i Ay fal 7 a Te A . hope Jo ee a vv | | } Ay Opa Le ne ah rea titan youu itn A ee aay bn Min PANY TRANG NLU ts H ay St a ioe Viet te conti ees ihe As urns ve Obs eed eo ee UE B or ae ee Sirens oy 4 Natu te tit * ea * . j . 2 . i ‘ = 4 ’ ’ . ’ - . ' * . ‘ ’ ma, | : { a i . > . 1 eta: ie el WAN a hat haga FS CONTENTS. ee VOLUME: XXXVIII. OFFICERS FOR 1904-1905... sit Be i a we ee List or Members, &c. ... ond ey se Ps a 2h ORGS : Art. I.—PreEsiDENTIAL ApprREss. By F. B. GuTHRIE, F.1.C., F.C.S., a Chemist, Department of Agriculture, N.S.W.; Acting Pro- fessor of Chemistry, The University, Sydney... Sev.s: Mee Oe ArT. II.—On the absence of gum and the presence of a new diglu- ? coside in the Kinos of the Eucalypts. By Henry G. Smrru, 2 F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney... 21 Art. III.—On some Natural Grafts between Indigenous Trees. By J. H. Maipen, F.u.s., Government Botanist and Director, Botanic Gardens. [With Plates} ia ie ane BP) >) 99 1872, 9° 123, be) 3) VII. bb) 99 >) 39 99 1873, 99 182, 93 33 Vill. 3° 3° >) be) 9° 1874, bd 116, bP) > BP) IX. 39 ”° 33 3° 9 1875, 9 235, 39 = x. Journal and Proceedings - 6 1876, ,, ao0, _ 39 XI. 39 3) 93 39 be) 1877, bP 305, 39 ~ Ki, . - aa - - 1878, ,, 324, price10s.6d. 39> XII. 33 bP) 3° 39 33 1879, Pe) 255, 99 > XIV. 39 bb) 99 33 39 1880, 3° 391, 99 39 XV. 99 39 3° 99 Bb] 1881, vl) 440, 33 9° XVI. 39 >] 33 33 93 1882, 9 327, 3° 33 XVII. be) ”° bP) 33 3° 1883, 99 324, be) 3° XVIII, 99 9° 99 3° 99 1884, 39 224, 99 39 XIX. 3° 99 99 99 39 1885, 99 240, 99 bP) XX. 39 99 3) 39 99 1886, 99 396, 99 33 XXI. bP) 99 99 39 1887, 9) 296, 39 PB) XXII. 3 9 9 2” 39 1888, ” 390. 9 =e XXII. 7 a “3 5 55 1889, ,, 534, a5 ” XXIV. oP) ”» 9 9 ” 1890, 9 290, ” ” XXV. ” ” ry) 9 9 1891, ” 348, ” 3” XXVI. 29 oy) ” oy) ” 1892, ” 426, ” 33 XXVII. 99 39 93 33 39 1893, 99 530, PP) 39 XXVIII. 33 33 39 33 99 1894, 99 368, 3) 9» #%XXIX. » » » 9 » 1895, ,, 600, _—_,, 33 XXX. 33 33 39 7 39 33 1896, 99 568, 99 3” XXXI. ” ” ” ” 99 1897, ” 626, ” »» =XXXIL » » 9 %9 », 1898,,, 476, ,, 95 XXXII. ” 39 ) 39 39 1899, ,, 400, ” 33 XXXIV. ” Tr) ” 9 ” 1900, ” 484, 2” 9 XXXV. » » 9 ” » 1901,,,581, ,, 9> XXXVI. 3° 29 ry) ry) ry) 1902, ,, 531, ” 93> XXXVII. 7) 39 ” ” 99 1903, ,, 663, ” bP) XXXVIII. 39 33 39 39 33 1904, 39 604, 9 CONTENTS. VOLUME XXXVITII. OFFICERS FOR 1904-1905... List or Mempers, &c. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART, ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. I.—PRESIDENTIAL AppREss. By F. B. GuTuRim, F.1.¢., F.C.S., Chemist, Department of Agriculture, N.S.W.; Acting Pro- fessor of Chemistry, The University, Sydney... 6 If.—On the absence of gum and the presence of a new diglu- coside in the Kinos of the Eucalypts. By Henry G. Smiru, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney ... ITI.—On some Natural Grafts between Indigenous Trees. By J. H. Maipen, F.L.s., Government Botanist and Director, Botanic Gardens. [With Plates] IV.—Possible Relation between Sunspots and Volcanic and Seismic Phenomena and Climate. By H. I. JenszEn, B.Sc., Junior Demonstrator in Chemistry and Geology, University of Sydney. (Communicated by Prof. T. W. E. Davin, B.a., WABB.5 Cb.) 2. os sie ae nc eae ee as V.—On Eucalyptus Kinos, their value for Tinctures, and the non-gelatinization of the product of certain species. By Heyry G. Suir, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney ... VI.—Notes on the Theory and Practice of Concrete-Iron Con- structions. By F. M. Gummow, mu.c.z. [With Plates | ViII.—Current Papers, No.8. By H. A. LENEHAN, F.R.A.S., Acting Government Astronomer. [With Diagrams | bod VIII.—Further Experiments on the Strength and Elasticity of Reinforced Concrete. By W. H. WARREN, Wh. Sc., M. Inst. C.E., M. Am. Soc. C.E., Challis Professor of Engineering ... IX.—The Flood Silt of the Hunter and Hawkesbury Rivers. By Professor T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.G.S., F.B.S., and aes Professor F. B. GuTHRIE, F.I.C., F.C.8. X.—Ethnological Notes on the eben eT Tribes of New South Wales and Victoria. By R.H. MaruHews,t.s., Associé étranger Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris; Corres. Memb. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A., ete. ... eae dds AA? Re 21 36 40 oI 105 129 140 191 203 ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. (vi.) XI.—Preliminary Observations on Radio-Activity and the Occurrence of Radium in Australian Minerals. By D. Mawson, B.E., Junior Demonstrator in Chemistry, and T. H. Lasy, Acting-Demonstrator in pea in the University of Sydney AD _ XII.—Pot Experiments to Determine the Limits of Endur- ance of different Farm-Crops for certain Injurious Substances. By F. B. Gurueig, F.1.c., F.c.s., and R. Heuus XIII.—The Occurrence of Isolated Augite Crystals at the top of the Permo-Carboniferous Upper Marine Mudstones at Gerringong, New South Wales. By H.G. Foxann. (Com- municated by Prof. T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.G.S., F.B.8.) XIV.—The Approximate Colorimetric Estimation of Nickel and Cobalt in presence of one another. By R. W. CHALLINOR. (Communicated by Acting Professor J. A. SCHOFIELD, F.1.c., F.C.8., A.B.S.M.) ; F ee ae XV.—Note on a Combined Wash-Bottle and Pipette. By J.W.HoeartH. (Communicated by Acting Professor J. A. ScHOFIELD, F.I.C., F.C.S., A.R.S.M. : ENGINEERING SECTION. XVI.—Tacheometer Surveying with an Ordinary Theodolite. By Tuomas KENNEDY, Assoc. M. Inst. C.K, ... XVII.—Water Filtration. By J. M. Smatt, m. Inst, cE. XVIII.—Filtration of Water at the Hunter District Water Works, West Maitland. By J. B. HENSON, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.... ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERING SECTION... INDEX TO VoLtuME XXXVIII. Paes 382 390 4.02 406 418 I. . XIII. L. i. lxxvii. (xxv.) Aopal Pociely of Hew Ponth delales. OFERrICHERS FOR 1904-1905. Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY HENRY STAFFORD, BARON NORTHCOTE, G.C.M.G., G.C.1.E., C.B. Vice-Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY ADMIRAL SIR HARRY HOLDSWORTH RAWSON, k.c.B. President: C. O. BURGE, M. Inst. C.E. Vice-Presidents: W.M. HAMLET, F.1.c¢., F.c.s. Prof. WARREN, M. Inst. C.E.,Wh.Sce. Prof. LIVERSIDGE, tu.p., F.z.s. | Act.Prof.F.B.GUTHRIE,F.1.¢.,F.¢.s. Hon. Treasurer D. CARMENT, ¥.1.4., F.F.A. Hon. Secretaries J. H. MAIDEN, F.1.s. | Act. Prof. G. H. KNIBBS, F.R.a.s Members of Council: S. H. BARRACLOUGH, F. H. QUAIFE, m.a., u.v. Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, B.A., ¥.R.s. | H. C. RUSSELL, B.a., c.M.G., F.R.S. T. F. FURBER, F.R.a.s8. HENRY G. SMITH, F.c.s. H. A. LENEHAN, F.r.a.5. WALTER SPENCER, mp. CHARLES MOORE, F.zr.B:s. J. STUART THOM Assistant Secretary: W.#H. WEBB. FORM OF BEQUEST. £ bequeath the sum of £ to the Roya Society oF New South Watss, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within calendar months after my decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose. [Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society of New South Wales by Legactes, are recommended to instruct their Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest. | LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE Aopal Society of Slew South ales. P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s Transactions or Journal; papers published in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society are also included. The numerals indicate the number of such contributions. ae oa Members. ected. 1877 ;P.5| Abbott, W. E., ‘Abbotsford,’ Wingen. 1895 Adams, J.H.M., Broughton Cottage, St.James’ Rd., Waverley. 1904 Adams, William John, M. I. Mech. E., 163 Clarence- street. 1890 | P2| Allan, Percy, M. Inst. C.B., Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C.E., Engineer-in-Charge : of Bridge Design, Public Works Department, Sydney. 1898 Alexander, Frank Lee, c/o Messrs. Goodlet and Smith Ld., Cement Works, Granville. 1877 Anderson, H. C. L., u.a., Principal Librarian, Public Library of N. S. Wales, Macquarie-street. 1903 Arnott, Arthur James, A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., M.I.E.E., Electrical Engineer, 83 Pitt-street. 1902 Arnott, John M., ‘ Strathfield,’ Strathfield. 1899 | P1| Atkinson, A. A., Chief Inspector of Collieries, Department of 1878 1894. 1900 1894 1896 1895 1901 1903 1894. 1877 1876 1900 1869 1901 1888 1893 Mines, Sydney. Backhouse, Alfred P., m.a., District Court Judge, ‘ Melita,” Elizabeth Bay. P 8| Baker, Richard Thomas, F.t.s., Curator, Technological Museum.. Bale, Ernest, c.z., Public Works Department. {Balsille, George, ‘ Lauderdale,’ N.K. Valley, Dunedin, N.Z. Barff, H. E., m.a., Registrar, Sydney University. P8| Barraclough, S. H., B.u., M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst.c.E, Memb. Soc. Promotion Eng. Education; Lecturer in Mechanism and Applied Thermodynamics, Sydney University; p.r. ‘ Mar- mion,’ Victoria-street, Lewisham. Bartholomew, Charles P., 361 George-street. Bayly, Francis William, ‘Assayer, Royal Mint, Sydney. Baxter, William Howe, Chief Surveyor Existing Lines Office,. Railway Department, Bridge-street. Belfield, Algernon H., ‘ Eversleigh,’ Dumaresq. Benbow, Clement A., 48 College-street. Bender, Ferdinand, Accountant and Auditor, 21 Elizabeth-. street, North. P 2| Bensusan, 8S. L., Equitable Building, George-st., Box 411 G.P.O. Birks, Lawrence, B.Se,, Assoc. M. Inst.C.E., A.M.I.E.E., F.G.S., City Electrical Engineer, Christchurch, New Zealand. {Blaxland, Walter, F.R.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., Mount Barker, South Australia. Blomfield, Charles E., B.c.z. Melb., ‘ Woombi,’ Kangaroo Camp,. Guyra. (x.) Elected 1898 Blunno, Michele, Licentiate in Science (Rome), Government Viticultural Expert, Department of Agriculture, Sydney. 1879 {Bond, Albert, 131 Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-street. 1904 Bosch, Ernest, Consulting Optician, Mutual Life Building, Martin Place. 1891 Bowman, Archer S., B.E., ‘Keadue,’ Elizabeth Bay Road. 1893 Bowman, John, Assoc. . Inst.C.E., c/o T. A. Kemmis, Esq., 168 Phillip-street. 1876 Brady, Andrew John, Lic, K. & Q. Coll. Phys. Irel., Lic. R. Coll. Sur. Irel., 3 Lyons Terrace, Hyde Park. 1891 Brennand, Henry J. W., B.A., M.B., Ch, M. Syd., F.R.A.S., F.C.8.5 231 Macquarie-street. 1902 Brereton, Victor Le Gay, Solicitor, Tattersall’s Chambers, Hunter-st.; p.r. ‘Osgathorpe”’ Gladesville. 1878 {Brooks, Joseph, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., ‘ Hope Bank,’ Nelson-street, Woollahra. 1876 Brown, Henry Joseph, Solicitor, Newcastle. 19038 Bruck, Ludwig, Medical Publisher, 15 Castlereagh-street. 1898 tBurfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.A., B.sc, M.B., Ch. M. Syd., 811 Glebe Road, Glebe Point. 1891 | P7| Burge, Charles Ormsby, ™. mst.c.z., ‘ Fitz Johns,’ Alfred-street, N., North Sydney. President. 1890 Burne, Dr. Alfred, Dentist, 1 Lyons Terrace, Liverpool-street. 1880 Bush, Thomas James, M. Inst. C.E., Engineer’s Office, Australian Gas-Light Company, 163 Kent-street. 1876 Cadell, Alfred, Coramba, vid South Grafton. 1902 Calder, Robert A., Dentist, 87 Philip-street. 1904. Cambage, Richard Hind, F.u.s., Chief Mining Surveyor, Park Road, Burwood. 1904 Cameron, John Mindoro, Engineer, Public Works Department; p.r. 29 Bligh-street. 1900 Canty, M., ‘Rosemont,’ 13 York-street, Wynyard Square. 1876 Cape, Alfred J.,m.a. Syd.,‘ Karoola,’ Edgecliffe Rd.‘ Edgecliffe. 1897 | P 3 | Cardew, John Haydon, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., L.8.,75 Pitt-street. 1901 Card, George William, a.R.s.M., F.G.S.,Curator and Mineralogist to the Geological Survey, N.S.W., Department of Mines. 1891 Carment, David, F.1.A. Grt. Brit. § Irel.,F.¥.A. Scot., Australian Mutual Provident Society, 87 Pitt-st. Hon. Treasurer. 1903 Carslaw, H. S., m.a., D.8c, Professor of Mathematics, Sydney University, Glebe. 1879 | P1|{Chard, J. S., Licensed Surveyor, Armidale. 1878 Chisholm, Edwin, m.R.c.s. Eng., u.s.a. Lond., Roslyn Gardens, Rushcutters Bay. 1885 Chisholm, William, mu.p. Lond., 189 Macquarie-street, North. 1896 | P 1] Cook, W. E., m.c.u. Melb., m. inst. c.z, District Engineer, Water and Sewerage Department, North Sydney. 1904 Cooksey, Thomas, Ph. D., B. 8e. Lond., F.1.c., Second Government Analyst; p.r. ‘Clissold,’ Calypso Avenue, Mosman. 1903 Cooper, David John, m.a., ‘Grasmere, 151 Stanmore Road, Stanmore. 1876 Codrington, John Frederick, m.R.c.s. Eng., ‘L.R.c.P. Lond., L.R,C.P. Edin., ‘ Wynwood,’ Wahroonga. Elected 1876 1882 1891 1892 1886 1870 1875 1890 1876 1877 1886 1892 1885 1877 1899 1894 1875 1880 1876 1899 1873 1894 1879 1876 1904 (xi.) Colyer, J. U. C., ‘Malvern,’ Collingwood and Seymour-streets, Drummoyne. | Cornwell, Samuel, Australian Brewery, Bourke-st., Waterloo. Pal P3 P18 P12 Py P 4 Coutie, W. H., ms.,chs, Melb., ‘Warminster,’ Canterbury Road, Petersham. Cowdery, George R., assoc. M. Inst.c.e., Engineer for Tramways, Phillip-street; p.r. ‘Glencoe,’ Torrington Rd., Strathfield. Crago, W. H., m.x.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.p. Lond., 16 College-street, Hyde Park. Croudace, Thomas, Lambton. Dangar, Fred. H., c/o Messrs. Dangar, Gedye, & Co., Mer- cantile Bank Chambers, Margaret-street. Dare, Henry Harvey, M.E., Assoc, M. Inst. C.E., Roads and Bridges Branch, Public Works Department. Darley, Cecil West, M. Inst.c.z., 34 Campden Hill Court, Camp- den Hill Road, Kensington, London, W. Darley, The Hon. Sir Frederick, G.c.M.G., B.a,, Chief Justice, Supreme Court. David, T. W. Edgeworth, B.A., F.G.S., F.R.8., Professor of Geology and Physical Geography, Sydney University, Glebe. Davis, Joseph, M. Inst.c.e., Under Secretary, Department of Public Works. Deane, Henry, M.A., m.iInst.c.z,, ‘ Blanerne,’ Wybalena Road, Hunter’s Hill. Deck, John Feild, u.p. Univ. St. Andrews, u.R.c.P. Lond., M.R.C.S. Eng., 203 Macquarie-st.; p.r. 92 Elizabeth-st., Ashfield. De Coque, J. V., c/o Messrs. Gibbs, Bright & Co., 37 Pitt-st. Dick, James Adam, B.A. Syd., m.p., c.m. Edin., ‘ Catfoss,’ Belmore Road, Randwick. Dixon, W. A., F.c.s., Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland, 97 Pitt-street. Dixson, Thomas Storie, u.s. Edin., Mast. Surg. Edin., 287 Elizabeth-street, Hyde Park. Docker, Ernest B., u.a. Syd., District Court Judge, ‘ Eltham,’ Edgecliffe Road. Duckworth, A., A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-st.; p.r. ‘Trentham,’ Woollahra. Du Faur, E., F.R.G.8., ‘ Flowton.” Turramurra. Edgell, Robert Gordon, Roads and Bridges Office, Bathurst Etheridge, Robert, Junr., J.p., Curator, Australian Museum p.r. 21 Roslyn-street, Darlinghurst. Evans, George, Fitz Evan Chambers, Castlereagh-street. Evans, James W., Chief Inspector, Weights and Measures ; p.r. ‘Glenthorne,’ 4 Railway-street, Petersham. (xii.) Elected 1896 Fairfax, Charles Burton, S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 1877 {Fairfax, Edward Ross, S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 1896 Fairfax, Geoffrey E., $. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 1868 Fairfax, Sir James R., Knt., 8. M. Herald Office, Hunter-st. 1887 Faithfull, R. L., u.p. New York (Coll. Phys. & Surg.), L.B.c.P., L.s.A. Lond., 18 Wylde-street. 1902 Faithfull, William Percy, Barrister-at-Law, Australian Club, 1897 Fell, David, ca.a., Public Accountant, Equitable Building, George-strest. 1881 Fiaschi, Thos., M.D., m. ch. Pisa, 149 Macquarie-street. 1891 Fitzgerald, Robert D., c.z., Roads and Bridges Branch, Department of Public Works, Sydney; p.r. Alexandra-st., Hunter’s Hill. 1888 Fitzhardinge, Grantly Hyde, m.a. Syd., District Court Judge, ‘Red Hill,’ Beecroft, Northern Line. 1900 tFlashman, James Froude, u.p. Syd., ‘Totnes,’ Temple-street, Petersham. 1902 Fleming, Edward G., A.m.1.z.E., 16 O’Connell-street. 1879 tForeman. Joseph, M.8.¢.8. Eng., L.R.c.P. Edin., 141 Macquarie-st. 1881 Foster, The Hon. W. J., x.c., ‘Thurnby,’ 35 Enmore Road, Newtown. 1904 Fraser, James, Engineer-in-Chief for Existing Lines, Bridge-st 1899 French, J. Russell, General Manager, Bank of New South Wales, George-street. 1881 Furber, T. F., F.R.4.s.,‘Wavertree,’ Kurraba Road, Neutral Bay. 1899 Garran, R. R., M.A., c.M.c., Commonwealth Offices, Spting-st., Melbourne. 1876 George, W. R., 318 George-street. 1879 | Gerard, Francis, ‘ The Grange,’ Monteagle, near Young. 1896 Gibson, Frederick William, District Court Judge, ‘ Grasmere,’ Stanmore Road. 1859 Goodlet, J. H., ‘ Canterbury House,’ Ashfield. 1896 Gollin, Walter J., Australian Club. 1897 Gould, Major The Hon. Albert John, Senator, ‘ Eynesbury,’ Edgecliffe. 1886 Graham, Sir James, Knt., M.A., M.D., M.B., c.mM. Edin., 188 Liverpool-street. 1891 |P 1) Grimshaw, James Walter, M. Inst.c.E., M. I. Mech. E., &. Australian Club. 1899 | P 2} Gummow, Frank M., M.c.£., Assoc, M. Inst.c.E., Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-street. 1891 P 11) Guthrie, Frederick B., F.1.¢c., F.c.s., Chemist, Department of Agriculture, 136 George-street, Sydney. Vice-President. 1880 | P 2| Halligan, Gerald H., r.a.s., ‘Riversleigh,’ Hunter’s Hill. 1899 Halloran, Aubrey, B.A., LL.B., 20 Castlereagh-street. 1892 Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, t.s., Scott’s Chambers, 94 Pitt-st. 1887 | P7| Hamlet, William M., F.1.c., F.c.s., Member of the Society of Public Analysts; Government Analyst, Health Depart- ment, Macquarie-street, North. 1881 t{Harris, John, ‘ Bulwarra,’ Jones-street, Ultimo. (xiii.) Elected 1877 |P 18/[{Hargrave, Lawrence, Woollahra Point. 1884 | P 1} Haswell, William Aitcheson, m.A., D.8c, F.RB.S., Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University, Sydney; p vr. ‘ Mimihau,’ Woollahra Point. 1900 Hawkins, W. E., Solicitor, 88 Pitt-street. 1890 | P 2| Haycroft, James Isaac, m.z. Queen’s Univ. Ivel., assoc. M, Inst. C. ., Assoc. M. Cam. Soc. C.E., Assoc. M. Am. 3oc. C.E., M.M.& C.E,, M. Inst. C.H.1., L.S,* ‘The Grove,’ off Queen-street, Woollahra. 1891 | P1| Hedley, Charles, F.u.s., Assistant in Zoology, Australian Museum, Sydney. 1900 | P3| Helms, Richard, Experimentalist, Department of Agriculture. 1902 Hennessy, John Francis, Architect, Ashpitel Prizeman and Silver Medallist, Royal Institute of British Architects, City Chambers, 243 Pitt-street. 1899 Henderson, J., F.R..s., Manager, City Bank of Sydney, Pitt-st. 1899 Henderson, S., M.A., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Equitable Building, George-street. 1884 | P1} Henson, Joshua B., assoc. M. Inst.c.E., Hunter District Water Supply and Sewerage Board, Newcastle. 1904 Hill, John Whitmore, Architect, ‘Willamere,’ May’s Hill, Parramatta. 1876 | P2| Hirst, George D., F.n.a.s., 379 George-street. 1896 Hinder, Henry Critchley, u.s., c.m. Syd., Elizabeth-st., Ashfield. 1892 Hodgson, Charles George, 157 Macquarie-street. 1901 Holt, Thomas §8., ‘ Holwood,’ Victoria-street, Ashfield. 1904. Holt. Rev. Wilfred John, m.a., ‘ Kiora,’ Blackheath. 1891 | P 2| Houghton, Thos. Harry, m. inst. c.z., M. 1, Mech. E., 63 Pitt-street. 1877 Hume, J. K., ‘ Beulah,’ Campbelltown. 1894 | P 2| Hunt, Henry A., F. R. Met. 80c, Government Meteorologist, Sydney Observatory. 1903 Irvine, R. F., u.a., Examiner for Public Service Board; p.r. Musgrave-street, Mosman. 1891 Jamieson, Sydney, B.A., M.B., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 189 Liverpool- street, Hyde Park. 1904 Jaquet, John Blockley, a.R.s.m., ¥.a.s., Acting Chief Inspector of Mines, Geological Surveyor, ‘Cromer,’ 91 Phillip-street. 1900 Jarman, Arthur, a.z.s.m., Demonstrator in Assaying and - Chemistry, University of Sydney. 1903 Jenkinson, Edward H., m.1. Mech. z., 138 and 15 Macquarie Place 1904 Jenkins, R. J. H., Fisheries Commissioner, ‘ Pyalla,’ 13a Selwyn Pt street, Moore Park. 1902 Jevons, H. Stanley, u.a.Cantab., Bsc. Lond., Sydney University, Glebe. 1903 Johnston, J. Barre-, 20 Loftus-street ; p.r. Mosman. 1902 Jones, Henry L., Assoc. M. Am. Soc. c.E., 14 Martin Place. 1884 {tJones, Llewellyn Charles Russell, Solicitor, Falmouth Cham- bers, 117 Pitt-street. 1867 Jones, P. Sydney, m.p. Lond., F.R.c.s. Eng., 16 College-street, Hyde Park; p.r. ‘ Liandilo,’ Boulevard, Strathfield. 1876 | P2| Josephson, J. Percy, Assoc M. Inst.c.z., Stephen Court, 81 Eliza- beth-street; p.r. ‘Moppity,’ George-street, Dulwich Hill. 1878 Joubert, Numa, Hunter’s Hill. Elected 1883 1873 1877 1887 1903 1901 1891 1896 1892 1878 1881 1877 1878 1874 1901 1883 1901 1872 1884 1887 1892 1897 1878 1868 Pi Pay Pi P 54 (xiv.) Kater, The Hon. H. E., y.p., u.t.c., Australian Club. Keele, Thomas William, M. Inst.c.E., President, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. Keep, John, Broughton Hall, Leichhardt. Kent, Harry C., m.a., Bell’s Chambers, 129 Pitt-street. Kennedy, Thomas, Assoc. M. Inst. CE, Railway Construction Branch, Public Works Department. Kidd, Hector, Assoc. M. Inst. 0.E., ‘Craig Lea,’ 15 Mansfield-street, Glebe Point. King, Christopher Watkins, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. LS, Assistant Engineer, Harbours and Rivers Department, Newcastle. King, Kelso, 120 Pitt-street. Kirkcaldie, David, Commissioner, New South Wales Govern- ment Railways, Sydney. Knaggs, Samuel T, m.v. Aberdeen, F.R.c.S. TIrel., 5 Lyons Terrace, Hyde Park. Knibbs, G. H., F.r.4.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney p.r. ‘Spottiswoode,’ 28 Bland-street, Ashfield. Hon. Secretary. Knox, Edward W., ‘ Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Double Bay. Kyngdon, F. B., F.n.m.s. Lond., Deanery Cottage, Bowral. Lenehan, Henry Alfred, F.R.4.s., Acting Government Astro- nomer, Sydney Observatory. Lindeman, Charles F., Wine Merchant, Jersey Rd., Strathfield. Lingen, J. T., w.a. Cantab.., 167 Phillip-street. Little, Robert, ‘The Hermitage,’ Rose Bay. Liversidge, Archibald, m.a. Cantab., Lu,D., F.R.S., Hon. F.B.S. Edin., Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, Lond.; F.C.S., F.G.8,, F.R-G.S.; Fel. Inst Chem. of Gt. Brit. and Irel.; Hon. Fel. Roy. Historical Soc. Lond.; Mem. Phy. Soc. Lond.; Mineral- ogical Society, Lond.; Edin. Geol. Soc.; Mineralogical Society, France; Corr. Mem. Edin. Geol. Soc.; New York Acad. of Sciences; Roy. Soc., Tas.; Roy. Soc., Queensland; Senckenberg Institute, Frankfurt; Société da’ Acclimat., Mauritius; Foreign Corr, Indiana Acad. of Sciences ; Hon. Mem. Koy. Soc., Vict.; N. Z. Institute; K. Leop. Carol. Acad., Halle a/s; Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, The University, Glebe; p.r. ‘The Octagon,’ St. Mark’s Road, Darling Point. Vice-President. MacCormick, Alexander, m.p., c.m. Edin., m.R.c.s. Eng., 125 Macquarie-street, North. MacCulloch, Stanhope H., m.s., c.m. Edin., 24 College-street. McDonagh, John M., B.a., M.D., M.B.C,P. Lond., F.B.C.8. Irel., 173 Macquarie-street, North. MacDonald, C. A., c.H:, 63 Pitt-street. MacDonald, Ebenezer, J.P., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co. Ld., 2 Spring-street. MacDonnell, William J., F.n.A4.s., 4 Falmouth Chambers, 117 Pitt-street. Elected 1903 1891 1904: 1900 1891 1893 1876 1904: 1880 1903 1876 1901 1894 1900 1899 1882 1883 1880 1897 1875 1903 1896 1887 1903 P9 PI Pal P19 P5 (xv.) McDonald, Robert, Commissioner, Western Land Board. Castlereagh-street. McDouall, Herbert Crichton, m.r.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.p. Lond., D.P.H. Cantab., Hospital for Insane, Gladesville. MacFarlane, Edward, J.p., Under Secretary for Lands, p.r. 12 Fitzroy-street, Milson’s Point, North Sydney. McKay, G. A., Federal Public Service Commissioner’s Office, Macquarie-st.; p.r. ‘Edgeroi,’ Clifton Avenue, Burwood. McKay, R. T., c.z., ‘Tranquilla,’ West-street, North Sydney. McKay, William J. Stewart, B.Sc. M.B., Ch.M., Cambridge-street, Stanmore. Mackellar, The Hon. Charles Kinnaird, m.u.c., u.B., c.m. Glas., Equitable Building, George-street. McKenzie, Robert, Sanitary Inspector, (Water and Sewerage Board), ‘ Stonehaven Cottage,’ Bronte Road, Waverley. McKinney, Hugh Giffin, u.z. Roy. Univ. Irel., M. Inst. CE., Exchange, 56 Pitt-street; p.r. ‘ Dilkhusha,’ Fuller’s Road, Chatswood. McLaughlin, John, Solicitor, Clement’s Chambers, 88 Pitt-st. MacLaurin, The Hon. Sir Henry Normand, M...c., M.A., M.D., L.R.C.S. Hdin., Lu.D. St. Andrews, 155 Macquarie-street. McMaster, Colin J., Chief Commissioner of Western Lands; p.r. Wyuna Road, Woollahra Point. McMillan, Sir William, ‘Logan Brae,’ Waverley. MacTaggart, A. H., p.p.s. Phil. U.S.A., King and Phillip-sts. MacTaggart, J. N.C., B.z. Syd., Water and Sewerage Board, 341 Pitt-street. Madsen, Hans F., Hesselmed House,’ Queen-st. Newtown. Maiden, J. Henry, J.p., F.u.s., Hon. Fellow Roy. Soc., S.A.; Hon. Memb. Nat. Hist. Soc., W.A.; Netherlands Soc. for Promotion of Industry; Philadelphia Coll. Pharm.; Pharm. Soc. N.S.W.; Brit. Pharm. Conf.; Corr. Fellow Therapeutical Soc. Lond.; Corr. Memb. Pharm. Soc. Great Britain ; Bot. Soc Edin.; Soc. Nac. de Agricultura (Chile); Soc. d’ Horticulture d’ Alger; Union Agricole Calédonienne; Soc. Nat. etc. de Chérbourg; Roy. Soc., Tas.; Government Botanist and Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Aon. Secretary. : Manfred, Edmund C., Montague-street, Goulburn. Marden, John, B.A., M.A. LL.B. Melb., Lu.p. Syd., Principal, Presbyterian Ladies’ College, Sydney. Mathews, Robert Hamilton, t.s., Assoc. Etran. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris; Cor. Mem. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A.; Cor. Mem. Anthrop. Soc., Vienna; Cor. Mem. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust., Queensland, ‘Carcuron,’ Hassall-st., Parramatta. Meggitt, Loxley, Manager Co-operative Wholesale Society, Alexandria. Merfield, Charles J., F.n.a.s., Observatory Sydney. Miles, George E., u.R.c.p. Lond., u.z.c s. Eng., The Hospital, Rydalmere, near Parramatta. Minell, W. Percy, Incorporated Accountant, Martin Chambers, Moore-street. Elected (xvi.) 1889 | P 3| Mingaye, John C. H, r.1.c., F.c.s., Assayer and Analyst to the 1879 1877 1879 1887 1876 1893 1901 1891 1873 1893 1903 1896 1875 1891 1883 1903 1880 1878 1901 1899 1877 1877 1899 1879 1896 1881 1879 1887 1896 1897 P6 Pi Pr Department of Mines, Government Metallurgical Works, Clyde; p.r. Campbell-street, Parramatta. Moore, Frederick H., Illawarra Coal Co., Gresham-street. {Mullens, Josiah, F.R.G.s., ‘ Tenilba,’ Burwood. Mullins, John Francis Lane, u.a. Syd., ‘Killountan,’ Challis Avenue, Pott’s Point. Munro, William John, B.A., M.B., C.m., M.D. Hdin., M.B.¢.8. Eng., 213 Macquarie-street; p.r. ‘ Forest House,’ 182 Pyrmont Bridge Road, Forest Lodge. Myles, Charles Henry, ‘ Dingadee,’ Burwood. Nangle, James, Architect, Australia-street, Newtown. Newtown, Roland G., ‘ Walcott,’ Boyce-street, Glebe Point. tNoble, Edwald George, Public Works Department, Newcastle. Norton, The Hon. James, M.u.c., LL.D., Solicitor, 2 O’Connell- street; p.r. ‘Eccleshourne,’ Double Bay. Noyes, Edward, c.£., c/o Messrs. Noyes Bros., 109 Pitt-street. Old, Richard, Solicitor, ‘Waverton,’ Bay Rd., North Sydney. Onslow, Lt. Col. James William Macarthur, Camden Park, Menangle. O'Reilly, W. W. J., M.D. M.ch., Q. Univ. Irel., u.x.c.s. Eng., 197 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park. Osborn, A. F., Assoc, M. Inst. C.E, Public Works Department, Cowra. Osborne, Ben. M., J.P., ‘ Hopewood, Bowral. Owen, Rev. Edward, b.a., All Saints’ Rectory, Hunter’s Hill. Palmer, Joseph, 96 Pitt-st.; p.r. Kenneth-st., Willoughby. Paterson, Hugh, 197 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park. Peake, Algernon, Assoc. M. Inst.CE., 25 Prospect Road, Ashfield. Pearse, W., Union Club; p.r. Moss Vale. Pedley, Perceval R., 227 Macquarie-street. Perkins, Henry A., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co. Ld., 2 Spring-st. Petersen, T. Tyndall, Member of Sydney Institute of Public Accountants, Martin Chambers, 6 Moore-st.; p.r. Harold- street, Gordon. Pittman, Edward F., Assoc. R.S.M,, LS. Under Secretary and Government Geologist, Department of Mines. Plummer, John, ‘ Northwood,’ Lane Cove River; Box 413 G.P.O. Poate, Frederick, Lands Office, Moree. Pockley, Thomas F. G., Commercial Bank, Singleton. Pollock, James Arthur, B.z. Roy. Univ. Irel., B. Se. Syd., Pro- fessor of Physics, Sydney University. Pope, Roland James, B.A. Syd., M.D., C.M., F.R.C.S. Hdin, Oph- thalmic Surgeon, 235 Macquarie-street. Portus, A. B., Assoc. M.Inst.C.E, Superintendent of Dredges Public Works Department. Elected 1893 1901 1876 1899 1902 1904 1865 1901 1890 1870 1902 1903 1893 1885 1892 1884 1895 1904. 1882 1864 1897 1893 899 892 856 903 1877 1904 Pal Pil (Xvil. ) Purser, Cecil, B.A., M.B. Chm. Syd., ‘Valdemar,’ Boulevard, Petersham. Purvis, J. G. 8., Water and Sewerage Board, 311 Pitt-street. Quaife, F. H., m.a., u.p., Mast. Surg. Glas., ‘Hughenden,’ 14 Queen-street, Woollahra. Rae, J. L. C., ‘ Endcliffe,’ Church-street, Newcastle. Ramsay, Arthur A., Assistant Chemist, Department of Agri- culture, 186 George-street. Ramsay, David, Surveyor, Lyons Road, Five Dock. P1|{Ramsay. Edward P., u.p. St. And., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., 8 Palace- Pi Pi By PZ P 69 street, Petersham. Raymond, Robert S., Brewer, c/o Messrs. King & Co., Leichhardt Rennie, George E., B.A. Syd., M.D. Lond., u.R.c.s. Eng., 159 Macquarie-street. {Renwick, The Hon. Sir Arthur, Knt., u.u.c., B.A. Syd., M.D., F.R.C.S. Edin., 325 Elizabeth-street. Richard, G. A., Mount Morgan Gold Mining Co., Mount Morgan, Queensland. Rooke, Thomas, A.m.1.c.E., Electrical Engineer, Town Hall, Sydney. Roberts, W. S. de Lisle, c.z., ‘ Kenilworth,’ Penshurst. Rolleston, John C., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works Department. Rossbach, William, Assoc, M. Inst. C.E., Chief Draftsman, Harbours and Rivers Rranch, Public Works Department. Ross, Chisholm, u.p. Syd., u.B., c.M., Hdin., 147 Macquarie-st. Ross, Herbert E., Consulting Engineer and Architect, Equit- able Building, George-street. Ross, William J. Clunies, Bsc. Lond. & Syd., F.a.s., Lecturer in Chemistry, Technical College, Sydney. Rothe, W. H., Colonial Sugar Co., O’Connell-street, and Union Club. Russell, Henry C., B.a. Syd., C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F, B. Met. Soc, Hon. Memb. Roy. Soc. S. Australia, Sydney Observatory. Russell, Harry Ambrose, B.A. Solicitor, c/o Messrs. Sly and Bussell, 379B George-street; p.r. ‘Mahuru,’ Milton-street, Ashfield. Rygate, Philip W., m.a., B.E., Syd., Assoc. M. Inst.C.E., Phoenix Chambers, 158 Pitt-street. Schmidlin, F., 83 Elizabeth-street, Sydney. P 1| Schofield, James Alexander, F.c.s., A.R.8.M., University, Sydney. P 1|tScott, Rev. William, m.a. Cantab., Kurrajong Heights. Scott, William B., Principal, Homebush Grammar School, p.r. Albert Road, Strathfield. P 4| Selfe, Norman, M. Inst. C.E., M.I. Mech. E., Victoria Chambers, 279 George-street. P1' Sellors, R. P., 8.4. Syd., ‘Cairnleith,’ Springdale Road, Killara. (xviii. ) Elected 1891 Shaw, Percy William, M. Inst.c.E, Resident Engineer for Tram- way Construction, p.r.‘ Epcombs,’ Miller-st. North Sydney. 1883 | P3| Shellshear, Walter, M. Inst.c.E., Inspecting Engineer, Existing Lines Office, Bridge-street. 1909 Simpson, R. C., Technical College, Sydney. 1882 Sinclair, Eric, u.p., c.m. Glas., Inspector-General of Insane, 9 Richmond Terrace, Domain; p.r. Cleveland-street, Wahroonga. 1893 Sinclair, Russell, M. I. Mech. £.,etce,, Consulting Engineer, Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-street. 1884. Skirving, Robert Scot, M.B., C.m. Edin., Elizabeth-st.,Hyde Park. 1891 | P3| Smail, J. M, M.inst.c.E, Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. 1904 | P1| Smail, Herbert Stuart Inglis, B.z. Syd., Assistant Engineer, Public Works Department; p.r. ‘ Clytha,’ Neutral Bay. 1893 |P 28) Smith, Henry G., F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. 1874 | P 1 |tSmith, John McGarvie, 89 Denison-street, Woollahra. 1899 Smith, R. Greig, D.Sc. Edin., MSc., Dun., Macleay Bacteriologist, ‘Otterburn.’ Double Bay. 1886 Smith, Walter Alexander, M. Inst.c.E., Roads, Bridges and Sewerage Branch, PublicWorks Department; 12a Phillip-st. 1896 Spencer, Walter, m.D. Bruw., 138 Edgeware Koad, Enmore. 1904 Stanley, Henry Charles, M. Inst.c.E., Royal Chambers, Hunter and Castlereagh-streets. 1892 | P1/ Statham, Edwyn Joseph, Assoc, M. Inst. C.E,, Cumberland Heights, Parramatta. 1900 Stewart, J. D., m.x.c.v.s., Government Veterinary Surgeon, Department of Mines and Agrioulture; p.r. Cowper-street, Randwick. 1903 Stoddart, Rev. A. G., The Rectory, Manly. 1883 |P3| Stuart, T. P. Anderson, m.p., Lu.p. Edin., Professor of Physiology, University of Sydney; p.r. ‘ Lincluden,’ Fairfax Road, Double Bay. 1901 Siissmilch, C. A., Technical College, Sydney. 1893 tTaylor, James, B.Sc, A.R.S.M. Nymagee. 1899 Teece, R., F.1.A., F.F.A., General Manager and Actuary, A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-street. 1861 |P 19) Tebbutt, John, F.R.4.s., Private Observatory, The Peninsula, Windsor, New South Wales. 1896 Thom, James Campbell, Solicitor, ‘Dunoon,’ Eurella-street, Burwood. 1896 Thom, John Stuart, Solicitor, Athenzsum Chambers, 11 Castle- reagh-atreet. 1878 Thomas, F. J., Hunter River N.S.N. Co., Sussex-street. 1879 Thomson, The Hon. Dugald, m.u.R., ‘ Wyreepi,’ Milson’s Point. 1885 | P2| Thompson, John Ashburton, u.p., Bruz., D.P.H. Cantab., M.B.C.S. Eng., Health Department, Macquarie-street. 1896 Thompson, Capt. A. J. Onslow, Camden Park, Menangle. 1892 Thow, William, M. Inst. C.E., M. I. Mech. E., Locomotive Department, Eveleigh. 1888 Thring, Edward T., F.R.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Lond., 225 Macquarie- street. Elected 1894 1894 1879 1900 1883 1884 1890 1892 1903 1876 1904: 1898 1879 1899 1901 1900 1891 1903 1901 1898 1902 1877 1883 1876 1876 1897 1903 1892 1867 1902 1881 1879 iP (xix.) Tidswell, Frank, M.B., M.Ch., D.P.H. Cantab., Health Department, Sydney. Tooth, Arthur W., Kent Brewery, 26 George-street, West. Trebeck, P. C., F. R. Met. Soc., 12 O’Connell-street. Turner, Basil W., A.B.S.M., F.c.s., Wood’s Chambers, Moore-st. Vause, Arthur John, mu.z., c.m. Edin., ‘ Bay View House,’ Tempe. Verde, Capitaine Felice, Ing. Cav., vid Fazio 2, Spezia, Italy. Vicars, James, M.C.E., M.Inst.C.E., City Surveyor, Adelaide. Vickery, George B., 78 Pitt-street. Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.Sc Demonstrator in Physics, University of Sydney. Voss, Houlton H., J.p., c/o Perpetual Trustee Company Ld., 2 Spring-street. Vogan, Harold Sebastian, Assoc. M. Inst, C.E., Authorised Surveyor N.Z., Chief Draftsman, Existing Railways N.S. W.,Bridge-st. P1| Wade, Leslie A. B., Assoc, M. Inst.C.E., Department of Public Works iPa5 Walker, H. O., Commercial Union Assurance Co., Pitt-street. {Walker, Senator J. T., ‘ Rosemont,’ Ocean-street, Woollahra. Walkom, A. J., A.M.1.E.E., Mem. Elec. Assoc. N.S.W., Electrical Branch, G.P.O. Sydney. Wallach, Bernhard, B.u. Syd,., Electrical Engineer, ‘Oakwood,’ Wardell Road, Dulwich Hill. Walsh, Henry Deane, B.z., T.c. Dub., M. Inst. C..E, Engineer-in- Chief, Harbour Trust, Circular Quay. Walsh, Fred., 28 Elizabeth-st.; p.r. ‘Walworth,’ Park Road, City E. Walton, R. H., F.c.s., ‘ Flinders,’ Martin’s Avenue, Bondi. Wark, William, 9 Macquarie Place; p.r. Kurrajong Heights. -Warren, Ernest W.., B.E., B.A., LL.B., Barrister-at-Law, Wigram Chambers, Phillip-street. Warren, William Edward, B.A., M.D., M.Ch., Queen’s University Trel., u.d. Syd., 283 Elizabeth-street, Sydney. Warren, W. H., Wh.Sc., M.Inst.C.E, Professor of Engineering, University of Sydney. Vice-President. Watkins, John Leo, B.a. Cantab., m.a. Syd. Parliamentary Draftsman, Attorney General’s Department, Macquarie-st. Watson, C. Russell, u.x.c.s. Hng., ‘ Woodbine,’ Erskineville Road, Newtown. Webb, Frederick William, c.u.c., 5.p.. ‘ Livadia,’ Manly. Webb, A. C. F., Consulting Electrical Engineer, Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-street. Webster, James Philip, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.. L.S., New Zealand, Town Hall, Sydney. Weigall, Albert Bythesea, B.A. Oxon., m.a. Syd., Head Master, Sydney Grammar School, College-street. Welsh, David Arthur, M.D. M.A.,B.Sc, Professor of Pathology, Sydney University, Glebe. {Wesley, W. H. [Whitfeld, Lewis, m.a. Syd., ‘Glencoe,’ Lower Forth-street, Woollahra. (xx.) Elected 1892 White, Harold Pogson, rF.c.s., Assistant Assayer and Analyst, Department of Mines; p.r. ‘ Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn. 1877 White, Rev. W. Moore, a.M., LL.D., T.c.D. 1883 Wilkinson, W. Camac, u.v. Lond., m.R.c.P. Lond., u.R.c.s. Eng., — 213 Macquarie-street. 1876 Williams, Percy Edward, Comptroller, Government Savings Bank, Sydney. 1901 Willmot, Thomas, J.P., Toongabbie. 1878 Wilshire, James Thompson, F.R.H.S., J.P., ‘ Coolooli,’ Bennet Road, Neutral Bay. 1879 Wilshire, F. R., Police Magistrate, Penrith. 1890 Wilson, James T., u.s., Master Surgeon, Edin., Professor of Anatomy, University of Sydney. 1873 Wood, Harrie, J.e., 10 Bligh-street; p.r. 54 Darlinghurst Road. 1891 Wood, Percy Moore, t.R.c.p. Lond., M.R.c.s. Eng., ‘ Redcliffe,’ Liverpool Road, Ashfield. 1876 | P1| Woolrych, F. B. W., ‘ Verner,’ Grosvenor-street, Croydon. 1902 Wright, John Robinson, Lecturer in Art, Technical College, Harris-street, Sydney. 1879 Young, John, ‘ Kentville,’ Johnston-street, Leichhardt. HoNoRARY MzEMBERS. Limited to Thirty. M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal. 1901 Baker, Sir Benjamin, K.C.M.G., D.Sc, LL.D., F.B.S., etc., 2 Queen Square Place, London, S.W. 1875 Bernays, Lewis A., C.M.G., F.L.S., Brisbane. 1900 Crookes, Sir William, Fr.x.s., 7 Kensington Park Gardens, London W. 1875 | M | Ellery, Robert L. J., F.R.s., F.R.4.s., c/o Government Astrono- mer of Victoria, Melbourne. “ 1887 Foster, Sir Michael, m.p., F.R.s., Professor of Physiology, University of Cambridge. 1875 | M | Gregory,The Hon.Sir Augustus Charles, K.c.M.G., M.L.C., F.B.G.8. Brisbane. 1875 | P1| Hector, Sir James, K.c.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., late Director of the M Colonial Museum and Geological Survey of New Zealand, Wellington, N.Z. 1880 | M | Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, k.c.s.1., M.D., C.B., F.B.8., &¢., C/o Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. 1892 Huggins, Sir William, K.c.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S., &c., 90 Upper Tulse Hill, London, S.W. 1888 | P1| Hutton, Captain Frederick Wollaston, F.a.s., Curator, Canter- M bury Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand. 1901 Judd, J. W., c.B., F.R.s., F.G.8., Professor of Geology, Royal College of Science, London. 1903 Kelvin, Right Hon. William Thomson, Lord, 0.M., G.c.v.o., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., etc., 15 Eaton Place, London, S. W. 1903 Lister, Right Hon. Joseph, Lord, 0.M., B.A., M.B., F.R.C.S. D.C.L., F.R.S., etc., 12 Park Crescent, Portland Place, London, W. (xxi. ) Elected 1901 Newcomb, Professor Simon, LL.D., Ph, D., For. Mem. R.S. Lond., United States Navy, Washington. 1894. Spencer, W. Baldwin, u.a., c.M.G, F.R.S., Professor of Biology, University of Melbourne. 1900 | M | Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William Turner, K.c.M.G., C.1.E., M.A., B.Sc. F.R.S., F.L.S., Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. 1895 Wallace, Alfred Russel, pD.c.u. Oxon., Lu.D. Dublin, F.R.S., Old Orchard, Broadstone, Wimborne, Dorset. OxBITAURY 1904. Ordinary Members. 1885 Allworth, J. Witter 1876 Gipps, F. B. 1874 King, Hon. Philip Gidley 1878 Low, Hamilton Lambart 1876 Mackenzie, Rev. P. F. 1873 Trebeck, P. N. OBITUARY 1905. 1878 | Dean, Alexander 1856 Moore, Charles AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL. Established in memory of THE LATE Revp. W. B. CLARKH, m.a., F.R.8., F.G.S., &C., Vice-President from 1866 to 1878. To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. 1878 Professor Sir Richard Owen, k.c.B., F.R.S., Hampton Court. 1879 George Bentham, c.m.a., F.R.s., The Royal Gardens, Kew. 1880 Professor Thos. Huxley, F.z.s., The Royal School of Mines, London- 4 Marlborough Place, Abbey Road, N.W. 1881 Professor F. M‘Coy, F.n.s., F.a.s., The University of Melbourne. 1882 Professor James Dwight Dana, tu.p., Yale College, New Haven, Conn., United States of America. 1883 Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G ,M.D., PH.D., F.B.S., F.L.S., Government Botanist, Melbourne. 1884 Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.s., F.a.8., Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa. 1885 Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, k.c.s.1., ¢.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D. &¢., late Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. (xxii. ) 1886 Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p., University of Liége, Belgium. 1887 Sir James Hector, K.c.M.G., M.D,, F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand, Wellington, N.Z. 1888 Rev. Julian E. Tenison- Woods, F.a.s., F.L.S., Sydney. 1889 Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.s., F.R.A.s., Government Astrono- mer of Victoria, Melbourne. 1890 George Bennett, u.p. Univ. Glas., F.R.0.8. Eng., F.L.S8., F.Z.8., William Street, Sydney. 1891 Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.r.s., F.c.s., Curator, Can- terbury Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand. 1892 Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, K.c.M.G.,C.1.E.,M.A., B.S¢., F.B.8., F.L.s., Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. 1893 Professor Ralph Tate, F.u.s., F.a.s., University, Adelaide, S.A. 1895 Robert Logan Jack, F.a.s., F.R.G.S., Government Geologist, Brisbane, Queensland. 1895 Robert Etheridge, Junr., Government Paleontologist, Curator of the Australian Museum, Sydney. 1896 Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, C.M.G., M.L.C., F.R.G.S., Brisbane. 1900 Sir John Murray, Challenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh. 1901 Edward John Eyre, Walreddon Manor, Tavistock, Devon, England. 1902 F.Manson Bailey, F.u.s., Colonial Botanist of Queensland, Brisbane. 1903 Alfred William Howitt, r.e.s., Hon. Fellow Anthropol. Inst. of Gt. Britain and Ireland, ‘ Eastwood,’ Bairnsdale, Victoria. AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE. The Royal Society of New South Wales offers its Medal and Money Prize for the best communication (provided it be of sufficient merit) containing the results of original research or observation npon various subjects published annually. Money Prize of £25. 1882 John Fraser, B.A., West Maitland, for paper on ‘ The Aborigines of New South Wales.’ 1882 Andrew Ross, m.p., Molong, for paper on the ‘Influence of the Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’ The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25. 1884 W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper on ‘ Water supply in the Interior of New South Wales.’ 1886 S. H. Cox, r.a.s., F.c.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘The Tin deposits of New South Wales. 1887 1888 1889 1889 1891 1892 1894 1894 1895 1896 (xxiii.) Jonathan Seaver, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘ Origin and mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated Minerals. Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.4.8., F.L.S., Sydney, for paper on ‘ The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.’ Thomas Whitelegge, r.R.m.s., Sydney, for ‘ List of the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and Neigh- bourhood. Rev. John Mathew, mu.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper on ‘The Australian Aborigines. Rev. J. Milne Curran, Fr.c.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘The Microscopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’ Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper on ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has produced upon Indigenous Vegetation.’ J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper on the ‘ Timbers of New South Wales.’ R. H. Mathews, u.s., Parramatta, for paper on ‘The Aboriginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales.’ C. J. Martin, B.Sc, M.B. Lond., Sydney, for paper on ‘The physio- logical action of the venom of the Australian black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).’ Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper on ‘The occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of the Deposits in which they are found.’ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By F. B. GUTHRIE, F.I.C., F.C.S., (Chemist, Department of Agriculture, N.S.W.; Acting Professor of Chemistry, The University, Sydney.) [Delivered to the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, May 4, 1904. | ACCORDING to established usage it is my privilege to submit for your information a short résumé of the work done by the Society during the past year. I propose to add a few remarks dealing with the position of Chemistry in the State. No special comment is necessary on the work of the Society. Its scientific activity you will be able to estimate from the long list of papers published dealing with original matters, from the large number of our exchanges with foreign scientific societies, and from the programme of popular science lectures submitted to you. The number of our members has remained at about the same figure as last year, a result which I think we are justified in regarding as satisfactory when all things are taken into consideration. Financial Position.—The Hon. Treasurer’s Financial Statement shows that the financial affairs of the Society are in a fairly satisfactory condition. The Library.—from the balance sheet submitted this evening, it will be seen that the sum of £85 3s. 4d. was expended on books and periodicals, the binding amounted to £1 19s. 6d. Exchanges.—Last year we exchanged our Journal and Proceedings with 431 kindred societies, receiving in return 328 volumes, 1,/29 parts, 207 reports, 178 pampblets, 5 chronographical tables, 1 geographical map and 2 geological charts ; total 2,450. A—May 4, 1904. 2 F. B. GUTHRIE, Papers read in 1903.—During the past year the Society held eight meetings, at which 19 papers were read, the average attendance of members was 33 and of visitors 2. ArT, I,—PRESIDENTIAL AppREss. By Professor W. H. Warren, Wh. Sc., M. Inst. C.E., M. Am, Soc. C.E, Art. II.—Language of the Bungandity Tribe, South Australia. By R. H. Maruews, u.s., Associé étranger Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris. Art. III.—Notes on Tide-Gauges with a description of a new one. By G. H. HALLIGAN, L.s., F.G.8. [ With Plates | Art. IV.—The Sand-Drift Problem in New South Wales. By J. H. Marpen, F.u.s., Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Art. V.—Aluminium the chief inorganic element in a Proteaceous Tree, and the occurrence of Aluminium Succinate in trees of this species. By Henry G. Smita, F.c.s., Assistant Curator Technological Museum, Sydney. [With Plate] Art. VI.—Economic Effect of Sanitary Works. By J. Haypon CARDEW, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E. [With Plates] Art. VII.—Sand-Drift Problem of Arid N.S. Wales. By Couin J. McMasrur, Chief Commissioner of Western Lands. [ With Plate] Art. VIII.—The Aboriginal Fisheries at Brewarrina. By R. H. MATHEWS, L.s., Associé étranger Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris. [With Illustrations | Art. IX.—The Separation of Iron from Nickel and Cobalt by Lead Oxide (Field’s Method). By T. H. Lasy, Junior Demonstrator of Chemistry, University of Sydney. (Communicated by Professor LIVERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.) Art. X.—Pot Experiments to Determine the Limits of Endurance of different Farm-Crops for certain Injurious Substances. By F. B. GurTuRiz, F.1.c., F.c.s., and R. Heims. Art. XI.—Bibliography of Australian Lichens. By E. CHEEL. (Communicated by J. H. Marpen, F.L.s.) Art. XII.—On the Protection of Iron and other Metal Work. By Wixuiiam M. Hamer, F.1.¢., F.c.s., Government Analyst. Art. XIII.—A Comparison of the Periods of the Electrical Vibra- tions associated with Simple Circuits. By J. A. PoLtock, B,sc., Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney; with an Appendix by J. C. Ctosz, Deas-Thompson Scholar in Physics. ArT. XIV.—A Contribution to the Study of the Dielectric Constant of Water at Low Temperatures. By O. U. VoNWILLER, B.Sc., Demonstrator in Physics in the University of Sydney. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 Art, XV.—The Narraburra Meteorite. By A. Liversinge, Lu.p., F.R.S., HON. F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. [With Plates] Art. XVI.—Notes on some Native Dialects of Victoria. By R.H. MatHews, u.s., Corres. Memb. Anthrop. Soc., Washington. U.S.A. [With Illustration | Art. XVII.—On some further observations on the Life-history of Filaria immitis, Leidy. By Tuos. L. BAncrort, mu.s. Edin. Art. XVIII.—On the Elastic Radial Deformations in the Rims and Arms of Fly-wheels, and their Measurement byan Optical Method. By A. Boyp, B.Sc., B.E., Stud. Inst. C.E, (Communicated by Prof. W. H. WARREN, Wh. Sc., M. Inst. C.E.) Art. XIX.—The Geology of Mittagong. By T. Grirrita TayLor, Deas-Thomson Scholar in Geology and D. Mawson, 8.z., Junior Demonstrator in Chemistry, Sydney University. (Communicated by Prof. T. W. EpazwortH Davin, B.A., F.G.S., F.B.S.). [| With Plates | Sections.—The Hngineering Section held two Sessions at which 13 papers were read and discussed; the average attendance of members was 49 besides many visitors. ART. XX.—Introductory Remarks. By 8S. H. BARRAcLOUGH, B.z., M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst. 0.E., Chairman of the Section. Art. XXI.—Water Conservation and the Equitable Distribution of Water for Irrigation and other purposes. By H. G. McKinney, M.E,, M. Inst. C.E. Art. XXII.—Property in Water. By GzoRGE CHAMIER, M, Inst.C. E, ArT. XXIII.—The Hydraulic Aspect of the Artesian Problem. By G. H. Knipps, F.r.A.s., University of Sydney. ArT. XXIV.—The question of the Occurrence of Living Organisms in the Artesian Waters. By Professor W. A. Haswsut, M.A., D.Sc.. F.R.S, Apt. XXV.—The Chemical Nature of the Soils of New South Wales with special reference to Irrigation. By F. B. GUTHRIE, F.I.C., F.C.8. ArT. XXVI.—A Review of Water Conservation in New South Wales. By L. A. B. Wanps, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Art. XXVII.—Relation of Electricity to Irrigation Works and Land Development. By Tuomas Rooks, Assoc. M. Inst, C.E. Art. XX VIII.—Irrigation Geologically Considered with special reference to the Artesian Area of New South Wales. By Epwarp F. PITTMAN, A.R&.s.M., and T. W. EpGEwortH Davin, B.A., F.R.8. [With Plates] 4 F. B. GUTHRIE. Art. XXIX.—An Economic Aspect of Artesian Boring in New South Wales. By Jamzs Bouutsexz, Superintendent of Artesian Bores. Arr. XXX.—The Measurement of the Flow of Streams and Artesian Bores, as carried out by the Public Works Depart- ment of New South Wales. By H.S. I. Smait, B.u., Assis- tant Engineer. Art. XXXJI.—The Murray Waters. By R. T. McKay, c.z. Art. XXXII.—The High Speed Electric Railway Trials on the Berlin-Zossen Line of 1901, 1902 and 1903. By C.O. Bures, M., Inst. C.E. Lectures.—A course of three science lectures and one Clarke Memorial Lecture was delivered during the Session and were well attended. May 28th—‘‘The Development of the Railway,” py C. O. Burcz, M. Inst. C.E. June 25th—‘ The Australian Flora,” by R. T. BAKER, F.L.s. Oct. 22nd—*“ Water,”’ by Prof. LiveRsiDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Sept. 24th—(Clarke Memorial) “The Life and Work of the Rev. W. B. Clarke,” by Prof. T. W. EparwortH DaAvip, B.A., F.G.8., F.B S. Conversazione.—A very successful Conversazione was held in the Great Hall of the University on Thursday, August 27th, 1903. Roll of Members.—The number of members on the Roll on the 30th April, 1903, was 344. During the past year 22 members were elected: the deaths numbered 6 and resignations 13, leaving a total of 347 to date. The following is a list of members who have died during the year: T. R. Firth; elected 1891. Hamilton L. Low; elected 1878. Dr. F. Norton Manning; elected 1876. Dr. William Morris; elected 1877. Dr. Thomas Pickburn ; elected 1876. Hon. J. T. Toohey; elected 1876. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5 ON THE PRESENT POSITION OF CHEMISTRY AND OF CHEMISTS IN NEW SouTH WALES. Following the example of many of my predecessors, I shall address myself to the discussion of the particular Science in which I am interested, and shall review briefly the position of scientific chemistry in the State at the present time. The information collected for your perusal may not be quite complete; there may be chemical and analytical work done by private firms of which I am ignorant, but on the whole, [ think the following notes indicate fairly the work that is being done in New South Wales. I have added some suggestions as to the manner in which, in my opinion, the value of that work can be increased, and I submit these suggestions for your con- sideration. TEACHING INSTITUTIONS. The University.—Of the teaching institutions, the University makes the most ample provision for the teach- ing of chemistry. About 300 students are in attendance at lectures, and about 150 do practical work in the laboratories. Courses are arranged for students in arts, science, medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, and in civil, mechanical, electrical and mining engineering; the students in mining and metallurgy as well as those in dentistry going through a course in metallurgy and assaying. Courses of lectures on inorganic and organic chemistry are given, and the laboratory work includes qualitative and quantitative analysis, organic analysis and preparations. Facilities for research are provided, there being a separate laboratory where advanced students can undertake research work under the direction of Professor Liversidge. Some of the investigations carried out have been brought before this Society during the past year. We have had contributions from Prof. Liversidge on “‘the Narraburra Meteorite ’’; from Mr. Laby on ‘“‘ the estimation of Ni and Co’’; from 6 F. B. GUTHRIE. Mr. Mawson and Mr. Griffith Taylor on “the Geology of Mittagong,’’ which includes analyses of rocks from the Mittagong district. 7 Mr. Petrie has obtained a special Caird Scholarship of £100, which has enabled him to investigate the nature of the products obtained by the distillation of New South Wales shale. Mr. Laby is applying for a grant from the Royal Society to enable him to test rigorously the experiments of Landolt, indicating an alteration in weight during chemical change. Mr. Mawson, who has just returned from a scien- tific expedition to the New Hebrides with Capt. Rason, R.N., is engaged on an examination of the rocks which he has there collected. Within the last few years a well-equipped metallurgical and assaying laboratory has been erected, where students in mining and metallurgy receive a complete course of instruction in these subjects, including assaying and technical analysis and bulk treament of ores. Professor Liversidge is assisted by Mr. J. A. Schofield, A.R.S.M., (now Acting Professor) Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry in charge of the Chemical Laboratories, and Mr. A. Jarman, A.R.S.M., in charge of the Metallurgical Laboratory. Technical Colleges.—At the Sydney Technical College the teaching of chemistry has been recently placed under the direction of Mr. W. J. Clunies Ross, B.sc., (Lond.) Lecturer-in-Charge of Chemistry and Metallurgy, recently Resident Master-in-Charge of the Bathurst Technical College. The chemistry teaching at the Technical College includes two-year courses in theoretical and practical chemistry for ordinary students, advanced students doing quantitative analysis. There is in addition a two- year course in metallurgy and assaying. Hngineering students receive a two-year course and attend lectures in metallurgy during their third year. Similar classes are — PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 7 held in the branch Technical Colleges at Bathurst, Goul- burn, Newcastle, Maitland, Broken Hill, Lithgow, and Hillgrove. The chemical laboratory was first brought into existence by the School of Arts Committee, who were the forerunners of the Board of Technical Hducation, since merged in the Department of Public Instruction. The School of Arts Committee appointed Mr. W. A. Dixon, F.I.c., in charge of the chemistry teaching of the new institution in 1878. Mr. Dixon remained in charge of the laboratory until a few years ago when he resigned. The present teacher in metallurgy and assaying is Mr. A. H. Stewart, B.E. A two-year course in organic chemistry and analysis is given by Mr. H. G. Smith, Assistant Curator and Chemist to the Technological Museum. Mr. Smith has in addition taken up the subject of the chemistry of the Hucalypts, and has brought before you a number of papers embodying the results of his researches. This work has been under- taken in conjunction with Mr. R. T. Baker, Curator of the Technological Museum, and the happy combination of botanist and chemist has resulted in the compilation of a monograph of more than ordinary interest on the subject of our Hucalypts. Hawkesbury Agricultural College.—At the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, chemistry both theoretical and practical, is taught, including analysis. The instruction is of course mainly directed towards such branches of the science as are of use in agricultural work, but a good grounding in the general principles is insisted upon by the Principal, Mr. H. W. Potts, himself a chemist. Chemistry is also efficiently taught at some of the larger schools. These however, hardly come within the scope of this address. 8 F. B. GUTHRIE. GOVERNMENT LABORATORIES. The Government Analyst.—Through the courtesy of the present Government Analyst, Iam able to place before you some information relative to the first Government Analyst, Mr. J. S. Norrie. Mr. Norrie’s was the first chemical appointment made in New South Wales, and consequently (as at that date Australia had not yet been divided into States) in Australia, a fact that will make any details con- nected with his life to be of interest to a scientific audience. The information is supplied by his son, Mr. T. H. Norrie, now chemist to the Customs Department. The first Government Analyst, JAMES SMITH NORRIE, was born at Bethnal Green, London, in the year 1820; and died at Sydney, New South Wales, March 1883, aged 63 years. Mr. Norrie was educated at the Blue Coat School, London, receiving his chemical training in the laboratory and busi- ness of John Bell, 338 Oxford Street, London, being associ- ated with his son, Jacob Bell (one of the founders of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain) attending also the scientific lectures at King’s College, and was one of the first members of the then recently formed Chemical Society. In the beginning of the year 1840 he came to Australia, intending to join an uncle in charge of British troops in New South Wales, and a little later in the same year, (1840) he established a chemist and druggist business in Pitt Street, and was the first wholesale and retail chemist and druggist here. In the year 1844 he was appointed Govern- ment Chemist. As this was before the partition of Aus- tralia into States, Mr. Norrie was in fact Government Analyst for all Australia, and his attendance at distant parts of the continent necessitated his absence from Sydney for many weeks and even months together, to the detriment of his business. Mr. Norrie afterwards established his laboratory at Lyons’ Terrace, Sydney, where he worked | PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 7) until his retirement. He held the position of Government Analyst till 1871, conducting all Government work for New South Wales, afterwards also for Queensland and Victoria, when these were created separate States. The position carried no fixed salary, but was carried on in conjunction with his pharmaceutical business, various fees being paid for certain classes of work, such as consultations, assaying minerals, examination of waters, foods, and general analyses for legal purposes. This latter portion of the work very often entailed long journies and considerable loss of time, as all evidence had to be given on oath in the colony or dis- trict from which the case was received. In the early days a considerable amount of interesting work arose in connection with gold and silver assays, (all of which had to be sent to the Government Chemist by the banks and Government) and the smelting of the gold re- ceived into bars. When the question of the water supply to Sydney was under consideration in 1857, he was appointed to the Committee and carried out the examination of the water and soils of the district which provided what was afterwards known as the Botany Water Supply to the City of Sydney. On the the death of the Prince De Condé (then on a visit to Sydney) at Petty’s Hotel, he undertook, by request, the task of embalming the remains and forwarding them to France, and received from the French Government a letter of thanks and a gift for hisservices. He thus carried out the first embalmment in Australia of human remains. At the French Exhibition in Paris of 1855 he exhibited a fine collection of minerals from Australia, (the first shown from these dominions) which aroused a considerable amount of interest at the time and drew attention to our mineral resources. For this he received from the authorities a special certificate signed by Napoleon Buonaparte (now in the possession of Mr. T. H. Norrie). 10 F. B. GUTHRIE. In many of the earlier events of the Colony he was associated with such well known men as W. Wentworth, Richard Hill, W. B. Dalley, John Robertson, and Dr. George Bennett, and was one of the founders of the first Volunteer Force, serving himself with the Mounted Rifles and on the Committee of Defence. Particulars of a number of sensational trials in New South Wales and Queensland, in which the detection of poison in human remains and blood stains and hair on hatchets and knives led to the conviction and execution of murderers, together with many other interesting mementoes of his official relation with the Government, and pertaining to the early history of the Colony, have unfortunately been destroyed by a fire that took place in his home. In 1871 Mr. Norrie was succeeded by Mr. CHARLES WATT, who came out from England in 1854 to enter upon the duties of chemist in the soap and candle industry, then about to be established on the strength of the success of the pastoral work of the early squatters, whereby an abundance of raw material, such as tallow and other animal products, could be obtained cheaply. With the development of photography in the young country, came the demand for both nitrate of silver and chloride of gold, which Mr. Watt prepared and supplied to the photographers. Native silver was then unknown, and the only available silver was that to be obtained from the pawnbrokers’ shops. It is believed on the testimony of those who knew Mr. Watt that many rare specimens of valuable wrought silver plate were sacrificed to do duty in providing the silver salts used in the wet-plate photography of those days. Mr. Watt was appointed Government Analyst in 1872 and was after- wards made Hxaminer of Explosives and Inspector of Kerosene. In the years that followed, the work increased so rapidly, that some ten years later a special laboratory PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ll was built, which stood for many years at the corner of Albert and Macquarie Streets, near the Water Police Court, on the spot where now stand the offices of the Department of Public Health. After the gold rush, tin ore was discovered in New England, and as buyers and sellers would only do business on Mr. Watt’s certificate, assaying for tin occupied a large part of his time; so that it became necessary to increase the staff of analysts to cope with the influx of samples from the Mines Department. Mr. Watt was assisted by Dr. Max Hartung, Mr. Janitzky, Mr. Mingaye (now head of the Mines Laboratory staff), Dr. Rennie (now Professor of Chemistry in the University of Adelaide), Mr. Doherty, and Mr. Leipner. Mr. Watt and Dr. Leibius were Examiners of Patents for this State. In 1886, Mr. Watt retired and was succeeded by Mr. HAMLET the present Government Analyst. : At this period mining and work of ali kinds was prosper- ous, and assaying and analytical work increased so rapidly that the work of Hxaminer of Explosives as well as that of Inspector of Kerosene were separated, and the Mer- cantile Explosives Department established. Alsoaseparate laboratory was established for the assaying work of the Mines Department and for mineral and rock analyses under the control of Mr. Mingaye, and later, on the establishment of the Department of Agriculture, a separate laboratory was founded for agricultural chemical work. The work of the Government analyst now consists of the analyses of the drinking water supplied to the city of Sydney and all country towns in New South Wales; water from tanks, wells, artesian bores and public watering places; waters collected by sanitary inspectors on the outbreak of any epidemic or zymotic disease in which the water is suspected; waters used for steam purposes on 12 F. B. GUTHRIE. railways. Paints, lubricants, oils, stone, cement, asphalte, metals and materials used in building construction, the clothing of police, soldiers, postmen, prison and asylum warders; foods, drugs, soap and stores used in asylums and charitable institutions are alsoexamined. Foods and drugs taken by the inspectors in the working of the Public Health Act, and stomachs and other internal organs sent by the police and Department of Justice come here together with medicines and drugs used for illegal purposes. Coal, water and general stores used in His Majesty’s navy; kerosene, petroleum spirit, motor-car fuel and dangerous goods sub- mitted by the Department of Navigation; articles such as illicit spirits, beer, etc., for the Excise; articles from the the Customs involving questions of duty; spirits from the different hotels sent by the police, methylated spirits and tobacco all contribute to the work of this department. Mr. Hamlet is assisted by Messrs. T. Cooksey, Ph. D., F.LC., W. M. Doherty, F.I.c., and H. V. Nicholls. The Analyst and Assayer, Department of Mines.—The chemical work required by the Department of Mines was in the early days of the department performed by Mr. W. A. Dixon, F.I.C., F.c.S., and later, by the late Government Analyst, Mr. Charles Watt. In 1887, the work largely increasing, the Department of Mines decided to equip a chemical laboratory of their own, and a start was made in that direction in the old buildings situated under the Geo- logical Museum in Macquarie-street. Mr.J.C.H.Mingaye, who had held the position of assistant to the Government Analyst for some years, was appointed to take charge. In 1890 the chemical laboratory was removed to the premises at present occupied by the Agricultural Chemical Laboratory, and on the starting of the Government Metallurgical Works at Clyde, in 1896, was again removed to the new buildings. The premises have been added to on several occasions, and are thoroughly equipped with appliances and apparatus, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13 The staff consists of two chemists (Mr. J. O. H. Mingaye, F.I.c., etc., and Mr. H. P. White); two junior chemists, two assayers, one labourer, one care-taker, and one laboratory attendant. The work of this branch consists largely in experimental and analytical work in connection with the treatment of ores, metallurgical products, alloys etc., analyses of water, minerals, rocks etc., and wet and dry assays for various metals. The following papers recording the results of chemical investigations undertaken in the Mines Laboratory have lately been published in the Geological Survey Records:— | I. ‘‘Analcite-Basalt Rocks from the Sydney District,”’ (Card, Mingaye, White). II. “Notes and Analyses of Olivine-Basalt Rocks from Sydney District,’’ (Mingaye, White). III. ““Notes from the Chemical Laboratory, Department of Mines,” (J. C. H. Mingaye). IV. “On the Occurrence of Monazite in the Beach Sands of the Richmond River, N.S.W.”’ (J. C. H. M.) V. ‘“‘Chemical Notes on Glaucophane Schists from Aus- tralia and New Caledonia,’’ (H. P. White). VI. “‘Notes on the Composition of Meteoric Iron from Bendoc, Victoria.’’ (J. C. H. M.) The Laboratory, Department of Agriculture.—In the laboratory of the Department of Agriculture chemical ques- tions relating to agriculture are dealt with, the routine work comprising analyses of soils, manures, waters, fodder-plants and foods, wheat and flour, and all kinds of agricultural products or substances used by the farmers. In addition, all chemical questions relating to the treatment of the soil and of crops receive consideration and investigation. For an account of the work I invite your perusal of the annual reports of the department. Records of investigations 14 F. B. GUTHRIE. which contain matter of more than usual scientific interest have been published in the Agricultural Gazette and in the Journal of this Society. The Laboratory, Customs Department, is under the direc- tion of Mr. T. H. Norrie, with two assistants, the chief being Mr, Peck. In Mr. Norrie’s laboratory, which is in the Customs building, work connected with the analysis of articles for revenue purposes is carried out. The work covers a large area, especially since the Federal Tariff has been in operation, and includes the examination of spirits for revenue purposes, alcohol, beer, bitters, extracts, etc., patent medicines, teas, oils—burning and lubricating—kero- sene by its flashing point, the discrimination of wool, silk, cotton in dress material and flax, hemp, and jute; paints and enamels, and so forth. The Chemical Laboratory, Explosives Department, is under the charge of Mr. W. C. Wain, F.c.s. Here are examined all explosives used for commercial purposes, principally mining. Every shipment which arrives is sampled and examined. The explosives for the Imperial Departments are examined by their own inspector of warlike stores. There appears to be no local supervision of ammunition etc. supplied to the State. Mr. Wain also makes examinations for the Railway Department in the case of the carriage of dangerous goods, and acts as Inspector of Magazines throughout New South Wales. The Laboratory, Royal Mint.—The operations at the Mint are of course principally of a chemical nature and include refining and assaying. This work is in the charge of Mr. Bayly, the chief assayer, with two assistant assayers. PRIVATE FIRMS EMPLOYING CHEMISTS. The Colonial Sugar Refining Company employs upwards of 70 chemists, partly at their laboratory in Sydney and PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15 partly in the different mills in Queensland, Fiji, New South Wales, and the refineries in New South Wales, New Zealand, Victoria, Queensland, and South Australia. As sugar manufacturing and refining are chemical processes, all the different operations are checked by analysis, as are also the waste products. Hach mill and refinery possesses its separate laboratory and staff of chemists engaged in routine analytical work, the head chemist at each establishment having control of the manufacture. The laboratory in Sydney, which is under the direction Of Mr. T. U. Walton, B.Sc, F.L.¢c., and Mr. T. Steel, F.L.S., F.c.S., controls the work of the other laboratories and mills. Here also the younger chemists receive their special training. Twenty-three years ago the company employed only a single chemist. Messrs. Elliott Bros. are the principal manufacturing chemists, and give employment to about 300 hands. They manufacture mineral acids, sulphuric, hydrochloric, hydro- fluoric and nitric acids as well as anhydrous ammonia and compressed carbon dioxide. Sulphuric acid is manufactured by the chamber process with all the most recent improve- ments, the output being about 16,000 tons annually, Jap- anese sulphur being used in its preparation, and the acid is principally utilized in the manufacture of superphosphates which form the basis of the chemical fertilizers, which are manufactured in large quantities by Messrs. Hlliott. Sul- phuric anhydride is also manufactured by the ‘ contact ’ process. Messrs. Hlliott Bros. are also our chief manu- facturers of pure chemicals, drugs and pharmaceutical pre- parations. They are also smelters of Bismuth. MHlliott Bros. have a similar manufactory at Brisbane. The Australian Drug Company are large manufacturers of pharmaceutical preparations, druggists’ proprietary articles and storekeepers’ sundries, the manufacture of which articles is under competent chemical supervision. 16 F. B. GUTHRIE. The Ammonia Company of Australia confine their oper- ations to the manufacture of anhydrous ammonia and of “liquor ammonie.’’ Large quantities of the first-named product are used in refrigerating and cool storage chambers locally, the liquor ammonize being principally used by the pharmacists. The manufactory, which is situated at Clyde, is under the direction of Mr. Alexander. Messrs. Lever Bros. the well-known soap-makers of Port Sunlight, have an establishment in Sydney, at Balmain, where they manufacture soap, glycerine, coco-nut oil and coco-nut oil-cake. The Co-operative Wholesale Society, Limited, have also a branch establishment in Sydney, where coco-nut oil and oil-cake, tallow, and manures are manufactured. The works and laboratory are under the control of Mr. Loxley Meggitt, F.1.C., F.C.S. Chemists and analysts are also employed by other private firms, such as pottery makers, brewers, etc., but not, as far as I am aware, to any large extent. STATISTICS. Returns published by the Government Statistician on April 27th, 1904, under the heading Drugs and Chemicals and including chemicals, drugs, medicines, fertilisers, paints, varnishes and bye-products show that 693 people are employed in chemical industries, and about £26,000 paid in wages. Of those actually employed as chemists the following return is taken from the last Census (1901):— Manufacturing chemists... Ms oo A Analytical chemists and analysts vin | abd Assayers... is - oad nan dy aa Metallurgists a% Sus eas » 0d i eee PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 17 It will, I think, be admitted that this is not a very long list, considering the great importance of the science in our manufacturing and industrial life. Chemistry is hardly represented even amongst the few industries which we possess, and which in other countries are carried on with chemical assistance. At the same time this state of things cannot be expected to continue indefinitely. In proportion as our existing industries become more robust and as new ones are established, the need for the advice and co-oper- ation of properly trained chemists will increase; indeed I am convinced that in proportion as the value of chemical assistance is recognised in those industries which involve chemical principles, (and these are very numerous) so will these industries flourish. | THE QUESTION OF QUALIFICATION. At the present time the number of those who make their livelihood by chemical or analytical work is limited, and the disadvantages under which they labour concern so small a class that they are perhaps hardly worth the serious con- sideration of the community. These disadvantages do however prevail, and their existence will be more keenly felt, and more difficult to remedy when the times come in which the growth of manufacturing industries, the increas- ing public interest in matters of public health and of edu- cation will create a demand for a larger body of men quali- fied for chemical work. The most serious disadvantage under which we work, and it is one that has equally serious consequences for the public, is the absence of any recognized chemical qualification. It will never be possible to prevent unqualified individuals from practising any more than it is possible to prevent unqualified men practising the profes- sions of medicine or dentistry, but it should at least be possible for those who employ chemists to be able to insist upon the attainment of some standard of proficiency which B—May 4, 1904, 18 F. B. GUTHRIE. shall ensure their competency. At present such a qualifica- tion does not exist in Australia. In Victoria, where they appear to possess the power of adapting themselves to changing conditions to a greater degree than we do, and to be able to recognize new requirements, a scheme has been mooted for the granting of certificates, either by the State or by a private corporation, of competency in analy- tical work. In continental countries every one practicing as an analyst is obliged to pass a State examination in chemistry. In England, the disadvantages accruing to the absence of any recognised qualification was severely felt many years ago, When it was the custom for the Borough Councils to appoint medical practitioners to act in the capacity of analysts, and prosecutions were undertaken on their cer- tificates in cases of adulteration of foods and drugs, ete. In order to remedy this state of things, the Institute of Chemistry was founded some 20 years ago by some of the leading English chemists. Its ohject was to provide a severe standard of examination which would ensure that none but properly qualified men should be admitted into its ranks. The value of this qualification is now firmly estab- lished in Great Britain, and in the appointmment of public analysts the possession of this qualification is becoming a sine quanon, Hxaminations are also held by the Institute in local centres, a matter of considerable convenience to those who desire to qualify themselves but are debarred by reason of distance from London. I would like to suggest that the State, as the largest and most responsible employer locally of this class of labour, should recognise this qualification. If the Public Service Board agreed that they would regard qualification by the Institute as an essential to any chemical appointment made by them, the Institute of Chemistry would meet their PRESIDENTIAL. ADDRESS. 19 wishes and sanction the holding of local examinations. Private employers and the public would very shortly fall into line. The time is in my opinion not far distant when some definite steps will have to be taken to ensure proper qualifications among chemists and analysts, just as it has been necessary in the case of medical men and dentists, and it will be far preferable to take advantage of the machinery of an existing institution whose qualification is acknowledged all over the world, than to create a new qualifying board whose decision will be discounted by reason of local jealousies and prejudices. | CO-ORDINATION IN SCIENTIFIC WORK. There is another matter with regard to the chemical work generally performed by the State, on which I would like to make a few remarks. In the brief review I have given of the growth of the chemical work undertaken by the State Departments, it will have been noticed that the procedure followed in the establishment of the different laboratories has been that of decentralisation. Originally the Government Analyst’s laboratory conducted the whole of the chemical work required by the State. As the requirements grew, and the work increased in volume with the development of the mining, pastoral, and agricultural industries, the work was split off from the original labora- tory and separate establishments were created. In the Same way the increase in the work of the Customs and the Explosives Department has led to the establishment of separate laboratories. This procedure is the reverse of that which has prevailed in other countries where the tendency has been towards centralisation and concentration under one control. In Hngland the various Government laboratories dealing with medico-legal investigations, public health, and agriculture have been amalgamated within the 20 F. B. GUTHRIE. last 15 years in the Government Laboratories at Somerset House under the direction of Professor Thorpe. Our system of splitting up the work does not, I conceive, necessarily imply greater efficiency, and is certainly not as economical as would be the maintenance of a single estab- lishment. I would go even further, and would like to see established a central scientific institute where all the scientific work (not the chemical alone) now conducted in the separate departments would be carried on. From the standpoint of economy there can be no comparison between this and the present system. The number of laboratories with their separate maintenances would be reduced to one. The routine work would be performed with the same effici- ency as at present and with no danger of its being duplicated. But the principal advantage to be gained would be the facilities it would afford for research work, which has now to be undertaken always at the risk of neglecting the routine work. Further than that there will be the advantage that definite schemes of investigation of subjects of importance to the community could be systematically carried out, and this applies more especially to investigations which require the co-operation of more than one branch of science. There are many very important problems that await solution in such domains for example as those of public health, stock, and agriculture, the solutions to which require long and systematic investigations to which it is impossible for the scientific officers in these departments to devote themselves, whilst the routine and administrative part of their work claims so much of their time. With ascien- tific institute such as I have sketched, investigations of this kind could be placed in charge of qualified men who could devote their whole time and energy to their solution. Even if it were not considered feasible to establish such an institute at the present time, much might be done to ABSENCE OF GUM AND PRESENCE OF A NEW DIGLUCOSIDE. 21 consolidate scientific work and increase its efficieney by the creation of a controlling Science Department, which would administer the different scientific establishments now under separate departmental control. The results which would shortly be obtained by the labours of such an administrative body, would also impress the public with the value of properly directed scientific work, and lead toa demand for better and more accessible instruction in science, and would assist the material pros- perity of the country as nothing else could. For, after all, however much legislation may favour or hinder commerce and industry, the pre-eminence of a country in this regard depends finally upon the energy and the intelligence of its people, and it is in the facility given to scientific research and the diffusion of scientific knowledge that the real foundation of the future prosperity of a country depends. On THE ABSENCE or GUM AND THE PRESENCE OF A NEW DIGLUCOSIDEH IN THE KINOS OF THE EHUCALYPTS. By Henry G. SMITH, F.c.S., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. [ Read before the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, June 1, 1904. | THIS paper is the first of a series which will deal princi- pally with the tannins and allied substances occurring in the kinos of the Hucalypts. The difficulties experienced in dealing with such a diverse group of substances as HKucalyptus exudations, were considerably simplified by the researches on the essential oils of the genus, and it is now felt that a systematic order and natural arrangement governs Kucalyptus kinos, similar tothat previously shown 99 HENRY G. SMITH. to exist in the oils. The results, so far obtained, strongly support the idea of evolution for the whole genus, as has already been advanced by Mr. Baker and myself.’ It has been possible to undertake a systematic investi- gation of a considerable number-of these exudations or kinos, because the Technological Museum is now in possession of, perhaps, the most extensive collection of these kinos, true to name, ever got together. These have been collected very largely by the Museum Botanical Collector Mr. W. Bauerlen, a few have been obtained from corres- pondents, and the remainder have been collected by my colleague Mr. R. T. Baker (to whom I am indebted for botanical assistance), by Mr. J. H. Maiden, and by myself. Tt is not proposed to embody the general results in these papers, but only those having a scientific or economic bearing, the study of which will help considerably towards increasing our knowledge of these very interesting sub- stances, so peculiar to Australia. If the statements given in the Encyclopedia Britannica (ninth edition), in reference to Kucalyptus kinos, be taken as a fair sample of the general knowledge respecting these exudations, it is seen how meagre and unsatisfactory this information is. The following quotation will illustrate this :—‘‘ according to Wiesner’ of Vienna, Australian kino contains a little catechin (a statement doubted by Fluckiger) and pyrocatechin, no pectinous matter but a gum nearly allied to that of Acacia.’”’ I shall eventually show that gum does not appear to be present in any Hucalyptus kino. In a series of papers by Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.L.s., pub- lished in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New + Research on the Eucalypts especially in regard to their essential oils, p. 16. * Zeitschr. d, allg. Oest. Apotheker, Vereines, abst. Pharm. Journ. [3] 2, 102. ABSENCE OF GUM AND PRESENCE OF A NEW DIGLUCOSIDE. 23 South Wales for 1889 and 1891,it was shown that Kucalyptus kinos can be divided roughly into groups, judged by their physical appearance, and by their behaviour in water and alcohol. He there divides them into three classes, the Turbid, the Ruby, and Gummy groups. As gum is absent in these kinos, the gummy group of course cannot stand, and for various reasons it would be advisable to discard the turbid group also. This general grouping has perhaps served its purpose by directing attention to their marked differences, but it would not be advantageous to future study, if this arrangement were longer retained, and no useful purpose would be served by so doing. There are several tannins in the Hucalyptus kinos, and the astringent principles of these exudations, together with the other allied substances, must necessarily be the dominant feature governing their classification, and the arrangement thus becomes purely a chemical one. The numerous constituents isolated from Hucalyptus oils were found to have a gradual increment, until the maxi- mum was reached in certain species. So it is with the kinos, and most of them are, therefore, a mixture of various tannins and allied’ substances, and there is no line of demarcation sharply separating one class from another. Hven the distribution of the kinos in the plants themselves is not similar; in some of the ‘“‘Ironbarks,’’ for instance, as H. crebra and EH. sideroxylon the kino is largely distri- buted throughout the bark itself, and consequently this is often charged with it, and then has some value for technical - purposes, as in tanning. In the “Stringybarks’”’ the astringent substance appears to be largely contained in the timber. It is worth notice also, that the inner layer of the bark of most of the true’ ‘* Stringybarks’’ contains E. resinifera (one of the Mahoganies), whose bark is also a ‘‘ Stringybark ” in character, but the kino is allied to that of the “ Ironbarks.”’ 24 HENRY G. SMITH. a yellow substance, perhaps identical with myrticolorin, the dye material of which is quercetin and the sugar glucose. In several other species of eucalypts the kino is distributed almost entirely throughout the timber, and tannin hardly occurs in the bark. This I have already shown in my paper on the saccharine and astringent exudations of the “‘Grey Gum’’ EK. punctata.’ The kinos occurring in the timber of this latter group usually contain crystallisable substances, as eudesmin, aromadendrin, etc., which appear to be quite absent in those exudations derived principally from the bark, as in the “‘Ironbarks.’’ It is thus seen that the location governs, to a certain extent, the constitution of the kino in any particular eucalypt. The tannin dealt with in this paper is that found in the kinos occurring largely in the bark of these trees, and it is in these kinos that the constituent, which has previously been looked upon as gum, occurs in greatest abundance. The peculiarity of being largely precipitated from a strong aqueous solution by alcohol, together with its practical insolubility in that substance, seems to have been the only reasons for considering it to be gum. During my work on these kinos, now extending over a considerable period of time, it became necessary to determine the class of carbo- hydrates to which this supposed gum belonged. The results were somewhat startling, because it was found that this particular substance is a peculiar tannin diglucoside and not gum. The fresh kino of Eucalyptus paniculata was taken for the investigation, because it is typical of this class of kinos, is readily soluble in water, and consists almost entirely of the glucoside. The species is also common in the immediate neighbourhood of Sydney, and it was thus possible to collect in quantity the freshly exuded kino. The eucalypts whose 1 Roy. Soc. N. S. W., Aug. 1897, p. 177. | ; 7 ; . 4 ABSENCE OF GUM AND PRESENCE OF A NEW DIGLUCOSIDE. 25 kinos contain this glucoside are somewhat numerous; it is present in a maximum amount in such species as EH. sider- oxylon, EH. crebra, H. siderophloia and EH. paniculata, or those known as “‘ Ironbarks”’ generally, and consequently the kinos from these trees are practically insoluble in alcohol, and for this and other reasons useless for tinctures; but in some species in which it can be detected, the greater portion of.the kino is soluble in alcohol, the glucoside not being present in sufficient amount to render the kino in- soluble. This again is characteristic of the chemical pro- ducts of Hucalyptus species generally, each one having diminishing constituents in some direction. Besides the insolubility in alcohol of this kino glucoside, its peculiarity is shown in another direction, as the sugar consists of a substance probably isomeric with melibiose— that portion of Kucalyptus sugar, originally named eucalyn, which is split off from levulose when melitose (raffinose) is heated with dilute acid—the only difference apparently being that it is inactive to light. This affinity is shown by the melting point of its osazone, and by the fact of this being entirely soluble in hot water. The sugar is also slowly but entirely fermented by yeast. According to KH. Fisher, the osazones of the simple glucoses are all insoluble in hot water, the diglucoses, however, such as lactose, gave an osazone soluble in hot water. Several different samples of the osazone were obtained from the sugar, but in no instance did the melting point exceed 178° O., the simple glucoses thus appeared to be absent. OC. Scheibler and H. Mittelmeier ina paper on the inversion products of melitose,* show that the osazone of melibiose melts at 176—178° O., and that it is soluble in hot water. They also show that the complete inversion of melitose requires protracted heating with sulphuric acid. ’ Ber. 22, 1678 — 1686. 26 HENRY G. SMITH. When a glucosidal Eucalyptus kino is hydrolised by boil- ing with sulphuric acid a “kino red’’ is formed in quantity, and the sugar appears to be scarcely changed into simple glucoses at this’ stage, because only a trace of an osazone insoluble in hot water was formed from it when thus separated. It thus appears probable that this tannin diglucoside, found in those Eucalyptus kinos which occur principally in the bark of certain species, takes the place of melitose found in those barks (EH. punetata for instance) in which the tannin does not occur in sufficient amount to form a compound with the sugar present. Besides the tannin in the kinos of this group is different. There appears to be no record that melitose (Hucalyptus manna) has ever been found on any species of Hucalyptus the kino of which contains this tannin diglucoside, nor on any species whose kino contains an identical tannin, but which is free from sugar in combination. This suggests the idea that melitose itself may be a glucoside, in which a member of the glucose group takes the place occupied by the tannin in the diglucoside. EH. Fisher and H. F. Armstrong have synthetically prepared’ several disac- charides, as Glucosidogalactose Galactosidoglucose Galactosidogalactose which have the properties and behave like glucosides. A Similar combination may perhaps be produced with the sugar of these kinos and the necessary member of the glucose group to form melitose, attempts in this direction will eventually be carried out. The tannins occurring in this glucoside, and also that of the kinos of the “‘Stringybarks,”’ as H. macrorrhyncha etc., * Ber. 1902, 35, 3144. ABSENCE OF GUM AND PRESENCE OF A NEW DIGLUCOSIDE. af and of the “‘Peppermints,”’ as EH. dives etc., as well as ina few others, appear to be identical substances, and have probably the same structural formule. The ‘‘kino red ”’ formed from all these had identical dyeing properties with mordanted cloth, and when fused with potash all gave pro- - tocatechuic acid and catechol; phloroglucinol was not formed by this method. The tinctures of the kinos of all these groups gelatinized with equal rapidity, and all gave very similar reactions with reagents which act on the tannin alone, except with ferric chloride. It may thus be supposed that one of the hydrogen atoms in one of the hydroxyl groups belonging to a catechol nucleus, is replaced in the kinos of the *‘ Ironbarks ”’ par- ticularly, by one Kucalyptus sugar residue, thus forming the tannin diglucoside. In the ‘“Stringybarks’’ and the ‘** Peppermint ”’ kinos this sugar appears to be absent, and my discovery in one of the “ Stringybarks”’ (H. macror- rhyncha) of the glucoside myrticolorin, the sugar of which is glucose, also points to this conclusion. The sugar in the tannin diglucoside appears to protect the tannin molecule from that: alteration common with the “Stringybark ’’ and ‘“‘Peppermint’’ kinos, because no matter how long the kinos of the ‘‘ Ironbarks ”’ are kept, they retain their ready solubility in water almost unim- paired, but when the same tannin is free from the sugar, change commences at once after exudation, and although but little coloured when freshly exuded, yet, as the phlo- bophenes form the kinos become darker and less soluble in water and alcohol, and after many years they are almost black and insoluble. By investigating, therefore, a freshly exuded non-glucosidal kino containing this particular tannin, and also free from the other tannins of these kinos, it may be possible to work out the structural formula for the tannin of the whole class of these kinos, glucosidal and 28 HENRY G. SMITH. otherwise. At present the kino of E. pilularis seems a desirable one for this purpose. | It will also be necessary to obtain a quantity of the sugar by the decomposition of the glucoside, so that its chemistry may be determined. So faras this investigation has gone, it appears that as the sugar is inactive to light it cannot be that portion of the melitose molecule known as melibiose, because that is dextrorotatory. CC. Scheibler and H. Mittelmeier (loc. cit.) show the final inversion products of melitose to be as follows:— OisH3201, + 2 HO = CyHi2Og + CeHi.0. + CsHwOe Galactose Dextrose Levulose but that it first splits up into ©,»Hs.0On + CeHieO. Melibiose Levulose. As the sugar of the glucoside is inactive to light, it is Supposed that the optical activity is neutralised by internal compensation. If this is so, then levulose probably forms a part of the original molecule of the first formed portion of Kucalyptus sugar. The osazone being identical with that obtained from melibiose may not influence the result, because it is well known that several distinct sugars give identical osazones. The products formed from the “‘ kino red”’ by fusion with potash is protocatechuic acid, and this indicates that two hydroxyls in the tannin molecule are in the ortho position relatively to each other, and as the product is the same with the non-glucosidal tannin, the sugar probably replaces the hydrogen atom in one of these hydroxyls, so that this portion of the molecule becomes OH » OO2H2: Oro That the amount of sugar present represents a diglucose is ABSENCE OF GUM AND PRESENCE OF A NEW DIGLUCOSIDE. 29 indicated in two directions, assuming of course a probable value for the tannin molecule, first by the actual amount of sugar and “‘kino red’’ obtained, and secondly by the relative astringency value of kinos containing a maximum amount of the glucoside, when compared with that of the non-glucosidal kinos containing the same tannin. The name Emphloin is proposed for this Hucalyptus kino diglucoside, because of its being ostensibly a bark product, which often accurs in great abundance throughout the bark of certain species. I would like to reserve to myself the further investigation of the sugar. HXPERIMENTAL. The glucosidal kinos of the “‘ Ironbarks,”’ of which that of EH. paniculata may be considered a type, are, when freshly exuded, transparent, and of a red garnet colour, but become much darker after exposure to light and air. They are exceedingly tough when fresh and air dried, but become less so by age, and are very brittle and readily powdered when the water has been driven off. They usually contain about 18 to 20 per cent. of water, but a little more when quite fresh. The “‘ Ironbark ’’ kinos con- sist almost entirely of the glucosidal tannin; this is shown by the relative astringency of the original kino, and of the purified glucoside; also by the colour reactions with ferric chloride, all of which indicate the absence of but a small amount of free tannin. Astringency value of kino, E. paniculata containing 22°78% water = 412. Astringency value of purified glucoside containing 11°75% water = 428. Glucoside corrected for 22°78% water = 371. Reactions with reagents.—After experimenting with a number of reagents, I have chosen the following, as being 30 HENRY G. SMITH. apparently, of the greatest value for discriminative purposes between the several groups and tannins of Eucalyptus kinos. Ferric chloride. Ferric acetate. Bromine water. Iodine in potassium iodide. Potassium dichromate. Cobalt acetate. . Aine acetate. Uranium acetate. Calcium hydrate. . Cupric sulphate and afterwards ammonia in excess. SSMNoue wp ok Lead acetate was of little value because it gave identical precipitates in solutions of all kinos. The solutions of the kinos were all one gram per litre, and all reactions given in this and subsequent papers are with that strength, excepting those with the ferric salts, as these reagents gave reactions more delicate and dis- tinctive when the solutions were further diluted to 1 of kino to 2 parts water, adding one drop of a strong solution 3 of the ferric salt and allowing this to fall through the solution in test tube without agitation. With the kinos of the ‘“‘Ironbarks,’’ and also with the glucoside, ferric chloride gave a brown-grey coloration becoming much lighter on Standing, anda dirty brown-grey flocculent precipitate was deposited after some hours. With ferric acetate, however, the colour was blue with a tinge of violet, and a dense dark blue precipitate quickly formed; this reaction is identical with that given by the kinos of the “Stringy- barks’’ and the ‘‘ Peppermints’”’ with either ferric chloride or ferric acetate, and it is thus evident that the sugar com- bination prevents the reaction with ferric chloride, although not with ferric acetate. The purified glucoside did not give precipitates with either 3 or 4 and the “‘ Ironbark ’’ kinos gave only traces, ABSENCE OF GUM AND PRESENCE OF A NEW DIGLUCOSIDE. 31 due evidently to the small amount of free tannin which they contain, because the “Stringybark ’’ kinos all give dense precipitates with these. The glucoside gave similar results in every other respect with the original °“‘ Ironbark’’ kino. The kinos of the ‘“‘Stringybarks,’’ etc., and the ‘“‘Tronbarks,’”’ as well as the glucoside, gave precipitates and behaved similarly with 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10, although with 5 the precipitate with the glucosidal kinos was longer in forming. With 9 the “Ironbark ’’ kinos gave a pinkish colour and a pink-brown precipitate, the “Stringybark ”’ kinos giving a purplish colour and a purple-brown precipi- tate. With 10 at first a greenish precipitate, and on adding ammonia in excess a dense dark brown flocculent precipitate was obtained. Preparation of the glucoside.—About half a pound of the freshly exuded kino of H. paniculata was dissolved in the smallest possible quantity of water, it was strained through cloth and to the clear liquid about 3 litres of alcohol added and allowed to stand over night. The precipitate had then separated as a solid somewhat dark coloured cake. The alcohol was removed, the cake broken up, washed in fresh alcohol, dissolved in the smallest quantity of water and again precipitated by alcohol. This process was repeated for the third time, and although the alcohol was scarcely coloured, yet the precipitate was somewhat dark and this was difficult to remove even by boiling with animal charcoal for a long time. The precipitate was finally dried at a low temperature and powdered. When heated at 100° C. it darkened considerably. The powder as thus prepared was of a cinnamon colour, had scarcely any odour, was astringent to the taste, was readily soluble in cold water, but quite insoluble in alcohol and in ether. Attempts to remove it from solution by solvents were not successful. It gave reactions similar to those of the 32 HENRY G. SMITH. original kino, and was entirely precipitated from solution by gelatin, separating well if a trace of alum was added ; the original kino, of course, acted similarly. When boiled with dilute acid the solution soon changed to red, and after continued boiling a copious deposit of a “‘kino red’’ was obtained. This had dyeing properties and gave a series of browns with mordanted cloth. To the filtrate from the ‘“‘kino red’’ basic acetate of lead was added in excess. The excess of lead in the colourless filtrate was removed by sulphuric acid, the filtrate neutralised and boiled with Fehling’s solution ; a copious precipitate of cuprous oxide was obtained. The substance in the kino precipitated by alcohol was thus shown to be a glucoside. Composition of the glucoside.—One gram of the powdered glucoside, containing 11°75» of water, was boiled for six hours with dilute sulphuric acid. The “‘ kino red’’ which separated on standing over night was filtered off, washed, and dried at 130 C. The amount obtained was 0°4733 gram equal to 47°33. The acid was removed by carbonate of barium, the small amount of tannin in solution by basic acetate of lead, and the excess of lead by sulphuretted hydrogen. The sugar in the filtrate was heated in water bath until constant in weight; this took several hours, and slight decomposition had taken place as indicated by the darkening and strong caramel odour. It is also doubtful whether it had been rendered perfectly anhydrous. The amount was 0°4447 gram or 44°47. As one molecule of water of hydrolysis had entered into the calculation the decomposition was apparently fairly complete, so that the general results indicate that two molecules of a glucose are present. A larger amount of the glucoside was then boiled in dilute sulphuric acid for six hours and the sugar prepared as above. When treated with yeast and inverted over mercury it slowly fermented, much more quickly ABSENCE OF GUM AND PRESENCE OF A NEW DIGLUCOSIDE. 30 when the temperature was raised to 28° C. or 30°C. When prepared for the polarimeter the sugar was found to be without rotation. Preparation of the osazone.—The osazone was prepared by heating on the water bath with phenylhydrazine in dilute acetic acid, but owing to its marked solubility in acetic acid it was difficult to prepare in quantity. The osazone was a yellow crystalline powder, soluble in hot water but separated again in microscopic crystals on cool- ing. It was somewhat soluble in alcohol and ether-alcohol, but did not dissolve readily in either ether, benzene or chloroform. It melted at 176—178° C. Decomposition of the “‘kino red’”’ by caustic potash.— A portion of the “kino red”’ obtained from the kino of E. paniculata was fused with 10 times its weight of caustic potash, adding a little water, and heating for half an hour at 150—170°C. The melt, which was of a very dark brown colour, was dissolved in water, acidified with sulphuric acid and extracted by ether. No volatile acid was detected when the solution was acidified. On evaporating the ether a crystalline substance was obtained; this was dissolved in water, acetate of lead added in excess, and the precipi- tate removed. The filtrate was acidified with sulphuric acid and extracted by ether, but only the merest trace of a substance was obtained and this did not give the reaction for phloroglucinol. The lead precipitate was decomposed by sulphuric acid, filtered, and extracted by ether. The ether on evaporation gavea well marked crystallised mass which when purified from water melted at 195—197° C., and gave all the reactions for protocatechuic acid, which acid it evidently was. The “‘kino red”’ obtained in a similar manner from the kino of EH. pilularis, and from two or three other species C—June 1 1904. 34 HENRY G. SMITH. belonging to this class, all gave identical results with the above when fused with caustic potash. Astringency values of the kinos.—After several trials the following method was adopted, and the values taken on the air dried kinos of nearly 100 species of Hucalyptus. The astringency value of some of these is very low, but these will be dealt with in a subsequent paper. The following solutions were prepared :— 1. Indigotin 5 grams and sulphuric acid 50 grams per litre, and filtered through paper before using. 2. Potassium permanganate 1 gram per litre. 3. Kino (carefully picked) 1 gram per litre. 4, Gallo-tannic acid 1 gram per litre. Standard colour solution. Ol The kinos were dissolved by heat if necessary. 10 cc. of the kino solution was added to 20 cc. of the indigotin in * litre of water contained in a large beaker, and titrated with the permanganate. The end reaction was best deter- mined by placing a beaker alongside, of the Same size as the one containing the tannin, and holding the same amount of liquid which was coloured to the exact yellow-green tint given by the indigotin solution when changing from the greenish tint to the yellowish one. This tint was easily adjusted by using the green solution obtained by boiling a few drops of alcohol with potassium dichromate solution, together with a solution of potassium chromate. The titration was carried out before a window with a good light, and the end reaction determined by looking through the liquids towards the light; one drop of permanganate was sufficient at this stage to bring about a readily detected change of colour. The permanganate was always added inthe same manner. The astringency value of gallotannic acid containing 14°43’ water was taken as 1000, and on this basis the following results were obtained :— ABSENCE OF GUM AND PRESENCE OF A NEW DIGLUCOSIDE, 35 Eucalyptus pilularis containing 18°32% water = 838 E. macrorrhyncha _ 18°0632 74. = 835 E. eugenioides i SPI eae teal E. paniculata a 2025 ee a ea 48 22°78% . —412 E. siderophloia aS 20728) 2 ee 09 E. sideroxylon “ WO AG 2 ee) 49 E. crebra ISG ce aI Glucoside bs 11i oe 408 It is thus seen that the kinos of the “‘ Ironbarks ’”’ have only about half the astringency value of the other three kinos, although the tannin appears to be the same in all of them. Tanning value by hide powder.—The ready and entire precipitation of the tannin of the glucosidal kinos by gelatin, makes it difficult to understand why it is that the tannin is not more readily absorbed by hide. The technical diffi- culty of the sluggishness of “‘ Ironbark ’’ liquors has long been known, but no scientific explanation has been advanced to account for this peculiarity. The reason is now apparent that it is the glucosidal nature of the ‘‘ Ironbark ’’ kinos (the kino being the principal tanning agent) that causes the unsatisfactory behaviour of this tanning material. To overcome this difficulty and thus make the tannin of the bark of H. sideroxylon, for instance, available for rapid absorption by hide, it will be necessary to devise some method of hydrolising the glucoside while in the pits, per- haps by means of an enzyme or corresponding substance. The following results were obtained with the kino of H. paniculata, and from which it is apparent that when pure, the tanning action of “Ironbark ”’ kino is particularly slow, Ten grams of air dried kino containing 2'025 grams of water and 0°064 gram bark and residue, were dissolved in 800 cc. of water, so that 100 ce. contained 0°989 gram solids. The 36 HENRY G. SMITH. solution was then passed through a column of hide powder by the method adopted in tannin determination by this process, when it was found that 100 cc. contained 6°8 grams, therefore 7:°911 — 6°8 = 1°111 gram, or 14°01) 9oieme ordinary kino was absorbed by hide powder, or 14°04% on the anhydrous kino. The residue thus obtained had all the characteristics of the original kino, and did not differ from it in any respect. On soME NATURAL GRAFTS BETWEEN INDIGENOUS TREKS. By J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S., Government Botanist and Director, Botanic Gardens. {With Plates I., IT.] [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 1, 1904. ] SOME months ago, Mr. R. Chappelow of George’s River, near Oatley, brought to me a fragment of wood bearing a rough and a smooth bark. On following the matter up he brought to me the remarkable specimen which I exhibit to-night. It is a composite log of timber showing the smooth bark and the red wood of White Gum (Hucalyptus heemastoma, Sm. var. micrantha, Benth.) and the fibrous bark and pale brown wood of Stringybark (E. capitellata, Sm.) The facts concerning the log are these: they were collected by Mr. J. L. Boorman, Collector, Botanic Gardens, on my behalf :—‘‘ There was originally a Stringybark tree, hollow with age and the top had disappeared. From near the bottom a sucker of the old tree had sprung up, inside the tree. Inside, presumably springing from a stray seed, NATURAL GRAFTS BETWEEN INDIGENOUS TREES. a7 a young White Gum had also grown. So that there were two young trees, a Stringybark and a White Gum, the old Stringybark serving asa “pot.’’ In process of time the young trees became “ pot-bound ”’ and the two young trees became squeezed together and finally fused.” A few weeks afterwards Mr. C. T. Musson, of the Hawkesbury College, Richmond, published in the College Journal of the 18th January last, an account of a natural graft to be seen on the farm. Out ofa tree of Hucalyptus tereticornis, Sm.,' there is growing a smaller tree of Angophora subvelutina. This natural graft is in rather a bad way, and will apparently not live long. Mr. Musson furnished the following very interesting report to the Principal who has been kind enough to favour me with it: ““ It appears to me that a seedling Angophora subvelutina started ina hollow made by a branch of the Eucalyptus breaking, and that the roots eventually reached the ground. he eucalypt is splitting where the Angophora is thickest; i.e., Where it comes out of the surrounding gum trunk. That part of the Angophora which is seen has expanded somewhat close to the point of attachment where seen, after the manner of a girdled tree. ‘** With regard to the species of Eucalyptus it appears to me to be the Cabbage Gum (H. tereticornis), but as there are no fruits or buds, and as the leaves are mostly the result of dormant buds developing and thus mostly are of the sucker type, I am not sure.’”’ (I have confirmed the determination, with the result stated in the foot note). It is not proposed to disturb the graft at present and therefore it cannot be stated whether the woods of the two trees are in absolute organic union as they are in the specimen first described. It may be pointed out that Mr. * It is a “ Swamp Gum ” and is provisionally referred to var. latifolia, Benth. It is the EZ. amplifolia of Naudin. 38 J. H. MAIDEN, Musson’s specimen is especially interesting because two different genera are concerned in the graft. I have called this a “‘ natural graft.’’ Maxwell Masters in his Vegetable Teratology speaks of this adhesion of the axes of plants belonging to different species as of rather rare occurrence. The adhesion of two individuals of the same species is not rare. We are of course familiar with the amalgamation of the woody tissues of our Mistletoes (Loranthus) and their numerous hosts. Masters quotes Moquin Tandon, where ‘“‘ by accident a branch of a species of Sophora passed through a fork made of two diverging branches of an Elder (Sambucus). The branch of the Sophora contracted a firm adhesion to the Elder, and what is remarkable is that, although the latter has much softer wood than the former, yet the branch of the harder wooded tree was flattened, as if subject to great pressure.” ‘‘It is possible that some of the cases similar to those spoken of by Columella, Virgil,’ and other classical writers, may have originated in the accidental admission of seeds into the crevices of trees; in time the seeds grew, and as they did so, the young plants contracted an adhesion to 992 the supporting tree. This is obviously the case with Mr. Musson’s specimen ; the origin of my George’s River specimen is not quite similar. Reverting to the George’s River specimen, the fact is evident that the woods and barks of two different species have adhered to each other, have fused in fact, and the different textures of the barks and the different colours of the woods enable us to note the organic union very readily. 1 Daubeny, *‘ Lectures on Roman Husbandry,” p. 156. 2 Masters’ “ Vegetable Teratology,” p. 56. NATURAL GRAFTS BETWEEN INDIGENOUS TREES. 39 We have indeed a composite log, but the timbers are joined together by an art transcending that of the most skilful woodworker. The union appears to be nearly as complete as if the log were homogeneous and the result had been arrived at by staining. And yet, looking more closely at the specimen, one observes the lack of continuity of the kino rings which are very abundant in the red wood (EH. hoemastomu) both in the mature and sap wood, but which largely cease at the junction with the pale wood (H. capitellata). That there is organic union between the two timbers is borne out, not only by their obvious fusion, but also by the fact that the red wood “‘runs’”’ here and there into the paler timber as if the woody fibres, pigmented by red colouring matter (perhaps phlobaphenes or other tannin derivatives), had lent some of their colouring matter to the fibres of the paler timber with which they are in close juxtaposition. An anatomical study of the wood at the line of junction might throw Light upon the relations of the cells and vessels of the two timbers at their points of contact, and I hope some one will make the examination. I suppose the sections would have to be treated as opaque objects unless we are fortunate to find a similar natural graft at a far earlier stage. Obviously the fusion is analogous to the artificial union of parts which occurs in grafting and budd- ing. But in his important paper’ Shattock but cursorily alludes to the subject. Since the above was written, the Hon. Dr. Nash, M.L.Cc., has informed me of the case of a natural graft between a White Gum and an Ironbark at Wallsend near Newcastle, and it is hoped that further instances may be observed and recorded. 1 «On the reparative processes which occur in vegetable tissues,” by Samuel G. Shattock, Proc. Linn. Soc., xrx., 1. 40 J. H. MAIDEN. EXPLANATION OF PLATE. . Plate 1—Composite log of White Gum and Stringybark. The line of demarcation between the smooth bark of the White Gum and the fibrous bark of the Stringybark is evident; the letter A has been repeated four times to roughly show the line of demarcation of the two woods, which is very evident in the original or in a coloured drawing. Plate 2—The dark coloured stem of an Apple-tree (Ango- phora) growing out of the smoother, paler trunk of a Swamp Gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis). [C.'T. Musson, photo. | POSSIBLE RELATION BETWHEN SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA AND CLIMATE. By H. I. JENSEN, Bsc., Junior Demonstrator in Chemistry and Geology, University of Sydney. (Communicated by Prof. T. W. E. DAvn, B.A., F.R.S., etc.) [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 1, 1904.] Part I—PossIBLE RELATIONS BETWEEN SUNSPOTS, HARTH- QUAKES AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. SYNOPSIS ; I. Introduction. II. Causes of Earthquakes. III. Sedimentation. IV. Volcanoes. V. Sunspot Minima and Earthquakes and Eruptions. VI. Seismic and Volcanic Activity and Lunar Influences. VII. Evidence afforded by the Earthquakes of Japan. VIII. Summary of Results. {. Introduction.—The present paper is a sequel to my note communicated to this Society on June 4th, 1902. SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 4] Since that time I have succeeded in collecting numerous facts which throw further light on the question and strengthen my former conclusions. Since 1902 the frequency and violence of earthquakes and eruptions have declined almost to a minimum; at the same time there has been a marked rise in solar activity. The last sunspot minimum occurred approximately at 1901°8, but the total spotted area was in 1902 lower than in 1900. The previous cycle was a long one, lasting from 1889°3 to 1901°8, or 12°5 years. The maximum occurred in 1893, after a period of increase in sunspot activity lasting only 4°3 years. The period of decrease was long, lasting 8°2 years. The mean spotted area as given in the Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Soc. was in the minimum year 1901 only 29 millionths of the sun’s disc (corrected for foreshortening) as compared with 111 millionths in 1899 Ti5) a », 1900 62 ‘ », 1902 From September 18th, 1902, spots began to appear regu- larly on the sun’s disc, while violent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions became of much less frequent occurrence. The chief outbursts of volcanic and seismic disturbances since that time were at the September Hquinoxes of 1902 and 1903, the Santa Maria eruptions in November 1902, and the Andijan earthquake in December 1902. The com- pilation (Appendix II.) shows that 1903 was, as compared with 1902, a very quiet year. This was only to be expected if the theory advanced in my previous paper holds true. II. Causes of Harthquakes.—Milne in his ‘* Harthquakes’”? states that the primary causes of earthquakes are telluric ’ Vol. tv1., International Scientific Series. 432 H. I. JENSEN. and solar heats, and variations in gravitational influences. As due to secondary causes, he mentions the following classes of earthquakes :— 1. Those due to faulting. 2. Those due to explosions of steam. 3. Those due to volcanic evisceration. 4, Those due to chemical degradation. 5. Those due to effect of oceanic tides. 6. Those due to variation in barometric pressure. 7. Those due to fluctuations in temperature. 8. Those due to rain and snow. 1. Loss of telluric heat leads to secular contraction, and this latter process brings about normal faulting. In regions where radial exceeds circumferential contraction it brings about overthrust faulting as well. Reverse and overthrust faults are, however, more frequently due to the expansion, folding and contortion of strata, resulting from rise of isogeotherms in heavily sedimented areas. Both varieties of faulting may be said to be primarily due to the constant exchange of heat between the hot core of the earth and its outer shell, and again between the earth’s crust and space. Since it has been shown probable (see my previous paper and Part II of this), that the earth receives more heat from the sun in sunspot maximum periods than in minimum periods, it is apparent that sunspot effect must vary in accordance with the geological nature of particular regions. When most heat is received from the sun radiation into space is checked, and secular contraction is delayed. At the same time, in regions undergoing heating from within, consequent upon the rise of isogeotherms, the thermo- dynamic processes might be accentuated. In areas like Japan, Java and Argentina, where many districts are undergoing slow elevation, summer earth- quakes are more frequent than winter ones, for the reason SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 43 just stated, and similarly, seismological and volcanic dis- turbances might be expected to increase in number and violence in sunspot Maximum years. On the other hand, in regions like parts of North America, Australia, Central Asia and the European continent, where elevation of land by rise of isogeotherms has ceased, and any changes of level may naturally be ascribed to isostasy, winter earthquakes are commonest. Denudation and the consequent unloading hasten secular cooling, and contrac- tion goes on most rapidly in periods when least solar energy is received in compensation for heat radiated into space. 2. Harthquakes due to steam explosions are apparently very often the result of the opening of a fissure admitting water to reservoirs of hot magma. The frequent earth- quakes in Japan of this nature’ are due to faulting in the great geosyncline to the east of Japan. Sometimes, no doubt, water accumulates by capillary infiltration for years, and is transformed to steam by hot magmas... The steam under pressure filling a cavity in the earth would be most likely to explode during the passing of a great cyclone at the earth’s surface. The gravitational influence of the sun and moon could also play the part of a liberating force enabling the imprisoned vapours to burst through. Meteor- ological and gravitational forces must have greatest influence where large masses of steam and gas are con- tained in subterranean reservoirs. As “*Mathematicus”’ writes in the “ English Mechanic ’’*:—‘‘No solar or lunar influence, lasting only some hours, can move the magma to rise thirty or forty miles in a narrow channel, whose friction alone would keep the thick, adhesive, fluid back. But gases acting during many years, heated to thousands of degrees, and cooped up between the clumps of magma, * See “ Karthquakes ” by J. Milne, pp. 228 and 281. 7 «English Mechanic and World of Science,” No. 1951, Aug. 15, 1902. 44 H, I. JENSEN. perhaps forming among them, as the gases from burning powder between the projectile and the breech of the gun, might do it.”’ 3. Earthquakes resulting from volcanic evisceration are not very frequent. Trough faults like the great Rift Valley’ may owe their origin to volcanic extravasation, — but even in areas thus undermined, the actual collapse is most likely to take place when cooling proceeds most rapidly, as at sunspot minima, and the cohesion of rock Strata thereby overcome. Closely allied are earthquakes connected with the intrusion of sills and laccolites, as the Port Resolution uplifts in island of Tanna, New Hebrides, in 1878 and 1888.° 4, Karthquakes due to chemical degradation are rare, and are mainly confined to districts in which there are rocks of a soluble nature, such as gypsum, rocksalt or lime- stone. Molten lava, says Milne (‘‘ Earthquakes,” p. 283) may by chemical action eat out great hollows in volcanic regions. Harthquakes and landslips dependent on the first kind of chemical degradation (e.g., that which in 1840 caused Mt. Cernans in the Jura to fall) would take place in wet periods; those dependent on the corrosive properties of molten lava would be most likely to occur at times when other secondary causes are in full operation; thus the sudden expansion of heated vapours and gases conse- quent on fall of barometric pressure at the earth’s surface would induce the corrosive magma to well out of its vent, and on the return of normal atmospheric conditions the spot is weakened and rendered liable to collapse. 5). Changes of atmospheric pressure in themselves, and changes of the gravitational influence of sun and moon, are * See Prof. Gregory’s work “‘ The Great Rift Valley,” Part III., Ch. x11., pp. 214 - 236. * See “ Report of Aust. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science” for 1893 p. 209. SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 45 causes quite insufficient singly to cause seismic disturb- -ances. Still several of these secondary causes co-operating might perhaps cause an earthquake, or one of them alone might, in a somewhat unstable region, precipitate seismic disturbances. Temperature changes indirectly also play a small part in seismology. It has been noticed that in temperate and arctic regions more earthquakes occur in winter than in summer. This may be due in some parts to secular cooling proceeding more rapidly, in other parts to the heavy loading of the earth with ice and snow. In my paper, read before this Society on June 4th, 1902, I gave an account of work done by various physicists, meteorologists and astronomers on the subject of sunspots and their meteorological and magnetic effects. I advanced in my paper that sunspots likewise bear a relation to seismic and volcanic disturbances. At the same time Sir Norman Lockyer advocated similar views in Hngland. In a letter to the Times, May 19th, 1902, Sir Norman Lockyer writes that earthquakes and eruptions are most frequent at sun- spot minima and maxima. My view was, and is, that these phenomena are at a maximum when sunspots are at a minimum, although from my later researches it seems that at sunspot maxima there sometimes is a violent and spasmodic outburst of volcanic violence. I wish here to investigate more fully than before the reasons of the inter- dependency of these terrestrial and solar phenomena. The great objection to the sunspot theory of seismic and volcanic disturbances is the fact that rocks conduct heat at a very slow rate. Rocks are also impenetrable to elec- trical waves, Hertzian waves, etc. The annual variations of earth temperature at a depth of thirty feet are almost nil. Hence, assuming that we receive more solar energy during sunspot maxima it certainly cannot affect rocks at some depth, if it has to pass thither in the form of heat, 46 H. I. JENSEN. or even ordinary electricity. When, however we consider that the earth as a whole behaves as a magnet, and that the earth’s atmospheric magnetism is instantaneously influenced by solar prominences, that magnetism, heat and electricity are transmutable forms of energy, and that many ferruginous volcanic lavas are fair conductors of magnetism, it becomes quite feasible that the sun’s radiant energy should penetrate the earth’s crust rapidly, and once having reached the volcanic foci, be transformed into heat. In order that this transformed energy might again escape, conduction through rock masses, a very slow process, would be essential. As I have already before suggested, there may also be solar rays’ which are quite capable of permeat- ing rock masses without producing any heating effect until they meet with conditions favourable for their transmuta- tion. Rock masses would then be warmed, not by the direct solar radiation, but by heat conducted from foci within where transformation of energy can take place, a process analogous to the heating of our atmosphere, which is effected chiefly by heat conducted from the earth’s sur- face and not by the direct solar rays. Increase in the amount of solar heat received by the earth (as at sunspot maxima) may also have the direct effect of checking the leakage of heat from the earth’s surface by radiation into space, and this diminution of leakage will tend to check somewhat the outward creep of heat in the earth’s crust by conduction. Thus the amount of pent up heat in volcanic foci is increased, its slow escape being hampered. In this way alone can we explain why * Compare also the recent investigations by the Curies and Rutherford on the penetrating powers of the a, 6 and y rays of the new radioactive elements. A recent paper by Sir Norman Lockyer—‘“ Simultaneous Solar and Terrestrial Changes,” (Nature, Feb. 11th 1904)—-will also be read with interest in connection with the above discussion on terrestrial magnetism. SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 47 solar phenomena react so rapidly on the magmas of the earth, and the rise of isogeotherms so slowly. For the purposes of this paper I propose now to classify earthquakes in accordance with the causes producing them. (1) Earthquakes caused by the cooling, hence contrac- tion of the contracting zone of the earth’s crust.—These should be of greatest violence and frequency when the earth radiates most heat, or other energy, into space, that is, at sunspot minima. The great majority of earthquakes and earthquake shocks undoubtedly fall in this group. (2) Harthquakes which arise from the heating of strata. Tangential strain and shearing, especially where beds which are suffering a rise of isogeotherms (and consequently expansion and folding) abut on strata undergoing contrac- tion must result in faulting. In parts of Japan, in Java, in parts of the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes, which are regions undergoing elevation from isogeothermal rise, earthquakes of this type are frequent; and in such localities no true earthquake periodicity can be expected. The increase of solar heat during sunspot maxima may acceler- ate the folding of sedimentary strata by screening the earth from radiation into space. This would result in earthquake shocks. At times of sunspot minima the increased shrink- age of adjoining rock masses would also result in fractures along the lines of weakness of the earth’s crust, and the junction of old rocks with recently upheaved and expanding sediments is usually a line of weakness. The Mendoza earthquake of 1861 was probably the result of rise of isogeotherms in the recently upheaved sediments of the La Plata region. In the Argentine region sediments were deposited when the Amazon was yet an insignificant stream, and the La Plata drained the Peruvian area. Later on the latter river blocked its southern 48 H. I. JENSEN, course with masses of boulders and rolling stones that now are scattered over the Bolivian plain (as at Santa Cruz de la Sierre). Then the Peruvian waters forced their way through the Matto Grosso ranges, and the waters of the Beni joined those of the Madeira, after a flighty leap at the Esperanza Falls.—(“‘ Frem,” May 14th, 1899. (3) Harthquakes connected with volcanic eruptions.— These depend on the same cause as volcanoes which will presently be discussed. They are partly comprised in the class just discussed. (4) Earthquakes resulting from other causes insufficient in themselves to bring about disturbances, but frequently important liberating forces.—Occasionally two or more of these secondary causes acting simultaneously in a region of great instability, may precipitate an earthquake. Such events as perigee, equinoxes, cyclonic disturbances and the attraction of the planets I would be inclined to consider secondary causes. Under this heading we may also place the earthquakes which are attributed (a) to the loading of parts of the earth’s crust by sedimentation or organic growth; and those due to (b) unloading of portions by sub- aerial denudation and erosion. The Charleston earthquake of 1886 was probably in no small way connected with the immense sedimentation and organic growth in the Mexican Gulf and in the Atlantic to the south-east of the United States of America. The Cutch earthquake of 1819, and the Cachar earthquake of 1869, were probably due to a similar cause. The extensive earth disturbances of the year 1811 in Kurope, the earthquakes of 1833, 1855 and 1887, the Herzo- genrath shocks between 1874 and 1877 and the Rhineland earthquake of 1846 were probably all connected with un- loading by denudation, a precess which must hasten secular cooling. Hence such earthquakes should be most frequent at sunspot minima. SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 49 III. Sedimentation.—The importance of sedimentation and rise of isogeotherms in sedimentary rocks as factors in the production of volcanic action is not to be overlooked. We have only to consider the fact that the majority of the earth’s active volcanoes at the present time, and several areas of high earthquake frequency are situated on the western shores of the Great Ocean basins, or on strings of islands lying in the western portions of the oceans. The most notable exceptions are the Alaskan volcanoes and those of the Andes. Off the Alaskan coast, however, Sedimentation is going on at a rapid rate, partly by the deposition of the suspended detritus of the great Alaskan rivers, partly from the destruction of organisms by the meeting of a hot and a cold current, the Japan current flowing northwards along the east coast of Japan, and the Behring current flowing southwards from the Arctic Ocean. Volcanic activity in the Andes is dying out, sedimentation on the west coast of South America having been reduced toa minimum; the volcanic cones of the Andes are con- nected, probably, with a period of sedimentation of no great geological antiquity, when the elevation of the Andean chain was just commencing, and a kind of ‘ Sargasso’ sea existed around Galapagos island. We have no very definite evidence, as far as I am aware, of great sedimentation having taken place in Tertiary and Post- Tertiary time in the Pacific Ocean around Galapagos Island, yet there are many geological facts pointing that way. In Dall’s “Tertiary Mollusca,” (Vol. 11., Pt. iv., Transactions of the Wagner Free Institute of Modern Science), an interesting discussion on the “ Tertiary Fauna of Florida” is given. In this, on p. 1550, it is stated as probable that the Isthmus of Panama was formed and the two Americas were united at the commencement of the Miocene. . . In “The Paleontology and Stratigraphy of the Marine Pliocene and Pleistceene of San Pedro, California,” by D—June 1, 1904. 50 H. I. JENSEN. Mr. Ralph Arnold (Memoirs of the Californian Academy of Sciences, Vol. 111.) we find on p. 69 that the elevation of California took place in the geological periods from Miocene to Post-Pliocene, and that the Pleistocene Fauna of San Pedro bears a close resem- blance to that of Japan, on account of similar geographical con- ditions at the time. Hill shows in his valuable paper, ‘Geology of the Isthmus of Panama,” (Bulletin, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Vol xxvu1., pp. 95 — 98.) that there was continued sedi- mentation in the Eocene and Oligocene Epochs, but there is no trace of Miocene or Pliocene sedimentation, a fact which points to the land area being much larger in these periods than now. Hence elevation took place at the beginning of the Miocene. These periods were followed by a Pleistocene subsidence, and lastly a further elevation of at least ten feet. During the Pleistocene subsidence the isthmus was at least partly submerged. To the north of Panama, in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, deposits of Pliocene Age exist, hence there is a possibility that a passage existed then between the Atlantic and Pacific. If some such strait existed during the Miocene and Pliocene periods, the Atlantic Equatorial Current, instead of being diverted into the Gulf Stream, would pass into the Pacific and meet the cold South American (now Chili) current off the Peru-Ecuador coast, and organisms would die in profusion and fall to the bottom. At this time the Antilles probably was a plain connected no doubt by land with Venezuela and Florida. The highest mountains of South America were the Matto Grosso and Venezuelan ranges. From these long rivers flowed westward into the Pacific. Around Galapagos Island a kind of Sargasso Sea existed, caused by the above mentioned currents. From the researches of modern geo- graphers we know also that at no remote geological period, probably in late Pleistocene time, the sea covered the Argentine pampas and the Paraguayan plains. Probably it stretched even further, right across the Bolivian plain, taking in Lake Titicaca and join- ing on to the Pacific. The final disappearance of Atlantic waters from the pampas took place perhaps about 20,000 years ago. SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 51 (“Geograft. Argentina’s Tidligste Tulstand ”; see ““Frem,” published by “Det Nordiske Forlag,” May 14th, 1899). Perhaps up to this time remnants of a South Pacific continent may have existed, and additional conditions may have obtained which were very favour- able to keep up the heavy sedimentation with which the origin of the Andes and the commencement of vulcanism in this region were connected. On biological evidence alone, the German naturalist Ochsenius puts the separation of Lake Titicaca from the Pacific, and the elevation of the Bolivian plain in a compara- tively recent geological period. (See “Geograft. Heoninger af Jorbunden,” ‘““Frem,” March 19th, 1899.) The probable reason that the great majority of the volcanoes of the earth are grouped along the western borders of the Pacific and around the Gulf of Mexico, is primarily that these regions are, or have until recently, been areas of great sedimentation. The longest rivers flow into these parts, but the most potent factor, perhaps, in bringing about this heavy sedimentation is the profuse organic growth, consisting of corals, nullipores, Lithotham- nion and Halimeda, of polyzoa and foraminifera, and marine mollusca. The Equatorial currents in both the Atlantic and the Pacific, fiowing from east to west, ensure that the waters in the western portions of these basins are several degrees warmer than in the eastern parts.’ Hverything is favourable to the sustenance of life. The heavy sedimen- tation going on induces subsidence, thus gradually accentu- ating in these parts the folds that mark the oceanic borders. It must not be understood that I look upon sedimentation and erosion as the main causes oi inequalities of the earth’s surface. This failacy has been ably exploded by Hutton.” + « Allegemeine Erdkunde,” Vol.1., pp. 2938, 294, and fig. 84, by Hr. J. Hann. 2 Presidential Address in Section C.—A.A.A.S., Vol. 11., 1890, Melbourne Session—*“ Oscillations of the Earth’s Surface.” py H. I. JENSEN. It will be noticed from the foregoing that according to my contention many volcanoes are situated in those abnor- mal regions in which heating of strata, expansion and elevation are in progress, and in which earthquakes may occur at sunspot maxima when most heat is received from the sun. As these regions coincide with lines of weakness in the earth’s crust itis apparent that any influence which affects the earth as a whole, such as shrinkage of the outer crust, the zone of compression, from loss of heat in the zone of contraction, must have greatest disturbing effect in these places. Hence although seismic and volcanic dis- turbances may occur here at sunspot maxima from local expansion, greatest volcanic and seismic intensity will be experienced at sunspot minima when the earth as a whole is alfected. IV. Volcanoes.—Professor Judd, in Chapters X., XI. and 9 x1I., of his work entitled ‘‘ Volcanoes,”’ gives an account of what we learn about the earth’s interior from volcanoes and of the various theories advanced to account for volcanic action. These theories may be summarised as follows :— (1) That of David Forbes and Dana in favour of a liquid earth nucleus. (2) That of a potentially liquid nucleus. (3) That of local development of sufficient heat to produce volcanic outbursts by the shearing resulting from the tangential strain between the zone of contraction and the zone of compression. (4) That of Humphry Davy attributing volcanic energy to the oxidation of deep seated rocks. (5) The theory that volcanic action is produced by the combination of various gases occluded in deep-seated minerals, and liberated by degrees, as the cooling of the earth proceeds. SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 53 (6) The theory that enormous quantities of water find access to hot magmas through gradual infiltration by capil- larity, as well as occasionally by way of fissures.’ For the purpose of this paper I propose to discriminate between (1) eruptions of a violently explosive character, and (2) those of a gentler nature, usually accompanied by lava flows. The latter kind seem to depend, essentially, on the same causes as earthquakes, and predominate at sunspot minima; they are usually preceded by the opening of a fissure which allows deep seated magmas an upward passage. The eruptions of the former kind are commonest in very unstable and much faulted areas, and in regions undergoing heating from rise of isogeotherms, especially where the volcano is situated in an artesian or subartesian basin. Here water would be continually finding its way down to the volcanic foci, and perhaps more in wet than in dry years. Vesuvius, situated in a basin of porous sedimentary rocks, seems to bear out this supposition. In ‘its eruption of 1872, a very wet year (close to a sunspot maximum), its lava was very liquid, and on cooling became extremely cindery and scoriaceous from its volumes of enclosed steam. While previous lava flows offer no impediment to the pedestrian, the flow of 1872 is practi- cally impassable (See Judd’s “Volcanoes,” pp. 98 and 99, Internat. Scientific Series). It is interesting to note that the year 1872 was exceedingly wet and stormy throughout Europe ; this was the year of the great Baltic storm. A violent north-west wind was blowing at the time of the Vesuvian eruption of April, 1872. The peculiar meteorological conditions prevalent at the time may have played some part in bringing about ths eruption. (See “‘Volcanoes,” pp. 24-29.) + This theory of earthquake and volcanic action is supported by the fact that most of the earthquakes of Japan originate beneath the sea, where infiltration must be greatest; and the violent explosions accom- panying many volcanic eruptions are undoubtedly due to steam. 54 H. I. JENSEN. From this we may conclude that the wetter seasons accompanying a Sunspot maximum lead to increased perco- lation, and may in such cases help to produce volcanic eruptions, especially when, as in the case of Vesuvius in 1872, meteorological conditions are favourable or gravita- tional influences are at work. Many of the eruptions referred to in my previous paper . ag not fitting in with the theory which I advanced, fall in this category. The great Javan eruptions of Papandayang 1772, Tomboro 1815, and Krakatoa 1883, all occurred in years of sunspot maxima; but Java is one of the abnormal areas, referred to above. It is a region undergoing eleva- tion and folding, and its rocks are composed almost wholly of porous Tertiary sedimentaries and volcanic tufis. The main uplift that made Java a low plain (according to Messrs. Verbeek and Fennema), took place in the Pliocene. In the Pleistocene, Borneo, Sumatra and Java, were connected with one another, and with the Asiatic continent. Violent volcanic action now set in and folding commenced. During Quaternary and Recent times these processes have built up the mountains of Java, though they also were the cause of local subsidences and the reseparation of the main islands of the Malay Archipelago. (See “ Description Géologique de Java et Madoura”: Troisieme Section i.e. ‘Géologie genérale de Java,’ pp. 995 - 1034; and ‘ Les Sédi- ments Quaternaire,’ p. 1019, by Verbeek and Fennema. See also their geological map of Java and Madoura accompanying their work). The geological history of Java beautifully illustrates the process of mountain building. First we have the rise of isogeotherms causing a general uplift ; then the commencement of folding and volcanic action (here in Pleistocene times); lastly volcanic extra- vasation and the formation of subsidence areas (Senkungsfelder). We see also that volcanic action is a concomitant of mountain building. Rise of isogeotherms and folding are still in progress in Java, hence volcanic action is still violent. [H.I.J.] SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 55 It is curious that Borneo, so close to Java, is almost free from earthquakes, and does not possess any active vol- canoes, although in early Tertiary times this island was the seat of both. Borneo retains, however, several con- tinental characteristics; unlike Java it containg paleeozoic rocks covering considerable areas.! It seems then, that in Java conditions are favourable to volcanic action, water continually filtering through the porous beds to volcanic foci. Hence many of the great eruptions of Java have partaken of the nature of steam explosions, and lava flows are not common. The Papan- dayang eruption blew up the mountain of that name, reducing its height from 9,000 to 5,000 feet, and ‘burying forty villages in the débris. The Tomboro and Krakatoa eruptions were on a Similar gigantic scale, and of a similar nature. V. Sunspot Minima and Harthquakes and Eruptions.— Since my previous paper on the connection between sun- spot minima and earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, I have kept collecting data to test the correctness of the theory which I then put forward. Two letters appeared in the *‘Hinglish Mechanic,’’ on August 15th and August 22nd, 1902 respectively, criticising my paper. Their author, Mr. T. EH. Kspin, examined a number of earthquake records as wellas records of volcanic eruptions, and reduced them by the formuia where D = actual time difference between the eruption and minimum ahead. m = the interval between the two minima between which the eruption took place. * « Borneo” by Posewitz (translation by Frederick H. Hatch, Pn.D., F.c.s.) 56 H. I. JENSEN, T then gives us the period in which to place the earthquake or eruption, namely its distance from the minimum ahead in terms of the interval between the two minima in which it occurred. Mr. Espin found it a difficult matter to reduce his earth- quakes and eruptions exactly, (1) because of the impossibility of giving the sunspot maxima or minima correctly to the decimal of a year ; (2) because the records of eruptions are very imperfect. Mr. Espin also calculated earthquake frequency for perigee, using m for the period of the moon’s perigee. The results which he obtains do not seem to bear out the views advanced by Sir Norman Lockyer and independently by myself. On the other hand they seem to indicate a relation between earthquakes and perigee. Mr. Hspin’s tables and curves seem to indicate a violent paroxysmal outburst of volcanic and seismic energy at sunspot minima, but no regular gradation from a maximum toa minimum. Being interested in Mr. Hspin’s method of reducing eruptions, I applied it to those eruptions and earthquakes tabulated in my last paper. [These had been impartially taken out of standard text books, such as Milne’s “Earthquakes,” Judd’s ‘ Volcanoes,” and Lap- parent’s ‘‘Traité de Géologie,” partly because of the tediousness of wading through the numberless magazines in which original accounts are published, partly because it was the fairest way of getting a representative collection of great earthquakes. | In working out the earthquake frequency by Mr. Hspin’s method, [ was hampered, as he, by the impossibility of getting sunspot minima fixed to a decimal of a year, and the impossibility with the books at my disposal of getting exact dates for all the earthquakes. However, the result SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. ah is based on 120 earthquakes and 95 eruptions, in all 215 disturbances. The result of my enquiry is expressed in the following table, and graphically in figures 1 —3:— T Harthquakes. Kruptions. Total. =O-— 1 STS) 28 63 2 12 11 23 De Ss 8 6 14 on 4 a 6 10 4—5 7 4 11 5 — 6 D 5) 10 f= 7 9 7 16 gts 12 6 18 se! 7 7 14 9-10 21 15 36 120 95 215 *Q = Winimum. 58 H, I. JENSEN. Curve showing Eruption Frequency in a Sunspot Period. The two curves just given comprise all the disturbances since 1810 given in my list. Hence they can be called curves of mean earthquake and eruption frequency during a sunspot period, being the mean curves for a period extend- ing over 90 years. Taking eruptions and earthquakes together, we get the following curve :— Sunspot Minima and Total Volcanic and Seismic Activity Curve. « 5 6 a 4 SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 59 In the above curves I have written Max., i.e. Sunspot Maximum in period 4—5, because the average interval between a minimum and a maximum and the following maximum has during this century been between 4 and 5 years. VI. Seismic and Volcanic Activity and Moon’s Perigec. —To satisfy myself about the above relation, I have catalogued all the earthquakes and eruptions which have taken place, so far as I can ascertain, between April 1st, 1902 and December 1903, together with declination and phases of the moon. In a letter to the “‘Scientific American”? June 21st, 1902, p. 433, Mr. Elmer J. Still discusses the possibility of fore- casting earthquakes and eruptions from lunar observations. Although it will be noticed that I hinted at the same possi- bility in my paper of June 4th, 1902, it seems that Mr. Still has too much confidence in the moon’s capacity to bring about such disasters. Mr. Still points out that seismic and voleanic activity are increased at (a) perigee, (b) new moon, (c) and when the moon crosses the earth’s equator. According to Mr. Still’s scheme there should have been great disturbances on June 13th, 1902, for then the moon crossed the equator; but the disturbance came on June 19th and 20th, at apogee and full moon. Again violent earthquakes might have been expected on October Ist because on September 30th the moon crossed the equator, and on October the Istit was new. At this time however no great disturbances were reported, whereas on October 17th, at full moon, severe earthquakes were widely experi- enced. On October 13th, 1902, however, at new moon, a violent earthquake and volcanic eruption was reported from Savaii in Samoa, the first. since 1866. On November 13th, again full moon, the voleano Santa Maria in Guate- mala, erupted and covered the towns of Palmar, Columbia, 60 H. I. JENSEN. and Coatepec with débris. This was the beginning of another grand series of disturbances, lasting till November 18th, 1892. Yet there is undoubtedly in years of violent disturbances a tendency for these to fall at such times as Mr. Still indicates in his above mentioned letter. In September 1902 we had the moon crossing the equator on the 17th, fullat the same time, the equinox on the 22nd and perigee on the 23rd, and this combination was accom- panied by a violent and extensive series of disturbances, including earthquakes in Hcuador, Honduras, Guatemala and St. Vincent, and a violent eruption of La Soufriere, all between September 20th and 23rd. The great disturbances of November 15th and 16th may have been precipited by the occurrence of perigee and full moon on those days. We see then that several causes co-operating may bring about what each acting singly was, as on June 13th and October 1st 1902, unable to achieve. The compilation of earthquakes and eruptions between April ist, 1902, and December 31st 1903, which is given in Appendix II., contains 55 earthquakes and 46 eruptions. These were collected from Sydney Morning Herald files and checked by comparison with those recorded from time to time in “‘Nature.’’ The deductions to be drawn from this list are corroborative of the above contentions. Compiling under the heading ‘‘ perigee”’ all the earth- quakes that occurred from 3 days before to 3 days after perigee, and likewise for apogee, full, new, and moon cross- ing the equator we obtain the following tables. Table I. Perigee. Apogee. Earthquakes. | Eruptions. | Earthquakes. | Eruptions. 32 | 14 8 | 10 or 58°0% =| 30°57 14°54 | 18°07 Total disturbances at and Total disturbances at and ahput Perigee 46, or about | about Apogee 18, or about 46°), 18%. SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 61 This leaves 36% of the disturbances to fall at times other than perigee or apogee. Table IT. New Moon. 7 Full Moon. Earthquakes. | Hruptions. Earthquakes. | Eruptions. 16 | 12 12 | 11 or 29% | 26% 22% | 24°) Total disturbances 28°. Total disturbances 23%, This leaves 49% of the disturbances to fall when the moon is more than three days from full or new. Table III. Moon Crosses Equator. Earthquakes | Eruptions 21 | 23 or 38% | or 50% - Total disturbances 467, leaving 54%> to occur when the moon is markedly in N. or 8S. declination. The percentages are given to the nearest whole number. It may be gathered from Tables I., IJ., and III. that there is a connection between perigee and volcanic and seismic disturbances, 58% of the earthquakes (more than half) and 30°5% (nearly one-third) of the eruptions falling at or within a three days period from perigee. Between apogee and seismic frequency there is no relation. Very little influence can be ascribed to lunar phases, and the same might be said of ‘* Crossing the Equator.’”’ A very good verification of these contentions is that no disturbances were felt between March 20th — 24th, 1903, the equinox itself, but at the previous and following perigee, of March 10th and April 5th both eruptions and earthquakes were recorded. New moon and full moon were likewise beyond the three days’ limit. In September 1903, however, perigee, new moon, and moon crossing the equator, all happened to occur close together and at the time of the equinox. At the same 62 H. I. JENSEN. time four violent earthquakes were experienced—appar- ently brought on by a co-operation of secondary causes. Of all these secondary causes the equinox is perhaps next to ‘perigee’ the most potent, owing partly to its disturbing influence on atmospheric conditions, and partly to the sun’s gravitational influence at such times. Vit. The evidence afforded by the Earthquakes of Japan —Miine divides the earthquakes of Japan into two classes: (1) those that originate beneath the sea, many of which are seen on the seismograph diagrams to be of the same nature as explosions. (2) those that accompany folding and shearing processes and the consequent fracturing of strata.’ In regions like Japan where the rocks are largely of a porous nature, percolation of water by capillarity may con- stantly be admitting water to volcanic foci, and to reser- voirs of hot magma such as sills or laccolites. Fissuring resulting from the folding processes going on in the expand- ing Tertiary rocks of Japan, and in the ocean east of Japan, may also cause admission of water from the great oceanic Dr. KXoto, in his excellent paper on “The Scope of the Vulcanological Survey of Japan,’’* divides the earthquakes of his country into two classes, (a) the purely volcanic ones which have a very limited area of shocks, such as that of Bandaisan 1888; and (b) those which are tectonic in origin, related to great earth movements and with shocks afiect- ing a wide area. Dr. Koto disagrees with Prof. J. Milne, who supports the Humboldt-Naumann or vulcanistic theory of earthquakes. + « Earthquakes by J. Milne, pp. 228 and 281. 2 «Publications of the Earthquake Investigation Committee,” No. 3, pp. 89 - 103, Tokyo 1900. . SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 63 Perhaps we may go a little further than Dr. Koto and divide those earthquakes which he calls ‘ tectonic’ into (a) those whose centre lie in areas undergoing fissuring through cooling and contraction; and, (b) those which originate in areas undergoing expansion, folding and heating by rise of isogeotherms ; that is areas in which the fracturing is due to strain caused by folding more than the elasticity of the strata can stand. In answer to this question a paper by Dr. F. Omori comes to our aid.t. Dr. Omori shows that Japan is divisable into two distinct earthquake regions, in the one of which (A) the earthquake frequency is greatest in winter, in the other (B), it is greatest in summer. The (A) region is shaken mostly by earthquakes of an inland origin, and the (B) region chiefly by earthquakes of a submarine origin. The B region comprises the present volcanic chain, or fissure line, passing from the Kurile islands, through Japan and the Riu-kiu (Lu-Tschu) Islands to Formosa. This region becomes submarine a little north of Tokyo which lies in the A region, and is continued in the eastern part of Sikok. On comparing Dr. Omori’s map (Fig. 7 of his paper) with the geological map of the Japanese Hmpire issued 1902, we see that the A region corresponds with the older portions of Japan, adjoining the Senkungsfeld of the Sea of Japan; it is an area where elevation from rise of isogeotherms has probably long ago ceased, in which volcanic action is practically extinct, and in which ancient granites, gneisses, paleeozoic sedimentaries and mesozoic rocks have had time to become exposed. The B region in Niphon and Yesso is an area of great Tertiary and Quaternary uplift. Most of the late volcanic rocks are in this region. Mr. F. Omori, D.Sc, in ‘‘ Publications of the Earthquake Investigation ‘Committee,’ No. 8; also figure 7in same. (Tokyo, 1902.) 64 H. I. JENSEN, In the island of Sikok, the north-west portion consisting of ancient crystalline schists, falls in the A region (winter earthquakes), whereas the south-east portion consisting of mesozoic sedimentary rocks, falls in the B region. But probably most of the earthquakes here (Summer earthquakes) are connected with submarine elevation and folding along the volcanic line east of the island. In the island of Kiu-Siu volcanic rocks and Tertiary sedimentary beds are plentiful, yet it belongs to Dr. Omori’s A region. Perhaps elevation by rise of isogeotherms and volcanic action has ended here, and contraction processes may have set in. It would be of great interest and importance to this branch of science if our Japanese confreres would ascertain exactly what relations obtain between earthquakes and eruptions in each of these regions and (1) solar conditions, (2) lunar phases and declination, (3) atmospheric conditions, cyclones and anticyclones, cold winters, hot summers, etc. Some of this work they have already commenced, perhaps all; indeed Japanese scientists, hampered by want of funds and semi-isolation from the rest of the scientific world, have done wonders; again and again they have shown their ability in geology, metallurgy, the study of alloys, meteorology and physics, and we should not wonder if the whole of this work has been almost completed by them. VII. Summary.—From my researches it appears that (1) a marked connection exists between sunspot minima and seismic disturbances. Sunspot maxima have a much less well defined influence. (2) Perigee isa powerful secondary cause of earthquakes, (3) The equinox has likewise a marked influence. (4) New and full moon andthe crossing of the equator by the moon are only capable of inhibiting earthquakes SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 65 and eruptions, when acting in conjunction with other influences. (5) Earthquakes are most prevalent in years of notoriously cold winters, and more frequent in winter than in summer as far as Hurope is concerned. The years 1811-12, 1846, 1855-56, 1880-81, and 1889, which were all years of maxi- mum winter frost in England and EKurope, and periods of drought in various parts of the world, were also noted for violent seismic and volcanic disturbances. (6) It has often been pointed out that a certain corres- pondence exists between the occurrence of droughts and earthquakes, red rain and earthquakes and eruptions, and usually these events occur contemporaneously at sunspot minima.” Part II.—ON THE CONNECTION BETWEEN SUNSPOT AND METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. _ SYNOPSIS : I. Cause of Sunspots. II. Sunspots and Temperature. III. Sunspots and Barometric Pressure. IV. Sunspots and Rainfall. V. Sunspots, Earth-magnetism and Solar Corona. VI. Index to Literature. VII. Appendices. I. Cause of Sunspots.—Various theories have been advanced to account for sunspots. Some of these are intimately bound up with the various hypotheses to account for the sun’s maintenance of his own heat. They might briefly be summarised as follows. They are caused by (1) Meteoric swarms, a hypothesis bound up with the meteoric theory to account for the sun’s heat. 1 « Possible connection between Sunspot Minima and Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions,’ by H.I. Jensen—Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., xxxv1., June 4th, 1902. 2 « Periodicity of Good and Bad Seasons,” by H. C. Russell—Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., xxx., June 3rd, 1896; and Professor David’s discussion on Mr. Russell’s paper. E—Junel 1904. 66 H. I. JENSEN. (2) The attraction of the planets; a theory which has in its favour the fact that the sunspot cycle is of approxim- ately the same length as the period of revolution of the planet Jupiter. (3) Clouds of cooling metallic vapour and carbon in a fine state of division, a hypothesis obviously related to Dr. Siemen’s theory of solar heat. (4) There is also a theory advanced by Sir Norman Lockyer which has the merit of accounting at the same time for coronee, prominences and sunspots. From the time ofa sun- spot maximum masses of vapour and solid matter in a fine state of division rise from the sun’s photosphere by centri- fugal force often to the immense distance of ten millions of miles. They keep rising and expanding until we havea sunspot minimum, when the density of these masses obscure photospheric phenomena. We then have a magnificent equatorial corona such as was seen in 1868, 1878, 1889, and 1900-01. Then through cooling the vapour masses liquify or solidify, and fall with a splash into the photosphere, causing renewed solar activity and the production of great heat. The constant association of sunspots with protuber- ances of the eruptive type and with facule gives a sunspot very much the appearance of having been caused by a fall of darker and cooler matter into the more luminous and hotter atmosphere, throwing the photospheric matter up in long streamers. (5) Finally we have Herr J. Halm’s theory,’ which accepts Helnholtz’s theory of solar contraction creating heat to compensate for radiation into space. The sun is a star whose loss of heat by radiation is greater than gain of heat produced by contraction. The result is that the tempera- ture of the layer of maximum incandescence must decrease. Hence it sinks toa level where the temperature is sufficient ' Astr. Nachr. Nos. 3723 and 3724; or Nature, Vol. txv., Feb. 13, 1902. SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 67 to keep the particles incandescent. The space outside this layer will then be filled with particles at a lower tempera- ture, which act as a screen absorbing and reflecting part of the heat radiated. This cooling goes on and the photo- sphere moves closer to the sun. At length sucha stage is reached that the amount of reflected heat overheats this photospheric layer. The vertical temperature gradient rises to such steepness that thermal equilibrium becomes impossible and the overheated vapours break through the photospheric envelope. Hence Halm comes to the conclusion that at sunspot maxima there should be minimum radiation into space. In support of this contention he adduces Koppen’s temperature curves,’ which agree with the inverted sunspot curve from 1820 to the present time, and the widening of lines in the sunspot spectra at times of sunspot maximum. From the same fact Sir Norman Lockyer deduced the opposite infer- ence, namely that the matter composing the spots must be at a higher temperature at sunspot maxima, and hence the sun must radiate more heat into space at such times. Of the above theories, the two last explain most facts, but Herr Halm weakens his case by drawing inferences from the meteorological curve of Koppen. The amount of cloud, moisture of the atmosphere, and the prevalence of cyclones probably give a better clue to the amount of solar heat received by the earth than mere temperature curves. The temperature at the earth’s surface is modified by so many local causes, precipitation, evaporation, humidity, and barometric pressure, that it can scarcely give us any idea of the quantity of heat received from the sun. The relations between sunspot intensity and terrestrial phenomena which have already been shown to exist, (by Dr. ‘ Reproduced in Herr Halm’s paper, see Nature, No. 1685, Vol. uxv., p. 353 68 H. I. JENSEN. W.J.S. and Sir Norman Lockyer, and others) may be sum- marised briefly as follows :—(1) Violent outbursts of prom- inences (which have their maximum and minimum at the same time as sunspots) are immediately followed by mag- netic storms, auroral displays, and often weather changes in the earth’s atmosphere. (2) Prominences and sunspots have a periodicity of approximately eleven years, with a superimposed cycle of 30 years. This 35 year cycle corresponds exactly with the Bruckner weather cycle of 35 years in accordance with Which long-period variations in climatic conditions take place. II. Sunspots and Temperature.—(a) The curves of Koppen and Nordmann’ showing mean temperature for tropical districts seem to indicate that the mean annual temperature is highest at sunspot minimum and lowest at maximum, the temperature curve corresponding to the inverted sunspot curve. The main conclusion to be drawn from M. Charles Nordmann’s paper is that “‘ The mean terrestrial temperature follows a period sensibly equal to that of solar spots; the effect of spots is to diminish the temperature, i.e. the curve which represents the variations of temperature is parallel to the inverse curve of sunspot frequencies.”’ Mr. Alex. B. McDowall, F. Rr. Met. Soc., has arrived at the opposite conclusion by a careful study of the meteorological statistics of last century. He finds that Hngland receives more heat when the spots are many than where they are few, and he has dealt with his subject from many stand- points. He finds that in England there are more frosty days at, and a few years after, a sunspot minimum than is normal, and in years of spot maximum the number. of frost 1 Nature, No. 1685, Vol. txv., p. 353, and Comptes Rendus No. 18. SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. — 69 days is below normal; further, his curve of variation in number of frosty days agrees with the sunspot curve.’ Not satisfied with this evidence alone, Mr. McDowall examines the dates of flowering of various plants and finds that they bloom earlier in sunspot maximum years.” [This may be due either to the prevalence of warmer, or of moister winters, or probably of both together.—H.I.J. | As already pointed out in my previous paper, many distinguished Huropean meteorologists endorse the same views as Mr. McDowall. In Australia we experience in years of maximum sunspot intensity (at any rate as far as New South Wales and Queensland are concerned) moister and more chilly seasons than usual. In tropical parts the summer becomes long, moist, sultry at times, but usually cooler than normal; the winter becomes short and somewhat warmer than normal. In temperate parts (like New South Wales from Sydney southward) the summer becomes long, cool and moist; warm north-west winds and their concomitants the southerly bursters are less frequent, monsoonal conditions and easterly winds being more prevalent; the winter becomes short, and very wet and chilly, inasmuch as it is the rainy season. The anticyclone belt is very much reduced in width in such periods, and is continually broken by disturbances, in summer chiefly of monsoonal nature, in winter connected with the antarctic V disturbances. The Central Australian cyclone assumes great dimensions in the summer, and the outblowing winds do not descend to the earth’s surface within the limits of the continent, hence we do not often experience the north-westerlies, whereas the easterlies blowing towards the depression are fairly persistent. 1 Nature, No. 1773, Vol. uxviit., October 22nd, 19038. ? «Sunspots and Phenology,” Nature, No. 1765, Vol. uxviil. 70 H. I. JENSEN. In years of minimum sunspot intensity Queensland experiences scorchingly hot summers, and every part has very cold winters for its latitude. In New South Wales (Sydney for example) the summers are hot with frequent north-west winds, relieved at times by southerly bursters ; the winters are cold and rather protracted, but as the atmosphere is dry the cold is not felt as much as in the wet winters accompanying a sunspot maximum, and the nights are not rendered unpleasant by rain, fog orsnow. In years of minimum sunspot intensity the Central Australian cyclonic area in summer is of comparatively small dimen- sions, and consequently, the outwardly blowing hot winds reach the surface of the earth in the coastal districts, giving usin Sydney frequent north-west winds. In winter this area is covered by a vast permanent anticyclone, from which the cold, dry, westerly winds originate. The anti- cyclone belt is greatly widened, and the rainbringing mon- soonal and antarctic V disturbances are consequently not frequent. The deductions which, I would suggest, to be drawn from the work of Koppen, Nordmann, and McDowall, are that the curve representing the annual variations in temperature does in tropical regions agree with the inverted sunspot curve, and in temperate regions with the actual sunspot curve. The importance and explan- ation of this apparent anomaly I shall now proceed to discuss. (b) For well known reasons, depending on the sun’s apparent motion to the north or south of the Equator, the tropical regions of the earth have their greatest rainfall in summer, whereas the temperate regions have theirs in winter. Assuming that sunspot maxima induce strong atmospheric circulation and great evaporation, we find that in such periods the earth’s atmosphere is very SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. (a! humid. Then in the torrid zone the earth is screened by a canopy of vapour; the otherwise excessive temperature is lowered also by the voluminal (adiabatic) expansion of the atmosphere, and also by great evaporation. Hence the summer may be sultry, but evaporation, condensation, cloudiness and adiabatic expansion reduce the actual temperature as recorded by the thermometer. The winter would for the same reason also be mild. In years of sunspot minimum, however, the tropics would in summer be less protected by vapour, and the compression of the whole atmospheric shell would also raise its temperature. In temperate regions, however, the effect of a sunspot maxi- mum would be to raise temperature somewhat in winter, the wet season, and to make the summer drier and subject to intensely hot days. A sunspot minimum would however be accompanied in the temperate regions by cool summers and excessively cold frosty winters. It will be seen that with these explanations, the results obtained by Nordmann, Koppen, Hann aud McDowall are not inconsistent, and agree well. Ili. Sunspots and Barometric Pressure.—Regarding sunspots and barometric pressure it seems to be quite certain that there is a connection. Meldrum has shown for the West Indies and Mauritius that more cyclones pass im years of maximum sunspot effect than in minimum years. This probably involves a diminution of pressure. Bianford has shown for the India area that the mean yearly pressure undergoes variations which correspond to the inverted sunspot curve, being highest at sunspot minimum. The later researches of Dr. Lockyer, Professor Bigelow and others, show that the earth is divisible into two areas over which the pressure variations are reciprocal.’ Dr. * «© Monthly Weather Review,” Vol. xxx., No. 7, p. 347, and Roy. Soc. Proc., Vol. uxx., p. 500, and Vol. Lxx1. 72 H. I. JENSEN, Lockyer in his researches has arrived at the result that all Malaysia and Australia follow short period barometric variations exactly similar to those at Bombay, whereas Cordoba in South America has the conditions reversed, and many of the North American towns follow the Cordoban variations. We are told by Professor Bigelow, who comes to the same conclusions as Dr. W. J. 8S. Lockyer, that the values do not exactly cancel one another; the Bombay area is much the larger, comprising most of Asia, Europe, part of North America, and all of Australia; hence Prof. Bigelow thinks “‘ that some external force is at work to raise and lower the total atmospheric pressure by a small amount each year.’ Assuming that the small period variations, which Dr. Lockyer discusses, correspond in extent with longer period variations, we may conclude that the excess of pressure above normal at Bombay, and throughout the area which follows the Bombay type of variations, does not counterbalance the deficiency in the Cordoban area ina year of sunspot minimum. The reverse would hold under sunspot maximum conditions. What then can thus minimise the total atmospheric pressure in years of sunspot maximum and raise it in years of minimum? Hvidently the answer is, “‘ variations in total heat and energy received from the sun.’’ When more solar energy is received the earth’s atmosphere undergoes a voluminal expansion, which by increasing the height of our atmosphere also increases the effect on it of centrifugal force, and hence lessens the influence of gravity and the pressure at the surface. When less energy is received, the atmosphere undergoes contraction and pres- sure increases. We have only got to examine our own Australian meteor- ology to find ample illustration. During sunspot maximum years, such as 1893, 1894, 1895, 1896, far more cyclonic SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. iio and monsoonal disturbances affected our latitudes than during the minimum years 1897-1903. In fact in the period of sunspot maximum the antarctic V disturbances extend further north, and the monsoonal influences further south than usual, with the result that the anticyclone belt is narrowed, and the frequency of anticyclones reduced. During minimum years on the other hand the anticyclone belt widens and anticyclones pass across our continent in rapid succession. The researches of Professor K. Kassner’ seem to show the reverse relation to obtain for the North American cyclone track, cyclones there being according to him more frequent at sunspot minima. The connection between pressure and temperature is stated by Dr. Lockyer, as follows :—‘“* The Indian meteoro- logists have abundantly proved that the increased radiation from the sun on the upper air currents at sunspot maximum is accompanied by alower temperature in the lower strata, and that with this disturbance of the normal temperature we must expect pressure changes.”’ IV. Sunspots and their connection with Rainfall.—The majority of meteorologists were afew years ago full of eagerness to embrace the theory that sunspots brought rainfall and their absence drought. This idea was strength- ened by the fact, as shown by Jevons,’ that many great Indian famines closely followed sunspot minima. Many of our own Australian and many Huropean droughts coincide with sunspot minima. . Lately, however, Sir Norman and Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer have shown that India has two rain- fall pulses, one at maximum and one at minimum sunspot conditions, and that often a very wet year in Mauritius is a dry year in parts of India and vice versa. Mr. H. OC. Russell, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., has also shown that wet seasons * Annalen der Hydrographie und Maritimen Météorologie, March 1903. ? Nature, Vol. Lx111., p. 107. 74 H. I. JENSEN. in England are often coincident with times of drought in Australia. Yet alarge number of German meteorologists, and Mr. Alex. J. McDowall amongst English meteorologists still think, not without a large amount of evidence in their favour, that sunspot maxima are usually accompanied by wet years and sunspot minima by dry years. It isan indis- putable fact that many of the periods of great seismic frequency and volcanic activity coinciding with sunspot minima during the past century, were at the same time periods of drought, famine and great winter cold, with red rain, grey rain, fireballs and other concomitants of such seasons. The work of Dr. Lockyer and Mr. H. C. Russell does, at the most, show us that periodic forecasts of good and bad seasons cannot be made on sunspot data alone, but that other potent causes are at work to modify sunspot influence. Perhaps, indeed, Mr. Russell’s “ Nineteen Year Cycle” exerts a modifying influence causing the rains at one time to preponderate in the southern, at another in the northern hemisphere. Certainly lunar influence is not negligible in seasonal weather forecasting. A Russian meteorologist M. Demchinski, is at present becoming quite famous through successful forecasts based on lunar data. Yet surely it is no mere coincidence that 1811-1812, 1844-1846, 1864—1869 and 1896—1902, were years of drought in the greater part of the world, and at the same time periods of sunspot minimum. In 1902 the Nile flood was the lowest on record; the Argentine, India, Russia and parts of North America suffered very severely from drought, though Australia, on account of its peculiar physiographical nature, suffered most. The period from 1896 to 1900 was also very dry in Hngland, and the year 1901 was exception- ally dry in Siberia as well as in the above mentioned regions. Mr. John Foster Frazer writes in the autumn of 1901, as follows: “Old Siberians told me that as long as they could remember, SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 75 there never had been such a spell of fine weather. So I was fortunate.”—(See ‘‘The Real Siberia,” p. 148). By the term spell of fine weather, a tourist naturally means dry weather such as would afford him good roads for walking, riding and cycling.— (H. I. J.) Nor does it seem a coincidence that 1864, 1870-72, 1893-4, periods of sunspot maximum were wet years over the ereater part of the earth’s surface. The Rothesay rainfall record, extending over about one hundred years, corresponds with the sunspot curve to a considerable extent, very dry times having occurred in 1822, 1855, 1887, years of sunspot minima and high seismic fre- quency. At all events, if the world’s rainfall does not correspond exactly with the eleven year sunspot period, it has been shown and is, I believe, accepted by the majority of modern meteorologists including Herr Hoffrath Julius Hann, the greatest living meteorologist, that climate as a whole, including rainfall, temperature, cyclonic frequency, et cetera, undergo a long period variation of 33 — 37 years, corresponding with the 35 year sunspot period. Thus, climate, earth-magnetism, solar prominences, the auroras, and sunspots are closely related phenomena, all dependent on a common cause within or without the sun. It is to further our knowledge of the primary causes of climatic variation, and to discover the secondary or modifying causes that meteorologists of the future must devote their energies, an exceed- ingly difficult task, considering how hard it is to unravel what is cause and what is effect. | Geographical facts have not been given importance enough in the past in this connection. Mauritius often has heavy rainfalls in years of sunspot minimum with a drought raging at the time in part of India, e.g. in 1876, when the West Indies, South America, Australia, South Africa, Spain, the Barbary States and Russia were suffering from the drought 76 H, I. JENSEN, lasting from 1875-79. But at the great minimum of 1864 be “a to 1869 Port Louis in Mauritius had a much lower rainfall | than usual, and at the great maximum 1870, the Port Louis rainfall again rose to more than normal. It may be noted that the sunspot minimum of 1864—1869 was accompanied by droughts in Australia, Orissa, Bengal, Russia, and South America as well, andas has already been shown by me,' this was a period of intense volcanic disturbances and earthquakes, especially the years 1867 and 1868. {It is well known that in years of great drought, as this last one of 1897 — 1902, which we have just passed through, heavy rains are often experienced out at sea. It seems that, perhaps on account of the deficiency in our supply of solar energy, our atmosphere circulates too feebly to bring the moisture landwards. The vapours are not brought into the higher regions at all, and consequently condense over the areas whence they were drawn. Mauritius, an island, lying in our warmest ocean, and not many hundred miles from where the cold Antarctic drift often carries its ice- bergs along, is particularly liable to receive rain when other parts of the earth, less advantageously situated, have to suffer. Geographical considerations like the above, would perhaps, go far to explain anomalies in rainfall. The following quotations from a book by Prof. J. W. Gregory, D.Sc. F.B.S. entitled ‘‘ The Climate of Australasia,” seem pertinent to the subject just discussed : (1) ‘““We cannot expect that rainfall will anywhere vary with mathematical regularity. Rainfall is one of the most complex of meteorological products, and is the resultant of a series of con- flicting agencies.” And (2) discussing the rainfall of Mauritius— “Tt is found at this period the south-western monsoon gives India its maximum of rainfall, while India as a whole, being con- 1 Proc. Roy. Soc. N. S. W., June, 1902. SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. fi tinental, is under cyclonic conditions. Atthe same time, Mauritius being an oceanic island, is naturally under anticyclonic conditions, and has a minimum of rainfall.” And (8): “The rainfall curve of Mauritius is comparatively simple and shows an eleven (11) years cycle ; but the rise and fall is inverted when compared with parts of India.” It is readily seen that these conclusions are identical with those which I have here put forward, and indicate that rainfall, as well as many other aspects of climate, is largely a geographical problem, which can and must be solved, but which is rendered somewhat complex by the numerous factors which have to be considered. The importance of observations on the advance and retreat of ice-sheets and glaciers is often overlooked and wrong inferences are often drawn from observations made. Glaciers in the Alps advance in years of sunspot maximum,’ a fact which shows, not that such a period is colder than normal, but that precipitation at high altitudes is greater, in other words that the vigour of atmospheric circulation is above normal. In January, 1903, I paid a visit to Mount Kosciusko, and found that all the snow had melted away. Usually large drifts remain throughout the summer in the deep and sheltered valleys. Local residents informed me that very little snow fell during the winter of 1902, and that already in November, Mount Kosciusko had lost his snowcaps. Under normal conditions the precipitation of snow is great in the Australian Alps and the drifts are practically perennial. During the winter of 1898, when I was one of the meteorological observers there, we were * The annual number of deaths of tourists and others in the Alps from avalanches, etc., is greater than normal in years of sunspot maximum. During the past year such accidents have been abnormally frequent. The cause is obviously that the accumulation of snow is at such times unusually great, and spells of very hot weather loosen large masses, giving thus rise to frequent avalanches. 78 H. I. JENSEN. snowed up from May till November. During the present year a great snowfall may be expected in our Australian Alps, just as during the past winter in Europe, the Swiss Alps received an unusually large snowfall. It would be interesting, indeed, to know how the great Antarctic icesheet behaves from year-to year. From a meteorological point of view the establishment of a settle- ment in Victoria Land, and the further scientific explora- tion of this region would be a great boon. V. Earth-magnetism, Sunspots and Solar Corona.—The connection existing between sunspot maxima and earth- magnetism and aurora has already been demonstrated in my previous paper. Since that time several violent sun- spot disturbances have been observed and at least one outburst, that on and about October 31st, 1903, was accompanied by terrestrial magnetic storms.’ On that day telegraphic communication was interrupted in part of Europe for eight hours on account of a violent magnetic storm. Atthesame timea fine display of Aurora Australis was seen as far north as Sydney, N.S.W. Mr. A. Fowler in a letter to ** Nature,’’ Nov. 5th, 1903, writes that the © Hydrogen line in the neighbourhood of the great sunspot group hear the central meridian was reversed on October 31st, between 9and10a.m. This fact beautifully instances the close simultaneity between terrestrial and solar atmos- pheric phenomena. In the Index to Literature (Section VI., Part II. of this paper) references are given to interesting papers on the connection between prominences, corona, earth-magnetism and auroras, and also to Professor Dewar’s address to the British Association, in which he discussed the existence of the rarer gases helium, neon, crypton, xenon, and argon in 1 See also Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer in ‘‘ Nature,” No. 1775, Vol. Lx1x., Nov. 5th, 1903. SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 79 the earth’s atmosphere and in the corona of the sun. The matter of these papers is of such extreme interest in con- nection with the subject discussed in this paper that an apology for inserting them in the “‘ Index to Literature is unnecessary. VI. Index to Literature.—Astronomical and Meteoro- logical. A. Astronomical Journal 1. No. 530, ‘“‘Sunspot Observations, July 12th to Dec. 22, 1902,” by A. W. Quimby (published Jan. 31st 1903). 2. Nos. 542 and 543 (July 21st, 1903) ‘“Sunspot Observa- tions Jan. Ist to June 30th, 1903,” by A. W. Quimby. 3. Nos. 540 and 541 (June 18th, 1903), ‘ Sunspot Observa- tions Oct. 6th, 1902 to May Ist, 1903,” by Jones and Tucker. B. British Association for the Advancement of Science, Report for 1902 ‘“‘ Presidential Address,” by Professor Dewar. C. Monthly Notices, Royal Astronomical Society 1. “Mean Daily Areas of Sunspots for each degree of Solar Latitude for each year from 1874 to 1902.” M.N., R. A.S., June 1903. 2. “Areas of Facule and Sunspots compared with Diurnal Ranges of Magnetic Declination, etc., in the years 1873 to 1902.” M.N., R.A.S., Vol. rxiu., No. 8, June 1903. 3. “Mean Areas and Heliographic Latitudes of Sunspots, 1902, etc.” M.N., R.A.S., June 1903. 4, “Ona Possible Relation between Solar Prominences and Corona” by William J. 8. Lockyer, m.a. M.N., R.A.S. Vol. txi., No. 8, June 1903. 5. “Council’s Note on Solar Activity in 1902.” M.N., R. A.S., Feb. 1903, pp. 249 — 251, 6. M.N.. R.A.S., Vol. Lz p. 8. i MEN. RAS. Dec? 3th; 1901: PD. Nature 1. Vol. ux, No. 1616, Oct. 18th, 1900. ‘Sunspots and Cold Winters,” by Alex. B. McDowall. Ze VOL LX, NO. 1622) pp) 107 and, 128° 9 “On Solar Changes of Temperature and Variations in Rainfall in the Region Surrounding the Indian Ocean.” (Lockyer.) 80 H. I. JENSEN. 3. Vol. Lx, p. 299. “Sunspots and very Cold Days.” 4. Vol. txv., Feb. 13th, 1902. “A New Solar Theory by J. Halm (Paper abstracted from Astr. Nachr., Nos. 3723-4.) 5. Vol. uxvi., No. 1732, Jan. 8, 1903. ‘On the Similarity of the Short Period Barometric Variations over Large Areas.” (Dr. Lockyer.) 6. Vol. uxvit, No. 1733, Jan. 15th, 1903. ‘Sunspots and Summer Heat.” (McDowall.) 7. Vol. uxvir, No. 1738, Feb. 19th, 1903. ‘Solar Promin= ences and Terrestrial Magnetism.” (Dr. Lockyer.) 8. Vol. uxvit, No. 1746, April 16th, 1903. “Solar Promin- ences and Spot Circulation 1872 — 1901.” (Dr. Lockyer) 9. Vol. xvi, No. 1749, May 7th, 1903. ‘The Solar and Meteorological Cycle of Thirty-five Years.” (Dr. Lockyer) 10. Vol. rxvur., No. 1765, August 27th, 1903. “ Sunspots and Phenology.” (McDowall) 11. Vol. uxvir, No. 1773, Oct. 22nd, 1903. ‘Our Winters in Relation to Briickner’s Cycle.” (McDowall) 12. “Simultaneous Solar and Terrestrial Changes,” by Sir Norman J. Lockyer. (Paper presented to the Inter- national Meteorological Committee at Southport, Sept. 11th 1903, abstracted in Nature Feb. 11th, 1904.) E. Royal Society Proceedings Vol. uxx., p. 500. ‘On Some Phenomena which suggest a Short Period of Solar and Meteorological Changes,” by Sir Norman Lockyer, K.c B., F.R.s.. and Dr. W. J.S. Lockyer, M.A., F.R.A.S. FI. Royal Society of New South Wales 1. “ Periodicity of Good and Bad Seasons,” by H. C. Russell, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., June 3rd, 1896. 2. ** Recurrence of Rain,” by H.C. Russell, B.a, C.M.G., F.R.S. September 4th, 1901. 3. ‘ Possible Relation between Sunspot Minima and Volcanic Eruptions,” by H. I. Jensen, June 4th, 1902. VIT. Appendices.—Appendix I., Periodicity in Hruptions, Hruptions of Colima. Colima 1856 (sunspot minimum) ss 1870 (just after minimum) 99 1881 99 99 5 1891 9 Miss » 1908 TM ys 81 SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SRHISMIC PHENOMENA. 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I. JENSEN. 84 "1920} 009‘9 posve.zout qUGDUL A ‘99 JO ‘NT BS jo yadep : oaem [epry, |'elaliynog ey yo uoydnag ‘sopeda1 BAG ‘BO6L ‘ZI Aju ‘pyodaz] ‘Py ‘S909 ‘ZO6L ‘OL Aqne ‘pyv4ay] WW ‘§ 826 "SOJON ‘99[9d “A SULAFLALO J, "IATIOR BLY VyISOH ‘UOoUTY pu SoT[VQVALP, SOUBIIOA OT, yo uondnas ‘suorgdnag o1meolo 4 ‘qUGOUTA “4¢ ut oyenbyy1ve oYlidey, ‘spuo seqqy Jopung ‘spuo snsvoneg "UI6GT O49 0F YIOT A[Ne Woaz YSeT WOTSaI snsvoneg oy} ulsoyenb -yqaeo = yUETOIA = pure ‘om Aju [py enuryuUo0S UOLSAI SLgq YW topung ay? «ut = soyenbyyaeny ‘B[ONZOUD A. ut eyenbyyara yueot A. ‘Q0UUL -“ULOD BISAOd ul SEQQV Jepung ye soyenbyyqaey ‘soyenbaqyaey 1oyenby sassoig 1 vvo0d yw ‘MOO OU, MON G Ajne SI ce TI 66 Q cc eyed “Z061 85 SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 1oyenby sossorg | & MON | T ‘9deg : ‘Bole UBOQQIIBD ejoym oy} pure vjenz ‘{UO[OIA Ulese ooTeg “AJ -OUSA UI soyenbyyaeq = og “ ‘soutddryryg oyy ul eyenbyy1ve oadeA09 sesLleg | ef “ (eG sny pyv.aH W's ‘(eg ysnsny OZ pue JT “Ssny useMy pIv4OFT WW ’S') poytoae -oq Ajqeqoad) visy eultuey “eIpuy UL sUTeYy ae [eaqUeD UI soyxenbyyaeq ego ‘uoTydna9 UL s9Teg “AT ie > qoyenby sessorg | og “ ‘puUvysT 24} poeuljeyMsoao pure qno usyoi1q sey ‘ueder ‘eueys LOT, ul OUdTO A eee aoe eee eee 61 66 (CO6T ‘Wd, ysnsny ma | st “ PIv4a “Pt *S') paoooa sosody | eT “ UO 4SeMOT 949 IN ‘ATCT eyg jo poop yenuuy pur [esnz10g ur syooyg loyenby sossoig | g “ ‘onuTyU0d MON | @ ‘ BIUIOJIVO Ul syooys gesllog | J] ysnsny ‘sep OA UI VIUIOF FE eee OS SU uRe Gy og Ane *SOJON ‘suoigdnagq O1mBoTO A. ‘soyenby aenq ‘uOO], OTT, 398d ‘GO6T H. I. JENSEN. 86 ‘sopeqieg oy} ul suley soysy ‘uosveg xoutnby *SOJON ‘QUO[OTA BAQLIJNOG eT ‘uorydn.te [[NJ Ul VIQLAJUOG $.4UBOUT A “4S “SUT[IO oq 09 poqsodaa ‘% ‘u0q10q -19fT Ieou weyoey oyeT QATJOW CUB ‘aAQTAJNOG eT jo uoydnas yuofor, ‘OATJOV SOOUBOTOA UBYSePyY Omg pue ‘yoqmoy4g ‘vonely ‘OAIQOV SNIANSO A ‘QUO[OTA B1QLIJNOG VT suondnaq o1meojo, ‘V'S'D “BI81009 ‘AN UL pus “MS ‘N ‘sunox 4e syooys ‘ sessouuey UL syooys ‘puvTJOIG UT SLOTOL, ‘BI[BIgsNY YyNOoG ‘uUOpUdIR[D Ye SLOWLY], ‘OOURAY UL S191} -“UOPY 7B Syooys YAIR ‘qQUEDUT A “49 pue svainpuopy ‘epeuoqyeny Jopenogq ‘soyenbyyaeq ‘elTeaysny YyyNog eplelepy 7B yooys yyLey eee | “esoullog JO puvyst oui jo vouvrvodde -SIp posneo oyenbyyaey ‘soyvubyyaeq LloyenbyY sessorp gosto Tl Loyenbay sesso1g sos0d y CIN 1oyenby sassoag dOSLLOg eee 1oyenby sessoio pus [pag ‘MOOT! 1 “990 OF 86 66 6G LT él (hy: OT 6 eyed =“GO6T (75 75 6c 73 9 ‘dog 7 SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. ‘(Sjousy)) eipeaysny yynog Url oARA [PT], ‘YQuoul tad so1qow OOT jo ojyvl B4e Sutmols e9[eq juno, jo ou0D ‘S1099O0UL PIUOT : BI[VIYSNY Ul S[Teqouy puvsultoysysnq "yey, "AON ‘p]04aH] ‘JT ‘S999 "SOJON “eR -dnio JUOTOIA UI B1QTIJNOG Teel W019 Jo uoTydnass yvo1y MimerIL ae GEBE IL AKO iL ‘SuIyeUoyep T[oquTo14¢ "eIquIN,OD ~ pure oedeyeog ‘edi urs ‘Teul[eq JO sumo, oyy peting'} vpemayeny Fut BLUIVAT BUG OUBIIOA OU, BOUeS ‘TRARY UT UOIdnA ‘suolydnagy o1avo[oO A. "OUlT} OTOS ponuTyU0D ‘soqenbyqive uelipuy ws. dee Syooys OM} f VLLOSTW UL sayenbyyave d10A09 ‘soyenbygyaey Vesl19g Ta loyenby sessorp eosody MON 1oyenby sasso1g Q0sLlog Ta loyenby sassorg sosody AO NT ‘U0Oy OU, ce él 6e Gl Het i AON og “c 6 66 ‘PO oyeqd “GO6T H. I. JENSEN. ‘sntanso A jo uoydnagq FE 0415 “GA Woy uorydnaa ut eUlog JUNOT 88 ‘snoidnagq o1meolo, ‘OULOY, Avou epInby ge pue ‘satpuy 4So AA ‘eorutmod oyenbyqaeq peqeysy pure uelipuy yesoxvabyyaeq ‘soyvnbyyaeq MON 1oyenby sesso1g eoxody 1oyenbay sessoro ‘Ty Serio os | 1oyenby sessoap MON sen0dy 1oyenby sessoan (ow IOSTIOT 1oyenby sessoag MON senod y 1oyenby sessoag Ta VSLIO 1oyenbyy sessoag MONT : oos0d YW ‘MOO PTY, Loyenby sassouy p Owe £061 62 Cf 6c 06 “ed 948 *ZO6T 1903. Date oe April 3 as June 4 ~~) wt | Perigee Earthquake in Hungary | Crosses Equator | Full | Crosses Equator} Severe shocks, Grenada | Apogee SUNSPOTS AND VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC PHENOMENA. 89 The Moon. Earthquakes. S. Urals and Andijan, Catania and Mentone Perigee Crosses Equator Full Apogee Crosses Equator New Les Severe in Armenia. Perigee Crosses Equator Full Apogee Crosses Equator New Perigee Crosses Equator Full | Apogee | Crosses Equator New Apogee Crosses Equator ses soo | By tee, Watinceiane Perigee | New July 26th to 28th Shocks at Fillatiera and Mulazzo in Italy Full ae ... | Harthquake at Lisbon. Crosses Equator| Malta, Naples, Canea, Perigee Syracuse disturbed. New Crosses Equator Apogee Full Crosses Equator Volcanic Eruptions. Violent explosions in Vesuvius. Crater of Vesuvius opened and lava flows from it. 90 H. I. JENSEN. 1903. Date The Moon. Earthquakes. Volcanic Eruptions. Sept.18 | Perigee Lm a “ae ze ... | At Santiago de Cuba ,, 20 | Crosses Equator med New, Canaries, Blidah and in , 22 | Equinox Algiers. , 20 | Apogee Oct. 5 | Crosses Equator aro 4 Ell ,, 16 | Perigee ,, 18 | Crosses Equator ,, 20 | New Vesuvius active. ,, 28 | Apogee Nov. 1 | Crosses Equator » 4 | Full » 1O | Perigee ,, 14 | Crosses Equator , 18 | New » 29 | Apogee , 28 | Crosses Equator Dec. 4 | Full » © | Perigee , ll | Crosses Equator , 18 | New ,, 22 | Apogee 26 Crosses Equator| ON EUCALYPTUS KINOS. 9] On HUCALYPTUS KINOS, THEIR VALUE For TINC- TURES, anp THE NON-GELATINIZATION oF THE PRODUCT oF CERTAIN SPECIES. By HEnRy G. SMITH, F.C.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, August 3, 1904. ] THE greatest objection to the kino of Pterocarpus mar- supium is the tendency it has to gelatinize when made into tinctures. Many methods have been advanced at one time or another to overcome this difficulty, but in most cases with doubtful success, as at present more than one Pharmaceutical Association is requesting a formula for tincture of kino that will keep. From the results of this investigation it appears that the best way to overcome this difficulty is to discard Pterocarpus kino altogether, and to use those Kucalyptus kinos that do not gelatinize in tinctures. Pharmacists need not be troubled with gelatinized tincture of kino no matter how long it is kept. In the Pharmaceutical Journal (1841-2, p. 399) there is a paper by Mr. Redwood which is well worth reading by those interested in this matter. He there discusses the formation and constitution of this gelatinous substance, and calls attention to the statement by Dr. Thomson that the product of Eucalyptus resinifera' has the property of forming a tincture which gelatinizes on keeping. Dr. Pereira also states that when gelatinized tincture of kino occurs, that probably the Botany Bay kino (inspissated juice of Hucaly ptus resinifera) had been employed (4th Edition, * Eucalyptus resinifera, as we know it to day, has practically a Stringy Bark, and the “Ironbark” kinos (as E. siderophloia) consist largely of Emphloin and do not dissolve in alcohol. 92 HENRY G. SMITH. Vol. 1., p. 327). I have mentioned these statements to indicate how easily a whole group of substances may be condemned on the unsatisfactory behaviour of perhaps but one member. What the species of Hucalyptus was from Which that kino was obtained it is not now possible to say. The present day EH. resinifera only exudes kino in very small amount, so that it could not be collected in sufficient quantity to be of any use commercially, even if the kino was of use for tincture, whichitis not. Itis probable that the “‘ Botany Bay kino”’’ above referred to was the product of several species of Kucalyptus collected indis- criminately, and owing to the facility with which it gela- tinized in tinctures, it probably contained a predominance of kinos obtained from such species as H. pilularis, EH. piperita, EH. hcemastoma, etc., trees which were at that time plentifully distributed throughout the vicinity of Botany Bay. That this isso, isshown from the description given by Dr. Pereira’ of the kino from Botany Bay that he had met with, which was in irregular odourless masses, many of which were in the form of tears. Some were almost black, and when digested in water, swelled and became soft and gelatinous, like red currant jelly. The kino also acted similarly when digested in rectified spirit. There seems little doubt from the above that that particular sample of kino was of considerable age, and that it was obtained from species allied to the “‘ Stringybarks,”’ or the ‘** Peppermints,’’ because with age all this class of kinos become almost black, and are then but little soluble in either water or alcohol, but swell up like a jelly. The sample could not have been obtained from E. siderophloia, which species has been thought to have been the original E. resinifera, because the solubility of the “ Ironbark ’’ kinos in water is but little impaired by age. + Pereira, Mat. Med. 4th Ed., Vol. 11., pp. 237-8 (1857). ON EUCALYPTUS KINOS. 93 On the other hand the *‘ New Holland kino ’’ mentioned by Dr. Thomson‘ as being procured by wounding the Hucalyptus resinifera, gave a brown chocolate powder on which cold water acted but slowly, but boiling water formed a deep cherry-red solution which threw down a brick coloured precipitate on cooling. The solution was coloured deep green by sesquichloride of iron. Krom these reactions it is certain that that sample of kino was not obtained from any species belonging to the “‘Ironbarks,”’ or the “‘Stringy- barks,’’ or the “‘Peppermints.’’ The above statements denote clearly that no care was taken to distinguish between products of separate species. At the International Exhibition of 1862 a collection of vegetable products was exhibited from Tasmania, and in a series of notes on these by Mr. W. Archer, F.L.S., published in the Technologist, appears the following :—"‘ This gum, which seems to have similar properties to those of the Hast Indian kino, exudes from woods of all the Tasmanian species of Hucalyptus.’’ That these exudations were at that time, collected without discrimination, is indicated by the above statements. The evidence which will be submitted later will illustrate how unsatisfactory these Kucalyptus kinos must be when so collected, and it also offers an explanation for the non- agreement in the experiences of various writers, who have described their successes or otherwise with particular methods suggested at various times for the preparation of tincture of kino. In the journals devoted to pharmacy much information may be found dealing with this subject. It has been sup- posed that glycerol had the desired effect of preventing gelatinization, and its addition is of course official, but R. * Thomson, Mat. Med. p. 678 (1843). G4 HENRY G. SMITH. Rother? considers glycerol “‘ as unsatisfactory as all other agents previously tried. The alleged occasional success with sundry corrigents can only be accounted for by the fact that there are numerous varieties of kino, and that one or more of these may not be susceptible of this change.”’ It is very probable that this is so, and it is remarkable that while some Kucalyptus kinos gelatinize very readily, others do not do so even after the lapse of many years. About seven years ago I made tinctures (1 in 10) of half a dozen Hucalyptus kinos, but omitted the glycerol. These were put up in glass stoppered bottles and kept in the dark continuously. The kinos of E. amygdalina, E. macror- rhyncha and E. piperita readily gelatinized and formed a perfect jelly after a comparatively short time. The kino of E. corymbosa has become thick but not even now a jelly, that of EK. punctata has slightly thickened, but the kino of K. calophylla has undergone no alteration after all these years. ‘The evidence thus obtained has been followed up with gratifying results. The questions naturally arising are, why this variability in gelatinization when the tinctures are made under iden- tical conditions, and what is the cause of the gelatinization? These will be considered together. It may perhaps be generally accepted that the cause of the gelatinization is the same in those Eucalyptus kinos which gelatinize and in the kino of Pterocarpus marsupiwn. Pereira considered the jelly to consist principally of pectin and tannic acid (page 238) and Dorvault that it was pectic acid, but Mr. Redwood (loc. cit.) after experiment, arrived at the conclusion that neither pectin nor pectic acid was present in the jelly, but thought that the change was traceable to ‘‘ulmic acid ’’ or “‘humus.”’ * American Journal of Pharmacy, 1886, and Pharm. Journ., July 1886, p. 67. ON EUCALYPTUS KINOS. 95 Mr. J. H. Hustwick' points out that with one sample of kino he obtained gelatinized and non-gelatinized tinctures by different methods of working. In one case he treated the granular kino with the alcohol without powdering, and consequently an insoluble portion was left which was dis- carded; this tincture kept well and was as fluid after two years aS when made. In the other the kino was powdered and this tincture readily gelatinized. I have referred to this peculiar experience because it bears directly upon what will be shown later. Mr. Rother (loc. cit.) suggests the addition of catechu to the tincture to prevent gelatinization, but from my experiments the addition of a moderate amount of a non- gelatinizable kino to a gelatinizable one does not prevent the ultimate production of a jelly, although it retards it considerably, and in direct ratio to the amount of the former kino or tincture added. (See Table III.) Mr. G. W. Kennedy’ advocates the addition of logwood, but it is probable that this acts in the same way as does catechu, and I do not think it would be finally successful unless it was added in large amount. Mr. G. M. Beringer’ describes a method for making the tincture with diluted alcohol, but this apparent improve- ment was probably due to most of the active gelatinizing principle in the kino being left behind in the “‘dregs”’ on the filter. Nor will the freshness of the kino help per- manently although of some advantage, but fresh or aged the cause of the gelatinization appears to be present in the kino, and will naturally do its work in time. So it is with the Hucalyptus kinos that gelatinize, and Mr. Maiden’s qualification* for Kucalyptus kinos that will make satis- * Pharm. Journ. [3] 2. 260. * American Journ. of Pharm., Feb. 1880. American Journ. of Pharm., 1903, p. 378. * Pharm. Journ., Oct. 1889, p. 323. 96 HENRY G. SMITH. factory tinctures will unfortunately not now hold, because those Hucalyptus kinos which are, when fresh, completely soluble in cold water as well as in alcohol, are those that gelatinize the most readily. These rapidly gelatinizable kinos are numerous, and are obtained from Hucalypts whose oils contain the terpene phellandrene, such species are RK. pilularis, E. piperita, E. amygdalina, (and its allies), AH. hoemastoma, HK. obliqua, E.macrorrhyncha, H. Sieberiana, K. oreades, etc. Itisapity that this gelatinization takes place so readily, because these soluble kinos are the most astringent, and when quite fresh are almost as astringent as gallo-tannic acid itself, but owing to the objectionable property of gelatinizing, the whole of the members of this class of Kucalyptus kinos will have to be discarded for tincture making. It should be possible, however, to use them in other directions, but the method by which this could be done is a matter for future determination. For- tunately there are several Kucalyptus kinos which do not gelatinize in tinctures, and these are almost equally astringent with those kinos mentioned above and are readily obtainable. The kinos of the Kucalypts contain at least three tannins determinable by reagents; two of these gelatinize in tinc- tures, the other doesnot. Of the two gelatinizable tannins the one which gives the violet colour and precipitate with ferric chloride gelatinizes much more readily than the one which gives a green colour with ferric chloride.’ It is possible that the tannins in these kinos may be separated, perhaps through their copper salts. It was the somewhat regular increment of particular oil constituents in progressive species that enabled the new ‘ The late Mr. Henry Trimble (the author of “The Tannins”) expressed an opinion to the author of this paper, that eventually a new tannin might be isolated from the Eucalypts, and the results here recorded support strongly that supposition. ON EUCALYPTUS KINOS. 97 substances to be most easily isolated. The chemistry of the kinos appears to run in a parallel direction, so that it is possible by following down the species, to find a kino in which a required tannin occurs in a maximum amount. As two only of these kino tannins appear to gelatinize in tinctures, the cause of the gelatinization may perhaps be indicated. The latest suggestion is that advanced by Mr. EH. White’ where he endeavours to show that the formation of gelatinized tincture of kino is due to the presence of an enzyme. Whether this is so can only be completely solved by its isolation. If an enzyme is the cause then it seems strange that it only acts on certain of these kino tannins, if an oxydase then the product of its action does not form a solid compound with one at least of these tannins. That some action of this sort does take place is suggested by the rapidity with which some of the tannins in Kucalyptus kinos may be made to gelatinize by the addition of a very small amount of formaldehyde, and in a lesser degree by acetalde- hyde. The rapidity of the gelatinization brought about by the addition of a few drops of formaldehyde, or of acet- aldehyde, can be seen from the tabulated results (Table I.) These results are comparable with those obtained with the tinctures tested by age alone in the ordinary way. The test seems to be a reliable one and by its aid it appears possible to determine whether a kino will gelatinize in tinctures or not. No doubt the test is a severe one and will detect all kinos that might possibly gelatinize. Although it may not be easy to isolate the unorganised ferment, if such is present, yet, it is not difficult to isolate and grow the organised substance which appears to be present in most Kucalyptus kinos. ‘This substance is easily obtained from those kinos which gelatinize the most readily. It always grows at the bottom of the diluted aqueous kino + Pharm. Journo., May 1908, p. 644, and Nov. 1908, p. 702. G—Aug. 3, 1904. 98 HENRY G. SMITH. solution and appears to start from the particles of kino which are always left undissolved. Mr. S. J. Johnston, B.A., B.Sc., Of the Technological Museum is making an investi- gation of this organism, and its description will appear later. The following list gives the general chemical reactions and astringency values of the Kucalyptus kinos dealt with in this paper, and it will be seen that associated kinos behave similarly. In no instance did the time allowed for precipitates to form extend beyond one hour. The method of determining the astringency values was described in the previous paper on the kino glucoside, the strength of the solution being one gram per litre. The method adopted for taking the colour reaction with ferric chloride was to havea full test tube, standing before a Window, and to allow one drop of the reagent to fall through the solution without agitation; the strength of the kino solution for this test was 0°33 gram per litre. The best results were obtained with a solution of this strength. The other tests were made with kino solutions of one gram per litre. Most Kucalyptus kinos contain mixed tannins and the reactions are, therefore, largely governed by the predomin- ant tannin present. The tannins which give violet and green colorations with ferric chloride gelatinize in tinctures, the former much the more readily, but the one giving the blue coloration does not gelatinize. It is also possible to detect the diminution or otherwise of the individual tannins by the reaction with ferric chloride and by the astringency value and the gelatinization test. The changes that take place in the colour reaction, together with the results of other reagents are not given in the table, as they have little bearing on the results of gelatinization. Those Eucalyptus kinos that give a blue coloration with the ferric salt, a sparce precipitate slow to form with iodine in potassium iodide, and a comparatively small amount of the copper salt insoluble in ammonia, all contain in excess the tannin which does not gelatinize in tinctures. Astringency Value. E. Sieberiana sel hae E. dives he E. pilularis 8388 E. corymbosa 694: E, trachyphloia ... 729 E. rostrata 041 E. rostrata, Bosisto, Victoria 576 E. goniocalyx 4:35 E. Woollsiana 235 E. melliodora 247 E. populifolia 518 E. Bridgesiana 412 E. hemiphloia 200 HE. pendula 482 E. Smithiu 565 EE. Dawsoni 541 E. wntertexta 518 E. oleosa ... ey E. calophylla 1897| 753 E. calophylla 189 729 E. eximia... tag 435 E. microcorys 741 #. maculata 612 Gallo-tannic acid 1000 ON EUCALYPTUS KINOS. Coloration at once with Ferric chloride, violet ditto ditto green greenish purple green green ereen reddish- brown brig ht- green purplish grey greenish gtey reddish- brown purplish grey bluish- sreen purplish grey brownish one) violet blue ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto Iodine in Potassium Iodide. ppt. soon forming ditto ditto ppt. soon forms ditto precipit. Slowly forms ditto ditto ditto ppt. very slow to form ppt. slow to form ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ppt. very slow to form consider- able ppt. soon forms ppt. very slowly forms ditto ditto no ppt. turbidity no ppt. 99 dense Bromine water. once ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto slight ppt. ditto ppt. at once ppt. soon forms ditto ditto no ppt. slight ppt. no ppt. ppt. at Cupric sulphate and ammonia in | excess, dense floccu- lent ppt. ditto ditto not a large ppt. consider- able ppt. finely di- vided pre cipitate ditto not large ppt. very slight ppt. no ppt. very slight ppt. slight ppt. very slight ppt. fair ppt. slight ppt. consider- able ppt. ditto ditto slight ppt. ditto ditto ditto small ppt. cousider- able ppt. Zinc acetate. ppt at once ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto turbidity ditto ppt. at once ditto turbidity ppt. at once ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto 100 HENRY G. SMITH. From the following tables which deal with the results of the gelatinization of the tinctures, it is apparent that some species of Hucalyptus give kinos of great excellence for tincture making. They do not gelatinize even after many years, and the addition of glycerol is not needed. The probable gelatinization of all kinos can also readily be determined by simple tests. The kinos here listed were chosen as being representative of the whole 100 species of Eucalyptus examined. The remainder, not here enumerated, gave the chemical reactions agreeing with these, but so far as this investigation has gone no others were detected giving indications of non-gelatinizable kinos. The list of these is thus restricted to the four following species :— 1. “*Tallowwood,”? Huealyptus microcorys, Hastern Australia. 2. ““Red Gum,” Eucalyptus calophylla, Western Australia. 3. “Mountain Bloodwood,”’ Eucalyptus eximia, Blue Mountains, N.S. Wales. 4. “Spotted Gum,’’ Eucalyptus maculata, Hastern Australia. , The kinos of EH. eximia and EF. maculata (being closely related chemically) give precipitates when diluted with water, which peculiarity might be an objection to their use pharmaceutically. The tincture of H. calophylla gives only a slight turbidity when diluted with water, while the tinc- ture of EH. microcorys remains perfectly clear and trans- parent on the addition of water. There seems but little to choose between the kinos of KE. microcorys and E. calophylla for tincture making. The latter, however, can be readily obtained in any quantity. They do not undergo change when kept in the dry state. There seems no reason, apparently, why the kinos of some Kucalyptus species should not eventually replace, for ON EUCALYPTUS KINOS. 101 medicinal and official purposes, all other kinos from what- ever source obtainable. TABLE I. This table shows the comparative rates of gelatinization of tinctures (1 in 10) of the following Eucalyptus kinos with (a) Formaldehyde—commercial formalin of which 20 drops from the same pipette contained °191 gram HCHO. (b) Acetaldehyde, of which 20 drops contained ‘091 gram CH,CHO. Hxperiments were commenced 14th January 1904, when 5 drops of each aldehyde were added to 5 cc. of separate tinctures of each kino, agitated, and stood on one side for 20 hours. After that time, to those tinctures which had not solidi- fied, 5 drops more of each aldehyde were added to the respective tinctures, and these again stood for 20 hours. To those tinctures which had not solidified, 5 drops more of aldehyde were again added to the respective tinctures, and observation repeatedly made untilist July, 1904. Scc. of tincture were taken in all cases. Those tinctures which slowly solidified became much thicker previous to forming a jelly. In the table the following may also be noted :— (a) HB. pilularis being a quite fresh kino did not so readily gelatinize with acetaldehyde as did the kino of H. dives. (b) HE. pilularis after boiling acted similarly to the un- boiled kino. (c) H. Woollsiana, E. hemiphloia, EH. pendula, and E. inter- texta did not form homogenous jellies with formalde- hyde, but a precipitate separated. (d) E. rostrata and E. calophylla (2 samples of each) show that the kinos from identical species of Eucalyptus act similarly irrespective of location or date, again illus- trating the chemical constancy of Hucalyptus species. 102 E. Sieberiana, collected May 1899 E. dives, Oct. 1898 E. pilularis, Jan. 1904 E. corymbosa, April 1889 E. trachyphloia E. rostrata, March 1908 E. rostrata, | Bosisto, Victoria E. goniocalyz, | April 1889 E. Woollsiana, April 1901 E. melliodora, March 1908 ~ E. populifolia, Nov. 1899 E. Bridgesiana, March 1899 | ~ E. hemiphloia, Dec. 1900 | 4 E. pendula, Dec. 1900 . Smithii, Oct. 1900 by HENRY G. SMITH. Formalin 5 drops 15/1/04 brown jelly formed 39 15/1/04 no change 33 Formalin 10 drops 16/1/04 light brown jelly form ed 16/1/04 no change 3) 33 3) Formalin 15 drops 18/1/04 plum coloured jelly formed 18/1/04 dark salmon coloured jelly formed x? 21/1/04 salmon col- oured jelly formed 10/2/04 partly solid and partly fluid 25/1/04 salmon coloured jelly formed 18/1/04 salmon coloured jelly, formed 22/1/04 salmon coloured jelly formed 25/4/04. partly solid and partly fluid 33 22/1/04 salmon coloured jelly formed Acetaldehyde 15 drops 2/2/04 jelly formed 2/3/04 jelly formed 1/7/04 very thick but not a solid jelly 1/7/04 had thickened considerably 1/7/04 thickened a little 1/7/04 still fluid | | 1/7/04 a homogenous salmon color’d | jelly formed 1/7/04 still fluid 1/7/04 thickened a little 1/7/04 still fluid ON EUCALYPTUS KINOS. 103 Formalin Formalin Formalin Acetaldehyde 5 drops 10 drops 15 drops 15 drops E. Dawsoni, 15/1/04 16/1/04 18/1/04 1/7/04 Oct. 1893 | no change | no change salmon thickened a coloured jelly little formed E. intertexta, 3 ae 25/4/04 1/7/04 May 1903 partly solid | partly solid and partly | and partly fluid fluid E. oleosa, . 16/1/04 ae. 1/7/04 May 1903 light brown had thickened jelly formed considerably E. calophylla, fe 16/1/04 1/7/04 1/7/04 June 1897 no change | as fluid as | as fluid as when put up | when put up E. calophylia, 3 *; 1/7/04 1/7/04 Dec. 1895 no change | no change E. eximia, 6p 29 op Bp Jan. 1898 E. microcorys, a 43 ae a3 April 1896 E. maculata, Ke ne 3 Pe July 1898 E. pilularis, 15/1/04 1/7/04 boiled kino. | brown jelly thickened but formed not yet a jelly Angophora 15/1/04 16/1/04 19/1/04 20/1/04 intermedia| no change | no change | dark brown | dark brown April 1888 jelly formed | jelly formed Pterocarpus eS 16/1/04 2/3/04 marsupium brown jelly quite thick India formed 25/4/04 brown jelly formed Eucalyptus A tincture (1 in 10) was made of this kino by dis- paniculata | solving in a small quantity of water, adding twice March 1904 | the amount of 90% alcohol, and filtering from the small quantity of bark. To 5 cc. of tincture 5 drops of formalin were added. Next day a perfect jelly had formed. The tannin in the “‘ Ironbarks”’ is thus again shown to be allied to that of the ‘‘ Peppermints” as E. dives, etc. TABLE II. This table shows the influence a slowly gelatinizable kino, like that of Eucalyptus Woollsiana, has upon a rapid gelati- nizable one, like that of Hucalyptus dives. The mixtures were prepared on the 21st January 1904, and five drops of commercial formalin added to each. 104 4 cc. 1 ce. 0°5 ec. of E. Woollsiana 45 ce. of EF. dives .of E. Woollsiana . of E. dives .of BE. Woollsiana ». of EB. dives . of EB. Woollsiana . of BE. dives of EF. Woollsiana of E. dives HENRY G. SMITH. 22/1/04 slight jelly a little thickened no change 23/1/04 solid jelly formed solid jelly formed slight jelly no change 25/1/04 solid jelly formed thickened a little no change 26/1/04 solid jelly formed thickened a little re . . 22/2/04 purplish- brown jelly brown jelly jelly becoming salmon coloured dark salmon coloured jelly salmon coloured jelly Nore.—The predominant colours of these jellies are those of the jellies of the individual kinos themselves, showing that these colours are not accidental. TABLE TT, This table shows the preventative action a non-gelatiniz- able kino like that of Eucalyptus calophylla, has when mixed with a gelatinizable one, like that of Hucalyptus pilularis. Tinctures of the two kinos were combined in the proportions stated, and five drops of formaldehyde (com- mercial formalin) added to each mixture. were prepared on the 11th February, 1904. . of FE. calophylla . of E. pilularis , of ZB. OL. NOF 0k Fi. of F. . of E. . of E. . of BE. calophylla pilularis | 12/2/04 13/2/04. thicken’d a littie no change calophylla pilularis calophylla pilularis calophylla pilularis solid jelly formed solid jelly | formed thickened a little no change change solid jelly formed no no change | change jelly The mixtures 15/2/04 | 17/2/04 | 18/2/04 no 25/4/04 slight |solid jelly formed slight jelly, solid on April 30 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CONCRETE-IRON CONSTRUCTIONS. 105 NOTES ON THE THHORY anp PRACTICE or CONCRETEH- IRON CONSTRUCTIONS. By F. M. GUMMOW, M.C.E., Assoc.M. Inst. C.E. [With Plates III. - VI.] [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, September 7, 1904. | IN presenting the following notes on concrete-iron con- struction, the author’s object is to place before you a digest of the opinions of leading authorities on the subject, moulded together to represent a correct view from the pre- sent standpoint of scientific research on this subject. As the constant mentioning of the authorities from whom data have been obtained would become tedious, the author has abstained from quoting them, and it is to be understood that the general term “‘concrete-iron’’ includes ** concrete- steel,’’ the word iron being used in its generic sense. ‘““Concrete-iron’’ is the designation applied to those con- structions which consist of Portland cement concrete and iron insertions, both so intimately united that the construc- tions act as homogeneous bodies when taking up stresses, and at the same time allow the utilisation of each material to its utmost limit. The great success of this combination is due to the following characteristics, five in number, which may be called the fundamental and essential prin- ciples — 1. The thermal coefficients of expansion and contraction of the two materials are nearly equal. The coefficient of expansion and contraction for cement concrete for each degree Celsius (1° C.) may be taken as 0°0000137, and for iron as 0°00001235. These differences of the coefficients although so small nevertheless set up 106 F. M. GUMMOW. stresses in the body under great variations of temperature, so that it becomes necessary to ascertain their extent in order to judge if they are of sufficient importance to need further consideration. The greatest variations of temperature to which under ordinary circumstances an engineering construction would be subject to, do not exceed 100° C. or 180° F. The effect of that variation on a concrete-iron construction 16 inches thick with two layers of round iron half an inch diameter embedded 3 inches apart, would give a maximum compres- sion of 14°25 Ibs. per square inch on the concrete, and a maximum tension of 1743 tbs. per square inch on the iron. The opposite effect would be produced by an equal decrease in the temperature. From this it is evident that the stresses so produced are of no real consequence, and there- fore unnecessary to take into calculation. Even under high and rapid variations of temperature no disunion of the concrete and iron materially affecting its carrying capacity takes place, due no doubt to the pro- tection afforded the iron by the concrete. This has been conclusively proved by practical tests, and by the recent experiences in the great Baltimore fire, one of the largest conflagrations of modern times, where the concrete-iron constructions withstood the attack of a fierce fire for hours without sustaining damage afiecting their stability. 2. The fact that cement is a preservative of iron against corrosion is so well known that it need not be further | dwelt upon. 3. The adhesion of concrete to iron may be very cousider- able, according to the richness of the concrete mixtures, and may in general be taken as equal to the shearing strength of the concrete. The values ranging from 250 to 450 ibs. per square inch. The higher values being obtained from tests with thick iron rods, and THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CONCRETE-IRON CONSTRUCTIONS. 107 concrete of a high elastic limit, and are independent of whether the iron be smooth or rough. 4. Concrete with iron insertions can undergo elongations which far exceed those of ordinary plain or unarmoured concrete, and generally speaking may be stated to be from 10 to 20 times greater. Test pieces made to ascertain the elongations of plain and armoured concretes, consisted of prisms of square cross-section of 2°36 inches sides, and 23°6 inches length. Hach prism was fixed vertically, well clamped at the lower end-—while over the top was fitted a horizontal lever by means of a square eye of the dimensions of the cross-section of the prism. At the end of this lever the loads were applied, and by this method of testing equal bending moments were created in all cross-sections producing elongations on the one side and shortenings on the other. The concrete in all the prisms consisted of 1 of cement to 3 of sand. The concrete-iron or armoured prisms contained 3 iron rods of 0°167 inch diameter, which latter had an elastic limit of 54,000 tbs. per square inch. The plain concrete prisms showed just before fracture a shortening of °0037 inch per lineal foot on the compressive side and an elonga- tion of ‘0024 to ‘003 inch per lineal foot on the tension side. The concrete-iron prisms showed an elongation of ‘024 inch or a ten times greater lengthening than occurred in the plain concrete prisms. Further tests proved that a prism of concrete composed of 1 part cement, 2 of sand, and 4 of broken stone, 3°9 inch square, 6°56 feet long, with 4 iron rods of °023 inch diameter inserted, could endure an elongation of *007 to °016 inch per lineal foot without fracture, whereas the plain concrete prisms did not elongate more than from ‘0018 to °0036 inch before fracturing. 108 F. M. GUMMOW. In order to show that such elongations could be endured by the concrete without affecting its strength materially, atest was made with a piece of concrete cut out of the concrete-iron prism after the removal of the iron, and it withstood when subjected to direct compression a com- pressive stress of 1646 Ibs. per square inch, with a coefficient of elasticity of 2,130,000 Ibs. A block of plain concrete Similar in aggregates, but which had not previously been used for test purposes, crushed with 1987 Ibs. per square inch and showed a coefficient of elasticity of 4,400,000 tbs. The observations made ona buoy of hollow iron 74 inches diameter and filled with cement mortar, erected on a rock at Gorlé-Bian in France, supplies a striking example of the ductility of cement mortar or concrete. The waves bent the buoy to a radius of 1°8 feet measured from the axis of the buoy. Upon cutting same open along its axis the cement mortar was found to consist of bent pieces, which were with the exception of a few abrasions, otherwise intact, and whose deformations as regards displacement of the fibres, amounted to 2°4 inches to the foot. From the above data it is evident since the elongations in construc- tions do never exceed ‘0035 inches per lineal foot, that the concrete possesses the power of elongation sufficient for all practical purposes. ). The combined materials are capable of acting as one body in taking up stresses when subject to bending moments. In order that this characteristic may be considered in its entirety, it becomes necessary to deal first with some stresses otherwise created, which considerably affect the issue of this statement. The stresses referred to are caused by the alteration of the volume of concrete. 1. By contraction when hardening in air. 2. By expansion when hardening in water. THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CONCRETE-IRON CONSTRUCTIONS. 109 These alterations of volume are the greater the richer the concrete used, and the amount ranges for pure cements from °018 to °024 inches per lineal foot, and for poorer mixtures from °0036 to °0006 inch. Plain concrete bodies expanding and contracting without outside resistance, remain free of internal stresses, but when iron rods are inserted in the concrete and the latter allowed to harden in the air, the rods tend to prevent the contraction of the concrete, causing tensile stresses in the latter and compressive stresses in the iron, the amount depending on the concrete mixture and the sectional area of the iron. Some concrete-iron prisms of square cross-section with 3°9 inches sides, 6°56 feet long, and with 4 iron rods inserted, each °023 diameter, and of a concrete proportioned of 1 part cement, 2 of sand and 4 of broken metal were allowed to harden in the air. The shrinkage or contraction amounted to °0025 inch per lineal foot, which expressed in stresses means that the iron was subjected to a compres- sion of 6,527 Ibs. (per square inch), and the concrete to a tension of 74 Ibs. per square inch. From this it is evident that the two materials through the above causes may become subject to considerable initial stresses which will have the effect of increasing the deformations of the con- struction when under loading. To minimise the effect caused by hardening of concrete in the air, it is advisable and even necessary to keep con- crete-iron constructions as damp as possible during the earlier stages of hardening, the longer and more thoroughly this is attended to, the better are the results achieved. When concrete-iron constructions harden in water the opposite effect to hardening in air is produced, viz., com- pressive stresses occur in the concrete and tensile in the iron, the amount varying according to the aggregate of the 110 F. M. GUMMOW. concrete, and the percentage of iron used. In this case the initial stresses so produced are of actual benefit to the construction, inasmuch as when the same is subject to loading, the iron being in tension comes at once into action. Further, concrete which has hardened in air will expand when absorbing water, and contract again when drying out. The effects of these hygrometrical alterations on the perfectly hardened concrete are however less than those which result from the gradual hardening of same in air, and the amounts of such volume alterations are inversely proportionate to their coefficients of elasticity. Reference has been made to the combined materials being capable of acting as one body in taking up the stresses when subject to bending moments. To understand this it is necessary to study the relations between the length alteration and the stresses or in its graphical representa- tion the so-called lines of form-alteration. FOF and HOI represent the lines of form-alteration for the iron and con- crete respectively in compression and tension, and OBCG H the line of form-alteration for concrete-iron in tension. The form-alteration of the latter in compression being the same as for the concrete (only with an extended range) has not again been plotted. The ordinates represent the specific stresses and the abscissze the accompanying shortenings or elongations asthe case may be. The compressive stresses are plotted upwards and the tensile downwards, the shorten- ing to the right, the elongations to the left. The line of form-alteration for iron is straight, showing that the deformations take place proportionately to the stresses (within its elastic limit), while those for the con- crete and concrete-iron are curved, denoting that the deformations are not proportionate to the stresses. Thus we have two kinds of elastic bodies before us, viz. the iron with a constant coefficient of elasticity, and the zoncrete THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CUNCRETE-IRON CONSTRUCTIONS. 11] and concrete-iron with variable coefficients under increased loading. The lines of form-alteration for the concrete and concrete- iron indicate : 1. That the coefficients of elasticity decrease much more rapidly in tension than in compression, under increased loading. 2. That the material in the vicinity of the neutral axis is better utilised than in bodies with a constant coefficient of elasticity. The leading formule for calculating concrete-iron con- structions subject to bending moments express the above data of the distribution of the stresses in a more or less simplified manner, as shown by the two types 1 and 2. These formule although utilising as far as possible all the scientific data to hand are unable (and it is probably safe to predict will remain so) to give results which will cor- respond with direct compressive and tensile stresses. Con- cerning the compressive stresses in concrete-iron construc- tions, those containing 14% or more iron (instances where the destruction of the concrete-iron hody is dependent on the compressive strength of the concrete) differ in this respect most markedly, from the results obtained from direct compression tests. A poor concrete of 1 part cement, 3 of sand, and 3 of broken metal, at 3 months old, hada compressive strength as a cube under direct compression of 1710 ths. per square inch, whereas the calculated com- pressive bending stress of similar concrete in a concrete- iron construction was 2838 Ibs. per square inch. Richer concretes show less difference than poorer ones. The question, therefore, arises what circumstances cause these differences. To determine this, it is necessary to compare the two methods of testing. On the one hand a cube is very soon destroyed if the pressure faces are not truly 112 F. M. GUMMOW. parallel, or if unequal deformations take place on account of unequal application of the force, or unequal texture of the cube, matters which any test in spite of the greatest precautions may more or less be subject to. On the other hand, in a concrete-iron construction subject to bending moments, there is an even transmission of pressure at an increasing rate from the neutral axis. The elasticity imparted to the construction by the iron rods counteracts the permanent set, and by doing so has an equalising effect on the stresses, thereby preventing unequal deformations, and consequently preventing those secondary shearing stresses which cause destruction of the cubes, when determining their compressive strength. Since great differences between the direct stresses and calculated stresses of the materials when used in concrete- iron construction do exist, as is evident from the above, it becomes necessary to obtain special data of permissible compressive stresses for concrete-iron constructions with the various percentages of iron and different mixtures of concrete. Concerning the tensile stresses it is necessary to examine the distribution of the same over the two materials. In order to do this, reference must be made to the line of form-alteration of concrete-iron in tension, viz., the curve OBCGE plotted in the ratio of stress to elongation from results obtained from direct tensile test. The apportioning of the stresses was arrived at by measuring the elongations ) of the iron under various loadings, calculating the stresses | and deducting same from the test load in question, whence the balance would represent the stresses on the concrete. The stresses on the combined material as plotted represent the stresses per square inch, and the stresses in the iron represent the stresses per square inch shortened in the ratio of the areas of the iron to the concrete, the iron being represented by the dotted line of form-alterations FF. THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CONCRETE IRON CONSTRUCTIONS. 113 Taking any point on the line of form-alteration of the concrete-iron body, say M, then Mm represents the total elongation and MR the total stress per square inch on the combined material. MP the stress per square inch on the concrete, and PR multiplied by the ratio of the area of the concrete to the iron represents the stress in the iron per square inch. In case the concrete body has hardened in air and thereby become subject to initial internal stresses, viz., tension in the concrete and compression in the iron, these stresses must be added or deducted as the case may be. The tensile stress on the concrete from that source must be added to the stresses created by the loading, and the distance OA from O represents the intensity of that initial stress (at the beginning of the test). Using now A as the starting point, we must, in order to get the true tensile stresses in the iron, deduct the initial compressive stress on that material from the stresses created by the loading, which is achieved by the deduction of the distance A U, represent- ing the intensity of the initial compressive stress (at the beginning of the test). To now show the total stresses on the materials, it becomes necessary to move the lines FF and ON to pass severally through points A and U, taking up the positions Fk’ X’ and UV respectively. The total stresses at point M are then represented by M Q in lieu of M P on the concrete, and @S in lieu of PR on the iron. To illustrate the effect of repeated unloading and reload- ing, let it be assumed that if the continuous loading was interrupted at point C on the line OBCGE and the load repeatedly unloaded and reloaded then the effect OD, DC’ —C'D’...D° C" would represent the lines of form-alteration thus produced. Tests made in that direction brought to light (1) that the concrete, although its elongations amounted to from 10 to 20 times that value which causes H—Sept. 7, 1904. 114 F. M. GUMMOW. fracture in plain concrete bodies, did not fracture and must therefore have taken part in the resistance of the stress. (2) That if the loadings and unloadings be repeated with the same load time after time, the coefficient of form-alter- ation becomes greater and greater until a certain limit is reached, whence the concrete-iron body acts as a perfectly elastic body, that is, its length alterations become strictly proportionate to the loads, a phenomenon which we are only accustomed to find in such bodies as wrought iron and steel. Subjecting thereafter the concrete-iron body to greater loads than were applied in the reloading and unloading (above mentioned) then the line of form-alteration will continue in the direction of C°G E exactly as if the same had been subjected to the greater load from the first. In other words the construction, within its elastic limit, regains by the application of a greater load entirely its former ability of resistance. The character of the line of form-alteration in tension suggests three distinct stages or periods during testing to destruction. In the earlier stages of loading called the first period, lying between O and B. During that period the elongations in the tension fibres increase slowly until the point B is reached, by which time the concrete has undergone such elongations which would in an unarmoured or plain concrete body have caused fracture. The stresses in the iron are comparatively small, indicating that the concrete takes up the bulk of the loading, and this is more especially the case where initial stresses are already affecting the two materials, in which case the iron does not take up any tension until such elongations are reached as overcome the initial compressive stresses. The lines of form-alteration indicate that the two materials during this period behave as if they were independent of THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CONCRETE-IRON CONSTRUCTIONS. 115 each other, and that they take up the loads in the propor- tion of their coefficients of elasticity. At point B, where there is a decided change in the direc- tion of the line of form-alteration, we enter the second stage or period, during which the stress on the concrete remains with small variations the same throughout, although the concrete-iron body continues to elongate at a much more rapid rate than in the first stage. The coefficient of elasticity of the concrete in tension sinks rapidly, while the diagram of form-alteration of concrete in compression (O H) shows that the,coefficient of elasticity in compression experiences but slight alterations in comparison. As soon as these alterations in compression, however, become more conspicuous by increasing loads, or when the elastic limit of the iron has been reached, we enter the third period. The coefficient of elasticity in tension sinks to nought, indications of the destruction of the body become apparent, and the theory of elasticity can no longer be applied. The end of the second period most probably represents the limit of elasticity of the concrete-iron construction. The qualification of the concrete to elongate beyond the point B is instilled into the same by the following circum- stances, viz.:— 1. Its association with the iron and through it the uniform distribution of the tensile stresses over its sectional area. 2. The decrease of its coefficient of elasticity in tension. 3. The stressless displacement of its molecules. Concrete-iron bodies of green concrete with a high per- centage of iron show when tested that they are frequently quite devoid of that portion of the line of form-alteration known as the first period, and constructions which have already been subjected to repeated loadings are similarly affected, so that if tested later on, it would appear as if 116 F. M. GUMMOW. such a period had never existed. The carrying capacity of the construction however is thereby not affected. From this it must be deduced that it is inadmissible to draw con- clusions as to the carrying capacity of a construction from the elongations at the earlier stages of loading. Regard- ing the appearance of cracks before period three is reached it is necessary to distinguish as to their causes, whether they are due to changes of temperature ; to too quick dry- ing out; to weakness of the construction, or to settlement of the supports and distortion of same. The latter are especially a source of danger and difficult to prove, so that it becomes absolutely necessary on that account to pay particular attention to the foundation of the supports. This outlines the theory of concrete-iron constructions, and although the scientific investigations so far made, permit of a fairly correct view of the theory, there are many points yet which require clearing up. Attention is here directed to the indiscriminate use of formule, since each requires data of different permissible stresses for the various mixtures, and the percentages of reinforcement, values which, as already pointed out differ from the results obtained from direct tests of the materials. Should such information be available from abroad, care should be exercised in its use as local conditions and materials con- siderably affect their values, rendering local investigations absolutely necessary. The theory which appears a most simple one when first entering into the subject becomes the more complex the deeper the same is studied as in try- ing to solve one point, other points come to light which also require investigating. The theory of concrete-iron having been dealt with a few notes on its application may be of interest. The earliest scientific application of concrete-iron was in the manufac- ture of plates with free ends, these being the most simple THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CONCRETE-IRON CONSTRUCTIONS. 11d constructions subject to bending stresses. A plate thus supported becomes, when loaded, subject to compressive stresses in the upper fibres, and tensile in the lower. In order to augment the tensile strength of the concrete, iron was inserted near the underside of the plate in the direction of the span. This iron took the shape of round bars in the first instance, that being the easiest form procurable, and having been found later on to be also the most advantage- ous shape to use, it has become the standard section of the leading systems of concrete-iron. More frequently in practice the ends of the plates are more or less fixed to the supports or the plates are continuous over the supports, in which cases, tensile stresses occur at or near the upper side of the plates over the point of support, as well as on the lower side at and near the middle of the span, so that it becomes necessary to place iron in those sectional areas subject to tension. As the rectangular section of a plate does not permit of the iron being utilised to the best advantage, the applica- tion of this form of construction becomes for economic | reasons limited to small spans. For larger spans, and where heavy loads come into play a more favourable type of cross-section was substituted, which dissected, consists of adjoining T girders. This type in its most economic form is designated the plate-beam construction, on account of the webs being spaced so far apart that the flanges between same act as plates continuous over the web. The continuous plates being armoured with iron insertions as above mentioned. The webs also have iron insertions embedded according to their having free ends, fixed ends, or being continuous Over supports. Further, the webs require vertical or oblique irons, otherwise termed “ stirrups’’ or COTO to assist the concrete to take up the shearing stresses 118 F., M. GUMMOW. : produced in a loaded beam, and which in most cases exceeds the shearing resistance of the comparatively small concrete section of the web. Plate-beam constructions may present the following features, viz.—1. A space may be covered by a plate-beam consisting of main beams and plates only. 2. It may be advisable to place the main beams so far apart that cross beams are necessary to lessen the spans of the plates. 3. In conjunction with this latter arrangement another series of beams parallel to the main beams may be employed so that the whole area becomes subdivided into squares, the plate portion of which being supported on all four sides, acts similarly to buckled plates. Columns of concrete-iron constructed to support the plate beams, have the advantage over ordinary iron columns that they allow a better connection between column and beam. They are made in all shapes, solid or hollow, and are fortified by vertical irons placed near the outer surfaces, which irons are connected together by horizontal cross-ties to form a skeleton framing which hoops the concrete and prevents it from buckling and bulging. The concrete-iron plate-beam constructions in conjunction with columns are especially suited for heavily loaded floors of wide spans and have on that account found a very extensive applica- tion in warehouses, hotels, stores and industrial establish- ments. The whole of the concrete is built in situ and forms a well connected monolithic body, which considerably increases the stability of the buildings. These constructions being of greater bulk and dead weight than those of iron, makes them less sensitive to vibrations from fast running machines, or blows from falling bodies, and observations show that the maximum oscillation of a concrete-iron beam and the duration of such oscillation is THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CONORETE-IRON CONSTRUCTIONS. 119 considerably less than that of an equally strong steel girder. This property is of great importance in dealing with con- structions of large spans, subject to heavy and rapid moving loads as in the case of bridges. Many bridges with one or more openings up to 70 feet span have been carried out for road and railway purposes, and the experience gained therewith has been highly satis- factory. Within certain limits, according to circumstances, plate-beam bridges are more advantageous than arch bridges, but in spans of considerable size the arch bridges are more economical. Arches simiiar to plates and beams require to be strengthened in those areas subject to bending moments by means of iron insertions. Arches of parabolic shape, carrying an equally distributed load, need only be reinforced with iron near the intrados; but to carry varying loads it becomes necessary to reinforce the arch near the extrados as well as the intrados. These iron insertions while effecting a great increase in the factor of safety, and elasticity, give important economic advantages. In constructions of circular shape subject to equally distri- buted internal pressures, as occurs in pipes, reservoirs, etc., filled with water, concentric iron insertions are necessary, but when they are subject to unequal external pressures as in the case of pipes under earth pressure, it is necessary to use either eccentric iron insertions, extending from the outer surface at the horizontal diameter to the inner sur- face at the vertical diameter, or else to use concentric rings near the inner and outer surfaces respectively. It has been already stated that round iron bars have become the standard section of the leading systems of con- crete iron. Other shaped irons have here and there been substituted for the round bars, such as I irons, X iron, twisted iron, and many other sections, for each of which 120 F. M. GUMMOW. is claimed an increase of strength, either by adhesion or mechanical means. The mechanical means to assist the adhesion of the con- crete to the iron becomes unnecessary in all such concrete- iron constructions, which, besides strength, take due con- sideration of the preservation of the iron, by using such concrete mixtures, which experience has proved to be water-tight. The mixtures usually adopted are one part cement, two parts of sand, with aggregate not exceeding three parts of gravel or small broken stone, which when used in a plastic state, can be relied upon to surround the iron so thoroughly and closely that the preservation of the iron is ensured, besides creating sufficient adhesion for all practical purposes, as has been demonstrated by exhaustive tests and experience. Concrete-iron constructions built with poorer mixtures may be cheaper in the first place, but such saving is obtained by sacrificing thereby the perfect preservation of the iron, one of the most important factors of such combination, besides reducing the adhesion between the two materials, so that mechanical means must be resorted to, to make up for the loss. The form of such mechanical means may take numerous shapes, and has on that account been taken advantage of to form distinctive features for various Systems advocated by competing firms as offering special advantages. The above description outlines the most general applica- tion of concrete-iron, and as all other applications embody more or less the principles enumerated, only two specific types will be further noticed, viz.:—1. Its use in the manu- facture of piles, sheet piles, etc., which present a novel feature, inasmuch as that they can be driven similarly to those of timber. 2. Its use in the manufacture of pipes for water supply purposes, and as such subject to internal stresses. THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CONCRETE-IRON CONSTRUCTIONS. 121 The new Woolloomooloo baths lately erected, have an enclosure consisting of concrete-iron piles and sheet piles, the main piles are 22 inches X 15 inches and 15 inches x 12 inches, and the sheet piles 14 inches x 6 inches, both up to 25 feet 6 inches in length. They were driven witha 25 ton monkey, with a drop as much as 7 feet, in places through quarry refuse, without sustaining any damage. A retaining wall has lately been built along the Darling Harbour foreshore, consisting of concrete-iron sheet piles 27 feet long and 18 inches wide, ranging from 9 inches to 18 inches in thickness, according to the strength required to stand the earth pressure. They were potted in a rock trench, and held back at the top by tie-rods. The use of concrete-iron pipes for water supply purposes was first attempted about 14 years ago, and its success has led to its extended adoption in Kurope and other places, as it has many points in its favour when compared with cast- iron. Concrete-iron pipes are manufactured to withstand any internal pressures required, and as such are of two distinct types :— 1. The ordinary pipe, where the imperviousness neces- sary depends solely on the concrete. 2. The pipe which has embedded in the concrete a thin metal core to prevent percolation. Dealing with the first type, viz., the pipes solely depend- ing on the concrete for its imperviousness; it has been found that although they may exude or sweat when first put into use under high pressures, they soon “‘ take up.” Observations made on a pipe line of 4,920 feet long, on pipes 5 feet 9 inches diameter laid in connection with the Paris Water Supply, designed for a head of water of 44 feet 6 inches, showed when tested to be water-tight with a head of 24 feet. Under a pressure of 36 feet 5 inches wet spots appeared, and under a pressure of 44 feet 6 inches a general 122 F. M. GUMMOW. wetness showed, which, however, gradually “‘ took up’’ within two to three months. A concrete-iron pipe 9°84 feet long, 1 foot 8 inches diameter, and 1% inch thick, taken froma pipe line, having been three years in use, under a working pressure of 59 feet, showed no wet spots until subjected to a head of water of 125 feet. Upon being re-tested later on, it withstood a pressure of 130 feet head for one month without sweating, and percolation only commenced under a head of 197 feet. Numerous instances of the extensive use of concrete-iron pipes couid be mentioned, among which area length of four miles of 2 feet 7; inches diameter pipes, 1$ inch thick, working under a head of 23 feet, for the City of Venice; 18; miles of 2 feet diameter pipes in Algeria, under a head of from 56 feet to 78 feet, with thickness varying from 1°6 inch to 1°8 inch; 3% miles of 2 feet diameter pipes at Valence, under a head of 65 feet of water; 38 miles of 2 feet diameter pipes in Tunis, ete. In New South Wales concrete-iron pipes to withstand internal pressures have so far only been manufactured in connection with their application as bridge cylinders. The cylinders were designed to withstand an internal pressure of 50 feet head of water, and have been successfully sunk in many places with and without the airlock. They are manufactured in 3 feet 6 inches to 6 feet diameters, and contain within their thickness longitudinal steel bar con- nections, which are coupled—in jointing the cylinders— by means of fishplates and wedges. Regarding local tests of the impermeability of pipes under high internal pressures, the author made a series of tests with the ordinary concrete-iron pipes, which had been manufactured for use as culverts, stormwater channels, etc., and not designed to withstand internal pressures, and found that they withstood pressures up to 110 feet head THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CONCRETE-IRON CONSTRUCTIONS. 123 hod * of water before sweating or cracking. The pipes tested varied from 12 inches to 30 inches in diameter, and from 14 inches to 13 inches in thickness. As these tests were made primarily with the object of ascertaining the bursting strength of the pipe, and extended in each case only over a short period, the tests cannot be regarded as a true gauge for imperviousness to sweating, for to ascertain that it would have been necessary to extend the period of the test pressure over a considerable time. With regard to the second type mentioned, these can be made to withstand any internal pressures required similarly to steel pipes. Before concluding this portion of the paper it is advis- able to draw attention to the necessity which has arisen in Hurope and America to issue regulations in order to fix a standard of the materials to be used, the stresses admis- sible and the method of carrying out and testing these constructions in order to safeguard the public against their indiscriminate use by those not qualified to design or con- struct. This step became necessary on account of the many accidents in connection with these constructions. Particulars of a test of a plate-beam construction made on a large scale in this State being available, and this form of construction coming more and more into general use, a description of the construction and the test of same should be of interest. By instructions of the Hngineer-in-Chief for Hixisting Lines, N. 8. Wales Railways, a concrete-iron plate-beam construction was built in order to ascertain its strength and carrying capacity. The site chosen in the Newcastle Railway yard had an old concrete floor, and as the foundation soil in that locality was rather uncertain, it was deemed advisable not to disturb the same, but to build the construction on this floor. In order to distribute the pressure of the piers over as large an area as possible, four 124 F. M. GUMMOW. steel joists 12 inches X 6 inches xX 12 feet long were used for each pier to rest upon. The piers 5 feet 83 inches long x 1 foot 10 inches thick xX 2 feet 11 inches high to the top of plate were built of ordinary bluestone concrete a few days before the plate-beams, and had dovetailed recesses left in them for the beams and the plate to rest in. Two types of plate-beams were employed, with the object of ascertaining and comparing their values, the plate being made continuous across the two. Both beams were 23 feet 6 inches span between piers, or 27 feet 2 inches over all, 1 foot 10 inches deep at the centre, and 1 foot 45 inches at the supports to the under side of the plate. The latter was 25 inches thick, making total depth of 2 feet 1 inch and 1 foot 7 inches respectively at the centre and ends. Beam A was 10 inches wide, reinforced with five round iron bars placed about 1li’y inches above the under side. Three of these bars (one 7 inches and two 2 inches) extended along the lower side throughout into the recesses. The remainder, viz., two { inch bars, extended only for a certain distance along the lower side, thence upwards toward the upper surface and then along the latter into the support. Hach bar was in one length from support to support and bent over at the ends. Additional bars } inch diameter, and 5 feet 6 inches long were inserted near the top surface one at each support. Beam G was7 inches wide reinforced with six round iron bars. One 7 inch diameter and two 7 inch diameter bars were situated 17s inch above the lower surface of the beam and extended along same into the piers. The other three * inch bars placed 22 inch above the lower surface of the beam extended only a certain distance along such, thence upward toward the upper surface and along the latter into the piers. These bars were also continuous throughout their lengths and were bent over at their ends. Additional bars 2 inch diameter and 5 feet 6 inches long * ‘+ : ee . “al THEORY AND PRACTIOE OF CONCRETE-IRON CONSTRUCTIONS. 125 were inserted near the top surface two at each support. The weld of the main iron bars being situated at the centre of the spans, four additional bars 5 feet long by 3 inch diameter were inserted at these places to provide against risk of bad welding. The arrangement of the main bars as shown provides for the ends of the beams being partially fixed. Three-eighth inches diameter iron stirrups or struts were placed at varying distances along the length of each beam in order to assist to take up the shearing stresses. The plate which was 23 inches thick and 4 feet 14 inch wide contained # inch diameter iron bars alternately near the lower and the upper surface. After the piers were built the centreings for the beams and plate were fixed, and the iron rods placed in the posit- ions shown and described, and carefully held there during the process of encasing them with the concrete. The con- crete which consisted of 1 part ‘‘ Union Brand”’ tested Port- land cement, 1 part Nepean sand, 2 parts + inch bluestone shivers, containing all the small screenings and dust from the crusher, or subdivided 1 cask of cement, 4 cubic feet of sand, 4°62 cubic feet of dust, 6°38 cubic feet of shivers, bulked when mixed and wetted of one half of a cubic yard. It was well worked into place in a plastic state. The iron bars were of Lithgow manufacture and withstood a break- ing strain of from 24 to 26 tons per square inch, with an elastic limit of two-thirds the breaking strength. The test took place in July 1903, being seven weeks after its construction. Levers were fixed at three points on each beam, and also on the plate, viz., at + centre, and * span, in order to measure the deflections. The points of the levers were steel shod and rested on cement pats attached to the beams and plate, whilst the other ends moved against graduated scales. Verniers were also attached to the side of the beams to ascertain if any movements took place sideways under the loading. 126 F. M. GUMMOW. The method of loading was as follows:—A timber frame with open vertical joints was formed around the test object into which dry sand was filled level to the top. On the sand was laid a course of bricks and on these a platform of rolled joists 12 inches x 6 inches xX 12 feet long. Under the projecting ends of the joists timber structures were built allowing a > inch clearance being maintained by adjustable blocks throughout the testing. This platform of rolled joists was necessary in order to get sufficient width on which to stack the bricks, and served in conjunc- tion with the timber structure to ensure safety to those loading up and reading the deflections. The test which extended over a period of 24 hours was commenced one day and completed the next. The loading, beside the sand filling, layer of bricks and steel joists con- sisted of bricks, and reference to the drawings and photo- graphs will show the method of loading adopted. The sand, steel joists, and a quantity of bricks amounting in all toa weight of 33°43 tons, was placed on the test object on the first day and left on all night, an interval of 18 hours. This load which amounted to more than twice the working load for which the construction was designed, caused at the end of that time deflections from +th to+ofan inch. Next day the loading was continued, and the deflections taken with each increase of 5 tons. As previously mentioned the old concrete floor supporting the piers rested on very uncertain grounds, and in spite of the precautions taken to transmit the pressure by means of these steel joists over a larger area, the floor cracked and settled, and consequently increased the readings of the deflections. As these settlements could not be measured and eliminated, the deflection readings are inclusive of the settlements. Besides, these settlements not taking place evenly, a twisting of the construction took place, all of THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CONCRETE-IRON CONSTRUCTIONS. 127 which circumstances, to a certain extent must have affected the carrying capacity of the construction. With 55°89 tons, a slight crack appeared on the side of beam G, about 15 inches from the centre of the span, the crack starting at a point 3 inches above the underside of the beam, and extending upwards about 4 inches. With 59°99 tons a small hair crack on the side of beam A appeared similar to that in beam G. That these cracks were not caused by constructional weakness affecting the carrying capacity of the beams is proved, in that they did not increase under subsequent loading. What caused their appearance may be briefly stated as being the effect of the concentration of the iron for economic reasons as near the underside of the beam as. practicable, thereby depriving those areas in which the cracks appeared of the qualifica- tion of elongating to such an extent as the sectional areas surrounding the iron were able to accomplish. With 64°98 tons small cracks, hardly perceptible, started simultaneously at the edges of the underside of both bcams, and extended under increased loading until with 74°96 tons they became clearly visible across the whole underside, and also extended up the sides of the beams. The object of the test having been attained and the deflection apparatus removed, it was decided in order to ascertain how much the construction, so damaged, would be able to support before collapsing, to continue with the loading. This was carried on until the supply of bricks was exhausted, by which time the load amounted to 142°10 tons. During this loading the cracks had extended from the underside of the beams upward to near the underside of the plate, and had opened out considerably. The beams had deflected 3$ inches, causing a tilting of the piers, and a concentration of the compressive stresses on the inside edges, efiecting great cracking and crushing at those points. 128 F. M. GUMMOW. Referring now to the test of the structure and accepting 60 tons asthe load when the cracks appeared on the under- side of the beams, or 30 tons on each. The bending moment caused by the deadload, and load of 30 tons on beam A at point of crack = 2,560,000 inch Ibs. The distance of the centre of compression from the centre of tension = leverage = 21 inches. The sectional area of the iron = 2°68 square inches, and the tensile strain on the iron = 45,200 Ibs. or over 20 tons per square inch. The compression on the concrete = 1,360 Ibs. per square inch. On beam G, the bending moment caused by the dead load, and loads of 30 tons at point of crack = 2,450,000 inch tbs. The distance of the centre of compression from the centre of tension = leverage = 20°5 inches. The sectional area of the iron available = 2°65 square inches, and the tensile strain on the iron = 42,400 tbs. per square inch, or over 19 tons. The compression on the concrete = 1,330 Tbs. per square inch. Referring now to the beams, when loaded with the 142 tons, of which 120 tons may be taken as resting on the beams, or 60 tons on each. The cracking of the beams extended up to the underside of the plate, and consequently the leverage, or distance between the centre of compres- sion and centre of tension = 222 inches, and for beam A the strain on the iron per square inch = 81,000 Ibs. The compression on the concrete = 3,510 ibs. per square inch. On beam G the tensile strain on the iron is 78,900 Ibs. and the compression on the concrete is 3,400 Ibs. per. square inch. As such abnormal strains could not have taken place it must be inferred that the equally distributed loading arched itself as the deflections increased, and the results obtained by such loading can only be relied upon whilst the beam showed only small deflections, viz., to the time when the CURRENT PAPERS. 129 cracks appeared. Judging from tests made with concen- trated loads on other objects, the breaking down ought to have occurred with under 100 tons loading. In conclusion the author desires to thank Mr. James Fraser, Engineer-in-Chief for Hxisting Lines, and Mr. W. H. Davidson, Divisional Engineer, under whose supervision this test was carried out, for their courtesy in supplying the necessary information to enable him to place before you the particulars of this test. CURRENT PAPERS, No. 8. By H. A. LENEHAN, F.R.A.S., Acting Government Astronomer. [With Diagrams. | [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 3, 1904. ] Two years have nearly elapsed since Mr. Russell read his last Ocean Current paper before this Society, and owing to his recent illness it has fallen to my lot to present this pamphlet to you, which makes No. 8 of the Series. For a long time past, since 1888, papers have been supplied to masters of ships trading to this port, but owing to the new Federal Postal Regulations (which came into force in the latter part of 1902) doing away with the frank post on State Government documents, it was thought advisable to discontinue spreading the forms broadcast owing to the expenditure that would be incurred in postage. Now only ship masters who make written or personal application for the forms receive them. Under the present system it was only natural that the numbers received monthly would I—Sept. 7, 1904. 130 H. A. LENEHAN. > greatly diminish; the change was not at once noticeable, but after June 1903, there was a pronounced falling off. Whereas, during the years 1899 to 1903 (inclusive), the average papers received from January to July was 76— during 1904 the total reached for the same period was only 31—nearly a 60% decrease. Perhaps at some future time the distribution will again be taken up with renewed vigor. Paper No. 8 contains 181 records, a greater number than any previous paper published by the Sydney Observatory; the nearest approach was No. 3 paper with 167. | Several very valuable papers are here recorded. No. 976 I consider the most interesting. Cast adrift within a few miles of the Californian coast of North America, perhaps just outside the influence of the coastal inset, it has travelled a distance of 11,350 miles—nearly semi-circum- navigating the globe—before reaching its terminal point on the island of Boillon in the Java Sea. It is the first record received of the drift in that part of the North Pacific Ocean. I presume that when the paper was put overboard, July 19th, 1901, winds were blowing off the land and so drove it into the great North Pacific Drift. It was carried to the south and thence along to the westward in latitudes between 0° and 20° north, when it probably got into the North Equatorial Current. From thence it has passed through Malacca Straits to the spot where it was dis- covered. The distance travelled creates a record for the whole of the papers since the collection commenced. No. 936 is another interesting paper with both a long and rapid drift. It was put off a few degrees south of the Equator in Long. 88° 47° E. and threaded its way through Torres Strait to the Solomon Islands. The locality it passed through is a veritable network of reefs and islands. The drift was 4,830 miles at a daily rate of 21°6 miles, the fastest in this pamphlet. CURRENT PAPERS. 131 Current Paper No. 966 in the Indian Ocean has not fol- lowed a usual course. Previous papers put off near it have either drifted west to Africa or east to Java or Siam. This one has drifted almost due northerly to the east coast of India. Three papers, Nos. 985, 1,005, and 1,086, put over south of Canary Islands, Bay of Biscay, and west of the Island of St. Helena, respectively, have found their way to the West Indies, the drift furthest north being the slowest, and the one south of the Equator the fastest. Six papers in the Indian Ocean have been found on the coast of Africa, five of which have followed well known courses, but one, No. 928 has had rather a peculiar drift. From previous experiences I would have imagined this paper to have made its way to the coast of Cape Colony, but owing to some reasons for which I cannot put forward a lucid explanation, it was found at Mombasa. I think in all likelihood it must have commenced with a north-easterly drift and so got into the same current as shown by papers Nos. 1,001 and 1,003. There are several very important ones in the Southern Ocean, some of which reached the Australian coast, one made its way to north of New Zealand near Kaipara Heads, while yet another was found at Aneiteum, New Hebrides. Of these papers the fastest drift was No. 1,008 at 9°7 miles per day and the slowest No. 1,075 at a daily rate of 1°4 miles. Now coming to the currents with short drifts; we find some very peculiar anomalies. Referring to the charts you will see that the drift in the Great Australian Bight is to the eastward, yet three papers Nos. 957, 967, and 1007, have a very conceivable westerly set. . On the west coast five papers have been recovered, two with routes north of east, and three south of east. 132 H, A. LENEHAN. The New Zealand coast has not been neglected. More than 20 papers have come from there, of which 17 have been plotted on the charts. The general trend of papers put off in the low latitudes has been northerly, but two are here shown as southerly drifts. It was only in following out a fundamental rule in plotting the courses, i.e., plot the shortest route—that such a course has been followed, for | am most certain that the papers did not arrive at their destination in the manner marked. In all probability they first went to the north, passed around the Three Kings and thence down the east coast of New Zealand. Two papers, Nos. 1,103 and 1,098 partly bear out the theory of a drift along the east coast of that colony. Of these papers the most rapid was a short drift in the Foveaux Strait. Shipmasters trading to the south New Zealand ports know with what strength the current at certain makings of the tides passes through these straits, and so it is not at all surprising that we find a drift of nearly 175 miles per day. The paper was only six days on its journey of 104 miles, and if it was not found the day it came ashore, the rate of drift must have been considerably more. The next section is on the eastern seaboard of Australia, and again we see that papers are found north from where they are put over, although the drift of the current is south. The rates of drift are so small that I think that they must invariably reach their destination by a more circuitous route. One paper cast overboard off the north coast of New South Wales ultimately reached New Caledonia, but of this Iam unable to state the rate of drift owing to the writer not saying when he found it. Here I may men- tion that several papers have been received, but owing to negligence, most likely unintentional, on the part of the finder not giving any information as to where, when, and by whom found, we are unable to make any use of them. CURRENT PAPERS. 133 LIFE BUOY DRIFT. The following letter dated March 13th, 1901, which did not appear in the last pamphlet was received from the Department of Navigation :— “T have the honour by direction of the Superintendent to report for your information that a life buoy marked ‘ Rio, Napier,” was picked up yesterday on the Manning Bar. ‘The log book of the vessel has been inspected, and it appears that the buoy referred to was thrown overboard on the 15th of January, 1901, in Lat. 33° 10’ S., Long. 159° 20’ E. It will be remembered that the chief officer of this vessel fell overboard on the voyage from New Zealand, and it appears that this hfe buoy was thrown to his assistance. This communication is made as the Superintendent thought it might be an item of interest to you.” (Signed) Norman OC. Lockuarpt, Secretary.” This life buoy was found on the Manning River Bar, Lat. 31° 55 S., Long. 152° 33’ H., so that it also appears to have drifted in the adverse direction to the southerly set of the current. It traversed a distance in a direct line of 397 miles in 56 days, at a daily rate of 7°1 miles. In conclusion, I wish to thank the captains of ships who have contributed to this paper by casting adrift the ocean current forms, for without their cooperation it would be almost impossible to obtain the information as to the direc- tion of the principal ocean drifts, and to the officer of the Observatory, Mr. W.C. Graham, for his services in compiling these records. List of current papers arranged in months in which they were found :— Year. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April| May { June} July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total 1896 | No\bse jrvatjions Wor\|k belgan| 3; 7 {| 11) 21 1897 5 a 4, 5 | 10 a 9 9 3 8 9 6 82 1898 6 uf 6 Zee G 7 5 ©) 4 | 16 8 | 12 92 reg.) FE) it | 11 6 | 13 SF LO) lo CG jG IE ako 1900 | 14 | 20 / 11 | 12 8 | 10 oe) 7 So) Ley | 1K) 8 | 135 ESOP |.135) 13 | 14 | 11 | 10-).18 6 9 OO) 14 Los 13s HgOZ | 12 7 15 | 15 | 17 9 | 12 9 8 | 12 8 | 13 | 11 | 141 1903 | 15 | 12 8 Uf | val 6 6 6 6 6 | 14 | 10 1904 5 6 9 2 5 3 a ress Reet (hie sist 31 oral | Sl | 91 | 78 | 62 | 72 | 72 | 55 | 63 | 50-| 88 | 75 | 87 | 874 Average 10°1 |11°4! 9°8| 7°7| 9:0) 9:0} 6°9| 7°9| 6°3| 9°8| 8:3) 9°7; 97:1 r a. * ; 134 H. A. LENEHAN, List of current papers that made a rapid daily drift, taken from current pamphlet No. 8 :— No. of, List number} Miles | Pam- of per Locality of Current. phlet. Paper. day. f 936 | 21°6 | Indian Ocean 944, 20°0 | Gulf of Aden 946 12°2 Indian Ocean 976 11°5 | Pacific Ocean | 988 16°2 | East Indies 84 | 989 | 12°7 | East Coast 995 | 11:4 | South Indian Ocean | 1021 | 15°4 | China Sea | 1045 | 17:3 | South New Zealand 1086 11:5 | Atlantic Ocean L} 1089 |! 11:1 | South Coast | | | | Long drifts of current papers, selected from the eight pamphlets published by the Sydney Observatory : Current pamphlet No. 1 (July 1883 to June 1894; 43 current papers) Vol. XXVIII., p. 245. Current pamphlet No. 2 (June 1894 to August 1896; 157 current papers) Vol. xxx., p. 202. Current pamphlet No. 3 (August 1896 to November 1893; 167 current papers) Vol. xxx11., p. 230. Current pamphlet No. 4 (November 1898 to November 1899; 124 current papers) Vol. xxxillr., p. 145. ba Current pamphlet No. 5 (November 1899 to October 1900; 106 current papers) Vol. xxxv., p. 30. Current pamphlet No. 6 (October 1900 to November 1901; 154 current papers) Vol. xxxv., p. 336. Current pamphlet No. 7 (November 1901 to October 1902; 164 current papers) Vol. xxxv1., p. 201. No. of | Distance |Rate per paper | travelled | day in in list.; in miles. | miles. Current pamphlet No. 8 (September 1902 to July nee 4,830 | 21°6 1904; 181 current papers) hie cee de 985 | 3,090 | 10-2 995 | 5,100 | 11°4 1003 | 3,930 37 1005 | 4,100 70 1008 | 4,480 9°7 1075 | 4,380 1°4 1082 | 5,250 40 1083 | 5,675 6°9 1086 | 4,820 | 115 \ 696, °° | 09g 196 | 8.0 cs 096 T-0 OLL 696 | ¢T FP 8&6 | ¢.0 €&Z L296 | 0-8 O13 966 | 2-0 8 $96 | 1.9 C22 FSG | 9.F Zs €o6 | 6-F 0&S% &o6 ae: Z TS6 | 9.8 02T 066 | ¢.g CP 6F6 | 1.2 80 SF6 | 6-0 0S L¥G { eee 8 9F6 | 0-81 | 82ST St6 | ST 8¢ FFG | 0-02 | OOF Sk6 | 9.1 ce GFE sC«G-0 22 Tr6 | FT 68 OF6 | T.O 6I 686 | 2.0 cs 86 | 3 009 186 es 90¢ 966 | 9.13 | O&8F fg6 | 9.8 069 ree | 2.9 0GE S66 | ¢.1 8ST 66 | &.p S08 TE6 | 2.3 css O€6 | ¢.Z O801 626 | Z-T GLI 826 | 1.2% 0OTS 126 | ZT OPE ae] A “ke Bow en aaa. OER HH) oyu | EES neo * OO, &¢ P82 6FT OF 08 GS 66 Zé 208 ZcT S8I ixa0 08 8h Z01 Z81 cr S&F SE0T SI01 lan) rt C.] WH @ fl [eAtegUy “* 9svog YyNOg 338 4SBon ase “6 ee 4SBOO 389M 'S 4Svop qyNog “* 9svod 4seq “S 4svog [yn0g “* gsBog 4senT 6 66 "" gsvog qynog “* gsvop 4seq ‘Ss " gsvog qynog 4Svog 989M “S 4svop YING “* T1B9I0Q UBIPUyT “* qsvog qnog * Uepy jo yuyH “ uredg Jo ysvog 4svog qInog qSBOD ISAM 'S 48VOD 189, a 4sBvon 4svay “48800 Y4NOS UvId0Q ULIPUy 46 66 6é 66 Uv90Q IBIOtG *S 4svog 4seq UBIO IYIOV “N UvIDQO 9yLIOVg “g “* WB9I00O DYIOVg "18900 UBIpUy “* ¥8BOD ISOM "£q11800'T OFT 0-9T 60-16 70°66 F0°22 SO-ST &0°6 60°78 20-66 60-23 £0°S 60°77 c0-0& "IVT *LVTAL "q9.4 oune AVA °00q ‘00d ouner "ydag "19.0 "qoq eune “AON 10-4 Tlady £0°6 £07 €0°&6 60°S c0-06 G0-9T €0°66 60°82 60-L1 c0-0T 60°18 60-22 &0°S £0-FT 60°S6 60°81 CO-L1 60-21 60°ST ‘00d ANE “ITAL "uve "AON “AON Ayn ROKE ‘00d “qot ‘00g ‘490 "400 AVI uee ‘uur AINE qdag ‘920 *puno,y UsyM 09Bq, ** 8S OFT pe 2oreG ee hinec “* gg SIL THEE ple peahne accion ** 9 g8l| ‘‘ 9s ge 2 € OST SS LET > ei We “$I 681 © 82 OFL “*- oF 6ST ect lg ezoz| “ eezer|s epoca homeo | euKOM, ‘SA | 80-08 ‘wer |eeo} «, 2. SIT] N82 |‘ T 2O1)N9 | SUTMUMER Va CIOMOTIT » “SHA | 20-8 Ame |zeor = Bh aol ip 5 i Oi Bi ‘ ae ee EELS eA) vi PPM» “S'S ae ish 101 % 61 | “Hl 0G GAT |e si -d pon. a 0-28 AVIA |OgOT “ce “6 ° 66 oe oer 66 eee ove vay is 5 Fig. 8 SG) 1 4ry | Fixed % tars tired lo Frame ohnachine W% 243! Beams 10:0" Centres * ae | N27 of? 610° aa BEAMS N& 1.2 &3. eso al 7 Faas aK Secfor firad fo beam ae V\ei 18~ 1-8 — 7 | i U Tension 2 x a = Mags Mirrors fred ‘o beam L| SS Ee of machine Compression * Beam 10°x70° Le pie Gare ae a Fie. 3 Fixed 1g. BEAM N? 7. ponding deflections. It will be observed that the loads and deformations in Nos. 2, 3, and 4are very similar, and it was considered that the mean obtained would be more “useful. This has been done in Fig. V. f. and Table V. The curves Fig. VI. a. and Fig. VI. c. all show very rapid increases in extension for the gradually increasing loads applied, and corresponding diminution in the coefficient of elasticity of the reinforced concrete in tension. The other diagrams show the same peculiarities, but toa lesser extent. Inthe curves of loads and deflections, Fig. VI. d. No. 2 a, show very small deflections up to a load of 3 tons, the deflections then increase more rapidly up to the breaking point. This change in the diagram is charac- STRENGTH AND ELASTICITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE. 155 teristic, and is seen more or less well defined in all load deflection curves with reinforced concrete beams. The curves after passing this point become much straighter and resemble those obtained in direct tension tests. Comparing Vig. VI. d. with Fig. VI. e. it will be seen how greatly the reinforced beam differs from the plain beam, in the increased loads it is able to carry, and the enorm- ous increase in the deflections sustained before fracture compared witha plain beam. The experiments show that the extensions increase in a reinforced beam from the point where the maximum tensile strength of the plain concrete has been attained, to the point where fracture occurs, where it may be ten times as great as in a plain concrete beam. The tensile coefficient of elasticity in a reinforced beam becomes less in proportion to the greater extension, since the tensile strength of the concrete remains constant during the period included, between the point where the fracture would occur in a plain beam, to the actual fracture in the reinforced beam. The equations for calculating the position of the neutral axis and the moment of resistance for a reinforced concrete beam may be found in the following manner (Figs. 10, 11, and 12):— Let h « = the distance from the compression face to the neutral axis of the beam. hw = the distance from the compression face to the centre of gravity of the reinforcement. h (1-«)= the distance from the neutral axis to the tension face. h = the total depth of the beam. HK; EK, H, = the coefficient of elasticity of the metal reinforcement, the concrete in compression, and the concrete in tension respectively. 156 W. H. WARREN. STRENGTH AND ELASTICITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE. 157 ec = the compressive strength in the extreme outer fibre of the concrete. — the tensile stress in the extreme outer fibre of the concrete. f = the stress in the metal reinforcement which should not exceed the elastic limit of the metal. p = the ratio of the area of the reinforcement to the area of that of the beam, thus, if a = the total area of the metal p= a where b =the breadth of the beam. We assume that a plain section before flexure remains plain during flexure, or if a b, Fig. 11, represents a line per- pendicular to the neutral axis of the beam before flexure, then a’ b’ represents the position of the line after flexure. This is a usual assumption, but it is not strictly true, as can be proved by measuring the strains on the faces of a beam with delicate extensometers, suchas Martens’ mirror apparatus; but the assumption is sufficiently approximate in this case, having in view the unavoidable variation in the physical properties of concrete. The form of the stress strain curves obtained by testing beams and prisms in cross breaking, tension and compression are shown on the numer- ous diagrams in the paper, from which it will be seen that the area of the curves (Fig. 12) above and below the neutral axis are approximately :— Sheeand —h (1 — x) t respectively. 8 10 It is also clear that :— \1l—«x Kquating the tensile and compressive forces :— 5) an 8 = yO g ve 0 (1— “ae ah ae a Compression in units of ‘0008 inches on 20 inches. Fig. IV. g. Load in tons on cross section of 36 square inches. Fig. IV. m. hes. inc inches on 81 its of 0008 0123 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 ssion in un Compre Octagonal Prisms 12 inches long. Fig. [V.e. inches, its of ‘0004 ions in un Extens 50 Compression in units of ‘0008 inches on 20 inches. [5 a ies re a a als Ja eae S JES aa eee i CNCREER ENS AAA Na Se a eae oe 2 SE N AE eee ee Sa oe ena so te Ss & DAN N CCT CU SI res et "Ul “DS G2 6Z=WOTJOIS SSOIO ‘SUO} UL PBOTTVIOT, ‘UT “DS G1.6Z=UOTJOES SSO ‘SUO} UI PROT [LIOT, hes. 1nc Hy tah 8 Hau Hetet its of ‘0008 Fig. IV.h. RSenepesenpel H rH in un tht Ht H SHES i a s on 20 inches ‘Y . ens1lon Ext 33 Eebtsee tian a 1~ o Ww as OO N Lan! i) (oy Seal Sv Rs) GH ey CR) tet! MS *spunod got Ul spro'T *SUOJ UL Spro'yT 174 W. H. WARREN. iat He beara if ‘ar ‘bs aod spunod (oy ut peor ao o ao | ao Oo tH ip co Oo Oo Nn oO Ht OA et rei re we re rei et re ‘your aivubs 10d spunod yoy ut peory ‘at “bs aod spunod gor ut peo'y hes. inc ts of ‘0008 inch on 8 i in uni 10n Compress 8 aw Fig units of *004 inch. ion in 0'2 0°4 0°6 O°8 1:0 1°2 1°4 1°6 1°8 2°0 2:2 24 2°6 28 3°0 Deflect S i Ae ° ve) c aa eT ee ee = a 340 a me ee a ee NI Ps = S =) Sg =} Ce fe R Be) 2 zy v4 28 rs 5 = aa) H ; 3s BS x = 2) > ve) % Ni Ko) N Extensions on 20 inches 30 80 1 x nN é ee > <= 5 on om xy 65 » zZ 25 14 16 18 2U 22 . Joa an : > SS = _ Js ane OSS ee > ee Wee Bee eee PamGGSROL WN Mono seer ci CCU Ea SSNS Peel ~ Joe eS Nm OoOonwod rk © 290 st Oo Os NH OO Oke © OH Od AN et eS Ar Ca) fal Ca "SOT UL pvory *SUO>} UL peoTy ts of ‘0004 inches on 20 inches. . ions in uni Compress a 14 BaEss reat HH iz eo ao oo stDN S&S a Se eS ziss3 ith + a5) SS Le 2S S| LS fS S&S oOo nN = CO OO Ke =a AX Oe "S109 QOT/I JO STUN Ut speory "S09 QOT/T JO S}tUN UT SpvoTy 0°2 04 06 0°38 1:0 1:2 1°41°6 1°8 2°0 2:2 2°4 2°6 2°8 3°0 inches, ions in units of 004 ine Deflect: 176 W. H. WARREN. Fig. VI. ¢. Extension on 20 inches in units of *0004 inches. 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 Lond in tons. balesbesssinststscss terest EEE iiss: seta basse Seeed tones sees eeseettens Esst rend pacgasemttresssosa Esette peberestas teat seets HES] setresasesastares Load in tons, Sess 5 10 15 20 2 30 35 40 45 50 55 -60 65 70 78 80 85 “S0eioo Deflections in units of ‘004 inches. Fig. VI. d. SSS Se SE Se 177 STRENGTH AND ELASTICITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE. ‘SUT “Oly 0008 000% 0008 000% o00r og OO fF EI UT OT 6-0 80 40 9-0 $0 F0 £0 80 TO 0% | O0ZT OOTT OOOT 008 008 OZ 009 00S ODF OO GOB OOT OF, 3° SONIA ‘O1A “SLA Se : 09 0.8 0. 0-8 0.2 0-1 0 A 9000 momen 0-0 : areas aie Me ead 10-0 | © He 6-0 pest Oo rieese ae 3 Bl aa” ite + 70-0 a ae a i | i 8.0 8 eet F SEER EEE g - bia ae : 0-0 2 f P d £00 , ° if : : = ee H +H 4 GeO Peedi pied pisses ice sresitsseatresitt pri 3 EAE His Hae tte F0-0 a i | calle 4-0 : i HEHE 9.0 i HEHE i 8-0 [00:0 ee ecm a Ee : 0-0 5 ; cc) s @O H a F-0 n Hal F ee 9.0 Ss aici Meta Ht I st ul 8-0 2 i sah Hy + i S82, a tia Pe Z-0 HR ty HTH BOOBES 4 Bu | ee 0 a ah Hf iin eH SE yet au 9.0 E : 0-0 AE Ea ees ae ae TL UT Se ae a a 8-0 — = —— — aa -- = — ~~ = : aur = ug - = : = = 00ZI OOTT O00T 006 008 002 009 00S OOF OO 0OZVOL OF 0. 0-+ 0-8 08 O18 F 0 aL TT OL 6-0 8:0 24:0 9-0 $0 0-0 €&0 60 T0 0 # “t 000$ 0007 0006 0002 O00OT 00$ 0 DO JO SOUTVA "BSI OL "SMO? UI pro'T L—Sept. 7, 1904. TABLE I.—TENSILE TESTS, MORTAR BRIQUETTES. : E z 228 |8lez3 (se g | 832 ee | 83 aa |sEes;gez3i8— | 2 | eeua Description P| 3S| ae ae | eeeo|FBRe wo Pe ibe oe a As | ofc aa Seg $\8,2|246 a Seah ¢je |s aA |é af la 2 | i 23 4 5 7 8 9 10 x 106 1 cement to 3 sand; 1/764] 1 63 706 | 4°528 | 5°330|356} I.a.1| 88 3 in. bar. 2| 125 | 25 | 2:388 | 3-760 Section 4 x 4 inches. 3 188 "60 | 1°862 | 2°618 | e 4| 250] -90 |1°758 | 2-433 D . | eS 5 313 | 1°31 | 1°620 . 2 -7l/- =o 6/- . aie [| 2 153 P ' 2 . 4it 1 cement to 3 sand: 4|765| 1| 63] °04 | 5-390 | 8:000/491/T.a.2| 94 } in. bars. 3 188] -40 | 2-921 | 3-925 Section 4 x 4 inches. 5 | 313 °85 | 2°845 | 3°320 6 375 1°07 | 2°845 | 3°215 1 cement to 3sand; 5|760| 2] 125 08 | 4°740 |11°750| 516/I.a.3| 82 1 in. bars. 4 | 250) °46 | 2°791 | 4°788 Section 4.x 4 inches. 6 | 375 "92 | 2720 | 3°740 8 500 | 1°36 | 2°720 | 3°450 1 cement to 4 sand ; no 943; 1 63 "10 | 3°360 | 3°200| 266] I.a. 4 bars. 2| 125 "14 | 1°596 | 6°714 Section 4x 4 inches. 3} 188 | ‘90 ) “979 | 1-744 4 | 250| 158 | -750 | 1-390 1 coment to 8 sand; 5| 30| 2| 167| -40| -907 | 3125/833|L.b.1| 190 3 in. bars. } > | 4&| 884] 4°33 | 450] -675 Section 4x 3 inches, 6 | 501 | 735 | 690 | °627 . nae epee art 8 | 668 | 9:80 | -684| -638 \s |_e | ae Tae ane aed) a =~. | ic | et. 2 ~ 1 cement to 3 sand; 5/| 32 2] 205 *55 | 1°220 | 2°800} 922| I.b.2| 176 8 in. bars. | 5 | 513 | 2°68 | 1°727 | 1°725 Section 53 x 3 inches. 8 | 820] 5°88 | °720 | 1°308 I cement to3 sand, 5) 34) 2) 208| ‘86 /1-710 | 1:814/881|L.b.3| 163 8 in. bars. | 4} 417 | 1°66 | 2-080 | 1-211 Reinforced with 43 | 6 | 625 | 2°87 | 2-170 | 2-000 inch bars at end. 8 | 834 | 3°71 | 2°820 | 2°108 Section 3:2 x3 inches 1 cement to 3 sand; 5| 36 2 208 ‘95 | *465 | 1°642/ 993] I.b. 4} 190 3 in. bars. | 5 520 7:05 | °673 665 Section 3:2 x 3 inches 8 | 834 | 10°84 |3°260 | -720 1 cement to 3 sand; 5| 42) 2 | 222 ‘61 | 1-060 | 2°721 |1611) I.b. 5 in. bars, stiffened 6 667 | 5°62 | °905 | 1°222 at ends. 10 | 1111 |10°60 | ‘905 | 1-000 Section 3 x 3 inches. 14 | 1555 | 15°63 | -905 | -958 1 cement to3 sand; 5| 40| 2 | 222 ‘57 | 1.060 | 3°350 |1583} L.b. 6 “ 2 in. bars. 6 | 667 | 5°75 | -850 | 17105 Section 3 x 3 inches. 10 | 1111 | 10°59 | -800 | 1°018 14 | 1555 | 15°33 ' °886 "992 STRENGTH AND ELASTICITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE. 179 TABLE II.—TENSILE TESTS CONCRETE BRIQUETTES. Section 4 inch by 4 inch, unless stated otherwise. e - eerie (eean ta \ae 3 2 eee se alee ea anil le a| as i Boe Be 2 Ge) Sle ee: Ye 25 Composition. 2 ae BS gs eee alg ve g EE me g - 3 8 ” S 3°740 3°720 3°170 2°490 3°740 3°450 3°070 2°580 2°260 1°4:70 4°630 4180 3°430 2°690 2°120 3°070 2°420 1:890 1°400 1°440 1:910 1:480 825 ‘500 "296 313 545 836 "844, - 4-850 4280 3880 3°500 3°630 3°950 4070 3°440 2°740 2°160 2°300 2°930 3°490 3°590 3°340 2°700 2-090 pounds per square Breaking Load in inch 2409 4.220 4517 3158 0421 Reference to Curves rods = 37,700 pounds per Remarks ,| Shattered ; no signs of fracture before breaking ig.| Outside peeled off at 4 Fig. IV.m 101,000 pounds and broke at 126,000 pounds; slightly crushed. Outside peeled off at *) 110,000 pounds,Zand broke pounds. centre. at 134,000 Crushed at Cracked at 695,000 pounds and outside peeled off, body crushed and bent; broke at 93,000 pounds. | Cracked at 134,000 pounds and outside peeled off; vertical rods bent. Prism crushed. Broke at 162,000 pounds. «4 a—load ascending b—load descending TABLE V.—AVERAGE RESULTS OBTAINED FROM TESTING THREE CONCRETE BEAMS, Reinforced with three steel rods ? Z inch diameter, span 120 inches; cross section 10 x 10 inches. Composition 1 cement, 2 sand, 3 of $ inch shivers. Length 11 feet, weight 1020 pounds. Age 105 io | Extension on | Compression | Extension on 20 inches 1; | on 20inches 1$| Deflection in \Extreme Fibre. inch from top | inch from the Inches. | of Beam. bottom of Beam Load in Tons. °2 *4, ‘0005 ‘00016 ‘00018 ‘0038 8 ‘0013 ‘00045 ‘00079 ‘0098 1:2 ‘0022 ‘00083 ‘OOL21 ‘0169 1‘6 ‘00383 ‘00114 ‘00162 "024.2 2:0 ‘005 ‘00180 ‘00199 ‘0401 2°4 ‘0068 "00252 *00252 "0574 2'8 ‘OU84 "00322 ‘00309 ‘0670 3°2 ‘0102 ‘00409 | ‘00357 ‘1011 3°6 ‘0126 ‘00508 "004.04 1041 4:0 ‘0150 “00602 ‘004.57 ‘1150 | 44, ‘O174 ‘00708 | 00516 ‘1432 | 4:8 0105 | ‘00779 00571 ‘1590 5:2 ‘0219 ‘00917 ‘00621 °1708 56 ‘0240 ‘01043 ‘00675 "1952 | 6-0 ‘0264 ‘01141 ‘00734 "2189 | 6'4 | ‘0288 01256 ‘00793 "2398 68 ‘0312 ‘01407 ‘00897 "2662 72 ‘0339 C1550 ‘00945 *2814 7°6 ‘0369 ‘01742 ‘01016 *3029 80 | ‘0400 ‘01800 ‘01094 *3135 84 ‘0429 ‘02191 ‘01208 *3283 88 ‘0469 02442 =| ‘01818 *36538 ~ Nore—The ‘average load producing the first crack was 8°8 tons, and the breaking load 9°6 tons. TABLE V.a.—TRANSVERSE TESTS OF MORTAR BEAMS. Length 4 x 4 inches, containing 1 Hemmoor cement to 3 Emu Plains sand, and 9% water; no bars. Span 40 inches. | ] oe 5-8 ERs ; = | ag g| 2 | #58 | 53 | Moto |S 1 |e, =) rF £ a= aes per square inch | 7 a 2H g | 4 See Tas Wl _wxl0s 2B | 23 | S70 2 | 3 3.3 Boe: sae 6a S 5 | a ae . < 8 aos op Ae | 40 1 Bee x 106 ; 518 22 0:000000 0:000000_ | 448 Fig. | 443 45 ‘000390 ‘000390 V.a il 89 = 001023 ‘001378 3°240 134 , ‘000866 ‘002244. 179 “000984 ‘003228 224 ‘001063 "004291 2°460 269 ~=-001102 "005393 314 ‘001417 ‘OO6811 358 | *002047 “008858 403 ‘001456 "010315 1°550 | 448 519 45 0 000000 0:000000 488 | Fig. | 480 | 89 | °001220 | -0C1220 2°640 V.a 2 1384 | °000944 "002165 179 “000944 ‘003110 224 © ‘001181 *004291 2°370 269 “001102 “005393 314 ‘001378 ‘006889 358 001141 | -008031 403 001614 ‘009645 448 “001259 "010905 1°944 STRENGTH AND ELASTICITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE. 189 TABLE V.b.—TRANSVERSE TESTS OF MORTAR BEAMS WITH STEEL RODS. Length 4 inches x 4 inches, containing 1 Hemmoor cement to 3 Emu Plains sand, and 9% water, 3 3 inch steel bars; span 40 inches. Age in |Load in Days. |pounds 529 45 89 179 269 358 448 638 627 Cay 806 896 986 1075 1165 1254 1344 1434 1523 1613 702 1792 1882 1971 2061 21.50 2240 2330 2419 2508 2598 2688 2778 2868 2958 3047 3137 3227 3317 Deflection |Total deflec- per ‘01 ton in inches. 0°000000 000708 "001614 "001968 .001456 ‘001811 "002165 "001653 001771 "002126 *00224.4 "001850 "002244 "002283 °002165 "002519 "002953 002323 "002874 "0038504 "002480 "003425 "002323 "002756 003031 "003307 °003071 "00307 1 "003661 004.213 004527 °0054:72 "005512 005513 "005169 "006574 °005315 012598 tion in inches. Break- ing load pounds. Curve. [Modulus up- Po) a 1 Number in Pasi fa per sq. inch. 0:000000 ‘000708 002323 004291 005748 007559 009724 "011378 "013149 "015275 017520 "019370 021614, °023898 026063 7028583 031536 "033858 036733 048032 043716 "045141 048464 *052220 054.252 057559 ‘0606380 ‘063701 067362 071575 ‘076103 079023 ‘087086 (092637 097834 "0044.09 ‘009724 "018140 3405 Fig. Wel al 3218 190 Age in | Load in : Days. |pounds.| Per 01 ton 529 45 89 179 269 358 448 538 627 rp 806 896 986 1075 1165 1254 1344 1434 1523 1613 1702 1792 1882 1971 2061 2150 | 2240 | | 2330 | 2419 2508 2598 2688 2778 2868 2958 3047 3137 3227 3317 3405 W. H. WARREN. TABLE Vb.—Continued. Deflection | T in inches. 0:000000 ‘000748 ‘001889 “002165 "001732 ‘001889 *002047 ‘001968 001811 002322 001929 ‘001850 ‘001771 ‘002710 "002322 002126 002637 "002598 ‘002637 “002992 °003031 ‘002126 "002637 °002913 "002952 "002874 | "003543 "002952 ‘002834 ‘003819 °003464 "003504 003819 ‘003464 ‘003464 "004.055 ‘003740 °003110 *003299 tion in inches. | 0000000 ‘000748 "002637 "004.803 °006535 "008425 010472 "012441 014.252 016575 "018504 *020354 022126 "024843 027165 ‘029292 "031929 034528 ‘037166 (040157 "043190 045315 047953 ‘050866 ‘053819 ‘056693 “060236 ‘063189 066024. ‘070873 073327 ‘076811 “080529 ‘084094 ‘087559 ‘091614 ‘095354 "0984.64 "104764 otal defiec-| Break- f ing load Number in i pounds. 3394 ee Fig. ve b 2 Modulus of rup- ure lbs. per sq. inch. 3298 - a a FLOOD SILT OF THE HUNTER AND HAWKESBURY RIVERS. 191 Tar FLOOD SILT or tar HUNTER anp HAWKES- BURY RIVERS. By Professor T. W. HDGEWORTH DAVID, B.A., F.G.S., F.R.S., and Acting Professor F. B. GUTHRIE, F.1.C., F.C.S. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 5, 1904.] I.—Introduction. II.— Bibliography. III.—Area of Hunter and Hawkesbury Deltas and character of their deposits. TV.—Volume of flood water. V.—Amount, chemical composition and value of silt deposited by flood waters. VI.—Rate of accumulation of silt of Hunter Valley in relation to age of Hunter Delta. I.— INTRODUCTION. The Hunter Delta area is in its upper part one of the most fertile districts of New South Wales, especially the portion which extends from a little below Raymond Terrace to a short distance above West Maitland. The fertility of this region, one of the best lucerne producing areas in this State, is due to the rich character of the flood silts, which have proved to that district almost as great a boon as the Nile mud to Lower Egypt. As much as 14 tons of lucerne are produced per acre, and five crops are obtained a year, their average value being about 35/- per ton. During the recent flood of July 12th, 1904, it occurred to the authors that it would be interesting for scientific and economic reasons to estimate the amount and chemical composition of the silt in the water brought down by that flood. We wrote to Mr. A. J. Prentice, B.A., of West Maitland, asking him to secure samples of the flood water and flood mud. He very kindly obtained both, and for- 192 T. W. E. DAVID AND F. B. GUTHRIE. warded them at once to Sydney, with his own notes which we publish. We also communicated with Mr. H. W. Potts, Principal of the Hawkesbury College, Richmond, with a view to securing samples of the flood water and silt of the Hawkesbury River, brought down by the same flood. He also kindly obtained both for us. With regard to the Hawkesbury alluvials fewer data are available than in the case of those of the Hunter, The principal crop grown on them is maize; but lucerne is also grown. I].— BIBLIOGRAPHY. A number of valuable reports relating to the Hunter Delta have been furnished by the Government Department of Public Works. These deal specially with the subject of flood prevention. The following is a list of these reports: In 1869 Mr. Moriarty reported to the Works Department. This is a report of special value for the calculation of the amount of flood discharge. In 1870 the report of the Royal Commission on flood pre- vention in the Hunter Valley, was published by the Government. 1890, Mr. Gordon furnished a report for mitigating floods in the Hunter Valley, which if carried out was esti- mated to cost nearly £1,400,000. ) Later Mr. C. W. Darley and Mr. H. D. Walsh furnished official reports criticising the preceding. In 1897 Mr. Price recommended the building of a huge dam at Denman to mitigate the floods, and in 1899 Mr. Napier Bell reported to the Government on this and other schemes for flood prevention in the Hunter. Mr. R. Etheridge and one of the authors (T.W.E.D.) pub- lished a paper on the Raised Beaches of the Hunter Delta in 1890.’ 1 Records Geological Survey of N.S. Wales, Vol. 11., Pt. ii., 1890, pp. 37 — 52, pl. ili. { [ FLOOD SILT OF THE HUNTER AND HAWKESBURY RIVERS. 193 In 1903 Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.L.S., read a valuable paper on mitigation of floods in the Hunter River, dealing with the matter from the point of view of the forester.’ With regard to the alluvials of the Hawkesbury River the information is at present somewhat meagre, at any rate from a geological point of view. One of us (Acting Pro- fessor Guthrie)’ has published a report on its soils in which a rough map is given showing the approximate extent of these alluvials; this map being reproduced from an earlier one in this Journal by one of the authors (Professor David).’ The Geological Survey of the Department of Mines, Sydney, has lately issued a geological map of the coastal plain near Sydney, in which the above sketch of the alluvials has been reproduced. The alluvials do not form a typical delta, for they terminate 30 miles in a bee line from the coast, the channel of the Hawkesbury below Richmond being bounded by steep slopes and terminating in the fiord of Broken Bay. IlJ.—AREA OF THE HUNTER DELTA AND CHARACTER OF ITS DEPOSITS. The Hunter River is tidal from its mouth at Newcastle to the Falls above Belmore Bridge, West Maitland, a distance of 44 miles following the river, and about 185 miles in a bee line. The alluvial plains subject to flood are about 30,000 to 40,000 acres in extent. This area is, however, only about one-third of the total area of the Hunter Delta, the greater part of the delta lying to the north-east of a line running from Stockton to Sandgate and thence to Raymond Terrace, being covered by blown sand which places the old flood silts out of reach of the agriculturalist. These flood silts in the lower part of 1 Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxxvi., pp. 107-131. 2 The Chemical Nature of the Soils of N. S. Wales, with special refer- ence to Irrigation, by F. B. Guthrie, F.1.c., F.c.s.. Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, Vol. xxXvVII., pp. LI. —LXv. $ Journ. Roy. Soc. N. 8. Wales, Vol. xxx., pp. 1 - 69, pls. i. - iv. M—Oct. 5, 1904. 194 T. W. E. DAVID AND F. B. GUTHRIE. the delta are moreover, either at sea-level or even a trifle below sea-level. Peat beds dipping below the level of low water occur at Fingal Bay near Port Stephens, and similar peat struck at about 80 feet below sea-level at a bore west of Anna Bay, Port Stephens, points to a recent sub- sidence of the coast, a movement which is confirmed by the evidence of the quantities of wood and coarse gravel met with in the Stockton Colliery’s pit at about 180 feet below sea-level. The following is a table of the sequence of the Hunter River Delta deposits :— 1. Blown sand and peat together with recent ironstone deposits around Swamps in the sand dunes. The iron- stone is used as a flux by the Sulphide Corporation Works at Cockle Creek. 2. Recent flood loams. 3. Ancient flood loams which at Elderslie, near Branxton, contain remains of the large extinct diprotodont marsupial Nototherium. 4. Raised beaches such as those of Largs, Font Hill, OCampbell’s Hill, West Maitland Waterworks, Bolwarra, etc. Old valley deposits like those met with in the Stockton Pit. 6. High level gravels, like those near Nicholson’s, Oak- hampton, West Maitland; and on the north bank of the Hunter near Roughit to the south-east of Singleton. fo) | As regards the alluvial deposits of the Hawkesbury Delta these have been classed in the paper above referred to as Pleistocene and recent. The Pleistocene comprise (1) the red sandy soils for the most part above the reach of modern floods as shown in a FLOOD SILT OF THE HUNTER AND HAWKESBURY RIVERS. 195 later paper by one of the authors,’ and (2) the modern flood loams and sands, with coarse river gravels. There is also a development of an older coarse river gravel probably of Tertiary age, like that seen between Windsor and Richmond and in the railway cutting east of St. Mary’s, and also near Lapstone Hill between Glenbrook and Emu Plains. IV.—VOLUME OF FLOOD WATER. The flood quantities for the flood water of the Hunter Delta have been estimated at 150,000 cubic feet per second above the Paterson, 171,000 cubic feet below the Paterson and above the Williams, and 193,000 cubic feet below the Williams.” Mr. R. T. McKay has kindly called our attention to a difficulty in accepting Mr. C. Napier Bell’s estimates. If the discharge of the Hunter River when in full flood below the junction of the Williams River be 193,000 cubic feet per second, this amounts to over 115 million cubic feet per minute, and the water is derived from a drainage area of 9,127 square miles. Now the big flood in the Murray in 1870, coming from a drainage area of about 200,000 square miles discharged at Mildura only about 6 million cubic feet per minute, and it is probable that even this estimate is too high.’ In 1890 the Murray River when in flood was discharging at Morgan, at the rate of 4 million cubic feet per minute. These figures are fairly correct. This water came from an area of, in round numbers, 400,000 square miles. Is it therefore likely, that even after allowance is made for the greater relative evaporation and percolation of rainfall in the Darling-Murray basin, as compared with the Hunter basin, that the Hunter River with less than +s of catchment area, should discharge nearly three times as * On an important Geological Fault at the Kurrajong Heights, Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxxv1., p. 359, pls. 16, 17. * Report by C. Napier Bell, M. Inst. c.E., op. cit., pp. 20, 21. * The Murray River Irrigation and Navigation, by Robert ‘I’. McKay, Sydney University Engineering Society, 1908, pp. 25, 26. 196 | T. W. E. DAVID AND F. B. GUTHRIE. much water as the Darling-Murray in time of flood? At the same time it must be remembered that according to Mr. H. C. Russell’s’ estimates, the Darling River at Bourke discharges only about 137) of the rainfall of its catchment. The Murray River, on the other hand discharges about 257 of its total rainfall. The total amount of water passing over the delta during a great flood, such as that of 1857, was estimated by Mr. BE. O. Moriarty to be 88,000 millions of cubic feet. Mr. Darley on the other hand, quotes Mr. Gordon’s estimate of the capacity ofa reservoir necessary to contain the surplus water of a heavy flood as 24,514 million cubic feet, or nearly fifteen times the full capacity of Prospect Reservoir.’ V.—AMOUNT, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND VALUE OF THE FLOOD WATER SILT. In order to obtain some idea of the amount and fertilizing value of the silt deposited on the land during the progress and subsidence of a flood, samples of flood water and silt were examined, derived from the recent heavy floods in the Hunter and Hawkesbury Rivers. These waters being very different in character will be discussed separately. (a) Hunter River Flood Water. Samples of thej flood water of the Hunter River were obtained through the kindness of Mr. A. J. Prentice of West Maitland.=The water was collected on July 12th, 1904, from the centre of the stream off the Belmore Bridge ‘The Source of the Underground Water in the Western Districts, Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1889, pp. 57 - 63. * Floods on the Hunter, By Authority, Sydney 1891, p. 2. Mr. Price estimated that the proposed reservoir below Denman to hold the flood waters of the Hunter and its tributary the Goulburn, should have a capacity of 40,000;million cubic feet, and this of course does not allow for the water contributed by the Wollombi brook (Cockfighter), Paterson, and Williams rivers, etc., sothat Mr. Moriarty’s estimates may not be excessive. FLOOD SILT OF THE HUNTER AND HAWKESBURY RIVERS. 197 at West Maitland when the river was 23 feet above its summer level. According to observations at Raymond Terrace, kindly indicated by Mr. H. A. Hunt, Acting Meteorologist, the flood was at its maximum on the 10th and 11th July, so that the water had receded somewhat, and no doubt at full flood the amount of suspended matter would have been somewhat greater. Mr. Prentice also sent a sample of silt deposited by the flood to which he attaches the following remarks :— “The jar contains genuine flood deposit. It comes from near Belmore Bridge, out of a slight depression, in which the water would have been stagnant as the river fell, and down stream from a fence which had arrested practically all débris and vegetation. This deposit would average over 2 inches in thickness, probably 3, and is I consider a fair sample of what the flood deposit would be on land which is covered by real flood waters which either rise and remain motionless, or have a very slight current. The deposit varies every few yards, and fences or slight eleva- tions in the ground, by retarding the current, cause a deposit, in the first place and on the up stream side, of almost raw sand, and then on the down stream side the deposit would be more loamy.’’ Analysis of Hunter River Water. Parts per 1000. Grains per gallon. 2°463 or 172°4 Total residue Volatile on ignition = 0°308 ‘, 21°6 Fixed residue = 2°155 om 150°8 Matter in suspension — 2°182 ut Ly. 7/ (b) Hawkesbury Flood Waters. Through the courtesy of Mr. H. W. Potts, Principal of the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, samples of water and of silt from the flood waters of the Hawkesbury River were also obtained. The following details are supplied by 198 T, W. E. DAVID AND F. B. GUTHRIE. Mr. Cuthbert Potts, Science Master at the College, who kindly collected the samples, July 14th, 1904 :— ‘‘The flood had receded from 42 feet to about 22 feet above summer level when the sample was taken, but the current was running fairly strongly. The water was taken from the middle of the river, near the Kurrajong Bridge. The silt may be slightly contaminated by the washings from some recent diggings, but as far as possible I obtained a true sample. The flood was not high enough to largely . break over the river banks, above Richmond, and so the Richmond bottoms were only covered with a back water washing back from about three miles down the river. This back water carries much less silt than the river, and is not considered to do the land so much good. The bottoms round Windsor and further down the river were swept by the current and obtained a fair deposit of silt.” Mr. John Tebbutt, the Observatory, Windsor, has kindly informed us that the flood began to rise on the 9th July, and attained its maximum height of 40°1 feet above the mean tidal level of the South Creek early in the morning of the 12th July. Analysis of Hawkesbury River Water. Parts per 1000. Grains per gallon. Total residue = °145 or 10°15 Volatile on ignition — ‘03 = 2°10 Fixed residue = gi ke bs a 8°05 Matter in suspension—= "116 “8 8°12 Both waters are slightly acid in reaction. ANALYSIS OF SILTs. Analysis of Silt from Hunter River Water. Per cent. Insoluble in hydrochloric acid _... ay os | == ee Soluble in hydrochloric acid— Oxide of iron and alumina Ui ie and Al, OF = 10°02 Lime (CaO) _... me ac Potash (K.O) . ae a .. = 008 Phosphoric acid (P, O; a sxe soy .. = 08 FLOOD SILT OF THE HUNTER AND HAWKESBURY RIVERS. 199 Per cent. Volatile matter ae ee ee cle Ne, Tze LOL Nitrogen ste = *084 Weight per acre, one Sait 'i in ees = 5 403, 125 Is. Analysis of Silt from Hawkesbury River Water. Per cent. Insoluble in hydrochloric acid _... ee so | Sy, Soluble in hydrochloric acid— Oxide of iron and alumina (Fe,O; and Al,O;) = 4°77 Lime (CaO) _... ee ay a wa = 0°49 Potash (K.O) ... ee a se te cee KU Phosphoric acid (P.O;) sh ee en = 10708 Volatile matter ee one ke ua, bon = Ge (Oho) Nitrogen is = 0°105 Weight per acre, one ook in Besa SS 3. 307, 332 Ibs. Assuming an average based on Mr. Prentice’s observa- tions of 2 inches of deposit after the subsidence of a flood, the silt left by the Hunter River in flood would amount to 567,186 tbs. in weight per acre, and would supply the land with a top dressing of fertilising constituents to the follow- ing amount per acre :— fhime | -.: Res ae. »- 9/91 tbs. Potash... ree Ae af 510 ,, Phosphoric acid ae fa CL O2OF ee. Nitrogen ae ace wae 476 ,, A manuring which contains sufficient of the necessary plant food to supply the requirements of most crops for nearly 10 years. On the assumption that the same volume of water was flowing for the same length of time at the same rate in both cases, the amount of deposit left by the flood will be pro- portional to the amount of suspended matter. Taking 2 inches to be the depth of deposit left by the Hunter River, then the Hawkesbury River would deposit under the similar conditions as to time, volume and rate of flow +c inch silt. 20C T. W. E. DAVID AND F. B. GUTHRIE. The weight of this deposit in the case of the Hawkesbury flood would be 27,561 Ibs. per acre, or about 2s the weight of that left by the Hunter River fiood. This would provide the land with a top dressing per acre of the following fertilising constituents :— lime <:. as oa oe 135 tbs. Potash... sete ae a 2 gee Phosphoric acid ea a 22 5% Nitrogen a ae “ea 20 3 All the above estimations as to the amount of fertilising material deposited are based on Mr. Prentice’s assumption that the depth of the deposit in the case of the Hunter River flood averaged 2 inches. This appears a very high average, but there are unfortunately no hydrographical data available by means of which this can be checked. It would be a matter of considerable national importance if further data concerning the rate of flow, volume of water, height of flood, and amount of silt deposited etc., could be obtained during the period of such floods as those now dis- cussed. This is a matter which might well engage the attention of the engineers of the Public Works Department. VI.—RATE OF ACCUMULATION OF SILT OF HUNTER VALLEY IN RELATION TO AGE OF HUNTER DELTA. As stated in the previous section of this paper, Mr. Prentice estimates that approximately 2 inches of silt were deposited over the upper part of the Hunter Delta by the last flood of July 12th, but his observations were confined to a comparatively small portion of the delta close to West Maitland. Observations of this kind to be of real scientific value, need to be taken over a large area; this Mr. Pren- tice attempted to do by inviting by advertisement the furnishing of statistics by farmers and others resident in the district, but he was unable to obtain any response. FLOOD SILT OF THE HUNTER AND HAWKESBURY RIVERS. 201 The construction of levees, which except in cases of very high floods restrict the area covered by the flood water very considerably, further complicates the question of estimating the amount of silt deposited by each flood. It is interesting to note that as there are 2°463 parts per 1000 of solid residue in the flood water of the Hunter, and its specific gravity is assumed to be about 2°, this would obviously prove that ifall this residue were deposited from a sheet of water 10 feet in depth, it would yield ‘0123 foot in thickness of silt, or in round numbers °15 inches. At this rate as much of the Hunter Delta silt is at least 30 feet thick, this would have taken 2,400 years to form on the assumption that there is a flood every year. If the aver- age be taken at one flood every five years the time for the delta formation would be extended to 12,000 years. This is probably less than the actual time needed, and is less than the 30,000 years assumed as necessary for the forma- tion of the delta of the Nile. It serves, however, to show something of the order of the time needed for the building of a delta like that of the Hunter.’ APPENDIX.—The following letter from Mr. R. Bailey to Mr. J. Hall, dated on October 28th, 1904, at the ‘‘Mercury Office,’ West Maitland, and read to the Society when our paper was being discussed, by Mr. J. Hall is of such interest, on the economic side of the question, that by Mr. Hall’s kind permission we quote it in full :— “In reply to yours re floods in the Hunter, I beg to state that having questioned a number of farmers in the district on the matter, they are unanimously against floods despite the value of 1 If Mr. Gordon’s estimate of 24,500 millions of cubic feet of flood water - be assumed to be the correct amount for the flood water over and above what would be discharged by the river while flowing between its banks, the weight of the silt brought down by it would be over 14 millions of tons, and over 5 millions of tons on Mr. Moriarty’s flood estimates, viz., 88,000 millions of cubic feet of water. 202 T. W. E. DAVID AND F, B. GUTHRIE. the deposits which such leave behind, asarule. There are times, such as 1893 and this present year, when a number of the farms were practically ruined by heavy deposits of sand brought down by the flood currents, but these of course are isolated cases. In the majority of instances the deposits are rich alluvial soil, and would be of special value were it not that the destruction caused in other ways 1s very much greater than the value of the deposits, even though they exceeded the sum you mention. The farmers of Bolwarra have been doing their best for the past 20 years to keep floods out by the erection of embankments, and others wish they could do the same. Floods are very uncertain in their coming, and besides destroying growing crops render the land unfit for the plough for some weeks, very often too late in the season for the sowing of another crop. The land around the Hunter, is all as you know, built up 30, 40 and 50 feet, and is invariably so rich, that despite constant cultivation for the past 60 years, is practi- cally as good to day as ever it was, with careful cultivation, and consequently the question of manuring by flood deposits or other- wise gives the farmers no concern. From practical experience, very often of a bitter and ruinous character, they are down on floods as being the greatest evil they have to contend with. Doubtless some day the soil will become exhausted, as is only reasonable to expect, but with a judicious rotation in the crops, they hope that the day is far distant when they will either be looking forward to a flood to help them out of the trouble, or be compelled to manure their lands to ensure better crops. This shortly is a consensus of the opinions I have been able to gather from a number of them in different localities, and I trust it will meet the objects of your enquiries.” ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 203 ETHNOLOGICAL NOTES on THE ABORIGINAL TRIBES of NEW SOUTH WALKS anp VICTORIA. PART [. By R. H. MATHEWS, L.S., Associé étranger Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris; Corres. Memb. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A., etc. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, October 5, 1904. } INTRODUCTION. In the following pages it is intended to supply a succinct account of the social organisation, languages and general customs of our aborigines. Throughout a comparatively long life I have had special opportunities of studying the habits of these people. I was born in the Australian bush and black children were among my earliest playmates. In my youth I was engaged in station pursuits in the back blocks of New South Wales and in the new country of Queensland, when the blacks were in their pristine con- dition. In later years I was employed as a surveyor on the Barwon, Namoi, Castlereagh, and other distant inland rivers, where I was continually in contact with the sable sons and daughters of the soil. Fortunately, also, I always had a keen proclivity for collecting all the information available in regard to their numerous highly interesting customs. It so happened, too, that I possessed some little capability for investigating the grammatical structure of their language, being able to cope with the difficulty of correctly hearing and correctly writing down the native words. Owing to my familiarity with the ways of blackfellows, I always received the complete con- fidence of the chief men, and thus gained admission to their secret meetings. Moreover, my training as a draftsman 204 R. H. MATHEWS. enabled me to copy every description of aboriginal draw- ings with great facility, for some of which I was awarded the medal of this Society in 1894, ten years ago. And the knowledge of astronomy which my profession demanded, made it easy for me to identify with precision all the differ- ent stars and stellar groups which figure so prominently in the aboriginal folklore. I have made the foregoing brief mention of my oppor- tunities of acquiring some knowledge of aboriginal customs, because the reader will readily understand that investiga- tions of this character require many years of patient work among the different tribes. It is essential that these inquiries should be conducted by a person well acquainted with the daily life of the people, and that his observation should extend over a considerable period. I have adopted none of the opinions nor followed any of the methods of other Australian authors, but have struck out on my own lines, recording all the new and interesting facts within my reach. Possibly further researches may modify some of my conclusions, but this is the inevitable lot of all scientific pioneers. I write not in the expectation of exhausting the subject of the languages, ceremonies and customs of the Australian aborigines, but in the fervent hope of exciting the interest and encouraging the investigation of younger students ; and trust that some foundations have been laid by me for others to build upon, or to correct if necessary. Attention is called to the fact that all the particulars contained in every branch of the subject dealt with in this treatise, have been collected by myself in the native camps, without the assistance or suggestions of any man, and therefore, I only am responsible for any defects which may be discovered in studying the following pages. The present work is only one of a series of similar treatises on various ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 205 ceremonies and customs of the Australian aborigines, which I have published in the journals of some of the lead- ing learned societies of Hurope and America, as well as in this country. See “* Bibliography ”’ at the end of this article. The system of orthoepy adopted is that recommended by the Royal Geographical Society, London, but a few ad- ditional rules of spelling have been introduced by me, to meet the requirements of the Australian pronunciation. Highteen letters of the English alphabet are sounded, comprising thirteen consonants, namely: b, d, g, h, k,l, m, n, p, 7, t, w, y, and five vowels: a, e, i, 0, u. As far as possible, vowels are unmarked, but in some instances, to prevent ambiguity, the long sound of a, 6, 1, 0 and u are given as here represented. Where the short sound of these vowels was otherwise doubtful, they are marked thus: a, é, 0 and u. It is frequently difficult to distinguish between the short sound of a and thatofw. ) Plural iene ~ You beat, Bumurrandugal Set. «> They beat, Bumurrawullugal In the past and future tenses of verbs there are variable terminations to indicate that the act described was done in the immediate, recent, or remote past; or that the act will be performed in the proximate, or more or less distant future; that there was, or shall be, a repetition or con- tinuance of the action, and other modifications of the verbal suffixes. These terminations remain the same for all the persons of the singular, dual and plural, so that it will be ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SUUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 223 sufficient to give an example in the first person of the singular number, in the past and future tenses: Past Tense. (I beat, indefinite, Bumaidyu eel | 1 beat this morning, Bumulngurriyedhu eS Der < I beat last night, Bumulngubbinyedhu * | I beat all day, Bumulbenadhu (I beat again, Bumulallidyadhu Future Tense. (I shall beat, indefinite, Bumulagadhu | I shall beat in the morning, Bumulngurriagadhu ace ) I shall beat all day, Bumulbenagadhu ae | I shall beat in the evening, Bumulngaiagadhu (I shall beat in the night, Bumulngubbiagadhu Imperative. Beat, Buma. Beat not, Kurria buma. Conditional. Perhaps I shall beat, Yama bumulagadhu. Reflexive Mood. I am beating myself, Bumadyillingedhu I beat myself all day, Bumadyillibenadhu I shall beat myself, Bumadcyilliagadhu Reciprocal Mood. This modification of the verb is applied to those cases where two or many persons reciprocally beat each other, and is consequently limited to the dual and plural: Dual We, excl., are beating each other, Bumuliinnalina Plural We, excl., are beating each other, Bumullinnaninna Adverbs. Following are a few of the more commonly used adverbs which are generally placed after the verb: Yes, ngaua. No, wongai. Now, dhallun. Yesterday, kumbirrabutthe. To-morrow, kumbirrabutthalagu. To-day, dhallun. Pre- sently (future), dhallumbutthalagu. Just now (past), dhullumbutthe. Some time ago, gumbirranabutthe. Long ago, murradhal. 224 R. H. MATHEWS. Some adverbs admit of inflexion for number, person and tense, as: Where amI, wundhalawadhu. Where art thou, wundhalawandu. Where is he, wundhalaguana. Where are we, dual inclusive, wundhalawali. Where are you, dual, wundhalawandubla. Where are you, plural, wun- dhalawandugal. When, wittyubara. Where, wundhala. How, widdyuwa. Perhaps, ngakillaga. Idonot think so, wongaia. Certainly or certain, kurrimunkan. How (was it done), widdyumin- dumi. Prepositions. In front, murrubil. Behind, kukkirbil. Inside, kuru- gunna. Round at the back (of something), ngunnungurra. Between, bauwungga. At the side (of anything), ngunna- langurra. Around (a tree, rock, etc.), ngunniguliai. Round there, ngunnibingura. Up there, ngunnianya. Down there, ngunnidyar. Outside, wagiga. Around (a person, as a belt), guranggadha. This side, nginnangur. The other side, ngunnaingur. Through, guruga. Over or across, burabiddya. On the top, wampana. Underneath, ngunni- dyingura. Uptheriverorstream, wambagirri. Down the river, dhunggagulli. Some prepositions can be inflected for number and person, as: kukkiridhi, behind me; kukkirrinu, behind thee; kuk- kirrilu, behind him; and so on through the remaining numbers and persons. Numerals. One, mukku. Two, bulagar. NGEUMBA VOCABULARY. The vocabulary herewith contains about 460 words of the Ngéumba language, collected by myself in the camps of the aborigines. The words of a similar kind are grouped under separate headings, as, Family Terms, the Human Body, ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 225 and so forth. It is hoped that this classification will be more convenient for reference than if arranged in alphabetic sequence. In all grammars and vocabularies minor inac- curacies are of course inevitable—they will creep in despite the greatest care. A man, Husband, Old man, Very old man, Clever man, Boy, Family Terms. mall mamambon bukaianggai kukun wirringin butthudhul Boy just walking, warru Uninitiated youth, iramuru Youth after tooth out, Initiate, Elder brother, minbaddyurai wallui murrumbai Second brother, bauuma Younger brother, kakirgilli Elder sister, thathi Younger sister, gidyurai A woman, Head, Top of head, Forehead, Hair of head, Beard, Kye, Nose, Back of neck, Throat, Windpipe, Ear, winnar Old woman, kukaianggai Woman during menses, murpi Wite, Small girl, buttong bulkaligu Young woman, marrianda First menses, goafibon Maid at puberty, wirringga Father, papa Father’s mother, dhurbaga Mother, Mother’s mother, muki A small child, All the people, men, women, and children gunni warrudhul maingirba All the initiates, wallugirba All uninitiated, irramurrungirba All the little girls, bulkalligilka The Human Body. bulla kumbuda ngulu bullandhur yerral mil murudha wuru nuki nugal-nugal wuttha O—Oct. 5, 1904. Knee-cap, pundai-kiwai Knee, pundai Shin, biyu Foot, dhinua Ankle, burrunggal Heel, wurta Sinews, kaia Heart, gi Liver, guralu Blood, go-al Fat, eutthal 226 Cheeks, Mouth, Lips, Teeth, Tongue, Breast, female, Navel, Afterbirth, Belly, Back, Fore arm, Elbow, Armpit, Shoulder, Shoulder-blade, Hand, Finger-nail, Loins, Hip, Thigh, Buttocks, Sun, Moon, Stars, R. H. MATHEWS. thuggal ngurndal willi wirra thullai ngammu gindyer ngalgir purpibirti mukkulla pl ngunnugu gilkin kunna pikkilgirra murra yulu gumbul milla dhurrakur murta Bone, Foreskin, Penis, ngimbi ngulumbilla mundai Glans penis, muru-un or nyirin | Testicles, Pubic hair, Sexual desire, Copulation, Masturbation, Sodomy, burru 0-1 giridyai dhani [murra kuppa-kuppa- ngindyi-dhani Noise made in copulating, mintya Semen, Emission, Vagina, Labia major, Clitoris, Nymphe, Anus, Excrement, Urine, Venereal, Inanimate Nature. thunni giwir girala Orion’s belt, thirkallunggalka Pleiades, Sky, Light clouds, Storm clouds, Rain, ‘Rainbow, Dew, Fog, Frost, mullumullurga gunnunggulla thurai ginda yuru yulubirki dhimbur pupilla dhukkur Night, Morning, Evening, A splinter, Hill, Sand-hill, Grass, Leaves of trees, Bird’s nest, Egg, Honey, A tell-tale, Grubin boxtree, butthu-gurnidya butthe or bai kalkinyi munal willir wukkur ninti ngi guna kil mundai-bukkin ngau-ap-a ngauo-guramba ngauongauapa dhurinyi dhirrama gumbogin gurun gira mutthe kuppugo warrungunna wurrimurra ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. Hail, wirranggurra Water, kulli Earth, ground, dhukkun Ground sun-heated, marawurra Grub in gum tree, bityulla Grub in ground, birka Bloom on trees, gurawin Pathway, Shadow, Tail of animal, Summer, Winter, Echo, Emu feathers, dhinnakkal . gual thun tharrialpa tukkar yulpur gurungunna Feathers generally, bubil Fur of opossum etc., mu-a Spines of porcupine, thikkar Scales of fish, wallugar Skin of animal, yulai or bauar Skin shed by snake, iguana, lizard ete. f ginggal Shell of turtle or mussel, bukkai Edge of water, Charcoal, Ashes, Live coal, Firestick, Trumpeting of emus, Top-knot feathers, of any bird Animals—Mammals. Mud, windya Stone, kurrul Sand, gurrawir Light, ngullun Darkness, ngauo Heat, wiwil Cold, gunundai Camp, ngura Bark hut, kukur-ngunnu West wind, gulyi-yeto East wind, guru-annha Whirlwind, birumuga’ Dust storm, miar Mirage, kullu-kulli Hole, munilla Pipe-clay, munnha Red ochre, kuppur Corroboree, dhinkurrumunna Fire, wl Smoke, putthu Flesh food, bunna Vegetable food, kakullu Thirst, bungkunnu Day, dhirranba Dog, mirrl Opossum, guragi Kangaroo-rat, bulpu Native cat, bubbilla Bandicoot, guru Small kangaroo-rat, ginnhur Water-rat, Bat, Porcupine, bukki gurl nummur gurnun wirunggunn. t muppamingga thikktn pikkun butthaiballa thikkarpilla Kangaroo, grey, wamboiii Kangaroo, red, murrawé 228 R. H. MATHEWS. Birds. Birds collectively, thibbi Top-knot parrot, ko-ri-é Laughing jackass, kukuburra Nankeen, thtrkun Curlew, guribun Musk duck, wukkarbutta Crow, wakan White crane, _bullun Mallee-hen, yunggai White-necked crane, murku Bustard, gimbal Grey crane, barra Native companion, buralga Small night jar, dhi-ell Pelican, birrala Swift, pil-luru Swan, dhundhu Bronze-wing pigeon, yammar Wood-duck, gunaru Rosella parrot, dhenkutthenku Quail, buludhur Brown hawk, burrawar Eaglehawk, mil’-le-an Larger kingfisher, birrimbirru Emu, ngurl Smaller kingfisher, dhutul Young emu, ung-ga Peewee, gulititi Black and white ) eee Plover, bildadhirradhirra magpie, Weejuggler, banyan Black magpie, wi-u Fish-hawk, pipiddya Black duck, birangun Galah parrot, gilla Mopoke, thirka Bowerbird, ngurambula Dove, kopatha Reptiles. Death adder, burnu Brown snake, bullabului Shingle-back lizard, kullu Black snake, ngundaba Ground iguana. thuli Tiger snake, wurrala Tree iguana, gugar Jew lizard, kanni Sleepy lizard, goarri Whip snake, dhuru Carpet snake, yeppa Turtle, wurrumba Invertebrates. Locust, wiral Centipede, gilga Blow-fly, nukui Jumper ant, bungai Louse, kuppul Maggot, thurrabut Nit of louse, = dhinnil Grasshopper, murru House fly, burimul Spider, murramurraga Sugar ant, bippainbilla Mosquito, gam'ugin 229 ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. Common ant, wunggai Scorpion, ganigandhera Butterfly, bullabulla Greenhead ant, buddyar Bulldog ant, —_— burt-ingga Mussel, bukkadyerra Trees and Plants. Gum of sandalwood, thukkabella Any tree, gugur Bark of any tree, munggar . Whitewood, balkan Squeaking tree, muppuran Beefwood, mumbo Wild willow, wilgar Leopard wood, ngarkarri Myall, buri Kurrajong, yumma Wattle, billibar Hop bush, gidya Pine tree; kurrabar Gidyea, karriwan Oak, billar Wild orange, mukil Red gum tree, gitingun Quandong tree, kwanda Grey box, girral Currant bush, warriar Sandalwood, kuttawu Tar bush, thurramurra Weapons, Utensils, etc. White brow-band, kambai Red brow-band, ngulunggira Stone tomahawk, wukkar Handle of ditto, birra Stone chisel, kainda Waist-belt, gular Wooden vessel, gulkur Nose-peg, murudhagi-tr Jagged spear, mura Girl’s apron, kumil Yamstick, kunnai W het-stone, kiwai Reed spear, thirril Stone knife, irrangin Spear-lever, wammur Lower millstone, yauai Spear shield, miurka Upper millstone, murra Waddy shield, muttha-muttha Skin cloak, burta Fighting club, bundi Bone needle, —_ ki-ur Hunting club, kuttyura Sinews for sewing with, kaia Boomerang, returning, bulka Fighting boomerang, wukkara Old man’s bag, bun’-ko Net for catching emus, mukir Propstick for net, bidyilli String of nets, mau-irr Woman’s bag, kulai Lower string of net, kuruguru Large bag, bukitta Vessel for drinking with, kuttyul Adjectives. Alive, moan Strong, wallan Dead, ballune Afraid, giandunna 230 Large, Small, Long or. high, Short or low, Good, Bad, Wide, Narrow, Jealous, Dry, Wet, Lame, Thirsty, Red, White, Black, Mad or crazy, Full, Empty, Half-full, some, Quick, Slow, Blind, Deaf, Die, Eat, Drink, Snatch or grab, Sleep, Stand, Sit, Touch, Hold, Twist, R. H. MATHEWS. buppir butthu bamuir bumba yettama wurral pikkaba ngambur guringtatai bun-kai muttha kutthiburra bunkunna girrabarai bunggaba bullui bullawarrai wirrambu bintyl1 gulangal burra-burrai yarur muki wuttha-muku ballune dhai ngurruni thunmanyi muka warrana winya ngukkunma mima warwainma Right, Wrong, Straight, Crooked, Tired, Deep, Shallow, Blunt, Sharp, Fat, Lean, Hot, Cold, Angry, Sleepy, Glad, Greedy, Sick, Stinking, Pregnant, Sweet, Hard, Soft, Verbs. Stare at, Cut off, Hang up, Put into, Pull out of, Pull down, Shut, Open, Cough, Sneeze, yetta wumma ° bintul nirra-nirral yellamunnha ngurambul gunnal muku wirrandul muruanda ~ ngimbi-ngimbi wi-wl gunundai kulkai muka kala kai-ili-dyai giranggira buka ngurkambon nguttha-ngutthai wallan thalpai mukamirra kukka wambainma guruga thuranma wirrima nunpani kunkaima karra thikkartuna ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. Spill, Pinch, Pull, Carry, Grow, Startle, kalkinya nimma wuru-unma wamba yurunnha dhullagurra Lie (animate thing, as a man), yuwunna Lie (inanimate thing, as a boomerang), gurinya Crawl, as a child, karanna Put down, Pick up, Lift (if heavy), Shake, as a tree, Talk, Shout, gurimanni mamanni girramanni dhillama ngeara gulaga or gulagunni To call anyone, ngealugu Walk, Run, Bring, Take, Make, Break, Strike or beat, Wound, Arise, Fall down, See, Look, Hear, Give, Sing, Weep, Cook, yananna bippuna gaka ngullupi mulla gumma bumulli mundhunmai barraka thuwatta ngaga ngani winnungga nguka wukkaima yungunna wirrunggurri 231 Cough up anything, as from the throat or lungs, yandyarra-murra Shiver as with cold, bulpirrinya Pierce, with a weapon, dhura Hurt, girrimpathi’ Bend, nirraibunma Make a hole, bungaga Sound or test, thurabia Drawn, ntnkanni Spht, wirpadhia Chop, bindhea Send, nginnakaka Shine, dhallarbirra Suck as a child, ngammuna Suck a wound, wuruandirra Suck through a reed } janine iiage or the like Swim, yawinya Bathe, gurungunna Search for, gurrandirra Spit, dhumbia Spit or hiss towards an enemy or game } wi-ung-kurra as a spell Smell, buttha Throw forcibly, gurarba Pitch or heave, wannaga Roast, wirrungga Whistle, wilpadha Pretend, warrimirra Kiss, putharbattha Vomit, kapl Dance, wakuttha Corroboree, dhinkurrumurra Dive, ngupungginya 232 R. H. MATHEWS. Steal, murnumulli Sting, dhuni Request, ngukatti Hunt on ground, munnabiddya Blow with breath, bumbea Hunt in trees, wulkagirri Climb, wulkagirri Go, ngullubi Conceal, nunbimulli Come, dhaiana Jump, baragiri Burn, btinga Laugh, gindadha Bite, kuttha Scratch, birma Fly, as a bird, burrana Tear with claw, kappia To trim timber by ; bukkibiddhe Forget, nunbanna chipping LANGUAGE OF THE THANGATTI TRIBE. The remnants of the aboriginal tribes who speak the Than'-gat-ti language are located chiefly in the valley of the Macleay River, on the north-east coast of New South Wales. This language is a highly interesting one, both on account of its euphonic and flowing intonation, and also because it possesses strong affinities to the speech of the great tribes of the Wirraidyuri and Kamilaroi, who occupy extensive regions in Central New South Wales. The social organisation of these people, and their ceremonies of initi- ation, have been described by me elsewhere.* Adjoining the Thangatti on the north is the Kumbainggeri tribe, a grammar and vocabulary of whose language was contributed by metothe Anthropological Society at Vienna.” Nouns. | Nouns have number, gender and case. Number.—Nouns have the singular, dual and plural numbers, as in the following example :—Womboin, a kangaroo; wamboinbutobu, a couple of kangaroos ; wom- boindyillong, several kangaroos. * Queensland Geographical Journal, Vol. xv1., pp. 35-41. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. xxxvil., pp. 54—73, with map of N. S. Wales. 7 «Das Kimbainggeri, eine Eingeborenensprache von N.S. Wales,” Mitteil. d. Anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, Bd. xxxu1r., (1903), p. 321 - 328. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 233 Gender.—In the human family sex is denoted by differ- ent words, as, guri,a man; gulban, a woman; guraman, a boy; thukalbang or muna, a girl; dhulle, a child of either sex. Among animals, gender is distinguished by words meaning ‘‘male’’ and “‘female,’’ placed after the name of the creature, as, wille yimbukai, a male opossum; wille nyukabang, a female opossum. The principal cases are the nominative, causative, instru- mental, genitive, accusative, dative and ablative. Nominative.—This case merely names the subject, and is without flexion, as, mirri,a dog; burragan, a boomerang; yarre, a liative bear. It is also used with an intransitive verb, as, guri nyinne, a man sits. Causative.—When a transitive verb isused the noun takes a suffix, as, guri-nga burragan guru, a man a boomerang threw. Mirri-nga wille-nga baiin, a dog an opossum bit. Gulban-nga dhulle-nga bunyun,a woman a child beat(or hit). Instrumental.—This case is the same as the causative, as, gulban-nga mirri bunyun gunni-nga, a woman beat a dog with a yamstick. Genitive.—Guri-gudhun burragan, a man’s boomerang. Gulban-gudhun gunni, a woman’s yamstick. Accusative.—Frequently there is an inflexion like the causative, as, Guri-nga yarre-nga bunyun, a man a bear hit. It is generally the same as the nominative when followed by the instrumental case, as illustrated above. The dative and ablative cases also have distinguishing postfixes, as, nguragu yung, to the camp go. Adjectives. Adjectives are placed after the nouns they qualify, and are similarly declined for number and case. They are com- pared by making two positive statements, as, this is good —that is bad. 234 ' R. H. MATHEWS. Pronouns. There are two forms of first person of the dual and plural one in which the person or persons addressed are included with the speaker, and another in which they are exclusive of the speaker. The following is a list of the pronouns in the nominative case :— (1st Person I, Ngaia Singular < 2nd ,, Thou, Nginda (3rd ,, He, Nene We, inel., Neutti Dual 1st Person pe excl., Nguttiwalgu Plural 1st Person § W& incl.. Ngenang | ( We, excl., Ngenawaleu The genitive and accusative forms of the pronouns, in the singular number only, are exhibited in the following table :— 1st Person Mine, Dhalga Me, Ngunya 2nd =, ©£ Thine, Nginnumbo Thee, Nginna 3rd_—sé«g,_~=©60 His, Nonningbo Him, Nonninyang The dual and plural are omitted, for the purpose of Saving space. Interrogative pronouns.—Who, ngannung. Whose, ngan- numbo. What, miang. What for, miangrai. How many, minnhan. Demonstrative pronouns.—This or here, dying. That or there, ngandha. Those two, ngandambural. Those, plural, ngandadyillong. The demonstratives are numerous and of various forms, frequently taking the place of pronouns of the third person, a circumstance which explains the great diversity of the third personal pronouns in all the numbers. Verbs. There is a difference in the termination of the verb for each tense. Any required person and number in each tense. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 235 can be shown by using the Perea ee pronoun from the foregoing table. An example of the conjugation of the singular number of a verb will be sufficient :— - Indicative Mood—Present Tense. (1st Person [ sit, Ngaia nyinne Singular \ 2nd ,, Thou sittest, Nginda nyinne (3rd ,, He sits, Nong nyinne and so on through all the persons of the dual and plural. Past Tense. Singular Ist Person I sat, Ngaia nyinnimbin. Future tense. Singular ist Person I will sit, Ngaia nyinniling The imperative, conditional, reflexive, and reciprocal forms of the verb will be omitted for want of space. The adverbs, prepositions and interjections are also passed over for the same reason. The numerals are, Wadhu, one; Buta-buta, two. Including the Ngeumba and Thangatti grammars con- tained in this treatise, I have now illustrated, wholly or in part, the grammatical structure of fifty Australian dialects and languages. This vast amount of work has been ren- dered possible by the kindness of several learned Societies in Austraiia, Hurope, and America, who promptly published the manuscript dealing with all these languages. It may be added that I still have in my note-books the grammars and vocabularies of several other native tongues, awaiting an opportunity for publication. THANGATTI VOCABULARY. About 200 of the words in most common use in the Thangatti language, are comprised in this vocabulary. I have thought that placing groups of words of the same character together under distinctive headings will prove 236 R. H. MATHEWS. more acceptable for reference than the common method of arranging the vocabulary alphabetically. both in the grammar and the vocabulary, has been carefully written down by me from the mouths of the aboriginal speakers, whilst visiting them in their own camps. Man, Youth, Novitiate Small boy, Father, Elder brother, The Family. guri murranggil murrawin guraman béanggo binghai Younger brother, kumbiri Woman, Girl, Mother, Every word, gulban muna or thukalbang nanggo Child of either sex, dhulle Elder sister, Younger sister, The Human Body. Head, bd Forehead, ngutu Hair of head, murra Beard, yerran Kye-lash, dhilmirra Bye, mi Eye-brow, yindirri Nose, ngummurra Throat, gugurra Ear, binnagun Mouth, gunnung Lips, witting Teeth, dhirra Breast (female) ngubbung Navel, wirl-wirl Belly, bindyil Tongue, dhuttuii Back, munu Arm, dhalburra Hand, Shoulder, Thigh, Knee, Calf of leg, Foot, Blood, Fat, Bone, Penis, Testicles, Semen, Vulva, Copulation, Urine, Anus, Excrement, Venereal, meanngun weran yamma mirka dhurra gutung giinde dhinna gunggurra bibban dhirral bunmai burru buttumbun binnhun yingmuddinge gittuddhai miri gunang wullan ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA, Sun, Heat of sun, Moon, Stars, Thunder, Lightning, Rain, Rainbow, Fog, Frost, Snow, Ground, Stone, Sand, Grass, Light of day, Darkness, Heat, Cold, Moonlight, Shadow, Kangaroo, Wallaroo, Wombat, Native bear. Opossum, Inanimate Nature. dhunnui uN as gittafi wupu murungal mikki gurrea dhulaweng munggul murragan yigan burri dhurru buneé gurral burrafi ngunmurra SUNOS gurring dhallai muttong wamboift yindibai ngulifi yarrl wille Ringtail opossum, bukurri Padamelon, munni Emu, nguruin Laughing-jackass, gurruga Lyre-bird, murran Camp, Bough hut, Bark hut, Smoke, Fire, Water, Food (flesh) ngura wurrui-gurrilu nguré dhung wakai ngaru buggara Food (vegetable) wigai Day, Night, Morning, Evening, Hill, Flat rock, burrafi ngunmurra ngundagango bimmai bikul wullara Leaves of trees, wurui Bird’s nest, Koo 35d) Honey, Path, gtindé gilgang gubbung yuron Shadow of tree, muttong Tail of animal, dun Mammals, Flying fox, Porcupine, Bandicoot, Native cat, Rock wallaby, bullawirri ngugegufi gumbung dulufi burré Flying squirrel, bunggo Dog, Birds. Peewee, Plover, Swan, mirri gulirti butthurrafi ngubbudhar > 237 238 Wild turkey, Scrub turkey, Mullet, Catfish, Large eel, Carpet snake, Locust, Blow-fly, Maggot, Louse, Tomahawk, Koolamin, Yamstick, Spear, Spear-lever, Large, Small, Tall or long, Low or short, Good, Bad, Quick, Strong, Jealous, Die, Eat, Stand, R,. H. MATHEWS. White cockatoo, garebun ngumbullung ngurwifi Eaglehawk. Fishes. gauang Silver eel, willang Crab, burro Perch, fteptiles. dhunggifi Brown snake, Invertebrates. goarra Nits of lice, burungun millambai gurrigung burambafii gubirra bukkulla dimmin Mosquito, large, yira diwin Mosquito, small, wura munyo Bee, yilberi Weapons. bubbung Spear-shield gunmer gitti Waddy-shield, bungungga gunni Club, murre gummal Boomerang, burgan wommera Fighting-hook, gupin Adjectives. wutubang Hungry, giddhal butyikunnung Afraid, murrar gurarbang Tired, watta gulminbang Angry, gutul murrung Sleepy, burungging nunnal Greedy, yittifi gunnung Stinking, buka ngulluii Pregnant, bindyaldyurai ningirl Verbs. buttinne Look, nala dhummone Hear, ngurrene wurrane Give, nguya ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 239 Sit, nginninne Sing, baiarelo Talk, gol-ite Weep, wuteling Walk, munnene Steal, wudunggumeling Pitch, gute Request, ngimbutte Throw, bimbea Climb, wandati Whistle, wenbutti Conceal, dhurundeling Pretend, gurambin Jump, bullaia Break, gulbumma Laugh, gindene Run, gromatti Suck, ngumbene Bring, ngeta Swin, wirrungati Take, manda Spit, gute Destroy, gungulla Smell, bu-ye Strike, bungga Vomit, mutine Arise, beni Dance, bete Fall down, dokkane Dive, dhurakutte Scratch, ginninmatti Sting, dhitingin Cough, gunyumputti Put, yunda Sneeze, ginyilputti PIRRIMBIR, OR AVENGING HXPEDITION. Among the aborigines of the south-eastern districts of New South Wales, Pirrimbir is the name of a party organised for the purpose of revenge. As this custom has never been described, a short account of the manner of its execution is now given, prepared from details gathered by myself in the camps of the remnants of the native tribes. When a man is killed by open violence by any of the people of a hostile tribe, the relatives and fellow-tribesmen of the deceased hold a council at the bambilli, at which all the old headmen and warriors assemble, painted with pipe- clay on the forehead, breast and shoulders. Two of the eldest men then sing one of their tribal dirges, the words and music of which are as shown in ‘‘Chant No. 1” hereunder :— 240 R. H. MATHEWS. Yan-a-wa ber-ri- marlalv..s- When this song has been droned for some time, the war- riors get small portions of hair which have been cut from the head of the deceased. Hach man takes one of the fragments of hair and plaits opossum fur around it, making a small parcel about the thickness of a pencil, and a few inches in length, called ‘murir,’ and puts it away in alittle bag, called ‘guraga,’ which he uses for storing similar charms. At the same time the women are also mustered in the camp, which is within sight of the bambilli, and sit down in a convenient place, singing a ‘nyiinggoan’ or weeping song, of which “‘ Chant No. 2”’ above is an example. After the above ceremonial has been gone through, the people patiently wait for a suitable opportunity to organize a party to punish the individual who has caused the death ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 241 of their friend. Many months may pass over, or a year, or even a longer period, but the matter is not forgotten. When the time at length arrives, a party of warriors, accompanied by some old men, go away into the enemies’ country. The chief features of the procedure in despatch- ing such a hazardous expedition may he summarised as follows :— The band of men who are to perform this important duty are selected from among the most active and fearless of the relatives and friends of the man whose death they are deputed to avenge. Some of them belong to the same totem as the deceased, and the totems of others are those with whom he could have intermarried. They are mustered on one side of the camp, accompanied by the men who are to lead them, and are decorated with red ochre and grease. The best spears and other weapons are chosen and well greased with human fat. They assume a crouching attitude, by bending their bodies at the haunches and knees, and form into single file. Hach man produces one of the ‘“mururs’ already described, and holding it up in his hand, mutters yah! yah! They now march away in their bent position, in single file, till they get out of sight of the camp where the women are. They then straighten their bodies and walk on, every man joining in the song shown on the music-block as “‘ Chant No. 3,’’ which is repeated for a short time. While singing, they gesticulate with their weapons as if assaulting an enemy. Shortly after the departure of the warriors, the women pack up their belongings, singing a prescribed song as they do so, and remove the camp to another locality, whither they are conducted by the men who remain at home. At this place which may be distinguished as the ‘‘ women’s camp,’ all the occupants keep quiet, in order that the sorcerers or spies of the enemy may not suspect that a revenge party has been sent out. | P—Oct. 5, 1904. 243 R. H. MATHEWS. In the meantime the chosen band already described has marched on till near sundown. They generally select a depression between ridges, or a dry watercourse, as their camping place for the night. Their fires are lit in small excavations made by digging the ground with the end of a nulla-nulla or other weapon to a depth of some inches, and the earth thus removed is used to raise a bank around the margin, as additional protection for the fire. Short pieces of firewood are used, to fit in the holes, and when finally leaving the place the fires are covered over. These precautions are taken in order that any straggling blacks belonging to the enemy may not observe the fires at a distance. Next morning a tree is selected in or adjacent to the camp and is marked in the following manner: As many men as there is room for squat on the ground close around the butt of the tree, facing it, and mark the portion of the bole within their reach, with their tomahawks. An equal number of men mount, in a sitting posture, upon the shoulders of the first, and mark the tree in the same way. A third tier of men now sit upon the shoulders of the second lot, and make their marks. By this time the bole of the tree is marked up to about the height of aman. All the markers now withdraw and a fresh detachment of men stand around the tree and mark as high as they can reach. The same number of men get astride the shoulders of the first cordon and likewise mark the tree. Another tier of men sit on the shoulders of the second tier and do the same., The two tiers of seated men now jump down tothe ground, but the men who are standing around the base of the tree remain in position. A fresh lot of men now mount with their feet on the shoulders of the last mentioned, and standing up, mark the bole as high as they can reach. The tree is now marked about ten or twelve feet from the ground, or even higher than that. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 243 The whole ceremony is enacted for the purpose of making the people of the hostile tribe powerless to screen the predestined victim. This is why as many men as possible join in marking the tree, muttering incantations during the continuance of the proceedings. Some of the old sorcerers rub the marks with a quartz crystal or bullroarer to render the operation all the more efficacious and irresist- ible. Other men jump around, putting their beard into their mouth and biting it savagely. At the conclusion of the tree-marking ceremony, pre- parations are made for the resumption of the journey. Four men are sent on ahead of the main contingent to reconnoitre, and if all is well, to select the site of the night’s camp. Having decided upon the best spot, two of them start back to meet and inform their comrades, who in the meantime are coming on. The other two travel forward several miles from the selected camp, to examine the country and see that no strangers are located anywhere in the vicinity. Having satisfied themselves upon this point, they return to the camping place and rejoin the party. On the follow- ing morning, another tree is marked, and the scouts are again sent ahead. The proceedings are substantially the same for every day, unless delayed by rainy weather. In this way the armed warriors journey on by easy stages into the enemies’ territory, and endeavour to discover what part of their hunting grounds they are then occupying. When this information has been obtained by cautious track- ing, listening and watching, a temporary bambilli is made in an unfrequented place, where there is sufficient timber to hide them from view, and here the avengers remain very quietly. This bambilli is as close to their enemies’ camp as they consider prudent—the distance being less in hilly or scrubby country than in places which are open and level, or are badly watered. Two or more strong, active men, 244 R. H. MATHEWS. who are also supposed to be clever sorcerers, are then sent forward as spies to report upon the precise place where the tribe they are in quest of is located. They hold up the ‘murur’ in their hand as they travel stealthily along, because it is supposed to possess the magic power of guid- ing them to the quarter of the camp occupied by the slayer. While the spies are away on their dangerous task, the other men who remain at the secret bambilli clear a small, circular patch of ground, by scraping away the leaves, small pieces of sticks, grass, loose stones, or the like, which may be lying on the surface. For this purpose they gener- ally select a place where there isa tree growing in the centre, and clear the ground for several yards around it. A tree with soft bark is preferred, such as a gum, grey box or peppermint. With their stone tomahawks, or with the sharp ends of their clubs, the men in the way already described chop into the bark of the tree some rude marks, such as lines and zig-zag devices, resembling the marks on trees at ‘Banan’ grounds or burying places, but not so elaborate. [See illustration and descriptive letter-press. | Somewhere within the clearing a hole or hollow place is made in the ground, into which the men discharge the pro- ducts of the emunctories, throw remains of food, or other refuse. These precautions are taken lest a spirit or con- jurer belonging to the enemy should become possessed of any of their refuse, excreta, or the like, and thereby frus- trate their designs. The men who are in charge of this bambilli go out hunting to renovate their supply of food, but they make as little noise as possible—their operations being chiefly confined to fruits, reptiles, and game caught with nets. When the spies have ascertained the position of the pre- destinated person in the hostile camp, and his surroundings, they start back to their fellows without delay. On their Yi ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 245 way thither they gather green grass and leafy twigs which they fasten under their brow-bands and in their hair, to show that they have been successful. When approaching the secret camping place they mutter mu-t-u! and their comrades answer them in the same way. On arriving in sight they commence singing the following song :— Wurrigangaia ngurabun bunnungga Wurrigangaia gungdara muggu. On reaching the camp, the men there spread out and form a semicircle into which the messengers walk. Hach man composing the semicircle has a spear in his hand, which he ‘holds in a nearly vertical position. An old man now asks the spies if the enemies’ camp has been found, and on receiving an affirmative reply, all the men bring down the points of their spears upon the ground, with the exclama- tion wirrh! wirrh! This is illustrative of the manner in which they mean to punish the offender. The old man further enquires as regards the approximate number of people in that camp, and when the answer is given the Spears are again brought down to the accompaniment of wirrh! wirrh! as before. Queries are next made as to the quarter of the camp their special enemy occupies—is it easily got at—who camps near him, whereabouts is the chief man camped, and so on, each reply being received with the same exclamation and gestures. If the actual slayer is not in the camp visited by the Spies, they endeavour to locate the sleeping place of one of his brothers, or his father, or other near relative who may be available, and such person is selected as the victim. The spies then remove the twigs and grass out of their hair and put them into the hole in the ground already referred to. They also discharge into this hole as much excrementitious matter as they wish to be relieved of, covering it up with the earth which had been scooped out. 246 R. H. MATHEWS. All the men around then turn their backs to the hole and commence scratching backwards with their hands and feet like fowls. They scrape all the loose rubbish off the surface of the ground and continue backing towards the centre till a small heap is raised over the excavation. Next, all the men lie down with their heads toward this heap—as many as possible having their heads resting upon it—and pretend to sleep. This feigned repose is believed to have the same exhilarating effect upon them as that produced by a cor- roboree in ordinary circumstances. After a while, an old man breaks the silence and enquires sorrowfully, *‘ Where are all my grandchildren ?”’ This isan exaggerated way. of referring to the death they are about to avenge. It is also symbolical of the sorrow of the doomed man’s friends, when his death shall have been reported tothem. All the sleepers answer, “i-i-i-wah!’’ in a very mournful tone. All hands now get up, and jump around the tree and the heap of rubbish, holding their noses between the thumb and fingers, muttering ‘mUtnytnga irrimbulbul.’ Hach man then goes away a few paces and provides himself with a couple of sticks about three feet long, one in each hand, to make believe he is very sick and unable to walk without such support. These men turn their faces toward the enemies’ camp and at every step they bring their walking sticks to the ground, exclaiming ‘nyeh! yukka! yukka! These proceedings are supposed to work a spell upon the adversary and render him powerless to defend himself. The members of the party then lie down and rest till near daylight next morning, when they all start quietly away . to fulfil their mission, being conducted by the men who acted as spies. These two men have their heads ornamented with grass and boughs as before, with a murur placed on top, projecting over the forehead. A vine is bent through the brow band and hair to keep the appendages firmly in ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 247 their place. This decoration is believed to appal the enemy and make it impossible for him to escape. All the men have their faces painted with pipeclay, so that they can readily recognize each other during the encounter. They also have leafy twigs fastened in front of their bodies and faces, to prevent the enemy from observing them in the darkness. On reaching the confines of the camp they halt till daylight. They have timed the approach of the dawn so well that they have not long to wait. The first bird which hails the morning is the signal for the assailants to surround the hostile camp, some men branching off in single file round one side and some going round in the opposite direction, until they meet on the other side of the camp. While marching round, they tramp heavily on the ground with their feet. Let us assume that a magpie begins to sing. All the men at once commence to imitate the call as they start away. This will startle other large birds, whose calls are also imitated. Little birds will chirp, dogs will bark, and they are likewise mocked. This and the heavy trampling of the men, gives the enemies the impression that a numerous host is surrounding them, as they cannot in their excitement distinguish between the calls of the animals and those of the men. The assailants also shout out the names of some of the principal stars which may appear in the orient at the time. The planet Venus, if then a morning star, is mentioned. The ringleader or headman of the Pirrimbir party now calls out to the headman of the people in the camp, and asks for the surrender of the man they wish to punish. He uses the secret name only, so that the women and children will not know who is doomed. The headman addressed then also invokes some of the eastern stars, to wait a little, while he shouts out the secret or Kuringal name of the 248 R. H. MATHEWS. man who has been asked for,’ and tells him to be ready to defend himself. The deomed man then catches his best shield and stands out to parry the spears which are thrown at him by the kinsmen of the deceased. All the spears intended for this purpose have been charmed and anointed with human fat, to render their course unerring and increase their power. The spears must all be thrown from one direction, namely, the front of the victim. Perhaps the man wards off a con- siderable number of the missiles with little or no injury, until one spear, which is therefore believed to have been more specially greased than the rest, catches him in a vital part, and he falls to the ground. Two or three of the assailants then rush upon him and despatch him, and the members of the surrounding cordon thereupon shout, wirrh! wirrh! The avengers quickly gather round the dead man and with their stone knives flake off portions of skin and flesh from the middle of the back down to the buttocks, from the chest, and from the backs of the legs. This skinning is not done all in one piece, but may be in flakes about the size of aman’s hand. His kidney fat is also taken out. As soon as the pieces of flesh are secured and placed in their guraga bags, the invaders leave the camp hurriedly and make their way back to their secret bambilli of the previous night, where they roast and eat some of the flesh of the murdered man. They now sing and jump around the marked tree in a defiant manner, throwing their clubs at it to exorcise its power, while they mutter “‘um! um!” This is believed to have the effect of preventing their enemies from following them. + In 1896 I reported that every man has a secret name which is known only to himself and the initiated men of the tribe. Journ. Anthrop. Inst., Vol. xxv., p. 310. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICToRIA. 249 A start is then made upon the return journey, and they all travel as speedily as possible, hunting as they go. They return along the same route as they travelled out by, and use the same camping places. They again dance and sing around the marked trees for the purpose of exorcising all the magic and potency which had been injected into them when they were first marked. This restores them to their position as mere ordinary trees of the forest, and makes them of no service to the enemy. It also destroys the spell of any adverse sorcerer. On reaching within about a mile of the place where the women and others were directed to make a new camp, mentioned in an earlier page, the returning warriors con- tinue muttering mu-u-uh! until they reach the vicinity of the camping ground. HKvery man has bunches of leafy twigs or green grass fastened in his brow-band, the same as the spies already described, and the actual slayers are in the lead. When the old men hear this sound they go’ and meet the avengers and conduct them to the bambilli. On the following morning the result of the expedition is related very fully, and the portions of the victim’s body »which they have brought with them are produced. Some green bushes are laid on a smouldering fire to make a smoke, and the dead man’s skin, with the flesh attached, is placed on top, and smoke-dried. Red ochre powder is sprinkled over, or rubbed upon the skin to assist in drying and preserving it. Hach head-man takes a piece of the preserved flesh and puts it into his guraga bag, which he carries slung over his shoulder. These bags are never brought into the camp where the women and children reside, but are hung up on some convenient tree or sapling at the bambilli on the confines of the camp, where none but the initiated are allowed to consort. At certain times the old head-men and warriors warm the pieces of fleshy skin to make the fatty matter soft, 250 R. H. MATHEWS. and rub it on their own bodies. Small portions of it are occasionally eaten, to make the participants fearless and vengeful. The men also rub the greasy skin on the noses, eyes, and feet of their dogs, to make them good hunters and unusually expert in discovering game. Spears, boomerangs and clubs are similarly rubbed to increase the force and accuracy of their flight when thrown at game, or when used for punitive purposes. It should be mentioned that when an early morning attack, suchas that particularised in the foregoing pages, is made upon an individual, none of his fellow tribesmen interfere, because they are probably all acquainted with the facts of his having shed the blood of some man in another neighbouring camp, and retributive justice must take its course. When they hear the shouting of the pirrimbir party, they sit up at their camp fires, or per- haps spring to their feet, and take particular notice of the man who strikes the fatal blow, because they know that, sooner or later his blood, or that of a tribal brother, will also be required by the relatives of his present victim. EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS. The tree shewn in the illustrations was marked by a Pirrimbir expedition in the Thoorga territory many years ago. It was first pointed out to me by two old aborigines in 1899, who at the same time gave me all the details and the songs of the Pirrimbir, recorded in the foregoing pages. It is a tall, green tree of the grey box species, measuring some ten feet in girth at about a foot from the ground. It stands on, hard, stony ground, and probably the annual growth has been slow, which accounts for the good preservation of the marks. The tree is situated in the parish of Noorooma, county of Dampier, and is about 300 or 400 yards westerly from the south- west corner of Portion No. 381 of 40 acres in the said parish. ‘ ' ‘ 1 i Sh Photographs of a tree marked by Pirrimbir Warriors. 252 R. H. MATHEWS. Fig. 1 shews the northern side of the tree, whilst Fig. 2 shews the south-western side, because on these aspects of the tree the marking appears more clearly than on the remaining sides. The same kind of marking is continued all round the bole, and extends up the tree to a height of about 14 feet. In Fig. Z the camera was placed nearer the tree than in Fig. 1, to give a larger picture on account of being the shady side of the tree. This is the first illustration of a Pirrimbir tree which has ever been published. Such a tree has never been even mentioned - by any previous author. THE SEARCH FOR FOOD. The ordinary, everyday methods of searching for the different kinds of game, fish, plant food, etc., practised by Australian tribes have so often been described by several writers, that they will be passed over in this paper. But the following contrivances respecting the procuring of food have been gathered by me among the aborigines in various places in New South Wales and Victoria. In describing the contrivances employed in hunting, the State in which they were observed will be mentioned in each instance. It will be noticed that the exogamous divisions of the people, and their peculiar superstitions, are scattered through these customs. A few examples collected from the natives of the south-east coast and other parts of New South Wales will be given first, followed by some interesting items from the aborigines of Victoria. When the natives observe a whale, ‘miurirra,’ near the the coast, pursued by ‘‘killers,’’ mananna, one of the old men goes and lights fires at some little distance apart along the shore, to attract the attention of the ‘‘killers.”’ He then walks along from one fire to another, pretending to be lame and helpless, leaning upon a stick in each hand. This is supposed to excite the compassion of the ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 253 **killers’’ and induce them to chase the whale towards that part of the shore in order to give the poor old man some food. He occasionally calls out in a loud voice, ga-ai! ga-ai! ga-ai! Dyundya waggarangga yerrimaran- hurdyen, meaning “ Heigh-ho! That fish upon the shore throw ye to me! If the whale becomes helpless from the attack of the ‘killers ’’ and is washed up on the shore by the waves, some other men, who have been hidden behind scrub or rocks, make their appearance and run down and attack the animal with their weapons. A messenger is also despatched to all their friends and fellow-tribesmen in the neighbourhood, inviting them to come and participate in the feast. The natives cut through the blubber and eat the animal’s flesh. After the intestines have been removed, any persons suffering from rheumatism or similar pains, go and sit within the whale’s body and anoint themselves with the fat, believing that they get relief by doing so. It may be added that the “‘ killers’’ eat only the tongue and lips of the whale. Catching pens or fish-traps, ngullaungang, are made across narrow, Shallow inlets on the sea coast or along the course of rivers. These are made by tying together bundles of tea-tree, and laying them close together like a wall across a creek or narrow shallow arm of the sea. These walls or barricades are slightly above the surface of the water. A gap or gateway is left in mid stream so that the fish can pass through, and when a sufficient number are enclosed, the gateway is blocked up by other bundles of tea-tree, which have been prepared beforehand for this purpose. If the pool is large, one or more smaller portions of it are partitioned off in a similar manner, into which the fish are driven by splashing the water, and are thereby more easily caught by their pursuers. 254 R, H. MATHEWS. Just within the gateway leading into the outer barri- cade, one of the old men ties a little bag containing a portion of the skin of a dead man. This is supposed to cause the fish to flock into the enclosure in larger num- bers than could be obtained otherwise without this magical help. If fishing is done by hook and line, these instruments are often rubbed with a dead man’s skin or fat to make them more effective. Mullet fat thrown in little pieces on the waves in a lake or estuary, is supposed to make the water smoother, while the people are engaged in fishing. When the men are fishing in canoes, or standing upon rocks in the water, they break into small pieces crayfish, sea-eggs, congewoi, or shell fish, and cast the fragments on the water for the purpose of collecting schnapper. As soon as they appear and commence eating the bait, they are empaled with a spear made for the purpose. Groper fish are caught in the same way. Karly in the morning, while the dew is on the trees, the men and women take each a koolamin, ‘ bung’gulli,’ and go among the small honey-suckle trees, ‘babir,’ when they are out in blossom. A native puts his koolamin under one of the bunches of bloom and shakes the twig, which deposits the honey from flowers into the koolamin. The dew dilutes the honey exuding from the blossoms, and causes it to come away when they are shaken. Hach bunch of bloom is shaken in succession, and when a sufficient quantity of honey has been collected, water is added to form a pleasant beverage, which can be drunk at any time during the day. When a man went out hunting he took with him a charmed wommera or spear-lever, the hook of which con- sisted of a bone from a dead man’s arm, ground to a point. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SUUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 255 The fat of the corpse was mixed with the gum used in lashing the hook to the shaft of the weapon. When the hunter espied an emu, kangaroo, turkey or similar game, he held up the wommera in sight of the animal, which would thereby be spell-bound and unable to run away until the man got near enough to throw his spear with fatal effect. When a clever man is out hunting and comes across the tracks of, say, a kangaroo, he follows them along and talks to the footprints all the time for the purpose of injecting magic into the animal which made them. He mentions in succession all the parts of the foot, and then names the different parts of the leg right up to the animal’s back. As soon ashe reaches the backbone, the creature becomes quite stupid and is an easy prey when overtaken by the blackfellow. Before cooking such an animal, the man and his companions dance round the body for the purpose of exorcising the magic which it has absorbed from his incantations. Dhuran is the Wirraidyuri name for what we call ‘*‘ wind- clouds.’’ When such clouds are seen in the sky in the early morning, the men whistle for the purpose of causing the wind to arise and then start out into the bush. Kangaroos, emus and simliar game generally keep their heads facing the wind, making it more easy for a hunter to approach them in the rear. Besides, the wind prevents them from hearing small noises, as the crackling of sticks under a man’s feet, or catching the scent of the hunters. A man carries a mat of boughs fastened together, reach- ing from his nose down nearly to the ankles, and comes up a little closer every time the animal lowers its head to feed. When he gets within killing distance of a bird he launches his spear. Whenever possible, the natives always hunt any animal against the wind. Again, a 256 R. H. MATHEWS. blackfellow generally goes up a creek or river when spear- ing fish, because the water which is made muddy by wading into it is washed down the stream into the rear, and does not disturb the fish higher up. Besides, it is easier to see the animals in the clear, undisturbed water. During my rambles among the aborigines of western and northern Victoria, I gathered some hunting customs, a few of which are as under:—The wild turkey of the plains is timid and watchful. The following is one of the devices employed by the natives in catching them: The hunter provides himself witha little bird and ties its legs together. He lays it on the ground in an open space which he knows is frequented by turkeys. A plant or shelter of bushes is made a little way off, behind which the man hides. A string reaches from him to the bird, which continues to flutter its wings. A turkey feeding on the open ground adjacent sees the bird, and being tempted by curiosity, comes up toit. The hunter with one hand gradually hauls in the string with the bird attached, and the turkey follows till it comes within reach of a noose fastened to the ex- tremity of a small tough wooden rod which the hunter holds in his other hand. The turkey is so intent upon watching the fluttering little bird that it does not perceive the proximity of the end of the rod. The blackfellow dexterously passes the noose over the turkey’s head till it reaches the upper or small part of the neck. The hunter then twists the rod round and round in his hands with great rapidity. This twists and tightens the noose and chokes the bird without making much noise or disturbance, and it is dragged quietly into the bough screen. Perhaps another turkey, following its companion ata little distance may be snared in the same way. If the turkey, which belongs generally to the Guro-gity phratry, be too shy or wary to approach the “ call-bird,” ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 257 then that individual is supposed to be a Kappaty turkey. If a dog pursue a “forester,’’ which is usually Kappaty, and fail to bring him to bay, that animal is said to be Gurogity. A hunter takes some fat, or skin, or piece of bone, of a dead man, and puts it into a little bag. He then goes to some place in the bush frequented by kangaroos, emus, turkeys or other game, such as a favourite feeding ground or watering place or sand hill. Here he selects a tree belonging to the proper phratry, and hangs his little bag on one of the spreading branches. When an animal gets within ‘‘shooting distance,’ as it were, of this magical artillery, it becomes stupid and wanders about heedlessly until the hunter gets an opportunity of spearing it. Another custom was, as soon as Some emus or kangaroos appeared in sight, the men commenced chewing human hair and spitting towards the animals, accompanied by magical incantations. This was expected to work a charm upon the game and cause them to remain quiet and sluggish, so that a man could steal upon them, holding a bough in front of him, until he got within killing distance. Wurrity is the native name for fat, hair, or other portion of a human body, used to work spells, or conjure with. In following along the tracks of an emu, kangaroo, wild dog, or such like game, if the hunter at intervals drop hot coals in the footmarks of the animal, this will have the effect of making it hot and tired, or induce it to come round again towards its pursuer. In other instances the sweat and hair taken from under the arms, as well as the hair of the head, were used to rub on hunting weapons to increase their precision in killing game. ‘These charms were also employed to enable a mahi to climb trees dexterously, or to carry out any project Q—Oct. 5, 190}. 258 R. H. MATHEWS. successfully. A girdle made from the hair of a warrior, alive or deceased, confers great powers upon the wearer. FooD REGULATIONS, TOTEMS, ETO. Dyim'ber is a term applied to the laws regulating the dividing of all food caught by the people. Food which is strictly forbidden toa man or woman is called mugu. These are the terms used in the Thurrawal and Thoorga tribes of New South Wales. A few examples only will-be given. The rules of dyimber will be first described :—A boy must not eat anything which he catches himself, neither can his sister eat it, but his father can, and in certain cases, his mother too. Two brothers must exchange anything they catch, with some boy who is not their brother. Young children of both sexes can eat anything which is given to them by their parents or relatives, because the rules of mugu do not apply to them. The forelegs of animals are given to little boys to make their arms strong. A young woman may not eat anything which she catches herself, or which is caught by a boy, but she can eat what an initiated man catches. A young man cannot eat any- thing which a woman kills with a stick or club, but he may eat what she catches on a line, provided it be not mugu to him. When a man kills a mammal, say an opossum, he splits it lengthwise with a stone knife into two equal parts, the cut extending down the middle of the back. He then keeps for himself the half containing the right fore and hind legs, and gives the left half to a friend. Birds and reptiles are divided in the same way as an opossum. Ifa man catches a fish he lays it down on its left side, and about midway between the nose and the tail he makes a transverse incision from the back to the belly, penetrating halfway through the body. Then he splits off the upper ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 259 portion, between the transverse cut and the tail, which he keeps for himself, and gives the remainder to a friend. In other words, the person who catches the fish gives away about three-quarters of it to his fellows, and they divide with him in a similar manner. Mugu or Forbidden Food.—When a youth is first admitted to the status of a tribesman, either by means of the Bunan' or by the Kuttya ceremonies, he is forbidden to eat the male of the native bear, kangaroo, opossum, or short-nosed bandicoot. Neither can he eat the emu, por- cupine, pelican, or ducks. Schnapper, groper and eels are also forbidden, but he may eat any other kind of fish but those mentioned. The flesh of any animal which burrows in the ground, or which has long teeth, is likewise inter- dicted. He can, however, eat the long-nosed bandicoot, swans, honey, yams and other edible roots. There are other animals and plants beside those mentioned in the above lists. Again, during the time a youth is out in the bush with the old men, going through the initiation ceremonies, he must only eat certain kinds of food, and his mother and father are restricted to the same diet as he. And when a novice is released from any taboo regarding food, in the manner described farther on, his mother is freed at the same time. Generally, however, the laws of taboo do not apply to a woman—she is not thought of sufficient impor- tance, but eats everything which is given her. Any food which falls to the ground under any circum- stances, must not be picked up again by an adult person, but young children may liftit and eat it. Hating the gum of the grass-tree and certain others is interdicted, because these gums are used in fastening handles upon stone + « Bunan Ceremony,” American Anthropologist, Vol.1x., pp. 327 — 344, with plate; Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, Vol. xxxiv., pp. 276 - 281 7” 260 R. H. MATHEWS. hatchets and chisels, or for any other purpose where gum would be serviceable. When a woman is enceinte she cannot eat fish which come in ‘‘schools.’’ If she did so, it would cause them to turn away to another place. This ban applies to little girls and uninitiated boys, and lasts for some weeks after **schools’’ commence to arrive. The bones of fish during this period must not be given to dogs, but must be burned, otherwise “‘ schools ”’ of fish would go elsewhere. A preg- nant woman is allowed to eat rock-cod, flathead and leather- jacket, but not schnapper, groper, or bream. Ifa woman who is enceinte were to eat forbidden fish at such a time, the spirit of the unborn babe would go out of its mother’s body and frighten the fish away. Ifa male infant, it would have a fishing spear—if a female a yamstick —and stand on the water at the entrance to a fishing pen, or in front of a net, and turn the fish back. The fish are | more afraid of a male infant, on account of its carrying a spear, than of a female. Although these spirit children are invisible to human eyes, the old men know they are present by the movements of the fish, and at once suspect some woman of having broken the food rules. When aman visits the people of another tribe, one of them takes him a mouthful of cooked flesh on the end of a small stick, like a skewer, and reaches it out to the stranger who bites it off the stick with his mouth. As soon as this ceremonial is over the stranger can enter into conversation with his hosts, but not before. After a while, the hosts take a vessel, in which there is water and mix a little earth into it, and give the visitor a drink. From that forth he can eat the food and drink the water in their territory. If he were to do these things without the ceremony described, he would become ill and sores would break out over his body. The first night of a stranger’s arrival, his enter- ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 261 tainers make a bed for him by placing small sticks on the ground and covering them thickly with leaves. On all subsequent occasions he must make his own sleeping place. A mother-in-law receives food from her son-in-law while sitting down. She does not reach out for it, but he sends some one to place it in her lap. He must not approach his mother-in-law himself, and if any conversation takes place, their backs must be turned towards each other. In such case she would clap her hands, indicating that she wished to speak to him. See also “‘ Language of Mothers- in-law,” infra. When a man is out hunting, he will not kill his totemic animal, no matter what opportunity he may have of doing so; and if his- totem be an edible plant, it is likewise left uninjured by him. It is believed that thus allowing the animal to escape, or leaving the plant unplucked, will augment the supply and increase the fruitfulness of such game or vegetable. It is apparent, therefore, that a specific animal or plant is left unharmed by each individual in the tribe, whether male or female. Supposing, for example, that ten men go out into the bush in quest of food. Hvery man of the party will take care that he does not injure his own totem during the day’s rambles. If we assume that each hunter has a different totem, then each man will allow a certain object to go free; or in other words, ten different animals or plants will not be molested. But in such an expedition there would generally be groups of men belonging to the same totem. For example, there might be three kangaroo men, two iguana men, one porcupine man, and four yam men. Then, three of the party would not harm a kangaroo under any circumstances, two would allow iguanas to escape, one would not interfere with a porcupine, and four would not gather yams. Let us suppose that a mob of 262 R. H. MATHEWS. kangaroos is encountered, then our hunting party, instead of numbering ten men, really consists of only seven. If iguanas are met with, the hunters comprise but eight men. And if they come to a fertile patch of ground, only six yam-diggers are available. It is manifest that this arrangement conduces to preserve the supply of food by diminishing the number of those in quest of it. It should perhaps be stated that in some instances a man can eat his totem if killed and given by another person, but as the chief difficulty consists in the capture and gathering of the food, the tendency is still towards its preservation. I have also observed that animals and plants which are prolific or numerous are the totems of a greater number of men than those which are more or less scarce. For example wallaby, duck and yam men are more numerous than por- cupine and pelican men. Again, game and other things which are scarce are tabooed to the young people, who must hunt among the animals which are plentiful, in order to give the old folk a chance. MUMBIRBIRRI OR SCARRING THE Bopy. Raising cicatrices by means of cutting into the flesh on the shoulders, arms, and chest is a custom of wide pre- valence among the Australian aborigines. The position and extent of the scarring is regulated by the custom of the tribe to which the novice belongs. When visiting the natives on the Upper Lachlan, I obtained the following particulars of the practice in that part of the country. My informants were old men who had been operated on in their youth, who showed me their scars, and had a very vivid recollection of the formalities connected with the ordeal. These people speak the Wirraidyuri language, a grammar and vocabulary of which I contributed to the Anthropo- ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 263 logical Institute of Great Britain." Their ceremonies of initiation were described by me in a communication to the Royal Geographical Society at Brisbane in 1896.’ I also dealt with a portion of their social organisation in two articles to the Anthropological Society at Washington in 1897.” As no account of the import of scarring the body and the ceremonial connected with it has ever been published, I shall give a brief description of some of its main features. At the Burbung, or ceremonies of initiation already referred to, certain restrictions regarding the eating of animals and other articles of diet are imposed upon the novice, such prohibited food being called wanal. As the youth grows older, he is liberated from these taboos one by one, his release from each object following a prescribed routine, ‘ and being accompanied by a ceremony. It is unnecessary to add that no man can be scarred who has not passed through the Burbung ceremonies. In the tribe with which I am dealing, the first wanal from which a youth is liberated is the fat male opossum. Hitherto he has only been allowed to eat lean and tough animals of that species. He is taken into the bush by his mother’s brothers, the brothers of his potential wives, and his father’s people, and a number of leading tribesmen are also present. A fire is kindled and the subject is carefully painted and rubbed over with opossum fat. The animal itself is cooked and some of the flesh is given to the youth by his uncle, which he eats while the old chiefs sing the song prescribed for the fat opossum; and the other men * Journ. Anthrop. Inst., July - December, 1904. 2 « The Initiation Ceremonies of the Aborigines of the Upper Lachlan,” Queensland Geographical Journal, Vol. x1., pp, 167 — 169. % American Anthropologist, Vol. 1x., pp. 411-416, and Vol. x., pp. 345 —347. See also my “ Totemic Divisions of Australian Tribes,” Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, Vol]. xxx1., pp. 154-176. 264 R. H. MATHEWS. dance around, shouting out the names of waterholes, shady trees, etc., in the novice’s country. On the first cold night after these proceedings, the novice is kept in the camp without food and is not allowed to sleep. He is not permitted to speak above a whisper and remains in the same place. Harly next morning, while it is still very cold, he is taken charge of by the men and is seated on bushes laid upon the ground. His future brother-in-law, or his maternal uncle, or a tribal representative of one of these men, comes behind him, and with a piece of sharp flint makes several vertical cuts about two and a half inches long on the back of his left shoulder—on the central portion between the point of the shoulder and the spine. The blood flowing from the incisions is rubbed into them by the operator, after which ground charcoal, mixed with grease, is applied. Being sleepy, cold and weary, his body appears to be numb and almost insensible to pain. Before commencing the cutting, the boy’s maternal uncle or his father licks or sucks the top of his skull. It is said that some years back, the lad’s skull was bitten by the old man. One of the sorcerers present rubs a bullroarer across the youth’s shoulder or perhaps a large quartz crystal is used instead; these manceuvres being supposed to increase the graduate’s fortitude and alleviate the pain or bleeding. If there be more boys than one to be dealt with, the same ritual is gone through, but a fresh scarifier is appointed for each one. These men profess to undertake their duty with hesitancy, and therefore some mock persuasion has to be enacted before they start work. They are usually chosen from among men who have come from some of the neigh- bouring tribes. Probably the unwillingness of these oper- ators is due to their fear of any fatal results following the * « Burbung of the Darkijung gna Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, Vol. x., N.S. (1897) p. 8. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 265 scarring, because their own lives would be demanded by the relatives of the deceased. See “ Pirrimbir,’’ supra. While the scarring is in progress the men standing around make a great noise by beating their shields with other weapons. The novitiate is then taken away by some initi- ated men who act as his guardians and provide him with food. These men are generally the brothers of his future wife and his own elder brothers. Firesticks are occasionally held close to the wounds to make them open and protrude as much as possible during the process of healing, in order to leave raised scars. Hvery afternoon, just before sundown, he is freshly painted, and a mixture of grease and ashes or ground charcoal applied to the cuts on his shoulder. In the course of afew months, when the wounds are healed, the graduate is painted again and his body anointed with the fat of the doe opossum, which up till this time has been wanal to him. Some cooked flesh of the animal is then given him and while he eats it the old men chant a different song to that used on the first occasion, the dance being also varied. As soon as convenient after this cere- mony, the subject is kept awake throughout a cold night, as before, and in the morning he is again placed sitting on boughs spread upon the ground, while a man cuts vertical lines on the right shoulder, similar to those appearing on the left, and the wounds are treated in the same manner. There is now a band of vertical marks reaching across the back from shoulder, which shows that the bearer has creditably kept the law relating to opossums and that the headmen have thought fit to release him from that particular wanal. Ifa youth were sly and deceitful, and surreptiti- ously eat something which was wanal to him, and the elders became aware of it, they would punish him by refus- ing to release him from his forbidden food, for a much longer time than would otherwise be considered necessary. 266 -R. H. MATHEWS. Shortly after the last marking has healed, the headmen despatch a messenger to the mother and friends of the novice, and another messenger to his future wife’s people, stating that the graduate will be taken to a certain place at sucha state of the moon. If it is any time between the new and full moon, the messenger stands before his audience and holds up his boomerang horizontally or nearly so, With the convex edge towards the west. The time between the full and new moon is indicated by holding the convex edge of the weapon towards the east. As both these positions of the moon occupy a fortnight, lesser periods would be explained verbally by the messenger. The youth’s mother, as well as his betrothed, have been expecting this message, and repair as early as circumstances will permit to the appointed meeting place and erect their camp. A U-shaped enclosure is built of boughs, the open end being farthest from the women’s quarters. On the last morning preceding the arrival of the bush contingent with the novice, another messenger is sent forward to report that the party will arrive in the afternoon. The graduate’s buddunggan or future wife, and his mother, accompanied by some old women, repair to the bough enclosure and kindle a fire, and make everything ready. About an hour before sundown, the bush mob make their appearance in single file. The novice and his custodians are near the front, and he is conducted into the bough yard where his mother and buddunggan are standing together. The latter approaches him and taps him on the breast with a dhullabulga or portion of a man’s apron, after which green boughs are thrown upon the fire and he passes through the smoke. The women then retire, and the youth is taken to the quarters of the single men where one or two old fellows will chant for the occasion. The women also sing at their own camp. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 267 During the early part of the following day, the men take the novice again to the bough yard, where the women meet them. There are present the graduate’s mother and father, some of his sisters, brothers, maternal uncles and aunts. His bundunggan or promised wife, accompanied by similar relatives, is also there. Some leaves have been strewn thickly over the surface of the ground in front of the bud- dunggan, on which are laid the following articles of a man’s dress, which she has brought there for presentation to the graduate : 1. A wullunggaiir, or wide brow-band, painted red. 2. A gambun, or narrow brow-band, painted white. 3. A willa-willa, consisting of a few of the top-knot feathers of the white cockatoo. The feathers are fastened with string er gum on a small piece of stick, and are intended for inserting under the brow-band as an ornament. 4. A dhullabulga, made of the skin of the kangaroo-rat, cut into narrow strands about a foot long. These strands are bound together at one end, and are worn attached to the front part of the waist-girdle, so as to hang down over the pubes. do. A kurbubundhan, or girdle for the waist, made of woven opossum fur. 6. A pair of buggurbundhan, or strings to be tied around each of the upper arms, woven from opossum fur. 7. A gudyugang or necklace, made of pieces of reed cut into short lengths of say, half an inch, and an opossum fur string passed through the hollow of each one. 8. A baigur, another neck ornament, made of pieces of skin cut from around the genital appendages of a male kangaroo, and fastened on a string of opossum fur. The buddunggan walks up to the graduate and passes the gudyugang necklace over his head. Next she decorates him with the baigur in the same way. These are the only articles with which she invests him—the remainder of the turnout being put on the youth by his guardian. In return 268 R. H. MATHEWS. for these gifts the sister of the graduate presents the bud- dunggan with a complete set of a woman’s regalia. The youth now goes back with the single men to their camp, and the women stroll away to theirs. In the evening a corroboree is held in celebration of the youth’s release from the opossum wanal. Some months after the above ceremony, or it may be the best part of a year, or longer than that, if the graduate is young, he is again taken charge of by the elders of the tribe, and another animal is added to those which he can hunt and eat. As the procedure connected with each ceremony is somewhat similar, I shall very briefly describe the position of the scars, or mumbir, on the different parts of the body. The next wanal on the list is the girwa or iguana. For the full-grown male animal, the graduate is cut, vertically, on the left shoulder, a little below his first marks for the opossum. After a while his right shoulder is similarly branded for the female or young iguana, and when he has recovered from its effects, he is marched to the women’s camp, as on the first occasion, and is shown to his relatives. He has now a second tier of mumbir, or marks extending across the back, and is received with the usual congratu- lations. The songs and dances connected with the iguana, both in the bush and at the women’s camp, are different to the opossum ceremony. No bough-vard is erected on this occasion, nor are any presents given by the buddunggan. After a considerable time the young man is allowed to eat the full-grown male emu, ngurun, being painted and greased as on other occasions, but the old men continue Singing special chants throughout the night. There isa superstition that the emu never sleeps at night, because if it did all the aborigines would die. Therefore, in discharg- ing a man from this wanal, everybody in the camp keeps ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 269 awake all night. In the morning the graduate is marked by vertical cuts on the left shoulder just under the previous scarring. There is a further interval of time, and the man is released from the tabu regarding the female and half- grown emus, when a similar ceremony is held, after which he is marked by vertical incisions on the right shoulder immediately below the iguana mumbir. The graduate now has three rows of scars, extending from shoulder to shoulder, which completes all the mumbir which will be cut upon his back. At some convenient time aiter this he is marched to a place near the women’s camp, where he is met and welcomed by his male and female relations as before. Next in order comes the graduate’s liberty to eat the maugang, a large grub found by chopping into the boles of trees, for which he is marked on the left arm with vertical cuts. For the burragang, a large grub in the roots of trees, he is similarly incised on the right upper arm. After another interval he is relieved from his wanal respecting the dhugganan, a small grub obtained in the boles of trees and is marked on the left arm below the first mumbir. The gurthan, a small grub found in the roots of trees comes next, for which he is cut on the right upper arm, below the burragang scars. In each of the four last cases, one of the grubs is rubbed around the graduate’s mouth by an old man before it is eaten, and each has its own peculiar chant. The chest is the seat of the next mumbir. With cere- monies similar to those already described, the yubba or full-grown male carpet snake is added to the man’s dietary scale, and he is marked by vertical cuts on the left breast, commencing at the collar bone, high enough to leave room for another row of marks between it and the nipple later on. When- these wounds have healed the novitiate is 270 R. H. MATHEWS. branded on the right breast in a corresponding position, which enables him to eat the female and half-grown carpet snakes. After a while the man is released from the prohibition regarding the flesh of the male wandaiela or porcupine, which is made known to whom it may concern by vertical incisions on the left breast, between the carpet snake mumbir and the nipple. For the female or half-grown wandaiela, he is Similarly marked on the right breast. Another interval elapses and the graduate is permitted to eat the male of the gudamang or turtle, which is denoted by a transverse or horizontal scar across the breast between the nipples ; and for the female turtle another horizontal scar is made below the former, in the intermammary region. When the graduate is admitted into the rank of eating the carpet snake and the porcupine, the old men chant all night, and the people keep awake, the same as at the emu ceremony already detailed. At all these gatherings there is a good deal of sexual license allowed, such as men lend- ing their wives to visitors, similar to what I have elsewhere referred to at the Burbung ceremonies. During these assemblages, too, the people often barter weapons and other articles—and sometimes the teeth which were ex- tracted at the initiatory rites are returned—particulars of which have been reported by me in other publications. Want of space compels me to omit many matters connected with the Mumbirbirri ceremonies, which may be included in a future communication. SOME BURIAL AND MOURNING CUSTOMS. The rites connected with death and burial vary some- what among different tribes, and it would be highly inter- esting if all the ceremonial connected with this subject could be collected over the whole of Australia. The following is an example of the procedure in ordinary cases ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 27] among the Thoorga tribe on the south-east coast of New South Wales, whose language I have already reported.’ The initiatory rites of these people were described by me in 1896,’ and their sociology in 1900.’ If a man dies a natural death, as of old age, accident or the like, his body is placed full length between pieces of bark, and the whole is then bound round with string outside the bark. During the afternoon a few wizards, muyulus, gather up all the men and women and take them to a very tall tree, or at any rate the tallest tree within sight of the camp. Some of the old men are left sitting close to the corpse. The women sit on the ground near the base of the tree, with their rugs folded in front of them, and keep quiet, as if listening for something. Two of the muyulus now climb the tree, one following the other, either by cutting steps or by means of vines. The front man ascends the tree as far as it is possible to go, and the other keeps about 6 or 8 feet lower. The topmost man, looking in the direction of the native country of the deceased, calls out in a loud, clear voice, kagalgal nunnup! The lower man repeats the call in quick succession. Simultaneously with the men’s call, each woman brings her open hand down upon her folded rug, with a thudding sound. The same rug may be used by several women. The lower man, who may be distinguished as B, then descends about 5 or 6 feet, and the top man, whom we will call A, comes down to the place just vacated by B, and both men repeat the call as before, and the old women again clap their hands on their rugs. B and A each * «© The Thoorga Language,’ Queensland Geographical Journal, Vol. XVI., pp. 49 - 73. # American Anthropologist, Vol. 1x., pp. 327 - 344, pl. vi. 7 Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxxIv., pp. 262 - 264. 272 R, H. MATHEWS. descend another stage of 5 or 6 feet, and shout again, and the women repeat the clapping. This is continued stage by stage until B reaches the ground and A isa few feet up the trunk of the tree, when the final call is given by both men, accompanied by the beating of the rugs by the women. It is supposed that at a man’s death, his inside or spirit, called bulubulaty, goes away back to its native place and visits all the haunts and camps occupied by the man during life. Perhaps the man has left some of his weapons at his old camping places, or has hidden away his bullroarer or other secret belongings somewhere in the bush. His bulu- bulaty is supposed to go and see if these belongings are alright. The ceremony of calling from the tree-top is for the purpose of bringing the bulubulaty back to the body before burial. While the two men are calling out from the tree, the other old fellows who were left sitting near the corpse are attentively listening, and they generally report that they have heard a rustling sound within the bark covering of the corpse, as if the bulubulaty had returned to the body. Moreover, the men who climb the tree frequently aver that they have heard the bulubulaty in the distance answer- ing their calls. If the deceased had been strangled in his sleep by the sorcery of an unseen enemy, the answering voice would be very hoarse and feeble; but if noinjury had been done to him, the voice of the returning spirit would be clear and distinct. Ifthe man has met his death by foul play on the part of any of the people present, it is supposed that the old men at the butt of the tree will see the bulu- bulaty touching the guilty party as it flies past him. The spirit and body of the deceased being now reunited, a grave is dug in some soft ground, such as loamy soil or sand, and the body, with its covering of bark, is placed lying full length on its back, with the head pointing towards » Onn ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 273 the native country of the deceased’s mother. Or if he died within the territory of his mother’s tribe, then his head would be laid to the west, so that when his bulubulaty sits up in his place of sepulture his face will be towards the rising sun, to enable him to get warm. The native country of one’s mother is called ‘‘ i-dhung’-t-ri.”’ The men who ascend the tree, and the other mourners, are painted with millin, pipeclay, and gubur, red ochre, on the limbs, bodies and faces. Some of the maternal uncles of the deceased are present at his burial ceremonies, and take a prominent part. | When a woman’s husband dies or is killed, her hair is overspread with the white down of birds and pipeclay. Kangaroos’ teeth and porcupines’ claws are bound in her tresses, and on top of the head is fastened a barran which hangs down between her shoulders. Her face is painted with small daubs of white and red, and she wears a brow- band painted with pipe-clay. Strings made of the skin of the ring-tail opossum, to which are attached small pieces of bone, are tied around her arms. She wears a waist-belt made of opossum fur. The chest and limbs are painted with streaks of white mixed with red. A man’s mother, sisters, mother-in-law, and daughters also mourn for him. The widow has a bag in which she puts any food which may be given to her by her husband’s relatives or her own. She does not go out hunting, but remains in the camp with any other widows who may be there, who look after her wants. Food from her bag can be eaten only by herself and her family. The brothers and sisters of the deceased can also partake of the contents of the bag. All remnants of the widow’s food must be burnt or covered in the ground, and no dogs, excepting those of the deceased, must be allowed to eat any of the bones or refuse. R—Oct. 5, 1904. 274 R. H. MATHEWS. No person except the brothers of deceased are allowed to use his weapons and other belongings, which are called dhundhal. Ifthe brothers of the dead man take his spears or other weapons and kill any game therewith, no one excepting the widow and relatives of the deceased, can participate in the feast. If more game or other food has been obtained than the relatives can eat, they cannot give away the surplus to other people of the tribe who are not relatives, but must burn or bury it. The widow does not converse with any one, but every morning and evening she raises a lamentation, and chants certain customary dirges. This is continued for many months, at the termination of which one of the younger brothers of the deceased may claim her. When a man of the Ngeumba tribe is buried, a grave is dug in which the body is placed in a sitting posture, lean- ing backwards with its head towards sunrise. A doctor, or clever man, goes into the grave and places the body in position. The face of the corpse is bent forward till the chin touches the chest. This bowing down of the head is done to prevent the friends of the deceased from dreaming about him. Yerrudhami means a dream. When every- thing is ready, the men on the top throw down earth and short pieces of sticks, with which the doctor packs the corpse in position. Afterwards, the men return to their camp and are smoked at a fire with green boughs layed upon it. SORCERY OR MAGICc. Upon the decease of a tribesman, the old men, muyulus, generally, if not always, ascribe his death to the machina- tions of some enemy, either in their own tribe or among their neighbours. The following is one of the methods adopted by the Tharumba tribe to discover the person who has secretly caused a man’s death :—His body is taken by ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 275 the women, who rub it all over with a mixture of burnt bark and grease. The bark used is that of the apple-tree,’ which is burnt toa fine powder. The body is kept for several days, perhaps for some weeks, as this application possesses the property of preserving the body to some extent. The bark-powder and grease is applied every day or two, and after a number of applications a kind of incrust- ation is formed on the surface of the body. Some of the old men who are related to the deceased now come and scrape off some of this ashy layer from his body. This mixture, which now comprises exudations from the corpse, aS well as the original ingredients, is called ngurrung arat, and is Supposed to possess occult powers of retaliation by guiding the possessor of it into the camp of the guilty party. The ngurrungarat scraped from the exterior of the dead man’s body is placed in a little bag ealled giiraga, and is carried away by the old men to the bahmbilli, a sheltered place where the tribal councils are held, out of sight of the camp. There a fire is lighted and when it has burnt down to a mass of hot coals, one of the old fellows steps forth and throws a few pinches of ngur- rungarat powder on the embers. The substance immedi- ately begins to burn and send up smoke. If the smoke ascends straight up, and goes a good height in the air before it disperses, that signifies that the murderer lives a considerable distance off. But if the smoke goes up a little way and bends to one side, this indicates that the murderer is located near them, and the direction in which the smoke bends in either of these cases, shows the direction of his camp. A council is then held to consider who is the most likely man in the locality pointed out by the smoke to have * Not the fruit tree, but the so-called apple tree of Australia, the Angophora of botanists. 276 R. H. MATHEWS. caused the death of their comrade. Perhaps two or three, or even more men are equally suspected in a certain camp which the smoke indicated, and further measures are necessary to sheet it home to the guilty individual. A couple of clever men are selected to enquire into this matter, and the first opportunity which occurs of visiting the tribe containing the “‘ suspects,’’ these chosen men go on pretence of bartering, or other feasible business. When they get among the men of the other tribe, they let their fire burn down, and some time when no one is looking, one of them throws a little of his ngurrungarat powder on the fire, and watches which way the smoke goes. Which- ever one of the suspects happens to he in the direction taken by the smoke is then singled out as the sorcerer who killed their kinsman. These two men next go and sit down near the suspect and watch him closely, to see if he is very much perturbed and guilty-lcoking after the smoke has found him out. The man by this time probably concludes that he is suspected, and whether he is guilty or not he becomes rather disconcerted, because he realizes his danger- ous position. This conduct confirms the spies in their con- clusions, and they go back to their own people and report the result of their mission. A consultation is then held at the bahmbilli, and the duty of retaliating is assigned to one or more of their special sorcerers—fellows who are equal in skill to those in the adversary’s camp. Several other men go with them, including generally a couple of young men as recruits to learn the mode of procedure, so that in later years they may ke able to take charge of similar expeditions. Some of the older men will each have a little bag, guraga, con- taining nguwrrungarat powder fastened on the top of the head amongst the hair. This bag, of its own accord, falls over on the side of the head towards the camp of the man ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 277 they are seeking. When they get into the hunting grounds of the adverse conjurer, they hide in scrubs or thickly wooded or rocky places where he is likely to pass by. When - they see him, they “sing a spell’ upon him in a low tone. This is done to cause him to want to go about by himself, unaccompanied by any of his relatives or friends. If they see him climbing a tree they “sing ’’ at him to cause him to get giddy and fall to the ground. If this “singing’’ has not the desired effect and the enemy persists in keeping in company of another man, one of the invading muyulus takes off his belt, ngulya, and tears it down the middle, “‘singing’’ while he does so. This is supposed to cause the two men to part company, in the same way that the belt is parted. It is believed that if a man be alone he is more easily overcome by the “‘ black art.”’ If they are fortunate enough to surprise their enemy when he is separated from all his people, they approach him, muttering incantations and pointing at him, and tell him he has only so. many moons to live. This generally so terrifies him that he really believes he must die. In addition to being guided by the ngurrungarat powder above mentioned, a muyulu or sorcerer will mount upon a log, rock or leaning tree, and point one of his fighting boomerangs first in one direction and then in another, until he feels the weapon pulling toward a particular quarter. Then he knows that the camp of the enemy whom he is seeking is located in that direction. If a sorcerer obtain some of the excreta, hair, nails or other part of an enemy’s body, he takes it to a “ squeaking tree,” mauaraty, and places it between the touching sur- faces of the two branches causing the “‘squeak.’? When the wind blows, this fragment is squeezed and ground to atoms, and the owner is believed to suffer in the same way. During the whole performance the old man ‘‘ sings’ toward 278 R. H. MATHEWS. the person he wishes toinjure. If the party whose destruc- tion is sought be a greater conjurer than the man who *‘sings’’ him, no harm can result from it. ABORIGINAL ASTRONOMY—THE ZODIAC. All aboriginal tribes have names for many of the principal fixed stars, and also for remarkable stellar groups. There is generally a story about the star, which was in olden days aman, the wondrous doings of which are duly recorded. Not infrequently there are families of stars—the parents and offspring, husbands and wives, and other relationships— all being pointed out, and assigned their places in the nar- rative. Legends are more humerous concerning stars situated in the neighbourhood of the moon’s path through the heavens, and in this way a zodiac may be Said to exist. The stars near the ecliptic and the zenith change their positions in the sky more rapidly than those toward the poles, and therefore more readily arrest attention. Besides constellations at these high altitudes can be seen easily when the people are camped in thickly wooded country, whereas stars near the horizon would not then be visible. Throughout the summer months, and during fine weather at other periods, the blacks usually camp out in the open: air, Where they have every opportunity of watching the Starry vault above them. The fact of the moon, who was a human being in ancient times, wending its way through these stars month after month, helps to increase the peoples’ interest. There are always some clever old men: in the camp, who are the recognized repositories of the lore of the tribe, who take advantage of this out door life to teach the young people stories about some of the differ- ent stars which may be visible at such times. As soon as an old man commences one of these stories, the young folk from the neighbouring camp fires congregate; around him and listen with avidity to his marvellous nar-_ ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 279 rations. A love of the supernatural seems to be born in the human breast, and the Australian natives are no excep- tion. The young people of the audience listen so atten- tively that they are themselves able, in years long after, to repeat the stories to another generation. In this way the star myths and other native legends have been handed down from time immemorial. Conspicuous stars and star clusters all the way along the zodiacal belt, have well-known names and traditions. Moreoyer, each star figuring in the myths belongs to a phratry, section, clan or other subdivision, precisely the same as the people of the tribe among whom the tale is current. The names of the subdivisions, as well as the names of the stars, change amongst the people inhabiting different parts of the country. Sometimes the legends and nomenclature of the stars will be substantially the same among several adjoining tribes over an extensive region. In other instances, not only are the names of the stars different, but the traditions and the stars connected with them are altogether divergent. The aborigines have no methods of accurately measuring the annual circuit of the sun, but they know when the cold weather commences; then the period when the flowers come, and plants shoot forth buds; and lastly, they realize the time of the hot weather. They have discovered that these periods follow each other in a certain fixed order year after year; and the stars which occupy the northern sky in the cold winter evenings travel on, and are succeeded by others in the following season; and that these are again displaced by different constellations during the warm even- ings of summer. The aborigines of the Clarence River have a story that the Pleiades, when they set with the sun, go away to bring the winter; and that when these stars reappear early in 280 R. H. MATHEWS. the evening in the eastern sky, they are ushering in the warm weather. They are supposed to bea family of young women, whose name was War-ring -garal, and who belonged to the section Wirrakan.’ Among the same tribes, « Tauri was a young man named Karambal, of the Womboang division, who absconded with another man’s wife. He was pursued by the injured husband, and took refuge in a tall tree. His pursuer piled wood around the bole of the tree, which he then set on fire, and Karambal was carried up by the fierce flames into the sky, where he still retains the colour of the fire.” In the frosty nights of the winter months, about three or four hours before sunrise is a time when there is gener- ally a stir ina native camp. The people have had their first sleep, and the cold begins to make itself felt. The men and women, especially those who are old, sit up and replenish their fires. While doing this, their attention is naturally directed to the sky, where they observe that the stars then shining in the eastern quadrant are different from those which were visible the previous evening. They observe that these stars are trudging along after the others, and will disappear at daylight. Among the Ngeumba blacks, in the cold weather of mid- winter, when the Pleiades rise about three or four o’clock in the morning, the old men take some glowing coals on bark shovels, and cast them towards this constellation as soon as it is visible. This is done to prevent the spirit- women, whom these stars represent, from making the morning too cold. The women in the camp are not per- mitted to look at all at the Pleiades in winter nights, because such conduct would increase the severity of the * See my paper on ‘ Totemic Divisions of Australian Tribes,” Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxx1., p. 169. * Compare with my “ Folklore of the Australian Aborigines,” (Sydney, 1899) pp. 26 - 29. Legis ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 281 frost. Ifa woman transgress this law, her eyes will become bleary, and she will suffer from uterine troubles. The blackfellows have not mapped out the sky into con- stellations in the same way as Huropeans have done, but there is a certain amount of method in their arrangement of the stars. For example, a man and his wives, his family, his weapons, his dogs, are not generally far apart. Brothers, uncles and other relationships are often separated by con- siderable distances. Among the tribes inhabiting the south-eastern portion of New South Wales, « Canis Majoris is Gundyeran; a Orionis is Gunung’ama; « Argus is Mirridyugga, the short- nosed bandicoot. The Pleiades is Wanggatti; Milky Way, Kurréwa; the stars in Orion’s Belt and Club are Yuindya. They have names for the Magellanic clouds. Nubecula Major is Kurrug’gur, the shortnosed bandicoot. Nubecula Minor is Wangalli, a kangaroo rat. At the time when these star-clusters—the bandicoot and the kangaroo-rat— are at their lower culmination, and therefore so near the horizon that they are not noticed by untutored natives living in thickly wooded country, they are supposed to have gone away through the skies on a Pirrimbir expedition. After they have taken revenge upon the culprit, the nubecule come into view again. In the county of Kara-Kara, Victoria, there was an immense pine tree growing out of the earth, the topmost branches of which reached up to the sky. In the far away past, people used to climb up the tree and walk about and reside on the starry vault ; and blackfellows who belonged to the sky occasionally descended by the tree to the earth to see their friends, and remained for a while. Visits were frequently made for purposes of barter between the blacks who were located on the earth and those whose hunting grounds were away in the sky. In short, the tree was a 282 R. H. MATHEWS. regular highway between the earth and the upper regions, © for a very long period. Old blackfellows have told me stories of similar trees which reached up into the sky in other parts of Victoria. At that time the common magpie and black jay went out hunting one day, and speared a dog which they thought wasa wild one. They lighted a fire and cooked the animal in a hole with its head pointing towards its miyur, but they had not time to remain there and eat it. So the magpie. picked up the carcass of the dog, still hot from the fire, and carried it across the back of his neck home to the camp. The hot body resting on the magpie’s neck so long, burnt the skin and caused the white mark still seen across the neck of that bird. It turned out that it was the largest and best hunting dog belonging to the lark which had been speared. By and bye the lark called in his dogs and they came to him one by one. As each dog appeared, the lark said impatiently, ““That’s only a puppy! Where is my big dog?’? But the favourite dog did not return, and the lark was determined to have revenge upon the whole tribe, but he said nothing. He took his waddy and went and sat down by a fire near the base of the great tree, and pretended he was carving ornamental lines on the weapon. When no one was looking he put live coals into a hollow in one of the roots, and shoved them well underneath with the end of his waddy. After a while the fire began to make headway and crackled under the ground. Some blackfellows asked the lark what noise that was. He replied that it must be two of the top branches rubbing against each other, and they appeared satisfied with this answer. But the fire increased in vigour and fierceness under the soil, burning all the roots until the principal one was reached, which shared the same fate. Then the tree came down witha tremendous crash, | ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 283 killing all the people who were under it. The fire con- tinued to burn the trunk and every branch, until the whole was consumed. The top of the tree formed Morton Plain, with the charred remains of the people, turned to stone, still to be seen there. A hollow was burnt in the ground where the tree stood, making a large lagoon. On the Darling River, New South Wales, from Bourke down to Louth, I gathered the following star names from old natives. There are longer stories connected with each but I had not time to record them fully. The larger of the two stars inthe extremity of the tail of the Scorpion is a crow and belongs to the phratry Kilpungurra. «@ Aquile was a great hunter, named Wukkarno, who was a Mukun- gurra. He kept several dogs, and his boomerang is now the Northern Crown. The planet Venus was aman named Mirnkabuli, who lived in a gurli, or hut, made of grass, and subsisted upon mussels and crayfish. The Pleiades were a lot of young women who went out on a plain searching for yams anda whirlwind came along and carried them up into the sky, depositing them where they are now seen. «Scorpii isan eaglehawk and belongs to the Mukungurra phratry. The planet Jupiter was a great Kilpungurra man of the olden days, called Wurnda- wurnda-yarroa, who lived on roasted yams, and got his reddish colour by being so much about the fire cooking his food. A great warrior of ancient times, named. That-tyu-kul, was camped at Swan Hill on the Murray River. One day his two sons were out playing about the camp, getting wattle-gum on the bank of the river. They saw a mon- strous cod fish, Ban’-dyal, ina big waterhole, and ran home and told their father. He got his canoe and hastened to the spot, armed withall his spears. Upon sighting the fish he heaved a spear which stuck into its back between the 284 R. H. MATHEWS. shoulders, but it swam on to the end of the waterhole and commenced forming a channel by tearing up the ground, and in this manner allowing the water to flow after it and bear it away from its enemy. Bandyal did this so rapidly that Thattyukul was not able to keep pace with him. He kept on travelling towards the south-west, leaving a sinuous line of water behind him. At dusk he camped and excavated a long, deep lagoon, where he rested for the night. Thattyukul paddled his canoe along the watercourse, and upon overtaking the cod fish he hurled another spear at him, which stuck deeply into the median line of his back, as before, but somewhat lower down. This caused the great fish to start forward again, digging out a channel wide enough to allow his immense body to swim along. When night came he camped as pre- viously, and made a large lagoon to rest in. Here Thattyukul again overtook him and threw another spear, which penetrated the spine in the rear of the two former weapons. Thattyukul continued the pursuit for several days with similar experiences until they reached the neighbourhood of where the Murray Bridge has since been erected. By this time Thattyukul had used up all his spears, and had, besides, broken a piece off the end of his paddle. At tliis spot, Bandyal the cod fish made a larger hole, and Thattyukul lost sight of him, being unable to propel his canoe fast enough with the broken paddle. He there- fore abandoned the chase and landed on the bank, where he set his canoe up on its end and it became a bial-bial, or ‘ red-gum tree. He stuck his broken paddle into the ground and it was transformed into a pine-tree. The watercourse dug out by the cod fish in this encounter became the present Murray River, and the spines now found projecting from the back of the cod fish represent the spears thrown by Thattyukul in his vain attempt to capture it. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 285 Hiver since that time canoes have generally been made of the bark of gum trees, and pine wood is mostly used for making paddles. Thattyukul thenstarted back overland through the mallee scrubs and continued his course onward by way of the Grampian Hills until he reached his own country. He looked about and found his wife and children, accompanied by his mother-in-law, Yerretgurk, on top of a mountain whose sides were so steep that he could not climb up to them, neither could they descend to him. He then called out to his wife and children to jump down, one by one, and he would catch them in his arms. First, his wife jumped, then his eldest son, and lastly the youngest boy, and all were landed safely. He next persuaded Yerretgurk, his mother-in-law, to jump too, but he pretended he could not catch her, and she fell heavily on the ground, and hurt her face very much, which made her feel revengeful. In time Yerretgurk recovered from her injuries, but she kept the matter in her mind. One day she was prodding her yamstick into the ground in a swampy place, and the water spurted up. She shoved in her yamstick farther and could feel something biting it. Upon probing deeper she came to the conclusion that it was some large and vicious creature. Then she dug a large hole in the ground, which at once filled with water, in the bottom of which she could feel the mouth of some animal with her yamstick. She now spread rotten sticks across the top of the hole and covered them over with leaves, grass, and rubbish, to resemble a huge bandicoot’s nest. Then she brooded over her past wrongs. Yerretgurk next called Thattyukul’s two boys, and asked them to go and tell their father she wanted him to come and killalarge bandicoot whose nest she had just d’scovered. She requested Thattyukul not to strike at the animal with 286 R. H. MATHEWS. his weapons, because that would break the body to pieces, © but to jump upon it with his feet. Being willing to make amends to his old mother-in-law for his bad behaviour in letting her fall from the rock, he came stealthily up to the heap of rubbish and gave one bound upon the centre of it. As expected, he went flop into the water, and the monster at the bottom caught hold of his feet and drowned him. Thattyukul’s uncle, Kulnapittyik, went in quest of him, and having tracked him to the pond, put in his long arms and pulled the body out on the bank. He was a great con- jurer and succeeded in bringing his nephew to life again. After a while they both went away to the sky, where Thattyukul became « Aquilze; his uncle was apotheosised as « Capricorni, and his mother-in-law, Yerretgurk, was transformed into « Kridani. SOCIOLOGY OF THE TRIBES OF WESTERN VICTORIA. Within substantially the same region outlined in my account of the Dolgarrity ceremony, infra, the people are bisected, primarily, into two phratries, called Gurogity and Gamaty; the feminine forms of these being Gurogigurk and Gamatygurk respectively.’ Each phratry is again divided into what may be distinguished, provisionally, by the name of “clans” or “ castes,” defined as the because they are not so well ‘sections ’’ of the Ngeumha tribes treated in earlier pages. The names of the clans are taken in some instances from animals, and in others from inanimate nature. Attached to each of these clans are lists of totems, consisting of animals, plants, the heavenly bodies, the elements,andso on. In other words, all creation, animate and inanimate, is divided between Gurogity and Gumaty. . 1 Compare with my description of the “ Group Divisions of the Barkunjee Tribes,’ who adjoin the people herein dealt with on the north.—Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxx11., pp. 241-255, with map of their terri- tory. The Sociology of the Wiradjuri Tribes is given by me in Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, Vol. xxx1., pp. 171-176. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 287 Then the totems of each phratry are apportioned among the clans of which it is composed, some clans possessing a certain aggregate of totems and some another, as illus- trated in the lists farther on. Again, every clan has its own spirit-land, called mi'-yur,’ a native word signifying ‘‘ home”’ or final resting place, to which the shades of all its members depart after death. The names of the miyurs are in all cases identical with the names of the clans. These miyurs are located in certain fixed directions from the territory of the tribe, some being situated toward one point of the compass and some another. Every man knows the direction of all the miyurs of his tribe in addition to his own. The following are the names of the “‘clans’’ into which the phratry Gurogity is subdivided, together with the directions of the miyurs as pointed out to me by some old aborigines, and which I then observed with a compass :— Dyalup, the miyur of which bears W. 5° 8. Birt mirnya, which has the same amplitude as Dyalup. Nyaui, H.10° N. Kuttyaga, the same direction as Nyaui. Burt Wirrimul has a miyur bearing W. 25° S. Wartwurt bears N. 25° W. Wurt-pattyangal, EH. 15° S. The totems of these clans will now be given, following the same order as the names in the last paragraph. First, then, are the totems allotted to Dyalup :—grey emu, por- cupine, curlew, white cockatoo (ngaiuk), wijuggla, wood duck, mallee-lizard (yurkun), stinking turtle (widdyeruk), flying squirrel, ring-tail opossum, bronze-wing pigeon. Burt Murnya, a yam, has the plain-turkey, native cat, mopoke, dyim-dyim owl, mallee-hen, rosella parrot, peewee, all yams. * I first drew attention to these miyurs in my “ Native Tribes of Vic- toria, etc.,” (read March 4, 1904), Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Philadelphia, Vol. xutit., p. 69. 288 R. H. MATHEWS. Nyaui, the sun, has the bandicoot, moon, kangaroo-rat, black and white magpie, opossum, ngurt-hawk, gum-tree grub, wattle-tree grub, planet Venus. Kuttyaga, the white crestless cockatoo, has substantially the same totems as Nyaui. Burt Wirrimal, the white owl, has a number of totems, but I was unable to classify them. Wartwurt is the heat of the sun at noon, and has bui- wurrak or grey-headed eagle-hawk, carpet-snake, smoker parrot, shell parrot, murrakan-hawk, dikkomur snake, ring- neck parrot, mirndai snake, shingle-back lizard. Wurt-pattyangal, or shadow of Pattyangal is related to Wartwurt and Durrimurak. The following are some further totems of Gurogity, but I could not ascertain the castes among which they are apportioned :—quail, mosquito, wallaby, tree iguana, mussel. The names of the clans into which the Gamaty phratry is subdivided, with my compass bearings of the miyurs, are as follow :—Durrimurak, and its miyur N. 15° HK. Wuran, with the same azimuth as Durrimurak. Muiwillak bears N.5° HK. Dyallan, 8. 5° E. Pattyangal has a miyur situ- ated S. 40° W. Wanguguliak,S. 20° EH. Burriwan’s miyur bears N. 40° EK. The totems attached to each of these clans are as under :—Durrimurak has the warrungurra or large turtle, musk duck, black duck, honey, native bee, gatgat bird, ground iguana, death-adder, quandong tree, biergalk tree. The feminine equivalents of any of these clans are obtained by adding gurk to the masculine name. Wuran, the black cockatoo, has dyirkok hawk, pine tree, grey-box tree. Muiwillak, a black snake, has the darker emu, red-gum tree, water-mallee tree, allreeds. Dyallan, a whipsnake, has the swan, dog, water, larger crow, white- ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 289 gum tree, grass parrot, platypus, water-rat or berper, werpal or dark-headed eaglehawk, native companion, wattle-bird or yanggak. Pattyangal, the pelican, has all kangaroos, fire, buiba or non-stinking turtle, brambam- bullak, plover, laughing jackass, « Crucis. Wanguguliak or crow’s men; Wa is crow and guli,a man; the smaller crow belongs to this clan. Burriwan, a hole in the ground or inarock. I could not find any totems of this subdivis- ion, but it is friendly with Muiwillak and Wuran. Other Gamaty totems, which I was unable to assign to their proper castes are :—stringybark tree, wild hop, bull- dog ant, white ant, leech, blackfish, perch, jew lizard, moyntain duck, honey bird. It is unnecessary to state that the foregoing lists of totems, collected by me from the blacks for purposes of illustration, are only some out of a large number. And it is probable that there are other clans attached to each phratry beside those which I have enumerated. It should also be explained that the district in which the totems were obtained is a very large one, and I occasionally found that an animal or plant which belonged to one clan ina certain locality, was claimed by another clan at a different place. In a few instances it was likewise observed that a totem which was Gurogity in a certain portion of the tribal territory was Gamaty in another. The laws of intermarriage of Gurogity and Gamaty, and the descent of the offspring are as exemplified in the sub- joined table :— Husband. Wife. Son. Daughter. Gurogity Gamatygurk Gamaty Gamatygurk ‘ Gamaty Gurogigurk Gurogity Gurogigurk According to the above table, Gurogity and Gamaty intermarry one with the other, but this is subject to the following regulations. Take for example a Gurogity man S—Oct. 5, 1904. 290 R. H. MATHEWS. and his sister; then, the man’s son’s child marries his sister’s son’s child. In this case, which is the general custom, a Gurogity marries a Gamatygurk, in accordance with the table. In some instances, however, the man’s son’s child marries his sister’s daughter’s child, which gives the exceptional custom of a Gurogity marrying a Gurogi- gurk, subject to the totemic regulations. If a Gamaty man and his sister be taken as an example, the same laws will apply, mutatis mutandis. When referring to the origin of the intermarrying divis- ions of Australian tribes in an article read at the Inter- national Congress on Anthropology and Archeology held at Paris in 1900, I stated that I was quite clear that, the system of divisions into sections was not devised for the purpose of preventing consanguineous marriages, but had developed in conformity with the general surroundings.’ In 1897 I stated that “‘ the sectional divisions may have been inaugurated for the purpose of a distinctive nomen- clature among members of the same family, . . . to distinguish the mothers from the daughters, the uncles from the nephews, and the fathers from the sons, in their 992 respective generations. In 1900 I ventured to raise a hypothesis that possibly in the distant past the present names of the sections repre- sented small independent tribes, which became incorporated with each other, for the purpose of mutual defence, or for other reasons.” This theory was promulgated to evoke discussion among the ethnologists of Kurope and America, as to its feasibility or otherwise. On the other hand, the + <« Les Indigénes d’ Australie,” Congrés Internat. d’ Anthrop. et ad’ Archéol. préhistoriques, Compte Rendu, 12 Session, pp. 488 — 495. * «Totemic Divisions of Australian Tribes,” Journ. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. xxx1., (1897) pp. 1660-161. 3 Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. xxxix., p. 564, seg. L’ Anthropologie, Vol. x111., pp: 233 — 240. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SUUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 291 sectional names may have originated from repeated par- titions of larger groups, but this is a controversial point which need not be investigated here. It is shown by the table that the children of both sexes ~ take the phratry name of their mother. This law also extends to the clans; for example, a Dyalupgurk produces Dyalup children. And if she belong to the porcupine totem, her offspring will be porcupines too. Again, the miyur of the progeny has the same name and compass bearing as that of their mother. To sum up the statements in this paragraph—the children take their phratry, clan, totem and miyur from their mother; or what amounts to the same thing, from their mother’s brother. Every individual in the community claims some animal, plant or inanimate object as his own special totem, which he inherits from his mother. But all the totems of his fellow-clansmen are friends of his. For example, if you ask a Wartwurt man what totem he is, he will tell you his own totem, and will then probably go on to enumerate those of his clan. The general law is as just laid down, but there are some irregularities upon which I shall make a few observations. For example, among the Gurogity people, the clans Dyalup and Burt-Murnya are so much alike that they almost merge into each other, and have the same miyur or ancestral home. These remarks apply to Nyaui and Kuttyaga; and among the Gamaty folk the same thing is observed in regard to Durrimurak and Wuran. Moreover, a man who belongs to Dyalup also claims Burt- Murnya, whilst a Burt-Murnya man calls himself Dyalup as well. Between Nyaui and Kuttyaga a similar affinity exists, and also between Durrimurak and Wuran. If ever Wurt-Pattyangal and Pattyangal were in harmony, they now belong to opposite phratries and can marry one with 292 | R. H. MATHEWS. the other. Wurt-Pattyangal has some reciprocity with Wartwurt and Durrimurak; Nyaui with Burt-Murnya; Burt-Wirrimal with Kuttyaga. Muiwillak has affinities with Wartwurt, Dyalup with Wuran. Dyallan and Pattya- ngal are related to each other. The divisions have not reached the stage of development which would enable one clan to marry only into another specified clan, but there is a tendency in that direction. For example, marriages of common occurrence are Wuran with Kuttyaga ; Pattyangal with Wartwurt; Dyalup with Dyallan. Muiwillak is also a favourite clan when betrothals are being arranged by the old men. In order to further emphasize or distinguish the different divisions, the phratries and clans have their own style of painting their bodies and dressing their hair. A very old Gurogity blackfellow on the Wimmera River assured me, some years ago, that he could discern a Gamaty man by his walk. He also gave me to understand that the speech of each clan was slightly divergent. The Wartwurt clan spoke Wereka-tyalli; Muiwillak and Wurt-Pattyangal spoke Béwa-tyalli; Durrimurak and Wanguguliak spoke Yerra- tyalli. He also mentioned Yagwa-tyalli; Yardwa-tyalli, Buiba-tyalli and some others, but could not connect them with any specific clan. Each of the dialects just mentioned are named from their negative adverbs. Werreka, béwa, yerra, yagwa, yardwa, buiba, all mean “‘No.’’ They are all sister tongues of the Tyat-tyalli, agrammar and vocabulary of which I published in 1902, and together constitute one great language over the whole territory referred toin my Dolgarrity Ceremony of Initiation in later pages. +« The Aboriginal Languages of Victoria,’ Journ. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., XXXVI., pp. 71 - L06. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 293 The divisions outlined in the foregoing pages not only pervade all the principal events of a man’s life, but they accompany him into the grave and the land beyond. When a member of a clan dies and is buried, the body is laid horizontally, face upward, with the head placed toward the part of the horizon which leads to the miyur or spirit-land of the clan to which the deceased belonged. These miyurs are divided into the same phratries and clans as the people of the tribe, as explained in previous pages. The spirit of a Gurogity man or woman goes to a Gurogity miyur, anda Gamaty spirit travels away to a Gamaty resting place; this matter being regulated, in both cases, by the geo- graphic position of the spirit-home of his clan. Hach miyur has its fabled watering place. For example, the shades of Dyalup, Burt-murnya and Burt-wirrimal drink at Mumbul. Bial-bial water supplies Muiwillak, Wuran, Durrimurak and Burriwan. Wartwurt drinks at Bummir. Dyallan and Wanguguliak quench their thirst at Dyurnera. In some of these places there is clear, spring water; in others ordinary water-courses; some have greyish water ; whilst others have sea-spray. I forgot to enquire about the mythic watering places of some of the miyurs. The spirits of the dead congregate in the miyurs of their respective clans during their disembodied state, and from there they emerge and are born again in human shape when a favourable opportunity presents itself. See my remarks on the transmigration or reincarnation of souls in later pages of this work, under the head of “‘ Miscel- laneous Superstitions.” When the men go out hunting and catch kangaroos, snakes, opossums, emusand any other game, every animal is cooked with the head pointing to the miyur of its clan. And if dead animals are temporarily laid upon the ground while the hunters are resting themselves on the way 294 R. H. MATHEWS. home to the camp, their heads are turned towards their respective miyurs. A hunter carries weapons made from the wood of each phratry. If he throws at a Gamaty animal, he uses a Gurogity missile, but Gurogity game are killed with Gamaty weapons. Ifa Gurogity animal be the subject of pursuit, and a Gamaty spear has been hurled at it with good aim, without effect, then the hunter concludes either that the game in question was partly or wholly a Gamaty, or that there has been some mistake about the wood of which the Spear was manufactured. Forest kangaroos are usually Gamaty but should one of them be chased by dogs and escape from them, then that particular animal would be considered Gurogity. In the south-western portion of Victoria, along the coast from the Glenelg River to Geelong, and reaching inland approximately to the main dividing range,’ we discover that the phratry names, with their feminine equivalents, are slightly different from those already described, as shown in the following synopsis. The offspring take the phratry, clan and totem of their mother. Gurogity Kappatyar Kappaty Kappatyar Kappaty Gurogit yar Gurogity Gurogityar Everything in the universe is divided between these two phratries. Among the totems of the Gurogity are included the following; Flying squirrel, small squirrel, opossum, pelican, plain turkey, eaglehawk, kurogity (white crestless cockatoo), plover, white cockatoo (ngaiuk), crane, black duck, small night-jar, ironbark, oak, bloodwood, broom, red-gum tree, peppermint tree, white-gum tree, red bull- dog ant, tiger-snake. * For the language of these people, see my “ Native Tribes of Victoria,” Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. xu11I., pp. 54-70; also my “ Language of the Bungandity Tribe, South Auchralis,” Journ. Boy: Soc. N.S.W., Vol. XXXVII., pp. 59 - 74. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 295 The undermentioned are some of the totems of Kappaty; Dog, native cat, forest kangaroo, bat, crow, native com- panion, swan, pelican, black cockatoo, wattle-tree, black- wood, cherry tree, honeysuckle tree, stringybark tree, black bull-dog ant, whipsnake (kirtok), eel, fire, rain, stone tomahawk. Spears, boomerangs, clubs, spear-levers, shields, etc., may belong to either phratry, according to the kind of tree from which they have been cut. This matter is also some- times determined through the owner of the weapon in question. The totemic families belonging to Gurogity and Kappaty are divided into clans or castes, somewhat similar to those in use among the tribes already described, but they are not so numerous or elaborate. It is not, therefore, thought necessary to furnish details of their structure. In the country from Beaufort towards Hexham and Wickliffe, a part of the region we are dealing with, I dis- covered that the names of the phratries had changed— Kuttyaga being substituted for Gurogity and Kirtok for Kappaty—as in the annexed table. The terminal syllables of the male names are modified to suit the feminine suffix and afford a euphonic pronunciation : Kuttyaga Kirtogurk Kirtok Kirtogurk Kirtok Kuttyaragurk Kuttyaga Kuttyaragurk According to this table and the last preceding one, the two phratries intermarry, the one with the other, but the parties to the alliance must have the same relationship to each other as those stated inthe Ngeumba and Wimmera tribes already dealt with. Moreover, a Kappaty sometimes marries a Kappatyar, and a Gurogity marries a Gurogityar, of the proper lineage. These laws are likewise the same as those of the Parnkalla organisation, where the two inter- 296 R. H. MATHEWS. marrying divisions are Maturri and Kirraroo, extending from Port Lincoln to Lake Kyre basin, in South Australia. In describing the marriage laws of the Parnkalla nation in 1900, I showed that ‘‘a man marries the daughter of his father’s father’s sister’s son.’”’ In the same year (1900), I described the limits of the country occupied by the Parn- kalla nation, and supplied a map, which no previous author had attempted, in which the boundaries were accurately delineated.” Likewise in the same year, I described the initiation ceremonies of the Parnkalla nation, including the whole of Lake Hyre basin.’ It must be stated that Rev. ©. W. Schurmann was the first to report the names of the two phratries of the Parnkalla tribe.* He also described the ceremonies of circumcision and subincision. — Kuttyaga, as the reader will remember, is one of the clan names among the tribes north of the dividing range on the Wimmera River and tributaries, and means the white crest- less cockatoo. Gurogity is the name of the same bird among the coast tribes. Kirtok is the equivalent of Dyallan, also a Wimmera clan, both words meaning the whip-snake, in their respective languages. It appears therefore that Kuttyaga and Kirtok have developed into the status of phratries. When Mr. James Dawson was writing his book on the **Australian Aborigines of the Western Districts of Victoria”’ in 1881, at pp. 26—28, he mentions certain divisions of the aborigines who can intermarry. He says, ‘‘ Kuurokeetch (my Gurogity), and Karkpcrapp (my Kurtpirrap), are 1 <«* Marriage and Descent among the Australian Aborigines,” Journ. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. xxxiv., p. 126. 2 « Divisions of the South Australian Aborigines,” Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Philadelphia, Vol. xxx1x., pp. 78 — 93, with map. 5 See my “ Phallic Rites and Initiation Ceremonies of the South Aus- tralian Aborigines,” op. cit., Vol. xxx1x., pp. 622 — 638. + “Aporiginal Tribes of Port Lincoln, South Australia,” (Adelaide, 1846), p.9; and ‘Native Tribes of South Australia,” (Adelaide 1879), p. 222. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND VICTORIA. 297 looked upon as sister classes. It is the same with Kappatch (Kappaty) and Kirtuuk (Kirtok), and no marriage between them is permitted.” In examining his text we find that Kurtpirrap is evidently a division or equivalent of Gurogity, and that Kirtok is an equivalent of Kappaty. In pursuing my ethnological investigations in that district of Victoria I found Mr. Dawson’s statements correct. These tribes, like those in the Wimmera River district, have a Sspirit-home, which is called maioga in some of the dialects, and mung'-o in others. All the clans have the same maidga, which consists of an island a short distance off the coast of Victoria, about half way between Warr- nambool and Portland. The native name of this island is Dhinmar, but it is known on the map as Lady Julia Percy Island. On the shore of the mainland facing the island there are some large rocks, into the base of one of which the ceaseless rolling of the billows has worn a cavelike recess, respecting which the natives have a superstitious belief that it is in some way connected with Dhinmar. Hvery deceased person, when buried, is laid with his head pointing towards this island. His spirit then provides itself with a firebrand, consisting of a piece of dry cherry tree, because this wood emits a peculiar odour whilst burn- ing, which has the power of warding off danger from the bearer. The spectre then proceeds to the shore where the rock is situated, where he divests himself of any clothing or trinkets he may be wearing on his body, and disappears over the intervening sea to Dhinmar. ‘The spirits of all the clans and phratries go to this island, which they occupy in common, the same as they did in their native hunting grounds. There they remain until reincarnated. SOCIOLOGY OF THE TRIBES OF HASTERN VICTORIA. If we assume a line drawn from Geelong through Castle- maine and Pyramid Hill until it meet the Murray River; 298 R. H. MATHEWS. thence up that river to its source in Forest Hill; thence from Forest Hill to Cape Howe; and thence along the sea-coast back to Geelong. Then all the tribes who inhabited the region included approximately within these limits had a marriage system of which I shall now give as full a summary as the space available in this journal will permit. In 1898 I communicated to the Anthropological Society at Washington, U.S.A.,' a short account of the intermarry- ing laws and inaugural ceremonies of these people, but during subsequent journeyings among the remnants of the tribes referred to, evidence has accumulated which enables me now to speak more definitely than was formerly possible. As in all other Australian tribes, marriages are regu- lated by a system of betrothals, which are made by the 3 elders after a child is born, and not infrequently before that event. For example, they wish to determine what woman is the proper wife for a boy A. The old men know who is the father of A, whom we may designate B; from this they find C the father of B, or A’s grandfather in the paternal line.” Next they discuss who was a sister of OC, whom we shall denominate D. Then, a daughter of one of D’s children will be the correct wife for A. That is, a brother’s son’s child mates with a sister’s son’s child.. This is the regular or direct rule of marriage. If ©C’s son’s child be allotted a spouse who is D’s daughter’s child, the result is the marriage which I have tentatively distinguished as “‘ rare,’’ when dealing with the Ngeumba tribes in earlier pages. : 000 600 0°13 MnO oe see O29) 100°51 406 R. W. CHALLINOR. THE APPROXIMATE COLORIMETRIC ESTIMATION oF NICKEL anp COBALT In PRHSENCH oF ONE ANOTHER. By R. W. CHALLINOR. [Communicated by Acting Professor J. A. SCHOFIELD, ¥.1.0., F.0.8., A.B.S.Ma} [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, December 7, 1904.] Maumené about 1851 appears to have first observed that the colours of solutions of Ni and Co are complementary, his experiment being quoted by Rudolph Wagner in 1854.’ Dr. OC. Winkler in 1866° published a method, founded on Maumené’s observation, for the colorimetric estimation of Ni and Co, but the method does not seem to have been used, probably owing to his experiments being few in num- ber and the method somewhat complicated. Dr. Wolcott Gibbs* made use of the complementary colours of the Ni and Co solutions, to remove the colour from a solution of either metal when testing for Mn in its presence by the PbO, and HNO, method. W. Gould Leison* also used the same method to avoid the colour interference when estimating Ni or Co by titra- ting the oxalates with KMnO,. J. Shtiller® estimated Ni in Ni steels by removing iron and comparing the Ni solution with a Ni solution of known Ni content. Hestates that steel containing under 1% Ni gives too faint a colour for estimation by this method. + Journal fiir Practische Chemie, 61, 129. ® Loc. cit., 97, 414. $ Amer. Journ. Sci., Series 2, Vol. x111., p. 204. * Chemical News, Vol. xxu1., p. 210. 5 Chem. Zeit., 1897, xx1., pp. 248 - 244. COLORIMETRIC ESTIMATION OF NICKEL AND COBALT. 407 Dr. Winkler used solutions of various strengths and various salts, and assumed in all cases that the colour imparted by one part by weight of cobalt neutralizes that given by three parts by weight of nickel. His maximum error is ‘0052 gram of either metal in °34 gram of the mixed metals or about 1°57, but his experiments were not very numerous. The method described in the following pages, which differs somewhat from that employed by Dr. Winkler, was adopted as the result of a number of preliminary experi- ments and observations, some of which will be mentioned in order to better follow its development. The tubes used for comparing the colours of the solutions (except those with MacMillan’s apparatus) were Nessler tubes of 50 cc. capacity, the height from 0 to 50 cc. mark being 10°9 cm., placed side by side on a glass plate over a white paper reflector inclined at an angle of 45°. The colours were observed by looking down through the solutions. Preliminary Experiments. To observe the effect of dilution on the colours of the nickel and cobalt solutions with the object of finding the most suitable strengths to use; two solutions, one twice the strength of the other, were placed side by side in tubes and viewed vertically, so that the colour seen was due to the same weight of metal in each tube. A number of experiments showed that in each case the more dilute solution appeared if anything a little lighter in colour than the other. (i.e. with solutions containing about ‘1 gm. to °3 gm. of metal in 50 cc.) In another series, two solutions containing the same weight of metal in each were used; to one water was added 5 cc. ata time till it was 10 times more dilute than the other, the two being compared after each addition of water, with the result that the dilute solution always appeared a trifle paler in tint than the stronger one. 408 R. W. CHALLINOR. A series of trials were also made with MacMillan’s colour testing apparatus. This apparatus is devised for the deter- mination of carbon in steels (Eggertz test) and consists of two tubes with reservoir tops into which slide two smaller tubes, enclosed ina wooden box and supported over an opal reflector. The standard solution and solution to be examined are placed respectively in the larger tubes, and the smaller tubes are lowered till they rest on the bottom; when viewed vertically they now appear white. The standard tube is then raised till a suitable tint is obtained and is clamped, the other tube is likewise raised till the tint is the same as standard and also clamped. A vertical scale between the tubes shows the relative depths of the columns of liquid which give the same colour and from this the amount of carbon is calculated. Some 22 standard solutions containing different propor- tions of nickel and cobalt in 10 cc. were prepared with the idea that if the solution under examination was first of all matched in colour with one of these standards and then compared with it in the apparatus as above mentioned, the amounts of nickel and cobalt present could be calculated. After comparing about 20 of the standard solutions with each other, under various conditions, the idea was abandoned as the results were far from satisfactory, owing chiefly to the variety of colours produced when nickel and cobalt solutions are mixed in different proportions. Other experiments showed that when cobalt and nickel solutions are added to each other a neutral tint is produced, and the change in colour near this tint is found to be sharpest when the total weight of nickel and cobalt in 50 cc. of solution, using these particular tubes, is not more than ‘05 gram., and that at this strength dilution does not appear to affect the colour of either nickel or cobalt solution separately. COLORIMETRIC ESTIMATION OF NICKEL AND COBALT. 409 As it is proposed to apply the method of estimation to the mixed metals deposited by electrolysis and nitric acid is the most suitable solvent, nitrate solutions of both cobalt and nickel were prepared and used in the subsequent experi- ments; it is also assumed in all cases that the sum of the weights of Ni and Co present are known. The measuring vessels used in the preparation of Ni(NOs). and Co(NO;). solutions of accurate strength were all cali- brated at 15° C. Preparation of Solutions. Ni precipitated by electrolysis from Co free NiSO. (Kahl- baum’s) Co first precipitated as cobaltinitrite from Co(NOs). which was found to contain a trace of Ni, followed by solu- tion in H.SO., addition of NH.OH and (NH.).SO. and electrolysis. The precipitated metals were dissolved in HNO,, evapor- ated over waterbath almost to dryness, dissolved in water and diluted to definite volume. Ni(NO;). = solution 2°7366 grams of Ni in 234°7 cc. water °01166 grams of Ni in 1 cc. water N : Co(NO;)e = solution °6973 grams of Co in 119°07 cc. water. °005856 grams of Co in 1 cc. water. Standard. The preliminary experiments showed °05—°06 gm. of the mixed metals to be the maximum amount permissible in solution to produce a suitable neutral tint, stronger solu- tions were of a drab tint and prevented a sharp change being noticed. The solution of standard tint was made as follows :— 410 R, W. CHALLINOR. Oo(NO,)2 solution placed in nessler glass and Ni(NO,), run in till it was quite free from pink or green colour. Thus 2°56 cc. Co solution = °015 grams = 23°45% Oo required 4°2 ,, Ni - = °04897 ,, = 76RaeRa °06397 It was then diluted to 50 ce. The method used in the first series of determinations was as follows:—A solution containing a known weight of the mixed metals as nitrates was given, colour noted, and if necessary it was diluted to a definite volume and a measured quantity taken, so that after titration the total weight of mixed metals in solution would be about the same as that in the solution of standard tint. The nickel or cobalt solution of known strength was then added from a burette till the colour was nearly neutralised, then diluted to 50 ce. in the nessler tube, and finally brought to same tint as standard by the addition of more nickel or cobalt as required; they now contained as nearly as possible the same proportion of nickel and cobalt, and since the amounts are known for the standard solution they may be calculated for the other. Example Weight of mixed metals in solution given = °05835 gm. Oolour—pale green Volume of Co(NO;). solution required to bring it to the standard tint = ‘45 cc. = *00263 gm. Co Total mixed metals in 50 cc. = *06098 gm. The standard contained 76°55? Ni "06098 x 76°55 _ . 7 100 = -°04668 Ni Ni + Co = °05835 Ni found = *04668 Oo = 01167 COLORIMETRIC ESTIMATION OF NICKEL AND COBALT. 41] Given Found HKrror Ni = °04664 °04668 + °00004 Co = (OLLI °01167 — °00004 FIRST SERIES. Mixed NiorCoadded | Total pe ta metals Colour oes Given Found Error jon weight Grams ce. Grams | Grams eres 1} :05835 |greenish| °45 Co|00268 | :06098) Ni-04.664/"04668 |+ -00004 r ‘07 Co°01171)'01166 | — -00004 \. 2) 05208 | bright Ni°01982}:02043 |+ -0006 | ) jet + taken pink]3°55 Nij-04.139 | -06741/Co°08221|'0316 |— 0006 § 3} °05016 | pale 1-4 Co}'0082 | -05836/Ni:04431):04467 |+ -00036 \ 79 green Oo °00585|'00549 | - -00036 4) °02922 pink {2°85 Nij-03323 | :06245| Ni:01457/01457 “0000 \ -00 Co'01464/-01464 “0000 5| *05078 green |1°95Co|'01142 | 06115) Ni -04781|:04758 | — -00023 95 + 5cc. 16/E. HNO, Co*00293}'00315 | + 00023 Maximum error (No. 2) ‘0006 gm. in 052 grams = 1:1% In the subsequent experiments the solutions used were made ofa slightly different strength so that in colour effect one cc. of each were approximately equivalent to one another. Nickel Solution. Kahlbaum’s Co free NiSO., electrolysed under the usual conditions and the precipitated Ni dissolved in HNO,, evaporated almost to dryness on water bath and diluted to the required bulk. It contained : 2°7449 grams Ni in 274°49 cc. distilled water O01 ee Ni ii Opec: Ae Cobalt Solution. Kahlbaum’s Ni free CoSQO:, electrolysed and the precipi- tated Co dissolved in HNO;, evaporated almost to dryness on water bath and diluted to required bulk. It contained 2°0156 grams Co in 671°86 cc. °003 wor Com 1h ace; R. W. CHALLINOR. Solution of Standard Tint. 4 cc. Co solution = *012 grams = 24% Co required 3°8 cc. Ni | = "038 ¢ jj)? =e °050 Diluted to 50 ce. SECOND SERIES. : Yi or Co addec Total Percent- Lae Colour J car metals in Given Found Error on eralghe grams = _ Raha of mixed ce. Grams ” metals 1) -05 pink | Ni-032 |-03152| — cena 4 = } taken 1°35 0135 Ni "0385 | Co‘018 (-01848/ + -00048 2) 05 ‘light 2°5 "0075 Co |0575 | Ni-044 |-0437 | - -0003 ; 6 | | green Co -066 0063 | +-0003 ‘0501 | green 2°9 °0087 Co |0588 | Ni-045 04469} - 0003 } 6 | | Co 0051 |-00541 | + -0003 4, 05085 | green 4°65 01395 Co 06430 | Ni 0490-04887 | — -00013} | 96 | Co -00135 |-00148 | + -00013] J 5 05 ~—|_ pink Ni -Oi4 01352 |— -00048)) 94 } taken | 2°55 "0255 Ni 0380 | Co -036 |-03648 | + 00048 6 °042 | pink | ‘97/0097 Ni 0517 | Ni -03 ‘0296 | — ‘0004 |) ‘95 | | Co 012 0124 |+-0004 | ¢ 7, 044 | green 1°75 -00525Co0/04925 | Ni ‘038 |-0374 |- -0006 136 | | Co 006 0066 | +-0006 Maximum error (No. 7) = ‘0006 gm. in °044 gm. = 1:36% Kffect of free HNO, on the Colour. A number of experiments showed that the presence of much free HNO; had a decided influence on the colour of solution. The results of those given below show the maxi- mum amount which may be present without affecting the colour. Ni and Co solutions were mixed in the same proportion as that required to produce standard tint, diluted to 20 cc. with distilled water and compared with each other, then to one was added 16 EK. HNOs, 1 cc. at a time, to the other the same quantity of distilled water and again compared after each addition, with the following results: COLORIMETRIC ESTIMATION OF NICKEL AND COBALT. 413 Aqueous HNO, Solution. Solution. Result. H,O added |HNO, added 20: ce. |20cc. water! identical tints 1 1cc.HNO3| no apparent difference 2 2 Fe ditto 5 3 Pe ditto 4, 4, “5 ditto 5 5 m P 6 6 - a doubtful difference % 7 a a very faint pinkish tint 8 8 oS more pronounced pinkish tint 9 9 mp a faint pink 10 10 SS ditto, more marked 15 15 6 faint pink still more marked From these results it appears that the presence of more than 5 cc. strong HNOs in the solution would have a decided influence on the estimation. The next series of experiments were carried out under conditions similar to those which would be used in actual practice. The given nitrate solutions were evaporated over water- bath with concentrated H.SO., to get rid of HNO, diluted with water, (NH,.),SO. and excess of NH.OH added, and solution electrolysed under usual conditions without any particular care, since the method used is only an approxi- mateone. The precipitated metals were dissolved in HNO, evaporated to pastiness, diluted to definite bulk and a pro- portion taken for estimation. The following table shows the results :— Mixed Metals Ni or Co added Total Percent- S Colo —————— at mets in} Given Found Error Sia eiel a Given Bees oy ce. Grams ee ot nixed i) -1O10 "1001 pink Ni ‘050 04967 | — :0003 ; q taken 2°75 |0275 Ni|05253 | Co :051 |05043 | — 00057) ¢ - 2| 1185 | 1176 | drab | dituted |to 50 ce. this Ni-09 -08938 | + -00062 3 taken ' |0588 | Co :0285 "02822 |— -00028} | - 3} °1010 1006 | pink Ni :050 |:04838 | - -00162| 1- z taken 2°925 |02925 Ni/0544 | Co -051 |°05222 | + :00122 vale 4} °1000 "0996 | green Ni -085 08459 | - :0004 % taken 1°95 [00585 Co)05565 | Co -015 |-01501 | + -00001) | - 5| ‘072 072 green| 1°15 |:00345C0o0|"03945 | Ni -06 = |-05996 |— -00004. 4 taken Co ‘012 |01204 | + 00004 Maximum error (No. 3) 00162 gm. in ‘101 gm. = 16%. es oa. ¥ 2 ‘ 414 R. W. CHALLINOR, Reference to the preceding tables of results shows that when the solution was green the errors were as a rule smaller than when it was pink. The reason is obvious, assuming that the change in colour near the neutral point is equally sharp when equal volumes of either Ni or Co solutions are added. When the Co solution is used only one third of the weight of metal is being added as would be added if the same amount of Ni solution were used. To further test this, another series of experiments were tried with varying qnantities of Ni and Oo. excess of Ni being added till the solution was pale green, it was then diluted to a definite volume and a portion taken and titrated back with Co solution to the neutral tint. The results are shown in the following table :— SERIES I.—Adding known excess of Nickel if necessary. Ni added | A known |Mixed metals} to give | Total ne ones Percent- No. and | given green |Nit+Co standard. | 50ce. Given Found Error age error Colour | colour. on weight of a Grams Grams Grams Grams Grams . Grams Grams ine a SS. 1 ‘05 18 23 11 ce. Ni ‘005 00484 - ~ 00016 3 pink | } taken ='0033 |'0608 | Co 045 | 04516) +° cease 2 | -049 | 08 | -129| Bee. | Ni 025 | -02584)+-0003 |) 6 pink | } taken ~ -0024. |03465 | Co -024 | 02366! - 0003 | $ 3 ‘0505 "02 =| :0705 ‘6 ce. | Ni ‘037 | -03632) - ‘00068 }1 35 pink = ‘0018 |03705 | Co ‘0135 -01418| + :00968 4 ‘05 ‘05 26 ce. Ni '0495) -04985| + -0003 | 2 6 green | } taken = -0078 0328 | Co G05) -00015| - -0003 | § 5 "0221 °0221 1°4 cc. 0263 | Ni -02 ‘02001 fe ‘00001 ; 05 green = 0042 Co 0021) 00209] - -00091 : 6 ‘041 “055 ‘096 "45 Cec. Ni ‘02 ‘02001 | + 00001 a ‘02 pink | 4 taken 00135 | 04935 | Co ‘021 | 02099) - -00001| $ Maximum error (No. 3) ‘UU068 gm, in ‘0505 gm. = 1°3%, SERIES ITI.—Adding known excess of Nickel. fixed metarel ME**4| potay | C2 Feauired | Total 2epnt No, and | — "| ppd ey Ni + Co sodinn that Pane 25) Taken Found Error |» weight Colour. | lene of mixed | ; ° metals Grams Grams Grams Grams | Grams Grams Grams Grams taken 1 ‘031 ‘O07 "101 | Co'021 |'02105 | + 00005 16 pink 3 taken '°0505 | 0021 {0526 |Ni-‘01 ‘00995 | — -00005 | "022 | Co'021 = |°02095|- 00005 2 | |3+taken| ‘045 | 056 ‘0039 |°0599 |Ni‘001 |:00105 | +°00005 a pink ) |the other Co'021 |°02099 | - -00001 ae ( half "037 | 048 ‘00135 |'04935 |Ni‘001 |:00101 | +°00001 5 ‘01715 Co‘01665)°01656 | — -00009 53 3 | 3 taken! ‘034 | 04257, 00255 |-04513 |Ni-0005 |-00059 | + 00009 a pink; |e other 0°01665)|'01675 | + *00014 ‘8 half ‘033 |-04157 -0021 |:04367 |Ni-0005 |-00396 | — 00014 ' "02555 | Co *02505)*02486 | — nae ” 4]|/3taken| ‘044 | :05677 ‘00158 |-05835 |Ni-0005 |:00069 | + ‘00019 oa | the other -10°02505|:0249 |— 00015 i 6 half 05 =| °06277 -00345 | 06622 |Ni°0005 |:00065! + - -00015| Maximum error (No. 3) 00014 gm. in ‘01715 gm. = 8%. COLORIMETRIC ESTIMATION OF NICKEL AND COBALT. 415 In the above experiments the solution under examination was compared with a standard containing about the same total weight of nickel and cobalt, selected from a series of various total nickel and cobalt contents, e.g. °03 gm, °04 gm, ‘05 gm, ‘06 gm, °07 gm in 50 cc., in the proportion of 76 % Ni to 24% Co. The results are more uncertain when the amount of nickel present is as low as 1%. The large proportion of cobalt necessitates the addition of a correspondingly large amount of Ni before titration; the amount of metals originally taken must therefore be about ‘01 gm. (see No. 6 in table) in order that the total weight of metals permissible (about °05 gm.) in 50 ce. of solution is not exceeded. The following table gives the results of experiments on solutions containing approximately 997 Co and 1% Ni. :— ‘Ni added Co required Total (| Percent- |Mixed metals} to give Total to match | metals in | age error No. taken Breen Ni+ Co standardtint| 50 cc. Taken Found Error ee welent 5 metals Grams Grams Grams Grams Grams Grams Grams Grams taken 5 | 05045 | Zused| °025225 | :0895 |'114725 Co :04995 |:05096 | + :00101 9 again |halved|"057362 | ‘C0135 |°05871 Ni ‘0005 |:00051 |~ °00101 \ 5a | (05045 | °0895 |:114725 Co 04995 |'05048 | + -0005 1 halved|'05736 | 0015 °05886 Ni ‘0005 |-00003 |- -0005 5b | °05045 Co :04995 |'04884 | — -00111 \ 2 Zused| 01261 | ‘043 |05561 | °0015 "05711 Ni-0005 |-00161 | + 00111 Co °01005 |:00997 | — :00008 } ‘8 6 701015 | 034 |04415 | -000825 | 044975 Ni -0001 |-00018 | + :00008 / Co °01005 |:01022 | + :00017 1 6a | 01015 | 086 |-04615 | -001125 | 047275 Ni -0001 |-00007 | - :00017 ‘ t "0203 078 |:09838 | Co °0201 |-01972 | -— -00088} } 1:9 halved|'04915 | °00255 | -0517 Ni ‘0002 |-00058 | + -000388 7a | °0208 "078 = |°0983 Co °0201 |:02017 | + ‘09007 +35 halved|'04915 | -00225 |:0514 'Ni ‘0002 |-00013!—-— ‘00007 The method finally recommended is as follows :— Solutions required— Standard Ni (NO;). solution containing ‘01 gm. Ni in 1 ce. eto (NO »)s i ne "003 ,, Co in 1 ce. Standard solutions of neutral tint containing various total weights of Ni and Co (in the proportion of 76% Ni to 24% Co) moO CC. €.9., 416 R. W. CHALLINOR. °04 gm. standard, Take of standard Ni solution 3°04 cc. = *0304 gm. Ni 9 9 Co 9 a2 cc. = 70086 9 Co 04 ‘05 gm. standard. Standard Ni solution 3°8 cc. = ‘038 gm. Ni “A Co “ 4 ce. >= O12 Se 05 ‘06 gm. standard. Standard Ni solution 4°56 cc. = *0456 gm. Ni. = D7 5 4°8 cc. = °0144 |. Ca: ‘06 Dilute each to 50 cc. After obtaining the weight of the two metals deposited electrolytically, dissolve in HNO; (16 E. HNO, diluted with an equal volume of water) by heating gently on hot plate, in a covered beaker. Evaporate nearly to dryness, take up in water and dilute to a known volume. (a) If the solution is green (indicating the presence of more than 76% Ni), take an aliquot portion containing from *04 — °05 gm, of the mixed metals, and add standard Co (NOs). from a burette till the colour (after diluting to 50 cc. mark) matches that of the standard solution containing the nearest total weight of mixed metals. (b) If the solution is pale pink (indicating more than 24 Co) take about ‘02 gm., and if decided pink about ‘01 gm., add a measured excess of standard Ni (NOs). solution till of a faint green colour and then standardCo(NO,), and match with standard solution as before. After calculating the weight of Ni present in this solution, deduct the amount of added Ni and this gives the weight of Ni in the portion of solution taken. The above proportions are for 50 cc. Nessler tubes 10°9 cm. high from 0 to 50 cc. mark. . COLORIMETRIC ESTIMATION OF NICKEL AND COBALT. 417 If after titrating, the final weights of mixed metals present differ largely from those in the standard neutral solutions, repeat on a fresh portion so that the weight of mixed metals in each solution is approximately the same. EKxample. Weight of Ni + Co in solution == A) fail. Colour—pink Diluted to 50 ce. 25 cc. taken = ‘011 gm. Ni+ o Standard Ni (NOs). solu- ) tion added to give > =3°7 ce = 037 gm. Ni green colour ) Standard Co (NO;). solu- ) tion required to bring | _ . cater, to standard neutral AED OB) SAND pitts (Cd tint ——— Total metals in 50 cc. = °04935 gm. Ni + Co Then 76% of °04935 is Ni. °049385 xX 76 _ ip, : Ni added = °037 Ni in the 25 cc. of solution taken = °00051 i BeeoO CC; “A a = *00102 gm. Co + Ni = °022 gm. Niu = 001027, Co = °02098 ,, Probably increase of accuracy would be obtained if a colorimeter were used in which the colours to be compared could be brought into juxtaposition. In conclusion I desire to express my warmest thanks to Professor Schofield for pointing out this work and also for the kindly interest he has shown during the course of these experiments. Aa—Dec. 7, 1904. 418 J. W. HOGARTH. NOTE on A COMBINED WASH-BOTTLE anp PIPETTE. By J. W. HoGARTH. (Communicated by Acting Professor J. A. SCHOFIELD, F.C.S., A.R.S.M.) [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 7, 1904. ] DURING some chemical work in which it was desirable to dissolve a precipitate, with which the work was concerned, in a known volume of acid, the want was felt of a vessel possessing the combined advantages of a measuring vessel and wash-bottle. It was not originally intended to have devoted a separate article to the description of the apparatus which is described below, but because the work for the time being has been stopped, it was deemed advisable to now make mention of the vessel. Ordinarily when it is wished to dissolve or wash a precipitate with a known volume of solution, a measured quantity of the hot or cold liquid is poured into the filter containing the substance to be dissolved or washed, in which manner it is not possible to stir up the precipitate and thereby offer as large a sur- face as possible to the action of the solution, consequently more liquid has to be used than is necessary to bring about the desired change; this excess of solution in some cases may be objectionable. If the liquid be delivered from a wash-bottle the objections to a great extent are obviated, but the volume of liquid used cannot conveniently be arrived at, especially when the filtrate has to be quantitatively treated, because any extra operation tends to introduce errors into the analysis. The apparatus of which the following is a description was designed to overcome the above objections. COMBINED WASH-BOTTLE AND PIPETTE. 419 The measurements given are those of the actual apparatus made for use. Vessel a which is of thin glass 13°3 cm. long and 1°4 cm. wide, is graduated in cubic centimetres and fractions thereof, tube b is 5 mm. in diameter and 13°3 cm. long from junction at top of a to the bottom where it just enters c, (to bring b out more clearly for the purpose of photographing, it was partly filled with coloured liquid). Tube g is sealed on to a, and is connected to the lower extremity of f by a piece of stout rubber tubing. To use the vessel, rod d is slightly raised, the watertight joint at d’ where rod d is ground into e, is thereby. broken, air is blown from the mouth through the rubber connected to h, which is in direct communication with the air of flask only, 420 J. W. HOGARTH. until the level of liquid rises to the desired mark in a, rod dis then released, when it is automatically forced back into position by the rubber e which is stretched from the disc on d to the out-turned edge of a short glass tube through which d passes. This liquid is then delivered in the ordinary way by blowing into f, as soon as the liquid in a falls to the curved tube c liquid ceases to pass up Db. The vessel which was of 15 cc. capacity, delivered any desired volume within that limit to +4cc. Fig. 2 shows the apparatus as it fits in an ordinary flask. As far as can be ascertained this apparatus has not elsewhere been described. The author here takes the opportunity of tendering=his thanks to Acting Professor Schofield for the interest shown and encouragement that he has often given him, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE Royal Society of Hew South Wales. ABSTRACT OF PROCKEDINGS, MAY 4, 1904. —_—— The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Hlizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, May 4th, 1904. Act. Prof. F. B. GUTHRIE, F.I.C., F.C.S., President, in the Chair. Fifty members were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The following Financial Statement for the year ended dist March, 1904, was presented by the Hon. Treasurer, and adopted :— GENERAL ACCOUNT. RECEIPTS. LYsse id: Cees aecce One Guinea... oe ais (7h al Oo) oe Two Guineas ... an ... 380014 O Subscriptions Arrears... Re ee, ee 65 18 4 Advances an Bo sth ay Bs — 507 16 4 Parliamentary Grant on Subscriptions received— Vote for 1903-1904 ... was ae eo OOm Onno —-——_— 500) 0730 Rent... as Bi aoe aa oes ae -“ ioe 4415 O Sundries... bee soe = Je Ren ide te 20 14 9 Clarke Memorial Fund ... a Ries Ree ant ee COMM OMG Total Receipts ae rine sei soar UBiGy Mo dt Balance on Ist April, 1903 ee ao: ane 60 eae 819 8 £1382 5 9 lv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. PAYMENTS. Advertisements Assistant Secretary Books and Periodicals Bookbinding Conversazione Expenses at Meetings Freight, Charges, Packing, koe Furniture and Effects Gas ... a Housekeeper Insurance Interest on Morkenee Office Boy ... Petty Cash enaneee Postage and Duty Stamps Printing Printing ¢ fan Publishing Bpanal Printing Extra Copies of Papers Rates Repairs Stationery ... Sundries Total Bavasbate Building and Investment Fund, Composition for Life Membership Clarke Memorial Fund—Loan Sani Interest to date i Printing and Advertising ... Bank Charges = Balance on 3lst March, 1904, VizZ.:— Cash in Union Bank... Cash in hand... bo We} _ on =i 283 12 1 nr or) SCNOCOCHBSOCBHBSCRHBOCOSOCSCBABHWOwnPrP ome ——— 1042 15 9 300 0 O oO a ~T lor) 10 0 0 -— 10 15 10 £1382 5 9 BUILDING AND INVESTMENT FUND. RECEIPTS. Loan on Mortgage at 4% Composition for Life Membership & ed 1400 0 O 21 0-0 £1421 0 O ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Vv. PAYMENTS. a Pa | Advance to General Account 3lst March, 1897 ee meg S026 Deposit in Government Savings Bank, March 31st, 1904 ... 21 0 0 Balance 31st March, 1904 aes ee bes Ade ee NSBOIIO 6 LI4A2T OO CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND. RECEIPTS. easy Vas Amount of Fund, 31st March, 1903 5a Bees Be: son GB Interest to 31st March, 1904 Se A we es foo. li ZS Deposit in Savings Bank of New South Wales, March 31,1904 236 9 5 Deposit in Government Savings Bank, March 31, 1904 Me 288" OG £469 9 11 AUDITED AND FOUND CORRECT, AS CONTAINED IN THE Books or Accounts. TAGVOIIDS HB IEG Gea Mos, ot aces acses cients T. TYNDALL PETERSON, a.s.1.a. Syvpyev, 18th April, 1904. D. CARMENT, F.1.a., F.F.A. Honorary Treasurer. W. H. WEBB, Assistant Secretary. ; Honorary Auditors. A vote of thanks was passed to the Hon. Auditors, viz., Mr. Davin FELL, c.a.A., and Mr. T. TYNDALL PETERSON, A.S.I.A., for their services. Mr. W. A. DIXON, F.I.c., F.C.S., and Mr. W. J. MAc- DONNELL, F.R.A.S., were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. W. M. HAMLET, F.I.C., F.C.S., deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. Before the ballot for the election of Officers and Council was proceeded with the question was raised as to whether members voting were compelled to vote for the whole number of members of Council required. After considerable discussion it was resolved that any ballot paper bearing more or less than the required number (ten) for the Council be treated as informal. Vi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. A ballot having been taken, the following gentlemen were declared duly elected Officers and Members of Council for the current, year :— President: Cc. O. BURGE, M. Inst. C.E. Vice-—-Presidents: W. M. HAMLET, F.1.c., F.c.s. Prof. WARREN, M. Inst. C.E., Wh.Sce. Prof. LIVERSIDGE, tut.p., F.R.s. | Act.Prof.F.B.GUTHRIBE,¥.1.c.,F.¢.s. Hon. Treasurer: D. CARMENT, ¥.1.A., F.F.A. Hon. Secretaries: J. H. MAIDEN, F.u.s. | Act. Prof. G. H. KNIBBS, F.B.A.s. . Members of Council: S. H. BARRACLOUGH, B.z., u.m.z.| F. H. QUAIFE, m.a., uv. Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, 8.4., v.8.8s. | H. C. BUSSEDLL, B.A., ¢:0-G. Fee: T. F. FURBER, F RAS. HENRY G. SMITH, r.c.s. WA. LEINMEAN. once WALTER SPENCER, mp. CHARLES MOORE, F.x.8-s. J. STUART THOM The certificates of three candidates were read for the third time, and of seven for the first time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society, viz:— Adams, William John, m.t. mech. &, 163 Clarence-street. Jaquet, John Blockley, A.R.S.M., F.G.S., Acting Chief Inspector of Mines, Geological Surveyor, ‘Cromer,’ 91 Phillip-street. Jenkins, R. J. H., Fisheries Commissioner, ‘ Pyalla,’ 13a Selwyn Street, Moore Park. The Chairman announced that the Officers and Committee of the Engineering Section had been elected for the ensuing Session : SECTIONAL COMMITTEES—SEsSION 1904. Section K.—Engineering. Chairmau—S. H. Barraclough, M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst, C.E. Hon. Secretary—J. Haydon Cardew, Assoc. M, Inst. C.E. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Vil. Committee—C. O. Burge, M. Inst. C.E G. R. Cowdery, Assoc. M. Inst.C.E., J. Davis, M. Inst. C.E, Henry Deane, M.A., M.Inst.c.E., T. H. Houghton, M. Inst. C.E., M. I, Mech. E., R. T. McKay, c.u., J. N. C. MacTaggart, B.&., Herbert E. Ross, P. W. Shaw, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E,, J. Taylor, B.Sc, A.R.S.M. Past Chairmen, ez officio Members of Committee for three years :—Norman Selfe, M. Inst. C.E., J. M, Smail, M. Inst. 0.E., H. G. McKinney, M. Inst. C.E. SECTION MEETINGS. ENGINEERING—In place of the customary monthly meeting, two or more Sessions ex- tending over at least two nights each, will be held on dates to be announced later. It is hoped to devote each Session to the discussion of a single subject. The subject chosen for the first Session is :—‘‘ Technical and Industrial Education in Australia.’’ Ninety-two volumes, 644 parts, 44 reports and 69 pam- phlets, total 849, received as donations since the last meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged. The following letter was received from Mr. A. W. HowiIrTT, F.G.S., acknowledging the award of the Clarke Memorial Medal :— Eastwood, Bairnsdale, 28th March, 1904. The Hon. Secretaries, the Royal Society of N. S. Wales. Dear Sirs,—I beg to acknowledge your letter of the 18th instant, con- veying to me the information that the Council of the Royal Society had awarded me the Clarke Memorial Medal in recognition of the scientific work which I have done. Please to convey to your Council the deep sense which I have of the great honour which they have done me, and my profound gratification at the kindly feeling entertained for me by them. I greatly prize the medal which accompanied your letter and which will remain a valued heirloom in my family. I remain, dear Sir, yours faithfully, (Signed) A. W. HOWITT. The Hon. Secretary (Prof. KNiIBBs) stated that he had been in communication with Monsieur Louis Nettement, late Acting Consul-General for France, who had very kindly - promised to donate to the Royal Society’s library a number of valuable reports in connection with the French Hxhibi- tion. It was unanimously agreed that the best thanks of the Society be conveyed to the Consulate for the generous gift. The Chairman said he had the pleasure to announce that the Lecture Committee had made arrangements for the Vill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. delivery of the following course of Science Lectures during the present Session, viz.:— POPULAR SCIENCE LECTURES. A series of popular Science Lectures will be delivered at the Society’s House, on the fourth Thursday in each month at 8 p.m., as follows :—(See exception *) June 23rd—‘‘ The Distribution of Life in Australasia,’’ by Charles Hedley, F.u.s., Aus- tralian Museum, Sydney. July 28th—‘‘ The Fabrie of the Universe,’’ by G. H. Knibbs, F.R.4.s., etc., Acting Pro- fessor of Physics, University of Sydney.* Aug. 25th—Conversazione (if practicable). Sept. 22nd—‘‘ The Solar System and Southern Sky,’ by H. A. Lenehan, F.R.A.8., etc., Acting Government Astronomer, Sydney Observatory. Oct. 27th—‘‘ The Nervous System in its Genesis and Development,’ by Dr. J. Froude Flashman, M.D., Honorary Lecturer in Psychological Medicine and Neurology, University of Sydney, Director of the Pathological Laboratory of the Lunacy Department. Nov. 24—‘* The Steam Engine and its Modern Rivals,”’ by S. H. Barraclough, 8.E. (Sydney) M.M.E. (Cornell); Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.; Lecturer in Mechanism and Applied Thermodynamics, University of Sydney. * This lecture will be delivered in the Physics Lecture Theatre of the University. Professor F. B. GUTHRIE, F.I.C., F.C.S., then delivered the Presidential Address, and afterwards vacated his seat. The President, in the course of his address, said that the balance sheet showed that the Society was in a fairly flourishing condition; last year the Society exchanged its journal with 431 kindred societies, receiving in return 328 volumes, 1,729 parts, 207 reports, etc. The number of members on the roll on April 30th, 1903, was 344. During the year 22 new members had been elected; deaths num- bered 6, and resignations 13, leaving a total of 347 to date. A resumé was given of the condition of chemistry and chemists in the State. Of the teaching institutions, the University made ample provision for teaching chemistry; about 300 students were in attendance at lectures, and about 150 doing practical work in the laboratories. Within the last five years a well-equipped metallurgical and assay- ing laboratory had been erected where students received a complete course of instruction, including assaying and technical analysis and bulk treatment of ores. There were also the Technical College, the Mint, the Departments ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 1X. of Mines and Agriculture, Customs, and Explosives, and classes at the Hawkesbury College. Details were then supplied of the work done years ago, by the first Govern- ment Analyst, Mr. James Smith Norrie (1844 — 1871), then by his successor Mr. Charles Watt (1872 — 1886), and finally by the present occupant of the office, Mr. W. M. Hamlet. Finally there were manufacturing firms like Elliott Bros. and the Colonial Sugar Refining Company. In all, there were actually employed as chemists the following :—96 engaged in manufacture, 143 in analytical work, and 50 in metallurgical work, or 289 altogether. This was not a very large number, but it was likely to increase indefinitely. In proportion as existing industries became more robust, and new ones started, the need for scientifically-trained men would increase, and just in proportion as the importance of science was recognised in regard to these industries, so they would flourish. At the present time those who made their livelihood by chemical work laboured under serious disabilities, the principal of which was the absence of any recognised chemical qualification. It should be possible for those who employed chemists to be able to insist upon a certain qualification which would ensure competency, but at present there was no standard in existence here. In Victoria, they had put forward a scheme which contem- plated the granting of certificates either by the Govern- ment or by a private examining body. In Continental countries every chemist was obliged to pass a stringent examination. In England the disadvantages accruing from the absence of qualification were so seriously felt that an Institute of Chemistry was started some years ago. This institute had its branches, and its branch examinations. The suggestion was put forward before the evil assumed greater dimensions here, that the largest employers of chemists, viz., the Government, should agree to regard the x. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. qualification of the London Institute as an essential to employment. The Institute would be only too glad to establish local branch examinations, and it would be far preferable to take advantage of the machinery of an exist- ing institution than to create a hew qualifying board, whose position would be more or less discounted by local jealousies and prejudices. In conclusion, stress was laid upon the necessity for centralising chemical research work. At present there existed the opposite tendency—to decen- tralise it as the departmental work grew. Thus they had their separate laboratories in the Mines and Agriculture, the Explosives, the Customs, etc., etc. This procedure was quite contrary to that in other countries, where the tendency had been to centralise. Our system did not necessarily mean greater efficiency, and it certainly was not nearly as economical as the maintenance of a single establishment. Personally he would like to see established a central scientific institute, where all the scientific work could be conducted. Failing this, a great deal could be done in consolidating scientific work and increasing its efficiency by the creation of a controlling Science Depart- ment, which would administer the different scientific estab- lishments under departmental control. This would be of great advantage in research, especially where it required the co-operation of more than one branch of science. In- vestigation into subjects of national importance could then be carried out in continuity. A vote of thanks was passed to the retiring President, and Mr. C. O. BURGE, ™. Inst. .B., Was installed as President for the ensuing year. Mr. BuRGE thanked the members for the honour conferred upon him, and the meeting closed. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. X1. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JUNE 1, 1904. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Hlizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, June 1st, 1904. C. O. BURGE, m. mst. c.z., President, in the Chair. Thirty-seven members and five visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of seven. candidates were read for the second time, and of four for the first time. The Chairman announced that Journal Vol. Xxxvit., for 1903, was in the binder’s hands and would shortly be ready for deliverly to members. _ Also that a circular in regard to the first science lecture this Session (by Mr. C. HepLey) would be issued in about a fortnight, asking that applications for tickets might be made. Ninety volumes, 172 parts, 5 reports, and 105 pamphlets, total 372, received as donations since the last meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged. Included in these were 35 volumes of reports in connection with the Exposition Universelle Internationale de 1900 a Paris, received through the kind courtesy of Monsieur G. Biard d’ Aunet the Consul-General and Monsieur L. Nettement, late Acting Consul-General for France. The following letter was read :— Commonwealth of Australia, Governor-General, Government House, Sydney, May 18th, 1904. Sir,—I am directed by His Excellency the Governor-General, to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 16th instant, and to say it will give him great pleasure to accept the position ot Patron of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney. I have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient servant, J. A. STEWART-BALMAIN, Captain, Private Secretary, To His Excellency the Governor-General. The Hon. Secretary, the Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney. Xi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘‘ Possible Relation between Sunspots and Volcanic and Seismic Phenomena and Climate,”’ by H. I. JENSEN, B.sc., Junior Demonstrator in Chemistry and Geology, Uni- versity of Sydney. (Communicated by Professor T. W. HK. DAVID, B.A., F.G.S., F.R.S.) This paper is a sequel to the author’s note communicated to the Royal Society of New South Wales, on June 4th, 1902. The paper is divided into two parts. In the first part itis shown that while there has been a marked rise in solar activity since the middle of 1902, seismic and volcanic dis- turbances have fallen off on the earth, both in violence and frequency almost to a minimum. The causes to which Dr. J. Milne ascribes seismic disturbances in his ‘‘ Harth- quakes,’’ are reviewed, and it is concluded that most earth- quakes are primarily due to gain or loss of heat by a portion of the earth’s crust, to gain in regions undergoing rise of isogeotherms after heavy sedimentation, to loss in regions of rapid secular contraction. In both cases it is shown that solar activity will exert a considerable influence if it be granted that more heat is received from the sun in years of sunspot maximum than in years of sunspot minimum, In areas undergoing heating and folding like Japan, Java, and Argentina, an increase in our annual supply of solar heat, such as is experienced at sunspot maxima, may exert a disturbing influence; but in areas undergoing cooling comprising the greater part of the earth’s land surface, a falling off of solar heat leads to seismic disturbances, by hastening secular cooling, hence earthquakes are more numerous at sunspot minima than at maxima. It is freely admitted that various secondary causes or liberating forces, may have considerable influence in locating the time for earthquake outbreaks. Volcanoes are similarly shown to be in the main divisible into two classes (1) those which ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xlil. erupt at sunspot minima, and (2) those which tend to become violent at sunspot maxima. The latter are shown to consist mainly of volcanoes situated in an artesian or subartesian basin. The author discusses the problem of the influence of sedimentation on the stability of a region. Volcanic chains are situated chiefly near oceans which are or have up to Post-Tertiary time been suffering great sedi- mentation. Curvesare given which show that both seismic and volcanic activity are at a maximum during a sunspot minimum, and that there isa very good agreement between the earthquake and eruption curve and the inverted sun- spot curve. Of the lunar influences to which Elmer J. Still and others ascribe the main share of causing earth- quakes, Perigee is shown to be the only one worthy of con- sideration. In the second part of the paper various sun- spot and meteorological theories are considered. . . The author disagrees with the conclusions which Dr. Halm infers from his solar theory. The apparent inconsistency of the temperature curves of different latitudes, and their want of agreement with one another and with the sunspot curve, are only to be expected. Temperature at the earth’s surface is to a greater extent a function of cloudiness, evaporation and general humidity of the atmosphere than of solar heat received by the earth. With proper allowance for latitude and general atmospheric movements it is not astonishing that in years of sunspot maximum the mean annual temperature is lower in tropical regions and higher in temperate regions. The observations and curves of Koppen, Nordmann, and Alex. McDowall are shown to be quite consistent with one another, if we admit that the earth receives its maximum annual allowance of heat at a sunspot maximum. The author considers the disagreement of rainfall curves for different regions inter se, to be like- wise the result of latitude, the prevailing air currents, and XIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. geographical distribution. The climates of Australia and Mauritius are discussed, and the occurrence of heavy rains at sea during drought periods, the retreat of glaciers during cold winters, and the diminution in the number of cyclones during sunspot minima, are ascribed to the same cause, namely, the feebler circulation of the atmosphere due to the diminution in the amount of heat received from the sun during sunspot minima. An index to literature and tables of earthquake and eruption statistics follow. Remarks were made by the Chairman, Prof. David, Dr. Walter Spencer, and Prof. Knibbs. 2. ‘*On the absence of Gum, and the presence of a new Diglucoside in the Kinos of the Hucalypts,’’ by HENRY G. SMITH, F.C.S., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum. In this paper, which is the first of a series dealing with Eucalyptus kinos, the author shows that the supposed gum occurring in many Eucalyptus kinos is not gum but a peculiar tannin diglucoside. The insolubility in alcohol of this substance seems to have been the only reason for con- sidering it to be gum. Professor Wiesner’ stated that it was Closely allied to Acacia gum, and J. H. Maiden’ later formed one of his Eucalyptus kino groups (the Gummy Group) upon its presence. It does not appear possible to obtain it ina crystallised condition, nor could it be removed from aqueous solution by miscible solvents. It was obtained in as pure a condition as possible by repeated pre- cipitation by alcohol from concentrated aqueous solutions. When dried and powdered, it was of a cinnamon colour, and this colour was not removed by boiling with animal charcoal. It is very soluble in water, and when boiled with acid for some time a “kino red”’ is formed in ' Abst. Pharm. Journ. [3] 2, 1871. * Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1899 and 1891. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV. quantity, a sugar being separated at the same time. The ‘*kino red’? dyes mordanted cloth a series of browns, alumina giving the best colour. When fused with potash it forms protocatechuic acid but not phloroglucinol. The sugar had no rotation, was reduced by Fehling’s solution readily, was slowly but entirely fermented by yeast, and gave an osazone soluble in hot water, and which melted at 176—178° C. Were it not that it was inactive to light it might, from these reactions, be supposed to be melibiose, which is formed from melitose (Hucalyptus sugar) by hydro- lysis, levulose being split off at the same time. This glucoside, for which the author proposes the name Einphloin, (as it principally occurs in the bark of certain species) is found in almost a pure condition in those Hucalypts known as ‘‘Tronbarks.’’ The kinos of the “‘ Stringybarks ”’ and of the “* Peppermints,” although consisting of the same tannin, do not contain sugar and are not glucosides, but the author has already isolated glucoside, Myrticolorin, from the ‘*Stringybarks,’’ the sugar of which is glucose. This kino glucoside is practically a bark product, occurring in species which do not appear to give Kucalyptus Manna. Melitose however, is found in the bark of certain species in which the tannin is principally located in the wood, as in H. pt tata. For these reasons the author thinks that meli- tose itself should be considered a glucoside, the third glucose molecule taking the place of the tannin in the glucoside. The quantitative results, and the relative astringent values show the substance to contain an equivalent to two glucose molecules. Although entirely precipitated by gelatine, the glucoside has very siow action on hide, and thus the sluggishness of “‘ Ironbark ’’ liquors is accounted for. It now remains to devise a method whereby the glucoside may be cheaply hydrolysed, and thus the tannin in the bark of HE. sideroxylon, for instance, be made available for tan- ning purposes. XV1. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, Some remarks were made by Mr. Maiden, but on account of the lateness of the hour, the discussion was postponed to the next meeting. 3. ‘“On some Natural Grafts between indigenous trees,”’ by J. H. MAIDEN, Government Botanist and Director, Botanic Gardens. The author obtained from George’s River a composite log which in bark and timber showed the absolute fusion of White or Cabbage Gum (Hucalyptus hcemastoma, variety micrantha) and Stringybark (Encalyptus capitellata). The red timber of the former contrasts well with the pale brown of the latter and the fusion of the two timbers is perfect. Such instances of the organic union of two species of the same genus have been rarely recorded. The author also exhibited a photograph by Mr. C.'T. Musson, of the Hawkes- bury Agricultural College, Richmond, where an Apple-tree (Angophora subvelutina) is growing out of a fissure in a Swamp Red Gum (Hucalyptus tereticornis, variety lati- folia). Such instances are even more rare, but since the two trees are now growing, a log is not available to see if the organic union between the dissimilar timbers is as complete as in the first case. The author fully described the specimens and commented upon them. EXHIBITS. Exhibits in connection with their several papers were shown and explained by Mr. SMITH and Mr. MAIDEN. Mr. J. E. CARNE, F.G.S., Department of Mines exhibited some polished specimens of nepheline-aegerine rocks from Barigan near Rylstone. Some remarks were made by Prof. David. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XVil. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JULY 6, 1904. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Hlizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, July 6th, 1904. CO. O. BURGE, mM. Inst. c.z., President, in the Chair. Highteen members and one visitor were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of seven candidates were read for the third time, of four for the second time, and of three for the first time. The Chairman announced that the Second Popular Science Lecture this session, on “‘ The Fabric of the Universe,’’ by Actg. Professor G. H. KNIBBS, F.R.A.S., would be delivered in the Physics Lecture Theatre of the University, on Thurs- day, July 28th, at 8 p.m. Forty-eight volumes, 139 parts, 8 reports and 9 pam- phlets, total 204, received as donations since the last meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged. Included in these was a complete set of the Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Hngineers, Vols. i—Xxxiv.. '880— 1903. The discussion upon paper by Mr. HENRY G. SMITH, F.C.S. (read June 1st) ‘“‘ On the absence of Gum, and the presence of a new Diglucoside in the Kinos of the Kucalypts,’’ was continued by Mr. J. H. Maiden, the author replied and some remarks were made by the Chairman. Actg. Professor F. B. GUTHRIE, F.1.C., F.C.S., recapitu- lated his suggestions as to ‘‘The desirableness of co-ordin- ating scientific work and research in New South Wales,”’ as outlined in his Presidential Address on the 4th May; the following gentlemen took part in the discussion :—Mr. b —July 6, 1904. XVI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Maiden, Dr. Walter Spencer, Mr. Carment, Mr. H.G. Smith, and the President. Prof. Guthrie replied. Mr. H. A. LENEHAN exhibited a crystalline formation in a rain-gauge from Bathurst, and Mr. H. G. SMITH two photographs of gigantic trees in Victoria. The following is an abstract of the first popular science lecture of the present session, delivered on the 23rd June, by CHARLES HEDLEY, F.L.S., Australian Museum, Sydney, on “* The Distribution of Life in Australasia.’’ The lecture described the Australian fauna, its isolation from the rest of the world, its rich development of marsupials and strik- ing features. The general methods of zoogeographic study were outlined. Three divisions of Australian life comprise the Autochthonian, the Euronotian, and the Torresian. The first has a poor fauna but a rich flora, which is nearly allied to that of South Africa. The second is related to that of South America, and is believed to have reached this continent across Antarctica when the latter enjoyed a mild climate and extended long promontories to the north- ward. The third element is a recent migration from Papua and arrived by Cape York when Torres Straits was dry land. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, AUGUST 3, 1904. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, August 3rd, 1904. C. O. BURGE, ™. Inst. c.E., President, in the Chair. About twenty members were present. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Kim. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of four candidates were read for the third time, and of three for the second time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society, viz:— Bosch, Hrnest, Consulting Optician, Mutual Life Building, Martin Place. Cambage, Richard Hind, Chief Mining Surveyor, Park Road, Burwood. Cooksey, Thomas, pn.D., B.Sc. (Lond.), F.1.c., Second Government Analyst, “‘Clissold,’’ Calypso Avenue, Mosman. Hivans, James W., Chief Inspector, Weights and Meas- ures, ““Glenthorne,’’ Railway-street, Petersham. Fraser, James, Engineer-in-Chief for Hxisting Lines, Bridge-street. Holt, Rev. Wilfred J ohn, Clergyman of the Presbyterian Church, “*‘ Kiora,’’ Blackheath. McKenzie, Robert, Sanitary Inspector, (Water and Sewerage Board), Bronte Road, Waverley. Ramsay, David, Surveyor, Lyons Road, Five Dock. Ross, William J. Clunies, Bsc. (Lond. and Syd.), F.G.s., Lecturer on Chemistry, Technical College, Sydney. Smail, Herbert Stuart Inglis, B.E. (Syd.), Assistant Engineer, Public Works Department, **Clytha,”’ Neutral Bay. Stanley, Henry Charles, ™. inst.c.m, Civil Hngineer, Royal Chambers, Hunter and Castlereagh-streets. The President made the following announcements, VizZ.: (1) That consideration of the Conversazione intended, if practicable, to have been held on August 25th, had been postponed. XxX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. (2) That the Second Popular Science Lecture 1904, on ‘“‘The Fabric of the Universe,’’ by Prof. G. H. KNIBBs, F.R.A.S., would—by special request—be repeated in the Physics Lecture Theatre of the University on Friday, August 5th, at 8 p.m. ee Ore (3) That the Third Popular Science Lecture 1904, on ‘““The Solar System and Southern Sky,” by H. A. LENEHAN, F.R.A.S., etc.. Acting Government Astronomer, Sydney Observatory, would be delivered at the Society’s House, on Thursday, September 22nd, at 8 p.m. Thirty-four volumes, 185 parts, 13 reports, and 8 pamphlets, total 240, received as donations since the last meeting, were laid upon the table and acknowledged. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ. 1. “‘On Eucalyptus Kinos, their value for Tinctures, and the Non-Gelatinization of the Product of Certain Species,’’ by HENRY G. SMITH, F.¢.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. In this paper, which is the second of the series dealing with Kucalyptus kinos, the author shows that the tannins in the exudations from the various Eucalypts vary largely in character, and that while some kinos gelatinize in tinc- tures others do not. There is a remarkable regularity in the action of kinos from allied species, and the marked differences in the tannins themselves appear to be the reason why they act so differently as regards gelatinization. There are three tannins at least in Kucalyptus kinos and all are determinable by reagents. The one which gives the violet coloration and precipitate with ferric chloride gelatinizes the most rapidly, the one giving a green color- ation with ferric chloride also gelatinizes but not so rapidly as the other. The tannin which gives a blue coloration with ferric chloride does not gelatinize in tinctures. The ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XX1. kinos which give this coloration, also a sparse precipitate slow to form, with iodine in potassium iodide, and a com- paratively small amount of the copper salt insoluble in ammonia, all contain in excess this tannin, and the tinctures from these do not gelatinize. The astringency value of the several kinos also varies considerably, those giving the green coloration being the least astringent. The same species of Hucalyptus always gives a similar kino, and in this constancy follows the rule found to be characteristic of the essential oils of identical species. Those Hucalypts which give oils containing phellandrene, all appear to exude kinos which give the violet coloration with ferric chloride, and they, of course, gelatinize in tinctures most readily. All kinos contain mixed tannins, although as the species branch off through the various channels, certain of the tannins diminish in amounts either in one direction or another. The author shows that the addition of a small amount of formaldehyde to the tincture will determine in afew days whether a kino will gelatinize or not. Acet- aldehyde also acts in the same way, but is slower in its action, and as a test not so satisfactory. So far, four Hucalyptus kinos have been found which do not gelatinize in tinctures, and they all have a high astringency value. They are obtained from EH. microcorys, . calophylla, E. eximia and H. maculata. The tinctures of the two last, however, give precipitates when diluted with water, that of EH. calophylla gives a turbidity only, while that of H. microcorys does not give a turbidity even on the addition of a large amount of water. It thus appears that the difficulty of gelatinized tincture of kinos may be overcome by using these Eucalyptus kinos, and that. without the addition of corrigents like glycerol. The paper includes tables illustrating the reactions of the several kinos, and also giving full data in reference to the gelatinization of the tinctures. Xxil. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The author also announced the presence in most HKucalyptus kinos of a well defined organism which will grow inaqueous solutions of these kinos. To this organism may perhaps be traced the marked alteration in some kinos. It is being investigated by Mr. 8. J. Johnston, B.a., B.sc., of the Technological Museum. Remarks were made by Dr. R. Greig Smith and Mr. Hamlet. Mr. H. G. Smith replied. 2. “‘On some Hydrographical data in relation to Ocean Currents,’’ by H. A. LENEHAN, F.R.A.S. A paper dealing with ocean drifts principally in the Southern Hemisphere. It contains a tabulated statement of 182 records, the most important of which travelled a distance of 11,350 miles between June 19, 1901 and March 5, 1904, at adaily rate of 11$ miles. There are also eleven other drifts over 3,000 miles long. Two charts accompany the paper, showing the positions where the records were cast adrift and the places where found. Remarks were made by Dr. Walter Spencer, Mr. G. H. Halligan, and the President. Mr. Lenehan replied. Mr. HAMLET, F.I.C., F.C.S., exhibited a collection of metals in boiled and unboiled water placed therein for many years. The following is an abstract of the Second Popular Science Lecture of the present Session, delivered on the 28th July and repeated, by special request, on the 5th August in the Physics Lecture Theatre of the University, by Prof. G. H. KNIBBS, F.R.A.S., on ** The Fabric of the Universe.’’ The lecturer, after pointing out the originating cause of mental and natural philosophy, traced the history of the theory of the atomic constitution of matter, from Mosphus of Phrygia, before the siege of Troy down to the present time, referring especially to the part played by Anaxagora, Leucippus, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XxXlil. Democritus, Hpicurus, Lucretius, Aristotle, Gassendi, Descartés, Boyle, Hooke, Newton, Helmholtz, and others in the evolution of the theory. The evidence of the exist- ence of various orders of atoms was then indicated, viz., of the mechanical atom, the chemical molecule and atom, the aétherergic molecule and atom, the atomic molecule and atom, electron, or corpuscle. The significance of con- stitutional formulae in chemistry and of stereochemical knowledge, in relation to the progress of science and industry was briefly outlined, and the fact dwelt upon that the extension of human power is dependent upon abstract scientific knowledge. The aids to research, by means of which sense-limitations were transcended, were illustrated by a large number of experiments, and it was demonstrated in what way the structure of matter is being daily more and more completely and exactly determined by physical investigators. The lecture was given in the Physics Lecture Theatre in order that the experimental illustration of the lecture might be possible. The experimental demon- strations included the behaviour of electrons in the magnetic field, and illustrated the development of knowledge of matter through Sir Wm. Crookes’ researches, and the modern developments of the electron theory. Various orders of luminescence, fluorescence, and the radiations of Lenard, Rontgen, Becquerel, etc., and of the radioactive substances were indicated and shewn. XXIV. - ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBER 7, 1904. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, September 7th, 1904. C. O. BURGE, M. Inst.c.5,, President, in the Chair. Sixty-two members and ten visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of three candidates were read for the third time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society, viz:— Cameron, John Mindoro, Engineer, Public Works Department, 29 Bligh-street. MacFarlane, Edward, Under-Secretary for Lands, 12 ‘Fitzroy-street, Milson’s Point. Sellors, Richard Pickering, B.A. (Syd.), ‘‘Cairnleith,’’ Springdale-road, Killara. The following circular was read:— ‘“CONFERENCE ON ‘TECHNICAL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA.’ “The Engineering Section propose to hold, during the third week in October, (precise dates and hours to be announced later) a conference on the above subject. It is hoped that in addition to the members of the Section, many of those interested in this important subject will contribute to the discussion. “The titles of papers to be read will be fully set out im a subsequent circular, but the following is a preliminary announce- ment of subjects that have been suggested as suitable topics for consideration :— 1. ‘The present position of Technical and Industrial Education in Australia.’ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXKV. 2. ‘The effect of systematic training in promoting the develop- ment of industries.’ 3. ‘Rational versus empirical training for industrial pursuits.’ 4, ‘The apprenticeship system,’ 5. ‘In what way the lower stages of education prepare for, and are essential to industrial training.’ 6. ‘The necessity for an adequate system of secondary education as a preparation for professional and scientific training.’ 7. ‘The appropriate scope and organisation of our Technical Colleges.’ 8. ‘The methods adopted for training the workers in specific local industries and possible improvements in same.’ 9. ‘To what extent is it economy. for a nation to invest money in the scientific and industrial training of its people?’ “J. Haypon CarpeEw, Hon. Secretary.” Fourteen volumes, 152 parts, 8 reports, 5 pamphlets, 1 geological and 1 geographical map, total 181, received as donations since the last meeting, were laid upon the table and acknowledged. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘““Notes on the Theory and Practice of Concrete-Iron Constructions,’ by 1. M.GUMMOW, M.C.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. The author outlined the theory from the present stand- point of scientific research, andafter reviewing the principal applications, concluded his paper by giving particulars of a test of concrete-iron plate beams, carried out on a large scale. The term “concrete-iron,’’ the author explained, was applied to those constructions which consisted of Port- land cement concrete and iron or steel insertions, both so intimately united that the construction would act as homo- geneous bodies when taking up stresses, and at the same time allow of the utilization of each material to its utmost limit. The paper was illustrated with lantern slides of various concrete-iron constructions carried out in Australia XXVl. ABSTRAGT OF PROCEEDINGS. and abroad, showing its varied and general use for numerous purposes. 2. ‘‘Further Experiments on the Strength and Hlasticity of reinforced Concrete,’’ by Professor W. H. WARREN, M. Inst. C.E., Wh. Sc. The author stated that the paper consisted of an experi- mental investigation of the physical properties of Portland cement mortars and concrete when reinforced with steel, and the work described was a continuation of the work described in a paper read before the Royal Society in December, 1902. The real difficulty in obtaining correct calculations on steel-concrete work consists, mainly, in the want of knowledge existing of the physical properties of the materials used, and hence it becomes important to know the coefficient of elasticity of concrete in tension and com- pression under various stresses, also the manner in which it behaves when reinforced in various ways. The first part of the paper consists of a description of the methods employed in testing the specimens in tension, compression, and cross-breaking. ‘The loads were applied by means of the University testing machines, and the effect produced Was accurately determined whether it was an extension, a shortening, or a deflection of the piece, by means of Martens’ mirror extensometers. The results obtained, the strength and coefficient of elasticities were recorded in numerous diagrams and tables. Experiments were made and discussed on the reinforcement of concrete columns in buildings with longitudinal steel rods, grills of steel, and hooped by means of soft iron or steel spirals, which has special reference to fireproof construction. The method of calculating the strength of steel-concrete structures was discussed in con- siderable detail, and numerous diagrams and equations were given illustrating the application of the results obtained in the experiments, and also giving simple rules for the guid- ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXVI1. ance of architects and engineers in correctly designing such structures. In both the tension and compression tests the stress-strain curves show that the coefficient of elasticity diminishes as the intensity of stress increases. In the case of the beams, the deflections increased in a similar manner with increasing loads, and the extensions of the extreme fibre and the neutral axis, showed that the extensions in- crease in a reinforced beam from the point where the maximum tensile strength of the plain concrete has been attained to the point where fracture occurs, where it may be ten times aS great as ina similar concrete beam not reinforced. The tensile co-efficient of elasticity in a re- inforced beam becomes less in proportion to the greater extension, since the tensile strength of the concrete re- mains constant during the period included between the point where the fracture would have occurred in a plain beam to the actual fracture in the reinforced beam. The author’s equations were compared with those obtained by M. Considere, Professor Hatt, and the recent regulations of the Prussian Government. EXHIBITS. The following celestial photographs were exhibited by Mr. C. J. MERFIELD, F.R.A.S. :-— Comet 1892-1, taken by Barnard of the Lick Observatory on the dates 1892 April 7 - 28. Comet 1893 IV., by Barnard, taken on the dates 1893 October 20, 21, 22, and 1893 November 10. Comet Holmes 1892 ITI., by Barnard. Comet 1901 I., taken by Sir David Gill, at the Cape of Good Hope, on the dates 1901 May 4—6. Great Nebula in Orion, by Sir Isaac Roberts. Nebula about 7 Argus, by Sir David Gill. Dumb-bell Nebula Vulpecula by Barnard. XXVlll. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The Moon (Age 7d. 3h.) The Moon (Age 12d. 6h.) The Moon (Age 16d. 18 h.) The Moon (Age 23d. 8 h.) Lick Observatory Mr. MERFIELD also placed on view several photographs of the Yarrangobilly Caves near Kiandra, N. S. Wales. With reference to his paper read at the June meeting, Mr. MAIDEN exhibited photographs from the Hon. J. B. . Nash, M.D., M.L.C., Showing (1) a White Gum whose branch had fused with the trunk of an adjacent Ironbark tree. From near Wallsend. Also on behalf of Mr. J. B. HENSON of Kast Maitland, he showed a photograph of a natural graft (2) where a Stringybark branch had rubbed against the trunk of a large White Gum, and the branch had fused with the trunk. Also photographs of a Smooth-barked Apple (Angophora lanceolata) showing instances where the branches had fused once, and even twice, with branches of the same tree. Mr. Maiden hopes to obtain botanical specimens to settle the identity of the trees referred to. Mr. GuMMow stated that on the 14th instant at 3 p.m, testing experiments of concrete-steel constructions would be carried out at his works at Alexandria, and he gave a cordial invitation to all present, who might be interested in the matter, to attend. The President announced that the discussion upon the papers read that evening would probably take place at the meeting of the Engineering Section on the 21st instant. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xxix. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, OCTOBER 5 1904. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Hlizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, October 5th, 1904. ©. O. BURGE, m. inst. c.n., President, in the Chair. Forty-four members and four visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. Three new members enrolled their names and were introduced. The certificates of two candidates were read for the first time. | The President announced that the Fourth Popular Science Lecture 1904 on ‘‘The Steam Wngine and its Modern Rivals,’ by S. H. BARRACLOUGH, B.E., M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., would be delivered at the Royal Society’s House, on Thurs- day, October 27th, at 8 p.m. The following circular from the Engineering Section was read :— | “CONFERENCE ON TECHNICAL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. “Owing to the report of the Commissioners of Education deal- ing with the above question not having been yet published, it has been decided to postpone the Conference which was proposed to be held in October (and of which preliminary notice has already been given) until next year, when it is expected the report will be to hand, as the Committee recognise that the subject will pre- sent greater interest to members when discussed in the light of the Commissioners’ expressed views, and further, will be much easier handled by those who read papers. This action has been rendered necessary because it has been found that many of our members most qualified to express opinions on the subject would be precluded from taking part in the discussion prior to the pub- lication of the said report. XXX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. A meeting will be held on Wednesday, 19th October, 1904, (in place of Wednesday, 21st September, as previously announced) to discuss the papers on ‘‘ Water Filtration,” and “‘ Reinforcement of Concrete.” ‘J. Haypon Carpew, Hon. Secretary.” Twenty-five volumes, 97 parts, 14 reports and 3 pamphlets, total 139, received as donations since the last meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged. The following extract from a letter by the Government Statistician of Western Australia was read, and a copy of the vocabulary referred to laid upon the table :— “Perth, 31 August, 1904. “Tam attempting at the present time to compile a short his- torical description of the Aborigines of this State with a brief vocabulary of the language of the various tribes, and am enclosing for your information a copy of a blank vocabulary which I am issuing to all persons who may be expected to assist by filling in such portions of it as they are able. It is difficult to say what the result will be, but possibly some useful and interesting inform- ation may be obtained to form the basis of a future thoroughly scientific and more ambitious investigation.” (Signed) Marcotm A. C. Fraser, Govt. Statistician.” The Royal Society of N.S. Wales having been appointed Regional Bureau for this State for the International Cata- logue of Scientific Literature, in accordance with the wish of the International Council publishes the following balance sheets :— 1. Balance Sheet 29th February, 1904. LIABILITIES. To Loan from Royal Society— £ is, da. £9 Be ae Amount free of interest... sh oa 300 0 O Amount subject to interestat 4% perannum 3,500 0 0—3,800 0 0 Subscriptions from Countries received in advance ... = 2 eee ae 649 6 0 ., Accounts in respect of the First Annual Issue unpaid— Printing and Binding =: ee oe 683 18 10 Publishers’ Commission ... ae ane 30.0 -0 Experts’ Fees a = 6 mS 109 0 O _—_ 822 18 10 £5,272 4 10 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ASSETS. By Furniture 33 33 33 39 33 39 3) 33 33 Typewriting Machinery Office Fixtures » Catalogue Apparatus Reference Books Less One-tenth thereof transferred to Income and Expenditure Account .., Preliminary Expenses incurred before 31st December, 1901— Printing 5 Director Re Honorarium to Dr. Morley a as Secretary of Provisional International Committee Rent of Office Legal Charges Salaries Travelling Expenses Stationery Office Expenses Postage and Telegrams Less One-fifth thereof transferred to Income and Expenditure Account ... Amount due from Countries, etc., for volumes sold ; Suspense Account— Payments on account of Second Annual Issue Ser Less received for volumes sold .. Balance at Bank— Robarts, Lubbock & Co. ... Union of London and Smith’s Bank Balance in hand ra Excess of Expenditure over Income on the First Annual Issue £ 137 69 19 79 45 350 35 — BNORr OB 4 oo a lS wl aaesna® — CONF wweooed S) CA non Je sl mw QQ XXXl, ey oe ee (| pkiay Mal 16 1,825 0 8 2,648 O O 176 5 10 273 16 9 ee ee) a eee £5,272 4 10 I have examined the above balance sheet and accompanying Income and Expenditure Account, with the books and vouchers, and have found them correct. I have also verified the balance at the Bankers, Adminis- trative Expenditure has been apportioned by the Director between Pre- liminary Expenses and Expenses of the First and Second Annual Issues. W. B. Keen, Chartered Accountant. 3, Church Court, Old Jewry E.C. 27th April, 19U4. XXX11. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. II. Income and Hxpenditure Account of the First Annual Issue. £. sae &. si ak To Printing and Binding ee ee .. 98,444 11 0 » Publishers’ Commission ... ne aa 330 4 8 >» Experts’ Fees... sus a re ee 614 3 4 — 4,388 19 0 », Expenditure from 1st January, 1902, to 30th June, 1903 :— Director se 4 as re aes 750 0.0 Salaries Sie a vais av sis 81, b 2 ——— 1,567 5 2 Rent of Office a sips 345 0 O Stationery and Catalogue Cards ... cae 53 17-9 Office Expenses a a ac oe 33 3 «8 Postages and Telegrams ... sink 40 45 12 9 Insurance ... ae re “A ae 8 4 0 — 14018 2 Interest on Loan ... 188 ll 2 », One-tenth of cost of Furniture, etc., “written off, as per Balance Sheet... : 35 1 4 », One-fifth of Preliminary Expenses written off, as per Balance Sheet ___... tr 456 5 2 £7,117 08 ££ a. & S- aa By Sales of Subscription Pople: iy ». 6,913 18° 6 » Sales of Trade Copies - ee ay 169 1158 ———— 7,083 10 3 », Excess of Expenditure over Income carried to Balance Sheet Ae — ate 33 9 9 £7,117 _ 0 2B [No estimate has been made of the Income expected from the number of copies not yet sold, which at 29th February, 1904, were about 12,700. | Resolution regarding retirement of Mr. John Tebbutt, F.R.A.S., etc., from systematic astronomical work. The following resolution, moved by the Acting Govern- ment Astronomer (Mr. H. A. Lenehan), seconded by Mr. G. H. Knibbs, supported by the President (Mr. OC. O. Burge) and others, was carried unanimously, and with acclamation :— “In the opinion of this Society the occasion of Mr. John Tebbutt’s retirement from systematic astronomical work, is a fitting opportunity for an expression of our appreciation of his arduous and able labours in the cause of astronomy, of the high \ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXlll. standard of excellence which he has always maintained and which has been so widely recognised; also of the value of his written contributions made to the scientific journals not only of this State but also of Europe.” It was also moved that a copy of this resolution be forwarded to him. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘*‘Ethnological Notes on the Aboriginal Tribes of New South Wales and Victoria,’”’ by R. H. MATHEWS, L.s. The paper treated of the grammars and vocabularies of some of the native languages, the complicated laws regu- lating marriage and descent, as well as several customs relating to the quest for food, punishment for breaches of the tribal laws, burial and mourning rites, initiation cere- monies, some peculiar superstitions, folk-lore, etc. Some remarks were made by Dr. Walter Spencer and the President. 2. Preliminary Observations on Radio-activity and the Occurrence of Radium in Australian Minerals,’’ by D. MAWSON, B.E., Junior Demonstrator, and T. H. Lasy, Acting-Demonstrator of Chemistry in the Uni- versity of Sydney. [Communicated by Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, B.A., F.R.S. | A brief summary of observations on the radio-activity of minerals and occurrence of radium is given, showing that comparatively intense activity is only found associated in minerals with thorium and uranium. Bottwood and Strutt have independently shown that usually radium and uranium content are proportional. In these experiments the ionssa- tion produced in an air gap was determined by measuring the saturation current across it, first with the mineral anc then with black uranium oxide. Thus the activity com- pared to black uranium oxide was obtained. The presence of radium was looked for by Strutt’s application of Ruther- c—Oct. 5, 1904. XXXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ford and Soddy’s discovery that radium gives off a radio- active gas, the emanation, which decays in activity to half its initial value in four days. A torbernite and euxenite were found highly active, but the specimens were too small to examine for radium. A Western Australian gadolinite, found by Professor Norman Collie to contain one bubble of helium in ten grams, was expected to contain radium, but none could be detected. Twelve monazites were found radio-active; one, with double the average activity of the others, from Pilbarra, Western Australia, gave on heating the radium emanation; five monazite and zircon sands were also active. No relation between thoria contents and activity was found, which points to the presence of uranium, Remarks were made by Prof. David, Prof. Pollock, Mr. G. H. Knibbs, Mr. F. B. Guthrie, Mr. W. M. Hamlet, the authors, and the President. 3. ‘The Flood Silt of the Hunter and Hawkesbury Rivers,”’ by Prof. T. W. EDGEWORTH DAVID, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S}, and Acting-Professor F. B. GUTHRIE, F.I.C., F.C.S. During the floods last July in the Hunter and Hawkesbury rivers, Samples of the flood water as well as of the flood silt were collected, at the instance of the authors, by Mr. A. J. Prentice, B.A., of West Maitland, and Mr. W. H. Potts, the Principal of the Hawkesbury Agricultural College. Deter- minations made at the laboratory of the Department of Agriculture show the following to be the chemical com- position of the silts:— Analysis of Silt from Hunter River Water. Per cent. Insoluble in hydrochloric acid ... be . =992s Soluble in hydrochloric acid— Oxide of iron and alumina Chose and Al,O gee = 10°02 Lime (CaO)... : =. (255 Potash (K.O) . io Lig — ots Phosphoric acid (Ps O; ai sere ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXV, Per cent. Volatile matter Ate ei a ae i a Ole Nitrogen site tense =a SO Weight per acre, one ntneU i in Wee! = 3 403 125 Tbs. Analysis of Silt from Hawkesbury River Water. Per cent. Insoluble in hydrochloric acid... bic og SCG Soluble in hydrochloric acid— Oxide of iron and alumina (Fe,O3; and Al,O;) = 4°77 Lime (CaO) _... aM ave ae ee = 1049 Potash (KO) ... oa on as co = IY Phosphoric acid (P,O;) ee ee ee = 0508 Volatile matter nae se ee na Pn 408 Nitrogen is = 0°105 Weight per acre, one Sion in Cheatin = = 3, 307, 332 Ibs. Mr. Prentice estimates the average depth of the last flood deposit of the Hunter to be about two inches. This would supply the land with a top dressing of fertilising con- stituents to the following amount per acre :— kame” —-..: AS, ae con “on Oued gs. Potash ... oe Se dee a10 ,, Phosphoric acid ate vor F020. ,, Nitrogen Ss eae Ee 476 ,, The data for estimating the thickness of silt deposited by the Hawkesbury river are less complete than those for the Hunter. On the assumption that the thickness was only wo of that deposited by the Hunter River, the silt of the Hawkesbury flood would weigh 27,561 tbs. per acre, and would supply per acre :— JOVNIE: ooe See oe : ae 135 Ibs. Potash ... ree ae icapd th, aOPes Phosphoric acid «... Sic Bh Nitrogen es he eae ZONE A discussion was commenced by Mr. J. H. Maiden, Dr. R. Greig Smith, and Prof. F. B. Guthrie, but on the motion XXXV1. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. of Mr. C. A. Stissmilch it was postponed to the next meeting. The reading of the following papers was postponed to the next meeting :— 1. “‘On the possible Identity of the Hmanation of Radium and Dewar’s Coronium (or Nebulium),” by T. H. Lasy. 2. “Pot Experiments to determine the limits of endurance of different Farm Crops for certain injurious substances, Part III., Barley and Rye,’ by R. HELMs and Prof. M.D. GUIaRIG, 1-0... 20:8; ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, NOVEMBER 2, 1904. — The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, November 2nd, 1904. C. O. BURGE, . mst. c.z., President, in the Chair. Thirty-four members and two visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. One new member enrolled his name and was introduced. The certificates of two candidates were read for the second time, and of one for the first time. The President announced that the Fifth Popular Science Lecture 1904 on “‘The Nervous System in its Genesis and Development,’’ by Dr. J. FROUDE FLASHMAN, M.D., Honorary Lecturer in Psychological Medicine and Neurology, Uni- versity of Sydney, Director of the Pathological Laboratory of the Lunacy Department, would be delivered at the Royal Society’s House, on Thursday, November 24th, at 8 p.m. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXVII. Fifty-four .volumes, 305 parts, 18 reports, and 11 pamphlets, also 1 engraving, total 389, received as donations Since the last meeting, were laid upon the table and acknowledged. The discussion upon the paper on the “ The Flood Silt of the Hunter and Hawkesbury Rivers,’”’ by Prof. T. W. EH. DAVID, B.A., F.G.S., F.R.S.. and Acting. Professor F. B. GUTHRIE, F.I.C., F.C.S., read at the previous meeting was continued, the following gentlemen taking part, viz.: Mr. Sussmilch, Mr. H. MacFarlane, Mr. Hall of the ‘“ Hvening News”’ (by invitation of the President) Dr. Walter Spencer, and the President. On the motion of Mr. MacFarlane, seconded by Dr. Spencer, it was resolved that the discussion be further adjourned, and that in the meantime the paper be set up in type, so that proofs would be available. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ. 1. “‘ Pot Experiments to determine the limits of endurance of different Farm Crops for certain injurious substances, Part III. Barley and Rye,” by R. HELMS and Acting Professor fF. B. GUTHRIE, F.1.C., F.C.S. The authors describe experiments with barley and rye in continuation of those on wheat and maize (this Journal, XXXVI., p. 191 and xxxvil., p. 165) to determine the toler- ance of these plants to certain ingredients commonly present in the soils and water used for irrigating in certain parts of the State, namely sodium chloride (common salt) and sodium carbonate (alkali); also the effect produced upon their growth by the presence of small quantities of plant poisons occasionally met with in fertilisers, such as ammonium suiphocyanide, sodium chlorate and arsenious acid. The general results are tabulated as follows :— XXXVIii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, Barley. Teas Soranaae aifected Covet NaCl "10 °25 10 °20 Na2CO; °25 °60 Ps) °40 NH.ONS inconclusive NaClO "005 *007 "003 "006 As.O; germination unaffected by °62 05 "10 Rye. oe recente Teepe met Ede NaCl 10 *40 ok Ie) ‘20 Na.CO, 25 *D0 "25 °40 NH.CNS inconclusive NaClO; "004 "006 ‘002 "004 NYS OF °2 above °4 "15 °30 Remarks were made by Mr. Maiden, Prof. Schofield and the President. Prof. Guthrie replied. 2. “The classification and systematic nomenclature of Igneous Rocks,’’ by H. STANLEY JEVONS, M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S.; Lecturer in Mineralogy and Petrology in the University of Sydney. The author first passes in review the general principles of classification, illustrating them by references to the properties of igneous rocks. The properties selected as bases of classification must depend upon the purpose for which the classification is required. Classification serves three main purposes :—(1) As an aid to the memory and a store of knowledge, and hence for teaching or didactic purposes; (2) to assist in research; (3) as a basis of a Systematic nomenclature. The manner in which classifi- cation may assist in research is explained at length; and it is pointed out that a systematic nomenclature may be applied to almost any classification, so long as it does not consist of too many ranks, i.e. successive subdivisions on different properties. Whilst special classifications will always be required for special lines of research, it would be very useful to have a general classification adapted to ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ». .6 4b. serve all three purposes at once. There follows an explan- ation of how a general classification might render valuable assistance in research, by compelling petrologists to observe properties in the field and laboratory, with regard to which data are now very scarce. A general classification must of necessity be transient, as the progress of science will necessitate its being altered, at least in its lower ranks, every few years.;The remainder of the paper deals specially with the problem of the classification and nomenclature of igneous rocks. The most important correlations for didactic purposes are found to be:—mineral composition with abundance, and mineral composition with chemical com- position ; those for research :—chemical composition with habit (i.e. shape, size, and depth below original surface) of mass, composition of the rock with the composition of neighbouring or connected igneous masses, and composition with origin (genetic). Hach correlation consists of a pair of properties, and the property of each pair to be selected as a basis of subdivision in the general classification is decided on considerations which follow. For didactic pur- poses the more easily observed of the pair should be chosen; for research, the one which most requires to be observed. On these grounds the author selects for didactic purposes, mineral composition; for research, community of origin (so far as possible) and habit. It is noted that mineral composition and chemical composition are really groups of very humerous properties, for many minerals or oxides may be taken as bases of subdivision, either as ratios, percen- tages, or by the presence or absence method. The author concludes that the most convenient general Classification for the present time would be one constructed as follows :— Rank I.=Based on alkali-lime-content of principal and minor mineral constituents. Produces 2 Series: alkaline and calcic. xl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Rank II. Based on similarity of principal mineral con- stituents. Produces 7 Sections, e.g. granitic, gabbroic, theralitic, etc. Rank III. Based on community of origin from similar parent magmas. The latter are defined by the presence of certain index minerals in the consolidated rocks. (e.g. a granite, a granite-aplite, and a rhyolite, etc. may all be derived from one magma; other granites, rhyolites etc. will be derived from similar magmas). Produces 12 Orders, e.g. granates, essexates, etc. Rank IV. Based on habit of mass. Produces 7 families in each order, e.g. granophites, dioromicrites, gabbrolavites (basalts), etc. Rank V. Based on nature of minor mineral constituents. Produces a number of genera in each family, e.g. muscbi- eranophite, anaugi-hyper-peridotite (harzburgite). Rank VI. Based on texture, but to be applied only in families where there is much variety of texture. Produces Sub-genera, e.g. spheri-mono-rhyolite, graphi-bi-rhyolite, etc. The system of nomenclature described is an elaboration of that already proposed by the author in a preliminary paper in the Geological Magazine (1901). The desiderata of a systematic nomenclature are as follows:-—(1) Hach name should indicate the rank of the group to which it belongs. Inthe system proposed hames of series end in -ane, of sections in -ote, of orders in -ate, and of families in -ite. Genera are shewn by the presence of a mineral prefix and sub-genera by a textural prefix. (2) Each name should indicate the feature which dis- tinguishes the group from others of the same rank. This is not necessary in the higher ranks, but is accomplished for families, genera, and sub-genera. Thus a suffix, as ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xli. -aplite (for aplitic dyke), -micrite (meaning small mass), indicates the definition of the family. A contracted mineral prefix, as bi- (biotite) or hyper- (hypersthene) shows the predominating minor constituent of the genus; and another prefix the texture which defines the sub-genus. (3) Each name must be distinct and not easy to confuse with others. (4) The names must be as short as possible and easy to pronounce. Since the index minerals of orders cannot be easily stated ina name, root names are given to the orders, but this will involve no tax on the memory, as existing names of the corresponding well recognised groups are used; e.g.the order diorates includes all rocks derived from what is commonly known as the diorite magma. The definitions of accepted groups, granites, gabbros, etc., have not been altered, but only rendered slightly more precise. In conclusion, it is claimed that by use of the privative prefix a- or an-, and by means of other prefixes and suffixes, it is possible to name any igneous rock which may be con- ceived as likely to exist, and also to convey more informa- tion in the name than by any system yet proposed. On the motion of Prof. David, seconded by Mr. Stissmilch, it was resolved that the discussion of this paper be postponed. On account of the lateness of the hour the reading of the following paper was postponed :— 3. ““On the occurrence of isolated crystals of augite in the tuffaceous mudstones near the top of the Upper Marine Series at Gerringong,” by Mr. H. G. FoxaLL. Com- municated by Prof. T. W. H. DAVID, B.A., F.G.S., F.R.S. The President announced that His Honor Judge DOCKER had kindly offered to deliver a lantern lecture to the mem- bers of the Royal Society on ** What I saw in New Zealand;”’ further particulars as to date etc. would be announced. xlii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The following is an abstract of the Third Popular Science Lecture 1904, on “The Solar System and Southern Sky,”’ by H. A. LENEHAN, F.R.A.S., Acting Government Astronomer, Sydney Observatory, delivered on the 22nd September, 1904. The lecturer introduced the subject by referring to the small part of the astronomical regions of the whole heavens that the solar system occupies, and of the immeasurable distance of the stars we see outside our system, also of the still more wonderful discoveries the telescope has revealed to us, andis still doing. He showed that hitherto supposed blank spaces in the crowded part of the Milky Way are studded with stars which were not discernible by telescope, but the long exposures of extra sensitive photographic plates had revealed what the eye failed to see with the same telescope. Going back to pagan times, the lecturer showed the solar system in vogue during the days of Ptolemy, and also the views of Aristarchus of Samos, and Cleanthus of Assos, who to a certain extent anticipated Copernicus; then the Egyptian theory of the planets, Mercury and Venus being satellites to the Sun, the Sun being a planet revolving around the Harth. Next the Copernican system introduced by a grave browed eccle- siastic, who on the foggy shores of the Baltic in the 16th Century of the Christian era, thought out this system which later by the combined mathematical work of Kepler and Newton was perfected, and is now the system proved beyond all doubt as the true one. Another astronomer of note, Tycho Brahe, was induced to offer a theory which had been thought out by him. Perhaps wrong deductions caused him to misread certain passages of the Holy Scrip- tures, or personal vanity may have induced his theories, but his system only had a brief existence. Sets of views were then thrown on the screen in which each system was indicated, and about 21 views of the different objects of ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xiii. interest in the sky—principally southern constellations, were described. Then the planets were described, their size, revolution and distances from the Sun; the features of the inner planets, the asteroids and their origin, and then the outer belt of the great planets and their probable present state. The probability of life in each was explained and reference made to the conditions of such life, if it existed, and the nature of it. The lecturer stated that it may be that beings specially created for such conditions are so placed, but certainly no beings constituted as we are, could exist in many of them. Abstract of the Fourth Popular Science Lecture 1904, on ‘**The Steam Engine and its Modern Rivals,’”’ by S. HENRY BARRACLOUGH, B.E., M.M.E., Assoc. M.Inst.c.E., Lecturer in Mechanism and Applied Thermodynamics, University of Sydney. The introductory portion of the lecture dealt with the question of mechanical energy or motive power as being always one of the great necessities of the human race, and its development therefore one of the chief func- tions of the engineer. An outline was given of the various available sources of power, and the methods adopted and the cost of exploiting them, the two most important being water-power and the potential energy in the immense natural supplies of fuel. The remainder of the lecture was devoted to a consideration of how the energy of the fuel is made available by means of heat engines, and a brief sketch was given of the thermodynamic principles underlying the operation of all such engines—of which in the past the ordinary reciprocating engine has been by far the most important, but whose supremacy is in these latter days seriously threatened by its modern rivals the gas engine andthe steam turbine. Theattempts made toapply steam to practical uses were described in outline from the time of Hero (B.C. 200 or later) to Newcomen, whose ‘‘ atmos- xliv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. pheric engine ’’ (1705) was the first reciprocating engine operated by theagency ofsteam. A more detailed account was given of the life and work of James Watt and of his long connection with the historic firm of Boulton and Watt, in the course of which were described the various stages in the investigation of the defects of the Newcomen engine by which finally in 1769 the genius of Watt enabled him to produce what is essentually the modern reciprocating steam engine. In this connection illustrations were shown of the magnificent example of one of Watt’s earliest engines, which after being erected for the Whitbread Brewery, London, in 1785, continued to work well for 102 years, and was then taken down and presented to the Sydney Technical College, in whose “ James Watt Museum ”’ it now stands. The modern applications of the steam engine for power- station purposes, for locomotion by road and rail, and for marine navigation were then described, concluding with an account of the huge engines of the latest Atlantic express steamer as representing the crowning effort of the art and science of steam engineering. The lecture con- cluded with an account of (1) the modern gas engine of large size using cheap “* producer ”’ gas or the waste gases from blast furnaces as fuel, and of (2) typical steam turbines. A comparison was made of the thermodynamic and mechanical characteristics of these two as compared with the reciprocating engine, and reasons were given why the former are in some cases replacing the latter. The lecture was illustrated throughout by limelight views and diagrams. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, xlv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, NOVEMBER 16, 1904. A Special General Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Hlizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, November 16th, 1904. C. O. BURGE, ™. Inst.c.5., President, in the Chair. Highteen members and one visitor were present. The President announced (1) that the Fifth Popular Science Lecture 1904 on ‘“‘The Nervous System in its Genesis and Development,”’ by Dr. J. FROUDE FLASHMAN, M.D., Honorary Lecturer in Psychological Medicine and Neurology, University of Sydney, Director of the Patho- logical Laboratory of the Lunacy Department, would be delivered at the Royal Society’s House, on Thursday, November 24th, at 8 p.m. (2) That a Lantern Lecture on “ What I saw in New Zealand,’’ by His Honor JUDGE DOCKER, would be delivered at the Society’s House, on Thursday, December 8th at 8 p.m. THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ: ** On the occurrence of isolated crystals of augite in the tuffaceous mudstones near the top of the Upper Marine Series at Gerringong,’ by Mr. H. G. FoxaLtn. (Com- municated by Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, B.A., F.G.S., F.R.S.) The paper. gives the results of crystallographical and chemical examinations of a number of isolated crystals of augite, together witha short note on their occurrence. The crystallographical examination shows that the forms present on the crystals are [100], [010], [110] and either [011] or [111], with, in some cases other small faces which could not be accurately determined. The chemical com- position is as follows :— xlvi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. H,O0 (100°)... 0°41 MnO 0°29 H.O (100° +) 125 Cae, 19°73 SiO. 47°21 MgO 8 97 JN OR 11°12 CreO; 0°13 HeQ.... yal Wh an FeO; 5°50 100°51 TiOs 0°79 —— One crystal drawing and two gnomonic projections accompany the paper. Some remarks were made by Prof. David. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE DISCUSSED : 1. “The Flood Silt of the Hunter and Hawkesbury Rivers,” by Prof. T. W. EDGEWORTH DAVID, B.A., F.G.S., F.R.S., and Acting Prof. F. B. GUTHRIE, F.1.¢. F:C.s. Remarks were made by Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, Mr. T. F. Furber, on behalf of Mr. EK. MacFarlane, Mr. R. T. McKay, Mr. J. H. Maiden and the President. The authors replied. Mr. MacFarlane emphasised the importance of the paper, not only in its scientific aspect but also from the fact that the periodical enrichment of the flooded lands formed a considerable factor in the general question of land settle- ment. He pointed out the relation which these lands bore to the large areas in climatically less favoured parts of the State, and entered into a comparison between the produc- tiveness of the two classes of land, indicating how the richer lands must of necessity be regarded as the sources from which in times of drought food supplies must be drawn and on which the whole question of the habitableness of much of the interior must to some extent rest. He thought so highly of inquiries such as had been conducted by Pro- fessors David and Guthrie, that he would endeavour to cause such observations to be made as would perhaps form the basis of further investigation. ABSTRACT OF PROGEEDINGS. xlvii. 2. “*The Classification and Systematic Nomenclature of Igneous Rocks,”’ by H. STANLEY JEVONS, M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S.: Lecturer in Mineralogy and Petrology in the University of Sydney. Remarks were made by Mr. W. J. Clunies Ross, Prof. David, Mr. C. A. Stssmilch, and Dr. Cooksey. Mr. Jevons replied. The following is an abstract of the Fifth Popular Science Lecture 1904 on ‘‘ The Nervous System in its Genesis and Development,’’ by Dr. J. FROUDE FLASHMAN, M.D., Honorary Lecturer in Psychological Medicine and Neurology, Uni- versity of Sydney, Director of the Pathological Laboratory of the Lunacy Department, delivered at the Royal Society’s House, on Thursday, November 24th, at8p.m. The lecturer introduced his subject by indicating the enormous difference between the highest and lowest forms of nervous system. In dealing with the genesis of the system he pointed out that almost the whole body of an amoeba possessed the general properties of undifferentiated protoplasm, viz., irritability, conductivity, and contractility, but that when we come to animals a little higher in the scale, we find a Subdivision of labour—one part being detailed to receive impressions (the sense organs) another to conduct (the nerves), and another to contract (the muscles). It was further shown how other parts of the general protoplasm become differentiated into harder protecting structures to guard the more delicate sense organs, nerves, etc. The lecturer then traced the development of such a system, showing during the evening lantern slides of the nervous systems of ascidians, actinians, planarians, annelids, cray- fish, scorpions, spiders, insects, oysters, snails, octopus, shark, frog, snake, turtle, birds, marsupials, squirrel, cat, dog, horse, dolphin, chimpanzee, gorilla, orang-utan, human idiot, and man. Reference wasalso made during the even- xl viii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ing to the functions of the ganglion cell as well as to the phenomena of reflex action, instincts, and reason. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, DECEMBER 7, 1904. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 EHlizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, December 7th, 1904. C. O. BURGE, om. Inst. c.z., President, in the Chair. Thirty members and seven visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting and of the special meeting held on the 16th November, were read and con- firmed. One new member enrolled his name and was introduced. Messrs. C. J. MERFIELD and C. HEDLEY were appointed scrutineers, and Mr. H. A. LENEHAN deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The certificates of two candidates were read for the third time, of one for the second time, and of one for the first time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society, viz:— Hill, John Whitmore, Architect, ‘* Willamere,’’ May’s Hill, Parramatta. Vogan, Harold Sebastian, assoc. M. Inst. .p., Authorised Surveyor, N.Z., Chief Draftsman, Existing Rail- ways, N.S.W., Bridge-street, Sydney. Mr. Davip FELL, M.L.A., Member of the Corporation of Accountants of Australia and Mr. T. TYNDALL PETERSON, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlix, Associate Sydney Institute of Public Accountants, were re-appointed Auditors for the current year. Highteen volumes, 179 parts, 6 reports, and 12 pamphlets, total 215, received as donations since the last meeting, were laid upon the table and acknowledged. In view of the fact that he would be leaving the State prior to the Annual Meeting in May, Mr. C. O. BuraE, M. Inst. 0.H., had been asked, and had kindly consented, to deliver his Presidential Address that evening. The following is an abstract :—The President, Mr. CO. O. BURGE, said that the subject of his address would be the connexion between HKngineering and Science, and showed that in the earlier ages that connexion was closer than in later times, for though the names of the designers of the great ancient works now extant in Egypt and throughout the Roman Hmpire were, to a large extent, lost, we might be fairly sure that, it being before the age of specialism, the science and engineering necessary for these monuments of human skill, were concentrated in the same individuals. Tracing down the names of the scientists who helped engineering from the earliest times, those of Thales, Anaxagoras, Ptolemy, Huclid, Hipparchus, Appolonius, Archimedes in the classic period, the Moors of Spain in the middle ages, and Leonardo da Vinci, who investigated the laws of motion at the dawn of the Renaissance period, were referred to. Astronomy, which helped geodesy, algebra, mechanics, hydraulicsand hydrostatics, magnetism, logarithms, the invention of which was spoken of as one of the greatest efforts of the human intellect, and other sub- jects, were connected with the names of Cardan, Tartaglia, Stivinius, Record, Gilbert, Galileo, Copernicus, Kepler, Tycho Brahe, Napier, and others. But the constructing engineers or mechanics as they were then called, of those times, took no heed of these sciences, every one followed d—Dec. 7, 1904. i ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. the great rule of thumb, and it was not till the time of James Watt, who was helped by the investigation of heat physics by Professor Black, that engineers took advantage, to any great degree, of mechanical science. Pambour, Olerk Maxwell, Faraday, Kelvin, and Lodge, with others, were mentioned as having more recently contributed to the achievements of the engineer, while the tendency in the latter half of the past century to educate the engineer in technical institutions rather than by pupilage helped further in bringing about the connexion which was the subject of the address. The Odyssey of Homer was by some considered to be an allegory of man’s life through this world, with its tempta- tions and dangers, and of his protection therefrom by the heavenly powers. This wonderful story of old might be taken as an illustration of the subject of this address; the great hero Odysseus, working ever onward to his goal, but, even though he was called the man of many devices, the engineer of his age, blindly falling into difficulties often of his own making, nevertheless ever rescued and sustained by the fair goddess of all science, the grey eyed Athene. Science had one great distinction over law, literature, and art, and that was originality. Law was a mass of precedents ; literature was largely composed of echoes from the classics; while Greece and the middle ages had exhausted our ideas in art; not so in science, in which there were many brilliant originators. The absolute necessity of science to the conditions of modern life was then dwelt upon, illustrations being freely given, and the undue prominence given by Australians to physical culture rather as an end, than asa means to mental advancement, was also commented on, the latter principle being as old as Plato. There was an insufficient appreciation of scientific work, to which we might be awakened by some crushing ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. li. loss in trading or in war. Foreign nations, and especially Germany, were in advance of us, evidence of which was given by the quotation of statistics. If we could induce some of these to dump down on our shores some of the common sense which guided them in such matters it would be well for the Empire. Technical education was not however, for all, and the solution of those fit for it was of great importance, Japanese example being quoted as to this. It was pointed out that the Anglo Saxon race still led the way in original invention, while it was rather the German who perfected and made use of it. The Englishman Francis Bacon said, ‘“‘ knowledge is power;’’ it was the German of to-day who profits by that obvious aphorism. It was Shakespeare who wrote the mightiest plays ; it was in Germany that they were most acted. As to engineering being helped by science, the greatest strides, in modern times, were in connexion with artificial light, mechanical energy by means of electricity, and in disposal of the refuse of cities, chemical welding, com- pounding of steam engines, improvements in the turbine, and the help of the analyst to the engineer, quite a modern combination, were also mentioned. The address then touched on the greater comparative intellect of the men of old, than that of modern men, considering the much slighter foundations on which they had to build, and that it almost seemed as if genius did not increase with popula- tion, leading to, in the far future, a hopeless and uninter- esting mediocrity. In the future democracy of brains, where one man would be, intellectually, as good as another, the subtle fluid of original genius would become rarified into a sort of cerebral hydrogen. This tendency was shewn by the fact that in the later sciences, electricity for instance, there were no great outstanding figures—invention had been piecemeal. lii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Turning to the future, the field of discovery was great, the secrets of nature to be solved were inexhaustible. First in importance among the future triumphs of engineer- ing helped by science, though many practical difficulties were in the way, was the application of electricity to our main line railways, the advantages of which were referred to. Then there were promises of the most wonderful character as regards conveyance of power by electricity without wires. The adoption of wide and straight streets in cities, even at the cost of much reconstruction, would be a work of the future, so as to enable the tram and motor car to expel the more costly horse, which was slow and insanitary, and in view of this, it was hoped that those who had the fixing of the Federal City would bear in mind the necessity of level ground for its site. Increased economy in the utilization of heat units in the ordinary steam engine, would be a work of the future, thus saving our rapidly diminishing fuel supply. The application of mechanical power, through electricity laid on to dwelling houses like gas or water to domestic service, was dwelt. upon as more important than it would seem, at first sight, to be. Other subjects were then touched upon as fit ones for the future, such as the direct utilization of the sun’s rays for power, and of the rise and fall of the tide for the same purpose; the diminution of skin friction in ships; and of the resistance to air in ships and trains; the dispersion of fog by electricity; the further investigation of fatigue in metals used for construction; and the application of single phase electricity to traction. The address concluded by a reference to the necessity of reverent enquiry in the scientist, if he is to coax from nature her inmost secrets, so as to enable him, with the aid of his fellow worker the engineer, to promote the happiness, well being and comfort of his fellow men. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lili. On the motion of Dr. WALTER SPENCER seconded by His Honor JupGE DOCKER, a hearty vote of thanks for his services as President, and best wishes for his future wel- fare was carried with acclamation. Mr. Burge returned his thanks. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. “‘The Approximate Colorimetric Estimation of Nickel and Cobalt in presence of one another,’ by R. W. OHALLINOR. (Communicated by Acting-Professor J. A. SCHOFIELD, A.R.S.M., F.1.C.) Use is made of the complementary colours of Niand Co solutions apparently first observed by Maumené about 1851, and adapted to the mutual estimation of Ni and Co by Winkler in 1866. Winkler used solutions of varying strengths andin most cases much stronger than that used by the author. It is intended that the method should be applied to the solution of the weighed Ni and Oo deposited by electrolysis. The mixed metals are dissolved in HNO,, the solution evaporated to about 5 cc. to remove the greater part of the acid, diluted to a definite volume, and a fraction taken containing about *05 grams of the mixed metals. Standard Ni (NOs). (‘01 gram Ni per cc.) or Co (NO;). (‘003 gram per cc.) solution is then added until the colour matches a neutral tinted solution contain- ing °012 grams Co and ‘038 grams Ni as nitrates in 50 cc.,; both solutions are contained in 50 cc. in Nessler tubes 10°9 cm. high from 0 ce. to 50 cc., and brought finally to the same dilution, the colours being compared by looking vertically down the tubes. A better method is to add a measured amount of the standard Ni solution till green and then to titrate back with the Co solution. The maximum error with the latter method is about ‘0007 grams on ‘05 grams of the mixed metals, i.e. about 1°5*. liv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 2. ‘‘ Note on a combined Wash-bottle and Pipette,’’ by J. W. HogartH. (Communicated by Acting Professor J. A. SCHOFIELD, A.R.S.M., F.I.C.) The apparatus described consists of a graduated pipette within an ordinary wash-bottle, and can be used for deliver- ing definite volumes of a hot or cold liquid, either for dis- solving or washing a precipitate upon a filter paper. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknowledged :— TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics.) AacHEN— Meteorologische Observatoriums. Deutsches Meteoro- logisches Jahrbuch fiir 1902, Jahrgang viii. The Director ABERDEEN—Aberdeen University. University Studies, Nos. 8 and 9, 1903. The University AcriREALE—R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti degli Zelanti. Rendiconti e Memorie, Ser. 3, Vol. 11., 1902-3. The Academy ADELAIDE—Commissioner of Crown Lands. Rock Phosphates and other Mineral Fertilisers: their origin, value, and sources of supply by C. Chewingss, Ph. D.,etc., 1903. The Commissioner Government Geologist. A short review of Mining Operations in the State of South Australia during the year 1903, and half-year ended June 30, 1904. Government Geologist Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery. Report of the Board of Governors for 1902-3. The Director Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Proceedings of the South Australian Branch, Vol. v1., Session 1902-3 ; Vol. vir., Session 1903-4. The Society Royal Society of South Australia. Transactions, Vol. xxvi1., Part ii., 1903. Agram—Archeoloskoga Odjela Narodnoga Muzeja u Zagrebu. Vjesnik hrvatskoga Arheoloskoga Drustva, N.S. Vol. vil., Parts i., 1i., 1903-4. Société Archeologique, Croate Atspany—New York State Library. University of the State of New York. College Department, Annual Report (4th) 1901, (5th) 1902. High School Department, Annual Report (9th) Vols.1., 11.,1901. Regents’ Annual Report (115th) 1901, (116th) 1902. New York State Library Annual Report (84th) 1901, (85th) Vols. 1., m., 1902. New York State Museum, Annual Report (54th) Vols. 1.—Iv., 1900; Annual Report (55th) 1901. Bulletin, Nos. 44, 52 — 62, 64 - 67, 1901-3. The Library AMsTERDAM-—Académie Royale des Sciences. Jaarboek, 1902. Proceedings of the Section of Sciences, Vol. v., Parts i., ii., 1902-8. Verhandelingen, Eerste Sectie, Deel tv., 33 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, lv. AmsTERDAM—continued. 3 1901; Eerste Sectie, Deel vi11., Nos. 3 - 5, 1903; Tweede Sectie, Deel 1x., Nos. 4-9, 1902-38. Verslag van de Gewone Vergaderingen der Wis-en Natuurkundige afdeeling van 31 Mei 1902 tot 29 Nov. 1902, Deel x1., Gedeelte 1 and 2, 1902-3. The Academy Awnnapo.uis, Md.—U.S. Naval Institute. Proceedings, Vol. xx1x., No. 4, 1903; Vol. xxx., No. 1, 1904. The Institute AntTwrerRe—Paedologisch Jaarboek, Jaargang v., 1904. The Editor AvckLtanp—Auckland Institute and Museum. Annual Report for 1903-4. The Institute Battimore—Johns Hopkins University. American Chemical Journal Vol. xx1x., Nos 3—6; Vol. xxx., Nos. 1-6, 1903; Vol. xxx1,, Nos) 1-3, 1904. American Journal of Mathematics, Vol. xxv., Nos. 2-4, 1903. American Journal of Philology, Vol. xxiv., Nos. 1-3, 1903. Uni- versity Circulars, Vol. xx111., No. 165, 1903 (Univ. Pub. No. 1, 1903-4). Studies in Historical and Political Science, Series xx1., Nos. 1 —12, 1908. The University BaNnGALORE—Mysore Geological Department. Bulletin, Nos. 1, 2, 1904. Records, Vol. 111., 1900-1; Vol. tv., 1902-3. Report of the Chief Inspector of Mines, 1902-3. The Department Baszet—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Verhandlungen, Band xv., Heft 2, 1904. The Society Batavia—Koninklijke Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Nederl- Indié. Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch- Indié, Deel Lx111., 1904. 3 BerRcEN—Bergen Museum. Aarbog, Hefte 2, 3,1902; Hefte 1, 2, 1903. Aarsberetning for 1902. An account of the Crustacea of Norway by G. O. Sars, Vol. v., Copepoda Harpacticoida, Parts i., ii., 1903. The Musewm BERKELEY— University of California. College of Agriculture— Agricuitural Experiment Station :— Bulletin Nos. 149 — 154, 1908; Bulletin, New Series, Vol. v., No. 2, 1908; Report of Work from June 30, 1901 to June 30 1903. Department of Geology, Bulletin, Vol. 111., Nos. 13 - 15, 1903-4; Pathology, Vol. 1., No.1, 1903; Physiology Vol. 1., Nos.8- 10, 12, 1908-4. Lick Observatory, Bulletin No. 41—Publication Vol. v1., 1903. University Chronicle, Vol. v1., Nos. 2, 3,1903. Announcement of Publications A study of the Double Cyanides of Zinc with Potassium and with Sodium, 1903. The University BERLIN—Centralbureau der Internationalen Erdmessung. Verhandlungen der 1903, Copenhagen Conferenz. The Bureau Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin. Zeitschrift, Nos. 4 - 10, 1903; Nos. 1 -5, 1904. The Society Koniglich preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Archiv des Erdmagnetismus etc., Heft 1, 1903. Sit- zungsberichte, Nos. 41 - 53, 1903; Nos. 1-40, 1904. The Academy Koniglich preussische Meteorologische Instituts. Abhand- lungen, Band 11., Nos. 3, 4, 1902-4. Bericht tiber die Tatigkeit im Jahre 1908. Deutsches Meteorologisches Jahrbuch fiir 1902, 19038. Ergebnisse der Wolkenbeo- bachtungen in Potsdam etc. 1896 und 1897. The Institute lvi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Brrne—Département de l’Interieur de la Confédération Suisse, Section des Travaux Publics. Tabellarische Zusam- menstellung der Haupt-Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen hydrometrischen Beobachtungen fiir das Jahr 1893.1899. Graphische Darstellungen der Schweizerischen hydro- metrischen Beobachtungen und der Luft-Temperaturen und Niederschlags-Héhen fiir das Jahr 1902. The Department Société de Géographie de Berne. Jahresbericht, Band xv111,, 1900-2. The Society BirMiInGHAM—Birmingham and Midland Institute Scientific Society. Records of Meteorological Observations, Edgbaston 1903, es Bonn—Naturhistorischer Vereins der Preussischen Rheinlande, Westfalens und des Reg.—Bezirks Osnabriick. Ver- handlungen, Jahrgang Lx., Hilfte 1, 2, 1908. - Niederrheinische Gesellschaft fir Natur—und Heilkunde zu Bonn. Sitzungsberichte, Hialfte 1, 2, 1903. = Boston, Mass.—American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Pro- ceedings, Vol. xxxvirr., No. 26, 1903; Vol. xxxrx., Nos. 1 - 24, 1904; Vol. xu., Nos. 1, 2, 1904. The Academy Bou.pER, Colo.—University of Colorado. University Studies, Vol. 1., No. 4; Vol. 11., Nos. 1, 2, 1904. The University BremEN—Meteorologische Observatorium. Deutsches Meteo- | rologisches Jahrbuch fiir 1993. The Observatory Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Bremen. Abhandlungen Band xvu., Heft 3, 1903. The Society BrooktyNn—Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. Memoirs of Natural Sciences, Voi. 1., No. 1, 1904, Cold Spring Harbor Monographs 1, 2, 1904. The Museum BriIsBANE— Department of Agriculture. Botany Bulletin No. 16 June 1903—Contributions to the Queensland Flora, 1 Oct., 1903, Jan. 1904, by F. M. Bailey, F.u.s. Contri- butions to the Flora of British New Guinea by F. M. Bailey, F.L.S. The Department Department of Mines. Geological Survey Report, Nos. 184 — 186, 188 — 195, 1903-4. Sketch Map of the Walsh and Tinaroo Mineral Field, 1904. as Department of Public Lands. North Queensland Ethno- graphy, Bulletin No. 7, 1904. ae Queensland Acclimatisation Society. Annual Report (40th) for the year ending 31 March, 1903. The Society Royal Society of Queensland. Proceedings, Vol. xvu1t., 1904. 33 Bristot— Bristol Naturalists’ Society. Proceedings, New Series Vol. x., Part iii., 1903. % Brunswick —Vereins fiir Naturwissenschaft zu Braunschweig. Jahresbericht, rx., 1893-5; x1I1., 1901-3. is Bucuarest—Institutul Meteorologic al Rouminiei. Annales, Tome xvi., Année 1900. Index des Publications, 1885 — 1908. The Institute ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lvii. Buenos ArrEs—Instituto Geografico Argentino. Boletin, Tomo xx1., Nos. 1 — 6, 1903. The Institute BurraLto—Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. Bulletin, Nos. 1-3, 1903. The Society BuLawayro—British South African Company. Railways in Rhodesia 1904. The Company Rhodesia Museum. Annual Report (2nd) 1903. Special Report No. 2, 1904. The Musewm Carn—Académie Nationale des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres. Mémoires, 1903. The Academy CautcuTta-—Asiatic Society of Bengal. Journal, Vol. .ixxir., 1903, Part ii., Nos. 3,4; Part ii., No.2. Title Page and Index, Vol. uxvi., 1899, Parti., Vol. Lxx., 1901, Part i; Vol. uxxt., 1902; Parts 1,111.5 Vol. pxxir., 1903 Part ii. Proceedings, Nos. 6-10, 1903. The Society Board of Scientific Advice for India. Annual Report for the year 1902-3. The Board Geological Survey of India. General Report for tho year 1902-8. Memoirs, Vol. xxxiv., Part i., Vol. xxxv., Part ii., 1903; Vol. xxxvi., Part i., 1904. Memoirs, Paleontologia Indica, Ser. rx., Vol. 111., Part i1., No. 1; Ser. xv., Vol. 1., Part v., 19038. Records, Vol. xxx1., Parts i., ii., 1904. Contents and Index of Vols. xx1.— xxx. of the Records 1887 — 1897. The Survey CamBRIDGE—Cambridge Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xu., Parts 4—6, 1903-4. Transactions, Vol. x1x., Part 3, 1904. The Society Cambridge Public Free Library. Annual Report (49th) 1903-4 The Library Cambridge University Library. Annual Report (50th) of the Library Syndicate for year ending Dee. 31, 1908. 39 CAMBRIDGE (Mass.)—Museum of Comparative Zoélogy at Harvard College. Annual Report of the Keeper for 1902-3. Bulletin, Vol. xxx1x., No.9, 1904; Vol. xu., No. 7, 1903; Vol. xu1., No. 2, 1904; Vol. xu11., (Geological Series Vol. vi.) No. 5, 1904; Vol. xurr., Nos. 1, 2, 3, 1904; Vol. XLiv., 1904; Vol. xtv., Nos. 1, 2, 3, 1904; Vol. xtvt., Nos. 1, 2, 1904. Memoirs, Vol. xx1x., 1903; Vol. xxx., No. 1, 1904. The Museum Cape Town—Department of Agriculture. Annual Report of the Geological Commission, 1908. The Department South African Association for the Advancement of Science. Report of the First Meeting, Cape Town 1903. The Association South African Museum. Annals, Vol. tv., Parts i.—vi., 1903-4. The Museum South African Philosophical Society. Transactions, Vol. xu11., pp. — 293, Parti; Vol. xiv., Parts 111., 1v.; v.; Vol: xv. Parts 1., 11., 1908-4. The Society CaRLSRUHE—“ Fridericiana’”’ Grossherzoglich Badische Tech- nische Hochschule zu Karlsruhe. Programm fir das Studienjahr 1903-4. Inaugural Dissertations (7) 1902-3. The Director lviii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. CARLSRUHE—continued. Naturwissenschaftliche Vereins in Karlsruhe. Verhand- lungen, Band xv1., 1902-3. The Society CasseL—Vereins fiir Naturkunde zu Kassel. Abhandlungen und Bericht xuiviit., 1902-3. “ Cuemnitz—Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft. Bericht xv., 1899 — 1903. g Cuicaco—Field Columbian Museum. Anthropological Series, Vol. 11., No. 6, 1903; Vol. 111., Nos. 1 - 4, 1901-3; Vols. Iv., v.; Vol. vi., No. 1, 1903; Vol. vur., No. 1, 1904. Botanical Series, Vol. 111., No. 2, 1904. Geological Series, Vol. 11., No. 1-4, 1903. Report Series, Vol. 11, No. 3, 1903. Zoological Series, Vol. 111., Nos. 10-16, 1903-4. The Museum University of Chicago Press. Astrophysical Journal, Vol. xviit., Nos. 4, 5, 1903; Vol. x1x., Nos. 1-4, 1904. Jour- nal of Geology, Vol. x1., Nos. 7, 8, 1903; Vol. x11., Nos. 1 - 6, 1904. The University Western Society of Engineers. Journal, Vol. virr., Nos. 5, 6, 1908; Vol. rx., Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 1904. The Society CurisTiAntiA—Norske Gradmaalings-Kommission. Resultater af Vandstands-Observationer paa den Norske Kyst. Hefte 6, 1904. The Commission Norwegische Meteorologische Instituts. Jahrbuch fir 1900, 1901, 1902. The Institute Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiania. Den Norske Sindssy- gelovgivning —Forelesninger af Dr. Paul Winge 1901. Forhandhnger for 1902. Skrifter, Math. Naturv. Klasse 1902, The Society CrncinnaTi—Cincinnati Society of Natural History. Journal, Vol. xx., No. 4, 1904. es CoLtomBo—Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of the Ceylon Branch, Vol. xvir., No. 54, 1904. Pe CoLtumBiA—University of Missouri. Bulletin, Vol. v., Nos. 6, 7, 1904. The Negroes of Missouri, 1904. University Studies, Vol. 11., Nos. 2, 3, 1903-4. The University CoPpENHAGEN—Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. Mémoires, Nouvelle Serie 1902. The Society Cracow—Académie des Sciences de Cracovie. Bulletin Inter- national (Classe de Philologie, Classe d’Histoire et de Philosophie) Nos. 6-10, 1903, Nos. 1-7, 1904. (Classe des Sciences Mathematiques et Naturelles) Nos. 7 - 10, 1903; Nos. 1-7, 1904. Catalogue of Polish Scientific Literature, Tom ur1., Zeszyt 1. - iii., 1908. The Academy DrnvER—Colorado Scientific Society. Proceedings, Vol. vut., pp. 109 - 138, 267 - 312, 1903-4. The Society Des Moines—lIowa Geological Survey. Annual Report for 1902 etc., Vol. xIII. The Survey DrespEN—KoOnigliches Mineralogisch Geologische Museum nebst der Prahistorische Sammlung zu Dresden. Mitteilungen (1 reprint) 1903. The Museum ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lix, DrEespEN—continued. Konigl. Sachs. Statistische Bureau. Zeitschrift, Jahreang xLvi., Heft 3, 4, 1903; Jahrgang xurx., Heft 1 - 4 and Supplement 1904. The Bureau Konig]. Sammlungen fiir Kunst und Wissenschaft in Dresden Bericht iiber die Verwaltung und Vermehrung wahrend der Jahre 1900 und 1901. The Director Verein fiir Erdkunde zu Dresden. Mitglieder-Verzeichnis, 1 April 1904. Nachtrag tIv., 1903. The Society Dustin—Royal Dublin Society. Economic Proceedings, Vol. 1., Part iv., 1903. Scientific Proceedings, N.S. Vol. x., Part i., 1903. Scientitic Transactions (Series 11.) Vol. vil,, Parts 11. —v., 1903. Royal Irish Academy. Proceedings, Vol. xxiv., Section A. Parts ii,, iv.; Vol. xxv., Section A, Nos. 1, 2; xxiIv., Section B, Parts iv., v.; Vol. xxrv., Section C. Parts iv. v., 1903-4; Vol. xxv., Section C, Nos. 1-4. Transac- tions, Vol. xxx11., Section A, Parts vii.—x.; Vol. xxxI1., Section B, Parts iji.,iv.; Vol. xxx11., Section C, Parts li., 111., 1908-4. The Academy Easton, Pa.—American Chemical Society. Directory, Sept. 1903. Journal, Vol. xxv., Nos. 3, 11,12,1903; Vol. xxv1., Nos. 1-10, 1904. The Society EpinBurRGH—Botanical Society of Edinburgh. Transactions and Proceedings,, Vol. xx11., Parts i., 11., 1901-2. B3 Royal Physical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xv., Part ii., Sessions 1902 - 4. Royal Scottish Geographical Society. The Scottish Geo- graphical Magazine, Vol. xx., Nos. 1-11, 1904. o6 Scottish Microscopical Society. Proceedings, Vol. 111., No. 4, Session 1902-3; Vol. 1v., No. 1, Session 1908-4. A FLorencE—Societa di Studi Geografici e Coloniali. Revista Geografica Italiana, Annata x., Fasc. 9, 10, 1903 ; Annata xI., Fasc. 1 - 8, 1904. oe) Societa Italiana d’ Antropologia, Etnologia etc. Archivio, Vol. xxx1t1., Fasc. 2, 3, 1903. »» Fort Monrot Va.—United States Artillery. Journal, Vol. xx., Nos. 2, 3, Whole Nos. 68, 64, 1908; Vol. xx1., Nos. 1-38; Whole Nos. 65 — 67, 1904; Vol. xx11., No. 1, Whole No. 68, 1904. The Artillery Board _ Frerperei/S—Berg. und Huttenwesen im Konigreiche Sachsen. Jahrbuch. Jahrgang 1903. The Academy FReEi1BuRG i/ Br.—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Berichte, Band x111., 1903. The Society GrrLone—Geelong Field Naturalists’ Club. The Geelong Naturalist, Second Series, Vol. 1., Nos. 1, 2, 1904. The Club Guascow— University. Calendar for the year 1904-5. The University GotHEenBuRG—Kungliga Vetenskaps-och Vitterhets-Samhallet. Handlingar, Foljden tv., Haft 5, 6, 1903. The Society Ix. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. GorTincen—Kénigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Na- chrichten, Geschaftliche Mittheilungen, Heft 2, 1903; Heft 1, 1904. Mathematisch-physikalische Klasse, Heft 5,6, 1908; Heft 1—- 4, 1904. The Society ; Gratz—Naturwissenschaftliche Vereins fiir Steiermark. Mit- teilungen, Jahrgang 19038. 35 HaarLtemM—Koloniaal Museum te Haarlem. Bulletin, No. 30, 1904. The Museum Musée Teyler. Archives, Série 2, Vol. vi11., Partie iii. -- v., 1903-4. Cataloque de la Bibliothéque par G. C. W. Bohnensieg, Tome 111., 1888 — 19038. Ai Société Hollandaise des Sciences. Archives Néerlandaises ds Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Série 2, Tome vIIrl., Liv.5, 1903; Tome r1x., Liv. 1 - 3, 1904. The Society Hatite—K. Leopold-Carol. Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher. Leopoldina, Heft 37-39, 1901-3. Nova Acta, Bande LXXX., LXxx1., 19038. The Academy HamBpurG—Geographische Gesellschaft in Hamburg. Mitthei- lungen, Bande x1x., xx., and Supplement 1903-4. The Society Kaiserliche Marine. Deutsche Seewarte. Archiv, Jahrgang xxvi., 1903. Deutsche Ueberseeische Meteorologische Beobachtungen Heft 12,1904. Ergebnisse der Meteoro- logischen Beobachtungen, Jahrgang xxv., 1902. Erge- nisse der Meteorologischen Beobachtungen im Systeme der Deutschen Seewarte fiir das Lustrum 1896 — 1900. Jahresbericht (26th) tiber die Tatigkeit der Deutschen Seewarte fiir das Jahr 1903. Katalog der Bibliothek Nachtrag Iv., v., 1901 - 3. The Observatory Naturhistorische Museum. Mitteilungen, Jahrgang xx., 1902. The Museum Verein fiir naturwissenschaftliche Unterhaltung in Hamburg. Verhandlungen, Band x11., 1900-3. The Society Hamitton, (Ont.)—Hamilton Scientific Association. Journal and Proceedings, Vol. x1x., Session 1902-3. The Association HEIDELBERG—Naturhistorisch-Medicinische Verein zu Heidel- berg. Verhandlungen, N.F. Band vit., Heft 3 - 5, 1904. The Society HELsINGFors—Société des Sciences de Finlande. Etat des Glaces et des Neiges en Finlande pendant |’ hiver 1892-3 exposé par Axel Heinrichs. Observations publiées par lV Institut Météorologique Central, Vol. xvi. Observa- tions Météorologiques en 1897 Vol. xv11. en 1898. os Hospart—Mines Department. Report of the Secretary for Mines for half year ending 31 December, 1903. The Progress of the Mineral Industry of Tasmania for the quarters ending 30 Sept., 31 Dec., 1903, 31 March, 30 June 1904. Reports :— Deposits of Clay at George’s Bay and elsewhere 1904; Dial Range and some other mineral districts on the north-west coast of Tasmania, 1903; Findon’s Copper Sections, Mount Darwin 1903; Mount Farrell mining district 1904; Mount Victoria goldfield, 1904; Primrose Mine, Rosebery 1903; Prospects of the Stanley River Tinfield, 1904; South Mount Victoria mining field, 1904; Zeehan Silver-lead mining field 1904. The Department ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lxi, Hosart—continued. Tasmanian Field Naturalists’ Club. Rules and Objects 1904. The Club Honotutu H.I.— Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum of Polynesian Ethnology and Natural History. Fauna Hawaiiensis, Vol. 1., Part iv., 1903; Vol. 11., Part iv., 1904. Occas- ional Papers, Vol. 11., No. l, 1902; No. 2, 1908. Rock Carvings of Hawaii. Some possible traces of Pre-Historic Hawaiians, by A. F. Judd. The Musewm Hopton, Mirfield—Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society. Proceedings, New Series, Vol. xv., Part 1., 1903. The Society Inpranapotis Ind.—Department of Geology and Natural Re- sources. AnnualjReport (26th) 1901, (28th) 1903. The State Geologist Indiana Academy of Science. Proceedings, 1902. The Academy JeENA—Medicinisch Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft. Jen- aische Zeitschrift fiir Naturwissenschaft, Band xxxvIilIl., N.F. xxx1., Heft 2 — 4, 1903-4; Band xxx1x., N.F.. xxxi1., Heft 1, 1904. The Society JOHANNESBURG—Commissioner of Mines. Report of the Geo- logical Survey of the Transvaal for the year 1903. The Commissioner Government Observatory. Report of the Meteorological Department for years ending 30 June 1903 and 30 June 1904. The Director Krw—Royal Gardens. Hooker’s Icones Plantarum, 4 Ser., Vol. vir., Part iii., 1903. The Trustees KonitasBerc—K. Physikalisch-dkonomische Gesellschaft. Schrif- ten, Jahrgang xuiitI., 1902. The Society Kirrr—Société des Naturalistes. Mémoires, Tome xv111.,1904. _,, La Pruata—Direccién General de Estadistica de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Boletin Mensual, Afio tv., Nos. 35 - 37, 1903. The Director Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires. Anales, Serie 3, Tome 1t., 1903. The Museum Lzrzps— Philosophical and Literary Society. Annual Report (83rd) 1902-3. The Society Victoria University. Annual Report (29th) of the Yorkshire College 1902-3. The University Lzerpzia—K onigliche Saichsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Berichte tiber die Verhandlungen, Nos. 6, 7, 1902; Nos. 1-6, 1908; Nos. 1-8, 1904. The Society Vereins fir Erdkunde. Mitteilungen, 1903. Wissenschaft- liche Veroffentlichungen, Band v1., 1904. ee Lima—Ministeriode Fomento. Boletin del Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Pern, Nos. 3, 6-9, 12, 14, 1903-4. The Minister Lincoun (Nebr.)—American Microscopical Society. Transac- tions. Vols. xx., XXI., XXII., and xxIv., 1898, 1899, 1900, and 1903. The Society Lisson—Observatoire Royal de Lisbonne (Tapada). Corrections aux Ascensions Droites de quelques etoiles du Berliner Jahrbuch 1902. Observations d’ éclipses de Lune 1904. The Observatory xii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Lonpon—Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal, Vol. xxx1m., July—Dec. 1908; Vol. xxxiv., Jan, — June 1904. The Institute Board of Trade. Board of Trade Journal, Vols, xuim. — XLVI., 1903-4; Vol. xuvu., Nos. 410-414, 1904. Tke Board British Museum (Natural History). A Hand-List of the genera and species of Birds by R. Bowdler Sharpe, Lu.D. 1903. Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalene, Vols. 1., II., 111., 1898 — 1901. The Museunr Chemical News, Vol. txxxvitt., Nos. 2292 — 2800, 1908; Vol. Lxxxix., Nos. 2301 - 2326, 1904; Vol. xc., 2327 — 2347, 1904. The Editor Chemical Society. Collective Index of the Transactions, Procecdings and Abstracts, 1893-1902. Journal, Vols. LxXxXxXIll. and Lxxxiv. Nos. 492 - 494, 1903, Supplement Number; Vols. yxxxxv. and Lxxxvi., Nos. 495 - 504, 1904. Proceedings, Vol. xx., Nos. 275, 277 — 287, 1904. The Society Electrical Engineer. Old Series Vol. xxxviir., New Series Vol. xxx11t., Nos. 19-26, 1903; O.S. Vol. xxx1x.}, N.S. Vol. xxxiu., 1,3-—26, 1904; O.S. Vol. xz., N.S. Vol. xxxIv., Nos. 1-18, 1904. The Publishers Geological Society. Geological Literature added to the Library during the year ended 31 Lec. 1908. Quarterly Journal, Vol. ux., Parts i., ii., ili., Nos. 287 -— 289, 1904. The Society Imperial Institute. Bulletin, Vol.1., 1903; Vol. 11., Nos.1 —3, 1904. Technical Reports and Scientific Papers, 19038. The Institute Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. Pro- ecedings, Part iii., 1903; Partsi., ii., 1904. Register of Fellows, Associates and Students, April 1904. Institution of Civil Engineers. Charter and List of Mem- bers, July 1904. Proceedings, Vol. cuir1., Partiii.; Vol. cLiv., Part iv. and Supplement Session 1902-3; Vol. cov., Parti., Vol. cuvi., Part ii, Vol. civir., Part iii., 1903-4. Subject Index, Vols. cui. — ciiv., Session 1902-3. The Institution Institution of Electrical Engineers. Science Abstracts, Vol. vi., Parts x. - xii., 1903 and Index; Vol. vi1., Parts i. — x., |904. Institution of Mechanical Engineers. General Index to Proceedings 1885-1900. List of Members, 16th March 1904. Proceedings, Nos. 3, 4, 1903; Nos. 1, 2, 1904. Institution of Naval Architects. Transactions, Vol. xLv1., 1904. Indexes to Vols. 1. — XLII. Iron and Steel Institute. Journal, Vol. txtv., No. 2, 1903. Rules and List of Members, July 1, 3904. The Institute Linnean Society. Journal, Botany, Vol. xxxv., Nos. 247, 248; Vol. xxxvi., Nos. 252 - 254, 1903-4, Zoology, Vol. xxrx., Nos 188 - 189, 1903-4. Proceedings, 115th Session Nov. 1902 to June 1903. List of Fellows etc., 1903-4. The Society Meteorological Office. Report of the Meteorological Council for the year ending 31 March, 1903. The Office 33 33 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xiii. Lonpon—continued. Mineralogical Society. Mineralogical Magazine and Journal, Vol. x111., No. 62, 1903. The Society Museum of Practical Geology. Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom for 1903. The Cretaceous Rocks of Britain, Vol. 111., 1904. The Museum Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Calendar 1904. Pharmaceutical Journal, Vol. uxx1., Nos. 3393 — 3401, 1903; Vol. uxxir., Nos. 3402 - 3427, 1904; Vol. uxxur1., Nos. 3428 — 3445, 1904. The Society Physical Society of London. Proceedings, Vol. xv111., Parts Vi., vil’, 1903; Vol. xtx., Parts i., ii., 1904. List of Officers and Fellows, 1 April, 1904. - Quekett Microscopical Club. Journal, Ser. 2, Vol. virr., No. 51, Nov. 1902. The Club Royal Agricultural Society of England. Journal, Vol. uxi1r., of Entire Series, 1902; Vol. uxiv., 1903. The Society Royal Astronomical Society. Monthly Notices, Vol, uxtv., Nos. 1-9, 1903-4. Memoirs, Vol. tiv. and appendices 1-5, 1899-1901; Vol. tv. and appendix 1, 1904. List of Fellows and Associates, June 1904. ae Royal College of Physicians. List of Fellows, Members, Extra Licentiates, and Licentiates 1904, The College Royal Economic Society. Economic Journal, Vol. x111., No. 52, 1908; Vol. x1v., Nos. 53 — 55, 1904. The Society Royal Geographical Society. The Geographical Journal, Vol. xxi., Nos. 1-6; Vol. xxiv., Nos. 1-5, 1904. ‘a Royal Institution of Great Britain. Proceedings, Vol. xvir., Part i., No. 96, 1903. The Institution Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. xxr1x., No. 128, 1903; Vol. xxx., Nos. 129-1382. 1904. The Meteorological Record, Vol xx111., Nos. 89-92, 1908, Vol xxiv., No. 93,1904. List of Fellows, 1 Feb., 1904. The Society Royal Microscopical Society. Journal, Parts i.—v., Nos. 158 — 162, 1904. . Royal Society. Obituary Notices of the Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol.1., Partsi, ii, iii., 1904. Proceed- ings, Vol. uxxi., Nos. 488 - 487, 1903-4; Vol. uxxtir., Nos. 488 — 496; Vol. uxxxiv., Nos 497 - 501, 1904. Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission, Nos 2 - 4, 1908. The Atoll of Funafuti. Transactions, Series B, Vols. 192—196; Series A, Vol. 194 —- 208, 1900-1904. Year Book No. 8, 1904. 55 Royal Society of Literature. Transactions, Second Series, Vol. xxiv., Part 4, 1908; Vol. xxv., Parts i, il., 1904. Chronicon Ade de Usk, A.D 1377-421. Queen Eliza- beth and the Levant Company, 1904. Report of the Council and List of Fellows 1904 Py Royal United Service Institution. Journal, Vol. xtiv., No. 267, 1900; Vol. xntv., No. 282, 1901; Vol. xtvur., Nos. 308 — 310, 1903; Vol. xuvim., Nos. 311 - 3138, 315-321, 1904. The Institution lxiv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Lonpon—continued. Sanitary Institute of Great Britain. Journal, Vol. xxtv., Parts ili.,iv., and Supplements, 1903-4; Vol. xxv., Parts i., li., and Supplements 1904. The Institute Society of Arts. Journal, Vol. u11., Nos. 2661 — 2712, 1903-4. The Society Zoological Society of London. Proceedings, 1903, Vol. 11., Parts 1., 1.; 1904, Vol. 1., Partsi., 1., Vol..11., Parnas Transactions, Vol. xviI., Part 111.,1904. List of Fellows etc., 31 May, 1904. . Luseck—Geographische Gesellschaft und des Naturhistorische Museums. Mitteilungen, Second Series, Heft 17-19, 1903-4. Erdmagnetische Station zu Liibeck, Heft 6, 1903. The Museum Mapison—Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Transactions, Vol. x111., Part ii., 1901; Vol. xiv. Parti., 1902. The Academy Mapras—K odaikanal and Madras Observatories. Annual Report of the Director for the period | Jan. to 31 Dec. 1903. Zhe Director Madras Government Museum. Bulletin, Vol. v., No. 1, 1903. The Museum MaANncHESTER—Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal of Conchology, Vol. x1., Nos. 1-4, 1904. The Society Manchester Geological and Mining Society. Transactions, Vol. xxvull., Parts viii. - xv., Session 1903-4. se Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings, Vol. xutvii1.. Parts i. - iii., 1903-4. 5 Marpure—Gesellschaft zur Beférderung des gesimmten Natur- wissenschaften zu Marburg. Schriften, Band x111., Abth. 5, 1904. Sitzungsberichte, Jahryang 1903. i. Royal University. Inaugural Dissertations 1902-3 (104 stiick): The University MeELBOURNE—Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers. Trans- actions, Vol. 1x., Part ii., 1903 ; The Institute Broken Hill Proprietary Co. Ltd., Barrier Ranges Silver- field. Reports and Statements of Account for (37th) Half-year ending 30 Nov. 1903 and (38th) Half-year ending 31 May, 1904. The Secretary Department of Mines. Annual Report of the Secretary for Mines and Water Supply, 1903. Bulletins of the Geo- logical Survey of Victoria, Nos. 9 - 13, 1903-4. The Department Field Naturalists’ Club of Victori:. ‘I'he Victorian Naturalist, Vol. xx., Nos. 8—12, 1903-4; Vol. xx1., Nos !-—7, 1904. The Club Government Statist. Victorian Year Book for 1902 and 1903. Government Statist Public Library, Museums, and National Gallery of Victoria. Report of the Trustees for 1903. The Trustees Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Victorian Geo- graphical Journal, Vol. xx., xx1, 1902-3. The Society Royal Society of Victoria. Proceedings, New Series, Vol. xv1., Part ii.; Vol. xvu., Parti, 19v4. * University. Calendar, 1904. The University Ties ~ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Ixv. Mrxico—Instituto Geolégico de México. Parergones, Tomo 1., Nos. J — 8, 1903-4. 4 The Institute Observatorio Astrénomico Nacional de Tacubaya. Anuario, Vol. xxiv., afo de 1904. Informes presentados a la Secretaria de Fomento por el Director del Observatorio Astronomico Nacional 1902-3. The Observatory Sociedad Cientifica ‘Antonio Alzate.” Memorias y Revista, Tomo xvi., Nos. 3-6; Tomo xrx., Nos. 2-7; Tomo xx., Nos. 1-4, 1902-3. The Society Mintan—Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere. Rendi- conti, Serie 2, Vol. xxxvi., Fase. 17-20, 1903; Vol. xxxvil., Fase 1 - 16, 1904. The Institute Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali e del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale in Milano. Atti, Vol. xu11., Fasc. 3, 4, 1903; Vol. xurit., Fase. 1-3, 1904. The Society Missouta, Mont.— University of Montana. Bulletin, Nos. 17, 23, 1904: The University Moprena—Regia Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti in Modena. Memorie, Serie 3, Vol. tv., 1902. The Academy Mons—Société des Sciences, des Arts et des Lettres du Hainaut. Mémoires et Publications, Serie 6, Tome v., 1903. The Society Montevipro—Museo Nacional de Montevideo. Anales, Tomo v., 1903, Serie 2, Entrega 1, 1904. The Museum MontTreLtiser—Académie des Sciences et Lettres de Montpellier. Mémoires de la Section des Sciences, Ser, 2, Tome 111 . No. 3, 1908. The Academy Montreat — Natural History Society of Montreal. The Canadian Record of Science, Vol. 1x., No. 2, 19038. The Society Moscow—Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou. Bulletin, Tome xvi, Nos. 2 - 4, 19uU3. Université Impériale de Moscou. Observations faites 4 I’ Observatoire météorologique Mar. - Dec., 1901. The University 99 MuvtuHovuse—Société Industrielle de Mulhouse. Bulletin, Tome Lxxi11., Aug. — Dec., 1903; Tome uxxiv., Jan. — July 1904. Résumé des ~éances et Procés-Verbaux, Oct - Dec. 1903 (pp. 153 - 238) Jan., Feb., April 1904 (pp. 1 — 40, 65 — 83) Programme des Prix a décerner en 19U5. Vhe Society Municu—K. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften Ab- handlungen, Math.-phys. Classe, Band xx1r., Abth 1, 1903. Sitznngsberichte, Heft 3, 1902, Heft 1, 2, 1903. Ueber Wissenschaftliche Wahrheit 1902. Justus von Liebig nach dem Leben gezeichnet, 1903. he Academy K. Bayerische Botanische Gesellschaft. Berichte, Band 1x., 1904. Mitteilungen, Nos. 27 - 29, 19038, Nos. 3u, 31, i904. The Society Nantes—Socicté des Sciences Naturelles de l’Ouest dela France. Bulletin, Ser. 2, I'ome 111., Trimestre 1, 2, 1903. oe Napitrs—Accademia Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche Rendiconto, Serie 3, Vol. 1x., Fasc. 8-12, 1903; Vol. x., Fasc. 1-7, 1904. The Academy Societa Africana d’ Italia. Bollettino, Anno xx11., Fasc. 1 —6, 9-12, 1908; Anno xxi11., Fasc, 3-9, 19U4. The Society e—Dec. 7, 1904. lxvi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Napies—continued. Stazione Zoologica di Napoli. Mittheilungen, Band xvu., . Heft 3, 1903; Band xvu1., Heft 1, 2, 1904. The Station NEWCASTLE-UPON-Tynpe—Natural History Society of Northum- berland, Durham, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Trans- actions, Vol. vir1., Part iii., New Series, Vol.1., Part i,, 1904. The Society North of England Institute of -Mining and Mechanical Engineers. Transactions, Vol. u1., Parts vi., vii., 1901-2; Vol. u11., Part vii., 1902-3; Vol. Li11., Parts ii.-iv., 1902-3; Vol. trv., Parts i. — vi., 1903-4. Subject Matter Index of Mining, Mechanical and Metallurgical Literature for the year 1901. The Institute New Yorx—American Geographical Society. Bulletin, Vol. xxxv., Nos. 4, 5, 1903; Vol. xxxvi., Nos. 1-9, 1904. The Society American Institute of Electrical Engineers Transactions, Vol. xx., Nos. 6—10, 1903; Vol. xxr., Nos. 1 - 6, 1904. The Institute American Institute of Mining Engineers. Transactions, Vol. xxx1m1., 19038. Pe American Museum of Natural History. Annual Report of the President etc. for 1903. Bulletin, Vol xvutt., Part ii. pp 151 - 230, 1904; Vol. xrx., 1908. Memoirs, Vol. 1, Part viii., 1903. The Musewm American Society of Civil Engineers. Transactions, Vol. ti., 1903, Vol. tir, 1904. Constitution and List of Members, Feb. 1904. The Society American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Transactions, Vols. 1. - xx11, 1880 - 1901; Vol. xxrv., 1903. = Columbia University. School of Mines Quarterly,Vol. xxtv., No. 4, Vol. xxv., Nos, 1-4, 1903-4. The University New York Academy of Sciences. Annals, Vol. x1v., Parts lii., iv., 1903; Vol. xv., Parts i., i1., 1903-4. The Academy NrucHATEL—Société Neuchateloise des Sciences Naturelles. Bulletin, Tome xxvitt., Année 1899 — 1900. The Society NvuREMBERG—Naturhistorische Gesellschaft zu Nurnberg. Ab- handlungen, Band xv., Heft 1, 1902. BS Orrawa—Department of the Interior. Dictionary of Altitudes in the Dominion of Canada by James White, F.R.4.s., 1902. The Department Geological Survey of Canada. Altitudes in the Dominion Cunada by James White, F.r.as., 1901. Catalogue of Canadian Birds, Part ii., by J. Macoun, m.a., 1903. Geo- logical Sheets, Nos. 42 - 48, 56 - 58, Nova Scotia. Refer- ence, Part P, Annual Report, Vol. v., 1890-1. Report on the great landslide at Frank, Alta, 1903. The Survey Oxrorp—Radcliffe Library. Catalogue of Books added during the year 1903. The Library Paris—Académie des Sciences de l’Institut de France. Comptes Rendus, Tome cxxxvilr., Nos. 16-26, 1903; Tome Cxxxvitr., Nos. 1-26; ‘'ome cxxx1Ix., Nos. 1-17,1904. The Academy ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xvii. Paris—continued. Ecole d’ Anthropologie de Paris. Revue, Tome xu11., Nos. 10 - 12, 1908; Tome xiv., Nos. 1-9, 1904. The Director Ecole Polytechnique. Journal, Ser. 11., Cahier 8, 1903. 8 La Fewille des Jeunes Naturalistes. Revue Mensuelle d’ Histoire Naturelle. Serie 4, Année xxxiv., Nos. 397, 398, 1903 ; Année xxxv., Nos 399 - 409, 1904. The Editor Ministére du Commerce de |’Industrie des Postes et des 'Télégraphes. Exposition Universelle Internationale de 1900 4 Paris, Rapport Général Ad ninistratif et Technique par M. Alfred Picard, Tome 1 — vir. and Plates 1902-3. Rapports du Jury International, Introduction Générale Tome 11., Partie 3, Sciences, Partie 4, Industrie, 1903; Tome v., Partie 6, Economic Sociale, Partie 7, Colonisa- tion. 1903. Groupe 1.. Partie 5, 1902, Partie 6, 19U3; Groupe 11., 1904; Groupe 111., 1902; Groupe Iv., Partie 3.1903; Groupe v1., Partiel, 2, 1902; Groupe VII., VIII., Ix , 1902; Groupe x., Partie 1, 2, 19092; Groupe x1. Partie 1, 1904 Partie 4, 1903; Groupe x11., Partie 1, 2, 1902; Gooupe x11, Partie 1, 2, 1902; Groupe xiIv., Partie 1, 2, 3, 1902; Groupe xv., Partie 1, 2, 1902; Groupe xv1., Partie 1, 2, 4, 1902; Groupe xviiI , Partie 1, 2, 1903. (Total 37 Vols.) Consul-General for France, Sydney Ministére de l’Instruction Publique Annales du Bureau Central Météorologique de France, Part i., Memoires, 1900-1; Part ii. Observations, 19V0-1 (Kase 1); Part iii. Pluies en France, 1900-1. Rapport du Comité Meteoro- logique International, Réunion de Southport 1903. The Minister Ministére des Travaux Publics. Statistique del’ Industrie Minérale et des Appareils 4 Vapeur en France et en Algérie pour l’année 1902. . oD Muséum d’ Histoire Naturelle. Bulletin, Année 1903. Nos 8 -§&. The Museum Observatoire de Paris. Rapport Annuel pour l’année 1913. . The Observatory Société d’ Anthropologie de Paris. Bulletins, Serie 5, Tome Iv., Fase. 1 - 4 1908. The Society Société de Biologie. Comptes Rendus, Tome Lv., Nos. 28 - 38, 1903; Tome tv1., Nos. 1 - 23, 1904; Tome Lvit., Nos. 24 — 28, 1904 »9 Société Entomologique de France. Annales, Tome Lxx., LXx1., 1901, 1yvu2. Bulletin, Année 19u1-2. hs Société Francaise de Minéralogie. Bulletin, Tome xxvVt., Nos 6-8, 1903; Tome xxvil., Nas. 1-5, 1904. 5 Société Frangaise de Physique. Bulletin des Séances, Année 1993, Fase 3,4. Année 1904, Fasc. 1, 2. Résumé des Communications, Nos. 201 —216, 1908-4. A Société Géologique de France. Builetin, Serie 4, Tome 111, Nos 2-4 1908. * Société Meteorologique de France. Annuaire, Année LIL, Jan —Sept. 1904. SS Société de Spéléologie. Spelunga, Tome v., Nos 35. 86, 1908-4. ,, Société Zoologique de France. Bul etin, Tome xxvitt., Nos. 2-8, 1903. ” xviii, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Punzance—Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. Transac- tions, Vol. x11., Part ix., 1903. The Society Prerta—Department of Lands and Surveys. Report of the Under Secretary for Lands for the year 1902. Selectors Guide to the Crown Lands of Westeru Australia 1902. The Committee of the Victoria Public Library Department of Mines, Western Australia. Geological Survey, Bulletin Nos. 8-13, 1903-4. North-eastern Goldfields from Kookynie to Laverton. Report for the year 1903. Western Australian Gold Fields, Mining Statistics, Sept.- Dec. 1908, Jan.—- Aug. 1904. W. A. School of Mines, Kalgoorlie, Syllabus for 1904and Annual Report 1903. The Department Government Statistician. Seventh Census of Western Australia taken for the night of 31 March, 1901, Vols. 1. and 11. [1904]. Notes on the Natural History etc. of Western Australia, 1903. Western Australian Year Book for 1900-1, Vol. 1., for 1900-3, Vol. 11. The Government Statistician, W.A. Perth Observatory. Meteorological Observations during the year 1902. The Observatory West Australian Natural History Society. Journal, No. 1, May 1904. The Society PHILADELPHIA—Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Proceedings, Vol. Lv., Parts 1., 11., 111., 1903; Vol. Lvr., Part i., 1904. The Academy American Entomological Society. Transactions, Vol. xxIx., Nos. 3, 4, 1903; Vol. xxx., Nos. 1-8, 1904. The Society American Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xuit., Nos. 173, 174, 1903; Vol. xu1u1., Nos. 175, 176, 1904. Ps Franklin Institute. Journal, Vol. civi1., Nos. 1—6,; Vol. cLtvur., No 1—5, 1904. The Institute Philadelphia Commercial Museum. Commerce of Latin America—A Brief Statistical Review 1903. The Museum University of Philadelphia. University Bulletins, Fourth Series, No. 2, Parts ii., ili.; No. 4, Parti.; No. 5, Parts li., iv., 1903-4. The University Wagner Free Institute of Science. Transactions, Vol. 111., Part vi., 1903. The Institute Zoological Society of Philadelphia. Annual Report (32nd) of the Board of Directors 1904. The Society Pisa—Societa Italiana di Fisica. Il] Nuovo Cimento, Serie 5, Tome v., June; Tome v1., July - Dec. 1903; Tome VIL., Jan.—- June; Tome vir., July — Aug., 1904. Pe Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. Processi Verbali, Vol. RIII., pp. 153-191, 1903; Vol. xiv., Nos. 1-4, 1903-5. > Port Lovurs—Royal Alfred Observatory, Mauritius. Results of the Magnetical and Meteorological Observations made in the year 1900. The Observatory Porspam — Konig]. Preuss. Geodatisches Institutes. Verdffent- lichung, Neue, Folge, Nos. 14-17, 1904. The Institute ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, lai, Pursta—Observatorio Meteorolégico del Colegio del Estado de Puebla. Boletin Mensual, Dec. 1903, Jan. 1904. The Observatory Rio DE JANEIRO—Observatorio do Rio de Janeiro. Annuario, 1903. Boletin Mensal, April— Decr.; 1903. - RocHEsteER—Geological Society of America. Bulletin, Vol. x1v., 1903. The Society Rochester Academy of Science. Proceedings, Vol. Iv., pp. 65 — 186, 1901-3. The Academy Rome—Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici. Giornale del Genio Civile, Anno xu1., May - Dec., 1903; Anno xui1., Jan. — Mar., 1904. Minister for Public Instruction, Rome Pontificia Accademia Romana dei Nuovi Lincei. Atti, Anno LVII., Sessione 1 — 7, 1903-4. The Academy Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Atti, Serie Quinta, Rendiconti, Classe di scienze fisiche, matematiche e naturali, Vol. XII., 2° Semestre, Fasc. 8-12, 1903; Vol. x1ir., 1° Semestre, Fac. 1-12; 2° Semestre, Fasc. 1-7, 1904. Rendiconto, Vol. 11., pp. 103 — 157, 1904. bf Societa Geografica Italiana. Bollettino, Ser. 4, Vol. 1v., Nos. 11, 12, 1908; Vol. v., Nos. 1 —38, 5, 6, 1904. The Society St. ANDREws—St. Andrews University. Calendar for the year 1904-5. Rectorial Addresses, 1863 — 1893. The University St. Etrenne—Société de Industrie Minérale. Bulletin, Série 4, Tome 11., Liv. 4 and Atlas 1903; Tome 111., Liv. 1, 2, and Atlases, 1904, Comptes Rendus Mensuels, Nov.. Dec., 19038, Jan. — Oct., 1904. The Society St. Lovuris—Missouri Botanical Garden. Annual Report (14th) 1908, (15th) 1904. The Director St. PeTERsBurc—Academie Impériale des Sciences. Mémoires, Classe Historico-Philologique, Vol. 1v., No. 9, 1900; Vol. v., Nos. 1-5, 1901-2; Vol. v1., Nos. 1 — 4, 1902-3. Classe des Sciences Physiques et Mathématiques, Série 8, Tome xI., 1901; Tome xi1., 1902. Classe Physico- Mathématique, Série 8, Tome x111., Nos. 1-5, 7, 1902. The Academy Comité Géologique—Institut des Mines. Bulletins, Tome xxiI. Nos. 1-4, 19038. Mémoires, Vol. x111., No. 4; Vol. xv., No. 1; Vol. x1x., No. 2; Nouvelle Série, Liv. 5 — 9, 12, 1902-3. The Committee San Francisco—California Academy of Sciences. Proceedings, Third Series, Botany, Vol. 11., No. 10, Geology, Vol. 11., No. 1, 1902; Math.-Phys., Vol. 1., No. 8, Zoology, Vol. tir., Nos. 5, 6, 1908. Memoirs, Vol. 111, 1908. The Academy ScRaNTON, Pa.—Mines and Minerals, Vol. xxiv., Nos. 4-12. 1903-4. Vol. xxv., Nos. 1, 2, 1904. International Textbook Co. Srzrna—R. Accademia dei Fisiocritici. Atti, Serie 4, Vol. xv., Nos. 7- 10, 1903; Vol. xv1., Nos. 1 - 6, 1904. The Academy SincaporE—Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of the Straits Branch, Nos. 40, 41, 1904. The Society StockHotm—K. Vitterhets Historie och Antiqvitets Akademiens. “Manadsblad, Arg. 27, 28, 1898-1899; Arg. 30, 31, 1901, 1902. The Academy Ixx. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. StockHoLmM—continued. Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Arkiv for Botanik, Band 1., Hifte 1-4; Band 11., Hafte 1-4; Kemi. Min- eralogi och Geologi, Band 1., Hafte 1,2; Matematik, Astronomi och Fysik, Band 1., Hafte1,2; Zoologi, Band 1., Hifte 1-4. 1903-4. Arsbok for 1993-4. Handlingar Bandet xxxvit., Nos. 4-8; Bandet xxxvitr., Nos. 1-3 1903-4. Jac. Berzelius Reseanteckningar 1903. Skrifter ~ iskilda imnen jimte Nagra Bref af Anders Retzius, 1902. The Academy STRASSBURG, i.—E.—Meteorologisches Landesdienstes Elsass- Lothringens. Ergebnisse der Meteorologischen Beo- bachtungen im Reichsland Elsass-Lothringen im Jahre 1900. The Director SrurrearTtT—Konigliches Statistisches Landesamt. Wiirttem- bergische Jahrbiicher, Jahrgang 1908, Heft 1,2; Jahr- gang 1904, Heft 1. ‘ The Landesamt ” Sypnry—Australian Museum. Nests and Eggs of Birds found breeding in Austra'ia and Tasmania by Alfred J. North c.mzs., Vol. 1., Part iv., 1904, [Special Catalogue No. 1.] Memoir, 1v., Part vii , 1904. Records, Vol.v., Nos. 2- 4, 1904. Report of the Trustees for the year 1902. The Trustees Botanic Gardens. A Critical Revision of the Genus Euca- lyptus by J. H. Maiden, Parts iv, v.. 1904. Notes on the Commercial Timbers of New South Wales, by J. H. Maiden, F.u.s., Second edition (illustrated) 1904. Report of the Director for the year 1903. Report of the Forestry Branch, Department of Lands for the year 1903. ‘The Forest Flora of New South Wales by J.H Maiden, Vol. 1., Parts vi. —x., Vol. 11., Parts xi. — xili., 1904. The Director: British Astronomical Association, New South Wales Branch, President’s Address by Mr. W. J. MacDonnell, 18 Oct. 1904. The Association British Medical Association (N. S. Wales Branch). The Australasian Medical Gazette, Vol. xx111., Nos. 1-12. 1904. Department of Agriculture. The Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, Vol. xv., 1904. The Department Department of Fisheries. Annual Report for 1902, Part ii. Department of Mines and Agriculture. Annual Report of Department of Mines for 1903. Memoirs of the Geo- logical Survey of New South Wales, Paleontology, No. 11, 1902. Department of Prisons. Report of the Comptroller-General of Prisons on Prisons, Reformatories, Asylums and other Institutions recently visited by him in Europe and America, 1904. Report on Prisons for the year 1903. Department of Public Health. Reports on Leprosy in New South Wales for the years 1901, 1902, and 1903. Dr. Ashburton Thompson Department of Public Instruction. Report of the Minister of Public Instruction for the year 1902. The New South Wales Educational Gazette, Vol. xir., Nos. 7 — 12, 1903-4; ° Vol. x1v., Nos. 1—€, 1904. The Department +3 93 se ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lxxi, SyDNEY—continued. Department of Public Works. Sydney Harbour Bridge Advisory Board—Report on Desiyns and ‘Tenders sub- mitted in connection with the proposed bridge over Sydney Harbour to connect Sydney with North Sydney, 19.3. The Under Secretar Government Statistician. Agricultural and Live Stock Statistics of New South Wales, year ended March 1904, Preliminary Tables. A Statistical Account of Australia and New Zealand 1902-3, Tenth Issue. Government -Statistician’s Report on the Vital Statistics of the Metro- polis for Nov. aad Dec, 1903, Jan. - Oct. 1904. Vital Statistics for 1902 and pprevious years. Vital Statistics for the year 1903, Comparative Tables and Rates of Marriages, Births, and Deaths. Government Statis- tician’s Annual Keport, showing Deaths from all causes in New South Wales during 1903, with comparative tables. New South Wales Statistical Register for 1902 and previous years complete; for 1903 and previous years, Partsi.—xiv. Resuits of a Census of New South Wales taken for the night of the 31st March, 1901, Part vili., Occupations of the People. Statistics—Six States of Australia and New Zealand, 1861 to 1903. Government Statistician Institution of Surveyors, New South Wales. The Surveyor, Vol. xv1., No. 12,1903; Vol. xvir., Nos. 1—9, 1904. The Institution Linnean Society of New South Wales. Abstract of Pro- ceedings, March 30, April 27, May 26, June 29, July 27, Aug. 31, Sept. 26, Oct. 26, Nov. 30, 1904. Proceedinys, Voll xxviit., Parts 111., 1v., 1903 3° Vol. xx1x., Parts 1.,41. 1904. The Society New South Wales Naturalists’ Club. Memoirs, No. 2,1904. The Club Observatory. Results of Meteorological Observations in New South Wales during 1899. Results of Rain, River, and Evaporation Observations made in New South Wales during 1900. The Observatory Public Library of New South Wales. Report for the year 1903. The Inbrary Royal Anthropological Society of Australasia. Science of Man, Vol. vi., Nos.11,12; Vol. vir., Nos. 1-7, 1903-4. The Society United Service Institution of New South Wales. Journal and Proceedings, Vols. XIv., Xv., 19U2-3. The Institution University of Sydney. Calendar for the year 1904. The University Tarpina—‘* The Perak Government Gazette,” Vol. xv1., Nos. 49 - 54, 1908; Vol xvir., Nos. 1—44, 1904. The Federal Secretary, F.M.S, Toxio—Asiatic Society of Japan. Transactions, Vol. xxx1., 1904. The Society Department of Education, Central Meteorological Observa- tory of Japan. ‘The organization of Meteorological Service in Japan 1904. The Department Earthquake Investigation Committee. Publications in Foreign Languages, Nos. 15 - 18, 1904. The Commattee lxxii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Tox1o—continued. Imperial University of Tokio. Journal of the College of Science, Vol. x1v., 1904; Vol. xvir., Art 12, 1903; Vol. xviu., Art 4-7, 1903-4; Vol x1x., Art 2—4, 8, 10-14, 16 —20, 1903-4. Calendar, 1903-4. The University Meteorological Society of Japan. Journal, Nos. 9—12, 1903, Nos. 1-10, 1904. The Society Toronro—Canadian Institute. Proceedings, New Series, Vol. 11, Part vi., No. 12, 1904. Transactions, Vol. vir., Part ili., No 15. 1904. The Institute University. University of Toronto Studies—Papers from the Chemical Laboratories, Nos. 40-43; Physical Science Series, Nos. 3,4; Physiological Series; Nos. 4, 5; History and Economics, Vol. 11., No. 2, 1903-4. The University TouLouse—Académie des Sciences, Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. Mémoires, Serie 10, Tome 111., 1903. The Academy TRENCSIN — Naturwissenschaftliche Vereines des Trencsener Komitates. Jahresheft, Jahrgang xxv. — xxv1., 1902-3. The Society Trizeste—I. R. Osservatorio Astronomico-Meteorologico. Rap- porto Annuale, Vol. xvir., 1900. The Observatory Turrs Cotiece, Mass.—Tufts College Studies. No. 8, (Scientific Series) 1904. The College Tunis—Institut de Carthage. Revue Tunisienne, Anno x1., No. 46, 1904. The Institute Turrin—Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino. Atti, Vol. xxxix., Disp. 1—15, 1903-4. Osservazioni Meteorolo- giche fatte nell’ anno 1903. The Academy UpsaLa—Kongliga Vetenskaps Societeten. Nova Acta, Ser. 3. Vol. xx., Fasc. 2, 1904. The Society Ursana, Ill.—lIllinois State Laboratory of Natural History. Bulletin, Vol. 1., No. 3 (Second Edition) 1903; Vol. vr., Article 2, 1903; Vol. vir., Article 1 - 3, 1904. The Laboratory Urrecut—Koninklijk Nederlandsch, Meteorologisch Instituut. Annuaire Meteorologique pour 1902. Etudes des phe- noménes de Marée sur les Cotes Néerlandaises (No. 90) 1904, The Institute Venice—Reale Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. Atti, Tomo txr., Dispensa 10, 1901-2; Tomo tx11., Dispensa 1-10, 1902-8. Memorie, Vol. xxvit., Nos. 1, 2, 1902-3. __,, Vienna—Anthropologische Gesellschaft in Wien. Mittheilungen, Band xxxi1., Heft 3-6, 1908; xxxiv., Heft 1, 2, 1904. The Society Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. Mittheilungen der Erdbeben-Commission N.F., Nos. 10-21, 1902-3. Register zu den Banden 106 bis 110 (1897 bis 1901) der Sitzungsberichte No. 15. Sitzungsberichte, Math.-phys. Classe, Band cx1., Abth. 1., Heft 4-10; Abth. 11a, Heft 5-10; Abth. 1b, Heft4—10; Abth,111., Heft 1 — 10, 1902: Band cxir., Abth.1., Heft 1-3; Abth. 11a, Heft 1-6; Abth. 11), Heft 1-6, 1903. The Academy ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lxxiii, Virnna—continued. K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt. Jahrbiich, Band u11., Heft 3, 4, 1902; Band wii1., Heft 1, 2, 1908. Verhandlungen Nos. 12—18, 1903; Nos. 1 - 12, 1904. The Reichsanstalt Sektion fiir Naturkunde des Osterreichischen Touristen-Klub. Mitteilungen, Jahrgang xv., 1903. The Section WasHiIneton—American Historical Association. Annual Report for the year 1902, Vols. 1. and 11. The Association Bureau of American Ethnology. Annual Report (20th), 1898-9. The Bureau Engineer Department U.S. Army. Analytical and Topical Index to the Reports of the Chief of Engineers and Officers of the Corps of Engineers U.S. Army, 1866 - 1900, Vols. 1., 11., and m1. Report of the Chief of Engineers, Parts i. -iv., and Supplement 1903. The Department Philosophical Society of Washington. Bulletin, Vol. xiv., pp. 233 - 276, 1904. The Society Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report of the Regents for the year ending 20 June, 1902. Reports of the U.S. National Museum, 1901 and 1902. Smithsonian Con- tributions to Knowledge, Vol. xx1x., No. 1413, 1908. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol, xu1v., Nos. 1374, 1417, 1903-4; Vol. xtv., 1904 (complete); Vol. xivI,, No. 1441, 1904. The Institution U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Report of the Superin- tendent from July 1, 1902 to June 30, 1903. Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, Vols. 1x., Nos. 1-3, 1904. The Survey U.S. Geological Survey. Annual Report (24th), of the Director 1902-3, Bulletin, Nos. 208-232, 1903-4. Mineral Resources of the United States 1902. Mono- graph, Vol. xtiv., and Atlas; Vols. xLv., XLVI., 1903-4, Professional Papers, Nos. 9-23, 28, 1903-4. Water Supply and Irrivation Papers, Nos. 65 - 95, 1902 - 4. 5s U.S. Department of Agriculture (Library). Division of Entomology, Bulletin Nos. 39 - 42, 44, 46, 48, 49, 1903-4. Year Book 18594, 1895, 1902 1903. The Department U.S. Department of Agriculture—Weather Bureau. Bul- letin G, 1900; L, 1903; M, 1904; No. 33, 1903. Crop Reporter, Vol. v., Nos. 7 — 12, 1903-4; Vol. v1, Nos. 1-6, 1904; Lowa Weather and Crop Service—Annual Report for 1902. Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau for 1908. Reprints (8) 1902-3. oF U.S. Naval Institute. Proceedings, Vol. xxx., Nos. 2 and 8, 1904. The Institute U.S. Navy Department. Annual Reports:—Chief of the Bureau of Construction and Repair 1903, Chief of the Bureau of Navigation 1908. Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance 1903. Chief of the Bureau of Steam Engineer- ing 1903. Major-General Commandant of the U.S. Marine Corps, 1903. Superintendent of Library and Naval War Records 1908. Superintendent of the U.S. Naval Observatory, 1903. Surgeon.General U.S. Navy 193. Report of the U.S. Naval ‘‘ Liquid Fuel” Board 1904, The Secretary of the Navy U.S. Naval Observatory. Publications, Second Series, Vol. v., 1903. The Observatory Ixxiv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. WeELLINGTON—Mines Department. Annual Report (37th) of the Colonial Laboratory 1903. Papers and Reports relating to Minerals and Mining 1903. The Department New Zea!'and Institute. Transactions and Proceedings, Vol. XXXVI., 1903. The Institute Polynesian Society. Journal, Vol. x111., Nos.2, 3,1904. The Society Winynipec— Historical and Scientific Society of Manitoba. Annual Report for the year 1903. Transactions, Nos. 64 - 66, 19U4. ,, Zuricho—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Neujahrsblatt, No. 105, 1903. Vierteljahrsschrift, Jahrgane xtvur., Heft 3, 4, 1902; Jabrgang xuviir., Heft 1 - 4, 1908. MISCELLANEOUS. (The Names of Donors are in Italivs.) Artola, Dr. M.R., Arce, Dr. J.and Lavoreria, Dr. D. E. La peste bubonica 1903. J. Maitland Paxton, Vice-Consul for Peru, Sydney Australian Journal of Education, Vol.11., No.1, July 1904. The Publishers Branner, J.C. A topographic feature of the hanging valleys of the Yosemite. Notes on the geology of the Hawaiian Islands, 1903. The Author Brough, Bennett H., F.c.s., etc.—The Mining of Non-Metallic Minerals 1903. xg Bulletin of the Lloyd Library of Botany, Pharmacy, and Materia Medica, No. 6 (Reproduction Series No. 3) 1903. The Publisher Bureau Francais du Catilogue International de la Litterature Scientifique. Bibliographie Scientifique Francaise, Tome 1., No. 8, 1902. The Bureau Etheridge, R.—Cretaceous Fossils of Natal, Part i. The Umk- welane Hill Deposit, Zululand, 1904. The Author Evans. James W.—British Weights and Measures, considered from a practical standpoint, 1904. Ps Geographical Society of Philadelphia. Bulletin, Vol. 1v.; No. 1, 1904, Charter, By-Laws, List of Members, 1903. The Society Gregory, Prof. J. W., p.se., F.R.s.—The Climate of Australasia in reference to its control by the Southern Ocean, 1904. The Author Hall, Cuthbert, mu.B., ch a—On Eucalyptus Oils, especially in relation to their Bactericidal Power, 1904. ue Harness, General Sir Henry Drury, x.c.B., Memoir of, 1804 — 1883. The Committee of the Royal Engineers Institute ‘Helios,’ Jahrgang 1x., No. 47,1903; Jahrgang, x., Nos. 3, 17, 37, 1904. The Publishers International Congress of Botany. Fifth Circular of the Per- manent Committee 1903. The Committee Journal of Psychologie normale et pathologique, Année 1., Jan. Feb., 1904. The Publisher Journal of the Institute of Architects of New South Wales, Vol. 1., No. 1, Jan. 1904. The Publishers Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Instituut. List of Publications, No. 93, 1850 — 1904. The Institute ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, lxxv, Lyne, Hon. Sir William J., K.c.m.a.—Lecture on Imperial Re- ciprocity delivered bcfore the British Empire League, Sydney, 25 Jan. 1904. The Author McKay, R. T.—The Murray River: Irrigation and Navigation. 92 Mines and Mining in Peru (Official Publication). Mr. J. Martland Paxton, Vice-Consul for Peru, Sydney Mining Magazine. Vol. x., Nos. 1, 3, 1904. The Publishers Murray-Gibbes, J.. m.p.—The Dual Nature of Electricity. Tuberculosis 1904. The Author Nangle, James—Testing of Portland Cement. New South Wales Ethnological Committee, Second Annual a9 Report 1903-4. The Committee On the Iron Ore Deposits in Sydvaranger, Finmarken, Norway, and Relative Geological Problems 1902 The Publisher Ramond, G. and Dollfus, G. F.—Le Chemin de Fer de Paris a : Orléans aux Abords de Saint-Michel-Montlhéry (Seine et-Oise) 1903. The Authors Ramond, G.—Intérét que Présentent les Etudes d’ Hydrologie Géologique en matiére de Travaux Pubics, a propos du “‘Souterrain de Meudon,” 1902. Le Chemin de Fer d’ Issy a Viroflay (R. - G.) 1903. The Author Relacion de las Ceremonias y Ritos y Poblacion y Gobernacion de los Indios de la Provincia de Mechuaean, 1904. Director del Museo Michoacano Steel, Thos., F.u.s., F.c.s.—Australian Land Planarians: descrip- tions of new species and notes on collecting and preserv- No. 2, 1901 ‘Tasmanian Land Planarians, Descriptions of new species etc., 1901. The Author Tebbutt, John, F.R.A.s.—Report of Mr. Tebbutt’s Observatory, The Peninsula, Windsor, New South Wales, for the year 1903. a Verde, F.—La distanza zenitale diun astro misurata a bordo mediantr tre fotografie dell’ astro 1908. A PERIODICALS PuRCcHASED IN 1904. American Journal of Science, (Silliman). Annales des Chimie et de Physique. Annales des Mines. Annals of Natural History. Astronomische Nachrichten. Australian Mining Standard. Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft. British Medical Journal. Building and Engineering Journal of Australia and New Zealand. Dingler’s Polytechnisches Journal. Electrical Review. Engineer. Engineering. Engineering and Mining Journal. Engineering Record and Sanitary Engineer. English Mechanic. lxxvi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, Fresenius’ Zeitschrift fiir Analytische Chemie. Geological Magazine. Journal of Anatomy and Physiology. Journal of Botany. Journal of the Chemical Society. Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry. Knowledge and Illustrated Scientific News, L’ Aéronaute. Lancet. Medical Record of New York. Mining Journal. Nature. Notes and Queries. Observatory. Petermann’s Erganzungsheft. Petermann’s Geographischen Mittheilungen. Philosophical Magazine. Photographic Journal. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. Revue Critique Paleozvologie. Sanitary Record. Science. Scientific American. Scientific American Supplement. Zoologist Booxs PurcHAsED In 1904. Australian Handbook 1904. Biedermann—Tech. Chemisches Jahrbiich, Vols. xxrv., 1901, xxv., 1902. British Association Report, 1903. Chemical Gazette, Vols. 1. - xvi, 1842-59. Geographen-Kalender, by Dr. Hermann Haack, Jahrg.1., 1903-4, m., 1904-85. Hazell’s Annual, 1904. Jahres-bericht der Chemischen Technologie, 1903, Parts i., ii Medico-Chirurgical Society, Transactions, Vols. LXxxvI., LxxxviI., 1903-4. Minerva Jahrbuch der Gelehrten Welt, Jahrgang x1. - xm1., 1901-2 - 1903-4. New Sydenham Society Publications, Vol. cuxxx1. —-c~xxxiv., 1902—1903. Obstetrical Society—Transactions, Vol. xtv., 1903. Official Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland, 1904. Palzontographical Society’s Publications, Vol. tvz1., for 1903. Pathological ray Transactions, Vol. urv., Part iii, 1903; Vol. tyv., ” Parts i Te 1904. Ray Society Publications for 1902 and 19038. Repertorium der Technischen Journal-Literatur, Jahrgang 1900, 1901, 1902. Sands’ Directory, 1904. Schmidt, Dr. Adolph, Atlas der Diatomaceen-Kunde, Heft 62, 63. The Oxford New English Dictionary to date. Whitaker’s Almanack, 1904. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERING SECTION. ete a ‘ ’ ‘ - ; a ee ee ™ =, — » = ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ]xxix, PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERING SECTION. ; (IN ABSTRACT.) First Session opened, 20th July, 1904. Mr. 8S. H. BARRACLOUGH, in the Chair. The Institution of Surveyors having been invited to hold a joint meeting, the President, Council and many members of that body were present. The Chairman in welcoming the President and members of the Institution of Surveyors, pointed out the advantages of co-operation between kindred Societies when subjects of mutual interest had to to be discussed. Mr. THOS. KENNEDY, Assoc. M. Inst.c.E., read a paper entitled **Tacheometer Surveying with an ordinary Theodolite,”’ illustrated with diagrams. | Mr. C. SCRIVENER, L.S., Memb. Inst. Surveyors, contri- buted ‘“‘Some notes on the Tacheometer and on Surveys conducted with that instrument on the Federal Capital site at Monaro,”’ which in the absence of the author were read by Mr. T. Ff’. FURBER. Messrs. T. F. FURBER and LLoyD, Membs. Inst. Surveyors contributed papers, and the discussion was continued by Messrs. BURGE, NELSON, HAYCROFT, and CARDEW. Mr. KENNEDY having replied, the Session stood adjourned until the following evening. First Session continued, 21st July, 1904. Mr. 8S. H. BARRACLOUGH in the Chair. Present sixteen members. lxxx. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Mr. J. M. SMAIL, . inst. c.E., read a paper entitled ‘‘ Fil- tration of Water.”’ The author described the filtration systems of some of the principal waterworks in Great Britain, Hurope, and America recently visited by him, pointing out the characteristic features in each. He dealt with the subject under two heads: first, Huropean method or ‘“‘Slow Filtration,’’ second American method, ‘“‘ Rapid or Mechanical Filtration.’’ Tables were given shewing the constructive character of the filter beds employed by the London Water Companies and some of those in use on the Continent of Hurope and in America, the capacity of the London subsiding and stor- age reservoirs and the average rate of filtration per square foot per hour. After explaining the processes of sand filtration the author quoted the regulations of the German Government drawn up under the direction of Dr. Koch for maintaining the efficiency of filtration beds. He dealt with the rate of filtration, the amount of puri- fication required, the cleansing and filling of the filters and other important details in the management of waterworks. The results of bacteriological examinations of water were given for the London and other waterworks in England. The question of preliminary roughing filters was alluded to with special reference to those in use in Paris. The depth of sand, the quality and size of the grains, and the various methods adopted for the selection and the measuring of the uniformity of the sand in Kurope and America was described. He described the American practice of Slow Filtration giving a detailed account of the worksat Lawrence, Mass. Under the heading of Rapid or Mechanical Filtration he treated of the aggregation and deposit of suspended matter by means of coagulants; he also gave a lucid description of a large installation at Little Falls for the supply of the City of New Jersey, detailing the works, the washing of ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lxxxl. the filters, the operation of the filters, the bacterial results, the removal of colour, the removal of turbidity, tastes and odours, the removal of coagulant, change in hardness, effect of rate of filtration, and other important matters. He then dealt with the cost of mechanical filters and the cost of operation, and he summed up the advantages of the system as follows :— (1) Capacity to treat very turbid waters. (2) Capacity toremovea very large percentage of colour. (3) Occupies a relatively insignificant area of ground. (4) Protection from weather. (5) Freedom from risks of objectionable growths and from tastes and odours they impart. (6) Rapidly and easily cleaned, without risk of contamin- ation by workmen. (7) Sand bed can be easily and economically sterilized. (8) Absolute control of each separate filter, together with complete knowledge of its condition. (9) Allows water to be sent straight to the consumer with the least possible delay and expense. In an appendix the author gave certain rules and regu- lations to be observed in judging the quality of a filtered surface water. Mr. J. B. HENSON, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. read a paper on “‘ Fil- tration as carried out on the Hunter River at West Mait- land.’’ He first of all described the watershed of the supply and the nature of the water, giving comparative analyses of the solids in solution. The author said that the present arrangements for filtering the water are as follows:—A settling tank into which the water to be filtered is delivered from the pumps; four filter beds at a lower level, each 100 feet square, and a clear water tank. f—Dee. 7, 1904. lxxxii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The end of the pump delivery pipe in the settling tank is provided with an apparatus for spraying the water whereby its completeaerationissecured. Aerationis hardly required for the river water, but is necessary for the storage water which, being of a stagnant character, is deficient in air. Three systems of piping are provided for the filter beds— one to supply them with water, one to convey away the effluent to the clear water tank, and one to collect and convey away waste, scour, and overflow water. Hach system of piping is provided with the necessary stop valves, but there are none of the automatic control arrangements which are usually found attached to modern types of filter plant. The main effluent pipe which receives the filtered water from each of the four beds has a stop valve on it at its outlet at the clear water tank. This valve did not exist in the original design, and was subsequently added to pro- vide better control over filtering operations. The sludge—largely composed of decayed vegetation— which lay in the bottom of the old lagoon, was not wholly removed when the reservoir was formed, and is added to by the death and decay of water weeds which grow luxuri- antly in the reservoir. HKndeavours have been made from time to time to get rid of the weeds, and large quantities have been removed, but fresh growths rapidly replace them. The sludge has a deleterious action on the quality of the water. During summer the water rises in temperature ; when the cold of winter comes the surface layers are chilled and sink and displace the bottom water. A vertical circulation ensues which brings up the stagnant water which has been lying in contact with the sludge, and a general deterioration in the quality of the whole of the water consequently follows. The filtering medium is clean river sand 2 feet 6 inches in depth, resting on 6 inches of fine gravel, under which ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Ixxxlll. are two layers of loose bricks arranged to form subdrainage ducts, the whole being contained in a water tight tank 7 feet in depth, the floor of which slopes to a central channel leading to the effluent outlet pipe. The clear water tank was originally uncovered, and under the influence of sunlight vegetable growths developed rapidly and caused much trouble. The filaments were drawn into the pump suction, found their way into the water reticulation pipes, and choked the strainers of water meters. At certain seasons of the year, the growth was so abundant as to necessitate the cleaning out of the tank every three or four weeks. This, besides being expensive, caused inconvenient stoppages. A roof was constructed over the tank, and light being excluded the growth of aquatic plants ceased. No further trouble from this source has since been experienced. | The beneficial effect of filtration was shewn by tables of the analyses of storage water. Mr. T. W. KEELE, ™. Inst. c.5., Moved the adjournment of the discussion and the Session then terminated. The Third Session opened 19th October, 1904. Mr. 8. H. BARRACLOUGH in the Chair. Present twelve members and two visitors. Mr. J. M.SMAIL, M. Inst. c.z., contributed a supplementary paper on “‘A method of Water Filtration adopted in Western Australia,’? communicated by Mr. FAULKNER, illustrated by drawings of the works. The system described in the paper had to be adopted on account of the water carrying so much clay in suspension, which was found to clog an ordinary sand filter in about 6 days; after some experiments a suitable medium was dis- covered in a sort of coarse cloth made up in the form of a lxxxlv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. tube 6 feet long and 20 inches diameter, the cost of which amounts to 3 shillings each. Firstly the water is passed through an aeration, then treated with lime and then passed into large settling tanks from whence it is conducted to the filter cloths through a system of pipes. The filter cloths are so arranged that every part is open to view, and are exposed on inside and outside to atmospheric influence in such a way that the thin film of water flowing down the cloths is thoroughly oxidised. The cloth filter has the advantage of requiring less space than the sand filter as from the way in which it is arranged it presents 27 feet of filter surface to each 6 feet of floor space, and owing to its ability to stand a greater pressure than the sand filters, twice the quantity of water may be put through, so that a cloth filter of a given floor area has nine times the capacity of a sand filter. Another advantage is that the cloths can be replaced after cleaning much quicker than a sand filter can be scraped and restored, and further, it regains its maximum efficiency of filtration much quicker than sand. The cost of construction is low, and an expenditure of £6,200 will be sufficient to deal with 5 million gallons per day. The cloths last about 1 month when filtering water from the bores, but when filtering water from the ranges they last 6 months. 1,500 superficial yards of filter area are completely removed out of the tanks, washed and replaced by 4 men in 8 days; the cost of maintenance including wages, cloths, lime and repairs amounted to 0°6 of one penny per 1,000 gallons for the last two years. The experiments of Massachusetts Board of Health have demon- strated that the colon bacillus and the typhoid bacillus in polluted water were rapidly destroyed by sunlight on exposure of 30 to 60 minutes, and when the water was spread out into a thin film the time required for their destruction was only 15 minutes. The analyses of the water filtered ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Ixxxv. by the cloth filters have never discovered the presence of pathogenic germs and all tests were highly satisfactory. Mr. J. H. MAIDEN contributed a note on Aquatic Plants in Reservoirs. He described the microscopic plants known as fresh water algee and the efiect they had upon the water in reservoirs. He stated that American botanists gave a good deal of attention to the pollution of water supplies from this source, and whilethey found that each case requires individual treatment, they recommend the addition of copper sulphate to the reservoir, the salt being put in a sack at the stern of a row-boat which is rowed regularly over the surface of the reservoir. The amount used is small and they point out that the amount of copper which thus goes into the water supply is not injurious to the health of human beings. The author offers to collect specimens of these fresh-water algze from the storage reservoirs of the State, in order to have them determined by specialists and to ascertain the dose of copper sulphate necessary to exterminate them. A discussion on ‘‘ Filtration of Water ’’ was then opened by Mr. T. W. KEELE, ™. mst. c.b,, Who stated that the lessons to be learned may be briefly summed up as follows :— (1) To give the maximum period of storage for the unfiltered water. (2) To filter at a minimum rate. (3) To filter through a maximum depth of fine sand. (4) To frequently renew the filtering material. He quoted Dr. Frankland’s opinion on the storage of un- filtered water and the beneficial effect of sedimentation in the reduction of bacteria, and pointed out that Prospect Reservoir efiected the sedimentation of Sydney Water Supply exactly on the lines of Dr. Frankland’s recommend- ations. He dealt exhaustively with the rate of filtration for filter beds,.the number of germs passing through the |lxxxvl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. media, the aeration of water, and the necessity of keeping the upper layer of sand in a condition most favourable to filtration, quoting at length the opinions of many eminent authorities on all these questions. He concluded his remarks with an allusion to the Sydney Water Supply and the many difficulties the authorities had in preserving its purity without resorting to filtration. Dr. TIDSWELL, M™.B., Mch., discussed the question as a bacteriologist, and as a useful preliminary to further studies proposed to refer to the behaviour of bacteria in unfiltered water and subsequently to the changes they undergo during - the process of filtration. He stated that they reach the water mainly with washings from the adjacent land, but in a less degree from the air with dust and rain, and even snow and hail. Bacteria-are most numerous in river water during winter, interpreting this time as meaning the rainy season, when the land washings are most voluminous. The number of bacteria in a river will be materially affected by the character of the land through which it flows. The character of the contiguous land may be expected to influ- ence not only the number but the kinds of bacteria washed in from it. . The continuous existence of these bacteria in water has been mainly studied under laboratory conditions and their behaviour has been closely examined. It is commonly observed initially that a more or less marked and rapid increase in numbers is followed sooner or later by a gradual decline and not reaching the length of extinc- tion for months at least. The rapidity of the increase is to some extent dependent upon the character of the water ; where this is originally rich in bacteria the multiplication is less marked than where the initial number of the bacteria is low. Though possibly influenced by what may be called elbow room, the usual explanation of the fact just given is that it depends upon available food supply in relation to ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lxxxvii. the number of feeders; where initially many species are present there often seems to occur a sort of selection which results in the survival of those best suited by the food material present. Bacteria are by no means indifferent as to the quality of their nutriment, and from this point of view they may be divided into three groups. The first group comprises species such as the nitrifying bacteria, which feed almost entirely upon inorganic material. They are capable of surviving in water and play a certain part, but as they are non-parasitic and do not call for removal, we need not consider them further. The second group comprises the strict parasites which feed only on material within the living bodies of their hosts. They are incapable of prolonged existence in water, and may also be set aside for the present. The third group comprises species which can feed upon dead organic matter and whicharein many instances indifferently parasites or not. This is the dangerous group from the point of view of the water hygienist. Yet they are not all capable of living in water because not only must they have organic matter to feed upon, but individual species must have it in a particular form. It is sufficient to appreciate the fact that certain bacteria will not grow unless the food material present is such as they are able to utilize. If proteid were not present in water, the proteid bacteria would not be able to live; if proteid were originally present but became by purification converted into other material the proteid bacteria would perish of starvation, and similarly as regards the other forms. It might happen that whilst proteid was being reduced through the stages of amido- compounds to ammonia, the water would successively be dominated by different species, first the proteid bacteria, then the amido-bacteria, then the ammonia bacteria would in turn flourish and succumb. Final extinction would be Ixxxvlii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. determined by exhaustion of all suitable pabulum, thus, in part at least, accounting for the gradual decrease to which reference has been made. If these experimental results be applied to the consider- ation of natural waters it is evident that very much the same selective process must take place. At first the bacteria washed in may continue to live upon the particular organic matter washed in with them, but as this becomes diluted and destroyed by natural processes occurring in the river, species after species will be deprived of the necessary nourishment and so will speedily or slowly die of starvation. The ultimate bacterial flora of the water will obviously be composed of those species which regularly lead a free existence in nature, and whose nutritive requirements are satisfied by the simple materials permissible in food potable water. ‘The importance of these considerations lies in the fact that given sufficient time even polluted streams would undergo self purification. The author then proceeded to describe the manner in which these particular germs were bred, the mode of their occurrence, the way in which they are dispersed and eventually carried into the water courses. He instanced two typical cases, that of an outbreak of typhoid fever at Camborne in Cornwall and at Lansen in Switzerland. In neither of these cases was the polluting material originally great in amount: the extensive effects must be ascribed to multiplication of the bacilli after their entry into the water. How far typhoid bacilli can be carried by a river is appar- ently not determined by available data, but it is neither judicious nor practicable to set any limit of safety in this matter. The author referred to the different modes adopted for the purification of water, making special reference to puri- fication by subsidence and the effect of light upon bacteria ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lxxxix, in the water. He concluded that although the protection afiorded by ordinary storage was inefficient, that could not be said of Prospect Reservoir, which is practically a lake, and would effect a more complete subsidence due to the greater distance to be traversed and the greater time available for that purpose. A lake such as this might be expected to offer a greater barrier than an ordinary storage reservoir. He described the characteristics of a sand filter, the relative efficiency of intermittent and continuous filtration, the effect of aeration and the action of the film. He found that as typhoid fever has resulted from the use of filtered water, a sand filter cannot be regarded as an entirely efficient safeguard. Nevertheless it has proved itself over and over again to have afforded protection when unfiltered water was causing disease, so that, though not flawless, the filtration of water through sand is extremely valuable. Mr. MCKINNEY, m. mst. c.p., discussed the subject generally and drew attention to the difference between EKuropean and American practice as regards filtering area. Dr. QUAIFE and Mr. Hovueuton having spoken, the latter moved the adjournment of the meeting. Second Day of the Third Session, 31st October, 1904. Mr. H. A. WHITEHEAD, Engineer and Manager, Broken Hill Water Works, communicated a paper to the discussion. He alluded to the wide variation in the depth of filter beds and he thought that increasing the depth of sand to decrease the rate of filtration was an unnecessary expense. He agrees with the author that filtration through sand is straining water through insoluble media, but that the further action of oxidation has been overlooked. He objects to the mode of constructing filter beds as carried out at Lawrence, Mass., and considers that air and imprisoned XC, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. gases will escape at the crowns of the corrugations and break the surface slime which is the true filtering medium. Dealing with rapid filtration as practiced in America, he says—that where attempts have been made to filter very turbid waters in ordinary sand filter beds even when pre- © liminary coagulation and sedimentation have been used, the cost of scraping filters has been so high as to lead to the abandonment of the system. The successful working of rapid filtration depends upon the efficiency of the pre- liminary coagulation and sedimentation. It is necessary that the coagulant be added in exact proportion to the quantity of water to be treated, and that it be thoroughly mixed with the water. As regards sedimentation, some American engineers say that the time allowed should not be less than 12 hours; 48 hours is recommended when the cost of construction is low, but 24 hours is a fair allowance. The results obtained by the mechanical filtration plant at Broken Hill shew that 62% of the bacteria present in the raw water as well as all the higher forms of plant and animal life are removed. After heavy rains the raw water is very turbid and carries in suspension a large amount of clayey matter, more in the form of a solution than a solid in suspension. At these times 10 grains of coagulant per gallon of water was hardly sufficient to obtain a clear effluent. Generally after subsidence the water was first treated with 2 grains of sulphate of alumina per gallon and then with a solution of lime equal to 1 in 400 of raw water. After describing the apparatus he gave tables illustrating the physical and chemical character of raw water, the effluent from the working filter and the effluent from the mechanical plant. W. M. HAMLET, F.1.C., F.C.S., said that the trend of public opinion was all in the direction of obtaining pure water supplies and more particularly in the case of country towns; ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xcel. it is a canon in the ethics of water engineering to jealously guard against any form of pollution, and where suspicion rests to purify the water supply. He pointed out that in the inauguration of our country water supples purification was never contemplated or provided for, and when it is sought to be introduced as an afterthought, the works being completed it is generally either very expensive or imprac- ticable to carry out. The absolutely pure standard of water is not to be found anywhere and not even in a chemical laboratory, but the sanitarian’s standard may be defined as follows :— 1. A clean history 2. Freedom from pathogenic organisms 3. The minimum of organic and organised constituents 4, Reasonably soft, free from odour and colour. Bearing this in mind, the impurities to be removed from water, however carefully gathered and stored may consist of living and non-living matter, both groups being sub- divided into the visible and the microscopic. After describ- ing the different modes of filtration he said that with regard to sand filtration a great change has come over the opinion of engineers and chemists as to what happens in a sand filter bed: it was thought at one time to be purely mechanical, but now it is considered to be biological as well, the mechanical action of the films of albuminous matter which entangles all the larger forms of life being only one aspect of the complex action of the filter. In reporting on the efficiency of any process of filtration the biological purification is best expressed by giving the comparative number of bacteria per centimeter cube, recording the absence or the presence of pathogenic species, but the general results of the working of a filter is, and will be for some time to come, best expressed in terms of chemical analyses and when these are duly tabulated in Xcli. . ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. curves and figures the engineer can see at a glance whether any given change in composition can be accounted for by rains, floods, drought or outside contamination. Chemical analysis allows of inquiry as to the origin of pollution to be made much quicker than would be the case if the biological methods were alone accessible. Mr. HOUGHTON, ™. mst. c.z., exhibited a diagram shewing the storage capacity of unfiltered water, the area of storage reservoirs, and the area filtered per million gallons of daily supply for the month of June last, for five of the London water companies, to shew that some companies favour large storage and a quick rate of filtration, and others smaller storage and a slower rate. The average rate varied from 0°98 to 2°22 gallons per square foot per hour. He quoted Dr. Krankland’s figures to shew the great value of sedimen- tation in storage water, which in the case of the companies just quoted, shewed a reduction of bacteria from about 76°7 per cent. in 13 days to 92°9 per cent. in 6°3 days. He thought that the author’s description of the action of a sand filter-bed was not quite correct, but that it is rather a breaking up of the water into small particles so that it comes more into contact with the bacteria in the pores of the sand, in support of which he quoted Gill on the filtration of the Muggel Lake Water Supply. He disagreed with the statement that water containing more than 100 germs per cem. is not sufficiently cleansed, and that water should not be condemned because of the number of bacteria it contains, instancing the fact that water drawn from the taps in Melbourne contained on a average of 199 examinations, 154 bacteria perccm. He thought he was the only engineer that had any experience of mechanical filters in Australia, and when he was asked to advise the Broken Hill Water Supply Oo. on the best means of purifying the water the analysis of the water supplied to him shewed solids varying ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XClil. from 260 to 760 parts per million, and the albuminoid from "16 to °30 parts per million, although since then the pro- portion had been greatly increased. To deal with the question by means of subsiding reservoirs would have been too costly, and ordinary sand filters would have been of very little use on account of the large amount of fine clay in suspension. Rapid mechanical filters having been adopted, the process was to bring the water from the pumping station into a subsiding reservoir which held one hour’s supply. In the tank are copper plates. In the filters of which there are four, the medium is quartz, nothing larger than would pass a 144 mesh sieve and nothing smaller than would remain on 1,600 mesh. The filters work very well so long as the solids are not excessive, but when they amounted to 1,000 per million they gave trouble; when they filter at the rate of about 50 cubic feet per hour a good effluent is obtained. Working at this rate the filters had to be cleansed about once every 2 or 6 days, which operation takes about 15 minutes, with an expenditure of about 20,000 gallons of water. Using about 4 to 2 grains of coagulant we get a reduction in the albuminoid ammonia of about 55 per cent. and in bacteria of about 62 per cent. He exhibited a diagram shewing the curves of purification for quartz and sand respectively, which are practically identical. The deposit of clay on the quartz in the filters is very considerable, and sometimes the machinery employed for raking the filters is unable to break it up, and the question of cleansing by the aid of forced air is now being considered. He thought that mechanical filters for Sydney Water Supply would be a mistake, the sand filters have been proved to be efficient in operation and cheap in main- tenance. Mr. CHAS. W. SMITH, ™. Inst. o.n., Said that the subject of water filtration has been so thoroughly threshed out by Xclv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. hydraulic engineers and biologists of all nations and the data obtainable are so complete, down to the minutest detail that there should be apparently no difficulty in selecting a method applicable to each individual water works. He did not think that in Australia mechanical filtration need be employed, save in such locations as are liable to excessive animal pollution and where the sources of supply are under official control. The watersheds of the cities and larger towns should be under such strict super- vision that serious contamination would be impossible, and the simple and more economic method of rational sand filtration should meet all requirements. In New South Wales there is an instance of sand filtration at West Mait- land, as most fully described by Mr. Henson; at Broken Hill is established the only mechanical filtration plant in Australia as applied to water works. In Victoria the process of precipitation by means of lime was in operation at Bendigo and Geelong at the time of the speaker’s con- nection with those works some years ago, and where satisfactory results were obtained by the use of about 11h. of lime to 1,000 gallons of water treated. In South Australia while no system of artificial filtration has been established, certain of the townships adjacent to Adelaide got their water from wells sunk in the sand detritus adjacent to the creek; the wells were lined with brickwork, laid dry in the lower part and with mortar joints in the upper part, thus securing filtered water which was conveyed from the gathering wells by cast iron mains to covered service reservoirs. In Brisbane where vegetable organisms in the water gave considerable trouble, the speaker had recommended sand filtration; the media to consist of top layer of sand 3 feet 6 inches thick including a 3 inch layer of powdered cinders in the middle, the whole resting on a series of layers aggregating 2 feet thick of ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XCV. coarse sand, fine gravel and broken rock, preferably lime- stone. In the water supply of Buenos Ayres it had been found that the introduction of a layer of cinders in the filter produced a brilliantly pellucid water, and the albuminoid ammonia was reduced from 0°24 part per million in the raw water to 0°01 part per million in the filtrate. He alluded to experiments now being carried out in Brisbane for the destruction of algee by the use of copper sulphate, where it is found that the result is not so satisfactory with the soft water which obtains there as with the harder waters in America. Mr.J. HAYDON CARDEW, Assce. M. Inst. C.E. in MOving a vote of thanks to the author of the paper, said that although filtra- tion of water was fully understood and successfully practised in Kurope and America it had been almost entirely neglected in Australia. The Sydney water supply although it is gathered on an area which, geologically considered, is extremely favourable to purity, is exposed to many dangers from the character of the settlement on its surface, and it was a question worthy of the consideration of the authorities whether filtration should not be adopted if only as a pre- cautionary measure. In country towns water supplies in this State the question was one of even greater urgency, because it was well known that there were only a very few that supplied water fit for human consumption, and that if the quality of the water was tested by the rules and con- ditions laid down in the paper, the majority of the country water supplies of the State would be absolutely condemned. In this country, probably due to climatic conditions, there is generally an abnormal development in all storage reservoirs of animal and plant life; in one reservoir myriads of small green frogs swarmed to such an extent as to block the pipes, and although the gathering ground was of granitic formation, only devoted to grazing cattle and remarkably XCV1. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, clear of fallen timber and vegetation, the odour of the water was extremely obnoxious. In other reservoirs and in settling ponds numbers of rats and mice were observed. These references, together with the remarks made by other speakers on the presence of algse would point out the necessity for filtration, but there are other very grave dangers of pollution arising from the presence of the dead bodies of cattle and sheep which invariably find their way into the watercourses at times of drought, and are washed down to the reservoir at the first flood; in districts affected by pleuro or tuberculosis the water which flows off the pastures must be more or less contaminated, and it is con- ceivable that hydatids would be found in any reservoir; even the Sydney Water Supply canals are extremely liable to this form of pollution. ‘The presence of rabbits in large numbers is a danger prevalent everywhere in the State to the purity of the water supply, and the discovery of dead rabbits in the canals above Prospect sufficiently emphasises the necessity for the filtration of all water destined for human consumption. The question of the great variation in depth of media adopted in the various waterworks in England is deserving of some comment, as it seems to indicate some want of knowledge in guiding principles. It is generally understood that the top film of sedimentary and organic mud on the surface of the sand performs the principal duty of strain- ing and interception of bacteria, while the sand beneath the film performs in a lesser degree the same duty, its principal function being the support of the film, the aeration of the passing water and the generation of water bacteria, which Piefke has demonstrated to be of great importance in the satisfactory working of the filter. The relative proportion of the duty performed by the several parts of the media has been experimentally determined by Dr. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ~° XeVvil. Frankland, and is clearly illustrated by the diagram plotted from his figures, a study of the diagram shews that although the top film intercepts the majority of the passing organisms a great number manage to pass through, and are intercepted by the underlying sand. The curves appear to demonstrate that results are not improved beyond a depth of 600 mm. or about 2 feet, and that the existence of a more open stratum below the sand in the shape of gravel is deleterious to the effluent. It is reasonable to suppose that the nature of the water and of the sand would be important factors in determining the depth of media, but experiments seem to shew that given a sufficient depth to ensure the stability of the film, the depth of the sand need not vary so greatly as appears to be the practise in English waterworks. The cost of filtration of water is of such importance from an economic standpoint that some trouble has been taken to gather evidence concerning it. Mr. Price Williams, M. Inst. C.H.,i1N a paper read before the Institution of Civil ‘Engineers two years ago, gives the cost of filtration on sand beds for the past 30 years to 8 of the London water com- panies, and from those figures a diagram has been prepared; it embraces the period 1871 to 1901; the average cost during the period referred to is 6/6 per million gallons or ool per cent. of all charges of maintenance. Now if the experience of London is applied to the Sydney Water Supply and the amount of water consumed in 1901-2 is dealt with, the cost of filtration calculated by the percentage of all charges as given above would be 8/32 per million gallons. Mr. LOXxLEY MEGGITT, F.I.c., in seconding the vote of thanks to the author, said, that although not an expert on water filtration he had carried out experiments in connec- tion with the purification of sewage from factories, and he thought it strange that work on similar lines had not been done in regard to the purification of water. XCVIlii. « ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. One of the speakers referred to the case of waters that developed a bad odour and emitted gases in the pipes, he considered the trouble could be cured and the water purified by bacterial treatment in a form of septic tank, and after that by intermittent filtration. THE OHAIRMAN in putting the vote of thanks to the meeting expressed the great pleasure he had experienced in presiding at such an excellent discussion, and hoped it would be the precursor of others. The Session then terminated. Unfortunately the diagrams which were very interesting cannot be printed. TACHEOMETER SURVEYING WITH AN ORDINARY THEODOLITE. I. TACHEOMETER SURVEYING witH an ORDINARY THHODOLITE. By THOMAS KENNEDY, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. [Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, and the Institution of Surveyors N. S. Wales, July 20, 1904. } TACHEOMETER surveying consists in getting heights and distances without chaining and levelling in the ordinary manner. It is proposed to describe a simple system of tacheometry that can be taken with an ordinary theodolite and so avoid the use of special instruments or fixed stadia wires in the theodolite. This system of tacheometry has recently been used on an extremely rough railway trial survey on part of the North Coast, being the ascent to the Dorrigo Tableland from the _ Orara River. The country is mostly covered with a dense undergrowth, the clearing of which added to the difficulty of the survey, as every line had to be cleared for observa- tions. It was found possible, however, by this method of tacheometry to stake level and cross level from 60 to 80 chains in a day besides reducing all field notes. The ascent from the valley of the river to the tableland was almost abrupt, the total rise being 1,700 feet, and the direct dis- tance from the river to the top being about six miles. A distance of 18 miles had to be developed to get the ruling grade. The first mile was level, so practically the whole ascent had to be made on the ruling grade rising approxi- mately 100 feet to the mile. The field work of the survey was commenced on the Ist May and completed on the 1st August (three months). The plans were plotted in Head Office. The method is known as the “* Tangential’’ and consists in setting on the vertical arc of the theodolite consecutively 1—July 20, 1904. II. THOMAS KENNEDY. a pair of angles whose natural tangents differ from each other by ‘01 when the base is °66 or 1. By using the °66 base the resultant heights are in feet and the distances in links (should the heights and distances be required both in feet, then the angles from the natural tangents correspond- ing to ‘01, ‘02 and ‘03, etc., can be taken direct from a table of natural tangents). The two tables of tangents have been calculated to give distances in chains and links or feet, from a level surface to a slope of sixty feet in one chain. If any two angles be taken from the table and set alter- natively on the vertical arc of a theodolite, and a levelling staff divided to hundredths of a foot be read at each setting, then the difference of the staff readings will give the hori- zontal distance in chains and links or feet according to the table used, and this distance multiplied by the natural tangent of either angle will give the height in feet from the instrumental axis to the intersection of the cross hairs on the staff when that angle is set on the vertical arc cor- responding to the tangent used for multiplication. The natural tangents are given on the table opposite to their respective angles. As a practical example TACHEOMETER SURVEYING WITH AN ORDINARY THEODOLITE. III. The operation in the field is as follows :—In figure 1 let AE represent any section of sloping ground. It is required to find the horizontal distance AB, and the vertical height BH. Seta theodolite over a peg A and measure the height of the instrument AC. Then from the table of tangents giving distances in feet, set the angle on the vertical arc that most nearly corresponds with the slope of the ground AK. Let this angle be 5° 08' 34’; it will be found from the table of tangents that this angle will give a rise of 9feet in 100 feet. An ordinary levelling Staff divided to iso Of a foot is held on H, and a reading of the staff taken, this will be the height HF, let it equal 5°21 feet. From the tables the next higher angle is 5° 42’ 38", which is set on the vertical arc of the theodolite this angle will give a rise of 10 feet in 100 feet. The staff is again read giving the height EG, which equals 9°86 feet. Then the difference of the staff readings 9°86—5°21=4°65 which, multiplied by 100, is the horizontal distance AB. Then 465 x 9 = 41°85 feet, this being the vertical height, DF and BE can easily be found by adding BD and subtracting EF. For obtaining the height of the instrument a small length of an old metallic tape was used, and so graduated that the height from the ground to the top of the tripod recorded the actual height of the instrumental axis. This was found more convenient than holding the staff beside the instrument. The shortening of the tape enabled the observer to reach from the ground to the top of the tripod. The reduction of field notes taken by the tangential metliod can be carried on in the field, as very little more calculation is required than to reduce notes taken by ordinary levelling. A sample page of field notes is shewn and the notation is so arranged that the notes can be entered in an ordinary level book. LV, THOMAS KENNEDY. On a recent survey for extended contours at Barren Jack, the proposed dam site on the Murrumbidgee River, the site was contoured for 1,100 feet along the river to a height of 500 feet on one side and 410 feet on the other, the time occupied on the survey being four days. The country has an average slope of between 30° and 40°. On the last day the tacheometer notes were reduced in the field and survey was found to close before leaving for head quarters where the plans were plotted. The advantage of knowing the reduced level and distance is of great assistance in locating railways or contours. In fact it is almost impossible to locate a long ruling grade for a proposed railway without chaining and levelling the traverse in the ordinary way. This especially applies to rough and heavily timbered country. With an assistant to book and check the reduction of notes there was found to be no delay in the field work, and with sufficient field hands it would be possible in one day to traverse level and cross level about two miles of preliminary railway survey in ordinary open rolling country—as much as one and a quarter miles was so sur veyed in one day, but the country was rough and heavily timbered, the time was mostly taken up in clearing the traverse lines. When the work has to be done without an assistant, it is better to have the table of tangents on a separate sheet, preferably mounted on a stiff card about the size of a page of the level book, so that the angles can be read off without having to refer to another book. The accuracy of the work is quite close enough for pre- liminary surveys for railways or contouring areas of land. As an example of the comparative results, a table is shewn with the different results between the level staff and chain and the tacheometer over about one mile of rough country. The difference in distance is only five links, and of level TACHEOMETER SURVEYING WITH AN ORDINARY THEODOLITE. Y. one-hundredth of a foot at the end; but in places the differ- ence in level amounts to 1°65 feet, and the distance differs by 26 links. As the errors give and take the results are quite near enough for preliminary surveys. On five miles forty-six chains of trial survey that was staked out with tacheometer and afterwards chained and levelled in the ordinary way, the final result gave the difference in distance of 84 links, and the difference in the reduced level of 7°30 feet. The number of traverse lines was 171 and their average length 2°6 chains. The short lines were unavoidable on account of the rough nature of the country, as the line staked ran under a steep moun- tainous slope covered with a dense undergrowth. Upon re-levelling, it was found that the errors were mostly in the steep slopes, and it was afterwards found advisable to repeat the angles and to exercise great care in setting them on the vertical are of the instrument. The table was originally calculated to the nearest minute only, but this was not accurate enough, so a table of angles to the nearest second was substituted. On the cross sections the same accuracy is not necessary. The theodolite should have the bubble attached to the vertical arc and not on the telescope. The theodolite used had the bubble removed from the telescope and fixed on the arc, and being much longer and more sensitive than the bubble usually attached to the arc, the result was very satisfactory, and the cost of removing the bubble was 25s. So astoenable the staff holder to hold the staff truly vertical, a longitudinal bubble was attached, this being frequently adjusted with a plumb bob. For ordinary levelling it has been found that the bubble on the staff gives greater accuracy and more expeditious levelling than waving the staff. Some difficulty was experienced in reading the staff at a greater distance than four chains, and it would be VI. THOMAS KENNEDY. advantageous to have the staff divided to read every two- hundredths of a foot instead of one. The plotting of plans.—Where the country is steep it is better to adopt a large scale for the plan, and nothing less than two chains to one inch should be adopted where the contours are to be marked at every ten feet apart. The section can be plotted to the ordinary scale used in New South Wales on preliminary railway surveys—that is four chains to one inch. For marking off the contours on the plan, the heights are scaled from the plotted section and the points marked on plan of the traverse line. The cross level is written on the plan where the ground changes, and to divide the cross section into even spaces a device is shown on the diagram. A similar one suitable for the work required should be drawn on clear tracing linen. The use of this diagram was found to greatly facilitate the division of the contours. Suppose contour lines are to be marked every 5 feet between the points « and y whose heights are 81 and 107 feet above datum. It will be observed that every fifth radial line is alternately marked different. Assuming asin example, that the bottom outside line represents 80, the next dotted line represents 85 and so on. Now make the station (x) coincide with any part of the line (81) that is the one next that standing for 80, then run that line over the point until the line corresponding to 107 coincides with the point (y), always taking care that the line between the points themselves is parallel to the lines a, a,a. Prick through on the thick dotted lines which occur between the stations « and y, and in this case these will give the con- tours for 85, 90, 95, 100, and 105. The diagram should be traced and the dotted lines marked alternately red and blue. TACHEOMETER SURVEYING WITH AN ORDINARY THEODOLITE, VII. DIAGRAM FOR MAKING CONTOUR LINES. VIII. THOMAS KENNEDY. In railway location where curves not sharper than 10 chains radius are to be used no great advantage is gained by making contour maps of the route, as the usual practice in New South Wales of writing the reduced levels on the plan gives quite as accurate results whilst the office work is considerably reduced. In rough country better results are obtained by the use of contours as it is then necessary to use sharp.curves. If curves of five chains radius are to be used, then to get the best results from cross sections they should be taken almost at every chain and the heights written on the plan. These figures do not convey to the eye any impression of the nature of the country, whilst by the use of contours a good idea may be taken in at a glance. In surveying preliminary lines for a proposed railway, long lengths have frequently to be staked on the ruling grade; then the tacheometer system is a great assistance in locating the line. The main traverse should, however, be always levelled and chained as a complete check on the work. This can be carried out by an assistant whilst the plans and sections are being plotted. On some portion of the Dorrigo survey alternate lines had to be staked. They were run out by the tacheometrical method and checked on to the main traverse at about half-mile intervals. These lines served to extend the contours and a wide belt of country differing in level by 500 feet was in some instances shown. The advantage of having extended contours was of great assistance in the location on the plan of the proposed railway to the Dorrigo for over the whole ascent of 1,700 feet—three separate schemes have been formulated giving ’ ruling grades on each route of 1 in 30, 1 in 40, and 1 in 60 respectively. On the 1 in 30 and 1 in 60 it is proposed to use five chain curves, whilst on the 1 in 40, the 10 chain curve is adhered to, as on the latter the ordinary engines TACHEOMETER SURVEYING WITH AN ORDINARY THEODOLITE, IX. and rolling stock can be used, whilst the lines with sharp curves would require special engines. TABLE OF TANGENTS, DISTANCES, LINKS. + Tan = = Tan = 89 07 55 || 25 09 33 | 81 | 64 50 27 88 15 51 || 25 51 59 | 32 | 64 08 O1 87 23 51 || 26 33 54 | 33 | 63 26 06 86 81 54 | 27 15 19 | 84 | 62 44 41 85 40 04 | 27 56 14 | 35 | 62 03 46 84 48 20 || 28 36 38 | 36 | 61 23 22 | 83 56 45 || 29 16 381 | 37 | 60 43 29 83 05 20 || 29 55 54 | 38 | 60 04 06 | 82 14 06 || 30 34 45 | 39 | 59 25 15 | 81 23 04 || 31 13 06 | 40 | 58 46 54 | 80 32 16 | 31 50 57 | 41 | 58 09 08 79 41 43 || 32 28 16 | 42 | 57 31 44. | OmNTD An Se WW KH Co aa HE © DP oO S CaAaNA TA wn EH 10 18 17 | 12 11 08 34 | 13 | 78 51 26 || 33 05 06 | 43 | 56 54 54 11 58 84 | 14 78 O01 26 || 33 41 24 | 44 | 56 18 36 12 48 15 | 15 | 77 11 45 || 34 17 18 | 45 | 55 42 47 13 37 37 | 16 | 76 22 23 || 34 52 31 | 46 | 55 07 29 14 26 39 | 17 75 33 21 || 35 27 20 | 47 | 54 32 40 15 1518 | 18 | 74 44 42 || 36 01 39 | 48 | 53 58 21 16 08 36 | 19 | 73 56 24 || 86 35 28 | 49 | 53 24 32 16 51 30 | 20. 73 08 30 || 37 08448 | 50 | 52 51 12 17 39 00 | 21 | 72 21 00 || 37 41 39 | 51 | 52 18 21 18 26 06 | 22 71 38 54 || 38 14 02 | 52 | 51 45 58 19 12 46 | 23 | 70 47 14 || 88 45 56 | 53 | 51 14 04 19 58 59 | 24 70 01 O1 || 89 17 22 | 54 | 50 42 38 20 44 46 | 25 | 69 15 14 || 39 48 20 | 55 | 50 11 40 21 30 05 | 26 | 68 29 55 || 40 18 51 | 56 | 49 41 09 22 14 57 | 27 67 45 03 | 40 48 55 | 57 | 49 11 05 22 59 20 | 28 | 67 00 40 || 41 18 31 | 58 | 48 41 29 23 43 13 | 29 | 66 16 47 || 41 47 41 | 59 | 48 12 19 24 26 38 | 30 | 65 33 22 || 42 16 25 | 60 |. 47 43 35 Oo | Risk = DT-S Tangent Tai, & DvP.) Horizontal Distance S = Staff Reading THOMAS KENNEDY. TABLE OF TANGENTS DISTANCES, FEET. Nn Doan Ff 2 Wb NW HF Oo (2) =P Tan - =e Tan a 34 32 | 1189 25 38 | 17 13 24 | 31 | 72 46 08 45 | 2| 88 51 15 || 17 44 41 | 32 | 72 15 43 06 | 3 | 88 16 54 || 18 15 47 | 33 | 71 44 17 26 | 4] 87 42 34 || 18 46 41 | 84] 71 13 51 45 | 5 | 87 08 15 || 19 17 24 | 35 | 70 42 26 01 | 6 | 86 33 59 || 19 47 56 | 36 | 70 12 0015 | 7 | 85 59 45 || 20 18 16 | 37 | 69 41 34 26 | 8 | 85 25 34 || 20 48 25 | 38] 69 11 08 34] 9 | 84 51 26 || 21 18 21 | 39 | 68 41 42 38 | 10 | 84 17 22 || 21 48 05 | 40 | 68 11 16 39 | 11 | 83 43 21 || 22 17 87 | 41 | 67 42 50 34 | 12 | 83 09 26 || 22 46 57 | 42 | 67 138 24 25 | 13 | 82 35 35 || 23 16 04 | 43 | 66 43 58 11 | 14 | 82 01 49 |] 23 44 58 | 44 | 66 15 31 51 | 15 | 81 28 09 || 24 13 40 | 45 | 65 46 05 25 | 16 | 80 54 35 || 24 42 09 | 46 | 65 17 38 53 | 17 | 80 21 07 || 25 19 25 | 47 | 64 49 12 14/118] 79 47 46 || 25 38 28 | 48 | 64 21 45 29 | 19 | 79 14 31 || 26 06 18 | 49 | 68 53 18 36 | 20 | 78 41 24 || 26 33 54 | 50 | 63 26 51 35 | 21 | 78 08 25 || 27 OL 18 | 51 | 62 58 24 27 | 22 | 77 35 33 || 27 28 28 | 52 | 62 31 . 57 10 | 23 | 77 02 50 || 27 55 24 | 53 | 62 04 29 45 | 24 | 76 30 16 | 28 22 09 | 54 | 61 37 02 11 | 25 | 75 57 49 || 28 48 39 | 55 | $1.11 26 33 | 26 | 75 38 27 || 29 14 56 | 56 | 60 45 06 35 | 27 | 74 53 25 |] 29 41 00 | 57 | 60 19 38 32 | 28 | 74 21 28 || 30 06 50 | 58 | 59 53 10 20 | 29 | 73 49 40 || 30 32 26 | 59 | 59 27 41 57 | 30 | 73 18 03 |! 30 57 50 | 60 | 59 02 4 x egingeS he — nrg S = Staff Beading Faun = DIETS 23 eS ee TACHEOMETER SURVEYING WITH AN ORDINARY THEODOLITE, XI. COMPARATIVE RESULTS. By Level and Staff. oo is een ae Number HEEL! I Siete Cis | eyevramn, || BED OL Beene 1743°85 57-27) 117 57:27| 1743°85 1710°03 60:14} 118 60:04} 1711-24 169698 61°65 119 61:60} 1697°77 1690°44 64°78| 120 64-74 | 1691-30 1707°63 67°74; 121 67°68! 170835 1697-77 | - 68-70| 122 68-64; 1698-49 1689-91 71:52| 128 71-41] 1690-04. 1694-73 7272, 124 72°64| 1695°81 1683-20 74°79| 125 7479 | 168406 1663-03 77-70| 126 77°68| 1663-98 1682-37 78:86| 127 78:84| 168337 1674-65 79'85| 128 79:84| 1675-62 1634-44 | 1 2:06] 129 | 1 2:01) 1636:08 163270 | 1 408] 1380 | 1 4:04] 1634°35 167490 | 1 602] 181 1 5:91] 1675-11 171801 | 1 902] 182 | 1 885] 1717-49 171706 | 1 10:00] 183 | 1 9°83] 1716-56 165029 | 1 12°93) 184 | 1 12°71] 1650-59 1687:73 | 1 15°37| 185 | 1 15:09| 1687-13 1679'81 | 1 16°74| 186 | 1 16:50! 1679-14 166200 | 1 1827| 137 | 1 18:01] 1661-67 165498 | Lt 19°83/ 188 | 1 19:55] 1654-67 1595°75 | 1 2454] 189 | 1 24298] 1595-12 1616-09 | 1 2693) 140 | 1 26°74] 1615-96 163297 | 1 2965) 141 | 1 29-48] 1632-98 1633-43 | 1 3162] 142 | 1 31:50] 1633-43 163606 | 1 3497; 143 | 1 34:90] 1636-04 163800 | 1 3614| 144 | 1 36:05| 1637-99 162435 | 1 40°74| 145 | 1 40°69! 1624-36 THOMAS KENNEDY. 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XIII, WATER FILTRATION. By J. M. SMAIL, . inst. ¢.z. [Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, July 21, 1904. ] FILTRATION of water supply is a subject which the members of the Engineering Section of the Royal Society have not up to the present discussed, perhaps for the reason that it is one which has not become prominent as a necessary factor in the preservation of the health of the community of this State. I have therefore, prepared a few notes on the sub- ject, which I trust will be freely aud fully discussed. It is proposed to deal with the question under two heads, first Huropean method or *‘ Slow Filtration.’’ Second, American method, “‘ Rapid or Mechanical Filtration.’’ On the former perhaps, it may be found that nothing new has been advanced, yet on the other hand something of interest may be found. The author has had an opportunity of seeing » both methods under working conditions. _ EUROPEAN METHOD OR SLOW FILTRATION. When filtration of water is brought up, the mind invari- ably turns to what is being carried out in connection with the water supply of London, which may well be termed the Metropolis of the World. Without wearying you with the history of the development of filtration of water supplies it will be sufficient to state that the question did not take a concrete form until the year 1828, when the late Mr. James Simpson installed the system in connection with the Chelsea Waterworks, which was followed by all the companies drawing water from the Thames, and by all the large cities and towns in Great Britain and Ireland with two notable XIV. J. M. SMAIL. exceptions, Glasgow and Manchester. The watersheds which form the source of supply to these cities being prac- tically waste and under the absolute control of the City Councils, pollution of supply is reduced to nil and sedimen- tation and screening being considered sufficient protection to Public Health. The following table shews the character of the filter beds employed by the water companies for filtering the water taken from the rivers Thames and Lea :— Chelsea. Kast London. HE: In: Ft.In. Thames sand 4 6 Sand... 2 0 Shells etc. ... 0 3 Hoggin 0 6 Gravel > o Coarse gravel j et Total 8 0 Total 3 6 Grand anchion=aiar 2nd—New Pattern. Harwich Sand 2 6 Sand... 2) Hogegin 0 6 Gravel 0 6 Free gravel... 0 9 Drains 0. 3 Coarse gravel 0 9 —— Boulders ae: Total z 9 Total > 6 Lambeth. New River. Thames sand a 0 Sand .. ibe 2 3 Shells etc. a Grav el increasing i in Coarse gravel 3d 0 coarseness towards bottom 2: oss) oe Totals ak at ey et ae West Middlesex. Harwich sand salt 1 Barnes sand odidgy ol Gravel screened to different sizes and arranged in layers 1 0 Southwark and Vauxhall. Harwich sand ees ars, | Hoggin = sco, ae Fine gravel... re ee Coarse gravel 0-9 Total as cag pabaels Total co eo, en WATER: FILTRATION. XV. Subsiding and storage reservoirs for unfiltered water. Available capacity in gallons per million gallons supplied : Gallons Gallons Chelsea ... 12,200,000 New River... 5,120,000 East London ... 21,600,000 Southwark and Grand Junction 3,500,000 Vauxhall ... 4,300,000 Lambeth ... 6,180,000 West Middlesex 5,960,000 Filtering area in acres per million gallons of the average daily supply :— Acres. Acres. Chelsea - ... 0°58 New River ae ner 1Oc43 Hast London ... 0°64 Southwarkand Vauxhall 0°61 Grand Junction... 1°13 West Middlesex ae Onno, Lambeth a ee 0ra0 Average rate of filtration per square foot per hour :— Gallons. Gallons. Chelsea oe .. 1°75 New River iy Beg | AAD Kast London ... 1°33 Southwarkand Vauxhall 1°50 Grand Junction... 1°63 West Middlesex ete de ei) Lambeth Bae eg HEOO From a description of the water supply to Edinburgh, published by the Edinburgh Council, filtering material is, Broken stone, granite whinstone 3 feet 3 inches Gravel size of walnuts ... sree HO Paeac, 3 Oss ee Gravel size of beans Obese ON Liss Coarse sand Ban At: pea OP we te. Fine sand eee Ooan Totals... oe Be Sc PORN heads Average rate of filtration 3°08 gallons per square foot per hour. This is excessive. Liverpool-—_Vyrnwy Water. Second Installation. Gravel ... 1 foot 0 inch Gravel i Ltoot Oineh Sand geet heal | eel me te Sand seit (Gath, ee) Ogee otal ws: 3 1,5 20S Motalt oe One Average rate of filtration per square foot per hour, 2°2 gallons. XVI. J. M. SMAIL. York. Cobbles and gravel graded .. 2 feet.6 ineles Fine river sand ... << we 4A Total’. ABA ns ... 6) 3 Oa Average rate of filtration 1 gallon per square foot per hour. The low rate of filtration is explained by the engineer as being considered advisable by the company in order to secure water of undoubted purity. Considering the source of supply, river Ouse, I can quite understand the feelings of the company and their engineer. A recent bacterio- logical examination which will be referred to further on, is quite in accord with the rate of filtration carried out. In connection with the composition of slow filter beds on the Continent and America, Professor Mason gives the following information :— Berlin. Warsaw. Bi In: Pt. En. Fine sand A. ao A = eee Coarse sand 0 2 Fine gravel ... rm! ae &) 0 2 Medium gravel cae Ale Coarse gravel... 0 3 0 3 Small stones ... 0 4 1 0 Large stones ... 1 0 0 11 Total a wan & | O. Gaeeeeeee Fine sand — a: 2k 8 has ee Coarse sand ... sas 0 6 Fine gravel ... sk OD. 4 Coarse gravel o. 6 0 10 (sea shells) Large stones ... 0 6 Total ae adams: im | re ee 52 e WATER FILTRATION. XVII. America. Hudson, N.Y. Ploughkeepsie. Evie kn. My, bar, Fine sand 0 6 2 0 Coarse sand 1 6 Fine gravel... 0 6 Medium gravel 0 6 1 6 Coarse gravel 0 6 Small stones 0 6 0 6 Large stones 2 0 an) otal... eee Onl) 6 Australia.—Hunter River Water Supply. Sand... ae ... o feet 0 inches Gravel ah aia opie teste HOD ta Motale GAG. woos Oo => ae With the exception of Liverpool and Edinburgh, which are supplied with water from moorlands, the foregoing may be taken as typical cases dealing with water obtained from rivers. In dealing with river waters it has been found conducive to efficient filtration to adopt sedimentation in storage reservoirs, or the use of coagulents, sulphate of alumina or lime. The advantages of sedimentation cannot be over- looked. A few days rest will effect the clarification of river waters containing all but the finest particles, and the deposition of mineral matter in suspension results in a con- siderable reduction of bacteria present. In connection with the matter, Dr. Frankland has published the following figures in relation to some of his investigations of the London Water Supply. Samples taken from the West Middlesex Works at Barnes, gave the following results :— Bacteria per cc. Unfiltered Thames water from Hampton ... 1,437 Unfiltered water after passing through one subsiding reservoir ae sr he a18 2—Jnly 21, 1904. XVIII. J. M. SMAIL. Unfiltered water after passing through two subsiding reservoirs Me +e. ies wir A reduction of 88%, New River Waterworks, Stoke Newington. Bacteria per cc. New River Cut above reservoir ee fb 667 Outlet of first reservoir be ae ae 560 Outlet of second reservoir Hees ee Bo 183 Reduction of 72% Apart from the reduction of bacteria by mechanical sedimentation of mineral matter, it is possible that the bacterial action of the harmless species under the influence of sunlight and air may cause a great reduction in the number and vitality of the harmful bacteria. The percen- tage of reduction would fix the amount of storage necessary, it is obvious that as the matter in suspension varies in different rivers the storage necessary can only be determined by actual experiment with the water to be treated. The author had an opportunity of inspecting the large storage reservoirs in course of construction at Staines, Hngland, for the West Middlesex, Grand Junction and New River Waterworks Companies conjointly. The water is taken from the Thames at about 300 yards above the Bell Weir, and conducted to the reservoirs by conduits open and covered, and steel mains to the pumping station, from which it is pumped by five triple expansion Worthington engines to the reservoirs. The reservoirs are about 17 miles long by 3? mile wide at northern end, and nearly a mile wide at southern end. The average depth of water in reservoirs is 30 feet, and the capacity is equal to 3,300 million gallons. These immense reservoirs as wellas stor- ing water willact as sedimentation reservoirs before passing into the companies’ filters. The longer the period allowed for sedimentation the better for subsequent filtration and lessening the cost of cleaning the filters, but it is obvious WATER FILTRATION, XIX. that the first cost of the work would be increased propor- tionately. Sand Filtration. Filtration through sand is straining water through fine insoluble media. The flow being continuous, the interstices in the sand become clogged with the coarser particles in the water, the interstitial space being reduced, the finer particles are in turn intercepted, until in rotation the bacteria are intercepted by the slimy coating thus formed. The bacteria increase in number until the filter becomes blocked and scraping of the top layer has to be carried out. In order to maintain a high degree of efficiency several important points have to be observed, and the regulations issued by the German Government, drawn up under the supervision of Dr. Koch, are as interesting as they are valuable :— 1. In judging the quality of a filtered surface water the following points should be specially observed: (a) The operation of a filter is to be regarded as satisfactory when the filtrate con- tains the smallest number of bacteria, not exceeding the number which practical experience has shewn to be obtain- able with good filtration at the works in question. In those cases where there are no previous records shewing the possi- bilities of the works and the influence of the local conditions, especially the character of the raw water, and until such information is obtained it is to be taken as a rule that a satis- factory filtration shall never yield an effluent with more than about 100 bacteria per cc. (b) The filtrate must be as clear as possible, and in regard to colour, taste, temperature and chemical composition must be no worse than raw water. 2. To allow of a complete and constant control of the bacterial etliciency of filtration, the filtrate from each single filter must be examined daily. Any sudden increase in the number of bacteria should cause a suspicion of some unusual disturbance in the filter, and should make the superintendent more atten- tive to the possible causes of it. XX. 3. ~I 15 J. M. SMAIL. Filters must be so constructed that samples of the effluent of any one of them can be taken at any desired time for bacterio!ogical examination. . The person entrusted with the carrying out of the bacterial examinations, must present a certificate that he possesses the necessary qualifications, and wherever possible he shall be a regular employee of the waterworks Every single filter must be so built that when an inferior effluent results which does not conform to the standard, it can be disconnected from the pure water pipes and the filtrate allowed to run to waste; this wasting should take place, so far as the arrangement of the works will permit (|) imme- diately after scraping a filter, and (2) after replacing the sand to its original depth. . The best sand filtration requires a Jiberal area of filter surface, allowing plenty of reserve, to secure under all local conditions a moderate rate of filtration adapted to the character of the raw water . The thickness of the sand layer shall be so great that under no circumstances shall it be reduced by scraping to less than 30 centimetres (12 inches), and it is desirable so far as local conditions allow to increase this minimum limit Special attention must be given to the upper layer of sand, which must be arranged and continually kept in the condition most favourable for filtration. For this reason it is desirable that, after a filter has been reduced in thickness by scraping and is about to be re-filled, the sand below the surface as far as it is discoloured should be removed before bringing in new sand. 16. Every city in the German Empire, using sand-filtered water, is required to make a quarterly report of its working results, especially of the bacterial character of the water before and after filtration to the Imperial Board of Health. WATER FILTRATION. XXI, I have only quoted some of the rules, the full text can obtained from ‘Purification of Sewage and Water,’ by Mr. Dibdin, F.I.c., etc. To shew the importance of regulations in connection with this question, and in view of the prevalence of cholera on the Continent and possible introduction into Great Britain, and importance of efficient filtration of the metropolitan water supply, he requested the particular attention of the directors of water companies to the following points, viz.:— ‘1. That every effort should be made to maintain the layer of sand in each filter at the greatest practicable thickness. 2. That the rate of filtration should be as slow as possible cousistently with the supply of the required quantity of water. 3. That the sand removed from the surface of the filters with the deposit should, if it was to be replaced in the filter, be completely freed from all taint of organic matter.”’ In a paper read before the Institute of Civil Hngineers, November 24th, 1896, Dr. Percy Frankland observed, in re- ference to a former paper read by him in 1886, as follows :— “The principles then enumerated were as follows:—(1) To give the maximum period of storage for unfiltered water. (2) To filter at a minimum rate. (3) To filter through a maximum depth of fine sand. (4) To frequently renew the filtering materials. In reviewing the numerous investigations which have since been carried out on this subject, it will be shewn that the only one of these principles which require any inodification in the light of more recent researches is the last. Further researches appear to shew that the power of arresting bacteria possessed by a filter bed suffers no diminution with age, so that frequent scraping is not necessary for the maintenance of the efficiency of the individual bed. It is, however, quite possible that it may be of advantage for the efficiency of the filtration plant taken as a whole. Thus, by running a filter bed over a long period of time without cleansing, XXII. J. M. SMAIL, its yield becomes diminished, and as a certain volume of water must be supplied daily this may necessitate filtering through other beds at a disadvantageous high rate, and so obtaining a filtrate from the entire works inferior in bacterial quality to that which would result if scraping were practised more frequently and a more uniform rate of filtration employed with all the beds ” Dr. Koch, in dealing with water filtration in relation to. cholera, says ‘‘The question now is what lessons we have to learn from them for the future?’? The numerous and thorough investigations which have been made for some years past at Berlin and Altona Water Works with regard to the process of filtration and the bacterial condition of the water before and after filtration, has led to the convic- tion that filtration rate of 100 millimetres, or 3°97 inches an hour, affords a sufficient guarantee for the satisfactory working of a filter bed. Further experience of those water works, however, has shewn that we do not gain very much by simply making thisdemand. For, with the now existing arrangements, most water works will not be able to fulfil it, aud in point of fact they do not fulfil it. The principle must be adhered to, nevertheless, that in future a filtration rate of 100 millimetres must be the first condition; but we must formulate our demand in more precise terms, and so far supplement that the purpose aimed at may be attained with certainity. This is effected by the somewhat extended demands. 1. The filtration rate of 100 millimetres, or 3°937 inches, must not be exceeded. In order to render this possible, each filter must be provided with a contrivance by means of which also it may be ascertained at any moment whether this rate is observed or not. 2. Hach filter basin, so long as it is at work, must be bacteriologically examined once a day. It must therefore WATER FILTRATION. XXill. have an apparatus enabling one to take specimens of the water immediately after its leaving the filter. 3. Filtered water containing more than 100 germs capable of development per cubic centimetre, must not be allowed to enter the pure water reservoir. The filter must there- fore be so constructed that insufficiently cleansed water may be removed without mixing with the well filtered water. Dr. Koch further states:—‘“To these sentences I have some further remarks to add. Strictly speaking the last two demands would alone suffice to avert the danger of the infecting of filtered water so far asis possible with sand filtration at all. But it seems to me questionable whether the demand of the daily bacteriological control could be limited to times of danger, that is to times of maximum consumption of water, periods of frost, and when epidemics seem imminent; in the intervals a less elaborate control, say the examination of collected waters every three days would suffice. The weekly bacteriological investigations of the collected filtered water, now usual where the water is bacteriologically examined at all, is to be regarded as insufficient under all circumstances. For the times of less bacteriological control, however, guarantee for the regular working of the filters must be given by strict limitation and control of the rate of filtration. The rate of filtration is generally calculated by ascertaining the proportion of the water filtered in 24 hours tothe filter. But everybody who knows the ordinary working of water works knows also the demands made upon them in the course of 24 hours vary very considerably. At certain hours of the day very much water is consumed; at night, on the other hand, the con- sumption is small. If the reservoir is not large enough to balance these inequalities, this is effected by changes in the rate of filtration. The statement then that a water XXIV. J. M. SMAIL. works filters at the rate of 100 millimetres, if based on the calculation above, has but a conditional value. The opinion that filtered water containing more than 100 germs is not sufficiently cleansed, has been completely justi- fied by the experience of the Altona Water Works, which is confirmed by that of other works. Of course this state- ment is not to be understood to mean that water containing 101 or 105 germs per cubic centimetre is to be rejected without more ado. Each case must be intelligently judged by itself, and the number 100 is merely intended to afford to those called upon to form such judgments a basis founded on experience. Special prescriptions as to the cleansing and filling of the filters, the limit to which the sand layer may be allowed to waste, the removal of the first water after the putting in of new sand and after each cleansing, are not necessary if the working of the filters is subjected to regular bacterio- logical control and the water which must according to the result of bacteriological examination be regarded as in- adequately filtered removed. It is the manager’s affair to take care that the filtered water always fulfils the bacterio- logical demands. The construction and that treatment of the filters which yield the water freest of germs will always be the best. Kach water works will have to construct its own rules with the help of bacteriology; especially it will have to find out how long its unfiltered water requires to form a good filtering mud layer, how much water must remain unused aiter the cleaning owing to its containing too many germs, how far the sand layer may be allowed to waste, etc. It is also the manager’s business to ascertain the best remedy, if, as so often happens, too great demands are made on the water works, and regular filtration is thus rendered impracticable. In one case the only remedy will be the WATER FILTRATION. XXYV. enlargement of the water works; in another, in the preven- tion of waste. ‘All this, as I have said, may be left to the water works management, if only it binds itself always to provide a bacteriologically sufficient water. In all cases, however, in which bacteriological control is declined, it will be absolutely necessary, in order to prevent mischief, to subject the work to the most vigilant supervision with regard to all the defects alluded to above. The opinion of Dr. Koch has been quoted so far, as it contains, in my opinion, the rationale of the question of filtration of water for human consumption. .It clearly shews that the work of the biologist and engineer must be in con- junction to obtain satisfactory results in the interests of public health. The lines laid down are those practically followed in the water supply of cities of Great Britain and the Continent, where sand filtration is necessary. It is interesting to note the results of bacteriological examinations of water supplied to the metropolis of London. The bulk of the water supptied to London is drawn from the upper reaches of the Thames and river Lea, together with the New River and wells belonging to the Kent Com- pany. In report of March 190£—after a continuance of floods in the Thames and its tributaries, Sir Wm. Crookes, F.R.S., and Profcssor Dewar, F.R.S., report viz.:—Our bacterio- logical examination of 401 samples taken during the month has given the results recorded in the folowing table; besides these samples we have examined 387 others from special wells, standpipes, etc., making 788 samples in all: Microes per cc. New River unfiltered (mean of 27 samples) ... 210 New River filtered (mean of 80 samples) wee 11 Thames unfiltered (mean of 27 samples) .. 7410 Thames derived water from clear water wells of eight Thames derived supplies— XXVI. J. M. SMAIL. Microbes per cc. (Mean of 213 samples) ... se x 7 Ditto ditto (highest) —... ey. one BD Ditto ditto (lowest) oa a Bes 0 River Lea unfiltered ep ue Pr |S) River Lea from the Hast London Watee Company’s Clear Water Wells (mean of 27 samples) ... 9 After the 320 daily samples taken from the general filter wells of the Metropolitan Water Company’s, 19 samples or 5°9'> were sterile, 10 samples or 3°1%* contained more than 100 microbes, and of these only three samples contained more than 150 microbes. The ten excess samples contained an average of 148 microbes per cc. Another example of the reduction of bacteria by sand filtration of water drawn from rivers is at York, Hngland. The water is drawn from the river Ouse, the intake being some distance above the town, but is not free from pollution at this point. The examination in 1903 by Mr. Thomas Fairley, Bacteriologist is viz.:— Unfiltered Water. Filtered Water. January ... Fr . 698 ie D February... + tere te oo, 4 March ... a a One a 3 April (heavy floods) ... 2270 _ 15 May oP a ss |= 95 bas i! June eas c on) lees ae 4 It should be remarked that the water supplied by the York Water Company passes first into subsiding reservoirs and then through American rapid filters from which it passes to the slow sand filters for final treatment. The result being satisfactory, both chemically and bacterio- logically. Asa contrast to the foregoing river services, the bac- teriological examination of water supplied to the City of Liverpool from the different sources is quoted from the WATER FILTRATION. AXVITI, report of Professor Boyce, F.R.S. of Thompson-Yates Laboratories of University College. The water is obtained from Lake Vyrnwy in Wales, and Rivington District near Liverpool, and several wells, all being filtered. The aver- age number of bacteria per cc. for the 365 daily samples is 30 per cc. The samples were taken from the fountain in Monument Place, London Road and from a tap in Ashton Faatl:— Vyrnwy water ... 26 average number per cc. Rivington water ... 20 Mixed well water... 33 My) vy) 99 99 The first two are surface waters, the last being a mixture of three large wells. It is unnecessary to go into details of construction as these will vary according to circumstances. It may be necessary to provide subsiding reservoirs, and it would appear that in dealing with river waters this provision is absolutely necessary. further it may be necessary to interpose preliminary filtration through roughing filters before final treatment, such provisions have had to be made in countries where the slow system isin vogue. The Puech system of filtration combines the above. The idea is to introduce a preliminary roughing filter by means of which the coarser particles in suspension are intercepted, with the result that the slow sand filters do not require scraping so frequently, thereby saving a great amount of labour and the time otherwise lost in the deposit of the film of mud before filtration can commence. This system is in use in Paris, and it is stated that the slow filters will run three or four times longer without scraping. The depth of sand necessary for filtration appears to be adopted as 3 feet, although there are cases where a lesser depth is used, but the universal practice is not to remove more than 12 inches by scraping, thus leaving 2 feet as the XXVIII. J. M. SMAIL. minimum depth for working conditions; if the source is a polluted one, a greater depth should be retained, because at times the surface of the sand gets broken, and polluted water passes down to the underdrains. The greater the depth of sand, the more support there is for the surface layer of slime, which, as is generally known, is the most useful part of the filter. The quality and size of grains of sand is of importance. There is considerable diversity of Opinion on this subject. Some engineers favour the use of sand so fine that 60% of the particles would pass through a sieve of 4,990 meshes to the square inch; it is stated that excellent results have been obtained from same. On the other haud it is contended that such fine sand is neither necessary or desirable. The method adopted in one case in selecting sand for filters appears to have some merit, The plan adopted is to have sieves of different mesh, and to select by trial the sieve which will remove 10% of the finest sand from a sample known weight. A sieve of 900 meshes to the square inch is then used, and all particles which will not pass the mesh are removed; the balance of sand left after removing the fine and the coarse is approxi- mately of uniform size, and may be looked upon as the most important of the bulk. The fraction represented by the weight of the residue, divided by the total weight of the original sample, gives the measure of the uniformity of size of the sand, and the nearer this fraction is to unity the more suitable the sand is for filtration purposes. This method is adopted by Mr.Silcock, «. mst.c.5. The uniformity co-efficient of sand used in 27 cities in Great Britain and on the Continent ranges from 4°7 to 1°5, the latter being that recommended in American practice. The rate of filtration on the Continent and in Great Britain averages about 1°5 gallons per square foot per hour. Asa result of careful observation, it has been found WATER FILTRATION. XXIX.. that to maintain a high bacterial standard the rate of filtra- tion must not exceed 4 lineal inches per hour, or practically 2 gallons per square foot per hour—or rather more than one million gallons per acre. It is essential that this should not be exceeded, and that the controlling appliances should be such as to ensure uniformity of work of filtration. AMERICAN PRACTICE. The Huropean system of slow filtration does not appear to be much in evidence in connection with the water supply to the cities in the United States, where water has to be drawn from rivers. Many of the earlier installations were constructed on the Kuropean method, but where the water to be treated is very turbid the results have not been satis- factory. Mr. John W. Hill, Chief Engineer Bureau of Filtration, is carrying out extensive works in connection with the water supply of Philadelphia on the Kuropean system. The total land appropriated for filters and other works totals 462°5 acres. The system comprises subsiding reservoirs, preliminary filters, plain sand filters, and clear water basins. The water is drawn from the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers. One section of the system includes a sedimentation reservoir with a capacity of 72 million U.S. gallons, and a system of preliminary filters of daily capacity of 40 million U.S. gallons to be extended to 97 million gallons for future consumption. It will be seen that this system comprises sedimentation and double filtration, and, considering the source from which the water is drawn, this system is obviously neces- sary. The works are in progress, and can only be incident- ally referred to as a type of slow filtration. The author had an opportunity of examining another type of slow filtration at Lawrence, Mass. It is of unique con- struction, influenced by the state of the town funds when economy of construction had to be an essential factor. The XXX. J. M. SMAIL. filter was designed by Mr. Hiram F. Mills, Chairman of Committee of Water Supply and Sewerage of the State Board of Health of Massachusetts. It is located on the northern bank of the Merrimack River, immediately east of the pumping station. It is somewhat irregular in outline, having a total length of 750 feet and average width of 140 feet and a surface area, including the main carrier of 2°44 acres. The filter surface, by transverse carriers, into 25 portions or beds, each having an average width of 30 feet, gives an available filtering surface, including lateral carriers, of 2°36 acres, or without the carriers of about 2°3 acres. In constructing the filter, the bed and bank of the river Were excavated generally to 7 feet below usual low water, for a distance of about 150 feet southerly from the old filter gallery, and in the river bank east or down stream a sullicient distance for the total length of the filter. Main conduit and underdrains.—The underdrain pipes which extend across the filter from north to south are arranged with centres about 30 feet apart. For a width of 5 feet along the line of drain pipe the excavation was continued to elevation 29 and midway between the lines of underdrains for a width of 5 feet, the depth of the excava- tion was only to elevation 31. The bottom between these two levels for a width of 20 feet was excavated with a slope of 1:10. Thusit will be seen that the bottom of the filter when excavated ready to receive the filtering material, was waved, with alternate level ridges, between the lines of underdrains, and flat valleys in which the underdrains themselves are placed. The conduit which receives the filtered water is circular in shape, of brickwork 4 inches thick, the bricks are laid Without mortar in the end joints, thus allowing spaces a little more than 4 inch wide for the entrance of the filtered water. The conduit is 2 feet in diameter for 105 feet from WATER FILTRATION, XXXI. end of filter gallery; thence 20 inches for 120 feet, 16 inches for 65 feet, 12 inches for 30 feet, continuing with successive lengths of 30 feet each of vitrified pipes having diameters of 10, 8, and 6 inches respectively. The entire conduit was surrounded with 8 inches of gravel, the inner 4 inches being of stones about 2 inches in diameter, and this was covered with layers of stones of decreased sizes. From the conduit and old filter gallery, which was pierced at suitable places for the purpose, lateral underdrains of vitrified pipe were laid upon the excavated bottom with a slope of 1:100. The pipes were laid in the following order: beginning at the main conduit, one length of 10 inches, two lengths of 8 inches, from 35 to 65 feet of 6 inches, ending with three lengths of 4 inches. The pipes were placed so that the spigot end of one approached, but did not enter, the socket of the next, and the drains throughout were covered with a 4 inch layer of 2 inch gravel. Upon this layer, which averaged about 6 inches in actual depth, there were placed successive courses of gravel of the following sizes and of the approximate thickness (giving an average section) to make a total of 12 inches of underdrain material; 2 inches of 14 inch, 1 inch of 2 inches, 1 inch of 2 inch, and 1 inch of inch gravel, with 1 inch of coarse mortar sand. The +°s material was spread out to a width of 17 feet, and the last course was spread out to a width of 20 feet. Beyond the pipes, the largest stones forming the lowest course were laid upon the surface of the excavation and were spread out toa general width of 5 feet, with the next courses each spread out a little beyond the course below. The largest stones used in the underdrains were selected by hand, and if covered with dust or dirt were washed. The stones of the two larger sizes, viz., 2 inch and 14 inch, were placed by hand at the open joints of the pipes, but the layers of smaller sizes were shovelled into place. XXXII. J. M. SMAIL. Filter Sand.—Immediately over the centre lines of the underdrains, that is over those portions excavated to the greatest depth and extending 5 feet on either side, there was placed a body of sand with a maximum depth of 5 feet in the centre. Over the ridges of the excavations for the filter, midway between the lines of underdrains and for a distance of 10 feet on either side, a body of sand was placed, having a minimum depth over the flat portion of the ridge of 3feet; the effective size of the sand over the underdrains Was approximately 0°25 millimetres, and of the remainder about ‘30 millimetres. It will be seen from this species of construction, that the lowest portions of the filter surface are those directly over the ridges of the excavation and half-way between the underdrains; the general elevation of the surface of these parts being 3 feet below the usual low water elevation of the river, and 1 foot below the sand surface over the under- drains. For a width of 5 feet over the centre line of both ridges and underdrains the surface of the sand is flat, and between these level areas the sand has a slope of 1 in 10. This form of surface is such that water can be readily in- troduced upon the filter to refil without producing currents sufficiently rapid to cause appreciable disturbance. The sand was deposited in two layers, the first being well com- pacted before the second was put in place. The filter is filled by gravitation from the river, but pumps are provided in case the water in river falls below gravitation level. The working level is generally kept at 2 feet over the lateral distributing carriers and 1 foot over the crown of the head when at grade. The system is an economical one for a comparatively small community. The principal advantage appeared to be that vent pipes for exit of air, as is usual in Kuropean filter beds, were not necessary, the wavy formation of beds WATER FILTRATION. XXXIII. admitting of the air finding vent at the crown of the ridges as the water level rose. The filter bed, not being subdivided, does not admit of one section being thrown out of work for cleaning while the other keeps up supply. Since my visit, the Water Board has divided the area into three sections by dividing walls, thus admitting of filters being worked as in Great Britain and Kurope. There was nothing novel in either the removal or the washing of the sand. The cost of maintenance of the filter was given in 1900 as 7°02 dollars per million U.S. gallons; in 1904 the cost was 7°07 dollars per million U.S. gallons. The author had an opportunity of contrasting the raw - water of the Merrimac with the resultant filtered water, and when it is taken into consideration that there was no subsiding or sedimentation reservoirs, or roughing filters, the quality of the filtered water was remarkable. The percentage of bacteria removed was as high as 99%. This work has been referred to on account of the novelty of construction—the engineer having struck out on bold lines with satisfactory results—also to shew how a community can cope with an alarming epidemic of typhoid through drinking the polluted waters of the canal and river by factory hands and others. It is stated that the actual benefit derived from the use of the filtered water as against the former use of that from the river, may be fairly repre- sented by the prevention of deaths of 40 persons out of every 100 dying from typhoid fever in Lawrence during the six years prior to the construction of the filter. RAPID OR MECHANICAL FILTRATION. This method has been well denominated “‘the American system.’ Mechanical filtration has gradually developed from the filtration of polluted water from paper factories for re-use, to its present position of filtering river water of doubtful quality for human consumption. One company 3—July 21, 1904. ee . : a XXXIV. J. M. SMAIL. alone—the Jewell Filter Company—has constructed plants in various towns in North America, the aggregate capacity of which is equal to 400 million Imperial gallons daily, about equal to the quantity filtered under the slow filtration method in Hngland and Wales. The necessity for a different method of treatment is no doubt owing to the turbidity of the rivers and the enormous consumption per capita as compared with Kuropean cities; the consumption in some cities is enormous. The American engineer takes the water as it comes from the river, treats it with a coagulant—sulphate of alumina— which brings about the aggregation and deposit of the greater part of the suspended matter. By this means from 40 to 75° of both suspended matter and bacteria is removed before it reaches the filter bed, and this is performed in as many hours as it would take days in ordinary subsiding reservoirs. The relative advantages claimed in comparison with slow sand filters are :— 1. Capacity to treat very turbid waters. i) . Capacity to remove a large percentage of colour. 3. Occupy a relatively insignificant area of ground. 4. Protection from weather. 5. Freedom from risks of objectionable growths, and from tastes and odours they impart. . Rapidly and easily cleansed, without risk of con- tamination by workmen. 7. Sand bed can be easily and economically sterilized. 8. Absolute control of each separate filter, together with complete knowledge of its condition. 9. Allow water to be sent straight to the consumer with the least possible delay and expense. Having stated the advantages claimed for this system, it will be necessary to see how these claims are supported WATER FILTRATION. XXXV. by actual practice. The author had an opportunity of inspecting a large installation at Little Walls for the supply of the City of New Jersey. These works were designed by J. Waldo Smith, mM. am.Soc.c.e.,and carried out under the direction of George W. Fuller, m. am. Soc. ¢.5. The water is drawn from the Passaic River, the sanitary character of which is considered satisfactory. The water in the river, when it reaches the filtration station, is not muddy under ordinary conditions, although after heavy freshets it carries from 25 to 100 parts per million of suspended matter. At timesthe water is noticeably coloured due to dissolved vegetable matter coming from several large Swamps on the upper portion of the drainage area. FKrequently the water contains quite large amounts of amorphous matter, consisting principally of finely divided organic material. Much of this seems to come from the bottom of the stream, as the water flows for a few miles through the Great Piece Meadows just above the intake, where the river has very little slope, and where deposited sediment is stirred up by carp and other fish. This finely divided amorphous matter, together with the colour which appears in the water, gives it at times what might be called a “‘ dirty appearance, and causes it to be less desir- able for domestic use than the analyses indicate.”’ At the time of my visit the water in the river was decidedly dirty, and the above description aptly describes it. The Chief Engineer of Hast Jersey Water Company, J. Waldo Smith, M.Am.Soc.C.E., recommended that filtration works of the American or mechanical type be adopted on the grounds of economy, as conditions of level suited this system ; whereas, if slow filtration had to be adopted, a more exten- sive area of land would have to be acquired, and additional pumping plant to raise the river water to the available site. XXXVI. J. M. SMAIL. General description of works.—‘The works have a nominal capacity of 32 million U.S. gallons daily, and are capable for short periods of yielding 48 million U.S. gallons daily. The area occupied is 170 feet by 219 feet, outside measurement. The structures are built in concrete on rock foundations. At the west end is the coagulating and subsiding basin, 130 feet long, 42 feet wide, and 43 feet deep on inside lines, the capacity being 1? million gallons. At the east end the lower portion of the building contains a clear water basin in two compartments; each, on an average, is 124 feet long, 58 feet wide, and 29 feet deep to the maximum flow line for the filtered water. The total capacity of the clear water basin is about 34 million gal- lons. Above the clear water basin there are 32 rectangular concrete filter tanks, 24 feet by 15 feet and 8 feet deep, arranged in four rows of 8 filters each. The total area of filter surface is 11,520 square feet. Between each pair of rows of filters there is a pipe gallery, in which the main pipes, with branches to the adjoining filters, are placed. This gallery is 12 feet wide and 13°5 feet high. Over each pipe gallery there is a platform at a level slightly above that of the water in the filter tanks, on which the attendant stands when operating the filters. There are two wings to the main building, with which they connect. The filters are covered with a flat concrete roof, with a manhole over each filter for access. ‘“The coagulating basin is covered with a flat concrete roof, which forms the floor of the main building. This building is 132 feet by 46 feet, and contains the machinery for the rotary blowers and pumps, and devices for applying coagulant, storage for the same, also the laboratories, offices, ete. All machinery is driven by electric motors, the current being generated at the pumping station.” The method of filtration is conducted as follows:—“ River water is taken from the head-race canal and delivered to WATER FILTRATION. XXXVII. the filtration works through a 66 inch steel main, discharg- ing into a concrete standpipe, 10 feet in diameter, located at the north end of the coagulating basin. In this stand pipe the water is treated with a solution of coagulant and after thorough mixing by the natural agitation ia the stand pipe, it passes from the bottom of same into the coagulating basin, aod thence to the south end, where near the surface, it is collected in a perforated pipe through which it passes to the filters. After passing through the filters the water enters the clear-water basin, from which it flows through a 66 inch steel suction main, encased in concrete, leading to the main pumps.’’ Washing of filters.—‘* Wash water is applied to the filters by centrifugal pumps, having a capacity of 3,000 gallons per minute. When the wash water is applied to the filters, it enters the filtered water outlet pipe, passes through the the manifold pipe of the strainer system, and thence through the strainers themselves into and through the sand layer. The dirty wash water is removed in part through lateral gutters about 60 inches in cross-section, placed along the sides of each filter tank. The dirty wash water leaves the filter through the inlet pipe, to which there is a branch leading to the sewer. The wash water is applied with a vertical velocity of about 1 foot per minute, equal to about 7z gallons per square foot per minute. ‘* Compressed air under a low pressure is used in agitat- ing the sand layer and facilitating the removal of the accumulated materials during the washing, in place of mechanical stirring devices with rake arms. Air is sup- plied by two No. 3 Root’s rotary blowers, driven direct by electric motors. Hach has a guaranteed capacity of 1,500 cubic feet of free air per minute under pressure of 5 Ibs. The ordinary working rate is 1,000 cubic feet per minute under a pressure of 3 Ibs.”’ XXXVIII. J. M. SMAIL. The filters are operated as follows:—Along the front of each operating table is a series of 6 levers, each of which controls one of the valves in the filter. Hach lever is suitably marked by a brass plate giving the name of the valve it controls. Directly behind each lever is an indicator which shows the position of the valve. On the right end of the table are two sets of push-buttons, which govern the electric current to the automatic starting-gear, by means of which the motors operating the wash water pumps and blowing engines are started and stopped by the operations of the filter. Atthe left end of the table are sample tubes, through which raw and filtered water are pumped by small centrifugal pumps located in the gallery. The pumps are driven by water motors, and the valves are operated on from the table. Taps are provided for drawing test samples. Loss of head gauges are fixed on the table also. The plant has been in continuous service since September 4th, 1902. The staff employed when operating to full capacity, 32 million gallons per 24 hours, will be 2 trained men, both of whom will be familiar with analytical matters, 2 filter attendants, and 1 attendant in the machinery room on each watch. The total force with two twelve-hour watches would be 10, including the man in charge and his principal assistant. The average quantity of wash water used for the entire plant is 4°2% of the water filtered. The period of service between washings is 9°68 hours. BacTERIAL RESULTS AND PRINCIPAL INFORMATION RELATING THERETO. Averages by Months. Amorphous eS Turbidity | Colour Matter Bacteria =pS Pau | £ Standard Units Bs | = | _ per cubic Per Cubic Centimetre = 3 5 a | 8 ‘ S 5 Centimetre 2 2$8|2 (33) 2] F les! z = | Bes = aaa) 28%) o6 re ae |» |s8! 2] 5 (BS) & e324) 7, | oon | eee : |$o) 8/8) 2) e|e4) 2] 3 | P88) 8 | 288] Ee | am - 2 1818 |\ehene |=| S42 2 16 1902 | 0°74 110} 6] 3] 81) 20) 11 5400 | 3900 | 190 96°5 September ..., 0° 5 Dabohar tee] 2°39] 369] co 1 | 52 | 31 7 |1100 | 3880] 3800] 650; 90 97°6 November ...| 163 | 5| 4| 2 | 45 | 28 7 | 280 80 | 3500 | 1100 | 60 98°3 December ...| 1°70 7 4| 1] 44]24] 5] 450] 210) 5800 | 1800; 50 99°] 1903 January ...| 0°84) 6! 5! 0} 31 21! 5 | 200) 1151 4000 | 1700 | 110 97°2 WATER FILTRATION. XXXIX. ‘** During the month of January lower quantities of coagu- lant were used intentionally with the view of seeing the efficiency of different ratios, and, with the uniform rate of application of coagulant, the bacteria results obtained during that month are of most value for this particular purpose. Removal of colour.—“ It has been found as a result of repeated examinations, especially in noting the appearance of the filtered water in a large porcelain-lined bath-tub, that it is not possible for a consumer to recognise any colour when the filtered water contains 10 parts per million or less. A colour of 20 parts is also practically unnotice- able to the consumer. These works have been operated with the view of keeping the colour below 10 parts. It has been found, however, that the quantity of coagulant necessary to reduce it to that point is practically as great as that required to reduce it to 5 parts.” The following table shows the monthly average results of the applied coagulant, and the colour in the raw and Migered Water :—— Sulphate of Alumina voto nome Grains per Gallon River Water Filtered Water 1902 September... 0°74 31 id October ... 1°59 52 4 November ... 1°63 45 Uh December ... 1:70 4.4, 5 19038 January... 0°84 31 5 Removal of turbidity.—‘‘The turbidity of the filtered water usually ranges from nothing to 2 parts. Now and then it becomes as high as 3 parts. All these amounts may be properly regarded as traces, and it may be said that for all practical purposes the filtered water has no turbidity. Removal of organic matter.—* The following table shows the average removal of organic matter:— XL. J. M. SMAIL. Parts per Million Percentage of Organic Matter Removed Nitrogen as Albuminoid Ammonia Oxygen Consumed —. | — a] Albuminoid Oxygen River Water Filtered Water River Water | Filtered Water Ammonia Consumed 0121 0-075 Cr 38 75 Removal of tastes and odours.—“ The Passaic river water ordinarily has a slight musty or vegetable odour, and at times during the autumn it has a Swampy odour which is noticeable to persons unfamiliar with the water, but which is not disagreeable, and in fact is hardly recognised by those familiar with surface waters from swampy areas. The removal of tastes and odours by filtration is appreciable, but when the swampy odour is present in the river, it is still clearly recognisable in the filtered water on careful examination. Studies of the practicability of removing it by acration have been made, but it is found that this is unsuccessful, as the odour and tastes still persist after vigorous aération for some 10 to 12 hours. The taste and odours are evidently produced by oily substances liberated from the vegetable growths in the swampy areas, and apparently could be removed only by filtration through sand at exceeding low rates. Removal of coagulant.—‘‘Tn no case has the filtered water contained any undecomposed sulphate of alumina. Regard- ing the removal of the aluminum hydrate, ordinarily this is complete, although now and then the numerous analyses made, indicate that faint traces of the hydrate in a very fine colloidal form have appeared in the filtered water. These traces are too small to be measured, although, in a general way, it may be said that there are times when it would probably amount to about 0°06 parts per million, equal to 0°0035 grain per gallon. The average would be less than 0°01 part per million, corresponding to a removal of more than 99 per cent. of the hydrate contained in the raw water. These traces are gradually diminishing as the sand layers are becoming ‘ripened.’ : WATER FILTRATION. XLI, Change in hardness.-—‘‘ The following table gives a com- parison of the average hardness of the river and the filtered waters :-— River Water Filtered Water Te: | Permanent | Seer Tncrusting Total Hardness| Temporary Permanent | Total Hardness Alkalinity Constituents | 23 12 35 ae 15 19 | 34, Effect of rate of filtration.—‘'The rate of filtration, as far as the quality of the filtered water is concerned, does not seem to be a factor of significance. If the applied water is well coagulated, satisfactory results will follow with a rate of filtration at least as high as 185,000,000 gallons per acre per 24 hours; and, with an inadequately coagulated water, good results cannot be obtained at rates of 80,000,000 gallons per acre per 24 hours, or much less. That the num- ber of bacteria in the filtered water is not materially affected by the rate of filtration, is shown by the following tables :— AVERAGE RESULTS SHOWING REMOVAL oF BACTERIA BY FILTERS OPERATING AT DIFFERENT RatTEs. Average for 20 weeks. Bate of Filtration Bacteria per Cubic Bence eees Rate of Centimetre R 1 Filtration aan a roe aoriar a ns pe re é 5 aq. . ~ . ; Daily, ee fiper Minute River Water | Filtered Water Bacteria High ...| 185,000,000 3°0 3,000 100 Sik Normal .. | 125,000,000 2:0 3,000 90 97°4 Low 80,000,000 1°2 3,500 80 Se7/ AVERAGE RESULTS, SHOWING THE EFFECT OF THE RATE OF FILTRATION ON PERIOD OF SERVICE AND PERCENTAGE OF WASH WATER. Average for 20 weeks. c ; | Period of Service Volume of Water Percentage of Rate of Filtration Hours Filtered per Run Wash wanes High a 7°52 470,000 3:8 Normal y 10°18 425,000 4-1 Low SbaK 12°98 258,000 Ay 4, ‘The larger yield of filtered water between washings by the high-rate filters, apparently is explained by the deeper XLII. J. M. SMAIL penetration into the sand layers of matters removed from the water. Regarding the percentage of wash-water, the actual volume of water required per filter for cleaning does not seem to be exactly proportionate to the amount of accumulated matters in the sand layer.”’ I am indebted to G. W. Fuller, m. am. Soc.cE., for the foregoing description of this plant. | From personal observation of the system under working conditions, | was impressed with the ease by which the attendant controlled the rate of filtration and washing of the filters. One attendant is all that is required on watch in the filter room, and two others in the machinery and coagulating rooms. After examination of the raw water, and the same after passing through the coagulating process and filters, the change in the appearance of the water was marked. ‘The results of the chemical analyses and bacterio- logical examination show that the water would be con- sidered a good potable water. The concentration of a plant capable of dealing with so large a quantity as 32,000,000 U.S. galions per diem, within the area occupied, leads to the consideration as to whether this system (judging by the results shown) does not bear favourable comparison with the English method of slow filtration, which requires areas ranging from 0°42 acres to 1°33 acres per million gallons (Imperial), exclusive of subsiding reservoirs. I ven- ture to think that it does. The initial cost of a slow filtra- tion plant to deal with the quantity dealt with at these works would be higher than the American system. If coagulation could be obtained at a comparatively low rate, I think the working expenses would be lower per million gallons treated. Cost OF FILTERS. The cost of construction depends upon local conditions of site, cost of land, etc., together with the character of the WATER FILTRATION. XLIII, water to be dealt with. The following information is obtained from the work on “Public Water Supplies,’’ by Turneaure and Russell, 1901, from which it will be seen that the cost of construction of filter, covered and uncovered, exclusive of subsiding reserves, is somewhat high. Large beds and extensive works will cost less per unit area than smaller ones, other things being equal. At Berlin, covered filters of about 0°6 acre each have cost about £14,600 per acre. At Aurich, filters of one-sixth acre each, cost for the masonry and filtering materials only, about £10,000 per acre for open and £15,000 for closed beds. Hngineer Lindley estimates as a reasonable cost in HKurope for care- fully designed filters, about £14,200 for covered and £9,400 for open filters. Taking the average quantity filtered by the London com- panies at 15 million gallons per acre per day as a basis, the cost of construction of filters works out at an average of £6,700 per million for uncovered and £10,000 per million gallons for covered filters, exclusive of subsiding and clear water reservoirs. At Ashland, Wis., U.S.A., three covered filters of one-sixth acre each, cost £8,370, but the engineer estimated that under normal conditions the cost there would be about £7,300 for beds of 4-acre each, which is equal to about £14,600 per acre. At Ploughkeepsie, a single open bed of 29,640 square feet cost £6,021, equal to £8,750 per acre. At Berwyn, Pa., three open beds of 7,500 square feet, each cost £3,862, equal to £7,500 per acre. The best figures at hand for the cost of filters on a large scale are those for the Albany plant. The cost for eight covered filters of an area of 0°7 acre each, was £9,500 per acre, not including land and engineering; the latter item, figured pro rata from the total cost, would add about £520 per acre. The covers were estimated to have added about £2,700 per acre XLIV. J. M. SMAIL. to the cost. The cost of covers is thus seen to be much less than indicated by Kuropean experience, due chiefly to the use of concrete and to a more economical design. To the cost of filters will have to be added the cost of clear-water reservoir, and usually sedimentation basins, amounting to from £625 to £2,080 per million gallons capacity, according to the circumstances. The total cost of the Albany plant, including the low-service pumping station, hut not including the conduit, was about £81,250, or £5,420 per million gallons capacity. The cost of filtering plant, buildings, etc., in the American or rapid sand filtration, taking the cost of works completed and in operation, averages £4,600 per million gallons (Imp.) In this case the cost depends on local conditions of site. The cost of filtering plant, inclusive of machinery, buildings, etc., is given by the manufacturers at £2,600 per million gallons (Imp.) OPERATION OF FILTERS. The average cost of working the filters of seven London Water Companies for fifteen years, has been stated by Mr. W. 5B. Bryan, Engineer of Kast London Water Company, to be slightly over 4/- per million gallons, the minimum being 3/- for the Chelsea Company, and the maximum 4/9 for the Grand Junction and West Middlesex Companies. In Germany the cost is higher on account of the turbid water to be dealt with. At Liverpool the cost has been given at 4/9; at Hudson, N.Y., 3/8; and Ploughkeepsie as high as 11/7, due to ice. In the city of Laurence, Mass., U.S.A., the cost of operation, exclusive of ice cutting, was 4°95 dollars per million gallons (Imp.) The work comprised in cost is scraping, conveying sand, sand washing, sanding, filter maintenance, extra filter maintenance, and coal for pumps. Turneaure and Russell give the cost of operations at Albany, N.Y., in 1900 at 8/4 per million gallons. In some WATER FILTRATION. XLV. cases the cost of maintenance ranges from 10/6 to 14/6 per million gallons. The cost of operating an American or rapid filtering plant will vary according to whether coagulant. is used or not; if used, the quantity per gallon of water will influence the cost. The Jewell Company state that the average cost of operating a plant of this description when one grain of sulphate of alumina per gallon of water is used, exclusive of labour, is about 3°5 dollars per million gallons. The re- ports of engineers in charge of plants at different places as to cost of operating varies considerably. At Lexington, N.Y., where alum is used, the cost per million gallons is 4 dollars. At Wilkesbarre, Pa., the cost of filtering 9 million galions per day did not exceed one dollar per million gallons —the maximum cost works out at 2°30 dollars per million gallons. In Sydney the cost of operating, for labour alone, would be about 3/4 per million gallons where a coagulant is not required. The cost of installation, as given by Mr. Fuller for a complete going plant, is 15,300 dollars per U.S. million gallons (about £3,060), or about £3,672 per million Imp. gallons. It would be difficult to compare prices in America with this country, as the conditions under which the filtration plant would have to be constructed and worked may con- siderably vary. It is, however, beyond question that the American rapid filtration is much cheaper in first cost for dealing with turbid waters than the European method, whether the cost of working the former will be more than counterbalanced by the greater yearly charge for interest of the latter, can only be demonstrated by two installations working under the same conditions. The experience gained by the author leads him to the conclusion that the American system is eminently suited for dealing with the turbid waters of our inland rivers, more especially where land resumption is an item. XLVI. age Me SMAI Fortunately, so far, Providence is bountiful in giving the citizens of Sydney one of the best natural water supplies in the world, which only needs the treatment of Nature’s laboratory on its course to the metropolis, added to mechani- cal straining prior to distribution. How long this state of things will last depends ina great measure on the citizens themselves in preserving the natural purity and prevention The amount of money spent in-Hurope and America in artificial purification is enormous; this, how- of pollution. ever, is the result of centuries. In this State the source of supply is practically in its virgin state—that it should be so kept is a duty which devolves upon every citizen, It is a very difficult matter to obtain reliable data as to the cost of maintaining slow sand filters, the yearly charges being, as a rule, mixed up with other maintenance charges. [ hope to be able to shortly obtain other information on this head which will be of use in question with relative merits of the two systems. APPENDIX. 1. In judging the quality of a filtered surface water, the following points should be specially observed :—(a) The operation of a filter is to be regarded as satisfactory when the filtrate contains the smallest possible number of bacteria, not exceeding the number which practical experi- ence has shown to be attainable with good filtration at the work in question. In those cases where there are no pre- vious records showing the possibilities of the works and the influence of the local conditions, especially the character of the raw water, and until such information is obtained it is to be taken as the rule that a satisfactory filtration shall never yield an effluent with more than about 100 bacteria per cubic centimetre. (b) The filtrate must be as clear as possible, and in regard to colour, taste, temperature, and chemical composition, must be no worse than the raw water. WATER FILTRATION, XLVII. 2. To allow of a complete and constant control of the bacterial efficiency of filtration, the filtrate from each single filter must be examined daily. Any sudden increase in the number of bacteria should cause a suspicion of some un- usual disturbance in the filter, and should make the super- intendent more attentive to the possible causes of it. 3. Filters must be so constructed that samples of the effluent from any one of them can be taken at any desired time for bacteriological examination. 4. In order to secure uniformity of method, the following is recommended as the standard method for bacterial examination :—The nutrient medium consists of 10% meat extract gelatine with peptone, 10 cubic centimetres of which is used for each experiment. Two samples of the water under examination are to be taken, one of 1 cubic centimetre and one of $ cubic centimetre. The gelatine is melted at a temperature of 30° to 35° C., and mixed with the water as thoroughly as possible in the test-tube by tipping backwards and forwards, and is then poured upona sterile glass plate. The plates are put under a bell-jar which stands upon a piece of blotting paper saturated with water, and ina room in which the temperature is about 20°C. The resulting colonies are counted after forty-eight hours with the aid of a lens. If the temperature of the room in which the plates are kept is lower than the above, the development of the colonies is slower, and the counting must be correspondingly postponed. If the number of colonies in 1 cubic centimetre of the water is greater than about 100, the counting must be done with the help of the Wolffhugel’s apparatus. ). The person entrusted with the carrying out of the bacterial examinations must present a certificate that he possesses the necessary qualifications, and wherever pos- sible, he shall be a regular employee of the waterworks. XLVIII. J. M. SMAIL. 6. When the effluent from a filter does not correspond with the hygienic requirements it must not be used, unless the cause of the unsatisfactory working has already been removed during the period covered by the bacterial examin- ations. In case a filter, for more than a very short time, yields a poor effluent, it is not to be used until the cause of the trouble is found and corrected. It is, however, recognised from past experience that sometimes unavoid- able conditions (high water, etc.) render it impossible, from an engineering standpoint, to secure an effluent of the standard quality. In such cases it will be necessary to use a poorer quality of water; but, at the same time, if such conditions arise as outbreaks of epidemics, suitable notice should be given of the condition of the water. 7. Every single filter must be so built that, when an inferior effluent results which does not conform to the standard, it can be disconnected from the pure water pipes, and the filtrate allowed to run to waste. This wasting should, as a rule, take place, so far as the arrangement of the works will permit, (1) immediately after scraping filter; and (2) after replacing the sand to the original depth. The superintendent must himself judge, from previous experi- ence acquired by the continual bacteriological examinations, whether it is necessary to waste the water after these operations, and if so, how long a time will probably elapse before the water reaches the standard purity. 8. The best sand filtration requires a liberal area of filter surface, allowing plenty of reserve, to secure under all local conditions, a moderate rate of filtration adapted to the character of the raw water. 9. Every single filter shall be independently regulated, and the rate of filtration, loss of head, and character of the effluent shall be known. Also each filter shall, by itself, be capable of being completely emptied, and, after - WATER FILTRATION, XLIX. scraping, of having filtered water introduced from below until the sand is filled to the surface. 10. The velocity of filtration in each single filter shall be capable of being arranged to give the most favourable results, and shall be as regular as possible, quite free from sudden changes or interruptions. On this account reser- voirs must be provided large enough to balance the hourly fluctuation in the consumption of water. 11. The filters shall be so arranged that their working shall not be influenced by the fluctuating level of the water in the filtered reservoir or pump-well. 12. The loss of head shall not be allowed to become so great as to cause a breaking through of the upper layer on the surface of the filter. The limit to which the loss of head can be allowed to go without damage, is to be deter- mined for each works by bacterial examination. 13. Filters shall be constructed throughout in such a way as to insure the equal action of every part of their area. 14. The sides and bottoms of filters must be made water- tight, and special pains must be taken to avoid the danger of passages or loose places, through which the unfiltered - water on the filter might find its way to the filtered water channels. To this end special pains should be taken to make and keep the ventilators for the filtered water chan- nels absolutely tight. 15. The thickness of the sand-layer shall be so great that under no circumstances shall it be reduced by scraping to less than than 30 centimetres (12 inches), and it is desir- able, so far as local conditions allow, to increase this mini- mum limit. Special attention must be given to the upper layer of sand, which must be arranged and continually kept in the condition most favourable for filtration. For this reason it is desirable that, after a filter has been reduced 4—July 21, 1904, L. J. M. SMAIL. by scraping, and is about to be refilled, the sand below the surface, as far as it is discoloured, should be removed before bringing on the new sand. 16. Every city in the German Empire using sand-filtered water, is required to make a quarterly report of its working results, especially of the bacterial character of the water before and after filtration, to the Imperial Board of Health. 17. The question as to the establishment of a permanent inspection of public waterworks, and if so, under what con- ditions, will be best decided after such‘ quarterly reports have been furnished over some period of time. ** * * KILTRATION OF WATER AT THE HUNTER DISTRICT WATER WoRKS, WEST MAITLAND. By J. B. HENSON, Assoc. M. Inst. O.E. The water for the supply of the inhabitants of the district controlled by the Hunter District Water Supply and Sewer- age Board, is taken from the Hunter river at a point about 15 miles up stream from the town of West Maitland. The area of the watershed of the Hunter river, above the water works intake, is about 7,090 square miles, the population settled thereon numbers approximately 30,000, and large numbers of cattle, sheep, horses, etc., are depastured on the catchment area. The Board have control of the river, for the prevention of pollution, for a distance of 20 miles up stream from the intake. Within this limit the country abutting on the river is occupied for agricultural and pastoral purposes, and there is no concentration of popula- tion in villages or towns. Higher up stream, however, there are some populous towns—Singleton, Muswellbrook, Aberdeen, and others—situated on the banks of the river. The river water varies very much in quality, between the extremes of a perfectly clear hard water in dry seasons and a turbid comparatively soft water in wet seasons. The WATER FILTRATION. LI. following are comparative analyses of the solids in solution in the water at such times :— Sodium Magnesium Magnesium Calcium Calcium Organic Total Chloride Chloride Carbonate Carbonate Sulphate Matter Hardness After a flood ... 77°45 10°70 33°42 47°98 21°25 34°40 200 During drought 292°5 43°4 84°0 99°0 35°4 23°3 330 The above quantities are parts per million. The chlorides, carbonates, and sulphates dissolved in the water vary con- siderably from time to time, both in relation to each other and to the volume of water. Flood waters descend the valley of the Hunter rapidly alter rainfall on the catchment area, and within the space of a few hours the river water will change from one extreme to the other. When the river is in flood the water is too turbid for use. To provide against such contingency a storage reservoir has been formed in the vicinity of the water works by constructing an earthen embankment across the outlet of an old lagoon. This reservoir contains, when full, a reserve supply of 170 million gallons of clear water which is resorted to when the river water is turbid, and it is replenished mainly by water pumped from the river at suitable times and.by rainfall on its catchment area of 200 acres. The sludge—largely composed of decayed vegetation— which lay in the bottom of the old lagoon, was not wholly removed when the reservoir was formed, and is added to by the death and decay of water weeds which grow luxuri- antly in the reservoir. HKnodeavours have been made from time to time to get rid of the weeds, and large quantities have been removed, but fresh growths rapidly replace them. The sludge has a deleterious action on the quality of the water. During summer the water rises in temperature ; when the cold of winter comes the surface layers are chilled and sink and displace the bottom water. A vertical circulation ensues which brings up the stagnant water which has been lying in contact with the sludge, and a LII. J. B, HENSON. general deterioration in the quality of the whole of the water consequently follows. A few years ago the author designed a small syphon suction dredge to be operated by the difference in head between the water in the reservoir and that in the old lagoon at about 20 feet lower level. The dredge was con- structed and acted most efficiently; a large quantity of sludge was removed without any appreciable disturbance to the water in the reservoir; the results were beneficial. The foregoing brief description of the waters which have to be used, show the importance of subjecting them to careful filtration and management. . The present arrangements for filtering the water are as follows :—A settling tank into which the water to be filtered is delivered from the pumps; four filter beds at a lower level, each 100 feet square, on to which the water from the settling tank is delivered by gravitation—the filter beds have no roof over them; a clear water tank at a lower level into which the clear effluent from the filter beds flows. The end of the pump delivery pipe in the settling tank is provided with an apparatus for spraying the water whereby its complete aerationissecured. Aerationishardly required for the river water, but is necessary for the storage water which, being of a stagnant character, is deficient in air. Three systems of piping are provided for the filter beds— one to supply them with water, one to convey away the effluent to the clear water tank, and one to collect and couvey away waste, scour, and overflow water. Hach system of piping is provided with the necessary stop valves, but there are none of the automatic control arrangements which are usually found attached to modern types of filter plant. The main effluent pipe which receives the filtered water from each of the four beds has a stop valve on it at its outlet at the clear water tank. This valve did not exist in the original design, and was subsequently added to pro- WATER FILTRATION. LIIl. vide better control over filtering operations. Its use will be described later on. The filtering medium is clean river sand 2 feet 6 inches in depth, resting on 6 inches of fine gravel, under which are two layers of loose bricks arranged to form subdrainage ducts, the whole being contained in a water tight tank 7 feet in depth, the floor of which slopes to a central channel leading to the effluent outlet pipe. | Hach bed has two water level gauges, side by side—one is in communication with the water above the sand, and the other with the water in the channel under the sand. When a bed is working, the difference of level of the water in the two gauges is the filtering head, and indicates the condition of the sand. The least difference is seen when the bed is clean, and the greatest after it has been in pro- longed use and the interstices in the surface layer of sand have been choked with deposits of vegetable matter and fine clay. When this stage is reached the bed is put out of action, dried and the surface pared off, after which it is | ready to start again. At each paring a portion of sand is unavoidably removed and the thickness of the sand bed is gradually diminished. When the reduction amounts to 9 inches, the bed is made up again to its original thickness by the addition of new sand. When it is required to recharge a bed which has been dried off, the main effluent valve at the clear water tank is shut and the effluent outlet valve of the dry bed is opened. This allows the filtered water from the active beds to flow into the bottom of the dry bed, and gradually rise up to the surface; as soon as this stage is reached, the valve which controls the supply of unfiltered or raw water is opened, and the filling of the bed above the sand is completed from this source ; the main effluent valve is then reopened and ad- justed, and filtration is resumed. LIV. J. B. HENSON. In practice, however, the beds are not always allowed torun continuously. At certain times Of the year each bed is shut off in rotation at short intervals. The water is lowered to a point a few inches below the surface of the sand, which is thus exposed to the direct action of the air and sunlight for a day or two, if practicable. The bed is then recharged and filtering resumed. This practice was adopted to check the growth of vegetable and animal life in the water on the beds, but it requires careful control. The clear water tank was originally uncovered, and under the influence of sunlight vegetable growths developed rapidly and caused much trouble. The filaments were drawn into the pump suction, found their way into the water reticulation pipes, and choked the strainers of water meters. At certain seasons of the year, the growth was so abundant as to necessitate the cleaning out of the tank every three or four weeks. This, besides being expensive, caused inconvenient stoppages. A roof was constructed over the tank, and light being excluded the growth of aquatic plants ceased. No further trouble from this source has since been experienced. Occasionally the finer growths of weeds on the filter beds collect the minute bubbles of gas which are evolved at the surface of the sand. The bubbles become entangled and accumulate until a buoyancy is gained sufficient to lift the weed from its anchorage, and in doing so a patch of the skin of the bed is torn off, leaving the bare sand exposed. Through this bare sand, no doubt, the water percolates faster than through the protected areas round it untila fresh skin is formed. No bacteriological examinations of the water are made. Samples of the water before and after filtration are taken once a month and forwarded to the Board of Health, Sydney, for chemical examination. These examinations WATER FILTRATION. LY. show that a very great improvement in the water is effected by the filters. The storage water, which before filtration is unsuitable for domestic purposes, is after aeration and filtration converted into a water of satisfactory purity. The beneficial effect of filtration is shown by the following results of analysis of storage water :— Parts per million— Before filtration. After filtration Oxygen absorbed in 4 hours seedy OO ete 9 5 i [5 minutes 7 05... 46 Combined ammonia ae ae po4o ee d4 Free ammonia ae ae A 709... =°00 It is only under exceptional circumstances that storage water is alone supplied to the filters. Usually equal volumes of storage and river water are taken. Better results are obtained in this way, as the following analyses of mixed water will show :— Parts per million— Before filtration. After filtration Oxygen absorbed in 4 hours cin LOO) a 247 a3 . torminutes! 5) a0) 2.5 624: Combined ammonia pee ee 20ers. 807 Free ammonia ax ane ae. "OL se" 2200 The average results throughout the year are as follows for filtered water :— | Oxygen absorbed in 4 hours ... we oe OF: 4 as 15 minutes ae Cato Combined ammonia ws an es sae ae) Free ammonia ... Bes cat 2 wee 200 The rate of filtration is not allowed to exceed 44 inches ‘per hour; this corresponds to the passage of a volume of 21°05 gallons per superficial yard of surface per hour. In the practical working of the filter beds they are as far as circumstances will admit, supplied with equal volumes of storage and river water mixed together in the supply pipe to the aerating fountain. ‘This ensures a more uniform quality of water and mitigates the severity of the change which would otherwise occur in passing direct from river water to storage or vice versa. J. B. HENSON. LVI. 00- ayy woly saw og adid amas wos 1240/f S\ 5 \ 2 me a aN 8 S its > zy v \ a <\ A AN °\ \ \ 61 ~ ~™ “SN tao. 2 > iin A 4ajOM pajolay YIOANSSIY JOVHNOLS JHL WONs Y3LVM 4O NOliveilis 40 Simns34y 4aj0M MOY — > 2 4 on SY3i1I3 ONY SHYNVi JO NOILIGS ONY NVW1d os: a vos mar Zz z cr z °o $ MJattd SO1 uwaatis ore 434114 40 NOILOIS LY/ey, IPSS YY UWA EA SWYOMYSLYM LOIYLSIG YSLNNH BHI LV YAILYVM JO NOILVYYLINIA (xxv.) INDEX. PAGE PAGE Aboriginal astronomy ... 278 | Australian minerals 382 burial and mourning Avenging expedition .. . 239 customs... Sat .. 270| Award of Clarke Memorial — chants ie 240 Medal vii. — food regulations... 258 —— legends :— Achievements of the Bram- Bacteria, removal of, by filters x11. bambults we 864 Barlow limiter Al f Dhurramulan 343 y, limit of endurance ror Dyillagamberra, the rainmaker 350 certain injurious substances Dyuni-dyunity soa | AY) 390, xxxviil. eee mopoke .. . 373 | Barometric pressure and sun- Gu-ru- 2 A = . spots wate ie Home of Baiame riquettes, concrete tensile tests 179 my une Wongaibon obtained 351 mortar tensile tests 178 How water was obtained by Building and Investment Fund iv. the Kamilaroi people 854 | Burial customs, aboriginal 270 Mumuga i 345 Ngaut-ngaut 367 The Dhiel and her water- trough 355 Cc mee and its halo wee ae Cabbage Gum ... xvi. The Wawi and song-makers , 364 | Canotite, Colorado, U.S.A. 388 The Yaroma.. 361 | Ceremony, Dolgarrity 328 ae young men and the Moon a8 Tyibbauga 322 Wirubullace ea acd Wonggoa or Wongupka 306 Yandhangga... 357 | Challinor, R. W., The approxi- — mythol. gy and folklore... 337 mate colorimetric estima- search es food ... 252 tion of nickel and cobalt in sorcery wa «274 presence of one another ... 406 tribes, ethnological notes Chemical composition of ee on we (208, XX X11, crystals oe 405 Aborigines of Western Australia xxx.| —— —— of flood water silt... 196 Address, Presidential.. a 1|—— Laboratory, Ammonia Agricultural College, Hawkes- Company of Australia 16 bury —— -—— Australian Drug Co. 15 Agriculture Department of, —— Co-operative W hole- Laboratory 13 sale Society Limited <* 16 Alluvials of the Hawkesbury Colonial Sugar Refin- River : 193 ing Company 14 American practice i in filtration 15 of water ... . XXIX. | ——- —— Explosives Depart- Analysis of Huater River water 197 ment ce 2 ak 14 —— silts from Hunter River Lever Brothers 16 water : ... 198, xxxiv.| Chemistry and Chemists in — —— Hawkesbury River N.S.W., present position of 5 water 199, xxxv. | Chemists, qualification of 17 Angophora intermedia ... 103 | Clarke Memorial Fund v. lanceolata ... XXVlii Medal Vii. —— subvelutina 37, xvi. | Climate and sunspots... 40 Auditors, Honorary . xlix. | Cobalt,colorimetric estimation of 406 Auyite crystals at Gerringong - N.S.W. 402, xli., xlv. of 406 Colorimetric estimation nickel and cobalt .. (xxvi.) PAGE Columbite, he oi N.S:Wr- 2x : Concrete briquettes, tests iron constructions Barrier ~. ooo “tensile f *TO 105, xxv. — prisms, compression tests 182 140, xxv1. compression tests .. 144 Contour lines, diagram for making VII. Conversazione ... “4, xix. Co-ordination in scientific work 19, xvii. Cost of filters akaas, Current Papers, No. 8 129 Curve showing’ earthquake frequency in a emp ls period 57 — eruption frequency 58 — sunspot minima and total volcanic and seismic activity ; 58 Customs Department Laboratory 14 D David, Prof. T. W. Edgeworth, B.A., F.G.S., F.R.8., The flood silt of the Hunter and Hawkesbury Rivers 191, XXXiv., XxXxvVli., xlvi Department of Agriculture, Laboratory 13 — Customs, Laboratory 14 Mines, Laboratory gr 42 Deposits of the Hunter Delta 193 Diglucoside (new) in the Kinos of the Eucalypts .. 21 Docker, His Honor ‘Judge, lecture on ‘‘ What I saw in New Zealand” xlv. Dolgarrity ceremony ... 328 Earth-magnetism, sunspots and solar corona ass ane 9S Earthquakes, causes of 41 Education, technical and indus- trial, in Australia ... XXIV. Emphloin : 29, xv. Engineering Section ... 3, Vi., Vil. Eth ological notes on Aboriginal tribes 203, xxxili. Eucalyptus kinos 21, xvii. — value for tinctures 91, xx. Eucalyptus amplifolia ... 37 PAGE Eucalyptus amygdalina ...94, 96 — Bridgesiana 99, 102 calophylla 94, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, xxi. — capitellata 86, 39, xvi. — corymbosa... 94, 99, 102 crebra 23. 25, 35 — Dawsoni ... “ 99, 1038 dives 27,99, 101, 102, 103, 104 — eugenioides al SE — eximia 99, 100, 103 Xx. —— goniocalyz .. 99, 102 — hemastoma 36, 39, 92, 96, xvi. —— hemiphloia .. 99, 101, 102 intertexta ... .. 99, 101, 193 —— macrorrhyncha 26, 27, 35, 94, 96 maculata 99, 100, 108, xxi. melliodora... me 99, 102 —— microcorys... 99, 100, 103, xxi, obliqua 96 oleosa 99, 103 oreades 96 paniculata 24, 25, 29, 31. 35, 103 pendula . 99, 101, 102 pilularis 28, 35, 92, 96, 99, 101, 102, 108, 104 piperita 92, 94, 96 populifolia... 99, 102 — punctata 24, 26, 94 resinifera ... 23, 91, 92, 93 rostrata .. 99, 101, 102 siderophloia 25, 35, 91, 92 sideroxylon 23, 25, 35, xv. Sieberiana... 96, 99, 102 — Smithii 99, 102 —— tereticornis 37, 40, x. —— trachyphloia 99, 102 Woollsiana 99, 101,102, 103, 104 Euxenite, Marble Bar Tinfield, Western Australia 387 Exchanges an be ae 1 F Filters, cost of ... .. Biax, operation of > SU: —— washing of XXXVII. Filter sand me XXXII. Filtration of water : KIE.; i. at the Hunter Dis- trict Water Works, West Maitland 2 L., LVI. rapid or mechanical xxxII. slow, European method x11. —— through sand xIx. Financial Position ... sea 1 (xxvii. ) PAGE Financial Statement ... oa, “Tid. Floods in the Hunter River, mitigation of ~ Flood silt of the Hunter and Hawkesbury Rivers 191, ie xlvi. Flood water of the Hunter Delta : Ae. 195, 196 Food, forbidden (Mugu) 259 search for, by Aborigines 252 Folklore, aboriginal ... ent GOs Foxall, H. G., The occurrence of isolated augite crystals at the top of the Permo- carboniferous Upper Mar- ine mudstones at Gerrin- gong, N.S.W. 402, xli., xlv. G Gadolinite, Cooglegong River Western Australia 387, 388 Western Australia 388, xxxiv. Girls (aboriginal) initiation of 334 Government Analyst ... a 8 Laboratories dee 8 Governor-General, His Excel- lency the, Patron of Society xi. 193 Grafts between indigenous trees 36, xxviii. Grey Gum 24, Grills reinforcing concrete 148 Gummow, F. M., Notes on the theory and practice of con- crete-iron constructions 105,xxv. Gum, absence of, in the kinos of the Eucalypts.. 21 Guthrie, F. B., Presidential Address ee Velie Pot experiments to deter- mine the limits of endur- ance of different farm- crops for certain injurious substances, Part 111. Barley and Rye ... 252 SIO; XOEX VAN, — The flood siltof the Hunter and Hawkesbury Rivers 191, xxxiv., xxxvii., xlvi. H Hawkesbury mane a Col- lege ; oe 7 River alluvials si 193 Henson, J. B., Filtration of water at the Hunter Dis- trict water works, West Maitland ..., “ ses L. PAGE Helms, R., Pot experiments to determine the limits of endurance of different farm crops for certain injurious substances Part 111. Barley and Rye 8 O00, BER VAT Hide Powder, tanning value... 35 Hogarth, J. W., Note on a combined wash-bottle and pipette si a 418 Howitt, A. W., F.a.s. vil. Humus . 94; Hunter Delta and its ‘deposits 193 ——— age of =a 200 —- and Hawkesbury Rivers flood silt 19 xlvi, River, mitigation of floods INTh LG. am bey 193 —— water supply Jc KVIL. Hydrographical data in rela- tion to Ocean-currents .,, xxii. Igneous rocks, classification and systematic nomencla- ture of XXXVIll., xlvil. Initiation of girls (aboriginal) 334 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature Pes o.oo Ironbark kinos 23, 25, 27, 29, 30, 31, 35, 92, 93 Tron-concrete constructions... 105 Jensen, H. I., Possible relation between sunspots and vol- canic and seismic pheno- mena and climate... 40, xii. Jevons, H. Stanley, The classi- fication and _ systematic nomenclature of Igneous rocks XXXVlli., xlvil. K Kamilaroi tribe, sociology of the 214 Kennedy, Thomas, Tacheometer surveying with an one theodolite ... I. Kino red 26, 27, 29, 32, 33, XiV., XV. Kinos of the Eucalypts 21, xiv., XVli., XX. -—— astringency value... 34 Kurnai tribe, sociology ofthe 301 (XXVIli.) L PAGE Laboratory, Department of Agriculture ‘6 ge > Als — Customs 14 —— Explosives Department 14 —— Department of Mines 12 Royal Mint ee 14 Laby, T, H., Preliminary obser- vations on radio-activity and the occurrence of radium in Australian minerals 382, xxxili. Lecture, by Judge Docker, on ‘What I saw in New Zea- land’ — Clarke Memorial _ 4. Science 4, viii., xvii., xvill. xx. Legends, see ‘Aborigina] ’ Lenehan, H. A,, Current Papers xlv. No. 8 129, xxii. Library . 1 Longitudinal rods reinforcing concrete . 147 M Magic, aboriginal 274 Maiden, J. H., on mitigation of floods in the Hunter River oo on some natural grafts between indigenous trees 36, XXViil. Mathews, R. H., Ethnological Notes on the Aboriginal tribes of New South Wales 193 and Victoria : 203 Mawson, D., Preliminary obser- vations on radio-activity and the occurrence of radium in Australian minerals . 882, xxxiil. Mechanical filtration ... XXXIII. Members’ Roll Meteorological phenomena and sunspot... ae 65 Minerals, Australian ... 382 | Mines Department, Laboratory 12 Moon’s perigee and seismic and voleanic activity 09 Monazite, Paradise Creek, Em- maville. N.S. W. 389 —— Pilbarra, W.A. 382, 389, xxxiv. Torrington, N.S.W. 382 Mortar briquettes, tensile tests 178 prisms, compression tests 181 Mountain Bloodwood ... as 4 | PAGE Mourning customs (aboriginal) 270 Mugu or forbidden food 259 Mumbirbirri or piri the ~ body. . eon Mytholngs. aboriginal — a. oar Natural grafts between indi- genous trees 36, XXvlii. Nepheline-aegerine rocks from Barigan Xvi. New South Wales aboriginal tribes, ethnological noteson 203 Ngeumba language . » B19 tribe, sociology of the ... 207 — vocabulary 224 Nickel, colorimetric estimation of 4.06 Norrie, James Smith, 1820-1883 8 O Obituary : 4 Ocean currents.. 135 Operation of filters in America XLIv. Liverpool . XLIV. — London » SUEY, —— —— Sydney . eee FE | Papers read in 1903 2 | Patron of the Royal Society of | N. S. Wales : - ‘ Peppermint’ kinos 27, 30, 92, 93 Pipette and wash-bottle, com- bined : 418 Pirrimbir, or avenging expe- . dition 239 Pitchblende, Joachimathal 387 | Plate-beam constructions 118 Popular Science Lectures 4, Viii., XVii., XViil., XX., XXii. “The Distribution of Life in Australasia,’’ by C. Hedley xviii. “ The Fabric of the Universe,”’ by G. H. Knibbs... xxii. “The Nervous System in its genesis and development,”’ by Dr. J. Froude Flashman XxXvi., xlv., xlvii. ““The Solar System aud South- ern Sky,” by H. A, Lenehan xii, “The Steam Engine and its Modern Rivals,” by S H Barraclough noo KS eed Presidential Address by F. B. Guthrie 1, vili. Proceedings, Engineering Sec- tion . sos ae lxxvii. oa Society llig (xxix.) PAGE Pterocarpus marsupium 91, 94, 103 R Radio-activity, observations on 382 Radium in Australian minerals 382, xxxiil. Rainfall, connection with sun- spots i SR ee Rapid filtration XXXIII. Red Gum a ven LOO Reinforced concrete 140, xxvi. Roll of Members 3 4, Royal Mint, Laboratory 14 Rye, limit of endurance for certain injurious substances 890, 401, xxxviil. Samarskite, Sweden ... 387 Sand filtration .. ahs OLS Scarring the body (Mumbirbirri) 262 Science Lectures 4, viii., xvii., XVill., Xx. Scientific work, co-ordination in 19 Section, Engineering... vi., vii., 3 Seismic and volcanic activity and moon’s perigee 59 phenomena and sunspots 4 40, xi. Shearing stresses in steel-con- crete beams 161 Silt, flood water, chemical com- position and value 196 Smail, J. M., Water filtration x11I. Smith, HenryG., on Eucalyptus kinos, their value for tinc- tures, and the non-gelatin- ization of the product of certain species — On the absence of eum and the presence of a new diglucoside in the kinos of the Eucalypts 21, xiv. 91 Soft iron or steel wire reinforc- ing concrete 149 Sorcery, aboriginal 274: Spotted Gum .. - «- LOO Stibiotantalite, Greenbushes Tin-field, W.A. ... 386 Stringybarks, kinos 28, 26, 27, 30, 31, 92, 98 Sunspot and meteorological phenomena 65 — minima and total volcanic and seismic activity curve 58 PAGE Sunspots and barometric pres- sure . This sipees WALL —— and rainfall 73 and temperature 68 —— and volcanic and seismic phenomena and climate 40, xii. cause of... . 65 solar corona and earth- magnetism .. ae 0 78 Superstitions, miiscellineous ye OAD Surveying tacheometer, with ordinary theodolite ne liz T Table of seismic and volcanic disturbances : 81 Tacheometer surveying with ordinary theodolite sae if Tallowwood Me sie LOG Tanning value by hide powder 35 Teaching InstitutionsinN.S.W. 5 Tebbutt, John, retirement of, from systematic astronom- ical work ... .XXXi Technical Colleges in N. S, Ww. 6 and Industrial Education in Australia 5 XIV Temperature and sunspots 68 Tension tests of reinforced con- crete 140° Thangatti tribe, language 232 vocabulary 235 Thurrawal and kindred tribes, sociology of the . 216 Torbernite, Carcoar, N.S. W.. 387 Trees marked by Pirrimbir ... 251 natural grafts between 36, Xxviil. Tyibbauga ceremony ... 322 U Ulmic acid 94 University of “Sydney and chemistry ... V Victorian aboriginal tribes, ethnological notes on 203 Volcanic activity and moon’s perigee : 59 a= phenomena and sunspots 40, xii. Volcanoes ie geoe (xxx,) WwW PAGE Warren, Prof. W. H., Further experiments on the strength and elasticity of reinforced concrete _... oy LAD, KXV4. Wash-bottle and wet com- bined 418 Washing of filters XXXVII. Watt, Charles .. 10 Water filtration XIII. Hawkesbury River r analysis 198 —— Hunter River analysis... 197 PAGE Water supply, Hunter River xvii. West Maitland, water works... LL. Western Victoria, sociology of the tribes of 2 20 White Gum ... 86, 40, xvi. Wonggoa or pS cere- mony , 306 Zodiac—aboriginal astronomy 278 Spdnep : F. W. WHITE, PRINTER, 344 KENT STREET. 1905. Plate I. WOME VL GOs Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. Natural Graft (White Gum and Stringybark); section through bark and wood. ; _NT-PAPERS CHART 120 130 150 170 q 9? 50 ZFC ££ 96 9° % 16 CURRENT-PAPERS CHART N®°Sa. ae 5 Melloumne ——_____~— 10097 Oe — a> Ss) 48 2 gi ‘a 43083 4 J = 1 % oh —— el MY 120 150 140 150 Photo-lithographed by W. A, Gullick, Govern nent Printer, Sydney, NSW. zo 50 1983 ar = CURRENT-PAPERS CHART N°Ss Leadon. Published at tbe Adar alty 2 1874 inlendener of Rear Admiral GM Rickards BF RS. Hedroyrapher te” Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XX XVITT., 1904. Plate IT. \ Be tiniest ol sts ~ Natural Graft, Apple (Angophora) growing in fissure ot Swamp Gum. Journal Royal Society of A TYPICAL LINES OF SuBSTITUTES FOR THE | As ExpRes: TENSIC ee Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXX VIIT., 1904. Plate III TYPICAL LINES OF THE FORM ALTERATION OF CONCRETE & IRON SuBsTITUTES FOR THE LINES OF FoRM ALTERATION oF CONCRETE As EXPRESSED IN THE LEADING FORMULA -y COMPRESSIVE STRESSES COMPRESSION +X ELONGATIONS SHORTENINGS -X TENSION TENSILE STRESSES zy) Journal Royal Society of N.S. TYPICAL LINES OF T Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XX XVIII, 1904 Plate IV. TYPICAL LINES OF THE FORM ALTERATION OF CONCRETE & IRON COMBINED, IN TENSION AND RATIO OF STRESSES ON EACH MATERIAL hae ELONGATIONS TENSILE STRESSES Journal | CONCR Ube wane nt at Aare eee See {~-—-— ———- 4 ' , ! ' 1 1 ' ' \ s = i} i) Plate V. jseothos ens B Sf mnenmemt— Gross Section adjoung Supports Tested July 1903. Bunr ar Newcasrre N.S.W. May 1903. of Gurders Gross Section trough Hiddle CONCRETE Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXXVIII, 1904. -IRON PLatTe- Beam CONSTRUCTION Plate VI. Journal Royal Society of N.S W., Vol. XXXVIIL., 1904. yer. y a 4 ig merece 3 ag pane ba sa ow 28) ap) fe UoL{22aG J {EH — —= aur] ayuaz UO voif7a> J/ey — oe ULMER I). < -s - pee aLe — i ag pe 2609 vo pryreds SHI4G O00'S% yoRy lO] {$A JO JUIUADUELY NOILLONYULSNOD WWAgG-ALV1Id NOU] - aLAYINOD oN pane tM a RS SR SU nn esse ati ART. Arr. ART. ART. ART. CONTENTS, . XI.—Preliminary Observations on Radio-Activity and the Occurrence of Radium in Australian Minerals. By D. Mawson, B.z., Junior Demonstrator in Chemistry, and T. H. Lapy, Acting-Demonstrator in ae in the University of Sydney . XIIL.—Pot Experiments to Determine the Limits of Endur- ance of different Farm-Crops for certain Injurious Substances. By F. B. Gururis, F.i.c., F.c.s., and R. Haims . XIITE.—The Occurrence of Isolated Augite Crystals at the top of the Permo-Carboniferous Upper Marine Mudstones at Gerringong, New South Wales. By H.G. Foxauu. (Com- municated by Prof. T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.G.S., F.R.S.) XIV.—The Approximate Colorimetric Estimation of Nickel and Cobalt in presence of one another. By R. W. CHALLINOR. (Communicated by Acting Professor J. A. SCHOFIELD, F.I.C., F.C.S,, A.B.S.M.) XV.—Note on a Combined Wash-Bottle and See By J.W.Hoearte. (Communicated by Acting Professor J. A. SCHOFIELD, F.1.C., F.C.S., A.R.S.M. ENGINEERING SECTION. XVI.—Tacheometer Surveying with an Ordinary Theodolite. By THomas KENNEDY, Assoc. M. Inst. C.K, ... is wes sv XVIi.—Water Filtration. By J. M. Smart, M. Inst, CE. Pagzu 382 390 4.02 406 418 XVII1.—Filtration of Water at the Hunter District Water Works, West Maitland. By J. B. Henson, Assoc. M. Inst. C.B.... ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS PROCEEDINGS OF.THE ENGINEERING SECTION... INDEX TO VoLUME XXXVIII. ... L. Ixxvil. (xxv.) rolly ne 7 7 = meee Wr son err fim J a sit ed on im i ‘a 7 i ; a a ae "ve ald ay pee Cees a7, bagi Tare PP i = : eee tid mo A i j i ali ee : aes ; yO : vo. 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' ; Ds a + 7 ~ bd C 7 ; Sos ‘ ce i. * xi ~ 5 : * ws = ' ae 3 : a) = hs 2 - : . 7 : ay = i — ; ‘ : is oe — 7 a . , ca fs hb 7 2 fi ni 4 a ee ied . 1 ac a s - es ere : ae =< : 3 7 = me = = i bee 7 7 7 P a : alee == ah 7 =F 7 . ee ee f _ F i a = ob <5 5 - ‘-. - 7 =: ' . - _ = , E - 4 —— _ i ; ; Sones fi ‘s : - ah \ : ' be : ue ; - o We i - _ > a : in a i Ss rt , = > a om pa ‘ - or . \ ? \ “4 = : = i? _ ; . . : 7 — 4 : "eh 4) { = Mi : - - ~ i = : \ é i ote : * u . q or 5 ; Bi i ook \ ¢ 7 ' a y a : : : i By eth ae a ; : it A s, i i : 5 a ; i \ ” ~ : ay : ) , _ : , 7 F 1 © ‘4 i - I - ¥ ry a ~ s am — ie ee — un a wa Hs 3 9088 01308 4322