australian Araucarias. Callitris spp. “Australian Sandarac.” The clear resin of our Cypress pines (Callitris or Frenela) is a perfect substitute for the sandarac of commerce, used in varnish- making and for other purposes. What the actual demand for GUMS, RESINS, AND OTHER VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 201 this resin is is not thoroughly ascertained, and inquiries are being made at the present time concerning it. The following are references to the literature of the subject:— Maiden (50, 51). lLauterer (33). The paper of A. Balzer on “Sandarac Resin” (Arch Pharm., 1896, 234, 289; Journ. Chem. Soc. 70, 493) is valuable. Jt gives a modern analysis of the sandarac of commerce, and hence, I believe, of Australian sandarac. Callitris verrucosa, R. Br. For an analysis of this sandarac by the Hlder Exploring Expedition, see (614.) See also p. 203 infra for an account of a recent and exhaustive research on Callitris resin. We have so few references to fossil resins in Australia that the following notes are of special interest. Mr. H. T. Edwards, of Birnima, Monaro, informed me that in sinking a well at Bibben- luke he came across fossilised cypress pine-trees (Callitris) with a quantity of resin as if it had been recently exuded. The place was evidently an old lake-bed and the Pine trees had been sub- merged. The nearest growing Cypress Pine tree is seventeen miles distant. I have been unable to trace the amount of reliance to be placed in the statements contained in the following note. In any case, the ‘‘amber” cannot be of the genus which yields the Baltic substance; it may perhaps be akin to the preceding fossil resin. ‘“‘A curious discovery, that of a mine of amber, has been made at Rokewood, and some men are now at work at the mine, and others prospecting for the same mineral in the vicinity. denotes an operator, translating the quantity on its left, the amount and direction specified by the quantity on its right, the axes, to which the motions are to be parallel, being a, y, 2, w, ete. 1 —-O=0 3; 1, e=0=60 3 1 =a +0 =0!, =0; —»0!0), |; 0) > 0a Q,——-0 =, =, +0,=0,, =—0,, 0, =08 5 ete == 0) 0s | Ue ee Ox siete: etc. ete. ete. ete. etc. ete.” proves that the ratio or relation of quantities may be conceptually retained up to point of their evanishing, that is to say, their zeros have definite relations, if the law of relation is susceptible of being continuously expressed. Itis only when the facts are represented as being sensuously perceptible that each point is surrounded by a “circle of confusion,” through which it fuses with its neighbours. 1 In Henrici’s definitions the qualification ‘in general’ is not applied to the motion of a point. The conception of motion into a new spatial dimension, hereinafter mentioned, shews that logically this case should not be excepted. 2 The idea of successive infinitesimal motions, and infinitesimal paths produced thereby, may be clearly apprehended by conceiving it as the actual path of the generatrix during the time, 1/o multiplied into the unit of time, the last being understood as the interval of time necessary for the generatrix to move over a unit in any particular axial direction. Let 1; denote such a time unit, then 1/0 x1, = 04, a zero of duration, but PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE, 259 And instead of 0 we may substitute 1 throughout for units of successive dimensions, and o for infinities of the successive dimensions. Similarly if we start with the line px, move it gy, then move the generated surface rz, etc., we obtain {| (ps —> gE) > Ej Sy} ——> ete. == pgrs... dyyuw..---(1a) in which pgqrs... is merely scalar,’ and », the number of factors is equal to the number of suffixes; that is to say, m is the number of dimensions. 5. General laws of fluxional generation.—From what has pre- ceded it is evident that an n-dimensional geometrical figure can be generated, by a single motion into the mth dimension, of an (2 —1)-dimensional figure, by two successive motions of an (n — 2) dimensional figure, one being in the direction of the (n - 1) the axis, and the other in that of the n-th axis of the higher spaces; and similarly by a greater number of specifically-different successive motions, when the generatrix is of lower dimension. It is further evident that, at least in homaloidal space, the relative order of the generative motions is immaterial. The results may be presented in the following form :— A geometrical figure of dimensions can be generated by & successive” motions or displacements of a generatrix of (n — k) dimensions, parallel to & independent axes, not included in the space-axes of the generatrix. as already shewn, not an absolute zero. If such a zero had no duration, an infinity of such could not be conceived as implying duration at all. More crudely, infinitesimal motion may be apprehended as the incipience of motion, the state of the generatrix at the instant of commencing to move, or rather during the infinitesimally small time when it commences to move. . * A scalar, or vector “divided by”? a parallel vector is a purely abstract number, a mere ratio, px is to be understood: as p x 1,, where 1, is the vector unit, and p is an abstract number orascalar. As scalars have no Spatial properties, pqr etc. or xyz etc. have no other essential meaning than that they are the product of abstract numbers. ? It is essential that the motions be successive, and not simultaneous : a point for example moving in the direct # and y generates a line instead of the surface zy: it isthe path x, moving the distance y, or the path y, moving the distance z, that generates the surface. i” er . 260 G. H. KNIBBS. In homaloidal space the order of succession in the generative operations is indifferent, that is to say they are subject to the law of commutation. 6. Inverse fluxional generation and its laws.—The reduction of n-dimensional to (n — &) dimensional figures may be called inverse generation. Its scheme may be represented by the inverse operator <— denoting that the operation is reductive, It is evident therefore that :—A geometrical figure of » dimen- sions can be reduced to one of (nm — &) dimensions, by & successive motions or displacements, of the generatrices of n - 1, n — 2...n—k. dimensions in directions inversely parallel to those by which it was or could be generated. : In homaloidal space the order of reduction is indifferent : that is to say the inverse operations are (also) subject to the law of commutation. These two propositions are merely the obvious inverse of the preceding ones. 7. Zeros and infinities of n-dimensions.—The conception of n-dimensional numerical zeros and infinities is an essential in the logical use’ of any infinitesimal calculus, and as we have seen is immediately given by the consideration of spatial dimensions, as illustrated in (1), § 3. Though the matter has been the subject of some controversy, it is susceptible of perfectly rigorous expo- sition, as may be thus demonstrated *:— _ + This cannot be said of the formal use of such calculus. If a curve y=f («) were conceived to consist of points separated a 1st order infini- tesimal distance, the line joining any pair makes the angle @= tan! dy/dz with the axis wif the axes are orthogonal, which is sufficient for questions not affecting the deviations of the curve from this direction when second order infinitesimal distances are taken into account. The changes of 0 are d@/dx in the former case and d?6/dx? in the latter. This point will be considered later. 2 Much confusion on the conceptual character of zeros and infinities from a popular impression that they cannot be distinguished, since, it is thought, all relations between quantities must disappear at the point at which they vanish into nothingness, or when they transcend, as it is sup- posed, our powers of representation. But as has, and will be further ‘shewn, zeros aud infinities of various kinds are conceptual entities and are not without conceptual properties. To meet the difficulty indicated EE ee PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 261 A linear unit divided into m parts may be reconstituted by m elements of length 1/m; a surface unit, each unit side of which is divided into m parts, by m? elements of surface-area each 1?/m?; and similarly a unit quantum of ” dimensions, may be made up of m*” elements, each of 1"/m™ quantum.’ If now zero be defined as unity divided by infinity, that is if zeros and infinities are pure reciprocals, Viz. 0” ae 3000s, 007? ike BLE. .63(9)), where m may have any value whatever. Making m infinite the index and dimension are throughout identical, that is to say, we must admit the relations :— gal, beh, a SUG. .a0l 20) co»” The purely numerical relationships of n-dimensional zeros, of zero-value in each dimension, absolutely involves the admission of the idea of different orders of numerical zero, infinity, etc., as conceptually necessary; in fact no less necessary than that of a first order infinity. Apart however from the mere numerical development implied in spatial relationships, the ordinary linear conceptions involve at least two orders of infinity, for a finite line is conceptually admitted to be capable of subdivision into infinitely small parts, and on the other hand to increase to infinity. Con- sequently «=dx, =1, = o imply a range of om? at least.” Once the doctrine of limits has been developed, in which the object of study has been the relation of quantities at the point of their evanescence, or on the other hand when they become infinitely great. ‘There is no escape from the conception of the differential, and the doctrine of limits does not materially avoid this particular difficulty. Certain writers, e.g. Todhunter, see his Differential Calculus, Art. 26, treat the differential fraction ex- pressing the ratio of quantities at the point of evanishing, as a “whole,” instead of as the real ratio of actual infinitesimals, or ‘indivisibles.’ That is to say dy/dx is not to be regarded as areal relation between the zero quantity dy and the zero dz, but asan undecomposable ratio representing the limit of their real ratios at the point of vanishing of the quantities themselves. This introduces logical difficulty, when afterwards we find dz and dy on opposite sides of an equation, or when we are to integrate say f (x)dz. * The use of an index with unity defines its dimension. * In fact da/«=2/ x, that is to say where the infinitesimal and infinite are admitted as concepts at all, the commonest conception involves at least a second order of linear infinity. 262 G. H. KNIBBS. the difficulty even in linear quantities of conceiving an infinity of infinities is transcended, there can be no further conceptual difficulty in admitting infinities of any orders. Oe 0y == Vee ete. oa) 0), Fy = 0 05, ==) 08 w ete. i ee Menoe ee le Oe a Oa OL ay CLC 203) peace ee oe == 1 OF == OL, vete. pee oe oe, OL = tote. etc. etc, etc. etc. etc. It will be noticed that numerically 0), =0.1"~! or more generally OX = O*1>-*. Let the generated quanta be denoted by | a é a m b Flee | n c g k i) d h U “p they may be described as follows :—Linear elements, (a) a linear unit; (6) and infinite line, (c) an infinite line of the second order; (d) and infinite line of the third order. Surface elements, (e) a linear surface-zero, that is such as zero as would be represented by the parallelogram 1,0,; (/) a parallelogrammic surface unit ;? 1 That is a line such that its unit is an infinity of the first order, and its zero-element a unit of the first order. 2 If the axes are orthogonal, substitute “ rectangular”’ for ‘ parallelo- grammic”: if the units are also equal substitute “square.” 264 G. H. KNIBBS. (g) a surface of infinite length the other dimension being unity; (h) a surface infinite in both dimensions. Volume elements, (i) a linear volume-zerc, @ e. 1,0,0,; (7) a surface volume-zero, 7.e. 1%,0,; (k) a parallelepipedic unit volume’; (/) a volume of infinite length but of parallelogrammic unit dimensions. 4th dimensional elements, (m) a linear 4th dimensional zero, (1) a surface 4th dimensional-zero, 7.e. 1%,0%,; (0) a volume 4th dimensional-zero, Ngee 2 XYZ according as the axes are orthogonal or oblique. Throughout the 0,3 (p) an orthogonal or oblique 4th dimensional quantum, series (4) the division has been made in such a manner as to shew that the equivalence (horizontally) is dependent upon the extension of the several quantities infinitesimally into the higher dimensions, if the generated forms are to be continuous. 9. Zeros and infinities of successive orders.—The scheme of summational generation outlined, indicates that in rigorous mathematical thought, the conception of different orders of infinitesimals and of infinities” is essential, not merely as a purely formal numerical artifice, but as really representing the develop- mental or generative processes, without which conceptual continuity of geometrical figures would not be a possibility, Hence linear, surface, and volume infinities, etc., are properly distinguished as to their dimensions and also as to their powers. To develope the unit of any n-dimensional quantity’ from its proper zero, 2.e. from the zero which is (a first order) infinitesimal in every dimension» it is necessary to multeply not merely by infinity but by the nth. order of infinity, that is to say, as in (3a) OR x om = 1 If axes are orthogonal, and units are also equal, substitute ‘‘ cubic” for ‘‘parallelepipedic.” ? According to Riemann, (op. cit., Cap. 8, § 8, see Nature vitt., p. 36) questions about the infinitely great are useless in respect of the interpre- tation of Nature, but not questions about the infinitely small. Once it is admitted, however, that we are compelled to deal with a greater range than 0—1- @ viz. 0®-1"- a such a statement is logically defenceless, because magnitude is essentially relative. The interpretation of the infinitely great may sometimes be difficult, but that does not justify the dictum. 7 Or n-ply extended magnitude. See Riemann’s treatise, op. cit. Cap.- 1,$ 1 —- or PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 265 Inasmuch as an n-dimensional unit can be divided by an infinity of the mth order, and as, moreover, scale-differences do not con- ceptually limit our thought, there is no conceptual limitation to a similar division of any infinitesimal or zero quantity.' Hence numerically, the quantities of ordinary mathematical conceptions range at least between ile covand 10, "le; co", or, for ordinary tridimensional space, the higher limit must be at least 0°, 1°, o%, and it is now easy to see this last is only an artificial restriction. 10. Spatial continuity and its numerical expression. — Although, as has been shewn, it is logically essential to distinguish between a dimensionless point and an infinitesimal of any dimension, it is possible to employ the former in a perfectly definite and rigorous manner to define the development of geometrical figures; that is to say the dimensionless point may be taken as a sign or mark of the infinitesimal, its Jocus in space being to the first order of infinitesimal identical therewith, but not exhaustively so.’ Space being essentially a contenwum, and a plenum, the substitu- tion of dimensionless and therefore discrete points, in a mere numerical scheme for determining its quanta, v.e. portions marked 1 Or we may realise the inherent simplicity of the conception in this way:— We have no difficulty in conceiving that a finite !ine is a singly- infinite continuous series or group of infinitesimal lines; a finite plane area, is a doubly infinite continuous group of infinitesimal areas; a finite volume is a triply infinite continuous group of infinitesimal volumes; and generally a finite quantity of the nth dimension is an n-ply infinite continuous group of an infinitesimal of n-dimensions. Since these facts are numerically representable, there is no conceptual difficulty in extending our conception of infinity and infinitesimals to the higher orders of such quantities, ae 0, o" represent not merely numerical abstractions, but real ideas. ? This may be pictured as the point occupying the centre of the infini- tesimal, which latter, in relation to it, can be regarded, loosely of course, as absolutely infinite. In Cayley’s expositions of higher geometry, (e.g. the ‘‘ Sixth Memoir on Quantics,” Phil. Trans. Vol. 149, 1859, pp. 61 — 90) and in Henrici’s, the geometry is essentially discrete point geometry, and a row, range, or assemblage of points is distinguishable from the base, or line, surface etc., in which they lie, only when account is taken of higher orders of infinitesimals. Thus the equation, (* {a,y)™=0 may be variously interpreted, as soon as account is taken of the nature of the zero, 266 G. H. KNIBBS. off by boundaries, does not necessarily imply discontinuity.1 The point relations corresponding to (4) become simply - Magnitudes of Generated Quanta. “tin. = (1) (2) (3) (4) ete. 1 O90? 1 ORE a eke: oo Tt 20? 0? OF tere Oo. Fy nO teres Ae oo 0° eo? 062 tel? OM eee oot oo? | 60" Seo ees etc. etc. etc. ete. ete. which completely defines the purely numerical relationships of different dimensions, their infinities and infinitesimals. That mere numerical analyses of spatial properties are liable to lead to erroneous conclusions, is obvious on comparing (5) with (4). Thus if with Helmholtz, Lie, Poincaré, etc., we define the matter of ordinary geometry a ‘numerical multiplicity’ or ‘manifoldness’ (Zahlenmannigfaltigkeit)? of three dimensions, it ought to be understood that this applies only to its formal or purely numerical representation, and not to its spatial properties which are to be interpreted therefrom. In order to guard against erroneous deductions, this distinction between spatial quantities and mere numbers, 7.e. between vectors, rotors, etc., and scalars and abstract numbers generally, should be carefully preserved. | 4 xyZzw pletely written 1{ whenever the particular axes do not need Remembering that the geometrical figure 1 may be com- specification, the quanta X, Y, Z, W,...N, of regular figures, parallelograms, parallelepipeds, etc., whose sides parallel to the several axes may be expressed by the numbers 2, y, 2, w...etc., ' Riemann distinguishes between continuous or discrete manifoldness, calling the spatial specialisations of the former points, and of the latter elements; Op. cit. 1,§1. In English is not the reverse use preferable? A discrete manifold is strictly not space, but a distribution in space. 2 In general, number imperfectly represents quantity. The science of number, says Clifford, is founded on the hypothesis of the distinctness of things; but the science ot quantity on the totally different hypothesis of continuity. Juectures 1, 337. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. ., 267 meaning however w.1,, y.1,, etc., are fully defined by writing them, a eye, => Lys... == liayezw.. Jeter... (6) that is io say, xwyzw etc. is a mere scalar product, and the linear, square, cubic, quartic, n° value of X, Y, 7, W...N, depends wholly upon the value of the unit quantities 1;, 1}, ete.’ Thus it is quite immaterial whether the units parallel to the axes a, y, 2 etc. are unequal or equal. Ifthe former, and measured by some common linear unit they are a, b, ¢, d etc., and if also the axes instead of being orthogonal differ from 47 by the amounts $, x, WY, , etc., then in orthogonal n-dimensional units, coinciding with that by which a, 0, etc. are measured, 12 = (abed...)(cos > cos x cos y cos w...)...... (6a) Hence obviously the numerical representation of space, and the spatial interpretation of numerical values ought logically to be kept distinct. We observe also that the ordinary loose way of writing m0 =0, m/ o=0, 0/0 etc., makes operation upon such quantities subject to uncertainty, and further that o0 is unity,” only for equivalent dimensions, since Oo — am Oni) Com — OF aE is (7) No uncertainty can arise so long as scalar and vector parts of each operation, are carefully distinguished, and the real magnitudes of zero and infinities are retained. ll. Rotational generation.—Generation by rotations, or by rotation combined with axial motion, does not essentially differ from the latter alone, and is of course continuous, n-dimensional figures will of course, be generated by motion of an (n— 1)-dimen- sional generatrix whenever it moves into the »-th dimension. The total number of ways in which generative motion can take place, may be enumerated as follows, viz.:— 1 In practice the index and suffix are of course not required, because the number of axes 2, y, z etc. denotes both at the same time. Because in pure numbers 1x1 x...1 to n figures can be represented only by 1, we are apt to forget that 11 and 1" may be very different quantities. ? See Chrystal, Text Book of Algebra, 11., pp. 66 — 96, 1889. 268 G. H. KNIBBS. Dimensions (1) (2p yesh (4) Axial motions L ° By YOO Dy Ye oe Rotations in the planes 0 ay «ay, xz xy, xz, cw ye yz, 2w BP fey ZW Total dn(n+1) = oS Heaps Gin tae 10 that is to say the number of degrees of freedom of movement for n-dimensional space is evidently $n(+1), or, what is the same thing, each dimension increases the number of degrees of freedom by the number which expresses the dimension itself. To consider the point as the geometrical entity of dimension 0, is obviously consistent with this formula. The matter of this special form of generation, however, calls for no comment since it differs from that previously considered, only in regard to the figure of the element, and to the mere characteristics of the generative scheme, and not essentially. 12. Finitely and absolutely homaloidal 2-dimensional space.— Consider the expression in which a may have any positive or negative value from — oo” to + ow”. ITfin (9) xy denote a purely abstract product, and a an abstract number also, the equation implies a purely numerical relationship, between the three quantities, and one that, per se, is independent therefore of all questions as to a possible geometrical interpretation or significance. As such, that is as a purely numerical relationship, we notice that the scale of evther x or y can be increased m times, or both can be equally increased vm times, by multiplying a@ by m, or both can be increased m times by multiplying by m*. Hence there is no essential difference, excepting one of scale, in any uniform scheme of geometrical interpretation of this expression, 7.e. (9). For example, if the values of a be 0', 0?,...0" the reciprocal relations of x and y are completely detined by— PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 269 Values of a= +0! 0? atl Value of z or y. Values of y or #. oon += Qu+1 35 Qut2 Nar sy= Q2n oo 02 03 Quel 1 ol Q2 Je Ga Ol ol Ol a ee ee ...(10) 02 (eames re H iagn2 Pe a ee Passing now to a geometrical interpretation, if « and y are vectors, i.e. quantities parallel to two axes, whether orthogonal or inclined is immaterial,’ we may observe that tf (9) be understood as defin- - ing the dependence of y upon w anda, «.e. if it signify that y=a/a, then, the path P, traced by one terminal of the line y as its other terminal moves continuously along the z-axis from — o to + om, departs from that axis amounts which depend upon the orders of infinity and zero. Thus if a=0°, which is the normal form for 2=0', y=0', it will be noticed that y=0' for x=0'; while for 2=0°,0%,y=1, 0. Similarly if a be infinitely greater than 0°, i.e. if it be 0’, then the value of y is a first order infinitesimal from x= —l1tox= —(0'+6x) and at 0' becomes —1. For x= +0, y=+1, and for +(0'+6za) a first order infinitesimal as far as ole reducing to a second order infinitesimal for c= o. If conceptually we slur over the passing from - 0' to +0' as insig- nificant, we lose sight of the extension of the discontinuity from —1, +1, to — a", + wo”. The defect in continuity of a discrete point geometry, leaves therefore certain possibilities of interpre- tation unrevealed. If a=0* be multiplied by m’, it will become 1, which is equivalent to enlarging the scale infinitely in both dimensions. The graph then becomes two opposite hyperbolas, equilateral if the axes are orthogonal. The results for different values of x from plus to minus infinity of the first order, and slurring over the first order infinitesimals - 0! to +0', are y= —-0' -l1—~-awm+o +1 +0)! that is the discontinuity is from minus to plus infinity. If how- 1 The axis may also be curved or straight, provided “parallel” is suitably defined. 270 G. H. KNIBBS, ever the higher orders of infinities and infinitesimals be considered, the zeros and infinities become also of higher order, and the dis- continuity correspondingly augmented. The importance therefore of distinguishing between the dimen- . sionless point, and the infinitesimal of any dimension, and also the necessity of admitting the conception of different orders of infinitesimals and infinities now more fully appears.!. The matter may be brought into a still clearer light by observing that if we regard the x-axis asa mere assemblage of points separated by infinitesimal distances of the first order, and the y terminals as the corresponding or dependent assemblage P, then the graph of xy =0°, is to the first order infinitesimal wndistinguishable from the x-axis itself. But if we interpolate between this assemblage a second infinite series, this is no longer true. The conception of absolute continuity, requires that there be no limit to this interpo- . lative process; hence, if « vary in an absolutely continuous manner, viz., in the way an absolutely dimensionless point may be conceived as moving upon or generating a line, then it follows that the sur- face necessary to completely define the graph must admit of absolute extension, for the order of the infinity, must coincide with the order of the infinitesimal. Conceptual space? is subject to no limits except those which limit the operation of human thought, and hence the “dreary infinities of homaloidal space,”’ must include the concept of what may be called pure homaloidal space, viz., 1 And the significance of successive differentiation is correspondingly enhanced. 2 Tt is remarkable to find the phrase the ‘space of experience’ employed as if it were a thing to be investigated, instead of an a priori concept in terms of which we are obliged to explain phenomena. ‘This is a matter which we shall further discuss. See Whitehead, Universal Algebra, Vol. 1., footnote p. 499. 3 Clifford, Lectures and Essays, Vol.1., pp. 322-3, Mathematical Works xlvi. Pure homaloidal space, may be popularly defined as that in which a point travelling pckrgoee never returns upon its path. Imagine two points so moving, one vastly faster than the other. ‘Then in infinite time, the journey of ie faster would be vastly greater than that of the more slowly moving point; if intinitely faster, then though the first point would have travelled an infinite distance the latter would have travelled an infinity of such infinities. Conceptually there is no limit to the ‘dreary infinities’’ of such space. PRINCIPLE OF CUNTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 271 that which is absolutely homaloidal, or at least homaloidal to an infinite order of infinity. We may call a surface that is plane for finite geometrical figures, but not for their infinite enlargement, finitely homaloidal, and since such a surface must be infinite, it is a finitely-homaloidal infinite surface. Similarly a surface homaloidal for geometrical figures of infinite magnitude may be described as homaloidal to infinity of the first order. These may be defined as an homaloid of the Ist order and of 2 dimensions; and of the 2nd order, of 2 dimensions. 13. Resolution of discontinurties in 2-dimensional curves, through infinite paths in 3-dimensional space.—In absolutely homaloidal (conceptual) space every point on a straight line divides it, as we have seen, into absolutely infinite branches, which are consequently absolutely discontinuous. If at a point A, on the straight line, a tangent circle of infinite radius! be drawn, the deflection dy say, of a point B on the line, distant « from A is © dy = 4 O'n? +4 O%a*+ ete......... (11) which is zero? for all finite values of x, it follows that every finite straight line may be regarded as the circumference of a circle of infinite radius, the centre of which circle, however, lies indifferently in any point of a circle of equal infinite radius, the locus of the possible centres being in a plane perpendicular to the line. The distinction consequently between +o and -o may either be regarded as generally evanescent, or at least as evanescent at the opposite or antipodal point on an infinite circle or infinite spherical surface, that is at least for figures of finite dimensions. Schemati- cally, therefore, we can move a point along a line AB in two ways, either through the finite path, or the infinite one, the directions of motions being opposite’; or algebraically + a= — 20 +a, that 1 First order infinity. 2 A first order zero. 3 See Henrici, Article Geometry, Encyc. Brit. X., 389; also Luigi Cremona, Elements of Projective Geometry (trans. Leuesdorf) Chap. vit. § 52, p. 44, 1885. Infinity is thus the total circle, hence its radius is symbolically 0/27. 272 G. H. KNIBBS. is' -20 =0= +20. That this is an essentially artificial representation” is evident from the following considerations, viz.: 1° The discontinuity is resolved through an infinite path of the first order, but cannot be resolved within the dimension itself. 2° Though it can be resolved in space of higher dimension, even that space has no unique position, since the circle of continuity may be anywhere on the surface of an infinite tore, see Fig. 1. 3° The curvature is zero only for finite geometrical figures, and to the first order of infinitesimal,’ and is consequently distinguishable from the lesser curvature of linear ‘“‘space” of a higher order of infinity. This scheme of resolving infinite discontinuity can be extended to space of any dimensions by infinite wnbounded figures of a higher dimension. Reverting to equation (9), if we put a= 0! and treat x as the independent and y as the dependent variable, we obtain the following values e+ o, + 0?; y= +0, + that is the equation represents two straight lines apparently* crossing one another at whatever angle x makes with the y axis. On a sphere of infinite radius (of the first order) and therefore of (first order) zero curvature, these may be represented as in Fig. 2, by the lines O’X’OY’O'YOXO’X’, developed in that order. The order and the resolution of the discontinuity, are better illustrated by the hyperbolas A) aan Casi a (12), shewn by the heavier lines with arrows indicating the direction of progression, the generation being — to +. The lines are the locus P, the terminals of y, its distance from x continually satisfy- ing (12). When the radius OC is finite, the curves will lie on opposite sides of the axes XOX’, YOY’, as shewn Fig. 2, but when it is infinite, they are distant only 0'/4m from the axes; hence, 120 is sometimes regarded as the limit of the even numbers. See Wead, Some discontinuous and indeterminate functions. Phil. Soc. Washington, Bull. xiv., p. 66, 1900. . 2 That is a purely schematic representation always distinguishable from the rigorous representation. 3 As may be seen by multiplying (11) by infinity. * It will be seen that the y line does not really cross the « line. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. Ws rejecting any consideration of infinitesimals of the second order, both curves may be supposed to cross the axes at the point. . In this view, the differences between + and —, may be so construed as to lose their significance when applied to infinity, and by this scheme four infinite discontinuities disappear and disclose a single pseudo-continuous curve, which in relation to other finite figures, at finite distances from the origin, fulfils the requirements of ordinary physical interpretations. There is of course no limit to the resolution of discontinuities of this type. For example the curve x(a —1)(a% —2 yo [P= ag has six branches, represented in Fig. 3, forming on the infinite sphere a (pseudo) continuous line. On a spherical surface the discontinuity of the small oval figure—see Fig. 3a—from x=0 to z=1, remains unresolved. This however is resolvable on a different surface as will now be shewn. A curve of the type By Vie: (14) y being the dependent variable, gives four hyperbolic curves, two R—Dec. 4, 1901. 274 G. H. KNIBBS. real for plus values of «, and two imaginary for minus values. If we take z =7y perpendicular to the xy surface,’ the several branches can be represented as continuous on what may be called a double Cassinian tore, or lemniscate double-tore, that is to say, two solid rings in contact and of such form that the section is a lemniscate. The polar equation of this section being p? = cos 20, gives two tangents perpendicular to one another, the axes y and z. Figures 4 and 5 shew the development of the surface. The plane of the lemniscate OO”O"”’ contains the axes YY and ZZ, and the axis XX is perpendicular thereto. The positive branches lie in the surface xy and the negative in the surface «z.? The double toroidal surface will allow the previous curve, (13), to be also continuously represented, but its various branches will unite somewhat differently in order to include the imaginary parts of the curve; contrast Figs. 3 and 6. In the latter figure the curve, Z’ O etc., lies in the xz plane, as also does the curve from Ato B. From O to A, and from B onward, the curve is in the zy plane. It will be noticed that the double toroidal surface requires the continuity to be established in the order shewn by the dots; Fig. 6. By making the radius of the sphere, or the parameters of the curves, of a higher order of infinity, the continuity is developed to a higher order of infinitesimal, and to this process there is no _con- * ceptual limit, that is the pure plane is of absolute-zero-curvature, or rather, has no curvature at all. 14. Infinitesimal approximation and absolute identity in differ- ential coefficients.— We have seen that the resolution of a discon- tinuity through infinite paths gives nothing more than pseudo- continuity, and that conceptually we can always recognise the purely formal and artificial nature of the continuity thus apparently attained. In practical applications the matter is of no moment, 1 See § 33 hereinafter. 2 In Fig. 5 one tore lies or fits within the other. In order that the infinities should be identical in magnitude, the loop of the lemniscate ought to be equal in length to the circle OXO’X, hence one must be above the other as in the shaded part of Fig. 5. Itis easily shewn that the length of the loop is expressed by an elliptic integral of the first kind. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 279 since the range from the first order infinitesimal to the first order infinity necessarily transcends practical requirements. In testing the conceptual validity of spatial theories however, these things are no longer unimportant. That the infinitesimal calculus affords a clear illustration of the essential difference between infinitesimal approximation and absolute identity, may be readily illustrated by considering the difference between a curve that is the path of a moving point, and one which is merely a range of discrete points. Let for example € and 7 denote the coordinates, with the same axial directions, of any point in the curve y=at+bat+cu?+ da’ +ete.......... (15) from some point x, y as origin, in the curve itself: then we shall have pee 06s DE ott Beodiie (16) B being the differential coefficient of (15), C half the differential coefficient of B, etc... If €=0', the term C0! is an infinitesimal of the first order compared with JS, and therefore has-a value of which no numerical account can be taken, so long as B is finitely expressed, but has a finite value if the right hand member of (16) be multiplied by infinity, shewing that the tangent to the curve at the point €=0'is not absolutely the true tangent at the origin, but really differs therefrom infinitesimally. The tangent at the point €¢=0’ evidently more closely approximates’ to the tangent at the origin, since the C term is infinitely reduced. The difference is of course conceptual only, since it can only be expressed sym- bolically, and not numerically. Nevertheless once it is recognised that there is no escape from admitting different orders of infinity and therefore of infinitesimals, as conceptual entities, the distinction is not unimportant in discriminating what are really geometrical forms in space, and the space itself in which these forms are con- ceived to exist, and of which they constitute quanta. The admission of higher orders of infinitesimals renders intel- ligible the conception, that although quantities may be reduced 1 B=dy/dx; C=}, d*y/dxz?; D=4,d%y/dxz*?; etc. ? Is infinitely closer. y 276 G. H. KNIBBS. to zero of any particular order, yet to higher orders, the zeros have successive differences. Thus we realize that the method of finite differences leads to identical results with the infinitesimal methods, only because a contenuous curve is supposed to be drawn through the successive points determined by the scheme of differences. When in equation (16), 7/€ becomes dy/dx, we see that the principle of continuity demands a recognition, that no matter how far the order of infinitesimal is carried back in the conception of differenti- ation, the infinitesimal stretch of the curve ds= v (dx? +dy?) approximately contains deviations from the chord, identical in character with that represented by the equation itself, but of course reduced in scale. The same remark applies to curves of ‘double curvature,’ the continuity of tortuosity as well as of curvature, is conceptually carried back indefinitely." We see therefore that a curve of discrete points, is essentially different from a continuous curve; and the chord drawn through two points infinitesimally distant, is clearly different from the tangent to the absolutely continuous curve through either, no matter what the order of the infinitesimal. It may be said that the necessity for admitting an indefinitely great order of infinity will appear just as unequivocally, in the theory of metrics, of projective distance, of curved surfaces, and of parallels. We shall now refer to these. 15. The theory of metrics.—By von Staudt’s theorem,’ all quadri- laterals KLMN in planes containing the line or range ACBD, so constructed that pairs of opposite sides, KL, MN, shall meet: in the point A, while the other pairs of opposite sides LM, KN shall meet in B, and the diagonals KM shall pass through OC, will * A curve of any character may be regarded as a one-dimensional region or ‘space,’ defined in relation to other spatial elements by its equation: treating it as a closed region can lead to no defect in mere physical appheations, if the path be infinite. To treat plus and minus infinity as identical is none the less mere artifice, and it is only in the artificial sense, that ‘‘a one-dimensional region is to be conceived as a closed region, such that two elements divide it into two parts.” See Whitehead, Universal Algebra, Vol. I., p. 168. 2 Geometrie der Lage, Art 93. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 207 have their remaining diagonals LN so determined as to pass through the one point D, see Fig. 7. These points ABCD taken in that order are called an harmonic range,' and the cross- or anharmonic ratio* thereof, viz., AC/BC ; AD/BD=(ABCD)= —-1...... (17) that is to say the anharmonic ratio of four harmonic elements is always —1.° An harmonic range possesses the property that if it be projected through any point S on to any other straight line, the projection A’B’C’D’ will also be harmonic; (Fig 7.). If A’B'C"D" be drawn absolutely parallel to DS, DS will never meet A’O": or as it is usually put, it will ‘meet at infinity.” If AC be a unit distance, +1, A being the origin, and AC=CB, then D> will be ‘at infinity,’ the anharmonic (or cross-) ratio being eich ya) bso Lets. (18) Bad Thus for a first order infinity the anharmonic ratio would differ mmfinitesimally from — 1; and it cannot have the value - | even if the infinity is absolute. Geometrically this may be illustrated by drawing A’C” = B’O” =1, and the line C’D” being om”, the defect from parallelism is the infinitesimal angle, say 2/ «”, of the same order as the infinity. Hence NL is always inclined to AD by infinitesimal angles, and D can never be indifferently on either side of C, as is generally assumed. This result may be stated in another form. Let O bea point midway between A and B so that OA=—1;OB=+1. As C approaches O, the harmonically related point D moves away from B, in such a manner that OD.OC=1. For let OD =a, and OC =é, then (17) may be written ee etl = ee | Mee ey , whence * And are determined by the symbol (ABCD). Mébius, Barycentrische Calcul, § 183. If two circles cut one another orthogonally any diameter of either is divided harmonically. Poncelet, Traité des propriétés pro- jéctives, Art. 79. Paris, 1822. ? Clifford and Henrici prefer the term “cross-ratio”’ to Chasles’ term anharmonic ratio. ? Mobius, loc. cit. * That is never in an absolutely homaloidal space. 278 G. H. KNIBBS. the same type of equation as (12)... The points C and D are conjugate, with respect to the orzgin O and the unit distance OB, and the distances OC and OD are reciprocals. As the point C moves from B, z.e. +1, through the origin O to A, ie. —1, the conjugate point D moves from + «to — o. This is the basis of the rectilinear system of metrics, that is a system which can be developed by drawing straight lines only, and it is immediately evident from Fig. 7 that a line of any definite ratio to the unit OB, can be so found. The anharmonic ratio of any range of four points, (ABCD), is unaffected by projection,” consequently if two rauges each of four points are projective they are eguianharmonic,’ and hence if three collinear points A, B, C, are given, a fourth D may be found such that the anharmonic ratio of the range ABCD shall be any given number X either positive or negative.* The conjugacy of points in an harmonic range, and the anharmonic ratio, are the foundation of the theory of distance, to which we shall later refer ; the con- jugacy however can be otherwise established, consequently a system of metrics and therefore a theory of distance can be founded without recourse to the anharmonic ratio, we shall see that con- jugate points are determined by the rotation of a circle round a point on its circumference, the circle having a fixed tangent opposite the point of rotation: the intersections of the circle and the antipodal tangent with a line through the centre of rotation define the specified points. In Fig. 8 let the circles OCA’, OC’B” rotate about the point O on the line D'OD. When the diameters of unit length A’O, OB’ are perpendicular to that line the point C is identical with O, as the circle rotates C and D move towards 1 Putting OB = + a, we get #&€ =a* nota. Therefore we write 1? not 1. When C is identical with B so alsois D identical therewith, hence: a& = 1x1. The anharmonic ratio is an abstract number not a unit quantum. 2 Pappus, Mathematicae Collectiones, Lib vi1., prop. 129. 3 Townsend, Modern Geometry, Art. 278. See also Steiner, Systema- tische Entwickelung der Abhiangigkeit etc., p. 33, § 10, Berlin 1882. + Chasles, Géométrie supérieure, p. 10, Paris 1852. a PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 279 B, becoming identical therewith simultaneously. That C and D are conjugate, in respect of OB as unit length, is obvious, since if the angle A’OA” =ODA’ = 6, and if the diameter of the circle be a, we shall have OD =a cosec 0, OC=a sin 0; hence, as before, denoting these quantities by x and € respectively f= OD) . OU, = «a cosee 7 o sin 0 =a’....:. (20) the same equation as before, when a is unity. Continuity as between plus and minus infinity may, in these examples, be variously represented and interpreted. Two illustra- tions will suffice. In Fig. 9, suppose the point C’ to move from A, (= —1 from O) in the positive direction, the conjugate point D’ will move from A in the negative direction. When C’ is at the origin O, D’ may be conceived to be at the antipodal point’ O’, as C” continues to move towards B, D” moves towards B from the antipodal point. The formal advantage of this is, that the double infinite discontinuity at the moment of crossing O is apparently resolved.2 For a discrete point geometry, the points on the range being separated by zero distances of the first order, OO’ need be an infinity also of the first order only. In obtaining D’ or D” by construction, let the line ANM and the point N be fixed, then as C’ moves positively, the intersecting diagonals move continuously counterclockwise from the line NM to NB. Since the line NL, is parallel to AB it will ‘meet it at + oo, hence the intersection by NL’ may, by a fiction, be considered as beyond infinity.’ On an infinite spherical surface the line D'NL’ will intersect the line AOBO’ at the point antipodal to D’, that is at infinity therefrom, hence that intersection is ignored; and the second intersection, viz. at D’ (or the nearer intersection in the plane is D’OO'D’. 2 Tf C” continues, D’” moves towards O, reaching it when C'' reaches O' and so on. 3 The intersecting lines from N through B, D” etc., moving clockwise, reach infinity when the moving point reaches O, moving from Bb, conse- quently the more divergent line may be conceived to intersect at a point still further away. This ‘further away’ however is not of the nature of a higher degree of infinity, 1.e. it is not ow” 280 G. H. KNIBBS. direction L'N) is alone taken as the conjugate. The fact that the intersection antipodal to D’ must be ignored, shews that the interpretation is purely formal and not without inconsistency. The other method of resolving the discontinuity in determining the conjugate points C and D is illustrated in Figs. 10, 11 and 12. Let the circle OB be of unit diameter measured on the surface of an infinite sphere of which OO’ is the radiws and upon which it lies. Then since OB is finite and OO’ infinite, B will be only infinitesimally distant from a sphere of which OO' is the diameter. If the plane O’OB, Fig. 10, or O'OA” Fig. 11, be made perpen- dicular to the plane O’AOB in either figure, the point C will be at O, and D at O” Fig. 12; O'O" being perpendicular to O’O. But the quadrant OKO” is equal to the semicircle ODO’, since any projection from O’ through any point D to E makes the ares OD, OE equal,’ hence instead of regarding D as at O”, we may treat it as at O’. Similarly for any rotation 6 from the vertical position, A’OA", see Figs. 8, 10, 11, the real conjugate points should be C and E, but D may be substituted so long as the angle 0 is measured at H, not at D.*? For finite distances the error of this representation will be infinitesimal,* both in respect of the 1 And will be the greatest distance. 2 We may call the curvilinear triangle ODE a curved isosceles triangle. 3 The inclination of the planes may of course be measured at D: that inclination will be 0, see next footnote. * Let the several angles be denoted by letters as follows :— EOA”’=37-0; OA”E=37; OEA”=¢q; O0/A”=a;. OC=y, measured on the sphere of which O’ is the centre; OH=§; E being on the same sphere: then by spherical trigonometry 2 COs p = cos a cos @ =(1- 5 +) cos 6. But a is a first order zero, hence cos ¢ differs only insimitesimally from cos @ for infinite distances. Again tan 6 =tan a cosec 0 tan 3y = tan 3a sin 0. hence 2 tan 4y tan 6=2 tan 3a tan a. Consequently yo=a7?+ 3, (5a4 — dy® - 4y63)+4+ ete. Taking the radius as infinity, oes last is equivalent to —n2 OF 2 2 2 fe=a ae (5a? -c?-d?) + etc. } which so long as d is finite can be only infinitesimally in error. The neglected terms are smaller still. Consequently the error of the scheme is infinitesimal. ’ 3 7 PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 281 angle at D and the distances OC and OD. Nevertheless the fact that the circle OA’C, Fig. 11, is not in absolute contact with eS ere Speed 3 8 Fig9 oe le ai ar | oo ele : Fig. 12 Cc OBDO’, that the angle at E, and still more that at D, is infini- tesimally in error, and that OC. OD is not absolutely equal to a” (or 1”), sufficiently establishes the purely formal nature of the representation through which +0 and —o are identified as spatially the same point. In essence it is equivalent to treating lines as parallel which meet at a sufficiently distant point. 16. The projective theory of distance.—In his “Sixth Memoir on Quantics,”! Cayley developed what is generally known asa ‘“‘theory of distance,” but what would be more readily understood if defined as ‘‘a projective theory of distance,” that isa theory which applies not only to actual points in space, but also to their representation in projections.” This theory was extended, simplified, and its application to non-euclidean geometry pointed out by Klein.*? The 1 Phil. Trans., Vol. cxi1x., pp. 61 — 90, 1859. ? Space may also be conceived to vary in what may be called its intensity: the theory of distance would apply with certain simple assump- tions as to the law of variation of this intensity. 3 Ueber die sogenannte nicht-euklidische Geometrie. Math. Amal., Bd. iv., 1871. 282 G. H. KNIBBS. -nature of the theory may be explained as follows:—Let in Fig. 13, A, K, L, M, N, B at o be any series of points on a natural scale, on one line, viz. the heavy one, projected from the point § on to another line—the projections being aklmnb. Calling the heavy one the natural line, and the light one its projection, we observe that although the projection-lengths on the left are greater than the natural lengths, they become equal,’ and then shorter, till finally the infinite distance NB is projected into the finite distance nb. In the opposite direction the finite distance AP, Fig. 14, is projected into an infinite line, a—p at o. Assuming that equal stretches of the natural line, are in every way comparable, (con- gruent) and observing that the projective-ratio is continually changing, we reach the idea of a line of non-uniform linear intensity, so that if 6S be a small element on the natural line, and os its projection-equivalent, the intensity may be defined by the ratio 6S/ds. Since the anharmonic ratio or its equivalent, or functions thereof are independent of the intensity, that ratio may be utilised to establish a theory of distance which will apply either to lines of uniform, or to lines of non-uniform intensity while ordinary conceptions of distance properly.apply only to lines of uniform intensity.” Take any pair of points a, 0, as reference points, then the anharmonic ratio of any other pairs together with these, viz. (klab), (lmab), (kmab), may be written py, Pimy Proms then we shall have’ 1 For the stretches LM, lm. 2 The subjective idea of a traveller suffering ever-increasing fatigue, as to equal actual distances, takes the form of continual increase of linear value. A crank pin rotating uniformly about a centre, moves a piston- rod at one moment with its own velocity, in about a quarter of a revolu- tion afterwards the rate of motion of the piston-rod has fallen to zero. The uniform recession of a pursued object may cause the pursuit to con- tinually regrede till its actual rate is zero. Illustrations might be indefinitely multiplied as to the idea of intensity of related spatial elements. 3 Measured by any units (e.g. the distance AK) the points k,l, m may be defined as k, or A, or #, froma; and’, or A’, or pw’, from b (which may be denoted by the symbols ka + k'b, Na + X’b, pa + pb); then the anharmonic ratios of the ranges, and the products of the ratios, are identically KA As at, Pua Pim == 75, -2)_.\ 75) an aoe KA New kK and similarly for any number of ranges. Hence taking logarithms, we have (21) above. The points must be so taken as to give a positive ratio. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 283 loss pare log, pin — logs pia--+.<%-- (21) where the logarithm may be to any base c. Hence log, p,,; may be defined as the projective distance between any two points & and J, and is determined by the place, not merely of the points them- selves, but in relation to two reference points viz. a and b, which therefore may be called the absolute point-pair. Since the points AKL...B and akl...b are projective, and therefore equianharmonic, the projective distances of corresponding points are also identical, although, as in the illustration, one of the points B is ‘at infinity.’ Reverting now to § 15 and to formula (18), it is easy to see that this proposition is only infinitesimally approximate’ for a first order infinity, but is more nearly true for a higher infinity. If - only one of the points 4, / is between a and 6 the anharmonic ratio is negative, hence the distance as defined is impossible.” If the points be in the order adk/, and a be infinitely distant from 6, then the anharmonic ratio becomes simply the ratio of the distances bl : bk that is say 1/k if 1 and & are reckoned from 6. Hence if k become identical with 6 the anharmonic ratio is infinite unless at the same time a becomes identical with 6, then itis 1. If J is at infinity the anharmonic ratio £/ is the ratio of ak : bk, 1.e. say «/k’. Consider the finite range abk, and suppose « to move from — from a, across abk to +o from a, then the distance ak being denoted by a and bk by £, the anharmonic ratio and distance D have the following values, x being always reckoned from a. gz = — w™to— 0” |+ O° to+(a- 6-0") | (a-6+0"toa+to a” gal S/o enor h |e OM x. a o AL Toon atl 3 Lo D=-y _,— o™”| Impossible + o™ siege 29s For the range akb however, ak=a and bk= — f the results are:— xe = — w"to— 0" {+0"toa to (a +6 —0")| (a +640") to + a” Pa= —B/a,,—- OP /+0",, 1 ,, + a™ | — a » —P/a D = Impossible |-—,”,, 0 ,, + a™ Impossible These discontinuities are not representable except on an homaloid 1 The infinitesimal and infinite will be of the same order. 2 Since it would be the logarithm of a negative number. There is a sense in which it may be called imaginary. 284 .G. H. KNIBBS., of the same order, or a surface whose radius of curvature is an infinity of higher order. The graphs of the two cases are pseudo- continuously represented in (a) and (b) respectively of Fig. 15, the ratio being represented on the y axes corresponding to any value of x. The regions of impossibility indicate that the limitation of the definition of distance is identical with that which requires that we shall regard the operation of taking the logarithm of a negative number, as an impossible one.' A curious result is that the ‘distance’ £/ is infinitesimally near zero whatever the actual magnitude, if a and 6 be minus and plus infinity from & and J, or from / and &, since it is D,, = lee pa —log (1 =e ete eee (22) CO d denoting the length &l. The points a and 6 need not be real, but the case does not call for special consideration as regards the principle of continuity. 17, The theory of linear intensity.—It has already been noticed that the elements of projection lines are not necessarily uniform in their intensity. Consider in Fig. 14, the successive projection of the points 7, 9, p, a, , 6, it is obvious that no difficulty will be introduced by asswming, in tracing the correspondence from minus infinity (R) to plus infinity (B), that the progression commences at rand ends at 6, the same point. This is of course purely schematic, for no consistent antipodal scheme of representation can be developed, (see Figs. 2, 9, 10, 11. 12). Nevertheless algebraically it will give consistent results for the intensity of the projected line. Defining, as before, intensity as the ratio of the real to the projected length, 7.e. J=6S/és, see Fig. 13, it may easily be shewn that if PS=f, Sb=g the angle of intersection BLO= 4, and NSO = 6, then the elements being infinitesimal, we shall have pod. .f, ane ae ae 82g sin? 6 1 It is easy to see that by changing the sign, or reforming the range, Dy may have a real value, PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE, 285 ; Bat So INN hence for 0=0° or 180°, Jis infinite; and when 6+ 0=180° or 0°; I is zero; the infinity and zero being of the same order. Again if f be zero, that is if S be infinitesimally close to the line RB, I becomes zero, for all finite values of ¢ and 0 excluding zero; con- versely if g be zero, / being finite, that is if S be infinitesimally _ close to the line ad, then J is infinite for all finite values of ¢ and @ excluding zero. As soon as different orders of infinitesimals are considered, it will be seen that the infinities must be of the same order ; and not only so, but by operating on the ratio //g, so as to make it an infinity or zero of any required order, we can by similar or the converse treatment of 0, obtain infinities or zeros either of a still higher order, or on the other hand may maintain the intensity constant. This would not be true if the lunes were infinitesimally curved, i.e. if p at oo were really p’ at oo, see Fig. 14. 18. Space of non-uniform intensity.—The idea of spatial varia- tion of intensity, which has been illustrated in the preceding section, for a line, through linear projection, may be applied to 286 G. H. KNIBBS. space of any dimensions.’ The variation in the case illustrated ranges between zero and infinity in a simple manner, which may be defined by the equation T'=k sin ($+) cosec @......... (23a). The projections of curves however will give lines of more complex variations of intensity. In the generation of geometrical figures, the generating elements may be assumed to follow any particular law of intensity in moving along, or in rotating about any axis, and consequently the generated space will not be homogeneous or isotropic,” though it may be homaloidal. Geometries of such space are possible; the intensities may preferably be supposed to vary with absolute continuity. 19. Complex Space.—Not only may space be assumed to be non-uniform in intensity, so that the spatial distribution of intensity shall follow any assigned law, but it may be supposed further to conform to different laws in respect of different properties. Such Space may be called complex eolotropic space. Geometries which attempt to take simultaneous account of a series of laws of intensity will necessarily be extremely difficult. 20. Space of positive and negative curvature.—As already stated in supposed more general conceptions of ‘‘space” euclidean is pro- posed to be treated as a merely special or limiting case. ‘‘Space” in which two “straight” lines* can intersect only once, is known as hyperbolic space, and is infinite in some higher sense than 1 So far as I am aware, the formal recognition of intensity as applicable to any existing thing is due to Kant. See op. cit. ‘“‘Anticipationen der Wahrnehmung.”’ “ Das Princip derselben ist: Inallen Erscheinungen hat das Reale, - was ein Gegenstand der Empfindung ist, intensive Grosse, d.ieinen Grad. So hat demnach jede Empfindung, mithin auch jede Realitat in der Erscheinung, so klein sie auch sein mag, einen Grad, . die noch immer vermindert werden kann, und zwischen Realitat und Negation ist ein kontinuirlicher Zusammenhang méglicher Realitaten ...’ Elementarlehre, Buch 11. Haupst 2, Abschn. 3 ii. * Such conceptions are frequently realisable in physics, as for example an electric or magnetic field, variations in the density of bodies, non- uniform distributions of heat or other forms of energy, etc. These may all be regarded as space of non-uniform intensity, and asuitable geometry could be developed for each type of variation. * Defined as the shortest lines between any two 2 Se and supposed to be like the similar lines on three-dimensional surfaces. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE, 287 euclidean space, which latter, being the lower limiting form of hyperbolic space is called parabolic, or homaloidal (1.¢. ‘‘even” or “flat” space’). This also isinfinite. Space in which two straight lines intersect twice, is defined as elliptic space; its upper limit being parabolic, 1.e. infinite space, and its lower a point!’ Elliptic space has been divided into the single-, or the polar form, in which every line returns into itself (and two intersecting straight lines intersect really in the one point only, the second intersection being coincident with the original one); and the double or antipodal form, in which the second intersection is the antipodes of the first. Elliptic space is presumed to be finite in volume,’ if its ‘“‘constant” were not finite, it would be undistinguishable from parabolic space. Since a line cuts any plane only in one point, in the polar form of elliptic space, a single plane cannot divide it: two planes however can. In the antipodal form, since a straight line cuts it in two points, a plane does divide the space. Hyperbolic space is also divided by a plane. If any three points are taken in elliptic or hyperbolic space, and joined by “straight” lines, to form a triangle of area A, then its angles will be greater than 180° by the amount that is nwmerically greater in elliptic space since p is then positive, and numerically less in hyperbolic space, since p is then negative, 1 Not surface. 2 This latter limit to the conception is never insisted on: all thatis urged (Clifford, Chrystal and many others) is that its volume is finite though unbounded, in the sense that the surface of a sphere is unbounded. It is left to the reader to satisfy himself whether a three-dimensional figure, i.e. a volume, can be unbounded and finite. The scale of the ficure is of no moment: if the conception has validity it may be a microscopic quantum, an yet unbounded space. It is hardly necessary to add, that it is not a volume with an unbounded surface, but an unbounded volume. 3 The greatest distance of two points is 8, an absolute linear constant characterising the space: it is the distance one would have to travel on the straight line to return to the point of starting. In single elliptic space we should return inverted, as in passing along a tape rejoined after putting a ‘half-twist’ in it, and would have to traverse the distance 2S to become erect again! See Klein, Math. Annal. vi.; Chrystal, Proc. R.S. Edinb., x., 655. The volume of single elliptic space is V = 7? p*? =S3 |r. fp being the radius of curvature. 288 G. H. KNIBBS. p itself being a linear constant characteristic of the space, and analogous to the radius of curvature of a surface. This briefly indicates the chief properties of the two types of curved space. 21. Geometrical illustration of elliptic and hyperbolic space.— Suppose in Fig. 16, PRQS denote a sphere (2.e. a surface of con- stant positive curvature) whose centre is O. The shortest distances (geodesics) on its surface will be parts of great circles not greater than a semicircle; and are the analogues, on the sur- face, of straight lines on a plane.’ If the line EDD'F be equidistant from the great circle RA A‘S,? it does not define the shortest distant between the several points: these would be parts of great circles indicated by the dotted lines from point to point, and would not form one and the same geodesic, i.e. the angles EDQ, QDD’, etc., are less than right angles, if reckoned between the geodesics, and the line DQ etc., but are right angles only if reckoned from the equidistant line, Q being the pole of RAS. If R be the pole of PADQ, then the angles RAD, RDA, EDA are all right angles; hence there cannot be parallel or equidistant geodesics : that is, no figure on a surface of constant positive curvature can have its opposite sides equal and parallel and its four angles right angles, From the figure ADD’A, taking the dotted line DD’, it is easy to see that the sum of the internal angles exceeds four right-angles, and that of the angles of the triangle ABO, exceeds two right angles. This excess is always A area where A is the area of the figure and p’ and p” are the principal radii or curvature® at right angles to one another and p? is equal to their product, or in the sphere is the square of the radius. * A surface (the rectifying developable) can be drawn through any geodesic, in such a way that when it, the surface, is flattened into a plane (developed), the curve is a straight line. _ 2 Like a parallel of latitude to the Equator on a map of the Earth. 3 Or the product of the radii of curvature in any two directions at right angles to one another. —_——= 4 PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 289 Fig. 17 denotes the saddle-shaped surface of (variable) negative curvature, the centre of curvature of BCB’ being O and that of BOS, 0’, CO and CO’ being opposed directions on the one line.? The system of meridians on the surface, cutting one another at right angles (like RAS, RDS, RQS, and PAQ, PA’Q, PSQ, Fig. 16) are RR’, TT’, CB, AD, UU’, 8S’, and RCS, GH, IJ, etc. If AD’ is equidistant from CB, the shortest distance between those points is nearer to CB than the equidistant line, and similarly if D’F is equidistant from IJ, the geodesic is nearer AS: the fine dotted lines indicate their positions, A triangle ABC has the sum of its angles Jess than two right angles, or a quadrilateral BCAD*’, less than four right angles, the amount of the defect being expressed by formula (24a).° As in the previous example parallel and equidistant geodesics cannot exist on a surface of constant negative curvature. By analogy the two classes of surfaces suggest the possible existence of types of n-dimensional space, in which a system of ‘straight’ (!) lines* cutting another ‘straight’ line at right angles, should either converge and meet (elliptic space) or diverge and therefore never meet (hyperbolic space). It will be observed that the doctrine is obviously true for surfaces (not plane): provided they are essentially three-dimensional, but not otherwise. It may be wnferred, therefore, that in a (supposititious) space of four dimensions, a three-dimensional space could be represented, which should have the properties indicated.’ 22. Symmetrical elliptic and hyperbolic space of two-dimensions. —Since the sphere is a surface of uniform positive curvature, absolutely symmetrical in all respects, and unbounded, elliptical 2-dimensional space can be perfectly represented thereupon, and 1 The inner side of a ring or tore, is a good example of such a surface. 2 Thus the product of the radii is a negative quantity. 3 That is, the excess is negative. * These lines may start out from any point in all directions, maintain- ing relations of symmetry, from any point in 3-dimensional space. 5 It will be seen the inference is of extremely doubtful validity, or rather that the space is not what we ordinarily conceive as “‘space.”’ S—Dec. 4, 1901. 290 G. H. KNIBBS. F ig. 16 is therefore the required representation. The only type of surface upon which hyperbolic space of 2-dimensions can be delineated, is that indicated in Fig. 17. It is consequently evident from considerations of symmetry, that the completed or closed symmetrical surface, if such exist, must be a ¢ore of some form,’ Let RCS, Figs. 18, 19, be the axis of the ring: then the principal meridians of the surface will be as shewn by the heavy lines in Fig. 18, these are sections of the surface by planes containing the axis RCS. The equator of the surface would be the section perpendicular to that axis through MOM’, see both figures, and is shewn by the continuous heavy line inside the tore. The short or incomplete equidistant lines are not geodesics, but parallels of latitude. The radi of curvature in the meridian and at right-angles thereto, at any point P, are respectively PQ=p, and PR=p; at a point like Q, they are respectively QQ’ =o, and. QS =v; hence for a succession of points on these surfaces, we must have Dye SES le ST ST BOS (25) if the curvature is to be constant. In passing along the curves OK and KQ, » and v necessarily increase as K and Q are approached, each becoming finally infinite, hence ultimately p and o will be infinitesimal. Consequently it is not possible to continue the curve starting at O beyond the points K and Las it must be continually convex towards the axis of the tore, and therefore concave outwards beyond the points K and L. We can now see that it is not possible for the KM surface to be identical with OK unless CO is infinite; in other words a finite and completely symmetrical hyperbolic surface does not exrst.” 1 See Figs. 1, 5, 18. 2 So far as I am aware this has not been previously demonstrated. I give therefore the proof, which depends on the fact that KOLis a cycloid, - if OC be infinite; KML being its evolute. The equation of the cycloid, O being the origin at its vertex, is ap ee al (2ax — 2?) a where a is the radius of the generating circle Op=a, pP=y. From this we deduce y=a cos PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 291 23. Impossibility of elliptic er hyperbolic space existing in a - pure’ homaloid of the same number of dimensions.— We have seen that a symmetrical 2-dimensional elliptic closed space can exist in a homaloid of three dimensions, and that although a 2-dimensional hyperbolic space can be developed, it cannot possibly, if finite, be completely symmetrical, and in any case has singularities.” We proceed to shew that neither space can possibly exist in a homaloid of the same number of dimensions. It is unnecessary to further discuss the impossibility in 2- dimensional space. Since 3-dimensional figures, in all three types of space, are identical when infinitesimal, the solid angle at every x hence putting b for the distance CO, we get p =2v { 2a(2a - 2) }; o = 2V(2az) p=bte)v(5""); v =(b+ 4a - 2) Ve) dy/d« =tan = ds/da =sec > = o(=) a Hence ; pp= (b+) 4a; yo = (b+ 4a-2) 4a Consequently if b be infinite, while a is finite, or if b be an infinity of the (n+1)th order while a is an infinity of the nth order only, the cycloidal curve and its evolute (and identical cycloid) satisfy the conditions that the radius of curvature V(up)= V(va) shall be constant throughout, and further that for equal distances from M toward K, and K toward O, the radii of curvature in and at right angles to the meridian shall be individu- ally equal. In making wo=vo; we must abandon the condition that the curve MQK shall be identical in shape with KPO if 6 be finite, for the parameters of the two curves necessarily differ, owing to the different distances from the axis of the tore; which establishes the proposition. It may be noticed that meridian lines diverge continuously in.passing from the internal to the external equator. It is worthy of remark that there isa very characteristic difference between the surface developed by rotating KOL about RCS and an hyperboloid of one sheet; that is the eycloidal surface cannot, and the hyperboloidal can be generated by the motion of a straight line. Again for the same curvature at O, the centre of curvature moves from M towards the curve in the case of the cycloid and away from the curve in the case of the hyperboloid. A straight line cannot of course lie ona surface of constant positive or negative curvature. It may be added that a solid of constant negative curvature would be of the form shewn in Fig. 18a, the curves not differing greatly from cycloids: the curves are obviously not identical. ’ That is an homogeneous and isotropic homaloid. ? One may say that O is the position at the equator of the surface LOK, and K and L, of the surfaces KML in other respects the latitude charac- teristics are inverted. The singularities at KL and M, show that the surface cannot be continuous in the proper sense of the term. 292 G. H. KNIBBS. point, O Fig. 20, throughout each kind of space is always 47 measured in steradians.* Consider a plane drawn through this point and imagine a series of lines running out from it, to be traced on the plane, so as to include angles of any given size, 4r in figure. In elliptic space these must be curved toward one another as AOA’, B’OB’, on the left side of figure, since otherwise the three angles of every triangle will not total 7+¢«, hence the line OA’ must be identical with OB’ and the voids A’OB’, B’OO’ do not exist. Let OA and OA’ be continued to O’, OB’ to O”, and OC’ to O"”. These three if the curvature be constant will be the one point, which, being impossible, proves that the curvature cannot be regarded as existing in the initial plane. This however © is true of every other arbitrary plane in the homaloid of 3 dimen- sions: hence the conception of lateral curvature is an impossible one. Neither can it be assumed to act say perpendicularly to the initial plane, for supposing the angles at O Fig. 21 to be the same as those at O Fig. 20, the curvature must, for the space to be homaloidal, be indifferently in the direction OO’ and OO” at the same time: hence the curvature perpendicular to the plane angle is equally impossible. Similarly if the angles from O, Fig. 20, are angles of triangles the sums of whose interior angles are 7 —e, the ‘straight’ lines OA, OB etc., must be curved outwards: but AOA, cannot over- lap BOB as shewn by double shading ; that is OB is the same line as OA. As this must be equally true in all directions, negative curvature cannot exist either laterally, or in any other direction: 7.¢. the conception of curved 3-dimensional space is absolutely incapable of geometrical representation in a homaloid of three dimensions. We infer therefore, that in an isotropic and homogeneous homaloid of m-dimensions the theory of curvature for space of m-dimensions is invalid. 1 A unit steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by a surface equal in area to the square on the radius. The surface divided by this unit is 47r?/r? = 47. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE, 293 Zs APT aes OS Tren an SN a gH LT 24. Is elliptic and hyperbolic space of nu dimensions representable in space of (n+1) dimensions?—Consider the circumference of a circle, and the surface of a sphere: these are geometrical figures without terms, As line and surface they are respectively 1- and 2-dimensional figures, but as boundaries they are respectively Oe and 3-dimensional; and we have seen that if the radius of the circle or sphere be infinite, they are pseudo- or finitely homa- loidal, see § 12. Observing further that the boundary of a sur- face is a line, and that of a solid is a surface, and remembering that a 4-dimensional quantum is (conceptually) generated by the motion of a solid into the fourth dimension, see § 4, we conclude that space of un dimensions, is, conceptually, the boundary of space of (n+1) dimensions. Consistently with the developments of §§ 7, 9, and 12, we may define an n-dimensional homaloid as the boundary of an (n+1) dimensional space, whose (n+1)th axis only, is infinitesimally curved, positively or negatively: conse- quently the question arises whether the n-dimensional space will be elliptic or hyperbolic according as the curvature, if finite, is positive or negative, as represented in Fig. 22. Jn the tridimen- sional or ordinary homaloid the triangles A B C are, by hypothesis, plane—the curvature not existing on their tridimensional repre- 294 . : G. H. KNIBBS. sentation—consequently the lines, if really bent,—as indicated by arrows—are not bent in the third dimension of space, but 7f at all in some other dimensions." These others, being conceptually perpendicular to each of the other three, have, i might be sup- posed, the effect of altering the plane angle from what it would have been, had the lines been uniquely straight. If such a view be correct, uniquely straight lines must be straight with respect to all possible dimensions, because the effect, of any, will be the same if the curvature be in any one of the supposititious dimensions including the first three. Curved space, to affect the angles of a triangle must, however, obviously be curved in all dimensions, since its radius of curvature il] b ; A riers on (4 0o-+- Pn) Aisi eae hile (26) and if any quantity is infinite, p) is infinite, unless some other quantity is zero, a case the consideration of which can be set aside as unnecessary.” Consequently even though n-dimensional space is only the boundary of a space of (7+ 1) dimensions, 1f any dimen- sion 1s without curvature, angles between geodesics in that space are not affected and will total 7 (m + 2), Hence the tests proposed to be applied by Lobatchewsky, Helmholtz, and others, would fail, if space is not curved in each dimension of space. The invalid nature of the supposition that ‘‘actual” space may possibly be curved, may be further realised as follows:—With O as origin, let the values of the coordinates of the terminal P of a line OSP, Fig. 23, be a, 0,0; S being the middle point. If the line be curved in any direction, in the plane xy let us suppose, that is if it be bent in the direction +y only, it will on rotating be bent successively in the directions +z, —y, - 2, that is to say the existence of the curvature will be revealed in other directions + That is to say, Fig. 22 cannot bea picture of the lines, since the difference between the curves and the lines AB, BC etc., are in the supposititious dimensions. . 2 In the cylinder and cone the surface is straight in one direction curved at right angles thereto. Hence p, = V(p,0) = »: consequently the angles are not affected. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 295 in space, than that in which it originally existed. Similarly if the coordinates of P be x, 0, 0, 0 and of S, 4a, y=0, z=0, w=h, w being at right angles to each of the other dimensions, rotation will cause the curvature to appear in the xy and xz planes, (See § 11), so that A can be measured, although (supposititiously) it was unrevealed while in the fourth dimension. If it be objected that the curvature appears because the plane, vertical to the line x, is the yz plane, it may be remarked that w is in every sense as much at right angles to the «xy plane, as to the xz, and if, on rotating, the position of the line does not vary, whatever curvature in the w axis may mean, it is something which cannot, as evidenced by that test, affect the angles of inclination in tridimensional space: which is equivalent to affirming that the supposititious curvature has no existence. Tt is now obvious that tridimensional elliptic and hyperbolic space cannot ‘‘actually” exist, if a line joining any two points can be rotated in a plane perpendicular thereto without varying its position in a surface perpendicular to the line. This is essentially identical with the following proposition:—A line 1s wniquely or absolutely straight, tf, when orthogonally projected in tridimen- sional space on any two planes perpendicular to one another, its projection in both is a straight line. Mathematicians who allege that our space may be ‘‘curved space,” do not imply that it is ‘‘visibly curved” in any plane, but that the curvature would appear in the ‘“‘excess” or “defect” of the three angles of a triangle, with respect to the homaloidal value 7, a fact inexplicable in homaloidal space, and demanding for its interpretation the assumption of a curvature in what ¢o us is an imaginary dimension of space. If visibly curved, the line is neither a straight line, nor the shortest distance between the points.” We may conclude therefore that geometrically, elliptic ' Straight in every spatial dimension. * It is perhaps necessary to say that it is not pretended that lines are merely refracted, we refer to this later. 296 G. H. KNIBBS. and hyperbolic space have no eaistence, as representing a possibility of ‘‘actual” space.’ 25. Hlliptic and hyperbolic space merely a specialised region in a homaloid.—The confidence which mathematicians have felt as to the possible existence of types of space other than homaloidal, has arisen from the inherent consistency of ‘‘analytic or symbolic geometry.” In the introduction to this paper, it was pointed out that a region of space may be specialised, as for example, by being referred to curvilinear axes, varied in intensity, regarded as seolotropic, or supposed to be otherwise specially constituted. Any specialisation of space whatever that can be represented by symbols, has its appropriate analytical geometry, or scheme of symbolic operation, in which geometrical interpretation is indifferent until necessitated in applying the final results. The belief that algebras, as such, can establish results which reveal the true nature of <‘actual” tridimensional space, or reach results that, though funda- mentally affecting the concepts or intuitions of space, cannot immediately be apprehended by pure geometry, is based upon a complete misconception of the nature of the “actuality” of space. The function of geometries, either analytic, metric, or projective, is to reveal the properties, not of space, but of geometrical figures either in pure space, or in any specialised space which can be clearly conceived, and interpreted into and from the symbols. In pure space, any geometrical figure whatever, (e.g. point, straight or curved line, plane or curved surface, or solid of any form) may exist, because conceptually they are spatial, while space of (3+m) dimensions is purely abstract in regard to every one of the m dimensions, and is spatially not representable, though by analogies, such space is schematically representable. Elliptic and hyperbolic geometries refer therefore to figures in space or to space specially constituted, as for example, space filled with a refracting ak Stringham affirms “there is yet no theory of knowledge that can tell us which of these three diverging paths we must take” i.e. interpret space in terms of parabolic, elliptic or hyperbolic geometry, vide ‘On the funda- mental differential equations of Geometry”! Journal B.A. A. Se. 1899, p. 647. With this dictum we of course, join issue. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 297 medium, in which if the length of lines be measured by the time necessary for an ethereal disturbance to pass from one point to another, the shortest line is curved and not straight. For such a medium a straight line, spatially the longer, is in a temporal sense the shorter. 26. Space of n-dimensions as the boundary of (n + 1) dimensional space.—In the generative scheme of § 4, space of dimensions is to space of (n+1) dimensions the analogue of a boundary, as pointed out in § 24. The idea of space of one type being a locus in space of another of higher dimensions, was conceived by Johann Bolyai, and by Beltrami. It is shewn by Whitehead,! analytically, that ‘euclidean space of nm dimensions can be conceived as a limit- surface of hyperbolic space of (m + 1) dimensions,” and he remarks: “There is an error,” popular even among mathematicians misled by a useful technical phraseology, that euclidean space is in a special sense flat,* and that this flatness is exemplified by the possibility of a euclidean space containing surfaces with the properties of hyperbolic and elliptic spaces. But the text shews that the relation to hyperbolic to euclidean space can be inverted. Thus no theory of the flatness of euclidean space can be founded on it.” This dictum is based upon a theory of the relations between the sides and angles of a ‘“‘curvilinear” triangle formed by great circles on a ‘‘limit-surface.”* Now it may be remarked that “curvilinear” must be defined for such a statement to be intelligible. Reverting to the illustration of refraction in last section, the “shorter” line, 1.e. the curved one, may be regarded as straight in the geometry which measures its unit of length, and the actually shorter line—the really straight one, may be regarded as curved. And generally any line, curved or tortuous, may geometrically be treated as straight and be made the basis of a geometry of.the form of any other lines, straight or curved. More generally,a geometrical figure of n dimensions may be treated as a ‘“‘flat” for the develop- * Universal Algebra 1., p. 451. * The italics are mine. $ The word is Whitehead’s. * For the theory of limit-surfaces see Whitehead op. cit., 1., pp. 447-8. 298 G. H. KNIBBS. ment of a theory of a figure of (n+ 1) dimensions. This treatment is what may be called relative, as distinguished from absolute; and in applying any deductions of analytic geometry the essential features of the relation must be borne in mind, the deductions being applicable only where analogous relationships exist. The fundamental conceptions of geometry are however an absolute basis, in the sense that any discredit thrown upon them, reduces all geometry to confusion. The relativity of figure we now proceed to consider. | 27. Relativity of geometrical forms and figures.—In the intro- duction, reference was made in a footnote 1, page 249, to the relativity and reciprocal identity of solar and cometary motion in space, the two curves of apparent motion being the same conic sections, that is to say either the sun or the comet could be regarded as moving in the conic, the direction and amount being identical, but the coordinates differing 180°. This is a very elementary case of relativity. We proceed to indicate a more complex case. In the line (or surface) Q,O0’ Fig. 24, suppose successive points to be determined by their distances Q,P, from the line (or surface) P,O, measured vertically to the latter, and the distances OP, on the reference line. Then treating this latter as a straight line, the successive points 1], 2, 3, etc., on the absolutely straight line OS become relatively thereto the curve Q,O'S Fig. 25, and relatively to this curve the circular arc is a straight line.’ That is to say, given only wand y, and that y is always perpen- dicular to x, but no knowledge of the curvature of x, the absolutely - straight line would appear as the curve in Fig. 25, and similarly coplanar points, as distributed over a conoidal surface, of which Fig. 25 is the section. In one sense it is indifferent whether OP is regarded as straight and OQ as curved or vice versa, but not 1 The equation to the curve is obviously y= sec” (p+b)—p y being the vertical PQ, « the curved line OP, b the distance OO’, and p the radius of the circle. The curve in Fig. 25 has asymptotes at +377. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 299 absolutely so. The intensity of the lines OP, OQ Fig. 24 being uniform, and OX in Fig. 25, the intensity of the curve QO’S in the latter figure is not uniform, that is to say its linear value does not coincide with that of corresponding points in QO’S Fig. 24." Hence the integral of the curve O'S, for its length as in Fig. 25, is s= fs {1 + (dy/du)?} de.........(27) while the real length of the line as in Fig. 24 is:— S=fIv}1+(dy/dxy} Ghat ogi ae (27a) I being of course a function of a, as indicated in the preceding footnote. It is evident therefore that a complete theory of relativity must include relativity of intensity as well as mere relativity of position, (See also § §, 16, 17, 18), and specialisations of space are not inversely comparable unless both intensity and position are taken into account. This however implies that the results are general only when the space is a definite specialisation of an isotropic, homogeneous homaloid. The cases cited, illustra- tive of a relativity of position and intensity, indicate that its complexity has no Jimit. 28. Complex generation of geometrical figures of uniform intensity.—In the preceding sections, treating of the generation by summational, fluxional, or rotational operations,’ no account was taken of more complex processes. Imf the elements from which a circle of radius ris built up (summationally) be of intensity a in one direction, and f at right angles thereto, its intensity-area is ar’; that is it is equivalent to the ellipse with semi-axes ar, Br; and if it be supposed to bave been compressed and to expand till the intensity was uniform, it would be actually an ellipse with those axes. * Let 68 denote the length of any small element of the line O'S, and ds the length of the corresponding element in the curve O'S (Fig. 25). Then the intensity I, see (23) § 17, is T = 68/6s = p| “(cost «/p + x sin? a/p) p denoting 1+b/p. # The lengths corresponding to points 1, 2, 3 etc., on the line o's Fig. 24, are marked by the pointsi., li., iil. ete., on Fig. 25. The distance from the corresponding ‘arabic’ numerals shews the difference. $ §§ 2-6, and 11. 300 G. H. KNIBBS. Similarly a sphere built up of elements differing in intensity in three directions, but constant in each direction will be as to its intensity quantum, an ellipsoid, the intensity volume of which is + waPyr*, if the axes be perpendicular to each other.} If a line r be rotated about one end, the path of its éerm is of course the circumference of the circle, formed by the path of the line itself; if in rotating, the radius be increased or diminished proportionally to the arc through which it is turned, the term traces out the spiral of Archimedes,” while if in rotating, it lengthens or diminishes as expressed by the equation r=aé, the path of the term is an equiangular or logarithmic spiral.? This generation is continuous. In Fig. 26, suppose a line 7, viz. RS, perpendicular to the axis ZO, to increase its length, according to the law implied by the equation r= v(az—2*), z being the distance ZR; its term S will be a spiral on a spherical surface, if it revolve with infinite velocity while it moves along ZO with finite velocity, it may be considered to trace out the spherical surface itself.*| The surface generated by the line RS will be the helical surface represented near Z in the figure. A more complex surface will be generated, if RS be a curve, changing its parameter as it moves along z, or changing according to some more complex function of z; and if the z axis be curved, the complexity will be still further increased. Thus by the most simple operations very complex geometrical figures’ may be generated. On the other hand apparently complex motions may develope simple figures. For example the terms * Many formule become obvious from this point of view, e.g. volume of an ellipsoid is = 4 7abc. 200. * This may be traced by attaching a thread to a point on the surface of a right circular cone, whose axis is perpendicular to the plane on which the vertex of the cone lies. Draw the thread tight and wind it round the cone: if it does not slip the terminal P of the thread, kept on the plane, will trace the curve. * More strictly a spiral line, whose winding on the sphere is only separated by an infinitesimal distance, a being finite. In respect to the spherical surface this generation is not continuous. * Or figures that may be regarded as representing them. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 301 (O’P’Q’) of the reciprocals the (OO, OP’, OQ’) of the coinitial vectors (OZ, OP, OQ), whose extremities ZPQ lie in a spherical surface, are coplanar. That is to say, if the term P of a vector OP move over the entire surface’ of the sphere OQZ, the term P’ of its reciprocal will trace out an infinite circular plane.” Or again, if a point P starting at the pole Z, move on the sphere so that its polar distance (ZP=¢) bears a constant ratio to its longitude (w say, ¢.g. 6=2mw) the reciprocal of its distance to the opposite pole PO, will trace out the curve r=b tan mw lying wholly in a plane.? It is obvious that there is no limit to the complexity of possible forms capable of geometrical development, and on the other hand simple figures: may be generated from the most complex. Forms of generation in which a line is developed from a pure point in any other way than by motion along it, or a surface from a line ) 8 7 & 5 a 2) 2 \ O * This is really an impossible supposition, since the term is a pure point, and no scheme of motion can make it cover a surface. ? Obvious, since OQ . OQ'= pp'=acos @.b sec 6 = ab. * r becomes infinite only when P reaches O,1.e. when mw=37. Itmay be noted that the infinity depends on the order of the infinitesimal approach to O by the point P. 302 G. H. KNIBBS. except by motion across the surface, or a solid from a surface except by motion in it, are essentially impossible, but the generated figure may be understood as representing the continuum as a row of points may be regarded as representing a line. 29. Involutional, evolutional, pedal, modular and umbilical generation.—The terminal K of a string, unwound from the curve KhL, Fig. 25, would trace out the dotted line Kkk’M, the involute of the curve; in asimilar way KM’, the involute of KL’ could be defined. In the latter case if the length of the string were Kf, or KO, instead of being originally zero, the involute would be ff’ or O'S.1_ Suppose the line hk, which is obviously equal to the hK, to vary in any definite way, 7.e. as some continuous function of the angle through which it turns, the point K (or f, O’, or O) may be said to generate a curve involutionally: such a scheme of generation would obviously be continuous. On the other hand imagine a point, to which a string OKY is attached, to move along the curve O'S, and to be kept perpendicular to the tangent to the curve of the moving point; the successive positions of the string would envelope the curve KU’, called its evolute.2 If the distance along the straight line which envelopes the evolute, is any continuous function of its total length, measured from curve to evolute, or if the length be any continuous function of the angle through which the string turns, the curve traced by the terminal may be said to be evolutionally generated. This also is a continuous scheme of generation. Again let a line KG, Fig. 25, make some definite angle with the radius of curvature®—it need not necessarily touch the curve Kk’M—and let the point K be moved with the radius: or what is the same thing let astring unwind from the curve KhL and the line KG make a definite angle with the string kh: the curve ? The lines are equidistant measured along the string and are therefore generally described as parallel. ? Observe the lines kh, k’L, enveloping the curve KkL. The distance from the point to the evolute perpendicularly to the tangent is the radius of curvature of the osculating circle. 3 See footnote 1, above. a 1 PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 303 traced by the terminal G is a pedal curve. If the line hk bea continuous function of its own distance or of the angle through which it turns, and the line KG, or kg, make an angle therewith, which is either constant, or a continuous function of the distance ke, or of the angle through which that line turns, the curve traced by the point G may be said to be pedally generated.! These three generative schemes are substantially identical in principle, and may be all characterised as pedal generation.’ Three-dimensional figures may similarly be generated, either from three-dimensional surfaces, or by the rotation of two-dimen- sional figures. In generating by rotation the radius of curvature may also be a function of the angle through which it turns. A surface of revolution would be continuous, but for the generated surface to be continuous in other cases it must necessarily be defined by the involutional, evolutional or pedal surface, defined as the locus of the generating points, the centres of curvature, or the pedal points. We pass now to examples of more purely functional schemes of generation, e.g. modular and umbilical generation. ~ When the locus of points is determined by the constant ratio’ which their distance from some fixed point* bears to their distance —measured parallel to a fixed plane’—from some fixed straight line,° the surface in which the points lie, or which is thus represented, is said to be modularly generated." The ratio, or modulus, may be continuously varied in any specified way, that is it may be 1 GgJ is a simple type of pedal curve. ? Evolutes and involutes were discussed by Huygens as far back as 1672 in his Horologium Oscillatorium, by Tschirnhausen (Acta Eruditorum 1682) by Leibniz, ibid., 1686, and by Newton (Principia). 3 The modulus. * The modular focus. * The directing plane. ¢ The directrix. ; ’ The ratio being constant the locus may be an elliptic paraboloid, an elliptic or parabolic cylinder, a hyperbolic paraboloid or cylinder, an ellipsoid, or hyperboloid of one or two sheets, the oblate spheroid and hyperboloid af revolution of one sheet. The prolate spheroid, and hyper- boloid of revolution of two sheets cannot be modularly generated. The subject has been treated by MacCullagh, Salmon, Townsend, Frost and Wolstenholme, and others. 304 G. H. KNIBBS. a function of the direction of any point from the fixed point or modular focus, this may be called complex modular generation. Modularly generated surfaces are of the second degree if the ratio be constant. When the square of the distance from the focal point’ to the point on the surface bears a constant ratio? to the rectangle whose sides are the perpendiculars to two fixed planes,’ the surface is said to be umbilically generated, and is a surface of the second degree, or a conicoid.* As in modular, so in umbilical generation, the modulus may be continuously varied, in which case it may be called complex modular generation. It is obvious that by variations of the moduli, any system of points generated may lie on a surface of any degree of complexity. These methods of generating geometrical figures give point-systems, rather than continuous surfaces. 30. Generation of figures of non-uniform intensity.—Figs. 13, 14, and 25 afford examples of lines of non-uniform intensity, the law of variation of the intensity being simple in each case. In generating any geometrical figure, the generatrix, conceived as imparting its own characteristics to the space through which it passes, may itself be of non-uniform intensity; itsintensity may vary during the generative motion in any specified way; a geometrical figure may be obtained not directly from the genera- tive scheme, but from the projection of the generated figure; or, it may be, from any combination of projections. In these and many other ways, the heterogeneity and xolotropy’ of geometrical —_— 1 The umbilical, instead of modular, focus. * The umbilical modulus: 3 The planes are called directing planes, and their intersection the directrix. + The surfaces that can be generated (with real focus and directrix) are the ellipsoid, hyperboloid of two sheets, elliptic paraboloid, a cone point. The hyperboloid of revolution of two sheets and the prolate spheroid can be umbilically generated. 5 It is generally convenient to restrict the antithetical words “ homo- geeneous”’ and ‘‘ heterogeneous”’ to the implication of mere differences of density; and “isotropic” and “se lotropic” to differences in the pro- perties of a body, which may nevertheless be of uniform density. As the idea of intensity is not by any means synonymous with density, zolotropic will perhaps convey the more general meaning. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 305 figures may be involved. In Fig. 27 the effect of projection on intensity is more fully illustrated. Suppose OKL...T to be a curve of uniform intensity radially projected from the point C on to the curves 0, 1...4.. The simplest relationship will be on the straight line (0); on the circular curve (1) the relation will be more complex; and, on the curve of changing curvature, viz. (2) still more so. Although at the points k, 1, I’, r,q in (2) the intensity is infinite,’ it is finite for all finite distances however small. Ata point like m it is zero, but at one like k’, where the line CK is tangential to both curves, it depends upon the ratio of the differentials of the curves, CK being adopted as axis. The mean intensity of the stretch ps is the total length PQRS divided by ps; and similarly throughout. A moving point, in gener- ating any line, may be assumed to vary its intensity in any given way: so also in regard to a line generating a surface, a surface generating a solid, a solid generating a fourth dimensional quantum andsoon. ‘The possible schemes of varying intensity are obviously illimitable, consequently the complexity of specialised regions of space may be varied in an infinite number of ways. It is evident from this point of view that the so-called elliptic space, and hyperbolic space are simply some of the most simple forms of specialised regions of space.” In generating an exolotropic or heterogeneous spatial region, say of spherical (or ellipsoidal) form, its heterogeneity or zolotropy may vary periodically on non-periodically along the radii, or in the parallel planes dividing it into circular (or elliptic) sections; and the variation of the intensity on the radius in the xy plane, may be periodic as it rotates in that plane. Thus, as this plane moves along the z axis, the points of maxima and minima may be rotated, and the period so varied, that if the zolotropic variation be continuous, the lines of maximum intensity, would form a spiral of varying intensity. Hig. 28 will afford an illustration, the + The radial lines being tangential to the curve at K, L, R and Q. * A magnetic or electric field may be instanced as an elementary example of specialised space. T—Dec, 4, 1901. 306 G. H. KNIBBS. density of the shading on the planes XY, XY denoting the intensity, and the heavy spiral line the locus of one of its maxima.! In a refracting xolotropic region, with a suitable distribution of density, the curves of minimum path, for motion affected by the zolotropy,” may be regarded as the straight lines of the space; space of this kind is in general tortuous space. 31. The total intensity-volume of ceolotropic space.—AXolotropic space measured with respect to volume only, is of course, not differentiated from ordinary space; if however its intensity is taken into account, that is if an element thereof be OV = 1.2 0X OY Og OU aaa (28) in which V; denotes the intensity-volume I,, V, or the mean intensity multiplied by the spatial volume —this is no longer true. It must suffice to take a single illustration of an elementary character. Suppose that the linear intensity in a spherical space surrounding the point O, is some such simple function of the distance r there- from, as DE are eo. (29) where a is any finite number,’ and v is positive or negative. The intensity-volume is obviously Vi,=40 fl +ar)rdr=$ar+4ra fret? dr......... (30) that is to say when n is - 3 Sela gs a oe (31) and in all other cases Vis 2 eC ) eee 31 = tm (14302). Bla), 1 The distribution of an electrified powder on an electrified resinous cake, in Lichtenberg’s experiments—Chladni’s sand-figures on a vibrating plate, on Strehlke’s or Faraday’s modification of this experiment, the distribution of liquid spherules in a vibrating bell partially filled with liquid in Melde’s experiment—may be taken as illustrating the actual distribution of intensity. 2 In the atmosphere a ray of light is bent toward the normal to the surface, when the pressure and temperature vary uniformly upwards. Measured by a time-unit this curve is the shortest path, owing to the irregular distributions of temperature and pressure the actual path of a star’s light is always more or less tortuous. 3 Which we shall see may be positive or negative. For simplicity’s sake we may suppose the intensity at O to be unity if n is positive. If negative it will be infinity. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 307 The part to be added to the volume to correct it for intensity is therefore for »= — 3, and generally 34-1 V, - V=4ra log r, and 47a a Nes ese i (32) respectively. The values of this are’ Values of a -o -—-9 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +0 V.—V=47ax 0°; —- = — = +log r; +7; a ae oot When 7 is between — 4 and — o, the intensity at the point O is infinite: on the other hand it may be made zero at any distance from O that we please, by taking a negative and suitably choosing aand . Beyond this distance the intensity will be negative. Negative intensity may be defined as any affection of a spatial unit, such that if it be combined with an equal but opposite affection of an equal unit, the result will be null.? Zero-intensity implies the non-existence of the affection. 32. Conversion of ceolotropic into isotropic space.—Let OX, Fig. 29, denote the axis of a cone POP’ in an eolotropic homaloid of three dimensions: and first let it be supposed that the density in a line, « to y, perpendicular to the axis, is uniform but increases as a, the distance from O, increases. Suppose the cone to expand parallel to XP only, till the density was uniform, the form would be similar to HOH’. What were originally straight lines would be bent outwards and we should have all the characteristics of hyperbolic, developed from parabolic space.’ Conversely, suppose the density to diminish as we move along OX, and the cone to be similarly compressed till of uniform density, we should have as 1 Tf n=0 and a =1, which, see (29), means that we assume the intensity to be zero throughout, the result for the intensity-volume, is of course zero also. 2 Let V denote the potential at a point P of a sphere of density 26 ina region of space of density 6. (i.e. the sphere has an excess of density 8 over that of the space in which it lies) and let V’ be the potential of the void space, when the sphere is removed (i.e. when the defect of density is 6). Then V'=-—V, Vand V' may be regarded as equal and opposite intensities, i.c.as + I and —I: so also in this case +6 and -—6 may be regarded as equal and opposite the affections of space. 3 See the right hand side of Fig. 20. 308 G. H. KNIBBS. the result the conoidal form EOE’, what were straight lines originally being now curved inwards, and the characteristic features of elliptic space would have been developed.* Tortuous eolotropic space may be reduced to isotropy by expansions, contractions, and rotations, linear motion being included in the last. 33. Conformal representation of functional dependence.—The part played in the modern theory of functions by the numerically impossible quantity v —1, called therefore imaginary, is of such moment, that a consideration of the principle of continuity in the development of geometrical figures, necessitates at least a brief reference thereto. Let for. brevity this quantity be denoted by 2, and the complex quantity («+7y) be denoted by z, the part x being real, and the part zy, y times the imaginary 2: We have seen that imaginary quantities can be represented upon an infinite lemniscate cylinder” when 2’=vy only, 2 being a line. Suppose z however to denote merely the place of a point; this can be represented among other ways by “Argand’s diagram,”’ Fig. 30, or by Neumann’s sphere :4 zis the distance Ow, y the distance xz; and obviously p cos O=x; p sin O=wy...... (33) hence > %=p(cosd +7 sin@) =pcisd =p. ..(34) Imaginary axis. > the last two being merely abbrevia- O 6 x Real axis. Fig. 30. tions of the first expression in (34). Suppose further, w to be a point dependent upon z, (regarded as an irresoluble quantity) in such a way that a single series of opera- 1 See the left hand side of Fig. 20. 2 See Fig. 4, § 13, formula (14), and footnotes 1 - 4, p. 246 and 1 p. 247. 5 See footnote 4 page 246. Kiihn’s name ought to be associated with this diagram. * See his Vorlesungen tiber Riemann’s Theorie der Abelschen Integrale Leipzig, Teubner, 2° Edit. 1884. A sphere of unit diameter, was chosen by Neumann as the field or surface on which to represent the position of p. For an infinite or a large value of z, this method has advantages, but it is unessential to our present purpose. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 309 tions upon z is adequate to determine the corresponding values of w;' then the representation on one plane of w, corresponding to an arbitrary series of values of z upon another, is known as its conformal representation.” Consider such a representation of a simple function, as for example Ce are ee ..(85) which with (34) gives If the point z move continuously in its own plane, so that its path be any given figure, the conformal representation in the w plane is completely defined by this last equation. Such representation may be regarded as a very general’ complex method of continuously generating geometrical figures, the function Wate eee) = O83 Jo (36) defining the type of generative movement, which movement how- ever does not acquire a determinate character until the figure represented by z is also specified. 34. hiemann surfaces.—In equation (36) denoting an irreducible ‘algebraic equation, there will, for every value of z, be m values’ of w, such a function is said to be many-valued, multiform, or poly- tropic.” A Riemann surface, is a surface such that the n-valued function can be schematically represented thereupon as a single- valued function.® In an expression, such as w = say + V2, we * Such a function is called monogenic; the term was first used by Cauchy, who shewed by w = f (a- iy) cannot be regarded as monogenic: ef. Grundlagen fiir eine allgemeine Theorie der Functionen einer verin- derlichen complexen Grésse. Riemann, Ges. Werke. 2 Conforme Abbildung. Gauss, Werke, Bd. tv., p. 262. * Weierstrass however has shewn that monogenic functionality is not coextensive with arithmetical operations. Abhandl. aus der Functionen- lehre, Ber. Akad. 1881], p. 90. * See Puiseux’s memoirs. Lionville, 1° Sér. t. xv. pp. 365, 480, 1850 ; t. XVI. pp. 228 - 240, 1851. * If for a single value of z, w has only one value, independently of the way z acquired its value, the function is said to be uniform, monotropic, or single-valued: if it has in any way more than one value, multiform, poly- tropic, or many-valued—(eindeutig, mehrdeutig). A monogenic, uniform, and continuous function is said to be meromorphic, or holomorphic, or synectic over any limited region in which it possesses the indicated charac- teristics. ° An artifice that greatly assists the study of functions. 310 G. H. KNIBBS. have, consistently with (33) to (35a), and denoting the quan- tities belonging to w by accents, p’= Yp, 6’ =406 or 46+7, that is to say, two numerically equal but oppositely directed values of w; which may be regarded, not as separate functions, but as the branches of a—in this case, two-valued—function. For example, if z describe a closed path passing through neither O nor o, without going round the origin, as in Curve | Fig. 31, 6” will have (in the instance mentioned) only half the range of the limit lines therein shewn, 7.¢. half the amplitude of 6. If 2 make one circuit, & will range through z only; but if z make two complete circuits, @’ will make a complete circuit 27: or more generally—in this particular case—for an even number of circuits by z, the w curves will be closed, for an odd number they will not. Thus on sheets, lying indefinitely near one another but distinguishable, two series of values can be represented by a contiruous curve, provided that the sheets are so constructed that one 3an pass from one into the other, as indicated in Fig 32 (a).t In this figure, P is infinites- imally close to P’ but on the lower sheet; this passes pseudo-con- tinuously at the cut or branch-line® 0 to w, (at which the sheets are joined) into the upper sheet. The nature of the junction is indicated in Fig. 32 (d), except that the distance between the lines is infinitesimal.’ The sheets are joined at no other place than the branch line, not necessarily a straight line. Various branch-points,* such as A and B, Fig. 32 (6), will be required according to the form of the function to be represented, é.g.:—w = /{(z—a@)(z—6)} would require a two sheeted-surface with a branch line, as in the figure, and a four-valued function, a 1 This is necessary since we can pass continuously from +z to —4z. ? Called also branch-section or crossing-line. (Verzweigungsschnitt—ligne de passage). * It is obvious that the sheets are not parallel planes, and in passing from sheet to sheet we must move suddenly at right angles even if only an infinitesimal distance. The continuity is obviously only pseudo- continuity. * Verzweigungspunkt oder Windungspunkt. The surface is known sometimes as a winding surface, and the brane poe of m sheets as a winding point of the (m - 1)th order. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 311 four-sheeted surface similar to Fig. 32 (c) and (e), O being the branch point." When surfaces other than planes are required, the nature of junction and passage from sheet to sheet is in all cases identical, ze. by a line; sufficient however has been indicated to shew the characteristics of the scheme. Strictly it is not a realisable or possible scheme, as is evident if we remember that the infinitesimal is a real quantity not absolutely nothing, hence the surfaces are not really planes, spheres, etc., or if they were could not join in the manner required,” 35. The connectivity of space.—The connectivity of surfaces, of solids or of n-dimensional quanta, expresses the number of sections that must be made in order to divide them into two distinct 1.e. simply connected parts.. Consider Fig. 33 (a): it will be observed that its edge is continuous, and that it is unifacial, or wnilateral,® and that starting at any point O, a single circuit in the direction of the arrow, terminates at the underside of O; a second circuit however returns to the starting point.* (This is the nature of supposed single elliptic space). Further we notice that Fig. 33 (0) has only one edge, and Fig. 33 (c) but one edge and face: it is therefore similar to (33a): a single circuit from O does not return thereto, but ends on the under-side. The nature of the connectivity of surfaces and solids is by no means so obvious as might at first be imagined. If for example in Fig. 33 (a), representing a band of uniform width, (which has been turned through 7z so as to make it unifacial and single-edged, instead of cylindrical) a cut be started at A and kept a uniform 1 See Holzmiiller’s Einfiithrung in die Theorie der isogonalen Verwand- schaften und der conformen. Abbildung, Leipzig 1882 (Teubner). The dotted lines will indicate the complete path from sheet to sheet. ? The movement from sheet to sheet does not introduce even infini- tesimal error of the first order, with regard to the purpose of the repre- sentation : hence practically it is unexceptionable. 3 If I mistake not, Mobius was the first to notice this fact. It may be mentioned that it has been suggested that the ordinary plane of projective geometry is unilateral! See Klein, Math. Ann., Bd. vit., p. 549. * Hence if cut along the arrow path it will not be divided. 312 G. H. KNIBBS. distance from the edge,’ it will be found that the band is divided into twisted interlocked rings, one of which is identical with the original in Jength and twist, and the other is twice the length and is more twisted. A cut along the centre line from O returns into itself after one circuit, and does not divide the ring into two portions. A cut like AB makes it a semply-connected’ surface. Fig. 33 (c) will exhibit similar peculiar features. A closed curve in an ellipsoidal surface will necessarily separate it into two simply- connected surfaces, whatever its position ; in a tore or anchor-ring it may or may not do so, according to the position of the cut. A surface like that in Figs. 33 (qa) or (c) cannot, by extension, enclose space; if however the twist is 27 and it first interpenetrate its own surface, then by extension it can. Fig. 341s a symmetrical 1 The cut is shewn by the dotted line. If traced the heavy dots denote the visible line, the light ones that on the remote side. ? That is one which every possible cross-cut from boundary to boundary will divide it into two parts. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 313 figure illustrating a closed 3-dimensional space of such a type,’ bounded by a surface of both positive and negative curvature: it suggests a type of space of more complex variety than either elliptic or hyperbolic alone. Returning to the theory of representation on Riemann surfaces, the study of their deformation and connectivity have shewn that it is possible to transform the ~-ply connected surface into a simply- connected surface by a series of dissections.” It is not proposed to discuss the connectivity or dissection of the surfaces; but it may be noticed that although they can never be of the character alleged, viz. planes, spherical surfaces etc., figures infinitesimally approximate thereto, can be generated continuously. In Fig. 32 (a) it is evident from the figure itself, that the line 0—o can be spirally moved so that its path will be the required surface. The surface of Fig. 33 (6) can be continuously generatcd by the motion of lines from the points A and B and the line AB itself. The attempt at continuous generation will reinforce the recognition of their real departure from their ideal description. 36. Conception of n-ply extended magnitude.—Reference has already been made to Riemann’s treatise on the hypotheses which lie at the basis of geometry, in which he affirms that that science assumes as things given both the notion of space, and the first principles of constructions in space/ The entire argument is intelligible only if those notions be first admitted, z.e. if we are to be assumed capable of distinguishing in thought between straight and curved plane and spherical, and so on: but it is not intelligible; consequently no reason founded on such ideas can be adduced to 3 Let a point p’ be applied at p diametrally opposite, and imagine the interpenetration to be possible. The figure so ‘formed’ could be closed up into such a figure as 34, half of which only is shaded. Its cross section is a lemniscate of varying parameter. ? The matter has been discussed by Casorati, Clebsch, Clifford, Hofmann, Klein, Liiroth, Neumann, Prym, Schlafli and others. When all the wind- ing points are simple, of a Riemann’s surface with p sheets, of connectivity 2q +1, the surface can be so transformed that there will be a single branch-line between consecutive sheets excluding the last two, between which there are g + 1 branch lines. This surface is known as the canonical form for the case where all branch-points are simple. 314 G. H. KNIBBS. overthrow them. Riemann’s argument therefore can logically lead to nothing more than that we may, for sufficient reasons, regard the objective universe under the form of a specialised region of space, and if evidence were accumulated shewing that that view offered any advantages, a change of the ordinary scheme of inter- pretation might be desirable. The foundations of geometry how- ever, would remain impregnable, and straight lines, planes, and the definitions of deviation would be no less necessary than they are now. The special reason adduced for doubting the validity of our fundamental geometrical notions was that researches in respect of the quanta of definite portions of a “manifold”! of which tri- ; dimensional space is assumed to be a somewhat simple form— constituted merely a division of the science of magnitude, in which magnitudes are to be treated as regions in a manifold, not independent of their position. The absence of such researches was alleged to be the reason why the achievements of Lagrange, Pfaff, Jacobi, and Abel for the theory of differential equations remained unfruitful, but outside this, the researches were essential for the adequate discussion of multiform analytic functions (on the manner indicated in the preceding section). The Riemann sur- faces have shewn that every system of points represented by a function, may, with an n-ply extended magnitude, he represented continuously, the manifold passing over continuously into one another, and hence the determination of position in a given manifold is reduced to the determination of quantity, and of position in a manifold of less dimensions, 7.¢. 2-1, when the original manifold is n-ply extended. Riemann’s doctrine affirms that to regard a straight line as by the equation ds = v (6a? + dy? + 627)...... 5 (37) is to constitute the simplest but not the essential type of possible 1 « Mannigfaltigkeit.” PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. 315 spatial relationship.1 With rigorous conceptions this expression however, denotes a uniquely straight line, for each element must be regarded as straight and at right angles, not on a spherical surface but absolutely (z.¢. they must not be merely infinitesimal portions of curves): consequently the notion of an mn-sheeted surface (assumed to be plane, but not really so) or of an n-ply extended magnitude of any other kind, throws no real light upon the con- stitution of what is popularly meant by space. A little consider- ation will shew that it is just because we do ‘‘assume with Euclid not merely an existence of lines independent of position but of bodies also,’” that geometry itself and mathematical thought has any validity. Once that basis is departed from, nothing is certain or valid; and not only do the conclusions of geometry fail, but the constructions and conclusions of analytical geometry fail also. Their logical basis is not a whit more assured than that of pure geometry: the certainty or uncertainty is of the same type. All ratiocination on the subject is unmeaning, and the apodictic cer- tainty of the conclusions disappears, unless it is true that, in the words of Kant, “space is no mere empirical concept derived from external experience,” nor “a determination produced by phe- nomena”: ‘it is rather the ‘‘condition of their possibility,” or, ‘“‘a representation a priori which necessarily precedes” them.? The fact that schemes have been discovered by means of which analy- tical functions may be readily represented, though of great importance in the development of mathematical science, in reality establishes nothing of moment with regard to the foundations of geometry. When geometrical meaning is attached to algebraic or other symbols, the validity obviously depends upon the funda- mental geometrical ideas assigned to them not to any consequences that flow therefrom. * The next degree of simplicity according to Riemann is where the line element may be expressed as the fourth root of a quantic differential expression. The difficulty of the theory cannot be logically avoided by refusing to recognise the difference between 6z, dy and dz as parts of straight lines or parts of curves. ? Riemann’s treatise, 111., § 1. 3 See Kritik d. rein. Vernunft: transscend. Aesthetik le™ Absch. §2, 1.2. 316 G. H. KNIBBS. 37. Lllimitability of operative schemes for the generation of geo- metrical figures.—It must now be evident that no limit can be assigned to operative schemes for the generation of specialised regions of space, or of geometrical figures either therein, or in ordinary, 2.e. homaloidal space. The bizarre idea of the curvature of the latter, scarcely touches the fringe of the subject. Every type of geometrical figure, and every variation of it, can be made the subject of a special geometry, having its own peculiar features; and space can be so specialised as to be analogous thereto: that is to say a region of ordinary space can be constituted so that its analytical treatment, from some particular point of view, will be analogous to the special geometry referred to. To fix our ideas, suppose Fig. 347 to represent a double surface of both positive and negative curvature:? its geometry would present all the features of “elliptic” and ‘hyperbolic space,” passing continuously from the one to the other.* The surfaces cross one another at right angles at the curved line ADCEB.* It will be at once recognised that the geometry of this continuous interpenetrating surface will present remarkable features. Still more remarkable would be the geometry of the type of surface represented per- spectively in Fig. 35, which may be generated as follows :— On the straight line AB let a quadric surface perpendicular to the line (say an ellipse) move along it from A to B, so that the terminal of one diameter remains on the line, this diameter how- ever, both turning round AB and altering its dimensions as the surface in which it lies moves along.’ The successive values of the principal diameter might be represented by the ordinates of either of the curves, Figs. 35 (b) or 35 (c); or by those of curves of higher degree. A surface of this type can be so constructed 1 Only one half of the figure is shaded. 2 The section perpendicular to AB shews two semi-lemniscates of differ- - ent parameters except at C where they are equal. ; 3 Consequently Helmholtz’s sphere-dwellers would, according to his view, conclude that parallel lines, both converged and diverged! 4 Also that straight lines may intersect at right-angles! 5 The surface may be supposed to increase its area, and the ratio of the diameters to change. Kee PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY IN THE THEORY OF SPACE. OLT as to exhibit the features of elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic geometry,’ and is moreover tortuous. These surfaces have been designed merely to illustrate how easily, and in what an illimitable number of ways space can be specialised, and that for such space special geometries may be created. If the intensity of the surfaces in these figures be also varied the geometries may be still further complicated. The constants of space of positive curvature may, as an abstract question, be of any magnitude whatever, consequently if the view that space may be positively curved were correct, it is a possibility that ordinary space is the locus of an infinity of wnbownded curved “spaces.”? Itis equally possible also, that it consists of an infinity of “spaces” which are of the complex type roughiy sketched or of more complex type still. The over-sublety of the conception would sufficiently argue its inutility as a foundation for geometry, even if it could be shewn to be consistent. 38. Pangeometry.—Non-euclidean- and pan-geometry have generally been regarded as practically identical. Much of what has been assigned these names is, as I have endeavoured to shew, really a geometry, not of space, but of specialised regions of space, analogous in some features to the geometry of curved surfaces. The true homaloid or continuum of three dimensions, 1.e. space in the vulgar sense, is the foundation element of all spatial concep- tions; and its dimensionless point, its straight line without breadth and thickness, its plane surface without thickness, its isotropy and homogeneity, are the fundamental forms which render any geometry intelligible, and which make possible a consistent study of its various specialisations. The bizarre idea that space may be discovered to be anything different from a homaloid, is really self- 1 G, G’, G” are successive positions of the generating surface AB, AC, AD, AH, AF, etc., join corresponding points on the generatrix. Helm- holtz’s sphere-dweller, if on this surface, would conclude that parallel lines may be parallel, diverge or converge. If he supposed to perceive intensity as he looked along a line, the straight lines would be unique in that respect. ? That is spatial regions, each ‘‘ unbounded.” 318 G. H. KNIBBS. contradictory,’ for it is on this essentially simple homaloidal con- cept that every other must be grounded. One may say further that this conception is our mental standard of reference, by means of which the differences of other conceptions are to be discerned, and is not affected by the fact that in physical applications, or in actual lines in the objective world, we never know how far the relativity of things limits our interpretations. In mathematical science the doctrine of relativity is of no moment in so far as the fundamental conceptions are concerned. Ordinary space then may be regarded as really the locus of all possible determinate geometrical figures, and the domain of all spatial specialisations, susceptible of geometrical definition. The variety not only of these possible figures, but also of the possible types of figures, is probably illimitable, or at least is limited only by our failing to perceive them. And similarly the number of modes in which space may be specialised is also probably illimitable. The great reach of projective geometry as compared with metric, suggests that an extension in that direction will not be unfruitful. A geometry—which will aim at treating broadly the generation of complex geometrical figures by means of simpler ones, which will exhibit the limits of theorems respecting plane figures when those figures are constructed upon surfaces, which wil! shew the relationships of plane or solid figures when referred to rectilinear or to curved axes, which will in fact generalize geometry to the last possible extent—would be well worthy of the name ‘“pan- geometry.” Many of the splendid results obtained by the great mathematicians who have given some support to the remarkable + Newcomb states that “there is nothing within our experience which will justify a denial of the possibility that the space in which we find ourselves may be curved in the manner here supposed,” 7.e. in the 4th dimension. See Crelle’s Journ. f. reine und Angewandte Mathematik, Bd. uxxxi., 1877. The title of Newcomb’s treatise is « Elementary theorems relating to the Geometry of a space of three dimensions, and of uniform positive curvature in the 4th dimension. Space is evidently regarded as an object, not as the locus of objects. Ifa region were dis- covered in which the angles A+ B+C = 7+ 6, we could define a curved surface in it, in which A’+ B'+ C’, the vertices of the triangle being the same, would be 7. Which are we to rely on, the straightness of the line or the sum of the angles ? GENERATION OF FIGURES ON STRAIGHT OR TORTUOUS AXES. 319 theory of curved space, are really conquests in this field, and only require to be dissociated from the space-theory to be seen as such. Non-euclidean as a descriptive adjective hardly conveys the right idea of this higher general geometry; while the term ‘ Pan- geometry” does define its essential character. This geometry is not opposed to euclidean, but is a supplement of its field, the the narrowness of which has been exposed by the magnificent researches of modern mathematicians. Some THEOREMS concerninc GEOMETRICAL FIGURES IN SPACE OF 7-DIMENSIONS, WHOSE (n—1) DIMENSIONAL GENERATRICES ARE n° FUNCTIONS OF THEIR POSITION ON AN AXIS, STRAIGHT, CURVED OR TORTUOUS. By G. H. Knipss, F.R.A.8., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 4, 1901.] . Problem defined. . Form of graph of generating function immaterial. Oblique rectilinear ages. Generating function with curvilinear axes. Rotation of generatrix obliquely about the t-axis. Curvature of the principal, i.e. the ¢-axis. . Tortuosity of the principal axis. . Theory of equivalent generatrix of unit value. . Necessary number of equidistant values of equivalent generatrix. . Conclusion. SCODNIAMLONH bead 1. Problem defined.'—W henever a finite quantity V, in n-dimen- sional homaloidal space, generated by the motion of an (n — 1)- 1'The problem discussed may be read as a continuation of a previous paper, entitled, “On the relation, in determining the volume of solids, whose parallel transverse sections are n'* functions of their positions on the axis, between the number, position, and coefficients of the sections, and the (positive) indices of the functions.” See Journ. Roy. Soc., N.S. Wales, Vol. xxxiv., pp. 36-71. The z axis in that paper is for obvious reasons denoted by ¢ in this. 320 G. H. KNIBBS. dimensional homaloidal quantity in a direction parallel to the ¢ axis of the former, can be expressed by the equation ST (@,y,%,w, etc.) = A,= A + Bt? + Ct4+ Dt* + ete......... (1) in which the coefficients A, Bb, C, etc., have any real, finite values, positive or negative including zero, and the indices 7, q, 7, etc., are real and greater than —1, but may be either fractional or integral; then this n-dimensional quantity, for the limits 0 to é, will be iB C D =ftAdt=t (A+ —, 4+ — 194 27sec 2 Voie Ale ( a = all + eet + etc.) (2) The condition that JV, is to be finite for all values of ¢ from 0 up to but not inclusive of +. obviously requires that the indices lie between, but shall not include, —1 and + o, for supposing A, to have a term J¢7', its integral, being J log,f, will be o for ¢=—O0,' and this marks the inferior limit at which the function V, becomes infinite for a finite index. I propose to investigate the range and generality of the functions (1) and (2), and to develope certain theorems concerning their relations, when p, g, 7, etc., are subject to the one restriction that they shall be greater than — 1, and the axis ¢ is not necessarily rectilinear. 2. Form of graph of generating function immaterial.—Except in so far as the interpretation of the integral is concerned, the form of the generating (nm — 1)-dimensional function is immaterial : so also is the angle of its inclination with the ¢ axis, if this last be rectilinear. That this is so, will be evident from the following considerations. If the function be essentially one-dimensional, f(x) say, its graph may be not only a straight line, but also a plane- curved, or plane-spiral line, a closed curve, or a series of any or all © of these. So also it may be the intercept, parallel to the x-axis, between two curves, or the intercepts between any series of curves extending in the direction of the ¢-axis assumed to be rectilinear; 1 A negative index —m say, makes the graph of the function Ki™ an mic hyperbola, and consequently infinite for ¢=0, while if m be positive the graph will be an m* parabola, and finite for zero or finite values of t. GENERATION OF FIGURES ON STRAIGHT OR TORTUOUS AXES. 321 the only necessary condition being that the total length of the lines, straight or curved, shall vary with ¢ as assumed in (1). The essentially two-dimensional integral would then be represented by the total surface generated by the motion of f(x) along the axis ¢, overlapping, should it exist, being taken into account. Similarly if the generating function be essentially two-dimen- sional /(«, y) say, it may be a plane surface, or a series of such of any form whatsoever, provided only that its, or their, total varies with ¢ as expressed by the function A,; and the function JV, will accordingly be represented by the volume—in right-cubic or paral- lelepipedic units, according as the system of axes is rectangular or oblique—of the path or paths of the former. Overlap, if exis- tent, must as before be taken into account, which fact being quite general need not be further referred to. Again, if motion in the axis ¢ imply some variation in physical condition’ of the surface or surfaces A,, dependent merely upon its or their total area, 7.e. independent of the order of the surface or surfaces, then it or they, though actually three-dimensional, may be regarded as essentially two-dimensional. Similarly also, the function V, will represent the integrated effect due to the motion along the axis é, or to rotation through the angle ¢, or to the lapse of time ¢, of any three-dimensional figure subject to such change of form or condition as may be expressed by (1). Analogous illustrations will serve to elucidate the nature of the integral, applied to space of higher dimensions. It is evident that not only all the regular forms ordinarily considered in plane and solid geometry are included in the range of the function, but also very many others, and that its applica- tions are not restricted to ordinary or tri-dimensional space. 3. Oblique rectilinear axes.—If the axis x, of the generatrix, and the axis ¢, be not orthogonal, the units of the generated sur- face will be oblique, hence if x make an angle w with the plane perpendicular to ¢, its projection-length thereon will be cos a, 1 E.g. variation of intensity, see Journ. Roy. Soc., xxxv., pp. 284 — 286. U—Dec. 4, 1901. 322 G. H. KNIBBS. which therefore is the factor for converting the oblique into square units. So also, if A, =/(x, y), and the angle between these axes be 47 + w’, and between the x,y plane and the ¢ axis be 47 +a, the factor to reduce the parallelepipedic to right-cubie units will be cos w cos w’; and similarly if A, =/(a, y, z, w, ete.), the inclin- Wt ations being 47 + w, w', w”, w” etc., one of these being in relation to the axis ¢, the factor of reduction & for the n-ply oblique units will be k= COS @- COS W./COS @'» Che. .eeeee (3). It is here assumed that the axes do not rotate about the axis Z. 4. Generating function with curvilinear axes.—If the axis ¢ be rectilinear, and a either rectilinear or curvilinear in a plane orthogonal with t, the one-dimensional generatrix is subject to no restriction except linear conformity to (1). Thus it may rotate about the ¢-axis, as is evident from the consideration that the element of surface 6V,=6A, dé is not affected by the direction of motion in relation to a line coaxial with that axis and lying in the plane containing the element; since the generated helicoidal element of surface is diminished in rectangular width, in exactly the same ratio as it is increased in length by the rotation. An identical consideration indicates that the element of volume dV, generated by the motion of the surface-element 64,0¢ is not affected by rotation about the ¢-axis, whether the units of surface be square, oblique, or are curvilinearly orthogonal or oblique, provided only that they remain constant in kind. This is clearly quite general, so that we may substitute ‘n-dimensional homaloidal element’ for ‘element of volume,’ and ‘(nm — 1)-dimensional homa- loidal element’ for ‘surface-element,’ in this last theorem. 5. Rotation of generatrix obliquely about the t-axis.—If the generating element lie in a plane not orthogonal with the ¢-axis, and not rotating about that axis, then an element of surface generated by linear element, will, when reduced to square units, be 6V,=A,0t, in which & is constant only for parallel directions in the plane, or rather for two series of parallel directions, whose axes of symmetry are the directions which give the maximum GENERATION OF FIGURES ON STRAIGHT OR TORTUOUS AXES. 323 and minimum values of &. If this plane make an angle of 474 with the ¢-axis, then 4, for any line therein making an angle é with that direction which is perpendicular to ¢,’ will be p—/() = Sire Sin? w)2. 3.3. (4) from which it is evident that, in general, the generating element is not free to rotate about the axis ¢, since & varies with € unless sin’w =0, that is unless the axis of the generatrix-plane, or the generatrix system of axes, is orthogonal with ¢. It is therefore essential that the mean value of 4, &, say, should be constant for every value of ¢, that is to say we must have = a2 (AoA =| constant. 2. i: (5) t This condition will be satisfied if the projections of the linear figure or figures A, for successive values of ¢, on a plane perpen- dicular to the ¢axis, are either homothetic, or are similar and similarly oriented with respect to the axes of the plane of projec- tion. If the generating function represent a circle or a series of circles, its or their motion is unrestricted, because they will project as ellipses with parallel axes in the ratio cos w: 1; butif it repre- sent the perimeter of a polygon or indeed any other figure than a circle—or a series of such—it or they must not change its or their orientation, with respect to the plane of the axial-inclination o, though otherwise unrestricted as to movement. Rotation in the plane of the generatrix involves in general therefore an opposite rotation of equal amount, of the rotated lines or figures about their own axes, in order to satisfy condition (5). The necessity for imposing this condition is a consequence of the fact that motion, in the plane of a generatrix, oblique to the axis of generation, (¢), is essentially an unequal variation in the rate of motion in the latter, of the several elements of the gener- ating function: the condition that the projections shall be either homothetic, or similar and similarly oriented, involves essential uniformity in the motion, of the generative elements, in the direc- ? That is with the line of intersection with a plane perpendicular to the t axis. S24: G. H. KNIBBS. tion of the axis of generation. This last is the characteristic condition. If A, be two-dimensional, /(x,y) say, the « and y axes, or systems of axes, straight or curvilinear, lying in a non-rotating plane inclined at any angle $7 + » with the rectilinear ¢-axis, then to determine in cubic units the generated volume J, it is necessary only to multiply by cos o, if the generatrix be expressed in square units ; consequently the position of, or any. change of position in, the generating elements is immaterial. 6. Curvature of the principal, i.e. the t-axis.—Subject to certain restrictions the axis ¢ may be a plane curve, a tortuous curve or curve of double curvature, or more generally a curve of n-ple curvature. Let the radius of the osculating circle at any point in the curve, first of all assumed to be plane, be denoted by p. Then in order to be unequivocally specified, the abscisse of the generating line or lines must, whether rectilinear or curved lie in this radius, or the radius produced, or in the plane containing the radius and orthogonal to the plane of the curve, the surface generated by any element 6x or ds, rectangularly distant Ap from an axial-surface, defined by the path of curved axis ¢ itself, moving perpendicularly to its own plane, (or, what is the same thing, by the sheaf of lines drawn through the axis ¢, continually perpendicular to the plane in which it lies)—will be greater than that generated by an element of the same length in this axial- surface, in the ratio 1 to (1+Ap/p), which ratio will be a factor of correction. Hence in order that the correction involved by the curvature of the axis (and consequently of the axial-surface) shall disappear, it is necessary that for every value of the abscissa. That is to say the centre of inertia of the system of lines must lie continually in the axial- surface as defined. | Subject to certain further restrictions the axial-surface may also be oblique to the curve, that is to say in generating this surface the direction of the path of every point on the curve may be - 4 ‘ eh GENERATION OF FIGURES ON STRAIGHT OR TORTUOUS AXES, 325 identical, and make an angle of 47 + w with the plane of the curve itself. In this case planes parallel to the plane of the curve, intersect the surface in curves identical with the curved axis itself. The plane, containing both the radius of the osculating circle at any point in the curve, and the path of this point when generating the oblique-axial-surface, determines unequivocally the abscissa of the generatrix; and this plane, the radius and radius produced, and the path of the point, constitute what may be called the abscissa-plane and the axes of reference thereon. It is at once obvious that at least condition (6) must be satisfied as the gener- atrix moves along the axis, the planes of the osculating circles in which p is measured being taken always parallel to the plane of the curved-axis ¢, for each point in the plane of generatrix, and for every position on the axis. This condition alone is, however, inadequate. 3 The surface generated by an element of the generatrix (ds) parallel to the radius of the osculating circle, is greater than that generated by an element of equal length, parallel to the other axis of the generatrix-plane, each being equidistant from the centre of that circle. Consequently in order that the constant 4, of reduction for obliquity, shall be identical for every point on the t-axis, the successive figures on the plane of the generatrix, as it moves along the axis must be homothetic with respect to the axes of that plane,’ even when the inclination of such axes is identical. This inclination however changes as the plane moves along the axis, Since it is a function of the angle w’ between the tangent to the curved-axis ¢ and the orthogonal projection, on the plane thereof, of the line (making the angle 47 + w with the plane) which generates the oblique axial-surface. Let w” denote the excess or defect from 90° of the angle between the axes on the abscissa-plane;! then evidently SMG) .— SIM @ SIN @) .4,.....< (7) In this expression » is constant, but w’, and therefore w” also, are 1 So that the inclination of the XY axes, XPY say, would be 7 + @', or they may be similar and similarly oriented. 326 G. H. KNIBBS. x variable. The projection of the X axis (PX say), on the plane perpendicular to the radius of the osculating circle, i.e. the Y axis (PY say), makes an angle $7 + w” with the intersection of the MT plane of osculation therewith, the angle w” being given by the equation tan o” = tan @°¢08'@...10.e (8). The factors for reducing an element ds of the generatrix at right angles to the axis PY is cos w’”; or if the angle made by the direction of this element with the Y axis be denoted by f, the reducing factor (A’) is the sine of the angle of inclination (x) between the direction of 6s and that of the tangent to the curved axis ¢ at the abscissa-plane in which ds lies, This is given by the expression’ ki =sin x = cos’: /(1— tan” 6 €os4@ je eee (9) hence the mean value of hk’, k, say, for each successive position of the generatrix must be constant, and the condition expressed in equation (5) therefore hold good.2. The necessity for simultane” ously satisfying conditions (6) and (5a) say, indicates how greatly the oblique relation, of the axial-surface with the plane of the t-axis, complicates the issue for a 1-dimensional generatrix. It is otherwise when the function is 2-dimensional, that is when A,= jf (x.y), a case we now proceed to consider. First suppose the axes of the plane surface A,, continually per- pendicular to the plane of the ¢-axis, to be rectangular, one axis being the radius of the osculating circle: then (6) is the only con- dition to be satisfied, ds becoming dx.dy. If the plane of the generatrix has the oblique relation previously defined, the yenerated volume has simply to be reduced by multiplying by cos w, and a condition similar to (6) has alone to be satisfied, Ap being inter- preted as in the preceding case, that is to say it is to be always measured in a line parallel to the plane of the curved ¢-axis. The element 6A, of the generatrix being however 6xz.dy. cos w”, see formula (7), the value of the generatrix is not simply /(a#.y) 1 It may be noticed that if w” = 0, k& is unity, as.it should be, for all values of £8. 2 We may call this condition (5a). GENERATION OF FIGURES ON STRAIGHT OR TORTUOUS AXES. 327 independent of the inclination of the axes, but taking equivalence of area in rectangular units into account; hence OAp yey); 2 (OAR. Ap) =0......... (10) indicates the conditions. The case of curved axes in the generatrix leads to more complex conditions, and may be dismissed without consideration, as of little practical moment. We now consider the case where the ¢axis does not lie in a plane. 7. Tortuosity of the principal axis.—Let the axis be a tortuous instead of a plane curve; and the surface formed by the sheaf of lines drawn, through every point of the curve, perpendicular to the plane of the osculating circle thereat, be called the binormal axial-surface ; and let also the plane, perpendicular to the osculat- ing circle and containing its radius, be called the normal plane, then the line of intersection of ‘normal plane’ and the ‘binormal axial-surface,’ and the radius and radius produced of the osculating circle, are rectangular axes, at the intersection of which the tortuous curve* is everywhere perpendicular. The normal plane, and the axes thereon, are consequently the analogues respectively of the plane perpendicular to a rectilinear axis, and the rectangular axes thereon; and are also respectively analogous to the plane continually perpendicular to the tangent of a plane curve, and axes thereon; one of which is the radius of the osculating circle, and the other the vertical to the plane of the curve. We shall therefore, as before, call it the abscissa-plane. The circular curvature uniquely defines the curvature of tortuous curves, inasmuch as the planes of osculation pass through any three consecutive points, infinitesimally separated. And again, the locus of the centres of circulation curvature, are defined by the point, where the line of intersection (or polar line*) of two * This will of course, not be identical with the ‘rectifying developable.’ ? Or its tangent. 3 The locus of the polar lines is the polar developable, i.e. the centres of circular curvature lie on the polar developable. 328 G. H. KNIBBS. consecutive normal planes, infinitesimally separated, cuts the plane of osculation to which it is perpendicular. It follows therefore that the perpendiculars to the osculating planes at two consecutive points on a tortuous curve, are analogues of the parallel perpen- diculars to the plane of a plane curve. That is to say, they will be everywhere equidistant from the plane perpendicular to the tangent of the curve’ at a point midway between the points. Orthogonally projected on that plane however they will make an angle equal to d¢ the angle of torsion for the length dé of the curve.” As before, let p denote the radius of the osculating circle, that is the radius of circular curvature. Hence we shall have UGE OC ace loc (11) where dé is the angle of contingence, or angle in the plane of osculation between two consecutive tangents at points dt apart. If also we have dl GAP... wie (12) o is what may be called the radius of torsion, dp being, as before mentioned, the angle of torsion.’ If the generatrix be essentially one-dimensional, 2.¢. if it be a line, the surface generated will depend upon the angle it makes with the axes on the abscissa-plane, and upon its position on that plane. 1 Containing therefore the radius of the osculating circle. ? These propositions will perhaps be more obvious when it is remem- bered that a tortuous curve is misdescribed when called a curve of double curvature. Its essential character is better understood by regarding it as a curve of circular curvature, the plane of which however, twists about the tangent to the curve at each point, instead of remaining constant as in a plane curve. | 3 The rotation of the axis formed by the line of intersection of the binormal axial-surface, and the normal plane, or, what is the same thing, the rotation of the plane of osculation, is dd in the distance dt. This is equal to the angle of contingence of the edge of regression of the polar developable for the corresponding points. The radius T, of what may be ‘alled the complex curvature is given by 1/T?= lipo ioe dt = Tdi, if dy be the angle of complee curvature. Further (dw)? = (d0)? + (dd?) consequently GENERATION OF FIGURES ON STRAIGHT OR TORTUOUS AXES. 329 Consider first an element os parallel to, but not necessarily on the y axis, (z.e. the radius of the osculating circle and its prolonga- tion): this will generate an element of surface os. d¢ (1 + Ap/p) whatever be its position.’ An element ds on the « axis lying in the binormal axial surface and coincident therewith, will generate a surface the magnitude of which, depending upon its distance Ac from the plane of osculation, is since df=dt/c, easily seen to be ds . dé vil +(Ac/o)?}. If however it is parallel to the x axis, and distant Ap therefrom, the generated element will become 6s. 6¢ vil + Ap/p)? + (Ac/o)?} For brevity let Ap or y, divided by p, be denoted by 4, and similarly Ao or x, divided by o, be denoted by »; so that XX and uw are ratios merely; then for any element 6s, making the angle y with the x axis, and whose rational coordinates are \ and p, we shall have for the generated surface 6A,, 6A, = ds . ot Vf(1+A)P +p} SU dee wat (13) n being the angle of inclination between os and the element of surface it generates. Let (denote the angle made by any point in 6s with the radius of osculation as it moves subject to the torsional as well as the onward motion: then tan (=(1+A)/p and since cos 7=sin y cos (=p sin y/V(1+2A4+A?+p’)......... (14) equation (13) may be written 64, = x. 03.06 = Vi(L+AP+ ye? cos? y } 8s. 64 ieee (15) which resolves into the quantities previously mentioned for y=0 and y=90°. Itis evident from this last equation, seeing that (i+), »’, and cos’ y are necessarily always positive, that the value of x cannot be made unity by the imposition of any condition whatsoever in the case of a closed curve; for any variation with ¢ would involve changes in Aand pw. Fora line, curved or straight, it is necessary that >{(1 +A?) +p? cos? y} ds should conform to (1) throughout. We may therefore say that there is no general con- dition by means of which the generated quantum can be made to + That is to say, the element of surface is independent of its distance from the y axis. ? It may be noted that the torsional component depends upon Ac alone, not at all on Ap. 330 | G. H. KNIBBS. conform to the fundamental equation, where the generatrix is one-dimensional. When the generatrix is two-dimensional, it is quite otherwise. The value of Ao no longer affects the generated elements, the volume thereof depending upon Ap alone, that is to say, 0A, = dx. dy. dt (1+Ap/p) ........ (16) in all cases, hence > (04; \.2Aip) eee (17) is the only condition to be satisfied; 7.¢. the centre of inertia of the generatrix must lie continually in the binormal axial surface. 8. Theory of equivalent generatrix of unit vaiue.—It has been shewn herein, that when the ¢-axis is curved or tortuous, the mean value of the factor (1+Ap/p) must, for every position of the generatrix, be continually unity; otherwise some correction to the integral will be required. Let us suppose however, this con- dition to be abandoned, and the mean value (depending upon the place of the centre of inertia of the generatrix elements or area) to vary in such a manner, that this variation is also a function of the position of the generatrix on the axis, such as may be repre- sented by the expression hKak+flO+gt+ht' + ete........ (18) We shall then have, for the value of what may be called the equivalent generatrix, the factor of which will be unity, for every position on the axis, A,=kA,+ A( fe +of +...) + BUF gf =...) +C( fOt¢+...) + D(fO +...) (19) which, when a, 6, c and p,q, r are actually given can be arranged according to ascending values of the indices, and written in a form identical with the original expression (1), viz. Aj=A’+ BP 4+ Ct + DF’ + -ete......25 (20) the integral of which will be therefore the same as (2) in form. 9. Necessary number of equidistant values of equivalent gener- atriz.—I have shewn elsewhere’ that the prismoidal formula 1 Some applications and developments of the prismoidal formula.— Journ. Roy. Soc., N. S. Wales, Vol. xxx1II., pp. 129-145, 1899. See §§ 15, 16. GENERATION OF FIGURES ON STRAIGHT OR TORTUOUS AXES. 33] rigorously applies to solids bounded by what may be called “circularly warped surfaces,” in which the centre of inertia of any section (formed by a plane rotating about an axis and cutting the solid) changes its distance, from the rotation axis, linearly’ in relation to the arc through which the section turns. It will now be shewn that this is an elementary case of a much more general theorem. If the terminal values of a generating function of the form, A,=A+ Bt+C?+ Dt? + ete......... (21) together with a series of equidistant intermediate values, are given, the generated quantum, between the limits ¢, and ¢,, is absolutely determined, when the highest index in the generatrix, (1), is the same as the nuinber of given values inclusive of the termina! ones, if the number is odd, or one less than the number, if it is even. Consequently if the indices p, gq, r, ete, and a, b, © etc., are positive integers, that is to say, if the quantum of the generatrix and of the departure of its centre of inertia (in the direction of the radius of curvature) from the axis, are both positive integral functions of the position thereupon, then it is easy to determine the number of equidistant values of the gener- ating function necessary to fix the quantum of the generated figure. For let m denote the sum of highest indices, s+d say, ‘then if an odd number be taken, if must be m, but if an even, m+l. 10. Conclusion.—Since an expression of the form (1), can be designed to represent, even with a few terms in most cases, almost any spatial quanta related to a variable, it is evident from the foregoing consideration of the curvature of axes, that the generality ? Such a figure for example, as a railway cutting on a circular curve, when the slope of the natural surface changes at a uniform rate with respect to a line rotating about the rotation axis at the centre of the curve. 2 See my paper “On the relation, in determining the volumes of solids, whose parallel transverse sections are n'* functions of their position on the axis thereof, between the number, position, and coefficients of the sections, and the (positive) indices of the functions.”—Journ. Roy. Soc., N.S. Wales, Vol. xxxiv., pp. 36-71 1900. § 18. aan G. H. KNIBBS. of its application is much greater than is usually supposed. By analogy the developments in three-dimensions can be carried into supposititious space of higher dimensions, so long as the nature of such space is definitely representable. The discussion of that further question however, we leave to a future occasion. SYMMETRICALLY DISTORTED CRYSTALS FROM ' WESTERN AUSTRALIA. By W. G. WooLnouGH, B.A., F.G.S. [ Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 7, 1901. | THE crystals which form the subject of this note were collected by Mr. B. F. Davies, B.sc., (London), He gives the following description of their mode of occurrence. The crystals of tinstone together with monazite and allanite occur in coarse garnetiferous quartz-felspar veins, intrusive into the garnetiferous gneiss which forms the country rock of the Marble Bar, Cooglegong and Shaw (Withnell’s) Tinfields of Pilbarra, North Western Australia. The- crystals described, are believed to come from the Cooglegong field though it is possible that some were collected in the neighbouring Shaw (Withnell’s) field. The most perfect crystals occur not in the pegmatite vein itself, but in the alluvial of many of the surrounding gullies. They cannot have travelled far since the angles and edges are beautifully sharp and the faces give fairly good reflections. When the first of these crystals was exhibited, all who saw it immediately came to the conclusion that it was monoclinic and it was provisionally called wolfram. Mr. Davies stated that he believed it to be tinstone. The amount of material available was too small to permit of thorough chemical investigation, but the SYMMETRICALLY DISTORTED CRYSTALS FROM WEST AUSTRALIA. 333 presence of a large percentage of tin was proved by Mr. J. Verge, B.A. and Mr. C. F. de Jersey Grut, B.a., B.z., by blowpipe tests. After this it was thought the mineral was probably a dimorphous form of SnO,. Mr. Davies kindly lent me a number of crystals to enable me to work out the crystallographic form. It was then seen that some of the crystals were apparently monoclinic, others apparently rhombic. As will be seen immediately from the photo- graph, the most perfect of the crystals is apparently monoclinic, with prism faces [110] and clinodomes [011]. The other pseudo- monoclinic crystal shows, apparently, the prism [110], clinodomes [011], positive (2) and negative orthodomes [101] [101]. The pseudo-rhombic crystal shows apparently (if the long axis be held vertical), the prism [110], macrodomes [101], basal planes [001], macropinacoid [100], brachypinacoid [010], and pyramid [111]. A measurement of the angles of the pseudo-monoclinic crystal with the most brilliant faces at once explained the anomaly and proved that the edges between the faces 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-1 were crystallographically similar, and that therefore the crystal possessed the symmetry of the tetragonal system. The faces developed are those of the tetragonal pyramid [111]. Traces of oscillatory combination with the first order prism [110] are expressed by striation parallel to the long edges of the crystal. The readings of internormal angles measured over polar edges are very concordant. The mean of seven readings, making due allowance for the relative perfection of the images in different cases, is 58° 43’. The mean readings over the lateral edges is 92° 38’. The temperature at the time of reading was constant at 18° C. The measurements were made by means of a Babinet type of goniometer (horizontal circle) by Fuess, the Websky’s slit being used as a signal. , These numbers agree well with those given in the sixth edition of Dana’s “System of Mineralogy,” where the corresponding angles are 58° 19’ and 92° 53’ respectively. From the observed angles ook W. G. WOOLNOUGH. it is calculated that C=-67536 (Dana ‘67232). ’ 0 57 May 1 to Sept. 26; 7° ,,~ | S.S. “ Salamis”’... 0 28 june V3 toduly 5, ) 4, 5.8. “Star of IN: Zealand” 0) a: Dec. 24,1900 to Aug.24,, | M.M.S.S.Villedela Ciotat 3 42 September 6 to 27, ,, | 8.S. “ Starof N. Zealand” 0 795 17 * The number of current papers sent overboard as far as known, but in some cases the record of papers set afloat is incomplete. One hundred and fifty-three papers received during the same period. LIST OF CHARTS. Current paper Chart No. 6a. PP) 9 99 No. 6B. ‘5 * fe -NOs0C. LONG DRIFTS OF CURRENT PAPERS, SELECTED | Number of paper in list. FROM THE SIX PAMPHLETS PUBLISHED BY THE SYDNEY. OBSERVATORY. Current pamphlet, No. 1 (July 1883 to June 1894 ; 43 current papers) Current pamphlet, No. 2 (June 1894 to August 1896; 157 current papers) Current pamphlet No. 3 (August 1896 to November 1898; 167 current papers) Current pamphlet No. 4 (November 1898 to November 1899; 124 current papers) Current pamphlet No. 5 (November to October 1900; 106 current papers) Current pamphlet No. 6 (October 1900 to November 1901; 154 current papers) 2 3 27 37 3,300 5,100 3,600 4,100 5,905 5,970 4,119 8,840 os a 8,617 9 585 4,760 4,081 4,557 6,375 4,339 5,650 4,800 4,600 4,890 5,115 9.567 9,025 8,850 4,100 4.714 4.550 6,300 6,550 3,850 5,321 3,785 4,400 3,740 9,950 9,850 4,665 4,540 4,250 5,610 4,130 4,165 Distance | Rate per travelled trave day in in miles. miles. — NOD > 2 wT SO S60 80 cS WOoOWWRD OMOS — Marc6.: AAAS’ = OO =m bo TSO m— bo > OO bo bo © bo OO — CN OO Or: OOH Orb bo” St °) l= m— bo bo OST I CUS O19 | ill cel WAOMNMAE AN TSW SOMOOW CURRENT PAPERS. 341 LIST OF CURRENT PAPERS THAT MADE A RAPID DAILY DRIFT, No. of|List num-} Miles Taken from Current Pamphlets Nos. 1 to 6 inclusive. Pam-| ber of per phlet.| paper. day. r| 8 | 12-0 Bite}. 11-0 8 16°0 15} a1 | 31-0 eesr | 1-2 L| 41 | 12°0 (| 56 | 168 64 17 | 102 | 15°4 94 104 14°4 \| 107 | 138 | 130 18°1 148 Lk7 L175 | 186 (| 210 | 13°5 211 21°2 217 12°4 | 218 | 142 222 Tt 7 233 15°3 258 16°9 3 J 261 28°3 1) 273 | 11-7 323 12°5 | 329 16:0 353 21°3 300 11°5 | 308 14°2 364 19°4 L| 866 | 14-7 (| 380 | 13°2 385 11°2 388 14°0 392 13°3 406 12°7 | 418 17°8 431 11°5 || 433 14°2 49 | 449 | 14-5 450 12°9 | 452 12°2 454: TZ 456 277 | 466 13°3 488 12°6 || 491 | 183 Locality of Current. South Coast East Coast East Coast Arabia North Pacific East Coast Indian Ocean East Coast Indian Ocean India Coast South Coast Atlantic Ocean Southern Ocean Brazil Indian Ocean South Coast Southern Ocean Indian Ocean Indian Ocean Indian Ocean Indian Ocean West Indies Arabian Sea Indian Ocean East Coast English Channel Tasman Sea South Coast Indian Ocean Indian Ocean South Coast Southern Ocean South Coast East Coast East Coast English Channel East Coast South Pacific Indian Ocean Southern Ocean Southern Ocean South Atlantic Indian Ocean Southern Ocean East Coast West Africa No. of Paim- phlet. 5 List num- ber of paper. 514 529 530 532 551 6 559 561 574 581 587 598 625 644, 652: 658 668 671 674 676 681 : | | | 687 690 691 702 711 727 732 734 750 Miles per day. 12°9 15°6 16°5 21°4 19°4 146 25°4 20°6 16°3 18°5 111 17-1 16-2 11-2 115 11-6 19°5 168 17-1 15°5 18°5 12°5 15°9 1-0 11°3 12°7 22'5 17-9 11-4 Locality of Current, East Coast Indian Ocean Gulf of Aden Gulf of Aden North Pacific Ceylon Coast Indian Ocean Indian Ocean East Coast Indian Ocean North of Fiji New Caledonia Gulf of Aden Oceania Coast ur. Sydney H.of N. Caledonia Gilbert Islands Phoenix Islands Coast S. of Sydney Indian Ocean Indian Ocean S.E. Coast Indian Ocean S. Indian Ocean Indian Ocean Indian Ocean Fiji Gulf of Aden Indian Ocean ‘ 8-2 ogg | §9 Beg UBIquly | 0OO'IT “AON one 6 «6 tee “ ome cei 08 ese | S21 TeeDO TeIDU] wove deal“ erie trone |“ tees bwaee (7 «“ va aes . nae tae Le 2. _6G¢ l 4sBo no - “AO seat} 6 6s ” te nT? ‘ “Ad: tee ove ; : 16 | ¢29 | gor | 3SBOD TINOG] 10-9 “990 | GZ eFT| “tZsEe “ Bz OST | “ BE GE « iho dey Oe 3. ioe » UTUS | 86-4 “oad | 829 ezo| et | 6 |oe | 9880n ZN] 1008 Amp] “ ZT gst] o9zr) + O9 FAT | 08 e 5 ee ge th leet POUT » STW) F0-8e Teed | 20 SS Ba a Ze rr 10-62 “wet| eg Zot | “ce Ta)“ SE 2S1 | “ 1h es cs rian iat me eee clo | hy i i GP) S89 | eT | F800 see 10st “9 OS1/ "3% 98)“ 8 SGT)" Te 62 - oa a < 00-F2 0 v9 9 | 99 | eve | Ze | opBg yqnog] 00-2 THdy | ‘* og ZoT | ‘OT 13) *! “ “ ‘ spatula cose ae rea y 629 | 6-T 098 lep | ysvop qanog | 10-12 Imdy | ‘ ry Bt a x HS “ es oot & oF rae “ momen LM . « OFOANBET , "SS | 00-7B “Ad | SZ9 129 | 2.¢ | Osta | FZg |N'BE0Q “YOg | 100s “TRL | * EH GET | “GFE | * 1106 |“ 2 $F & « hte aS ” 00-6T “UBe | 29 0@9 | 1-1 a egor |'"38TOD “MS | 10 8T EMME | “ os Oat | “Cz ze |“ O BOT | FF Se : «“ eae & oer nang bere ! ZT 6s ecg «| ysvo nog -p ‘AO § ‘ 7 : ‘a |: ‘ : ts e19 | oe | Odt ce | ida eolsias rhe wae cc oe me ee rae pee he oa PULMMMOD “pOooMpteSYT “YL |", VUTFOT JO JFINH, “S'S | 86-21 “de | 619 MG) S:1y| $8 gz 48¥og seq | 00ST “990 | ‘ gz ger | “ Geez] “ 2TecT|S9 08)” “ Sires Chall 1 | OO Tee OD eke 34 Ll 09Z‘T | 2901 | BOS BBIQury 107 sae “ow “23 | 1 €9 |N@ 11/7 sepavuruog corp tt ee Wa aa 865. dries oh 9 | 2.0 gz SFI s 10-T§ ABTA | “ OG ‘ “ UN's pfctl tesla es air , i ee cd) #19 | zt | O8T cee qsvoQ y4nog | 10-21 eunc | “« oe ne ‘ce ee os a a ot pe oe eR abe AVS oe SMORBUREC aS Sa eo Gatos e19 vais ose's wee uve80Q UBIPUT “ 978p ON iG cg GE be Of 2 a 4 xe Ge lee ; fe) d i a bye ,OoZn), SIH | 10-21 ‘UBr +19 z19 | 2.0 | 9 6 cc 00-6 “AON | “ 11 OFT | ‘OF T| O 68°) * 0) eg) © Joqseyg “redoop “gdep)|” ; ma1saaaounnoG) ares ce comet eel 119| ¢.0 | 02 | gez fe 00-F “AON |“ eLert| “ee ee | © 6 apt | “2688 | eee TH ee generate ee ee ee 019 60 | 46 | 9 A WO-FT “9dag | “ og OFT | 0 se “ Ge GET | 0 26)” “ AO TRL W | ZBRORNCIEE SINGS) COC a ae 609| zz | o¢ |e | asvog ‘as | 00-2 ‘ood | * ce gpr| “sp ue| “ 9 FT|‘ 9%8e |" es “ ae « tore Ae 809] Te | o9r | oct : Toe “wee | “ T opt| ‘og ze| 0 Zer| “9298 |" ae « eae « One arr Rens © | -2 | 06% | 90 00-6 “AON | “* Ze ef “ “6 cb ‘ ‘ ve Pease 3 509 | Le | 068 | 82° | 38809 ugnog | To-98 oun |“ $6 eerlcosce | @ ger| “eee |" ce noureA — |" Merenjeny, S'S NW | 0 cate vee G09 | FT | ST II a 10-18 ady | “ spesr| 9 ze] ‘ Ze est} st ze] te “ ee ‘ To-2T [lady | 909 709 | Ze | 26 | g9z | ase09 ‘a's| To-82Txdy | “ oz ect |g oF Fz| “ OF OFT |S SF Ze |” « ‘soasoyy ¢ | oo, (ue Cele in eave 299 | ¢e | of9 | Ist |BveooueIpuy | lost “Suv | “ cae |NOZOT| “ 23E8 | NE Z | LepuvuTUTOD ‘peo EE SHERROD ee te z09 | 9.¢ | 212'T | ozp | veg ueumsey, | 1o-TT “uec| “ ¢ gFt| “sPor| “ gecoT| "so ee | ‘mIOD ‘dao SU oe a eet te Y 1OeT “de | 809 109 9.9 080°T 99T OG 10-&1 ‘gdeg 6c 8 EFT cc crel| “ 8 ZT “eT a S) P ‘6 HOE Ae net a . Bpomely , SWS 65786 “qydag 6&9 009 | 2.6 | Oger | eT if 00-91 Sny | cp yzcr| “oa gf |“ egest| “Ivo | « Flaca ar cs Nag etl) Ue) 66 | 9.2 | O28 | FOT e goes Avmt | “ gp azt|‘orz | * soeet|‘'9 2 | “ as «“ Oe ee saan eee g6¢ | LIT} 012 | 6l joploea qynog] 00-§ INdy |‘ cb LZZT|S0 9 | MHPPAT/SIg¢ | Jepuemurop “AeA MD] —_—C ESUBIOV, “S W' 006 “ZS UeL | 869 oe Boe HI Se i) a) / 0 i © ‘ON aa Bae ela Tirasou punoy ‘SuO'T ‘Very *BU0'T “QUryT ; ; "eos O44 cane A! ogey @ 5 & ran 4 meq oye PEN. diyg jo owen aun aa ou 2 oO os ee ‘puno,y 919T AA ‘IOAQ UMOIY], ie See ee inriaTEEEEEIEEEEEEEEEEE EERE Lc LCL LL CCC ccc SEINHYUANO NVAOO 999 999 €99 299 199 099 699 899 LG9 999 gg9 rS9 €99 699 Tg9 0g9 679 8t9 LV9 9F9 St9 br9 €79 GPO 19 OF9 6&9 8&9 1&9 989 gg9 PE9 &&9 6&9 ‘ON G99 | 9.8 | SBI PE | 10-03 “49a | ** 6T TST | “‘ 27 8E | ** FE Eat | oT ae) as ae ek ee TO-LT “uee $99 | 6.3 | OOF Sel 9880p 3909 10'S oun} *° Og EST | ‘‘ OF 22 | ‘* 6G EST | “* G2 9a ss = SS 10-91 ‘ue €99 | &F | OSPF SOT TOS “BIT | “* OS 291 | “8 12} “ saszt| “2 02 ws oe eS 00-21 “AON 299 | 2.3 OzZ‘T | 629 oytord YINog | 10-01 “ART | “ Zeer | “Ss9T| “ 6E OLT | “ FE Zz | LepueMIUO/ ‘mBysSMBIO “4H |" “" tnodvuryq , S'S | 66ST eunr 199 | F-0 08% 6F9 | 98BOD ySemT | TO-ET APIA | ** GG OST | “SEP %s| ‘“ SZFST |‘ O e3\" CUSISI UEEN OUI Ur: UN , vuBsuOOT , onbieg | 66-8 “snYy 099 | S&S | OSO'T | EE | 9S¥OD YING | 00-02 “99d | “ CP EET | ‘S81 9E| "HF IZL| 88 oe] tepueum0H ‘MoyporTD “MW , SSUBIN) UOPSTBT , “S'S | OO-1E “ULE 629 | &4 | OS6°6 | ESET |U¥EDO “UINOS | 10-6 “URL! “ O TPL | “IsT Be; MO 89 |‘0 eg)" ZeqseTT ‘oatto Wl “H . oA oyeT , onbseg | 16-93 [dw 8S9 | ¢.IL] O18 13 so 10-8 dy | “ 2a 1¢T | ‘068 €E SGT | ‘* 8% 6B ener i 10-6T “TBI 209 | $.% 891 88 “ 10-9 “Ga | “ os ecl| ‘2 26] “ 96ST | ° Th Fs if i > 00-0€ “02d 999 | 9.¢ | Og 6 “"98BOD ISB | TO-9 ‘Ue! * 9 ect | “2zg08)] ‘ GT Ect] ‘F108 |" iS 00°86 “00d @G9 | 2.2 OIZ ZL |" 98800 “H's | ToS WOTVW | “ ge ogt| oO se] “ Zo srt] ‘OT SE |” a ey. s 0O-9T “O° P99 | 81 | Gb GZ |" 98BOO FSV | 0O-TES (99d | “* 6 OFT) “SPLAT! ‘° Sh OPT |‘ ST ST |” a eae este 5 00-9 ‘00d 669 | 1-6 | 082 89 = jeylov’g WINOG | 10-6 “AAT | “* ST epT| “‘Geor| ‘ cecel |S Irs i ei ¥ 00¢ “99d &99 | @IT | O91'S | S6L | BIaveEDO | IO-IT “BW | ‘S GpyeT |‘ GTS |‘ 8 FEIN 2bE |” i “5 00-08 “Ssny 199 | $b | OFZ 221 “ 00-13 ‘99d | “ ze zer | “02 ce| “ 2¢ GFT | ‘‘ 06 16 |" af oe as es 00-6 Aine 0g9 | 1-1 0&% FIZ | "9svop ysvm | 10-6 “Uer “ oT EecT ‘OF FZ| “ OG OST | ‘‘ 6G Iz |‘puvuUtOg ‘TTomseA “MA ‘A | navy vsusvy ,'S'S| 006 oemne 6F9 | &.6 098'S | 99g |Wee2Q “YING | TO-ST Ue! “ og eet | “02 8E]| ‘ 6 86 | “SE IP] AoXsvP_ ‘UOYsAeplog “MV qeureauy, drys | 00-2 en. 8t9 | 0-3 002 -' IO | VeguuIsry | 10¢ ‘“Sny | ** gpzzt| ‘oete! “ OL e9T' Whitman Cross, Proc. Colorado Scientifi. Soc., 1887, 167. ° Some of,the principal phonolite localities in U.S. America, are Big Bull Mountain; Mitre Peak; Straub Mountain; Rhyolite Mountain; Florissant and Manitou; Bull Cliff; Washington Shaft, Victor. 7 Osann, Phonolite (Apachite) of the Apache Mountains, U.S.A.— Tschermak’s Min. u. petr. Mitt., 1896, Vol. xv., p. 394. Rosenbush, Microscopische Physiographie der Mineralien und Gesteine, dritte Auflage 1896, p. 823. 352 ‘TT. W. E. DAVID, F. B. GUTHRIE, AND W. G. WOOLNOUGH. Dr. F. Adams’ and Mr. A. P. Coleman? have described a corun. diferous nepheline syenite from Eastern Ontario. This remarkable rock is described as having a schistose structure, “so that at first sight it would be called gneiss. The darker layers contain much biotite and the lighter nepheline and plagioclase. Numbers of small crystals of corundum stand out on the weathered surfaces. Mr. Frank D. Adams has referred* to a rock formed of white felspar and orange-red grains of eleeolite, described by Sir William Logan from Old Pic Point and Island, Lake Superior. It is thought to be probably related to the remarkable analcite rock called heronite, described by A. P. Coleman from Heron Bay, Lake Superior.* This rock, heronite, is considered to have the following mineral constitution :— Analcite ... aus w.. 47°00 Orthoclase fee aa Ora: Labradorite =e we bo OO /Egyrite ... ca fee 4:04 Limonite ... nae bs When 15) Calcite... iy, fe 1:96 97°83 As regards the occurrence of nepheline rocks in the Southern ~ Hemisphere, phonolites containing sanidine, nepheline, haiiyne and hornblende, have been described from Fernando Noronha, off Cape 8. Roche, Brazil; and Renard® has described a volcanic 1 Geol. Sur. Canada, 1892-3, Pt. J, p.5; and also Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. xtvui1., July 1894, pp. 10 - 18. 2 Jour. of Geol., July — August 1899, Vol. vir., No. 5, pp. 437 — 444, 3 Jour. of Geol., Vol. vitr., No. 4, May - June 1900, pp. 322 - 325, “On the probable occurrence of a large area of nepheline-bearing rocks on the north.east coast of Lake Superior. * Jour. of Geology, Vol. vi1., No. 5, July - August, 1899, p. 435. 6 Giimbel, Phonolith von Fernando do Noronha, Brazilien, Min u. petr. Mitth. 11., 1880, 188. Renard, Rep. on the petrology of Oceanic Islands, 1859, 38. Branner and Williams, Amer. Journ. of Sci., xxxvit., 1889, 145, 168. 6 Renard, Phonolithe de l isle Nightingale (Tristan da Cunha), Bull. Acad. Royale de Belg. (3) x111., 1887,3. Renard, Report on the petrology of oceanic islands, 1889, 89. ; OCCURRENCE OF TINGUAITE AT KOSCIUSKO, N.S.W. 353 conglomerate of considerable extent at Nightingale Island. The cement of this conglomerate is formed of phonolitic material. Nepheline is stated to occur in grains and crystals besides brown microlites of augite and sanidine etc. In Brazil, Prof. O. A. Derby,’ has described a nepheline-bearing rock from Serra de Tingua. This, however, is perhaps more referable to the elzolite-syenite-porphyries, leucite-elzolite-syenite- porphyries or tinguaites than to the phonolites.. Besides elzeolite it contains abundant pseudomorphs in analcime after leucite. It was originally considered to be of Paleozoic Age, but Hussak? has shown that it intrudes Post-Carboniferous, perhaps Triassic, sandstones. Kerguelen.—Phonolite has been described? at the above island at Greenland Harbour. It is stated to be a greenish-white rock forming cylindrical and columnar masses which rise above the general level of the surrounding sheets of augitic basalt. Much soda and sulphuric acid are present.* From the fact that angular enclosures of the phonolite are met with in the basalt, (whereas no basalt enclosures have been observed in the phonolite), and from the fact that the basalts which are typically porphyritic become less coarsely*crystalline as they approach the dome-shaped masses of phonolite, it is argued that the Kerguelen phonolites are probably somewhat older than the basalts. Professor Roth® and Renard’ have also described phonolite from Kerguelen. Mr. Evelyn G. Hogg, m.a.,° has also described phonolites from Kerguelen, and the adjacent Howe Island. At the latter locality the minerals present in the phonolite are sanidine, augite, horn- blende and nepheline. An analysis of this rock for comparison 10. A. Derby, Q.J.G.S., xu111., 1887, 457 ; xuvir., 1891, 251. 2 Hussak, N. Jahrb. f. Min., 1890, 1., 166; 1892, 11., 146. 3 Report Scientific Results, Voyage H.M.S. Challenger, Narrative, Vol. 1., First Part, pp. 348 - 351, and p. 374. *% Op. cit., p. 350. * Roth, (Prof. J.) Ueber die Gesteine von Kergueland, Monatsber. d. K. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. Berlin, 1875, pp. 723 — 735. 5 Bull. Musée roy. de Belge iv., 1886, 223, and Rep. on petrology of Oceanic Islands, 1889, 133. 6 Hogg, (EH. G.) Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, Feb. 1899, Vol. x1., (New Series) Pt. 2, pp. 209-213. W—Dec. 4, 1901. 354 1. W. E. DAVID, F. B. GUTHRIE, AND W. G. WOOLNOUGH. with that of Kosciusko is quoted by us later on from Mr. Hoge’s paper. From ‘“Cat’s Ears” on the main island, Mr. Hogg has described’ a hornblende phonolite, (not unlike apachite, awthors) containing sanidine, hornblende, nepheline, augite, apatite and a little sphene. In the presence of hornblende some of these phonolites approach the apachite (Osann) of the Apache Mountains, and in the pre- sence of olivine the phonolitic nephelenite, (bordering on the nepheline-basalts) of the Katzenbuckel in the Odenwald, Baden. In their low silica percentage, 51:15 —52°30 they resemble the Kosciusko tinguaite, as will presently appear. New Zealand.—The late Professor Ulrich of Dunedin, New Zealand has described? a very interesting group of phonolites from the neighbourhood of Dunedin at Portobello, and also at Pine Hill and Parakanui Cliffs, the first locality twelve miles east of Dunedin, and the second close to the town, and the third eighteen miles north of it. Structurally, Professor Ulrich differentiates them into (1) a coarsely porphyritic rock, and (2) a dense compact rock ; and mineralogically into (a) nephelinitoid phonolites, and (6) trachytoid phonolites. Through accession of plagioclase, and either absence or presence of olivine, varieties of this rock graduate respectively towards tephrite on the one hand and basanite (Rosenbusch) on the other. A. Wichmann? has described a nepheline rock under the name foyaite from Viti Levu, Fiji. This was collected by Klein- schmidt from Muanivatu and Koro Yalewa. This rock consists of orthoclase, a little plagioclase, fresh nepheline largely converted into zeolites, augite, apatite, biotite, magnetite, titanite, and titaniferous iron. 1 Op. cit., p. 212. ? On the occurrence of nepheline-bearing rocks in New Zealand, by Professor George H. F. Ulrich, r.a.s., Director of the School of Mines, Dunedin.—Austr. Ass. Adv. Sci., Vol. 111., pp. 127 - 150, pl. v. 3 Tschermak’s Min. u. petr. Mitth. v., 1882, 14. OCCURRENCE OF TINGUAITE AT KOSCIUSKO, N.S.W. 355 W. H. Twelvetrees' and W. F. Petterd have described an exceedingly interesting series of nepheline, anorthoclase, nosean eegirine rocks in the neighbourhood of Port Cygnet, Tasmania. Melanite garnet and fluorite are present in some varieties: in some cases sanidine takes the place of anorthoclase. Messrs. Twelvetrees and Petterd class these as sélvsbergites nosean trachytes, and tinguaite porphyries. As regards the occurrence of nepheline in Australia, it has hitherto been described only as an accessory mineral. Professor Ulrich has recorded? it in an “older basalt” (Eocene ?) at Phillip Island, Bass’ Strait, Victoria. Analcime and natrolite occur in abundance as zeolites in this lava. FF. M. Krause? also records nepheline from Victoria, at Western Port. Recently Prof. J. W. Gregory’ has described an interesting series of sdlvsbergites and trachy-phonolites containing anortho- clase, nosean, zgirine, riebeckite, and in some cases cossyrite, from Mt. Macedon, Victoria. In Queensland, Mr. Dunstan of the Geological Survey has referred’ to a basalt rich in nepheline, at Mt. Beardmore, Dawson River, west, He states that this rock ‘‘occurs as an isolated peak surrounded by old sedimentary altered rocks and by tableland sandstones. The rock is fine grained and contains nepheline, augite, olivine, magnetite, etc.: no felspar present.” He adds that it looks fresh. In New South Wales, Prof. Liversidge® records the occurrence of nepheline in amygdaloidal porphyry at ‘‘The Pinnacles,” Co., Forbes; Dowagarang and the Old Man Canobolas, near Wellington * Trans. Aust. Inst. Mining Engineers, 1898, Vol. v., p. 108, and also Papers and Proc. 1898-99, Roy. Soc. Tasmania, pp. 3 — 26, figs. 1 - 8. 7 Quoted by R. M. Johnston, Geology of Tasmania, 1888, p. 249. 3 « An Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy for Australian readers,” F. M. Krause, 1896, p. 205. * Proc. Roy. Soc., Victoria, Vol. x1v., (New Series) Pt. ii., pp. 185-217, Pls. xi. - xvii. 5 Parliamentary Paper, No. C A. 9, 1901, Brisbane—Rep. Geol. Dawson and Mackenzie Rivers, 1901, p. 28. Preliminary Note. ® Minerals of New South Wales—A. Liversidge, M.A., F.R.S., 1888, p, 185. 356 «. W. E. DAVID, F. B. GUTHRIE, AND W. G. WOOLNOUGH. (Orange ?) Co., Wellington. These spots were probably observed by the late Rev. W. B. Clarke. Mr. G. W. Card, Assoc. B.S.M., F.GS., Mineralogist to the Geological Survey of New South Wales, has informed us that he has lately observed nepheline in basalt from the following localities in New South Wales:—(1) at ‘‘The Peaks,” Burragorang, where the lava occurs as a thin capping at the top of the mountain; (2) at Glen Alice, Capertertee; and (3) at Sapling Flat Creek, Capertee. Mr. G. W. Card has also identified nepheline in large quantities in a rock just discovered by Mr. J. E. Carne, F.a.s., of the Geological Survey of New South Wales. The locality of the discovery is Portion 34 in the Parish of Barigan, about fourteen miles from the railway station Lue, on the Wallerawang to Mudgee Line, in N. 8. Wales. In hand specimens the fine grained type of the Barigan rock is strikingly like that of Kosciusko. Mr. Card very kindly placed thin slices of this rock at our disposal, so that we might institute a comparison between it and that of Kosciusko. Since this, however, fresh discoveries on a much larger scale of highly interesting nepheline rocks, which Mr. Card considers allied to tinguaites, have been made in the same district by Mr. J. EK. Carne.1 Mr. Carne states that there are several mountains of nepheline rock in this locality over 1,000 feet high, from base to summit, and intrusive into the Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic rocks. Under these circumstances as the Barigan rocks will merit a special memoir, in all probability, it would be pre- mature for us to attempt a description of them, except very briefly. On comparing the sections of the fine grained variety of rock from Barigan with that of Kosciusko, one is struck at once with the absence from the former of inclusions of other rocks, the Kosciusko rock being remarkable for the amount of mineral matter, especially felspar, which it has borrowed from the sur- rounding gneissic granite. The Barigan rock does not exhibit under the microscope as numerous sharply defined sections of 1 Card, G. W.—Records Geol. Survey, N.S. Wales, Vol. vit., pt. 2. OCCURRENCE OF TINGUAITE AT KOSCIUSKO, N.S.W. 357 nepheline as does the Kosciusko rock. The Barigan rock does not exhibit flow structure among its felspar microlites, whereas flow structure is well seen in the Kosciusko rock. The Barigan rock moreover has numerous clear streaks, of the nature perhaps of segregation lines, not seen in the Kosciusko rock. A subsequent examination of the Barigan area by Mr. Carne and Prof. David, shows that these lines are related to directions of pressure in the tinguaitic laccolites, the rock having a banded almost gneissic appearance the bands being approximately concentric to the general surface of the laccolites. The Barigan rock is essentially composed of nepheline and egirine, with numerous, irregularly distributed microlites of felspar and probably a little sodalite. Further information relating to the petrological character and mode of occurrence of this highly interesting rock from Barigan and the associated tinguaites will be published shortly by the Geological Survey of New South Wales, II. Occurrence at Mount Kosciusko.—The tinguaite of Kos- ciusko occurs in the form of a dyke traversing granite. The dyke is about seven feet wide, is vertical or nearly so, as far as can be seen in the small section in the bank of the creek, and strikes in a direction E. 5° N. and W.5°S. The height above sea-level is about 5,600 feet. The spot where the dyke crosses the creek [which flows from Lake Merewether (Blue Lake), and Hedley Tarn through Evidence Valley (Helms) to the Snowy River] bears about E. 47° N. from the Kosciusko Observatory, and is about four miles and thirty-nine chains distant. The spot is about a quarter of a mile up Evidence Valley Creek from its junction with the Snowy River.’ | The rock on either side of the dyke is a slightly gneissic granite. The granite extends in a westerly direction from Evidence Valley, for about one mile, when it is replaced by a belt of phyllite and fine quartzite. This belt is from about a quarter of a mile up to * See Plate 2, for geological plan showing occurrence of dyke. See also Proc. Linn. Soc., N. S. Wales, New Series, 1901, Pt. 1, Pl. iii., and pp. 30-31. ee . - ra 358 «1. W. E. DAVID, F. B. GUTHRIE, AND W. G. WOOLNOUGH. over a mile in width; and beyond it the granite extends to a considerable distance further in a westerly direction. The eastern line of junction between the granite and the phyllite trends N. 15° E. and S. 15° W., while the western junction line is nearly meridional, so that there does not appear to be any relation between the strike of the tinguaite dyke and the junction line of the granite and phyllite. The same remark applies to the junction line of the granite with the radiolarian and graptolitic slates and cherts at twenty-nine miles in a direction E. 25° N. from Kosciusko. The folia of the granite strike N. 20° E. to N.N.E., and their prevalent dip is to E.8.E. at about 75°. The granite is strongly intrusive into both phyllites and radiolarian rocks. The age of the phyllites is unknown; but that of the latter is Lower Silurian (Ordovician). The tinguaite is strongly intrusive into the gneissic granite, and contains a large amount of included crystals of felspar, with a few of quartz and mica, derived from the granite. An examination of the gneissic granite shows that it has been intruded by at least two distinct dyke rocks, other than the nephelinite, as well as by veins and irregular masses of a whitish euritic granite. The last mentioned is probably not much younger than the gneissic granite, as it has partaken of its foliation. The two dyke rocks referred to are respectively a pyroxene amphibolite, and an olivine basalt. The nearest basalt dyke to the tinguaite, as far as we were able to observe, is one seen by us on the west side of Lake Mere- wether (the Blue Lake). Itis about two feet wide and strikes in a direction from W.N.W. to W. 30° N. A much larger basalt dyke is developed on the Main Dividing Ridge to the west of Garrard’s Tarn (Harnett’s Lake, or Club Lake). This dyke is several yards in width and is perhaps a continuation of the dyke next to be described, viz., that at Russell’s Tarn near Mount Townsend (Miiller’s Peak). This dyke is forty yards wide, is strongly laminated and strikes in an E.N.E. direction, whereas the lamine trend N.N.E. and 8.8.W. This dyke is rendered OCCURRENCE OF TINGUAITE AT KOSCIUSKO, N.S.W. 359 porphyritic by augite and olivine, and contains numerous enclosures of granite an inch or more in diameter. A further description of one of the local basalts is given later in this paper. There is thus nothing in these basalt dykes, except their fresh state of preservation, strong intrusion into the granite and approxi- mate parallelism of strike (with that of the tinguaite) which connects them with the last mentioned rock. It is, however, possible that the dykes may be complementary to one another. The tinguaite of Kosciusko is brownish-grey in colour with a faint tinge of green, and in this respect differs from the ‘‘con- spicuously green” phonolitic nephelinite of S. Antao. The Kosciusko rock has not the sonorous ring of some phonolites. It breaks readily under the hammer with an uneven to sub-con- choidal fracture, and has a somewhat greasy lustre. Macroscopic whitish-grey to pale reddish-grey crystals of nepheline can be seen on freshly fractured surfaces, giving the rock a somewhat pseudo- porphyritic appearance, though probably the rock is not really porphyritic in the strict sense of that term as used by Rosenbusch. III. Microscopic Character.—The specimens in the following description were taken from the following portions of the dyke:— No. 1 from northern side of dyke within six inches of its plane of junction with the granite. No. 3, from the centre of the dyke. No. 4, from the southern side of the dyke within six inches of its plane of junction with the granite. No. 1. In thin section the rock is seen to possess a hyalopilitic texture. A considerable amount of residual glass is present. It is colourless, but contains fairly numerous dusty crystallites. A very marked flow structure is apparent. None of the minerals show definite evidence of occurring in more than one generation, though the rock is rendered pseudo-porphyritic by occasional largely developed nephelines. The reasons for considering these large phenocrysts of the same generation as the small individuals of the base are:—(q) there is a perfect gradation from the largest crystals _to those of sub-microscopic dimensions ; (0) there is no distinction 360 =. W. E. DAVID, F. B. GUTHRIE, AND W. G. WOOLNOUGH. in microstructure between the large and the small crystals; (c) there is a total absence of any trace of resorption ; (d@) the larger nephelines are surrounded by egirines more densely packed than in other parts of the base, pointing to the fact that these nephelines have grown in size in the place where they are now found, pushing the egirines aside in the process. If we accept Rosenbusch’s definition for ‘“porphyritic structure,” that term cannot therefore be applied to the rock under consideration. The most obvious and important mineral corstituent is nepheline. This occurs as occasional, fairly large, idiomorphic crystals in stumpy hexagonal prisms with basal planes. These vary in size up to 3 mm. in length, the breadth being about the same. Mr. G. W. Card states that he has observed well developed pyramid faces modifying the rectangles, but such faces appear to be excep- tional. The mineral is clear and colourless and its refractive index and double refraction are characteristic. In places, grey, yellow and brownish decomposition products are abundant. The large nepheline crystals have a marked zonal structure, the central zones possess a higher refractive index than those near the periphery, as proved by testing them by Becke’s’method. In the small crystals a similar arrangement can be made out under the high power. The individualised inclusions are mainly referable to eegirine, similar to that occuring as an essential con- stituent of the rock. It is recognisable by its marked and charac- teristic pleochroism. Occasional grains of magnetite also occur, Besides these, there are indeterminate dusty inclusions of a greyish colour. In one very large crystal is included a fragment of the felspathic material to be described later. Another large, almost basal, section shows a very remarkable inclusion. The nepheline is about 1:58 mm. in diameter, in it is a crystal of sanidine, ‘03 mm. long by ‘118 mm. broad. The sanidine is singly twinned, and has given rise to cleavage cracks (parallel to [1010]) in the host (Plate 1, fig.4). This occurrence is remarkable, as the crystallisation of sanidine is usually subsequent to that of nepheline. The essential felspar is present in small quantity, and is inconspicuous. OCCURRENCE OF TINGUAITE AT KOSCIUSKO, N.S.W. 361’ Tt occurs in exceedingly slender lath-shaped sections about ‘125 mm. long by (007 mm. broad. Some of these are distinctly singly twinned, as observed with a 4th inch objective, have a refractive index somewhat lower than that of Canada balsam, and exhibit the characteristics of sanidine. On the other hand, as observed by Mr. G. W. Card, some of the felspar microlites extinguish at an angle of about 10° measured from the clinodiagonal or brachy- diagonal, on the assumption that the microliths have been elongated in the direction of that axis. This points to the probability that some, if not all, of the felspar microliths are not normal sanidine. They may be soda-bearing varieties or even albite. The principal ferromagnesian constituent of the rock is egirine. In reflected light most of the pyroxene is seen to be somewhat decomposed, possessing a light greenish-yellow colour, but where undecomposed itis blackish-green. In transmitted light the colour is dark green. Many of the individuals are almost opaque owing to decomposition products. The habit is prismatic, the larger prisms being con- spicuously frayed out at the ends. Besides the prisms, there are numerous tufty aggregates with a slight tendency towards radial spherical arrangement. The pleochroism is very strong in brown and dark blue-green tints. The extinction angle is small, not more than 4° or 5° from the axis of the prism, but exact measure- ments are rather difficult to make. The maximum length is about -25 mm., and the smallest individuals sink to microlitic dimensions. A very small quantity of biotite is also present of same order of size as the larger egirines, and its pleochroism is in dark greenish bronze to opaque. A little magnetite is scattered through the section. Mr. G. W. Card suggests that some of the curved microlites may be melilite. The most remarkable feature of the rock is the abundance of included fragments. In ordinary light these are colourless but somewhat clouded by decomposition products which appear opaque white in reflected light. The double refraction of these is stronger than that of nepheline. The refractive index is lower than that of Canada balsam in the cases where a comparison is possible ee . i] gm 362 TT. W. EH. DAVID, F. B. GUTHRIE, AND W. G. WOOLNOUGH. (Becke’s method). These facts indicate an acid felspar. These felspar fragments are much broken up through mechanical and chemical agencies, and polarize as a mosaic. Extensive corrosion has gone on, many of the grains having been almost entirely dissolved, but no difference in the character of the rock can be seen in the neighbourhood of the enclosure. One idiomorphic crystal was found having the outline of a clinopinacoidal section of felspar with [001] extensively developed, and [110] and [201] less so. Owing to the extent of decomposition and alteration no exact determinations of this felspar are possible. These inclusions are almost certainly derived from the granite through which the dyke has been intruded. If this is so, the occurrence of such felspathic material in the larger nephelines is additional evidence against the intratelluric origin of the latter. In the large amount of enclosed granitic material the Kosciusko nepheline rock resembles some of the other dyke rocks of this district, the olivine basalts being particularly rich in granite enclosures. No. 4 does not differ essentially from No. 1, except that it is considerably more decomposed. As a result of this decomposition several new minerals have made their appearance, namely, analcite, calcite, and natrolite. They possess a pseudo-amygdaloidal arrangement. The analcite is slightly greenish in colour, owing to chloritic stains, but is perfectly isotropic and characteristic in every other particular, The calcite also calls for no particular remark. The mineral we have called natrolite occurs in the form of little tufty aggregates with a tendency towards spherulitic arrangement, and is included in the analcite. These fibres possess a refractive index not distinguishable from that of the analcite. The double refraction is quite noticeable, even though the fibres do not extend through the whole thickness of the section, the colours being greyish-white. The extinction is parallel and at right angles to the length of the needles. The felspathic inclusions are, if anything, more abundant here than in No. 1, but possess similar characters slightly modified by the greater amount of decomposition. In addition to the OCCURRENCE OF TINGUAITE AT KOSCIUSKO, N.S.W. 363 felspathic inclusions there are one or two included fragments of greenish-brown biotite, which are corroded though not to the same extent as the felspar. These fragments, derived probably from the granite, intruded by the dyke, are to be distinguished from the accessory authigenic biotite of the dyke rock. The chemical analyses given below show the presence of some chlorine. This indicates sodalite as a constituent mineral, but there is no con- firmatory microscopic evidence as to its presence. It is quite probable that some of the material noted as ‘‘glass” should be referred to this mineral. No. 3 specimen from the centre of the dyke. This rock is so distinct from those hitherto studied as to belong to quitea different rock-type. It is holocrystalline, though finely so. Flow structure, if present, is very obscure. Nepheline is apparently absent. By far the most abundant mineral in the rock is the felspar, which occurs in the form of irregular sections, which are not twinned. It is exceedingly difficult to determine which felspars belong to the dyke rock proper, and which to the included granite. Some definite laths of sanidine occur, but the greater part is distinctly a plutonic acid felspar. With this felspar is associated abundant muscovite in large irregular plates. Quartz is also present in smal] quantities. The egirine here differs from that already described only in its habit and in the comparative absence of decomposition. The section as a whole is very difficult to interpret. We are inclined to think it does not represent a fair sample of the dyke rock, but rather belongs to a part of it which has had its characters entirely altered by almost complete solution of a large fragment of included granite. The plutonic character of such a large per- centage of the minerals, and the occurrence of abundant muscovite is in favour of this hypothesis. The fragments which can be definitely made out to be inclusions are very numerous. Others, exceedingly like them, shade off insensibly into the groundmass. The peculiar habit of the egirine, namely, its occurrence with the ends of the prism round or conical as if due to solution is sugges- 7" 364 . W. E. DAVID, F. B. GUTHRIE, AND W. G. WOOLNOUGH. tive of a very marked change in the composition of the magma after their formation. The change must have taken place after the crystallization of the egirine, but prior to that of most of the sanidine and before any nepheline had started to form. The evidence as to the nature and date of this change is we think, quite conclusive. A short description is given here of the eruptive rocks associated with the phonolitic nephelinite :— Granite—Three miles from Jindabyne towards Cooma, on road. Typical hypidiomorphic texture rather coarsely crystalline. Evidence of dynamical metamorphism in the undulose extinction of many of the minerals, bending of biotite flakes, the bending and faulting of twin lamelle of felspar and the peripheral shattering of all the minerals, Quartz is abundant in irregular grains, generally much shattered at the edges. It contains plentiful liquid and gaseous inclusions arranged in very definite planes, which, at any rate in some cases, pass from grain to grain without interruption. In addition to enclosures of the older segre- gations which occur abundantly as rock constituents, the quartz also contains straight and curved trichites which are apparently opaque. These are in some cases at any rate arranged very regularly. In one section nearly perpendicular to the optic axis, they lie in lines making angles of 60° with one another, and therefore in all probability parailel to the faces of the primary rhombohedron. The largest of these trichites reach the dimensions of very small acicular crystals. Some of these are certainly apatite, others are probably rutile. The quartz is considerably cracked, the cracks being roughly parallel throughout the rock. The Felspar, which in some cases exhibits traces of crystalline form, is apparently most of it plagioclase. It is twinned after the albite law, and in most cases after the Carlsbad law too. The peripheral shattering and decomposition render R.I. determinations difficult, but apparently the R.I. is higher than that of quartz, indicating a rather basic variety of plagioclase. The sections are not suitable for measurement of extinction angles. One whose shape and the absence of albite twinning indicate a plane parallel to M (010) gives an extinction angle of 22° in a positive sense from the trace of the cleavage parallel to P 001. Another section nearly in the zone L M (010) gave extinction angles for the albite lamelle 16° and 18° on opposite sides of the plane of composition of the twin. The felspar probably lies between a basic andesine and an acid labradorite probably the latter, as the measurements in the section parallel to M (010) are the more reliable. A small quantity of a second felspar is present, which from its low R.I. (less than that for balsam) and untwinned “character is probably orthoclase. The enclosures in the felspar are OCCURRENCE OF TINGUAITE AT KOSCIUSKO, N.S.W. 365 zonally arranged. The trichites mentioned in the quartz do not appear to be represented, but otherwise they are similar. Biotite is very abundant. It occursin ragged sections which give very marked evidence of the crushing to which the rocks have been subjected. In ordinary light the colour is bright yellow on vertical sections to reddish-brown on sections near the base. Basal sections are practically opaque. The pleochroism is very intense, absorbtion of light vibrating parallel to the cleavage being almost complete. (In the thick slice this gives rise to a remarkable appearance where a thin film of biotite over- laps a section of quartz and felspar. The biotite acts as an analyser and the polarisation colours of the other mineral appear even though the upper nicol is out of the axis of the tube). The biotite flakes are fairly free from decomposition. In one or two places a little greenish chloritic material is present. One of the remarkable features of the rock is the presence of numerous aggregates of faintly bluish-green talc or sericite. These represent the decomposition products of some previously existing mineral. In one of the aggregates there is apparently a kernel of greenish-- yellow epidote, showing that whatever may have been the character of the primary mineral, epidote was one of the alteration products. The aggregates are parallel tufted and irregular. It is obvious that there has been an increase of bulk during the process of decomposition which gave rise to the talcose mineral, since the surrounding minerals have been very much broken up by cracks radiating from the aggregates and the tale (?) has been injected irregularly through these cracks. Among the accessory minerals other than the rutile and apatite already mentioned, are apatite (in larger prisms) zircon and pyrites. The apatite is fairly abundant, particularly as inclusions in the biotite. In one case an apatite, itself an inclusion in the biotite, includes a well developed zircon. Zircon is remarkably abundant, especially in the biotite, where it pro-- duces very strongly marked pleochroic halos. Pyrites occurs in two distinct habits, (i.) as small dusty grains which accompany the regularly arranged fluid and gaseous enclosures of the: quartz; (ii.) larger tufts and perfect cubical (pyritohedral) crystals scattered through the rock. Basalt from between Boggy Plains and Pretty Point Kosciusko. This rock has a pilotaxitic base, with marked flow structure composed of felspar and brownish augite microlites with a lot of minute crystals of magnetite. . There is no glass present. The felspar microlites are somewhat basic, the refractive index, as tested by Becke’s method being distinctly higher- than that of Canada balsam, and in some sections they have extinction angles up to about 30°, measured from the Carlsbad twinning plane. Colourless augite is present in idiomorphic stunted prisms with pyramids. They have a small opti-axial angle and good cleavage. They decompose into light green products, apparently chlorite. There are also present. : ve f 366 ~=T. W. E. DAVID, F. B. GUTHRIE, AND W. G. WOOLNOUGH. more or less kaolinised and much corroded fragments of felspar with an occasional granule of quartz, both being evidently derived from rocks intruded by the basalt dyke, so that they may be considered to be en- closures. A granular greenish-yellow epidote is present with a pleochroism in grey to deep greenish-yellow. It probably represents an intermediate stage of alteration between the colourless augite and the chlorite. In one slide the basalt contained a small enclosure of kaolinised felspar with a flake of biotite intercrystallised with it. This enclosure was obviously derived from the local granite. IV. Chemical Composition.—The chemical nature of the rock is shown in the accompanying table which exhibits the result of analyses (made by one of the authors, Mr. Guthrie), of the three specimens taken from different portions of the dyke, the micro- scopic characteristics of which have been just described. Specimen No. I. was taken from the northern side of the dyke, and represents a thickness of the dyke of six inches, measured at right angles to the plane of junction of the dyke rock with the granite. No. IV. represents a similar portion of the dyke on its southern side, and No. III. was taken from the centre of the dyke. As already stated, the dyke is about seven feet wide. Composition of nephelinitic tinguaite from Kosciusko. IL. ITl. IV. Water at 100° C. 0-23 0:78 5 ORS2 Water above 100° C. 3:54 5:25 3°29 SiO, sho ... 82°40 50:15 51:98 ALO es. Be RS) 18:45 20°61 Ke,Oy ee oOo 4:7] 4-08 FeO bit sa.) dala 1:24 1:32 MnO are ... 0-45 0:26 0:40 CaO bs son doe 1-39 1:12 MeO “sae Oko) 0:37 0°38 K,O hi sate: | UO 4°65 4-49 NasOx en ree ig Cig | 12:02 11:69 SO, af 2) Ynone none none Cl a OOD traces 0:09 PO; ca ... traces traces traces CO, 5 was, bas OPaal 0:52 0:44 99°62 SS 100°14 Oxygen equivalentforCl 0:01 02 ERO 100°12 Specific Gravity ... 2°499 2°434 2°492 Decomposible by HCl 66:0 _ 60:0 66:0 OCCURRENCE OF TINGUAITE AT KOSCIUSKO, N.S.W. 367 Composition of portion decomposed by HCl. t : III. Ine PR ley. 2101284 53-90 53-16 PPO Yoerek..”, 28°74 26-86 27-08 PO. 2°68 3:02 2°74 Se eae es 1-92 1:85 Oey 7 — 1-98 1-77 9-45 MO iy) wow 12°93 12°53 12-72 100-00 100-00 100-00 A few remarks with regard to the analysis are appended. The water above 100° ©. was determined by heating the powdered rock in a hard glass tube, the water being collected and weighed — in a small bulb-tube containing calcium chloride. The mass after fusion with sodium carbonate was in all cases of a bright green colour, dissolving in acid to a pink-coloured solution. The iron and alumina were separated from the manganese by pre- cipitation as basic acetates, and the manganese determined by the method described in Bulletin 148 of the United States Geological Survey by W. F. Hillebrand. The ferrous iron was determined by treating the rock with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide.’ We are indebted to Mr. Mingaye, Assayer and Analyst to the Mines Department, Sydney, for a sample of hydrofluoric acid of almost absolute purity. The portion of the rock decomposed by hydrochloric acid was attacked in the following manner : | gramme of the finely powdered rock was digested with strong hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1:1) for a few minutes. The solution was diluted with about four times its volume of water, boiled for 10 minutes, and filtered. The filtrate, which contained dissolved SiO,, was evaporated to dryness, ignited on the water-bath and taken up with hydrochloric acid, the separated SiO, being filtered off, ignited and weighed ; the iron, alumina, lime and alkalies being determined in the filtrate. The residue originally insoluble in hydrochloric acid and which + J. H. Pratt—Amer. Journ. Sci. (3) 48, 149. Pt ae ; i: 368 1. W. E. DAVID, F. B. GUTHRIE, AND W. G. WOOLNOUGH. contains deposited silica from the decomposition of the nepheline, was treated with 30 cc. of 10 per cent. solution of NaHO. It was boiled for about two minutes, diluted, and filtered through a weighed filter-paper. The residue dried at 100° C. and weighed, gives the amount unattacked by hydrochloric acid. The alkaline filtrate was acidified, evaporated to dryness and the silica deter- mined in the usual way. We thus obtain the proportion of silica separated out when the rock was attacked by HCl as well as the proportion which went into solution in the acid. These were added together and entered in the analysis as SiO, decomposable by HCl. If stated separately they are as follows:— - it III. Nts 8 Separated SiO, .. 46°73 46°88 46:91 Dissolved SiO, oo eo al 7:02 6°25 51°84 53°90 53°16 With regard to the distribution of the different minerals in the rock, Mr. Card has kindly given us the results of his calculation. He finds the following to represent roughly the percentage mineral constitution of the rock according to the analytical data, taking as a basis the mean of the three analyses :— Felspar (orthoclase and albite = soda-orthoclase)... 45:4 Nepheline ... Ne Ae ont ay .. 336 Aligirine-augite ... Bs des os ib (2030 100-0 The assumptions made are the following :— 1. The whole of the Fe,O, is contained in egirine. 2. The FeO and MgO are contained in a pyroxene together with the CaO. 3. A MnO 810, molecule is present, The whole forming an egirine-augite of the composition— Na,O. Fe,0,. 4 8i0.. (FeO. MgO) CaO. 2 SiO,. MnO. SiO, 4, The proportion of K,O to Na,O in the nepheline is 1 : 5. OCCURRENCE OF TINGUAITE AT KOSCIUSKO, N.S.W. 369 On these assumptions the whole of the material in the rock ig exactly accounted for with the exceptions that there remains a residue of about 1 per cent. Na,O, and that 0:2 per cent. CaO ig required above that present in the rock. This is shown by the table on the next page, in which the percentage amounts of the different ingredients are accounted for, taking the following formule for * the minerals present :— Orthoclase and sanidine (K,O. Al,O;. 6 SiO,) SiOgan. .. san OLS “Al,O; «.. fe ecao) KeS@r 2.3, ». . 16:90 100-00 Albite (Na,O. Al,O,. 6 SiO,). SiO, . Gor70 AZO aos > 19°47 Na, ©... 11:83 100:00 Nepheline (K,0. 5 Na,O. 6 Al,O,. 12 SiO,). SiO, soo Sell aks AV @n 5... 35°25 Na OF oc. 17°85 K,O 5:42 i 100-00 Adgirine (Na,O. Fe,O,. 4 SiO,). SiO, soe OID Feo... 34:63 NagOu..:. 13:42 100-00 RSiO, (MgO. 2 FeO. 3 CaO. 6 SiO,). SiO, 50 56 FeO 20°22 MgO 5°62 CaO 23:60 100-00 MnSiO, (MnO. Si0,). SiO, 46-15 MnO 53°85 100-00 X—Dec. 4, 1901. a 370 =v. w. E. DAVID, F. B. GUTHRIE, AND W. G. WOOLNOUGH. , The last three minerals forming an egirine-augite, and the first two a soda-potash felspar. Mean percentage composition of the rock. Si0, Distributed as follows :— 51°51 19°66 4°21 1732 0:36 1:28 11°81 4°39 0:37 94°91 Mean Percentage. - Orthoclase. Albite SiO, | 51:51] 9°88 | 17-84] 13°85 | 6°32 Al,O, | 19°66] 2°80] 5-06] 11-77 Fe,0, | 421 FeO +32 MgO 0°36 ‘CaO 1-28 es fam Na,O | 11-8) 3. sao K,O 4:39] 2°58 MnO |- 0:37 94°91) 15°26 | 25:97. Soda-potash Felspar. /+——_—.-, | Nepheline. | Hgirine. RSiO, C7) ee 1:32 0-36 a sis 1:54 5°96 | 1:63 1781 33°39 |12°16| 6°52 MnOSi0,| Total. 3°30 | 0°32 | 51°51 19°63 4°21 1°32 0°36 1:54 10°66 at 4:39 0-30.) Oe 0-699 aoe The difference (0°92) between the totals as calculated in the last column and the amounts present in the rock being due to the excess of Na,O (1°15) and Al,O, (0:03) and to the deficiency of CaO (0°26). Reducing these figures to percentages we get the following as -the approximate composition of the rock :— } 43°8 soda-potash felspar Orthoclase and sanidine... 16:2 Albite 27°6 Nepheline... 39°6 AMgirine |... 13-0 | SIO... 6°9 » 20°6 egirine-augite MnO Si0, 0-7 f -, ys 6 OCCURRENCE OF TINGUAITE FROM KOSCIUSKO, N.S.W. 371 A result which agrees fairly closely with Mr. Card’s calculation. No attempt has been made to distribute the minerals in the portion soluble in HCl. Nearly the whole of the iron in the original rock has apparently gone into solution, and if this is all contained in the egirine as has been assumed in the above calcul- ation, the egirine must have undergone a selective decomposition, as the figures do not permit of the assumption that the soluble part consists of nepheline with some exgirine. Mr. Card has also very kindly prepared for us the following diagrams, to express graphically the molecular constitution of the rock, A. isa Brégger diagram as modified by Hobbs, (Journ. Geol. v1tr.) B. is a Migge diagram (N.J.B., 1900, Vol. 1.) "Z68T ‘09 ‘11 “Tog “pov yIOX MON ‘SUBI, "N “OD xessng ‘o[[IAreut “sag rBou oytustg oF1LO@l e"UL, “dmoy ‘a “£ “86.86 ‘ "18h ‘S * 698T “UI “F “AWB SoneN £698I Sinqter7 ‘sig ‘sneuy [e4onquezyVy WOA 4IUIT[O -ydon 10q _,, ‘Wosnquesoy “A "ogg ‘d “111 ‘saqoTqox)-BIUeT} -SILY Sop ouleqsey-atydnagy eIq ‘Mess01g O'M ‘OF-00T : “OSI “IIT ‘1681 qomnyqgosuyqg ‘log ‘Apy ‘OOSSy ‘aqysny ‘pl[B1eszqiyq pus ueslV “d *‘H ‘13-001 “1061 ““AXXX ‘soIvA Wgnog Men ‘009 “oy ‘uaUNOL ‘aTaqINyH “g ‘61 °d “Ill ‘tess01g °¢— *M S9991G94)-BIUI4SI1y Sep eulessey-atjdnaigq sq Os[e eg ‘Se “I ‘Ol ‘a “4S4ry J "AWOS}IOT ‘SIOGSIOT “) “28.66 “PEL ‘688T ‘SPULIST OTMLIDQG jo ASO[OT}0g 04} JO Jaoday Spreusy Ur “Queuts[y 09.66 6rg “4 “TL8T “IIIA “Seq ‘Joon “gaodiTy Aq ‘sdt[tqd ‘eT, ‘d “IIAXXX ‘e681 ‘Usinquipy “90g ‘AoW ‘suvay, ‘Woe HW "006T Ane “69% ‘2g “11x “SBI “UL “TOlIg “\L') “88.66 "BPG “XX ‘1G ‘ZO8T ‘AIX ‘Sex) “TOON ‘Z ‘Steqspumey “8¢.00T Z9T “II ‘2881 ‘ 908 ‘log Jou T “0681 “UA ‘J “ayer (ssorp "M ‘A) ‘SULT HD “T_ “ST.00T ‘red ‘ATX [g] “Og ‘UdInOLr ‘lewy ‘UOSSIIg ‘AT 209 a0BI4 1949p 4ou SEO ys 90B19 go. eee eee 9T-0 eee 90Bry Z1-0 “0g | 10 | ELT | 90.2 “| 92.0 12-2 "SSOT |ISq@M ¢6.¢ ¢6-0 68-7 CL-¥ 60-7 18-3 T-2 GG. i 29-9 0-0 O*%d | O° LI-IL | SF-T 00-1T | 28-2 98-11 | FS-1 08-St | F8-0 18-11 | 98: 81-8 | 26-1 92-6 | 28-0 SL-II | 90819 GP | F.0 Gg.g6 | 90B19 16:G | 96-T €8.8 | 90814 89-8 | 80-0 OF8N! OFM c9-P 69-7 82-1 IL-& £9.T LP. GG 82-1 10-6 IT-9 LSsSoria ——$__—_ —. 66-0 OIN pue O°) |. 89-8 | F2-9 | 624-02} ~~ oe [3-3 | €&-G | 00-72 | 06-0 eovr}| ° 88-62 % — 2g. | 96-1 | 18-6 |99-6T} °" ‘1099p “4070p fou | CT.€ | 60-7 | F¢.26 | JOU 90BI}/ 68.0 | 18-8 | F9-13| °" o0BI} | 26. 01:3 | 63-23] ~~ 2-0 | Ge | 3-2 | L261] $-0 9981} | ZF-0 | 92-9 | PL-8T| * tZ-0 i LL-6 | 19-13 | °" 90¥I1| [S.0 | 12-3 | 86-02 9081}| ¢9.0 | 16-1 | 12-81 | 81-0 OUNM | Oea 0% |*O7TV) °OLL SI-SP PC-8P €9-0¢ CT-TS 1g-T¢ 06-TS 28-7S 9F-9¢ 8-9¢ 18-29 91-8 20-09 80-19 SOIS *(103301g, JO o9Ixessng) *Aesaof “NT ‘OD xessng ‘a[[TAIomeNg jo . + « (ba 165° | | | ] | CHART SHOWING DRIFT OF S.S.MONOWAI. OCTOBER 17™ TO OCTOBER 22” 1901 | ocr 20 4+— PICKED UP ay wonova D ocr 22 a MILFORD S? GEproess, in q >> LAVERCAR GIL FOR WEATHER NOTES SEE PAMPHLET S [ L 1 160° ose sea euelbcarapal ABSTRACT of PROCEEDINGS ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE The Hopal Society of Set Sonth Wales. ABSTRACT OF PROCKEDINGS, MAY 1, 1901. The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held at the Society's House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, May Ist, 1901. The President, Prof. LIVERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., in the Chair. Fifty members and two visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. | The following Financial Statement for the year ended 3lst March, 1901, was presented by the Hon. Treasurer, and adopted. GENERAL ACCOUNT. RECEIPTS. suey Saw ds eo sh els One Guinea ... ane a Oe gy © Two Guineas ... ee a o80) 2s 0 Subscriptions‘ Arrears ... ae siete ee 8118 o( 572 5 0 Advances Gia ie Se 18 18 a Entrance Fees and Compositions bs : 25 4 O Parliamentary Grant on Subscriptions ncived Vote for 1900-1901 ... Bs, des sy 0007-020 , Sse OD ODT Rent... et 's,) apa das ae ths one xe aes 7-10" 0 Sundries... ne ace ae ae as ae sie 413 9 Total Receipts see dee 562 wen LAG SIZ 9 Balance on 1st April, 1900 355 se Sod See. ee 36 14 5 £1156 7 2 lv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. PAYMENTS, £ 8.7 2s. 6 Advertisements ... we a dee . 21 1a . Assistant Secretary aa, ane cn oe. . 200) ORO Books and Periodicals ... Ms a .. 10613 8 Bookbinding Sr. aie 79 8 6 Commonwealth and Monnaie Oelsbrations “io 1210 1 Freight, Charges, Packing, &c.... 3 Eee 3.4 5 Furniture and Effects... ee ae a 28 19 4 Gas ... ze aoe wee i: awe ae 21 18a Housekeeper sae bee ee ace a 10 0 O Insurance ... oa sas an ie 617 4 Interest on Micremave ae sss nisl ae 56 0 O Office Boy ... a as =. are ae 2 258 Petty Cash ineionees Sc be on aes 1610 8 Postage and Duty Stamps ae ape Bs 2615 0 Printing). eae : 35 14 O Printing and Papivenintes J Salil Eo i 7 9D Opie Printing Extra os of Papers we eae 318 5 Rates Be we ae Sac wats 30 17 O Reception ... ee | a 6 2 5 Refreshments and stbendanee oe Meetings eV VD ORG Repairs a. 506 abs wife a6 10; Set Shelving for Books oor as a sas 70 14 2 Stationery .. wot aie bee ane as 14 0 3 Sundries... ee mie Rise see Aao 22 18 3 Total Payments a Meee SS Repayment to Clarke Memorial Fund... exe 67 4 7 Balance on 31st March, 1901, viz.:— Cash in Union Bank, General Account ... 35 138 4 a B. & I. Fund ist 8 0 6 Bain t in hand.. ae are aos ie 10 0 O —— 53 13 10 £1156 7 2 BUILDING AND INVESTMENT FUND. RECEIPTS. & s. d. Loan on Mortgage at 4% nb a 505 ae .. 1400 0 0 £1400 0 0 PAYMENTS. £ sd. Advance to General Account 31st March, 1897 Bs sins 8 0 6 Balance 31st March, 1901 dé gate its wink .. 1391 19 6 £1400 0 O ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. | Ve CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND. REctIPTS. £ sg. d. Amount of Fund, 31st March, 1900 Asis ee st yo, AZO An, 2 Interest to 3lst March, 1901 Bhs ee ay oe weed: eee 1 £432 17 1 PAYMENTS. ‘Eide. OG. Deposit in Savings Bank of New South Wales, March 31,1901 212 5 O Deposit in Government Savings Bank, March 31, 1901 ssc, 22092 1 £432 17 1 AUDITED AND FOUND CORRECT, AS CONTAINED IN THE Books or Accounts. DAVID FELL, c.a.a.......... H Audit LAWRENCE HARGRAVE OnOTarYy AUGILOTS. SypneEy, 22nd April, 1901. H. G. A. WRIGHT, Honorary Treasurer. W.H. WEBB, Assistant Secretary. Messrs. G. H. Halligan and T. F. Furber were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. W. M. Hamlet deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. There being no other nominations the following gentlemen were elected officers and members of Council for the current year :— President: H. C. RUSSELL, B.a. c.M.G., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents: Pror. T. W. E. DAVID, B.a., v.c.s. | W. M. HAMLET, F.c.s., F.1.¢. HENRY DEANE, ».a., M. Inst. C.E. | Prof. LIVERSIDGE, m.a., uu.p., &e. Hon. Treasurer: H. G. A. WRIGHT, m.pz.c.s. Eng., u.s.a. Lond. Hon. Secretaries: J. H. MAIDEN, F.u.s. | G. H. KNIBBS, F.R.a.s. Ordinary Members of Council: F. B. GUTHRIE, r.c.s. GEORGE E. RENNIB, B.a., M.D. H. A. LENEHAN, F.R.a.s. HENRY G. SMITH, F.c.s. CHARLES MOORE, t...s. Pror. ANDERSON STUART, mp. E. F. PITTMAN, a.r.s.m. J. STUART THOM F. H. QUAIFE, m.a., m.p. Pror. WARREN, M. Inst. C.E.,Wh.Sce. vi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The certificates of two candidates were read for the third time, and of four for the first time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— Enright, Walter J., B.A. (Syd.), Solicitor, West Maitland. Little, Robert, Merchant, ‘‘The Hermitage,” Double Bay. The following announcements were made:— 1. That the Officers and Committee of the Engineering Section had been elected for the ensuing Session, and the dates fixed for their meetings as follows :— SECTION MEETINGS. ENGINEERING—W ednesday, May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee. (8 p.m.) ae S00 .. 15 19 17 21 18) ) 16eRzORn SECTIONAL COMMITTEES—SEssIon 1901. Section K.—Engineering. | Chairman—J. M. Smail, M. Inst. C.E. Hon. Secretaries —S. H. Barraclough, M.M.&., Assoc. M. Inst. c.E., H. H. Dare, M.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Committee — Percy Allan, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., G. R. Cowdery, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., J. Davis, M. Inst. C.E., Henry Deane, M. Inst. C. E., J. I. Haycroft, M.E., M. Inst. C.E.I, Lee Murray, M.C.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., M.I.E.E., Herbert E. Ross, W. H. Warren, M. Inst. C.E., M. Am. Soc. C.E. Past-Chairmen, ew officio Members of Committee for three years :— T. H. Houghton, M. Inst. C.E., H. R. Carleton, M. Inst. C.E:, and Norman Selfe, M. Inst. C.E. Meetings held on the Third Wednesday in each month, at 8 p.m. 2. That the alterations to the rules passed at the General Monthly Meeting, December 5th, 1900, would be submitted for con- firmation this evening, it being the Annual General Meeting. On the motion of Prof. Anderson Stuart, seconded by Mr. P. N. Trebeck, it was unanimously resolved that Rule II. be omitted, and the following amendments be agreed to :— ALTERATIONS TO RULES, ‘RECOMMENDED BY THE COUNCIL. (Proposed at the General Monthly Meeting 5 December, 1900.) Rule II. shall read— | ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. vit.. - Patrons and Vice-Patrons. The Governor-General shall be invited to become Patron, and the State Governor of New South Wales, Vice-Patron of the- Society. | In Rule IIT. delete the word “ other,” on the first line. Rale XVII. shall read—The Honorary Members of the Society shall be persons of eminent scientific attainments or distinguished: promoters of the objects of the Society. Every person proposed as an Honorary Member must be recommended by the Council and elected by the Society. Honorary Members shall be exempted from payment of fees and contributions: they may attend the meetings of the Society, and they shall be furnished with copies of the publications of the Society, but they shall have no right. _ to hold office or to vote. The number of Honorary Members shall not at any one time. exceed thirty, of whom at the time of election, not more than ten (10) shall be domiciled in Australasia, and not more than three: Honorary Members shall be elected in any one year. Rule X VIII. shall be rescinded. Rules PROT OX a DOWA eB XO OX X TT XX DIT, XXIITa., and XXIV., shall be numbered respectively XVIII, Dae XIX a, XITXe, XX, XXE, XXII, XXIIa., and xO. Rule XXV., Clause 11 shall be deleted, and clause 12 shall be numbered 11, and the Rule shall be numbered XXIV. Rules XXVI., XXVIa, XXVIB.,, XXVII., XXVIII, XXIX., XXX., and XXXI]., shall be numbered respectively XXV., XXVa., XXVzB., XXVI., XXVIII, XXVIII, XXIX,, and XXX. respectively. Rule XXXII. shall be numbered XX XITI. Rule XX XITI. shall be numbered XXXIV. Rule XXXIV. shall be numbered XXXV. viii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Rule XX XV. shall be numbered XXXVI., and shall read as follows:— Leports from Sections. The Secretary of each Section shall keep minutes of its pro- ceedings. The Chairman and the Secretary shall jointly prepare and forward to the Hon. Secretaries of the Society, on or before the 21st December in each year, a report of the proceedings of the Section during that year, in order that the same may be laid before the Council. Rule XXXVI. shall be numbered XX XI., and shall be hea Reports upon the Society’s Property.” Rule XX XVII. shall be numbered XX XTI. Rules XX XVIII, XXXIX., XL., and XLI., shall be num, bered XXXVII., XXXVIIT., XX XIX., XL. respectively. Forms 4, 5, and 6 shall be omitted, and Forms 7 and 8 shall e numbered 4 and 5. The following letter was received from Sir William Crookes, F.R.S., acknowledging his election as Honorary member of the Society: 7, Kensington Park Gardens, London, W., March Ist, 1901. ‘The Hon. Secretaries, Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney. My dear Sirs,—I feel deeply the honour done me by the President and members of the Royal Society of New South Wales in electing me an Honorary Member, and I much appreciate the complimentary words in which the information has been conveyed to me. The knowledge that my attempts to elucidate some of the Laws of Nature in one small corner of her boundless field, are felt worthy of recognition by your old and important Society will be an additional stimulus to renewed researches on my part. Believe me to remain, dear Sirs, very sincerely yours, (Signed) WILLIAM CROOKES. An informal letter, dated March 2nd, 1901, was received by the President from Sir William Turner Thiselton-Dyer, K,C.M.G., F.R.S., Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, in which Sir William explained that he felt he could more fully and gratefully acknow- ledge the great honour which the Society had shown to him by electing him an Honorary Member, than in a purely formal reply. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 1%, In it he referred to the long established ties which had linked Kew to the most distant parts of the Empire, and the great pride with which he and the staff endeavoured to maintain the usefulness of that connection; he also feelingly acknowledged the sympathetic appreciation with which their efforts had invariably been received. Also the following letter from Sir John Murray acknowledging the award of the Clarke Memorial Medal :— Challenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh, 13tk March, 1901. My dear Sir,—A few days ago I received a letter signed by you intimating to me that the Council of the Royal Society of New South ‘Wales had been pleased to award me the Clarke Memorial Medal in recognition of my services in the cause of Science. I shall feel very much obliged to you if you will convey to the members of the Council my very best thanks for the great honour thus conferred on ne. I very highly appreciate this recognition from New South Wales, where Ispent many happy days during the Challenger Expedition. The medal arrived here to-day. Yours sincerely, (Signed) JOHN MURRAY. Fifty volumes, 472 parts, 35 reports, and 7 pamphlets, total 564, received as donations since the last meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged. The President, before commencing the business for the evening, referred to the loss which the Society, in common with all their fellow-countrymen, had sustained by the death of their beloved and revered Queen. On receipt of the news, he, as their representative (the Society being in recess at the time), had sent a message of condolence to His Majesty the King and the Royal Family, through the kind offices of His Excellency the Governor- General. Now that the Society is in session he begged to move that a loyal address of condolence and of congratulation—for now they had to be combined—should be sent to His Majesty King Edward VII. The motion was carried unanimously. Professor LIVERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., then read his address. After referring to various matters relating to the affairs of the Society, he made the following remarks about the Library :— xX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. _ “From the Balance-sheet submitted this evening it will be seen that a large proportion of our limited income continues to be spent upon the Society’s Library, the Council rightly regards the up-keep of the Library as of the utmost importance; a good collection of current Scientific literature is one of the greatest: necessaries of a Society of this kind ; it is, in fact, absolutely essential for its work and well being, fortunately some 421 Societies and Institutions, in all parts of the world, regularly forward their publications in exchange for our Annual Volumes these, during the past year, amounted to 2,240 publications of various kinds, but we still are much in need of funds to acquire the back numbers of many Scientific Series, some of these are getting very scarce and the prices will soon become prohibitive. Especially now that so many large libraries are being formed in America and elsewhere by wealthy benefactors. Perhaps some- one in New South Wales will follow so good an example and earn the thanks of the present and future generations.” During the past year the Society had held eight meetings, at which 21 papers had been read. The average attendance of members was 35, and of visitors three. A course of five lectures had been delivered, which was well attended, and a similar course had been arranged for in the ensuing year. At a meeting held in December the rules of the Society were revised and amended. It was a matter for regret that nearly all the sections had ceased to meet, but the engineering section had continued to do good work, and it was hoped that some of the other sections would be revived and would renew their careers of usefulness. He was, however, glad to be able to announce that a section for Economic Science was about to be formed. The number of members on the roll on April 30, 1901, was 368. During the year 16 new members were elected, 8 died, and 10 resigned. The membership at present was the smallest that had been recorded since 1885. This decrease was a matter of some concern, and deserved serious consideration. It might be accounted for in part by the State not yet having recovered from the effects of the commercial ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xl. depression of a few years ago, and to the fact that there were now several societies in Sydney for special subjects, and that on account of the extension of the tramlines the residents were more scattered than formerly, and as they had more difficulty in attending the meetings they refrained from joining the Society. He suggested that perhaps it might be more convenient for members to meet in the afternoon instead of in the evening. The President thought that if, in addition to the monthly meetings, they annually keld a reception and a conversazione and gave courses of lectures as well as an annual dinner, the Society would greatly benefit, and its objects would be largely promoted. The President referred at length to the Intercolonial Catalogue of Scientific Literature. This work, he said, would annually fill 17 vols., and would contain from 160,000 to 200,000 entries yearly, and would prove an inestimable boon, as it would relieve scientific people from much of the trouble now attendant upon hunting up references to scientific subjects. He trusted that some effort would be made to collect and forward material from Aus- tralia for inclusion in this catalogue. He was also strongly in favour of a federation of the leading Scientific Societies in Aus- tralia, and the establishment of a national Australian Academy, and suggested that a site for such an academy, museums, art galleries, and a Federal University, and other Scientific and Educational Societies might be reserved in the capital of the Commonwealth. The organisation proposed would somewhat resemble the Continental academies so far as its scope was con- cerned, but under rules more like those of the Royal Society of London. If the proposal were carried out it would be of great benefit to Australia not only in its general usefulness, but in the stimulus it would give to the younger Scientific men, since election to it, would depend upon fitness and merit. It would be very gratifying to all who were interested in the matter if with the new century and the inauguration of the Commonwealth there was increased attention paid to the question of instruction in Science in the schools, and better provision made in this direction, Xi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. for it would be of great usefulness in training the power of observation of the children, and teaching them to think about what they saw and heard. Some of the teaching now done at the University should be given in the schools, and the student would then gain valuable time at the University for things he could not do at school. He did not advocate the teaching of technical or applied Sciences in ordinary schools. It was to be regretted that the Sydney University was probably the only modern University that excluded Science from its entrance examinations. Professor LiveRsIDGE made also some observa- tion in connection with the advantages of a metric system of weights and measures, and a decimal system of coinage. He strongly recommended that its teaching should be compulsory in all the schools of the State. The chief defect of our present system of weights and measures was that there was no simple connection between measures of length, weight, and capacity. Investigation showed that in countries where the change to the metric system had been made, no great difficulty was experienced, and an increase of trade had resulted. He strongly urged that increased attention should be paid to commercial education and suggested that not only should it include a certain amount of instruction in Science, but that the ‘standard for the higher branches should be as high as for any of the learned professions, also that part of the course should be given at the University. A vote of thanks was passed to the retiring President, and Mr. H. C. Russet, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., was installed as President for the ensuing year. Mr. RussELt thanked the members for the honour conferred upon him. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xili, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JUNE 5, 1901. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, June 5th, 1901. G. H. Kwnisss, F.R.A.S., in the Chair. Thirty-two members and three visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of four candidates were read for the second time. Sixty-three volumes, 306 Parts, 13 Reports, 89 Pamphlets, two Maps, one Physical Atlas and one Hydrographic Atlas, total 475, received as donations since the last meeting, were laid upon the table and acknowledged. The Chairman announced that a series of fourteen stereoscopic slides of the relics of Sir John Franklin’s Expedition, brought home in the “Fox,” by Captain McClintock, in September 1859, had been presented to the Society by Mr. Joun PrumMer, and were placed on the table for inspection. The following illuminated address was also exhibited :— “ Royat Society of New Soutra WaALgEs. To The King’s Most Excellent Majesty: Kina Epwarp VII. May it please your Majesty, We your Majesty’s most dutiful and loyal subjects, the President, Council, and Members of the Royal Society of New South Wales, at this our first meeting since the lamented death of our beloved and revered Sovereign, Her Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, most respectfully beg leave (in confirmation of our President’s telegraphic message sent in January last) to offer to your Majesty and to the wembers of the Royal Family, an expression of our heartfelt sympathy in the great bereavement which your Majesty, the Royal Family, and the Empire have sustained. We feel that we have a more than ordinary claim to this sad privilege, inasmuch as the title of our Society was granted to us by Her late Most Gracious Majesty. We also desire respectfully to offer to your Majesty, our loyal congratu- lations upon your accession to the Throne,.and our cordial wishes that your Majesty’s Reign may be long, happy, and prosperous: also that it may be characterised, like that of Her late Majesty, by marked progress XIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. in the advancement of Science, Literature, and Art, and in the amelior- ation of the condition of the people. Signed on behalf of the Royal Society of New South Wales, A. LIVERSIDGE, Presipznt: Hs = Gee Hon. SECRETARIES. Sydney, lst May, 1901.” THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “On a new rock allied to nepheline phonolite, from Kosciusko, N.S. Wales,” by F. B. Gururis, F.c.s., Prof. Davin, B.A., F.G.S., F.R.S., and W. G. WooLNOUGH, B.Sc.. F.G.S. The rock described in this paper was discovered by two of the authors in company with Mr. Richard Helms last January. It occurs in the form of a dyke, seven feet wide, with vertical walls, trending in an east and west direction, where it crosses ‘‘ Hvidence Valley” (Helms) (the Valley of the Blue Lake, Kosciusko) at a quarter of a mile above the junction of “Evidence Valley Creek,” with the Snowy River. The dyke is strongly intrusive into the typical gneissic granite of the Kosciusko Plateau, and is perhaps, of early Tertiary or Cretaceo-Tertiary age, like the soda-trachytes of the Glass-House Mountains, Queensland, the Warrumble Mountains, and the Gib Rock, N. 8. Wales, and allied rocks described by Professor Gregory as occurring at Mount Macedon in Victoria. The Kosciusko rock is characterised by its large proportion of nepheline which dominates all the other minerals. The nepheline occurs in micro-porphyritic idiomorphic crystals. The soda-augite egirine is also abundant, and there is a small amount of glassy material in the base through which are scattered delicate acicular crystals and microlites of felspar. A few small amygdules may be noticed, not sharply marked off from the sur- rounding rock ; they consist of a shell formed chiefly of analcime enclosing secondary calcite. The specific gravity of the rock varies from 2°43 —2°5. The chemical composition of this remark- able rock has been determined by Mr. Guthrie to be as follows :— Water at 100° C. = 0:23 SiO; eas .. =52°40 Water above 100° C.= 2:89 Al, O, 'y fhe soa = LOSE ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV, BE Ose. Hes iis) 83s", Cl Pend he NO FeO. ... a elok Co, ame rt) OH) CaO ig ... = 1:34 PO; = trace MgO. .... ne ee Ua 1 Oe A tA 99°75 IN 22s oar: con SS LI Deduct O equiv. for Cl 0-05 MnO _... soo ee OD Lae SO, ahs 2) = )nene JO The Kosciusko rock differs conspicuously from typical phonolites in the following respects :—(1) low silica percentage ; (2) entire absence of phenocrysts of sanidine. It is obviously a felspathoid rock, and although its silica percentage allies it with the basalts, its- mineral constitution, chemical composition and low specific gravity link it with the phonolites. As far as the authors are aware, it is unlike any rock that has hitherto been described from any part of the world. | 2. “Preliminary notes on the intermediary host of /ilaria immitis, Leidy,” by Tuos. L. BANcRoFT, m.B. Edin. Filaria immitis, a worm-parasite of the dog, common throughout the world, but more especially in the warmer parts, of from five to ten inches in length; the male being the smaller, is found generally in the right ventricle of the heart, and in the pulmonary in great numbers; the late Dr. Spencer Cobbold taught that an intermediary host was necessary to transmit the parasite from one dog to another. Among others, Grassi, Sonsino, and J. Bancroft endeavoured to discover this intermediary host. The dog-flea (Pulex serraticeps), the various dog lice, and ticks were examined but with negative results. The writer for thirteen years past had endeavoured to find the intermediary host, examining Pulex serraticeps ; the common horse-fly, Stomoxys sp. ?; Culex vigilaa, Skuse—a day-flying mosquito ; the intestinal worm parasite of the dog—the Anchylostoma or Dochmius trigonocephalus. The possi- bility of metamorphosis being essential seemed doubtful, the embryo might, it was thought, go through a cold stage for several days in XVi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. the body of an insect and then develope, after introduction into the body of the dog. A puppy, who ate 110 Stomoays flies gorged with filariated blood, in one month shewed after a series of experi- ments, extending over nearly a year, that such an hypothesis was untenable; and moreover, that the time taken by the young filaria to arrive at sexual maturity was not less than seven months nor more than twelve. After discussing Grassi’s discovery of the intermediary host of Milaria immitis, viz., the Anopheles macult- pennis, Meigen, syn. A. claviger, Fab., and the statements of a paper by Grassi and Noe on ‘ the propagation of the filariz of the blood exclusively by means of the puncture of peculiar mosquitos,’ . the author states we are now able to give an exact account of the life-history of both Milaria nocturna, and F. immitis. The sexually mature worms in man or dog, produce embryos, which swim in the blood: the mosquito on biting abstracts some of the embryos, these develop in the mosquito’s body, and in about three weeks are capable of entering their final or definitive hosts, passing into the puncture made by the mosquito in the skin; they then advance to sexual maturity in the course of about a year. The position in the mosquito’s body during the metamorphosis of the embryos distinguishes /. nocturna from JF. immitis, the former being in the thoracic muscles, the latter in the malphighian tubes, at their maximum development: the later are distinguished as being shorter and thicker. It has been learnt that mosquitos live for long periods and not merely a few days as was formerly sup- posed, and that during their life they bite frequently. In Europe, Anopheles maculipennis plays the role of host for the malarial parasite, for /. ommitis and it is believed also for /. nocturna: in Australia the house-mosquito, Culex skusi, Giles, is host for both F. nocturna and F. itmmitis, and probably also for the malarial parasite. 3. “Two historical notes in regard to Captain Cook the Circum- navigator,” by J. H. Maipen, Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Students of Australian history will remember that as regards the death of Captain Cook, besides stabbing him with a dagger, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. “XVil. the natives of Hawaii on that memorable 14th of February, 1779, stunned him witha club. Mr. Maiden, on his recent visit to England, saw at Shrigley Hall near Macclesfield, a club stated to be the identical one by which Captain Cook met his death. He shewed photographs of the club and of its label. The club was given by Admiral John Hunter (a Governor of New South Wales) to Thomas Leigh Esquire, of Lyme Hall, and a brief account of the same was furnished by Sir Joseph Banks. It is about three feet long and of ironwood. The club has been at Lyme Hall and Shrigley Hall (within five miles of each other) for nearly a century and there is no reason to doubt its authenticity. Mr. Maiden also exhibited copies of a mural tablet and of a gravestone in the middle aisle of the church of St. Andrew the Great, Cambridge, to commemorate the family of the great circumnavigator, three members of which are buried in the church. The existence of these monuments appears to be scarcely known in Australia. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JULY 3, 1901. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society's House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, July 3rd, 1901. Henry DEANE, M.A., M. Inst. C.E., in the Chair. Fifty-five members and thirteen visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. Messrs. W. A. Dixon and J. Palmer were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. F. B. Guthrie deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The certificates of four candidates were read for the third time, and of three for the first time. b—July 3, 1901. XVIll. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— Hamilton, John William, Civil Engineer; ‘Herrickville,’ Alt-street, Ashfield. Kidd, Hector, Civil and Mechanical Engineer; 15 Mansfield- street, Glebe Point. Purvis, John G. Stockoe; Chief Draftsman, Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. Siissmilch, Carl Adolph, Assistant Teacher of Geology and Mineralogy, Sydney Technical College ; 143 Forbes-st. When recently in England, Mr. J. H. Maiden, one of the Honorary Secretaries, heard that the distinguished Australian Explorer, Mr. E. J. Eyre, was still alive. As he was unable to call upon Mr. Eyre, he wrote unofficially to that gentleman wish- ing him every good wish, and asking that he might be favoured with a photograph to take back to Australia. Following is Mr. Byre’s reply :— [Copy.] Walreddon Manor, Tavistock, Devon, 2nd Oct., 1900. Dear Sir,—I am obliged by your letter of 29th September and for the good opinion you are pleased to express of my Australian travels. I am sorry I cannot send you a photograph, not having one, for I have ’ not been photographed for more than 30 years, and at my time of life (now in my 86th year) am never likely to be photographed again. Yours faithfully, EDWD. JOHN EYRE. J. H. Maiden, Esq. At the monthly meeting of June 5th, Mr. Maiden informally brought the matter before the members, who were very pleased to hear of the veteran’s welfare. Professor Davip moved, Mr. MaIpEn seconded and unanimously carried, “that the good wishes of the Royal Society of New South ‘Wales be conveyed to Epwarp JoHN Eyrg, the intrepid Australian — Explorer, coupled with the hope that he may yet enjoy many happy years of life.” ’ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. x1x, The hope was also expressed that he might be persuaded to have his photograph taken which would find an honoured place on the Society’s walls. The meeting then resolved itself into a ‘Reception’ or informal Conversazione and Smoke evening. THE FOLLOWING EXHIBITS WERE SHEWN :— Davin, Prof. T. W. E., B.4., F.R.s.—Glacially striated block of quartzite from near Hedley Tarn ; ditto from “Helms” Moraine; ditto from Moraine near Lake Merewether, Kosciusko. Small piece of glaciated pavement of quartzite Snowy River, Kosciusko. Smoothed and scratched boulders from Moraines, Kosciusko. Photographs illustrative of glacial action at Mount Kosciusko, Thin sections of Radiolaria and Diatoms from the Lower Cretace- ous Rocks, Maranoa, Queensland. Thin sections of Phonolitic nephelinite, Mount Kosciusko. Shewn under the microscope. Radiolarian shells from Barbadoes. DEANE, H., M.A., M. Inst. C.E.—Drawings of proposed Railway Station, Devonshire-street and Belmore Road. Drawings of pro- posed Car House, Fort Macquarie, Sydney. Lithographs for the proposed Sydney Harbour Bridge. Fiasuman, J. F., m.p.—Microscope slides—Sections of spinal cord stained with methylene blue (Nissl’s method) and showing the Nissl bodies. Sections of cerebral cortex stained by Cox’s modification of Golgi’s process, showing the cells and their processes, especially the moniliform or bud-jike processes. GrimsHuaw, J. W., M. Inst.c.—E.— Fossil jaw bone and teeth of extinct animal from the River Murray. Guturiz, F.B., F.c.s.—Apparatus for determining the quality of flour—Entomological. Harcrave, LawreNcE—Flash Boiler for Flying Machine, and tool for making same. LiversIDGE, Professor, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.—Metric system— ordinary weights and fluid measures used in commerce. Imitation i>) silk. Photograph, sovereign etched by chlorine 5 dias., obverse - =e XX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. and reverse sides. Quartz shewing incrustation in progress of original crystals. Silver—siderite and calcite. Native silver— antimony, calcite, siderite. Native silver in altered rock. Native silver from a nugget of 32 tbs, probably solid. Amphibolite, bore cores. Calcite, crystals of Dyscrasite. Cinnabar, Sromeyerite, Siderite, changing to Limonite. Crystals of Willyamite. Dyscrasite crystals. Dyscrasite with splash of Pyrargite, Lode matrix. Galena with siderite. Galena with calcite and siderite. Niccolite etc. Pyrargyrite, calcite and siderite. Schist bore cores. Smaltite, Niccolite, Siderite. Smaltite shewing Siderite and Calcite, matrix. Stalactite from well water, Olive Downs. Stephanite crystals. Photographs (23) of the Mining School, University of Sydney. MaipeEn, J. H., Director of the Botanic Gardens—An early addition of Gerarde’s celebrated Herbal (1636). Australian Sea- weeds collected and named by Professor W. H. Harvey of Dublin in 1856 to illustrate his celebrated work Phycologia australasica (one of six vols.) Botany of Captain Cook’s First Voyage 1768 — 1771. The copper plates engraved 1772 - 1779 but not published until 1900 [ Lent by the Director of the Botanic Gardens]. Elive’s Monograph of the genus Lilium. Hooker’s Rhododendrons. Roscoe’s Monandrian Plants, Letter dated .1789 from Sir J. E. Smith, Botanist, the owner of the Linnean Herbarium and describer of many of the earliest Port Jackson plants. Photo- graphs—(1) Paddy “field” Ceylon ; (2) Ditto, The Harvest ; (3) Ditto, On the sides of steep hills: shewing the way in which the experience of centuries is brought to bear in so arranging the patches that they may oppose least resistance to heavy rains. Pirtman, E. F., a.p.8.M., Government Geologist—Enlarged Photographs (14) framed, chiefly Australian Rocks and views in the far West. uaire, F.H., M.a., M.D.—Spectroscopic apparatus. , ) p pic app Roya Society or New Sourn Wates—Photographs (framed) of illuminated addresses to Her late Majesty Queen Victoria and His present Majesty King Edward VII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XX1. Russet, H. C., B.A. O.M.G, F.R.S., and Lenenan, H. A., F.R..8, —Lick Observatory, photographs of the Moon (19). French enlarged photographs of the Moon (3 Portfolios). Photographs of Stars (3) framed. Sruart, Professor T. P. ANDERSON, M.D., LL.D.—Plaster cast of | the Head of ‘Jimmy Governor,’ one of the Breelong Blacks hanged for murder at Darlinghurst. Dilatation of Pelvis of Kidney due to impacted calculi numbering 5923. (In formalin solution). TipswELL, Dr. FRANK, D.P.H.— Apparatus: (1) Soxhlet’s milk steriliser; (2) Roger’s milk steriliser; (3) Mulford’s formalin regenerator. Specimens of milk kept for various number of years. WARREN, Professor, M. Inst. C.E., Wh. Sc.—Optical Torsion testing apparatus. Pressure-gauge testing apparatus. New Zeiss stereo- scopic Microscope with double objective and independently adjust- able eye-pieces, both for focus and distance between the eyes. To shew performance of microscope, a microscopic slide, viz. lung of toad. WatsH, Henry DEANE, M. Inst. C.E.—Facsimiles of National Manuscripts (4 vols.) WootnouGH, W. G., B.A., F.4.s.— Augite-Andesite, Hornblende- Andesite, Hornblendic-Granite, Rocks and Fossils, from Fiji. 7" XXil. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, AUGUST 7, 1901. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, August 7th, 1901. Professor T. W. EparwortH DAVID, B.A., F.R.S., V.P., etc., In the Chair. Thirty members were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. An apology for non-attendance through illness was received from the President Mr. H. C. RussE.t. Mr. Rospert Litre enrolled his name and was introduced. The certificates of three candidates were read for the second time, and of six for the first time. Thirty-five Volumes, 318 Parts, 22 Reports, 16 Pamphlets, and 4 Hydrographic Charts, total 405, received as donations during June and July were laid upon the table and acknowledged. The Chairman announced that copies of the Society’s Journal, Vol. xxxiv. for 1900, were ready for delivery and could be had by members on application to the Assistant Secretary. Also that the Fourth Science Lecture 1901, on ‘‘The practical application of Economic Theories, with special reference to the theory of value and laissez-faire,” by The Hon. B. R. Wiss, k.c., M.L.C., Attorney General and Minister for Justice, N.S. Wales, would be delivered in the Royal Society’s House, on Thursday, the 29th August, 1901, at 8 p.m. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “Notes on some analyses of air from Coal Mines,” by A. A. ATKINSON, Chief Inspector of Collieries and F. B. GuTurig, F.C.S., F.1.C. The authors gave the analyses of several samples of air from _ the return air-ways at Wallsend and Burwood Collieries, and of ~ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXilil. gases produced by fires in the Gunnedah and Greta Collieries, the latter was an old gob. fire. The analyses were as follows :— Return Air-Way, Wallsend Colliery— Deficiency of Excess of Oxygen CO, N. CO, O03 KOMI OMS i)... O'8D: 2... One ee Oras) Vee OTe. OOP cc, 15D -.... O24 ee ee Ole Lee. COretay 1°59)... 0-28 oOo. Ot Oo. OF8D .... 'O;21 Air from holings Burwood Colliery — Deficiency of Exeess of Oxygen CO, IN O. CO, Pe. O08... F900) 3. O48. 2. 0:06 ee ie OU ee (ONO) 56 O13 5.. OO D7) a) an en Oe sco OE 5a ote Ol sap fordo ... O96. 3... 0:10 Air from sealing, Gunnedah Colliery— Oxygen CO, N. 1—15°88 aie 1:46 ae 82°66 2—16:93 3 1-04 be 82:03 3—13°68 Oe 2°09 se 84:23 4—]5-79 oe 1:45 ne 82°76 From old gob. fire, Greta Colliery — 1—10-50 oes 2-14 Se 87°36 2—10-60 ie BM ai 87:23 The authors described the conditions as to temperature and air- current, etc., under which the samples were taken, and their bearing on the subject of the ventilation of coal mines. The’ analyses were compared with published analyses of air in the return-ways of English collieries made by Dr. Haldane, and the question of the effects of diminution of oxygen, presence of carbonic acid, black-damp and other injurious gases found in the air of coal-mines, discussed in relation to their action on men and lights. A discussion followed in which several members took part. 2. “Symmetrically distorted crystals of Cassiterite from Western Australia,” by W. G. WooLNOUGH, B.Sc., F.G.S. The crystals were collected at Cooglegong, Pilbarra, W.A. by Mr. B. F. Davies, B.Sc., (London), who kindly allowed them to be “= XXIV. _ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. described. They occur in a coarse pegmatite vein. The remark- able feature in them is the fact that instead of being modified tetragonal pyramids with all their faces equally developed, they have undergone a symmetrical distortion. In some cases this distortion has produced pseudomonoclinic crystals, in other cases pseudorhombic. Measurements of the interfacial angles proved, however, that the crystals are really tetragonal. A pseudo- rhombic modification of rutile is described in Dana’s ‘‘System of Mineralogy,” (6th Edition) but no such modification of cassiterite is described. The pseudomonoclinic distortion is believed to be quite new. ‘The amount of material available was insufficient for chemical analysis, but blowpipe tests proved that it must be almost pure tin oxide. Stereographic projections and figures of the crystals are given. EXHIBITS. The following specimens were shewn by Mr. E. F. Pirrmay, A.R.S.M.:—Four specimens, Ruby Hill, Bingara—(1) breccia con- taining lumps of eclogite; (2) eclogite consisting essentially of garnet, diopside and bytownite felspar, this occurs as boulders in the breccia ; (3) basalt containing eclogite, garnet etc., occurs as a dyke cutting through the breccia-pipe ; (4) piece of basalt cut to show an inclusion of garnet (pyrope) with a ring of kelyphite. Quartzite traversed by veins of, and impregnated with precious opal; White Cliffs Opal Fields. ‘‘Niggerheads,” siliceous concre- tions round a nucleus of wood ; White Cliffs Opal Field. Precious opal, Ballina District; this is found occupying cavities in basalt. Green common opal, fifteen miles from Port Macquarie. Specimens from the Peaks Mine, Burragorang—(1) quartz with native silver, argentite and copper pyrites ; (2) native silver with galena, mis- pickel and copper pyrites ; the galena carries 170 ozs silver per ton ; (3) fine-grained galena assaying from 600 to 800 ozs. per ton. (4) pyrargyrite on quartz. Cosalite (sulphide of bismuth, lead and silver), Duckmaloi Creek, Oberon District. Native bismuth, Pheasant Creek, fifty miles east of Glen Innes, Gahnite (zine | spinel) with galena, nine miles west Broken Hill. Rcepperite - ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXV, (silicate of manganese, zinc and iron) with galena and rhodonite, Block 14 Broken Hill. Lode tin ore, Buddigower, West Wyalong. Quartz with arsenical pyrites assaying on an average two per cent. of tin, Buddigower. Cassiterite containing 73:5 per cent. metallic tin, Buddigower. Specimens from Chillagoe, North Queensland— Magnetite crystallising in rhombic dodecahedra; Chrysocolla pseudomorphous after azurite. Cyanite with mica schist, Alma Prospecting Claim, five miles from Broken Hill. Crocoisite, Zeehan, Tasmania. A large block specimen showing a complete section across a vein of silver ore and the successive deposition of the constituent minerals in layers parallel to the walls. Gangue, quartz and chalybite ore, native silver, galena, mispickel, blende, Yerranderie Silver Mine, Burragorang. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBER 4, 1901. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, September 4th, 1901. H. C. RUSSELL, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., President, in the Chair. Forty members and two visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. -An apology for non-attendance through illness was received from Mr. J. H. Marpen, one of the Hon. Secretaries. Mr. C. A. Siissmilch enrolled his name and was introduced. Messrs. J. W. Grimshaw and R. T. Baker were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. W. M. Hamlet deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— XXVl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Holt, Thomas Samuel, ‘Wynterdyne,’ Burwood. Peake, Algernon, 25 Prospect Road, Ashfield. Pollitt, James Chas, Tomlin, ‘Athole,’ Croydon. The certificates of three candidates were read for the third time, of six for the second time, and of three for the first time. Thirty-nine Volumes, 117 Parts, 9 Reports, 35 Pamphlets and 2 Geological Photographs, total 202, received as donations since the last meeting, were laid upon the table and acknowledged. The Chairman announced that the Fifth Science Lecture 1901, on “The History of a Grain of Wheat,” by F. B. Gururis, F.1.¢., F.C S., would be delivered in the Royal Society's House, fon Thursday, October 24, 1901 at 8 p.m. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. ‘Recurrence of Rain—the relation between the Moon’s motion in declination and the quantity of rain in New South Wales,” by H. C. RUussELL, B.A., C.M.G., F.RS. The paper was essentially a continuation of that on the “Periodicity of good and bad seasons,” read 3rd June 1896. The author stated that while coastal rains were irregular, those of the interior shewed a 19-year periodicity. Regretting that observations did not extend over a more lengthy period, it was pointed out that some rain records of Horsham, Victoria, dating back to 1848 were valuable, our first record at Bathurst beginning in 1858. To minimise possible errors, the averages of neighbouring stations were taken. An illustrative diagram accompanied the paper, the author stating that between 1850 and 1851, 1869 and 1870, and 1888 and 1889, the thick vertical lines—19 years apart—divided the records in ‘natural spaces’ in which the first six years had abundance of rain, and the remainder was a ‘dry period.’ The first bad year of the series, we were stated to be now in, was 1895, the loss of sheep from starvation between 1895 and 1900 being alleged to be 25,000,000, not including the loss of 20,000,000 natural increase. The diagram shewed also the curve of extreme southerly declination of the moon for each year. The author in ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXVll. conclusion, states that rain is shewn for three periods of nearly 19 years each, ‘to come in times of abundance when the moon is in certain degrees of her motion south, and when the moon begins to go north, the droughty conditions prevail for 7 or 8 years,’ which he said is ‘either a marvellous coincidence, or it is a Jaw connecting the two phenomena,’ and he is convinced that there is some con- nection between the two. 2. “The theory of City Design,” by G. H. Knipps, F.r.a.s. The duty of designing and setting out an important city (the Federal Capital), is one which, in the near future and in the ordinary course of things, will be cast upon the Commonwealth of Australia. An elaboration of the principles which should govern the design of such a city, and a statement of the several matters which call for systematic consideration in connection therewith was undertaken by the author, pointing out that a capital city, its general design, its utilitarian and esthetic features, constitute and enduring monument of the intelligence and fore- sight, the nobility of the sentiment, and the dignity of the artistic idea of the people creating it; that in order to prevent poverty of conception, or present limitations, so operating as to make it forever impossible to create a beautiful city, it is absolutely necessary that the requirements and probable developments of the far-distant future should be fully considered and liberally provided for in the design. The subject was then systematically treated under the following headings :—1. Introductory.. 2. General idea of a city. 3. Radial street-system. 4. Position of radial centres. 5. Com- bination of radial and rectangular street-systems. 6. Curved streets. 7. Cardinal direction of rectangular streets. 8. Width of streets. 9. Localisation of the various types of street. 10. Grade and cross-section of streets. 11. Engineering features of streets. 12. Size of blocks between streets. 13. Height of buildings. 14. Theory of aspect. 15. The esthetics of design. 16. Sites for monumental buildings and monuments. 17. Treat- ment of streets from the standpoint of esthetics. 18. Public XXVili. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. parks and gardens. 19, Hygienic elements of design, 20. The preliminaries of design. 21. Conclusion. After shewing geometrically that the radial system, especially the hexagonal form of it, possessed great advantages in reducing the distance of travel; that the rectangular system of roads and streets so much in vogue in the States of Australia, is inconsistent with what may be properly called, not merely the natural position, but also the position of maximum efficiency; the author went on to discuss the question of the proper position for the centres from which the main radiating lines of street should diverge, and which should be united by those lines of street which constitute the main arteries of trattiic. As typical examples of centres, the Capitol and White House at Washington, the Arc de Triomphe between the Avenue de la. Grand Armée and the Avenue des Champs Elysées were cited. The position of the centres and the main streets, were said to be dependent, partly on the topographical limitations of the site, partly on the position of outlying centres and the existing or potential roads and railways thereto, and partly also upon the suitableness of certain localities within the site for the special purposes or activities, for which provision must be made; and their selection required not only a comprehensive view of the administrative, educational, industrial, residential, military and other needs of a capital city, not only a due regard for its com- munication with the outer world and for all the contingencies both in times of peace and war, which that communication involves, it required also a nice appreciation of the topographical adapt- abilities of the site, so that in the design the interdependence and mutual influence of every element shall be fully estimated and the general arrangement made the most convenient possible, and therefore the most economical. Further the arrangement should allow of that expansion which the future will certainly require. The introduction of curved streets to alleviate gradients and enhance artistic effects, the use of what have been called ring streets, as at Karlsruhe, and the best cardinal directions for ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xxix, rectangular streets, were fully discussed. In connection with this last feature the theory of solar shadows was treated, and a diagram, giving their position at any hour of the day and month jn the year, was exhibited. The considerations which should regulate the width of streets were sketched, and it was shewn that the interdependence of the types of occupation and of street, of settlement and of traffic, and the tendency of each to perpetuate itself without regard to the welfare of the city as a whole, involved more than ordinary care in the arrangements of any city that is intended to be ideally beautiful, and that no effort was wasted which has for its object. the conservation of the higher interests in such a way as to involve a minimum of alteration with its attendant expense and difficulty. In treating of the grade, cross-section, and engineering features of streets, it was stated that if the positions for the mains, conduits, tunnels, etc., required for water, gas, electric, or various forms of power-supply, for sewerage systems, for telephone and telegraphic services, or for underground communication of any sort, were thoroughly considered at the outset, they could be so located as. to involve the minimum disturbance of traffic, and the least. expense for maintenance and repair ; and the characteristic break- ing up of, and injury to well-constructed streets, in order to reach such mains and conduits, would then become an unknown element. Certain suggestions were made as to the sizes of blocks, and height of buildings, and the elements of the theory of aspect were indicated. ’ Touching the esthetics of design it was said that a study of those examples of architecture which impress the human conscious- ness with a sense of beauty, has revealed the fact that their general proportions, and the mutual relationship of their details, conform to simple numerical ratios and to an harmonious scheme, Certain geometrical forms constituted, as it were, a skeleton on which architectural features were developed, in symmetrical grouping, with, however, such relief in detail as to obviate too cold and severe an effect, or what may, perhaps, be called an XXX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. appearance of excessive symmetry. The proper subordination in the various parts of structures of their mass effects was necessary to awaken that impression of stability and repose which, together with grandeur of form and beauty of outline, and the grace of harmonious ornament, constitute the ideal of architectural design. Although these matters required the immediate and intense atten- tion rather of those charged with erecting the buildings of a city, than of those whose function it is to design its streets and general arrangements, the latter can by no means neglect them. A knowledge of and attention to esthetic laws are absolutely necessary in studying a design, so that the artistic possibilities of every feature could be exhausted. The nature of advantageous sites for effect, the importance of appropriating them for those great public buildings and monu- - ments upon which a people may be expected to lavish its wealth: and artistically express its national feeling, the spatial provision necessary for the proper view of such buildings and monuments, the general treatment of streets from the standpoint of esthetics were discussed at some length. It was said that even alteration of width was preferable to excessive symmetry; that the undis- guised presence of telegraph wires, telephone cables, etc., besides being unsightly, was a menace to public safety in cases of fire ; that though overhead electric wires in a tram-system were less unsightly, yet they were inconsistent with a fine effect, and might well be transferred to underground conduits, as has already been done in some instances. Monuments and masses of foliage could be employed as a relief to street uniformity, and to obviate the ugly effect which arises from the disappearance of buildings etc., over the summit of streets crossing a ridge. Touching parks and gardens, which were not only an ornament to acity but a necessity to its people, if their health is to be regarded, we were justified in making liberal provision ; irregular surfaces being preferred, as giving the landscape gardener greater scope for displaying his art, and as possessing intrinsically greater charm. | 7 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. KML, In sketching the hygienic features to be considered in design, it was, among other things. urged that there should be ample pro- vision for play or recreation grounds in connection with every school, college, or other educational establishment, and a complete abandonment of the present niggardly notion of what is a reason- able provision in this respect. That the recreation of a people should be under pleasant and healthy conditions is always impor- tant, and never more so than in the case of the young, so that the school-grounds of a beautiful city should in themselves be a source of attraction, and exhilarant in their reaction upon those who use them ; and similarly hospitals and sanitoria should have bright surroundings and pleasant aspects, for the cheery and tonic effect of these is by no means the least potent of the remedies available to those charged with the care of our health, The great importance of thoroughness in the matter of initial preparation by a complete topographical and contour survey, repre- senting the surface, and furnishing the necessary geological infor- mation was referred to. The time lost in making this is gained in the end, and it is only by such systematic procedure that satis- factory results can be achieved. Those who have not thoroughly studied this question, are under the impression that what is called the common sense of well educated people is sufficient for the task of designing, but that is not the opinion of those who have seriously given the matter their professional attention. If evidence was wanted of the calamity of indifferent design, it is to be had in Sydney and its suburbs. The topographical features of Sydney would have permitted it to be, if not the most, at least one of the most beautiful cities of the world. No word-painting could too vividly, or with too high a colour, express the magnificent oppor- tunity that once existed for the people of this land to create a city of almost unparalleled beauty: that opportunity has been destroyed through the ignorance, and want of apperception of those whose duty it was to avail themselves of it, and while doing so to have left alsoa monument of the dignity of their ideas, And XXXI1l. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. the reason of failure is that no great scheme for the creation of the city was ever heartily entertained. Given a complete abandonment of the present practice of lightly regarding the matter of city design, and a really exhaustive study from every possible point of view of any selected site, we have a reasonable prospect of noble and far-seeing designs, and the future cities of the Commonwealth will bid fair to be all that we could wish, so far as the art of city building is concerned. And unique among them, said the author, should be that which will be known as the Capita! of Australia. EXHIBITS. Aboriginal rock carvings.—Mr. R. H. Matuews:. t.s., of Parra- matta, exhibited five large plates containing a series of photo- graphic copies of aboriginal carvings found on some flat rocks situated on the Burnett River, at the confluence therewith of Pine Creek, Wide Bay district, Queensland. Many of the drawings are scarcely distinguishable owing to long exposure to the weather, and it was found necessary to freshen up the lines with chalk before taking the photographs. The objects are very numerous, and vary in length from a few inches to upwards of two feet, representing native weapons, animals, human foot-marks, and nondescript devices. The mode of execution was to make a row of punctures along the outline of the drawing by repeated blows with sharp-pointed pieces of hard stone; the spaces between these indentations heing then chipped out, making a complete groove along the exterior of the drawing. The positions of these punc- tures are still easily discernable. Mr. Mathews stated that by the courtesy of a friend he succeeded in getting a portion of the rock chiselled out and removed ; this block of stone, containing a very distinct carving of a human foot, was exhibited at the meeting. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXiil. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBER 26, 1901. A Conversazione was held in the Great Hall of the University, on Thursday, September 26, at 8 p.m. The Hall and approaches were decorated with ferns, palms, and rare pot plants, generously supplied by Mr. J. H. Marpen, F.u.s., Director of the Botanic Gardens ; and the former also festooned with flags and banners. The paths to the various Laboratories were lighted with incan- descent electric lamps kindly furnished by Mr. W. L. Vernon, Government Architect, | The guests numbered about 600. Unfortunately His Excellency the Lieutenant-Governor, who had notified his intention of being present, was at the last moment prevented by his medical adviser. His Excellency Apmirat Beaumont, Lapy BEAumont, and the officers from the various war vessels in harbour were present. EXHIBITS.—GREAT HALL. 1. Apparatus.—R. TrxEce, Esq, F.1.A, F.F.A.(Australian Mutual Provident Society), Modern calculating machines. 2. Rare books.—H. E. Barrr, Hsq.,m.A., Registrar and Librarian, University of Sydney, (a) Antiquities of Mexico—Edward, Lord Kingsborough, coloured plates, 9 vols., Lond., 1830 — 48; (6) Fauna and flora of the Gulf of Naples, published by the Zoological Station at Naples, 1897 ; (c) Lepsius’ Egyptian and Ethiopian antiquities, 12 vols., Berlin, 1859; (d) Shakespeare illustrations; (e) Egyptian Book of the Dead; (7) Coptic manuscripts—miracles, etc. 3. From Botanic Gardens.—J. H. Marpen, Esq., F.t.s., Director, (a) Palms and other decorative plants; (6) Freshly cut specimens of flowers of horticultural or botanical interest (names attached). 4, Pictures.—O. A. Benbow, Esq., (v7) The Edge of the Plains ; (5) Present and Past, or an Aboriginal’s first sight of civilisation. 5. Anthropological instruments, used for measuring the children cf New South Wales for the Census 1901.—H. J. W. Brennanp, Esq., B.A., M.B., (@) Anthropometer for measuring the vertical height of persons up to 6 feet 6 inches (2 metres), or of any part of the c—Sept. 26, 1901. XXXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. body, in centimetres, (designed and made by W. Isaac Masters, Sydney); (b) Cephalometric square for measuring the length and breadth of the head in centimetres; (c) Dynamometer for register- ing the strength of the hand grasp; (d) Callipers used in Anthropo- metry, 3; (e) Spirometer fur measuring the vital breathing capacity of adults and children, in cubic centimetres and inches. 6. Byrne, Elements of Euclid, 1848.—George W. Carp, Esq., A.R.8.M., F.G.S. 7. From Geological Survey Department.—E. F. Pirrmay, Esq., A.RB.S.M.. Government Geologist, (a) Case of mineral specimens ; (b) Slide of analcite-basalt under microscope (slide etched and stained to reveal analcite); (c) Photographs illustrative of geology and mining in New South Wales. 8. Books.—Davip CarMEntT, Hsq,, F.1.4., (@) The Iliad of Homer, translated by Pope, 1715; (b) Annuities upon Lives, by A. De Mowre, 1725; (c) Smart’s Interest Tables, 1726. 9. Mining.—Prof. T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.R.s., (a) Specimens of rocks from the Cambrian Glacial beds recently discovered by Mr. Howchin, in South Australia; (0) Small meteorite, which struck chimney of cottage at Emmaville, N.S. Wales, May, 1900;. (c) The new mineral, Sulpho-vanadate of Copper, from near Bivera, South Australia; (d) Microscopes and micro-slides; (e) Natrolite, from Pokolbin. . 10. Stereoscopic slides and stereoscope.—His Honor JupDGE Docker, M.A., (a) Commonwealth celebrations; (0) Blue Mountains. 11. Scientific apparatus, etc.—W. M. Hamtet, Esq., F..S, F.1.C., Government Analyst, (a) Micro-spectroscope, showing bands of potassium permanganate and eosin solution ; (6) Polariscope used for finding the quantity of sugar in jams, preserves, etc.; (c) Micro- scope, showing crystals of strychnine chromate ; (d@) Spectroscope, showing bright lines of sodium and thallium; (e) Microscope, show- ing crystals of arsenic. 12. Geodetic and telemetric level.—G. H. Knipps, Esq., F.R A.S- ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXV, 13. Gold Nuggets, Minerals, etc.—Professor LivEeRsipGs, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, (a) Sections of silver and copper nuggets, and native copper, showing included silver, from Lake Superior ; (6) Sections of gold nuggets, including some from Klondyke; (c) Photographs of sections of gold and other nuggets; {d) Collections of silver minerals from the New Australian Broken Hill Consols Mine; (e) Crystallised gold, from solution in ferric chloride. 14. Specimens of native silver from Burragorang.—A. E. Mappocks, Esq. 15. Apparatus from Lands Department.—J. W. ALuworrtH, Hsq., Chief Surveyor, (a) 14-inch theodolite, by Cook and Sons, York, England ; (6) Heliostat ; (c) Brunsviga Arithmometer. 16. Public Works Department.—J. Davis, Esq., M. mst. C.E., Under-Secretary, (a) Design for North Shore Bridge, 1st premium ; (6) Design for North Shore Bridge, 2nd premium. 17. Royal Society of New South Wales.—(a) Electric move- ment in air and water, Lord Armstrong, Lond., 1897; (5) Supple- ment thereto; (c) Photographs of aboriginals and bora ceremonies. 18. Maps, etc.—T. S. Parrort, Lieut.-Colonel V.D., (a) Large map Transvaal, shewing topographical features, gold-fields, farms, ete.; (b) Collection of typical rock and mineral specimens of Transvaal; (c) Large number of models of military engineering appliances. 19. Maps.—F. H. Quatre, Esq., M.A., M.D., (a) Map of Queens- land, coast line ; (b) Watershed of Brisbane River. 20. Scientific apparatus, etc.—H. C. Russext, Esq., B.A., O.M.G., F.R.S., Government Astronomer, (a) Harmonograph ; (0) Photo- graphs of moon and stars; (c) New map of Polar regions; (d) Interesting books ; (¢) New storm chart of the Atlantic, published in England. 21. Specimen native silver from Burragorang.—A. J. TAYLOR, Esq. XXXVI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 22. Models, etc., from Technological Museum.—R. T, Baker, Esq., F.L.s., Curator, (a) Models of meteorites; (6) New South Wales marbles ; (c) Models of fungi; (d) Models of New South Wales fishes. 23. Old Prayer Books, 1660, 1714.—P. C. Trepeck, Esq, F.R.Met.Soc. 24. Zeiss’ Stereoscopic microscope.—Professor W. H. Warren, Wh. Sc., M. Inst. C.E., Professor of Engineering. LABORATORIES. 25. Chemical Laboratory.— Prof. LIvERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., (a) Pieces of apparatus used for various chemical purposes; (0) Spectroscopes showing various emission and absorption spectra : (c) Nernst electric lamp, in which a filament composed of magnesia is used instead of a carbon filament; (d) Plans of some American Mining Schools ; (¢) The recent additions to the Chemical Depart- ment for Metallurgy and Assaying were thrown open for inspec- tion :—These include a building for the crushing, concentrating, and extraction of minerals, an asphalted yard for out-door work, and a new Assay Laboratory; the former building contains a set of stamps (Krupps) presented by Messrs. Noyes Bros., Sydney; Challenge ore feeder, presented by Messrs. Park and Lacey, Sydney; Gate’s Rock-breaker ; Roger’s Rolls; Amalgamating pans; Green’s trommels, elevators, samplers ; frue vanner; jigs, etc. ; a roasting furnace, with a bed 6 x 4 feet; (as far as possible the appliances are of such size as to be conveniently worked by students) ; also the vats and: necessary appliances for the extraction of gold and silver by chlorine, cyanide, and hyposulphite solutions; the new Assay Laboratory is a well ventilated and well lighted building, 5D feet x 41 feet, with a height of 35 feet in the centre, it contains 12 muffle and 20 melting furnaces, together with 32 working benches fitted with draught cupboards, gas, water, and exhaust pumps. 26. Geological and Mining Laboratories.—Prof. T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.R.S., (a) Lantern views of Cambrian Glacial beds recently discovered by Mr. Howchin in South Australia, and of the Mt. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXVIil. Kosciusko Glacial phenomena, in the Lecture Theatre, Geological Department, 9 to 9:20 p.m. ; (0) “Tyndall Geyser”: this working model erupted steam and boiling water at intervals of about twenty minutes, the first eruption was timed for 8:15 p.m. E. C. AnprEws, Esq., B.A., Collections illustrating the raised reefs of Fiji. W.G. WootnoueH, Esq., B.Sc., Collections of the volcanic rocks of Fiji. 27. Ergineering Laboratory.-—Prof. W. H. Warren, Wh. Sc., M. Inst. C.E. There was a demonstration of the testing of materials from 9-20 to 9-40 p.m. (a) Testing machinery and apparatus, 100 tons, 45 tons; (b) Machine for testing materials subjected to - _ alternating stresses ; (c) Methods of finding deformation of fly- wheel through rotation; (d) Method of ascertaining deflection and direct strains on beam ; (e) Models and instruments. 28. Physical Laboratory.—Prof. J. A. PoLLock, B.E., B.Sc. The Laboratory was open for inspection. Physical apparatus of various kinds were exhibited. [lustrations shewing principleof new gravity meter. | In the Lecture Theatre, W. M. Hamuet, Esq., F.C.8., F.1C., exhibited a modern large cylinder phonograph, 8°45 to 9 p.m., on which selections were given to illustrate the improvements in the construction of phonographs. The following numbers were given on the organ during the course of the evening by Mr. Arnold R. Mote :—1. Grand Offer- toire in ©. Op. 20, No. 1, Grison; 2. Toccata in C., d’Hury; 3. Vorspiel (Die Meistersinger), Wagner; 4. Overture (William Tell), Rossini; 5. Prelude(Act III., Lohengrin), Wagner; 6. Grand Offertoire in G. Op. 35, No. 4, Wely; 7. Marche d’Hamlet. XXXVIIl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, OCTOBER 2,°1901. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, October 2nd, 1901. H. C. Russet, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., President, in the Chair. Thirty-six members and three visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of six candidates were read for the third time, of three for the second time, and of two for the first time. Messrs. R.T. Baker and J. L.C. Rae were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. Henry Deane deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— Birks, Lawrence, B. Sc., F.G.8., 49 Phillip-street. Card, George William, A.R.s.M., F.G.s., Department of Mines. Newton, Roland G., “‘Northleigh,” Union-st., North Sydney. Raymond, Robert Samuel, Leichhardt. Walton, Robert Hawks, F.c.s., “Flinders,” Martin’s Avenue, Bondi. Willmot, Thomas, J3.p., Toongabbie. The following letter was read from Mr. Edward John Eyre the intrepid Australian Explorer, accompanied by his photograph: [Copy.] “ Walreddon Manor, Tavistock, England, 26th August, 1901. Dear Sir,—Your letter dated 10th June last reached me safely. Pray assure the members of the Royal Society of New South Wales of my best thanks for the gratifying expression of their appreciation of my services as an Australian Explorer and for their friendly good wishes which your letter conveys to me. It is very flattering to me to learn that the Society wishes for my photograph, and I herewith enclose one taken a few days ago just as I completed my 86th year. For your own cordial good feeling towards me accept my sincere thanks. Yours very truly, (Signed) EDWD. JOHN EYRE. The Honorary Secretary, the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, Sydney.” ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXIx. It was resolved that the photograph be enlarged, framed and hung on the walls of the Society. The following letter was read from the Private Secretary to His Excellency the Lieutenant Governor :— [Copy. ] “State Government House, Sydney, 12th September, 1991. Sir,— With reference to previous correspondence, I have now the honour to inform you that His Excellency The Lieutenant Governor has received a despatch from the Secretary of State for the Colonies, intimating that the Address from the Royal Society of New South Wales expressing heartfelt sympathy with His Majesty in His late bereavement, and offer- ing loyal congratulations on His accession to the Throne, was duly laid before The King. 2. His Majesty was graciously pleased to command that an expression of His sincere gratitude be conveyed to the President, Council, and Members of the Royal Society of New South Wales for their sympathetic and loyal Address. I have the honour to be Sir, Your most obedient servant, (Signed) H. M. COCKSHOTT, Private Secretary. The President, Royal Society of New South Wales.” The President referred to the loss the Society had recently sustained in the death of Dr. H. G. A. Wright, the late Hon. Treasurer of the Society, and it was unanimously resolved that a letter expressing the high appreciation of the life and labours of the deceased on behalf of the Society ever felt by the Council and members generally, be forwarded to Mrs. Wright with an expres- sion of their deep sympathy with her and her family in the irreparable loss they had sustained. The Chairman announced that the Fifth Science Lecture 1901, on “The History of a Grain of Wheat,” by F. B. Gururig, F.1¢., F.c.s., would be delivered in the Royal Society’s House, on Thursday, October 24, 1901 at 8 p.m. Seventeen Volumes, 112 Parts, 14 Reports and 6 Pamphlets, total 149, received as donations since the last meeting, were laid upon the table and acknowledged. xl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Discussion of Mr. G. H. Kyrsss’ paper on “The Theory of City Design.” then took place, the following members contributing thereto, viz., Messrs. H. G. McKinney, H. E. Ross, Norman Selfe, J. H. Maiden, His Honour Judge Docker, Professor Warren, Messrs. James Taylor, and Henry Deane. In view of the further business for the meeting Mr. Knibbs but briefly replied. THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ :— 1. “On the relation between leaf venation and the presence of certain chemical constituents in the oils of the Hucalypts,” by R. T: BAKER, F.L.S., Curator, and Henry G. SMITH, F.C.S., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. In this paper the authors show that there exists a marked agreement between the venation of Eucalypts leaves and the characteristic constituents in their oils. The venation shown by the leaves of the ‘‘Bloodwoods” £. corymbosa, EL. trachyphloia, etc. is indicative of a predominance of pinene in the oils, and an absence of phellandrene. It is this end of the Eucalyptus series that is more closely associated with the Angophoras, because the venation of the leaves is similar, and the chemical constituents in agreement. As the series descends through such species as #. botryoides, EH. saligna, etc., we reach those Eucalypts whose principal oil constituents are pinene and eucalyptol, the latter constituent increasing in amount until such excellent eucalyptol oils as those of #. globulus, #. Smithu, #. longifolia, etc. are reached. The venation of the leaves of these species is similar, is more open, the individual lateral veins have become more distinct, and with the bending of the marginal vein, commencing to form the looping so characteristic of the phellandrene-peppermint group, the species of which include those of LZ. dives, LH. radiata, £. amygdalina, EL. Siebertana, etc. The principal constituent in these oils is phellandrene, and at the extreme end this constituent is present in such abundance as to exclude, almost entirely, the eucalyptol, The pinene which was such a prominent constituent in the oils of the earlier members of the series, is only present in the oils of this group in minute quantities. The looping appear- ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xli. ance of the venation of the members of the phellandrene-peppermint group has become more open, and the spaces between the principal lateral veins are larger. With the subordination of many of the original lateral veins the spaces provided for the formation of the oil glands is larger, and consequently we find these more numerous in the members of this group; the yield of oil obtainable is there- fore much greater, and it is this feature which enables such enormous yields of oil to be obtained from such species as H ~ amygdalina, E. dives, and E. radiata. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, NOVEMBER 6, 1901. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society's House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, November 6th, 1901. H. C. RUSSELL, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., President, in the Chair. Thirty-three members were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of three candidates were read for the third time, of two for the second time, and of three for the first time. Messrs. R. Greig Smith and T. F. Furber were appointed Scrutineers, and Professor Warren deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— Bartholomew, Charles P., 357 George-street. McMillan, Robert, 129 Macquarie-street. Walkom, Archibald John, A.M.1.E.E., etc., Electrical Branch, G.P.O. Sydney. xlii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The President announced that the Council recommended the election of the following gentlemen as Honorary Members of the Society, viz, :— Professor J. W. Judd, c.B., F.R.s., F.G.8,, Royal College of Science, London. Professor Simon Newcomb, Lt.D., Ph D., For. Mem.B.S., Lond. ete. United States Navy, Washington. Sir Benjamin Baker, K.C.M.G., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., etc., 2 Queen Square Place, London, S8.W. The election was carried unanimously. Also that the Clarke Memorial Medal for 1901 had been awarded to Mr. Edward John Eyre, the Explorer, Walreddon Manor, Tavistock, England. Nineteen Volumes, 153 Parts, 6 Reports and 9 Pamphlets, total 187, received as donations since the last meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ = 1. ‘The Thurrawal Language,” by R. H. Maruews, Ls. In this paper the author describes the structure of the native speech of the aborigines of the region between Jervis Bay and Port Hacking. An appendix exhibits the elements of some other dialects adjoining the Thurrawal tribes on the north and west, the whole concluding with an extensive Vocabulary. 2. “Note on the sesquiterpene of Eucalyptus oils,” by Henry G. Situ, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum. In this paper the author shewed that a sesquiterpene occurs in many Eucalyptus oils, and that it is this constituent that gives the pink colouration to Eucalyptus oil when testing for eucalyptol with phosphoric acid. In the oil of L. heemastoma the sesquiterpene occurs in large amount, over fifty per cent. of the crude oil distilling above 255° C. It is also present in quantity in the oils of several other species. Crystallised chemical products could not be obtained with it by the methods used. It is characterised by a range of five colour reactions which it gives with acids and with bromine ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlill.. when dissolved in glacial acetic acid. When the vapour of bromine is allowed to fall‘into the tube containing such a mixture, im- mediately it touches the liquid a crimson colour is formed, quickly changing to violet and finally to a deep indigo-blue. Jt boils under atmospheric pressure at 260 — 265° C,, has a specific gravity 0:9249 at 19° C., as obtained by repeated fractional distillation finally over sodium. Combustion results gave the terpene formula,, and a vapour density determination showed it to be a sesquiterpene. The name Aromadendrene has been proposed for it. 3. “Current Papers, No. 6,” by H. E. Russell, B.4., C.M.G., F.R.S. This paper on the drift of current papers shews a gradual increase in the number of those who take a great interest in this experimental work, and also the returned current papers that reached me during the year. In the year November, 1900, to November, 1901, one hundred and thirty current papers were sent to me, and these form the basis of this paper. In this list there was a marked increase on the tracks Sydney to Canada and United States. Previously very little was known of the drift of bottle papers in that sea; but during this year an appreciable increase of interest has been manifested in the current papers found amongst the islands. These shew very clearly the presence of a very rapid current near the equator, somewhat similar to that in the Indian Ocean. For instance:—Current paper No. 598 made daily a drift. near Fiji of 11:1 miles per day; near Gilbert Island, No. 671 travelled at the rate of 19:5 miles per day; and near Pheenix Island the current paper No. 674 travelled 16°8 miles per day ; and so on. The question whether or no certain months of the year deposited most current papers is an interesting one. At first it seemed that current papers aggregate in certain months, but upon the monthly papers which have been received in five years there is not much to support the idea. Tor instance, the record of the five years is. that the greatest number of papers are found in the following months :—March, 1901; May, 1897; October, 1899; and Decem- ber, 1898. Hence it would be fair to assume that with more xliv. ARSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. records the greatest number of current papers would appear in every month of the year. But there is good reason to believe that the current paper is affected by the wind as well as the currents, and that strong persistent winds alter the landing places of current papers. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, DECEMBER 4, 1901. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, December 4th, 1901. Prof. T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.R.s., Vice-President, in the Chair. Apologies for non-attendance were received from the President (Mr. H. C. Russety) and Mr. Cuartes Moors. Heee eee members and one visitor were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. Four new members enrolled their names and were introduced. The Chairman referred to the death of Mr. Epwarp JoHN EYRE the Explorer, to whom the Clarke Memorial Medal had been awarded by the Council on the 30th October last. The Chairman announced that the Council had appointed Mr. Davip CARMENT, F.1.A., F.F.A., aS Honorary Treasurer, in the room of thé late Dr. H. G. A. Wricut, who had held the office for thirteen years. The appointment met with the cordial approval of the members present. Messrs. David Fell, c.a.a., and Lawrence Hargrave were appointed Auditors for the current year. Messrs. C. O. Burge and J. W. McCutcheon were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. W. M. Hamlet deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. : ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xiv. The certificates of two candidates were read for the third time, of three for the second time, and of one for the first time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— Lindeman, Charles F., Strathfield. McMaster, Colin James, Longueville. A letter was read from the Hon. Secretary of the Tate Memorial, Adelaide, calling attention to the Fund being raised to perpetuate the memory of the late Professor TaTr, for twenty-six years. Professor of Natural Sciencein the Adelaide University. It was. proposed to erect a Memorial Tablet and to establish a Tate Medal for Geology. ‘Sixty-three Volumes, 158 Parts, 51 Reports, 5 Pamphlets, 3 Meteorological Charts, and 12 Geological and Topographical Maps, total 292, received as donations since the last meeting, were laid upon the table and acknowledged. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “The Gums, Resins, and other Vegetable Exudations of Australia,” by J. H. Marpen, Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. The introductory portion of the paper points out the difficulties in the collection of these substances in our sparsely populated territory, and that frequently those who have becn supplied with material for commercial purposes or research have not been furnished with it in sufficient quantity or with proper data. The author gives a list of Natural Orders which in Australia yield both gums and resins, classifying them according as the gum or resin is the predominating substance. The paper contains a tentative list of those Orders which yield kinos, and a list is given of those exudations which specially merit the attention of the research chemist. ‘Then follows the main portion of the paper, which contains notes on all the exudations known to the author, arranged in botanical sequence. References are given to papers by various workers, a number of exudations are now xivi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. referred to for the first time, and notes are given embodying the author’s research and enquiry over a long series of years. The author hopes that his paper will be found useful to botanists, chemists, and those interested in the economic utilization of Australian vegetable exudations of our forests. The paper con- ‘cludes with a bibliography of eighty-seven items. 2. “On the principle of continuity in the generation of geometrical figures in homaloidal space of n-dimensions,” by G. H. Kips, F.R.A.S. The author discussed the philosophical basis of the idea of the continuous generation of geometrical figures, and shewed that we are compelled to admit the conceptional existence of a space of different orders, as well as dimensions, of infinity and zero; the interpretation of such being in all cases unambiguous. In inter- preting algebraic equations, it was shown that in passing from the values -0 to +0 of the variable, where the branches of a curve exhibit infinite discontinuity, the result may depend upon the order of the zero. There may, for example, be no discontinuity for the first order of zero, unit discontinuity for the second order, and infinite discontinuity for the third. Onaspace homaloidal for finite figures of one order of infinity, but really of one dimension higher, it was possible to reduce the infinite discontinuity to continuity. 3. “Some theorems, concerning geometrical figures in space 2 dimensions, whose (n-1) dimensional generatrices are ni functions of their position on an ‘axis, straight, curved, or tortuous,” by G. H. KNIsBs, F.R.A.8. In this paper the author shewed that certain theorems developed in two previous papers, might be extended greatly in generality, and were applicable to quanta determinations in n-dimensional space. The limitations as to the centre of gravity of the generatrix when the axis on which it generates was curved, or tortuous, were discussed, as also those applying to rotations about the axis, It was shewn that a theorem previously published in reference to ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlvii, the application of the prismoidal formula to circularly ruled quadric surfaces, was an elementary case of a much more general theorem, and that a manifold infinity of analogous theorems can be developed for much more complex surfaces. 4, ‘“Rock-holes used by the Aborigines for warming Water,” by R. H. MatTuHeEws, Ls. The author showed that the natives were in the habit of immersing heated stones in small quantities of water for the purpose of warming it for drinking, and in some cases to assist in cooking their food. 5. “Some Aboriginal Tribes of Western Australia,’ by R. H. MATHEWS, L.S. Mr. Mathews also contributed an article on some aboriginal tribes of Western Australia, describing their divisions into inter- marrying sections; lists of totems, comprising animals, plants, and other natural objects, attached to each of the sections, were also given. The laws regulating marriage and descent were explained, together with a brief outline of the structure of the language. Mention was made of their legends, knowledge of the cardinal points, and customs of genital mutilation, the whole concluding with a comprehensive vocabulary. 6. ‘‘Projects for Water Conservation, Irrigation, and Drainage in New South Wales, by H. G. McKINNEY, M. Inst. 0.E. The author of this paper described at the outset the conditions which are most favourable for extensive work for water conser- vation and irrigation. In this connection, Lombardy, Upper India, and Egypt were specially referred to, and the case of the latter country was described as being the best known combination of conditions favouring successful irrigation on an extensive scale. Applying to New South Wales the conditions referred to, the the author proceeded to point out that the Dividing Range is the only source to which we can look for sufficient water to supply any large scheme. In the coastal district the rainfall is fairly Satisfactory; and as much of the alluvial land on the rivers is low-” xl viii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lying, the question of drainage is a more important one than irrigation. It was pointed out, however, that irrigation has been tried successfully in a number of places in the coastal district, and it was explained that the fact of drainage being necessary did not by any means show that irrigation would not be successful in the same neighbourhood. The tableland and the valleys on the west side of the Dividing Range were next considered, and it was mentioned that some of these valleys are excellently suited for irrigation, so far as the soil and general conditions are concerned. Coming to the great plains of the Central and Western Divis- ions of this State, the author called attention to the great magni- tude and depth of the alluvial deposits as compared with the extent and height of the mountains from which they must have been derived. Consequent on these conditions there is a similar disproportion between the area which could be irrigated so far as levels of the country are concerned, and the quantity of water . which can be made available for this purpose. The Murray and the Murrumbidgee are our only rivers from which supplies of water can be obtained for large irrigation projects, and even these rivers cannot be depended on for sufficient water in all seasons, unless storage reservoirs for augmenting the supplies of water in summer be constructed. In all the other western rivers the flow is lable to cease entirely, and sometimes this state of affairs continues for a considerable period. Storage reservoirs can remedy this when suitable sites are obtainable. The large schemes for utilizing the waters of the Murray and the Murrumbidgee, were proposed by the author early in 1885, but the necessary surveys and levels were not authorised for several years afterwards. These surveys and levels showed that the scheme for a system of canals from the river Murray was practicable in almost every detail suggested. In the case of the Murrumbidgee, some changes proved necessary, and a modified scheme was accordingly prepared. Two projects were submitted in definite form to Colonel Home; the first for a system of canals in the district bounded on the south by the Murray and Edward ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlix, Rivers, and on the north by the Billabong Creek, and the second for the district between that creek and the Murrumbidgee, The first of these was adopted without modification, and the second with merely a change in the position of the headwork. In addition to these two large projects, it was mentioned by the author that the facilities for constructing a canal on the north side of the Murrumbidgee, with its head a few miles below Narrandera, are little if anything inferior to the conditions on the south side of the river. The System of canals on the north side of the Murrumbidgee can be carried throughout the plains extend- ing to Maude and Oxley. A subject which is generally overlooked, and about which little is known except locally, was referred to at some length. This is the great extent and value of the natural irrigation due to the overflow of the western rivers, especially in times of flood. This natural irrigation occurs on a large scale on the Murrumbidgee, the Lachlan, the Macquarie, and the Gwydir, and is of vital importance to the lower holders. It materially complicates the question of the construction of large works, as the rights of the lower holders must be taken into account. In his outline description of the Murray Canal Project the author mentioned that while the water can be delivered by gravitation for use on the land throughout a large district, a large amount of water power will be made available, particularly in the part of the canal above Berrigan, and also that Berrigan and Finley, as well as several other townships, can be granted abundant supplies. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics.) AacHen—Meteorologische Station I. Ordnung. Ergebnisse, Jahrgang v., 1899. Ergebnisse der 1900. Das Meteoro- logische Observatorium, von Dr. P. Polis, 1900 (Reprint). L’ Observatoire. Meteorologique d’ Aix-la-Chapelle. Temperaturumkehrungen mit der Hohe zwischen Aachen und Aussichtsturm im Aachener Stadtwalde von Sieberg 1900. The Director ApERDEEN—Aberdeen University. Aberdeen University Studies, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 1900. The University a&—Dec. 4, 1901. l. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ADELAIDE—Department of Mines. Report on Geological Explor- ation of the Tarcoola District, with plan by H. Y. L. Brown, F.G.S8. The Government Geologist Geological Survey. Geological Maps:—Northern Territory of South Australia, 1898; South Australia 1899, by H. Y. L. Brown, F.a.s. The Survey Observatory. Meteorological Observations made during the years 1897 and 1898. The Observatory Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery of South Australia. Report of the Board of Governors for 1899-1900. The Director Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Proceedings of the South Australian Branch, Vols. 1.-1v., Sessions 1885-6 to 1900-!. The Northern Territory of South Australia, Parti. by Hon. J. Langdon Parsons, m.L.c., Part ii. by Maurice W. Holtze, F.u.s., 1901. The Society Royal Society of South Australia. Transactions, Vol. xxiv., Part ii., 1900; Vol. xxv., Part i., 1901. ” AutBany—New York State Library. Annual Report (49th) of the New York State Museum, Vol. 111., 1895; (50th) Vol. u1., 1896; (51st) Vols. 1. and 11., 1897. Annual Report (6th) High School Department, 1.,1898. Annual Report (81st) New York State Library, 1898. Annual Report (2nd) College Department, Vol. 1., 1899. Bul- letin 54, Legislation 13, Dec. 1900. The Library AmsterDAM-—Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Jaar- boek, 1899 and 1900. Proceedings of the Section of Sciences, Vol. 111.,1901. Verhandelingen, Afd. Natuur. Sectie 1, Deel vi1.; Nos. 1-7; Sectie 2, Deel vi1., Nos. 1-6, 1899-1901. Zittingsverslagen Afd., Natuur. Deel " viit., 1899-1900; Deel rx., 1900-1. The Academy Annapouis, Md.—U.S. Naval Institute. Proceedings, Vol. xxvt., Nos. 8, 4, Whole Nos. 95, 96, 1900; Vol. xxvi1. Nos. 1, 2, Whole Nos. 97, 98, 1901. The Institute ‘AuckLanp—Auckland Institute and Museum. Annual Report for 1900-1. 3 BautimoRE—Johns Hopkins University. American Chemical Journal, Vol. xx1z., Nos. 4-6; Vol. xxiv., Nos. 1-6, 1900; Vol. xxv., Nos.1-—5, 1901. American Journal of Philology, Vol. xx1., Nos. 1-4, 1900. American Journal of Mathematics, Vol. xx11., Nos. 2,4, 1900; Vol. xx1ir., Nos. 1, 2, 1901. University Circulars, Vol. x1x., Nos. 144-147; Vol. xx., Nos. 148 - 153, 1900-1; Index and Title, Vols. xv11. - x1x., 1897 - 1900. The University Maryland Geological Survey. Allegany County and Physical Atlas, 1900 ; Eocene 1901. Maryland and its Natural Resources 1901. The Survey ‘BanGaLornE—Mysore Geological Department. Report of the Chief Inspector of Mines for the years 1898-99. The Department ‘BELLEVILLE, Ont.—Provincial Assay Office. Monthly Bulletin, Nos. 21 - 25, 1901. The Office | Brrezn—Bergen Museum. Aarbog, Hefte 2, 1899; Hefte 1, 2, 1900. Aarsberetning for 1899 and 1900. An account of the Crustacea of Norway by G. O. Sars, Vol. 111., Cumacea, Parts ix., x., 1900. The Museum ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. li, BERKELEY— University of California. A Chemical Study of the Indument found on the Fronds of Gymnogramme trian- guluris by W. C. Blasdale. Bulletin Nos. 127 - 130, 1900. Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Vol. 11., No. 7. Our New Interests by Whitelaw Reid. Quarterly Bul- letins N.S., Vol. 11., Nos. 1, 38,1900. Report of Work of the Agricultural Experiment Station for the year 1897-8. The University Chronicle, Vol. 111., Nos. 1-6, 1900. The University BERLIn—Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde. Verhandlungen, Band xxvil., Nos. 6- 10,1900; Band xxvit1., Nos. 1 -5,1901. Zeitschrift, Band xxxv., Nos. 2—6, 1900; Band xxxv1., No. 1, 1901. The Society Koniglich preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Sitzungsberichte, Nos. 39-538, 1900; Nos. 1-388, 1901. The Academy Koniglich preussische Meteorologische Institut. Bericht tiber die Thatigkeit im Jahre 1990. Ergebnisse der Beobachtungen an den Stationen 11. und 111. Ordnung, Heft 3, 1896, Heft 1, 1900. The Institute Brrne—Département de l’Interieur de la Confédération Suisse- Section des Travaux Publics. Tableau graphique des Observations Hydrometriques pour l’année 1899. The Department Société de Géographie. Jahresbericht, xv1r., 1898-9. The Society BirmincuHam — Birmingham and Midland Institute. Programme for Session 1901-2. The Institute Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. x., Part i., Section 1, and Part ii, 1896-7; Vol. x1., Part i., Section 1, 1898-9. The Society Botoena—R. Accademia delle Scienze dell’Istituto di Bologna. Memorie, Serie v., Tomo vi1., 1897. Rendiconto, Nuova Serie, Vol. 11., Fasc. 1-4, 1897-8; Vol. 111., Fase. 1 - 4, 1898-9. The Academy Bonn—WNaturhistorische Vereins der Preussischen Rheinlande, Westfalens und des Reg.-Bezirks Osnabriick. Verhand- lungen, Jahrgang Lvir., Halfte 1, 2, 1900. The Socrety Niederrheinische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde. Sitzungsberichte, Halfte 1, 2, 1900. Boston, Mass.—American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Pro- ceedings, Vol. xxxvi., Nos. 5-29, 1900-1. The Academy Boston Society of Natural History. Memoirs, Vol. v., Nos. 6,7. Occasional Papers, Vol. 1v., Partiii. Proceedings, 339 Vol. xx1x., Nos. 9 - 14, 1900-1. The Society Bremen—Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein. Abhandlungen, Band xv., Heft 3, 1901; Band xv1., Heft 3, 1900. 3 BrisBANE—Geological Survey Office. Annual Progress Report for the year 1900. Bulletin No. 12,1900. Geological Maps:—Charters Towers Goldfield by R. L. Jack, W. H. Rands, and A. Gibb Maitland, 1898 (6 sheets); Part of Gympie Goldfield by W. H. Rands, 1899; map of the Etheridge Goldfield, 1898. Index to Names of Places, Mines, Reefs, etc., occurring in the Geological Survey lii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. BrRIsBANE—continued. Reports, Queensland, Nos. 1-184 inclusive. List of Publications of the Geological Survey of Queensland, 1879-1901. Reports:—On Stannary Hills Tin Mines, Eureka Creek, Watsonville District, North Queensland, C.A.105; on the Geology and Reefs of the Ravenswood Goldfield by J. Malcolm Maclaren, B.sc C.A. 106. On the Etheridge and Gilbert Goldfields, C.A. 108. On Recent Developments in the Copper-Mining Industry in the Cloncurry District by Walter E. Cameron, B.a., C.A. 128, 1900. The Survey Home Secretary’s Department. North Queensland Ethno- graphy: Bulletin Nos. 1 and 2, 1901. The Department Queensland Acclimatisation Society. Annual Report (38th) for the year ending 31 March, 1901. The Society Queensland Museum. Annual Report of the Trustees for the year 1899. Annals of the Queensland Museum, No. 5, 1900. The Museum Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Queensland Geographical Journal (New Series) Vol. xv1., Session 1900-1901. The Society Royal Society of Queensland. Proceedings, Vol. xvi. ee BrooxtyNn—Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. Science Bulletin, Vol. 1., No. 1, 1901. The Institute Brunswick—Vereins fiir Naturwissenschaft. Jahresbericht, _ Band vuirl., 1891-93. The Society BrussELs—Musée Royale d’ Histoire Naturelle de Belgique. Extrait des Mémoires, Tome 1., 1900, viz.:—Exploration de la Mer sur les cétes de la Belgique en 1899 par Gus- tave Gilson. La Flore Wealdienne de Bernissart par A. C. Seward. The Museum Société Royale Malacologique de Belgique. Annales, Tome XxxIv., 1899, viz:—Bulletins, pp. 129-176; Mémoires pp. 17 - 28. The Soeiety Bucuarest—Institut Météorologique de Roumanie. Annales, Tome xiv., Année 1898. The Institute Buenos Arres—Academia Nacional de Ciencias. Boletin, Tomo xvi., Entrega 2, 3, 1900. The Academy Instituto Geografico Argentino. Boletin, Tomo xx., Nums 7-12, 1899. The Institute Museo Nacional. Comunicaciones, Tome 1., Nos. 7-9, 1900-1. The Museum BurraLto—Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. Bulletin, Vol. VIL., No. 1, 1901. The Society Carmn—Académie Nationale des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres. : Mémoires, 1899, 1900. The Academy Catcurra-—Asiatic Society of Bengal. Journal, Vol. Lxix., Part i., No. 2, Part ii., Nos. 2, 3, 4,1900; Vol. Lxx., Part iii., No.1, 1901. Proceedings, Nos. 9-12, 1900, Nos. 1, 2, 1901. The Society ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. liii. CaLcuTTa—continued. Geological Survey of India. Memoirs, Vol. xxvii1., Part ii., 1900; Vol. xx1x., 1899; Vol. xxx., Partsi.,ii., 1900; Vol. xxxi., Part 11,1901. Memoirs, Palzontologia Indica, Ser. 1x., Vol. 11., Part ii., Vol. 111., Part i.,1900; Ser. xv., Vol 111., Partsi., ii., 1899. The Survey Government of India, Home Department. Ethnographic Survey of India in connection with the Census of 1901, Nos. 3219 — 3232. The Department CamBRIDGE—Cambridge Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. x., Part vii.; Vol. x1., Parts 1.—i., 1900-1. List of Fellows, Associates, and Honorary Members, January 1901. The Society _ University Library. Annual Report (47th) of the Library Syndicate for the year ending 31 Dec. 1900. The Library CAMBRIDGE (Mass.)—Museum of Comparative Zoélogy at Harvard College. Annual Report of the Assistant in Charge 1899-1900. Bulletin, Vol. xxxvi., Nos. 5-8, 1900-1; Vol. xxxvii., Nos. 1 - 3, 1901; Vol. xxxvit., Geol. Ser. Vol. v., Nos. 1 — 4, 1900-1. The Museum Carr Town—South African Philosophical Society. Transactions Vol. x1., Parts ii., iii., 1900-1; Vol. xi1., (pp. 1 - 568) 1901. List of Contents of Vols. 1.—x. and Vol. x1., Parts i. and il. The Society CarRLSRUHE—Grossh. Technische Hochschule zu Karlsruhe. Pro- gramm fiir das Studienjahr 1900-1901. Dissertations etc. (6) 1899-00. The Director Naturwissenschaftliche Verein. Verhandlungen, Band xit., 1898; Band x11I., 1895 — 1900. The Society CuEMNITZ—Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft. Bericht, Band xIv., 1896 - 1899. 3” Cuicaco—Field Columbian Museum. Anthropological Series, Vol. 11., No. 4. Botanical Series, Vol.1., No.6; Vol. 11., No. 2. Geological Series, Vol. 1, No. 8. Report Series, Vol. 1., No.6. Zoological Series, Vol. 1., No. 18; Vol a-,, Volar, Nos. b,.2; 3: The Museum University of Chicago Press. Astrophysical Journal, Vol. xi1., Nos. 4,5, 1900, Vol. x111., Nos. 1-5, 1901; Vol. xIv., Nos. 1-2, 1901. Journal of Geology, Vol. vi11., Nos. 7, 8, 1900; Vol. 1x., Nos. 1-6, 1901. The University Western Society of Engineers. Journal, Vol. v., No. 6, | 1900; Vol. v1., Nos. 1-3, 1901. The Society CHRISTIANIA— Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiania. Videnskahs- selskabets Skrifter 1 Math-naturv. Klasse, Nos. 1 - 4, 1900. es Université Royale de Norvége. Jahrbuch des Norwegischen Meteorologischen Instituts fiir 1899. The University CincInNATI—American Association for the Advancement of Science. Proceedings, Vol. xu1x., 1900, New York Meeting. The Association Cincinnati Society of Natural History. Journal, Vol. xtx., Nos. 7, 8, 1900-1. The Society liv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Cotumspia, Missouri—University of Missouri. University of Missouri Studies, Vol. 1., No. 1, 1901. The University CotomBpo—Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of the Ceylon Branch, Vol. xv1., No. 50, 1889; No.51,1900. Pearl Oysters and Pearl Fisheries by Mr. Collett, paper read 27 Oct. 1900. The Society Co.tumsBus, Ohio.—Ohio State University. Annual Report (30th) of the Board of Trustees for the year ending June 39, 1900, Parts i., i1., [University Bulletins, Ser. v., No. 1]. The University CopENHAGEN—Musée National. Affaldsdynger fra Stenalderen i Danmark, 1900. The Museum Cracow—Académie des Sciences. Bulletin International, Nos. 8-10, 1900. Classe des Sciences Mathematiques et Naturelles, Nos.1—6,1901. Classe de Philologie Classe d’ Histoire et de Philosophie, Nos. 1-7, 1901. The Academy - Drenver—Colorado Scientific Society. oo. Vol. vig pp. 1 - 40, 1901. The Society Drs Mornes—lIowa Geological Survey. Annual Report for 1899 Vol. x. The Survey Dison—Académie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres. Mémoires, Série 4, Tome vit., 1899-1900. The Academy Dresp—EN—Konigliches Mineralogisch Geologische und Prae- historisches Museum. Lausitzer Diabas mit Kantenger- éllen von Prof. Dr. W. Bergt, 1900. The Museum K. Sachs. Statistische Bureaus. Zeitschrift, Jahrgang xLv1., Heft 3, 4, 1900. The Bureau Dusiin—Royal Irish Academy. Proceedings, Third Series, Vol. vi., Nos.1, 2,1900-1; Vol. vir.,1901. ‘Transactions Vol. xxx1., Parts viii. - xi., 1900. The Academy Easton, Pa.—American Chemical Society. Journal, Vol. xx11., Nos. 9-12, 1900; Vol. xxtir., Nos. 1-10, 1901. The Society EpinspurecH—Botanical Society of Edinburgh. Transactions and Proceedings, Vol. xx1., Part iv., 1900. Ps Edinburgh Geological Society. Transactions, Vol. viit., Part i., Session 1898-1900. Edinburgh University. Calendar 1901-2. The University Royal Physical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xiv., Part iii., Session 1899-1900. The Society Royal Scottish Geographical Society. The Scottish Geo- graphical Magazine, Vol. xvi., Nos. 11, 12, 1900; Vol. xvit., Nos. 1 - 10, 1901. 5 Scottish Microscopical Society. Proceedings, Vol. 111., No. 1, Session 1899-1900. 3 FLorENce—Societa Africana d’ Italia (Sezione Fiorentina). Revista Geografica Italiana, Annata vil., Fasc. 9, 10, 1900; Annata vii., Fasc 1-4, 7, 8, 1901. if: Fort Monrozr—United States Artillery School. Journal, Vol.. xiv., No. 3, Whole No. 46, 1900; Vol. xv., Nos. 1-8, Whole Nos. 47- 49,1901 Vol. xv1., No. 1, Whole No. 50. . The School ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. a Frankrurt a/m—Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesell- schaft. Abhandlungen, Band xxvi., Heft 3,1901. The Society FREIBERG (Yaxony)—Koniglich-Sachsische Berg-Akademie. Jahr- buch, Jahrgang 1900. The Academy FREIBURG (Baden)—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Berichte, Band x1., Heft 2, 1900. The Society GEELONG—Gordon Technical College. Annual Report for 1900. The College GENEVA—Institut National Genévois. Bulletin, Tome xxxv., 1900. Mémoires Tome xviit., 1893 — 1900. The Institute Grenoa—Museo Civico di Storia Naturale. Annali, Ser. 2, Vol. xx., 1899-1901. Indice Generale Sistematico delle due Prime Serie, Vols. 1.—xu., 1870 —- 1901. The Museum Guasgow— Philosophical Society of Glasgow. Proceedings, Vol. XxxI., 1899-1909. The Society University. Calendar for the year 1901-2. The University GoTHENBURG—Kongliga Vetenskaps-och Vitterhets-Samhilles. Handlingar, Serie 4, Heft 3, 1898. The Academy GoTTincen—Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Nachrichten, Geschaftliche Mittheilungen Heft 2, 1900; Heft1,1901. Mathematisch-physikalische Klasse, Heft 3, 4, 1900; Heft 1, 1901. The Society Gériitz—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen, Band XxXI1I., 1901. ” Gratz—Naturwissenschaftlicher Vereines fiir Steiermark. Mit- theilungen, Heft 37, 1900. me Hatirax—Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Proceedings and Transactions, Vol. x. (Second Ser. Vol. 111.), Part ii., Session 1899-0. The Institute Haute, A.S.—K. Leopoldina-Carolina Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher. Leopoldina, Heft 35, 1899. Nova Acta, Bande Lxxv. - Lxxvi., 1899-0. The Academy Hamsura—Deutsche Seewarte. Archiv. Band xx111., Jahrgang 1900. Deutsche Ueberseeische Meteorologische Beo- bachtungen, Heft 1x, 1891-6; Heft x., Theil 1, 1896-9. Ergebnisse der Meteorologischen Beobachtungen Jahr- gang xxilI., 1899. Jahresbericht tber die Thatigkeit der Deutschen Seewarte ftir das Jahr 1899-0. The Observatory Naturhistorische Museum. Mitteilungen, Jahrgang xvi1., 1899. The Museum Hamitton, (Ont.)—Hamilton Scientific Association. Journal and Proceedings, No. 16, Session 1899-0. ' The Association eae lonial Museum. Bulletin, Nos. 28, 24, 1900-1. Extra Bulletin 1900:—Nuttige Indische Planten door Dr. M. Greshoff, Afi. 5. The Museum Musée Teyler. Archives, Ser. 2, Vol. vir., Parts ii., lil, 1900-1. ” Société Hollandaise des Sciences. Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Ser. 2, Tome Iv., Liv. 1—3, 1900-1; Tome v , 1900. The Society lvi. . ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Havre—Société Géologique de Normandie. Builetin, Tome xrx., 1898-9. The Society HEIDELBERG —Naturhistorisch - Medicinischer Vereins. Ver- handlungen, Neue Folge, Band vi., Heft 4, 5, 1900-1. me! HELSINGFoRS—Société des Sciences de Finlande. Acta, Tomus XXVI., xxvil.. 1909. Bidrag, Haftet 59, 60, 1900. Ofversigt, Forhandlingar, Band xu11., 1899-0. . Hosart—Mines Department. Report of the Secretary for Mines for 1899-1900. The Progress of the Mineral Industry of Tasmania for the Quarters ending 30 Sept. and 31 Dec. 1900; 31 March and 30 June 1901. Reports by W. H. Twelvetrees, Government Geologist :—On the Mineral Districts of Zeehan and Neighbourhood, Mounts Huxley, Jukes and Darwin. On the Mount Farrell District 1900. On the Blythe River Iron Ore Deposit. On the Mineral Districts of Bell Mount, Dove River, Five-Mile Rise, Mount Pelion and Barn Bluff. On the Tin-bearing capabilities of the Gladstone District. On the Mining Districts of the Scamander River and St. Helens. On the Tin-bearing District of Ben Lomond. On some Wolfram Sections near Pieman Heads 1901. The Department HonotuLtvu— Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum. Fauna Hawaii- ensis, Vol. 1., Parts iii., iv., 1900-1. Memoirs, Vol. 1, No. 2. Occasional Papers, Vol. 1., No. 2, 1900. The Museum InpianaPpoiis—Department of Geology and Natural Resources. Annual Report (25th) 1900. The Department Indiana Academy of Science. Proceedings, 1898-9. The Academy JENA—Medicinisch Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft. Jen- aische Zeitschrift fiir Naturwissenschaft, Band xxxIv., N.F. Band xxvit., Heft 4,1900; Band xxxv., N.F. Band xxviul., Heft 1—4,1901; Band xxxvi., N.F. Band xxix., Heft 1. 2, 1901. . The Society Krw—Royal Gardens. Hooker’s Icones Plantarum, Fourth Series, Vol. vir., Part iv., Vol. vi11., Part 1,1901. The Trustees Kierr—Société des Naturalistes. Mémoires, Tome xv1., Liv. 2, 1900. The Society Koniasperg—Konigliche Physikalisch-dkonomische Gesellschaft. Schriften, Jahrgang xur., 1900. ‘ Kyoro—Imperial University. Calendar 1900-1. The University LAUSANNE— Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles. Bulletin, Ser. 4, Vol. xxxvi., Nos. 186—188, 1900; Vol. xxxvi1., Nos. 189, 140, 1901. The Society Lrrps—Leeds Literary and Philosophical Society. Annual Report (80th) 1899-1900. ee Lripzia—K onigliche Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Berichte tiber die Verhandlungen Math.-Phys. Classe, Band xu1x., Heft 3, 1897; Band u11., Heft 4 - 7, 1900. Jahresbericht der Furstlich Jablonowski’schen Gesell- schaft, March 1901. - ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lvii, Lifce—Société Géologique de Belgique. Annales, Tome xxv. bis Liv. 1, 1900; Tome xxvi., Liv. 4; Tome xxviut,, Liv. 1-3, 1901. The Society Société Royale des Sciences de Liége. Mémoires, Série 3, Tome 111., 1901. of LinLte—Société Géologique du Nord. Annales, Tome xxviit., 1899; Tome xx1x., 1900. sf Université de Lille. Travaux and Mémoires, Tome I. — v1., 1889 — 1898, Title Page and Contents only; Tome vit., Mémoires Nos. 22, 23, 1899; Tome virt., Mémoires No. 24; Tome 1x., Mémoires Nos. 25, 26, 1900; Tome x., Mé- moires No. 27,1901. L’ Université de Lille en 1900. The University Lincoun—University of Nebraska. Annual Report (13th) of the U.S. Agricultural Experiment Station of Nebraska, 2 Jan. 1900. Bulletin, Nos. 60, 64, 65, 1899-1900. ps Liverroot—Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool. Proceedings, Vol. tiv., Session 1899-1900. The Society Lonpon—Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal, Vol. xxx., July— Dec., 1900; Vol. xxx1., Jan. — June, 1901. The Institute British Economic Association. Economic Journal, Vol. x1., Nos. 41 —48, 1901. Index, Vols. 1. —x., 1891 — 1900 incl, The Association British Museum. Catalogue of the African Plants collected by Dr. Friedrich Welwitsch in 1853 - 61, Vol. 1., Dicoty- ledons, Part ili., by William Philip Hiern, u.a., F.Ls., 1898; Vol. 11., Part 1., Monocotyledons and (rymnosperms by Alfred Barton Rendle, m.a., D.sc., F.u.s., 1899. Hand ~ List of Birds, Vol. 11., 1900, by R. Bowdler Sharpe, Lu.p. The Museum Chemical News, Vol. uxxxtir., Nos. 2136-2138, 2140-2144, 1900; Vol. uxxxiil., Nos. 2145 — 2158, 2160 - 2170; Vol. Lxxxiv., Nos. 2171 — 2190, 1901. The Editor Geological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. tvr., Part iv., No. 224, 1900; Vol. uv11., Parts 1 — 3, Nos. 225 — 227,1901. List of Members, 1 Nov. 1900. Geological Literature added to the Library during the year ended 31 December 1900. The Society Imperial Institute. Journal Vol. v1., Nos. 71,72, 1906; Vol. vil.. Nos. 73, 75 — 88, 1901. The Institute Institution of Civil Engineers. Minutes of Proceedings, Vol. cxtt., Part iv., 1899-1900; Vol. cxui1., Part i, Vol. cxtiv., Part ii.,; Vol. cxiv., Part iii.; Vol. cxuv1., Part iv., 1900-1. Subject Index Vols. cxrx.- cxLvI, Sessions 1894-1900. Charter, Supplemental Charters, By-Laws and List of Members, 7 October, 1900. The Institution Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. Pro- ceedings, Parti.,1901. Register of Fellows, Associates, and Students, 1901-2. The Institute Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Proceedings, No. 4, 1900; Nos. 1,2,1901. List of Members,.Feb. 1901. ThelInstitution Iron and Steel Institute. Journal, Vol. tvii1., No. 2, 1900; Vol. trx., No. 1, 1901. Rules and List of Members, 1901. The Institute lviii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Lonpon—continued. Linnean Society. Journal, Botany, Vol. xxxiv., No. 241; Vol. xxxv., No. 248. Zoology, Vol. xxviir., Nos. 180, 182. Proceedings, Nov. 1899 to June 1900. The Society Meteorological Office. Meteorological Observations at Stations of the Second Order for the year 1897. Monthly Pilot Charts of the North Atlantic and Mediterranean, Sheets Nos. 1—8, 1901. Report of the Meteorological Council for the year ending 31 March, 1900. The Office Mineralogical Society. Mineralogical Magazine and Journal, Vol. x11., No. 58, 1900; Vol. x111., No. 59, 1901. The Society Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Calendar 1901. Pharmaceutical Journal, Fourth Ser., Vol. x1., Nos. 1584 — 1592, 1900; Vol. x11., Nos. 1593 —1618; Vol. xr1z., Nos. 1619 — 1638, 1901. as Physical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xvi1., Parts iv.—vi., 1900-1. Science Abstracts, Vol. 111., Parts xi., xii., Nos. 35, 36, and Index 1900; Vol. 1v., Parts i.—x., Nos. 37 — 46, 1901. List of Officers and Fellows, April 1, 1901. a Quekett Microscopical Club. Journal, Ser. 2, Vol. vir., No. ~ 47,1900; Vol. vit1., No. 48, 1901. The Club Royal Agricultural Society of England. Journal, Third © Ser., Vol. x1., Part iv., No. 44, 1900. Report of the Council, 22 May, 1901. The Society Royal Astronomical Society. Monthly Notices, Vol. ux., No. 10 Supplementary Number, Appendix; Vol. Lx1., Nos. 1- 9, Appendixes Nos. 2, 3, 1900-1. me Royal College of Physicians. List of Fellows, Members, Extra-Licentiates and Licentiates 1901. The College Royal College of Surgeons. Calendar, August 1,1900. Cata- logue of the Physiological Series of Comparative Anatomy contained in the Museum, Vol. 1., Second Edition 1900. __,, Royal Colonial Institute. Proceedings, Vol. xxx1., 1899-00; Vol. xxx11., 1900-1. The Institute - Royal Geographical Society. Geographical Journal, Vol. xvi., Nos. 5, 6, 1900; Vol. xvi1., Nos. 1-6, 1901; Vol. xvir., Nos. 1-4, 1901. The Society Royal Institution of Great Britain. Proceedings, Vol. xvl., Part i., No., 93, 1899. The Institution Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. xxvi., Nos. 115, 116, 1900; Vol. xxvi1., Nos. 117—120, 1901. Index Vols. vil1.—xxvi., 1882-1900. The Meteoro- logical Record, Vol. xrx., Nos. 75, 76, 1899: Vol. xx., Nos. 77-80, 1900. Hints to Meteorological Observers in Tropical Africa, 1892. The Society Royal Microseopical Society. Journal, Part vi., No. 139, 1900; Parts i.-— v., Nos. 140 - 144, 1901. of Royal Society. Proceedings, Vol. uxvil., Nos. 436-441 ; Vol. txvitt., Nos. 442-450, 1900-1. Reports to the Malaria Committee, Third, Fourth and Fifth Series 1900-1. Year Book of the Royal Society, No. 5, 1901. a Royal Society of Literature. Report and List of Fellows, 1901. Transactions, Second Series, Vol. xx11., Parts 1. —iv., 1900-1. . ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lxix. Lonpon— continued. Royal United Service Institution. Journal, Vol. xutv., Nos. 268 — 272, 274, 1900; Vol. xLv., Nos. 275 — 281, 283, 1901. The Institution Sanitary Institute of Great Britain. General Index to the Transactions and Journal, Vols. 1. - xx1., 1876 — 1900. Journal, Vol. xx1., Part iv.; Vol. xxi1., Parts i. -iii.. and Supplements 1901. The Institute Society of Arts. Journal, Vol. xuvii , Nos. 2598, 2504; Vol. XL1x., Nos. 2505 — 2528, 2530 — 2554, 1900-1. The Society War Office—(Intelligence Division). Drill Regulations of the German Field Artillery, 1899, by Major J. H. V Crowe, R.A. Organisation of Voluntary Medical Aid in War in Austria, France, and Germany 1901, by Major - J. HE. Edmonds, R.8., D.A.A.G. The Office Zoological Society of London. Proceedings, Part iv., 1900; Vol. 1., Parts i., i1., 1901. Transactions, Vol. xv., Parts v.—vli.; Vol. xvt., Parts 1., 11., 1900-1. The Society LusrcK—Naturhistorische Museum. Mitteilungen der Geo- graphischen Gesellschaft und des Naturhistorischen Museums, Zweite Reihe, Heft 14, 1900.. The Museum ‘LuxemBoure—Institut Royale Grand-Ducal de Luxembourg. Publications (Section des Sciences Naturelles et Mathématiques), Tome xxvi., 1901. The Institute Mapison— Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Transactions, Vol. x11., Part ii, 1899; Vol. x11, Part i., 1900. The Academy Mapras—Government Museum. Bulletin, Anthropology, Vol. 11., No. 3; Vol. tv., No. 1, 1901. Catalogue of the Prehistoric Antiquities, by R. Bruce Foote, F.a.s., 1901. The Museum Madras Observatory. Report on the Kodaikanal and Madras Observatories for 1900-1. The Observatory MancHester—Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal, Vol. x., Nos. 1-4, 1901. The Society Manchester Geological Society. ‘Transactions, Vol. xxvit., Parts i. — vii., Session 1900-1. e Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings, Vol. xtv., Parts i. —iv., 1900-1. a Marsure—Gesellschaft zur Beforderung der gesammten Natur- wissenschaften. Schritten, Band x111., Abtheilung 4, 1900. Sitzungsberichte, Jahrgang, 1899-1900. - Konigliche Universitaéts-Bibliothek. Inaugural Disserta- tions (70) 1899-1900. The Museum MarsEILLEs—Faculté des Sciences de Marseille. Annales, Tome x1, Fase. 1-9, 1901. The Faculty Mertsourne—Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers. Pro- ceedings of the first ordinary meeting 1901, Kalgoorlie, W.A. etc. Transactions, Vols. I.—I1II., vI., vir., 1894 - 1901. The Institute Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. Report of the Hight Meeting held at Melbourne, 1900. The Association lx, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. MELBOURNE— continued. Broken Hill Proprietary Co. Ltd. Reports and Statements of Account 3!st Half Year, 30 Nov. 1900; 32nd Half Year, 31 May 1901. The Secretary Department of Agriculture. Annual Report 1899. Hand- book of the Destructive Insects of Victoria, Parts i., ii., lli., 1891-1900. The Department Department of Mines. Annual Report of the Secretary for Mines and Water Supply for 1900. Reports:—On the Mount William Gold Field by H. Herman, 8.c.z. On the Queen, Moliagul, Moliagul Consols, and Golden Goose Mines, Moliagul, by Stanley B. Hunter. On Brown Coal from Narracan and from Dean’s Marsh, by Henry C. Jenkins,¢a.R.s.m., 1901. Re Utilization of Brown Coal upon the spot where it is mined as a source of power for transmission to a distance by electrical means, with special reference to the transmission from Gippsland to Melbourne, by Henry C. Jenkins, a.n.s.m., 1900. Special Report on the Little Bendigo or Nerrena Gold Field, Ballarat (with Plans and Sections) by E. 8. Whitelaw, 1901. Observatory. First Melbourne General Catalogue of 1227 Stars for the Epoch 1870, 4° Melbourne 1874. Observa- tions of the Southern Nebule made with the Great Melbourne Telescope from 1869 to 1885, Part i., Fol. Melbourne 1885. Reports of the Board of Visitors to the Observatory Ist to the 35th 1860-1901. Results of Observations in Meteorology, Terrestrial Magnetism 1887 -1900incl. Second Melbourne General Catalogue of 1211 Stars for the Epoch 1880, 4° Melbourne 1889. The Observatory Public Library, Museums, and National Gallery of Victoria. Report of the Trustees for 1900. The Insectivorous Birds of Victoria by Robert Hall, 1900. The Trustees Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Transactions, Vol. xviii., Part 1i., 1900; Vol. xrx., 1901. The Society Royal Society of Victoria. Proceedings (New Series), Vol. XIE., Part o> Vol. xrv., Part 1.5 (901- The Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist, Vol. xvi1., Nos. 8, 10—12; Vol. xvuiut., Nos. 1-7, 1900-1. The Club University. Annual Examination Papers, Oct. — Dec., 1900. Final Honour, Degrees, etc., Examination Papers, Feb. 1901. Matriculation Examination Papers, Nov. 1900, May 1901. The University Victorian Institute of Surveyors. Transactions and Pro- . ceedings, Vol. 1v., 1891-9 The Institute Metz—Vereins fiir Erdkunde. Jahresbericht, Band xx11., 1899- 1900. The Society Mexico—Instituto Geolédgico de México. Boletin, Num 14, 1900. The Institute Observatorio Meteorolégico-Magnetico Central de Mexico. El Clima de la Reptiblica Mexicana en el ano de 1896; Ano 11., 1900. ; The Observatory ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. )xi, Merxico—continned. Sociedad Cientifica ‘Antonio Alzate.” Memorias y Revista Tome xiv., Nims 9-12, 1899-1900; Tome xv., Nims 1-6, 1900-1. The Society Mitan—Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere. Rendi- conti, Ser. 2, Vol. xxx111r., 1900. The Institute Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali. Atti, Vol. xxxrx., Fasc. 2 - 4,1900-1; Vol. xu., Fasc. 1 -3,1901. Memoire Vol. vi., Fase 3, 1901. The Society Mirrretp— Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society. Pro- ceedings, N.S. Vol. x1v., Part i., 1900. Mopena— Regia Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti in Modena. Memorie, Serie 111., Vol. 11., 1900. The Academy Montevipr0—Ministry of Fomento. Comisién N. del Censo 1900 The Minister Museo Nacional de Montevideo. Anales, Tomo 11., Fasc. 15, 16, 17; Tomo 111., Fasc. 18, 19, 20, 1900-1. The Museum Observatorio Meteoroldgico del Colegio pio de Villa Colén. Boletin Mensual, Afio x11., Nos. 1—6, 1899-00. The Observatory MontTPrELLier—Académie des Sciences et Lettres. Mémoires de la Section des Sciences, Serie 2, Tome 11., Nos. 6, 7, 33 1899-1900. The Academy Mons—Société des Sciences, des Artset des Lettres du Hainaut. Mémoires et Publications, Serie 6, Tome 11.,1900. The Society Montreat—Natural History Society of Montreal. The Canadian Record of Science, Vol. viir., Nos. 3, 5, 6, 1900-1. Royal Society of Canada. Proceedings and Transactions, Second Series, Vols. v., vi., 1899-1900. Moscow—Société Impériale des Naturalistes. Bulletin, Vol. x111., Nos. 2, 8, 1899; Vol. xtv., Nos. 1-4, 1900; Vol. xv., Nos. 1, 2, 1901. MvutuHovse—Société Industrielle. Bulletin, Tome utxx., Sept. — Dec., 1900; Tome Lxx1., Jan,- July 1901. Procés- Verbaux de la Société et des Comités pp. 65 — 126, 1901. Municu—Bayerische Botanische Gesellschaft. Berichte, Band vil., Abteilung 2, 1900. Koniglich Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Miinchen. Ab- handlungen der Math.-Phys. Classe, Band xx., Abth. 3, 1900. Die akademische Kommission fiir Erforschung der Urgeschichte und die Organisation der Urgeschicht- ichen Forschung in Bayern durch Konig Ludwig I. Sitzungsberichte der Math.-Phys. Classe, Band xxrx., 39 33 33 Heft 2, 3, 1899; Band xxx., Heft 1, 2, 1900. The Academy NantTEsS—Sociecté des Sciences Naturelles de l’Ouest dela France. Bulletin, Tome x., Trimestre 1 — 4, 1900. The Society Napirs—Societa Reale di Napoli. Atti della Reale Accademia delle Scienze, Fisiche e Matematiche, Ser. 2, Vol. x., 1901. Rendiconto, Ser. 3, Vol. vr., Fasc. 8-12, 190C; Vol. yvit., Fase. 1—7, 1901. Zoological Station. Mittheilungen, Band xiv., Heft 3, 4, 1901. The Station 33 xii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. NeucHaTeLt—Société -Neuchateloise des Sciences Naturelles. Bulletin, Tome xxvi., 1897-8. Table des Matiéres des 4. Vols. de Memoires et des 25 Premiers Tomes du Bulletin 1899. The Society NeEwcastLe-upon-Tyne—North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers. Transactions, Vol. xtvitt., Parts vii., viii., 1898-9; Vol. xu1x., Parts ili. —vi., and Annual Report 1899-00; Vol, u., Parts i.—v., 1900-1. The Institute NeEwHAvVEN—Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Trans- actions, Vol. x., Part ii., 1899-00. The Academy New Yorx—American Geographical Society. Bulletin, Vol. xxxul., Nos. 4, 5, 1900; Vol. xxx111., Nos. 1-3,1901. The Society American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Transactions, Vol. xvi1., Nos. 8 — 12,1900; Vol. xvri1., Nos. 1 — 5, 1901. The Institute American Institute of Mining Engineers. Transactions, Vol. xx1x., 1899. a American Museum of Natural History. Annual Report of the President etc. for the years 1898 and 1900. Bulletin Vol. x11I., 1900. 3 The Museum American Society of Civil Engineers. Transactions, Vol. XXXIV. — xLVv., 1895 - 1901. The Society New York Academy of Sciences. Annals, Vol. x11., Parts ii., lii., 1899-1900; Vol. x111., Parts i. —-11i., 1900-1. Memoirs, Vol. 1., Parts il., iii., 1900-1. The Academy New York State Library. Bulletin of the New York State Museum, Vol. tv., No.19, 1898; Vol.v., Nos. 20 — 25, 1898-9; Vol vi., Nos. 26 — 31, 1899-00; Vol. vir., No. 32,1900. The Museum School of Mines Columbia University. School of Mines Quarterly, Vol. xx1r., Nos. 1-4, 1900-1. Contents and Index, Vols. x1.—xx., 1889 - 1899. The University NuremBerc—Naturhistorische Gesellschaft zu Nurnberg. Ab- handlungen, Band x111., 1899. The Society OrTTawa—Geological Survey of Canada. Annual Report, New Series, Vol. x1., 1898, Maps 664, 665, 676. Relief Map of Canada and the United States 1900. The Survey Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society. Transactions, No. 2, 1899-1900. The Society Ox¥rorp—Radcliffe Observatory. Results of Meteorological Observations, 1892 —-1899; Vol. xuvIIt. The Observatory PatEermo—Reale Accademia di Scienze, Lettere e Belle Arti di Palermo. Atti, Serie 3, Vol. v.,1899. Bullettino, Anni 1894 — 1898. The Academy Paris—Académie des Sciences de l'Institut de France. Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances, Tome cxxx1., Nos. 17 —27; Tome cxxxi11., Nos. 1 —- 25,1900; Tome cxxXIIL., Nos 1-16, 1901. ‘s Ecole d’ Anthropologie de Paris. Revue, Année x., Nos. 10 —12, 1900; Année x1, Nos. 1 —9, 1901. The Director Ecole Nationale des Mines. Statistique de L’Industrie Minérale et des appareils 4 vapeur en France et en Algérie pour année 1899. “3 es ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lxiii. Paris—continued. Ecole Polytechnique. Journal, Série 2,Cahier5,1900; Cahier 6, 1901. The Director Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes. Catalogue de la Bibliothéque Fasc. 29, 30, 1900-1. Revue Mensuelle d’ Histoire Naturelle, Série 4, Année xxx1., Nos. 361 — 372, 1900-1. The Editor Museum d’ Histoire Naturelle. Bulletin, Nos. 5-8, 1900; Nos. 1-3, 1901. The Museum Observatoire de Paris. Rapport Annuel pour l’année, 1900. , The Observatory Société d’ Anthropologie de Paris. Bulletins, Série 4, Tome x., Fase. 6, 1899. Bulletins et Mémoires, Série 5, Tome 1., Nos. 1-6, 1900; Tome 11., No. 1, 1901. Table Générale des Publications de la Société depuis sa fonda- tion 1860 - 1899. The Society Société de Biologie. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires, Tome ui1., Nos. 31 —- 41, 1900; Tome u111., Nos. 1 - 31, 1901. Société Entomologique de France. Annales, Vol. Lxvtir., Trimestre 1-4, 1899; Bulletin, Année 1899. Société Francaise de Minéralogie. Bulletin, Tome xxu11., Nos 6-9, 1900; Tome xxiv., Nos. 1-83, 5, 6, 1901. Société Francaise de Physique. Bulletin Bimensuel. Nos. 154-169, 1900-1. Séances, Fasc. 2, 3, 4, 1900; Fasc. 1, 1901. - Société Géologique de France. Bulletin, Serie 3, Tome xxvil., Nos. 1-8, 1900. Société de Spéléologie. Bulletin, Tome v1., Nos. 21, 22, 1900. Société Zoologique de France. Bulletin, Tome xxv., 1900. Mémoires, Tome x11r., 1900. 33 33 PrnzaAncE— Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. Transactions, Vol. x11., Part vi., 1900. PrertH—Department of Lands and Surveys. Report by the Under Secretary for Lands for the year 1899. The Department Department of Mines. Mining Statistics, 1900. Report for the year 1900. Western Australian Goldfields: Mining Statistics, Oct. - Dec. 1900, Jan. - Sept. 1901. Geological Survey. Annual Progress Report for the year 1899. Bulletin, Nos.1,3-5. Geological Maps—Cool- gardie Goldfield ; Collie Coalfield ; Country beteen Cue, Peak Hill, and Menzies; Northampton. Topographical _Maps— Boulder Belt, East Coolgardie Goldfield; Menzies Goldfield ; Proclaimed Boundaries Coolgardie Gol@field. Government Geologist Observatory. Meteorological Observations made during the year 1899. The Climate of Western Australia from Meteorological Observations made during the years 1876 — 1899. Government Astronomer PHILADELPHIA—Academy of Natural Sciences. Proceedings, Vol. w11., Parts ii., iii., 1900; Vol. n111., Part i., 1901. American Entomological Society. Transactions, Vol. xxvit., Nos. 1-3, 1900-1. The Society 3) Ixiv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. PHILADELPHIA — continued. American Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xxx1x., Nos. 163, 164, 1900; Vol. xu., No. 165, 1901. The Society Franklin Institute. Journal, Vol. cu., Nos. 5, 6,1900; Vol. our, Nos. 1-6, 1901; Vol. cur., Nos. 1-4, 1901. The Institute University of Pennsylvania. The Boardman Lectureship in Christian Ethics, No. 1, 1900. The University Bul- letins, New Series, Nos. 1, 2,9, 1900-1; First Series, Number 1, Part i. The University Wagener Free Institute of Science. Transactions, Vol. 111., Part v., Dec. 1900. The Institute Zoological Society of Philadelphia. Annual Report (29th) of the Board of Directors, 25 April 1901. The Society Pisa—Societa Italiana di Fisica. Il Nuovo Cimento- Periodico, Tome xir, Ser. 4, Aug.—- Dec. 1900; Tome t., Ser. 5, Jan.—-June; Tome 11., Ser. 5, July — Aug. 1901. ms Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. Atti, Memorie, Vol. xvir., 1900. Processi Verbali, Vol. x11., pp. 75 — 280, 1899-01. » Potspam—kK. Preuss. Geoditisches Institutes. Verdffentlichung, Neue Folge, No. 5, 1900. The Institute Pursita—Observatorio Meteorologico del Colegio del Estado de Puebla. Boletin de Estadistica, Epoca 11., Nam 29, 1900. Mensual, Sept. - Decr. 1900. The Observatory Rio DE JANEIRO—Observatorio. Annuario, Anno Xv1I., 1900; Anno xvi1., 1901. Boletin Mensal, May — Sept, 1900. a RocHEsTtER—Geological Society of America. Bulletin, Vol. xr., 1900. Index to Vols. 1.-x. The Society Rome—Accademia Pontificia de Nuovi Lincei. Atti, Anno LiIr., Sessione 5—7, 1900; Anno Liv., Sessione 1 —7, 1900-1. The Academy Biblioteca e Archivio Tecnico. Giornale del Genio Civile Anno xxxvi., July - Dec. 1900; Anno xxxix., Jan. — July 1901. Minister for Public Instruction, Rome Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Atti, Serie Quinta, Rendiconti Classe di Scienze, Fisiche, Matematiche e Naturali, Vol. Ix., Semestre 2, Fasc. 8-12, 1900; Vol. x., Semestre 1, Fasc. 1-12, Semestre 2, Fasc. 1-7, 1901. Rendiconto dell’ Adunanza Solenne del 2 Guigno 1901. The Academy Societa Italiana di Antropologia. Archivio perl’Antropologia _ e la Etnologia, Vol. xxx., Fasc. 1 — 8, 1900. The Socievy Societa Geografica Italiana. Bollettino, Ser. 4, Vol. 1., No. 11, 1900; Vol. 11., Nos. 2-5, 7-10, 1901. eu St. ANDREws—University. Calendar for the year 1901-2. The University St. Errenne—Société de l Industrie Minérale. Bulletin, Série 3, Tome xIv., Liv. 3, Partsi., ii.and Atlases; Tome xiIv., Liv. 4, Part ii. and Atlas 1900; Tome xv., Liv. 1, 2 and Atlases; Tome xv., Liv. 3, 1901. Comptes Rendus Mensuels des Réunions, Dec. 1900, Jan.— Aout, 1901. The Society Sr. Lours—Academy of Sciences. Transactions, Vol. 1x., Nos. 6, -9; Vol. x., Nos. 1-8, 1899-00. The Academy ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lxv. Sr. Lovis—Missouri Botanical Gardens. Annual Report (12th) 1901. The Director Sr. Prterspura—Académie Impériale des Sciences. Bulletin, Série 5, Tome x11... Nos. 2—5; Tome x11., Nos. 1-3. Mémoires, Classe Historico Philologique, Serie 8, Tome 1v.,No.8; Classe Physico-Mathématique, Serie 8, Tome x., Nos. 3-9, 1900. The Academy Comité Géologique. Bulletin, Tome x1x., Nos. 1-6. Mémoires, Tome xi11., No. 3, 1900. The Committee Société Impériale Mineralogique (4 l’Institut des Mines). Materialien zur Geologie Russlands, Band xx., 1900. Verhandlungen, Serie 2, Band xxxvu., Lief. 2, 1899; Band xxxvitl., Lief. 1, 2, 1900. The Society San FrRancisco—California Academy of Sciences. Occasional Papers, Vol. vi1., 1900. Proceedings, Botany, Vol. 1., No. 10; Vol. 11., Nos. 1, 2. Geology, Vol. 1., Nos. 7-9. Math.-Phys., Vol. 1., Nos.5-—7. Zoology, Vol. 11., Nos. 1-6, 1899-00. The Academy San Satvapor—Observatorio Astronomico y Meteoroldgico. Anales, ano de 1895. The Observatory Sao Pavuto—Museu Paulista. Revista, Vols. 1., 11., 111., 1895-8. The Museum SassaRgi—Universita di Sassari. Studi Sassaresi, Anno 1., Sez. 1., Fase. 2; Anno 1., Sez. 11., Fas. 1, 1901. The University Scranton—Colliery Engineer Co. Mines and Minerals, Vol. xx1., Nos. 4-12; Vol. xx11., Nos. 1, 2, 1900-1. The Company SInGAPORE—Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of the Straits Branch, No. 35, 1901. The Society StockHotm—Konel. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens. Bihang.- Handlingar, Bandet xxv., Afd. 1-4, 1900. Ofversigt- Foérhandlingar Bandet tv11., 1900. Accessions-Katalog, No. 14, 1899. The Academy STRASSBURG, i.u.—Centralstelle des Meteorologischen Landes- dienstes. Ergebnisse der Meteorologischen Beobach- tungen im Reichsland, Elsass-Lothringen im Jahre 1897. The Director Srutreart—K 6nigliches Statistisches Landesamt. Erganzungs- band 11., zu den Wiirttembergischen Jahrbiichern fiir Statistik und Landeskunde 1900. Wiirttembergische Jabrbiicher fiir Statistik und Landeskunde, Jahrgang 1900, Heft 1. The ‘Landesamt” Sypnry—Australian Museum. Memoir tv., Part iii. 1901. Records, Vol. 1v., Nos. 1. 3, 4, 1901. Report of the Trustees for the Years 1899 and 1900. Special Cata- logue, No. 1, 1901. 4 The Trustees Botanic Gardensand Domains. Report on, for the year 1900. The Director British Medical Association (N.S. Wales Branch). Austral- asian Medical Gazette, Vol. x1x., No. 12,1900; Vol. xx., Nos. 1-12, 1901. The Association Department of Mines and Agriculture. Agricultural Gazette of N. S. Wales, Vol. x11., Parts i. - xii.,1901. Memoirs e—Dec. 4, 1901. lxvi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. SypNEY—continued. of the Geological Survey of N. S. Wales, Geology No. 2:— The Iron Ore Deposits of N. 8. Wales by J. B. Jaquet, A.R.S.M. Mineral Resources of N.S: Wales, 1901 by E. F. Pittman, A.R.S.M. The Department Department of Public Instruction. The N.S. Wales Educa- tional Gazette, Vol. x., Nos.’ 7—12; Vol. x1., Nos. 1-6, 1900-1. ae Department of Public Health. Report of the Board of Health for 1898. Report on Leprosy in New South Wales for the year 1899. Report on the Outbreak of Plague at Sydney 1900. as Department of Public Works. Conditions of Tendering, Departmental Specification, General Conditions and Lithographs for the proposed Sydney Harbour Bridge. __,, Government Statistician. Census of New South Wales, 1901, Bulletin, Nos. 1, 2. New South Wales Statistical Register for 1899 and previous years, for 1900 and previous years, Parts viii.—x., 12,13. Report on the Vital Statistics of Sydney and Suburbs, Nov. and Dec. 1900, Jan. — Oct. 1901. The Seven Colonies of Austra- lasia 1899-00. Government Statistician Institution of Surveyors, N.S. Wales. The Surveyor, Vol. x11., No. 12, 1900; Vol. x1v., Nos. 1—7, 1901. The Institution Linnean Society of New South Wales. Abstract of Pro- ceedings, March 27, April 24, May 29, June 26, July 31, August 21, Sept. 25, Oct. 30, Nov. 27,1901. Proceedings Vol. xxv., Part iv.; Vol. xxvi., Parts i. -ili., 1901. The Society Observatory. Results of Meteorological Observations in N.S. Wales during 1898. Results of Rain, River, and Evaporation Observations made in New South Wales during 1898. The Observatory Public Library of New South Wales. Report of the Trustees for 1900. The Library Royal Anthropological Society of Australasia. Science of Man New Series, Vol. 111., Nos. 11, 12, 1900; Vol. 1v., ~ Nos. 1 - 10, 1901. The Society United Service Institution of New South Wales. Journal and Proceedings, Vol. x., 1898; Vol. xr., 1899; Vol. x11., 1900. The Institution University of Sydney. Calendar for the year 1901. The University Tarpina—Secretary to Government. The Perak Government Gazette, Vol. x111., Nos. 37 - 43, 1900 and Index; Vol. xiv., Nos. 1-24, 26 — 29, 1901. The Secretary ‘Toxro—Asiatic Society of Japan. Transactions, Vol. xxviit., 1900. The Society Imperial Earthquake Investigation Committee. Publica- tions of the Committee in Foreign Languages, Nos. 3, 4, 1900; Nos. 5, 6, 1901. The Committee Imperial University of Tokyd. Journal of the College of Science, Vol. x111., Parts iii. and iv., 1900-1; Vol. xrv., Parts i. - 3, 1901. The University ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. _ xvii. Toronto—Bureau of Mines. Report for 1900. The Director Canadian Institute. Proceedings, New Series, Vol. m1., Part iv., No. Transactions, Vol. vir., Part i., No. 13, 1901. The Institute TovLousr—Académie des Sciences, Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. Bulletins et Mémoires, Tome 111., 1899-1900. The Academy Trizste—lI. R. Osservatorio Astronomico-Meteorologico. Rap- porto Annuale, Vol. xiv., 1897. The Observatory Tromso—Tromso Museum. Aarsberetning for 1899 and 1900. Aarshefter, Vol. xx111., 1900. The Museum Tunis—Institut de Carthage. Revue Tunisienne, Année VII., Nos. 27, 28, 1900; Année viut., Nos. 29, 30, 1901. The Institute Turin—Reale Accademia della Scienze di Torino. Atti, Vol. xxxvi., Disp. 1-15, 1960-1. Osservazioni Meteorolo- giche fatte nell’anno 1900. The Academy Urpana—lLllinois State Laboratory of Natural History. Bulletin Vol. v., Art XI., XII, The Director Ursata—Kongliga Vetenskaps Societeten. Nova Acta, Regis Societatis Scientiarum Upsaliensis, Serie 3, Vol. x1x., 1901. The Society Vienna—Aunthropologische Gesellschaft in Wein. Mittheilun- gen, Band xxix., Heft 1-6, 1899; Band xxx., Heft 1 - 5, 1900. _ Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. Sitzungsberichte, - Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe— Abtheilung3., Band cvir1., Nos. 1—10, 1899 cy) Ila, 29 29 Le 10, 33 33 11b, a9 OD Ihe 10, oy) 2” IIl., 39 29 Ibex 10, ” oer 1., Bandcrx., , 1-6, 1900 ” IIa, 39 29 hoe 7; 39 39 11b, oy) 33 he 7; 39 ee III., be » 1-7, 4, The Academy K. K. Central-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus. Jahrbicher, N.F., Band xxxv., 1898; Band xxxv1., 1899. The Station K. K. Geographische Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen, Band 11., Heft 1-7, 1900. Mittheilungen, Band xu1r1., Nos. 1-12, 1900. The Society K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt. Jahrbuch, Band xur1x., Heft 4, Jahrgang, 1899; Band t., Heft 1—4, Jahrgang, 1900. Verhandlungen, Nos. 11 - 18, 1900; Nos. 1—10, 1901. The Reichsanstalt K. K. Naturhistorische Hofmuseums. Annalen, Band x., No. 2, 1895; Band x1., No. 2. 1896; Band xiv., Nos. 1 —4, 1899. The Museum K. K. Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft. Verhandlungen, Band t., Jahrgang 1900. The Society Section fiir Naturkunde des Osterreichischen-Touristen Club. Mittheilungen, Jahrgang x11., 1900. The Section , i. i lxviii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ‘WasHineton—American Historical pm sca Annual Report for the year 1899, Vols. 1., The Association Bureau of American ie dlbcee Annual Report (17th), Parts i., ii., 1895-6; (18th), Part i., 1896-7. The Bureau Bureau of Education. Report of the Commissioner for the year 1898-9, - Department of Agriculture. Crop Reporter, Vol. 11., Nos. 7 - —12; Vol. 111., Nos. 1-6, 1900-1. Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium, Vol. vir., Nos. 1, 2. Division of Biological Survey, Bulletin, No. 14, North American Fauna Nos. 16, 20, 21. Division of Botany, Bulletin, Nos. 25, 26. Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, Bulletin, Nos. 20, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27; Report No. 68. Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin, Nos. 87,90. Provisional Report of the Secretary of Agri- culture 1900. Section of Foreign Markets, Bulletin, Nos. 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, Report No. 67. Year Book 1900. Weather Bureau—Auroral Observations on the Second Wellman Expedition made in the neighbour- hood of Franz Joseph Land. Bulletin G, Atmospheric Radiation 1900. Monthly Weather Review, Vol. xxvii1., Nos. 8-12, Annual and Summary 1900; Vol. xxix., Nos. 1-6, 1901. Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau, 1898-9, Vol. 11., Part vii., 1899-0. The Department Department of Labor. Bulletin, No. 20, Jan. 1899. ss Department of the Navy. Report of the Surgeon- General, U.S. Navy 1900. ma Engineer Department, U.S. Army. Professional - Papers, No. 28. Report of the Chief of Engineers, Parts 1-8, 1900. : Office of Naval Intelligence. Notes on Naval Progress, July 1901. The Office Philosophical Society of Washington. Bulletin, Vol. x111., 1895 — 1899; Vol. xiv., pp. 1 - 166, 1900-1. The Society Smithsonian Institution. Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, Vol.1.,1900. Annual Report of the Board ‘of Regents for year ending June 30, 1898 and 1899. Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. xu1., Nos. 1253, 1258, 1901. Report of the U.S. N ational Museum, Part ii., 1897, 1898 and 1899. The Institution U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Report of the Superin- tendent showing the progress of the work from July 1 1898 to June 30,1899. Special Publication, No. 4; 1900. The Survey U.S. Geological Survey. Annual Report (20th), Parts ii. to v., vii., 1898-9. Bulletin, Nos. 163-176, 1900. Mono- graphs, XXXIx., XL., 1900. Preliminary Report on the Cape Nome Gold Region Alaska, 1900. es U.S. Hydrographic Office. Notices to Mariners, Nos. 21 —39, 1900. Second Report, Second Edition, 1890-1899. Special Report of the United States Board on Geographic Names relating to the Geographic Names in the Philip- pine Islands, 1901. The Office U.S. Patent Office. Report of the Commissioner for the year ending 31 Dec., 1899. ¥ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lxix. WELLINGTON— Polynesian Society. Journal, Vol. 1x., No. 4, 1900; Vol. x., Nos. 1 - 3, 1901. The Society WInNIPEG— Historical and Scientific Society of Manitoba. Annual Report for the year 1900. Transactions, Nos. 57, 58, 59, 1901. ; Yorx—Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Annual Report for 1900. ZAGREB (Agram)—Société Archéologique Croate. Vjesnik hrvats- koga Archeoloskoga Drustva Nove Serije Sveska v., 1901. ZuRicH—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Neujahrsblatt, Stiick 103, 1901. Vierteljahrsschrift, Jahrgang xuv., Heft 3, 4, 1900. ” 33 MIscELLANEOUS. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics ) Astronomische Arbeiten des K. K. Gradmessungs-Bureau, Band x1., Langenbestimmungen 1899. J. 8S. Chard Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, Vol. xv., No. 180,1900; Vol. xvi., Nos. 181-191, 1901. The Proprietors Benbow, C. A.—The Eland for Western Districts of New South Wales and Central Australia. [Dept. of Agriculture, N. S. Wales, Mis. Pub. No. 475, 1901. The Author Catalogue of the Polish Scientific Literature, Tom. 1., Zeszyt 1, 1901. The Publishers Chemist and Druggist, Summer Issue, July 27, 1901, Vol. xv1., No. 9, 1901. The Proprietors Comstock, Charles W.—The application of Quaternions to the Analysis of Internal Stress. The Author Cudmore, P.—Prophecy of the Twentieth Century, Partiii.,1901. ,, Deane, Henry m.a., and Maiden, J. H., r.u.s.— Observations on the Eucalypts of New South Wales, Part vii., 1900. [From the Proce. of the Linnean Soc. of N.S.W.|] J. H. Maiden Detroit Museum of Art, Annual Report of the Trustees for year ending 30 June 1900—Souvenier Catalogue of Mr. Robert Hopkin’s Collection of Paintings 1901. . The Trustees Doberck, W.—On the Magnitudes of 919 Fixed Stars, Determined from Sequences Observed by Sir John Herschel during the years 1835 to 1888. [Reprinted from the Astro- physical Journal, Vol. x1., No. 4, 1900]. The Author Duckworth, A.—Notes on the Methods and Principles governing the Public Debt Policy of the Australian Common- wealth, 1901. [Paper read before the Economic Section Roy. Soc., N.S.W.] » Economic Journal, Vol. 1., No. 1, March 1891. (To complete the set in the Society’s Library.) W. Pearse Electrical Engineer, N.S., Vol. xxvi., Nos. 18-26, 1900; Vol. xxvil., Nos. 1-5, 7-26; Vol. xxvi1., Nos. 1 — 20, 1901. The Publishers Fritsche, Dr. H.—Die Elemente des Erdmagnetismus und Ihre saccularen Aenderungen wahrend des Zeitraumes 1550 bis 1915, Publication 111. 1900. The Author xx, - ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Giles, Lieut. Col. Geo. M.—Notes on Coliecning and Preserving . Mosquitoes. The Author Goppelsroeder, Friedrich—Capillaranalyse Beruhend auf Capil- laritits-und Absorptionserscheinungen mit dem Schlus- skapitel:. das Emporsteigen der Farbstoffe in den Pfianzen 1901. ne Green, James—Causes of the War in South Africa, Second Edition, 1900. a ‘Helios,’ Jabrgang v1., No. 45, 1900; Jahrgang vit., No. 18, 1901. The Publishers Hepworth, Capt. M. W. Campbell, F. 8. Met. soc—Remarks on the Weather Conditions of the Steamship Track between Fiji and Hawaii 1900. The Author ‘Imperial Teacher,’ Vol. 1., No. 1, 1901. The Editor Intercolonial Medical Congress of Australasia. Transactions of the Fifth Session held in Brisbane, Queensland, Sep- — tember 1899, 8° Brisbane, 1901. The Literary Committee ‘Laboratorium and Museum and Clinicum,’ Nos. 7, 8, 1900; No. 2, 1901. The Publishers London Mathematical Society, Complete Index of all the Papers printed in the Proceedings, Vols, 1. — xxx. The Society Maiden, J. H., r.u.s.—Plants reputed to be Poisonous to Stock ; in Australia Misc. Pub. No. 477. The Forests of New South Wales, Misc. Pub. No. 489. The Weeds of New South Wales, Mise. Pub. Nos. 134, 466. Useful Aus- tralian Plants, Nos. 32 — 37, 39 - 41, 43, 44,63 —71. [From Agricultural Gazette of N. S. Wales. ] _ The Author Maiden, J. H., and Betche, E.—Notes from the Botanic Gardens, Sydney, No. 6, 1900. [From the Proc. of the Linnean Soc. of N.S.W. | J. H. Maiden Medical Press and Circular,’ Nov. 21, 1900, Sept. 11, 1901. The Publisher Moors, E. M., m.a., and Day, W. R.—On the Rates of Mortality in New South Wales and Victoria, 1901. The Authors Musson, ©. T.—Soil Temperature at Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W., Misc. Pub. No. 479. [From Agricultural Gazette of N. 8. Wales. ] : Nangle, James, F.1.4., N.s.w.—Australian Building Practice, Parti. ,, ‘New Zealand Surveyor,’ Vol. v., No. 12, Dec. 1900. The Editor Niedenzu, Franc—De genere Byrsonima (Pars posterior) 1901. The Author ‘Our Country,’ A Federal Free-Trade Organ, 1900-1. Senator J. T. Walker Paedologisch Jaarboek, Stad Antwerpen, Tweede Jaargang, 1901 Edited by Prof. Dr. M. C. Schuyten. The Editor Palmer, Joseph—‘ A White Australia.’ [Paper read before the Economic Section, Roy. Soc. N.S. W. ] The Author ‘Public Service Journal,’ Vol. 11., No. 1,1901. Public Service Assoc. N.S.W. Report and Summary of Evidence, Part ii—Royal Commission to. inquire into the condition of the Crown Tenants, Western Division of New South Wales, 1901. C. J. McMasters, President ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. . Ixxi, Robinson, H. E. C.—Map of Australia showing the Six States of the Australian Commonwealth, 1901. The Author ‘Scientific Australian,’ Dec. 20, 1900. The Publishers Tebbutt, John, r.z.a.s.—Report of Mr. Tebbutt’s Observatory, The Peninsula, Windsor, N. S. Wales, for the years 1894, 1896, 1897, and 1900. [The Society’s Library con- tains the History of the above Observatory down to the close of 1887, and the Reports 1888 to 1900 inclusive.] The Author ‘The Traveller,’ April 15, July 15, 1901. The Publishers Wilde, Henry, D.sc., Fr.R.s.—Correspondence in the matter of The Society of Arts and Henry Wilde, D.sc., F.R.s., on the award to him of the Albert Medal 1900 and on the Invention of the Dynamo-Electric Machine. Dr. Henry Wilde Wilson, Alex.—The Federal Capital. [From the Bulletin, March 4,1899.] Map of Federal Area, County of Bathurst, N.S.W., Proposed by Alex. Wilson. Map of Common- wealth of Australia showing site for Federal Area, sug- gested by Alex. Wilson. The Author Donations To THE SOCIETY'S CABINETS, ETC. Series of Stereoscopic Slides (14) of the relics of Sir John Franklin’s Expedition, brought home in the ‘Fox,’ by Captain McClintock, in September, 1859. - John Plummer PERIODICALS PURCHASED IN 1901. American Journal of Science, (Silliman). Analyst. Annales des Chimie et de Physique. Annales des Mines. _ ‘Annals of Natural History. Astronomische Nachrichten. Australian Mining Standard. Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 1900. British Medical Journal. Building and Engineering Journal of Australia and New Zealand. ‘Dingler’s Polytechnisches Journal. Electrical Review. Engineer. Engineering. Engineering and Mining Journal. Engineering Record and Sanitary Engineer. English Mechanic. Fresenius Zeitschrift fiir Analytische Chemie. Geological Magazine. Glacialists’ Magazine. Journal of Anatomy and Physiology. Journal of Botany. Journal of Morphology. Journal of the Chemical Society. Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry. lxxil. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Knowledge. L’” Aéronaute. Lancet. Medical Record of New York. Mining Journal. Nature. Notes and Queries. Observatory. Petermann’s Erganzungsheft. Petermann’s Geographischen Mittheilungen. Philosophical Magazine. Photographic Journal. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association. Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. Revue Critique Paleozvologie. Sanitary Record. Science. Scientific American. Scientific American Supplement. The Library Record of Australasia, Vol. 1., Nos. 1-4, 1901. Zoologist. Books PuRcHASED IN 1901. Australian Handbook, 1901. Braithwaite, R.—British Moss Flora, Pa txx., 1900. Braithwaite’s Retrospect of Medicine, V_ is.cxxir., 1900; Vol. cxx1 te British Association Report, 1900. Economic Journal, Vols. 1. - x., [excey Vol.1., No. 1], Engineering Magazine, Vols. xx., xx1, 1900-1. Hazell’s Annual, 1901. Jahres-bericht der Chemischen Technologie Abth. 1, 2, 1900. Medico-Chirurgical Society, Transactions, Vol. txxxtrr., 1900. Minerva Jahrbuch der Gelehrten Welt, Jahrgang x., 1900 1. Nautical Almanack 1904. New Sydenham Society Publications, Vol. crxxt1r., 1900. Obstetrical Society—Transactions, Vol. xu11., 1900. Official Year Book of Scientific and Learned Societies, 1901. Palzontographical Society s Publications, Vol. xrv., 1900, Pathological Society, Transactions, Vol. 11., iii., 1900; Vol. xi1., i., 1901. Ray Society Publications for 1895, 1899. Repertorium der Technischen Journal-Literatur, 1899. Report of the Medical Officer for 1899-00. Schmidt, Dr. Adolph, Atlas der Diatomaceen-Kunde, Heft 55, 56, 57. The Oxford English Dictionary to date. Whitaker’s Almanack 1901 and 1902. PROCEEDINGS oF SECTIONS. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Ixxv. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS (IN ABSTRACT.) SECTION or ECONOMIC SCIENCE. This Section was constituted at a meeting of members of the Royal Society, held on 24th April, 1901, under the presidency of Professor Liversidge. The inaugural meeting was held on 26th June, when an inaugural address was delivered by Ricuarp TeExcz, Esq., F.1.A., F.F.A.. Chairman of the Section. A committee was appointed, consisting of Messrs. J. W. GrimsHAw, JAMES HENDERSON, JOSEPH Patmer, and A. Hattoran. A paper was read by Mr. JoHN PLUMMER on “Old Age Pensions v. Popular Thrift.” _At the meeting held on 31st August, a paper was read by Mr. T. T. Peterson on ‘‘A decimal monetary system.” | At the meeting held on 19th September, a paper was read by Mr. JosEPH PALMER on ‘“‘A White Australia.” A paper was also read by Mr. C. A. Bensow on “The Pastoral Industry and our Western lands.” At the meeting held on 30th October, a paper was read by Mr. A. DuckworTH on “Commonwealth borrowings.” _ At the meeting held on 27th November, a paper was read by Mr. W. Pearss, entitled “State versus National Banks.” The whole of the papers were printed by the authors for the use of members of the Section, and to facilitate the discussion of same at the meeting following that whereat the reading took place. The session closed with the November meeting. |xxvi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ENGINEERING SECTION. During the session, six ordinary monthly meetings were held, while excursions were made by the members of the Section (by invitation) to the Sewage Farm at Botany, and the works of the Colonial Sugar Refining Co. at Pyrmont. Monthly meeting held 19th June, 1901. Mr. J. M. Smaiu in the Chair. Present twenty-five members and visitors. The Chairman delivered his annual address, the subject being ‘Municipal Engineering.” Monthly meeting held 17th July, 1901. Mr. J. M. Smaiu in the Chair. Present sixteen members and visitors. In the unavoidable absence of the author, the Hon. Secretary read a paper by Mr. J. G. 8. Purvis, entitled “Some notes on the purification of sewage.” The discussion was adjourned till a later meeting. The discussion on Mr. C. W. Dar ey’s paper on ‘‘Curved dams,” read at the previous December meeting, was then proceeded with, Professor WARREN, and Messrs. CarDEW, DEANE, BARRACLOUGH, Coox, and Witmort taking part. In the absence of the author, Mr. L. A. B. WADE replied to the discussion. Monthly meeting held 21st August, 1901. Mr. J. M. Smaixt in the Chair. Present eleven members and visitors. te: The discussion on the paper by Professor WARREN and Mr. S. H. BARRACLOUGH, entitled ‘‘Experiments on the strength of brick- work, when subjected to compressive and transverse stresses,” read at the previous December meeting, was proceeded with, Messrs. CarpEw, Nancie, Houcuton, Kipp, and Haycrort taking part. Professor WARREN replied. The discussion on the paper by Mr. J. G. S. Purvis, read at the previous meeting, followed, Messrs. Houauton, Kipp, and CaRDEw, taking part, Mr. Purvis replied. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Ixxvii, Monthly meeting held 18th September, 1901. Mr. G. H. Kn1rpps in the Chair. Present sixteen members and visitors. | Professor WARREN read a paper on ‘The strength of concrete,” and Mr. J. H. Carprw read a paper entitled “Notes on the underground workings of a colliery in the Western Coalfields of New South Wales.” The discussion on these papers was adjourned until a later meeting. The Chairman then gave a demonstration of the construction and working of a large geodetic level, exhibited by him. Monthly meeting held 19th October, 1901. Mr. J. M. Smaix in the Chair. Present fifteen members and visitors. Professor WARREN’s paper on ‘‘The strength of concrete,” read at the previous meeting, was discussed by Messrs. CarDEw, Davis, Witmott, Knigss, WADE, Ross, Kipp, CowpgEry, and the Chair- man. Professor WARREN replied. Monthly meeting held 18th December, 1901. Mr. J. M. Smart in the Chair. Present thirteen members and visitors. The Committee for the ensuing year was elected as follows:— Chairman: Mr. H. G. McKInNEY, M. Inst. c.=. Hon. Secretaries: Mr. S. H. BAaRRACLOUGH, M.M.E., Assoc. M.Inst.C.E., and Mr. H. H. DaRE, M.E., Assoc. M.Inst.C.E. Committee: Messrs. Percy ALLAN, M. Inst. C.B., G. R. CowDERY, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., J. DAVIS, M. Inst. O.B., H. DEANE, M. Inst.c.p., J. I. Haycorort, M.E., M. Inst.c.E.1, H. E. Ross, W. H. WARREN, ™. Inst. C.E., M. Am. Soc. C.E., J. H. CARDEW, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E. Past Chairmen: T. H. HouGHToN, M. Inst. 0.B., M. Inst. M.E., NoRMAN SELFE, M. Inst. 0.5, J. M. SMAIL, M. Inst. C.E. A paper by Mr. W. E. Cook, M.C.E., M. Inst. C.E., on “ Testing of stoneware pipes used in reticulation sewers,” having been printed and circulated before the meeting, was taken as read, xxviii. ABSTRACT OF PRUCEEDINGS. In the discussion on this paper, Messrs. Houcuton, Birks, ‘Kipp, Cowprry, PEaks, and the Chairman took part. Mr. Cook replied. ini The discussion on Mr. CarDeEw’s paper, entitled ‘‘ Notes on the underground workings of a colliery in the Western Coalfields of New South Wales,” read at the September meeting, was pro- ceeded with, some notes communicated by Mr. R. Tuomas bey read by the Hon. Secretary. After a vote of thanks had been passed by the meeting to the retiring Chairman and Hon. Secretaries, the formal business was — concluded, and the rest of the proceedings took the form of a “smoke” and social evening. ANNUAL ADDRESS. By J. M. Smatt, M. Inst. C.E. eee to the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 19th, 1901. ] In opening the Session for 1901 I wish in the first place to tender my thanks to the members of the Section for the honour they have conferred upon me in electing me as Chairman for the session. The nation has lately had to deplore the loss of our beloved Queen, and this must directly appeal to the feelings of the Engineers inasmuch as the Victorian era has been conspicuous in the develop- ment of engineering science in all its branches. No Sovereign has taken a deeper personal interest in the development of science than Queen Victoria, and to this interest we may in a great measure attribute the successful issue of the various departments of science. Like my predecessors J have had some difficulty in selecting a subject upon which I could address you, and in looking round for one which has not been previously dealt with, I found the difficulty increasing, and like the man, who when in doubt, came back to the first principles, I decided to take as my subject one in which I might claim to have had some experience, and that is Municipal Engineering. In dealing with the subject I propose to give a short review of the development of Municipal Engineering in connection with this City and with other matters connected there- with; secondly Municipal engineering in its general bearing in the interests of the ratepayer ; and finally, an attempt to outline an ideal Municipal Government in its relation to engineering. Prior to the incorporation of the City of Sydney in 1848 all works of improvement in connection with supply of water and formation of streets, etc., were carried out under officers of the Imperial Government and by convict labour to a large extent. 1—June. 19, 1901. 7 a II. J. M. SMAIL. The newly formed City Council entered upon its duties in the same year, but after a troubled existence and dissatisfaction on the part of the citizens, the Council was abolished and a new regime under three (3) Commissioners was inaugurated. The Commissioners came into power in 1854 and had an existence for three years, viz., to the end of 1857, when in turn they were dis- placed by a second Municipal Council who assumed control of the city affairs in the beginning of 1858, and at present controls the civic affairs in a modified form. Tt was during the Commissioners’ term of office that Municipal Engineering in its true sense may be said to have assumed concrete form. At the time they assumed control the water supply was limited to the old ‘‘ Busby Bore,” which was constructed in 1824 by convict labour under the direction of Mr. John Busby, Mineral Surveyor for the Imperial Government. During time of drought the supply from the ‘‘Bore” was so precarious that the citizens had to fall back on the supply from private wells, or obtain their daily wants from the nearest pump, or await the arrival of the water cart from which they could obtain a supply at 3d. per bucket. The Commissioners initiated investigations for obtaining a more abundant supply of water in the locality of Botany, which included a series of earthen dams with timber cores and erection of pumping machinery near the shores of Botany Bay. This work was not, however, carried out beyond the initial stage by the Commissioners. The most important municipal engineering work the Commissioners commenced was a system of sewerage, on what was then termed modern lines. Prior to this work being commenced a trigonometrical survey was made of the city, as well as a detail survey shewing every house, watercourse and other feature of importance. The institution of select committees had at that early period of municipal government to be reckoned with before the authority could get to work, and a perusal of the evidence given at the committee, both in connection with the necessity for a trigono- metrical survey, and mode of constructing the sewers as to form ANNUAL ADDRESS. III. and material, affords some amusing reading when viewed after a Japse of nearly half a century. An eminent authority of the day occupying the position of Surveyor-General was very wrath at the temerity of the municipal authority in commencing a trigono- metrical survey of the city for the purpose of water and sewerage works. In reply to a question of the chairman as to whether the ‘survey made by the Government included the whole of the city, he replied ‘“‘ Yes, this is the trigonometrical survey itself,” (pro- ‘ducing the original triangulation in pencil on a sheet 5 ft. 6 in. x ‘6 ft. 6 in.). ‘This was completed upon the smallest sized table in my London lodgings, and I cannot but envy those people who an obtain acres of table and paper for the survey of a piece of ground that a man might leap his horse across.” In fixing the size of the sewer the same authority was a little more liberal in — this ideas, viz., in his opinion the sewer should be of very great dimensions, and on being asked as to the limit of the dimensions, he stated that it should be “large enough for a horse and cart to go in and out.” One of the committee improved upon this by stating that in the old Roman sewers a cart with a load of hay could go ‘in and out, this appeared to settle the question as to the dimen- ‘sions of the main city sewer as the two were of the same opiniun. From a perusal of the final report of the committee it is manifest that at that period, 1854, the legislators of the day were alive to the interests of the citizens in the preservation of health. It is interesting to read the names of the committee, all of whom have passed away, but the memory of their public services remain. The committee consisted of Mr. (the late Sir Henry) Parkes, the Chief Commissioner of Crown Lands Mr. (late Sir Charles) Cowper, Mr. Flood, Captain King, the Colonial Treasurer, Mr. Holden, Mr. Nichols, and Mr. Allan, the late Chief Justice, Sir James Martin, being chairman. The City Engineer who initiated the work was the late Mr. B. Rider, and the officer in charge of the trigonometrical survey was the late Mr. W. H. Barron. The examination of the latter gentleman by the committee also affords amusing if not instructive reading. A number of the IV. J. M. SMAIL. committee who did not appear to attach much importance to the preliminary survey work which was being carried out, but were more concerned in getting the work of construction started,. wanted to know if the main sewer could not be carried out with- out waiting for the survey. Needless to say that the witness was. of opinion that some persons might venture to do so, but no engineer would attempt it. The Commissioners eventually obtained the necessary legislative authority for expenditure, and proceeded to carry the scheme into execution. During their tenure of office several engineering works of a municipal character were proposed, such as public baths, and an improved system of removal of house refuse, but, whether the commissioners lacked. _ the ability to meet the public demands or the necessary funds, it. was quite evident that the ratepayers knew what they wanted, for after a fitful existence, the Commissioners had to make way for a new City Council which assumed control in 1858. From this year onward it might be said the municipal engineer- ing in its true sense was carried on with vigour. An improved water supply with an efficient pumping plant at this time was installed at Botany. Reservoirs were constructed at Crown Street and Paddington, and the old Busby Bore gradually became a thing of the past, and the perambulatory water cart became extinct. Reticulation mains were laid all over the city anda constant service became ensured. Main sewers with numerous branches were constructed so that within twenty years of the ‘inception of the new Council, the cesspit with its attendant abominations almost became a thing of the past. The proper formation and macadamizing of streets and roads became an important part of municipal work, as well as street scavenging. The construction of wharves and buildings was also entered upon as well as improved street lighting. The abattoirs were removed from the City, and more attention was paid to the slaughtering of stock for the wants of the community, and also regulation of street traffic. The City was not only able to supply water for the rate- payers but also to the immediate suburbs, until the requirements ANNUAL ADDRESS. Vv. increased to an extent which taxed to the utmost the capacity of the Botany supply, and at the same time the pouring of the sewage of the city for nearly a quarter of a century into the harbour caused alarm to the citizens. This led to the appoint- ment of Commissioners whose labours culminated in recommending @ more extensive source of supply, and a new system of sewerage which would divert the sewage from the waters of the harbour. When the schemes were brought into operation, the control of same was transferred from the City Council to a Board, which is municipal in character and government, inasmuch as the majority of the members are indirectly elected by the ratepayers, who have to pay for the benefits derived from their services. As the City increased so did the suburban areas in a greater degree, necessitating carrying out works of street forming, storm- water channels, kerbing, etc., and in many cases the construction of roads reflected considerable credit on the responsible officers, notwithstanding the chronic state of scarcity of funds. Having sketched somewhat imperfectly, I am afraid, the development of municipal engineering in connection with the metropolis, and before leaving this -portion of the subject I would like to draw your attention to some photographs and sketches in connection with the early system of water supply to the city. I might state that two of the sketches are from the pencil of Mr. C. H. Woolcott, for many years Town Clerk of the city and connected with the City Commissioners who preceded the Council, and to whom as a young aspirant for honours in the field of engineering I am indebted for much sound advice and assistance. In considering the second point, viz.:—Municipal Engineering in its relation with the ratepayer, I think it is obvious that what- ever may be dispensed with, there is one consideration which is paramount and that is, funds. Jt is at this point that the rate- payer is indispensable, for without him, “funds” would be a minus quantity. When we compare the municipal government of the city and suburbs, with say, provincial towns in Great Britain and America, we cannot but be forced to the conclusion that, notwith- VI. J. M. SMAIL. standing a century of experience, there is an inordinate amount of grand-motherly interest taken by the State in matters of pure Local Government. In using the term ‘‘ ratepayer ” it is intended to be distinct from that of “taxpayer,” the former implies a direct service, and the latter an individual who may have very decided Opinions as to the value he should receive in return, whereas with the other his opinions may be very hazy. Owing to the grand- motherly interest before mentioned, the local bodies not only in the metropolitan area but in the country districts are relieved of all anxiety in carrying out works connected with water supply and sewerage, fire service, tramways, etc., and have only to con- trol such works as street formation, pavements, minor bridges and drainage, but have to pay in the long run for the whole of these services. Even with the modified system of local administration it is possible that the best return is not obtained for the expenditure, inasmuch as it is not always the best qualified man who is chosen to carry out local works, and the result is that the local bodies are often plunged into difficulties and law suits. It is not long ago, that two local bodies had to meet very heavy liabilities in connection with defective local works of drainage which, if designed by a competent man, would have fulfilled the purpose for which they were intended and saved the funds expended inlaw. I think. it will be generally conceded that, when a man is sick he naturally would consult a qualified medical man, or if he wishes to go to law to defend his rights he would consult a qualified lawyer, but in a matter pertaining to engineering, and more especially municipal engineering, a large number of aldermen, directly they take their seats, seem to be inspired with the opinion that they are engineers by some heaven born process. Holding such opinions it is obvious that amateur engineering would have full play, and the qualified man would under the circumstances have a most invidious task to perform. Under such circumstances Municipal Engineering would not benefit the ratepayer. ANNUAL ADDRESS. VII. Turning from this side of the question to the other, viz., by the employment of a properly qualified man who, having a reputation to lose, is not likely to place his Council or himself in an invidious position with the general ratepayer, there is an old saying that the cheapest things are not always the best, and this holds good in municipal engineering as in domestic or commercial life. It might be said that a local body could not afford to pay a professional man for his continual services; this may be the case with many bodies, but does not prevent retaining the services of a qualified man to advise the local body in matters of import. Itisnot rarely the case that most important matters are left to the judgment of men, who may be thorough tradesmen in their particular lines, but have not been trained in the fundamental principles which govern the very case upon which they are advis- ing one, and owing to the ignorance of these principles work has been carried out which could only be characterised as absolute waste. Had an experienced and qualified man been employed the dangers would have been anticipated and provided for. In such cases efficiency and economy would have been secured, and this is an instance where municipal engineering interests the ratepayer. In sketching an ideal municipal government in its relation to engineering we must seek for models in Great Britain, which is beyond all doubt the home of municipal government in its highest sense. In Great Britain the municipal engineer and surveyor holds a high position, and the duties are so varied and embrace so many items of administrative and constructive work, that a large amount of time would be required to deal with them in their entirety. The last annual report of the Local Government Board shews that since 1871 the local authorities have incurred upon the strength of their borrowing powers an indebtedness of £150,000,000 for sanitary works and other improvements. This vast sum is in addition to and quite independent of, the annual cost of works defrayed from current expenditure. The amount of loans sanc- VIII. J. M. SMAIL. tioned by the Local Government to local bodies in 1871 was £267,000 whilst in 1896 the amount totalled 51 millions of pounds. The nature of these works comprised road making and maintenance, with bridge and viaduct work, tramways, sea and river walls, water and sewerage systems, public lighting, isolation hospitals, public offices, free libraries, mortuaries and other build- ings incidental to municipal administration, public parks and pleasure grounds, fire brigade control, and supervision of new buildings. The foregoing may be taken as an example of municipal government as it is understood in Great Britain and also as in America, and there are many points which may be copied in connection with the former, and many which can well be avoided as far as the latter is concerned. It may be of interest to review the extent of control exercised by the municipal government in some of the leading cities of Great Britain, and a few have been selected from the Municipal Year-book. Birmingham with a population of 301,241 and rate- able value of £2,254,666 and area of 12,705 acres. The advance in municipal government in this city dates from the time of Mr. Joseph Chamberlain’s mayoralty, during which two important services were municipalised. In addition to these services the control extends over markets and slaughter houses, tramways, baths and wash houses, cemeteries, libraries, museum and art gallery, technical schools and school of arts, artisans’ dwellings, sewage farms, hospitals, industrial school and asylums. The greatest enterprise undertaken by this corporation was the acquisition in 1876 of an overcrowded and unhealthy area in the centre of the town, of 90 acres with 3,744 houses and 16,596 inhabitants. The gross cost was £1,308,221, under this scheme the centre of the city has been completely transformed, where slums were, the best business streets of the city now stand. To carry out the work a special rate was necessary, but a valuable asset has been obtained. The sites are let on leases of 75 years and contain the best buildings of the city. In the meantime the Corporation receives a ground rent, and on the expiration of the ANNUAL ADDRESS, IX, leases the Corporation becomes the owner. The value of the municipal estate three years ago was two and a quarter millions. Another important municipal centre is Manchester, with a population of 534,299, with a rateable value of £2,955,775 and an area of 12,911 acres. This city possesses the most profitable markets in the country, yielding in 1896-7 a surplus of £12,000. The gas undertaking paid over in 1897 the sum of £40,000 in aid of rates, and the competing electric lighting service, although a new enterprise, handed over £10,000 as surplus profits. Tramways and artisans’ dwellings are also under municipal control, and other Services as in Birmingham are controlled. Glasgow is an instance of municipal development and to what perfection civic administration canattain. The citizens of Glasgow are subject to the influence of good government at every turn. The Corporation has perhaps carried out bolder schemes and under- taken greater and newer enterprises than any other public city. The civic control embraces every service which coutributes to the health and comfort of the citizens, and is largely represented on the Clyde Navigation Trust. Under the Glasgow Corporation Loans Act the borrowing powers amount to £11,511,330. Sums set apart asa sinking fund amounted to £2,473,712 in 1897, having a net borrowing power of £9,037,618. Items of expendi- ture are interesting in shewing the wide range of civic control, viz.:—Police establishment £123,662, Cleansing Department £112,586, Lighting £61,318, Fire Brigades £15,380, Sewers, Bridges, Repairs £61,194, Hospitals £38,660, Sewage Purification £10,313, General Sanitary Expenses £22,923. The sewage puri- fication scheme cost over £600,000. The population is 715,579 and the rateable value four and a half millions. Edinburgh is another example of complete municipal govern- ment. The population is 292,364, and the rateable value is £2,241,730. In additing to controlling all services enumerated in connection with towns mentioned, the civic body takes a hand in the control of the University and Carlton Hill Observatory, shares in maintaining a veterinary college, and is the governing xX. J. M. SMAIL. body of Trinity College Hospital. The items of annual expendi- ture under the extent of control, viz., Watching £52,513, Light- ing £30,063, Cleansing £48,775, Fire Brigade £7,575, Parks £7,825, Sewers and Drains £23,063, Public Health £19,502. If we turn to Ireland and take one of the largest cities, Belfast, we still find the same extensive system of civic government exist- ing. Belfast has a population of 313,400, and a rateable value of £931,420. The Corporation has the gas and electric lighting as well as markets, baths, parks, technical schools, sewerage, fire brigades, and libraries under its control. , If we cross the Atlantic we find the same progression in municipal engineering with regard to water and sewerage, trans- portation, lighting, scavenging and other works connected there- with, but the principles of civic control are not models upon which we would like to build up an ideal civic government. Coming nearer home we find that municipal government as it. has been carried out in older countries does not exist, the con- trolling powers being from time to time taken away and invested in other bodies, Movements have been made in the direction of amalgamating several boroughs with the City, on the lines of the London County Council, while on the other hand another modified scheme has been advanced, neither of which appears to have advanced beyond the initial stage. Several reasons might be advanced to account for the movement not making any advance. It might be attributed to the apathy of the people concerned, or to the fact that the legislators were more concerned with State politics than domestic legislation.. Whatever the cause may have been in the past, there is a hope, now that all questions of national import are relegated to the Federal Parliament, the State Legislature will have time and inclination to deal with matters pertaining to domestic legislation. The existing City Council was inaugurated a few years ago after the proclamation conferring responsible government on the State of New South Wales, and history may repeat itself after a lapse of nearly half a century by Local Government becoming a ANNUAL ADDRESS. XI, living factor in the welfare of the State shortly after the inaugur- ation of the Commonwealth, a consummation devoutly to be wished for. All the examples of civic government quoted are the results of development, and the general trend of such development has been in the direction of unification of the principal services which con- tribute to the health and comfort of the ratepayers under one controlling body. The original scheme of the London County Council might be cited as an example of attempting too much in the direction of consolidating civic government. This scheme included the whole of the vestries or local councils outside the City of London, and the administration of all internal affairs of such bodies was found to be unworkable, and it is believed that the object now is to administer the larger services, leaving the minor interests to be administered by the local bodies as hereto- fore. It would appear therefore that as a preliminary measure to any future scheme of Local Government, that a measure dealing with the amalgamation of the different services which partake of a civic character, under one controlling body, would commend itself for consideration. The ideal form of municipal government would include the control of services connected with sewerage and drainage, water supply, lighting (gas or electric), tramways, markets, abattoirs, artisans buildings, baths, roads and streets with bridges etc., street cleaniug, refuse destruction, parks, wharves for civic pur- poses, fire brigades, lodging houses. With such works the municipal engineer and surveyor of the future will have ample scope to display his ability, and considering the advantages which have been provided by the State in connection with the Technical College and Engineering School of the University, there is every hope that qualified men will be available to take up the duties. The consideration of the site for the Federal City may be productive of good in the direction of inaugurating a system of Local Government on a broad and firm basis. It is to be hoped XII. J. M. SMAIL. that in laying out the city the mistakes of the past may be avoided. One of the most serious troubles in connection with carrying out a sewerage scheme is the absence of lanes or drainage reserves. The lines of subdivision appear to be laid out with total disregard to requirements of a sewerage system. Also that the anomaly of a building act being in force in the city, and the total absence of one in the suburbs, may not be repeated. The control of civic affairs could be consolidated under one body without interference with efficiency of administration. The future Federal City con- cerns every person in the Commonwealth both as to position and internal administration, and it is to be hoped that with its advent the ideal civic government may be attained. SOME NOTES ON THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE. By J. G. 8S. Purvis. [Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, July 17, 1901. ] In reviewing the progress that has been made in the purification of sewage I purpose confining myself to the treatment that has been meted out to the sewage arriving on the Sewage Farm at Botany and Arncliffe from the Southern and Western Systems. The sewage of Sydney has four principal outfalls—The Northern System discharging at Ben Buckler, Bondi; the Southern dis- charging on to the Sewage Farm at Botany; the Western discharg- ing on to the western end of practically the same farm at Rockdale, while the sewage of North Sydney is discharged at Willoughby Bay, Middle Harbour. The sewage falling into the Northern System is discharged into the Pacific Ocean at Ben Buckler, without any previous treatment. The sewage falling into the Southern System, in addition to the NOTES ON THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE. XIII. ordinary domestic sewage, consists of a considerable proportion of trade refuse from breweries, boiling down establishments, etc. After arriving on the northern bank of Cook’s River, where all the heavier solids are screened out, it passes under the. river by means of an inverted syphon, and is then delivered on to the farm by means of an open carrier. This carrier has various out- lets along the route by means of which it is distributed on to irrigation beds and filtration tanks. The heavier solids screened out of the sewage at the screening house have up to the present been grabbed out of the wells and conveyed over a temporary bridge spanning the river on to the farm, and there ploughed into the land, the ultimate result being eminently satisfactory as far as the disposal of sludge is concerned, but the cost of handling to say nothing of the objectionable nature of the work leaves ample room for improvement. As a step in that direction, it is intended to tap the sludge wells and force it across the river by means of a line of cast iron ball and socket submarine pipes, using compressed air for that purpose. This pipe will deliver into a reservoir tank from which it will be taken by carts and distributed on to the beds where required. The total area of land over which the sewage from the Southern outfall is distributed amounts to 71 acres, of which 134 acres are under cultivation, and 574 acres are used as filter tanks. The whole area is underdrained with the exception of three tanks comprising 25 acres, which are at present being dealt with. Some of these drains are constructed of 6 inch diameter glazed stone- ware pipes, jointed with mortar, consisting of one of cement to five of sand thus rendering it quite porous. Others are constructed of unglazed earthenware pipes well scored on the outer skin with the idea of rendering them more porous, and jointed with cement in a similar manner to the above. The drains are laid at an average depth of about 4 feet, and discharge into Cook’s River and Botany Bay. As time went on the natural increase of flow proved itself too much for this area to deal with, the rate of filtration being too XIV. J. G. 8S. PURVIS. tardy, and various methods were tried with a view to facilitate the entry of the filtrate into the drains. With this object in view pipes were inserted in the line of drains having side inlets, these inlets being closed with wove wire gauze discs having 3,600 meshes to the square inch. These discs acted very well for the time, the rate of discharge being very much increased, but after about twelve or eighteen months they perished and required renewing. The price of a new disc together with the cost of inserting it was found to be too expensive, so another system was tried, and after about three years’ experience, has been found to work admirably so far as rapidity of disposal is concerned. The sewage falling into the Western System is purely domestic sewage, derived from the whole of the Western Suburbs as far as Strathfield, which on its arrival on the farm at Arncliffe passes through screens, thus ridding it of all rags and other coarse solids which would otherwise only choke the distributing valves and pipes. The total area of land over which this sewage is distributed amounts to 118 acres, the whole of which is used as filter tanks. Seventy-three acres have been provided with underdrains consist- ing of unglazed porous pipes of the agricultural pattern, having coir fibre mat joints, and as this system of jointing is the only one now adopted, I will describe it in detail. Plain unglazed pipes 6 inches diameter, of the agricultural type are laid with their ends 2 inches apart, and around the open joint a coir fibre mat 9 inches wide is wrapped and tightly sewn on, and on the joint thus made a pad of loose fibre is laid, the whole joint then being surrounded with about one cubic foot of coarse sand. The sewage, after percolating through about four feet of sand, passes through the mats and enters the pipes. Hach pipe is two feet long, and altogether about twelve miles of drains have been laid, which means that nearly 32,000 mats have up to the present been utilized. The system of under drainage at this end of the Sewage Farm consists of large central mains 18 inches diameter glazed stone- ware pipes, having cast iron pipe outlets discharging into Muddy * a . NOTES ON THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE. XV. Creek and Cook’s River. - Into these mains the porous lines deliver the filtered sewage, the whole being controlled by valves on the main outlets. Resultsof Treatment.— Western and Southern Systems—There is no doubt that without this, or an equally rapid system of filtration, the whole of the raw sewage arriving on the farm could not be disposed of on the area mentioned, and it is this rapidity of disposal which is the controlling factor in the whole scheme at present in vogue; but when the final state of the effluent comes to be considered it is a question whether a higher degree of puri- fication could not be obtained at a much less cost and on a smaller area. The whole of this filtration area is divided up into different beds with distributing pipes running down the dividing banks having ofilet pipes, by means of which the beds are flooded. The sewage then percolates down through the fine sand and finds its way into sub-drains, and thence to the outlets discharging into the river. Its condition is then neither more nor less than finely sereened sewage, having a low degree of purification due to anzrobic agencies, but is then no worse than the river into which it discharges, hence no harm is done. The very essence of sewage purification is the ultimate destruc- tion of undesirable matter, and as no matter what you do with ‘sewage, it is eventually rendered innocuous by nature, instead of retarding it the object should rather be to make the conditions so favourable that the decomposition is conducted on lines resembling those of nature as muchas possible. The lime process is the very reverse of this, as by the use of large quantities of lime the living organised bodies such as bacteria are destroyed, and seeing that such bacteria give rise to that phenomena known as putrefaction, it simply means that until the effect of the lime has worn off the oxidising organisms cannot get to their work and decomposition which must come, is thereby retarded. Even if the lime process as generally carried out were a success, as far as the final state of the effluent is concerned, the question of cost XVI. J. G. S. PURVIS. renders it prohibitive, and the disposal of the sludge is an intoler- able nuisance. This then appears to have been the position of the sewage question in Sydney and suburbs within very recent years, although prior to this the subject of bacterial purification or disposal of sewage had arrested the attention of the Engineer to the Metro- politan Board. Certain well defined principles are already recognised and generally accepted, nevertheless the following processes and operations are quite old in application in the field of sewage disposal. (1) Sedimentation. (2) Reduction or liquefaction of the solids by anzrobic bacteria. (3) Submerged inlets and outlets to cultivation tanks. (4) Exclusion of light and air. (5) Artificial ventilation. (6) Discharge over weirs or cascades for the purpose of aeration. (7) Periods of contact with filtering material, rest and recuperation—which is simply the old system of intermittent downward filtration adopted on most sewage farms. This being so, there is nothing novel in the action which is produced in the modern filter or septic tank, but there certainly is in some of the gears or devices which have been designed for the purpose of controlling the distribution of the sewage. In 1898 the Metropolitan Board decided to carry out a series. of experiments on a small scale, in order to ascertain whether the sewage delivered on the farm by the Southern System would be amenable to treatment by the septic process. The tanks were simply wrought iron tanks of four hundred gallons capacity, and two different processes were adopted, viz.:—the septic tank and the Scott-Moncrieff systems. After a very carefully conducted series of analyses by Mr. Doherty of the Board of Health, the following average results were obtained :-— Raw Sewage— Total solids ae Si ... 657 parts per million Chlorine ... me wes ne 20 Bs Free ammonia ... Bee w. 49 x Albuminoid ammonia ... hn 2) u Oxygen absorbed in four hours... 64 NOTES ON THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE, XVII. After being in contact with the filters for varying periods the following percentages of purification. were obtained :— Percentage of improvement based on diminished quantity of albuminoid . ammonia. Percentage of improvement based on diminished amount of oxygen consumed. Coal Filters. Coke Filters. Coal Filters. Coke Filters. 82% 82%. Ms OSye is 65°5% After obtaining such satisfactory results from the sewage of the Southern System, the Metropolitan Board decided to subject the sewage of the Western System to a similar course of experiments with the exception that in place of the septic tank, an installation on the Scott-Moncrieff principle should be adopted, of sufficient capacity to deal with sewage derived from 160 persons, allowing them forty-two gallons per head per day. The tanks which were built in brickwork set in cement mortar consist of one large cultivation tank and four contact filters, the rate of flow being regulated so as to admit of eight hour cycles— two hours filling, two hours standing full, two hours emptying, and two hours aerating. The upward or cultivation tank was provided with a false bottom, 12 inches from the floor, and con- sisting of old railway iron built into the walls and bricks resting on the flanges having two inch intervals. “Wy My EMPTYine YU FERIOD oF Cowracr Ue Vee WNW | Qi WY — OF Conract LOW YYW?w—>->. 2—July, 17, 1901. =" The filtering material in this tank consists of Nepean gravel XVIII. J. G. S. PURVIS. graded upwards every foot from about 4 inch gauge to that of the size of a pea. The filtering material in the contact beds consists of coal in two cases, and coke in the others, graded from 3 inches — to l inch. It was found impossible to adhere absolutely to the eight hour cycles with an uniform rate of flow, on account of the interstitial spaces in the coke beds exceeding those of the coal, the excess amounting to as much as 307. The main carrier was tapped by a 4 inch cast iron pipe provided with a screw-down stop valve. This entered the bottom of the cultivation tank just underneath the false bottom, thus causing the sewage to pass upwards through the filtering material. The main cultivation tank is 25 feet 3 inches long by 9 feet by 5 feet 14 inch deep, and has an estimated net capacity of 3,636 gallons. On the 24th January of this year the rate of flow was carefully measured, so as to give as near as possible the eight hour cycles. The contact beds are each 10 feet by 6 feet by 4 feet deep. The holding capacity of the beds filled with coal was found to be 475°6 gallons, and each of them took 1 hour 42? minutes to fill. The holding capacity of the tanks filled with coke was found to be 6221 gallons, and each of them took 2 hours 134 minutes to fill. From these figures it will be seen that the voids in the coal filling is 337, and in the coke filling 43:57/, and that the rate of flow is 4:66 gallons per minute or 626,300 gallons per acre per diem. This is hardiy a fair way of making a comparison as the depth of the tanks is not admitted as a function, but when such is admitted it will be found that 3:16 gallons of sewage are purified (to a degree to be afterwards stated) per cubic foot of gross tank capacity per twenty-four hours, and that -516 cubic feet of gross tank capacity is required per gallon per capita for this particular degree of purification. The flow of sewage through this installa- tion was started in November Ist, 1900. On December 3rd of ‘the same year, Mr. Doherty of the Health Board under directions of Mr. Hamlet, Government Analyst, commenced his analyses, and on March 26th 1901, reported as follows:— NOTES ON THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE. XIX. IN PARTS PER MILLION. Effluent from Effluent from |Effluent from Average composition—Raw Sewage. Telecel Coke Hilter. (a@oal ailkee - Total solids ... ... 1088°33 715 728°75 776°6 _ Chlorine ahs OOS 296°66 296° 293°3 Free ammonia ....._—.20°75 40° 26° 29°3 | Albuminoid ammonia 8-775 2°8 212 19 _ Oxygen absorbed ... 16°] 11-716 10°82 10°35 | Nitrous nitrogen ... Oto 2 trace “4, ‘45 to O Nitric nitrogen Ae ae) trace 2°5 4°5 to 0 PERCENTAGE OF IMPROVEMENT. Based on diminished quantity of Based on diminished amount of albuminoid ammonia. oxygen consumed. Coal Filters. | Coke Filters. Coal Filters. Coke Filters. | 76% 71% 72°5% An effluent taken from one of the coke filters on the 18th April was examined'on the 8th of May and found to be free from any unpleasantness whatever. As stated previously, the coal filter took 1 hour 423 minutes, and the coke filter 2 hours 13} minutes to fill, or a mean of 1 hour 58 minutes. Had all the filters been of coke, the rate of flow necessary to fill the filter in two hours would be 7,470 gallons per twenty-four hours, which means that the tanks would deal with the sewage from 178 persons instead of 169 for which they were designed. The tanks had not been long in operation before it was found that with a 4 inch diameter valve, the opening required for the necessary rate of flow was too restricted and chokages were of frequent occurrence. Then again the rate of flow varied accord- ‘ing to the rise or fall of the sewage in the carrier. It was.there- fore decided, in order to bring the installation into line with ordinary working conditions, to introduce a flow regulator. This regulator was inserted ina brick pit between the main carrier and the tanks, and consisted of a conical valve actuated by a float, which, as soon as the sewage attempted to rise in the pit, raised XX. J. G. S. PURVIS. the float and closed the valve. This has been found to work admirably, and the rate of flow is now practically constant. With regard to the controlling gear for regulating the distribu- tion of the etfluent from the cultivation tank into the coal and coke filters, the whole thing depends on the filling of each tank in succession. When one tank fills it*shuts off the supply to itself, starts the next one in sequence to fill, and starts the next one behind it to empty. This is brought about in the following manner:—The sewage after rising up through the cultivation tank passes over a weir and is collected in a distributing channel. The external wall of this channel is provided with four cast iron traps, one to each tank. Hach contact tank is provided with an air bell placed at such a level that just at that moment when the tank is full, air is forced out of the bell, locks the trap and shuts off the supply. Hach contact tank is also provided with a trapped syphon standing on the floor and discharging through the wall into a channel common to all. A cistern built into the external wall of each tank, contains a. float arm actuating two valves—one connected to the bell of that particular outgoing syphon to which the cistern belongs, and the other connected to the trapped inlet of the next tank in sequence. Each cistern is connected to the next tank in sequence by a pipe which conveys the overflow when the said tank is full. When a tank is filling, the one behind it is standing full and the one in front of it is standing empty. When full, air is forced out of the air bell, locks the trapped inlet and stops any further supply as has already been stated. Atthesame time sewage overflows into the cistern of the tank behind it, raises the float arms, releases the air from the trapped outgoing syphon, causing its discharge, and also releases the trapped inlet to the next tank in sequence causing it to start filling, and so on without ceasing. The out- going syphons are regulated so that the rate of discharge can be controlled to anything predetermined. In concluding this short review, seeing that the results from the septic tank and the Scott-Moncrieff systems as laid down here NOTES ON THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE. XXI. are practically the same, the question naturally arrises. Is this the best we can do? or are any of the other too numerous to mention processes in vogue likely to give a better result? To answer such a question it must be borne in mind that both of these systems are primarily anaerobic, and the much argued question as to whether the preliminary breaking up of the solids and preparation for the final oxidation is necessarily anaerobic has not yet been settled. From the investigations of Dr. Clowes at Crossness, on a 13 feet deep coke bed and on the coarse grain bed at Sutton—both of which receive the sewage intermittently, the action upon the organic matter retained in it, was found to be purely aerobic, and the effluents have frequently reached the nitrifying stage. It there- fore appears to the writer that apart from any question of expediency, equal results can be attained by either. In practice, however, the use of a tank, be it septic tank or a Scott-Moncrieff; has much to recommend it. In the first place such a tank as either of the foregoing is able to contend with any rush of sewage and the nature of such incom- ing sewage can be to a certain extent somewhat equalised, and a smoothing influence exerted on the sewage leaving the tank, which of itself is most important. Then again no screening is necessary as in the case of the coarse grain filter, where if not screened most of the solids remain on the surface. For these reasons a_ pre- liminary tank seems to be desirable, nor is it essential that such tank should be covered in, since air and light are sufliciently excluded naturally, to enable the anaerobic organisms to perform their functions; but the possibility of nuisance arising from an open tank is another question which can only be settled by time and experience. From the writer’s acquaintance with open tanks or carriers containing sewage the conviction is forced upon him that they are not above suspicion. Through the courtesy of Mr. W. M. Hamlet, Government Analyst, I am able to give you the percentage of purification XXII. J. G. 5S. PURVAS: effected by the septic tank installation at Rookwood Asylum. The results are based upon the chemical analyses of average samples of crude sewage, and of average samples of effluents, each taken at the same hour on the same day. Dates. By the amount of oxygen | consumed in four hours. By the difference in the albn- | minoid ammonias in both | effluent and crude. 24th February, 1900 80 | 83 | 16th March, 1900 85 | 83 25th Apri), 1900 75 | 89 : Mean 82 | | Finally, the writer’s object in placing this short paper before this Society is rather to promote discussion than to impart know- ledge; also in the hope that the lay mind will be solaced by the fact that the Metropolitan Board are fully alive to the importance of this matter, and that a proper solution of the sewage problem, such as they are endeavouring to obtain is the best means of con- serving the public health. STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. XXIII. THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. By W. H. WARREN, M. Inst.C.E., M. Am. Soc. C.E., Challis Professor of Engineering, University of Sydney. [Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 18, 1901. | THE tests described in this paper, on concrete subjected to com- pression, transverse, and tensile stresses have extended over several years, and it was thought desirable to publish them for the benefit of those who are engaged in the construction of works in which this material is used. It is hardly necessary to point out that we require to know the resistances of concrete when subjected to the stresses above mentioned, in designing concrete columns, walls, arches, and foundations. Compressive strength of concrete.—It is usual to determine the compressive strength of concrete by subjecting cubes of the material to a compressive stress in the testing machine. The strength of a cube is greater than that ofa square prism, the height of which is greater than the sides of the cube, and less than that of a prism the height of which is less than the side of the cube. In a paper on the Strength of Brickwork read before the Society in December 1900, the results were given of some experiments on the compressive strength of slabs and prisms of cement and lime mortar in which the sectional area was the same in each test, but the height varied from 4 an inch to 12 inches. Professor Bauschinger has expressed the compressive strength of prisms of different heights of the same sectional area as follows: J o=a+ B ‘ where o denotes the compressive strength, f the sectional area, / the height of the prism, a and £ constants to be determined by experiment. For prisms of dissimilar cross sections, he proposed the following formula :— XXIV. W. Il. WARREN. Jf\ SEF by wD. where w is the circumference of the cross section. In order to ascertain the strength of concrete cubes of various proportions of cement, sand, and stone, it is necessary to prepare and test the specimens under conditions which are maintained as nearly uniform as possible throughout. Great care should be taken in the determination of the proportions of the various materials forming the concrete, and the quantity of water, so that every cube tested has actually the composition intended. This is accomplished by using the same cement throughout, also the same sand in which the sizes of the grains are restricted by two sieves of definite sizes, as for instance, passing the sand through a sieve of 400 meshes per square inch, and catching it on one of 900 meshes per square inch. The broken stone used should be separated out into about three or four sizes by means of suitable screens or sieves and these after- wards mixed in the proportions intended. The quantity of water necessary should be separately determined for each kind of con- crete, and this should be weighed out and mixed, when preparing the specimens in the correct proportion previously determined. The mixing should preferably be performed in a machine for the sake of better securing uniformity. The concrete should be filled into metal moulds having plane and parallel faces, and carefully rammed—here also a machine similar to the Bohme hammer apparatus or lever press would be advantageous. The writer generally leaves the cubes in the moulds for 21 hours covered with damp cloths, and 3 hours out of the moulds before placing them in water. The testing in a modern testing machine is comparatively a simple matter if the specimens have been accurately prepared, having parallel plane surfaces between the compression plates of the machine, the bottom one of which is provided with a ball bearing. The load is gradually increased until the specimen shews some signs of yielding, such asa hair crack; the load at this point STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. XXV,. is noted, and afterwards increased until fracture occurs. The fractured cube has the form of a pyramid, the base of which is that of the cube, and nearly equal to it in height, the four corners of the cube are sheared away. — The following experiments were made by the writer on specimens 6 inch by 6 inch by 6 inch, the concrete was mixed and filled into the moulds by hand; the broken stone and the gravel used were separated into three sizes by means of screens, between 2 inch and 1 inch, between 1 inch and 3 inch, and between 3 inch and } inch, these were then mixed together in the proportion of 5:2:1, and the volume of the voids carefully measured. It was found that the proportion of the voids in the broken stone was 39°57 and in the gravel 31:6, so that sand was added to fill the voids in each case, and the cement was added in the proportion of | part of cement to 6, 8 and 10 of stone. The proportions of cement and sand entering into the composition of the mortars in the various concretes was therefore nearly as follows :— Broken stone concrete | to 2°4, 1 to 3:2, and 1 to 4 Gravel concrete 1 to 1:9, 1 to 2°5, and 1 to 3. The gravel and blue metal (Basalt) was found to be practically non absorbent, but the sandstone absorbed 2:9 of water, so that more water was necessary to make sandstone concrete than in the case of gravel or blue metal. The results obtained by testing these cubes at 7 days, 28 days, and 84 days are recorded in the Table Series I. and plotted in figs. 1 to 3 inclusive. A series of compressive tests were also made on cubes of con- crete 12 inches by 12 inches by 12 inches prepared by ordinary workmen from concrete mixed in the usual way on the Sewerage Works, Arncliffe, near Sydney, and filled into timber moulds under instructions received from the Engineer-in-Chief for Sewerage Construction, Mr. J. Davis, M. Inst. c.E. The specimens were pre- served in moist soil until they had reached the age required, then sent in carts to the Engineering Laboratory where they were tested. These specimens represent concrete made in the ordinary way, and were more or less rough, so that the uniformity so Migs. 22 : : : 20 aa i 18 Siar aa bo cas eases cates eeeaTa rH a te Stel Reed pase erm cH + pra fumeg bowen bepmapeuo ac cer jes 16 : FErEEE [CE EEE Ee EEE A reat BRennCrEnaeT Fe EEE ee eee bee Peet Ul H ait HEHEHE +4-4+ eheaun Li} a SH He : : caeesesen is — SCE ert 12 abscess ee eae PEEEEEEH Esse 10 Eee iueeHe sae ne Prsdieceavecsstenssrit ee sHeiiie 5 iw wtusee! ch enna HH 6 Hi Hitt 4 iam et : A, Es posassanasaze jeueces! o =. ee earn ee ceeaanees sSESGuEe Gevege evoue cee! eo eereaee H HH T AMES SEEERSSEGE oH SUS EgoeEEUEESEGEEE oH Sere SpGEscoerscuanssescaas esses ese ae PoEEEEESEG ED + 5 ize t eeaeras HH Hs a 0 nae peenuees! roar ped ceEs: mecee: 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 days Abscisse = Age in days. Ordinates = Crushing force in 100 Ibs. per square inch. (Mean of two tests.) Biuestone with bluestone dust 9 Nepean River sand ~—~--— y Sydney white sand -------- Fig. 2. rt Sao fa Bi S | Z aii Por a eel iet fan ee es 58s Hua a a 22 n HEH HPT cred H Ba a iH | a a He eH aicrerezed ; eeteecs E rH cert a ae eactae i = 18 SHEE ; coiuall inane: He EELS Reaueeeseet 16 : i rope ret tt fetta “Ft rT T1] 3 He + L 14 ray i us E i a ise f + 12 i n an 10 : = 8 6 : 4 2 4 XO ; naka’ caren en Mane moh Tae Ce eC a IMA OHA OA SATOLAAN TOP ARAT Ae Ne Ae o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 days Abscisse = Agein days. Ordinates = Crushing force in 100 tbs. per square inch. (Mean of two tests.) Nepean River gravel with bluestone dust 9 BS Nepean River sand - —-—— 4s a Sydney white sand -------- Abscisse = Age in days. Sandstone with bluestone dust STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. XXVII, Hie. 3: H sae =f a eErene! +t S <5 SE ee : ae poorer eel pessrersstaes! ee gesate= iaammaauausaese: : ese Eeasovecuenroseasts fH mbegsces: HHH : — 1-4 Pt Baag +t 7, fee TTT REE : 5 BuIEG! : Pees eect Hf 5 Seeuaueusnen! tet IESE Coes ecvateceatinne Bee ert ee Peet i ct tt t a EEE Ht fess eeveesseed barrages ree fA euCetsentven sono eae = BESSeESEEuass! seuunSu eG HOSEEBESERBE! a EEE Heritage =m er n 1 are Hee t sesasanitesaee He HH gun SuguugEUEd Euuea as! ees ions peeeaeeeaa eae H Benes eresestenese peo pepper ERCee eects za Bet ere +H Scenes fire a He Hee esesessesSefeseed iazecss Et iistristessrtsasasttes : iat agratcateesesetattace 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 days Ordinates = Crushing force in 100 tbs. per square inch. (Mean of two tests.) 9 Nepean River sand —-—-— »» Sydney white sand -------- necessary for accurate results could not be obtained, the results are probably less than the actual strength of the concrete in the sewerage works at the age tested; they are recorded in the Table Series IJ., but the results have not been plotted as they were only tested at two ages. A third series of tests were made on similar concrete prepared in a similar manner but filled into accurately made metal moulds forming cubes 6 inch by 6 inch by 6 inch, the results of these tests may be taken as representing fairly accurately the strength of concrete in the sewerage works, they are recorded in Table Series III., and plotted in figs. 4 to 8 inclusive, but they are in no sense laboratory tests as the concrete was made by ordinary workmen. Compression tests were also made on concrete prisms 3 feet high by 12 inch by 12 inch made as in Series II., the results of which are recorded in Table Series IV. No DO. AUUE . W. H. WARREN. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE.—Szexrizs III. Fig. 4. feet sree ete eee ene pee SeeEH EEE : HEL : +H rt EHH + eae : Fl Seretaiii 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 ~—-280 320 360 days Abscisse = Age in days. Ordinates = Crushing force in tbs. per square inch. (Mean of two tests.) Cement, ‘Tripod brand’; Nepean sand; bluestone, 2 inch gauge. Dniiee fy. Baul n t ttt t nan t itr nas ica He caer aEeEecsaeieeeecesieieeerecmseieegens Breeee =r : ecoEEUa os UineU Eceszpersseereeear= 4 i ans me ; + pr aeape coeeaaoeey f “4 i +t Hi peepee! SoceeEe Ht EEE E SnTESHneE (or aH ae 3 n PePoeREEE ERE eect +H te Sasi Sepia ne : gu UTrertietrtpeeaeansat ait EES SEES EES EE | HY Barwa etesel Es aa eaaaat ae pEReeaseed 4 Be an Ears cA + rE aiouna poses ocean bnesenenes tt + EReee Frenare He = ce, ed peseedansattoneaeeesoataties # Batre Beseabesedee Fs Seineseonenne an a ae . i Ht ii ; ; ae + 7 Benes - zp Fh + oi i. 4 Ef f Byceeesegeces rth F ESyEEeE Z a: gamer + + meat # aapseeseyese Ht pees neeusbeseaces Seer eae +} ~ 447) iT LL} +} oi ab sue pune pEEnE! sor eas cae + ae oe i peceees pera sre sees peereaes FE ereriarer gevercrer tee eines parities rm oo Ht SI i oH Ht z 4 aie \ 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 days Abscisse = Age in days. Ordinates = Crushing force in lbs. per square inch. (Mean of two tests.) Cement, ‘Tripod brand’; Nepean sand; sandstone 23 inch gauge. 24 22 0 0 40 STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. XXIX. Fig. 6. 80 120 1€0 200 240 280 320 360 days Abscisse = Age in days. Ordinates = Crushing force in Ibs. per square inch. (Mean of two tests ) Cement, ‘Tripod brand’; Nepean sand; sandstone 2 inch gauge. 12 ; 10 0 0 Ine. 7. Ga Ec: 40 80 HE tt cestnee Tae maul t t n z z : eee : aipnite i { i 120 1(6 206 240 280 320 360 days Abscisse = Age in days. Ordinates = Crushing force in 100 lbs. per sq. inch. Cement, ‘Tripod brand’; Nepean sand; pebbles 2} inch gauge, XXX. W. H. WARREN. Fig. &. tr a +E 1 esate | | Hit 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 days Abscisse = Age in days. Ordinates = Crushing force in 100 Ibs. per sq. inch. Cement, ‘T'ripod brand’; Nepean sand ; screenings; bluestone 13 inch gauge. Transverse strength of concrete.—In making transverse tests of concrete, the beams were accurately supported on the end bearings and loaded in the centre, so that the beam was maintained in a horizontal position, having the three lines of contact of the end supports and central edge where the load was applied in true parallel planes. The beams were 3 feet long, 12 inches wide, and 12 inches deep, prepared by ordinary workmen by filling timber moulds in a similar manner to that described for the concrete cubes in Series LI. The beams were placed upon supports in the testing machine, 27 inches centre to centre and loaded in the centre. The results of these tests are recorded in Series V., and the modulus of rupture was calculated from the following formula :— dans (2) bd? . Where I= =the modulus of rupture = the breaking load applied at the centre w’ =the weight of the beam between the centres of supports b =the breadth d =the depth / =the span STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. XXXI, The same concrete described in the Tensile strength of concrete. foregoing tests was tested in tension: large size briquettes were prepared in which the proportions were the same as in the standard English and American briquettes used in cement testing, but the smallest section was 10 inches by 10 inches =100 square inches. The accurate preparation of such large specimens by ordinary workmen in timber moulds, and the subsequent testing in the machine, was by no means an easy matter, and although they were tested carefully the results cannot be looked upon as representing the true tensile strength of the concrete in the work, as the nature of the process used in making the specimens must have rendered the results lower than would have been obtained on specimens prepared in the laboratory; they are recorded in Table Series VII. Conclusions on the compressive strength of concrete.—¥Fig. 1 Series I., shows the compressive strength of bluestone concrete of three proportions with three kinds of sand, from which it is clear that bluestone dust is superior to either Nepean River sand or Sydney white sand, also the Sydney white sand comes out a little better than the river sand in this concrete, it will be observed that there is a fall in strength from 30 to 80 days, which would probably rise again at a later period, but the tests were not carried beyond the ages shown. Fig. 2, Series I., shows the compressive strength of Nepean River gravel concrete of the same three proportions and the same three kinds of sand; here the Sydney white sand is best for the 6 to 1 and 8 to 1 concrete, but the bluestone dust is best in the 10 to 1 concrete, and in every case the Sydney white sand is better than the Nepean River sand. Fig. 3, Series I., shows the compressive strength of sandstone concrete of the same three proportions, mixed with the same three sands, from which it will be seen that the effect of the sand is less than in Figs. 1 and 2, being about equal in the 6 to 1, and difter- ing slightly in the others. a is iat * A series of tensile tests extending over 12 months, of the same XXXII. W. H. WARREN. cement mixed in the proportion of one part of cement to three of sand, showed that Nepean River sand was about the same strength as the Sydney white sand. In this series of compressive tests recorded in tables and plotted in Figs. 1, 2, and 3, the mixing of the concrete in the proportions stated, the preparation of the cubes, and all the conditions of testing which could influence the results have been carefully attended to, so that they may be considered as laboratory tests. The cement used, however, is inferior to some of the best known brands to-day, which accounts for the results being rather low throughout. Series II. were not plotted as they were only tested at two ages, but Series IJI., made from practically the same concrete, have been plotted in Figs. 4 to 8 inclusive. The concrete in both Series II. and III. was not made as carefully as in a laboratory, which has been already explained. It will be observed that the cement used was not the same throughout. Fig. 4 shows the results of testing bluestone concrete 2 inch gauge and less, in which the proportions 1-2-5 and 1-2-6 give about the same strength in compression, whereas 1-2-4 is con- siderably lower, here the stronger concrete appears to be due to the greater proportion of stone to mortar. In the remaining curves 1-3-4, 1-3-5, and 1-3-6 the proportions of mortar to stone appears to make very little difference. In tests Nos. 1 to 6, Series II., the bluestone is 13 gauge and the cement is different, the size of the cubes is 12 inches instead of 6, but in other respects the concrete is similar to that in Series III. recorded in Fig. 4, here also 1-2-5 is shghtly better than 1-2-4, and 1-2-4 than 1-2-6, again 1-3-5 is better than 1-3-4 or 1-3-6. Fig. 5, Series I1J., shows the compressive strength of sandstone concrete 24 gauge, and Nos. 7 to 12, Series II., show also the strength of similar concrete in which the cement and the size of the cubes is different, but in other respects the conditions appear to be similar, excepting that the 12 inches by 12 inches cubes STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. XXXIII. were not made as carefully as the 6 inches by 6 inches. In Series II. the 1-2-6 concrete is better than 1-2-5 or 1-2-4, whereas in Series III. the 1-2-4 is better than either of the two others. The 1-3-4 is best in both series. Fig. 6, Series III., and Nos. 13 to 18, Series II., show the com- pressive strength of sandstone concrete 2 inches gauge; here also the cements are not the same. The results show in both series that 1-2-6 concrete is the best, also compared age for age, as far as it is possible to make this comparison, since Series II., was not continued beyond 102 days, the same results are seen. In Fig. 6 the 1-3-4 concrete appears the best, and the diagram checks fairly well at 100 days with the results recorded in tests Nos. 13 to 18, Series II. Fig. 7, Series III. and Nos. 19 to 24, Series II., do not agree at all, and the apparent differences in the conditions of the tests are not sufficient to account for the difference in the results. Fig. 8, Series II., and Nos. 25 to 33 inclusive, do not represent concrete sufficiently similar to compare one with the other as in the foregoing cases. In the tests of concrete prisms Series IV., the bluestone was broken to 14 inch gauge, and the results Nos, 1 to 6 cannot be compared with Figs. 4 and 8, Series III., they are much more comparable with Nos. 1 to 6, Series II., from which it will be seen that Nos. 1 and 2 agree fairly well in giving the compressive strength from 87 to 100 tons per square foot, but Nos. 4, 5, and 6 do not agree ; the remaining results are also irregular. Conclusions on the transverse tests.—The results of these tests are recorded in the Table Series V., and any irregularity is due to the preparation of the concrete; the method of finishing the specimens in the moulds with true surfaces could not affect the results in transverse, as in the compressive tests. The greatest value of the modulus of rupture obtained was 312 pounds per square inch. 2 Conclusions on tensile tests.—F rom the nature of these tests and methods adopted, the results can only be regarded as a rough indication of the tensile strength of concrete, which is in every case below the real tensile strength. 3—Sept. 18, 1901. Series I—COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE CUBKS, © | D.scription of concrete. 6 inches by 6 inches. Propor- tion of a ‘cement. | gauging, leube foot, 7 day8| 28 ‘days 1|Blue metal sizes} 6-1] 5°55 148 | 833] 1139 Ae len eeware le (Cadi 55 S » |925] 1555 3|mixedin propor-| 8-1] 5°54 » |@22| 806 4\tion of 5:2:l with) ,, . » |0271] 1189 5|39°44% of blue-|/ 10-1) 5°31 ,, | 9001) 750 6|stone dust. S95 ” ,» |o6l;| 639 ”|Biue metal sizes} 6-1] 494 | 144 | 750) 1111 siA. B. and C.,|_,, 0 » | 889} 1389 g|mixedi inpropor-| 8-1] 4°91 Deen F777 10) tion of 5:2:1 with] _,, 2 » | 084) 833 11/389°449%4 Nepean|10-1] 4°66 » etoile 583 12'River sand. So As Ay lerArhe) | 15355) 13|Blue metalsizes| 6-1) 5:18 144 | 833] 1194 14)A. B. and C., ” 2” ” 611) 1000 15|mixedin propor-| 8-1) 5°U 5 |86L| 533 16| tion of 5:2:1 with 2” 99 ” 027 a7 17|39°44% Sydney} 10-1) 4°92 » |444) 388 18| white sand. » bb » | 333] 444 19|Nepean River) 6-1) 4°89 150 |925| 611 20\gravel, sizes D.|_ ,, 30 » | 720} 1083 91\E. F. mixed in| 8-1] 441] ,, |555| 555 22|proportions of| ,, bp » 2 boo 23/5:2:1 with 31°62%) 10-1) 4°18 av0N= 277 24| bluestone dust. 5 oF pe leidal 250 25|Nepean River) 6-1) 411 | 150 |972) 1111 26\eravel, sizes D.|_ ; a oe | AON 1583 27\E. F. mixed in| 8-1| 406 yy OLE OH 28|proportions of| » » » | 722) 1055 29|/5:2:1 with 31°62%| 10-1) 3:97 » |416| 750 30|Nepean R.sand,| _,, 9 a Woe i \31;Nepean River| 6-1] 439) 148 |583) ... 32/gravel sizes D.| » 9 » |000| 880 I33/E. F., mixed in| 8-1] 4°19 » |639| 694 34|)proportions of} 5, » » |472] 750 35/5:2:1 with 31°62%| 10-1] 410) .,, |... | 889 36|Sydney w.sand.| >, hs 7 SSo)lmesas 37\Broken sand-| 6-1] 842 | 136 |722| 1389 38\stone sizes G.| >» 5 » |2861}) 1028 39|H. I., mixed in, 8-1] 7:94 » |472| 694 40|proportions of| 3, 5 ee Son 41|5:2:1 with 39°44%] 10-1) 7:91 SN 2G) 500 42\bluestone dust. » ” soe | HGH e722 43 Broken sand-| 6-1] 7°78 | 184 |777| 1416 44'stone sizes G.| >» »» » | 700} 1194 45|H. I., mixed in| 8-1] 7°84 4 Woolly Sell 46 proportions of| » ” PS 77/7 47|5:2:1 with 39-44% 1O—1) 7-80 5 AA 2a OIL 48 Nepean R.sand.| > ” » |3861| 694 49' Broken sand-| 6—-1| 7°84 | 134 |666/ 1111 5Oistone, sizes G.| 5 % >» | 900) 1250 51/H.I., mixed in| 8-1) 7°89 » |444) 972 52 proportions of| 5 2 » |416] 861 53 5:2:1 with 89°44%| 10-1] 7°85 » |277| 666 54 Sydney w. sand.| 5, ” » | 200) ee Percent. |Weight of of water | concrete | 84 days old. 1083 1166 r se 'Force required to crack the Force required to crush the cube in lbs. per sq. in. cube in lbs. per sq. in. on aavael old, 1277 14:14: 1222 1083 1083 1028 1472 1382 94:4 972 611 666 1166 1222 889 833 639 666 1388 1472 Tae 1305 9 44, 972 1500 1277 972 uh) 611 — a jy (dé 11t1 1388 833 722 527 694. SE 1027 916 666 639 639 1166 1111 805 861 694. 639 1027 94-4 666 666 500 500 28 days old. 2277 2305 1833 1916 1361 1194. 1750 1694 1166 1333 889 1888 1633 1166 1166 888 1166 1722 1750 1555 1500 1333 1000 1527 Mer 1194 1333 925 833 2083 1639 1555 1194 1139 1750 1611 1250 1305 1222 1194 liga 1611 1277 1139 861 944. 1611 1666 1277 1305 1028 1000 750 84 days old, 1555 1944. 1555 1611 1222 1416 1655 1750 1166 944, 833 833 1694 1555 1333 1277 944. 1194. 2083 2083 1888 1833 1388 1722 1583 1847 1639 1361 1217 1166 2277 2139 1472 dW el 1139 |. 1166 1722 1694. 1639 1527 1388 1138 1611 Lia 1388 1416 1027 1083 1750 1611 1250 1277 1083 1083 v4 2 ners Gener ON bo bo LO NO NO OS NS ceealll seal seal seelll cael mee =) ote eg Ny Rene Sea nk ae noe bs ~J STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. XXXV. Series II.—COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE CUBES, Description. Cement, Red Cross brand. Sand, Nepean. Stone, bluestone, 14 inch gauge and downwards. Cement, Red Cross brand. Sand, Nepean. Stone, sandstone, 21 inch gauge and downwards. Cement, Globe brand. Sand, Nepean. Stone, sandstone, 2inch gange and downwards. Cement, Red Cross brand. Sand, Nepean Stone, pebbles 25 inch gauge and downwards. Cement, Red Cross brand, Sand, Nepean. Stone, bluestone, 14 inch gauge and downwards. Cement, Globe brand. Toppings. Stone, bluestone, 134 inch gauge and downwards. Cement, Globe brand. Sand, Nepean. poe peek en | eee | pote | eee 12 inch by 12 inch. Mean of Three Tests. Proportions used in gauging. Water. 0:822 0°872 1:047 1:037 0-965 0-708 0°867 0919 0°954 0°984. 1/116 1179 0°893 0923 0:968 1059 1:040 17145 0°782 0°744 0:837 0 964: 0'964 1:049 0°896 0912 0:983 0°396 1:021 1:091 Age | in Days. ae 38 38 39 39 38 30 42 39 39 38 38 40 Cracked, | Crushed, tous | tons square per square oot. | foot. 80°1 | 84°8 89'9 | 93°9 65:9 | 66:3 309 | 33:0 51:1 | 51°8 32°6 | 388 60° | 72:2 61:8 | 70°1 83:0 | 87:8 44-7 | 48°3 495 | 54-1 43°9 | 45°3 35°6 | 45°5 26:9 | 29°8 28°83 38°4 20:0 | 21°8 30°6 | 36:0 19:9 | 20°4 58:9 | 80°3 66°4 85:0 95'4 |100°0 58°6 | 62:5 48°1 | 60°6 50°4 | 58°5 53°3 | 58°5 38°3 | 389 29°3 | 29°5 24-0 | 25°0 22°9 | 22:7 20:0 | 208 30°5 | 32-2 NG palc3 22°0 | 22°7 | 57:0 | 579 70°0 | 705 39°5 | 39°8 41°0 | 41°3 30:0 | 30°7 46°75 | 47:0 Cracked, tons Crushed, tous in Days. |Persquare per square foot, foot. 93-1 | 93:6 99:0 |100-0 65:8 | 66-7 538 | 544 788 | 796 56-5 | 57°6 79-1 | 81-9 77-0 | 79-0 84-3 | 93-6 568 | 58°3 50:5 | 53°6 526 | 549 65:9 | 686 47:0 | 49°5 628 | 69-4 39:2 | 40-9 BG || BX. 40°8 | 41:5 99:5 |100:0 857 | 863 983. |L0U‘0 57-4 | 584 61-8 | 62-9 61:6 | 63:6 73:8 | 758 | 60:6 | 61:2: 57:9 | 60:3 48°7 | 52-2 39-1 | 40-6 | 34:3 | 34-7 | 51:9 | 40°1 44-0 | 45°6 41:0 | 41:8 XXXVI. W. H. WARREN. Series IIL—COMPRESSION TESTS OF CONCRETE CUBES, 6 inches by 6 inches. Mean of Two Tests. Proportions used | Force required to crush| Force required to crush in gauging. tons per square foot. tbs. per square inch. Description. me) 2 ; Pehl 2 92 days | 181 days | 365 days | 92days | 181 days | 365 days SIs PS 2 old. old. old, old, |) oles old. SO LP | Cement, Tripod |1/2]...;4| 0°910] 75:98 | 84°62 |122°75 |1181°9 1316-0 |1999-7 brand. 1/2)]...,5] 0°910| 98-50 |122-77 |142°80 |1533-0 |1908°1 |2221°5 Sand, Nepean. 1] 2/|...;6] 1:010; 90°89 |181°83 |140°70 |1413°9 |2047°9 |2188 9 Stone, bluestone /1/3].|4} 1:015| 60°98! 75°22} 93°70| 948°6 |1170:0 |1202-1 2 inch gauge and} 1/3]...,/5| 1:015| 53:23] 74:55 | 77:30| 829°2 1170-0 |1457°6 downwards. 1|3 6| 1:015| 70°59) 76°88 | 86°70 |1098°6 1196-0 |1343°5 Cement, Tripod | 1] 2]...;/4] 1:000|103°61 |128:°30 |149°3 |1611-°8 1996-0 ,2822°3 brand. 1|2}...)5| 1:000; 99°55 |123°97 |109-00 |1548°6 |1928°5 |1695:2 Sand, Nepean. iL) 2 6) 1:000 83°84 |116°43 | L09°00 |1804-2 1811 5 |1695°2 Stone, sandstone |1|3 4.| 1°250| 83°30| 99°33 |114°70 |1295°8 |154.5°5 |1784°4. 23 inch gauge/1/3 5| 1:250| 60°80| 74°37] 80°95 | 945°8 1157-0 1259-0 and downwards. 1| 38 6| 1°500| 52°94} 72°05| 77°85 | 828°6 |1121:0 1211°8 Cement, Tripod |1|2]...;4] 1:000| 75°27 | 97 23 |116°85 |1205°6 |154:7'5 |1817:0 brand. 1/2)...)5] 1:000| 7491 |L08 64 )127-°70 |1165°3 |1691°5 |1986-0 Sand, Nepean. 1/2/...)6! 1:000| 94°11 1107-05 1156°10 |14638°9 |1662°5 |2427-0 Stone, sandstone /1/3/...)4/ 1:250| 71:25} 77°45 |117°19 |1108°5 |1205:0 |1821°5 2 inch gauge and/ 1 | 3/]...)5| 1:250}. 69-91} 80°71 | 67°70 |1087°5 |1255°5 |1052°8 downwards. 1}3 6) 1:500| 6433 92°55 | 85°70 |1000°7 | 1440-0 }13833:3 Cement, Tripod |1/2)...)4) 0°965| 57°59 | 70°62] 86°40 | 895°8 |1098°5 |13844-1 brand. 1] 2}...}5} 1:002 |104°23 '124°99 |159-55 |1622°2 |2255-0 |2482-1 Sand, Nepean. 1|2)...)6} 1:100| 38°03 36°65] 56°40) 591°6 | 709:0| 87771 Stone, pebbles, 23} 1/3...)4) 1°208| 42:14) 4495] 54:95} 655°5| 699 0} 8849 inch gauge and|1|3 5| 1:°337| 83°94) 32°76 | 48°45 | 527°0| 503 9| 753°8 downwards. 1|.8].../6| 1°484] 22°45 | 21°60) 31°85| 349°3| 385°0} 4955 Cement, Tripod |1|2|1/4)| 1:040} 5401 | 62°41} 8950/ 840°3| 971-0 |1392°3 brand. 1|2/2|4! 1°250) 58°48) 62°74 |102°35 | 909°7 | 984-0 |1591°6 Sand, Nepean. 1/2/8)4'! 1:400} 60°18} 55°80 | 96°40 | 986:1| 866°0 |1429°3 Stone, bluestone |/1/3/1/4) 1:029; 91:96) 75:27 |129°00 /1430°6 |1184.0 |2006°9 13 inch gauge |1/3|2|4| 1:156) 72:94] 74:11 |107-50 1134-7 |1153-0 |1672:°2 and downwards./1/3/3)> 4) 1368] 4486) 72°83| 71°55 | 697-9 1144-0 |1113°4 Cement, Tripod |1 | 2 71°39 | 65°22 | 88°40 /1110°5 |1015°'5 |1375°0 brand. 1/31. 79°02 | 58°35 | 98°55 |1228°8 | 908°0 |1532°6 Sand, Nenean. en Ale 52°54! 5487 | 47°85] 782:6' 853°0| 744-4 | STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. XXXVII, Series [V.—COMPRESSIVE TESTS OF CONCRETE COLUMNS, 3 feet long by 12 inches by 12 inches. Proportions used in gauging. ; one Description - — a ue ak ‘tons at tons u ° ey 5 ay s Ce- | sand. aed Stone.| Water. foot, | days. Poe wns fenced ment. —_— | | | | Cement, Globe brand 1:250| 142 |) 97| 50:0 | 50-7 1:400| 144 96] 480 | 48:3 1:029| 142 | 95} 64°0 | 64-9 13156) Al 92) Oi We O82 1:368| 140 | 92| 46°0 | 46°8 ee | ee Sand, Nepean. Stone, bluestone 14 inch gauge. | oe ; 0:608| 127 | 92) 63:0 | 63-7 0674; 126 | 92] 505 | 55°5 O-751)) 120°; 92)|, 32°0 | (32759 Cement, Tripod brand Sand, Nepean. Taler 2 A 2943. |) At 1133) 92100) 92-3 Sand, Nepean. Pi rint2 ule O7 9 Lae lle er Onin S70 Stone, bluestone, 15 gauge and down- 1 33 4,| 1:050| 186 |110| 52°0 | 52-1 wards. 1 3 5 | 1°245 185 |109| 33:0 | 33:1 1 3 6 | 1°243| 184 | 94) 19% | 20:8 | Cement, Globe brand} 11} 2 4 | 0°983| 128 |107| 445 | 45:1 Sand, Nepean. Tha) 2 5 | 1:079| 133 |106| 72°7 | 73°3 Stone, sandstone, 24 1 2 6 | 1:103 129 |108| 44°0 | 46°7 gauge and down-| 1 3 4.| 1:088| 127 1107} 540 | 548 wards. i 3 5 | 1°237| 130 1106| 37:0 | 87°5 1 3 6 | 1-310 132 |104) 46°0 | 46°9 Cement, Globe and| 1] 2 4 | 0-983| 184 |103| 52°5 | 53°0 Tripod brands. 1 2 5 | 1:127| 188 |102} 680 | 688 Sand, Nepean. eae 6 | 1210! 128 |102} 34:0 | 347 Stone, sandstone 2! 1 3 A iIGl9O Si = GBs l:O hols inch gauge and; 1 3 5 | 1:471| 129) 98). 28°0 | 29:3 downwards. Td 83 Gr e500) laa 99) Stine tek Cement, Tripod brand| 1 2 4:| 0:965| 1388 | 92) 51:0 | 51:9 Sand, Nepean. eee? 5 | 1-002| 141 | 92) 91-5 | 92-0 Stone, pebbles 23) 1] 2 6 | 1:000| 136 | 92] 345 | 35:0 inch and down-| 1 3. 4 | 1:203) 133 | 92) 24°7 | 29°7 wards. imiees 5 | 1-337. 142 | 92) 300 | 31-0 pens eee ales) Cha aero alyo2. Cement, Tripod brand) 1 2 4 |1:040} 146 98] 49°0 | 49°8 1 2 A, il 2 4, 1 3 4, 1 3 4, 1 3 4 1 2 1 3 i 4 WwW. H. WARREN, XXXVIII. OFL 616¢ FAG SFI ogcg¢ 6IT OST 009¢ 611 69T LI€9 CFI 006 F0GL GFL 8&2 0968 OFT 623 82S0T 9FT 686 60601 OFT o&& 99S¢T OFT LOT GL69 T&I 89T LIE9 T&T OST GEOG Ze1 TSL L99¢ 2@I SFL GEES ISI 2L1 §¢99 GET FIG 9808 PEL £06 8E9Z PET S91 €609 PET LEZ 0968 PSI 681 O0TZ PST I81 6089 hey fl T1z 8662 Gal 896 LPTOL Gai FST 9¢2¢ Trl L9G COTOT TPT 966 CGslT OvT 966 OO0eIT OFT ‘qour “bs “SUT TIT “sq 400 Jed “sq aaa Baeoieea ainjdnijo} siryuorg | ysIE A sn[upoW ¥6 76 iz) G6 96 96 66 OOT oot TOT TOL POL 26 66 0OT Oot TOT I0T *s£AUp UL aay 6IT 921 606 08 FST S21 86T S61 8h cS 671 681 FOG 621 | SPI 66 IIL 88 aia Sel PEL || S&T || GPL || TPT || 9LT | @hT || 991 LPT 102 Fel S6T ols G26 ‘your “Ds aed “sq arngdn.t jo sn[npo Ww PPP 0899 6F9Z PE6G 9089 L1¥9 SPPL 892 6986 GZOP SES¢ 8204 6292 9899 28&S 0986 “Sqr UT QUSIOA SULYVIIg 06T 0@T Tél SIT 8IT Zé ZI S&T c&l 8éT sia i 681 6rT SFT 9&T 9¢6T 96I "SqT JOOS aqno rad VUSTOM *sAup ies osy 958-0 968-0 668-0 a4 160-1 120-1 &85-0 616-0 v NAN aaa QI 6D ‘uveden ‘pug puviqd SsolM pey ‘yaeuleD SpIvAUMOP PUB esnes your §g ‘setqqed ‘auoyg uvoden “pusg SpivauMop puv esnes YOU Z ‘euoyspuvs ‘atT09g uveden ‘pues puviq eqopy ‘yueuweD SPICMUMOP puv e5uBVs Your &z ‘euoIspuS ‘am09g uvedeyy ‘purg SpIvMUMOP pus esnes Your 2Z ‘auoysontq ‘euo0yg uvoden ‘purg puviq ssorg pey ‘yueuLeD ‘mOTyd1IOSseq ‘s]S0,], OM, JO UBOT ‘sogour gt Aq sayour gt Aq 4e03 § “SMVAA ALANONOO AO SLSHUL ASUMASNVAL— ‘A slag puviq sqoTy “‘yuomeD pusiq sso1g pey ‘yuouteD puviq Sssorg pey ‘}UeULaD && 6& T& 0g 66 83 26 96 GS ¥S &@ 8G 16 02 61 Series VI.—COKE CONCRETE. 2 © Description. 12 inch by 12 inch by 48 inches ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto 9 inch by 9 inch by 48 inches ditto ditto OOT Hop one Proportions used in gauging. Ce- {Small Large ment. | coke. | coke. 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 i 3 3 1 3 3 1 3 3 1 4, 2 1 4, 2 1 4 2 Weight | Breaking per cube} weight footin 1bs] in lbs. 69 | 7772 67 788 1 65 7562 67 7168 69 7806 66 7840 73 41338 72 3481 75 4458 Modulus of rupture. 204 206 198 188 205 206 257 217 278 Series VII.—TENSILE TESTS OF CONCRETE BRIQUETTES. Mean of Three Tests. Breaking | load in lbs. per sq. inch. | 162°3 | 1025 1672 | 70°1 | 4.13 63°8 33-3 94:5 | 92°5 71-4 69-9 37-4 113°2 | Proportions used in gauging. Breaking No Description. Ee, ones Be aoe Sand. Seer Stone.| Water, | days. | oq. inch, | Cys. | 1 |Cement, Globe eh 4 | 0°943 | 66 | 116°9 | 94 |. 2 brand 1 2, 5 | 1:079| 65 | 59°6 | 190 3 | Sand, Nepean ee 2 6 | 1:063 | 64 | 42:2 | 190 4. | Stone, bluestone,| 1 3 4 | 1:050} 68 | 25°3 | 190 5 13 inch gauge Le *33 5 | 1245] 64 | 34°7 | 190 6 1 3 6 | 1243) 64 |} 345°9 | 190 7 | Cement, Globe TU |e 4 | 0°983| 64 | 28°6 | 183 ees: brand 1 2 5 1-079) 63 72:4) | 183 | 9 | Sand, Nepean eT 2 6 | 1:108| 68 | 50°8 | 183 10 ; Stone,sandstone| 1 3 4 | 1°088| 62 | 44°4 | 183 ; il 23 inch gauge| 1 3 5 | 1237] 61 | 39°7 | 185 12 and downwards| 1 3 6 | 1°310; 61 | 36°3 | 188 13 | Cement, Globe 1 2 4 | 0983) 5 64-0 | 183 14 brand q 2 ay | sea | aie} 75°4 | 182 15 | Sand, Nepean Ly 6 | 1:210| 58 | 68°7 | 182 16 | Stone, sandstone] 1 3) AS PINIO ROIs o9s9) E182 17 2 inch gauge; 1) 38 5 | 1471] 61 | 72-0 | 182 18 and downwards| 1 3 GUPES500) Gar Olea ase pao | Cement, Tripod | 1 | 2 4 | 0°965| 41 | 541 | 181 20 brand 1 2 5 | 1:002| 40) 65°5 | 18t 21 | Sand, Nepean 1 2 6 | 1:100! 86) 41°3 | 181 22 | Stone, pebbles 23) 1) 3 4 | 1:208/ 36 | 443 | 181 23 inch gaugeand| 1) 3 5 | 1387 | 36 | 27-5 | 181 24, downwards 1 3 6 | 1:°434| 34 | 366 | 181 25 | Cement, Tripod 1 2 1 4 | 1:040|} 59 | 10971 | 182 26 brand 1 2 2 4 | 1°250| 58 } 75:6 | 182 27 | Sand, Nepean Ei 2) 804 | 14001 55 | 90-7 182 28 | Stone, bluestone| 1 2 1 4 | 1:029| 59 | 94:2 | 181 29 1z inch gauge|; 1 2 2 4. | 1:156| 60 | 100°6 | 181 30 and downwards| 1 2 3 4 | 1°3868| 58 | 74°8 | 181 31 | Cement, Tripod| 1| 2 0:603 | 57 | 110°3 | 181 32 brand i 3 ... | 0674| 56 | 99:1 | 181 1 eZ .. | 0°751| 55! 72-0 | 181 | 33 | Sand, Nepean 102°3 860 88°9 | 104°2 ° 81°2 129°6 95°9 74:8 572 61°7 71:3 148°9 124°9 170°3 138°6 92°6 XL. J. HAYDON CARDEW, NOTES on toe UNDERGROUND WORKINGS or a COLLIERY IN THE WESTERN COALFIELDS oF NEW SOUTH WALES. By J. Haypon CaRrDEwW, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. {Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 18th, 1401. | As Iam led to believe that the question of coal-mining viewed from an Engineer’s standpoint has never come before this Society, I thought that a few notes, taken at different times in a Western Colliery, might be of some interest, especially in view of the vast importance of the industry to the welfare of the State, and the enormous development that must take place in the near future. The magnitude of the industry may be judged from the following figures :—The total output of coal from New South Wales for the year 1899 amounted to 4,597,028 tons valued at £1,325,799 and the total output since the year 1829 amounts to 85,969,136 tons valued at £35,647,004. The increased annual value of the coal mined for 1899 was £53,967, and for 1900 it was £343,112. The industry gives direct employment to 10,339 persons, and indirect employment to many others. It has been pointed out that so far we have touched only the fringe of our coal supplies, and that there is in view enough coal to last for a century even at the present large output; the enorm- ous and apparently inexhaustible wealth of our coal measures has, it may be feared, led to some prodigality in the method of exploit- ing them, but in this respect, as well as many others, we are trustees for posterity, and it is our duty to adopt those improved methods that the development of engineering has placed at our disposal in order to make an economical use of our great heritage. As the possession of coal means wealth and power to the country that possesses it, the man who can make a Ib. of coal go as far or UNDERGROUND WORKINGS OF A WESTERN COLLIERY. XLI, do as much work as 2 lbs. does at the present time, or who can get one ton of good round coal for every half ton now obtainable out of a seam by improved engineering methods, is a benefactor to his country. These notes were taken at the Zig Zag Colliery near Lithgow, the second of importance in the Western District, and as this colliery may be termed a typical one, the notes as to the general methods of working will apply to the whole district. The output of coal for the Western District for the year 1899 was 217,817 tons, valued at £45,455, or nearly one-twentieth of the whole output of the State for the same year, and it employed 403 persons. The output for the Zig Zag mine for the same year was 29,897 tons, employing 39 hands, but this year the output bids fair to reach 60 or 70,000 tons. This mine was originally the property of that enterprising and far-seeing man the late Mr. Thomas Sutcliffe Mort, who acquired the Jand partly by purchase from the Crown and partly from private landowners, but his lamented death occurred before he had an opportunity of practically testing its value. The property still remains in the hands of the family, and is leased to Mr. Thomas Saywell. Description of Seam.—The seam is known as the Lithgow Seam and is 11 feet thick, and consists of —(1) 15 inches of bandy coal on a floor of sandstone. (2) 5 feet 8 inches of compact coal. (3) 4 inch of blackstone. (4) Three plies or layers of top coal or tops, averaging in thickness 15 inches each and parted by penny bands of stone. Diagram A. The roof is of solid sandstone and very: strong. The seam dips about 2° 20’ in a direction about N. 60° E., but owing to the absence of any survey in the vertical plane the exact slope of the dip is unknown. The 5 feet 8 inches compact coal in the seam is of a good bituminous quality, its colour is a dull black, and it is excellently adapted for steam purposes; at present this is the only part of = yorgrkaip | HOY —— C7 —s Ss S222 ZAES 2228 IgZZZZ 2222 ZZZZ — ss ZZZZ IAZZZ BE288 BZZZ2Z re o) MO1Y{ uMOG — avosSpues pi/Os Comrie 40098 “0 ne — =e jP0)? Apueg SS \ ww S 7S NS 7 WASPS EOI SOO, LWVEQG CRW OOM K nx S WA 7% MSAN YWAYQWAALY YY 3 LEW IOONS ES, K SS CN XXRS MK SASAYAS N LOA x N W ON \ « \ \ \ 20 2PAWO NC VAN [P07 +f 2) ) N WEY N NN SN rN we’ SOON < «N WK Q \ WS ROU Cx9 Woxctex KEK Vy LA>FOdAPOUEARQA VN Ay SQ \YAQYKWaKX 4 SESS SOL VEN WG WS ASSEN MXR Wz WY KYW K&S WVARE SS N NS SUNNY JO pleg hs S SSAA S LYWNY KKLKO UNDERGROUND WORKINGS OF A WESTERN COLLIERY. XLIII. the seam that is mined, except in the levels and roadways where the coal is taken out to the full height of the seam. The tops are very friable, and if worked would produce a large quantity of slack, probably 507%, which with extra labour for picking out the partings and other impurities, renders them unpayable at present. Taking the seam all through the coal is remarkably clean; there are very few faults, and they are of an unimportant character; the latter consist of sandstone dykes but they seldom cause any throw in the seam; an exceptional case was one which I examined in No. 3 District, causing a downthrow of one foot. (Diagram B.) A few ‘rolls’ and ‘greybacks’ intrude into the seam, and occasionally make a good deal of dead work ; the former consist sometimes of hard and sometimes of soft stone, but in every case they make the coal very curly for some yards around them, the latter are designated ‘greybacks’ from their colour. (Diagram C.) The experience gained in working the seam so far proves the coal to be remarkably free from gas and no safety lamps are used in the pit. The coal in the seam is very easily worked probably due to its well defined planes of cleavage, which with a few deviations, run in a northerly direction, and a miner will get more coal in this colliery in one day than in many others, as the follow- ing figures demonstrate, and this is typical of the whole Western District. The average amount of coal raised in the State in 1899 per miner was 564 tons; in the Western District 656 tons ; and in the Zig Zag Mine 854 tons. The coal is mined by holing or undercutting and shearing, and falls away from the tops of its own weight, no blasting or explosives being necessary. An analysis of the coal taken from the upper part of the seam is as follows :— Water a a ae fon Pa Volatile hydrocarbon ae soe 280M) Fixed carbon i iM Por 00 Ash ee aah oe eels Sulphur .:. a < Oso Total sae ie ... 100-00 XLIV. J. HAYDON CARDEW,. The specific gravity is 1:°329. One pound of this coal will convert 12 pounds of water into steam. Coke making was tried some years ago but with unsatisfactory results, it requiring 3 tons of coal to make 1 ton of coke. The seam is reached by a vertical shaft, 14 feet by 7 feet and 200 feet deep, through which all coal is drawn, and there is a ventilating shaft 8 feet diameter, about 375 yards distant from the hauling shaft; the cages in the shaft are single deck and fitted to hold two skips. At the bottom of the shaft there is a Blake pump which is capable of lifting 40,000 gallons of water in 24 hours, and it generally runs about 4 hours a day to keep the mine dry. In the dip there is one of Evans’ hydraulic pumps connected to the Lithgow Water Supply, giving a head of 385 feet, or about 170 Ibs. pressure; the diameter of the supply cylinder is 3 inches, connected to a supply pipe 14 inch diameter, and the diameter of the pump cylinder is 5 inches with a discharge pipe 4 inches diameter and 418 yards long, the length of stroke is 12 inches, and the number of strokes is 26 per minute ; the pump is estimated to deliver 15,000 gallons a day, but two or three hours pumping a day is sufficient to keep the workings dry. It is a very handy pump for a low lift, and has few working parts to get out of order, it can be started at the surface or in the pit as convenient, The ventilation of the colliery is effected by a furnace at the bottom of the ventilating (or air) shaft, and the quantity of air circulating through the workings is 33,000 cubic feet per minute. System of Working.—The system of working adopted in this mine and generally through the Western District is that known as the ‘pillar’ and ‘stall.’ In the greater part of the broken mine the bords were driven 5 feet 8 inches high, or just the height of the compact coal, and from 4 to 5 yards wide with pillars of the same dimensions, later on the bords were widened first to 8 yards and then to 12 yards, but the size of the pillars was not increased. These dimensions for pillars are totally insufficient for the due preservation of the broken mine and render it very susceptible to ‘thrust’ and ‘creep’: the pressure of the roof splits up the pillars UNDERGROUND WORKINGS OF A WESTERN COLLIERY, XLV. and even if they are not altogether crushed, a large proportion is ground into small coal; if the floor is weak the downward pressure of the roof upon these small pillars causes the floor to rise between them as illustrated in diagram D., now however an improved system has been adopted in which 12-yard bords and pillars predominate. The ‘creep’ is to be much dreaded, and having once set in it spreads slowly but surely over the whole mine, no timbering can arrest its progress, roadways and airways require constant and costly repairs, and it is often so severe in its effects as to necessitate the abandonment of the district or mine. Much damage has already occurred owing to the deficiency of pillars, and over a large area pillars have been crushed and tops have fallen. In addition to the danger caused by narrow pillars there is the great loss of coal when the pillars are being removed; if the pillar is too small it cannot carry the pressure of the roof without having its sides and ends split and fractured, so that the working of the pillar results in an abnormal quantity of slack. In small pillars it is generally estimated that only 50% of the coal can be extracted, but in large pillars 807/ can generally be relied upon ; in narrow bords the proportion of waste is considerably more than in wider bords, so that the wider the bord and pillar the more economical is the working, this is seen in diagram E. This view as to the size of the pillars is corroborated by the Chief Inspector of Coal Mines in his report for the year 1899, where the following remarks occur :—‘‘The pillars Jeft in the bord and pillar system still continue to be made too small at some of the collieries in the first instance, having regard to a successful “broken” or second working and also to the extraction of the greatest possible percentage of coal from a given area. Itisa difficult matter to persuade some colliery managers of the unsuit- ability of the time honoured 8 yard bord and 8 yard pillar even under very much increased depth. The following condition bear- ing on this point is now included in the leases which are issued for working coal under Crown lands. The percentage of coal to XLVI. J. HAYDON CARDEW,. be left in the pillars after the bords, headings, and drives are constructed shall be as follows:—‘‘Where the depth from the surface does not exceed 200 feet 507, from 200 to 500 feet in the proportion of 50 to 60//, from 500 to 1,000 feet in the proportion of 60 to 70%, etc.” There is no doubt that in this mine and many others there are large areas of broken mine, the second working of which (that is the pillar working) cannot be successful owing to the extravagant method of robbing the pillars and working easy coal: in the older workings of the mine the proportion of pillars to the whole seam is only 37%. In the Zig Zag colliery the depth is from 200 to 300 feet, so that the new rules for the size of pillars are unwittingly very nearly the same as the Chief Inspector advises. Plan No. l shews a portion of the workings more particularly the dip, where PLAN No. 1. ! za UNDERGROUND WORKINGS OF A WESTERN COLLIERY. XLVII. coal-mining is now in progress, it also shews the engine plane, shafts, etc. Whether the pillar and stall system of working the coal in this colliery is the best or not is open to discussion, and a few descrip- tive remarks on the general methods of laying out underground workings may be of interest. First it may be stated that the great object to be kept in view in all coalmining is the obtaining of the greatest quantity of coal, in the best condition and with the least expenditure of money; and in order to attain that end the system to be adopted is a question of great importance, and one deserving the careful consideration of the Engineer. Generally speaking there are two systems, but they have modi- fications, one being known as the “Pillar and Stall” and the other as the “Long Wall,” both systems have their respective advocates, and their relative merits are a favourite subject of dispute, some- thing like the Telford and McAdam systems of roadmaking or the battle of the railway gauges, but they each have peculiar advan- tages under certain circumstances. In the pillar and stall system, excavations called bords are driven through the coal parallel to one another and at certain intervals apart, so as to leave a rib of coal between them to sup- port the roof; the excavations are made as wide as the strength of the roof will permit. At right angles to these, another set of excavations are driven parallel to one another and narrower than the bords; the sets of excavations crossing one another leaves in the seam rectangular blocks of coal called pillars. Now coal is divided into cubes by joints or cleavage planes running perpendicularly to one another, the most defined joint is called the ‘‘cleat” and its surface is called the “face” in opposition to the least defined plane which is called the ‘“‘back or end” and in pillar and stall working the bords are driven at right angles to the cleat so as to obtain the advantage of the pressure of the roof which tends to cleave the coal on the principal planes of cleavage, that is to say, the seam has a tendency to break up under the i XLVIITI. J. HAYDON CARDEW. action of the descending roof into slabs thus, see diagram F, and when the face is undercut or holed the pressure of the roof added to the weight of the unsupported coal tends to produce the fracture of the coal along the lines of cleavage and to save labour and hewing; thus enabling the produce of the seam to be obtained at the least possible cost. In long wall working the whole of the coal is removed ina long and continuous face, which is called the wall-face. A stall is that portion of the wall-face kept in advance of those behind them, ) and in which a gang of miners work. The length of the stalls vary from 10 up to 50 yards, or even longer; the length depends upon the strength of the coal and the roof, if the latter are strong the stalls may be made long. If the face is made too long the roof has a tendency to break along the line of the wall-face which may become dangerous, hence it is the practice to break the line of face up into stalls, one in advance of the other. The question of roads to the stalls is one of difficulty, and the expense of keeping up numerous roads has to be avoided if possible and this frequently governs the length of the stalls. The wall- face may be laid out parallel to the cleat or as for the workings to advance at right angles to the cleat, or the wall-face may be laid out perpendicular to the cleat so that the working advances on the ends, or it may be laid out as what is called “half on” or with the face at 45 degrees with the cleavage planes. In the first as has been, shown, the mineral is “gotten” more easily and the labour reduced to a minimum, and the produce of the seam is obtained at the least possible cost, but if the coal is weak and tender it will be at a great sacrifice of physical condition and there will be a great increase of waste and small coal in the getting, the breaking up, and the loading. In the second method, the coal is in a better position to resist the crushing effect of the descent of the roof, consequently the coal will be obtained in a better con- dition but at a greater cost ; therefore in strong seams it is usual to lay out the wall-face parallel to the cleat for the working to advance across it, and in tender seams to lay out the wall-face UNDERGROUND WORKINGS OF A WESTERN COLLIERY. XLIX. perpendicular to the cleat so that the working may progress end on. ‘The third method of ‘half on” or the laying of the wall face at an angle of 45 degrees to the cleat is adopted in only moderately strong seams as a compromise between the other two, so that advantage may be taken of the influence of the cleavage planes in order to secure the greatest quantity of coal in the best condition with the least labour. The long-wall system possesses the important advantage of giving the greatest’ quantity of coal because all the seam is extracted, whereas in the pillar and stall system a portion of the pillar is always lost, but as a rule it entails more initial outlay for roads and yardage work; it also gives the greatest amount of large coal, because in the narrower workings of the other system the coal must necessarily be more broken up. Another advantage of this system is that the ventilation is simple and more easily effected and the miner works in better air and in larger room and his labour is more efficient. = On the other hand there are circumstances which may render it. absolutely necessary to adopt the pillar and stall system, for instance the long-wall in some cases requires a great deal of rubbish or stone for packing the “‘gob” behind the workmen to take the weight of the descending roof so as to prevent damage to the surface, and the packing may be difficult or costly to obtain. In this coalfield, and I believe in all the coalfields of New South Wales, the long-wall system has never had a fair trial in spite of its manifest advantages, but whether this is due to prejudice or to some other tangible objection such as the cost of filling the ‘“‘gob,” with the existing high rate of wages I have never been able to determine. Diagram G. illustrates an ideal form of pillar and stall setting out, and Diagram H. illustrates the system of long-wall working. Haulage.—Until lately the haulage was done by horses, the skips being drawn out of the working places to a flat in the head- ing or main road where they were made up into trains and drawn thence to the shaft, but this slow and expensive system has partly given way to steam haulage. Now there is asteam hauling engine 4—Sept. 18, 1901. *1WM 9NO1 JO WILGAS H ZA Y : Y Ll EEE TT ee ; at 17 chains from the shaft there is a of skips drawn from the other workings | at the bottom of the shaft which draws from the dip workings a a a. a o 73. 8 ie sH Gy uw = Oo on Oe gq vw ae fs mF Sa T Oo eS ee _— 6 8 | UNDERGROUND WORKINGS OF A WESTERN COLLIERY. LI. by horses. The system of haulage is known as the main and tail rope. The engine is one of Tangye’s 28 h.p. and is supplied with steam from boilers on the surface, it has two coupled cylinders, diameter 12 inches, length of stroke 18 inches, the usual speed is about 200 strokes per minute, and the ratio of the piston to the spur wheel is 1 to 3}. There are two drums of 54 inches diameter, and they will hold about 2,500 lineal yards of 2 inch rope weighing 4 ibs. to the fathom; the drums one for the main rope and one for the tail rope are fitted with clutches and can be thrown in or out of gear as required, and have separate brakes. The engine plane or road has a grade of about | in 60, and is laid with 20M rails to a gauge of 2 feet 1 inch. Rollers for carrying rope are made of steel, main rollers 6 inches diameter, tail sheaves 8 inches diameter, distance apart about 20 feet: sheaves at curves about 3 feet diameter, return wheel at end of plane 5 feet diameter. The main rope draws out the full skips and the tail rope takes back the empties, when the full skips are being drawn out the tail rope drum runs loose on the shaft: when the tail rope is hauling in the empties the main rope drum is thrown out of gear. The total length of the main rope on the plane is about 1,000 yards,.and the tail rope 2,000 yards, The main rope passes off the drum under a pully into the axis of the road and is attached to the fore end of the first skip, the tail rope-is carried along near the roof at the side of the road around a sheave at the end of the plane and attached to the hinder end of the last skip of the train. A train consists of 30 skips, and each skip carries 19 ewt., the skip alone weighing 6% cwt. The time required for a trip out ora trip in is 5 minutes. There is an elevated siding or kip near the shaft up which the full skips are drawn by the rope to stand until they are wanted, from whence they are easily run down by hand on to the cage in the shaft to be taken to the surface; the empties that come down the shaft are pulled out of the cage by hand and run by gravitation to the main plane and made up into trains for return to the workings ; LII. J. HAYDON CARDEW. there are sidings and flats at convenient places for taking up skips from other parts of the workings. The engine plane is lighted with electricity by incandescent lamps, the dynamo and engine being in the engine room on the surface. As may be readily understood the conveyance of the produce of the seam to the shaft constitutes a very important question for the Engineer in order that he may achieve that part of the ultimate object of coal mining, ‘“‘the obtaining of the largest amount of coal in the best condition, and also at the least possible cost.” He has to consider the best and most economical system of haulage for the particular seam he is dealing with: the class of road he should adopt, and when laid, its maintenance in a state of efficiency, the inclination, the curves, the size and form of the skip, the dimensions of the wheels and axles, and whether the skips shall be of iron or wood, and so on: all these things have a very important. bearing on the working of a colliery successfully; but the various. Bi a eal 2 ; € ai 7 . “ systems of underground traction would require a separate paper ~ and J fear I have already trespassed too long on your patience. I have only touched lightly upon some of the aspects of coal-mining in this district, because it would be manifestly impossible within the limits of a paper to deal exhaustively with such a large subject. as the underground workings of a colliery. r. TESTING STONEWARE PIPES USED IN RETICULATION SEWERS, LIII. SYDNEY SEWERAGE: TESTING STONEWARE PIPES USED IN RETICULATION SEWERS. By W. E. Cook, M.¢.£., M. Inst. C.E. [Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 18th, 1901. } BEFORE describing the method of testing the stoneware pipes used in the reticulation sewers in Sydney, a short description of the way in which the pipes are manufactured will not be out of place. The principal material of which the pipes are made is dark coloured shale, known as Wianamatta shale. This is ground by a disin- tegrator to a uniform powder, to which a small quantity of water is added, and the whole is then mixed to the consistency of very stiff puddle clay, in which condition it is fed to the machine for making the pipes. The pug is thrown or shovelled into a hollow vertical cylinder, whose internal diameter is the external diameter of the barrel of the pipe. The mould for the exterior of the collar is fixed under the floor, above which the piston works when forcing the pug downwards through the cylinder, above described, and into the collar mould at the lower end of the cylinder. The exterior collar mould is made in two pieces, which are opened when removing a moulded pipe, and remain open till the mould for the interior of the collar is placed in position and held there by a piston from below. A square board is placed between this piston head and the interior collar mould, to enable the work- men to remove the pipe when completely moulded. When the pressure of the top piston is applied, the collar is formed while the lower portion remains fixed. The upper piston is then with- drawn, the lower piston is:set free to move, so that when the pressure is again applied to the top piston, the pug is forced down inside the cylinder, and outside a bell-shaped piece of metal whose exterior diameter at the base is the interior diameter of the pipe, LIV. W. E. COOK. the bell being fixed concentrically with the cylinder in which the upper piston works. Under pressure of top piston, the lower piston descends for 2 feet, when it is stopped. The moulded pipe is then cut off with a fine wire, and removed on the board with the interior collar mould still in it. Another board is placed on the piston head, another interior collar mould is placed in position, the lower piston is raised till the board touches the inner collar mould, and the operations are then repeated. After moulding, the pipes are partially dried in sheds or in partly cooled kilns before burning. In the kilns they are stacked as close as possible, the smaller sizes being placed inside the larger ones. The*pipes are also stacked one above another to the full height of the kiln. After burning for about a week, and while the material is white hot, salt is thrown into the kiln with the last three or four charges of fuel to form the glaze, and shortly after the burning ends. The kilns and contents are allowed to cool slowly to the temperature of the outside air very nearly, and the pipes are then ready for use. TestinG MacuHINE. The machine used for testing the pipes for crushing, consists of an oil ram which descends on a block of wood placed on the middle of the pipe lying horizontally in a bed of moist sand, con- tained in a wrought iron box about 3 feet square. At each of the four corners of this box, a large screw is fixed vertically. The upper and working part of the machine is carried on these four screws, so that it can be raised or lowered to suit the different sizes of pipe, varying from 6 inch to 24 inch internal diameter. The raising or lowering is effected by a horizontal band wheel on one screw. Turning this handle causes a toothed wheel of small diameter to revolve, and in doing so to turn a toothed wheel of large diameter, which causes a toothed wheel of small diameter to revolve on each of the other three vertical screws. In this way all four corners are raised or lowered equally. Resting on these four toothed wheels, and screwed by bolts to the under side of the ~ ‘TESTING STONEWARE PIPES USED IN RETICULATION SEWERS. LV. large toothed wheel, is a cast iron cylinder of 9 inch internal diameter, the piston being 7 inch diameter. This piston exerts a pressure on a block of wood 6 inch square, curved on its lower face, to suit the outer circumference of the pipe. The pressure is obtained by pumping oil into the top of the cylinder, causing the piston to descend till the pipe breaks, when the pressure is read off on a pressure gauge attached. The oil is pumped from a reservoir on the machine, into the main cylinder, through a small cylinder shown end on in the photographs. In this small cylinder are five openings for oil to pass, three being on the side next the reservoir, and two being on side next the main cylinder: of the three the centre one is for the suction pipe, while the other two exhaust oil from the top and bottom of the main cylinder alter- nately. Of the two openings in the other side of the small cylinder, one connects by a pipe with the top of the main cylinder and the other with the bottom. The piston of the small cylinder is moved by a hand lever. In one position, the oil is pumped from the reservoir into the top of the main cylinder causing the piston to descend, and at the same time to force any oil below the piston head back into the reservoir. The pipe having been broken, the position of the small piston is altered, so that oil is pumped into the bottom of the main cylinder as the piston rises, the oil above the piston head is forced back into the reservoir, so that the same oil can be used over and over again. The principle of the machine was supplied by Mr. J. M. Smail, M. Inst. C.E., and the details were worked out in the drawing office of the Road and Bridges Branch of the Public Works Department, under the supervision of Mr. J. A. Macdonald, m. Inst.c.z. The machine was locally made and has been in use for about thirteen - years. The two photographs show a pipe just before and just after breaking in the machine. Before a specification was drawn up, it was found necessary to obtain some data as to the pressure the local pipes would stand. _ By the direction of the late Mr. W. C. Bennett, M. mst. C.B., Engineer- LVI. W. E. COOK. in-Chief for Sewerage construction, short lengths of pipe were specially manufactured, so that they might be tested by Professor Warren, at the University. Using the results so obtained as a guide, the following specification was drawn up :— 20. Stoneware pipes and junctions to be of well-ground and mixed materials of tough, tenacious, impervious quality, well burnt, sound, hard, uniform in thickness, true in section, straight longi- tudinally, uniformly glazed both inside and outside, free from fire or other cracks, flaws and ash holes, the collar and barrel to be made in one piece, and in every way equal to sample ee to be seen at the Engineer’s office. ‘21. Pipes to be of the following thickness and depth of collar, V1Z. :— Pipes inside diameter, 4-in.; thickness, 3-in.; depth of collar, ]2-in. ” 39 6-1 “1n.; ” a 1n., ” ifm ‘ a 9-in.; di +3-in,; ts 2-in. 5% si 12-in,; a ]-in.; . ‘2-in. . . LOST soe uss 11Lin.; % 24-in. 9 ” 16-in.; He) 13-in.; ” 24-in. me a 18-in.; a 13-in.; 55 24-in. ry vA 2A siaas My na 22-in, 3 ‘ 24-in.; Bs 13-in.; e 23-in. ‘‘ All parcels of pipes used in these works will be tested in the Departmental testing machine, and submitted to the following crushing strains applied to the centre of the pipe :— 24-inch... ... 110 tbs. per square inch of bearing surface. LS: say Pome bas OD. i 55 16s itgiecss sete Oi iss 5 ii 1 eee ae sisi Oss 3 4 Oy oieere aps LOO se ss a Din ace oso MOO es vs 3 ‘Tf the Engineer deems its necessary, the pipes will also be tested for porosity. Should the pipes fracture under the foregoing strains, or be found to absorb more than two per cent. of water, then the Engineer may reject the whole of the parcel from which TESTING STONEWARE PIPES USED IN RETICULATION SEWERS. LVII. the pipes were taken. The whole of the expense incurred in testing the pipes shall be borne solely by the contractor, and all pipes injured or broken by the testing shall be immediately replaced by sound pipes, subject to the foregoing tests at contractor’s cost.” Since November, 1896, the quantity of water that may be absorbed has been increased to 4 per cent., that is if the pipe is perfect in every other respect, viz., as to shape, glazing, etc., the 2 per cent. being retained if the parcel is not uniformly good on outward examination. Great care is taken in choosing the sample pipe from a parcel, to obtain one that to the eye represents a fair average of the parcel. The crushing test is conducted with the machine already des- ¢cribed, under conditions that represent as nearly as possible, fair working conditions when laid. Before fracture takes place, the whole pipe is gradually pressed into the moist sand, so that it takes a firm and uniform bearing. The fracture occurs suddenly, in the form of a longitudinal crack along the top of the pipe from end to end. The porosity test is then conducted as follows:—From the broken pipe, two pieces are selected free from cracks produced_ during crushing, and without any glazed edge, one piece being about 10 or 11 square inches in area, and the other 50 to 60 square inches, These pieces are dried in an oven, weighed, and immersed in water for twenty-four hours. They are then taken out, all superficial water is quickly wiped off, and the weights again taken. The percentage increase in weight is then calculated. The result of the porosity test depends to a large extent on the area of the fractured edges as compared with the area of the glazed portion of the tested sample. It also depends on the presence of laminated cracks, due to imperfect drying before burning. In practice it is found that the smaller pieces give the smaller increase in weight. In the case of the smaller pieces, the proportion of fractured edge to glazed portion is greater than in the large pieces, and therefore the porosity might have been fairly expected to be LVIII. W. E. COOK. greater, but the laminated cracks naturally occur more often in the the large pieces and cause a greater percentage increase in weight..: ReEsutts oF TEsts. The results show already, that the pipes are very much stronger against crushing than necessary, only two per cent. having failed to reach the standards demanded, and these are far greater than any pressure which the pipes are called upon to resist. Taking the average depth at which the pipes are laid as 8 feet, and making use of the results obtained by Mr. F. A. Barbour,’ it is found that the actual pressure of a column of filling 6 inches square, is 128 ibs., the weight of a cubic yard of filling being taken as 28 cwt. The following table gives the average crushing strain of pipes tested under the wooden block 6 inches square, while bedded in damp sand as previously described : CRUSHING. Internal |Thickness| Weight |Standard under;Actual rae diameter bag ea aoat in 6 inch square | “inch square inches. inches. | pounds. /block in pounds plock in pounds 6 3 36. fie ew 6,701 9 15 64 3,600 6,675 12 il 97 2,880 6,424 16 12 147 3,240 5,205 18 lis 183 3,600 5,349 21 13 240 ae 4,618 24 12 | 300 3,960 4,965 In the Sewerage Construction Branch, Public Works Depart- ment, the standards have been raised to the following :—9 inches to 21 inches =5,000 ibs., 24 inches =5,500 ibs.; owing probably to the fact that the submains laid by that Department are at greater depths than the reticulation sewers. 1 See paper on “Strength of Sewer Pipes and Actual Earth Pressure,” Vol. cxxx11., Proceeding cf Institution of C.E. TESTING STONEWARE PIPES USED IN RETICULATION SEWERS. LIX, The following table gives the average percentage by weight of water absorbed by test pieces of pipe after twenty-four hours immersion in water. Porosity. 2 °/, Standard. | 4 °/, Standard. Size in Passed or Percentage Percentage inches. Failed. increase in increase in weight. weight. 6 ‘ Passed 1:46 1°36 Failed 5°52 4°90 9 { Passed 1°48 2°30 Failed 4°27 | 6°18 12 { Passed 1°66 Zod Failed 3°34 5°18 16 Passed pay 2°39 Failed pe 5°58 18 | ( Passed 212 Day ( Failed oor 4°78 21 { Passed eS. 3°14 Failed Aa 4°55 94 Passed 1:18 2°85 Failed 5°52 wae General average—passed 1°97 per cent.; failed 4:85 per cent. The percentage of failures under 2 per cent. standard was 27. The percentage of failures under 4 per cent. standard was 18. The following figures show that the pipes which break the more easily are also the more porous :—Average crushing strain of pipes which passed for porosity, 6,317 tbs.; average crushing strain of pipes which failed for porosity, 5,990 tbs.; or a little more than 5 per cent. less strength in pipes that failed for porosity. In 103 cases, test pieces have been weighed both after twenty- four hours and after forty-eight hours’ immersion, with thefollowing result:—No. of pipes, 103; percentage increase in weight after twenty four hours, 2:14; percentage increase in weight after forty- eight hours, 2°35; or 10 per cent. more for forty-eight hours than for twenty-four hours. Two 9-inch pipes have been tested with an internal pressure of 100 ibs. per square inch without fracture, the joint having failed at this pressure and not the pipe. Another set of tests was undertaken as follows :—Instead of selecting one pipe only, two were chosen as nearly as possible alike LX. W. E. COOK. in every way to the eye. One was tested in the usual way, as previously described, the other was dried for two or three days in the engine-room, then weighed whole, and immersed in water, and again weighed after twenty-four hours and after forty-eight hours. It was then tested to destruction by crushing. Pieces were then selected, both large and small, thoroughly dried, and tested in the usual way, with the following results :— POROSITY. No. 1 PIPE. No. 2 PIPE. Size |No. of| Large pieces. Small pieces. Whole. Largepieces | Small pieces. . in |sets of} Increase in | Increase in Increase in | Increase in | Increase in inches) tests.| weight per | weight per weight per | weight per | weight per cent. after | cent. after cent. after | cent. after cent. after 28 hrs./48 hrs.'28 hrs. |48 hrs.| |24 hrs./48 hrs./24 hrs./48 hrs. 24 hrs./48 hrs. 9 14 2-46 | 2°72 | 2:50 | 2-61 1°72 | 1°83 | 2°30 | 2°47 | 2°15 | 230 12 9 3°16 | 3°39 | 2°90 | 3°00 2°50 | 2°69 | 3°18 | 3°17 | 2°91 | 3°14 Average No. | Pipe, pieces, increase in weight after twenty-four hours 2°69 per cent.; after forty-eight hours 2:87 per cent. No. 2 Pipe, pieces, increase in weight after twenty-four hours 2°54 per cent.; after forty-eight hours 2°78 per cent.; whole, after twenty- four hours 2:03 per cent.; after forty-eight hours 2°19 per cent. The foregoing results cannot be taken as absolutely conclusive, as in some cases the crushing strain of the second pipe was greater than that of the first pipe. Taking the average result as approxi- mately correct, it is found that a pipe saturated with water loses 8 per cent. of its original strength against crushing. The only other cities in Australasia where sewerage works are in progress, or have been recently carried out, are Melbourne, Adelaide, and Wellington (N.Z.) _ Melbourne.—The Melbourne limit for permeability after twenty- A table is given, showing the average results of a number of tests in Melbourne :— four hours immersion of the whole pipe, is 4 per cent. Diameter. Thickness. Weight Weight after Cross breaking Inches. Inches. Dry. 24 hours in water. 18-inch centres. 24 14 288 289 3,800 18 1k 186 1964 3,360 TESTING STONEWARE PIPES USED IN RETICULATION SEWERS. LXI, Diameter. Thickness. Weight. Weight after Cross breaking Inches. Inches. Dry. 24 hours in water. 18-inch centres. 15 14 1444 1464 3,900 12 1 97 991 3,900 9 1 744 78h 3,000 6 z 374 38} 4,480 4 L 26 274 5,000 Taking the average increase in weight, the result is 3:22 per cent. With respect to internal pressure, the vast majority of pipes tested stood 250 tbs. per square inch before bursting, when tested to destruction. The specified tests are as follows in Melbourne :— Shape.—Each pipe will be tested by passing into it a wooden dumwy, truly cylindrical, or an anulus for the bends, but with a diameter 2-inch less than the specified diameter of each particular size of pipe; and also by passing over the outside of the pipe a ring of an internal diameter 1-inch larger than the external diameter of each size of pipe. Any pipe which these gauges do not fit satisfactorily, will be at once rejected. The pipes will also be examined for uniformity and suitability of burning and glaze. Internal pressure.—Pipes which have passed as above will then be subjected to hydraulic pressure equal to a column of water 30 feet high, and while under this pressure the pipe will be repeatedly struck with a wooden mallet. Any pipe showing signs of sweating or leakage, either in the body or socket, will be at once rejected. | Permeability and cross-breaking.—The superintending officer shall test as many pipes as he may think desirable, for permea- bility, and to resist crushing by cross-breaking. The pipes, after being dried to the satisfaction of the superintending officer, shall not absorb more than 4 per cent. of moisture after being immersed in water for a period of 24 hours. The pipes shall bear a cross breaking strain when supported in a cradle on bearers 18 inches apart, of 1,000 ibs, the weight to bear half-way between the cradle on the upper side of the pipe. Should the results of the LXII. W. E. COOK. Cross breaking or permeability be unsatisfactory, the superintend- ing officer may reject as many pipes, bends, junctions, etc., as may, in his opinion, be of inferior quality. Adelaide.—In Adelaide, the pipes are examined for uniformity and quality of burning and glazing. Every pipe is then tested by passing a dummy into, and a ring over it. Every pipe is then tested with an internal hydrostatic pressure, equal to a column of water 28 feet high, and while under this pressure is struck repeatedly with a wooden mallet. A pipe showing signs of sweating or leakage is rejected. After the foregoing tests, the pipes may be tested for strength to resist crushing, and for permeability. In practice the pipes proved so very satisfactory that the latter tests were generally omitted. About one per cent. only failed to pass the whole of the tests imposed. Wellington.—In Wellington, N.Z, the pipes were tested :— (1) For shape; (2) For uniformity and quality of burning, glazing, ete. ; (3) Under hydrostatic pressure, equal to a column of water 25 feet high, while being struck with a wooden mallet; (4) For crushing, and must stand pressure of 100 tbs. per square inch, applied at centre of pipe; (5) For porosity, and must not increase more than 2 per cent. in weight after 24 hours immersion. | The pipes were not tested to destruction, but many of them were tested up to 60 lbs. per square inch internal pressure without showing any defects. In Melbourne, Adelaide, and Wellington the constructing authorities let ccntracts for the supply and delivery of all pipes at central depdts, where every pipe was tested. The Sydney practice has been to test pipes supplied for each particular contract. : For the purpose of comparison, the average results of sixteen tests of 2 feet 5 inches x 1 foot 9 inches oviform Monier pipes for sewer construction are added. The area of cross section is equal TESTING STONEWARE PIPES USED IN RETICULATION SEWERS. LXIII. to a circular pipe 2 feet in diameter, wire netting is inserted in the body of the material, and wire is spirally wound round in the body of the material, also a horizontal base 7 inches wide is provided :— j Number of | Thickness in Pressure at first fracture Pressure at final fracture Pipes. inches. Age in days. under 36-inch block. under 36-inch block. 16 2 100 6,384 Ibs. 10,675 ibs. The following table shows that even after the final fracture these pipes spring back half-way to the original shape when the pressure is removed :— Number of ae R a : Pipes. Original s‘ze. Size under greatest pressure.| Size after pressure removed. an |e eae in. 1 ft, 94 in. mo te 425, | Ot 4S in, x |. 2 ft. 48. in. x In conclusion the author wishes to thank the following engineers for their courtesy in supplying information relating to pipe testing done under their supervision :—Mr. J. Davis, M. Inst. C.E., formerly Engineer-in-Chief, Sewerage Construction Public Works Depart- ment, and now Under Secretary for Public Works, N. S. Wales ; Mr. W. Thwaites, M. Inst. 0.5., Engineer-in-Chief, Metropolitan Board of Works, Melbourne; Mr. A. B. Moncrieff, M. inst. c.5., Engineer-in-Chief, Public Works, South Australia; Mr. R. L. Mestayer, M. Inst. c.5., Drainage Engineer, Wellington, N. Zealand. The author also wishes to thank our chairman, Mr. J. M. Smail, M. Inst. C.B., for granting him access to all the records of the Water and Sewerage Department on this subject. poe (xlix. ) INDEX. PAGE PAGE Aboriginal rock carvings Xxxil. | Araucaria Bidwilli 198, 199, 205 rock-holes ... . 218, xlvii. Resin... . 206, 208 —— tribes of Western Australia brasiliana ... . 200 217, xlvii. Cookir 198, 200 Abstract of feo ee ili. | —— Cunninghamii 198, 199 Acacia Bakeri .. 172 | —— Resin... . 208 —— Ounninghamii ... 172 | —— wbricata ... 198 —— dealbata semmletie Rule 200, 205 —— decurrens 171, 172 | ‘Aromadendrin’... 117,211 exudans ... 173 | ‘Aromadendrene’ 126, xlilii. — Gum ... 206 | Aromadendric Acid Seer aa! harpophylla... ... 173 | Astrotriche floccosa ... 185 leiophylla ... 173 | Atalaya hemiglauca ... 163 — Mardeni ... 173 | Atherosperma moschata .. . 188 Oswaldi scp lie Resin.. . 212 penninervis ... .. 173 | Atkinson, A. A., Notes on an- retinoides . 173 alyses of air from coal mines — salicina sony LS 52, xxii. —— verniciflua ... ... 173 | Auditors, Honorary ...Xliv. Acaroid Resin .. 206 | Australian Academy diye Be Acaroides resinifera . 206 | —— Caoutchouc 204, 212 Achras australis . 187 | —— gums, resins and other Address to Engineering Section 1. vegetable exudations 161, Adansonia Gregori .. 165 206, 210, xlv. Adenanthera pavonina ... ... 173 | ——- Myrtaceous Kinos . 209 Agathis australis... io LOS Sandarac ...161, 200, 201, 208 robusta ; re ... 198 | Avicennia officinalis 188, 195 Ailanthus imberbifolia . 168 resinifera 188, 195 Air from coal mines 52, xxii. | ‘Axebreaker’ . 168 Albizzia procera ... . 173 pruinosa , 174 B toona ; . 174.| Baker, R. T., F.u.s., On the rela- Aleurites molluccana SIGH tion between leaf venation Alterations to Rules 3, Vi. and the presence of certain Amber 201 chemical constituents in the Analysis of Resins and Balsams 204 oils of the Eucalypts L1G; xk. Anchylostoma trigonocephalus ... 41 Sir Benjamin, K.C.M.G., D.sc., Angophora Gums ... 206 LL.D., F.B.S., elected Honorary Kino 161, 209 Member : ‘ ~ohe LER — lanceolata ... 117, 184 | Baloghia lucida ... we ws DO melanoxylon . 117 | Bancroft, T. L., m.s. Edin., Pre- — intermedia ... . 184 liminary notes on the inter- — solid kino ... 29209 mediary host of Filaria im- — Woodsiana... . 185 mitis, Leidy ... 41, XV. Anniversary Address ... ..» 1 | Banksia serrata ... . . 189 Anopheles claviger . 42, xvi. | Barigan, nepheline rock from 356 — maculipennis 42, 48, 45, xvi. | Bassora Gum in Cycadeze 204 — musivus ... 46] Bassorin ... = 207 Aralia spinosa .,. “Ep »-» 185 | Bauhinia Carronii ane 174 PAGE Bauhinia Hookeri wee 174 ‘ Beefwood ’ 189, 190 ‘ Berairou ’” sete fae LO’. Berlya Cunninghamit ae alee Beyeria viscosa ... .. 192 Benzylic Alcohol gens SO Bequest, form of (viii.) ‘Black Apple’ ae key | Wattle’... 172 ‘ Bloodwoods’ 116, 179, 191, Ie ‘Blue-berry ’ me 167 —— Gum’ 117, 179, 180 ‘ Bog Onion’ ne 169 Bombax malabaricum ; " 166 ‘ Bonewood’ . 164 Books purchased i in 1901 lxxii. ‘ Bora’ ee Bere eo Bosistoa sapindiformis ae ... 168 Botany Bay Gum Beep Kino : we 209 —— Resin .. 206 volatile Gill sae abl Bouchardatia neurococca ae) OS Brachychiton acerifolius soo (OY discolor 1. 167 diversifolius : ene LOT ‘Brisbane Quandong’... moe LOY Bromine absorptions a209 ‘Brush Bloodwood’ 191 Building and Investment Fund iv. Buildings, height of ‘Bunya Bunya’.. 199 Burwood Colliery, air from 56 Butea frondosa 177 ‘ Buyong’ ey, 167 C : ‘Cabbage Tree’... 185 ‘Calhoun’ : 167 Callitris Preissii, resin of 209 quadrivalvis 203 resin cel verrucosa ... 201, 203 Calophyllum inophyllum . 165 tomentosum... ee 6S Canarium Muellert 168, 171 — Oleo-resin ... . 208 - commune ... .. 208 *‘Candle-Nut Tree’ .. 191 Caoutchouc, Australian 204, 212 Capparis nobilis ... ... 164 ‘ Carabeen’ es aie . 167 PAGE Cardew, J. Haydon, Assoc. M. Inst.C.E., Notes on the underground workings of a colliery in the western coalfields of New South Wales sh Carment, David, F.1.A., F.F.A., appointed Hon. Treasurer "xliv. . xL, Cassiterite crystals Xxili., 332 Casuarina Decaisneana ... 194 equisetifolia 48, 195 Castanospermum australe . 174 Catalogue of Scientific Litera- ture ... ee Cedar Gum a ... 207 Cedrela australis... 168, 207 Toona he »- LOS Ceratopetalum apetalum : iv gummiferum Pr ee ve City Design, generalidea ofa 62 theory of 62, xxvii. ‘Chrismas bush or tree’ . 175 Clarke Medal 9, 1x) ee, pe Memorial Fund ... ‘Coachwood’ . a7 : Coalfields of New South “Wales XL. Coal mines, air from 52, xxil. Colliery, underground workings xt. Commercial Education... 26 Concrete, strength of ... XXIII, Continuity, principle of in ope Theory . 243 Conversazione, 26 Sept. 1901 oo Cook, Captain, historical notes in regard to ... Xvi., 47 W. E., M.c.B., M. Inst. 0.2., Sydney sewerage: testing stoneware pipes used in re- ticulation sewers ... LIT, ‘Cream of Tartar’ tree . 165 Crookes, Sir William, F.R.s. ... Vill. ‘Cudgerie’ . 170 Culex ciliaris 45 Skusii .. -) 4B) sowie —. vigilax . 41, 45, xv. vittiger .. 46 Cupania pseudorrhus i: XO semiglauca ... iA . 170 Current Papers No. 5 ... oo OO —— No.6... xliii., 336 Cypress Pine tree . 201 D Dammara australis 195, 197 Cornui . 197 196, 197 —_ lanceolata .,. it (li.) PAGE Dammara Moorei... -e- 196 orientalis .. LOS ovata eA 196, 197 Daphne mezereum . L9O David, Prof., B.A., F.G.8., F.B.S., On a new rock allied to nepheline phonolite, from Kosciusko N.S. Wales... xiv. —— On the occurrence of a variety of tinguaite at Kos- ciusko ; . 847 Derris scandens ... . 174 Design, esthetics of 85 hygienic elements of 92 Dharruk language 128, 155 Distorted crystals of cassiterite XXili., 332 iy moadicn oe « . 208 Dochmius trigonocephalus i, XV. Dodonea viscosa . Ae: ‘Donations, nooks periodicals &c. xlix. tothe Society’s cabinets &e. lxxi. ‘ Dooragan ’” pou ‘Dragon trees’ ... 204: Drainage in N. 8. Wales 223, ‘xlvii. Dudley Sones: oe from 61 “Huew” ... si 5 SF E Echinocarpus australis ... ot LG7 Gum a ... 207 Economic Section. 4, Ixxv. Education, Commercial . 26 Elder Exploring Expedition ... 209 Eleocarpus copalliferus .. .. 168 cyaneus ... 167 grandis sno eAl(G7/ —— obovatus beaeel (Si) reticulatus ... ., 167 Storckit Soo ll! Eleodendron australe Be 170 glaucum a LO) orientale , 170 Engineering Section 4, Tes ‘Ixxvi. Erythrina indica.. . 174 Eucalypts, oils of the ate 124, xl. , xii, (xums of 206, 212 Eucalyptus acmenoides ... 124, 178 — affinis . 124 albens ; a 119 amygdalina... 120, 182, xP oxi: — apiculata . 122 Baileyana ... LS botryoides L1G; : x1. calophylla ... ALG PAGE Eucalyptus cneorifolia ... 2 19 coriacea yg. ti ow corymbosa 116, 123, 179, 182, x. — crebra ... 124 delegatensis... F 120 dives 119, 120, 121, Rl cg MAE — dumosa regis ies, exivmia 116, 124 globulus LTS; 1: gigantea . 183 goniocalyx .. LIS —— hemastoma 124, 125, 178, xlii. — hemiphloia .. » NS) —— werassata . 180 —— intermedia ... pe LLG —— Kino 161, 176, 177, 184, 206, 209, 211 — leucoxylon 180, 182 longifolia 118 184, xl. maculata 124, 180 —— Kino ... ... 205 melliodora ... sae LEO —— microcorys ... ae ho 0) —— nova-anglica .. 124 — obliqua ao LOZ —— oreades . 120 — pilularis 182 —— piperita 120, 182, 212 — Planchoniana less — polybractea... SES) — radiata 119, 120, 128, Xe xlie —— resinifera 181, 212 — robusta aa eee la hy, — rostrata wy ... 206, 209 —— Kino ... vs 211 — saliqna 117, 179, xl. Sieberiana ... : 120, xl. —— Smithwu 118, 128, xl. — stricta 121, 122 terminalis ... eee LG tesselaris mie Wipeliis\®) —— trachyphlowa 116, 124, xl. — viminalis . 124 —— viridis ws. LI9 —_ vitrea eA) Woollsiana... a Dah) Eucryphia Billardiert eee is) Evodia accedens ... ... 168 alata . 168 — Resin.. . 207 Hyre, Edward J ohn XVill., XXXVili. awarded Clarke Memorial Medal oh: — death of ...Xliv. Exchanges s ae eee” (lii.) PAGE Exhibits xix., xxiv., xXxxii., xxxiii. F Ficus elastica . 212 ferruginea ... ... 193 —— macrophylla 192, 193 — resins... ... 210 rubiginosa, Beis 192, 1938 resins . BAR . 210 Filaria immitis 41, 42, 43, 45, XV., XVi. nocturna . 43, AD. xvi. Financial position 2, ili. ‘ Fire tree’ 3 . 190 Flindersia australis 70 Bennettiana a FO maculosa, 163, 169, 207 Fossilised cypress pine- -trees ... 201 Fossil resin ae . 202 G Galactia varians ... Garcinia collina ... . 175 al Gardenia Aubryi... alee edulis . 186 —— gummijflora... son dlissey —— lucida ae cae a Se — ouliépé . 186 —— resinosa 186 sulcata 186, 187 Geijera Mulleri . 168 General account.. Generatrices in straight, curved or tortuous axes oxlivas Geometrical figures in n-dimen- sional space... 243, xvi. whose generatrices are n** functions of position on axis xlvi., 319 ‘Glue gum’ . 168 ‘Gouty stem tree’ wa. 165 Grass-tree gum 161, 205, 207, 208, 211 ‘Green Wattle’ reeelige. Greta Colliery, gases at lll. 60 Grevillea robusta... 163, 189, 204 striata 189, 190 Gummi Eucalypti Rostrate . 204 Kino.. i ols: rubrum astringens .. he Wark Gum arabic . 210 — collecting in ‘Austrelia ... 206 — Eucalyptus .. .. 206, 212 orass-treel6l, 205, 207. 208, 211 — N. Z. Kauri 195, 210 — of the Leopard-tree . 207 — soluble ' . 210 PAGE Gum, Wattle 171, 207, 210 Gums Australian 161, 210, xlv. Gundungurra language Tae Gunnedah Colliery, air from ... 57 Guthrie, F. B., F.1.c., F.c.s., Notes on beg of air from coal mines.. : oo.” SR — On a new rock allied to nepheline phonolite, from Kosciusko, N. 8. Wales ... xiv. — On the occurrence of a variety of tinguaite at Kos- ciusko ; . 847 H Hakea acicularis . Macreana ... Harecastle Colliery, gas from.. Heritiera littoralis Hibiscus heterophyllus moschatus ; Historical notes in regard to Captain Cook 47, xvi. Homaloidal space n-dimensions, geometrical figures in 2438, xlvi. . 190 . 190 61 By _ 167 ... 166 176 Honorary Members, election of xlii. ‘Hoop Pine’... ... 198 Horn Expedition to Central Australia . 209 I India-rubber (Australian) 204, 212 ‘Indian Coral Tree’ ivoe de Indian Ocean, currents in 31 International Association of Academies 14 — Catalogue of Scientific Literature ... x Pe! ‘ Tronbark Tree’ «SD ‘ Tronwood ” 167 Irrigation in N. ‘S$. Wales 223, “xlvii. J Judd, Prof. J. W., c.B., F.R.S., F,a.s., elected Honorary Member .. xlii, Kauri‘gum’ .. 195, 210 Pine, stunted ae ‘resin ’ vie OR Kennedya rubicunda ene Ames Khaya senegalensis ... 170 King Edward VII., Address to His Majesty... ... Xlli., XXxix (liii.) PAGE Kin suka ... ore iY Kino, Angophora_ cae 1 209 —— Eucalyptus 161, 176, 177, 184, 206, gee 211). . 209 210 liquid tincture of... Knibbs, G. H., F.R.A.8., ‘On the principle of continuity in the generation of geometri- cal figures in pure and pseudo-homaloidal space of n-dimensions 243, xlvi. — Some theorems, concerning geometrical figures in space - m dimensions, whose (n—1) dimensional generatrices are ni¢ functions of their position on an axis, straight, curved, or tortuous... xlvi., 319 — The theory of City Design 62, xxvii. Kosciusko, new rock allied to nepheline phonolitefrom xiv. —— tinguaite at . 847 Language Dharruk 128, 155 Gundungurra sua bol — Thurrawal ... 127, xlii. — Turuwul . 128 — Wodi-Wodi . 128 ‘ Large-leaved Fig ’ 5 IG Latex from Manning River 192, 210 Leaf venation , 116, xl. Leather tree eae WAS) wood ; : woe L%5 Lectures, Seience 3, XXil.,XXVi., XXXiX. ‘Leopard Tree’. soe, WED Gum ... ... 207 Leschenaultia divaricata scee LSE Library ... ae se sap Ner ‘Liquid Kino’ 209 Liversidge, A., LL.D., F. R. S., Hon. F.E.S. Edin. - Presidential Address Sh Cae =p hMunere | Lonchocarpus Blackii 175 M Macadamia ternifolia 190 Macaranga ferruginea 192 Kino es 192 Macrozamia Denisoni 195 —— Fraseri 204: — Gum os ae 207 Migueli age 204 ‘ Madatia ’ eae ; 173 PAGE Maiden, J. H., The gums, resins and other vegetable exuda- tions of Australia 161, xlv. Two historical notes in regard to Captain Cook the Circumnavigator 47, XV. ‘Maiden’s Blush’ fen ie LOT ‘Malabar Silk-cotton Tree’ ... 166 ‘Mangrove’ 176, 188 Manila Elemi . 208 ‘Marking-nut Tree’ . 171 Mathews, R. H., u.s., Rock-holes used by the aborigines for warming water 213, xlvii. — Some aboriginal tribes of Western Australia... 217, xlvii. — The Thurrawal Language 127, xlii. McKinney, H. G., m. inst.c.£., Pro- jects for water conservation, irrigation, and drainage in New South Wales ... 223, xlvii. Medal Clarke, awards ... 9, xx., xlii. Society’s awards ... ae oa Medicosma Cunninghamir . 168 Melia Azedarach ... . 169 composita . 169 Melicope neurococca . 168 Members honorary _...8, xix., xlii. — obituary 1900 oe ad ee OOM. ey SEX, ordinary 4, Vi., xvVili., xxvi., XXXvill., xli., xlv. ‘Mendora’ a liG7, ‘Metea’ ... 197 Metric system of Weights and Measures snarls. Mezoneuron brachycarpum . 175 eum... ard . 204 Scortechini... . 175 —— gum ... .. 207 ‘ Miljee’ ; ais Milletia megasperma, . 175 Kino . 207 Mines, analyses of air from 52, XXli. ‘ Mistletoe’ “ ... 185 ‘Moreton Bay Chestnut’ ... 174 — Fig’ ano phe — Pine’. 198 *‘ Mote-yar’ : «<5, LSD Municipal Engineering — Boy EK Murray River canal project ... 229 —— ‘Red Gum’ 209 Sir John, acknowledgement of the eee of the Clarke Memorial Medal ix. (liv.) PAGE Murrumbidgee northern canal project 235, 288 southern canal project ... 236 Myoporum See 188, 204 ——— Resin . 208 Myristica insipida .. 188 ‘Myrtaceous Kinos’ . 209 National Australian Academy 13 ‘Native Pear’ . 190 — Wistaria’ . 175 Kino ... . 207 ‘Ndilo Tree’ ; 165 Nepheline phonolite, 1 new rock allied to { Pele che rock from Barigan . 306 Newcombe, Prof. Simon, Lu.D., Ph.pD., For. Mem. B.S. Lond., Elected Honorary Member xlii. New South Wales Blue Gum... 179 — colliery in western coalfields of... eT. —— —— Gardenia resinfrom 186 oe rain in . 118 Water conservation, irrigation, and drainage in 223, xlvii. New Zealand Kauri ‘ gum’ 195, 210 ‘ Ninourai’ . 197 ‘ Nun-naia ” see LUI Nuytsia floribunda . 185 O Obituary 1900 ... we ina 4 1901... Gers Mv Uxix, Ocean currents ... 38, 342 Officers and Members of Council for 1901-2... v. Oils of the eucalypts 116, xl., “xlii. Owenia venosa iJ L69 Panaz dendroides SeeAOTs elegans 185, 207 —— gum... 204, 207 — Murrayi . 207 sambucifolius . 185 Papers read in 1900... Le FO Pentaceras australis ea etOS ‘ Peppermint’ . 120 ‘Pepper tree’. rental Periodicals purchased i in n 1901.. .1xxi. Periodicity of good and bad seasons eae Persoonia linearis . 190 PAGE Phonolitic nephelinite ... . 364 Picric acid ; . 204 Pimelea stricta 190 ‘Pinkwood ’ . 175, 192 Pittosporum acacioides ... . 164 bicolor am! ... 164 — Gum-resins ... «ve 208 —— phillyreoides wv LES rhombifolium -.. 164 — wundulatum ... 5 ... 164 —— Gum-resins ... .. 208 ‘ Podocarpic acid’ ¥ ... 203 Podocarpus cwpressina ... ... 203 —— elata we 208 ferruginea ... we 208 —— imbricata ... 2038 ‘ Poon ’” an ... 165 President’s Address .. 1 Principle of continuity - in the theory of space 243, xlvi. Proceedings of the Economic Section iy. exe: — Engineering Section Ixxvi. —— of the Society ie Pterocarpus erinaceus epi? Publications . (iv.) Public parks and gardens 90 Pulex serraticeps... wid 41, xv. Purification of Sewage... xII. Purvis, J.G.S., Some notes on the purification of sewage XII. Q ‘Queensland Dammar’... . 198 — Nut’ ... 190 —— plants, gums and resins exuded by _... ... 206 Queen Victoria, death of Bre > R Radial street-system we 64 Rain in N.S. Wales .. 113 ‘Reception ’ July 3, 1901 — .. XIX, —— exhibits sta des Recurrence of rain 118, xxvi. Rectangular mabe 69 ‘Red Cedar’ _... 168 — Gum’ ; 117, 209, 210, 211 —— Honey-suckle ° , 189 —— Kauri’ ae - 197 —— Mangroves on ACT —— Silky Oak’... . 190 Resine Kino 4 176 Resins, Australian 161, 211, xlv. Resin of Callitris Preissit . 209 (Iv.) PAGE Reticulation sewers aS mee: Rhizophora mucronata ... . 176 ‘Richmond River Pine’ . 198 . River Murray canal project ... 229 Rock allied to nepheline ever Xlv. -— Carvings ... XXXIl. — holes, aboriginal .. . 218, xlvii. Roll of Members 4, ‘ Rough-barked Apple’ : - 184 Rules, revision of aes 3, VI. Russell, H. C., B.A., C.M.G., F.B.S., Current Papers No. 5 30 — — No.6... xliii., 3386 Recurrence of rain, the relation between the Moon’s motion in declination and the quantity of rain in New South Wales 118, xxvi. Ss Sandarac, Australian ... .. 161 Resin 201, 203 ‘ Sassafras ” . 188 Schinus molle oe Schizomeria ovata : en Science Teaching in Schools ... 16 Lecturss 1900 a, wee LOQEY... XXIl., XXVi-, XXEIX. Scientific Literature Catalogue 9 ‘Scrub Bloodwood’ . 191 Eickory”” ... 168 Sectional Committee, Session 1901 vi. Meetings 4, Vi. Section, Economic Science lkxy. —- Engineering By: ]xxvi. Semecarpus Anacardium... ral —— australiensis 171 Sesquiterpene of eucalyptus oils 124, xlii. Sewage, prification of ... “oi ET Sewerage Sydney Jefe LORI Sewers, reticulation Sonia Sideroxylon australe lsh ‘Silky Oak’ N, 7 L8o ‘Silver Wattle’... nae Ae ‘Simool Tree’ ... 166 ‘ Sirpoon ’ . 165 Sloanea Woollsii... 167 Smail, J. M., m. mst. o.z., Address to Engineering Section .4,\ I. Smith, Henry G., F.c.s., on the relation between leaf vena- tion and presence of certain chemical constituents in the oils of the eucalypts 116, xl. PAGE Smith Henry G., F.c.s., Note on the sesquiterpene of euca- lyptus oils ... see ZA xin, ‘ Smooth-barked tee . 184 Solar Shadows 5 aa Soluble Gums 5 2ho ‘Sour Gourd’ ; ... 165 Space, theory of... 243, xvi. Spermolepis gummifera ... . 185 Spinifex Resin ... . 208 ‘Spotted Gum’ . 180 Tree ’ Oe . 169 Stenocarpus salignus . 190 sinuatus d . 190 Sterculia acerifolia 12 167 caudata hoy dicolor by GT, —— Gum 205, 207 — lurida . 167 — platanifolia . 166 quadrifida ... GK ‘Stink wood’ Ai i vee L4: Stoneware pipes, testing Of) i. SLL: Storage Reservoirs 237 Streets, cross-section of 80 curved 71 — engineering features of 81, 111 —— from esthetic standpoint 88 grade of me Bo 80 radial 64, rectangular 69 size of blocks between 82 width of ae 76 Strength of concrete ... XXIII. ‘Swamp Mahoganies’ . 116 Sycoretin resin ... . 210 Sydney sewerage ‘ .. LI. trigonometrical survey of mt. Symmetrically distorted crystals of Cassiterite . Xxill., 332 Syncarpia Hillit ... a 185 laurifolia . 185 el ts Tabernemontana macrophylla ... 187 ‘'Tallow-wood ’ . 180 Tannins of Eucalyptus Kinos 211 Tarrietia argyrodendron Pele, Tasmanian Sandarach .. . 208 Tate Memorial, Adelaide sew enehive ‘Teak’... : xy ‘Tecabalah® .. 188 ‘Tee-coma ” ke Pe Ree br Terminalia catappa ee eels Testing stoneware pipes .. LIII. ; ye \ ; i " ’ q f PAGE ‘The Barrister’... ... ive LZD ariameiteerc ash? Theorems in solid geometry ... xlvi. ‘Theory of City design 62, xxvii. of space 243, xlvi. Thespesia populnea Sig sa” L6G Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William Turner, K C.M.G., F.R.S. ... Vili. Thurrawal language 127, xlii. Tincture of Kino __.... tant LO Tinguaite at Kosciusko, N.S.W. 347 ‘Toon Tree’ ae re LOS Treasurer, Honorary ... ... Xliv. Trigonometrical survey of Sydney 111. Triodia pungens ... eee Jeloo ‘Tumana’ ve Nae ... 165 Turkey Gums ... ube ... 206 ‘ Turpentine-tree ’ a ... 185 Turuwul language AM e128 U Useful Native Plants of Aus- tralia sae HOT V Vateria indica ... . 168 Vegetable exudations of Aus- tralia ian sos, LOiyexly: Venation-, leaf ... ds 116, xk Victoria, resins, gums, and gum resins of . Ff 211 Volatile oil of Botany Bay Resin 211 WwW ‘Wallaby Bush’ it Me ho) Wallsend Colliery, airfrom ... 52 Warren, Prof. W. H., m. mst. c.z., M. Am. Soc.C.E., The strength of concrete ... Me XXIII. Wattle, Black ... ve Oe iiae, Green as Banlne — Gum’ 171; 207, 210 —— Silver a i 172 Water conservation in N.S.W. 223, xlvii. Sydney: F. W. WHITE, PRINTER, 39 MARKET STREET. 1902, (Ivi.) ae ‘ White Cedar’ .Woolnough, W. G., B. Se, F.G.8., Weirs on the Lachlan and; I ‘quarie nk S Wentworth irrigation scheme... Western Australia, aboriginal ; tribes th! cos’ Sy xh Cassiterite Mites Dammar ... awe Kauri ah “oud — een bi —— Pine’ < i wood’ ‘ Wild Lemon’ ~ Wodi-Wodi language .. Occurrence of a variety of tinguaite at Kosciusko — On a new rock allied to nepheline phonolite, from ., Kosciusko, N.S. Wales ...xiv. — Symmetrically distorted crystals of Cassiteritefrom = Western Australia .. xxiii., 332, Wright, Dr. H.G. A., announce- ment of the death of ERELES | hh Xanthorrhea er xX “ee —hastilis ... 204, 205210 ~~ Le cee 210,211 resin ... Ri. 2H, 22 ae Resins’ 204, 205, 209, 210, 211 Xylomelum pyriforme ... ,.. 190 4 Yellow Gum Resinof New Hol- land eee Aer 211. x : ; — Resin of Botany Bay... 205 — Gum .. 206) 20a resin tree ... a .. 212. *‘Yiel Yiel’ Hi stat oo. LOG ae Zanthoxylum brachyacanthum feed Preiss He ven 2 4 - JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS eo OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, EDITED’ BY | THH HONORARY SHCRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. LONDON AGENTS : GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co.; PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 17 WARWICK SQUARE, PATERNOSTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. 1902, od WA Sn, ee COL EER, ay ae | fg F . ’ OFFICERS: FOR ae : #3 ae i ee Past or Mamumns, 2605.0 91 etd eee ye , pa ART. .—PREsIDENT’s ees i A. Liversidge, Lb, F.R.S. Wat Dujramt By Sms ert ART. TE —Preliminary Notes on the Tagua Hot 0: imitis, Leidy. By Thomas L. Bancroft, m-B.... ~ Art. IV.—Two Historical Notes in regard to casei ( Cireumnavigator. ‘By Je H. Maiden, Government ART. ¥. cnet on the pee of Air from Coal Mit ste ae of Mines... te eae a : Ses . Arr. VI. See of City Design. By & H. - Kani, a | South Wales. ; “Diagrams] ... Seer ae 538 is ae na . ArT. VIIT:—On the. Relation between Leaf Voncion: , SA Presence of Certain Chemical Constituents i in the: the Eucalypts. ~ By RAT. Baker, F.L.8., Curator, an G. Smith, r.c.s., Assistant Curator, Pechnologian es 1s -. Sydney. [ With Illustration. ]. Aeiieges) take S Art. I[X.—Note on the Seequiterpene or Bucalyptns ; Henry G. Smith, r. C85 Assistant Curator, ee oe Museum, Sydney ee ar PA SENSE 2 Art. X.—The Thurrawal aka By” E H. Corres. Memb. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U Apr. XL. —The Gums, Resins, and other Vegetab: Australia. By J. H. Maiden, Government ; 7 Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney _ Art. XII.—Rock-holes used by the Aborigines for W ape By BR. H. Mathews, t. Sy ‘Corres. Memb. arenes ‘2 Washington, Uasas Gouna : #2 Apr SOLU —Some anaes Tribes a. Fe i eee : ‘de Paris CONTENTS. ee PAGE. nT. XIV.—Projects for Water Conservation, Irrigation, und Drainage in New South Wales. By H. oe McKinney, ™.2., _ M. Inst. O.E.. nS 223 Arr. XV.—On the pemierele. of Content in the Géaeiatinn of . Geometrical Figures in Pure and Pseudo-homaloidal Space of n-dimensions. By G. H. Knibbs, F.n.a.s., Lecturer in ee Surveying, University of Sydney pa é 243 & LRT. XVI.—Some Theorems concerning Gen aatiioal Wigtres ¢ in oe Space of n-dimensions, whose (n - 1) dimensional generatrices 4 are ni functions of their position on an axis, straight, curved or tortuous. By G. H. Knibbs, F.8.4.8., Heemarers in Surveying _ University of Sydney ... 319 ‘Arr. XVIL —Symmetrically istoptad Guystule fron Wocern x - Australia. By W. G. Me B.A., F.G.S. eee 332 — C.M.G., F.R.S. [With Dingeswst Be 336 =. XIX.—On the Occurrence of a Vatiety of obneraite at = Kosciusko, New South Wales. By Prof. David, B.A., F.G.8., ' »*.8.8., F. By Guthrie, F.1.c., F.c.s., and W. G. Woolnough, oo BSe., #.4.8. [With Plates i., ii.] . sist we BAT ‘Arr. XX. SR iial Address to the ianinneuns Shotibn By J. M. Smail, M. mst. c.5. 1; ‘Arr. XXI.—Some Notes on the Poriication of Sewage By J. G. 8. 2 Purvis Xi. ; Anr. XXII.—The Siceneth of Conerete. By Ww. H. Awaken, é M. Inst. C.E., M. Am. Soc. C.E., Challis Professor of sie me >. University of Sydney , .