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JOURNAL z 


PROCEEDINGS 
ROYAL SOCIETY 
NEW SOUTH WALES 
hie 
(INCORPORATED 1881.) 
aOR, Ler, VIL. 


THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. 


THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS 
MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. 


23245 49A- 


SYDNEY : 
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. 
LONDON AGENTS: 
GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 
17 Warwick SQuaRE, PATERNOSTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. 


1913. 


NOTICE. 


THe Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as 
the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of 
inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the 
‘¢ Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known - 
until 1856, when the name was changed to the “ Philosophical 
Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her 
Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present 
title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New 
South Wales in 1881. 


TO AUTHORS. 


Authors of papers desiring illustrations, are advised to consult 
the editors (Honorary Secretaries) before preparing their drawings. 
Unless otherwise specially permitted, such drawings should be 
carefully executed to a large scale on smooth white Bristol board 
in intensely black Indian ink, so as to admit of the blocks being 
prepared directly therefrom, in a form suitable for photographic 
“process.” The size of a full page plate in the Journal is 4} in. 
x6Zin. Thecost of all original drawings, and of colouring plates 
must be borne by Authors. 


The following publications of the Society, if in print, 


obtained at the Society’s House in Elizabeth-street:— 


PUBLICATIONS. 


O 


can be 


Transactions of the Philosophical Society, N.S. W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print. 


Vol. 
a te 
“4 III. 
™ IV. 
29 Vv. 
aS VI. 
6. VII. 
ie VIII. 
a 1X, 
9 xX. 
Be Ie 
Ms XII. 
as XIII. 
* XIV. 
% xy 
a XVI. 
re. XVII 
_ XVIII. 
a XIX, 
J, KK: 
- XXI. 
Se XXII. 
- KXIG 
as XXIV. 
- XXV. 
a XXVI. 
» ~—Ss« XVII. 
Jo | Val, 
7 KKK, 
_ XXX, 
- XXXI. 
ae. RAE, 
Aes 6.8.50 
sf 1 XRRIWG 
a. | RKKN. 
3) KKKVI, 
3») RXXVII 
) SERVI. 
vo 2SSKIK., 
a xi. 
ia XLI, 
= XL. 
= XLIII. 
if XLIV. 
a XLV. 
XLVI. 
| SEE: 


1. Transactions of the Royal] Society, N.S. W., 1867, pp. 83, 


1868, ,, 120, 


1869; 5, fay) 


1870, ,, 106, 
1871, » 72, 
1872, ,, 128, 
1873, ,, 182, 
1874, ,, 116, 
1875, ,, 235, 
1876, ,, 333, 
1877, ,, 305, 


39 


1878, ,, 324, price10s.6d. 


1879, ,, 255, 
1880, ,, 391, 
1881, ,, 440, 
1882, ,, 327, 
1883, ,, 324, 
1884, ,, 224, 
1885, ,, 240, 
1886, ,, 396, 
1887, ,, 296, 
1888, ,, 390. 
1889, ,, 534, 
1890, ,, 290, 
1891, ,, 348, 
1892, ,, 426, 
1893, ,, 530, 
1894, ,, 368, 
1895, ,, 600, 
1896, ,, 568, 
1897, ,, 626, 
1898, ,, 476, 
1899, ,, 400, 
1900, ,, 484, 
1901, ,, 581, 
1902, ,, 531, 
1903, ,, 663, 
1904, ,, 604, 
1905, ,, 274, 
1906, ,, 368, 
1907. ,, 377, 
1908, ,, 593, 
1909, ,, 466, 
1910, ,, 719, 
1911 ,, GL: 
1912 ,, 275, 
1913 ,, 318, 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


“ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


ART. 


CONTENTS. 


VOLUME XLVII. 


. IL—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By R. H. CAMBAGE, L.s., F.L.S. 


[With Plate I.] 


. I1.—Products of the Action of eeheehtiatha Sulphide’ fea 


-onIron. By C. W. R. Powe tt, Science Research Scholar, 
University of Sydney. (Communicated by Professor C. E. 
Fawsitt, D.sc., PH.D.) se Af ed oe 

III.—Note on the Occurrence of Coccidiosis in fistiss Sparrows 
andin Bovinesin N.S.W. By J. BuRToN CLELAND, M.D.,CH.M., 
Principal Microbiologist to the Government of N.S. Wales. 

IV.—Note on the Growth of Flowering Stem of Xanthorrhea 
hastilis, R.Br. By J. BuRTON CLELAND, M.D., CH.M... 

V.—Note on Agar-agar Seaweed from Western Australia. 
‘By J. Burton CLELAND, M.D., CH.M. Ds Sn Mee 

V1I.—Notes on Eucalyptus, (with descriptions of new species) 
No. I. By J. H. Marpen, F.us.. is oS sae 

VII.—Note on the Paraffins of Bucalyptn Oils. By H. G. 
SMITH, F.C.S. f 

VIII.—The Seedlings of és PP oshaide ed desouetion of a a 
New Species. By CurHsert HALL, M.D.,cH.m. (Communi- 
cated by R. T. Baker, F.u.s.) [With Plates II-IV.]... 

ITX.—On the Essential Oils of the mbes ck By H. G. 
SMITH, F.C.s. 

X.—The ae of Beis Bae ape G. HL ice 
F.G.8. [With Plates V., VI.] ve ts Bae 

XI.—Notes on the rectifying property in Silicon and ee 
By O. U. VonwiLueER, B.sc., Assistant-Professor of te 
in the University of Sydney de Fe he 

XII.—The ionisation caused by penetrating y rays in a closed 
thick-walled vessel. By S. E. Pierce, B.sc., Deas-Thomson 
Scholar in Physics in the University of Sydney. (Communi- 
cated by Professor Pottocr) 

XIII.—The Extraction of Radium uot ihe, Aes Ores: 
By 8. Rapcuirr. 

XIV.— Vanilla, anda dhoet ‘ana aan petted for ue fees 
mination of Vanillin. By W. M Douerry, F.1.c., F.c.s. 
[With Plate VII.] . Bp ie ae bi 

XV.—A flame test for Chloral hydiads! By W. M. Douzrrty, 
CRG 5 BOS fas i vas ES oa ‘ 


PaGeE. 


1 


59 


70 


72 


75 


76 


95 


98 


106 


120 


129 


138 


145 


157 


163 


(vi.) 


PaaE. 
Art. XVI.—On some transverse tests of Australian and Foreign 


Timbers. By James NANGLE, F.R.A.S., aie of 

Technical Education. im . 165 
Art XVII.—Some Physico-Chemical a ieee on Milk. By 

H. B. Tayuor, B.sc., Science Research Scholar, University 

of Sydney. (Communicated by Professor FawsitTT) ay pales 
Art. XVIII—On the Australian Melaleucas and their Essential 

Oils, part V. By R. T. Baxsr, F.u.s.and H. G. Smitu, Fc.s. 

[With Plate VIII.]... a ie aie », 198 
Ant. IX.—On a new species of Eucalyptus from Noukers oucae 

land. By J. H. Marpen, F.t.s., and R. H. CAMBAGH, L.s., F.L.S. 215 
Art. XX.—Notes on Eucalyptus, (with descriptions of new species) 

No. 2. By J. H. Marpen, F.L.s.. $6 i wn sare, 
Art. XXI.—The occurrence of Mpimothyletnene and its occurrence 

in the Australian Salt-bush, Rhagodia hastata, R. Br. By 

R. W. CHALLINOR, F.1.C., F.C.8. ... ; is 236 
ArT. XXIJ.—Note on an Ostracod, and an Gaiextedes iameeie 

from the Middle Devonian of New South Wales. By 

FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S., F.R.M.S., Paleontologist to the 

National Museum, Melbourne. (Communicated by W. S. 


Dun). ! With Plate IX.] ... be sia? this sing we 244 
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS oe ae ae Ah an i,—xli. 
PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION ... re, .. Xlili — xl viii. 
Tirte Paces, Notices, PUBLICATIONS, CONTENTS, ... at (i. - vi.) 
OFFICERS FOR 1913-1914... r ie ite Pk be 0 CE) 
List oF MremsBers, &c. ... oo ae om oi ve Pe | 
INDEX TO VoLuME XLVII. ... sae ae he hey ioe. lies, 


DATES OF PUBLICATION. 


VotumMeE XLVII. 


Part I—pp. 1 — 112, published September 19, 1913. 
5,  LI—pp. 113 - 247, a February 5, 1914. 
»5 IiI—pp. 1. — xlix., (i. — xxii.) published March 19, 1914. 


Royal Society of Hew South ales. 


Qe tees Om tote tois. 


Patron: 
HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE BARON 
DENMAN, P.c., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.0., ete. 


Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia. 


Vice-Patron: 
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR GERALD STRICKLAND, kE.c.m.a. 
Governor of the State of New South Wales. 


President: 
HENRY G. SMITH, F.c.s. 


‘ Vice-Presidents: 
F. H. QUAIFE, m.a., m.p. D. CARMENT, ¥.1.4., F.F.A. 


EF. B. GUITHEIE, £.1:c.; ¥.c.s. R. H. CAMBAGE, Ls., F.L.s. 


Hon. Treasurer: 
H. G, CHAPMAN, mp. 


Hon. Secretaries: 
J. H. MAIDEN, F.u:s. | Prof. POLLOCK, p.sc. 


Members of Council: 
J. B. CLELAND, m.p., cu.m. C. HEDLEY, r.u.s. 
Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, c.m.a4., B.a., | T. H. HOUGHTON, m. 1ns17. c.z. 
W. S. DUN. [D.sc., FBS.) G A SUSSMILCH, v.a.s. 
R. GREIG-SMITH, p.sc. H. D. WALSH, B.A.1., M. INST. C.E. 
W. M. HAMLET, F.1.c., F.c.s. | Prof. W. H. WARREN, tu.p. 


FORM OF BEQUEST. 


£ bequeath the sum of £ to the RoyaL Society oF 
New Souta Watss, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of 
New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the 
Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an 
effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid 
within calendar months after my decease, without 
any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty 
thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be 
lawfully applied for that purpose. 

[Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society of 
New South Wales by Legacies, are recommended to instruct their 
Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest. | 


LIST OF THE MEMBERS 


OF THE 


Aopal Society of Slew South Hales. 


P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s 
Transactions or Journal; papers published in the Transactions of the Philosophical 
Society are also included. The numerals indicate the number of such contributions. 


a = Members. 

ected. 

1908 Abbott, George Henry, B.A., m.B., cH.m., Macquarie-street; p.r. 
‘Cooringa,’ 252 Liverpool Road, Summer Hill. 

1877 |P 5) Abbott, W. E., ‘Abbotsford,’ Wingen. 

1904 Adams, William John, m. 1. mecu. E., 175 Clarence-street. 

1898 Alexander, Frank Lee, c/o Messrs. Goodlet and Smith Ld, 
Cement Works, Granville. 

1905 Anderson, Charles, m.a., p.sc. Hdin., Australian Museum, Col- 

lege-street. 

1909 | P6| Andrews, E. C., B.a., F.a.S., Geological Surveyor, Department 
of Mines, Sydney. 

1878 Backhouse, His Honour Judge A. P., m.a., ‘ Melita,’ Elizabeth 
Bay. 

1894 |P 19 Baker, Richard Thomas, F.u.s., Curator,Technological Museum. 

1894 {Balsille, George, ‘ Lauderdale,’ N.E. Valley, Dunedin, N.Z. 

1896 'Barff, H. E., u.a., Registrar, The University of Sydney. 

1908 | P1 Barling, John, ‘St. Adrians,’ Raglan-street, Mosman. 


PQ Barraclough, S. Henry, B.E., M.M.E., ASSOC. M. INST. C.E., M. I. 


MECH. E., Memb. Soc. Promotion Eng. Education ; Memb. 
Internat. Assoc. Testing Materials; Lecturer in Mechanical 
Engineering in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Marmion,’ 
Victoria-street, Lewisham. 
Basnett, Nathaniel James, Accountant, Punch-st., Mosman. 
Baxter, William Howe, Chief Surveyor, Existing Lines Office, 
Railway Department, Bridge-street. 


| Belfield, Algernon H., ‘ Eversleigh,’ Dumaresq. 


Bender, Ferdinand, Accountant and Auditor, 114 Hunter-st. 

Benson, William Noel, B.sc., Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 
England. 

Bignold, Hugh Baron, Barrister-at-Law, Chambers, Went- 
worth Court, 64 Elizabeth-street. 

Bishop, Joseph Eldred, Journalist, Killarney-street, Mosman. 

Blakemore, George Henry, Australian Club, Macquarie-street. 


{Blaxland, Walter, r.r.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Lond., Fremantle, 


West Australia. 
Blomfield, Charles E., B.c.u. Melb., ‘ Woombi,’ Kangaroo Camp, 
Guyra. 


4 vo 
wise 
’ 


(x.) 


Elected 

1898 Blunno, Michele, Licentiate in Science (Rome), Government 
Viticultural Expert, Department of Agriculture, Sydney. 

1907 Bogenrieder, Charles, Mining and. Consulting Engineer, 

~ €Sceibile,’ Little’s Avenue, off Nicholson-street, Balmain. 

1879 {Bond, Albert, 131 Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-street. 

1907 Boyd, Robert James, M.E., ASSOC. M. INST. C.E., ‘ Greenstead,’ 
Park Road, Burwood, 

1910 Bradley, Clement Henry Burton, u.B., cH.M., D.P.H., Demon- 
strator in Physiology in the University of Sydney. 

1876 Brady, Andrew John, u.K. and q.c.p. Irel., u.R.c.s. Ivel., 175 
Macquarie-street, Sydney. 

1891 Brennand, Henry J. W., B.A., M.B., cH.M. Syd., ‘The Albany,’ 
Macquarie-st., p.r. ‘ Wobun,’ 310 Miller-st., North Sydney. 

1902 Brereton, Victor Le Gay, Solicitor, ‘Osgathorpe,’ Gladesville. 

1878 {Brooks, Joseph, F.R A.S., F.R.G.S., ‘ Hope Bank,’ Nelson-street, 
Woollahra. 

1913 Browne, William Rowan, B.sc., Assistant Lecturer and Demon- 
strater in Geology in the University, Sydney. 

1876 Brown, Henry Joseph, Solicitor, Newcastle, 

1906 Brown, James B., Resident Master, Technical School, Gran- 
ville; p.r. ‘ Kingston,’ Merrylands. 

1903 Bruck, Ludwig, Medical Publisher, 15 Castlereagh-street. 

1898 {Burfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.A., B.SCc., M.B., CH.M. Syd., ‘Wyom- 
ing,’ 175 Macquarie-street, Sydney. 

1890 Burne, Alfred, p.p.s., Buckland Chambers, 183 Liverpool-st. 

1907 Burrows, Thomas Edward, mM. INST. c.E., L.S., Metropolitan 
Engineer, Public Works Department; p.r. ‘ Balboa,’ Fern- 
street, Randwick. 

1880 Bush, Thomas James, Mm. INST. c.u., Australian Gas-light 


Company, 153 Kent-street. 


1909 Calvert, Thomas Copley, assoc. M. INST. C.E., ‘Maybank,’ 
Manly. 

1904 | P3| Cambage, Richard Hind, t.s., ¥.u.s., Chief Mining Surveyor; 
p-r. Park Road, Burwood. Vice-President. 


1907 Campbell, Alfred W., m.p., cu.m. Edin., 183 Macquarie-street. 

1900 Canty, M., ‘ Rosemont,’ 13 York-street, Wynyard Square. 

1876 Cape, Alfred J., m.a. Syd., ‘Karoola,’ Edgecliffe Rd,, Edgecliffe. 

1897 | P 4| Cardew, John Haydon, m. INST. ¢.E., L.S., 75 Pitt-street. 

1901 Card, George William, a.R.s.M., F.G.8., Curatorand Mineralogist 
to the Geological Survey, Department of Mines, Sydney, 

1891 Carment, David, F.1.4. Grt. Brit. d@ Irel. ¥.F.A., Scot., 4 Whaling 
Road, North Sydney. Vice-President. 

1909 Carne, Joseph Edmund, F.a.s.,Assistant Government Geologist, 
Department of Mines, Sydney. 

1903 Carslaw, H. S., m.a., sc.D., Professor of Mathematics in the 


University of Sydney. 

1913 | P 2! Challinor, Richard Westman, F.1.c., F.c.s., Lecturer in Chem- 
istry, Sydney Technical College. 

1909 | P 1| Chapman, H. G., u.p., B.s., Assistant Professor of Physiology 
in the University of Sydney. Hon. Treasurer. 


Elected 
1908 


1913 | P2 
1909 |P 13 


1907 
1913 


1896 | P2 
1904 | P2 
1913 


1876 
1906 
1882 
1909 | P 1 
1892 | P 1 
1886 


1912 


1875 
1890 


1876 |P3 
1910 


1886 |P 21 
1909 
1892 | P1 
: 1885 | P3 
1894 
1875 |P 12 
1906 
1876 
1913 


1913 | P 2 


(ea 


Chauleur, Paul, Officier de Instruction Publique, Conseiller 
du Commerce Extérieur dela France; Secrétaire-Trésorier 
de la Chambre de Commerce frangaise, 2 Bond-st., G.P.O. 
Box 583, Sydney. 

Cheel, Edwin, Botanical Assistant, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. 

Cleland, John Burton, m.p., cH.m., Principal Assistant Micro- 
biologist, Department of Public Health, 93 Macquarie-st. 

Cobham, Allan Blenman, ‘ Garthowen,’ Myahgah Rd.,Mosman. 

Cooke, William Ernest, Professor, M.A., F.R.A.s., Government: 
Astronomer, The Observatory, Sydney. 

Cook, W. H., u.c.z. Melb., M. 1nsT. c.z., Water and Sewerage 
Board, North Sydney. 

Cooksey, Thomas, PH.D., D.sc. Lond., F.1.c., Second Govern- 
ment Analyst; p.r. ‘Clissold,’ Calypso Avenue, Mosman. 

Coombs, F. A., F.c.s., Instructor of Leather Dressing and 
Tanning, Sydney Technical College; p.r. 55 Willoughby 
Road, North Sydney. 

Codrington, John Frederick, m.R.c.s. Hng., R.c.P. Lond.,u.B.c.P. 
Edin., ‘Roseneath,’ 8 Wallis-street, Woollahra. 

Colley, David John K., Superintendent, Royal Mint, Sydney. 

Cornwell, Samuel, g.p., Brunswick Road, Tyagarah. 

Cotton, Leo Arthur, B.A., 8.sc., Assistant Lecturer and Demon- 
strator in Geology in the University of Sydney. 

Cowdery, George R., Assoc. M. INST. C.E., Blashki Buildings, 
Hunter-st.; p,r. ‘Glencoe,’ Torrington Road, Strathfield. 

Crago, W. H., m.r.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., 16 College-street, 
Hyde Park. 

Curtis, Louis Albert, L.s., ‘ Redlands,’ Union-street, Mosman. 


Dangar, Fred. H., c/o W. E. Deucher, 12 and 14 Loftus.street. 

Dare, Henry Harvey, m.z., M. INST. 0.E., Public Works 
Department. 

Darley, Cecil West, m. Inst. c.z., Australian Club, Sydney. 

Darnell-Smith, George Percy, B.sc., F.1.c.,F.c.s., Department 
of Agriculture, Sydney. 

David, T. W. Edgeworth, c.M.G., B.A., D.SC., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
Professor of Geology and Physical Geography in the 
University of Sydney. 

Davidson, George Frederick, 223 Bridge Road, Glebe Point. 

Davis, Joseph, m. Inst. c.z., Director-General, Public Works 
Department, Sydney. 

Deane, Henry, M.A., M. INST. C.E., F.L.S., F.R. MET. SOC., F.R.H.S., 
‘Campsie,’ 14 Mercer Road, Malvern, Victoria. 

Dick, James Adam, B.A. Syd., M.D., C.M., F.B.C.S. Edin., ‘Catfoss,” 
Belmore Road, Randwick. 

Dixon, W. A., F.1.c., F.c.s., 97 Pitt-street. 

Dixson, William, ‘ Merridong,’ Gordon Road, Killara. 

Docker, His Honour Judge E. B., m.a., ‘Mostyn,’ Billyard 
Avenue, Elizabeth Bay. 

Dodd, Sydney, p.v.sc., F.R.c.v.s., Lecturer in Veterinary 
Pathology in the University, Sydney. 

Doherty, William M., Analyst, Department of Public Health, 
Sydney. 


(xii.) 


Elected 
1873 |P 2| Du Faur, E., F.R.a.s., ‘ Flowton,’ Turramurra. 


1908 | P 3| Dun, William S., Paleontologist, Department of Mines. 


1908 Esdaile, Edward William, Optician, 54. Hunter-street. 
1879 | P 4| Etheridge, Robert, Juur., J.P., Curator, Australian Museum ; 
p.r. ‘ Inglewood,’ Colo Vale, N.S.W. 


1877 {Fairfax, Edward Ross, S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 

1896 Fairfax, Geoffrey E., S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 

1868 Fairfax, Sir James R., Knt., S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-st. 

1887 Faithfull, R. L., w.p., New York, u.Rr.c.p., L.s.A. Lond., 5 Lyons 
Terrace. 

1902 Faithfull, William Percy, Barrister-at-Law, Australian Club. 

1912 Farnsworth, W. J., p.p.s. Penn., Bannerman-st., Neutral Bay. 

1910 Farrell, John, Assistant 'Teacher, Sydney Technical College ; 


p.r. 8 Thompson-street, Darlinghurst. 
1909 | P 1| Fawsitt, Charles Edward, p.sc., pH.p., Professor of Chemistry 
in the University of Sydney. 


1881 Fiaschi, Thos., M.D., M.cH. Pisa, 149 Macquarie-street. 

1888 Fitzhardinge, His Honour Judge G. H., m.a., ‘Red Hill,’ 
Beecroft. 

1900 {Flashman, James Froude, B.A., B.SC., M.D., CH.M., Jersey Road, 
Burwood. 

1879 {Foreman, Joseph, m.R.c.s. Hng. u.R.c.p. Edin., ‘ Wyoming,’ 
Macquarie-street. 

1905 Foy, Mark, ‘Kumemering,’ Bellevue Hill, Woollahra. 

1904 Fraser, James, M. INST. C.E., Engineer-in-Chief for Existing 
Lines, Bridge-street; p.r. ‘Arnprior,’ Neutral Bay. 

1907 Freeman, William, ‘Clodagh,’ Beresford Road, Rose Bay. ; 

1899 French, J. Russell, General Manager, Bank of New South 
Wales, George-street. 

1881 Furber, T. F., F.R.4.s., Lands Department. 

1876 George, W. R., ‘ Warialda,’ Neutral Bay. 

1906 Gosche, W. A. Hamilton, Electrical Engineer, 243 Pitt- 
street, Sydney. 

1897 Gould, Senator The Hon. Sir Albert John, k.c.m.a., ‘ Eynes- 
bury,’ Edgecliffe. 

1907 Green, W. J., Chairman, Hetton Coal Co., Athenzum Club. 

1899 Greig-Smith, R., p.sc. Edin., m.sc. Dun., Macleay Bacteriologist, 
Linnean Society’s House, Ithaca Road, Elizabeth Bay. 

1912 Grieve, Robert Henry, B.a., ‘ Langtoft,’ Llandaff-st.,Waverley. 

1912 Griffiths, F. Guy, B.a., M.D., CH.M., 185 Macquarie-st., Sydney. 

1899 | P 2} Gummow, Frank M., m.c.z., Corner of Bond and Pitt-streets. 

1891 |P 16} Guthrie, Frederick B., F.1.c., F.c.s., Chemist, Department of 


Agriculture, 137 George-street, Sydney. Vice-President. 


1880 | P 4} Halligan, Gerald H., F.a.s., ‘ Riversleigh,’ Hunter’s Hill. 
1912 Hallmann, E. F., B.sc., Biology Department, The University, 
Sydney. 


Elected 


1892 
1909 


1912 
1887 


1912 
1905 


1887 
1913 


1884 
1900 
1891 


1899 
1884 


1905 
1876 
1892 
1901 
1905 
1891 


1906 
1913 


1904 


1904 
1905 


1909 
1867 
1911 
1907 
1883 
1873 
1887 


Ps 


Pi 
P 23 


Bt 


Pl 


2} 


P2 


P2 


P8 
P13 


P3 


(xiii. ) 


Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, t.s., 82 Pitt-street. 

Hammond, Walter L., Science Master, Hurlstone Agricultural 
Continuation School, Hurlstone Avenue, Summer Hill. 
Hamilton, A. G., Lecturer on Nature Study, Teachers’ College, 

Blackfriars. 

Hamlet, William M., F.1.c., F.c.s., Member of the Society of 
Public Analysts; Government Analyst, Health Depart- 
ment, Macquarie-street, North. 

Hare, A. J.. Under Secretary for Lands, ‘ Booloorool,’ Monte 
Christo-street, Woolwich. 

Harker, George, p.sc., Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator 
in Organic.Chemistry in the University of Sydney. 

tHarerave, Lawrence, Wunulla Road, Woollahra Point. 

Harper, Leslie F., r.g.s., Geological Surveyor; Department of 
Mines, Sydney. 

Haswell, William Aitcheson, M.A., D.sc., F.R.S., Professor of 
Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the University of 
Sydney; p.r. ‘ Mimihau,’ Woollahra Point. 

Hawkins, W. E., Solicitor, 88 Pitt-street. 

Hedley, Charles, r.u.s., Assistant Curator, Australian Museum, 
Sydney. 

Henderson, J., F.R.t.s., Manager, City Bank of Sydney, Pitt-st. 

Henson, Joshua B., assoc. M. INST. c.z., Hunter District Water 
Supply and Sewerage Board, Newcastle. 

Hill, John Whitmore, Architect, ‘ Willamere,’ May’s Hill, 
Parramatta. 

Hirst, George D., F.R.4.8S., c/o Messrs. Tucker & Co., 215, 
Clarence-street. 

Hodgson, Charles George, 157 Macquarie-street. 

Holt, Thomas §S., ‘Amalfia,’ Appian Way, Burwood. 

Hooper, George, Assistant Superintendent, Sydney Technical 
College; p.r. ‘ Banksome,’ Henson-street, Summer Hill. 
Houghton, Thos. Harry, M. INST. C.E., M.I. MECH. E., 63 Pitt-st. 
Howle, Walter Cresswell, t.s.a. Lond., ‘Malcolm House,’ Bega. 
Hudson, G. J., Manufacturing Chemist. ‘Gudvangen,’ Arden- 

street, Coogee. 


Jaquet, John Blockley, 4.R.s.M., F.a.s., Chief Inspector of Mines, 
Department of Mines. | 

Jenkins, R. J. H., ‘Ettalong,’ Roslyn Gardens, Rushcutters’ Bay. 

Jensen, Harold Ingemann, p.sc., Government Geologist, 
Darwin, Northern Territory. 

Johnston, Thomas Harvey, M.a., D.sc., F.L.S., Biology Depart- 
ment, The University, Brisbane. 

Jones, Sir P. Sydney, Kut., u.p. Lond., F.R.c.s. Eng., ‘ Llandilo, 
Boulevarde, Strathfield. 

Julius, George A., B.sc., m.E., Norwich Chambers, Hunter-st. 


Kaleski, Robert, Agricultural Expert, Holdsworthy, Liverpool. 

Kater, The Hon. H. E., s.r., u.u.c., Australian Club. 

Keele, Thomas William, m. 1nst. c.z., Commissioner, Sydney 
Harbour Trust, Circular Quay; p.r. Llandaff-st.,-Waverley. 

Kent, Harry C., u.a., F.R.1.B.A., Dibbs’ Chambers, Pitt-street. 


Elected 


1901 


1896 
1878 


1881 
1877 
1913 


1911 
1913 


1906 
1909 
1883 
1906 
1911 


1912 


1884. 


1887 
1878 


1903 
1891 
1906 
1891 
1876 
1904, 
1880 
1912 


1903 
1876 


1901 
1894 
1899 


P 22 


PZ 


P2 


P9 
Pl 


Pil 


(xiv.) 


Kidd, Hector, M. INST. C.E., M. I. MECH. E., ‘Craig Lea,’ 15 
Mansfield-street, Glebe Point. 


‘King, Kelso, 120 Pitt-street. 


Knages, Samuel T., m.p. Aberdeen, ¥F.R.c.s. Irel., ‘ Roseville,” 
Edward-street, Bondi. 

Knibbs, G. H., c.m.a., F.S.S., F.R.A.S.. Member Internat. Assoc. © 
Testing Materials; Memb. Brit. Sc. Guild; Commonwealth. 
Statistician, Melbourne. 

Knox, Edward W., ‘ Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Double Bay. 

Kuntzen, Harold Eric, Manufacturing Chemist, Australian 
Glue and Gelatine Works, Alexandria. : 

Laseron, Charles Francis, Technological Museum. 

Lawson, A. Anstruther, D.sc., F.R.S.z., Professor of Botany 
in the University of Sydney. 

Lee, Alfred, ‘Glen Roona,’ Penkivil-street, Bondi. 

Leverrier, Frank, B.A., B.sc., K.c., 182 Phillip-street. 

Lingen, J. T., m.a. Cantab., Selborne Chambers, Phillip-street. 

Loney, Charles Augustus Luxton, M. AM. soc. REFR. E., Equi- 
table Building, George-street. 

Longmuir, G. F., 8.A., Science Master, Technical College, 
Bathurst. 

Lovell, Henry Tasman, M.A., PH.D.,‘Tane,’ Hodson Avenue, 
Cremorne. 


MacCormick, Sir Alexander, m.D., c.m. Edin., m.R.c.s. Eng., 185 
Macquarie-street, North. 

MacCulloch, Stanhope H., u.s., ca.m, Edin., 24 College-street. 

MacDonald, Ebenezer, J.p., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co, Ld., 2 
Spring-street. 

McDonald, Robert, J.P., Pastoral Chambers, O’Connell-street ; 
‘Wairoa.’ Holt-street, Double Bay, 

McDouall, Herbert Chrichton, m.R.c.s. Hng., u.R.c.s. Lond., 
D.P.H. Cantab., Hospital for the Insane, Gladesville. 

McIntosh, Arthur Marshall, Dentist, 157 Macquarie-street, 
Sydney; Hill-street, Roseville. 

McKay, R. T., assoc. M. INST. 0.E., Geelong Waterworks and 
Sewerage Trusts Office, Geelong, Victoria. 

Mackellar, The Hon. Sir Charles Kinnaird, M.u.c.. M.B., C.M.- 
Glas., Equitable Building, George-street. 

McKenzie, Robert, Sanitary Inspector, (Water and Sewerage 
Board), ‘ Stonehaven Cottage,’ Bronte Road, Waverley. 
McKinney, Hugh Giffin, m.z., Roy. Univ. Ivrel., mu. 1Ns?. ¢.z., 

Sydney Safe Deposit, Paling’s Buildings, Ash-street. 
MacKinnon, Ewen, B.sc., Assistant Microbiologist, Department 
of Public Health, Macquarie-street. 

McLaughlin, John, Solicitor, Union Bank Chambers, Hunter-st. . 
MacLaurin, The Hon. Sir Henry Normand, M.u.c., M.A., M.D., 
L.R.c.s. Edin., uu.D. St. Andrews, 155 Macquarie-street. 
McMaster, Colin J., Chief Commissioner of Western Lands; 

p.r. Wyuna Road, Woollahra Point. 
McMillan, Sir William, x.c.u.c., ‘Althorne,’ 281 Edgecliffe 
Road, Woollahra. 
MacTaggart, J.N.C., m.z. Syd., ASsoc. M. INST. c.E., Water and 
Sewerage Board District Office, Lyons Road, Drummoyne. 


Elected 
1909 


1883 |P 25 


P 27 


(xv.) 


Madsen, John Percival Vissing, p.se., B.E., P. N. Russell Lec- 
turer in Electrical Engineering in the University of Sydney. 

Maiden, J. Henry, J.p., F.u.s., Hon. Fellow Roy. Soc. S.A.; 
Hon. Memb. Nat. Hist. Soc., W.A.; Netherlands Soc. for 
Promotion of Industry; Philadelphia College Pharm.; 
Southern Californian Academy of Sciences; Pharm. Soc. 
N.S.W.; Brit. Pharm. Conf:; Corr. Fellow Therapeutical 
Soc., Lond.; Corr. Memb. Pharm. Soc. Great Britain; Bot. 
Soc. Edin.; Soc Nat. de Agricultura (Chile); Soc. @ 
Horticulture d’ Alger; Union Agricole Calédonienne ; Soc. 
Nat. etc., de Chérbourg; Roy. Soc. Tas.; Roy. Soc. Queensl.; 
Inst. Nat. Genévois; Hon. Vice-Pres. of the Forestry 
Society of California; Diplomé of the Société Nationale 
d’Acclimatation de France; Government Botanist and 
Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Hon. Secretary. 

Manfred, Edmund C., Montague-street, Goulburn. 

Marden, John, m.a., Lu.D., Principal, # egelsyomulen Ladies’ 
College, Sydney. 

Marshall, Frank, B.p.s. Syd., 141 Blizabeth: street. 

Mathews, Robert Hamilton, t. s., Assoc. Etran. Soc. d’ Anthrop. 
de Paris; Cor. Mem. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A.; 
Cor, Mem. Anthrop. Soc. Vienna; Cor. Mem. Roy. Geog. 
Soc. Aust. Q’sland; Local Correspondent Roy. Anthrop. 
Inst., Lond.; ‘ Carcuron,’ Hassall-st., Parramatta. 

Meggitt, Loxley, Manager Co-operative Wholesale Society, 
Alexandria. 


-| Meldrum, Henry John, p.r. ‘ Craig Roy,’ Sydney Rd., Manly. 


P8 


B.S 


Miller, James Edward, Broken Hill, New South Wales. 

Mingaye, John C. H., r.1.c., F.c.s., Assayer and Analyst to the 
Department of Mines, p.r. Campbell-street, Parramatta. 

Moore, Frederick H., Union Club, Sydney. 

t{Mullens, Josiah, F.R.a.s., ‘Tenilba,’ Burwood. 

Mullins, John Francis Lane, m.a. Syd., 95 Macleay-street, 
Potts Point. 

Myles, Charles Henry, ‘ Dingadee,’ Everton Rd., Strathfield. 


Nangle, James, F.R.A.s., Superintendent of Technical Educa- 
tion, The Technical College, Sydney; .p.r. ‘St. Elmo,’ 
Tupper-street, Marrickville. 

{Noble, Edward George, 8 Louisa Road, Balmain. 

Noyes, Edward, Assoc. M. INST. C.E., ASSOC. I. MECH. E., c/o 
Messrs. Noyes Bros., 115 Clarence-street, Sydney. 


tOld, Richard, Solicitor, ‘ Waverton,’ Bay Road, North Sydney. 

Ollé, A. D., ‘Kareema,’ Charlotte-street, Ashfield. 

Onslow, Col. James William Macarthur, ‘Gilbulla,’ Menangle. 

O’Reilly, W. W. J., u.v., cu.m.. Q. Univ. TIrel., u.x.c.s. Eng., 
171 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park. 

Osborn, A. F., assoc. mM. INST. c.z., Water Supply Branch, 
Sydney, ‘Uplands,’ Meadow Bank, N.S.W. 


Elected 


1880 
1878 
1906 
1901 
1899 


1877 
1899 


1909 
1879 


1896 
1881 


1879 
1887 
1896 
1910 
1893 


1901 
1508 


1876 


1912 
1890 
1865 


1906 
1909 


1902 


1906 
1913 


1913 
1884. 
1895 
1904. 


1882 


nd 


Ore 


(xvi.) 


Palmer, Joseph, 96 Pitt-st.; p.r. Kenneth-st., Willoughby. 

Paterson, Hugh, 183 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park. 

Pawley, Charles Lewis, Dentist, 137 Regent-street. 

Peake, Algernon, assoc. M. INST. C.E., 25 Prospect Rd., Ashfield. 

Pearse, W., Union Club; p.r. ‘ Plashett,’ Jerry’s Plains, via 
Singleton. 

Pedley, Perceval R., New South Wales Club. 

Petersen, T. Tyndall, Member of Sydney Institute of Public 
Accountants, 4 O’Connell-street. 

Pigot, Rev. Edward F., s.3., B.a., m.B. Dub., St. Ignatius’ 
College, Riverview. 

Pittman, Edward F., assoc. R. 8. M., L.s., Under Secretary and 
Government Geologist, Department of Mines. 

Plummer, John, ‘Northwood,’ Lane Cove River; Box 413 G.P.O. 

Poate, Frederick, Surveyor-General, Lands Department, 
Sydney. 

Pockley, Thomas F.. G., Union Club, Sydney. 

Pollock, J. A., p.sc., Corr. Memb. Roy, Soc. Tasmania; Roy. 
Soc. Queensland; Professor of Physics in the University 
of Sydney. Hon. Secretary. 

Pope, Roland James, B.a., Syd., M.D., C.M., F.R.C.S., Hdin., 
183 Macquarie-street. 

Potts, Henry William, rF.u.s., F.c.s., Principal, Hawkesbury 
Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W. 

Purser, Cecil, B.A., M.B., cH.M. Syd., 189 Macquarie-street. 

Purvis, J. G. S., Water and Sewerage Board, 341 Pitt-street. 

Pye, Walter George, m.a., B.sc., S. M. Herald Office, Pitt and 
Hunter-streets, Sydney. 


Quaife, F. H., m.a., M.D., m.s., ‘ Yirrimbirri,’ Stanhope Road, 
Killara. Vice-President. 


Radcliff, Sidney, Chemist, Radium Hill Works, Woolwich. 

Rae, J. L. C.. ‘ Lisgar,’ King-street, Newcastle. 

{Ramsay, Edward P., uu.p. St. And., F.R.S E., F.L.8., Queens- 
borough Road, Croydon Park. 

Redman, Frederick G., P. and O. Office, Pitt-street. 

Rhodes, Thomas, Civil Engineer, Room 14, Public Works 
Department, Sydney. 

Richard, G. A., Mount Morgan Gold Mining Co., Mount 
Morgan, Queensland. 

Richardson, H. G. V., 32 Moore-street. 

| Robinson, Robert, p.sc., Professor of Organic Chemistry in 
the University of Sydney. 

Roseby, Thomas, M.A,, LL.D. Syd., F.R.A.S. Lond., ‘Tintern,’ 
Mosman. 

Ross, Chisholm, m.p. Syd., u.B., c.m. Hdin., 151 Macquarie-st. 

Ross, Herbert E., Equitable Building, George-street. 

Ross, William J. Clunies, B.sc. Lond. and Syd.,¥.qa.s., Lecturer 
in Chemistry, Technical College, Sydney. 

Rothe, W. H., Colonial Sugar Co., O’Connell-street, and Union 
Club. 


Elected 


1897 


1893 


1913 
1905 
1892 
1856 
1904 
1908 
1883 
1900 


1910 | 


1882 
1893 
1891 


1912 
1893 


12a 


—— (xvii.) 


Russell, Harry Ambrose, B.A., Solicitor, c/o Messrs. Sly and 
Russell, 369 George-stroet ; p.r. ‘Mahuru,’ Fairfax Road, 
Bellevue Hill. 

Rygate, Philip W., u.a., B.z. Syd., Assoc, M. INST. C.E., City 
Bank Chambers, Pitt-street, Sydney. 


Scammell, W. J., Manufacturing Chemist, Mem. Phar. Soc. 
Grt. Brit., 18 Middle Head Road, Mosman. 

Scheidel, August, PH.D., Managing Director, Commonwealth 
Portland Cement Co., Sydney; Union Club. 

Schofield, James Alexander, F.c.s., A.R.S.m., Assistant Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. 


P 1|f{Scott, Rev. William, m.a. Cantab., Kurrajong Heights. 
P 1| Sellors, R. P., B.a. Syd., ‘ Mayfield,’ Wentworthville. 


P 4 


P3 


Sendey, Henry Franklin, Manager of the Union Bank of 
Australia Ld., Sydney; Union Club; p.r. ‘The Hermitage,’ 
Vaucluse Road, Rose Bay. 

Shellshear, Walter, m. InsT. c.z,, Inspecting Engineer, Exist- 
ing Lines Office, Bridge-street. 

Simpson, R. C., Technical College, Sydney. 

Simpson, William Walker, Leichhardt-street, Waverley. 

Sinclair, Eric, m.p., c.m. Glas., Inspector-General of Insane, 
9 Richmond Terrace, Domain; p.r. ‘ Broomage,’ Kangaroo- 
street, Manly. 

Sinclair, Russell, M.1. mEcH.E., Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-st.. 

Smail, J. M., mu. inst. c.z., Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Board 
of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. 

Smart, Bertram James, B.sc., Public Works Office, Lithgow. 


P44) Smith, Henry G., F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological 


1874 | 


1892 


1913 


1900 


1903 
1909 


1883 


1913 


1901 
1912 


Museum, Sydney. President, 


P 1\{Smith, John McGarvie, 89 Denison-street, Woollahra. i 
P 1) Statham, Edwyn’ Joseph, assoc. m. INST. ¢.z., Cumberland 


P4 


P6 


Heights, Parramatta. 

Stewart, Alex. Hay, B.z., Metallurgist, Technical College, 
Sydney. 

Stewart, J. Douglas, B.v.sc., M.R.C.v.s., Professor of Veterinary 
Science in the University of Sydney; ‘ Berelle,’ Homebush 
Road, Strathfield. 

Stoddart, Rev. A. G., The Rectory, Manly. 

Stokes, Edward Sutherland, m.a. Syd., F.x.c.P. Irel., Medical 
Officer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 
341 Pitt-street. 

Stuart, T. P. Anderson, M.D., CH.M., LL.D. Edin., p.sc., Professor 
of Physiology in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Lin- 
cluden,’ Fairfax Road, Double Bay. 

Stuart, James Henry Cohen, Manager in Sydney of the Royal 
Packet, S. N. Co., 56 Pitt-street, Sydney. 

Siissmilch, C. A., r.c.s., Technical College, Newcastle. 

Swain, E. H. F., District Forester, Narrabri. 


Elected 


1906 
1906 


1905 
1893 
1899 
1861 
1878 
1879 
1885 


1896 
1913 


1892 
1913 


1879 
1900 


1913 


1883 
1890 


1892 
1903 


1907 


1879 
1899 


1910 
1910 
1910 
1901 


(xviii.) 


Taylor, The Hon. Sir Allen, m.t.c., ‘The Albany,’ Macquarie-st. 

Taylor, Horace, Registrar, Dental Board, 7 Richmond Terrace, 
Domain, 

Taylor, John M., m.a., uu.B. Syd., ‘ Woonona,’ 43 East Crescent- 
street, McMahon’s Point, North Sydney. 

{Taylor, James, B.sc., a.R.s.M., ‘Betys,’ Montague Road, Neu- 
tral Bay. 

Teece, R., F.1.4., F F.A., General Manager and Actuary, A.M.P. 
Society, 87 Pitt-street. 


P 19} Tebbutt, John, F.R.a.s., Private Observatory, The Peninsula, 


Windsor, New South Wales. 
Thomas, F. J., ‘ Lovat,’ Nelson-street, Woollahra. 
Thomson, The Hon. Dugald, Carrabella-st., North Sydney. 


P 2| Thompson, John Ashburton, u.v. Bruz., D.P.H. Cantab., M.R.C.S.. 


Eng., Health Department, Macquarie-street. 

Thompson, Major A. J. Onslow, Camden Park, Menangle. 

Thompson, Joseph, M.a., uu.B., Solicitor, Vickery’s Chambers, 
82 Pitt-street, Sydney. 

Thow, William, M. INST. c.E., M. I. MECH. E., ‘Inglewood,’ Lane 
Cove Road, Wahroonga. 

Tietkens, William Harry, ‘Upna,’ Eastwood. 

Trebeck, P. C., F. RB. MET. soc., 12 O’Connell-street. 

Turner, Basil W., A.R.S.M., F.c.s., Victoria Chambers, 83 Pitt-st.. 


Ullrich, Richard Emil, Accountant, 43 Bond-street, Mosman. 


Vause, Arthur John, m.B., c.m. Edin., ‘Bay View House,’ Tempe. 
Vicars, James, m.u., Memb. Intern. Assoc. Testing Materials;: 

Memb. B. S Guild; Challis House, Martin Place. 
Vickery, George B., 78 Pitt-street. 


P3| Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.sc., Assistant Professor of Physics in 


the University of Sydney. 


Waley, F. G., assoc. M. INST. c.E., Royal Insurance Building, 
Pitt-street. 

Walker, H. O., Commercial Union Assurance Co., Pitt-street. 

tWalker, The Hon. J. T., F.x.c.1., Fellow of Institute of Bankers: 
Ena., ‘ Wallaroy,’ Edgecliffe Road, Woollahra. 

Walker, Charles, Metallurgical Chemist, 80 Bathurst-street, 
p.r. ‘Kuranda,’ Waverley-street, Waverley. 

Walker, Harold Hutchison, Major, C.M.F., ‘ Vermont,’ Bel- 
more Road, Randwick. 


P1| Walkom, Arthur Bache, B.sc., The University of Queensland, 


Brisbane. 
Walkom, A. J., A.m.1.£.£., Electrical Branch, G P.O., Sydney. 


1891 | P 2| Walsh, Henry Deane, 8.a.1. Dub., M. INST. c.E., Commissioner 


and Engineer-in-Chief, Harbour Trust, Circular Quay. 


Blected 
1903 


1901 
1913 


1883 |P 17 


1876 
1876 
1910 
1910 


1911 


(xix. ) 


Walsh, Fred,, J.P., Capt. C.M.F., Consul-General for Honduras 
in Australia and New Zealand; For. Memb. Inst. Patent 
Agents, London; Patent Attorney Regd. U.S.A.; Memb. 
Patent Law Assoc., Washington; For. Memb. Soc. German 
Patent Agents, Berlin; Regd. Patent Attorn. Comm. of 
Aust.; Memb Patent Attorney Exam. Board Aust.; George 
and Wynyard-streets; p.r. ‘ Walsholme,’ Centennial Park, 
Sydney E. 

Walton, R. H., F.c.s., ‘Flinders,’ Martin’s Avenue, Bondi. 

Wardlaw, Hy. Sloane Halcro, B.sc. Syd., 87 Macpherson-street, 
Waverley. 

Warren, W. H., Lu.pD., WH.SC., M. INST. C.E., M. AM. SOC. C.E., 
Member of Council of the International Assoc. for Testing 
Materials, Professor of Engineering in the University of 
Sydney. 

Watkins, John Leo, B.a. Cantab., mu.a. Syd., Parliamentary 
Draftsman, Atorney General’s Department, Macquarie-st. 

Watson, C. Russell, mu.r.c.s. Hng., ‘ Woodbine,’ Erskineville. 

Watson, James Frederick,u.B.,cH.m., Australian Club,Sydney. 

Watt, Francis Langston, F.1.¢., A.R.c.s., 10 Northcote Cham- 
bers, off 163 Pitt-street, City. 

Watt, R. D., wa., B.sc., Professor of Agriculture in the Uni- 
versity of Sydney. 


1910 |P1| Wearne, Richard Arthur, B.a., Principal, Technical College, 


1897 
1892 
1907 
1907 
1881 
1892 


1877 
1909 


1907 


1876 | 
1908 


1901 
1890 


1907 
1891 


1909 
1906 


1909 


Pt 


P6 


Ipswich, Queensland. 

Webb, Frederick William, c.m.a., J.p., ‘ Livadia,’ Manly. 

Webster, James Philip, assoc. M.INST. C.E., L.S., New Zealand, 
Town Hall, Sydney. 

Weedon, Stephen Henry, c.z., ‘ Kurrowah,’ Alexandra-street, 
Hunter’s Hill. 

Welch, William, F.R.a.s., ‘ Roto-iti,’ Boyle-street, Mosman. 

tWesley, W. H., London. 

White. Harold Pogson, F.c.8., Assistant Assayer and Analyst, 
Department of Mines; p.r. ‘Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn. 

~White, Rev. W. Moore, A.m., LL.D. Dub. 

White, Charles Josiah, B.sc., Science Lecturer, Sydney Train- 
ing College; p.r.‘ Byrntryird,’ 49 Prospect Rd Summer H. 

Wiley, William, ‘ Kenyon,’ Kurraba Point, Neutral Bay. 

Williams, Percy Edward, ‘ St. Vigeans,’ Dundas. 

Willis, Charles Savill, u.s., cu.m. Syd., M.R.C.S. Eng., L.B.C.P. 
Lond., v.p.u., Lond., Department of Public Instruction, 
Bridge-street. 

Willmot, Thomas, 3.p., Toongabbie. 

Wilson, James T., M.B., cH.m. Edin, F.R.8., Professor of Anatomy 
in the University of Sydney. 

Wilson, W. C., Public Works Department, Sydney. 

Wood, Percy Moore, t.x.c.p. Lond., M.R.c.8. Eng., ‘ Redcliffe,’ 
Liverpool Road, Ashfield. 

Woodhouse, William John, m.a., Professor of Greek in the 
University of Sydney. 

Woolnough, Walter George, D.sc., F.a.s., Professor of Geology 
in the University of Western Australia, Perth. 


Yeomans, Richard John, Solicitor, 14 Castlereagh-street. 


(xx. 


Elected 
Honorary MzmsBers. 
Limited to Twenty. 
‘M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal. 

1900 Crookes, Sir William, Kt., 0.m., LL.D., D.Ssc., P.R.S., 7 Kensington 

Park Gardens, London W. 
1905 Fischer, Emil, Professor of Chemistry in the University of 

Berlin. 
1911 Hemsley, W. Botting, tu.p., F.R.s., Formerly Keeper of the 


Herbarium, Royal Gardens, Kew, 24 Southfield Gardens, 
Strawberry Hill, Middlesex. 

1901 Judd, J.W., o.B., LU.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Formerly Professor of 
Geology, Royal College of Science, London; 30 Cumber- 
land Road, Kew, England. 

1908 Kennedy, Sir Alex. B. W., Kt., Lu.D., D. ENG., F.R.S., Emeritus 
Professor of Engineering in University College, London, 
17 Victoria-street, Westminster, London S.W. 

1908 |P 57|*Liversidge, Archibald, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor 
of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, ‘ Fieldhead,’ 
George Road, Coombe Warren, Kingston, Surrey. 

1912 Martin, C. J., psc., F.R.s., Director of the Lister Institute of 
Preventive Medicine, Chelsea Gardens, Chelsea Bridge 
Road, London. 


1905 Oliver, Daniel, LL.D., F.R.s., Emeritus Professor of Botany in 
University College, London. 
1894. Spencer, W. Baldwin, c.M.G., M.A., D.SC., F.R.S., Professor of 


Biology in the University of Melbourne. 
1900 | M | Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William Turner, K.C.M.G., C.I.E., M.A., LL.D., 
SC.D., F.R.S., The Ferns, Witcombe, Gloucester, England. 
1908 Turner, Sir William, K.c.B., M.B., D.C.L., LL.D., SC.D., F.R.C.S.- 
Edin., ¥.8.S., Principal and Emeritus Professor of the 
University of Edinburgh, 6 Eton Terrace, Edinburgh, 
Scotland. 

* Retains the rights of ordinary membership. Elected 1872. 


OBITUARY 1918. 


Honorary Member. 


1895 Wallace, Alfred Russel. 
Ordinary Members. 


1884 Jones, Llewellyn Charles Russell. 
1895 Adams, J.H.M. 

1910 Estens, John Locke. 

1859 Goodlet, J. H. 

1896 Hinder, Henry Critchley. 


1879 Whitfeld, Lewis. 


(xxi.) 


AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL. 
Established in memory of 
Tue Revo. W. B. CLARKE, m.a., F.R.s., F.G.S., etc., 


Vice-President from 1866 to 1878. 


To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the 
Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. The prefix * 
indicates the decease of the recipient. 


Awarded 

1878 *Professor Sir Richard Owen. K.c.B., F.R.S. 

1879 *George Bentham, c.m.G., F.R.S. 

1880 *Professor Thos. Huxley, F.R.s. 

1881 *Professor F. M’Coy, F.R.S., F.G-S. 

1882 *Professor James Dwight Dana, LL.D. 

1883 *Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, k.c.M.G , M.D., PH.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. 

1884 *Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 

1885 *Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, o.M., @.c.s.1.,C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,F.R.S, 

1886 *Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p., University of Liége. 

1887 *Sir James Hector, K.c.M.G., M.D., F.R.S. 

1888 *Rev. Julian E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.S., F.L.S. 

1889 *Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.s., F.R.A.S. 

1890 *George Bennett, M.D., F.R.c.S. Hng., F.L.S., F.Z.S. 

1891 *Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.s., F.G.S. 

1892 Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, K.c.M.G.,C.1I.E.,M.A., LL.D., SC.D., 
F.R.S., F.L.S., late Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. 

1893 *Professor Ralph Tate, F.L.s., F.a.s. 

1895 Robert Logan Jack, F.a.s., F.R.G.S., late Government Geologist, 
Brisbane, Queensland. 

1895 Robert Etheridge, Junr., Curator of the Australian Museum, Sydney 

1896 *The Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, C.M.G., F.R.G.S. 

1900 Sir John Murray, X.c.B., LL.D., SC.D., F.R.8., Challenger Lodge, 
Wardie, Edinburgh. 

1901 *Edward John Eyre. 

1902 F. Manson Bailey, F.u.s., Colonial Botanist of Queensland, Brisbane. 

1903 *Alfred William Howitt, p.sc. F.a.s. 

1907 Walter Howchin, F.c.s., University of Adelaide. 

1909 Dr. Walter E. Roth, B.a., Pomeroon River, British Guiana, South 
America. 

1912 Twelvetrees, W. H., r.as., Government Geologist. Launceston, 


Tasmania. 


AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE, 


Awarded. ‘ 

1882 John Fraser, B.4.,West Maitland, for paper entitled ‘The Aborigines 
of New South Wales.’ : 

1882 Andrew Ross, m.p., Molong, for paper entitled ‘ Influence of the 
Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’ 

The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25. 

1884 W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper entitled ‘Water supply in the 
Interior of New South Wales.’ 

1886 §.H. Cox, F.a.s.,F.c.s., Sydney for paper entitled ‘ The Tin deposits 
of New South Wales.’ 

1887 Jonathan Seaver, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘Origin and 
mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated 
Minerals.’ 

1888 Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.a.s., F.L.S., Sydney, for paper entitled 
‘The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar t 
Australia.’ i 

1889 Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.M.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘ List of 
the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port 
Jackson and Neighbourhood.’ | 

1889 Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper entitled 
‘The Australian Aborigines.’ 

1891 Rev. J. Milne Curran, ¥.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Micro- 
scopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’ 

1892 Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper 
entitled ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has pro- 
duced upon Indigenous Vegetation.’ 

1894 J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper entitled the ‘ Timbers of New 
South Wales.’ 

1894 R. H. Mathews, u.s., Parramatta, for paper entitled ‘The Abori- 
ginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales.’ 

1895 C. J. Martin, p.sc., u.B., F.R.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The 
physiological action of the venom of the Australian black 
snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).’ 

1896 Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The occurrence 


(xxii) 


Money Prize of £25. 


of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of 
the Deposits in which they are found.’ 


e 


ISSUED SEPTEMBER 19th, 1918. 


Fh Vol XLVIL => : ee 2 Part T. 


|} JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


| ROYAL SOCIETY 


OF 


NEW SOUTH WALES 


FOR 


1913 


PART I., (pp. I-112). 


CONTAINING PAPERS READ IN 


MAY to AUGUST (in part). sees 
WITH FOUR PLATES. | 


(Plates i, ii, iii, iv.) 


SYDNEY: : 
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. 
LONDON AGENTS: 
GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 
17 Warwick SquarE, PatERNOsTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. — 


— 


1913. 


¥F. WHITE Typ., 344 Kent Street Sydney. 


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La. Monee wee ek bl a ee en F pone 4 Rae i ta ES > ¥ - =a 
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PRESIDENTIAL ' ADDRESS. 


By R. H. CAMBAGE, L.S., F.L.S. 


With Plate I. 


{ Delivered to the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, May 7, 1913. ] 


HAVING been accorded the honour of addressing you as your 
President, I purpose on this, the ninety-second anniversary 
of the existence of our Society, to first refer to a few 
matters of general interest, and then to offer some observa- 
tions on the development and distribution of the genus 
Kucalyptus. 
Necrology. 

I have first to refer to five of our late members who have 

been taken from us by the hand of death. 


WILLIAM ROSSBACH, Assoc. M. Inst.c.B, Who joined this 
Society in 1892, was born at Woollahra on 10th August, 
1862, and died at Waverley on 21st November, 1911. He 
entered the Public Service as an engineering cadet on 4th 
July, 1877, and subsequently occupied the positions of Chief 
Draftsman and Assistant Hngineer in the Harbours and 
Rivers Branch of the Public Works Department. In the 
latter position he exercised control over the whole of the 
works and often acted as head of the branch. He was 
employed under the late Mr. H. O. Moriarty, Hngineer-in- 
Chief for Harbours and Rivers, and the subsequent occupiers. 
of this office, viz.:—Messrs. C. W. Darley, R. R. P. Hickson, 
T. W. Keele, L. A. B. Wade, and E. M. de Burgh, in the 
design of such works as the Sydney, Hunter River District, 
and various Country Towns Water Supplies, the Wharfage 
and Harbour Improvement Works of Sydney, Newcastle, 
Port Kembla, and Coastal Rivers. He took a prominent 
part in the design of the Cataract Dam, and it was on his 
investigations that Mr. Keele successfully pressed for its 

A—May 7, 1913. 


oe 


- 7 ae 
7 
aN 
ae 


9 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


construction to the height designed, a course of action 
which the overflowing of the dam has since proved was 
correct. The investigation of the whole of the Harbour 
proposals in connection with the Royal Commission on 
Decentralisation was made by Mr. Rossbach. He made 
a special study of his particular branch of the profession 
and was recognised as one of the most capable Harbour 
Engineers in the State. In 1891 he was elected an Associ- 
ate Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers. 


BEN. M. OSBORNE, J.P., waS a member of the Royal 
Society for twenty-nine years, having joined in 1883. He 
was born at Marshall Mount, Illawarra, on the 11th August, 
1837, and died at Hopewood, Bowral, on the 15th January, 
1912. His life was chiefly devoted to pastoral pursuits, and 
amongst his various properties were the famous Redbank 
and Jugiong Estates on the Murrumbidgee. He was 
possessed of the highest progressive ideas, and expended 
large sums in improving his stock by importations, which 
resulted in his horses, cattle and sheep ranking amongst 
the finest in the State. 


LLEWELLYN CHARLES RUSSELL JONES, a well known 
Sydney Solicitor, who joined this Society in 1884, was born 
in Sydney in November, 1856. He died at Southport, 
England, on 13th May, 1912, and was buried at Waverley 
near Sydney. He greatly interested himself in municipal 
and political affairs and was elected an alderman of Peter- 
sham in 1886, which position he held continuously up to 
the time of his death, being Mayor for several successive 
years. He represented Petersham in Parliament from 
1894 to 1898. He occupied a seat on the Board of Directors 
of several companies, and was also a Director of the Sydney 
Hospital and of the New South Wales Deaf and Dumb 
Institution, as well as President of the Cymrodorean 
Society. A deep interest was taken by him in Masonic 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 


matters, and he was at one time Master of Lodge Ionic 
and subsequently a member of the Grand Lodge of New 
South Wales. 


JOHN H. ADAMS joined this Society in 1895, and died at 
Waverley on 23rd March, 1913, aged 64. He entered the 
Works Department in 1876, and was appointed Road Super- 
intendent to the Walgett District in 1882. He was after- 
wards transferred in the same capacity, first to Orange, 
and then to Mudgee, and finally left the Department in 
1895. Many of the excellent roads in the Districts referred 
to testify to Mr. Adams’ energy and engineering ability. 
He was a popular officer who was entirely devoted to his 
work, and could be found engaged upon it early and late. 
The valuable work carried out by the officers of the Road 
Engineering Staff passes by without much notice, as these 
officers are not prominently before the public, but their 
work is of inestimable value in developing the resources of 
the country. Mr. Adams was a man of genial disposition, 
and being an excellent whip, one of his favourite diversions 
was driving a good team of horses. 


JOHN LOCKE ESTENS was born at Bath on the 20th 
December, 1859, and joined this Society in 1910. His family 
can be traced back to John Locke the famous philosopher, 
who lived from 1632 to 1704, and also to John Locke who 
was Sheriff of London in 1460. When a boy, he was a 
chorister at St. Stephen’s Church, Lansdown. He came 
to Australia in 1883, and entered into business in connec- 
tion with the sale of musical instruments. He inherited 
musical tastes, and twenty years ago was a Soloist at 
St. James Church, King Street, Sydney. He also found 
time to devote some portion of his leisure to literary 
pursuits and produced a work entitled ‘‘Paraclete and 
Mahdi,”’ a copy of which he presented to this Society. His 
death took place at Maldon, New South Wales, on the 
26th April, 1913. 


4 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


General Scientific Matters. 


Australasian Association for the Advancement of 
Science.—A most successful meeting of the above Society: 
was held in Melbourne last January, at which the papers 
presented were numerous, varied and full of interest. 
Several profitable excursions were made on different 
scientific quests, and the whole meeting demonstrated in a 
marked degree, the great value of these gatherings from 
the point of view that scientists from all parts of Australasia 
are enabled to meet in an informal way at the various 
functions, to the mutual advantage of all concerned. 


British Association for the Advancement of Science— 
Australian Meeting.—During the coming year the arrange- 
ments should be advanced towards completion, for the 
holding in August 1914 of what will be the most important 
scientific gathering ever assembled in Australia. Itis well 
to be reminded of this in order that we may use our utmost 
endeavours to make this meeting an unqualified success. . 


Under the general supervision of Professor David, who 
is Chairman of the New South Wales Hxecutive Committee, 
and who was requested by the Prime Minister to under- 
take local arrangements, various committees are already 
at work preparing for the reception of the coming scientists, 
and amongst other matters which the Science Committee 
have in hand is that of the preparation of a New South 
Wales handbook of about 500 pages, dealing with the social 
and natural science of the State, and which is intended for 
distribution amongst members of the British Association. 
A Federal Council has been formed, with the Prime Minister 
as Chairman, and is composed of delegates from all the 
States. 

It has been arranged by the Federal Council, with the 
consent of the Prime Minister, that a Commonwealth hand- 
book for Australia shall be prepared by the Federal Statis- 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5 


tician, while each State will be expected to provide its own 
handbook. The Commonwealth Government, at the 
instance of a sympathetic Prime Minister, and the general 
approval of Parliament, has undertaken to provide £15,000 
towards the expense of bringing out at least 150 leading 
scientists, and is also providing the funds necessary to 
send an organising secretary to England to confer with the 
British Association in regard to all arrangements. Pro- 
vision isalso being made by the Commonwealth Govern- 
ment to have reports of the various meetings specially 
prepared and despatched to the London Press in order that 
the fullest benefit may be secured from the visit. Such 
enlightened and generous action must be regarded asa 
graceful tribute to science, but it is not too much to say, 
that the advantage of having amongst us, in a Ssemi-official 
capacity, an assemblage composed of some of Britain’s 
brightest scientific intellects, who will be able to make a 
first-hand acquaintance with the wonderful resources of 
this magnificent country, must ultimately be a tenfold 
advantage to Australia. 


It has been decided that the main party will visit 
Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney, and an endeavour is 
being made to arrange for some of the Association’s mem- 
bers to visit all the remaining States of Australia and the 
Dominion of New Zealand. 


The British Association has been notified that it is the 
desire of the Federal Council, that about twenty invited 
Dominion and Foreign guests should be included in the 
official party if such can be arranged, and while the selec- 
tion of such guests and the ultimate decision as to their 
number must be left to the British Association, suggestions 
are being made as to the scientists who would be specially 
welcome. The local Science Committee has already 
attended to the matter for this State, and submitted a list 


6 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


containing over forty names, from which, together with 
those from the other States, a final selection may be made. 


Government Astronomer and Chair of Astronomy.— 
Since the death in 1908, of Mr. H. A. Lenehan, a former 
President of this Society, New South Wales has been with- 
outa Government Astronomer. The filling of this position 
during the past year by the appointment of Professor Cooke 
is a matter for congratulation by all scientists. Of equal 
satisfaction is the fact, that a Chair of Astronomy has 
been established at the Sydney University, in charge of 
which Professor Cooke has also been placed. Astronomy 
ranks as one of the oldest and most exalted of the sciences, 
and it is gratifying to see that our State, is taking its place 
with other countries in the study and the teaching of this 
noble science. 


Chair of Botany.—In the establishment of a Chair of 
Botany, which has been placed under the direction of Pro- 
fessor Lawson, a distinctly progressive step has been made. ~ 
Both as a scientific and as a commercial asset, the flora of 
New South Wales is most valuable, and quite apart from 
the advancement to science, culture and refinement, which 
a love for the study of our native flora must promote, there 
are also the many economic products amongst its timbers, 
barks, essential oils, etc., that require to be further investi- 
gated and studied before all their valuable properties can 
be known and applied to their fullest advantage. An 
advance, therefore, such as this, in the scope and facilities 
for training Australian botanists, merits our best appreci- 
ation. 


Chair of Organic Chemistry.—Intertwined to a large 
extent with an extended study of botany is that of organic 
chemistry, and as time goes on, the phyto-chemist and 
vegetable physiologist will render more and more assist- 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. rf 


ance in the elucidation of plant mysteries. It is those 
who have given attention to, or who have been in some 
way associated with the work of the organic chemist as 
applied to our most interesting Australian flora, who can 
best appreciate the wonderful properties and scientific 
interest as well as economic value of our native plant-life: 
and now that a Chair of Organic Chemistry has been 
established at our University, under the charge of Professor 
Robinson, we may hopefully look forward to a further 
extension of our knowledge in this direction, as the possi- 
bilties of the profitable utilisation of the wonderful vege- 
tation of Australia seem to be unlimited. 


Chair of EHeconomics.—A Chair of Economics has also 
been established, with Professor Irvine in control, and this 
step may be regarded as further evidence of progress. 


The establishment of four new Professorial Chairs at the 
Sydney University is a matter for sincere congratulation 
by all scientific people. It should be impossible for any 
thinking person to watch the rapid development of our 
splendid country, with its vast resources and increasing 
wealth, without at the same time trying to make some 
comparison between its great educational and scientific 
institutions and those of other countries. The contempla- 
tion of our possibilities in the above connection, should 
fire Australians with an ambition to take a prominent place 
in the world of science, and with our mental, physical and 
resourceful equipment there should be no reason why we 
should not succeed in doing so. We look to our Universities 
to train young scientists for research work, and in our 
aspiration to advance science, we hail with the utmost 
satisfaction any enlargement of the scope of the University 
which tends to furnish the State with an increased number 
of specially trained scientists. 


8 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


Antarctica. 


During our recess the world has been shocked and grieved 
beyond measure by learning of the tragic and heroic deaths 
of no less than seven Antarctic explorers. First came the 
tidings that the whole of the Polar party had perished after 
having achieved the distinction of reaching the South Pole. 
The ill-fated band who added their names to the roll of 
fame are :— 

Captain R. F. Scott, Leader of the Hxpedition. 

Dr. EDWARD A. WILSON, Chief of the Scientific Staff. 
Captain L. E. G. Oates, Inniskilling Dragoons. 
Lieutenant HENRY R. BowErs, Royal Indian Marine. 
Petty Officer EDGAR HVANS. 


Immediately on receiving notification of this overwhelm- 
ing disaster, I despatched a cable on behalf of the Society, 
to the President of the Royal Geographical Society of 
London, expressing profound regret at the loss of the gallant 
party. We have since all become familiar with the 
circumstances surrounding the end of this heroic five and 
their final services to science, and it seems no exaggeration 
to say that a feeling of veneration for such fortitude, such 
heroism, and such devotion to duty as they displayed, will 
live in the hearts of the British race for centuries to come. 


Before we had recovered from the shock of this thrilling 
event, there came the further tidings of disaster to Dr. 
Mawson’s Australasian Hxpedition, and we learnt of the 
sad loss of Lieutenant B. E.S. Ninnis and Dr. Xavier Mertz 
which occurred under such tragic circumstances. Antici- 
pating your wishes I sent a wireless message on behalf of 
this Society to Dr. Mawson, deploring the sad loss of his 
brave comrades and expressing our sympathy. 

It is impossible to read of the subsequent perilous voyage 
of portion of Mawson’s party, and the shipping of the 
western party which was under Mr. Frank Wild, without 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9 


realising the important service in averting further possible 
disaster, which was rendered by the sound judgment and 
skilful seamanship of Captain John King Davis. 


Scientific Work in Antarctica.—H¥irst, in regard to the 
scientific results obtained by the late Captain R. F. Scott, 
British Antarctic Expedition, a good summary has already 
been published in ‘‘ Nature,’’ February 20,1913. In refer- 
ence to geological results, Mr. T. Griffith Taylor, the 
geologist in charge, with Mr. Frank Debenham of Sydney 
University, made the important discovery of the remains— 
apparently bony plates—of what was probably a large 
fossil fish in the black carbonaceous shales of the Beacon 
Sandstone formation. They also discovered coal of fair 
quality at Granite Harbour, 100 miles to the north-west of 
their winter quarters at Cape Evans near Mount Hrebus. 
Amongst the geological specimens (of which a weight of 
35 Ibs was carried back all the way from the head of the 
Beardmore glacier to the spot where Captain Scott and his 
comrades eventually perished) are several well-preserved 
remains of fossil leaves also taken from these same coal 
measures which belong to the horizon of the Beacon Sand- 
stone. Mr. Debenham, the only geologist who has as yet 
seen these specimens, considers that the leaves show a 
netted venation and probably belong either to Glossopteris, 
Gangamopteris, or Sagenopteris. In either case these 
leaves would suggest that the Beacon Sandstone is of 
Gondwana age, that is from Permo-carboniferous to Upper 
Trias. At the same time it should be mentioned that 
Professor Lawson of Sydney University, thinks it quite 
possible that some of the fossil wood obtained by Mr. R. H. 
Priestley from near Mount Nansen is of newer age, being 
probably angiospermous. At present, as far as is known, 
the oldest angiosperms do not descend below the Cretaceous 
horizon. 


Taylor and Debenham ascertained that the ice ofa large 
outlet glacier draining the inland plateau moved in summer 
at the rate of 80 feet per month. Thisis a lower rate than 
that already ascertained for the movement of the Ross 
Barrier as a whole, the rate of movement of the latter 
being about, on the average, 120 feet per month. 


10 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


Mr. R. H. Priestley, the geologist in charge with 
Lieutenant Campbell’s party, in addition to discovering the 
important specimens of fossil wood above referred to, has 
accumulated a large amount of very valuable information 
on the local ice barrier near Mount Nansen which was 
formerly united to the Great Ice Barrier (or Ross Barrier). 
He also led an expedition which succeeded in successfully 
ascending Mount Erebus and was able to gain important 
information, additional to that obtained by the members 
of the Shackleton expedition, as to the existence of the 
most powerful geyser known in the world to the north of 
Mount Erebus on the southern slopes of the volcano of 
Mount Bird. é 


Mr. C.S. Wright, physicist to the expedition, brought 
back from near the Cloudmaker mountain on the Beard- 
more Glacier a fragment of limestone containing a small 
but absolutely perfect and complete coral. This single 
specimen will probably throw much light on the exact age 
of these limestone beds. 


Glaciology, physiography and the general geology of the 
Ross region of Antarctica will have greatly gained as a 
result of the Scott expedition. 


In regard to meteorology, a Summary has already been 
given by my predecessor in this office, of Dr. Simpson’s 
investigations of the temperature, pressure and wind direc- 
tions in the upper atmosphere near Mount Erebus up to 
levels of nearly five miles. These observations, together 
with the usual low level records, will have their value 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, ll 


much enhanced by the fact that contemporaneous observa- 
tions were being taken by Captain Amundsen’s party at 
Framheim, and by Dr. Mawson’s party at their main base 
at Adelie Land as well as by Dr. Mawson’s party under 
Mr. Frank Wild at Termination Glacier, 1,300 miles west 
of Dr. Mawson’s head quarters, and also by Lieut. Filchner’s 
party near Coat’s Land. 


In regard to biology itis also known that very important 
specimens have been secured by Mr. Lillie and Mr. Cherry 
Garrard, a specially fine collection being secured of that 
rare form Cephalodiscus. 


Important oceanographic and hydrographic work has 
been done on board the ‘‘ Terra Nova’’ by Commander 
Evans and Lieutenant H. Pennell as well as by Mr. KH. W. 
Nelson near Mount Erebus in McMurdo Sound. 


In reference to the scientific results of the Mawson 
expedition it may be noted that Mr. C. T. Madigan (Rhodes 
Scholar of Adelaide University) in a fine journey to the 
east of Commonwealth Bay, discovered underneath a 
capping of black columnar basalt rock—600 feet thick—a 
a large sandstone formation with bands of coaly shale with 
obscure plant remains. There can be little doubt that this 
is a continuation of the Beacon Sandstone of the South 
Victoria Land region. This newly discovered land by the 
assent of His Majesty has now received the name of King 
George V. Land. Thus the Beacon Sandstone formation 
has now been proved to extend over no less a distance 
than upwards of 1,100 miles. It is not yet known for 
certain whether the seams are of workable value, though 
it is known that coal does occur in them of a workable 
quality. This great formation therefore offers possibilities 
of being perhaps one of the largest undeveloped coalfields 
in the world. At the same time if one may judge of the 
conditions of the coal formation in the Antarctic, from 


12 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


those in the Argentine and Southern Brazil in Lower or 
Middle Gondwana time, these would suggest that conditions 
were not favorable for the formation of pure seams of coal 
of any great thickness so far south during those epochs. 
Nevertheless the fact must not be lost sight of that it is 
quite possible that after all the Beacon Sandstone forma- 
tion may be of Upper Gondwana (Jurassic) or even of 
Cretaceous age. 


Rich collections of minerals, far exceeding in variety 
and development anything which previously has been 
obtained from the Antarctic Continent, have been brought 
back by Mr. S. F. Stilwell, M.sc., the geologist in charge at 
Dr. Mawson’s head-quarters. Altogether about a ton of 
specimens has been secured. These comprise (in addition 
to minerals such as garnet, scapolite, tourmaline, beryl, 
apatite and magetite, etc.) metallic minerals also, of com- 
mercial value, such as for example molybdenite, antimonite 
and carbonates of copper. 


In regard to glacial conditions at Dr. Mawson’s main 
base it would seem as though the ice sheet has been 
retreating rapidly there in recent times, inasmuch as low 
hills of gneiss and schist at the head-quarters at Common- 
wealth Bay show a beautiful fresh glaciated surface, the 
strie being in a perfect state of preservation. When one 
considers that frost-weathering due to rapid changes of 
temperature between night and day quickly destroys by 
splintering any freshly exposed rock surface, it is evident 
that these glaciated rock surfaces have been very recently 
uncovered through a retreat southwards of the great ice 
sheet. This retreat is taking place in spite of the fact 
that this portion of the Antarctic ice-cap is more plentifully 
nourished with snow from all its areas further south to the 
west of Mount Erebus etc. Here, one must note that it 
does not necessarily follow, as Mawson has shown, that 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13 


because the snowfall is heavier in any part of the Antarctic 
regions than elsewhere, that the glaciers should be at a 
maximum. Itisalla question of addition and subtraction. 
The extra snowfall near Commonwealth Bay as compared 
with that near Mount Hrebus is perhaps more than com- 
pensated for by the extra violence of the wind at Adélie 
Land. Mawson’s records showed that for 1912 the average 
wind speed throughout the year was fully 48 miles an hour, 
velocities of 100 miles an hour being frequently attained. 
These furious winds not only sweep away any fresh fallen 
snow but tear up and transport seawards the old snows, 
leaving the surface of the inland ice-table furrowed by 
sastrugi. | | 


The journey towards the South Magnetic Pole area by 
Lieutenant Bage with Messrs. S. N. Webb and J. F. Hurley 
has yielded results of great importance in regard to 
accurate location of the South Magnetic Pole. Webb 
established observing stations at every 10 miles along 
their journey of about 300 miles from their winter quarters 
towards the Pole, and thus obtained a series of absolute 
readings with an accuracy most remarkable in view of the 
extremely difficult climatic conditions. These observations 
show very strong local variations in magnetic force as in 
several instances Webb found that as he got nearer to the 
South Magnetic Pole the dip of the magnetic needle locally 
became less instead of greater. On the whole he found 
that the dip increased towards the Magnetic Pole at the 
rate of about one minute (1’) of arc for every 3 miles. 
According to his deductions the approximate position of 
the N.W. edge of the South Magnetic Pole area, on 
December 19, 1912, was situated in about latitude 70° 36’ 
south, longitude 148° 12’ east.* This differs considerably, in 


* Mr. E. N. Webb’s provisional conclusions, subject of course to cor- 
rections when all the observations are reauced and correlated, are that 
the diameter of the area of vertical needle, ina S.W. N.E. direction, is 
appoximately about 40 miles, and that its mean centre at the above 
date was about lat. 70° 52'S., long. 150° 21’ EH. 


14 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


fact by over 100 miles, from the position assigned to the 
south-east boundary of the area by Professor David and 
Dr. Mawson on the Shackleton expedition on 16 January, 
1909. One must conclude either that the area of the 
vertical needle has a width of about 100 miles—(there can 
be little doubt that it must have a width of at least 30 or 
40 miles)—or that Shackleton’s Magnetic Pole party did 
not reach the exact mean position of the area of the vertical 
needle, or that the whole area, if not more than 40 miles 
in diameter has travelled to the North-west for a consider- 
able distance since January 1909. When these results are 
all elaborated and correlated, together with the few mag- 
netic observations taken on the Shackleton expedition, it 
will certainly be possible to locate very closely the position 
of the South Magnetic Polein1912. As it was frequently 
necessary to leave Mr. Webb alone in the tent when he 
was making his observations, his comrades Bage and 
Hurley had meanwhile to dig for themselves a cave in the 
hard snow in order to shelter them from the furious blizzard 
wind. All three therefore endured great hardships, and it 
is well-known that on the return journey they all but 
forfeited their lives in consequence of missing the depot 
through thick blizzard weather. Mercifully, like Dr. 
Mawson himself on his terrible retreat after the tragic loss 
of his comrades Lieutenant Ninnis and Dr. Xavier Mertz, 
their lives were preserved, and it has been permitted them 
to bring back results of priceless value to science. 


In the department of biology a large number of valuable 
collections have been obtained by Mr. J. Hunter, who was 
assisted by Mr. C. F. Laseron. Collections have also been 
gathered by Mr. Edgar R. Waite and Professor Flynn on 
separate cruises of the ‘‘ Aurora,”’ in intervals between her 
first and second voyages to Antarctica. About 250 miles 
of new coast line have been charted in this region. Invalu- 
able work in this respect has been rendered by Mr. J. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15 


Van Waterschoot Van der Gracht, the brother of the 
Government Geologist to the Netherlands, who has placed 
his unique skill as a cartographic artist entirely at Dr. 
Mawson’s disposal. The scientifically accurate and artis- 
tically beautiful sketches which he has brought back and 
now presented to the University of Sydney, will be an 
invaluable historic record of the general appearance and 
condition of the Antarctic coast at the time of his visit at 
the beginning of 1913. 


One of the greatest triumphs of Dr. Mawson’s expedition 
has been the establishment of wireless communication with 
his subsidiary base at Macquarie Island. The Australasian 
Wireless Company supplied all the necessary apparatus at 
generous rates, special attention being most kindly given 
by Mr. H. Leverrier to the requirements of the expedition. 


The general installation of the wireless apparatus was in 
charge of Mr. W. H. Hannam, who was the first to transmit 
a wireless message from Antarctica to the outside world. 
The receiving apparatus was not equally successful at first. 
On October 13, 1912, one of the masts blew down ina gale 
in which the wind velocity reached 97 miles an hour. There 
was no opportunity for repairing this mast until the arrival 
of the “‘Aurora’”’ in January of this year. On this occasion 
the sailors of the “‘Aurora’’ added 25 feet to the stump of 
the old mast already 90 feet in height, thus making the 
total height 115 feet. At the same time two pieces of the 
other broken mast were erected respectively 30 feet and 
35 feet high close to the 115 feet mast, and an umbrella 
aerial was then stretched between. It being necessary for 
Mr. Hannam to return to Australia, Mr. Jefiryes, formerly 
wireless operator on the “‘ Westralia’’ took his place, and 
was the first to receive wireless messages in Antarctica. 
Since then the wireless has been working quite successfully 
except when atmospheric conditions are abnormally bad, 


16 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


and we may confidently expect to be in almost daily com- 
munication with Dr. Mawson for the rest of his sojourn in 
Antarctica. It is no less wonderful than true that some 
of Mawson’s messages are heard direct in Sydney all the 
way from Antarctica, and this result is attained with a 
installation of only two kilowatt power. 


This is not only a triumph for the Australasian Antarctic 
Expedition and for all those who were concerned in the 
wireless installation, including Sawyer and Sandell, the 
wireless operators at Macquarie Island, but in view of the 
Roaring Forty Winds, and the most formidable low pressure 
atmospheric trough in the whole world which these mes- 
sages have to cross, it is a signal triumph for wireless 
telegraphy, in every way worthy of being singled out as a 
subject for special congratulation by His Majesty the King 
in his recent wireless message to Mawson. 


The geographical exploration under conditions of extreme 
hardship and peril, accomplished by Mr. Frank Wild and 
his parties, comprising Dr. Sydney Jones, Messrs. A. D. 
Watson, G. H. 8. Dovers, C. A. Hoadley, C. T. Harrison, 
A. L. Kennedy, and M. H. Moyes, yields in no respect to 
the best type of exploration in other parts of Antarctica 
where similar climatic conditions obtain. 


Coast lines and islands entirely new to science have been 
mapped for a distance of 300 miles, and meteorological and 
glacial observations of great interest and value have been 
recorded. Nor must we overlook the splendid voyages 
accomplished by that modest, and, while the youngest 
certainly not the least successful of Antarctic navigators, 
Captain J. K. Davis. Amongst other scientific results such 
as the charting of new coast lines, he has discovered what 
may be termed an Australian ‘‘Atlantis’’ in the large sub- 
marine bank 250 miles south of Tasmania. Moreover he 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. iy 


has obtained material by sounding for a section of the 
ocean floor all the way from Adelie Land to Tasmania. 


Of all the scientific observations the meteorological are 
likely to prove of the most direct economic value to 
Australasia, partly as regards those taken in Antarctica, 
but chiefly in reference to those recorded by Mr. Ainsworth 
at Macquarie Island, Mr. H. A. Hunt, the Federal 
Meteorologist, has emphasized the great importance of the 
daily weather conditions “‘ Wirelessed”’ to him from Mac- 
quarie Island, for the proper understanding of Australian 
Weather. It is hoped that as urged, both by Australian 
and New Zealand scientists and others, the Federal Govern- 
ment will see its way to establish the Macquarie Island 
Meteorological Wireless Station on a permanent basis. 
The cost in money, in toil, and alas! in human life, of these 
Antarctic expeditions, has of late been very great, but 
while we mourn the loss of the brave who have given their 
lives for the advancement of science, we cannot but feel 
thankful that these men have played the game so well and 
worthily, and that the world of science will be the richer 
for all time, because of their deeds. Surely the verdict of 
posterity will be that this Australasian expedition of Dr. 
Mawson has proved that in courage, hardil:ood, self-reliance 
and ability the Australian can hold his own in Antarctica 
with the men of any other nation, and that the rich harvest 
of scientific results already reaped, justify all the suffering 
and sacrifice this expedition has entailed. 


I wish to express my grateful thanks to Professor T. W. 
Edgeworth David, C.M.G., F.R.S., etc., for kindly supplying 
me with the above valuable notes on the scientific results 
obtained in Antarctica. 


We are now looking forward with the greatest interest 
to the return of Dr. Mawson and his six companions next 
summer to learn of the further scientific work which is 
being carried on in that great white land. 

B—May.7, 1913. 


18 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


Before vacating the Presidential Chair I would like to 
express my gratitude, and also that of the Society, to the 
Honorary Secretaries, Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.L.s., and Pro- 
fessor Pollock, D.Sc. as well as to the Honorary Treasurer 
Mr. D. Carment, F.1.A., and the Acting Honorary Treasurer 
Assistant Professor Chapman, M.D., for the valuable service 
which they have rendered to the Society in looking after 
its best interests. It is during a President’s year of office 
that he finds how many matters have to be attended to by 
these honorary officers, and I desire to record my personal 
appreciation of their united assistance to the Council in 
successfully guiding the Society’s affairs during the past 
year. 


Development and Distribution of the Genus Eucalyptus. 


Among the various fragments of evidence which are 
available to assist us in writing up the climatic, physio- 
graphic, and to some extent the geological history of 
Australia from early Tertiary up to the present day, that 
supplied by a study of the development and distribution of 
the genus Kucalyptus should be-amongst the most impor- 
tant, seeing that with the exception of afew species found 
in the islands to the north, the genus is wholly Australasian, 
The subject isa gigantic one, and in this address I only 
propose to briefly outline some of the features of distribu- 
tion which apply more particularly to South Hastern 
Australia. 


At the outset I wish to express my indebtedness to Mr. 
H. C. Andrews, for much useful information obtained during 
many conversations, and also from his writings in regard 
to physiographic changes in Eastern Australia.* I have 
also to acknowledge valuable help on the general subject 


1 «* Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia,’ E. C. Andrews, B.A., 
this Journal, Vol. xxiv, p. 420, (1910). 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19 


from a perusal of the writings of Baker and Smith,? 
Bentham,? David,’ Deane,* Hedley,’ Hooker,* Jensen,’ 
Maiden,* and Mueller.* I also wish to thank Mr. Maiden 
for granting me access to his unpublished drawings of a 
large series of anthers, which show the great amount of 
variation that exists in this important part of the inflor- 
escence. My thanks are also due to Mr. W. 8S. Dun, 
Palzontologist, Department of Mines, for references to 
literature relating to Tertiary fossil leaves. 


Factors which regulate development and distribution. 


Broadly speaking, the factors which play the important 
parts in regulating the development and distribution of 
plants are:—Physiography, Geology, and Climate. 


Physiography.—The topographic conditions of any 
country are of extreme importance in their influence upon 
the distribution of its flora. Where the country is level 
over a large area, the conditions in regard to rainfall and 
climate are likely toremain much the same over such area. 
A range of mountains may give not only the elevation 


1 «A Research on the Eucalypts,” by R. T. Baker, r.u.s., and H. G. 
Smith, F.c.s. 

2 « Flora Australiensis,” by George Bentham, F.BR.5s., etc. 

3 « Geological Notes on Kosciusko, with Special Reference to Evidences 
of Glacial Action,” by T. W. Edgeworth David, B.a., F.R.s., etc., Proc. 
Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxx111, p. 668, (1908). 

* “ Observations on the Tertiary Flora of Australia,’ by Henry Deane, 
M.A., F.L.S., etc., Proc, Linn, Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxv, (1900). Presi- 
dential Addresses, Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S. Wales, 1895 and 1896. 

> “Presidential Address,” by C. Hedley, F.u.s., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. 
Wales, Vol. xxxvi, (1911). 


6 « Flora of Australia, its Origin, Affinities and Distribution,” (1859) 
by J. D. Hooker. 


7 « Soils in Relation to Geology and Climate,” by H. I. Jensen, p.sc., 
Department of Agriculture, N.S. Wales, Science Bulletin No. 1, 1911. 


& « A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus,” also various papers 
in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales by J. H. Maiden, F.u.s. 


® « Kucalyptographia,” by Baron von Mueller, 1879— 1884. 


90 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


necessary to produce a cooler climate, but when fringing 
the ocean with extensive low areas on the side opposite 
the ocean, it provides two separate aspects totally distinct 
in character, one being moist while the other isdry. Deep 
gorges are also developed in the mountain sides and the 
flora of these differs from that of the adjoining hills. 


A study of the physiography and the geology of South 
Eastern Australia, serves to show that in early Tertiary 
time, this area was chiefly a low tableland or peneplain,* 
only afew hundred feet above sea level. Such physio- 
grapic conditions would have had the effect of producing a 
fairly uniform climate over the greater portion of this area, * 
the rainfall would have been more evenly distributed, with 
the result that there would have been a much greater 
similarity in the flora for two or three hundred miles inland 
than is the case at the present day. During Tertiary time 
some minor upheavals took place, but towards the close of 
the Tertiary Period, or what Mr. Andrews calls the Kos- | 
ciusko Period, a range of mountains paralleling the coast 
at an average distance of 70-80 miles therefrom, was 
uplifted to elevations varying from upwards of 2,000 — 7,300 
feet above sea level, and with some slight modifications . 
these features remain to the present day.’ 


The effect of this last uplift upon the flora of South 
Eastern Australia is most marked, for, as is well known, 
instead of one uniform flora extending back from the ocean ~ 
a distance of, say, 200 miles, there are now three, and what 
was the original or typical one, as evidenced by the fossil 
leaves in the Tertiary drifts on the western portions of the 
present mountains, is now most nearly represented by 
portions of that confined to the coastal strip. 

1 “Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia,” E. C. Andrews, this 
Journal, pp. 421 and 453, (1910). 


2 See Relief Map of Australia, Presidential Address by Professor David, 
this Journal, Vol. xiv, Plate I, (1911). 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 21 


Geology.—The efiect of geological formations upon the 
distribution of plants, though distinctly evident in many 
localities, is to some extent of a local nature, being domin- 
ated by the influence of climate. Broadly speaking the 
Kucalypts distribute themselves under two extreme types 
of geological formations, the siliceous and the basic, and. 
there are numerous examples of two distinct floras 
approaching each other up to a common boundary without 
intermingling, the one growing perhaps on an acid granite 
or siliceous sandstone formation with an abundance of free 
silica, and the other on a basalt or other basic rock, pro- 
ducing a clay soil. 

Although certain trees show such a distinct preference 

\for either a basic or a siliceous formation, it is difficult to 
ascertain the exact reason for this discrimination. In 
studying the analyses of a series of rocks, it is noticed that 
broadly speaking, the ferro-magnesian constituents increase 
as the silica decreases, and the basic rock therefore pro- 
duces the more chemically-rich soil; while on the other 
hand those granites with a high percentage of silica are 
usually richer in potash than are the basic rocks. The 
proportion of soda, however, has no regular gradation 
according to either increasing or decreasing quantities of 
silica, but of the two types of rock, the soda usually occurs 
more plentifully in the basic than in the highly siliceous. 
Apart from the question of the chemical constituents there 
is that of the mechanical condition of a soil, and it seems 
undoubted that in certain cases the physical characters 
are of greater importance to the plant than the chemical 
constituents. It is of course those rocks with a high 
percentage of free silica which so largely affect the physical 
characters of the soil, and furnish it with capillary pro- 
perties, so that when a plant exhibits a definite preference 
for a highly siliceous formation it may be that it neither 
wishes to avoid some constituent which occurs in a large 


99 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


proportion in the more basic rocks, nor that it prefers 
something which is only formed in the highly siliceous, but 
rather that the porous state of the soil allows the moisture 
to reach the plant, and so enables it to avail itself of the 
particular food it requires.’ 


It is unquestionable that primarily the soil of any par- 
ticular area is largely the product of the decomposing 
geological formation in the locality, and the constituents 
of the rock may be ascertained by analysis of sound freshly 
fractured portions of it. By constantly observing the class 
of rock selected by certain species, some of which show 
very distinct preferences, information may be obtained 
which would be of the greatest value in the selection of 
sites for fresh plantations, and species which favour either 
basic or siliceous rock-types could be planted in the form- 
ations which during the test of ages in Nature’s laboratory 
they have found to be congenial. 


The soils produced from similar geological formations in 
separate localities have not always the same effect upon 
the local flora, the diversity being caused by the differences 
in climate, rainfall, and aspect; but in areas where these 
conditions remain the same, certain HKucalypts are typical 
of particular geological formations. Hxamples in the 
Sydney district may be seen in the distinct preference 
shown for the siliceous Hawkesbury Sandstone formation 
by Eucalyptus corymbosa, hcemastoma, capitellata, 
Sieberiana, piperita, etc., and in EH. hemiphloia and 
tereticornis for the Wianamatta Shale, which contains 
a much lower percentage of free silica. In the mountain 
areas the same discrimination is exercised by various 
Hucalypts in the selection of formations. The presence of 
E. Andrewsi and Bancrofti may be taken as evidence 


2 See “‘Cicology of Plants,” by Eug. Warming, PH.D., p. 70 (English 
Edition) 1909, 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 23 


that the rocks amongst which they are growing, contain 
upwards of 70% silica, much of which is in a free state, 
while E. viminalis, nova-anglica, and stellulata, growing 
perhaps only a few hundred yards away, usually indicate 
that there is less than that amount of silica in the form- 
ations which ‘sustain their growth. But in dealing with 
the acidity and alkalinity of soils produced from the 
Same type of rock in various localities, the question of 
the local rainfall and topography must be considered, 
for it will be at once apparent that a decomposing alkaline 
rock inadry climate will furnish a soil containing a higher 
percentage of alkali than will be produced by a similar rock 
in a wet climate, for the reason that in the wet area the 
soluble alkali will be more readily leached out, and some 
of it washed away. The difference in the alkalinity of the 
resultant soils will be accentuated if the moist area is in 
mountainous country and the dry locality on the level plains, 
for in the former case the alkali is readily washed away 
aiter leaching out, and in the latter, both operations are 
retarded. The question however, is one that has to be 
considered with caution in view of other factors which 
may sometimes operate. 


In order to ascertain what are the various constituents 
and conditions selected by certain plants, a botanical 
survey should be carried out in conjunction with a soil 
survey, and analyses made of the soil and rocks which 
furnish the nourishment for the particular species under 
investigation. Details should also be obtained of the 
climate, rainfall and aspect of the area surveyed. When 
this is done for New South Wales, we shall know why 
distinct preferences are so often shown for particular 
geological formations. 


It seems not unreasonable to suppose that the two 
extreme types of rock, acid and basic, which furnish very 


a 
; = ‘eal 


24 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


distinct forms of nutriment, should exercise some important 
influence in the evolution of species. 


Climate.—Undoubtedly the dominating influence in regu- 
lating the distribution of any flora over a large area, is 
climatic, and this in itself is determined by the latitude, 
elevation, rainfall and aspect. The whole of the Hucalypts 
in Australia and Tasmania occur approximately between 
the latitudes of 11° and 44°, while those on the mainland of 
Australia extend from about the latitude of 11° to 39°. So 
far, therefore, as the mainland is concerned, if we can in 
imagination reconstruct it as a peneplain only a few hundred 
feet above sea level, as geologists believe was the case in 
early Tertiary, we can see that the climate under present 
day conditions would have beena mild to a warm one. We 
have evidence from the remains found of large, somewhat 
unweildy, animals such as the Diprotodon, which from their 
structure must, have lived on level marshy country, that 
the climate was then a fairly damp one. It is well also to 
remember that at this early period Tasmania formed part 
of the mainland. From available evidence it would appear 
that Eucalypts north of latitude 35°, which to day are 
restricted to elevations above 2,000 feet, could have had 
no existence in New South Wales north of that latitude, in 
their present form, under HKocene and perhaps Miocene 
conditions. HKxamples of such EKucalypts are supplied in 
EK. coriacea, stellulata, dives, vitrea, and amygdalina. 


The final uplift towards the close of the Tertiary, the 
Kosciusko Epoch, changed all this. The resultant Main 
Divide not only separated the original uniform climate into 
three, but with its fairly steep eastern face presented to 
the ocean, it created moister conditions over the coastal 
area, and with its mountain elevations, which reach up to 
7,300 feet, it provided the cool conditions necessary for the 
growth of Eucalypts which previously may not have existed 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 25 


north of latitude 35°, but which in a few cases are now 
found as far north as latitude 29°, or just to Queensland, 
examples being supplied by H. coriacea, stellulata and 
amygdalina. 


The effect of this uplift, upon the western side of the 
Main Divide, has been to produce a drier, as well as a 
hotter summer and colder winter climate, and the 
Kucalypts in response to this change have gradually 
adapted themselves to the new conditions with the result 
that they differ considerably from many on the coast, but 
most of all from those on the higher mountains. 


Glacial Period.—A most important influence which must 
have done much to test the cold-resisting capabilities of 
Hucalypts was the refrigerating period in Post Tertiary 
or Pleistocene time and of which there is abundant evidence 
on Mount Kosciusko to-day. Itis generally believed that 
this glacial action, owing to its universality, was the result 
of temperature change, and not due to any local alteration 
of mountain levels. Ina paper read before the Linnean 
Society of New South Wales (supra), Professor David has 
stated that during the glacial period referred to, the snow- 
line which is now considered to be at about 8,000 feet in 
the Kosciusko district, came down about 3,000 feet (printed 
300 erroneously). Assuming that the snow-line came some- 
thing between 2,000 and 3,000 feet lower than its present 
position, a consequent lowering of the temperature of 7° to 
10° Fahr. would be involved. 


The effect of this refrigeration upon all vegetation must 
have been considerable, and it seems reasonable therefore 
to expect some modification of plant characters asa result. 
Since the closing of the Pleistocene glacial period, climatic 


* Geological Notes on Kosciusko, with Special Reference to Evidences 
of Glacial Action, by Professor David, r.z.s., Richard Helms, and E. F. 
Pittman, 4.z.s.u., Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxv1, (1901). 


26 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


conditions appear to have remained practically as we find 
them to-day. In a paper on the flora of the Nandewar 
Mountains I have briefly discussed the possibilities of cold- 
loving plants having migrated north during this glaciation 
and of their having become stranded upon its termination.’ 


Modification of the Eucalypts in New South Wales since 
the Kosciusko Period. 


In order to fully appreciate the possibilities of modifica- 
tion and development of the EKucalypts subsequent to the 
great uplift in Pliocene time, it is necessary to keep fore- 
most in mind at least three important points. The first 
of these is that before this great tectonic movement took 
place, South Hastern Australia was a much more level 
country witha fairly uniform climate. The second point 
to be kept in the foreground is that the available geological 
and physiographic evidence implies that the upward move- 
ment though gradual, was comparatively rapid, especially 
where the elevations are greatest,” but was of sufficient 
duration to allow much of the vegetation to adapt itself to 
the new conditions. A measure of the movement is sup- 
plied from the fact that pre-existent rivers, in some cases, . 
were enabled to cut down their channels and thereby retain 
their original courses while elevation was in progress. ° 
The third factor to be remembered is the Pleistocene glacial 
period. 


As a uniform climate implies a fairly uniform flora, it 
would seem that a just conclusion to be arrived at from a 
contemplation of these various factors and conditions would 
be that immediately prior to the uplift, the differences in 
New South Wales, amongst those Hucalyptus characters 


* Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxxvi1, (1912). 


2. 


2 “ Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia,” by E. C. Andrews, this 
ournal, Vol. xuiv, p. 461, (1910). 
3 «Notes on the Geography of the Blue Mountains,” by E. C. Andrews 
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxrx, p. 812, (1904). 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 27 


which are chiefly the result of climatic effect, were much 
less pronounced than is the case at the present day. Having 
in view that the earth movement was gradual, a conse- 
quential result would have been that many plants would 
have responded to the various changes and accommodated 
themselves to the new conditions. But it does not follow 
that all would have succeeded in so doing, and amongst 
the successful ones there should be examples of varying 
degrees of success to be met with at the present day. Those 
Kucalypts which survived the great uplift had subsequently 
to endure a period of greater refrigeration than any they 
had previously encountered, and it is the resultant modified 
forms which constitute so much of the present Australian 
flora. The characters adapted or constituents formed for 
purposes of preservation towards the close of the glacial 
period, would be likely to remain fairly constant in the 
various plant-zones, so far as climatic effect is concerned, 
to the present time. 
Climatic Divisions. 

Having very briefly outlined the great causes which 
acted as forces in regulating the changes and development 
of the flora of South Eastern Australia, it will now be 
instructive to examine some of the effects. 


At least three distinct type-areas of vegetation have 
been produced, viz.:—the Coastal or semi-jungle, the 
Mountain or cold-type, and the Interior or semi-arid; and 
owing to physiographic considerations a fourth, which in a 
previous paper I have referred to as the Western Slopes, 
may be added.* 


Coastal Area.—The features of the Coastal Area may 
be described by saying that its eastern side is flanked by 
the ocean, while its western boundary, ranging from 35— 


2 “Climatic and Geological Influence on the Flora of N.S. Wales,” by 
R. H. Cambage, Report Aust. Assoc. Adv. of Science, Vol. x1, p. 476, (1907). 


28 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


100 miles away, is formed by the steep mountain chain which 
averages from 3,000 — 4,000 feet high, and in places reaches 
6,000 — 7,000 feet. With an annual rainfall of from nearly 
40 and up to 60 inches from south to north, gorges are being 
cut into the elevated parts by denudation, and in the deep 
valleys thus formed, conditions of shelter and moisture 
combine to produce trees, some of which are amongst the 
tallest inthe world. A feature of the Coastal Area is its 
humid atmosphere, and this is partly the result of the 
Kosciusko uplift, which had the effect of shutting off a 
considerable percentage of ocean moisture and rainfall, 
which previously would have penetrated much further 
westward than at present. The result is a drier climate 
in the Interior towards which the summer heat causes the 
moisture-laden north east wind to blow, the moist effect of 
which however is largely intercepted by the eastern face 
of the mountains, thus increasing the humidity of the 
Coastal Area. 


It seems undoubted also that the presence of the warm 


Notonectian current,’ which flows past the coast of New 
South Wales, also contributes to this humidity, for it has 
been noticed that certain plants which avoid the ocean side 
of the Main Divide in this State, flourish on the southern 
or ocean side of the prolongation of the same range in 
Victoria, beyond where the effect of this current reaches. 


It is in this division that the conditions are found which 
should most nearly approximate those of Miocene time in 
South Hastern Australia. Nor is evidence wanting that 
such an assumption has good grounds for support, because 
it is well known that the Tertiary fossil leaves which have 
from time to time been discovered in the Mountain Region 
and on the Western Slopes, resemble those of the present 
Coastal Area more than those of any other plant-zone. 


* See Presidential Address by C. Hedley, F.u.s., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. 
Wales, Vol. xxxv, p. 10, (1910). 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 29 


Mountain Region.—The Mountain Region with a rain- 
fall ranging from about 20-60 inches annually and an 
average of about 34 inches, contains generally the softest 
Eucalyptus timbers. It isin this area that we should look 
for the greatest divergence from original types especially 
in the vegetative shoot, for it is here that during the pro- 
cess of the uplift and subsequently, that the most severe 
changes were encountered, and the greatest demand would 
be made upon the plants to adapt themselves to their 
environment. Much of the Mountain Region ranges from 
3,000 —4,000 feet above sea level, the culminating point on 
Mount Kosciusko being 7,328 feet in latitude 364°. So far, 
however, no Hucalypt has been able to adapt itself to the 
cold exposed conditions of this latter altitude, the greatest 
elevation reached by EH. coriacea being about 800 feet 
short of the summit. 


Western Slopes.—The Western Slopes division contains 
a flora which forms a sort of connecting link between that 
of the Mountain Region and the Interior. In New South 
Wales, except in the extreme south, the western side of 
the mountains is not so steep as that of the eastern face, 
but falls gradually away in long slopes forming a zone 
paralleling the Main Divide, and into the upper edge of 
which certain mountain plants descend, while the lower 
margin, where it joins the great plains, is the home of some 
of the Interior vegetation. There are certain species how- 
ever, such as Hucalyptus albens, that are typical of this 
zone, which in New South Wales has an annual rainfall of 
about 26 - 27 inches. 


The Interior.—In the Interior the conditions are dry, 
the rainfall ranging from about 10-20 inches annually, the 
average amount being 13-14 inches. From investigation 
of the Tertiary fauna of parts of this area, as shown by 
fossil remains, the rainfall and moisture over this division 


30 Rk. H. CAMBAGE. 


were apparently greater before the Main Divide shut offi 
the coastal influence inthe Kosciusko period than at present. 
Here we look for evidence of plants having devised means 
of adapting themselves to drier conditions, but the change 
in the vegetative form over this area should not be so great 
as that of the Mountain Region, where all the factors have 
operated to make the extremes greatest between early 
Tertiary and present day conditions. 


Grouping of Eucalypts. 


In attempting to arrange the various Kucalyptus species 
into groups which represent certain special features, the 
difficulty is encountered of deciding upon the line of demar- 
cation between characters which closely approach each 
other. In the present discussion the subject of grouping 
is only treated on general lines which are sufficient how- 
ever to show that certain features are usually the result 
of a particular climate, aspect, or geological formation, or 
of a combination of these various factors, although in some 
instances the exceptions to what appear to be general 
rules are, in the light of our present knowledge, most 
marked and ‘perplexing. 


For the purpose of grouping, an investigation of some of 
the following features is instructive :— 
Barks—smooth, scaly, scaly to subfibrous, fibrous, and 
hard-furrowed. 
Timbers—texture and colour. 
Leaves—size, thickness and venation. 
Anthers—parallelanthere, poranthere, and renanthere. 
Oil constituents—pinene, eucalyptol (cineol) and phel- 
landrene. 
Barks. 
For the purpose of discussing the distribution of vari- 
ous kinds of bark, only well marked types have been 
selected, between each of which there are insensible grada- 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 31 


tions. Il have not included the hemiphloie or half-barked 
section, because this designation gives no clué whatever 
to the nature or texture of the bark on the lower portions 
of the boles, and this character of rough bark occurring on 
the trunk in varying extent, with smooth branches, may 
be found distributed in some measure throughout most of 
the sections. 


There are so many gradations in the textures of the 
Hucalyptus barks, that it is impossible to account for them 
all in detail within the limits of five sections, and in a few 
cases a particular class of bark may be almost equally 
distributed over two climatic divisions. 7 


In considering the allocation of the sections in New South 
Wales the following four geographical divisions will be 
referred to viz.:—the Coastal Area, the Mountain Region, 
Western Slopes and Interior (See Plate I). In the following 
table the word ‘‘first’’ signifies ‘‘most abundant,’’ and 
fourth denotes “‘least abundant”’ in the particular division 
under which the number appears. 


Barks. | Coastal. Mountains. | Western Slopes. Interior. 
Smooth _ Second First Third Fourth 
Scaly | First Fourth ? Second Third ? 
Sealy tosub-fibrous) Third Fourth Second First 
Fibrous First Second Third Fourth 


Furrowed First Fourth Second Third 


Smooth Barks.—The smooth barks, which include such 
trees as Hucalyptus viminalis and E. coriacea, are perhaps 
more typical of the Mountain Region than any other, with 
the Coastal Area ranking a close second. It seems remark- 
able that as the ascent is made, especially above 4,000 feet, 
and the more rigid climatic conditions are encountered, 
the Eucalypts, particularly if growing in the open, instead 
of being more densely coated with thick fibrous bark, are 
gradually restricted to the smooth-barked types, such as 


32 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


E. coriacea and rubida in New South Wales and Victoria, 
and EH. Gunnii, coccifera, and vernicosa in Tasmania. 
This goes to show that the actual protective qualities of 
the bark are not wholly regulated by the texture, but also 
depend upon the constituents contained in the bark. 


Scaly Barks.—Among the scaly-barked Hucalypts of 
which EH. corymbosa of the Bloodwood group may be con- 
sidered as a type, there are various gradations, and the 
section may be extended to include such trees as E. robusta. 
This class of bark, which is something between a scaly and 
a woolly, probably most nearly represents that of the earliest 
type of Kucalypt, and is most plentiful in the Coastal Area, 
next on the Western Slopes, and least in the Mountain 
Region. 

Sealy to sub-fibrous.—In the sub-fibrous class, or what is 
a sort of transition from scaly to shortly-fibrous, we have 
amongst others EH. populifolia and EH. hemiphloia of what 
are known as the Box-tree group, the bark of which is 
usually of a grey colour. The fibre is very short, the bark 
not particularly thick, and usually covers most of the trunk 
and often the branches as well. The Box timbers are very 
hard, and like the Ironbarks, this class of Hucalypt abso- 
lutely shuns the colder situations, neither group having a 
representative in Tasmania. The Box-tree section is most 
common in the Interior and next to that, on the Western 
Slopes, occurring also in the Coastal Area, but absent from 
the mountains above an altitude of 3,000 feet in latitudes 
south of 32°. 


Fibrous Barks.—The commonest forms of fibrous-barked 
trees are known as Stringybarks of which H. eugenioides 
and H. obliqua may be mentioned as types. Most of these 
Stringybarks occur in the Coastal Area, and next in the 
Mountain Region, while there is only one species, EH. macror- 
rhyncha on the Western Slopes, and except for an occasional 


_ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 33 


tree of the last mentioned species, the fibrous-barked 
Eucalypt is unknown in the Interior. This distribution is 
of great interest and appears to be in response to climatic 
conditions. A second form of fibrous bark which is less 
stringy than the typical Stringybarks, and usually ofa 
grey colour, is known as Peppermint-bark from the fact 
that the species on which it grows possess leaves which 
emit a strong odour of peppermint when crushed. The 
Peppermint group, of which EH. dives, Andrewsi, amyg- 
dalina, and piperita are typical, belongs chiefly to the 
Mountain Region, and occurs also in the Coastal Area, 
but is absent from both the Western Slopes and the 
Interior, in fact, to an observer descending the western 
side of the mountains, the presence of the Peppermints is 
evidence that cool conditions have not yet been left behind, 
while the occurrence of the Box-trees denotes that the 
country below the margin of the winter snow has been 
reached, and that fairly warm and comparatively dry con- 
ditions prevail. Three of the typical Peppermints, viz., 
E. dives, amygdalina and Andrewsi rarely if ever descend 
below an altitude of 2,000 feet in latitudes north of 35°, so 
that it seems probable that prior to the great uplift in 
the Kosciusko period, these species, in their present state 
of development did not exist in New South Wales except 
perhaps in the extreme south, and this latter possibility 
could apparently only apply to the first two. 


Furrowed Barks.—The hard furrowed-barked trees of 
which the Ironbarks, E. crebra and E. sideroxylon may 
be regarded as types, are most numerous in the Coastal 
Area, and next to that, on the Western Slopes, being prac- 
tically unknown in the Mountain Region above an altitude 
of 3,000 feet. It seems curious that the one condition 
these hard-timbered thick-barked Hucalypts avoid more 


than any other, is the cold. One species with equally 
C—May 7, 1913. 


/ 


34 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


rough furrowed bark on the trunk, but with softer fissile 
timber, viz.:—E. Sieberiana, which belongs to the Moun- 
tain Ash group, flourishes from sea level up to an elevation 
of about 3,500 feet on the ocean side of the mountains but 
is almost unknown west of the Main Divide. E. Smithii 
is another species with furrowed bark on the lower part of 
the bole, and is found east of the Main Divide below an 
altitude of 3,000 feet. 


Timbers. 


These may broadly be grouped under two heads viz.:— 
Texture and colour, the former of which may be subdivided 
into hard and soft, and the latter into dark and pale. In 
arranging Hucalyptus timbers into hard and soft groups it 
is found that the hardest occur in the Interior where the 
conditions are the most arid and the trees of siowest 
growth, though the hardest are not necessarily the strongest. 
The second in degree of hardness are found on the Western 
Slopes, the third on the Coastal Area, and the fourth or 
softest in the Mountain Region. The Coastal Area con- 
tains both hard and soft Hucalyptus timbers, members of 
the Ironbark group suchas EH. paniculata, siderophloia and 
crebra, also EL. hemiphloia of the Box group being amongst 
the hardest. It might perhaps be expected that the 
decrease in hardness would accord with the increase in 
rainfall, but although this progression applies so far as 
the Interior and the Western Slopes are concerned, it is 
in the division with the third highest rainfall and not the 
fourth, viz., in the cold Mountain Region where there are 
the least hardwoods. 


In studying the dark and pale coloured timbers, it is 
noted that in the warmer parts both colours occur, while 
in the Mountain Region, above an altitude of 3,500 feet in 
latitude 32°, and at diminishing elevations to the south- 
ward, the prevailing colour of Kucalyptus timbers is pale, 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 35 


no red-timbered Hucalypt occurring in Tasmania.! The 
colouring of dark timbers is evidently due to the presence 
of some constituent, perhaps developed in response to a 
plant food, and it seems not improbable that the develop- 
ment of the substance in question is retarded by the cold. 
The wood of mountain EKucalypts is also regarded as the 
least valuable for firewood among the genus, which fact 
implies some difference in the composition of many lowland 
and highland Eucalyptus timbers. 


Now under the peneplain conditions, long prior to the 
Kosciusko period, a greater similarity in the texture of 
Hucalyptus timbers in South Hastern Australia would 
undoubtedly have existed over at least the Coastal, Moun- 
tain, and Western Slopes divisions, and it seems a fair 
inference that the great uplift in that period is responsible 
for accentuating, even though an earlier and slighter uplift 
may have helped to originate, some of the various differ- 
ences in the textures of these timbers. 

Leaves. 

Perhaps it is in the leaves of Kucalypts, when the 
significance of their many and varied forms is better 
understood, that much of the past history of this genus 
will be revealed. The leaves may be regarded in a measure 
as the chemical laboratory and lungs of the tree, and in 
order to preserve themselves in a fitting manner to carry 
out their starch-producing and breathing functions, it is 
well known that the leaves of tucalypts have become 
modified in various ways in response to their environment. 
While they have undoubtedly adopted various means of 
combating the same injurious influence, on the other hand 
they have resorted to the same expedient to overcome 


1 Messrs. R. T. Baker, F.u.s., and H. G. Smith, r.c.s., make some 
reference to this subject in a paper ‘A Research on the Eucalypts of 
Tasmania and their Essential Oils,’ read before the Royal Society of 
Tasmania in October 1912, Pap. and Proc. Roy. Soc. of Tasmania, p. 139. 


36 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


distinct effects amidst different surroundings. For this 
reason therefore extreme caution should be exercised in 
any attempt to interpret the significance of any particular 
leaf modification. 


The mature or adult Kucalyptus leaves which are often 
falcate, are disposed vertically in the great majority of 
cases, so as to present the least possible surface to the 
sun, and thus minimise transpiration or the vaporising of 
water which is in the leaf. EHucalypts have also in many 
cases reduced their leaf surface, while in a few instances 
they appear to have increased it, as may be seen by astudy © 
of juvenile and mature foliage on the same tree, the 
juvenile foliage being regarded as more nearly representing 
the ancestral form. 


Large and small leaves.—In considering the large and 
small forms of mature leaves, the former may be regarded 
as including those which are either long or broad, and the 
latter, those which are either short or narrow. The largest 
are commonest in the Mountain Region, the second largest 
in the Coastal Area, the third on the Western Slopes, and 
the smallest in the Interior. Having in view the question 
of adaptability to environment, this distribution is exactly 
what might be expected, the cool or moist divisions having 
the largest leaves and the driest area the smallest. At 
the same time there are exceptions to this general rule, 
for while the sheltered portions of the Mountain Region 
produce such trees as E. globulus and EH. goniocalyx with 
leaves often upwards of a foot long, the more exposed 
portions are the home of such trees as EH. Moorei and H. 
parvifolia with narrow leaves from two to three inches 
long. 

Thick and thin leaves.—The thickening of the epidermis 
for the purpose of sheltering the stomata, is one of the 
expedients resorted to by the HKucalypts to resist evapor- 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 37 


ation, and consequently it is compatible with such an 
endeavour, that those species having the thickest epidermis 
and of which such as H. dumosa may be taken as a type, 
are commonest in the Interior. But this particular char- 
acter is to be met with intermittently in all the four 
climatic divisions of New South Wales, so that it wouid 
appear that various species have adopted this precaution 
for preservative objects but from different causes. A 
dwarfed Port Jackson form of E. capitellata has remark- 
ably thick almost orbicular leaves, while large normal type 
specimens within a few miles have lanceolate foliage of 
ordinary thickness. The thick-leaved form however grows 
in the more exposed positions, and in the more rocky situ- 
ations with probably less plant food available. It seems 
therefore not improbable that in order to counteract the 
effect of strong winds, to which its exposure renders it 
liable, and also to compensate in some way for the limited 
nourishment it obtains, that the thick-leaved adaptation 
has been evolved in this case, to preserve the starch which 
forms in the leaf and which is regarded as an auxiliary 
food supply. Itis of interest to note that the thickest 
leaved types usually correspond with the more dwarfed 
forms, and when the same species at maturity occurs both 
as large and as stunted trees, it is on the latter that the 
thickest leaves are found. 


Turning next to the EKucalypts in the cold climate we 
find a similar variation in leaf characters. The foliage of 
E. Gunnii as dwarfed trees on Mount Roland in Tasmania 
at nearly 4,000 feet above sea level, is distinctly thicker 
in texture than that of the same species around Guildford 
Junction at an altitude of 2,000 feet, and where the trees 
are upwards of 80 feet high. 


The leaves of E. coriacea are always somewhat leathery 
as the specific name would imply, but in observing trees 


€ 


a 
hs " 

) 
4 


38 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


of this species from just above the 2,000 feet level around 
Goulburn upwards to the 6,000 feet level towards Kosciusko, 
it is found that with the ascent the leaves get gradually 
smaller and thicker, and the trees become dwarfed from 
the rigid conditions and weight of winter snow, until at 
last they appear as gnarled shrubs with interlacing branches 
and the now thickened leaves have been reduced in length 
from about 6 to 3 inches. 


It therefore appears that the sub-arid conditions of the 
inland country, and the coldest effects of the mountains» 
though extreme in their climatic influence, have so oper- 
ated in regard to this particular phase of leaf character as 
to bring about the same result. It is suggested however 
that the modifications of the internal structure of the 
leaves of two Hucalypts which originated before the 
Kosciusko uplift, and developed until the present time 
under those two extremes of climatic influence, would not 
be the same, and although the leaves of E. coriacea at 
6,000 feet, have their counterpart in the Interior at 500 
feet, so far as the thickening character is concerned, yet 
in their venation they are distinct from those of all species 
found in that dry region. 


Horizontal and vertical leaves.—The mature foliage of 
almost all Kucalypts is arranged vertically, and this fact 
furnishes strong evidence that there must have been con- 
siderable development in the genus, for in the great majority 
of cases the juvenile foliage is arranged horizontally. The 
same remark in regard to the juvenile foliage applies 
equally to its nearest allied genus, Angophora. There 
seems little reason to doubt that the mature foliage also 
was originally sessile and arranged horizontally, and that 
the pendant, vertical form is the most recent adaptation. 
Throughout the genus Hucalyptus theie are various species 
which show a connecting link amongst their mature foliage, 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 39 


between the horizontal and vertical forms, and in a col- 
lection of leaves some of the foliage may be noticed with 
the underside pale which proves the horizontal disposition 
of the leaf. ! 


Judging by results, it would seem to have been almost a 
necessity at some particular stage of Kucalyptus develop- 
ment that some adjustment of leaf arrangement should 
have been made to conform to some altered climatic con- 
dition, and ensure the further progress of the genus. The 
simplest method for those species to adopt which had 
already developed petiolate leaves, was to gradually twist 
the leaistalk and so change the position of the blade from 
horizontal to vertical. It is instructive to enquire into 
the condition of one or two species which appear to have 
been unable to do this. 


One of the most interesting Hucalypts in this connection 
is E. pulverulenta (H. pulvigera) which is growing in the 
Mountain Region at Cox’s River, at Bathurst and near 
Cooma. This tree appears to have been unable to develop 
any lanceolate leaves at all, or to substitute the alternate 
for the juvenile opposite arrangement, the whole of its 
foliage being either orbicular or broadly ovate, and being 
sessile, the cordate leaves remain clasping the stem at 
right angles, and therefore present their full surface to the 
sun. It is now that we see the potentialities of the 
EKucalypt to adapt itself to its surroundings, and the method 
selected in this instance has been to cover the leaves with 
a glaucous powder or vegetable wax which reduces the 
effect of the sun’s rays and therefore lessens the evapor- 
ation, while it also serves to keep out the cold in winter. 
It would seem however, that this provision has not been so 
successful as the twisting of the leaf-stalk, for this species 
is a weakling and rarely seems able to grow more than 20 
feet high, and although in the past it appears to have had 


40 R. H. CAMBAGE, 


an extensive range at least from Bathurst to Cooma, a 
distance of about 200 miles, it is not known in the inter- 
vening area, and is looked upon as rare in both localities. 
The available evidence regarding this tree points to the 
conclusion that it is probably a vanishing species. 


E. cordata of Tasmania is a very similar little tree and 
has adopted the vegetable wax instead of the vertical leaf. 
The species is confined to Tasmania and even there is not 
regarded as plentiful. It seems not unlikely that in the 
near geological future both these species will have dis- 
appeared. 


HK. cinerea of the Goulburn district is somewhat similar 
to the two former, but appears to be past the critical stage. | 
It has covered its leaves with glaucous powder, and 
although some trees are furnished with opposite orbicular 
and broadly ovate leaves only, others have developed many 
lanceolate leaves which hang vertically. It grows to a 
height of 40 or 50 feet, has a fairly considerable range, and 
its stems are covered with thick shortly-fibrous bark, while 
the two former have smooth bark. 


The remarks in regard to HE. cinerea apply generally to an 
interesting species known as Silver-leaved Ironbark, E. 
melanophloia, except that the latter has a hard furrowed 
bark. 


Juvenile leaves.—Under the designation of juvenile 
leaves may be included not only seedling leaves, but also 
most of those of certain adventitious growths abundantly 
produced by cutting or wounding parts of the barrel or 
branches, and which in Australia are popularly known as 
suckers, and the difference between these leaves and the 
mature or adult foliage of the same tree is often so great 
as to convey the impression to one who has not studied the 
genus, that they belong to distinct species. It is remark- 
able that Eucalypts rarely, if ever, produce true botanical 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4] 


suckers or shoots from the roots, and a careful examin- 
ation of the young growths which appear around and at 
some little distance from a standing tree and look like true 
suckers, results in the discovery that the plants are seed- 
lings. 


Between these stem-shoot and seedling leaves there is a 
great similarity, and as according to the general biological 
belief it is in the young forms of both flora and fauna that 
we may expect to find the greatest resemblance to ancestral 
types, So we may regard these reversion shoots as of almost 
equal value with the seedlings for the purpose of studying 
the ancestral forms of Kucalypts. Although the leaves of 
these ‘‘suckers’’ when available, are of considerable assist- 
ance in the identification of many species, they vary within 
certain limits both in size and shape, possibly in response 
to differences of climate and to extremes of nourishment 
and poverty. An interesting feature of their form is the 
degree of dissimilarity between them and the mature leaves. 
In some instances the difference is slight and in others 
exceedingly great. Mr. Andrews has already pointed out 
that the difference is greatest in the highland and coastal 
region.* In addition to the disparity of shape and size 
between juvenile and adult foliage, there is also a marked 
difference in arrangement, with the exception of a com- 
paratively few cases which thereby appear anomalous. In 
the most diverse cases the juvenile leaves are sessile, 
opposite and horizontal, orbicular to broadly ovate, and 
perhaps covered with a glaucous bloom, while the adult 
leaves on the same tree may be petiolate, alternate, vertical 
lanceolate and glabrous. There are some species such as 
HK. dives and Risdoni, which flower while still in the 
opposite leaved stage, but they eventually develop the 
alternate lanceolate form. A Eucalypt with the adult 


1 This Journal, Vol. xxiv, p. 467, (1910). 


49 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


leaves arranged along the branchlets in sessile, opposite 
pairs at once attracts attention, and it seems remarkable, 
considering that this appears to have been the form from 
which the genus has evolved its present foliage, that 
when this feature is wholly retained as in the cases of 
E. pulverulenta and cordata, though in a moist climate, the 
trees are depauperate and apparently languishing, as if the 
failure to change their habit in response to some altered 
environment will result in their extermination ; while on 
the other hand, all the great giants of the genus are amongst 
those which have developed petiolate, alternate leaves 
after reaching at most afew feet high. The subject how- 
ever, is an intricate one, and there are many phases of the 
question to be investigated and considered before final 
judgment can be pronounced. 


In considering the distribution of those Hucalypts which 
show the most marked differences between the juvenile 
and adult foliage, it is found that the extreme forms of. 
divergence are commonest in the Mountain Region, next 
in the Ooastal Area, third on the Western Slopes, and least 
in the Interior. The elements of temperature and moisture 
therefore again appear to be important factors in regulating 
this distribution, and when we consider the association 
between the region of greatest diversity in leaf-form, and 
the cold climate, we cannot but realise the important 
influence which the. uplift in the Kosciusko period has 
exercised on the distribution of the Kucalypts in South 
Eastern Australia. 


Amongst those species which show extreme diversity of 
form and arrangement between the juvenile and adult 
foliage in the Mountain Region are the following:— 
Kucalyptus rubida, viminalis, amygdalina, dives, radiata 
(in the lower altitudes), Smithii, globulus, Maideni, gonio- 
calyx, nova-anglica, Macarthuri, Bridgesiana, Cambagei, 
Gunnii, Risdoni, and in some instances cinerea. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 43 


Other mountain Hucalypts whose seedling leaves are 
very much larger than their adult foliage, and are opposite 
for a few pairs only, but are not sessile, are H. Delegatensis 
and Andrewsi. 


In the Coastal Area some of those species which show 
the diverse forms and have juvenile leaves both sessile and 
cordate are E. quadrangulata, which ascends the mountain 
to about 2,000 feet, EH. radiata which ascends to about 
2,500 feet, EH. Smithii which ascends to about 3,000 feet, 
E. umbra, and melanophloia on the Upper Clarence. There 
are others which show extremes in size but whose seed- 
lings have very few opposite pairs, amongst which may 
be mentioned some forms of Hucalyptus tereticornis, 
siderophloia, hemiphloia, and Planchoniana. 


On the Western Slopes, the Hucalypts which show 
extreme forms of foliage and have sessile juvenile leaves 
are E. melanophloia in the north, HE. Cambagei on some of 
the hills and E. Bridgesiana on some of the flats, but the 
home of the latter two is chiefly on the mountains. 


There do not appear to be any species of Hucalyptus in 
the Interior whose seedling leaves are sessile and cordate, 
excepting E. melanophloia. The form, however, is not 
wholly absent from some of the dry portions of Australia. 

Clothing of Leaves. 

Among the familiar forms of leaf coating for the purposes 
of affording protection are the development of fine hairs 
and tomentum, the secretion of wax and viscid substances, 
the coating of the leaf with caoutchouc, and the thickening 
of the epidermis. Of these methods the Hucalypts of New 
South Wales chiefly adopt the thickening of the epidermis, 
the wax covering, and in some instances the caoutchouc 
coating on the Juvenile leaves.’ 


1 See a paper “On the Elastic Substance Occurring on the Shoots and 
Young Leaves of Eucalyptus corymbosa and some species of Angophora,”’ 
by H. G. Smith, F.c.s., this Journal, Vol. xxi, p. 133, (1908). 


44 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


Stellate hairs.—Although stellate hairs are present on 
the juvenile foliage of some species as pointed out by Mr. 
Maiden,* especially among the Corymbosz or Bloodwood 
group and the Stringybarks, this form of covering is rarely 
so dense on the Kucalypts as to afford much protection, 
and is probably one of the early devices. 


Caoutchouc.—The adoption of the caoutchoue coating by. 
Kucalypts appears to be confined to a comparatively few 
species, chiefly the Bloodwood group, of which H. corym- 
bosa may be regarded as typical, and is restricted to the 
young leaves. It also occurs on the young foliage of H. 
maculata. It is instructive to note that this feature is to 
be found chiefly on those Hucalypts whose leaves have the 
lateral veins arranged almost at right angles to the midrib. 
The character is also common on the young leaves of 
Angophora lanceolata and A. intermedia, which have a 
similar venation, thus showing some of the affinities between 
these two genera to which reference has been made by | 
various writers. The device does not appear to have been 
adopted as a protection against cold, as it is rare if not quite 
absent at altitudes exceeding 3,000 feet in latitudes south 
of 32°, and it probably originated as one of the earliest 
forms of protection against hot or droughty conditions. — 


Glaucescence.—The clothing of the leaves with a glauc- 
ous powdery wax is often resorted to by the Eucalypts, 
and especially by the juvenile foliage, but in many instances 
this method of protection is adopted by the mature foliage 
as well, and under different conditions of climate, from that 
of the hot and dry Interior to that of the cool Mountain 
Region, and also with varying degrees of intensity accord- 
ing to the age of the leaves. This covering is largely met 
with in the cool climate, where it may be seen not only on 
the leaves and buds, but also on the branchlets, and in 


1 Crit. Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus, Part VIII. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 45 


some cases on the smooth-barked boles, as on LE. maculosa 
and rubida. As already pointed out, (see Horizontal and 
vertical leaves) it is the method commonly ayailed of by 
those species whose leaves are sessile and orbicular to 
ovate;* and it appears to be a device adopted as a protection 
against evaporation which may be caused either by the 
heat of the dry lowlands, or by the winds and intensity of 
light in a clear atmosphere on the highlands. 


Thick epidermis.—The thickening of the epidermis has 
already been referred to under “‘Thick and Thin Leaves.” 


Leaf Venation. 


A study of the venation ofa series of Kucalyptus leaves 
discloses the fact that the lateral veins are arranged at all 
possible angles with the midrib between the limits of about 
10 to 80 degrees. Attention was first drawn to the botanical 
and chemical agreement of these venations in a paper read 
before this Society by Messrs. Baker and Smith in 1901. 
For convenience of reference, the venation in its relation 
to the midrib, may be divided into three classes, viz.:— 
transverse or right angled, oblique or diagonal, and parallel, 
although none of the veins form quite so much as a right 
angle with the midrib, nor are any strictly parallel there- 
with, and the oblique venation may be regarded as that 
where the lateral veins have a range of about 25 to 65 
degress with the midrib. 


In the transverse venation the lateral veins are straight, 
nearly parallel to each other and close together, while the 
intramarginal vein is close to the edge, and the midrib is 
thick. 


In the oblique venation the lateral veins are further 
apart than in the last form, while the intramarginal vein 
is at some distance from the edge. 


+ H. Deane, m.a., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxv, p. 471, (1900). 


46 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


In the parallel venation the lateral veins are well apart 
and sometimes show a system of looping, the intramarginal 
vein being well removed from the edge, and the midrib is 
thin. 


Seeing the very great divergence which often exists 
between the seedling and adult leaves of the same tree, 
and also in the venation of the adult foliage of many species, 
it seems reasonable to suppose that the various ultimate 
types of venation have been developed in response to some 
influence or dominating condition, and if the distribution 
of these various types can be shown, some data should 
thereby be furnished that would assist in deciding what 
that particular regulating influence may have been. 


Transverse venation.—Upon investigating the distribu- 
tion of those Kucalypts which have the transverse venation, 
it is found that they form a very small proportion of the 
Kucalypts of South Kastern Australia, and are commonest 
in the Coastal Area, next in the Interior, and on the Western 
Slopes, and last in the Mountain Region, In the last named 
division, Hucalypts having this class of venation appear to 
be quite absent above an altitude of 3,000 feet, while one 
species, H. trachyphloia, occurs on the northern part of the 
Western Slopes, and another H. terminalis in the northern 
portion of the Interior. The venation of H. tessellaris, 
which occurs in the north-eastern portion of the Interior, 
is rather more oblique than transverse, and shows a sort of 
transit stage. It will be seen therefore that the Kucalypts 
with the transverse venation avoid the cold parts, and it 
jS significant that they are absent from Tasmania, and 
almost so from Victoria, three species, H. corymbosa, 
botryoides and maculata occurring sparsely near the coast 
in the extreme north-east corner of that State. Further, 
there are only about a dozen species of this class which 
occur in South Hastern Australia though several are found 
connecting round through North to West Australia. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 47 


Judging by its wide distribution, and considering that 
this type of venation is practically identical with that of 
the genus Angophora, and avoids the cold, the assumption 
seems warranted that it belongs to the earliest form of 
Eucalyptus leaf, and also was developed in a warm climate 
in Northern Australia. * 


Oblique venation.—A study of the oblique venation, or 
that which is intermediate between the approximately 
right angled and parallel venations, and of which EH. globulns 
may be regarded as a type, reveals the fact that the bulk 
of the Hucalypts fall within this class. It is found that 
they occur in the dry Interior and also well up on the 
Mountain Region to elevations ina few cases of 5,000 feet. 
This form is most strongly represented in the Coastal Area, 
but that is largely because species and individuals are more 
numerous in that division. It is also the dominant form on 
the Western Slopes and in the Interior, in fact, except for 
the two species with transverse venation mentioned as 
occurring in those divisions, practically all other species 
there belong to the oblique venation series. It is fairly 
common in the Mountain Region between the altitudes of 
2,000 and 4,000 feet, but becomes less plentiful above that 
elevation, and practically ceases just above 5,000 feet. 


Considering the prevalence of this type of leaf all over 
Australia, it seems a correct assumption that it is fairly 
ancient, and was evolved from the transverse venation as 
a form better suited to make progress amidst the surround- 
ings in which it was placed. 


Parallel venation.—The type of leaf referred to as having 
parallel venation, or having the lateral veins arranged at 
an angle of less than about 25 degrees with the midrib, 
belongs chiefly to the Mountain Region, and secondly to 


1 «The Tertiary Flora of Australia,’ by H. Deane, u.a., Proc. Linn. 
Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxv, p. 474, (1900). 


48 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


the Coastal Area; and so far as New South Wales is con- 
cerned, is practically confined to those two divisions, the 
form being absent from the Western Slopes and the Interior. 
E. coriacea and stellulata are very pronounced examples 
of this class of venation. 


A study of the distribution of this type of leaf in New 
South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania, leads to the conclusion 
that it has been evolved largely if not wholly in response 
to cool and moist conditions, and it is of interest to note 
that the Hucalypt which ascends higher than any other in 
Australia, viz.:—E. coriacea, and which reaches an altitude 
of 6,500 feet, is one of the most typical of the parallel 
veined forms in the genus. Hverything seems to point to 
the conclusion that the parallel veined leaf is the newest 
type of HKucalyptus leaf in existence, that it was developed 
in the south as an offshoot from the oblique venation, and 
after the Kosciusko uplift, migrated north along the resul- 
tant Main Divide throughout the entire length of New 
South Wales. 


Geological formations selected by Eucalypts with vari- 
ous leaf venations.—Species having the various types of 
leaf venation appear to exercise some preference for differ- 
ent classes of geological formations. Those having the 
transverse venation generally select the acid rocks which 
are composed of upwards of 70% silica, much of which is in 
a free state. Species with the oblique venation are more 
typical of the basic rocks and soils, although by no means 
confined to that formation, some even growing on highly 
siliceous rocks. The trees with the parallel veins, such as 
EK. dives, occupy chiefly the fairly siliceous formations or 
those containing between 60 and 70% silica, but some of 


them grow on basic formations, while others are on highly 


siliceous. 
Fossil Leaves. 


Of the fossil leaves which have been identified as 
HKucalypts in Miocene deposits in South Hastern Australia, 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 49 


some are considered to possibly belong to other genera, 
but those recorded as Hucalypts are distributed somewhat 
as follows:—Those showing the transverse venation have 
been recorded from Oxley near Brisbane’ in latitude 273", 
to Tasmania, and those with the oblique venation, from 
northern New South Wales to southern Victoria, though 
one or two of the Brisbane specimens show the beginning 
of the latter venation. A typical form of the oblique vena- 
tion, HE. Pluti, McCoy, has been found near Daylesford 
in Victoria in Miocene beds. 


Mr. H. Deane has described what he regards as probably 
a Kucalyptus fossil, from a specimen discovered at Morn- 
ington, towards the extreme south of Victoria, under the 
name of E. preecoriacea.” It has the parallel venation of 
the living E. coriacea, but also much resembles a phyllo- 
dineous Acacia or a Hakea as suggested by Mr. Deane. © 
The same author has also described several species from 
the fossil flora of Berwick in about latitude 38°, but these 
belong chiefly to the section which has leaves with the 
early oblique venation, the lateral veins being usually 
arranged in these specimens at angles of from 40 to 65° or 
rarely 70° with the midrib. The Mornington and Berwick 
beds are doubtfully referred to the Kocene period.* 

Mr. F. Chapman, A.L.S., in writing of some fossils of 
probably Janjukian or Miocene age, from Wannon Falls, 
Redruth, Western Victoria, says ‘‘ Several fragments of 
long, ovate, pointed leaves, can without doubt be referred 
to the genus Hucalyptus. Their venation differs from those 
of the fossil species described by McCoy and Ettingshausen, 
in having remarkably long and sub-parallel veins; and very 
closely agree with the leaves of EF. amygdalina.’’* 


1 Baron von Ettingshausen, Denks. K. Akad. Wissen. Wien., Math.- 
Naturw. C]. ux, p. 48, (1895). 

* Records Geol. Sur., Victoria, 1902, p. 20. 

* A. E. Kitson, F.c.s., Rec. Geol. Sur., Victoria, 1902, p. 52. 

* Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 1910, p. 25. 


D—May 7, 1913. 


50 R H. CAMBAGE, 


If the extreme or parallel type of venation had been 
evolved in Hocene or early Miocene time, then it would 
seem not unlk ely that the genus originated as far back as 
towards the close of the Cretaceous, though its occurrence 
in Europe in Cretaceous or Tertiary time seems most 
improbable as already pointed out by Mr. Deane.* 


Mr. R. M. Johnston has described two species of 
Kucalyptus from fossil leaves found in Tasmania, one, H. 
Kayseri from Mount Bischoff, and the other, H. Milligani 
probably from Macquarie Harbour.’ From the drawings, 
these both belong to the transverse venation type, and this 
implies that Hucalypts, having leaves with this class of 
venation had extended south to latitude 42° in Hocene or 
Miocene time, or about 4° beyond where living examples 
of this type are foundtoday. In his Presidential Address 
to the Linnean Society Mr. Deane referred to this phase of 
distribution, owing to the warmer early Tertiary climate, 
and said:—‘* Taking into consideration the difference 
between the Hocene and Miocene climate and that of the 
present period, we might expect to find existing types a 
few degrees further south in the fossil state.’’° 


Mr. Chapman has also kindly shown mea Tertiary fossil 
leaf with the oblique venation, probably a Eucalypt, from 
near Burnie in Tasmania. 


The leaves described by Ettingshausen as Hucalypts, from 
Miocene beds at Emmaville (Vegetable Creek) in latitude 
294°, include those with both the transverse and oblique 
venations, the former predominating.* 

. 


1 Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, Vol. xxv, p. 463, (1900). Also, “ Flora 
of the Amboy Clays,” by J. 8S. Newberry, Monographs U.S. Geol, Survey, 
Vol. xxvi, p. 46, (1895). 

2 « Geology of Tasmania,” by Robt. M. Johnston, F.u.s., (1888). 

3 Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xx1, p. 832, (1896). 

* Memoirs of the Geological Survey of N.S. Wales, Paleontology No. 2, 


Tertiary Flora of Australia by Dr..Constantin, Baron von Ettingshausen, 
(1888.) \ 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 51 


The somewhat meagre fossil evidence available rather 
supports the idea that the transverse venation belongs to 
the earliest form of Eucalyptus leaf, while it also goes to 
show that even the extreme or parallel type of venation 
flourished in the south as far back at least as the Miocene 
period. After the Kosciusko uplift, and perhaps assisted 
by the glacial period in Pleistocene time, this latter type 
was enabled to invade New South Wales from south to 
north by travelling along the Main Divide. 

Inflorescence. 

Anther.—The only portion of the flower which I propose 
to discuss is the anther, and this is the most important 
part of the inflorescence from a diagnostic point of view. 
Bentham, in that classical work, the Flora Australiensis, 
was the first to group the Kucalypts according tothe anthers. 
He arranged them into five sections which Baron von 
Mueller reduced to three on finding difficulties in main- 
taining the larger number separately." My remarks will 
be confined to the three groups viz.:— 


Parallelantherce.—The cells and consequently the longi- 
tudinal slits parallel. 


Porantherce.—The anthers small and opening in pores. 


Renantherce.—The anthers fairly large, the cells diver- 
gent at the base, and confluent at the summit. 


Ina large genus like Hucalyptus it is not surprising to 
find that there isa gradation of characters from one species 
to another, and this varietal tendency applies in a marked 
degree to the anthers. But on studying the distribution 
of the three general types of anther, it becomes evident 
that to some extent such distribution is regulated by 
climatic influence, or that a certain form of anther is often 
better represented in one class of climate than another. 


+ For remarks concerning variation of anthers, see “A Critical Revision 
of the Genus Eucalyptus,” by J. H. Maiden, r.u.s., Part I, p. 11. 


52 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


Parallelantherce.—The parallel anther is by far the com- 
monest type of anther in the genus, being found all over 
Australia, and is the form which belongs to the closely 
allied genus Angophora. It has been noticed, however, 
that this form becomes less common above an altitude of 
4,000 feet. If we consider that all the present forms of 
anther have been evolved from one original type, then it 
would seem that the type known as parallelantherse bears 
the nearest resemblance to the original. This hypothesis 
is supported by the wide distribution of this particular 
form, and the fact that it passes by gradual stages to the 
porantherz on the one hand and the renanthere on the 


other. 


In associating anthers with leaves it is seen that the 
parallel anther and the leaf with oblique venation as well 
as the transverse venation, usually go together, but it is 
not the form of anther which is associated with the parallel 


venation. 


Porantheroe.—The poranthere section is largely confined 
to the inland portions of Hastern Australia, and compared 
with the last mentioned type, is a comparatively small 
section, being chiefly found amongst the Box-trees, Iron- 
barks, and some Mallees. For the purpose of this address 
it is made to include the form known as the truncate anther. 
In New South Wales the poranthere has its greatest num- 
ber of representatives in the Interior and Western Slopes, 
and occurs to a less extent in the Coastal Area. The one 
condition that it distinctly avoids is the cold, and it is 
absent from the Mountain Region above elevations of about 
3,000 feet, south of latitude 31°, and also from Tasmania, 
one of the trees with this type of anther best able to face 
the cold being H. melliodora. The form of leaf-venation 
associated with this anther is the oblique venation. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. D5) 


It is pointed out that the Hucalypts which belong to 
the porantherze section rather favour the basic than the 
siliceous formations, and it seems not improbable that an 
extended study of that phase of development which results 
from response to certain plant food, may largely help to 
elucidate some of the mysteries of evolution in the genus. 

Renantherce.—Turning now to the renanthere, we find 
that it is practically confined to South HKastern Australia, 
and is the principal form occurring in the higher Mountain 
Region, and also that nearly all those Kucalypts having 
leaves with the parallel venation possess the kidney-shaped 
anther. Next to the mountains it is most common in the 
Coastal Area, but on the drier Western Slopes is rare 
indeed, while in the still drier Interior of New South Wales 
this form of anther does not occur at all. 


Considering this general distribution of the last named 
two types of anther, there seem reasonable grounds for 
assuming that one necessary condition for the development 
of the former is warmth, while the latter is largely the 
result of moist and cool surroundings. 

. There are anomalous members of the section renanthere, 
which in an evolving genus is not a matter for surprise, 
examples being found in such species as H. Smithii and 
microcorys. 

When writing of H. pauciflora (coriacea) in the Kucalyp- 
tographia, Baron von Mueller refers to the relationship 
which exists between the renanthere type of anther and 
the leaves with parallel venation. 

Essential Oils. 

In their “‘ Research on the Hucalypts,’’ Messrs Baker 
and Smith record that three of the important constituents 
of the essential oils obtained from the leaves are :—pinene, 
eucalyptol (cineol) and phellandrene. At least one of these 
constituents has been obtained from almost every Eucalypt 


i a 
* 
' as 


54 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


they have examined, and in some cases all three have been 
present. Out of 110 species examined, eucalyptol is given 
as the principal constituent in 50, pinene in 31, and phel- 
landrene in 26 species. Hucalyptol occurs in 95 of the 
Species examined, pinene in 95, and phellandrene in 36. It 
will be convenient torefer to these oils as pinene, eucalyptol, 
or phellandrene oils, according to which constituent pre- 
dominates. 


The above mentioned authors have already pointed out 
that broadly speaking the leaves having the transverse 
venation contain a large proportion of pinene, while the 
oblique and the parallel venation respectively indicate the 
presence of eucalyptol and phellandrene in predominating 
proportions. 


Pinene.—In considering the distribution in New South 
Wales, of the typical pinene oil-yielding species, such as H. 
corymbosa and saligna etc., it is found that the bulk of 
them occur in the Coastal Area. The remainder are dis- 
tributed throughout the lower Mountain Region and the 
western parts of this State. They are practically absent 
from altitudes exceeding 4,000 feet in latitudes south of 
32°, an exception being found in E. rubida, which flourishes 
at elevations up to 5,000 feet. This species, however, is 
not regarded as one of the typical pinene oil trees, the 
lateral veins in its leaves coming within the oblique vena- 
tion, and its total yield of oil when tested was phenomen- | 
ally low. Pinene therefore appears to be a constituent 
which, in the Kucalypts, has been developed amongst warm 
rather than cold surroundings. 


In the light of our present knowledge it seems undoubted 
that the Hucalypts have been either evolved from the 
Angophoras, or perhaps more probably that both genera 
have come from some common ancestor now extinct, and 
as pinene occurs in the Angophoras, and is the principal 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 55 


constituent in what are regarded as the earliest forms of 
Kucalypts now remaining, that constituent is likely to 
occur in some varying quantity throughout the slowly 
evolving genus. 


In seeking for some relationship between essential oils 
and geological formations, it is found that those Eucalypts 
typical of the class which produce pinene oils, prefer silice- 
ous to basic formations, and select those of the former 
where much of the silica is in a free state. 


Eucalyptol.—The species which contain a large propor- 
tion of eucalyptol (cineol), appear to comprise the bulk of 
the genus, and so far as New South Wales is concerned, 
occur most in the Coastal Area and Interior as well as 
lower Mountain Region. and are found least in the coldest 
parts, E. amygdalina being an exception. This appears to 
be the dominant constituent of the genus at the present 
day, and as it appears to mark a transition from pinene of 
the warm, to phellandrene of the cold climate, it should be 
expected to diminish in quantity, even in the same species, 
as an ascent is made into the colder altitudes. HKucalyptol- 
yielding species usually occur on geological formations 
varying from basic to fairly acid, and even occasionally 
on very siliceous rocks, but of the three oil-yielding groups 
this is perhaps the most typical of the basic formation and 
may be found on the black soils of the Interior. 


Phellandrene.—The home of this constituent in its 
greatest volume is in the Mountain Region, and in a 
reducing quantity it occurs in the Coastal Area, Western 
Slopes and the Interior, being rare in the last named 
division. In none of these schemes of distribution is any 
particular character or quality found to be confined pre- 
cisely within any exact limits, nor is such a condition of 
grouping to be expected in an evolving genus, but in out- 
lining their distribution, characters are regarded as typical 


56 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


of the areas in which they predominate. <A study of the 
distribution of phellandrene, as revealed by Messrs. Baker 
and Smith’s researches, points undoubtedly to the conclus- 
ion that this constituent has been chiefly produced under’ 
conditions of cold and moisture, being the principal ingre- 
dient in the oils of such cold loving species as H. dives, 
vitrea, Andrewsi, coriacea and stellulata, and notwith- 
standing that it is recorded as occurring in two species 
from the Interior, which are totally different from mountain 
species, viz., in HK. microtheca and melanophloia, its home 
is in the Mountain Region and southern Coastal Areas of 
South Eastern Australia. 


Phellandrene-yielding trees occur on formations from 
basic to acid, but usually prefer those with upwards of 60% 
silica, and generally avoid alkaline soils. 


Summary. 

From a study of the physiographic, geological, and 
climatic conditions of South Hastern Australia the follow- 
ing general conclusions have been arrived at in regard to 
the development and distribution of the genus Hucalyptus. 


In early Tertiary time the country had a fairly level 
surface and a low elevation, with a mild to warm climate, 
and the flora for two or three hundred miles inland from 
the east coast was of a more uniform character than at 
present. A succession of slight upheavals from the early 
Miocene period onwards, and which culminated in the 
Kosciusko period, created climatic conditions which pro- 
duced a differentiation of floras on the eastern, central, 
and western sides of the uplifted area. By investigating 
the distribution of the Kucalypts, particularly in regard to 
certain characters of the anthers, leaves, and essential 
oils, some uniformity is found, within certain limits, in the 
development of these various characters. Considering, 
however, the great length of time the genus has been 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 57 


developing, possibly ever since late Oretaceous time, it is 
to be expected that a considerable overlapping of evolu- 
tionary characters exists, and such being found to be the 
case, this tends to render the forming of definite conclusions 
more difficult. 


The available evidence points to the conclusion that the 
EKucalypts either invaded, or probably originated in the 
northern or warm, rather than the southern or cold portion 
of Australia. The anthers belonged to the section known 
as parallelantheree, the leaves had the transverse venation, 
and the chief constituent of the essential oils was pinene. 
The type of EKucalypt containing the transverse venation 
is absent from Tasmania, and in latitudes south of about 
35 is confined to a comparatively narrow coastal strip in 
New South Wales and Victoria. As the genus evolved, its 
characters continued to be modified in response to its 
surroundings, largely it would seem through its invasion of 
colder latitudes, and later by its ascent to greater eleva- 
tions produced by earth movements along Kastern Australia 
and probably from other causes not yet understood, amongst 
which are likely to be its selection of different plant foods 
owing to the class of geological formation which supported 
its growth, and the amount of moisture present. A trans- 
ition began to appear from the parallelanthere towards 
the poranthere, a somewhat small section which avoids 
the cold regions, and also in an opposite manner towards 
the renanthere, a section which shuns hot and dry con- 
ditions, but favours the cold and moist. The transverse 
venation was also largely superseded by the oblique or 
diagonal venation, and eucalyptol (cineol) became an 
important constituent of the essential oil in the leaves. 


At the present day the home of the typical renanthere 
is largely in the cool and moist regions, and with it may 
be found the majority of those species whose leaves have 


58 R. H. CAMBAGE. 


the parallel venation, and the bulk of those whose leaves 
yield the greatest quantities of phellandrene oil. 


It is freely conceded that the typical characters referred 
to are not absolutely the product of any one condition, nor 
would such a result be expected when the great range and 
the variation of this large genus are considered, and while 
the varying geological formations with their diverse 
amounts of silica and alkalies have been amongst the most 
important factors in regulating the development of the 
Hucalypts, the dominating influence which is broadly 
responsible for the regulation of their distribution over the 
whole continent is that of climate. | 


ACTION OF CONCENTRATED SULPHURIC ACID ON IRON. 59 


PRODUCTS or THE ACTION oF CONCENTRATED 
SULPHURIC ACID on IRON. 


By C. W. R. POWELL, 
Science Research Scholar, University of Sydney. 


(Communicated by Professor C. E. Fawsitt, D.Sc., Ph.D.) 
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 4, 19138.] 


THE action of sulphuric acid on metals generally seems to 
depend largely on the temperature at which the reaction 
takes place and upon the concentration of the acid. The 
reactions generally accepted are :— 

(1) that dilute sulphuric acid, either hot or cold, acting 
ona metal produces hydrogen gas and sulphate of 
the metal according to the equation :— 

Moo. — oO, ls, 
where M is any divalent metal, and— 

(2) that concentrated sulphuric acid in the cold has 
very little action, but when heated produces sul- 
phur dioxide gas,sulphate ofthe metaland water:— 
MM 20650, = MSO, +- 80, + 20.0. 

Statements in connection with the action of concentrated 
sulphuric acid on metals in the cold are somewhat conflict- 
ing, but it would appear that the nature of the reaction, if 
any takes place, is very largely influenced by the metal 
employed. Baskerville’ groups the reactions with copper 
intg two classes. 

(A) Primary. 

1. Cu + 2H,SO, = CuSO, + SO, + 2H.0O, 
this reaction taking place in two stages:— 
(a) Cu + H,SO, = CuSO, + 2H; 
(b) 2H + H,SO, = SO, + 2H,0. 
2. 9Cu + 4H,SO, = Cu.S + 3CuSO, + 4H,0O. 
* Jour, Amer. Chem. Soc. xvi, p. 904, (1895). 


60 Cc. W. R. POWELL. 


(B) Secondary. 
1. Ou.S + 2H.SO, = CuS + CuSO. + SO, + 2H.0O. 
2. CuS + 2H.SO, = OuSO, +S + SO, + 2H,O. 


He finds that the primary reactions predominate between 
0° and 270° C. and that the gases evolved contain no 
hydrogen. Sluiter* has gone a little further and proved 
the presence of nascent hydrogen in the acid by reducing 
nitro-benzene to aniline. Pickering? also classified the 
reaction as above and in addition pointed out that the 
formation of nascent hydrogen is not necessitated by the 
production of cuprous sulphide according to the second 
primary equation. He states that copper is attacked at 
19° C. (and probably lower), but that with the exception of 
a few minute bubbles no gas is evolved until about 130°. 


The action of concentrated sulphuric acid on mercury 
somewhat resembles that on copper, sulphur dioxide gas 
and mercury sulphate being formed with no trace of 
hydrogen at 150° and 200° C. However in this case it is 
considered that the acid is directly reduced by the metal 
without the intermediate formation of nascent hydrogen.’ 


Zine and iron react similarly to each other, but differ 
from copper and mercury in producing hydrogen with the 
concentrated acid.” With regard to the evolution of sulphur 
dioxide gas, Thomsen says that the formation of the gas is 
hindered by the tendency of the molecules to retain their 
original configuration, and it is only when the opposition 
to any change of the status quo is removed by raising the 
temperature and concentration that the reaction proceeds. 
Ditte’ has carried out very complete researches on the 


+ Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1906, p. 318, also Chem. Weekblad, 111, pp. 63 
— 66, (1906). 

* Chem. Soc. Trans., 1878, p. 113. 

* Baskerville and Miller, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., x1x, p. 873. 

* Thomsen, Thermochemistry, also Ditte, Ann. Ch. Pharm. x1x, p. + i 
(1890). * Ditte, loc. cit. a 


ACTION OF CONCENTRATED SULPHURIC ACID ON IRON, 61 


action of a large number of metals on sulpburic acid and 
has found that the concentrated acid in the cold acts very 
slowly on iron, the rate of gas evolution being still slow at 
130°, only commencing to increase appreciably at 150°, 
when the gas consists of a mixture of hydrogen and sulphur — 
dioxide. When the dilution of the acid reaches about 1:3, 
_hydrogen alone is evolved whatever the temperature. At 
all dilutions with iron he detected sulphuretted hydrogen 
together with sulphide of iron, the latter accounting for 
the darkening of the acid. With concentrated acid the 
sulphuretted hydrogen was decomposed with precipitation 
of sulphur. Thomsen pointed out the formation of H.S in 
connection with zinc, stating that if the dilute acid was 
evaporated, an intermediate reaction took place when a 
certain concentration was reachedaccording tothe equation, 
4Zn +5H-2SO,Aq = 4 ZnSO,Aq + H.S +4H.0. 


It is the custom in commerce to store sulphuric acid in 
iron drums and in iron tanks, and as the present view is 
that the concentrated acid is practically without action on 
iron in the cold, the practice is generally considered to be 
quite safe. With regard to the manufacture of Nordhausen 
sulphuric acid, Roscoe and Schorlemmer* mention that 
certain absorbers are used “‘ containing concentrated sul- 
phuric acid, being made of wrought iron which is not 
attacked by acid of this strength (97 - 987%), whereas cast 
iron although not corroded rapidly cracks under these 
conditions.”’ 


The present investigation was undertaken specially in 
connection with iron, and the author finds that this metal 
has a definite action on concentrated sulphuric acid in the 
cold, and that the products of the reaction are mainly 
ferrous sulphate and hydrogen. There is also a small 
quantity of sulphur dioxide gas formed. 


1 Treatise on Chemistry, Vol.1, see also Lunge, Sulphuric Acid and 
Alkali, Vol. 1, p. 39. 


“) <a 
a 7 
c bg? 
s 
« 


62 C. W. R. POWELL. 


Materials Used. 

In the laboratory experiments steel wire was used 
and Elliott Bros.’ “‘Chemically Pure’’ sulphuric acid, 
density 1°842. The steel wire was polished with emery 
cloth before use and immersed in the acid with as little 
delay as possible, so as to avoid the influence of impurities, 
such as rust, coming into the reaction. 


In the first experiments conducted it was noticed, after 
the sulphuiic acid had been acting on the steel for some 
months, that the flask contained a large amount of a 
whitish precipitate which was present in sufficient quantity 
to obscure the steel. This was at first supposed to be a 
complex compound of iron, sulphur and oxygen, but subse- 
quent analysis proved it to be ferrous sulphate, in all 
probability anhydrous, although it is just possible that it 
consisted of the monohydrated salt. 

Methods of Analysis. 

The sediment from the flask was poured into a beaker’ 
containing alcohol, and after being well mixed was filtered 
through a Soxhlet filter paper. The paper was then placed 
in a Soxhlet apparatus as used for fat extraction, and 
washed with boiling alcohol. The washing was continued 
for two days when practically the whole of the sulphuric 
acid was removed. This method of purification was adopted 
after trying others, and alcohol was found to be much pre- 
ferable to any other solvent asa washing fluid. The acid- 
free sediment was dried ina water bath at 100° OC. and 
analysed gravimetrically with the following results: 

Fe vane WE OUE 
SO, . 2c.) Br 


Adding up to aoe OOS 
If the formula be taken as FeSO, + H.O, that is mono- 


hydrated ferrous sulphate, the total then adds up to 101°0, 
which in this case is within the limits of experimental 


ACTION OF CONCENTRATED SULPHURIC ACID ON IRON, 63 


error. Some crystals of FeSO, + 7 H.O were then treated 
with concentrated sulphuric acid and washed with alcohol 
in a similar manner, to see if one molecule of water was 
retained as found above. The analysis showed this to be 
the case. 


This was previously noticed by Scott* who worked on 
mixed sulphates of copper and iron. He found that FeSO. 
+ H.O is easily prepared in the following manner:—a 
saturated solution of the salt (hydrated, 7 H.O) is prepared 
in the cold, and an equal volume of concentrated sulphuric 
acid added. <A precipitate is obtained and washed two or 
three times with H.SO. diluted with its‘own volume of 
water, then with absolute alcohol, then with a mixture of 
absolute alcohol and dry ether, and finally with dry ether, 
and dried over concentrated H.SO. in an evacuated desic- 
cator. Roscoe and Schorlemmer state that ferrous sulphate 
is insoluble in concentrated sulphuric acid and absolute 
alcohol, but dissolves slightly in dilute alcohol. Hence, 
sulphuric acid and alcohol precipitate solutions of sulphate, 
the precipitate containing varying quantities of water of 
crystallisation according to the amount of precipitant and 
concentration of the solution. 


This previous work is in accordance with the author’s 
analysis of the powder obtained from FeSO. + 7 H.O by 
treatment with sulphuric acid and alcohol,anda comparison 
between this analysis and that of the sediment obtained 
directly from the iron by action of H.SO. indicates the 
close relation between the two. 


Sediment from Prepared from Calculated for 
Experiment. FeSO, + 7 H,.0. FeSO, + H,O. 
Fe 32°8 32°6 32°88 
sO, 5 lal 56°4 56°51 


The conclusion drawn was that anhydrous ferrous sul- 
phate was formed by action of concentrated sulphuric acid 
* Jour. Chem. Soc., 1897, p. 564. 


64 C. W. R. POWELL. 


on steel wire and converted into the monohydrated salt by 
the method of purification adopted, a possible alternative 
view being that there was sufficient water in the flask to 
form FeSO. + H.O initially, since in addition to the 2—37 
of water found in the acid, a further amount was being 
continuously formed in the generation of sulphur dioxide 
gas according to the equation :— 
Fe + 2 H.8O,. = FeSO. + SO, + 2 H.O, 

two molecules of water being formed for every one of ferrous 
sulphate. However this will be again discussed when the 
respective amountsofSO:, and hydrogen have been recorded. 


“Method of Gas Analysis. 


The gas evolved was analysed in Hempel’s apparatus, 
using a modified Winkler gas burette. After observing 
the initial volume and temperature the mixture of gases 
was passed into a Hempel gas pipette, containing a solution 
of potassium hydrate, when all the sulphur dioxide was 
absorbed (as well as any other soluble gases which may 
have been present in very small quantities). The diminu- 
tion in volume represented the volume of SO, originally 
present after allowing for the vapour tension of the KOH 
solution, since the gasesat start were dry owing to the 
dehydrating action of the sulphuric acid used to obtain 
them. The remaining gas was then passed into a gas 
pipette filled with a solution of alkaline pyrogallol prepared 
by mixing together—directly in the gas pipette—d grams 
of pyrogallol dissolved in 15 c.cms. of water and 120 grams 
of KOH dissolved in 80 c.cms. of water. The gas absorbed 
by this solution was considered to be atmospheric oxygen, 
and a corresponding amount of nitrogen calculated on the 
basis that air contains 21% of oxygen by volume. About 
16 c.cms. of the oxygen-free gas were then passed into a 
pipette and mixed with an excess of air, exploded in an 
explosion pipette and the contraction in volume observed. 


ACTION OF CONCENTRATED SULPHURIC ACID ON IRON, 65 


In the first determinations the gases after explosion and 
measurement were again passed into the KOH pipette to 
see if any gases soluble therein (such as CO.) had been 
formed by the explosion. In no case was a contraction in 
volume here obtained, hence it was concluded that no 
appreciable quantity of methane or any other gas insoluble 
in KOH itself, and which would give CO; on explosion, was 
originally present in the gas. After observing the con- 
traction in a duplicate explosion, the excess of oxygen was 
absorbed in alkaline pyrogallol as a check on the subsequent 
calculations. Two thirds of the diminution in volume due 
to the explosion represented the volume of hydrogen in the 
volume of gas diluted with air. The detailed order of 
analysis was as follows :— 


Original volume of gas and temperature °O. 
Volume after absorption in KOH ,, 
Volume after absorption in Pyro. ,, 
Any volume of remainder pe 
Volume after addition of air oa 
Volume after explosion 


In the following tables of analyses of gases evolved, 
sulphur dioxide and hydrogen are expressed as percentages 
of gas evolved, i.e., SO. and hydrogen add up to 100. This 
affords an easier comparison than if the amount of air 
determined was included in the tables, since for different 
experiments the actual analyses show varying amounts of 
air. The air found in the gases is simply the air which was 
in the flask at start, and had been carried over along with 
the SO, and hydrogen into the measuring cylinder, and was 
estimated as stated in order to make sure that all the con- 
stituents of the gaseous mixture were being ascertained. 
As the gases were analysed at frequent intervals in order 
to see if the composition changed with the lapse of time, 
in most cases only 25 c.cms. were available for analysis. 

E—June 4, 1913. 


66 Cc. W. R. POWELL. 


Three experiments were carried out with the steel 
mentioned, and the analyses of gases evolved at 30° O. show 
approximately the same ratio of SO. to hydrogen. 


Baperiment I, 


| Time in days. | Temperature °C. | SO, | H 
BOcls Ry ide ni 4380 se | 94-5 100-0 
40 | 30 | 4 WSO 100:0 | 


The first column in the table expresses the time the 
reaction has been proceeding, and the second records the 
temperature at which the sulphuric acid was maintained. 
In HKxperiment I, 19°405 grams iron were immersed in 
about 60°0 c. cms. of concentrated H.SO,. 


Experiment IT. 


| Time in days. | Temperature °C. | SO. | H 

| 18 30 | 2-0 98:0 | 1000 

| 39 30 | 6:3 93-7 100-0 

| 54 3 4-9 95:1 100-0 

| 3 35 Ley eS 92-5 100-0 

| 3 35 | 8-0 99-0 100-0 | 
8 35 6-8 93-9 100-0 
12 40 10°5 895 100:0 


In this table column one expresses time for each tem- 
perature, starting from zero again every time the temper- 
ature was changed. 17°906 grams iron were in this 
experiment immersed in about 60°0 c. cms. of concentrated 
sulphuric acid. 

Experiment ILI. 


Time in days. | Temperature °C. | SO. H 
8 25 3-9 968 | 100-0 
19 30 73 92" 100°0 
25 30 ‘her 92°3 100-0 


ACTION OF CONCENTRATED SULPHURIC ACID ON IRON. 67 


In Experiment III, 20°97 grams of iron were immersed 
in about 70 c. cms. of concentrated sulphuric acid. 
Analysis of Gas evolved from a Mild Steel and Commercial 

Sulphuric Acid. 

This mild steel contained 0°37 of nickel, and the com- 
mercial acid contained 957 H.SO.—being somewhat less 
pure than that used in the above three experiments. The 
reaction was allowed to proceed for some time before the 
initial analysis was made, and in the following table sub- 
sequent analyses are timed from the initial analysis. The 
amount of air in the gases was determined as before, and 
sulphur dioxide and hydrogen are again expressed as per- 
centages of total gases evolved. 


Gases evolved, using Mild Steel. 


Time in days. SO. H 
— 2°1 hes) 100-0 
4 1:2 98°8 100-0 
11 8 oo | OOO 
15 1:0 99:0 100:0 
39 8 99°2 100:0 


This series of experiments was carried out at atmospheric 
temperature, which for the 39 days over which the analyses 
extended was generally 25—27°C. In the above table the 
ratio of SO, to hydrogen is somewhat smaller than that 
obtained in the experiments with steel wire. But the 
main facts are still the same, namely, that concentrated 
sulphuric acid has a definite action on iron in the cold (25 
— 30° C.), and in no case was hydrogen gas liberated with- 
out sulphur dioxide gas being formed at the same time. 


From this it would seem to be the case that two actions 
are proceeding simultaneously, one producing hydrogen 
and ferrous sulphate, and the other sulphur dioxide, ferrous 
sulphate and water according to the equations :— 

1. Fe + H.SO. = FeSO. + Hao. 
2. We + 2H.8SO. = FeSO. + SO, + 2H,0. 


68 Cc. W. R. POWELL. 


The gas analyses show that the greater part of the 
reaction is taking place according to Equation 1, on an 
average 93/7, of hydrogen being liberated to 7% sulphur 
dioxide (at 30° 0.). Hence it might be concluded that this 
is the initial reaction, and that the nascent hydrogen is 
only able to reduce a small amount of the sulphuric acid at 
the temperature of the experiment. This theory would be 
substantiated by analysing the gases evolved at higher 
temperatures, and the author is at present carrying the 
investigation further with this end in view. 


Some preliminary experiments have already been con- 
ducted, and a few of the results are included to indicate 
the course of the reaction above 100° O. The percentage 
of SO. rapidly increases, until at 180° C. the amount of 
hydrogen, if any is present at all, becomes too small to be 
detected by the ordinary method of analysis. 


Temperature °C. SO, H 
150 47 53 100-0 
165 48 52 100:0 
| 180 100 pti] 0Oet 
| 200 100 ais 100-0 


Warner’ has stated that sulphuric acid is not reduced by 
hydrogen unless nascent below 160° C., and from the above 
table it will be seen that a very marked change in the 
reaction occurs between 165 — 180° C. 


However, it may be the case that the sulphur dioxide is 
produced by a direct reduction of the acid by the iron, as 
has been shown to be the case with mercury*—although 
with copper as has already been referred to, the inter- 
-Imediate formation of nascent hydrogen has been definitely 
proved.* The rate of the reaction and the influence of 
impurities in both the H.SO, and the iron upon the reaction 
are also at present being studied. 


1 Chem. News, xviii, 13, p. 1873. 7 Loc. cit. 3% Loc. cit. 


ACTION OF CONCENTRATED SULPHURIC ACID ON IRON, 69 


In view of the results of the gas analyses, it may be 
stated that the ferrous sulphate formed must for the most 
part consist of the anhydrous salt, as the amount of water 
formed according to Hquation 2, would not be nearly 
sufficient to convert the whole of the sulphate into the 
monohydrated salt. Thus, considering that Equation 1 is 
proceeding nine times as fast as Hquation 2, there would 
be ten molecules of FeSO. formed to two of H.O, so that 
at the most only one-fifth of the sulphate formed could 
be converted into FeSO. + H.O. 


It has been suggested by Van Deventer,* in connection 
with the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on iron, that 
the initial action consists rather in the formation of oxide, 
sulphur dioxide and water than in the formation of sulphate 
and hydrogen. He also states that no direct proof of the 
formation of hydrogen has yet been found. The author’s 
results are contrary to this theory, and no oxide of iron 
was found in the analysis of the compound formed. 


This investigation was carried out in the Chemical 
Department of the University of Sydney, and I wish to 
express my thanks to Professor C. HK. Fawsitt, D.Sc., Ph.D., 
for his advice throughout the work. . 


* Chem. Weekblad., 11, pp. 137 — 140. 


70 J. B. CLELAND. 


NOTE on THE OCCURRENCE or COCCIDIOSIS tn 
HOUSE SPARROWS anp 1n BOVINES In N.S.W. 


By J. BURTON CLELAND, M.D., Ch.M. 
Principal Microbiologist to the Government of New South Wales. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, June 4, 1913.] 


I. COCCIDIOSIS IN THE COMMON SPARROW, Passer 
domesticus. 


Through the courtesy of Mr. H. W. Potts of the Hawkes- 
bury Agricultural College, we have had an opportunity of 
examining a number of sparrows which he has kindly for- 
warded to us. In many of these, numerous oocysts of the. 
coccidial parasite, Isospora lacazei, Labbe, were found. 
Some of these were rounded, and measured 21°5p to 27°5p, 
others were more oblong, varying from 23°5p to 27°5p by 
17°5ph to 25°5v. After placing the intestinal contents con- 
taining the oocysts into a weak solution of potassium 
bichromate, the formation of two sporoblasts could be 
followed out. The mature sporoblasts measured from 
16°54 to 17°5p by 9°5pv to 11p. According to Doflein’s 
“* Lehrbuch der Protozoenkunde,”’’ this species is a parasite 
of the gut of very many passerine birds, especially the 
common sparrow, larks, and goldfinches; its occurrence, 
therefore, in New South Wales amongst the domestic 
sparrows is only to be expected. Attempts were made to 
convey infection to domestic chickens, but these failed. It 
is therefore highly unlikely that this coccidial parasite of 
sparrows can infect poultry and thus be a source of danger 
to this industry in Australia; on the other hand the parasite 
may possibly be advantageous by causing a certain amount 
of fatality in young sparrows, and thus diminishing slightly | 
the numbers of this pest. So far the allied parasite Himeria 


OCCURRENCE OF COCCIDIOSIS IN HOUSE SPARRUWS AND BOVINES. 71 


avium has not been recorded in fowls in New South Wales, 
although material from cases of supposed ‘‘ Black-head”’ in 
turkeys has been examined by us, in which they were 
probably present, but the identification could not be con- 
firmed. | 


Il. THE OCCURRENCE OF COCCIDIOSIS IN AUSTRALIAN OATTLE. 


In August, 1912, in examining sections of the large 
intestine of an Ayrshire cow which had died near Lismore, 
a few coccidia were noticed embedded in the epithelium. 
Their numbers were few, and only several small groups were 
noticed. The stages present were mature oval thick-walled 
oocysts, and near them immature forms with many granules 
peripherally arranged. Intestinal coccidiosis in cattle, 
which is supposed to be due to the same parasite (Himeria 
stiedce) as occurs in rabbits, has been recorded from the 
Alps in Europe and from South Africa. In both places 
considerable mortality has followed. The symptoms con- 
sist chiefly of a blood-stained diarrhoea. In the present 
instance, the animal in which the parasites were found 
was one of several which died with hemorrhagic lesions 
of the intestinal canal. In only this one were coccidia 
found, and in it they were few in number. Imperfect 
material had, however, been forwarded in some of the cases. 
The coccidia agreed in appearance and dimensions with 
similar stages of Himeria stiedce from rabbits in New South 
Wales. It is stated, however, that rabbits are not known 
to occur near the locality occupied by the cattle. It would 
seem either that the affected animal and others had con- 
tracted the infection from rabbits or that the intestinal 
coccidiosis had been imported from abroad with cattle, and 
that the infestation of fresh hosts from time to time had 
formed a reservoir for the preservation of the coccidia. 
Man is also recorded as an occasional host of Himeria 
stiedce. 


eats sp 
cw 

’ 

it 


a2 J. B. CLELAND. 


NOTE on THE GROWTH or tHE FLOWERING STEM 
OF Xanthorrhoea hastilis, R.Br. 


By J. BURTON CLELAND, M.D., Ch.M. 
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 4, 1913. ] 


in April, 1912, one of several specimens of grass-tree 
(Xanthorrheea hastilis, R.Br.), which had been rescued 
from destruction when the ground, which is now my garden, 
was Cleared for building, started sending up its flowering- 
stalk. This stem eventually reached a height of about 
eight feet witha diameter of about aninch. My attention 
was soon attracted by two features, the rapidity of growth 
and the inhibitory influence of direct sunlight. The former 
soon led me to take measurements with a foot rule, and 


the latter induced me to note the height both morning and. 


evening. Appended are the daily measurements taken. 
The most rapid rate of growth, it will be noted, was 
between 6 p.m. on April 15 and 8 a.m. next morning, dur- 
ing which the height had increased by 4 inches. The 
preceding hours of daylight had only added + in. and the 
succeeding ones7-in. The next night saw a further addition 
of 3 in., and the following day 14 in. The night of April 
18—19 saw 33 ins., the preceding day having added ¢ in. 
only, and the succeeding one nothing. These are the most 
striking instances of rapid growth by night and slight 
growth by day, but throughout, if the weather were bright 
and sunny, the same tendency was manifest. On April 27, 
the influence of direct sunlight was strikingly displayed. 
At 8 a.m. the stem was straight, height 4 feet 10 inches. 
On my return at 1 p.m., I was dismayed to see, as I thought, 
the stem dying away. It was bent over towards the sun, 
so that its upper half formed almost a complete semicircle. 


GROWTH OF THE FLOWERING STEM OF XANTHORRH(@A HASTILIS. 73 


The sun had been shining brightly upon it the whole morn- 
ing. At6p.m., the stem had not only recovered its normal 
erect state but had begun to decline to the south. During 
this day, only 7 in. had been added in height. 


The features I have mentioned are, of course, well-known. 
Their striking degree in this instance and the fact that the 
subject is one of our native plants have induced me to bring 
them under notice. 


8 a.m. 6 p.m. 
April 14—1 ft. 10 in. Dian: 
» 15—2ft. 1 in. 2 ft. 12 in. 
5» 16—2 ft. 52 in. 2 ft. 6 in. 
pene fr. 9 mm. 2 ft. 104 in. 
» 18—3 ft. 1 in. 3 ft. 14 in. 
= to—s fb. D in. tue OetiT 
5 20—3 ft. 7 in. 3 ft. 104 in. 
5 26— 4 ft. 83 in., bent to south. 


» 2/—4ft. 10in., straight. 4ft. 10} in.(7 p.m.) bent to south. 
At 1 p.m. on the 27th, the upper half of the stem was curved 


to the north in an almost perfect semicircle. The day 
was warm, bright, and sunny. 

» 28—4 ft. 1l4in., slight 4 ft. 10#in., turned slightly to the 
turn to the south. north at 6 p.m. and at 8 p.m. 

During most of the day turned to the south. In the after- 

noon, gradually reversed to the north. 

» 29—5 ft. OLin., slight 5 ft. 01 in, straight. Wet day. 
turn to the north. 

, 380—5d ft.3in., slightturn 5 ft. 33 in., slight turn to the 


to the east, Wet day. south-west. 
May 1—5 ft. 32 in. slight turn 5 ft. 32 in., straight. Night was 


to the north-east. cold. 
Fine cold day. | 
» 2—5 ft. 3¢in., slightturn 5 ft. 44 in., slight turn to the 
to the west. west, 


74 


J. B. CLELAND. 


8 a.m. 6 p.m. 

May 3—6 ft. 53 in. (probably 5 ft. 54 in., (measured twice), 
too high a reading), straight. 
slight turn to the east. 

Fine day. 
, 4—5 ft. 52 in., slight turn 
to the west. 
» O—5 ft.7in., sight turn Straight. 
to the east. 
Wet day. 
, 6—5 ft. 75 in, straight. Straight. 
» i—5 ft. 8 in., straight. Straight. 
, 8—6 ft. 93 in,, straight. 
,» 9—5 ft. 92 in., straight. 
,, LO—5 ft. 11 in., straight. 
» L1—6 ft. 0 in., straight. 
,, 13—6 ft. 1 in., straight. 
,, 14—6 ft. 13 in., slight turn to north-west. 
» 15—6 ft. 3 in. 
,, 16—6 ft. 4 in, slight turn to east. 
» 17—6 ft. 44 in., straight. 
,, 18—6 ft. 53 in., nearly straight. 
»» 19—6 ft. 5? in. 
,, 20—6 ft. 7 in. 
» 2l—6 ft. 8 in. 
5, 22—6 ft. 82 in. 
,, 23—6 ft. 82 in. 
,, 24--Very wet day. In evening, definite slight turn to the 
south. 
» 25—6 ft. 10 in., straight. 
» 27—6 ft. 102 in., straight. 
» 28—6 ft. 114 in., straight. 
», s0—7 ft. 04 in., straight. 
», ol—7 ft. 0% in., straight. 
June 1—7 ft. 1 in., straight. 
» 4-7 ft. 2 in., straight. 
5) Be 21 in., straight. 
» 11—7 ft. 5 in, straight. 
23—7 ft. 8 in., straight. 


AGAR-AGAR SEA-WEED FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 75 


NOTE on AGAR-AGAR SHAWEHED FRoM WESTERN 
AUSTRALIA. 


By J. BURTON CLELAND, M.D., Ch.M. 
[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, June 4, 1913.] 


Dr. J. B. Oleland exhibited an agar-agar seaweed 
(Gigastina disticha, Sonder), kindly forwarded to him from 
Western Australia by Inspector Abjornsson of the Fisheries 
Department there. Mr. Abjornsson referred to it as being 
useful as ademulcent drink. It is apparently closely related 
to Irish Moss (Chondrus crispus). From some of this sea- 
weed nutrient media have been prepared, and solid and 
sloped tubes of the product were exhibited. The proportions 
used were those taken for the preparation of ordinary agar- 
agar media as used in bacteriological laboratories. The 
tubes showed a remarkably clear product, one almost as 
transparent as gelatine, and this condition had been obtained 
without the addition of white of egg for clearing. Appar- 
ently a little more of the seaweed is required than of agar- 
agar, aS two tubes inoculated with streptococci and colon 
bacilli and incubated, had ‘slipped’ a little and shown an 
undue amount of water of condensation. Ordinary organ- 
isms grew well on the substratum. As alarge amount of 
agar is used in laboratories in Australia and, domestically, 
it is very useful for making table jellies in warm weather, 
the occurrence of this plant in Western Australia may be 
of some economic importance. 


7 


76 J. H. MAIDEN. 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS, (WITH DESORIPTIONS 
OF NEW SPECIES) No. I. 


By J. H. MAIDEN. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, July 2, 1913.] 


An old confusion between HE. tesselaris, F.v.M., and 
E. clavigera, A. Cunn., with a proposed new variety 
of the latter. 

A. EK. TESSELARIS, F.v.M. 

This species was described by Mueller, as in the case of 
so many of his species, from a territory, and not from a 
specific locality. In Journ. Linn. Soc., iii, 88, he says its 
habitat is from the south eastern coast of the Gulf of Car- 
pentaria to Moreton Bay, a distance of nearly a thousand 
miles as the crow flies. 


It is a species well defined. It is the so called Moreton ~ 
Bay Ash, with the lower part of the bark fissured into 
small, nearly cubical black pieces, like tessere. 


In B. FI. iii, 251, Bentham constituted a variety Dalla- 
chiana, recorded it from Rockhampton, and gave various 
localities for the normal species. From the localities quoted 
by him, Oareening and Vansittart’s Bays, N.W. Coast, A. 
Cunningham, I have seen a specimen, and it is not different 
from his var. Dallachiana. I have not seen Robert Brown’s 
nor Mueller’s specimens from the Gulf of Carpentaria. 
Turning to the ‘* Hucalyptographia,’’ I have seen the speci- 
men from the Finke River, and it is the variety Dallachiana. 


I have also seen several specimens of var. Dallachiana 
from different localities adjacent to the N.W. Coast (in 
Western Australian territory) and they are all var. 
Dallachiana. 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 77 


I have many specimens of Hi. tesselaris (the Carbeen of 
New South Wales, and the Moreton Bay Ash of Queensland) 
from northern or rather north western New South Wales 
to northern Queensland, but I have, so far, not seen an 
authentic specimen from any other State, and I would 
suggest that botanists re-examine their material attributed 
to H. tesselaris, as the confusion has caused a good deal 
of inconvenience as I shall presently show. 


B. H. CLAVIGERA, A. Cunn. 

This angophoroid species was described from Careening 
Bay, N. W. Australia, just south of York Sound. The 
original description says the leaves are petiolate, obtuse 
and glaucescent. 


Bentham (B. FI. iii, 250) says they are sessile or nearly 
so, while Mueller (‘‘ Hucalyptographia’’) says much the 
same, but in greater detail. 


As a matter of fact, it is a variable species, and this has 
given rise to a number of names more or less synonymous, 
and which I will refer in detail in my “‘Critical Revision 
of the genus Kucalyptus.”’ 


In its typical form the leaves have a hispid or scabrous 
surface, but they vary a good deal in length of petiole, 
width and length of leaf and vestiture. 


©. H. CLAVIGERA, A. Cunn., var. DALLACHIANA, Var. Nov. 

The placing of the tree called by Bentham HE. tesselaris, 
¥.v.M. var. Dallachiana under E. tesselaris was acquiesced 
in by Mueller and Bailey, but it has from time to time 
raised protests. For example, 

“The variety Dallachiana although described only as such, has 
certainly all the claims to a separate species, inasmuch as that it 
totally differs from Z#. tesselaris, at least in bark, leaves and wood. 
It is the “White Gum” of the settlers, and the “ Dangallboora” of 
the aborigines, and is a middle-sized spreading tree, with a white 
smooth bark which is entirely deciduous. The adult foliage is 


78 : J. H. MAIDEN. 


much larger and of a paler hue than that of #. tesselaris, and the 
leaves from adventitious shoots are generally six to thirteen inches 
long and three to four inches wide. The seedling plants are hispid, 
with the leaves opposite, broadly ovate and shortly petiolate, but 
not peltately attached; the seedlings of Z. tesselaris are also hispid, 
but the leaves are much smaller and nearly sessile.”? 


In the following passage E. tesselaris is the inferior 
timber, while the durable timber refers to the so-called 
variety Dallachiana. 


“Accounts of this timber are conflicting. The Rev. J. E. 
Tenison- Woods states that about Moreton Bay, Gympie, etc., the 
wood is not valued for any purpose whatever; about Rockhampton, 
Mr. O’Shanesy says that the heart-wood is good enough but the 
sap-wood soon decays; about Townsville and Charters Towers the 
wood is highly esteemed, and employed for all useful purposes. 
Mr. Woods says the only way to account for these various state- 
ments is by supposing the warmer climate is its proper habitat. 
This is by no means the only Eucalyptus timber in regard to 


which statements from different localities are conflicting.” 


The late Dr. Joseph Bancroft, a keen observer of our 
flora, wrote as follows, whether in print or in a letter to me, 
I cannot at this moment say :— 

‘The wood is heavy and not much used in Brisbane (Moreton 
Bay Ash, J£. tesselavis, J.H.M.) for economic purposes, but in the 
northern part of the colony (the tree under discussion, J .H.M.) 
it is found valuable, leading to the supposition of the northern 
tree being of another species. It is very combustible, and dead 
trees will burn away entirely, root and branch, often without 
assistance.” 


The same discordant remarks on the wood are seen in 
the catalogue of the Queensland Forestry Museum, 1904, 
under EH. tesselaris, where we have 


1 O’Shanesy, Contrib. to Fl. Q’land, p. 40, 1880. 
? Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vit, 334, 1883, quoted in my “ Useful Native 
Plants of Australia.” 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 79 


“Not often used in southern Queensland, but extensively for 
buildings, fences, etc., in the north, where this kind of timber is 
better, being very tough and durable.” 


Dr. Joseph’s son, Dr. T. L. Bancroft, wrote me as follows 
in July 1909, from Stannary Hills, North Queensland : 

“Bentham’s JZ. tesselaris var. Dallachiana is not at present in 
flower; I found it hard to preserve the flowers; they shake to 
pieces so readily. 


‘““#. tesselaris I know well; it occurs here also, but the species 
under consideration is a totally different species. The leaves are 
very large and twisted, in the saplings more especially; some few 
leaves are enormous. The largest trees are about fifty feet high 
and one foot in diameter. The bark is white or greyish, very like 
E. tereticornis, our Blue Gum. There is no rough bark as in £. 
tesselaris.” 


The tree is common in northern Qeensland, where it is 
called ‘‘Desert Gum,” “‘Cabbage Gum”? or ‘* Pudding wood.”’ 


There is no doubt that it is an error to keep it under 
E. tesselaris, but lam not satisfied that it is a distinct 
species. It is, in my opinion, an extreme form or variety 
of HE. clavigera, A. Cunn., with narrow lanceolate leaves. I 
take Bentham’s description of EH. tesselaris var. Dallachiana 
as typical for my EH. clavigera var. Dallachiana: 

“Veins of the leaves more oblique, the intramarginal one not 
so close to the edge, the cluster of umbels so dense as to be reduced 
almost to a sessile head.” (B. Fl. iui, 251.) 


It seems very different at first sight to H. clavigera, A. 
Cunn., of north western Australia, but I have specimens 
which seem to absolutely connect the two forms. The 
timber of H. clavigera is deep brown and abhorrent to 
white ants at Darwin; the timber of our ‘‘Cabbage Gum”’ 
or ‘‘Pudding wood’’ is similarly durable, much more so 
than that of the Moreton Bay Ash (FE. tesselaris). 


80 J. H. MAIDEN. 


E. leptophleba, F.v.M., EH. drepanophylla, F.v.M., and 
E. siderophloia, Benth., forma decorticans, Bailey. 


In the Queensland Agric. Journ., xxvi, 127 (1911) Mr. 
F. M. Bailey gave the name H. siderophloia, Benth., forma 
decorticans to a supposed new Hucalypt from Hidsvold on 
the Upper Burnett River, Queensland, collected by Dr. 
T. L. Bancroft. 


Ample material of this form and ample material of E. 
leptophleba, F.v.M. have enabled me not only to investigate 
the Hidsvold tree, but also to throw further light on the 
imperfectly known E. drepanophylla, F.v.M. 


This form is known as ‘‘ Mountain Ironbark,’’ ‘‘ Naked 
Top Ironbark,’ or “‘Gum Top.’’ It is found in rocky moun- 
tainous country on the Upper Burnett, associated with EH. 
siderophloia, Benth. To begin with it will be best to 
formally describe it. 


Timber.—Inferior in quality, colour red. 


Bark.—On the butt blackish, hard, furrowed, with flattish. 
ridges after the fashion of £. siderophloia, but with bare branches 
as described by Dr. T. L. Bancroft in the following extract from 
a letter :— 

‘““A remarkably fine tree, like a large Grey Ironbark, but the 
branches of the top, up to the size of a man’s arm or even 
thicker, are white in colour; covered with a thin smooth 
bark; the bark is always peeling off these thin branches, 
and the ground below is strewn with it after the style of 
EB. hemiphloia.” 


Juvenile leaves.—Extremely narrow, linear lanceolate, some 
specimens having an average length of 5 or 6 dm. and a diameter 
of 8 cm., oil dots abundant, marginal vein distinctly removed from 
the edge. (These sharply separate this form from any species 
with which it is likely to be confused. I have no evidence that 
Mueller ever saw juvenile leaves of this form or of his #. drepano- 
phylla, but, if he did, they would afford some explanation of his 
suggestion that £. drepanophylla is a form of LH. crebra, F.v.M.). 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. sl 


Mature leaves.—Lanceolate, slightly curved, acuminate, equally 
green on both sides, drying to a pale green, venation (except the 
midrib) inconspicuous, the lateral veins very fine and somewhat 
spreading, the marginal vein close to or very near the edge. 


Flowers.—Umbels 3 to 6 flowered, usually 3 or 4 together in 
short axillary or terminal panicles, the peduncles angular. Calyx- 
tube obconical with one or two angles, tapering into a short pedicel. 
Operculum blunt pointed, about as long as the calyx-tube. Stamens 
inflected in the bud, anthers broad, white, opening at the sides, 
filament at the base, small gland at the top. 


Fruit.—Ovoid cylindrical, and 7 mm. in diameter, often with 
one or two angles, with a darker coloured rim hardly constricted 
at the orifice, the tips of the valves slightly protruding. 


In my Critical Revision of the Genus Hucalyptus, Part 
X, p. 332, I have, following Mueller and Luehmann, com- 
bined H. leptophleba, F.v.M. and E. drepanophylla, Benth. 
Following are some notes on the bark :— 


A. EK. LEPTOPHLEBA, F.v.M. 
1. Bark dirty grey, rugose, fissured on trunk and per- 
sistent on the branches.’ This is the original description, 
and appears perfectly clear. 


2. ‘*An ironbark,’’ (B.FI. iii, 221, under E.drepanophylla), 
On what authority it is stated to be an ironbark I know not. 


3. Dark persistent rugged bark (ib. under HE. leptophleba). 
Perhaps this is intended for a free translation of the original 
description. 


4, ‘* Breaking up into numerous small angular pieces in 
the manner of EH. tesselaris (‘‘ Hucalyptographia ’’ under 
E. crebra, probably following O’Shanesy, as quoted by me 
in Critical Revision X, p. 332, but apparently wrongly, 
O’Shanesy adopting the name given by Mueller for a tree 
which, below, I have named EH. Cambageana). 


1 Journ. Linn. Soc., 111, p- 86, 1859, 
F—July 2, 1918, 


82 J. H. MAIDEN, 


d. “A box, hardly to be distinguished from E. populi- 
folia.”” (Dr. T. L. Bancroft, in a letter to me.) 


The tree now described (forma decorticans) is very differ- 
ent from #. leptophleba. Further material received from 
Dr. T. L. Bancroft enables me to say that the barks are 
different; also the juvenile and mature leaves are larger, 
while the panicles are looser, and the fruit is also larger, 
as a rule. 


E. leptophleba, F.v.M. has EH. Stoneana, Bailey,’ as a 
Synonym. 


B. E. DREPANUPHYLLA, F.v.M. 
1. Bark ‘Dark grey and ribbed ”’ (B. FI. iii, 221) original 
description, quoting Dallachy. This may or may not be a 
aor aN of an ironbark. 


. “An Ironbark’ (B. FI. iii, 221), quoting Fitzalan, 
ah and Bowman. 


3. ‘‘Perhaps different bark”’ (to H.crebra). (Hier 
graphia’ under H. crebra.) 


4. ‘‘ Belongs to the series of ironbark trees, with there- 
fore furrowed and dark coloured bark, (‘ Hucalyptographia’ 
under H. hemiphloia). 

There seems no doubt that the true HE. drepanophylla is 
an ironbark. 


Dr. T. L. Bancroft’s Hidsvold specimens and field notes 
are quite complete, while there is no evidence in the 
Melbourne Herbarium that Mueller ever saw completely 
matched specimens of either H. leptophleba, F.v.M. or EH. 
drepanophylla, F.v.M.? 

That is why he threw doubt upon his own two species on 
several occasions, and systematists will always be liable to 


' Queensland Agric. Journ., XIII, p. 259, 1909. 
2 [suggest that Bentham (RB. FI. iii, 221) on Mueller’s behalf, compiled 
the description from specimens from different localities. 


NOTES ON RUCALYPTUS. 83 


make mistakes when they have to deal with incomplete 
material, and, through attempting to match material from 
different sources are led to make inferences. Hven witi 
complete material from a specific locality, the question of 
variation must also be borne in mind. 


I also received complete material and field notes of H. 
leptophleba from Dr. T. L. Bancroft from Stannary Hills, 
North Queensland, and I am now led to submit the follow- 
jng propositions :— 

1. EH. leptophleba V.v.M. and H. drepanophylla, F.v.M. 
are distinct species, the former being a Box and the latter 
an Ironbark. 


2. The following specimens are correctly referable to 
EK. drepanophylla, F.v.M. 


(a) Port Denison ; also Burdekin Expedition, Fitzalan 
(evidently the type). 


(b) Oleveland Bay (S. Johnson). Both specimens in 
bud and flower only. 


(c) Ravenswood, Burdekin River (Johnson). In fruit 
only, labelled both drepanophylla and crebra by 
Mueller. 


3. H. siderophloia, Benth. forma decorticans Bailey is 
referable to EH. drepanophylla, F.v.M. 


E. siderophloia, Benth. and its relation to E. panicu- 
lata, Sm. in Queensland. 


The form (decorticans) above referred to, cannot belong 
to H. siderophloia because of the bark and timber, while 
the juvenile leaves are wholly dissimilar, to mention no 
other difference. Investigation of the relations of H. 
drepanophylla, F.v.M. with EH. siderophloia, Benth., has 
caused me to submit the following brief notes in regard to 
the latter species and H. paniculata, Sm. in Queensland. 


84 J. H. MAIDEN. 


A. In Part X, p. 325 of my Critical Revision, I have 
stated that, in my opinion, H. siderophloia, Benth. is always 
rostrate-budded, and that the attempted establishment of 
a rostrate variety is founded on misapprehension. So far 
I have seen no evidence that this view is an erroneous one. 


B. There is a good deal of a Grey Ironbark in Queens- 
land which has a conical operculum and a paler timber than 
the rostrate-budded Hucalypt above referred to, which has 
always a deep red timber. 


Bailey deals with these two ironbarks in his Queensland 
Flora in the following manner :— 


C. E. siderophloia, Benth. var. rostrata. ‘‘ Large leaved 
Iron Bark.’’ Wood red, (the italics are mine). About 
Taylor’s Range near Brisbane, (p. 621). 


T look upon this as E#. siderophloia, normal form. 


D. EH. siderophloia, Benth. “ Black Tronbark.’’ Common 
in the southern portions of the Colony. Wood of a grey 
colour (the italics are mine) (p. 621). | 


I submit that this tree is EH. paniculata, Sm. 


EK. Then under E. paniculata, Sm., he says “‘ In southern 
inland localities,’ (p. 616). This seems to me correct as 
far as it goes. 


F. Incidentally I may say that EH. paniculata, Sm., is 
referred to as Red Ironbark by Mueller in “ Hucalypto- 
graphia ’’ by a mistake on the alleged authority of the late 
Rev. Dr. Woolls who, in his own copy of that work (in my 
possession) cancelled the word “‘red”’ and inserted “‘ white.”’ 
The student of New South Wales Hucalypts knows that to 
the vast majority of people E. paniculata goes under the 
name of White or Grey Ironbark, while some people, noting 
its pink or pale red colour (sometimes deeper in tint, but 
never as deep a red as E. siderophloia), use the name Red 
Ironbark, but, compared with a true Red Ironbark the term 
is very misleading, a 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 85 


My suites of specimens of the Grey Ironbark of Queens- 
land are neither as numerous nor as complete as I would 
like, and in some of them the anthers vary somewhat from 
those of the anthers of the typical form of E. paniculata, 
Sm., as found at Port Jackson, but the present state of our 
knowledge causes me to submit that the Grey Ironbark of 
Queensland is not specifically different from the Grey Iron- 
bark of New South Wales, and that it is usually EH. panicu- 
lata, Sm. At the same time, the term “grey ’”’ is some- 
times given with reference to the prevailing colour of the 
bark, and it is more or less appropriate when applied to . 
other species also. 


I desire to remark that the “‘egg-in-eggcup”’ character 
of the operculum sometimes occurs in EH. paniculata as well 
as in HE. siderophloia. 


* e ok * * * 


The following are suggested as new species :— 
1. KH. HYBRIDA, D. Sp. 


Type from Concord, Sydney, N.S.W. (Rev. Dr. Woolls, 
1890; R. H. Cambage, 10th February 1901). 


Arbor erecta, altitudine circiter 50 pedes. Cortex cinerea, levis, 
corrugata. Lignum pallidum, durum. Folia matura lanceolata 
vel late lanceolata, pallida virentia, tenuiora, circiter 8-12 cm. 
longa, vena peripherica margini approximata, venis lateralibus 
patentibus. Flores in breve panicula corymbosa, quaque plerum- 
que 3 — 6 flora. Calycis tubus conoideus. Operculum acuminatum, 
calcis tubo equilongum. Fructus cylindrico-conoidei, circiter 6mm, 
lati, in orificium leniter contracti, margine tenui. Valvarum 
apices plusve minusve depressi, orificium rare tangentes. 


Mr. Henry Deane’ and I drew attention to a Hucalypt 
which we had received from Mr. R. H. Cambage, and which 


+ Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. xxvi, p. 340, (1901). 


86 J. H. MAIDEN. 


we thought presented an instance of hybridism. Later on’ 
I stated that [had no doubt as toits hybrid nature. I have 
had the tree under observation ever since, and am of opinion 
that it isa form sufficiently distinct to receive a name, 
and suggest the above, which is appropriate, since the 
evidence is remarkably conclusive that H. paniculata, Sm. 
and EH. hemiphloia, ¥.v.M. are its parents. 


It was originally found in Bray’s Paddock, Concord, near 
Sydney, where I knew of six trees until recently, but build- — 
ing operations may soon exterminate these particular 
specimens. 


Dr. J. B. Cleland has drawn my attention to a tree on 
Milson Island, Hawkesbury River, (a short distance west 
of the Railway Bridge) which appears to be identical with 
that from Concord. E. paniculata, Sm. is common on the 
Island, but there is no E. hemiphloia; this suggests that 
the hybrid originated elsewhere than on Milson Island. 


K. hybrida may be described as follows :— 

An erect tree of about 50 feet high, the tips of the branes 
smooth, the butt with a sub-fibrous (peppermint-like) or flaky-fibrous 
and more or less flat-corrugated bark, greyish or blackish extern- 
ally, hence some trees have been described as ‘Black Box.” 


Timber pale-coloured, hard, interlocked, and probably valuable. 


Juvenile foliage not seen in the strictly opposite state, but as 
seen, not different from the mature foliage except in width. 


Mature foliage. Lanceolate or broadly lanceolate, slightly 
falcate, acuminate, commonly 8 to 12 cm. long. Dull green, the 
same colour on both sides, rather thin and tough, lateral veins 
spreading, fine, the intramarginal vein not far removed from the 
edge of the leaf, oil dots not numerous. 


Flowers. Peduncles of moderate length, angular, usually in a 
short corymbose panicle, each with about 3 to 6 or sometimes more 


1 Op. cit., Xxx, p. 498, (1905). 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 87 


flowers. Calyx-tube conoid, 5 cm. diameter, often angular, taper- 
ing into a short pedicel. Operculum pointed and as long as the 
calyx-tube. Stamens inflected in the bud, anthers small, yellow, 
opening in small slits near the top, filament at base, and small 
gland at back, indubitably showing intermediate characters 
between the anthers of ZL. paniculata and £. hemiphioia. 


Fruit. When immature cylindrical, with a rim round the 
orifice; when ripe cylindrical to almost conoid, about 6 mm. in 
diameter, hardly constricted at the orifice, rim thin, tips of valves 
more or less sunk and rarely flush with the orifice. 


The Affinities of this species are almost intermediate 
between E. paniculata, Sm., the Grey Ironbark, and E. 
hemiphloia, F.v.M., the Grey Box. 


This is the first species of this genus which has been 
named with especial reference to its hybrid character. I 
have a large number of instances of apparently indubitable 
hybrids, but in most cases a pictorial illustration is neces- 
sary to make the hybridism clear, and therefore I propose 
to describe them in my “ Critical Revision ’’ of the genus. 


2. EK. BAKERI, 0. sp. 
Local Name ‘* Mallee Box.’’ 


Type from Ticketty Well, Wallangra, N.S.W. (H. H. F. 
Swain, July 1911). Collected also by Mr. J. L. Boorman, 
December 1912. 


Frutex altus similis Mallee, vel arbor parva 30-50’ alta. 
Trunci cortex duraet squamosa. Ramuli leves. Lignum durum, 
grave, rubrum, Folia juvena obscuro-virentia, concoloria, linearo- 
lanceolata, vix acuminata, 9 cm. longa, 1 cm. lata, oleosa, indis- 
tincte venosa, pennivenlis, vena peripherica a margine remota. 
Umbelle plerumque axillares, multiflore, sepe 10-13 florv. 
Operculum elongatum calycis tubo multo longiore, cujus diameter 
leniter latior est. Fructus diametro circiter 5 mm., truncato- 
spheroidei. Valvarum apices subulati, 2 mm. exserti. 


88 J. H. MAIDEN. 


A large shrub or small pendulous Willow-like tree attaining a 
height of 30 - 50 feet, forming a single stem, or stooling from the 
ground. 


Bark dark box-like, or hard and scaly up to its branches, fall- 
ing away in long flakes, rough at the butt, branches clean, bluish- 
green or pale-yellow to white right up to the tips. 


Wood hard and heavy, of a deep red when freshly cut, becoming 
browner with age, the grain of the timber fibrous, very tough, 
reputed to be an excellent timber for wheel-wrights’ work. 


Juvenile leaves dull green on both sides, linear-lanceolate, hardly 
acuminate, about 6 or 7 cm. long, the venation not distinct, the 
intramarginal vein close to the edge, the lateral veins penniveined, 
plentifully besprinkled with oil-dots and the branchlets angular 
and glandular. 


Mature leaves linear-lanceolate, petiolate, acuminate or with a 
hooked tip, bright green, dull-shiny, richly covered with oil-dots, 
venation indistinct, the intramarginal vein distinct from the edge, 
the lateral veins penniveined. Average dimensions 9 x 1 cm. 

(If this species were gregarious, it would probably be found to 
be a valuable oil-yielding species). 


Flowers. Umbels mostly axillary and flowers numerous, often 
10 - 13 in an umbel, which sometimes takes on a stellulate appear- 
ance. Operculum elongated, very much longer than the calyx- 
tube, which is of slightly increased diameter, and which tapers, 
somewhat abruptly, into the short pedicel. The common peduncle 
about 1 cm. 


Anthers small, renantheroid, but the two cells more united than 
in the Renanthere; spherical gland at top and back. 

Fruits. Small, about 5 mm. in diameter, truncate-spheroid, 
the tips of the valves awl-shaped and protruding 2 mm. from the 


orifice. 


Enclosing the valves and torn by the tips of them as the 
fruit ripens is a thin white membrane, which gives the rim 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 89 


and orifice a whitish appearance, and which, if present in 
all, is only obvious in a few species of this genus. 


Affinities. It is a remarkable narrow-leaved species, 
with narrow juvenile foliage, buds with long opercula of 
less diameter than the calyx-tube, and small fruits with 
well exserted awl-like tips. 


It is not easy to indicate its closest affinity. 


It would appear to have affinity to HE. uncinata, Turcz., 
but Mr. Boorman, an experienced collector, is emphatic 
that the two species are very different in habit. H. Bakeri 
is a tree of 50 feet and even more, reminding one of a 
Willow ; indeed it was first sent in as “‘Willowy Eucalypt”’ 
The foliage is narrow and somewhat dull in appearance; 
the anthers are very similar, but not identical, while there 
is no kink in the filament in the stamens of EH. Bakeri. 


It approaches H. odorata in its mode of growth; it seems 
closest to the var. Woollsiana of that species, but its buds 
and fruits are quite different. ‘The same observations may 
be made in regard to E. acacioides, A. Cunn., (E. viridis, 
R. T. Baker). 


Its fruits remind one of those of the Western Australian 
EK. salmonophloia, F.v.M., but those of the latter species 
are smaller, more shiny, have thinner and more marked 
pedicels. 


HK. Seeana, Maiden, is another species with small fruits 
(which are, however, domed), and a long operculum (more 
tapering into the calyx-tube in H. Seeana), leaves different 
and the bark of E. Seeana is smooth. 


E. redunca, Schauer var. angustifolia, Benth. is another 
narrow-leaved, long operculumed form. It is from South- 
western Australia and has no close affinity to the present 
species. 


90 J. H. MAIDEN. 


Other narrow-leaved species are EH. angustissima, F.v.M. 
and EH. apiculata, Baker and Smith, but they have no special 
affinity to this species. 


E. oleosa, F.v.M. bears an obvious resemblance as far as 
the fruits are concerned, but those of the new species are 
smaller, and in leaves, and in most other respects the 
affinities are not obvious. 


This is a specially interesting species, rich in oil, which I 
name in honour of Mr. Richard Thomas Baker, who has 
done valuable work in connection with this genus. 


HK. SIMILIS, nov. sp. 


Type from ‘‘ Desert Country west of Hmerald, Queens- 
land (G. H. Carr, March 1908). 


Arbor mediocris. Folia juvena tenua, glabra, pedunculata, 
ovato-acuminata. Folia matura angusto-lanceolata, flavo-virentia, 
concoloria, circiter 12 cm. longa, 2 cm. lata. Ven laterales 
pinnate, distinctz, vena peripherica distincta et a margine remota. 
Umbelle conferte, multiflore plerumque in panicula terminale 
corymbosaque. Calycis tubus irregulariter costatus. Operculum 
hemisphericum vel umbonatum. Fructus vix 1 cm. longi, truncato- 


ovoidei, in orificium sensim contracti. 
A tree of medium size; notes on bark and timber uncertain. 


Juvenile foliage. Thin, parchment-like, perfectly glabrous, not 
seen strictly opposite, pedunculate, ovate-acuminate. Size of a 


‘ ante 
specimen 6x3 cm. 


Mature foliage. Narrow lanceolate or slightly falcate, petiolate, 
the petioles flattened and twisted, length of blade up to 12 cm. 
and more with a greatest width of about 2cm. Equally yellowish- 
green on both sides, rather shiny, venation distinct, and nearly as 
prominent on the upper as on the lower side. Midrib very 
prominent, lateral veins pinnate and very distinct, the intra- 


marginal vein distinct and removed from the edge. 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 91 


Buds and flowers. Inflorescence profuse, in a loose umbel, 
several flowered, mostly in a terminal corymbose panicle, the 
peduncles slightly compressed or angular, calyx-tube irregularly 
ribbed, shiny; opercula hemispherical or umbonate, shiny. Fila- 
ments yellow, anthers with long narrow adnate cells with a moder- 
ately large gland at the back, and the filament attached half way up. 


Fruits. Sharply separated*from the short pedicel, on a slightly 
flattened common peduncle of about 1:55 cm. Truncate-ovoid, 
gradually constricted towards the orifice, barely 1 cm. long and 
about 6 mm. at the orifice. Three-valved, the valves blunt and 
these capsule teeth not adherent to the calyx-tube. 


Habitat. Desert country west of Emerald, Queensland. 


Affinity. Its closest affinity, so far as is known, is EH. 
Baileyana, ¥.v.M. (see description amended by me in Forest 
Flora N.S.W.,iv,71). Like that species it isa member of the 
section Kudesmiez, and appears to differ from E. Baileyana 
in the following characters :— 

1. E. similis is said to be a ‘* Yellow Gum,”’ or “‘ Yellow 
Jacket,’ while H. Baileyana is a “‘ Black Stringybark.’’ 

2. The mature leaves of H. similis have the same colour 
on both sides, and have shorter peduncles, while the juvenile 
leaves are glabrous, those of HE. Baileyana being covered 
with stellate hairs. 

3. The fruits of E. similis are, in comparison with those 
of HE. Baileyana, cylindroid, those of H. Baileyana being 
almost spherical, darker and much larger. 

The specific name is given in view of the affinity of this 
species to EH. Baileyana, ¥.v.M. 


4, H. CAMBAGEANA, 0. Sp. 


Local Name “ Blackbutt.’’ 


Type from Mirtna Station, Charters Towers, Queensland 
(Miss Zara Clark, January and December 1912.) 


92 J. H. MAIDEN. 


Arbor alta Blackbutt vocata, ramis longis pendulisque. Trunci, 
cortice cinerea et squamosa altitudini 3—4 pedes, a caule laeve et 
albo ramisque distincte disjuncta. Lignum rubrum. Folia juvena 
15 cm. longa, 2°5 cm. lata, pallido-virentia utrinque, concoloria, — 
ovata vel pyriforma, vena peripherica patente et a margine distincte 
remota. Umbelle 3-8 in capite, paniculas plerumque terminales 
formantes. Alabastri clavati. Operculum ovoideum et calycis 
tubo circiter dimidio superante. Fructus parvi, conoidei, diametro 
circiter 7 mm. orificio. 


““The young trees grow tall and fairly straight, but with 
age they become pipy and eventually simply a shell. Very 
liable to be attacked by white ants.’’ (Miss Zara Clark). 


‘“‘The trees range from 50—80 feet high, having long 
pendulous branches. 


“‘They have scaly bark permanent up to 3-4 feet from 
the ground; this is hard and of an ironbark nature, jet 
black in colour, the remainder of the stem being milky- 
white, approaching bluish-white (glaucous); it is clear of 
any sign of ribbony bark beyond the butt. There is a 
distinct line of demarcation between the rough black and 
the white clean stem. 


“‘The sapwood is exceptionally thin, the heart wood deep 
red or chocolate in colour, hard, heavy, long and tough in 
the grain, much resembling that of the Red Box (polyan- 
themos) of New South Wales. 


“Tt is the most important timber in the Emerald district 
for all purposes, being sound, and yielding long, clean stems 
of many feet in length, hence exceptionally suitable for 
milling purposes.”’ (J. L. Boorman.) 


Juvenile leaves. Pale-coloured, equally green on both sides, 
rhomboid-ovate to pyriform and broadly lanceolate, petiolate, apex 
blunt, venation prominent, marginal vein at a considerable distance 
from the edge, the lateral veins spreading. Oil dots not obvious. 
Average size say 9 to 12 cm. x 5 or 6 broad. 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 93 


Mature leaves. Lanceolate, slightly curved, petiolate, thickish, 
shiny, pale-coloured, equally green on both sides, venation promin- 
ent, the intramarginal vein distinctly removed from the edge, the 
lateral veins spreading. Average length of mature leaves 15 x 
2-5 cm. 


Flowers. Umbels three to eight in the head, forming usually 
terminal panicles, buds clavate, the calyx-tube forming a defined 
raised border at its junction with the operculum, the calyx-tube 
tapering gradually into the pedicel, the operculum ovoid and about 
half the length of the calyx-tube. 


Anthers belonging to the Porantheree, pores small, opening at 
the side, the filament always at the base, and the small gland 
always at the top. 


Fruits. Small, conoid, the calyx-tube tapering with but slight 
abruptness into the pedicel; when young, with a well defined 
grooved rim, which almost disappears on ripening, leaving a dark 
brown rim, tips of the valves sunk or rarely flush with the orifice. 
Size about 7 mm. diameter at the orifice and length the same. 


Habitat. ‘‘Grows on hard clay soil, often stony, and 
always some distance from water. Generally in clumps 
and often in company of Gidgee and Brigalow in the 
Charters Towers district.”’ (Miss Zara Clark). 


Reid River, a few miles south of Townsville (N. Daley). 


‘‘The principal timber of the Emerald district, noted for 
its hardness and size and for the good quality of its timber. 
Apparently local from Gin Gin to within 10—12 miles east 
of Alpha.’”’ (J. L. Boorman). 


Some poor fruits collected by O’Shanesy from the Dawson 
and Mackenzie Rivers, labelled E. leptophleba by Mueller, 
are the present species. These were referred to by me in 
Crit. Rev. Gen. Eucalyptus, x, 333, where I doubted the 
naming of the specimen. It might be neglected altogether 
but for the reason that (op. cit., p. 333), it evidently formed 


94 J. H. MAIDEN. 


the basis of the name E. leptophleba attached by O’Shanesy 
to a Blackbutt whose timber and bark he describes. He 
says, ‘‘ dispersed through the scrubby country westward 
from Goganjo.”’ 

It is therefore widely diffused in the warmer parts of 
Queensland, but we do not know its precise range yet. 

Affinity. It would appear to take the place, in Queens- 
land, of the more southern H. polyanthemos, Schauer, or 
rather of its narrow-leaved forms. The anthers, however, 
sharply separate them. 

The leaves also are different both in shape and venation. 
The rough bark is more scaly than that of H. polyanthemos, 
and the line of demarcation more clearly defined. 

It is named in honor of Mr. Richard Hind Cambage, who 
has done valuable work in connection with this genus. 
E. Cambagei, Deane and Maiden, is conspecific with H. 
eleeophora, F.v.M. 


EK. PILULARIS, Sm. var PYRIFORMIS, nov. var. 
Bucca Creek, near Coff’s Harbour, N.S. Wales. (A. H. 
Lawrence, J. L. Boorman). 
Type, J. L. Boorman, June, 1911. 
A tall, sound ‘Blackbutt ”’ 4 to 7 feet in diameter, bark 
ribbony up to or beyond the third or fourth branches. Bark 


on the butt similar to that of the normal species. Branchlets 
often glaucous and double opercula common. 


Fruit large, often pyriform, commonly 1°5 cm. long xX 
1 cm. broad in the dried state. 


NOTE ON THE PARAFFINS OF EUCALYPTUS OILS. 95 


NOTE on THE PARAFFINS or HUCALYPTUS OILS. 
By HENRY G. SMITH, F.C.S. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, July 2, 1913.] 


The first member of the paraffins, belonging to the 
aliphatic series, found in Kucalyptus oils, was isolated last 
year from the product of Hucalyptus acervula, Hook. f., the 
‘Red Gum’ of Tasmania. The characteristic features of this 
substance were fully described in a paper “‘ Research on 
the Kucalypts of Tasmania,’’ by Mr. R. T. Baker and 
myself.* This paraffin stearoptene is a saturated hydro- 
carbon, and thus, most probable, belongs to the C, H., + 2 
group; it resembles in appearance, odour on ignition, and 
behaviour, the solid paraffins derived from mineral oils, and 
known generally as “‘ paraffin wax.”’ 


The melting point, taken by the capillary tube method, 
of the paraffin from this species of Kucalyptus was 55 — 56°C. 
Although the substance was isolated and purified from the 
oil of HE. acervula from material collected from two different — 
districts in the island, yet, the melting point did not vary. 
It is not thought, however, that it is a simple hydrocarbon, 
but probably consists of two or more homologues. The 
reasons for this are that the melting point does not agree 
with any known member of the series, that the paraffin from 
the oil of H. Smithii melts at a higher temperature, also 
that a similar substance from rose oil, which melts at 35° CQ. 
has been separated by distillation into two bodies, one 
melting at 22° and the other at 40° O. EH. acervula is not 
the only species of Kucalyptus in which the paraffins occur, 
and already these bodies have been isolated from the oil of 


* Proc, Roy. Soc. Tasmania, October, 1912, 


96 H. G. SMITH. 


EK. paludosa, and more recently from the oil of E. Smithii. 
They probably occur in the oils from numerous species, but 
are present in very small quantities, which probably 
accounts for the fact that up to very recently these sub- 
stances have escaped observation. The object of the present 
note is to record the presence and properties of the ie 
from the oil of the last species. 


The crude oil of H.Smithii, R.T.B.,from which the paraffin 
was isolated, was distilled by Mr. D. HK. Chalker, from 
material grown naturally at Hill Top, in this State, and was 
rectified at the Technological Museum. The method where- 
by the paraffin was separated and purified wasto steam distil 
the crude product until no more oil came over, then to sepa- 
rate the residue and treat it with cold alcohol; this precipi- 
tated the paraffin, the oil and impurities remaining largely in 
solution. The precipitate was filtered off, dried, dissolved 
in hot ethyl acetate, from which it separated out again on 
cooling, thus further removing impurities. The paraffin 
was somewhat dark coloured at this stage; it was then 
boiled in alcohol with animal charcoal, filtered boiling hot, 
repeating the process until all had been dissolved. As the 
alcohol cooled the paraffin separated, and it appears to be 
almost insoluble in cold alcohol. The precipitate was then 
dried on porous plate, finally dissolved in chloroform and 
again precipitated by alcohol. As thus prepared it was 
quite white and odourless, and melted at 64° OC. by the 
capillary tube method. It differed in no other respect than 
the melting point from the similar substance extracted from 
the oil of HE. acervula. It was a saturated paraffin and 
was remarkably stable towards concentrated acids and 
oxidising substances in the cold. The higher melting point 
of the paraffin from the oil of EH. Smithii over that from 
EH. acervula is perhaps one distinguishing feature between 
the oils of the members of the different groups; and it may 


NOTE ON THE PARAFFINS OF EUCALYPTUS OILS. 97 


be that eventually a paraffin with even a higher melting 
point will be isolated from the oils of other Eucalyptus 
species. 


The aliphatic paraffins cannot be considered as very 
uncommon constituents in essential oils, and their presence 
has been shown in the oils of more than a dozen different 
plants. Those containing paraffin in greatest amount are 
rose oil and chamomile oil; and in these the stearoptene 
is often so abundant that the oil congeals on cooling. The 
paraffin recorded from neroli oil melts at exactly the same 
temperature as that from the oil of Hucalyptus acervula, 
while that in chamomile oil only differs by one degree. No 
less than eight paraffins have been recorded from other 
essential oils the melting points of which are within one 
degree of that isolated from the oil of E. Smithii. If the 
paraffin from this species is considered as a homogeneous 
substance, then its formula would probably be CyHq; at 
any rate, the number of carbon atoms in the molecule must 
be very high. 


What part these paraffins play, if any, in the formation 
of other aliphatic constituents of Kucalyptus oils is at 
present quite unknown. 


G—July 2. 1913. 


98 Go EMI 


THE SEEDLINGS OF THE ANGOPHORAS WITH 
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIHS. 


By CUTHBERT HALL, M.D., Ch.M. 
(Communicated by R. T. Baxksr, F.L.s.) 
With Plates IT-IV. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. §. Wales, August 6, 1913 | 


Luspspock in his work ‘‘ On Seedlings ’’ has described the 
seedlings of ten of the Hucalypts, and one Tristania, viz.:— 
T. conferta, but makes no mention of the Angophora seed- 
lings, and it is to remedy this omission that this study was 
begun. An investigation of the seedlings, not merely 
increases our knowledge of plants, but it puts in our hands 
frequently a means of differentiating species and varieties 
that is likely to be of very great value. This is afforded 
both by the information gained from the form of the 
cotyledon leaves, and also that of the primary or juvenile 
leaves, which so frequently differ from those of the mature 
plant. 


The seedlings of the Angophoras bear a striking resem- 
blance to those of the lower species of the Hucalypts, viz., 
the *“‘Bloodwoods,”’ such as EH. calophylla, eximia, corym- 
bosa, etc., a fact which bears out the resemblance in respect 
of the venation of the leaves and chemical constitution of 
the trees generally, noted by Messrs. Baker and Smith. | 


Cotyledons.—These are all of large dimensions and 
foliaceous, A. cordifolia and A. lanceolata being much 
larger than those of the other species. The cotyledons of 
A. cordifolia are orbicular while those of the others are 
more or less reniform. They are all cordate at base, 
glabrous and petiolate. The convex margin is always 


‘ SEEDLINGS OF THE ANGOPHORAS. 99 


entire as in the ‘‘Bloodwoods,’’ and shows none of the 
emargination seen in the higher Hucalypts, as EH. globulus. 
The venation is well marked, three to five veins breaking 
up into finer ones, which unite in a looping arrangement. 


Leaves.—In all species these are opposite, and this 
character is maintained in the adult, there being practically 
no passing into the alternate arrangement usual in the 
HKucalypts. The primary or juvenile leaves are entire, 
sessile, cordate at base, decussate, exstipulate, covered 
with glandular hairs. 


Stem is erect, terete, bristly, herbaceous, ultimately 
woody. 


A. CORDIFOLIA, Cav. 
Hypocotyl short, 3 mm. 


Cotyledons large, foliaceous, with long petioles (appar- 
ently to compensate for the shortness of hypocotyl), entire, 
glabrous, orbicular, veins prominent, lamine 1°5 cm. in 
diameter, petioles 1 cm., flattened and grooved on upper. 
side at the junction with lamine. 


Leaves—HFirst pair alternate and rudimentary, the first 
barely perceptible, the second a short spur 2 mm. long. 
Following leaves entire, opposite, decussate, ovate or 
orbicular, sessile, cordate at base with rounded auricles, 
thickly covered with glandular hairs; venation open, 
parallel, intramarginal vein close to edge. Second pair of 
leaves 0°35 cm. X 0°3 cm., third 1°1 cm. x 0°8 cm., fourth 
1°3cm. X lcm. Stem bristly, first and second internodes 
22 em,.,; third 1°3 cm. 


A. SUBVELUTINA, F.v.M. 
Hypocotyl! glabrous, terete, 1 cm. 


Cotyledons large, foliaceous, reniform, smaller than those 
of A. lanceolata, lamine 1°2 x 1 cm., petiole 0°5 cm. 


100 C. HALL. 


Leaves entire, opposite, decussate, obtuse, ovate, sessile, 
cordate at base with rounded auricles, paler on under 
surface when dry, covered with fine glandular hairs, vena- 
tion open, parallel, intramarginal vein ill-defined. First 
pair of leaves 1°5 cm. X 0°9 cm., second pair 0°7 cm. x 1°2 
em., third 3°6 cm. X 1°55 cm., fourth 55cm. xX 2cm. Stem 
erect, greenish, terete, bristly, first internode 1°5 cm., 
second 1 cm., third 1°3 cm. 


A. INTERMEDIA, DC. 


The seedlings of this are almost identical with those of 
A. subvelutina. When grown under similar conditions they 
are usually quite indistinguishable, and it is only when A. 
intermedia is a foot or two high, and nine or twelve months 
old, that the leaves begin to be petiolate. 


A. LANCEOLATA, Cav. 


Hypocotyl erect, terete, glabrous, reddish, 1°5 cm. long. 

Cotyledons large, foliaceous, glabrous, petiolate, reniform 
entire, except at base which is cordate, veins prominent, 
purplish red on under surface, lamine 15 xX 13 mm., 
petioles 6 mm. 

Leaves entire, opposite, decussate, lanceolate, obtuse, 
sessile, cordate at base with rounded auricles, paler on 
under surface when dry, purplish-red in early stage, covered 
with fine glandular hairs, lateral veins open and parallel, 
intramarginal vein not well defined, but in older leaves 
close to edge. First pair of leaves 2°8 cm. X 0°6 cm., 
second pair 8 cm. x 0°8 cm., third 3°5 cm. X 1 cm. Stem 
terete, reddish, bristly. First internode 2 cm., second 2 
em., third 1°38 cm. 

A. MELANOXYLON, R. T. B. 

Hypocotyl 1°3 em., reddish, glabrous. 


Cotyledons reniform, entire, except at cordate base, 
glabrous, petiolate, reddish-purple on inferior surface, 
laminze 1 cm. x 0°8 cm., petioles 0°3 cm. 


SEEDLINGS OF THE ANGOPHORAS. 101 


Leaves entire, opposite, decussate, lanceolate, obtuse, 
subsessile, rounded at base or with rounded auricles, 
glabrous or with few glandular hairs, paler on inferior 
surface when dry. First pair 1°8 x 0°6 cm., second 2 x 0°7 
em., third 2°5 Xx lcm. Stem green, terete, finely pubescent 
or with a few bristles. First internode 1°5 cm., second, 
third and fourth 1 cm. 


A. BAKERI, sp. nov. 


Cotyledons similar to those of A. subvelutina, intermedia, 
and melanoxylon. 


Leaves entire, opposite, decussate, narrow-lanceolate, 
subacute then acute, cordate at base with rounded auricles, 
glabrous or few bristles on under side of midrib, venation 
inconspicuous, lateral veins closely set and parallel, intra- 
marginal vein ill-defined and close to edge. First pair of 
leaves 6 X 2mm., second 8 X 3mm., third 10 X 3mm. 
Stem terete, greenish, pubescent or few bristles. First 
internode 9 mm., second 6 mm., third 6 mm. 


Remarks.—In the ascending scale judged by the seed- 
lings, I would place the Angophoras as follows :— 
A. cordifolia. 


A. subvelutina. 


A. intermedia. 


A. lanceolata. A, melanoxylon. A. Bakerw. 


This agrees with the classification arrived at by Messrs. 
Baker and Smith on botanical and chemical grounds, from 
examination of the mature trees. The seedling of A. 
cordifolia is most distinct from all the others, the cotyledons 
being larger and orbicular, the first pair of leaves are alter- 
nate and rudimentary, while the following leaves are ovate 
and more hirsute than those of the other Angophoras. The 


102 C. HALL. 


seedling is also slender and grows slowly. From close and 
extensive field knowledge in the County of Cumberland, 
extending over many years, I have found all degrees of 
gradation between A. subvelutina and intermedia. In its 
most typical form the former is to be found growing by 
creeks and rivers and on deep alluvial flats. When seen on 
the hillsides, one frequently finds a divergence from type, 
the leaves are narrower and longer, and tend to lose the 
juvenile sessile form, and to become petiolated. This is 
especially so in the terminal branches of old trees, but 
even on the banks of the Parramatta River, one can find 
trees less subvelutina-like than others. 


A. intermedia grows most characteristically on the 
Wianamatta Clay where it is shallow, and the roots can 
penetrate readily through to the Hawkesbury Sandstone as 
found to the north of Parramatta, occurring in association 
with Hucalyptus saligna, acmenoides, punctata and 
pilularis. Itis not till the seedlings are twelve months old 
that they can be distinguished from those of A. subvelutina, 
and sometimes even not till long after that. Asin the adult 
Stage, these two species are found to be almost identical 
in buds, fruit, flowers, timber, bark and chemical constitu- 
tion, it will be seen that the only salient difference is in the 
adult leaves. 


In the Angophoras an interesting gradation is to be found 
in the juvenile leaves, those of A. cordifolia being small, 
ovate, or even orbicular, then in A. subvelutina and inter- 
media, they are longer but still ovate, in A. lanceolata 
they are lanceolate, in A. melanoxylon they are narrower, 
and in A. Bakeri narrowest of all. 


While all the juvenile foliage is sessile and cordate, and 
in A. cordifolia, subvelutina and melanoxylon this character 
is retained through life, in A. intermedia, lanceolata and 


SEEDLINGS OF THE ANGOPHORAS. 103 


Bakeri the mature leaves are petiolate. This heterophylly 
corresponds to what is so usual in the Kucalypts. 


The evidence of the seedlings strongly supports Mr. 
Baker’s view that A. melanoxylon is deserving of specific 
rank. Not only this but it also conclusively proves, along 
with the results of the oil distillation, that the narrow- 
leaved form that was figured first in the ‘‘Sydney Mail,”’’ 
February ist, 1890, by Mr. J. H. Maiden, and is referred 
to by Mr. R. H. Cambage as A. intermedia var. angusti- 
folia* is really far more distinct and more deserving of 
specific rank than A. intermedia as compared with A. 
subvelutina. I will therefore describe it, and have the 
great pleasure of naming it Angophora Bakeri, after Mr. 
R. T. Baker, who preeminently deserves to be associated 
with such an important Natural Order as the Myrtacee. 


A. BAKERI, sp. nov. 


(Arbor, 20—30 ped. alta, “‘Narrow-leaved Apple”’ nota, 
cortice rimosa, ramulis glabris vel setosis; foliis juvene 
augustis sessilibus basi cordatis, foliis mature augustis 135” 
— 3’ longis %" latis, lanceolatis falcatis acuminatis petio- 
latis oppositis, veins lateralibus parallelis, vena peripherica 
prope margini posita; terminalibus corymbis vel brevibus 
paniculis; calycis tuba 2°’ - 3”’ lata, turbinata glabra 
dentibus acutis; fructus 4”’ — 5”’ longus, costis longitu- 
dinalibus haud prominentibus, margine tenue contracto 
incurvato, dentibus brevissimis acuminatis.) 


A medium sized tree, 20-30 feet high, with a diameter 
seldom exceeding 2 feet; bark fibrous, resembling that of 
A. subvelutina, F.v.M. and A.intermedia, DC. Branchlets 
glabrous or with bristles. Leaves numerous 13-3 inches 
long, rarely more than 4 inch broad, narrow-lanceolate, 
petiolate, acuminate, falcate, opposite, when dry paler on 


1 Notes on Native Flora, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. xxxvi, Part 2. 


104 CU RNEaS 


the underside, glabrous, lateral veins numerous fine 
parallel, indistinct on upper surface, intramarginal vein 
very close to edge, oil dots visible. Flowers in dense 
terminal corymbs, or short panicles; calyx 2 — 3 lines in 
diameter, turbinate, glabrous, teeth acute; petals white, 
imbricate, abruptly acuminate, separately deciduous or 
occasionally coming away together in a sort of operculum. 
Fruit slightly larger than that of A. subvelutina, 4—5 lines 
long, 3—4 lines broad, longitudinal ribs not prominent, rim 
thin, contracted, incurved, teeth very short acuminate. 


Habitat.—Coastal district of New South Wales on 
Hawkesbury Sandstone around Sydney and usually associ- 
ated with Eucalyptus haemastoma and corymbosa. 


Timber.—A pale coloured timber, of medium weight, 
with a pinkish duramen and pronounced alburnum readily 
attacked by borers. Gum veins fairly prevalent. It 
dresses well, is open in the grain and fissile, and specimens 
free of gum veins and sapwood could be turned to economic 
use, such as some forms of cabinet timber, and general 
carpentry work. 


Remarks.—Bentham (Flora Aust.) does not mention this 
formatall. It has usually been confused with A.intermedia. 
Anyone seeing these two trees in the field could never 
confuse them, as A. Bakeri can be distinguished by its 
numerous narrow leaves, which droop in characteristic 
fashion owing to the long petioles, and it forms a shorter, 
broader tree than A. intermedia. The fruit of the former 
is also slightly larger and asymmetrical on its pedicel, the 
rim contracted and teeth very short and acuminate. More- 
over it yields an oil and oil dots may be seen in the green 
leaves, whereas A. intermedia, like A. subvelutina, yields 
no oilor only traces. Taking all things into consideration 
therefore, I consider this a far stronger species than A. 
intermedia. As pointed out before, the seedlings of A. 


ey 


SEEDLINGS OF THE ANGOPHORAS. 105 


Bakeri are quite distinct, and I have found the seedlings 
of the two species growing together in the same soil and 
yet absolutely retaining their characteristics. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 


PuaTE II.—1. Angophora intermedia (naturally grown). 
2. Angophora subvelutina (grown in box). 
3. Angophora cordifolia (grown in box). 
Pirate II].—1. Angophora melanoxylon (grown in box). 
2. Anyophora Bakert, sp. nov. (naturally grown). 
3. Angophora lanceolata (grown in box). 


Pirate 1V.—Angophora Bakeri, sp. nov. 1. Flowering twig. 
2. Bud (enlarged). 3. Anther (enlarged) 4. Fruits. 


106 H. G. SMITH. 


ON THE HSSENTIAL OILS OF THE ANGOPHORAS. 


By HENRy G. SMITH, F.C.S. 
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Waies, August 6, 1913. } 


Introduction. 7 

THIS genus, Angophora, was established by Cavanilles in 
1797, the name being given by him to two species commen 
in the neighbourhood of Sydney, viz.:—Angophora cordi- 
folia and lanceolata. Although very closely allied to that 
widely distributed Australian genus—Kucalyptus, and in all 
probability its prototype, yet the number of species in the 
genus is very limited, only six being so far described, as 
against about two hundred in the former. With the excep- 
tion of A. cordifolia, they are all fine forest trees, and so 
much resemble those of the cognate genus (supra) that 
they are commonly regarded as the same “ family,’’ and 
this is very excusable to the unscientific mind, for the barks 
are almost identical and could easily be classed as “‘ Stringy- 
bark,’’ or ‘““Gum’’—smooth bark. The timbers also very 
closely resemble those of the pale coloured woods of the 
Kucalypts. Botanically, they are only to be differentiated 
from the Eucalypts by their distinct calyx teeth and free 
petals. 


In geographical distribution they are restricted to the 
east coast district of the continent, and are now classified 
as follows :— 

A. cordifolia, Cav. (1797) A. lanceolata, Cav. (1797) 
A. subvelutina, F.v.M. (1858) A. melanoxijlon, R.T.B. (1900) 
A. intermedia, DeCandolle (1828) A. Bakeri, Dr. O. Hall (1913) 


The first recorded instance of an essential oil from the 
leaves of any species of Angophora, is the notice in the 
work by Mr. R. T. Baker and myself ‘“‘A Research on the 


ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE ANGOPHORAS. 107 


HKucalypts,’’ 1902, p. 16. The leaves of A. lanceolata were 
more easily obtainable, and for this reason were used for 
the purpose. It was desirable, at that time, to determine 
whether the oil from this group of Myrtaceous trees was 
in agreement with that distilled from certain species of 
Hucalyptus. It had been found previously that the vena- 
tion of the leaves of some EKucalypts, particularly those of 
the “* Bloodwood ”’ group, indicated the presence of pinene 
in their oils.* The terpene phellandrene is not a constituent 
of Kucalyptus oils from species so early in the evolution 
of the genus, and those Kucalypts yielding phellandrene 
bearing oils have quite a distinct leaf venation. 


The venation of the mature lanceolate leaves of the 
Angophoras is similar to that of the ‘“‘ Bloodwood” group 
of Kucalypts, and the oils should, therefore, consist largely 
of pinene. Although the yield of oil from A. lanceolata is 
very small, yet sufficient was obtained to furnish the 
evidence required, and it was thus possible to show a 
distinct chemical connection, through their oils, between 
the Angophoras and the Hucalypts at the older end of that 
genus. The evidences in other directions, which have 
accumulated since that time, all tend to support the con- 
clusions then advanced, and it may now be stated with some 
confidence that the Angophoras are very closely in agree- 
ment with the Hucalypts, and that Angophora is the older 
genus. Besides the evidence derived from the investigation 
of the oils, this close relation is further emphasised by the 
study of the kinos, or astringent exudations; and the 
presence of the caoutchouc on the young leaves of certain 
species of Angophora and Hucalyptus is also a feature of 
some value in this connection. 


It was desirable, therefore, that an investigation of the 
oils of all the known species of Angophora in New South 


* This Journal, Vol. xxxv, p. 116, i901. 


108 H. G. SMITH. 


Wales should be undertaken, so that the previous conclu- 
sions might be strengthened, or otherwise. 


From the results now brought forward it isapparent that 
the chemical changes which have become sucha pronounced 
feature with the oils of the EKucalypts, had scarcely com- 
menced, if at all, in the oils of the Angophoras. It is 
possible, however, to trace the origin of certain constituents 
of Kucalyptus oils, and the dextro-rotatory pinene, the 
geranyl-acetate, the geraniol, and the sesquiterpene, all 
had their origin in the oils of the Angophoras, or perhaps 
insome still older genus. It might be expected that certain 
constituents would remain persistent in some directions if 
the suggested relation between the genera was actual as 
well as apparent. That this is so is shown by the numer- 
ous pinene Kucalyptus oils, in which the dextro-rotatory 
form is such a distinguishing feature, and by the many 
Kucalyptus oils in which geranyl-acetate occurs, reaching 
the maximum in that of Hucalyptus Macarthuri. 


The Angophoras as a class are not promising as oil yield- 
ing plants, and from two species, A. cordifolia and sub- 
velutina, no oil was obtained, while but traces can be 
distilled from the leaves of A. intermedia. Some of the 
other species, however, give fair yields of oil, more in fact 
than is obtainable from several species of Hucalyptus. 


The following table gives the yields of oil distilled from 
material cut as would be done for commercial oil distillation: 


Angophora Bakert aes ... O'd1 per een: 
= melanoxylon... woe Oe ms 
, Cae 2 OS _ 


" lanceolata (Sydney)... O-013 ,, 
lanceolata (Warialda) 0-005 _,, 
2 intermedia ... .. traces 

a subvelutina ... .-. none 


2 cordifolia ... ... none 


ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE ANGOPHORAS. 109 


In some instances, over 500 Ibs. of leaves and branchlets 
were distilled. 


To test the position of A. intermedia, material was 
obtained both from Penrith, and from near Parramatta. 
In the latter case no oil was obtainable, while in the former 
not more than 10 drops of oil were distilled from 120 Ibs. of 
fresh material. 


The investigation of the oils thus obtained shows that 
no marked differences in constituents can be detected 
between the oils of the several species of Angophora. They 
all consist largely of dextro-rotatory pinene with a uniformly 
high specific rotation; two esters of geraniol (geranyl- 
acetate and geranyl-valerianate), free geraniol, a high 
boiling constituent, most probably a sesquiterpene ; with 
small amounts of a volatile aldehyde and a low boiling 
ester, the odour of which was that of amyl-acetate. Neither 
cineol nor phellandrene were present even in traces. The 
saponification number for the esters varied somewhat in 
the several oils, but this factor may be perhaps considered 
as accidental rather than discriminative, particularly as 
the pinene in all the oils has practically the same optical 
activity to the right, and does not vary much in amount. 


The general characters of the oils of the Angophoras are 
thus in close agreement with those distilled from various 
species of Hucalypts. None of the species of Angophora 
can be considered of commercial value as oil producing 
trees, yet the scientific results derived from their investi- 
gation are of considerable value in helping to elucidate 
the problems dealing with the origin and development of 
the closely related genus Hucalyptus. 


The Essential Oils. 
ANGOPHORA BAKERI. — 


This species is described in the previous paper, dealing 
with the seedlings of the Angophoras, by Dr. Cuthbert 


110 H. G. SMITH. 


Hall. Although the leaves are much smaller and narrower 
than those of the other species, yet, the venation is similar. 
The oil glands in the fresh leaves are more pronounced in 
this species than in the others, and this is also indicated by 
the greater yield of oil. 


Chemistry.—This material was collected in the neigh- 
bourhood of Parramatta, in the month of October, and 
consisted of fresh leaves and terminal branchlets, cut as 
for commercial oil distillation. The average yield of oil 
was 0°31 per cent. 


The crude oil was light lemon coloured, had an indistinct 
odour at first, but distinctly a secondary aromatic one. 
The chief constituents were dextro-rotatory pinene, 
geraniol, geranyl-acetate, geranyl-valerianate, a small 
amount of a sesquiterpene, together with a little volatile 
aldehyde, and most probably a minute quantity of amyl- 


acetate. No other terpene than pinene was detected and ~ 


cineol was quite absent. The botanical evidence is also 
against the presence of either phellandrene or cineol in 
the oil. 


The crude oil had specific gravity at 15° CO. = 0°8719; 
rotation dp) = + 35.6; refractive index at 22° = 1°4660; 
and was insoluble in 10 volumes 80 per cent. alcohol by 
weight. 


On the rectification of 100 cc. of the oil, a small amount 
of acid water with some low boiling aldehyde, and a con- 
stituent with a pear-like odour, came over below 155° C. 
(corr.). Between 155 — 160°, 57 per cent. distilled; and 
between 160 — 172°, 24 per cent. The thermometer then 
quickly rose to 220°, and between that temperature and 
250°, 6 per cent. distilled, with some decomposition. These 
fractions gave the following results :— 


ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE ANGOPHORAS. 111 


Sp. gr.at 15°C. Rotation a, Ref. index at 19°C, 


First fraction 0°8658 + 37°.6 1°4661 
Second fraction 0°8689 + 32°.7 1°4680 
Third fraction 0°8995 + 4°.8 1°4721 


72 cc. of the added first two fractions were again distilled, 
and before 156° C. was passed 50 cc. had distilled (= 50% 
of the crude oil); and 14 cc. between 156 — 157°. These 
two fractions gave results closely in agreement, as is seen 
from the following :— 


Sp. gr. at 15°C. Rotation a, Ref. index at 19° C. 
Virst fraction O8612 . +375 1°4658 
Second fraction 0°8622 + 36°.6 1°4663 


The indications from the above are that the only low 
boiling terpene present in this oil is pinene, and that over 
75 per cent. of the oil of this species consists of that con- 
stituent. The odour too, of the terpene was distinctly 
that of pinene. 


The nitrosochloride was prepared with a portion of the 
first fraction, and this, when finally purified by precipitating 
by methyl alcohol from a chloroform solution, melted with 
decomposition at 103 — 104 O., thus confirming the 
identity of the pinene. 


The saponification number for the esters, by boiling, 
together with that of the free acid, was 33°6. The 
secondary odour of the separated oil after saponification 
was that of geraniol, and the presence of geraniol in these 
oils was proved in that of A. melanoxylon. Acetic acid 
and valerianic acid were also both shown to be present in 
combination as esters in the oil of that species, and there 
is no reason to suppose that the esters are different in the 
oil of A. Bakeri, especially as the results of cold saponifi- 
cation in both oils are similar, and as the Angophora oils 
all resemble each other in constitution. 


mene 


ee ON SS ee pe: SOR ee ee rat i 


112 H. G. SMITH. 


The saponification number of the ester as determined in 
the cold, with two hours’ contact, was 19°2, so that this 
portion, calculated as geranyl-acetate, was equal to 6°7 
per cent. of that ester, and the remainder calculated as 
geranyl-valerianate was equal to 6'1 per cent. 


A portion of the crude oil was acetylated by boiling one 
and a half hours with acetic anhydride and anhydrous sodium 
acetate in the usual way. The saponification number from 
this was exactly 50. As no other alcohol was detected 
than geraniol, with the exception, perhaps, of a trace of 
amyl alcohol as acetate, the amount of free alcohol calcu- 
lated as geraniol was 4°5 per cent. : 


The sesquiterpene was only present in small amount in 
the oil of this species. 

The composition of the oil of Angophora Bakeri may be 
stated as follows :-— 


Per cent. 
Dextro-rotatory pinene ... ae se .. = 78°0 
Free geraniol o ‘is =i aus ++ Se 
Geranyl-acetate ©... sis ve oe: oo. ee 
Geran yl-valerianate sie =; 6H 
Water, volatile aldehydes and ee fale eaten = 1°0 
Sesquiterpene and undetermined ia | 

100°0 


—— 


ANGOPHORA MELANOXYLON. 
This species was first described by my colleague, Mr. 
R. T. Baker, F.L.S., in the Proceedings of the Linnean 
Society of New South Wales, April, 1900. 


Chemistry.—This material was collected in the month 
of March at Coolabah, New South Wales (430 miles west 
of Sydney), and forwarded to the Museum by Mr. H. T. 
Morgan, the Public School teacher at that place. It con- 
sisted of fresh leaves and terminal branchlets collected as 
would be done for commercial oil distillation. 


c 


ig 
= 


“ 


+, 


CONTENTS.» 


Art. I.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By R. H. Salim irs LS, - 
PWith Plate Dp ho $4 os aan ae na 

See Art. II.—Products of the Action of Concentrated Sulphuie A 
; on Iron. By C. W. R. Powez1t, Science Research Scholar. 
University of Sydney. (Communicated by Professor: B 
Fawsitt, D.sc., PH.D.) af doen: PS ae eae . a 

Art. III.~Note on the Occurrence of Coccidiosis in Tins Sparr 
and in Bovinesin N.S.W. By J. BuRTON CLELAND, M.D.,0H.M., 
Principal Microbiologist to the Government of N.S. Wales. ~ 
Arr. IV.—Note on the Growth of Flowering Stem of Xanthorrhea 
 hastilis, R.Br. . By J. Burton CLELAND, M.D., CH.M:.. 
Art. V.—Note on Agar-agar Seaweed from Western Australia. 
By J. Burton CLELAND, m. Ps fol: Bi Sa tei 


eT! No. I. By J. Wo MaapEn <a 


Art. VII.—Note on the Foals of Eucalyptus Oils, d 
SMITH, F.C.8. Lay rs be vis wa 


Arr. VIII.—The Seedlings of the Adposhod and ‘eseription 
New Species.. By CurHsrert Hatt, m.v., cH.m. ~(Comm 
cated by R. T. Baker). [With Plates II-—IV.]~ rhs 


Anz, IX.—On the Essential Oils of the Angophoras. . By H. G. 
SMITH, F.C.8. stn” x 


Part II. 


JOURNAL AND PROCREDIN GS 


| a YAL SOCIETY 


~ iF Ote: 


PART IL, (pp. 1138-247). 
ConTAINING PAPERS READ IN 
AUGUST to DECEMBER. 
= WITH FIVE PLATES. 


_(Plates v, vi, vii, viii, ix.) 


ROR ee 


AQRsot conian -/ns; 


SYDNEY : 
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. 
e * LONDON AGENTS : 
GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 
17 Warwick Square, Paternoster Row, Lowpon, E.C, 


* 1913. 


rig cs eae -¥, WHITE Typ., 344 Kent Street Sydney. 


_ ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE ANGOPHORAS. 113 


The average yield of oil was 0°19 per cent. The crude 
oil was somewhat darker in colour than that of A. Bakeri, 
due to the larger amount of ester and free acid in the oil, 
the latter more readily attacking the iron of the still. The 
odour resembled that of A. Bakeri, and the aromatic 
secondary odour was also similar. 


The chief constituents in the oil of this species were 
identical with those in the oil of A. Bakeri, although the 
geranyl-valerianate was a little more pronounced, as was 
also the sesquiterpene. Phellandrene and cineol were, of 
course, both absent. 


The crude oil had specific gravity at 15° CO. = 0.8809; 
rotation ap = + 24°.9; refractive index at 21°.5 = 1°4678; 
and was insoluble in 10 volumes 80 per cent. alcohol. 


On redistilling 100 cc. of the crude oil, a small amount 
oi acid water, some volatile aldehydes and the constituent 
with a pear-like odour came over below 155° ©. (corr.). 
Between 155 — 160°, 31 per cent. distilled; and between 
160 — 193°, 41 per cent. The thermometer then rose to 
225°, and between that temperature and 265°, 20 per cent. 
distilled, with some decomposition. These fractions gave 
the following results :— 

Sp. gr.at 15°C. Rotation a) Ref. index at 20°C. 


First fraction =0°8638 + 37°.6 © 1°4630 
Second fraction = 0°8648 + 34°.6 1°4638 
Third fraction =0°9250 too dark 1°4846 


The first two fractions were again distilled when 46 per 
cent. of the whole oil came over to 156° (corr.) and 13 per 
cent. between 156 — 157°. 


These two fractions gave the following results :— 
Sp. gr.at 15°C. Rotationa, Ref. index at 19°C. 
First fraction =0°8615 + 37°.9 1°4642 
Second fraction =0°8621 + 36°.8 1°4644 


H—August 6, 1913, 


114 H., G. SMITH. 


The above results indicate that the only terpene in the 
oil is pinene, and that about 70 per cent. of that constituent 
was present. The nitrosochloride melted at the same 
temperature as that prepared with the pinene from the oil 
of A. Bakeri. 


The saponification number for the esters and free acid in 
the crude oil by boiling was 42°5, and in the cold with two 
hours contact 19°8. If the ester broken down by cold 
saponification be considered to represent the geranyl- 
acetate, then the result gives 6°93 per cent. of that ester, 
and 9°64 per cent. geranyl-valerianate. These figures agree 
very well with those obtained from the ratio of the acids 
of the esters. 


To determine these acids, the third fraction was saponi- 
fied with alcoholic potash by boiling, water added, the oil 
separated, and the aqueous portion evaporated to small 
amount. This was filtered, acidified with sulphuric acid, 
and steam distilled until the whole of the volatile acids had 
come over. The distillate was exactly neutralised with 
barium hydrate solution; evaporated to dryness, the residue 
powdered and finally heated in air-oven. 0°4197 gram of 
the barium salt when treated with concentrated sulphuric 
acid and ignited, gave 0°3195 gram barium sulphate, equal 
to 76°12 per cent. It was thus evident that a volatile acid 
of higher molecular weight than acetic acid was present. 
That the ester containing this acid was in excess was also 
indicated by the amount saponified in the cold being less 
than half the total ester. The remainder of the barium 
salt was then decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid, 
extracted with ether, and the ether evaporated. Theacids 
which remained gave the characteristic odour of valerianic 
acid. The acids were but little soluble in water, but the 
aqueous portion gave reactions for acetic acid. The in- 
soluble portion when heated with a little amylic alcohol 


ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE ANGOPHORAS. 115 


gave an ethereal odour of apples. The reactions thus 
indicated the presence of acetic and valerianic as the acids 
of the esters. These acids were thus in combination with 
the barium as follows :—32°64 per cent. barium acetate, 
and 67°36 per cent. barium valerianate. 


The oil separated after saponification was steam distilled 
and in the portion which came over, the odour of geraniol 
was most prominent; the distilled water also had an odour 
strongly resembling that of rose water. When mildly 
oxidised with bichromate of potassium in sulphuric acid, 
the aldehyde citral was readily formed. It thus appears 
that geraniol is the only alcohol in these esters, and that 
it is in combination with both acids in the oils of the 
Angophoras. 


A portion of the crude oil was acetylated in the usual 
way and the saponification of this gave results indicating 
that 5°1 per cent. of free geraniol was present in the oil of 
this species. 

From the above determinations the composition of the 
oil of A. melanoxylon may be stated as follows:— 


Per cent. 
Pinene Sia = 72°0 
Free geraniol a “ii ais sar i Owe 
Geranyl acetate ... nics aes said soore= “Oy 
Geranyl valerianate ee = 9°6 
Water, volatile aldehydes and low peline aster = i 
Sesquiterpene and undetermined as . = o4 

100°0 


Power and Kleber* show geraniol to be present in the 
oil of Sassafras leaves in combination with both acetic and 


valerianie acids. 
ANGOPHORA SPECIES. 


This species, which grows in the neighbourhood of 
Bingara, New South Wales, (370 miles north of Sydney), is 


+ Pharm, Review, xiv, p. 103. 


116 H. G. SMITH. 


considered by my colleague, Mr. R. T. Baker, to be new to 
science, and it is his intention to describe it before the 
Linnean Society of this State. As the oil is similar in 
constitution to those of the other species of Angophora, 
it may be described here. 


Chemistry.—Tl1 is material was forwarded by the Museum 
collector from Myall Creek, near Bingara, 370 miles north 
of Sydney. It was cut as for commercial oil distillation. 


The average yield of oil was 0°13 per cent. The crude 
oil was, in odour and appearance, identical with that of A. 
Bakeri. The chief constituents were also identical with 
those of that species, with the exception that the pinene 
was present in greater quantity, and the ester in corres- 
pondingly less amount. Phellandrene and cineol were, of 
course, both absent. 7 

The crude oil had specific gravity at 15° OC. = 0°8703; 
rotation dy = + 36°.3; refractive index at 20° = 1°4669; 
and was insoluble in 10 volumes 80 per cent. alcohol. 


On the rectification of 100 cc., the usual amount of acid 
water and volatile aldehydes, together with the constituent 
of pear-like odour, came over below 155°C. (corr.). Between 
155 — 157°, 60 per cent. distilled, and between 157 — 165°, 
21 per cent. came over. These fractions gave the follow- 
ing results :— 

Sp. gr.at 15°C. Rotation ay Ref. index at 17° C, 
First fraction 0°8645 + 37°.9 1°4665 
Second fraction 0°8679 + 37°.3 1°4669 


These two mixed fractions were again rectified and the 
large portion distilling at 156° separated. This had specific 
gravity at 15° = 0°8618; rotation ap + 38°.1; and refractive 
index at 18° = 1°4655. The nitrosochloride melted at the 
same temperature as those from the pinenes of the other 
species. The indications are, therefore, that over 80 per 


ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE ANGOPHORAS. 117 


cent. of the oil of this species of Angophora consists of 
pinene. : 

The saponification number for the esters and free acids 
was 18°9, thus showing that the esters were present in 
somewhat less amount than in the oils of either A. Bakeri 
or A. melanoxylon. 


ANGOPHORA LANCEOLATA. 


This species was described by Cavanilles in 1797. It is 
a common tree in the neighbourhood of Sydney, and grows 
principally on the Hawkesbury Sandstone formation. This 
kind of acid soil is the one it naturally selects by choice, 
and throughout its wide distribution it still clings to the 
sandstone. In the district around Warialda, where the 
low hills are capped with sandstone, this tree is also found 
growing. It isthe only Angophora with a smooth bark; 
all the others have thick, semi-fibrous, soft barks. 


Chemistry.—Material of this species for oil distillation 
was collected at the Military Reserve, Mosman, Sydney, 
in the month of June. The yield of oil was very small, 
equalling only 0°013 per cent. It was a somewhat thick 
oil and with sucha small amount it was difficult to separate. 
The specific gravity of the crude oil at 15° C. = 0°927; and 
the refractive index = 1°4946; the oil was insoluble in 10 
volumes 80 per cent. alcohol. These results indicate a 
considerable amount of the sesquiterpene. The saponifica- 
tion number of the esters and free acid by boiling was 24°2; 
and in the cold with two hours contact 10°1. The secondary 
odour of the separated saponified oil was that of geraniol, 
so that judging from the results with the other oils, it may 
be considered that the geranyl-acetate equalled 3°53 per 
cent., and the geranyl-valerianate 5°99 per cent. 


The available oil was then distilled, and 4 cc. obtained, 
boiling between 157 - 163°C. (corr.). This had a pinene 


118 H. G. SMITH. 


odour; specific gravity at 15° = 0°8661; rotation ap = 
+33°.8; and refractive index at 16° = 1°4697. The indica- 
tions are, therefore, for pinene similar in physical properties 
to that distilled from other species of Angophora, and 
although the rotation is somewhat less, yet, this is due 
largely to incomplete rectification, owing to the want of 
sufficient material. 


Material of this species was also procured from Warialda, 
New South Wales (460 miles north of Sydney). It was 
forwarded by the Museum Collector in the month of April. 
The amount of oil was very small, equalling only 0°005 per 
cent. Assuchasmall quantity of oil was available nothing 
further was done with it, but it resembled strongly the oil 
of this species recorded above. 


As already stated no oil was obtained from either A. 
cordifolia or subvelutina, and only traces from A. inter- 
media. 

Summary of Results. 

The general results obtained with the crude oils of the 
three chief oil bearing species of Angophora are here 
tabulated for means of ready reference. 

Rotation ap Sp.gr.at15° MRef.index. S.N.ofesters. 


A. Bakeri + 35°°6 0:8719 1:4660 at 22° 33°6 
A. melunoxylon + 24°:9 0:8809 1:4678 at 21°55 42°5 
A. sp. + 36°°3 0:8703 1:4669 at 20° 13:9 


All these oils are insoluble in 10 volumes 80 per cent. 
alcohol by weight. The differences are but slight when 
the increased amount of ester in the oil of A. melanoxylon 
and the less amount in the oil of the unamed species are 
considered. 


‘Little is yet known of the influence which different times 
of the year may exert on the oils of the Angophoras, 
although it is not expected that this would influence the 
results to any great extent. 


ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE ANGOPHORAS. 119 


The finally rectified pinenes of all the species agree very 
closely in general characters, and this is well shown when 
the results are tabulated :— 

Rotation ap Sp.g.at15° Ref. index. Sp. rota. [a]p 
. Bakeri oh cD 0°8612 1°4658 at 18° +4 43°-54 
. melanoxylon + 37°°9 0:8615 1:4642 at 19° +4 43°-99 
sp. + 38°] 0:8618 1:4655 at 18° 4+ 44°-21 
. lanceolata +33°:8 08661 1:4697 at 16° 


Pa fa fe ob 


The higher specific gravity, refractive index, and lower 
rotation of the pinene from A. lanéeolata is accounted for 
by the difficulty in sufficiently rectifying the small amount 
of oil available. There seems, however, no reason to 
suppose that the physical properties of the fully rectified 
pinene from this species, would differ from that of the other 
species. | 


The essential oils from the oil-yielding species of Ango- 


phora are thus seen to be very similar in chemical con- 
stituents and in general characters. 


I am indebted to my colleague, Mr. R. T. Baker, F.L.s., 
for the botanical information contained in this paper, and 
for the authenticity of the material worked upon. 


120 G. H. HALLIGAN. 


THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF BOTANY BAY. — 


By G. H. HALLIGAN, F.G.S. 
With Plates V, VI. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, Auqust 6, 1913. ] 


In the many valuable papers that have been written of 
late years upon the physiography of New South Wales, the 
subject has been treated entirely from the geologist’s 
standpoint. The earth movements that have undoubtedly 
taken place nave had assigned to them their proper geo- 
logical age; the vertical displacement of the strata, the 
effect of the movements upon the direction of the flow of 
rivers, and the formation of lakes and lagoons consequent 
upon the folding, faulting and crushing have also been 
discussed. Though much has been done, it is perhaps 
needless to say that much remains to be done, but with the 
enthusiastic band of workers now in the field, we may con- 
fidently look for a continuation of the good work in the 
future. 


It is proposed in this paper to deal with that part of the 
subject which refers to changes in the shore line which 
have necessarily taken place strictly within Pleistocene 
and recent times; changes which must be taken into serious 
consideration by the engineer, as well as the geologist, for 
it is by a discussion of them that he is enabled to design 
works in the carrying out of which he will be assisted by 
nature, and so save the time and money for which he is 
responsible. 


Although this paper is called the physiography of Botany 
Bay, the principles involved may be taken to apply to many 
other places along the 600 miles of coast from Point Danger 
to Gabo Island. Botany Bay has been selected because 


THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF BOTANY BAY. lA | 


of its vicinity to Sydney and the ease with which it may 
be inspected, and the statements made in this paper verified 
by any member who cares to spend a short day on this 
interesting work. A visit to Kurnell and a short walk to 
the top of the hill near the Trigonometrical Station, 
“*‘Solander,’’ enables one to obtain a panoramic view of the 
district described. 


It will at once be seen that the dominant feature is the 
very large area of sand which fringes the shore line on the 
northern, western and southern sides of the bay, and 
extends inland as shown by the stippled area on the accom- 
panying map (Plate V). The edge of the sand furthest 
from the existing shore-line shows approximately the 
boundary of the old rocky coast of Trias-Jura sandstone, 
possibly at the time the last subsidence, of from 200 to 
300 feet, took place.’ 


In this paper an attempt is made to solve the problem of 
how all this sand came here, and why the shore-line has 
assumed its existing shape. 


There are two streams discharging into Botany Bay, 
viz:—George’s River, having a length of 50 miles, and 
Cook’s River, which is about 11 miles long. The combined 
catchment area of the two rivers is 339 square miles. 


The course of George’s River for the upper 30 miles is 
through steep rocky gorges in the familiar Hawkesbury 
sandstone formation. Highwater level of the ocean is 
reached about the township of Liverpool, at which point a 
dam was erected about the year 1830 for the purpose of 
obtaining a water supply for the residents. It will thus be 
manifest that any sand coming down George’s River will 
be deposited fn the bed of the stream where the gradient 
of the river ceases, and before any sand can arrive at | 


* David, T. W. E., B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Anniversary Address to the Royal 
Society of New South Wales, May 1896, this Journal, Vol. xxx, p. 57. 


123 G. H. HALLIGAN. 


Botany Bay nearly the whole of the stream-bed from Liver- 
pool to the mouth must be filled, and this as we know is 
far from being the case. That a large amount of sediment 
is being deposited can be readily seen just below the 
Liverpool Dam. At this spot the old steamer *‘Phantom”’ 
which drew about eight feet used to ply with coal for the 
Liverpool residents until about forty years ago. This part 
of the river is now so sanded up that one can walk across 
it in places almost dry footed at low tide. Several other 
places lower down the stream also shows signs of sand 
accumulation due to floods, but the total quantity, although 
large enough to seriously interfere with navigation, is 
insignificant when compared with the enormous deposits on 
the shores of Botany Bay. 


The total length of Cook’s River is about 11 miles, and 
from its source to the point where it meets the highwater 
level of the ocean, is four and a half miles. The catch- 
ment area, which is almost wholly in Wianamatta shale 
country, naturally does not produce much sand, the flats | 
at Marrickville and Tempe being composed of hard mud. 
Dams are erected at Canterbury, about six and a half miles, 
and at Tempe which is about three miles from the mouth, 
and at neither place is any sand accumulation visible. 


Quite apart from other considerations, it will thus be 
seen that the sand in Botany Bay could not have been 
deposited in its present position by the waters of George’s 
and Cook’s Rivers. | 


First, because the quantity now visible, which has been 
brought down during historic times, is so insignificant that 
countless ages would be necessary to account for the 
enormous accumulation at Botany Bay, and neither the 
growth of timber nor the depth of humus on the sand flats 
referred to, indicates the lapse of any such very lengthy 
period. 


THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF BOTANY BAY. 123 


Second, all borings taken on the stippled area shown on 
the maps show clean white sand from the present shore- 
line to the original highwater mark, and this obviously 
could not have been carried down the rivers during flood 
time, for, had it been so carried, traces of alluvium would 
appear, and the flats would consist of good soil in place of 
the present hungry sand, which supports only the hardiest. 
vegetation. 


Third, the disposition of the sand is not such as would 
indicate the deposits of sluggish streams in salt water, as 
will presently be shown. 


In this the author is at variance with the views expressed 
in a paper recently presented to this Society’ in which it 
is stated that this accumulation of sand is due to the 
*‘enormous amount of silting accomplished by the action of 
George’s and Cook’s Rivers when in flood.’’ 


It is obvious that the sandy deposits in any estuary must 
be due to one of two causes. Wither they must have been 
brought down from the watershed area of the inflowing 
rivers during floods, or they must have come in from the 
sea shore by the action of currents. If the sand comes 
from the uplands it will be mixed with alluvium and will 
tend to form flats more or less muddy, and such flats do 
not exist on the shores of Botany Bay except near the 
mouth of George’s River. In this particular locality, the 
mud is due to the flood waters of the river depositing its 
small load of alluvium, washed down from the hills in the 
immediate vicinity, where the current is checked by meet- 
ing the still waters of the bay. The deposit is .compara- 
tively small and is largely mixed with sea sand. 


It now remains to be shown how the sand, indicated by 
the stippled area on Plate V, was brought in from the sea, 


' E. C. Andrews, B.A., F.c.s., ‘Beach Formations at Botany Bay,” this 
Journal, Vol. xuvi, p. 163. 


124 G. H. HALLIGAN. 


why it assumed its present form, and what is going on in 
the way of sand movement at the present time. 


Plate VI shows the general trend of the ocean currents 
on the Australian coast, compiled from the latest reports 
and charts of the British Admiralty. A very large number 
of observations by the author, of the southerly current on 
the New South Wales coast, show it to have a mean 
velocity of from one to two nautical miles per hour from 
the shore line to at least twenty miles out. This velocity 
varies very little with the seasons. The surface water is 
accelerated by the north-easterly winds in the summer, 
and slightly retarded by the strong southerly winds at 
other seasons, but such puny forces must be practically 
ineffectual on a stream many hundreds of feet deep, many 
miles in widtb, and thousands of miles long. 


At all the salient points on the coast, from the Tweed 
River to Jervis Bay, the littoral current is flowing to the 
southward all the year round, and is conveying sand in. 
suspension in large quantities." When this current meets 
with an obstruction in the form of an island, a vortex is 
formed on the lee side, and the sand is here deposited in 
the form technically known as a banner reef. The land 
now knownas Kurnell, the historic landing place of Captain 
Cook, was originally such an island, and the sand accu- 
mulated on the south-western or lee side of it until it joined 
the main land again at Cronulla. The sand having been 
brought in by the currents was heaped up by the wind into 
dunes varying from 20 — 130 feet in height, thus closing 
up the southern outlet of Botany Bay, and completing the 
first stage in the filling-up process of this area. 


1 G. H. Halligan, r.c.s., ““ Sand Movement on the Coast of New Soutb 
Wales,” Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1906; also “ The Bar Harbours of New 
South Wales,” Min. and Proc. Inst. C.E., Vols. chxxxIv and CLXXXV. 


THE PHYSIUGRAPHY OF BOTANY BAY. 125 


In another paper’ it has been shown that, with the exist- 
ing rise and fall of tide on the New South Wales coast, a 
ratio of at least one foot width of entrance to four acres 
of tidal compartment in any estuary, is necessary in order 
that the velocity of the flood tide at the entrance shall be 
less than the velocity of the ocean current. When such 
exist, no sand is brought into the estuary, but is all con- 
veyed past in the littoral current. 


When the ratio is greater than four acres to one foot, 
sand is carried in, the amount varying as the velocity of 
the current necessary to fill the larger area. At present 
the area of the tidal compartment of Botany Bay is 14,246 
acres, and the least width of entrance is 3,467 feet, the 
ratio being 1: 4.11, and very little sand is at present enter- 
ing the bay. In proof of this the soundings taken by the 
author in 1910, as compared with those taken by Captain 
Cook in 1770, show no general shoaling of the bay. 


In years gone by however, when the waters of the bay 
occupied the stippled area on the western and northern side 
of the existing bay, the area was twice the present size, 
and consequently the current velocity of the tide at the 
entrance was about twice the present speed. Large quan- 
tities of sand were thus carried into the estuary and 
deposited in the still water along the eastern shore of the 
bay. The largest quantity of sand, would, of course, be 
carried in during times of strong southerly gales when the 
ocean current was toa certain extent retarded, and the 
difference between its speed and that of the flood tide was 
greatest. The southerly winds at the same time would 
tend to create a northerly current in the still waters of the 
bay, thus help to convey the sand to the northern end 
where Centennial Park and Randwick Racecourse now 


2 G. H. Halligan, “ Bar Harbours of New South Wales,” Min. and Proc. 
Inst. of C.E., Vol. chxxxiv, p. 144. 


126 G. H. HALLIGAN. 


exist. As time went on, and the sand accumulated on the 
area now known as the Botany Swamps, the sun dried the 
surface sand and the winds heaped it into dunes, the rain 
water filled the hollows, and the floods maintained a tortu- 
ous channel from lagoon to lagoon. In latter years dams 
were erected across this channel and the water impounded 
in them was used for many years asthe sole source of 
supply for the City of Sydney. 


The patches of black, indurated sand occasionally met 
with on this area, are the result of many years of growth 
and decay of aquatic plants on the swampy areas between 
the dunes. The carbonaceous soil thus formed consoli- 
dated, under pressure of the sand blown in from the 
surrounding dunes to fill up the old swamp, into the familiar 
indurated black sand which is to be found on similarly 
formed country from Queensland to Twofold Bay.* 


As the northern part of the area referred to became 
filled up, the ratio between the area of the tidal compart- 
ment and the entrance width became less and the area of 
still water decreased. The southerly and south-easterly 
winds still created surface currents in the bay sufficient to 
convey the sand brought in by the flood tide to the area now 
known as Sans Souci and Sandringham, but as the amount 
of sand brought in became less, the rate of filling up has 
steadily decreased and, at the present time, only a very 
small amount of sand is moving in Botany Bay below high 
water. 

The direction of the movement may be clearly seen at 
the Long Pier near the Botany Tramway Sheds. At this 
point the sand has heaped up against the stone approach 
to the Jetty on the eastern side, and has left the beach 


1 For further information on the subject of the origin of these indur- 
ated sand beds see J. E. Carne, F.c.s., Annual Report, Dept. of Mines, 
1895, pp. 149 — 160. 


THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF BOTANY BAY. Lay 


completely denuded of sand on the western side. There 
are also evidences of this westerly movement of the sand 
at Cook’s River entrance, but at Long Pier the direction 
of the sand travel, on this side of the bay, is unmistakable. 


At Sans Souci the beach sand is slowly being moved 
towards Kogarah Bay by the flood tide into George’s River, 
as shown by comparative soundings taken in recent years, 
but the movement is not pronounced enough to be visible 
to the casual observer. If George’s River did not exist, 
this sand would be conveyed eastwards to Quibray Bay 
and Weeney Bay, both of which would long ago have been 
filled up. At present they are slowly being filled by blown 
sand from the Cronulla dunes, which, in the first part of 
this paper, were referred to as being built upon the banner 
reef which was formed between the old island of Kurnell 
and the mainland. 


The author sees no reason to call in positive earth move- 
ment or negative movement of the ocean to account for 
the high sand ridges and dunes met with on this or any 
other portion of the New South Wales coast. The wind 
action may be noted any day, and the various and fantastic 
forms assumed by the moving sand may be plainly seen, on 
a small scale, on any sandy shore, to agree with the form- 
ation due to years of continued exposure to all sorts of 
wind and weather. 


The author would like to call attention here to the so- 
called dominant wind so often referred to, with reference 
to sand movement. There is no such thing as dominant 
wind as applied to any but a very small area at one time. 
What is a dominant wind at Bondi cannot be so called at 
Manly Beach, nor can the wind which has most influence 
on sand dune formation at the north shore of Botany Bay 
have any effect at all on the sand movement on the southern 
shore. It is therefore not correct to refer to the dominant 


128 G. H. HALLIGAN. 


wind over areas of any large extent. Ona steep hillside 
sloping to the north-east, the strong north-easterly winds 
in summer will bend the growing timber towards the south- 
west, and will cause all the well-known tree deformation 
common on wind swept slopes. On the other side of the 
hill, where the land slopes to the south, the winds from 
that quarter will similarly affect the growth of timber on 
the hill side which the north-easters do not touch. In this 
case, the so-called dominant wind would be from the north- 
east on one slope of the hill, and south-west on the other. 


As regards sand movement above high water, the move- 
ment must, on this coast, as a general rule, be to the 


northward, as the winds, having a velocity sufficient to 


move sand in any quantity (say 20 miles per hour and over) 
blow much more frequently from southerly than from 
northerly directions,* the proportion being 1 to 1°78, during 
a period of ten years. 


Whatever wind happens to be most effective over a cer- 
tain area will heap the sand into dunes; small obstructions 
will form eddies, which prevent the ridges assuming a 
regular form; lengthy periods of ample rainfall will produce 
luxuriant growth of reeds in parts where water accumulates, 
and these in turn die and rot away to form humus, which 
other and less hardy plants may grow in. It is nothing 
unusual to find sand dunes in other parts of the world of 
from 100 to 300 feet high, and although dunes of varying 
heights will be found within a short distance of one another, 
there is generally a noticeable uniformity in the height on 
each beach. 

This is due to the uniformity in the duration of the par- 
ticular wind which is mainly responsible for the dunes, 
over the particular area, and should not, in the opinion of 
the author, be taken to indicate earth movement unless 


1 «Sand Movement on the Coast of New South Wales,” Ibid., p. 625. 


RECTIFYING PROPERTY IN SILICON AND SELENIUM. 129 


some very positive evidence is available in the neighbour- 
hood to substantiate the supposition. 


In the neighbourhood of Botany Bay there has been no 
very definite evidence of elevation in Pleistocene times yet 
discovered, nor does there appear to the author to be any 
reason for assuming it, unless the actions we see going on 
around us every day should be insufficient to account for 
the phenomena of the past. 


NOTES on THE RECTIFYING PROPERTY in SILICON 
AND SELENIUM. 


By O. U. VONWILLER, B.Sc., | 
Assistant-Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney. — 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 8, 1913.] | 


SoME time ago when working witha selenium cell consist- 
ing of a thin sheet of conducting selenium extending 
between two parallel platinum wires, two millimetres 
apart, the writer observed that the conductance apparently 
varied with the direction in which the current passed. As 
is usually the case with selenium cells, Ohm’s law did not 
hold, but instead of the conductance rising, it was found 
that for one direction of the current the conductance 
decreased at first as the e.m.f. was increased, rising for 
higher values. When the current passed in the opposite 
direction the conductance rose as the e.m.f. increased from 
the lowest values. The minimum value of the conductance 
was obtained for an e.m.f. of about one volt and was 0°97 
of the value for zero voltage. For an e.m.f. of two volts 
the current in one direction was ten per cent. greater than 
I—September 3, 1913, 


130 O. U. VONWILLER. 


that in the other. When the cell was illuminated by an 
8 c.p. lamp at a distance of 100 cms. similar relationships 
were observed, the conductance being in all cases almost 
exactly 1°3 times as great as when in the dark. 


An examination of the cell showed that one of the two 
platinum wires had become detached from the selenium 
over more than half its length; when the current entered 
the selenium by this wire smaller conductance was obtained. 


Further experiments were carried out in which there 
was a much greater difference between the areas of the 
two surfaces of contact between metal and selenium, and 
it was found that in most cases a distinct rectifying pro- 
perty was to be detected. The best results were obtained 
when the current passed between one of the platinum wires 
of a cell, such as that mentioned before, and a needle or 
thin platinum wire of which the end rested lightly on the 
selenium. Therectifying power varied greatly, depending 
largely on the pressure between the point and the selenium; 
as the pressure was increased the conductance increased, 
and the rectifying property decreased to a marked extent, 
disappearing for comparatively small pressures. The 
greatest ratio obtained for the currents for any e.m.f. was 
about 40 to 1. 


Curve I in fig. 1 shows the variation of current with 
e.m.f. for each direction of flow between one of the wires 
of the cell described above, and a fine platinum wire the 
end of which rested lightly onthe selenium. The abscissz 
represent the e.m.f’s. applied (0°2 volt being taken as the 
unit) while the currents are represented, on an arbitrary 
scale, by the ordinates. In this, as in all other cases to be 
mentioned, the positive values represent those obtained 
when the current flowed from the metal surface of smaller 
to that of larger area. 


RECTIFYING PROPERTY IN SILICON AND SELENIUM. 131 


Whenever the rectification was great the resistance was 
extremely high, and the currents could not be measured to 
a high degree of accuracy as the observations become very 
irregular when the currents were increased, this being due 
in all probability to heating effects. Instead of thin sheets, 
large masses of selenium were sometimes used, and with 
these the rectifying property was observed when the cur- 
rent entered and left through surfaces of unequal area, but 
the differences were not so great as those sometimes 
obtained with thin sheets. 


In all cases the current for any e.m.f. was less when the 
point was at the higher potential than when at the lower 
potential, and in a number of trials the conductance fell at 
first when the e.m.f. was increased, the flow being in the 
positive direction. In some experiments the currents were 
too small to permit the existence of the minimum to be 
detected; when it occurred it was for an e.m.f. of not | 
more than one volt. 


Several trials were made with alternating electro-motive 
forces of frequencies varying from 20 to 60, the currents 
being measured with an Hinthoven galvanometer which 
enabled the maximum value of the current to be observed 
for each direction. The effects were similar to those 
obtained with continuous currents; for example, on one 
occasion, a deflection in one direction of 3°5 divisions was 
obtained before a movement of one tenth of a division was 
detected on the other side, so that the substance must take 
up the condition necessary that rectification may occur 
within a very short time of the application of the e.m.f. 


It seemed to be of interest to ascertain whether other 
substances of the many which possess the rectifying pro- 
perty showed a minimum conductance such as that found 
with selenium, and some experiments were carried out with 
silicon. Inall the trials with this material the conductance 


132 O. U. VONWILLER. 


was apparently greater when the current flowed in a 
negative direction, that is when it entered the silicon 
through the surface of greater area. The conductivity is 
much greater than that of selenium, so that it was possible 
to obtain accurate readings of the currents for very small 
differences of potential. On many occasions evidence of a 
minimum conductance for a small positive e.m.f. wags 
obtained. 


Curve II, fig. 1, shows the relation between current and 
e.m.f. in a case when a piece of silicon, roughly pyramidal 
in form, was held between two brass plates, one at the 
base and one at the apex; the height of the pyramid was 
25 centimetres. The change of direction of curvature does 
not occur at the origin but some distance on the positive 


RECTIFYING PROPERTY IN SILICON AND SELENIUM. 133 


side of it. This is shown to a more marked extent by 
Curve III, which gives the apparent conductances (that is, 
the ratio of current to e.m.f.) as ordinates, the abscissze 
representing values of the e.m.f. as in the other curves.. 
In Curve II the unit of e.m.f. is ;5 volt and the unit of 
current 73> ampere; for higher values than those shown 
the rectification becomes greater. 


Several curves similar to those shown were obtained, 
the form being the same under various conditions and with 
various metals making contact with the silicon; steel, 
brass, copper and platinum were used for one or both sur- 
faces in different trials. The position of the minimum 
varied on different occasions, but the e.m.f. at the point of 
minimum conductance was always less than one volt. 


With the object of obtaining further information about 
the minimum conductance, some trials were made in which 
two steel needles or two copper wires with rounded ends 
were pressed against the piece of silicon, held as described 
above, at points about one millimetre from the brass plates. 
The difference of potential between any two of the four 
metal contact pieces, namely the two brass plates and the 
two wires or needles, could be determined by means of a 
potentiometer and the value of the current measured by 
observing the difference of potential between the ends of a 
standard resistance coil joined in series with the silicon. 


It was found that the difference of potential between the 
brass plate at the apex of the pyramid and the contact wire 
one millimetre from it was always much greater than the 
difference at the base, and that between the two contact 
wires was but a small fraction of either, so that the actual 
resistance of the silicon was very small compared with 
the contact resistances. 


Both at the base and apex it was found that, when the 
current flowed from the brass to the silicon, the difference 


134 O. U. VONWILLER. 


of potential across the junction was greater than when 
the direction of flow was reversed, and when observations. 
were made with very small currents it was found that 
when the current flowed from brass to silicon the difference 
of potential across the junction increased relatively more 
rapidly than the current; for larger currents, the reverse 
was the case, and when the current flowed from silicon to 
brass the difference of potential across the surface always 
increased relatively at a less rate than the current. 


In figure 2 are given curves showing the relation between 
currents (abscissee) and the differences of potential across. 
the surfaces of contact (ordinates); the unit of current is 
0°001 ampere, and of potential difference, 0°1 volt. A+ 
represents the difference of potential at the apex when the 
current flows into the silicon at that place, A — represent- 
ing the case of a flow in the opposite direction. B-+ and 
B-— represent the differences of potential at the base, B+ 
being the case when the current enters, and B— that when 
it leaves at the base. 


Fig. 2, 


| zeal 
VEEezacaeem 
A QR 


In the case of both A+ and B+ the curves are at first 
concave upwards; A— and B- are convex upwards 
throughout. With higher values of current all the curves 
are convex upwards; in figure 3 are given observations for 
A+ and A-—, readings being taken for much higher values 


RECTIFYING PROPERTY IN SILICON AND SELENIUM. 135 


of current than those given in figure 2. Inthe case of A+ 
the change of curvature is quite plainly seen. In this 
figure the unit of current is 0°0009 ampere, and the unit 
difference of potential 0°18 volt. By adding the ordinates 
of A+ and B-, and A— and B+, a current voltage curve 
similar to that of Curve I], fig. 1, is obtained, (allowing for 
the change of axes), the potential drop in the silicon itself 
being negligible compared with that across the junctions. 
The presence of the apparent minimum conductance on the 
positive side is due to the form of the A+ curve. 


Beet 
Best Abas fief) be 


Similar curves were obtained on several occasions with 
the aid of the potentiometer, and also when a gold leaf 
electrometer was employed in the measurement of the 
differences of potential. 


It seems natural to associate the phenomena observed 
with the absorption or evolution of heat which occurs when 
currents cross junctions of different metals. The Peltier 
effect with silicon is very great, the thermo-electric height 


136 O. U. VONWILLER. ‘ 


being, according to Miss Frances Wick, (Phys. Rev. 1907), 
about 400 micro-volts at ordinary temperatures; the only 
substances for which it is numerically greater are tellurium 
andselenium. The result of the passage of a current across 
a metal-silicon junction isa cooling or heating at that point, 
and this in turn gives rise to an e.m.f. opposing the flow of 
current—an e.m.f. proportional to the current. On account 
of the differences in area the temperature change, and 
therefore the potential difference, must be greater at the 
surface of smaller area. The rectifying property apparently 
can be explained by the action of the Thomson effect if we . 
assume that for small currents the main bulk of the silicon 
is not appreciably altered in temperature, but that the 
heated or cooled portions are limited to thin layers in close 
proximity to the junctions. In such a case the additional 
absorption or evolution of heat due to the flow between 
points at different temperatures is limited to the boundary 
layers, and the Thomson effect being the same at both 
junctions, while the Peltier effect is opposite, we see that 
at one junction a summational effect, and at the other a 
differential heating effect, should ensue, so that at either 
junction the opposing e.m.f. should depend on the direction 
of the current. 


An investigation on these lines shows that the relation 
between the back e.m.f. and current should be of the form 
e=aitbi®. The actual observations show that this is 
very approximately the form of the relation obtained for 
small currents. 


Great, however, as are the thermo-electric effects with 
the materials here dealt with, the results obtained are such 
that differences in temperature of very many degrees must 
occur in order satisfactorily to explain the results obtained 
and it seems that the above explanation is not correct. 


RECTIFYING PROPERTY IN SILICON AND SELENIUM. 137 


The curves A+ and B+ resemble the current voltage 
curve obtained by Dr. W. H. Eccles (Phil. Mag., June 1910), 
when a current passed through a film of iron oxide between 
a point and plate. In this case the curve obtained was the 
same for each direction of current, and the form of the 
curve is shown by Dr. Hccles to be consistent with the view 
that the passage of the current heats the film and decreases 
its resistance, the resistance temperature coefficient of the 
film being negative. 


lf in the case of silicon the presence of a surface film of 
some different material or structure is the cause of the 
phenomena observed, its nature must depend upon the 
direction of the current—possibly its formation may depend 
upon the flow of the current—as the effects observed differ 
to sucha marked extent when the direction of the current 
is reversed. With silicon the resistance of the main body 
of the material was always very small in comparison with 
the contact resistances, but with selenium cells of the 
ordinary type the contact resistance is usually a relatively 
small fraction of the total resistance. 


138 S. E. PIERCE. 


THE IONISATION CAUSED BY PENETRATING 
y RAYS IN A CLOSED THICK-WALLED VESSEL. 


By S. H. PEIRCE, B.sce., 
Deas-Thomson Scholar in Physics in the University of Sydney. 
(Communicated by Professor Pollock ) 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 3, 1913.] 


THIS research is an extension of Some experiments described 
by Professor Bragg,’ in a paper on “‘The Consequences of 
the Corpuscular Hypothesis of the y and X Rays, and the 
Range of the 6 Rays,” in connection with the discussion 
of the ionisation caused by penetrating y rays in a closed 
thick-walled vessel in terms of his corpuscular theory. 


According to this theory when a stream of y rays crosses 
a block of any material some of the y particles are lost to 
the stream by conversion into f rays through collision with 
atoms. Hach y ray of given quality is converted into a B 
ray of a definite initial velocity, irrespective of the sub- 
stance in which the change takes place. The number of 
8 rays formed in unit volume of the material will thus be 
proportional to the coefficient of absorption (k) of the y 
rays per unit mass, and the average intensity (I) of the 
y rays in that volume. 


The 6 rays thus formed, to continue Professor Bragg’s 
argument, are deflected by collision with atoms and lose 
energy from the same cause, the average loss of energy 
at a collision varying with the nature of the material only. 
This loss of energy finally brings the electrons to rest. 

The total distance which a f particle travels in any 
material will not vary much, for f rays of given initial 


1 Bragg, Phil. Mag., 8. 6, Vol. xx, p. 385, 1910, also ‘‘ Studies in Radio- 
activity,” p. 94. 


IONISATION CAUSED BY PENETRATING y RAYS. 139 © 


velocity, from an average value which will be inversely 
proportional to the average loss of energy per collision, and 
to the density of the material. If the range (d) of the 6 
ray in a given material is defined, in terms of the mass of 
metal traversed, as the mass of a cylinder whose axis is 
the straightened path of the ray divided by its cross section, 
a quantity is obtained which is independent of the density 
(p) of the material. 


If the y rays have the same intensity everywhere in a 
block of any material, the sum of all the tracks completed 
in a unit volume per second will be proportional to the 
number of § rays formed in that volume (Ikp) and to the 
distance the f ray travels (d/p) andis quite defined by the 
product Ikd. This quantity depends only on the nature of 
the material, not on its homogeneity or density. 


Any cavity in the substance does not alter the value of 
Ikd anywhere within the boundaries of the material includ- 
ing the cavity itself, since every ? ray must cross a mass 
d of the substance and crossing the cavity does not count 
in this. If air is now introduced into the cavity the value 
of kd in the cavity will not be altered unless the energy of 
the 6 rays is appreciably absorbed in crossing the chamber, 
and the value of kd for air is much different from that for 
the material surrounding it. 


The ionisation produced in the cavity per unit volume 
will be proportional to the sum of all the paths of the 6 
rays completed within unit volume. This sum has just 
been shown to be proportional to Ikd; if, therefore, an 
ionisation chamber is prepared with walls thick enough to 
prevent any / rays formed on the inside from penetrating 
to the outside, and with an air chamber so small that no 
appreciable amount of / ray energy is absorbed in crossing 
the chamber at the pressure of gas employed, then the 
ionisation will give a measure of Ikd for the substance of 
which the chamber is composed. 


140 S. E. PIERCE. 


To get relative values of kd for different substances it is 
necessary to prepare ionisation vessels of similar shape but 
of different materials. Following Professor Bragg’s method, 
values relative to that for lead have been obtained by com- 
paring the ionisation in a lead cylinder, due to a stream of 
y rays from some radium bromide placed beneath it, with 
ionisations under similar conditions when the cylinder was 
completely lined with other metals. | 


The lead cylinder is 15 cm. long and 9°6 cm. in internal 
radius. .Itis closed with lead plates of the same thickness 
as that of the cylinder (0°5 cm.). The linings are made of. 
the same form to fit closely inside the lead chamber. The 
top plates both of the lead and of the linings are provided 
with a hole to admit the copper wire electrode. This is 
supported axially in the chamber by a plug of sulphur in 
which is embedded an earthed guard ring. 


A battery of small storage cells is attached to the lead 
cylinder raising its potential to about 400 volts, which was 
found to be sufficient to saturate the largest current 
obtained. The axial electrode is connected to a key by 
means of which it may be joined to earth and thence to 
one pair of quadrants of a Dolezalek electrometer, the other 
pair being earthed. The electrode is also connected to the 
inside cylinder of a cylindrical condenser, of which the 
outer coating is attached toa variable source of potential. 
By varying the potential of the outer cylinder the inner 
cylinder and its connections may be kept at zero potential 
while they are receiving a charge from the ionisation 
chamber. The current in the ionisation chamber will then 
be proportional to the rate at which the potential on the 
outside cylinder is altered. | | 

In order to vary the potential of the outer cylinder of 


the condenser it was connected to a sliding contact on a 
potentiometer wire wound helically on an ebonite drum. 


IONISATION CAUSED BY PENETRATING y RAYS. 14] 


Suitable gearing, worked by a handle, was arranged so that 
the contact piece could be moved along the wire at a rate 
which was easily varied. One end of the wire was earthed. 


In measuring the ionisation current, the electrode was 
disconnected from earth and the handle turned so as to keep 
the needle of the electrometer at its zero position. The 
time was taken by a stop-watch from the instant at which 
the electrode was disconnected to the instant at which the 
electrometer needle began to move after the sliding contact 
had moved through a definite difference of potential. The 
reciprocal of this time gave a measure of the ionisation 
current in arbitrary units. 


To obtain values of kd relative to that of lead in the case 
of any metal, the ionisation in the lead chamber is compared 
with that in the chamber lined with the given metal. In 
this latter case the y rays pass through a greater thick- 
ness of material than with the unlined cylinder before 
emerging into the chamber, so that the intensity of the 
rays is not the same in the two chambers. To ensure the 


Fig. 1. 


Relative kd. 


Thickness of Screen. 


142 S. E. PIERCE. 


same intensity of rays in both cases, when the ionisation 
in the unlined cylinder is being measured, the bottom plate 
of the lining to be afterwards used is placed as a screen 
between the radium bromide and the lead cylinder. The 
ratio of the two ionisation currents, taken in this way, 
corrected for the differences in volume of the air and for 
the natural leak in the chambers, gives the value of the kd 
of the material of the lining relative to that of lead. 


Values of the product kd have been obtained by this 
method for the metals tin, copper, zinc, iron, and aluminium 
and also for a card cylinder. The source of y rays was 5 
mg. of radium bromide placed on the axis of the lead 
cylinder 20 cm. below its base. Experiments were first 
made to find out whether varying the distance of the 
radium from the cylinder along its axis had any effect. No 
difference was found except when the radium was screened 
with thick screens and was put close to the base of the 
cylinder. In this case an increase in the observed relative 
kd of the metal was found. Now when the radium is close 


Relative kd. 


Thickness of Screen. 


IONISATION CAUSED BY PENETRATING y RAYS. 143 


to the cylinder a greater number of the y rays more oblique 
to the axis of the cylinder get in. These rays have to 
traverse a greater distance in the screen and so have their 
quality changed more than the rays parallel to the axis. 
The effect of screening the y rays is to increase the kd in 
any substance relative to lead; the increase in the relative 
kd when the radium is close to the cylinder is not more 
than could be accounted for by this fact. 


In these experiments the radium was screened with 
various thicknesses of lead from 0°5 centimetres, (the 
thickness of the base of the lead cylinder), to 5°4 centi- 
metres, by steps of about 0°25 centimetres. The curves, 
in figures 1, 2 and 3, show the relation between the kd and 
the thickness of the screen for the substances enumerated 
above. The increase in the value of kd, as the thickness 
of the screen becomes greater, is attributed by Professor 
Bragg to a change in'the value for the lead only. An 
inspection of the curves shows that the full change has not 
taken place with the thickest screen employed, 5°4 centi- 


Fig. 3. 


Relative kd. 


Thickness of Screen. 


i 


144 S. E. PIERCE. 


metres. Diminishing the thickness of the linings, which 
was originally about 0°3 centimetres, had no effect on the 
values of kd, so the thickness was sufficient in all cases to 


give the true value. 


In the following table the relative values of kd for the 
minimum and maximum screenings are ne seo with 
those given by Professor Bragg. 


kd. 
A ¢ Thick- kd 
pes pine hues of Thickness of hessof (hee 
Sabatance: aaa p screen 0°47 cm. | screen 157 cm. acenet Pp 
Bragg. Bragg. 54cm 

Lead ..| 207°1] 11:37} 100 100 100 100 | 100 | 8°8 
Tin?! A ALYOOr 77°29 58 58 68 63 68 9°3 
Zine 65:4) 71 47 47°5 55d 55°3 59°5| 8°4 
Copper 63°6 | 8:93 as 46 a, 52 59 | 67 
Tron 55°9 |. 7°86 45 45 54 51 57 7°3 
Aluminium 27°1.| 265 40 41°5 49 475 54 =| 20°4 
Card 1Z=!| OS 39 39°5 46 45 52 50-+- 


In the last column. of the above table are given the 
values of kd for the maximum screening divided by the 
density of the material. If it is assumed that k is the 
same for the different metals, the numbers represent the 
relative lengths of path of the 6 rays in the various 
substances. 


EXTRACTION OF RADIUM FROM THE OLARY ORES. 145 


EXTRACTION or RADIUM From THE OLARY ORES. 
By S. RADCLIFF. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 1, 1913.]} 


Introduction. 

In May of the year 1906 a prospector forwarded some 
pieces of a dense dark coloured mineral, carrying small 
amounts of a yellow incrustation in the surface crevices, 
to Adelaide for examination. Mr. W. 8S. Chapman, the 
Government Assayer, identified the yellow substance as 
carnotite, a vanadate of uranium and potassium. He found 
the material to contain 60 per cent. of uranium oxide and 
a considerable amount of vanadic oxide. 


The locality from which the ore was obtained was shortly 
afterwards visited by Mr. H. Y. L. Brown, then Govern- 
ment Geologist of South Australia. He stated: ‘*The ore 
occurs as yellow and greenish-yellow incrustations and 
powder on the faces, joints, and cavities of a lode formation, 
which consists of magnetic titaniferous iron, magnetite, 
etc., and quartz in association with black mica’ (biotite). 


Dr. Mawson subsequently published an account of a 
mineralogical examination of the lode-stuff and came to 
the conclusion that it contained several new minerals.” 


Some years later a block of the ore, weighing about 16ibs., 
was forwarded to the Imperial Institute. A detailed 
mineralogical and chemical examination was there made 
of the material by Messrs. T. Crook and G. S. Blake.? 


+ Record of Mines of S. Australia, 4th edition, Adelaide, 1908, p. 361. 

2 D. Mawson, Trans. Roy. Soc. §. Aust. 1906, Vol. xxx, p. 188. 

3 D. Crook, r.a.s., G. S. Blake, p.sc., r.c.s., Mineralogical Mag. March 
1910, Vol. xv, No. 77, pp. 271—284. 


J—October 1, 1913. 


146 S. RADCLIFF. 


Some typical specimens of the ore were I understand, 
forwarded to Madame Curie; she reported that the ore was 
only feebly radioactive and of little commercial value, 
radium at that time being comparatively cheap. 


In 1909 a company known as the Radium Hill Company 
was formed in Sydney to exploit the deposit commercially, 
and a consignment of about 30 tons of picked ore was taken 
to England by Dr. Mawson, who brought it under the notice 
of a number of firms, both in England and on the Continent, 
interested in the extraction of radium from its ores. A 
few tons were also sent to America. The low uranium 
content and the high percentage of titanium present, 
which rendered treatment difficult, militated against the 
disposal of the ore, and no offers of any value were received 
for it. 

While these negotiations were in progress, the author of 
this paper (who, some time prior to the Olary find had 
discovered a radioactive copper ore at Moonta, S.A.) was 
asked to investigate the possibility of treating the ore 
locally; and after some twelve months’ experimental work 
developed a process which gave promise of commercial 
success. Thepreliminary work was done at the Bairnsdale 
School of Mines, Victoria, which possesses a fairly exten- 
sive metallurgical plant, a total quantity of 30 tons being 
dealt with in the course of the experiments. From the 
data so obtained the plant now in successful operation at 
Woolwich on the Parramatta River, Sydney, was designed. 

The present communication gives a preliminary account 
of the treatment process as it is worked at the present 
time. 

The most complete account yet given of the extraction 
of radium from its ores is that by Haitinger and Ulrich.? 


1 Haitinger and Ulrich, Sitz Ber. der Wiener Akad. Ila Bd. 117 (1908) 
pp. 619 — 630. 


EXTRACTION OF RADIUM FROM THE OLARY ORES. 147 


They describe the methods adopted by them in treating 10 
tons of residues derived from about 30 tons of pitchblende 
ore containing 54°2 per cent. of U,0,. The treatment of 
the ten tons occupied two years, and resulted in the 
recovery of three grams of radium chloride in a state 
approaching purity. No analyses are given in this paper 
and only very scanty details as to the plant used. 


As these residues were derived from ore containing 270 
milligrams of radium (calculated as bromide) per ton, and 
as the Olary ore, even when concentrated, contains only 
eight milligrams, it is obvious that any process to be com- 
mercially successful when applied to these latter ores must 
be comparatively simple in operation, and must allow of a 
considerable tonnage being put through annually. It may 
be noted that eight milligrams of bromide to the ton means 
one part in 125 million or one part of elementary radium in 
214 million parts of concentrates. 


As first observed by H. Y. L. Brown the amount of visible 
carnotite in the ore is negligible from an economic point 
of view, and for practical purposes the ore consists of a 
mixture of ilmenite, magnetite, and rutile, with small 
amounts of carnotite and a mineral stated by Crook and 
Blake to be probably tchefikinite. Table I gives:— 

(a) Analysis of the ore complex excluding the carnotite, 

taken from Crook and Blake’s paper. 

(b) Analysis of the concentrates now being treated at 


Woolwich. 
(c) Analysis of a typical Austrian pitchblende.? 
Table I. 
a b c 
Lime ae ee, Ve ae 0°25 0°55 2°55 
Lead oxide 2%, Ss de 0°4 0°16 1°9 
Ferric oxide oe es Bs 17°87 17°4 1°14 


? Brearly, Analytical Chemistry of Uranium, p. 43. 


148 | S. RADCLIFF. 


a b c 
Ferrous oxide... ae su 17°37 16°9 
Manganous oxide es Oe 0°24 trace O11 
Thorium oxide ... #3: ee 0°13 
Cerium oxide... Bas me: 1°26 4°68 
Lanthanum and didymium oxide 2°13 3°27 
Yttrium oxide ... Ay uae 1°16 
Chromium sesquioxide ... .f 1°6 0°85 
Uranoso uranic oxide ... ay 2°25 1°6 49°95. 
Vanadic oxide ... oe pre 0°93 0°86 0°02: 
Titanium dioxide... a ite 51°85 45°85 
Silica srs at pe sid, 1°15 12°70 818°54 
Zinc oxide... 3 ie Ps nee ee ae sea OO 
Phosphoric oxide... fat Bs oe ae won rere 
Sulphur» +. side sf he ne nee .. 5'08 
ATSORIC. « +s ~ ie =ek ade (BAG Hi w. 0°44 
Bismuth ... re 5a bis tee ey: w= ODA 
Gopper ¢.-. ae oe he of Pee 
Tron Aon ete Se a ae st . 8°04 
Carbon dioxide ... se ae ar sa ebay) an 


The ore is dry crushed at the mine to pass a sieve of 20: 
holes to the linear inch, and is then concentrated mag- 
netically; the concentrates, amounting to about 30 per cent. 
of the ore crushed being forwarded to Sydney for treatment.. 


One of the most interesting points about analysis (a) is 
that the ratio of the uranium to the thorium is as 16°7: 1; 
radium preparations worked up from this ore should there- 
fore contain very little mesothorium. This conclusion has 
been confirmed in Rutherford’s laboratory by Dr. Alexander 
Russell who examined a specimen of the bromide and found 
it to contain as radio-active substances only radium and 
its decomposition products. 


As the concentrates are insoluble in acids, a fusion pro- 
cess is necessary to effect the initial decomposition. The 


¢ 


EXTRACTION OF RADIUM FROM THE OLARY ORES. 149 


‘concentrates are mixed with three times their weight of 
salt cake (acid sulphate of soda) and fused in a reverberatory 
furnace of sufficient capacity to take 500 kilos of concen- 
trates and 1500 of salt cake in a single charge. Three 
charges can be put through in twenty-four hours. The 
fused product, crushed to pass a sieve of eight holes to the 
linear inch, is fed, in small amounts at a time, into wooden 
vats fitted with agitators. Cold water is fed continuously 
into the vats at the bottom and an overflow is provided 
near the top. By suitably adjusting the conditions, it is 
possible to separate out on the bottoms of the vats a con- 
siderable amount of comparatively coarse material which 
is almost free from radium and uranium. ‘The turbid liquid 
overflowing carries in suspension the radium lead and 
barium as sulphates, together with a considerable amount 
of finely divided silica; while in solution we have the 
uralium rare earths, and part of the iron and acid earths 
contained in the ore. 


The coarse residues are removed from the vats daily, 
re-washed to free them from any undissolved fused product 
and sent tothe dump. The composition of these residues 
is given in Table III. 


The overflow from the dissolving vats is pumped to large 
lead-lined settling tanks and allowed to stand all night. 
~The “slimes” settle completely in twelve hours, and the 
clear liquid is drawn off daily and treated for the recovery 
ofthe uranium. The slimes which amount, when dried, to 
approximately 10 per cent. of the weight of the concen- 
trates, are collected weekly and treated for the recovery 
of the radium as described below. 


The further steps in the treatment process may con- 
veniently be described under two heads:— 

(a) The recovery of the uranium. 

(b) The recovery of the radium. 


150 S. RADCLIFF. 


(a) Recovery of the Uranium. 


The clear solution containing the uranium and much of 
the iron and other bases in the concentrates, together with 
a large amount of sodium salts, is fed into a series of vats 
containing a measured excess of a mixture of carbonate 
and bicarbonate of soda; and heated and agitated by means 
of steam jets. The iron, with most of the other bases 
present is precipitated, while the uranium goes into solution 
together with some of the rare earths. The bulky iron 
precipitate is separated partly by settlement and partly by 
means of vacuum filters. It is difficult to handle and can- 
not be washed effectually, a portion of the uranium is 
therefore unavoidably discarded along with this precipitate. 
The uranium solution is made just acid with sulphuric acid, 
heated, and the carbon dioxide expelled by a brisk current 
ofair. The uranium is then precipitated by the addition 
of ammonia. The ammonium uranate is thickened some- 
what in conical settling tanks and then further thickened 
to a pulp in a hydro extractor. This pulp is dried and 
dehydrated in large mufiles. The dehydrated product is 
broken up and washed repeatedly with hot water. This 
treatment removes the bulk of the sodium salts, and a pro- 
duct is obtained which on drying contains about 75 per cent. 
of U,O;. An analysis of this, together with that of the 
iron precipitate, is given in Table IJ. Prior to analysis the 
iron hydroxide was twice dissolved and re-precipitated 
with ammonia to free it from the large amount of sodium 
salts present. The washed precipitate was dried, ignited 
and analysed. 


Table II. 
Uranium Tron 
Product. Precipitate. 
Insoluble matter + ey. AS 3°0 
Titanium dioxide Ue pie ie Bs 8°11 
Ferric oxide ... iis bef bes 9°41 74°65 


Uranoso uranic oxide bs f toa’ 6% oS 


EXTRACTION OF RADIUM FROM THE OLARY ORES, 151 


Uranium Iron 


5 Product. Precipitate 
Rare earths ... a8 ABE a 1°57 7°36 
Lead oxide... ob sau tvinse es 0°51 se 
Vanadic oxide ie ak aes v4 1°2 
Chromium oxide ae Oop we as 5°81 
Sodium salts ... om as was 8°21 


(b) Recovery of the Radium. 


The thickened insoluble residue or slime from the settling 
tank is mixed with half its dry weight of strong sulphuric 
acid and allowed to stand for several days. It is then 
washed, first by decantation and then on a vacuum filter, 
till the washings give only a very slight precipitate with 
barium chloride. The acid treatment and washing reduces 
the bulk of the slime considerably, removing large amounts 
of acid earths and iron salts. The washed slime in quanti- 
ties of about 200 kilos, dry weight, is then boiled in large 
steel boilers with an excess of a 20 per cent. solution of 
sodium carbonate for two days, the solution being replaced 
once during the boiling. This treatment dissolves a large 
amount of silica, and converts much of the lead, radium and 
barium sulphates to carbonates. The slime is then washed 
till the wash water gives no reaction for sulphates; this 
takes two days for each lot of 200 kilos. The washed slime 
is then fed intoa warm dilute solution of hydrochloric acid, 
agitated for a couple of hours, and allowed to settle all 
night. Theclear solution is siphoned off and the lead, barium 
and radium precipitated as sulphates. After washing once 
by decantation, theslime is again treated as above described. 
Two treatments suffice to extract most of the radium, but 
the slime is reserved for a further treatment if necessary. 
The plant as at present arranged, can treat the slime from 
ten tons of concentrates per week. The weekly yield of 
crude sulphate is about 12 kilos. 


During the past two years I have made a number of 
experiments, both in the laboratory and on the working 


152 S. RADCLIFF. 


scale, to see if the sulphates in the slime could be reduced 
by heating the material with carbonaceous substances, or 
else in a current of some reducing gas, but the results so 
far have not been encouraging. 


The crude sulphate is fused with carbonate of soda in 
large graphite pots, and the product digested with hot 
water. The insoluble residue after picking out most of the 
metallic lead is thoroughly washed, and heated with hydro- 
chloric acid. The solution is evaporated to dryness to 
dehydrate the silica, the residue moistened with acid and 
digested with hot water and the silica filtered off. 1 


It was found that the method of converting the sulphates 
to carbonates by boiling with concentrated soda solution 
was altogether too slow, and the fusion method has the 
further advantage of removing most of the lead in the 
metallic state. This lead which is, of course, radio-active 
(Table IV) is being stored for examination later. The hydro- 
chloric acid solution, containing the radium and barium, 
together with large amounts of lead, iron, and acid earths, 
was formerly treated by the ordinary analytical methods 
for the removal of the impurities prior to precipitating the 
radium and barium as carbonates. Bulky precipitates,. 
difficult to handle and wash were obtained; this procedure 
has been abandoned, and a method due to Soddy? is now 
used with very satisfactory results. 


The chloride solution is saturated with hydrogen chloride 
and the barium and radium are thrown down nearly free 
from other elements. The crystalline precipitate is filtered 
off, freed by suction from most of the adhering liquid and 
dried. It is dissolved in water, the small amounts of lead, 
iron, etc., still remaining, removed, and the mixed carbon- 
ates of barium and radium finally dissolved in hydrobromic 
acid for fractionation. About 1500 grams of dry chloride, 


+ F. Soddy, Chemistry of Radio Elements, p. 45. 


EXTRACTION OF RADIUM FROM THE OLARY ORES. bag 


which when freed from radio-active substances other than 
radium has an equilibrium activity of from 40 to 50, are 
obtained weekly. 


Table III gives analysis of the slime, of the tailings or 
coarse residues, and of the crude sulphate. The whole 
series of operations is summarised in the accompanying 
flow sheet. 


Table III. 

Crude Sulphates. Slimes. Tailings. 
SHiCa .... Se sins » dO 51°42 22 
Titanium dioxide ... 3°0 42°40 63°1 
Ferric oxide ... na ey 5) 4°21 14°23 
Rare earths ... uae eae a 0°41 
Uranoso uranic oxide see noe 
Lead sulphate... we «69°24 1°85 trace 
Barium sulphate gas E230 0°23 


The composition of the tailings is of great interest, the 
high percentage of titanium dioxide being noteworthy. It 
is apparent that the initial fusion effects a selective decom- 
position of the ore complex, the uranium minerals are 
completely decomposed, and the tailings, which contain a 
large proportion of comparatively coarse grains, seem to 
consist largely of unaltered rutile. 


Repeated assays of the tailings have failed to detect 
appreciable amounts of uranium. As will beseen too, from 
Table IV, the amount of radium left in the tailings must 
be very small. 


The economic success of the process apparently depends 
on the fact that it is only necessary to partly decompose 
the ore mixture in the fusion furnace, and that therefore, 
comparatively small amounts of reagents are required. If 
it had been necessary to completely decompose the ore in 
order to extract the radium, treatment costs would I think, 
under local conditions at least, have been prohibitive. As 


154 §. RADCLIFF. 


a matter of fact, about 50 per cent. of the concentrates 
consist of minerals almost free from radium and uranium, 
this being the proportion of the material fused sent to the 
dump each week. 


An approximately ten-fold concentration of the radium 
is therefore effected by the two simple operations of fusing 
the concentrates and dissolving the fused product under 
proper conditions. 


In Table IV the relative activities per unit mass of the 
concentrates, tailings and slimes are given. 


Table IV. Aatiity pe 
Uranium oxide ... a eae cae 1°0 
Tailings” | .:. an ae ee ae 0°007 
Concentrates se ns a wee 0°06 
Slimes te os en re ce 0°25 
Crude sulphate ... aa ane soe ea 


The radio-active lead separated out on smelting the 
sulphate has an activity approximately twice that of 
uranium oxide when three months old. 


The whole of the radium in the concentrates must dis- 
tribute itself between the tailings and the slimes. As the 
tailings amount to five times the weight of the slimes, it 
appears from the relative activities of the two products 
that 86 per cent of the radium contents of the ore is con- 
centrated in the slimes, 14 per cent. being rejected in the 
tailings. 

So far I have done nothing in the separation of the other 
radio-active bodies in the ore. I hope, however, to examine 
a portion of the radio-active lead now being stored very 
shortly, as its activity appears too high to be wholly due 
to radium D and its products. Rutherford’ states that 
‘‘radium D is separated with the large amount of lead 


‘E. Rutherford, The Radio-active Substances, p. 511. 


EXTRACTION OF RADIUM FROM THE OLARY ORES. 155 


usually present in radio-active minerals. In the course of 
time, radium D produces radium F (polonium) and the ray 
activity of the lead becomes about equal to that of uranium.’’ 


As stated previously, the radio lead separated on smelt- 
ing the crude sulphide was about twice this activity. It 
is possible that this is due to small amounts of radium 
barium sulphate included in the lead. The lead accumul- 
ated in the course of several years will ultimately form a 
convenient source for the working up of polonium prepar- 
ations. As the amount of polonium in equilibrium with a 
mineral containing one grain of radium is only 0°19 milli- 
gram, the direct recovery of polonium from the working 
solution is obviously out of the question. 


It should be possible on the other hand to work up fairly 
active ionium preparations from the rare earths without 
much difficulty. 


While the chief technical problems in connection with 
this ore may be regarded as solved, much work of ascientific 
character remains to be done, and I hope to continue in- 
vestigations on the three following lines :— 


1. To make a complete spectrographic examination of 
the ore and the various products separated out 
during treatment. 


2. To investigate the radio-active properties of these 
products. 


3. To work up some kilos of the rare earths in order to 
examine them in detail. 


In conclusion I desire to thank Professor Pollock for his 
kindness in testing various radium preparations from time 
to time, and for the friendly interest he has taken in the 
work throughout. 


TION VATS 


1RON HYOR 


RON PRECIPITA- 


FILTERS 
OXIDE 

TO WASTE 
—— SULPHURIC ACID 


PRECIPITATION VATS 


URANIUM 


SETTLERS 


IGNITION 
MUFFLE 


‘WASHING VAT 


URANIUM OX!DE 


DRYER 


———EEEE 
\ 
ro} 
i) 
2 


URANI 


M OXIDE 
TO STORE 


HYD. CHL. CAS 


wh 
awe 
URANIUM 


BOILER 


RESIDUE TREATED 
WITH 
YDROCHLORIC ACID 


TREATMENT WITH 


i, 
7) hk 
& 


oy 
ANE 
RP 


SETTLING TANKS 


Rapium ExTRACTION PROCESS 
ica ee 


FLOWSHEET OF OPERATIONS 


FUSION FURNACE 
i] 


jLebe 


CRUSHERS 


DISSOLVING VATS 


CRUDE SULPHATE 


SHORT AND SIMPLE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF VANILLIN. 157 


VANILLA: and A SHORT anpd SIMPLE METHOD For 
THE DETERMINATION or VANILLIN. 


By W. M. DOHERTY, F.1.C., F.C.S. 
With Plate VIL. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 1, 1913. ] 


In all civilised countries vanilla is known and used, either 
alone or blended, as a perfume or as a flavouring substance 
in food, confectionery, and the like, and although there are 
persons to whom its flavour and odour are unpleasant, it 
has managed to worm its way into almost every household, 
and rare indeed isthe domicile which does not know it 
sometimeinthe year. It is of much interest to the organic 
chemist, inasmuch as the artificial elaboration of vanillin, 
the aromatic aldehyde to which vanilla owes its character- 
istic odour, is one of the early successes of synthesis. So 
great was the value put upon this substance that in the 
year of its artificial production, namely 1876, its price 
was no less than £160 per pound avoirdupois. This 
price gradually decreased, and now it can be purchased 
for a tenth of that number of shillings. The high price I 
have quoted, is an indication of the value of the vanilla 
pods from which previously the vanillin had been prepared, 
and the reduction in cost shows well how great has been 
the success of the chemists. 


To the analyst also, who has to investigate certain pre- 
parations into the menstruum of which vanilla extractives 
should enter, there is much food for thought. Indeed a 
pulling to pieces of the concoctions which in days before 
the Pure Food Act came into force used to pass muster as 
the genuine article, was a matter for serious application. 
I have known mixtures of benzoic acid, coumarin, helio- 


158 W. M. DOHERTY. 


tropin and vanillin to be blended together quite free from 
any sign of vanilla beans. But generally speaking, more 
costly preparations are the rule now (for the true vanilla 
is still high in price), although there are indications that 
some manufacturers fortify an inferior natural product 
with the cheap, though in itself excellent, artificial vanillin. 
In this paper I propose to describe a simple process for 
the determination of vanillin in genuine essences, and, 
incidently, to give a brief account of the vanilla plant 
itself. 


But before passing to this, I would like to say a little 
concerning a phase of the subject which is of some import- 
ance. It has been affirmed that the vanillin alone is the 
only valuable part of vanilla, and the employment of the 
whole pod in making an essence is an expensive application 
of an old-fashioned custom to no good purpose, besides it 
disregards the advance of science, as applied to this article. 
Now I do not think that vanillin alone, although it goes a 
long way towards it, is an absolute substitute for vanilla, 
any more than synthetic acetic acid is a substitute for 
malt vinegar, or, if lam not unduly stretching the analogy, 
morphia a substitute for opium, or strychnine for nux 
vomica. It is a very significant fact, and well worth 
emphasising in this connection, that vanilla grown and 
cured in Mexico, which is the only natural home of the 
vanilla of commerce, is still by far the most highly prized, 
although it may contain actually less vanillin than the 
same species grown and cured elsewhere. Such competent 
observers as Leach, Parry, Allen, and Tibble support this 
view. The latter in his “‘Foods: their origin, manufacture 
and composition,’’ p. 738, makes the following pregnant 
statement :— 

“Tt is considered, however, that the fine aroma and fragrance 
is not due to vanillin alone. The interior of the fruit contains 
vanillic acid, resins 4 per cent., fat 11 per cent., sugar 10 per 


SHORT AND SIMPLE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF VANILLIN. 159 


cent., gum, etc., the whole forming a balsam which is insoluble in 
water but readily extracted by alcohol. The gums, resins and oil 
probably contribute to the flavour and aroma, for it has been 
observed that the finest fruit contains the least vanillin. The 
unripe beans are said to contain coniferin and two enzymes—one 
enzyme converts coniferin into coniferyl alcohol, the other into 


vanillic aldehyde.” 


I may add, by the way, that the glucoside coniferin, 
obtained from the cambium of Conifers, was the substance 
originally used by Tieman in the preparation of artificial 
vanillin, the coniferin being decomposed by boiling with 
dilute acids into glucose and coniferyl alcohol, which body 
yielded vanillin on oxidation. 


There are fifty species of vanilla, (Orchidaceze), but only 
one is used commercially to any extent, and that one is 
V. planifolia, a native of Mexico. The true home of this 
species, and where it still flourishes in its wild state, is a 
narrow strip 50 miles wide and 90 miles long, 5 miles in 
from the shores of Campeachy Bay. The upper end of this 
strip is about 50 miles south of Tampico and extends along 
the coast 90 miles towards the city of Vera Cruz. 


It has been used from time immemorial by the Toltecs 
and later by the Aztecs who called it Tlilxochitl. They 
used it chiefly to flavour their chocolatl, or chocolate. It 
was as such flavouring that Cortes first became acquainted 
with it, but he introduced it into Hurope as a perfume in 
the year 1519. Later on it began to be used in medicine 
asa gentle stimulant and promoter of digestion, and in 
large doses it was said to act as a powerful aphrodisiac. 


It has been introduced into Reunion, Ceylon, Seychelles, 
Mauritius, Java, Tahiti, and Fiji, and fruits well in these 
places if artificially fertilised; for its native Mexico is the 
only land where fertilisation appears to be carried on.efiec- 
tively by Nature’s agencies alone. Mexican beans are still 


160 W. M. DOHERTY. 


regarded as the best, securing the highest price,’ and 
though they are not necessarily the richest in vanillin, 
they contain an adequate amount, averaging about 2 per 
cent. The Java and Bourbon beans have yielded as much 
as 2°75 per cent. to 2°9 per cent. respectively. Some Tahiti 
beans, which I have lately examined, have been very 
deficient, yielding only from 0°6 to 0°7 per cent. This low 
yield was a source of much trouble to some of the local 
manufacturers of vanilla essence who used this inferior 
fruit, and thus produced an article very deficient in the 
chief essential. 


Ordinary good essence of vanilla should contain at least 
the soluble content of one pound of the fruit in one gallon 
of menstruum. If the beans are of normal quality, the 
essence will contain about 0°2 per cent. of vanillin. 


For the determination of the vanillin in essences of 
vanilla I have tried several processes, and consider that 
which makes use of the aldehyde reaction with bisulphite 
to be most reliable, although it is somewhat lengthy. (In 
the presence of such bodies as coumarin or benzoic acid it 
leaves nothing to be desired). My modification of the 
process with essence of vanilla is as follows:—Fifty cubic 
centimetres are distilled, the distillate being utilised in the 
determination of the alcoholic strength, and in the deter- 
mination of volatilised vanillin which it invariably contains. 
The residue is acidified and extracted in a continuous 
extraction apparatus, shown in Plate VII, or exhausted 
in the ordinary way, four times with ether. The ether 
which contains the whole of the vanillin, less the small 
amount which came over in the alcoholic distillate, is 
removed by evaporation or distillation from the residual 
vanillin, etc., until only about three cubic centimetres 
remain. This is treated with twenty cubic centimetres of 


1 Bourbon beans have lately been sold in Sydney for 20s. per pound. 


SHORT AND SIMPLE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF VANILLIN. 161] 


a ten per cent. aqueous solution of sodium bisulphite and 
after shaking and contact for at least an hour, at ordinary 
temperature, is well washed with ether. This ether is 
treated with a further five cubic centimetres of the 
bisulphite solution, and after separation may be washed 
and evaporated and the residue examined for the presence 
of foreign substances such as coumarin, the active principle 
of the Tonkin Bean, benzoic acid, acetanilide, etc. The 
bisulphite solution is added to the main portion, which is 
then acidified with dilute sulphuric acid, and this must be 
added in sufficient quantity to decompose the bisulphite 
and so set free the aldehyde. The bisulphite compound 
may be thus shown :— | 
CHO. HSO, Na 


a OCH, 
OH 


It will be seen that one molecule of vanillin (molecular 
weight 152) requires one molecule of sodium bisulphite 
(molecular weight 104), and as 2°5 grammes of the salt are 
used it follows from the known reaction between sulphuric 
acid and bisulphite that at least an equal weight of sul- 
phuric acid should be added, but this should not be greatly 
in excess. The sulphurous acid produced in the reaction 
may be eliminated from the solution by passing carbon 
dioxide through it. The vanillin is then extracted with 
chloroform using twenty cubic centimetres, fifteen cubic 
centimetres, and ten cubic centimetres successively. The 
chloroform solutions are combined and washed twice with 
distilled water to free them from acid, and allowed to 
spontaneously evaporate. The wash waters are added to 
the chloroform-extracted acid liquor, and this is separately 
extracted with ether, which is evaporated, and whatever 

K—October 1, 1913. 


162 W. M. DOHERTY. 


residue of vanillin there may be left is added to the alco- 
holic distillate at first obtained. The residue from the 
chloroform, which contains practically the whole of the 
vanillin after drying in a vacuum over CaCl, is weighed in 
a tared dish. If properly carried out the resultant vanillin 
is generally pure enough, though at times it may contain 
some impurity, and may even contain a foreign aldehydic 
body such as heliotropin. The melting point should be 
taken and a known portion dissolved in alcohol and com- 
pared colorimetrically with a standard solution of pure 
vanillin, using the reaction occasioned by bromine water 
and ferrous sulphate. This colorimetric comparison which 
I am about to describe may be used in determining the 
amount of vanillin in the alcoholic distillate before men- 
tioned. Vanillin, I may state, can be accurately titrated 
in alcoholic solution, phenol phthalein being the indicator, 
one cubic centimetre of decinormal solution being equal to 
0°0152 gramme of vanillin. 


When vanillin is treated ina dilute solution with bromine 
water and ferrous sulphate (ammonium-ferrous sulphate 
may also be used), a green colour is produced which is 
proportional in its density to the quantity present. This 
fact is the basisofan American official method which employs 
a cream of lead hydroxide to decolorise the essence. I have 
never been able to obtain uniform results with this method 
as described, and have long since rejected the use of the 
lead compound, retaining, however, the bromine and the 
iron salt. I carry out the method as follows:— 


One cubic centimetre of the sample is treated in a small 
separator with ten cubic centimetres, and then with five 
cubic centimetres of ether, which on separation is allowed 
to evaporate in a warm place on about thirty cubic centi- 
metres of distilled water. When all the ether has evapor- 
ated, the watery solution is filtered through a moistened 


SHORT AND SIMPLE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF VANILLIN. 163 


filter to the fifty cubic centimetres mark in a Nessler glass. 
Ten drops of a freshly prepared saturated solution of 
bromine water and ten drops of a ten per cent. solution of 
“ferrous sulphate are added in the order mentioned. The 
colour is compared with a 0°2 per cent. solution of pure 
vanillin (tested by titration with decinormal alcoholic 
potash), either by simple nesslerising or, preferably, with 
a Duboseq colorimeter. This process is very simple and 
expeditious, and if carried out carefully, so accurate, that 
{ feel assured it will prove a boon to those whose business 
it is to standardise vanilla essences. It may be further 
simplified by adding the bromine and iron solution to the 
diluted essence, using one cubic centimetre to fifty cubic 
centimetres of water, comparing with a similar essence 
whose vanillin content is known. 


The extraction apparatus shown in Plate VII, is an 
application of the continuous automatic principle found in 
the Soxhlet tube, designed for the extraction of liquid, and 
has been improvised from forms which are usually found in 
all chemical laboratories. It should be noted that the 
‘siphon tube should extend to about half an inch above the 
liquid to be extracted, and be turned upwards at the end- 
The size of the separator may be varied to suit the quantity 
-of liquid operated on. Thoughno originality is claimed for 
the central idea of this apparatus, I have not seen it else- 
where in the form described. 


A FLAME THST FOR CHLORAL HYDRATE. 
By W. M. DOHERTY, F.I.C., F.C.S. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 1, 1913. ] 


I HAVE frequently observed that when chloroform was 
being evaporated, the flames of the brass Bunsen burners 


164 W. M. DOHERTY. 


in the immediate vicinity, especially those with a ‘‘rose,’’ 
became coloured more or less intensely green, and if the 
quantity of chloroform was large, electric blue. This 
coloration was due to the volatile chloride of copper formed 
from the metal of the burner itself, and the chlorine, one 
of the products of the decomposition of the chloroform, or 
tri-chloromethane. I found that if the ‘‘rose”’’ of the 
burner was cleaned so as to expose the metal, and if the 
flame was carefully adjusted to a certain point, it was 
possible to detect extremely small quantities of chloroform 
in relatively large quantities of water by simply putting 
the mouth of the bottle containing the liquid in juxtaposition 
with the air orifice of the burner. 


An improvement of the test is in the use of a type of 
spectrum burner, designed for the detection of boric acid, 
which answers admirably, provided a piece of clean copper 
wire (not too thin or it will melt) is placed in such a position 
on the burner as to be outside the inner cone of the flame. 
If a solution containing one drop of chloroform to 100 cubic 
centimetres of water, after shaking well, be placed in the 
glass arm attachment of the burner a distinctly green flame 
is produced. Any volatile halogen compound will, how- 
ever, give the colour, for example hydrochloric acid, 
though it is not nearly as active as chloroform. Applied 
as a test for chloral hydrate it was found most satis- 
factory. Ifa solution of this substance be placed in the 
glass portion of the spectrum burner previously men- 
tioned, there is no coloration of the flame. Immediately 
on adding caustic alkali, the fame becomes coloured with 
an intensity depending upon the amount of chloral hydrate 
present, the effect being produced by the well known 
reaction :-— 

CCl,CHO + NaOH = CCl,H + NaCHO, 


TRANSVERSE TESTS OF AUSTRALIAN AND FOREIGN TIMBERS. 165 


On sOME TRANSVERSE THSTS or AUSTRALIAN AND 
FOREIGN TIMBERS. 


By JAMES NANGLE, F.R.A.S., 
Acting Superintendent, Technical Education, Sydney. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 1, 1913. ] 


I. Introduction. 

As our Australian timbers are coming more and more 
into vogue for such purposes as railway carriage construc- 
tion, carriage building, and other classes of work, enquiries 
are continually being received for data in regard to their 
relative strengths. It will therefore be likely that the 
results of some tests made at the Sydney Technical College 
under my supervision will be of value. For comparison, 
foreign timbers have also been tested and the results 
appended. The timbers used in this investigation are with 
one or two exceptions, well known or just coming into the 
market, as Eucalyptus delegatensis and EH. amygdalina. 


II. Botany and Remarks on Individual Timbers. 


I am indebted to Mr. R. T. Baker, Curator of the Techno- 
logical Museum, for the botanical names of the specimens. 
The New South Wales timbers are from logs obtained by 
the Museum collectors from time to time, and the names 
are founded on botanical material collected with each tree 
and now preserved in the Museum Herbarium for future 
reference and comparison. 


In nearly every instance three specimens were taken, so 
that the results might give a fair average of the respective 
timbers. Jn one or two instances, such as the “‘Grey”’ or 
** White Ironbark,”’ it is difficult to account for the apparent 
discrepancies, as the conditions of seasoning, testing, etc., 


166 JAMES NANGLE. 


were the same, and yet this wood gave the highest figures of 
any—10,000 ibs. as breaking load in pounds, and as low as 
6,750 lbs.. In some cases there must have been a latent 
defect, for it is difficult to explain otherwise how a splendid 
timber like E. rostrata (Murray Red Gum), could show 
such extremes as 5,000 Ibs. and 2,230 Ibs. Some timbers 
on the other hand, show a good uniformity of figures, 
such as ‘‘ Karri,’’ ‘*‘ Blackwood,”’ etc. 


It is gratifying to find a despised timber, such as H. 
amygdalina, coming out so well in these tests, the maximum 
breaking load giving well over 7,000 Ibs. Such ‘a result 
justifies the uses to which this timber has recently been 
employed in carriage and coach work, and in oars, sculls, 
and furniture making. The same remarks also apply to 
Eucalyptus delegatensis, which is now largely used for 
furniture under the name of “‘Oak’’—a timber it much 
resembles when utilised in the cabinet industry. 


‘*A xe-breaker’’ (Crow’s-foot Klm)—a name applied by 
timber getters to Tarrietia argyrodendron, well deserves 
the appellation, as the breaking strain equals that of 
‘“‘Teak’? and some ‘‘Ironbarks,’’ and is equal also to 
‘**Blackbutt,”’ E. pilularis, or ‘‘Spotted Gum,”’ EL. maculata, 
and fulfils the reputation it has earned as a good all-round 
timber, as shown by the figures here given. 


Then, again, some of the Eucalypts gave poor results, 
such as HE. nova-anglica and HE. Bridgesiana, whilst nearly 
all the non-Hucalypts and non-Conifers show good average 
breaking qualities. In the group of Pines or Conifers, 
‘*Hoop Pine,’’ ‘‘Maryborough Pine”’ or ‘‘Colonial Pine’’ 
and ‘‘Oelery-top Pine,” are the best, the figures being very 
satisfactory. 

From the results there can be no doubt that many avenues 
, of utility yet remain to the technologist in the employment 
of our native timbers. 


TRANSVERSE TESTS OF AUSTRALIAN AND FOREIGN TIMBERS. 167 


The foreign timbers tested are those mostly found on the © 
Sydney market to-day, and the results should be useful 
for comparison with the local article. 


III. Description of Apparatus used in making the Tests. 

The specimens tested were 3” x 3” in cross section, and 
37” long. These were measured in cross section to °01 of 
an inch, and were tested on a span of 36" in the 25 ton 
Olsen screw power testing machine in the Technical College 
Testing Laboratory. The deflections were observed with 
a deflectometer consisting of a straight edge resting on 
pins placed in the neutral layer of the test specimens at 
points just over the bearings. The errors due to crushing 
of the fibres at the bearings were thus eliminated. By 
means of a pointed lever working at the centre of the 
defiectometer, the deflections were magnified, so that it 
was possible to read to *001 of an inch without difficulty. 
Mr. A. H. Martin gave great assistance with the testing 
and reduction of the observations. 


IV. Tabulated Results. 


Species in botanical sequence. 


: = : Modulus of} Modulus of | Rate of 
Botanical Name. Fray e rupture in| elasticity in} Load in 


tbs. per tbs. per tbs. per 
ee pounds: Sq. inch. | square inch.| minute. 


N.O. STERCULIACES. 


1. Tarrietia argyrodendron ...| 8,000 | 18,060 o32 727 
(Crow’s Foot Elm) 

2. do. do. ...| 7,400 | 14,473 ies 493 

3 do. do. ...| 8,000 | 14,348 Bis 800 
N.O. MELIAcE. 

1. Flindersia australis ...| 6,320 | 13,253 |2,549,610) 742 
(Colonial Teak) 

2. do. do. ...| 8,000 hie oes 

1. Flindersia Chatawaiana ...| 5,985 | 14,267 |1,379,087| 427 . 


(Queensland Maple) 


2. do. do. ...| 6,050 | 11,427 |2,068,631| 504 

iF Pe ...| 7,790 | 15,580 |2,584,615) 556 
(Mararie) 

2. do. do. ...| 7,540 | 14,685 |2,767,205) 580 

3. do. do. ...| 8,345 | 14,502 |2,272,207) 642 


168 


JAMES NANGLE. 


TABULATED RESULTS—Continued. 


Botanical Name. 


(Common Name.) 


N.O. LEGUMINOS&. 


1. Acacia melanoxylon 


2. 
3. 


1 


2 
3. 
1 
1. 


1. 
(New England Peppermint) 
do. %. 


Pit 


bd 


mw wet 


a 


ld 


oo be 


(Black wood) 
do. do. 
do. do. 


N.O. SAXIFRAGES. 


Ceratopetalum apetalum ... 


(Coachwood) 
do. do. 
do. do. 
do. do. 


N.O. Myrracez. 


Eucalyptus amygdalina ... 


(Messmate) 
Eucalyptus Andrewsr 


do. O 


do. do. 


Eucalyptus Bridgesiana ... 


(Woolly Butt) 


do. do. 
do. do. 
do. do. 


. Lucalyptus campanulata ... 


(Stringy Bark) 


. Hucalyptus delegatensis 


(Mountain Ash) 
do. do. 
do do. 


. Eucalyptus laevopinea 
(Silvertop Stringy Bark) 
do. do. a 


do. do. 


Eucalyptus macrorrhyncha 


(Red Stringy Bark) 


do. do. 
do. do. 
do. do. 
. Eucalyptus maculata 
(Spotted Gum) 
do. Oo. 
do. do. 


Breaking 
Load in 
Pounds. 


6,500 


6,500 
6,000 


6,325 


5,825 
6,430 
6,670 


7,600 
4,960 


4,990 
4,660 
5,510 


4,570 
3,490 
4,160 
6,585 


4,415 


4,180 
6,000 
5,750 


4,750 
5,050 
6,340 


6,160 
5,610 
5,500 
7,000 


7,300 
7,450 


Modulus of 
rupture in 
Tbs. per 
sq. 1nch. 


12,701 


12,504 
11,960 


13,386 
12,288 
14,392 
14,149 
12,857 
9,920 
9,849 
9,382 
11,363 
9,282 
8,244 
8,604 
13,347 
9,675 


7,097 


Modulus of 
elasticity in 
tbs. per 
square inch. 


15,254 
11,199 


9.312 
9,900 
12,980 


12,654 
11,651 
11,109 
14,736 


14,897 
15,623 


1,938,830 


2,059,819] 


2,042,051 
1,996,964 


2,160,000 
1,440,000 
1,578,947 
1,322,269 


1,189,762 
1,658,880 
1,183,163 
2,070,646 


1,920,290 
1,533,263 
1,986,206 
1,383,902 


1,270,590 
1,246,428 


2,977,413 


2,618,181 
2,567,547 


Rate of 
Load in 
tbs. per 
minute. 


TRANSVERSE TESTS OF AUSTRALIAN AND FOREIGN TIMBERS. 


TABULATED RESULTS—Continued. 


Modulus of} Modulus of 
rupture in | elasticity in 


Botanical Name. 


(Common Name.) 
EEE 
1. Lucalyptus marginata 


(Jarrah) 

2. do. do. 

3. do. do. 

4. do. do. 

5. do. do. 

1. Eucalyptus microcorys 
(Tallow Wood) 

2. do. do. 

3. do. do. 

1. Hucalyptus nova-Anglica .. 

(Broad Suckered Peppermint) 

2. do. do. 

3. do. do. 

1. Lucalyptus obliqua 
(Stringy Bark) 

2. do. do. 

3, do. do. 


1. Hucalyptus paniculata ... 
(White or Grey Pi nT 


2. do. do. 
3. do. do. 
f. do. do. 
3 do. do. 
1. Lucalyptus pilularis 
(Blackbutt) 
2. do. do. 
3: do. do. 


1. Lucalyptus reqnans ia 
(Victorian Giant Gum) 


2 do. do. 

3. do. do. 

1. Lucalyptus resinifera 
(Red Mahogany) 

2. do. do. 

3. do. do. 


1. Eucalyptus rostrata 
Soe Red Gum) 


ee do. do, 
3. do. do. 
1. Eucalyptus saligna 


(Sydney Blue Gum) 


Breaking 
Load in 
Pounds. 


5,500 


5,850 
5,650 
7,140 
5,720 
6,500 


6,000 
8,000 
3,750 


4,850 
4,400 
5,850 


6,600 
6,510 
9,850 


.| 10,000 


8,910 
7,800 
6,750 
8,000 


8,450 
7,400 
5,100 


4,880 
3,730 
6,330 


7,240 
6,950 
2,230 


5,000 
4,800 
5,330 


Tbs. per 


sq. inch. 


tbs. per 
square inch. 


169 


Rate of 
Load in 
Tbs. per 
minute. 


9,667 


8,796 
9,313 
14,280 
11,440 
i830 


12,385 
16,210 
7,500 


9,897 
9,295 
12,187 


13,750 
13,166 
19,700 


23,245 
17,820 
16,848 
14,435 
16,161 


16,200 
14,800 
12,662 


10,730 
846 
12,744 


15,242 |2, 


14,631 
4,460 


10,000 
9.536 
11,605 


1,524,706 


1,080,000 
1,209,958 
2,240,000 
2,666,666 
2,430,000 


2,803,846 
3.294.117 
1,234,285 
4,785,233 
2,650,909 
3,836,842 


3,029,610 
3,716,129 


785 


731 
807 
892 
817 
722 


644 
800 
312 


404 
440 
731 


733 
813 
829 


3,456,000] 891 
2.419 200/1114 


2,434,226 
3,557,647 


3,251,612! 


3,475,862 
3,110,400 


3,275,673 


3,240,625 
2,400,000 


204,220 
2,508,387 


2,200,754 


843 
800 


938 
740 
784 


263 
207 
904 


905 
992 
446 


555 
685 
761 


170 


JAMES NANGLE. 


TABULATED RESULTS—Continued. 


Botanical Name. 


(Common Name.) 


Eucalyptus saligna 
do. do. 
Eucalyptus viminalis 
(White Gum) 
1, Syncarpia laurifolia 


eS 


(Turpentine) 
2. do. do. 
2. do. do. 


N.O. EBENACES. 
1. Diospyros pentamera = 
(Grey Plum or Black Myrtle) 
do. do. 
N.O. PROTEACE. 
1. Orites excelsa 
Silky Gale), 
do. do. 
do. do. 
Banksia serrata ... 
CBOSS See 
do. 
do. a 
Banksia integrifolia 
(White Honeysuckle) 
do. do. 
N.O. CuPUuLIFER. 
1. Fagus Moores PP 
(Negro Head Beech) 
1. Fagus Cunninghami 5 
(Tasmanian Myrtle or Red 
do. do. 
N.O. Conirer”. 
1. Callitris tasmanica 


bo 


ae 


bo 


2. 


(Pine) 
2. do. do. 
3. do. do. 
1. Callitris calcarata.. 3 
(Black or Cypress Pine) 
Zs do. do. a 
3. do. do. 
1. Callitris glauca 


_Ceypress or White Pine) _ : 
do. do. < 


[ Beech) 


Breaking 
Load in 
Pounds. 


Modulus of 
rupture in 
Tbs. per 
sq. inch. 


Modulus of 
elasticity in 
Tbs. per 


square inch.| 


6,000 
5,500 
4,000 
5,810 


4,255 
5,750 


4,225 
4,340 
5,550 
5,850 
4,750 
6,450 
7,500 
7,050 
3,250 
3,900 
4,550 
4,390 
5,120 
5,690 
4,200 
4,000 
1,200 
2,660 
2,540 
4,850 


4,290 


13,235 
12,168 

9,391 
12,269 


4,283 
1,2500 


9,859 
9,580 
10,744 
11,397 
9,238 
12,520 
14,569 
13,617 
6,315 
7,593 
9,868 
10,428 
10,716 
11,380 
9,257 
8,000 
2,416 
5,320 
5,341 
9.448 


8,529 


3,085,114 
1,286,470 


1,656,818 


1,920,000 
1,962,727 


1,561,234 
1,293,231 
1,536,991 
1,730,769 
1,718,456 
1,238,933 
1,068,622 


2,005,515 


1,598,251) - 
1,435,569 


1,515,789 


2,120,727 
1,440,400 
1,028,571 


1,309,090 
1,458,000 
1,016,470 


1,133,160 


2,916,000 


Rate of 
Load in 
tbs. per 
minute. 


750 
916 
400 


645 


709 
718 


TRANSVERSE TESTS OF AUSTRALIAN AND FOREIGN TIMBERS, 


TABULATED RESULTS—Continued. 


Botanical Name. 


(Common Name.) 


3. Callitris glauca 
1. Athrotaxis selaginoides 
(King William Pine) 


2. do. do. 

3. do. do. 

1. Araucaria Cunninghamii 
(Colonial Pine, Hoop a 

2. do. do. 

LP do. do. 

2. do. do. 

3. do. do. 

1. Araucaria Bidwilli 

(Bunya Bunya Pine) 

2. do. do. 

3. do. do. 

1. Dacrydium Franklinii 

(Huon Pine) 
2. do. do. 
3 do. do. 


1. Phyllocladus rhomboidalis 


agi y Top Pine) 
> do. 
as ‘ do. 
1. Podocarpus elata ... 
(Brown Pine) 


Breaking 
Load in 
Pounds. 


3,050 
2,620 


2,580 
3,000 
6,735 


6,600 
5,000 
5,350 
5,000 
3,210 


3,455 


| 2,890 
| 4,5 15 


4,350 
3,000 
5,000 


5,470 
5,050 
4,254 


3,390 
4,450 


Modulus of| Modulus of 
rupture in | eiasticity in 


Ibs. per 


sq. inch. 


6,010 


5,458 


5,160 
6,230 
10,168 


12,963 
10,000 
10,700 
11,250 

6,420 


5,695 
4,480 
9,121 


8,835 
6,000 
10,000 


11,013 
10,236 
8,508 


6,917 
9.475 


FOREIGN TIMBERS. 


g. do. do. 
3. do. do. 

1. Indian or Burmah Teak ... 
3. do. do. 
1, American Hickory 
ep do. do. 
1. American Ash 

Ft do. 

3. do. 

1. Oregon 

Z do. 

Ds do. 

4, do. 

5. do. 


7,750 
5,400 
8,900 
9,345 
4,365 
3,823 
5,220 
5,740 
5,660 
5,520 
5,000 
5,000 


14,145 
10,200 
17,508 
19,536 

9,936 

8,238 
11,185 
11,557 
11,472 
11,076 
12,149 
12,637 


tbs. per 


square inch. 


875,675 
810,000 


822,857 
845,217 
2,659,977 


2.777,142 
1,986,206 
2,133,333 
1,944,000 
1,028,571 


1,114,394 
873,707 
2,445,283 


1,620,000 
1,270,588 
1,600,000 


1,728,000 
1,690,434 
1,053,658 


1,403,508 
1,366,875 


1,510,153 
1,278,178 
2,797,814 
2,880,000 
1,257,398 
1,041,111 
1,570,810 
2,250,000 
1,991,803 
1,854,077 


yal 


Rate of 
Load in 
Ibs. per 
minute. 


210 
238 


215 
375 
361 


414°5 
455 
446 
500 
458 


575 
578 
410 


290 
500 
455 


547 
561 
425 


565 
635 


553 
675 
810 
667 
545 
637 
44] 
514 
613 


172 JAMES NANGLE. 


TABULATED RESULTS—Continued. 


Modulus of} Modulus of 


Rate of 


Botanical Name. Breahine rupture in| elasticity in| Load in 
(Common Name.) Pounds. | sq inch. | square ie | eae 

1. Clear Pine... 3,946 | 6,570 

2. do. 4,120 | 8,158 

a). do. se ee 3,020%) 0 OS ey at 
1. American Redwood 5,100 | 10,200 /1,565,217) 510 
2. do. 3,500 | 7,010 |1,524,705) 350 
3). do. aoe 5,130 | 10,613 |1,690,217| 570 
1. Pitch Pine... 8,000 | 15,686 |2,717,825| 296 
2. do. 7,600 | 15,000 |2,061,384) 760 
ay do. ae 7,000 | 14,000 !2,273,684) 636 
1. Japanese Pine 4,000 | 9,424 |1,325,454) 800 
2. do. 3,779 | 9,208 1,035,266) 377 
3. do. os 3,300 | 9,166 |1,500,000; 412 
1. Red Baltic Pine 5,100 | 13,149 |2,087,584| 463 
2. do. 5,600 | 12,573 |2,168,029' 560 
3. do. a a 5,200 | 11,675 |2,943,596| 520 
1. White Baltic Pine ..| 2,510 | 6,435 /|1,714,285) 358 
2. do. ..| 29595 | 6,328-1,749, G00 as 
a do. 3,745 | 9,276 |1,682,307| 416 
1. Pacific Pine 3,000 | 6,000 {1,440,000} 500 
2. do. 3,200 | 6,400 |1,183,561| 640 
3. do. 3,000 | 7,000 |1,270,588! 700 


VY. Vernacular Names of Timbers Tested. 


American Ash 
American Hickory 
American Redwood 
Ash (American) 
Baltic Pine (Red) 
Baltic Pine (White) 
Beech (Red) 

Black or Cypress Pine 
Blackbutt 

Black Myrtle (Grey Plum) 
Blackwood 

Blue Gum (Sydney) 
Brown Pine 

Burmah Teak 


Messmate 

Mountain Ash 

Murray River Red Gum 
Myrtle (Tasmanian) 

New England Peppermint 
Negor Head Beech 
Oregon 

Pacific Pine 

Peppermint (New England) 
Pine (Clear) 

Pitch Pine 

Queensland Maple 

Red Wood (American) 
Red Beech 


TRANSVERSE TESTS OF AUSTRALIAN AND FOREIGN TIMBERS. 173 


Celery Top Pine 

Clear Pine 

Coachwood 

Colonial Pine (Hoop Pine) 
Crow’s-foot Elm 

Giant Gum 

Grey Ironbark 

Grey Plum (Black Myrtle) 
Hickory (American) 
Honeysuckle 

Hoop Pine (Colonial Pine) 
Huon Pine 

Japanese Pine 

Jarrah 

King William Pine 
Mahogany (Red) 


Mararie 


Red Mahogany 

Red Stringybark 

Silky Oak 

Silvertop Stringybark 
Spotted Gum 
Stringybark 
Stringybark 
Tallow-wood 
Tasmanian Myrtle 
Teak (Burmah) Indian 
Teak (N.S.W. and Queensland) 
Turpentine 

White or Cypress Pine 
White Gum — 

White Honeysuckle 
White Ironbark 
Woollybutt 


174 H. B. TAYLOR. 


SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS ON 
MILK. 
By H. B. TAYLOR, B.Sc., 
Science Research Scholar, University of Sydney. 


(Communicated by Professor Fawsitt.) 
[ Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 5, 1913. | 


Milk, being the secretion of a living animal, is liable to 
variations in its compositionowing tothe influence of internal 
and external conditions. It is essentially an aqueous 
solution of milk sugar, proteins and salts, holding in sus- 
pension fat in the form of finely divided particles. Winter 
Blyth gives the average composition as follows :— 


Fat ... 990 per cent. by weight. 
Caseinogen 3°00 9 7 
Albumen... 0°40 + a 
Milk Sugar 4°75 ne %9 
Ash an OSL eS as a 
Water... 87°20 és ” 


The quality of a milk can be fairly well gauged by the 
chemical determinations of its constituents, but it was 
thought desirable to investigate some of the physical 
properties of milk in the hope that the results might 
help in the matter of forming an opinion as to its quality. 
This paper contains an account of experiments on the 
viscosity, conductivity and reaction to indicators of milk. 


Viscosity.’ 
The measurement of the viscosity was carried out with 


a capillary viscosimeter, the type used being Ostwald’s 
modification of Poiseuille’s apparatus. 


* The numbers given as the viscosities are the values of t,p,/t,p., 
where t, and t, are the times of flow of equal volumes of milk and water 
respectively, and Pp, and, the densities. 


SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS ON MILK. 175 


In Table I are given the results of viscosity determina- 
tions ona number of milks at 20°C. These determinations 
were carried out on the milk in every case within four hours 
from the time of milking, so that no appreciable amount of 
decomposition could have taken place. 


Table I. 

Viscosity 20°C. Total Solids. Fat. Solids not Fat. 
2°024 15°17 as) 9°42 
2°006 14°65 2°40 9°25 
2°029 15°05 rks) 9°30 
1°951 14°46 2°00 9°46 
1°997 14°60 2°40 9°20 
1°961 13°88 4°70 9°18 
1°982 14°20 2°10 ori 
1°997 12°64 2°40 9°21 
2°059 14°90 2°30 9°60 
1°984 14°60 2°20 9°40 
1°953 14°29 15 9°14 
2°042 14°54 2°00 9°54 


It would appear likely, from a consideration of the above 
results, that a relation exists between the viscosity and 
the solids of a milk. Since it is seen that the viscosity is 
not directly proportional to the total solids, this relation 
if it exists will probably be a function of the fat and the 
solids not fat. To arrive at this relation, a sample of milk 
was taken and the decrease in viscosity noted due to the 
removal of part of the fat. The analysis of the sample 
experimented upon was as follows :— 

Total solids 15°05 per cent. 
Fat Pn ba a AS. se 
Solids not fat 9°30 a 


The time of flow of the milk in the viscosity apparatus 
was 190°2 seconds as compared with 96°6 for water alone. 
After removal of 2°05 per cent. of fat, the time of flow was 


Mi 


176 H. B. TAYLOR. 


177°5 and after removal of 4°4 per cent. of fat the time of 
flow was 162°6. The average decrease in the time of flow 
was 6°22 seconds for every one per cent. of fat removed. 
This would leave a time of flow of 154°43 seconds for a 
solution of the constituents other than fat. 


In the analysis given above the percentage of solids not 
fat is 9°30. The time of flow of the volume containing one 
per cent. solid not fat is therefore 16°61. Putting these 
figures in the sbape of a formula we have, 

Time of flow — p.c. fat x 6°22 
16°61 

Viscosity — p.c. fat x *0665 
"177 


p.c. solids not fat = 


or p.c. solids not fat = 


On applying this formula to the sample given above we 
see from Table IT that the agreement between calculated 
and observed results is satisfactory, when consideration is 
taken of the fact that the determination of total solids by 
the usual method of drying in a steam oven is not altogether 
satisfactory. In the determinations of the total solids 
given below the drying was continued for three hours. 


Table IT. 
Viscosity Total Solids Total Solids 
(weighed). (calculated). 
2°024 15°17 15°03 
2°029 15°05 15°05 
1°984 14°60 | 14°46 
1°953 14°29 14°25 
1°961 13°88 14°01 
1°997 14°61 14°46 
2°059 14°90 14°94 


2°042 14°54 14°65 


SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS ON MILK. | 177 


The close agreement in the majority of cases between 
observed and calculated results, shows, that a relation does 
exist between the viscosity and the solids of a milk, and 
that this relation is a function of the fat and of the solids 
not fat, rather than of the total solids. 

Change of Viscosity with Increase of Temperature. 

On heating, the viscosity of a milk rapidly decreases, 
such decrease being approximately 4°5 per cent. between 
20° and 30°C. In order to obtain a relationship between 
the viscosity and the temperature, the viscosities given in 
Table III were obtained for a sample of milk. 


Table III. 
Temperature ° C. Viscosity. 
20 2°100 
25 2°034 
30 1°987 


By substituting these values for n. and m: in Poiseuille’s 


formula, 
No 


~ Tat + BP 
where 1, is the viscosity at 0° C.and 1 the viscosity at t°, 
the values of the constants « and £ were found to be 

€ = “00723 B = —*000156 


In Table IV are given the values, for a number of milks 
at a temperature of 40° O., of the observed viscosities and 
also of the viscosities calculated by means of the above 
formula. 


Tt, 


Table IV. 
eager) iit Vey soo 
9°029 1°870 1°875 
1951 - 1°800 1°802 
1°984 1°834 1°833 
1°992 1°845 1°840 


L—November 5, 1913. 


178 H. B. TAYLOR. 


Wiecosiey 207. Viscosity 40° C. Viscosity 40° C. 


(observed). (calculated). 
2°032 1°878 1°878 
1°953 1°812 1°805 
1°997 1°844 1°845 
1°966 1°823 1°817 
1°961 1°812 1°812 


The figures given above represent the viscosities of the 
milk at 20° C. and 40° C. relative to water at the same 
temperature. It is well known that when milk is heated 
to a temperature of about 70° C. a change takes place which 
is said to render the milk less digestible. If this change 
takes place in those constituents which have a large influ- 
ence on the viscosity, it should be possible to detect a 
change in the viscosity. With this in view experiments 
were carried out in such a manner that samples of milk 
were heated to the desired temperature and then cooled 
to 20° C. again, when the time of flow was measured. When, 
in successive determinations with increasing temperatures, 
the temperature to which the milk was heated reached 70° 
©. the viscosity began to increase, showing that a precipi- 
tation or coagulation was taking place. By following the 
above procedure the results given in Table V were obtained. 


Table V. 
I. II. IIT. 
Temp. milk | Time of flow || Temp. milk | Time of flow |{ Temp. milk | Time of flow 
heated to at 20°C. heated to at 20° C. heated to at 20° C. 
25 162°0 20 201°0 20 186°0 
Ary eh al LD 40 199°2 60 181°8 
50 | 160°4 60 195°0 70 183°5 
65 159°4 80 203°6 vi 192°0 


The figures show that the change, which is probably a 
coagulation of the albumen, takes place close to 70° O. 


It was found that the electrical conductivity of a sample 
of milk did not change by heating to a temperature of 70° C. 


® 


SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS ON MILK. 179 
for five minutes and then cooling down. This points to 
the fact that the change takes place in the non-conducting 
constituents of the milk. 


It will also be noticed that before the change takes place, 
which increases the time of flow, another change manifests 
itself which has the effect of decreasing the time of flow, 
so it would seem, that on heating milk two changes take 
place, (1) a liquefaction, (2) a coagulation. 


The Electrical Conductivity of Milk. 

Since the quality and the quantity of cow’s milk is 
influenced by so many factors, such as the breed of cow, 
feeding, weather conditions, etc., it is to be expected that 
considerable variations would occur in the conductivities 
of different milks. The conducting constituents of a milk 
are its soluble salts. The proportion in which the mineral 
salts exist in milk is given by Soldner as follows:— 


Sodium chloride ae ... 10°62 per cent. 
Potassium chloride _... emo LO i 
Mono potassium phosphate ... 12°77 r 
Di-potassium phosphate see Sora < 
Potassium citrate ve cat, OPAL me 
Di-magnesium phosphate... 3°71 bs 
Magnesium citrate... seep Ae OO a 
Di-calcium phosphate... sok) og Heat be 
Tri-calcium phosphate oer Ono se 
Calcium citrate ar sae oOo Re 
Lime combined with proteins 5°13 i 


It will be seen from the above analysis that the chlorides 
and citrates comprise 52°85 per cent. of these salts, the 
remainder being phosphates of which a great part is held 
in suspension and thus can have little effect on the con- 
ductivity. Potassium chloride has a specific conductivity 
of 4°3 x 10~? reciprocal ohms at 26° C., for an 1/32 solution, 
the value for the corresponding citrate is 2°2 x 107%. A 


180 H. B. TAYLOR. 


small interchange of the percentage values between 
potassium chloride and citrate would therefore make an 
appreciable change in the conductivity of the milk. The 
conductivities given below in Table VI represent the 
specific conductivities of a series of milks at 26° O., and 
the corresponding ash as obtained by burning off the organic 
matter at a temperature below read heat. 


Table VI. 
Specific Conductivity x 10?. Ash per cent. 
°4282 ad 
"4651 hie 
°4467 Wee 
"4642 "73 
"4972 "16 
°4623 "79 


From the above figures it is seen that the conductivity 
is not proportional to the ash. The difference is probably 
due not only to the variation in composition of the ash but. 
also to the presence of varying amounts of other con- 
stituents. 

Increase in conductivity due to the removal of fat. 

When fat is separated from milk the conductivity 
increases. This increase is probably due to two things—- 

(1) the increase due to the concentration of the salts, 

(2) that due to the removal of obstacles from the path. 

of the ions. 


In regard to the first, the analyses of a sample of milk,. 
before and after 4°5 per cent. of fat was removed are given 
below; it will be seen that the figure for the solids not fat. 
in the separated portion is 4°D per cent. higher than in the: 
original sample. 


Before separation. After separation. 
Total solids 14°29 10°10 
Fat 0°15 °60 


Solids not fat 9°14 9°50 


SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS ON MILK. 181 


The mean increase in conductivity from five experiments 
for the removal of 5 per cent. of fat was 11°4 per cent. of 
the conductivity. It was also found that the decrease in 
conductivity for the addition of 5 per cent. of water cor- 
responded to a decrease of 3°6 per cent. This shows that 
the increase in conductivity due to the removal of 5 per 
cent. of fat is greater than the increase which would be 
due to a removal of 5 per cent. of water, which can be 
explained by attributing to the fat globules an obstructing 
influence on the ions in their passage through the solution. 


The Hydrogen Ion concentration of milk. 

The presence of H ion in milk is due to the hydrolysis 
of certain of the salts present in it and the dissociation of 
the lactic acid produced in its decomposition. This decom- 
position is brought about, in the case of healthy cows, by 
the action of those bacteria which have gained access to 
the milk either after or during the process of milking. 


Among the bacteria which gain access are those having 
the power to form lactic acid from the milk sugar; these 
are of two kinds :— 

(1) B. lactis cerogenes and its allies, 

(2) B. acidi lactici or Streptococcus lacticus. 
The former forms in addition to lactic acid, volatile acids, 
ethyl alcohol etc., while the latter forms almost exclusively 
pure lactic acid. It has been shown by Heinemann’ that 
milk allowed to sour naturally at about 20° C. contains 
chiefly dextro-lactic acid, that soured at 37° O. chiefly 
racemic acid with lzevo in excess if allowed to stand for 
several days. The lactic acid formed by these bacilli is 
not produced directly from the lactose but from the simpler 
sugars glucose and galactose, formed from the lactose by 
the action of certain enzymes. The decomposition may 
also becarried to butyric acid with the evolution of hydrogen 
and carbon dioxide. 


* Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 1, No. 6, p. 608, 1907. 


182 H. B. TAYLOR. 


Fresh milk when titrated with °*1 normal NaOH has an 
apparent acidity of °2 per cent., calculated as lactic acid; 
this is due to the presence in the milk of a salt, primary 
sodium phosphate, which in the: presence of NaOH is con- 
verted into secondary sodium phosphate as follows, 


NaH,PO, + NaOH = Na,HPO, + H,O. 


The amount of alkali that it is necessary to add to 5 cc. 
of milk to give an alkaline reaction to phenolphthalein is 
1°2 cc. Also when milk is titrated with an acid a similar 
change takes place, 

Na,HPO, + HCl = NaH,PO, + NaCl, 
with the production of a salt of greater H ion concentra- 
tion. The amount of ‘1 normal hydrchloric acid necessary 
to give to 5cc. of fresh milk an acid reaction to methyl 
orange is 5 Cc. 

The reaction of fresh milk towards litmus is what is 
known as an amphoteric reaction, t.e., it turns red litmus 
blue and blue litmus red. Since neutral litmus is rendered 
red by the addition of an acid, i.e., increasing its H ion 
concentration and blue by decreasing its H ion content, 
red and blue litmus must have different H ion concentra- 
tions. If a piece of red litmus’ paper is moistened with an 
H ion solution of concentration between red and blue 
litmus it will change colour towards the blue; similarly 
blue litmus dipped in the same solution will tend towards 
the same colour. The amphoteric reaction of milk to 
litmus probably depends therefore simply on the fact that. 
its H ion concentration lies between those of red and blue 
litmus. It was thought that some new light might be 
thrown on the quality ofa milk by investigating the H ion 
concentration of milk rather than the total acidity. 

Two methods of determining the H ion concentration of 
milk suggest themselves:—the H.M.F. method, and a 
method depending on the use of indicators. Both methods 


SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS ON MILK. 183 


were used, and, as carried out, gave similar results, but 
the K.M.F.. method is more sensitive and more accurate. 
The first experiments on this matter were conducted by the 
K.M.F. method and then the indicators were used after 
finding out that this latter method was sufficiently accurate 
for the purpose. 

E.M.F. Method. 

This method was carried out with the usual apparatus 
described in Ostwald—Luther’s ‘‘ Hand und Hilfsbuch.”’ A 
platinum electrode saturated with hydrogen and inserted 
in milk was connected with a deci-normal calomel elec- 
trode and the H.M.F. of the combination determined. From 
this the concentration of H ion was calculated. 


Sorensen’ gives the formula 
m— Viole 
0°0577 
for calculating the concentration of hydrogen ion from 
the E.M.F. (z). This formula was used by the author, 
after being assured of its accuracy by experimental con- 

firmation in a considerable number of cases. 


pn = at 18° OC. 


For the purpose of these determinations a number of 
carefully prepared standard solutions were made according 
to the manner described by Sorensen. These standard 
solutions were made up from the following :— 

(1) ‘1 molecular hydrochloric acid. 

(2) ‘1 molecular di-sodium-hydrogen citrate. 

(3) ‘1 molecular sodium hydrate. 

(4) 1/15 molecular potassium-di-hydrogen phosphate. 
(5) 1/15 molecular di-sodium-hydrogen phosphate. 


The method of expressing the concentration of hydrogen 
ion in the solutions is also the method used by Sorensen. 
The concentration is expressed in this way as a power of 
ten and the index alone used to represent the concentration. 


* Biochem. Zeit., xx1, p. 166, 1909. 


184 H. B. TAYLOR. 


In the following table (Table VII) are some of the deter- 
minations made on mixtures of the standard solutions, 
giving the E.M.F. and the value for the H ion calculated 
from this figure. The numbers in the last column are the 


negative indices to which ten is raised, i.e. 4°43, means. 


10-*48 
Table VII. 

Solution. E.M.F. H. ion. 
tacce: Hel: + 35 ce. citrate .... °5932 4°43 
10 a + 40 a .-- °6049 4°63 

5 + 45 a sae SOL OG 4°82 
0 si 1 oe - op q. Oaae 4°93 
5 cc. NaOH + 45 af ae | Oaa6 0°13 
10 i + 40 ee .. °6453 Dae 
15 . + 35 os ..- °6600 5°58 
20 ae + 30 a se ie 6820 5°96 
10 cc. sec. phos. + 40 cc. prim phos. ‘6942 6°18 
15 3 + 35 nf °7082 6°42 
25 - + 25 + "7285 6°77 
30 + 20 o °7405 6°98 


In regard to the determinations of H ion concentrations 
in milk, it might be doubted whether the fat and other 
constituents interfered with the method. To ensure that 
the correct result is obtained when H.M.F. determinations 
are made on the milk, the H ion concentrations at various 
dilutions were obtained, and the H ion values plotted 
against the logarithms of the concentrations. This was 
done both with the fresh milk, and with milk where the H 
ion had reached its maximum value. As will be seen from 
figures 1 and 2, both the graphs are straight lines, passing 
through the values obtained for the undiluted milk, show- 
ing that the correct result is obtained by determinations 
made on the pure milk, that the H ion is proportional to the 
logarithm of the concentration and that fat in the milk has 
no effect on H ion determinations. 


SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS ON MILK. 185 


S 
= 
= 
5 
i=] 
8 
| 
fo) 
(@) 
r=] 
= 
pan) 
1:0 E25 1°50 1°75 2:0 
10% Fig. 1.—Concentration of Milk (Fresh Milk.) 100% 


Indicator Method. 

Having found from H.M.F. measurements between what 
values the H ion in the milk varies, it was decided to use 
1 per cent. solution of methyl red and rosolic acid in alcohol 
as indicators, to determine from colour changes the H ion 


concentration. These two indicators have been found 
satisfactory. 


It was soon found to be impossible to observe the change 
of colour which takes place on adding a few drops of indi- 
cator to milk owing to its opacity. It has however been 
found practicable to add a few drops of milk toa small 
quantity of indicator in water, and compare the colour 


186 H. B. TAYLOR. 


4°5 


hm 
ae 


H ion Concentration. 


4°2 
1:0 
10% Fig. 2.—Concentration of Milk (Milk 36 hours old). 100%, 


observed with that obtained by adding a few drops of one 
of the standards (such as are given in Table VII) to the 
same quantity of indicator and water. 


It appears at first not unlikely that milk and these 
phosphate or citrate solutions might have the H ion 
changed by dilution to very different extents; however, 
this does not appear to be the case, as the result for the 
H ion concentration obtained from the use of indicators 
with diluted milk and diluted solutions are almost identical 
with results obtained by E.M.F. measurements. In the 
following table are given a few figures showing the agree- 
ment between values for the H ion concentration of milk 
obtained by both methods, 


SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL MASUREMENTS ON MILK. 187 


Table VIII. 


BM By, H ion. H ion (indicator). 
°7334 6°86 6°85 

°6645 2°66 2°70 

°6225 4°93 2°00 

°6042 4°62 4°70 

0870 4°42 4°35 - 


In determining the H ion concentration of the milk at 
any time, a number of ordinary test tubes of the same bore 
and thickness were used. A solution of the indicator (1 
drop to 20 cc. of water) was made, and 10 cc. of this 
solutiondelivered to each tube. Having prepared a number 
of tubes in this way, two drops of a solution of known H 
ion concentration were added to the first tube, then the 
same amount of a different concentration to the second 
tube, and so on, until a sufficient number of tubes were 
obtained containing different intensities of colour. It was 
found that two drops of any of the above solutions were 
sufficient to give an intensity of colour closely approxi- 
mating to the maximum colour. The change produced by 
a further addition of H ion of the concentration previously 
added being negligible when compared with the change in 
intensity due to a solution ‘1 higher in its H ion concen- 
tration. 


A similar experiment with milk instead of one of the 
standard solutions enabled a comparison to be made between 
milk and these solutions, and so gave the desired figure 
for the concentration of Hion. In this case the colour 
produced was destroyed after about 12 hours. In obtaining 
a sample of milk the cow was milked without special 
precautions, the milk well mixed and a portion received 
into a sterilized bottle the neck of which was closed with 
cotton wool, so that the subsequent decomposition was 
due to the micro-organisms which gained access during the 
milking process. 


188 H. B. TAYLOR. 


It will be seen from the following table that temperature 
plays a large part in the rate at which the H ion concen- 
tration of the milk increases, 


Table IX. 
Hours old. H ion at 30° C. H ion at 25° C. 

7°0 6°80 6°80 
11°0 6°60 6°65 
14°0 6°40 6°60 
17-5 5°30 5 o0 
19°0 5°10 5°45 
21°0 4°80 0°35 
23°0 4°65 4°80 
24°5 4°65 4°70 
25°5 4°65 4°70 
30°5 4°65 4°65 
102°5 4°65 4°65 


At a temperature of 30° C. the maximum value for the 
H ion was reached in 23 hours, at the temperature of 25°C. 
it took 7°5 hour longer to gain the same figure. The period 
lapsing between the time of milking the cow and the time 
when acid began to be produced was on an average, at a 
temperature of 30° C., about seven hours, and the form- 
ation of acid continues until enough acid is formed to inhibit 
the growth of the bacteria present, as shown by the constant 
figure for the H ion at the bottom of the above table. 


Figure three gives a graphical representation of the 
increase of the H ion along with the time in one sample 
of milk. 


In the seventeen samples which were examined, the 
average value for the H ion concentration of the fresh 
sample was 6°83, one sample gave a value of 7°1 the 
remainder varying from 6°7 to 6°9, these figures show that 
in the majority of cases milk as received from the cow is 
very slightly acid, this acidity being due to a slight excess 


SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS ON MILK. 189 


of acid salts over alkaline ones. At atemperature of 30°C. 
the H ion attained its maximum value after about twenty- 
four hours, and in the samples examined this value varied 
from 4°3 to 4°65. 


4-0, 


H ion Concentration. 


6:0 : 


~I 


Ste. 


10 20 30 


-Fig. 3.—Time hours. 


The curdling of the milk, which is brought about by the 
precipitation of the caseinogen by the acid formed, took 
place in the sample under observation at a temperature of 
30° C. when the acidity calculated as lactic acid reached 
a value of °73 per cent., which corresponded to a H ion 
value of 4°9; this value was arrived at when the milk was 
20 hours old. 


rad fy 
‘ 
Aare 
‘ 
ay 


190 H. B. TAYLOR. 


Loss in total solids through decomposition. 

The decomposition of milk due to the agency of bacteria 
is accompanied by a decrease in the percentage of total 
solids. The total solids were determined by evaporating 
to dryness 5 grams of milk over a steam bath, and then 
drying for three hoursifiasteam oven. The first evidence 
of a decrease was obtained at the same time as a change 
in the H ion concentration and acidity was noticed. For 
milk kept at a temperature of 30° C. the average loss in 
total solids was °44, corresponding to.a percentage loss of 
3°84 for the original total solids present. 


In the table given below, the figures in the first column 
represent the percentage of total solids at time 0 hours, 
those in the second column the value after 24 hours. All 
the samples were kept in a thermostat at 30° C., the neck 
of each bottle being closed with cotton wool. 


Table X. 

7, T.S. at to 7%, TS. at tog Decrease in T.S. %/ Decrease. 
13°09 12°40 *69 Spay 
14°69 14°51 18 1°23 
13°01 12°60 °41 3°20 
14°16 13°27 °79 5°60 
13°60 13°20 °40 2°93 
14°80 14°50 °30 2°03 
14°16 13°70 °46 3°25 
12°86 12°33 °O3 4°17 
13°02 12°36 "66 5°08 
12°35 11°90 "45 3°65 
16°82 15°03 °79 4°70 
12°47 11°84 °63 3°00 


It may be of general interest to see what effect the 
weather conditions have on the rate at which milk decom- 
poses (i.e.) how the weather conditions affect the number 
of bacteria gaining access to the milk. To show this the 


SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS ON MILK. 191 


following table was drawn up, showing the weather con- 
ditions on the days the samples were taken, and the 
subsequent percentage decrease in the total solids in 
twenty-four hours. . 

Table XI. 


February. 1913. Weather conditions at 12°30. ‘/ decrease of T.S. 
2 slight showers, S.H. wind, 8 miles per hour — 


3 cloudy, ey, eg i 5°27 

4 fine, INSED IO 3020 te 1°23 

D fhe, squally” “S:H.*';, ‘15 a 3°20 

9 slight showers, 8.E. ,, 8 Ma — 
10 cloudy andsquallyS. ,, 29 a 5°60 
11 showery all day, S. ee lS a 2°93 
12 cloudy, S. ae ss 2°03 
13 fine, gusty, IETS Ad 8 EG BS 3°29 
16 fine, K. Pe ‘A — 
17 fine, INGE EOP el ¥ 4°15 
18 fe. Hot 100°5 F. W.° 5, 13 me — 
19 fine, K. me -. 2°08 
20 cloudy, Soleo 5.7 ES + — 
21 overcast, K. 4 ghee ahh % 3°65 
23 fine, rf : — 
24 fine, sultry, EK. Lata ho Pe 4°70 
26 fine, NE. aye 18 BS — 


one fme,squally N:B. ,; 19 a 3°05 


All the samples were taken at 12°30 p.m., the shed in 
which the cows were milked ran north and south, the only 
door being at the southern end. In all cases wherea large 
decrease was noticed, the weather conditions were such 
that a large amount of dust could reasonably be expected 
to be present in the air, such conditions being a high wind 
or when norain had fallen for some time, etc.; on the other 
hand when it had been raining the decomposition was, in 
in all cases, small. The above table should make clear the 


192 H. B. TAYLOR. 


necessity for all vessels containing milk to be kept covered, 
as pathogenic bacteria carried around on the dust particles 
are just as likely to fall into milk as the harmless bacilli 
producing lactic acid. 

Summary. 

1. The viscosity of milk is related to the percentage of 
fat and to the solids other than fat inthe milk. <A formula 
was derived which permitted the calculation of ‘‘solids not 
fat’’ from a determination of the viscosity, and the fat of 
milk. The viscosity of milk decreases with rise of tem- 
perature in a regular way from 20 to 40° C. which can be 
expressed by means of the usual equation 
= 10 
eae 

Apart from the general decrease in viscosity, milk which 
has been heated from 20° C. toany temperature up to 60°C. 
is found to have decreased in viscosity, when brought back 
to the original temperature 20°C. Milk heated to 70°C. 
and recooled is found to have increased in viscosity. 

2. The electrical conductivity of milk is due to the solids 
other than fat, the action of the fat globules being to lower 
the conductivity. 


Nt 


3. The H ion concentration of normal fresh milk is 10—*° 
and after the milk has soured the concentration is 10~*®; 
these values did not vary to any great extent from one 
cow to another in a considerable number of samples. 


4, It is shown that the decomposition of milk which has 
stood 24 hours is most rapid on the days when the operation 
of milking has been conducted with a strong dusty wind 
blowing. 

These investigations were carried out in the Chemical 
Laboratory of the University of Sydney, and I wish to 
express my thanks to Professor Fawsitt for his advice 
throughout the work. 


AUSTRALIAN MELALEUCAS AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 193 


ON THE AUSTRALIAN MELALEUCAS AND THEIR 
HSSHNTIAL OILS, Part V. 
By R. T. BAKER, F.L.S., and H. G. SMITH, F.C.S. 
(With Plate VIII] 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, November 5, 1913.] 


SUMMARY :— 
. Introduction. 
. Historical. 
. Systematic Botany. 


Hm OF LD 


Remarks on synonymised species. 
Range of species. 
. Chemistry of Essential Oils. 


o> ON 


a. “Cajuput” from YM, minor, Linn. 
b. M. Maideni, R.T.B. 
c. M. Smithii, R.T.B. 

I. Introduction. 

Perhaps a more correct title to this paper would be 
**Melaleuca leucadendron, Linn., its alleged synonyms and 
their Essential Oils,’’ for that is the ground it covers, but 
it was thought better not to break the continuity of this 
series of Melaleuca research in spite of a strong induce- 
ment to do so. 


The literature published on this particular species shows 
that much confusion has existed in the minds of system- 
atists, as to what species showing affinity to Linneus’ 
should be synonymised with, or differentiated from it, and 
this is specially the case in such botanical works as 
Bentham’s Flora Australiensis, and Hooker’s Flora of 
British India. 

To elucidate this difficulty gave us much trouble and 
absorbed much time. However, we think that having 


M—November 5, 1913. 


194 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. 


reached the end of our investigations, nothing further 
remains than to publish the results which are given in this 
paper. 
II. Historical. 
The first species described under the generic name 
Melaleuca was M. leucadendron by Linneeus in Mantiss., 
105, 1767, from Indian specimens. 


There had been imported into Kurope from the Hast, 
about the beginning of the seventeenth century an oil under 
the name of ‘‘Cajoepoeli’’ (according to Linnzeus’ spelling, 
infra) but under a later spelling ‘‘Cajuput.” At that time 
and long after its introduction, the botanical origin was 
ascribed to Linnzeus’ species (supra), as the specimens 
forwarded to Linnzeus were reputed to be taken from trees 
from which the oil was obtained, and he evidently described 
it under that impression, as shown by his original specimen 
now in the possession of the London Linnean Society and 
labelled by him ‘‘Cajoepoeli’’ and afterwards by Smith as 
Melaleuca leucadendron, vera, a photograph of which is 
reproduced at the end of this paper, Plate VIII. 


This reputed origin of the oil, however, was shown later 
by Roxburgh to be an error, and that the true source of 
““Cajuput’’ was a Melaleuca which he named M. cajuputi, 
but this was found later to be identical with M.minor, 
described earlier in 1813 by Smith in Rees’ Cyclop., Vol. 
XXIII, and so quite a distinct tree from that to which 
Linnzeus had given the above name. However, many 
Kuropean systematists in the last century regarded the two 
as one, but the early Indian botanists being very emphatic 
over the matter, always kept them distinct, and our 
investigations support the latter botanists. 


Since the original description by Linnzeus was published, 


several species have been described which had the general 
facies of his tree but differed in some important characters. 


AUSTRALIAN MELALEUCAS AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 195 


These species, recent botanists working on indoor or 
herbarium material have synonymised generally under M. 
leucadendron, the list standing as follow:— 


M. minor, Sm. M. lancifolia, Turcz. 

M. Cunninghami, Schau. M. Cumingiana, Turcz. 

M. saligna, Blume. M. lanceolata, R. Br. (Herb.) 
M. viridiflora, Soland. M. Siebert, Schau. 


The last two are the J. leucadendron, var. parvifolia Bentham, 
Flora Australiensis, ii, p. 143. 


Having seen recently a statement to the effect that 
Linneus’ original specimen of M. leucadendron was in the 
Herbarium of the London Linnean Society, in order to 
settle the question definitely, we wrote to Dr. Daydon 
Jackson, Secretary to the Society, asking him if he would 
kindly compare a series which we were sending him, 
obtained from Sydney and round the Hast and North 
Coasts of Australia, of the Melaleucas in dispute, and mark 
the one or any of them which should prove to be identical 
with the original. 


In his reply he states :— 

“T am not able to match any of the specimens you sent, which 
I now return, but a specimen from Java seems to be the nearest, 
and I have indicated that with a strip of paper. I also send you 
a photograph about half-scale of the first sheet in the Linnean 
Herbarium which bears the words in the hand-writing of Linneus 
**Cajoepoeli” = Kajoe-poetih of the natives ina Dutch rendering 
and = Meluleuca leucadendron. Linneus also refers to Rumph. 
Amb., and I put in a tracing of part of tab. 16 of Vol. 1, showing 
the falcate foliage. 


“The material before me belonging to the Linnean Herbarium 
is as follows :— 
‘l. The first sheet (see photograph); Smith has added at the 


foot of the sheet, not shown in photograph, MM. leucadendron vera. 
J.ES.’” 


196 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMI'H. 


This photograph throws some doubt on M. lewcadendron, 
Linn., as being an Australian species, but comparing it 
with specimens in the National Herbaria of Sydney and 
Melbourne, from Arnheim Land, Napier, Broome Bay, 
Burdekin, Escape Cliff, these appear somewhat to match 
it, but until material is obtained from India, the home of 
the original, and compared botanically and chemically with 
Australian material, in our opinion the name M. leucaden- 
dron, Linn. should be held in abeyance as applying to an 
Australian species. 

Morphologically therefore, it is not any of those investi- 
gated by us nor does it agree chemically. 


That the Melaleuca on the N.W. Coast of the Continent 
differs from that of other Kastern Coast species is evident 
from the remarks of Mr. W. 8. Campbell, which appeared 
in the ‘Sydney Morning Herald of October 6th, 1913, who 
when describing a trip to those parts of the Continent, 
states :— 

“Here and throughout the country, in the many favourable 
moist places, the tea tree, Melaleuca leucadendron, abounds. Along 
the banks of rivers, creeks, and many lagoons and swampy locali- 
ties, it attains a great height and diameter. Overhanging the 
water amongst other vegetation, with its silvery green, pendulous 
leaves, it adds greatly to the beauty of many beautiful places. 
This tree seems to differ to some extent from that bearing the same 
name in New South Wales, aud which is very common about the 


coast, the leaves being more willowy-like.” 


Concerning these Tea-trees, Mr. W. H. Tibbits, L.s., 


Woollahra, writes:— 
“These trees also grow in the Cape York Peninsula and out 


from Cooktown.” This tree is very probably M. saligna, Schau. 
III. Systematic Botany. 


Bentham evidently experienced great difficulty in classi- 
fying his material under this species (M. leucadendron) 


AUSTRALIAN MELALEUCAS AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 197 


when preparing his Flora Australiensis, for there he states, 
Vol. 11, p. 142 :— 


“This species, widely spread and abundant in the Indian 
Archipelago and Malayan Peninsula, varies exceedingly in the 
size, shape and texture of the leaves, in the young shoots, very 
silky-villous or woolly, or the whole quite glabrous; in the short 
and dense or long and interrupted spikes; in the size of the flowers; 
in the greenish-yellow, whitish, pink, or purple stamens, etc, and 
at first sight it is difficult to believe that they all can be forms of 
one species, but on examination none of these varieties are 
sufficiently constant or so combined as to allow of distinct races.” 


J.F. Duthie who wrote the Myrtacee portion of Hooker’s 
Hlora of British India, reproduces these remarks, Vol. II, 
p. 463, and divides the species into two varieties, viz:— 
var. leucadendron, var. minor. 


The only difference he makes in these two forms is that 
the former has glabrous spikes, whilst in the latter they 
are villous. | 


De Candolle in his Prodromus, Part I. p. 212, lists M. 
leucadendron, Linn. and M. minor, Smith, giving specific 
differences practically similar to the varietal ones of Duthie; 
more recently Bailey makes three varieties, viz:—var. 
lancifolia, var. saligna, var. Cunninghami. 


Not only are we inclined to regard M. lewcadendron, 
Linn. as extra-Australian, but also M. minor, Smith,—the 
source of Cajuput oil; but in order to throw further light 
on the subject, specimens were obtained from Dr. M. Treub, 
Director of the Department of Agriculture, Buitenzorg, 
Java, who very kindly sent us full material—flowering and 
fruiting specimens and a large supply of oil obtained from 
that species, or M. cajuputi as he states. 

This botanical material matches very well the coloured 
figure of M. minor, Sm., in Bentley and Trimen, Medicinal 
Plants, Vol. 11, p. 108. The leaves are of rather a thin 


198 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. 


texture, almost membraneous, rarely 4’ long, mostly under 
3” and about 4" wide, ovate, straight, now and again falcate. 
Venation fine, varying in number from 3 to 5 prominent 
ones, the flowering rachis having a white silky pubescence, 
flowers distant. 


This, evidently, then is the true M. minor of Smith and 
at any rate is the species from which cajuput oil is obtained, 
for the analysis of this specimen of oil agrees with the 
published analyses of cajuput oil, and differs from those of 
all Australian Tea Trees going under the name of M. 
leucadendron. It must also be stated that Treub’s 
specimens differ botanically from any Australian material 
seen by us. 

IV. Remarks on the Species Synonymised under .JV/. 

lewcadendron, Linn., by various Authors. 
M. LEUCADENDRON, Linn. 

This species, as far as our knowledge goes, we regard as. 
extra-Australian. 

M. MINOR, Sm. (M. cajuputi, Roxb.) 

This species also for the same reason should be regarded 
as extra-Australian. 

M. CUNNINGHAMI, Schau. 

This species is placed by Bentham in FI. Austr., iii, 143, 
(loc. cit.) under M. leucadendron, Linn., but the original 
locality and description (Walp. Rep. ii, 927) show conclu- 
sively that it is M. viridiflora, Solander. 

From this it would appear that Schauer had not access 
to the British Museum drawings and descriptions. 

M. SALIGNA, Schau. 

This is described by Schauer in Walp. Rep., ii, 927, and 
the locality is the same as M. Cunninghami—Endeavour 
River. It is therefore tropical, and from a drawing of the 
original by Dr. Daydon Jackson, London Linnean Society 


AUSTRALIAN MELALEUCAS AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 199 


sent to us, is different from any we have yet seen. (See 
excerpt of article by Mr. W. S. Campbell, supra.) 


M. MArpentI, R. T. B., Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1913. 

This is commonly known as the “* Broad-leaved Tea Tree’”’ 
throughout its geographical distribution, although at Port 
Macquarie it is known as the “‘ Bell Bowery Tea-tree.’’ It 
grows to a large size and produces an excellent pale, hard 
close-grained timber suitable for boat-building, carriage 
and general cabinet work, and is also very durable in the 
ground. 


M. SmIrutil, R. T. B., Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1913. 

This is commonly known as the “‘ Broad-leaved Tea Tree”’ 
throughout its geographical distribution. It also, like M. 
Maideni grows to a large size and produces an excellent 
pale, hard close-grained timber, suitable for boat-building, 
carriage and general cabinet work, and is also durable in 
the ground, but has a well marked or pronounced sapwood. 


From amongst the material collected at this Institution 
in connection with the species of Linnzeus, we have sepa- 
rated these two forms, which we cannot place with any of 
the species here enumerated (infra), and these have been 
systematically described by one of us in the Proc. Linn. 
Soc., N.S.W., September, 1913, under the name of M. 
Maideni and M. Smithii. 

M. VIRIDIFLORA, Soland. 

This name first appears in Gaertn. Fruct. i, 173, (1788), 
under M. angustifolia, Gaertn., to which Bentham, Flora 
Australiensis, Vol. 11, p. 142, gives specific rank. Index 
Kewensis synonymises the name under M. angustifolia, 
Gaertn., but this is without doubt an error, for in Britten’s 
Botany of Cook’s Voyages, published by the British Museum 
in 1901, an original drawing of M. viridiflora, Sol. is repro- 
duced. This and the accompanying text prove conclusively 
itis not M. angustifolia, Gaertn., which is also figured in 


200 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. 


the same work. Neither is it M. leucadendron, Linn. The 
original locality (loc. cit.) is Bustard Bay, Hndeavour River, 
and some fine specimens of it are extant in the Sydney 
Herbarium, with leaves measuring up to 7” long and 3” 
wide, being identical with that portrayed in Britten’s 
reproductions. The leaves are the broadest and most cori- 
aceous of all the Melaleucas known to us. 


There can be no doubt that it is a distinct species, and 
the name should stand. 


Recently, there has been a species named from New 
Caledonia by Brongniart and Gris as M. viridiflora. By 
the law of priority this name must give place to that of 
Solander, as the tree, judging from specimens in the Sydney 
Botanic Garden Herbarium from New Caledonia under this 
name are certainly not the true M. viridifiora of Solander. 
The New Caledonian specimen should be given anew name. 


M. lanceolata, R. Br. and M. Sieberi, Schau. are the M. 
leucadendron var. parvifolia of Bentham (loc. cit.). 

As a result of these investigations, and an examination 
of material in the Sydney and Melbourne Herbaria, we 
find the valid species now to stand as follow :— 


M. leucadendron, Linn. M. Maideni, R. T. Baker. 
M. minor, Sm (syn. M.cajuputr, MM. Smithi, R. T. Baker. 

Roxb.) M. viridiflora, Soland.: 
M. saligna, Blume. M. lanceolata, R. Br. 


V. Range of Species. 

M. LEUCADENDRON, Linn.—Extra-Australian, although 
it is possible that this species may occur around the 
tropical shores of the Continent. 

M. MINOR, Sm.—Hast Indies and so is not Australian. 

M. VIRIDIFLORA, Soland—Tropical shores of Australia. 

M. VIRIDIFLORA, Brong. et Gris. (see note) New Caledonia. 

M. CUNNINGHAMI, Schau.—Identical with M. viridifiora. 

M. SALIGNA, Schau.—Mouth of tropical rivers of N.W. 
and N. Coasts. — 


AUSTRALIAN MELALEUCAS AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 201 


S 


. MAIDENI, R.T.B. M. lewcadendron, var. lancifolia, 
Bail.—Casino, Port Macquarie, Brisbane and well 
North. 

. Smita, R. T. B.—Port Jackson, Terrigal, Gosford. 

. LANCIFOLIA, Turcz.—Philippine Islands. 

. CUMINGIANA, Turcz.—Philippine Islands. 

. LANCEOLATA, R. Br. (Herb.) (M. Sieberi, Schau.)— 
Neighbourhood of Port Jackson. 


a 


VI. Chemistry of Essential Oils. 
(a) *‘Cajuput’’ from MELALEUCA MINOR. 

This oil which was sent to us by Dr. M. Treub, of the 
Royal Botanic Gardens, Buitenzorg, Java, was labelled 
*“KAJOEPOETIH-OLIE.”’ The oil was in appearance and 
odour identical with that of ordinary ‘“‘cajuput”’ of com- 
merce. It hada distinct green colour, due entirely to 
the presence of copper; the copper was removed and 
determined as such. The odour of cineol was most marked, 
and the secondary odour of the oil had a strong resem- 
blance to that of terpineol. The crude oil had the following 
characteristics :— 

Specific gravity at 15° O. = 0°9198. 

Rotation dy = — 2°4° 

Refractive index at 22° OC. = 1°4666. 

Saponification number = 5°46. 

Cineol, determined by resorcinol method, =68 per cent. 

Soluble in 14 volumes of 70 per cent. alcohol by weight 
at 20° ©. 


On rectification, the first portion contained some alde- 
hyde, strongly indicating valeric aldehyde, but benz- 
aldehyde was not detected. The lower boiling terpenes 
were levo-rotatory. Below 195° ©. (Corr.) 77 per cent. 
distilled. This portion boiling between 215 — 260° (15 per 
cent.) was slightly dextro-rotatory, the rotation ap =+0°5’, 
the sp. gr. = 0°9237, and refractive index at 22° = 1°4875. 


202 R. T. BAKER AND H, G. SMITH. 


These results agree with those usually recognised for 
‘‘cajuput’’ oil, and do not agree with those obtained with 
the oils of the supposed forms of Melaleuca leucadendron 
growing in New South Wales and Southern Queensland, 
showing that these latter trees are not identical with the 
Melaleuca which supplies the well-known “‘ cajuput ”’ oil. 
The above investigation was carried out for comparison. 


(b) MELALEUCA MAIDENI. 

This tree which occurs in Northern New South Wales 
and in Southern Queensland, is that known in Queensland 
as M.leucadendron var. lancifolia, and the oil has been 
distilled in small quantities from the leaves of this species 
by Mr. Ingham of Brisbane ; a sample distilled by him was 
analysed by Mr. R. C. Cowley, F.c.s., the results being 
published in the “Chemist and Druggist’”’ of 28th May, 1910. 
We have investigated the oil of this tree from the follow- 
ing localities, and three several times of the year. 


Port Macquarie, New South Wales, 30/11/1910. 
Casino, New South Wales, 27/12/1911. 
Port Macquarie, New South Wales, 15/1/1912. 


The oils from these three specimens agree very well in 
general characters; thiscan beseen from the following table. 
The material was cut as for commercial oil distillation. 


Yield Sp. gr. |Cineol, Solubility in : s 
Crude Oils. per a 7 per | Alcohol by ae ae ’ | Refractive index. 
cent. Ub? (Cr cent. Weight. Db x 


Port Macquarie | 1°79 | 0°9199| 39 | 7 vols. 70%| —4°.2 | 3:8 | 14744 at 23° 
(1910) 
Casino (1911) ...| 1°26 | 0°9227| 26 | 1 vol. 80% | —0°.7 
Port Macquarie | 1°17 | 0°9234} 31 | 1 vol. 80% | -1°.9 
(1912) 


"2 | 1:°4800 at 22° 
1 | 1°4769 at 23° 


(oe) 


Mr. Cowley’s figures for his sample of oil of this species 
were :—Sp. gr. 0°922; Rot. ay = — 3°; ref. ind,’ 146228 
cineol 45 per cent. 

The crude oil of this species was but little coloured. As 
the leaves were distilled from iron the oil was not green, 


. Joe 


AUSTRALIAN MELALEUCAS AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 203 


apd did not, of course, contain copper like ordinary 
‘“cajuput”’ oil. The odour reminds somewhat of ‘‘cajuput”’ 
but the secondary odour is distinctive. It contains much 
less cineol than ordinary “‘cajuput.’? The lower boiling 
terpenes consist principally of levo-rotatory pinene and 
lzevo-rotatory limonene. Some aldehydes were present in 
the first portion distilling, and the odour of benzaldehyde 
was easily detected. The high boiling fraction contained 
a considerable quantity of an alcohol, but the indications 
for the presence of terpineol were not good, particularly 
as only a small amount distilled between 190—255° C. 
After the latter temperature, a considerable quantity 
distilled, ranging from 30 to 40 per cent. of the total 
oil. This high boiling fraction apparently contains a fair 
quantity of the sesquiterpene alcohol which is such a 
pronounced constituent in the oil of the Sydney form, (M. 
Smithii). The dextro-rotation of this high boiling fraction, 
its high boiling point, together with the ascertained 
presence of an alcohol, indicate that this is so, although 
the physical results suggest the presence also of a sesqui- 
terpene belonging to the closed chain series. 


The sample from Port Macquarie (30/11/10) was rectified; 
a small amount of acid water and some aldehydes came 
over below 157°C. Between 157 — 173° C. 26 per cent. 
distilled; between 173 — 183° 38 per cent. The ther- 
mometer then quickly rose to 250°, only 1 per cent. 
distilling. Between 250 — 270° 30 per cent. distilled. The 
three main fractions gave the following results :— 
Sp. gr.at 15°C. Rotation a, Ref. index at 22°C. 


First fraction 0°8914 —, 5.8 1°4628 
Second fraction 0°9005 — 10°.4 1°4632 
Third fraction 0°9257 + 11°.2 1°4956 


The cineol was determined by the resorcinol method ina 
portion boiling below 190° C., the result indicating 39 per 


204 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. 


cent. of that constituent in the crude oil. The saponifica- 
tion number for the ester plus the free acid was 3’8. 


The low boiling portion was repeatedly shaken with 50 
per cent. resorcinol to remove the cineol, the residue well 
washed, dried and redistilled. 


Between 157 — 132° ©. 6°5 cc. were obtained, and 
between 162—175° 10cc. distilled. These gave the follow- 
ing results:— 

Sp. gr. at 15°C. Rotation ay Ref. index at 20°C. 
First fraction  0°8605 — 9°.2 1°4684 | 
Second fraction 0°8603 — 18°.6 1°4701 


These fractions were again rectified and 5 cc. obtained, 
distilling below 158° OC. 


This portion had rotation ay - 7°.6; and refractive index 
at 20° = 1°4683. The nitrosochloride was prepared with 
it and this melted at 103-—4°. It is thus evident that the 
pinene is levo-rotatory, although less so than is the 
limonene. 


The results obtained with the high boiling fraction suggest 
that a sesquiterpene is present in some quantity, although 
its identity remains at present undetermined. 


The oil obtained from the Casino material was also 
rectified, the results being in close agreement with those 
given by the Port Macquarie sample. The high boiling 
fraction was, however, somewhat larger in amount (43 per 
cent.) and no less than 35 per cent. distilled above 265° C. 
This high boiling fraction had specific gravity at 15°=0°9355; 
rotation ay + 11°.1, and refractive index 1°4959. The some- 
what smaller amount of eucalyptol (26 per cent.) in this 
oil is due to this increased amount of the high boiling 
fraction. 


The oil from the Port Macquarie (15/1/12) material was 
also rectified, the fractions, together with their physical 


AUSTRALIAN MELALEUCAS AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 205 


characters, being in close agreement with those obtained 
with the other two samples above. The high boiling 
fraction (35 per cent., 30 per cent. distilling above 265° CO.) 
had rotation a» + 16°.6, specific gravity at 15° = 0°9412 
and refractive index 1°4971. The cineol present in the 
crude oil was 31 per cent. 


The saponification number of the ester by boiling was 5°1, 
while that of the acetylated oil, after boiling two hours 
with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate in the usual way, 
was 42°4. Assuming that the alcohol of the original ester 
was identical with the free alcohol, there was 16°8 per 
cent. of a sesquiterpene alcohol (Cis;H26O) in this sample of 
the crude oil of this species, and from the figures given 
above, this alcohol is assumed to correspond to that occur- 
ring so plentifully in the oil of M. Smithii. 


(c) MELALEUCA SMITHII. 


This is the common broad leaved Melaleuca growing 
in the neighbourhood of Sydney, Gosford, Terrigal and 
surrounding districts. How much further north of the last 
locality it extends is not yet known, but its southern limit 
is not much below Sydney. 


We have investigated the oil of this tree from three 
localities, and the results thus obtained agree very well 
with each other, but differ considerably from those of the 
northern form (M. Maideni) and show no resemblance to 
*‘cajuput”’ oil, as can be seen from the following. 
pa Sp. & Cineol Solubility, in Refractive Saat 


per Alcohol by apwation! ndex No 


Lecality. 
cent. 15° cent. Weight, 5) at 22° 


Rose Bay, Sydney| 0°607 | 0°8815 | about |1°7 vols.70%|+11°.8 1°4812 | 3-1 
i |: | 


18/12/1911. | 
Terrigal, N.S.W. | 0°923 | 0°9003 | less | 2 vols. 70%} +6°.7  1:°4824 | 3°3 
21/12/1911. than 2 | 


Gosford, N.S.W. | 0°495 | 0°8976 | about | 2 vols. 70%| +5°.8| 1:4806 | 6°5 
20/9/1899. | 5 | 


The cineol was determined by the resorcinol method in 
the portion distilling below 260° O. (15 per cent.) of the 
Gosford sample, but when calculated for the crude oil 
showed that not more than 5 per cent. of that constituent 
was present. The reactions for cineol were readily obtained 
in this portion of the oil. With the other samples (Rose 
Bay and Terrigal) a smaller amount distilled below 265’. 
The other constituents in the oil do not appear to be 
absorbed by resorcinol, and not more than 2 per cent. of 
cineol in the Terrigal and less than that in the Rose Bay 
oil was determined to be present by this method. That 
a little cineol was present was shown by the first portion 
giving the reaction for that substance with bromine. The 
terpenes were a little more pronounced in the Gosford 
sample, and this may perhaps be accounted for by the distil- 
lation of the leaves not having been carried so far as with 
the others, this is suggested also by the lesser yield of oil. 
The aldehydes obtained in the first portions distilling always 
contained asubstance with the odour of benzaldehyde, and 
to endeavour to locate this, a portion of the crude oil was 
frequently agitated during two days, with a solution of 
acid sodium sulphite. A very small amount of a crystalline 
substance separated, which was collected with difficulty. 
When decomposed with soda a marked odour of benzalde- 
hyde was obtained, but the amount available was too small 
to proceed further. It may be assumed, however, that 
benzaldehyde is the aldehyde having this odour occurring 
in the oil of this Melaleuca. The small amount of terpenes 
in the oil of this species consists of levo-rotatory pinene, 
leevo-rotatory limonene and dipentene, thus agreeing in 
this respect with those found in the oil of M. Maideni. They 
were both determined in the oil of the Gosford sample. 


206 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. 


The sesquiterpene alcohol. ‘lhe principal constituent 
in the oil of this species is a liquid sesquiterpene alcohol, 
which, from its physical characters and properties, appears 


AUSTRALIAN MELALEUUAS AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 207 


to belong to the aliphatic series. The odour is somewhat 
pleasant, although weak in this respect. When diluted 
with alcohol and spread thinly on a watch glass, the odour 
becomes a little more defined and delicate and remains 
persistent for several days. 


This appears to be the first time that a substance of this 
nature has been noticed occurring in the leaf oils of plants, 
and it is only very recently that similar constituents have 
been determined as existing in the odoriferous oils of cer- 
tain flowers. In “‘Die atherischen Ole” of Gildemeister 
and Hoffman, 2nd edition, p. 416, these substances are 
referred to, and the statement is there made that up to the 
present time (1910) they have only seldom been observed, 
but it is presumed that with extended investigations they 
will be more frequently found. ‘T'wo of these alcohols are 
mentioned in the work referred to, Nerolidol’ found in the 
higher boiling portions of Orange flower oil, which had, 
boiling point 276 — 277°, 128—129° (6mm.); spec. gr. 0°880; 
rotation dy + 13°.32; and Farnesol which occurs in the oil 
of Ambrette seeds, in Linden flower oil, in the oils of the 
flowers of various kinds of Acacias, and probably also in 
Rose oil. Haarmann and Reimer,’ show the boiling point 
to be 160° (10 mm.); sp. gr. at 18° 0°885; n,1°488; rotation 
dy>+ 0°. An investigation has just been undertaken by 
M. Kerschbaum on farnesol.* This author assumes that 
farnesol acts as a fixing material for the more volatile con- 
stituents of the flower, and attributes the sweet scent of 
Linden flowers to the presence of these sesquiterpene 
alcohols, which delicate odour is brought out by extreme 
dilution assisted by the oxidising influences of the air. 


1 Hesse and Zeitschel, Journ. f. prakt. Chem. 11, 66 (1902), 504. 
2 Patent No. 149603 and Chem. Zentralbl. 1904, 1, 975. 
3 Ber. Deut. Chem. Gesell., 1913, p. 1732. 


208 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. 


He suggests the following formula for farnesol, which it 
will be seen is an extension to the geraniol grouping :— 
OH 


* SC: CH.CH,.CH,.0 : CH.CH, --CH,.0: OH.CH,OH. 
CH, v : ie 
OH, : > OH, 
Harries and Haarman (Ber. 1913, p. 1737) have also 
investigated the structure of farnesol by oxidation with 
ozone, and agree with the above formula. 


It will be seen that farnesol does not contain an asym- 
metric carbon atom, and is thus inactive. The alcohol in 
the leaf oil of Melaleuca Smithii is dextro-rotatory, so that 
the molecule contains an asymmetric carbon atom, and 
thus must be a different substance to farnesol. The 
characters recorded for nerolidol (above) appear to agree 
more Closely with those so far obtained with the alcohol 
from the oilof this Melaleuca. The difference in molecular 
structure between these substances may perhaps correspond 
to that between geraniol and linalool, as a tertiary carbon 
atom appears to be present, but considerable work is 
necessary to be carried out with this alcohol before its 
characteristics and its molecular structure can he 
ascertained; and we know very little, as yet, about the 
molecule of nerolidol. 


We propose the name melaleucol for the dextro-rotatory 
aliphatic sesquiterpene alcohol which occurs in the leaf oil 
of this species of Melaleuca. 


Melaleucol is an almost colourless, slightly viscous oil, 
with a weak, but somewhat pleasant odour. When dis- 
solved in chloroform, or in glacial acetic acid, it takes upa 
large amount of bromine, and is thus highly unsaturated. 
This was also shown by the permanganate reaction. 

So far, no satisfactory combination with this alcohol has 
been obtained, so that it has not yet been isolated ina © 
perfectly pure condition. When freshly extracted from 


AUSTRALIAN MELALEUCAS AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 209 


the leaf it boils under atmospheric pressure at 275 — 277° C. 
with scarcely any decomposition, but the older oil splits 
off water more readily. Under reduced pressure the main 
fraction boiled at 163—165° at 33 mm. 


Analysis gave the following results :—0°1855 gram. gave 
0°5526 gram. CO, and 0°1936 gram. H,O. C=81°24 and 
H=11°6 percent. Ois;H2O requires C=—81°08 and H=11'71 
per cent. 


The specific gravity of the directly distilled alcohol, 
boiling within one degree of temperature, was 0°886 at 15°C, 
and the refractive index at 20° = 1°488. These figures 
roughly indicate a molecular refraction corresponding to 
that required for a sesquiterpene alcohol with three double 
linkings. The essential oil of this Melaleuca is thus shown 
to differ in constituents from that of any other species of 
Melaleuca so far determined, and consequently the product 
of this tree promises to be of considerable scientific interest, 
and possibly of commercial value. Further work will now 
be done upon it. 


RosE Bay TRe#Es (18/12/1911). 


The sample of oil from the Rose Bay material was but 
little coloured, being of a light lemon-yellow. The odour 
had no resemblance to that of “‘cajuput,’’ being somewhat 
delicate and perhaps characteristic. 


Although somewhat viscid in character, and consisting 
almost entirely of high boiling constituents, yet, the specific 
gravity of the crude oil was exceptionally low. The yield 
of oil from the leaves with terminal branchlets was 0°61 
per cent. The crude oil had 

Specific gravity at 15° C. = 0°8815. 

Rotation dp = + 11°.8. 

Refractive index at 22° = 1°4812. 

Soluble in 1°7 volumes 70 per cent. alcohol by weight. 
Saponification number for ester and free acid = 3°04. 
N—November 5, 1913. 


210 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. 


‘On rectification under atmospheric pressure, only 2 per 
cent. distilled below 265° C. This portion contained, 
besides some water, a little aldehyde (in which the odour 
of benzaldehyde was readily detected), a very little cineol 
and some terpenes. Between 265 — 273° C. only 2 ce. 
distilled; but between 273 — 277° no less than 70 per cent. 
distilled, and between 277—280° 12 per cent. more came 
over. The last two fractions gave the following results:— 

Sp. gr.at 15°C. Rotation a, Ref. ind. 23°C. 
Fraction (265 — 277°) 0°8882 + 9.7 1°4830 
Fraction (277 — 280’) 0°8937 + 12°.4 1°4876 


A portion of the crude oil was boiled with acetic anhy- 
dride and anhydrous sodium acetate for 14 hours in the usual 
way, well washed and dried. 1°5732 gram. required 0°2184 
gram. KOH. so that the saponification number from this 
was 138°8; representing 55 per cent. of an alcohol (Ci5H260). 
Another acetylated sample of the oil gave corresponding 
results. More than half the oil thus consisted of this 
sesquiterpene alcohol. Probably the greater portion of the 
remainder of the oil consisted of the corresponding sesqui- 
terpene to this alcohol; this is suggested from the figures 
for specific gravity, boiling point, etc., so far obtained. It 
also seems as if the sesquiterpene has a higher rotation 
than has the alcohol. This will be proved later. 


TERRIGAL TREES (21/12/1911). 


The sample of oil from the Terrigal material (60 miles 
north of Sydney), was identical in appearance, colour, and 
odour with that from Rose Bay, and it had the same slight 
viscous behaviour. The yield of oil from the leaves and 
terminal branchlets was 0°923 per cent. This is higher 
than that obtained from the Rose Bay material, perhaps 
due to a difference in the age of the trees, or to location. 
A somewhat larger amount of terpenes was present in 
this oil, as was found also to be the case with the oil from 


AUSTRALIAN MELALEUCAS AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 211 


the Gosford material. The crude oil gave the following 
results:— 
Specific gravity at 15° C. = 0°9003. 
Rotation a) = + 6°.7. 
Refractive index at 23° = 1°4819. ° 
Soluble in two volumes 70 per cent. alcohol by weight. 
Saponification number for ester and free acid = 3°3, 


The lower dextro-rotation in this oil is due to the larger 
amount of levo-rotatory terpenes (pinene and limonene) in 
this oil than in that from the Rose Bay material, thus 
neutralising to a certain extent the dextro-rotation of the 
alcohol. 


On rectification, two per cent. came over below 183° C.; 
this consisted of water, aldehydes (benzaldehyde distinctly 
noticed) cineol and terpenes. Between 183- 265° 9 per 
cent. distilled. The terpenes were proved in the Gosford 
material to consist of levo-rotatory pinene and levo- 
rotatory limonene and dipentene. Between 265 and 274° 
10 per cent. came over, and between 274 — 277° no Jess than 
56 per cent. distilled. (This fraction consisted largely 
of the sesquiterpene alcohol characteristic of this species.) 
Between 275 —280° 15 per cent. distilled. These fractions 
gave the following results :— 

Sp. gr.at 15°C. Rotationa, Ref. index at 22°C. 


First fraction 0°8702 — 19°.4 1°4719 
Second fraction 0°8980 + 6.9 1°4834 
Third fraction 0°9074 + 12°.6 1°4871 
Fourth fraction 0°9075 + 7.4 1°4898 


A portion of the crude oil was boiled for two hours with 
acetic anhydride and sodium acetate in the ordinary way, 
and the acetylated oil prepared as usual. 1°5316 gram. 
required 0°1624 gram. KOH, therefore the saponification 
number = 106°04, representing 42 per cent. of an alcohol 
{(CisH20). Thus nearly half this oil consisted of this 


212 _ R. T., BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. 


aliphatic sesquiterpene alcohol. As with the Rose Bay oil 
the highest boiling portions gave indications for the pres- 
ence of a sesquiterpene corresponding to that of the alcohol. 


GoOsFORD TREES (20/9/1899). 


- The sample of oil from the Gosford material (a few miles 
from Terrigal) was identical in odour, colour and appear- 
ance with those from Terrigal and Rose Bay. It approached 
more closely in constituents to the Terrigal sample, and 
this might be expected from the somewhat close proximity — 
of these two localities. This sample of oil had been dis- 
tilled fourteen years, but beyond a few preliminary tests 
nothing had been done with it. Although stored for such 
a long time in the Technological Museun, yet, it apparently 
had undergone little alteration, and the figures here given 
are in conformity with those of the other samples which 
were freshly distilled. It will be seen that this oil differs 
greatly from that of M. Maideni and does not agree at all 
with ordinary “‘cajuput.’’ The terpenes in the lower boil- 
ing portion were lvo-rotatory pinene, lzvo-rotatory 
limonene and dipentene. Benzaldehyde was also detected 
by the odour in the portion first distilling. Cineol was 
present but only about 5 per cent. in the crude oil; it was 
determined by the resorcinol method in the portion distilling 
below 260°. The crude oil gave the following results :— 

Specific gravity at 15° C. = 0°8976. 

Rotation ay = + 5.8. 

Refractive index at 22° = 1°4806. 

Soluble in two volumes 70 per cent. alcohol by weight. 

Saponification number for ester and free acid = 6°5. 


On rectification, 2 per cent. of water, aldehydes, terpenes 
and cineol, came over below 173°C. Between 173—183° 8 
per cent. distilled; between 183 —193° 6 per cent. distilled; 
the thermometer then rose rapidly to 260° with only 1 
per cent. more (this 7 per cent. thus forming one fraction). 


AUSTRALIAN MELALEUCAS AND THEIR ESSENTIAL OILS. 213 


Between 260 and 270° only 8 per cent. came over, bus 
between 270—277° no less than 65 per cent. of the total 
distilled, 73 per cent. thus forming the third fraction: 
These fractions gave the following results :— 


Sp. gr.at 15°C. Rotation ay Ref. ind. at 22°C. 


First fraction (8%) 0°8768 — 14°.5 1°4679 
Second fraction (7%) 0°8784 — 19°.6 1°4720 
Third fraction (737%) 0°9028 + 11°.6 1°4851 


To obtain sufficient of the lower boiling constituents for 
determination, another 100 cc. were rectified with the above 
results. The amounts distilling below 260° (30 cc.) were 
added together, the cineol determined, and the remainder, 
with the unabsorbed portion, distilled to 177° C. The 
cineol was removed from this by repeated agitation with 
50 per cent. resorcinol, the unabsorbed portion washed and 
dried. On again distilling, about half came over between 
155 — 162°, another fair portion between 170-177°. With 
these the following results were obtained :— 


Sp. gr. Ref. ind. 
Tee ab BAO. 
First portion (155 — 162°) 0°8604 -10°.6 1°4668 
Second portion (170 -177°) 0°8534 —20°.1 1°4718 


The nitrosochloride was prepared with the first portion 
and this when finally purified melted at 103-4", pinene was 
thus present. The tetrabromide was formed with the 
second portion and this when purified from acetic-ether 
melted at 118-119 thus indicating dipentene as well as 
leevo-limonene. 


There were thus shown to be present in this oil about 5 
per cent. cineol, about 6 per cent. pinene, and about 4 per 
cent. limonene, the remainder consisting largely of the 
aliphatic sesquiterpene alcohol, while the presence of the 
corresponding sesquiterpene was also indicated. 


214 R. T. BAKER AND H. G. SMITH. 


A portion of the crude oil was boiled two hours with 
acetic anhydride and sodium acetate in the usual way, and 
the acetylated oil determined. 1°5371 gram. required 
0°1764 gram. KOH giving 115 as the saponification number. 
This represents 45°6 per cent. of a sesquiterpene alcohol. 
Thus nearly half the crude oil of this sample consisted of 
the alcohol characteristic of this species of Melaleuca. 


We are indebted to Dr. B. Daydon Jackson, F.L.s., of the 
London Linnean Society, and Dr. M. Treub of Java, for 
assistance and material. Also to Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.L.s., 
and Prof. A. J. Ewart, pD.sc., for kindly permitting us to 
examine material in the Sydney and Melbourne Herbaria 
respectively. 


a a 


NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS FROM NORTHERN QUEENSLAND. 215 


ON A NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS FROM 
NORTHERN QUEENSLAND. 


By J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S., and R. H. CAMBAGE, L.S., F.L.S. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, December 3, 1913.] 


KUCALYPTUS BROWNII, nov. sp. 
Box-tree mediocris, circiter 40’ alta, erecta magis quam dependens. 
Cortex dura, lamellosa. Folia juvenilia lanceolata vel angusto 
lanceolata. Folia matura lanceolata, 10-15 cm. longa 2—3 cm. 


lata, venis lateralibus angulo 30° ad costam mediam. 


Alabastri parvi, clavati, operculum hemisphericum, umbella 
quaque 3—9 in capite. Fructus parvi, conoidei, circiter 3 cm. 


diametro. 


We propose the name in honour of the great Robert 
Brown who (amongst other parts) is closely identified with 
the botany of Northern Queensland. 


A medium sized Box-tree, about 40 feet high, erect 
rather than drooping. 


Bark. Hard thin flaky Box-bark, on the trunk and large 
branches, the ultimate branchlets smooth. 


Juvenile leaves. Lanceolate or narrow lanceolate. 
Generally long and narrow, petiolate, equally green on both 
sides, and slightly shiny, venation distinct, spreading, intra- 
marginal vein distinct from the edge. Size say 20 x 2cm. 


Mature leaves. Lanceolate; except as regards the size, 
the description of the juvenile leaves applies. Size say 
10-15 k 2-3 cm. Lateral veins arranged at angle of 
about 30 degrees with midrib. 

Buds small, clavate, operculum hemispherical or slightly 
umbonate, and about half the length of the calyx-tube, 
which tapers gradually into the pedicel. 


216 J. H, MAIDEN AND R. H. CAMBAGE. 


Flowers. Inflorescence paniculate, the individual umbels 
three to nine in the head. 


Anthers semi-terminal, nearly globular in shape, open- 
ing in small pores on each side near the top. Filament at — 
the base, small gland on the top. 


Fruits. Fruits small, conoid, about 3 cm. in diameter 
and the calyx-tube about the same length, tapering, not 
perfectly gradually, into the pedicel, rim thin, tips of the 
valves flush with the orifice, which is not constricted. 


Habitat. Type from Reid River near Townsville. (N. 
Daley, Sept. and Dec., 1912.) 


Wirra Wirra, Almaden to Forsayth, North Queensland, 
growing on a somewhat sandy-conglomerate formation - 
which furnishes a more siliceous soil than that usually 
selected by Box trees. (R.H. Cambage, No. 3895, August, 
1913). | 

Synonyms. 

KR. bicolor, A. Cunn. var. parviflora, F.v.M., Burdekin 

River (see B. FI. iii, 215) E. populifolia, F.v.M. non Hook. 


Scrub Box tree of the Burdekin River, but not the Box 
tree of the Suttor River, labelled as above, which is EH. 
populifolia, Hook. 

All the above specimens were examined by Mueller, and 
apparently by Bentham also. 

Affinities. | 

Its closest relations are with two species—E. populifolia 
Hook. and EH. bicolor, A. Cunn. Both are indicated by the 
labels of both Bentham and Mueller. 


1. With HE. populifolia, Hook. To the typical form of 
E. populifolia the resemblance is not close, but there is a 
narrow leaved form of the species to which the resemblance 
is closer. The differences lie in the bark, which is less 
flaky in populifolia, in the more conical fruits of EH. Brownii, 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 217 


and particularly in regard to the position of the intra- 
marginal vein, which is much more removed from the leaf- 
edge in KH. Brownii. 


2. With E. bicolor, A. Cunn. The differences appear to 
be the duller colour of the foliage of H. bicolor, that of the 
new species being a vivid green, its less spreading venation, 
and less conoid fruits. EH. Brownii has not the weeping 
habit of H. bicolor. 


There is a specimen in the Melbourne Herbarium labelled 
*“near Mount Hlliott, Queensland, Fitzalan and Dallachy”’ 
which appears tobe H. Brownii. The late J. G. Luehmann 
has a note “Placed by Bentham with H. largiflorens 
(bicolor) seemingly with injustice F. v. Mueller.”’ 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS, (WITH DESCRIPTIONS 
OF NEW SPECIES) No. IL. 


By J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S. 
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 3, 1913.] 


I have the honour to submit the following proposed new 
species :— 
EK, heematoxylon, Maiden; 
EK, Jacksom, Maiden; 
3. E. Mooreana (W. V. Fitzgerald) Maiden; 
EK. mundijongensis, Maiden; 
d. EH. penrithensis, Maiden; 
a new variety:—E. marginata, Sm. var. Staerii; together 


with some miscellaneous notes referring to the genus. 


“ 
a ek, P 


218 J. H. MAIDEN. 


As regards No. 3, Mr. Fitzgerald collected it and indicated 
that it was new, but he did not describe it. I am respon- 
sible for the description. | 


No. 1. EUCALYPTUS HAIMATOXYLON, nov. sp. 


Arbor parva altitudinem 20’ et trunci diametrum 18” attinens, 
“Mountain Gum” nominata. Bloodwood typicus. Cortex stratis 
mollibus rubris secedens. Lignum rubrum, gummi venis. Folia 
petiolata lanceolata ad lato-lanceolata, coriacea, 8 —9 cm. longa, 
2—3 cm lata. Vene secundarie tenues et fere paralleles. Flores 
in corymbo irregulare. Filamenta alba. Fructus ovoidei vel fere 
spheerici, aliquando orificio constricti, urceolati, 3 cm. longi, 2°5 


em. lati. Orificium 1 cm. latum. 


A small tree, attaining a height of 20 feet and a trunk 
diameter of 18 inches. ‘‘ Much resembling EH. calophylla, 
R. Br., the ““Red Gum,”’ in general appearance.’’ Known 
as ‘‘Mountain Gum.’’ It is a typical ‘* Bloodwood.” 


Bark. In soft reddish flakes, typically that of a ‘‘ Blood- 
wood.”’ 


Timber. Red, with gum-veins, stated to be “‘ very soft’’; 
a typical Bloodwood timber, hence the specific name 
suggested. 


Juvenile leaves. Broadly lanceolate, thin-membranous, 
reddish-purple, petiolate, margin thickened, secondary veins 
very fine and nearly parallel to each other. Containing 
caoutchouc. 


Mature leaves. Petiolate, lanceolate to broadly-lanceo- 
late, symmetrical or somewhat oblique, apex attenuate- 
acuminate, coriaceous and of medium thickness, equally 
green on both sides, margin thickened, intramarginal vein 
not far removed from the edge. Secondary veins fine and 
nearly parallel to each other. Length say 8 or 9 cm. and 
breadth 2—3 cm. 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 219 


Buds. Inanirregular corymb, not seen in a young state; 
after the opercula have fallen off the calyx-tube is some- 
what urceolate. 


Flowers not seen by me, but stated to have white fila- 
ments. 


Fruits. Ovoid to nearly spherical, sometimes constricted 
at the orifice, thus taking on an urceolate shape. Large, 
3 cm. long and 2°5 cm. broad with an aperture of 1 cm. 
and less. Tips of valves well sunk. Seeds large, wing 
rudimentary. 


Habitat. Happy Valley, Jarrahwood Railway, Western 
Australia. Generally in poor sandy country. Forest 
Ranger W. Donovan, July, 1912. 


Affinity. 

The affinity at once suggested is H. ficifolia, ¥.v.M., but 
the filaments of the new species are white, and the fruits 
are of a different shape, viz., smaller and more spherical, 
those of EH. ficifolia being somewhat cylindroid. The seeds 
of the latter species also are winged, its bark is more 
fibrous and its timber paler; it lacks the rich cedar-coloured 
timber of the present species. 


No. 2. EUCALYPTUS JACKSONI, nov. sp. 


Arbor magnifica sylvae, altitudinem 200’ attinens, et 15’ dia- 
metro. “Red Tingle Tingle” vocata. Cortex “Stringybark” 
similis sed fragiliuscula. Lignum rubrum, durum. Folia juvenilia 
fere orbicularia vel lato-lanceolata, Folia matura petiolata, lato- 
lanceolata, acuminata, pleraque 9 cm. longa, 3—4 cm. lata. Venez 
visibiles, non conspicue. Alabastros floresque non vidi. Fructus 
fere sphaerici, plerique 8 mm. ad 1 cm. diametro. Orificium 
parvum, 3 mm. diametro. Valvarum apices sub orificio valde 
depressi. 


A noble forest tree up to 200 feet high, erect in habit, 
with a long trunk, which attains a diameter of fifteen feet 


920 J. H. MAIDEN. 


(measured at four feet from the ground). Another measured 
tree was 7 ft. 6 in. in diameter and 80 feet high (Mr. Saw). 
It reached a height of quite 200 feet; one tree measured 
was 45 feet round the base, 38 feet round six feet from the 
ground, and about 50 feet to the first branch (Mr. Brock- 
man). Known locally as ‘‘Red Tingle Tingle.” 


Bark fibrous, reddish, thick, of a stringybark character, 
but somewhat brittle, covering the trunk and branches. 


Timber. Bright red, reminding one, in that respect, of 
the Forest Mahogany of New South Wales (EH. resinifera, 
Sm.). It is fissile and tough, and I believe it to be a most 
valuable timber for economic purposes. 


Juvenile leaves. Nearly orbicular to broadly lanceolate, 
somewhat oblique, paler on the under side, not specially 
thin, venation distinct but fine, lateral veins nearly parallel, 
intramarginal vein well removed from the edge. Oil dots 
abundant. Average dimensions about 1 dm. long by 6 to 
8 cm. wide. 


Mature leaves. Equally green on both sides, petiolate, 
broadly lanceolate, acuminate, slightly curved, slightly 
inequilateral, veins obvious, but not very conspicuous, 
lateral veins parallel, intramarginal vein well removed from 
the edge, well besprinkled with fine oil dots, and apparently 
moderately rich in oil. Average size of leaves 9X3 to 4 cm. 


Buds and flowers not seen. 


Fruits. Almost spherical, with an average diameter of 
8mm. to1lcm. witha small orifice of say 3 mm. in diameter. 
Tips of valves well sunk below the orifice. 


Hab. Deep River, Nornalup Inlet, Bow River, Irwin’s 
Inlet, South West Australia. (The type collected by Sidney 
Wm. Jackson). Found also on the bills along the Frank- 
land River, where it predominates and extends about ten 
miles up. (Inspecting Ranger H. S. Brockman, to the 
Inspector General of Forests. W.A.) 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 


bo 
3) 
pt 


Affinities. 

1. With HE. Guilfoyleit, Maiden. Although there are 
precedents, I hesitate to describe a species in absence of 
inflorescence, and without this, the description must be 
incomplete. But I have no doubt as to the validity of the 
species. It is closely allied to the Yellow Tingle Tingle 
(E. Guilfoylei, Maiden),+ the wood of which is pale, of a 
yellow colour and heavy, that of the present species being 
red, and lighter in weight. 


The Red Tingle Tingle is a much larger and thicker tree 
than the Yellow Tingle Tingle, the latter having been 
observed only up to five feet in diameter. 


As regards the adult leaves, those of EH. Guilfoylei are 
always Symmetrical or nearly so; those of the new species 
are more or less oblique, shorter and broader. 


The oil dots in EH. Guilfoylei are a greater distance apart 
than in the case of the new species, over the leaves of which 
they are evenly and abundantly diffused, while the secondary 
veins are further apart and ramify more in the case of the 
leaves of H. Guilfoylei. 


2. With E. patens, Benth. Mr. H.S. Brockman says 
that “‘in general appearance the trees resemble very much 
the Blackbutt,” (H. patens). Reference may be made to 
the original description of E. Guilfoylei, where there are 
some comparative references to EH. patens. 


No. 3. HucaLypTus Mooreana, (W. V. Fitzgerald) Maiden, 
nov. sp. 

Arbor parva, contorta, glauca. Ramuliteretes. Folia juvenilia 
ovato-cordata vel lato-lanceolata, amplexicaula vel perfoliata, 
crassa, pleraque 10 cm. longa, 8 cm. lata. Venz patentiores, 
venis secundariis fere parallelibus, vena peripherica a margine 


remota. Folia matura ampliora et acuminatiora. Opercula conica, 


1 Journ. W. A. Nat. Hist. Soc., 111, 180, 


222 J. H. MAIDEN. 


et longitudine et diametro 1 cm. metientia. Fructus hemispheerico- 


cylindroidei, valvarum apicibus conspicue exsertis. 


In honour of Newton J. Moore, Minister for Lands, sub- 
sequently Premier, and now Agent-General in London for 
the State of Western Australia. 


A small crooked tree, glaucous all over, branchlets round. 
Notes on bark and timber not available. 


Juvenile leaves. Ovate-cordate or bluntly and broadly 
lanceolate, stem-clasping or perfoliate. Thick, somewhat 
undulate, uniform colour on both sides, venation somewhat 
spreading, the secondary veins roughly parallel. Intra- 
marginal vein distant from the edge. Average size say 
10:3 em 


Mature leaves. These do not differ essentially from the 
juvenile leaves except that they are larger and more 
acuminate. Average size say 15 X 9 cm. 


Buds. Four to seven on a sessile or nearly sessile head 
with a thick common peduncle of about 1 cm. Symmetrical). 
the operculum bluntly conical, about 1 cm. long and of 
equal diameter, the calyx-tube of equal length and with one 
or two angles. 


Flowers. Pale yellow when fresh, drying orange red. 
Anthers long and creamy in colour, opening in parallel slits, 
large gland at the back, filament attached to the middle, 
versatile. 


Fruits. Hemispherical-cylindroid with a thin, sharp, 
slightly domed rim, the tips of the valves very prominently 
protruded. Diameter at rim scarcely 1 cm. 


Habitat. Summits of Mounts Broome, May; Leake, — 
July; Rason, September, 1905; and Bold Bluff, all Lady 
Forrest and King Leopold Ranges, Kimberley, North-west 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 223 


Australia (W. V. Fitzgerald). Collected during the Kim- 
berley Survey Expedition. 


Affinities. 


1. With E. perfoliata, R. Br. Both have thick perfoliate 
leaves which generally resemble each other, but those of 
EK. perfoliata are longer. The flowers and inflorescence 
are different, while the very large fruits which belong to 
the section Corymbose, and have sunk valves, are totally 
different. 


2. With E. alba, Reinw. The fruits have something in 
common and also the juvenile leaves, which are however, 
petiolate in EH. alba. The buds are very different. The 
mature leaves of E. alba are never so lanceolate as those 
of E. Mooreana. E. alba isa glabrous, soft large gum of 
moist flats, EH. Mooreana is a crooked glaucous tree of 
mountain tops. 


APPENDIX.—The name was used by Mr. Fitzgerald in the 
*““Western Mail,’’ Perth, W.A., of 2nd June, 1906. No 
description of the plant was ever published. A small scale 
photograph was accompanied by the following words :— 
** Hucalyptus Mooreana, W.V.F. is a new species occurring 
on the summits of Mounts Broome, Rason, Leake and Bold 
Bluff. It forms a small crooked tree, with usually mealy- 
white leaves and pale yellow flowers. It has been named 
out of compliment to the present Minister for Lands.”’ 


No. 4. HUCALYPTUS MUNDIJONGENSIS, nov. sp. 


Early in 1909, Dr. J. B. Cleland gave me a photograph of a 
tree and a few fragments of fruits and leaves from Jarrah- 
dale, Western Australia. His label was ‘‘near Jarrahdale. 
Fine adherent bark at base, top clean. Near Jarrahdale 
Forest.”’ 


224 J. H. MAIDEN. 


I recognised the specimens as identical with leaves and 
fruits given me by the late Mr. J. G. Luehmann of the 
National Herbarium, Melbourne, many years ago, when I 
intended to visit Western Australia, a trip which was post- 
poned. This specimen bore the label “‘ Close to the inn 
near Jarrah Dale, about 28 miles from Perth, (Sir) John 
Forrest, 22nd March, 1882.”’ 


The locality is near Mundijong Railway Station. I have 
been in communication with Mr. C. R. P. Andrews of 
Perth on the subject, both before and since my visit to the 
Western State in 1909. Although I planned to visit the 
tree, and actually got as far as the Railway Station, I was 
compelled to return to Perth without inspecting it. 


Mr. Andrews kindly communicated with the local teacher 
and the following are extracts from two of his letters :— 


“The teacher (Mr. Stephen Wallace) states that the tree grows 
about five miles from Jarrahdale, and he therefore wrote to Mr. 
R. Cowen, on whose property the tree stands, for particulars. In 
forwarding the specimens, Mr. Cowen remarked, ‘Suckers are not 
obtainable. As far as I know, the tree is the only one of its kind 
in the district, and it seems to me to be a great age. The diameter 
is about five feet, and the tree grows on poor shallow soil. The 
sub-soil is nearly pure pipe-clay, and it isin a very wet place, both 
in summer and winter. Local opinion generally classes it as a 
Tuart.’ 


“The teacher states that it is a difficult tree to get specimens 
from, except when high winds blow the branches off. He also 
states that it appears to be in danger of destruction from white 


ants.” 


Mr. Wallace, has kindly forwarded small sections of one 
of the smaller branches and also some twigs at Mr. Andrews’ 
suggestion. For additional material, I am inbebted to Mr. 
H. M. Giles of South Perth. 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 225 


When a tree is isolated, or very rare, there is a tempta- 
tion to look upon it as hybrid, and I have considered that 
view in the present case. It may bea correct one, but Ido 
not know enough about its parents to emphasise the point. 
I believe it should have a name, and although I have a fair 
knowledge of Western Australian Hucalypts, it seems quite 
distinct from any, imperfect as my material is. I propose 
the following name and description :— 

EK. mundijongensis, sp. nov. 

Arbor alta. Cortex basi trunci dura et secedens. Rami teretes. 
Lignum pallidum. Folia circiter 15 cm. longa et 2 cm. lata, 
angusto-lanceolata, leniter falcata, nitentia, concoloria, crassa, 
coriacea, petiolata, pennivenlis parum conspicuis. Alabastri in 
apicem acutati, clavati. Operculum in apicem acutatum circiter 
dimidio calycis tubo equilongum. Flores non vidi. Fructus fere 
sessiles, cylindroidei, circiter 1:5 cm. longi et ‘75 cm. diametro, 
margine angusta et sulcata. Valvarum apices sub orificio valde 
depressi. 


A tall tree, about 80 —100 feet high, and 5 feet in diameter 
about 4 feet from the ground. The trunk of the only 
specimen known at present leans somewhat and divides 
into two main branches of approximately equal diameter at 
about 25 feet from the ground. 


Bark. ‘‘Fine adherent bark at base, top clean’’ (Dr. 
Cleland). Specimens of the bark forwarded by Mr. H. M. 
Giles and also by Mr. Wallace, are hard flaky, breaking off 
in long woody strips. Bark of smaller branches smooth, 
but exhibiting exfoliation. It has a good deal in common 
with the Peppermint barks of the Hastern States (e.g. EH. 
piperita, Sm.) 

Timber. Pale coloured. 


Juvenile leaves. Ooarse, thick, coriaceous, moderately 
shiny, equally green on both sides, petiolate, venation not 
very prominent, somewhat spreading at the base in some 

O—Dec. 3. 1913. 


ae oe 
“a 
© 


226 J. H. MAIDEN. 


specimens, in others at an angle of about 60 to the midrib 
and roughly parallel. Intramarginal vein not conspicuous, 
and somewhat removed from the edge. Size of leaves seen 
by me about 12 cm. long and 5 broad. 


Mature leaves. Narrow lanceolar, somewhat falcate, 
shiny, equally green on both sides, thickish, coriaceous, 
petiolate, venation inconspicuous and penniveined, margins 
thickened, and the fine intramarginal vein not close to the 
edge. Leaves seen by me about 15 cm. long and 2 broad. 


Buds. Notseen perfectly ripe. Pointed clavate, slightly 
angular, the operculum pointed, very slightly exceeding the 
calyx-tube in diameter, and about half as long as the same. 
Each half ripe bud about 1 cm. long, with a pedicel of half 
that length, apparently 3 to 7 buds in the umbel, with a 
strap shaped peduncle of 1.5-2 cm. Flowers not seen. 


Fruits. With short peduncles to nearly sessile, cylin- 
droid, about 1°5 cm. long and about half that in diameter, 
with a thin, grooved rim, valves 3 or 4, and the tips well 
sunk below the orifice. 

Habitat. This has been already stated. 

Affinities. 

1. With E. incrassata, Labill. Mueller suggested this 

affinity on a label on Sir John Forrest’s specimen. 


The affinity is there, no doubt. We have it in the cylind- 
roid fruits, but I know of none quite so cylindrical as those 
of the present species. As regards the buds, the operculum 
is shorter than the calyx-tube in some forms of EH. incrassata 
also, but there is an absence of multiple ribbing in the 
present species. The juvenile leaves are somewhat dififer- 
ent and the mature leaves are very different to those of 
any form of E.incrassata | know. The proposed species is 
a large tree, far exceeding in size that of any form of EH. 
incrassata I ever heard of. 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 997 


2. With EH. gomphocephala, DC. ‘‘Local opinion gener- 
ally classes it asa Tuart,’’ (correspondent of Mr. Andrews). 
Figures of H. gomphocephala can be seen in the ‘‘ Kuca- 
lyptographia’’ and at Plate 92, Part xxiv, of my ‘‘ Critical 
Revision of the Genus Hucalyptus’”’ in the press. The 
affinities are not close, the swelling of the operculum in 
E. gomphocephala is a very prominent character, and there 
is only the trace of a swelling observable in the buds of the 
new species (they are, however, unripe). Occasionally, 
e.g. at fig. 2 f. of the plate quoted, the rim of the fruit of 
E. gomphocephala may be reduced, in which case the fruit 
bears some resemblance to that of the new species. But 
it would appear that the fruit of E. gomphocephala always 
has exserted valves. The resemblance of the leaves is not 
specially close. 


When I get flowers I will again raise the question of the 
affinities of this tree; in the absence of them, any conclu- 
sions must be of a provisional nature. 


No. 5. HUCALYPTUS PENRITHENSIS, 0. Sp. 

Arbor mediocris, “Bastard Stringybark” vocata. Cortex trunci 
dura et subfibrosa. Rami teretes. Folia matura crassuiscula, 
venis nitentibus, distinctis, patentibus, vena peripherica a margine 
remota. Alabastri stellulati, juvenes angulatuisculi, maturi 
clavatiores. Operculum conicum. Flores paniculati 4-10 in 
umbella quaque. Antherae reniformes. Fructus hemispherici 
ad fere pilulares diametro circiter 5 mm. margine laevo et con- 


spicuo. Fructus a pedicello filiforme acute disjuncti. 


**Bastard Stringybark” or ‘‘ Peppermint.”’ 
Two miles east of Penrith, N.S.W.(J.L. Boorman, January 
1900). A tree of medium height and very scarce locally. 
Bark hard fibrous on the trunk, branches smooth, inter- 
mediate in character between a ‘‘Stringybark’’ and a 
“* Peppermint.” 


228 J. H. MAIDEN. 


Timber reddish-brown and with concentric though not. 
abundant gum-veins. 


Intermediate leaves petiolate, falcate, acuminate, mostly 
unsymmetrical, rather coriaceous, equally green on both 
sides, venation prominent, spreading, intramarginal vein 
well removed from the edge. Average size say 13 cm. by 
3 cm. broad. 


Mature leaves much smaller, say 9 cm. by 1 cm. broad, 
rather thick, shiny, plentifully besprinkled with black dots, 
venation the same, resembling those of intermediate leaves. 


Buds stellulate and somewhat angled when very young, 
more clavate as maturity approaches. Operculum conical,. 
the calyx-tube tapering into a short pedicel. 


Flowers. Paniculate, 4 to 10 in the individual umbel, 
which has a slightly flattened common peduncle under 1 
cm. long. Anthers kidney-shaped. 


Fruit hemispherical to nearly pilular, diameter about. 
omm. with a well defined smooth rim, tips of the valves. 
either sunk, or not protruding beyond the orifice. The 
fruit is sharply separated from the filiform pedicel. 


Habitat. As stated. The tree is said to also occur in 
the Liverpool district, but I have been unable to verify this. 
Affinities. 

This is an anomalous, rare and apparently local species, 
and one naturally looks upon it as a hybrid. At the same 
time hybridism is difficult to prove. Of course it is not 
necessary to prove that the assumed parents are to be 
found, at the present time, in close juxtaposition to the 
individuals from which one obtained material in the present. 
case. The parents may be some distance away and the 
seed of the tree may have been conveyed in a number of 
ways. Possibly the parents are E. eugenioides, Sieb. and — 
E. haemastoma, Sm. var. micrantha, Benth. Let us con- 
sider these in detail. 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 229 


1. With E. haemastoma, Sm. var. micrantha, Benth. (A 
‘White Gum’’). The affinities lie in the smoothness of the 
branches, the fruits and the young (intermediate) leaves. 


2. With E. eugenioides, Sieb., (A “‘Stringybark’’). The 
bark indicates some affinity to the Stringybark, and there 
is also affinity in the foliage (as also with the White Gum). 
There is some (not close) resemblance, in the fruits, while 
the pedicellate fruit is seen in the White Gum. 


In 1903 I received from Mr. R. H. Cambage ‘‘a form of 
E. eugenioides, Sieb.’’ from between Tingha and Guyra, 
and in the following year visited the tree. I labelled it on 
1st April, 1905, and again on 30th March 1906, ‘‘ probably 
a eugenioides-stellulata hydrid,’’ and I put it with my 
collection of reputed hybrids to be dealt with collectively 
in my “ Critical Revision.” 


During the present year,’ Mr. R. T. Baker has described 
it as anew species (H. Laseroni) and says it bears the local 


reputation of being a cross between EH. laevopinea and 
stellulata. 


We have also a species E. oblonga, DC., in “‘ Prod. iii, 
217,’ the type being Sieber’s ** Pls. Hxs., No. 583.’’ [have 
identified this with plants attributed to H. eugenioides, 
Sieb., in N.'S.W. The buds are stellulate and the plant 
resembles that of EH. Laseroni, and, toa less extent, in this 
respect, E. Penrithensis. There is no doubt that E. 
eugenioides may similate E. stellulata and the facts that I 
have accumulated should be added to and the taxonomic 
meaning of these affinities carefully gone into. 


The question of the recognition of E. oblonga, DC., as a 
species distinct from E. eugenioides, Sieb., will require to 
be dealt with. 


1 Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xXxxXvMI, 585. 


230 J. H. MAIDEN. 


3. With E. piperita, Sm. Penrith is not in H. stellulata. 
country, and the relations of the proposed new species 
with E. piperita may be examined. The barks resemble 
each other a good deal. The pointedness and curvature of 
the young buds reminds one of those of H. piperita. The 
resemblance of the foliage and anthers would apply more 
or less to EH. eugenioides, haemastoma and piperita. 


It is not possible to submit illustrations in the present 
case, and they are especially necessary when we make 
postulations about tree-hybrids; I can only say that they 
will be fully illustrated in those parts of my “Critical 
Revision of the Genus EKucalyptus’’ to be devoted to 
hybridisation. 

Proposed New Variety. 
BK. marginata, Sm, var. Staerii, var. nov. 


King River Road, near Albany, W.A. (J. Staer, August, 
1911). 


The fruits of the normal species, as figured by Mueller 
in the ‘‘Hucalyptographia,’’ are depicted as 1.5-2 cm. long 
and 1°7 cm. broad and tapering somewhat into the thickened 
pedicel. Ihave received from Mr. J. Staer, specimens of 
E. marginata with fruits in the well-dried state rather 
more than 2 cm. long and broad, and not tapering into the 
pedicel. Some of the fruits have a well-defined rim. The 
foliage is coarser than that of the type, and this handsome, 
large fruited form is evidently a product of special environ- 
ment. 

Miscellaneous Notes: 
(a) H. aggregata, Deane and Maiden (Black Gum). 


This is conspecific with a Tasmanian tree, E. Rodwayi, 
Baker and Smith, ‘‘ Papers and Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas.,”’ 139, 
1913. These gentlemen were partly misled by a statement 
made by me in 1902, working on imperfect material, that 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 73 | 


the Tasmanian tree was identical with the allied H. Mac- 
arthuri, Deane and Maiden, which is incorrect. So far as. 
we know, at present, HE. Macarthuri does not exist in 
Tasmania. 
(b) E. decipiens, Endl., and BE. concolor, Schauer. 
Not specifically different. 

I have dealt with E. decipiens at p. 149 and E. concolor 
at p. 153, Part xiv of my ‘‘Critical Revision.”’ At p. 154, 
I stated that I had not seen the type of HE. concolor, and 
at p. 155 I drew attention to the unsatisfactoriness of the 
situation, so far as the relations of this species and EH. 
decipiens are concerned. Schauer in Lehmann, “Plants 
Preissiane,’’ i, 129, gives the habitat etc., of the type of 
E. concolor as “‘In colle calcareo prope coloniam Free- 
mantle December 1838 florens, Herb. Preiss. No. 225.” 


A specimen of the type, which seems to be excessively 
rare, is before me, kindly lent by Dr. Fischer von Waldheim, 
Director of the Imperial Botanic Garden of St. Petersburg: 
It bears the label “225, Hucalyptus concolor, Schauer, 
arbuscula 8 —12 pedalis. In colle calcarea prope urbisculum 
Freemantle, Decbr. 24, 38, L. Preiss legit.” 


This typical E. concolor (from Fremantle of course) is 
identical with the specimens from the same locality 
enumerated in the last paragraph of p. 151 (op. cit.) with 
the exception that Mr. Fitzgerald’s specimens are not so 
typicalas the others. Continuing the examination further, 
I cannot find any important difference between these 
typical specimens of E. concolor and those enumerated by 
me at pp. 150, 151, under EH. decipiens (I will refer to var. 
angustifolia presently). 


Turning now to the specimens of H. concolor enumerated 
at p. 154, the specimens I there recorded as having been 
seen by me, are coarser and have the leaves somewhat 
thicker than those of the type. 


Dae J. H. MAIDEN. 


To sum up, the variety latifolia of E. decipiens (see p. 
149, op. cit.) is the specimen that I have seen as the type 
(of E. decipiens). It is figured at 1, Plate 63, and it includes 
all the E. decipiens (except var. angustifolia) together 
with all the EH. concolor that I have seen. 


I, therefore, propose to amalgamate the two species, 
and E. decipiens, Endl., is the older name (1837); E. con- 
color, Schauer, was described in 1844. 


The only point in any way unsettled, in my opinion, is 
the anthers, which I described (as regards concolor) at p. 
153, and commented upon at p. 155 (op. cit.). It would 
appear that the anthers in E. concolor are rather larger 
and with longer slits than in E. decipiens, and not so 
globular in shape, but in view of the more ample material 
now available, I believe it will be found that the variation 
in the anthers of HE. decipiens is greater than was formerly 
believed to be the case. 


The var. angustifolia of E. decipiens comes from Cape 
Riche, and in its typical form is certainly narrow leaved, 
but Endlicher himself says that the leaves are variable, 
and that is my experience. I refer to this form at p. 150 
(op. cit.). 

In Preiss’ label on the specimen of No. 241 received from 
Dr. yon Waldheim, the locality Wuljenup (see p. 149 “‘Crit. 
Reyv.’’) is crossed out, and the locality ‘‘ Konkoberup ”’ (also 
at Cape Riche) substituted. For a note on this locality 
see p. 244, Part xviii, ‘* Orit. Rev.”’ 


(c) E. goniantha, Turcz, and E. diversicolor, F.v.M. 


Bentham (B. FI. iii, 248) records E. goniantha, Turcz., 
from ‘‘Franklin (Frankland) River, Maxwell (in fruit only 
with rather broad leaves).’’ Mueller (‘‘ Kucalyptographia”’ 
under E. diversicolor) says that this specimen belongs to 
EK. diversicolor. 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS, 933 


(d) ‘“‘A species in the making’’—akin to E. melanophloia, 
R.v.M. 

The making of species is going on all around us, but in 
regard to large trees, which do not produce seed until after 
the lapse of years, it is very rarely that we have the 
opportunity of tracing the parents except by inference. 


I invite your attention to specimens of an Ironbark, 
Warialda, N.S.W., W. A. de Benzeville, 28th May, 1913. 


Its foliage is pale coloured but not glaucous. Its juvenile 
foliage is of a paler green, with short petioles, broadly 
lanceolate, but very different to that of EH. melanophloia. 


We have been of course aware for many years how vari- 
able is the foliage of HE. melanophloia, lanceolate leaved 
forms being well known. Particulars may be found in my 
**Oritical Revision,’’ Part xii, p.71. But the present form 
is different to any that I have previously seen. 


Although EH. melanophloia is abundant in the district, 
Mr. de Benzeville reports that this form does not appear 
to grow in association with that species, but appears to be 
always associated with E.crebra. He also states that the 
timber is extremely brittle, and the bark is not furrowed 
as deeply as is usual with fronbarks. The specimen for- 
warded to me shows a crebra looking bark and timber 
apparently not abnormal, but Mr. de Benzeville doubtless 
speaks of its local reputation. This form, as far as general 
morphological characters go, is intermediate between H. 
melanophloia and EH. crebra, and it may have arisen from 
cross-polliniation, but that is surmise. 


Owing to changes of environment, it is very often the 
case that we have “‘breaks,’’ and in the present case, we 
may have a break from E. melanophloia in the direction 
of narrower, more petiolate leaves, with other minor 
differences. 


234 J. H. MAIDEN. 


Mr. de Benzeville’s statement that “‘it does not appear 
to grow in association with H. melanophloia, but appears 
to be always associated with E. crebra,’’ would seem to. 
indicate that the plant is getting established as an inde- 
pendent entity, and being in unstable equilibrium itself, it. 
may produce progeny still further departing from typical 
KE, melanophloia. 


I do not think the departure from type in the present. 
case has proceeded far enough for me to indicate a new 
Species, but we certainly have indications of a new species. 
in the making, and these aberrant forms can only be use- 
fully dealt with in a collective manner. 

(e) E. piperita, Sm. 

Upper Meroo, between Mudgee and Hill End, A. Murphy.. 
Compare the western localities given in Part x, of my 
“Orit. Rev.’ p. 302. Itis very scarce in the district. Less. 


urn-shaped fruits than normal, leaves thicker. Timber of 
comparatively good quality, less veined than on the coast. 


(f) E. Planehoniana, F.v.M. 


Supplementing the notes of this not well-known species: 
at p. 66, Part xxiv of my “Forest Flora of NewSouth Wales,”’ 
I desire to add “*I have found it growing from Cofi’s Harbour 
to close to South Grafton, the range seems to be extensive. 
Ihave not found it growing off the gravelly (ironstone): 
ridges, and never on flat country. It attains a height of 
60 to 70 feet, straight trunks; the matured trees are very 
unsound (large pipes). The average length of logs 24’, the 
girth 6’ 6”. There is no abundant supply of good trees, 
though they grow inclumps. I have seen the logs sold for 
W. Mahogany when barked. On one occasion a hauler had 
the audacity to dispose of a log as Blackbutt, which was 
converted and sold on the Sydney market as such.”’ (A. H. 
Lawrence, Forest Guard.) 


NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 235 


It is generally classed in the Renantherze, but I would 
point out that it may be more fittingly termed renantheroid 
and that its anthers are more closely allied to those of 
E. diversicolor, F.v.M. 


(g) E. virgata, Sieb., var. fraxinoides, Maiden, E. fraxin- 
oides, Deane and Maiden. (White Ash.) 

See p. 278, Part ix of my “Crit. Rev.’’ It is there 
recorded from Tantawanglo Mountain near Cathcart 
(County Wellesley). It is desirable that additional localities 
should be recorded for this (at present) rare form, and I, 
therefore, record it from Ph. Colombo, Co. Auckland, 
(Assistant Forester Harrison and Dist. Forester Clulee); 
20 miles east of Nimitybelle, east of Great Dividing Range, 
north-east of head of Kybean River (R. H. Cambage. No. 
1923.) 


(h) E. oleosa, F.v.M., New for Queensland. 


In my “Crit. Rev. Genus Eucalyptus,”’ Part xv, p. 169, 
I note that this species has been collected in all the States 
except Tasmania and Queensland. It is a dry country 
species and has now to be recorded for Queensland, having 
been found near Jericho by J. L. Boorman. It isa Mallee, 
and it would appear that Mallee is rare in the Northern 
State. It grows in masses on red stony ridges around the 
black soil of the flats, up to 10 feet high as seen. Gidgee 
(Acacia Cambagei, R.T. Baker) and Gastrolobium grandi- 
florum, .v.M. grow in the immediate neighbourhood. 


236 R. W. CHALLINOR. 


THE OCCURRENCEH OF TRIMETHYLAMINH AND 
ITS ORIGIN IN THH AUSTRALIAN SALT BUSH, 
Rhagodia hastata R. Br. 


By R. W. CHALLINOR, F.I.C., F.C.S. 


[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 3, 1913. ] 


Rhagodia hastata is a native of Australia, belonging to the 
Family Chenopodiacese. It is known vernacularly as 
**Salt-bush,’’ and is one of an extensive collection of 
plants of this name, indigenous in Australia. 


This species is cultivated extensively in the suburban 
gardens around Sydney, chiefly as an ornamental hedge, 
and is noted for the peculiar and objectional herring-brine 
odour which it gives off at certain times of the year when 
crushed between the fingers. This odour is more particu- 
larly noticeable during the spring and summer months, and 
is often more pronounced in moist weather. 


It seemed probable that the fishy odour was due to small 
quantities of trimethylamine, but as the presence of this 
substance in the Australian salt bushes had not previously 
been recorded, this investigation was undertaken with the 
object of endeavouring to locate it, and incidentally to 
ascertain the source from which it was derived in the 
plant. 


Chenopodia vulvaria, a Huropean species, has been shown 
by Von Dessaignes’* to yield trimethylamine when distilled 
with alkalis. Hétet? also obtained trimethylamine from 
the fresh plant Cotyledon umbilicus. Brieger* has shown 
trimethylamine to be present in ergot as a decomposition 
product of choline. 


* Compt. Rend., 43, 670, 1856. * Compt. Rend., 59, 29, 1865. 
5 Zeits. Physiol. Chem., 11, S. 184, 1887. 


TRIMETHYLAMINE IN AUSTRALIAN SALT BUSH. 237 


Trimethylamine has also been found in Arnica montana, 
the seeds of Mercurialis annua, the flowers of Cratcegus 
oxyacantha and Pyrus aucuparia, the blossoms of the pear, 
hawthorn and wild cherry, and in many other plants. 


Choline, betaine and allied bases containing a trimethyl- 
amine complex appear to be normal constituents in all the 


Chenopodiaceze examined according to Schulze and Trier, 
and Stanék.? 


As shown in the experimental evidence, trimethylamine 
was found in the distillate after distilling the salt bush 
with caustic alkali. It is possible that the whole of this 
compound thus obtained may have been derived from 
lecithin or bases like choline, betaine, etc., but that a small 
quantity also exists naturally in the free state in the grow- 
ing plant at certain times of the year is shown by the very 
characteristic herring-brine odour which it emits. Kauff- 
mann and Vorlander’® have estimated that it is possible to 
detect °0000005 gram of trimethylamine by its odour. 
Further evidence was obtained by distilling some of the 
fresh plant with water alone, when an alkaline distillate 
of a pronounced fishy odour was obtained. It was also 
observed that litmus paper suspended over the freshly 
cut plant in a closed vessel gradually becomes blue. This 
small amount of free trimethylamine is probably the result 
of the decomposition of a more complex substance in the 
plant by means of an enzyme. The experimental results 
show that a basic substance containing the trimethylamine 
complex and closely resembling choline in its chemical 
properties is the parent substance from which this tri- 
methylamine originates. 


1 Journ. Chem. Soc. A., 1912, 11, 1208. 
2 Chemical Abstract, 1910, 1v, 1181. 
2 Ber. Deut. Chem. Gessells., 43, 2736. 


eo? Pea 


238 R. W. CHALLINOR. 


Experimental. 


2900 grams of the freshly cut terminal branchlets of the 
plant were submitted to distillation with caustic alkali, 
the distillate being received in 5 times normal sulphuric 
acid, the acid being added from a burette as it became 
neutralised. 90 cc. of acid was required to neutralise the 
basic substances in the distillate, which calculated as 
ammonia —0°26 per cent. A small amount of an oily sub- 
stance passed over at the same time, and the distillate 
whilst acid was pink, the pink colour disappearing again on 
neutralisation. 


The sulphates obtained, after evaporating to dryness, 


were then extracted with absolute alcohol, the extract 


when dried over sulphuric acid gave 0°6520 gram of amine 
sulphates, which calculated to trimethylamine = 0°012 per 
cent. Thedried sulphates were again distilled with caustic 
alkali and the process repeated, the amounts obtained being 
identical with those mentioned above. 


The amine sulphate was crystalline, deliquescent, and 
possessed of a strong herring brine odour. On heating 
with caustic soda it gave off a strong ammoniacal fishy 
odour and an inflammable vapour, it also gave a precipitate 
with potassium ferrocyanide from a hydrochloric acid 
solution, thus showing the presence of a tertiary amine. 


A fresh quantity of the green plant was triturated with 
water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, the filtered extract 
after concentration was made alkaline with soda and steam 
distilled into standard acid, the excess of acid titrated with 
alkali indicated 0°067 per cent. of volatile alkalis calculated 
as ammonia. The neutralised distillate after evaporating 
to dryness and extracting with absolute alcohol, gave a 
crystalline deliquescent substance possessing the properties 
of trimethylamine. On comparing the results of these two 
determinations it is evident that a considerable proportion 


TRIMETHYLAMINE IN AUSTRALIAN SALT BUSH. 239 


of the volatile basic substances, obtained by the direct 
distillation of the plant with caustic soda, must have been 
derived from some of the nitrogenous constituents which 
are not readily dissolved in acid water. 


The plant on air drying loses 76°5 per cent. of its weight. 
The dry material was ground fine enough to pass through 
an 80 mesh sieve, and 20 grams of the powder extracted 
successively with petroleum ether (boiling below 40° C.), 
anhydrous ether and absolute alcohol. The proportions 
dissolved by these solvents, calculated upon the fresh plant 
were as follows:— 

Petroleum ether 0°19 per cent. 


Ether ... TG 
Alcohol... Poet te) af 
Total... ', 1°60 


The petroleum ether extract gave evidence of a volatile 
oil and the ether extract showed the presence of a fatty 
substance. 


The alcoholic extract, after drying and incinerating a 
portion, showed the presence of 7°97 per cent. of inorganic 
matter which consisted principally of the chlorides and 
carbonates of sodium and potassium. 95°9 per cent. of this 
alcoholic extract was soluble in water (equivalent to 0°07 
per cent. on the fresh plant). The water soluble portion 
was divided and examined as follows:—Basic lead acetate 
added to a portion gave a yellow precipitate, which after 
washing was suspended in water, decomposed by means 
of hydrogen sulphide and filtered; the filtrate after con- 
centrating and boiling for some time with dilute sulphuric 
acid gave a yellow precipitate which reacted like quercetin 
with the usual reagents, whilst the filtrate reduced Fehling’s 
solution, thus indicating the presence of a glucoside of 
quercetin. 


240 R. W. CHALLINOR. 


Another portion on distillation with caustic alkali, gave 
a distillate which, when neutralised with hydrochloric acid 
and evaporated to dryness, gave a deliquescent residue 
which was completely soluble in absolute alcohol, had the 
odour of herring brine, and gave the reactions of trimethyl- 
amine as before. As the dry residue was dissolved com- 
pletely by absolute alcohol the absence of ammonium galts 
was shown. The residue remaining in the flask after this 
distillation was acidified with sulphuric acid and again 
distilled, an acid distillate was obtained, which gave all 
the reactions of acetic acid. That acetic acid is present 
in the plant, was proved directly, by distilling the fresh 
branchlets with two per cent. phosphoric acid and convert- 
ing the acid distillate into the barium salt. 0°2068 gram 
of the barium salt gave 0°1894 gram of barium sulphate, 
which indicates a molecular weight of 59°7 for the acid, 
almost that of acetic acid. This barium salt moreover 
gave all the characteristic reactions of acetic acid. 


The greater part of the trimethylamine obtained in the 
foregoing experiments appears to have been due to the 
action of caustic alkalis. Basic substances which would 
yield this compound when thus treated were then sought 
for directly by a method similar to that of Schulze.* Schulze 
and Trier? consider that choline is not liberated from 
lecithin during the necessary manipulation of the extracts 
in separating it from the plant. 


About 2} kilograms of the fresh terminal branchlets, cut 
in July, when the odour of trimethylamine is not usually 
discernible in the plant cultivated about Sydney, was 
passed through a mincing machine and converted into pulp, 
this was extracted with water several times and separated 
from solid material by squeezing through cloth. Aqueous 
lead acetate solution was added, allowed to settle, and the 


1 Zeits. Physiol. Chemie, 60, 155, 1909. ? Loc. cit., 81, 53, 58, 1912. 


TRIMETHYLAMINE IN AUSTRALIAN SALT BUSH. 241 


clear supernatant liquid siphoned off from the precipitate, 
the residue being washed twice with water. On removing 
the excess of lead from the filtrate by means of hydrogen 
sulphide a considerable amount of sulphur separated out on 
standing, this being probably due tothe action of the 
nitrates in the plant upon the hydrogen sulphide. A 
quantity of potassium nitrate also crystallised out when 
the lead free filtrate was evaporated to dryness. The dry 
residue was then extracted with alcohol and the clear 
alcoholic solution treated with an alcoholic solution of 
mercuric chloride and allowed to stand four days, the clear 
Supernatant liquid was siphoned off and the precipitated 
double salt of the bases washed five or six times with 
alcohol and warmed with E strength hydrochloric acid till 
no more would dissolve. A brown insoluble residue was 
filtered off and the filtrate evaporated, under diminished 
pressure, todryness. This dry residue was again extracted 
with absolute alcohol, the filtrate again evaporated as 
before, and the process repeated till no more potassium 
chloride could be thus separated. The last alcoholic solu- 
tion on diluting with water gave a dark precipitate which 
became crystalline on standing, this was filtered off, washed 
and put by for subsequent examination. 


Mercury was removed from the aqueous filtrate by means 
of hydrogen sulphide and the mercury free filtrate evapor- 
ated under diminished pressure, the dry residue extracted 
with absolute alcohol, filtered, and the process repeated 
till only a small amount of potassium could be detected in 
the dry residue. The alcoholic solution of this residue was 
precipitated with alcoholic platinum chloride and the buff- 
coloured precipitate filtered and washed with alcohol till 
free from excess of platinum chloride and dried. On crys- 
tallising this double platinum salt from water over sulphuric 
acid in a vacuum desiccator orange-red dodecahedrons and 
hexagonal plates separated out. 

P—December 3,|1913, 


242 R. W. CHALLINOR. 


This platinum salt was then dissolved in water, saturated 
with hydrogen sulphide and allowed to stand in 4 warm 
place for some time to completely precipitate the platinum; 
the filtrate was evaporated to dryness and the residue 
repeatedly extracted with absolute alcohol, a small insoluble 
residue being left which contained traces of potassium. 


The alcoholic solution of this residue was evaporated over 
sulphuric acid in a vacuum desiccator, a crystalline residue 
being left in the dish, the lower portion consisting of clear 
colourless monoclinic prisms, which were non-deliquescent, 
and the upper portion consisting of a crystalline mass which 
rapidly deliquesced on exposure to the air. Successive 
washings with small quantities of absolute alcohol readily 
dissolved the deliquescent portion and left the monoclinic 
crystals which were found to be much less soluble in this 
solvent. 


An attempt to determine the melting point of this 
crystalline hydrochloride of the base, showed that at 180°O. 
it began to change in appearance, and at about 220° O. 
decomposed giving off a strong odour of trimethylamine 
and a crystalline sublimate consisting of microscopic fern- 
like crystals which after some time deliquesced. This 
crystalline salt also reacts strongly acid to litmus. — 


A portion dissolved in alcohol and precipitated with 
alcoholic platinum chloride gave a mass of golden yellow 
needle crystals of the double platinum salt. These were 
washed with alcohol, dissolved in water and evaporated to 
dryness over sulphuric acid under diminished pressure till 
no further loss in weight occurred. The crystals thus 
obtained consisted of orange coloured plates and prisms 
and were anhydrous, as no change in weight occurred after 
heating them for some time to 115° C. The melting point 
was somewhat sharp at 217—218° C. (uncorr.) with decom- 


position. (Henry in “The Plant Alkaloids,’’ p. 328, gives — 


TRIMETHYLAMINE IN AUSTRALIAN SALT BUSH. 243 


the melting point of choline platinichloride as 215—240° 0. 
with decomposition). 


The amount of platinum in this double salt was 30°68 
per cent., theory requires for the platinum salt of choline 
31°65 per cent, 


The chemical reactions of the crystalline hydrochloride 
of this base, when tested in comparison with a sample of 
choline hydrochloride obtained from Burroughs Wellcome 
and Co., showed remarkable similarity in all directions. 
The characteristic hygroscopic property of the choline salt 
however was not observed with the salt of this base, and 
moreover it was also much less soluble in absolute alcohol. 
That the isolated base contains the trimethylamine complex 
is shown by the evolution of this substance when the salt 
is decomposed by heat, and it appears to be therefore, the 
source of trimethylamine in Rhagodia hastata. 


It is hoped that by working on large amounts of this salt 
bush, sufficient of the base may be isolated to enable the 
determination of its constitution to be undertaken and also 
to observe any characteristic physical properties it may 
have. 


In conclusion, I wish to express my thanks to Mr. H.G. 
Smith, for the unreserved use of the laboratory and library 
at the Technological Museum in which a considerable 
amount of this work was done; also to Mr. R. T. Baker 
for botanical assistance, and to Dr. J. M. Petrie for many 
references to the literature on choline and similar bases. 


244 F. CHAPMAN. 


NOTE ON AN OSTRACOD, AND AN OSTRACODAL 
LIMESTONE FROM THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN 
OF NEW SOUTH WALKS. 


By FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S., F.R.M.S., 


Paleontologist to the National Museum, Melbourne. 


(Communicated by W. 8S. Dun.) 
With Plate IX. 


[Received December 16th, 1913.]} 


Introduction. 

There is no doubt that with careful search the group of 
the Ostracoda will be found to be well represented in the 
Devonian rocks of Australia. Up to the present there 
appears to be only one authenticated example recorded 
from that system, viz., Primitia cuneus, Chapman,’ from 
the Middle Devonian of Buchan. Thin slices of limestone 
of Middle Devonian age from various localities which I have 
examined from time to time have shown traces of those 
organisms. It follows, therefore, that our scanty know- 
ledge of the group from strata of Devonian age is due to 
want of careful search after these minute fossils, especially 
amongst disintegrated limestone. 


The isolated specimen now to be described, was presented 
to the National Museum collection by Mr. A. J. Shearsby, 
F.R.M.S., who collected it at Taemas, near Yass. It belongs 
to the genus Primitia, which has a wide range, from the 
Silurian to the Carboniferous in other parts of the World. 

The second record, of a patch of ostracodal limestone 


found within an Orthoceras shell, also from the Yass dis- 
trict, is extremely interesting, showing as it does, that 


1Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., Vol. 111, pt. 2, 1912, p. 221, pl. xxxvi, f. 10-12. 


NOTES ON AN OSTRACOD AND OSTRACODAL LIMESTONE. 245 


several other genera besides Primitia are probably present 
in the Middle Devonian Limestone of Australia. 


Description. 
PRIMITIA YASSENSIS, sp. nov., Plate IX, figs.1—3. 


Seen from the side the carapace is elongate-ovate, 
narrowing anteriorly; dorsal margin nearly straight; ven- 
tral margin gently convex, slightly sinuous in the middle; 
anterior extremity truncately rounded, posterior extremity 
obliquely rounded at the ventral angle, and with the dorsal 
angle truncated. The narrow anterior extremity depressed 
over one-third the length of the valve, and markedly so 
towards the antero-ventral angle. Surface tumid in the 
posterior half, with a moderately deep and curved sulcus, 
extending from the dorsum to two-thirds across the valve 
and directed slightly backwards. Surface finely reticulate 
in places, especially near the margins, the structure being 
best seen on moistening the specimen. Kdge view of valve 
showing the carapace to be pear-shaped in section. 


Measurements.—Length of specimen (left valve) 1°6 mm. 
Greatest width, 1°08 mm. Depth of valve, °38 mm. 


Affinities.—The present species clearly belongs to the 
group of which Primitia mundula, Rupert Jones, forms the 
central type, and which ranges from the Upper Silurian to 
the Lower Devonian. 


The nearest allied form to the Australian species is 
Primitia scaphoides, Rupt. Jones,’ a fossil ostracod from 
the Lower Devonian of Campbellton, New Brunswick. The 
sulcus in P. yassensis, however, is not so deeply excavated, 
and there is no sub-acute ridge bordering the side nearer 
the anterior extremity. 


Occurrence.—Middle Devonian, from the ‘Cavan cutting’ 
on the left branch of the Murrumbidgee River, Portion 65, 


1 Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 6, Vol. 11, 1889, p. 337, pl. xvi, fig. 3. 


246 F. CHAPMAN. 


Parish of Taemas, Co. of Cowley. In beds containing 
Chonetes culleni, Dun. Presented by Mr. A. J. Shearsby, 
F.R.M.S. 


Note on Ostracodal Limestone from the Middle Devonian 
of Cavan, Yass. 

Accompanying the foregoing specimen of Primitia there 
is a microscopic slide prepared by Mr. Shearsby, of a frag- 
ment of an Orthoceras shell from the Devonian Limestone 
of Cavan. This thin slice is seen to be crowded with the 
separate valves and carapaces of at least three species and 
probably two genera of Ostracoda. The commonest forms 
are Clearly referable to Primitia, whilst occasionally there 
is a rather peculiarly shaped form with a long spinous pro- 
cess, reminding one of Achmina. The affinities of this 
latter type are at present conjectural, as there areno very 
definite or complete outlines of the carapace in the slice 
examined. Of the Primitice, one form, the more common, 
is moderately short-ovoid, and resembling generally the P. 
cuneus before mentioned, of the Middle Devonian of Buchan, 
Victoria. The other species is long-ovate, anteriorly 
acuminate in edge view, with an antero-median sulcus. 


The general characters of the limestone are, a sub- 
crystalline rock, very compact, crowded with ostracodal 
remains. The matrix or cement is a moderately fine calcitic 
mud, almost entirely re-crystallised, and completely filling 
up all the interspaces between the organic remains. Besides 
the ostracoda there are small ossicles of crinoidal origin. 
The ostracodal valves show the original typical micro- 
fibrous structure and characteristic dark brown colour as 
compared with the pelecypod shells; whilst in many of the 
interiors of the still perfect carapaces, remains of the 
original animal-organism are seen in the patches of carbon 
particles still enclosed within the valves. 


NOTES ON AN OSTRACOD AND OSTRACODAL LIMESTONE. 247 


To give some idea of the great abundance of these little 
organisms that have drifted into the empty chamber of an 
Orthoceras shell, I counted over an average portion of the 
slide, which gave the result of 20,000 individuals in 1 cubic 
centimetre. 


Occurrence.—In an infilling of an Orthoceras shell from 
the Parish of Taemas, New South Wales. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE. 
Fig. 1. Primitia yassensis, sp. nov. The specimen, a left valve, 
seen from the side. Middle Devonian, Taemas, near 
Yass. x 26. 


Fig. 2. P. yassensis, sp. nov. Outline of valve, edge view. x 26. 


Fig. 3. P. yassensis, sp. nov. Ornament of valve, somewhat 
restored, seen near the ventral margin. x 52. 


Fig. 4. Photomicrograph of an ostracodal limestone with Primitic 
etc., from Taemas, near Yass 


Art. IX.  onlanned 


in the Duiverite of Sydney. HA) ae ae 
Art. XII.—The ionisation caused by penetrating y rays ina idauee : 
thick-walled vessel. By S. E. Pierce, B.sc., Deas-Thomson 
Scholar in Physics in the University of pyduey.: Cm 
cated by Professor PoLuock) — ... see Ee whee sg 
Art. XIII.—The Extraction of Radium from the Olary Ores. 
By S.;RApcuire. 200 G.2 9 2 ha ee a 
Axt. XIV.—Vanilla, anda short and simple method for the deter- 
mination of Vanillin. By W. M Douerry, EEA. F.C. 8. rae 
[With Plate VID]... 6 Ae eye ay et 
Art. XV.—A flame test for Chloral seshtiate ‘By W.M. Donaerr, ep 
C10, 9.0.8. vs es i a; Ig ons ia x 
Art. XVI.—On some transverse tests of Australian and. Foreign 
Timbers. By James NANGLE, F.RB.A.5., Superintendent of 
Technical Education. ... prs “4 ei eee rp 
Art XVII.—Some Physico-Chemical measurements on Milk. By : 
H. B. Tayior, B.sc., Science Research Scholar, University | 
of Sydney. (Communicated by Professor Fawsitt)... od 
Arr. XVIII—On.the Australian Melaleucas and their Essential — 
Oils, part V. By RB. T. Baker and H. G. SourH: “Uns 
Plate VIL)... 


in fan Australian Salt-bush, Rhagodia origi. R. Br. 
_ .R. We. Cuanygnor, F.1.¢., F.C. 5. is Pete ce 
_ . Art. XXIT:—Note on an Ostracod, and an Ostracodal: ee 
. *,% from the Middle Devonian of New South Wales. By 
: FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.-L.S., F.B:M.S8., Palzontologist to t ue 
National Museum, Melbourne, (Communicated by 3 
Dun). [With Plate IX.) ... a é 


aoe 


aay Hats < eee pas OF | THE 


Bor. Ls aa | 


OF 


2 NEW SOUTH WALES 
oe 1913 . 


Be. DART Il, (pp. (i)- (xxii), 1-1) 
eee 
~ Containing Atatoeist of Proceedings, Title Page, List of 


Publications, Contents, List of Members, etc., and Index. 


ee 4 


. , SYDNEY: 
, ‘PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. 
LONDON AGENTS: 
GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 
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1913. 


F. WHITE Typ’ 344 Kent Street Sydney. 


ABSTRACT oF PROCEEDINGS 


si 
a 
oo 
3 
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S} 
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4 
o 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


Aopal Society of Aew South ates. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, MAY 7th, 1913. 


The Annual Meeting, being the three hundred and fifty- 
sixth (356th) General Monthly Meeting of the Society, was 
held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North, at 
8 p.m. 

Mr. R. H. CAMBAGE, President, in the Chair. 

Forty-eight members and one visitor were present. 


The minutes of the General Monthly Meeting of the 4th 
December, 1912, were read and confirmed. 


The certificates of eleven candidates for admission as 
ordinary members were read for the first time. 


The receipt, during the recess, of 414 parts, 15 volumes, 
26 reports, 5 catalogues and 3 maps was reported. 


A letter was read from the Private Secretary to H.H. 
the Governor of New South Wales, stating that His Hxcel- 
lency had accepted the office of Vice-Patron of the Society. 


A circular letter was read announcing the formation of 
the Lister Memorial Fund Committee, and requesting that 
subscriptions towards a memorial in honour of the late 
Lord LisTeR should be sent to the Committee, care of the 
Royal Society, London. 


A report on the state of the Society’s property and the 
following annual report of the Council were read. 


iv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


ANNUAL REPORT UF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1912-13. 


(1st May to 30th April.) 
1. Hight ordinary General Meetings and one adjourned 
ordinary meeting were held. 
2. Twelve meetings of the Council were held. 
3. Twelve papers were read at the ordinary General 
Meetings. 


4. At the September meeting a discussion took place on 


‘* Popularising Forestry in New South Wales.’? Members 
of certain public bodies interested in the subject were 
present by invitation and took part in the proceedings. 


5. Hour Popular Science Lectures were given during the 
year, the titles being as follows :— 
July 18—‘‘ Shifts for a Living in the Plant World,” by G. P. 
DARNELL-SMITH, B.Sc., F.1.C. 
August 15—‘' The Wonders of the Soil,” by Professor Wart, 
M.A., B.Sc. 
September 19—‘‘Pre-Historic Man,” by S. A. SMITH, M.B.,Ch.M. 
October 17—“Drought-resisting Plants,” by A. G. Hamiuton. 


They were all excellently attended and members and the 
public are under great obligation to the lecturers for their 
admirable discoucses. 

6. On the 14th April an informal meeting of members 
took place to wish God-speed to Mr. FRANK WILD, leader 
of Dr. MAwson’s Western Party, who was proceeding to 
England, and to welcome other members of the Expedition 
who had arrived in Sydney. 


7. Fourteen gentlemen have been elected members of the 
Society during the year. 


8. Ten members were lost to the Society by death or 


resignation. 


9. One Honorary Member, Dr. C. J. MARTIN, F.R.S., 
Director of the Lister Institute for Preventive Medicine, 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Vv. 


and one Corresponding Member, Dr. T. HARVEY JOHNSTON 
of the University of Queensland, were elected. 


10. Miss ALICE MAauD DUNN was appointed clerk on 23rd 
May, 1912, and continues in office. 


11. Delegates were appointed Oca 


a. The 250th Anniversary of the Royal Society of Lon- 
don (Mr. CHARLES HEDLEy). 


b. The Bi-centenary of the Medical School of Trinity 
College, Dublin (Prof. LIVERSIDGE). 


e. Highth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, 
Washington and New York (Prof. WARREN). 


d. Melbourne Meeting of the Australasian Association 
for the Advancement of Science—(Mr. R. H. 
CAMBAGE, President, Mr. H. G. SMITH, and Dr. 
J. B. CLELAND). 

e. New South Wales Local Committee for the visit of 
the British Association in 1914—Mr. R. H. 
CAMBAGE, Mr. W. M. HAMLET, and Dr. J. B. 
CLELAND). 


f. Ceremonies of inauguration dedication, Rice Insti- 
tute, Houston, Texas, U.S.A., 10—12th October, 
1912 (Prof. WARREN). 


12. The Annual Dinner of the Society took place on 24th 
April, at Farmer’s Rooms, 87 persons taking part in the 
‘ function. The guests comprised the Chief Justice (Sir 
WILLIAM CULLEN), Sir ALFRED BATEMAN, a member of the 
Dominions Royal Commission, and several members of the 
Scott and Mawson Expeditions who had recently returned 
from Antarctica. 


The Financial Statement for the year ended 31st March, 
1913, was submitted to members, and, on the motion of 
the Honorary Treasurer, Mr. D. CARMENT, it was unanim- 
ously adopted :— 


vi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


GENERAL ACCOUNT. 


Dr. RECEIPTS. £s. «ad. (8 ee 
To Cash in Hand Ist April, 1912. ne we «= 20 1900 
, Balance in Bank on Ist April, “‘Io12 Jat “set OO) 10a 
— 120 9 7 
» Subscriptions... , le es .. 645 16 O 
» Parliamentary Grants on Subscriptions 
received 1912-1913... aN. ash ave 400" O18 
> Rents— 
Offices ... sia as 244 5 O 
Hall and wits was ww . 193 136 
————— 487 18 6 
», Sundry Receipts... wa oe sel o03, f Lolo 
— 1397 9 8 


», Clarke Memorial Fund--Amount advanced 
to Building and Investment Fund towards 
reduction of Mortgage __... ne sae 300 0 0 


£1817 19 3 


PAYMENTS. Cr; 


By Salaries and Wages— 


Office Salaries and Accountancy Fees ... 157 15 1 
Assistant Librarian... Ess obs «=» 107-1070 
Caretaker... sam ade sia 4 el BOp ey ext 
——._ 395 12 7 
» Printing, Stationery, Advertising, Stamps etc. 
Advertising ... AS 38 tas as) (AS Ore 
Office Sundries us ae ee oat 9h 8 
Stamps and Telegrams _... tM wen 2b ibe 
Stationery ... i he chs eae NEL ae 
68 18 7 
», Rates, Taxes and Services— 
Electric Light Ae ba As sas) S20 TABS 
Gas.” 23. slags = aes she se Sut as 
Insurance ... one ha ceh an. “ZO OVESS 
Rates ... Se ahi : wes ta io. yee. 
Telephone... Ate oe dak al 714 6 
128 12 1k 
» Printing and Publishing Society’s Volume— 
Printing sais ee ae oe .. 3842 9.6 
Blocks a i sect) | oO) ee as 
Freight, Giese antl Packing sie .. 89 14 
42117 4 
», Library— 
Books and Periodicals ee sei when, } E24, tO 
Bookbinding... aoe se sae wan, ,) LA eee 
138 7 8 


Carried forward on a 1153: "Bees 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. vil, 
PaymMENTS—continued. £ s. dad. £ s. d. 
Brought forward on ae 1153 8 3 
By Sundry Expenses— 
Bank Charges and Exchange _... 386 012 O 
Repairs $65 tae re 4 4 2 
Lantern Operator 9 0 0 
Sundries 40 9 2 
54 5 4 
» Interest on Mortgage ... 119 10Y <0 
Clarke Memorial Fund 3 9 6 
122 19 6 
» Special Fee, Accountant’s Investigation 42 0 0 
» Plant, Fixtures and Fittings.. 32 10 6 
i Dinners, Deficiency on Deer Tickets 15 fe) 
,, A.A.A. Science on a/c Repayment of Loan 300 O O 
» Balance at Credit Union Bank of Australia Th 2s} 
£1817 19 38 
BUILDING AND INVESTMENT FUND. 
IDs ; Eee See Ce 
To Loan on Mortgage at 4% at 31st March, 1912 3100 0 O 
£3100 O 0O 
Cx. Sed.) Sis d. 
By Deposit in Government Savings Bank, 
March 31st, 1912 8572 
Interest to date On 2 
110 4 
» Amount paid A.A.A. Science on a/c of Loan 300 0 O 
», Balance at this date Px ey 3) 
£3100 O O 
CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND. 
Dr aoe «Sen Ge 
To Amount of Fund, 31st March, 1912 ... 582 11 11 
», Interest to 31st March, 1913, Savings Bank 5 See 
a a », General Fund at ie aaa a fe 391.6 
» General Fund, refunds to date 239 O O 
SIO N04: 
Cr. Losey ds 
By Advances to General Fund ae 239 O O 
», Advance to Building and Investment Bund 
towards reduction of Mortgage 300 0 O 
Carried forward 539 0 O 


"” 


Vill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


& s. di eee 


Brought forward see Kd 539 O 0 
By Balance— 
Deposited in Savings Bank of N.S. W., 
March 31, 1913 din 59H wae 2 eae 
Deposited in Government Savings Bank 40 7 5 
—— 25110 4 


“£790 10 4 


Compiled from the books and accounts of the Royal Society of New 
South Wales and certified to be in accordance therewith. 


D. CARMENT, Honorary Treasurer. 
W. PERCIVAL MINELL, Public Accountant and Auditor. 
Sypyev, 25TH APRIL, 1913. 


The President then delivered the Annual Address. 


It was proposed by Mr. H. O. ANDREWS, seconded by Mr. 
R. T. BAKER, and supported by Mr. J. H. MAIDEN, and Mr. 
J. EK. CARNE, that the hearty thanks of members be given 
to Mr. CAMBAGE for his admirable address. 


Mr. CAMBAGE briefly acknowledged the compliment. 


There being no other nominations, the President declared 
the following gentlemen to be Officers and Council for the 
coming year :— 

President: 
HENRY G. SMITH, F.c.s. 


Vice-Presidents: 
F.. H. OUATEHS, .A., ap. D. CARMENT, ¥.1.4., F.F.A. 


F.-B. GUTHRIE, F.1.c., F.c.s. hk. H. CAMBAGH, &.5.; FLis, 
Hon. Treasurer: 
H. G, CHAPMAN, m.p. 
Hon. Secretaries: 
J. H. MAIDEN, B:u:6. | Prof. POLLOCK, psc. 


Members of Counci!: 
J. B. CLELAND, m.p., cH.m. C. HEDLEY, F.u.s. 
Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, c.m.a., B.a.,| T. H. HOUGHTON, m. 1ns7. ¢.z. 
W. S. DUN. [D.sc., F-R.8-| G A SUSSMILCH, r.a.s. 
R. GREIG-SMITH, p.sc. H. D. WALSH, B.A.1., M. INST. C.E. 
W. M. HAMLET, F.1.c., F.c.s. Prof. W. H. WARREN, tu.p. 


Mr. CAMBAGE, the outgoing President, then installed 
Mr. SMITH as President for the ensuing year, and the latter 
briefly returned thanks. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 1x. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JUNE 4th, 1913. 


The three hundred and fifty-seventh (357th) General 
Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales 
was held at the Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth-street North, 
on Wednesday, June 4th, 1913, at 8 p.m. 


Mr. H. G. Smita, President, in the Chair. 
Thirty-five members and four visitors were present. 


The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and 
confirmed. 


The certificates of candidates for admission as ordinary 
members were read: eleven for the second, and five for the 
first time. 


The following gentlemen were duly elected as ordinary 
members of the Society:— 


A Fe C. STUART, 56 Pitt enrere: 

W. M. DoHERTY, Department of Public Health, Sydney. 

J. THOMPSON, M.A., LL.B., Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt 
Street. 

A. H. STEWART, B.E., Technical College, Sydney. 

S. Dodd, D.v.S., F.R.C.V.S., The University, Sydney. 

H. 8. H. WARDLAW, B.Sc, 87 Macpherson Street, 
Waverley. 

J. H. BisHop, Killarney Street, Mosman. 

R. EH. ULLRIcH, 43 Bond Street, Mosman. 

Prof. R. ROBINSON, D.sSc., The University, Sydney. 

Prof. A. A. LAWSON, D.Sc, The University, Sydney. 

W. R. BROWNE, B.Se., The University, Sydney. 


The President made the following announcements :— 


1. Thata letter had been received inviting the President 
and members to be present at the opening of the new 
buildings of the Australian Institute of Tropical Medicine 
at Townsville on the 28th June. 


Xx. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


2. That Mr. H. C. ANDREWS would address the Geology 
Section at its meeting of the 11th instant on the Geology 
of Cobar. 


3. That the donations received during the month were ° 
19 volumes, 257 parts, 31 reports. 


Letters were read from Mr. TEBBUTT, Rev. W. Scort, 
and Col. J. H. GOODLET, thanking members for their kind 
messages of congratulation. 


It was resolved that the congratulations of the Society 
be offered to the Western Australian Astronomical Society 
on its inauguration. 


It was resolved to send His Honour Judge DOCKER a 
message of sympathy in regard to his recent accident, and 
good wishes for his speedy recovery. 


THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 


1. ‘“‘Products of the action of concentrated sulphuric acid 
on Iron,’’ by CHARLES W. R. POWELL, Science Research 
Scholar, The University of Sydney. (Communicated 
by Prof. FAwSITT, D.Sc.) 


2. Notes by Dr. J. B. CLELAND :—Occurrence of Coccidiosis 
in House Sparrows and in Bovines in New South Wales; 
on the Growth of Flowering Stem of Xanthorrhoea 
hastilis, R. Br.; on Agar-agar Seaweed from Western 
Australia. 


Dr. CHAPMAN communicated some notes on the freezing 
points of blood sera and corpuscles of the ox, sheep, pig 
and man. The blood corpuscles were laked by freezing and 
thawing the corpuscles separated by spinning in a centri- 
fuge. It was found that the freezing point of the corpuscles 
was less than the freezing point of the corresponding serum. 
When the corpuscles were washed with 0°97 Na Cl, the 
freezing point of the washed corpuscles was higher than 
the freezing point of the unwashed corpuscles. If the 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. x1. 


corpuscles were washed three times with 0°97% Na Cl, the 
freezing point of the corpuscles was higher after each 
washing. When the corpuscles were washed with Ringer’s 
solution the freezing point of the corpuscles remains 
unchanged after each of three separate washings. 

Remarks were made by Mr. DARNELL-SMITH, Dr. GREIG- 
SMITH, and the President. 

EXHIBITS: 

1. Restorations of Merostomatous Crustacea from 
America, by W. 8. Dun. 

2. Pine needles and materials made from them, by R. T. 
BAKER, F.L.S. 

3. Specimens illustrating frost and spray injuries 
to plants: apple-canker and coconut-bud rot, by HwWEN 
MACcKINNON, B.Sc. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JULY 2nd, 19138. 


The three hundred and fifty-eight (358th) General 
Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales 
was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North, 
at 8 p.m. 

Mr. H. G. SMITH, President, in the Chair. 

Forty members and three visitors were present. 


The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and 
confirmed. 


The certificates of candidates for admission as ordinary 
members were read: five for the second, and one for the 
first time. 

Mr. R. T. BAKER and Mr. W. WELCH were appointed 
Scrutineers, and Mr. C. HEDLEY deputed to preside at the 
Ballot Box. 


7 


Xil. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


The following gentlemen were duly elected as ordinary 
members of the Society:— 

Prof. W. E. Cook, M.A., F.R.A.S., The Observatory. 

F, A. CooMBS, F.C.S., 55 Willoughby Road, Crow’s Nest, 
North Sydney. 

G. I. Hupson, ‘‘Gudvangen,’’Arden St.,Coogee, Sydney. 

The Rev. T. ROSEBY, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S., ‘Tintern,’ 
Mosman. 

W. H. TreTKens, ‘‘ Upna,’’ Eastwood. 

The President made the following announcements:— 

1. That a Popular Science Lecture entitled ‘* The Grand 
Canon of Colorado and its Lessons,”’ by HE. C. ANDREWS, B.A., 
would be delivered in the Society’s Hall, on July 17th, 1913. 

2. That Dr. QUAIFE had generously presented £20 towards 
the expenses of the library. 

3. That donations consisting of 4 volumes, 174 parts, 19 
reports and 3 maps were laid upon the table. 


A letter of thanks from His Honour Judge DOCKER in 


acknowledgment of the Society’s letter of sympathy in his | 


recent accident was read. 


THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 


1. ‘‘Notes on Hucalyptus, (with descriptions of new species) 
No. I,”’ by J. H. MAIDEN. 


EK. tesselaris, H.v.M. var. Dallachiana, Benth. is shown 
to be a variety of EH. clavigera, A. Cunn., and the imper- 
fectly known species EH. leptophleba, F.v.M. a Box, and EH. 
drepanophylla an Ironbark, are clearly defined. 


Four species are described as new. (1) A tree from 
Concord, near Sydney, which possesses characters inter- 
mediate between the Grey Ironbark (H. paniculata) and 
the Grey Box (HE. hemiphloia). (2) A Mallee-like tall shrub 
or small tree from Ticketty Well, near Wallangra, which 
goes under the name of ‘‘ Mallee-Box,’’ a remarkable nar- 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xlll. 


row-leaved species, having buds with long opercula of less 
diameter than the calyx-tube, and small fruits with well- 
exserted awl-like tips. (3) One of the Yellow Jackets from 
the desert country west of Emerald, whose closest affinity 
is H. Baileyana. (4) A Blackbutt of Central Queensland, 
a large tree with scaly bark at the butt, which is sharply 
defined from the smooth white stem. The timber is deep 
red and it has affinity to the Red Box (E. polyanthemos) 
of New South Wales. 


2. ‘‘Note on the Paraffins of Eucalyptus Oils,’ by H. G. 
SMITH. 


Dr. J. B. CLELAND referred to a curious light, like the 
mast head light of a steamer, that he had seen in February, 
1909, at the entrance to St. Vincent’s Gulf in South Aus- 
tralia. He was on deck just as dusk came on and, whilst 
daylight lasted, all was clear ahead. Just as dark was 
settling down, he saw, quite close to the port side of the 
ship and suspended in the air, a light like the mast-head 
light of a ship, which soon disappeared. No ship could be 
discovered, and, as previously stated, none was in sight a 
few minutes previously. A seaman who passed and was 
questioned, had not noticed it. This incident had not been 
considered of much importance—in fact was supposed to 
be an error of observation—until, some while afterwards, 
the following cutting appeared in a Sydney paper, describ- 
ing the same phenomenon fromthe same place. The date 
has, unfortunately, not been kept. The account, which is 
from Adelaide, is as follows:— 

“Captain Nelsson, of the coastal steamer “ Wookata,” the second 
engineer, Mr. S. Arnold, and helmsman, Mr. G. Rudd, are at a 
complete loss to explain the meaning of curious lights which they 
witnessed when the vessel was passing Althorpe Island on the 
way to Port Adelaide early the other morning. ‘Bright lights as 
distinct as masthead lights of a steamer, but high up in the air,’ 


Xlv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


were observed by the trio, and a strange thing was that they 


circled around the “ Wookata” in a tantalising way. ‘It was 


about 3 o’clock,’ says Captain Nelsson, ‘that the man at the wheel © 


remarked, Do you see these lights flying about? I replied, ‘Yes, 
there are a great many more lights about than I have ever seen 
here.’ Just then I saw a mysterious light off Cape Spencer, which 
disappeared as suddenly as it came into view. Presently the 
helmsman said, ‘It is strange, but I have seen lights on the port 
bow, then right ahead, then on the starboard side.’ I stepped 
inside the wheelhouse, and on coming out again saw two lights 
just over the starboard bow, no distance away, but high up. They 
seemed to pass us. They were as bright as our masthead lights, 
and as far as I could judge, were 200 or 300 yards distant. The 
lights appeared to be 10 yards apart, one a little above the other. 
I could not make it out. I said to the man at the wheel, ‘Did 
you see them? Heanswered, ‘Yes, they are like German airships 
flying about.’ I did not know what to think. I feel sure I saw 
something unusual—something which in my 45 years’ experience 
at sea I had never observed before.’ The second engineer also 


declares he saw the strange lights.” 


The phenomenon was perhaps a natural one and not due 
to human agency, and these two incidents are therefore 
recorded, for what they are worth before this Society, so 
as to attract scientific attention should they be manifested 
again. 

EXHIBITS : 

Dr. J. B. CLELAND exhibited, on behalf of Mr. HDWIN 
CHEEL and himself, the following Australian Fungi :— 

Stropharia stercoraria.—The record isnewfor Australia. 
This Agaric is closely allied to S. semiglobata, the chief 
naked-eye differences being given by Massee as a distinct 
cord-like pith in the stem, a flocculose stem when young 
and a flat cap at maturity, the latter being persistently 
semi-globose. The spores of S. semiglobata are given by 
Massee as 124 X 64, by Cooke as 13 to 14h x 8 to 9p. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV. 


Massee gives the spores of S. stercoraria as 18 to 20p x 8 
to 104, and indicates this as being one of the distinguishing 
features. In our specimens, the stem is hollow, the hollow 
being sometimes lined by a white pith, and the semi-globose 
cap expands so as to become almost flat. The spores vary 
from 16°5 to 20 x 104. Though our specimens are, perhaps, 
not quite typical of S. stercoraria, they certainly do not 
agree with S. semiglobata. We consider ourselves justified, 
at present at least, in considering them variants of S. 
stercoraria. The fungus is common on dung, being usually 
considered as S. semiglobata. We have specimens from 
Sydney, Hawkesbury River and Coonamble (J.B.C.) 


Craterellus cornucopioides.—New record for New South 
Wales. Recorded from Queensland. Hdible. Found under 
trees at Neutral Bay, May, 1913 (J.B.O.). Spores pear- 
shaped, one end pointed, 10 to 11°5 x 6 to 7. Cooke’s 
measurements of the spores are 12 to 14h X 7 to 8p. 


 Craterellus multiplex, Cke. and Massee. New record 
for New South Wales. Recorded from Tasmania. OCen- 
tennial Park, Sydney, Sept., 1901 (H.C.) Spores 2 to 3°5p. 


Cortinarius (Myxacium) Archeri, Bern. New record 
for New South Wales. Recorded from Tasmania. Found 
at Sydney and Hawkesbury River (J.B.C.). Not rare. The 
violet tint of the cap disappears with age, leaving only the 
brown. The base of the stem is sometimes bulbous. Spores 
9 to 10p to usually 11°5 to 13°5h x 4°5 to 7H. (Cooke, 11 to 
12» long). 


Mr. R. T. BAKER exhibited crude oil of Hucalyptus 
globulus from California. 


Mr. A. M. McINTosSH exhibited a model of a bird’s wing 
to demonstrate equilibrium in flight. 


Xvi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


| ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, AUGUST 5th, 1913. 


The three hundred and fifty-ninth (359th) General 
Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales 
was held at the Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth-street North, 
at 8 p.m. 

Mr. H. G. SMITH, President, in the Chair. 


Forty-seven members and three visitors were present. 


The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and 
confirmed. . 

The certificates of candidates for admission as ordinary 
members were read: one for the second, and three for the 
first time. 

His Honour. Judge DOCKER and Mr. J. HK. CARNE were 
appointed Scrutineers, and Dr. J. B. CLELAND deputed to 
preside at the Ballot Box. 

The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary 
member of the Society:— 

A. D. OLLE, ‘‘ Kareema,’’ Charlotte Street, Ashfield. 

The President made the following announcements :— 

1. That the Popular Science Lecture on ‘‘The Evolution 
of Architectural Style,’ by Mr. JAMES NANGLE, would be 
delivered in the Society’s Hall, on August 21st, 1913. 

2. That donations consisting of 174 parts, 4 volumes, 19 
reports and 3 maps were laid upon the table. 

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 

1. ‘‘The Physiography of Botany Bay,’’ by G. H. HALLIGAN, 
Remarks were made by Mr. W. M. HAMLET, Mr. H. C. 
ANDREWS, and Dr. QUAIFE. 

2. ‘*The Seedlings of the Angophoras, and description of a 
new species,’’ by Dr. CUTHBERT HALL, communicated 
by Mr. R. T. BAKER. The paper was, by permission 


of the President, read by Dr. HALL. Remarks were 
made by Dr. CHAPMAN and Mr. H. C. ANDREWS. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xvil. 


) 


3. ‘*On the Essential Oils of the Angophoras,”’ by H. G. 
SmMitH. Remarks were made by Mr. MAIDEN. | 


: EXHIBITS: 
1. Model of Bird-shaped Hydro-zroplane, by Mr. A. M. 
McIntosH. Remarks were made by Mr. L. HARGRAVE. 


2. Model of Southern Coal Field, made by Mr. L. F. 
HARPER, Geological Surveyor, by Mr. J. H. CARNE with 
the permission of the Under Secretary for Mines. 


The model represents an area of about 3,600 square miles. 
and embraces the whole of the south-eastern portion of the 
coal bearing basin of New South Wales, containing all the 
Southern Collieries. The data necessary for the construc- 
tion was obtained during a Geological Survey of the area 
by Mr. L. F. HARPER, F.G.S., Geological Surveyor in the 
State Department of Mines. This work was carried out 
under the direction of Mr. H. F. PITTMAN, A.R.S.M., Govern- 
ment Geologist, and extended intermittently over a period 
of about twelve years. A number of maps and geological 
sections have been reproduced anda memoir is now in 
course of preparation. An outline of the method of con- 
struction is as follows:—The necessary maps were mounted 
on a wooden base, the horizontal scale adopted being two 
miles to an inch. Pins were driven in at all necessary 
spots, over 2,000 being used, and cut off to scale at the 
levels represented, the vertical scale being 2,000 feet toan 
inch, an exaggeration of about 54 times the horizontal 
scale. Lengths of copper wire were bent to agree with 
the windings of the principal watercourses, and then 
mounted in position on stops cut to represent the correct 
altitude. Plaster of Paris was used to mould the contours 
roughly and was subsequently carved into the correct form. 
The area dealt with had been geologically surveyed in 
detail, so that the data available and personal familiarity 
with the country resulted in a fairly accurate representa- 

R—Deec, 3. 1913. 


XVill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


tion. Casts of the original were made at the Sydney 
Technical College, then coloured to depict the various 
geological formations, and the main roads, rivers and rail- 
way lines indicated with sufficient names painted on to 
enable the geography of the area to be followed. The 
completed model renders it easy to follow the physical 
features, including the catchment area of the Sydney Water / 
Supply, and the general geology. It should prove useful for 
educational purposes and copies have been supplied to the 
Sydney University and Technical College, as well as to the 
Military Intelligence Corps, whilst a copy will be exhibited 
temporarily in the Tourist Bureau Window, Challis House, 
and permanently at the Mining and Geological Museum, 
Lower George Street. : 


3. Photograph of Reptilian Footprints in the Bulli Coal 
Measures, by W. 8. Dun. 
4. Delegate Meteorite, by Mr. J. H. CARNE. 


The specimen weighs 61 Ibs. and looks like a piece of rusty 
metallic iron, the shape somewhat resembling a thick 
stumpy boomerang. It was found about six miles N.N.E. 
of Delegate, and its existence has been known for ten or 
twelve years. When struck with astone or hammer it 
emits a bell-like sound, and amongst the explanations given 
for the origin were that it had either been a bag of bullock 
bells smelted together by a bush fire, or a small blacksmith’s 
anvil subjected to the same treatment. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBER 3rd, 1913. 


The three hundred and sixtieth (360th) General Monthly 
Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was 
held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North, at 
8 p.m. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xix, 


Mr. H. G. SMITH, President, in the Chair. 
Thirty-three members and two visitors were present. 


The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and 
confirmed. 


The certificates of three candidates for admission as 
ordinary members were read for the second time. 


Messrs.O.A.SUSSMILCH and R. H. GRIEVE were appointed 
Scrutineers, and Mr. W. M. HAMLET deputed to preside at 
the Ballot Box. 


The following gentlemen were duly elected as ordinary 
members of the Society:— 

RICHARD WESTMAN CHALLINOR, F.I.C., F.C.S., Technical 
College. 

EDWIN CHEEL, Botanical Assistant, Botanic Gardens, 
Sydney. 

HAROLD HRic KUNTZEN, Manufacturing Chemist, 

Australian Glue and Gelatine Works, Alexandria. 


The President made the following announcements :— 

1. That a Popular Science Lecture, entitled ‘Alkali, 
Alkaloid, Alkohol,’ by Mr. W. M. HAMLET, F.I.c., would 
be delivered in the Society’s Hall, on September 18th, 1913, 
at 8 p.m. 


2. That donations consisting of 3 volumes, 354 parts, 11 
reports, and 3 maps, were laid upon the table. 


THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 
1. “Notes on the rectifying property in Silicon and 
Selenium,’’ by O. W. VONWILLER, B.Sc. 
2. “‘Ionisation caused by penetrating y rays in a closed 
thick-walled vessel,’’ by S. H. PIERCE, B.Sc., communi- 
cated by Prof. POLLOCK. 


Brief Lecturette by J. H. MAIDEN, on those Prickly Pears 


{Opuntias) which interest Australians, illustrated by 
coloured drawings and fresh specimens. 


sex ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


Remarks were made by Messrs. HAMLET and DARNELL- 


SMITH, and by the Rev. Dr. ROSEBY. 


EXHIBITS: r 


Marble from near Marulan, by Mr. C. A. SUSSMILCH, F.G.S. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, OCTOBER Ist 1913. 


The three hundred and sixty-first (361st) General Monthly 
Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was 
held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North, at 
8 p.m. 

Mr. H. G. SmiruH, President, in the Chair. 

Forty-two members and two visitors were present. 


The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and 
confirmed. 


The certificates of two candidates for admission as 
ordinary members were read for the first time. 


The President made the following announcements :— 

1. That a Popular Science Lecture entitled “‘ Irrigation 
in India and in Egypt,” by Prof. W. H. WARREN, LL.D., 
would be delivered in the Society’s Hall, on October 16th, 
1913. 


2. That donations consisting of 5 volumes, 129 parts, 7 
reports and 9 maps, were laid upon the table. | 


THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 
1. ‘“The Extraction of Radium from the Olary Ores,’’ by 
S. RADCLIFF. 

In the year 1906, Mr. W. S. CuapmMan, Government 
Assayer of South Australia discovered that the yellow 
substance encrusting a mineral sample sent in for gold 
assay was carnotite, a rare uranium mineral which had 
previously only been found in Colorado, U.S.A. The dis- 
covery was considered of such importance that Mr. H. Y.L: 


* 
J 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xxi; 


Brown the Government Geologist, at once visited the 
locality and reported the existence of a large deposit of 
radioactive ore. Dr. D. MAWSON afterwards examined the 
occurrence and published a paper on it. A few years later 
the Radium Hill Company was formed in Sydney to work 
the deposit, and 30 tons of ore was sent to Europe in charge 
of Dr. MAwson. The European chemists found the ore so 
difficult to treat that no buyers could be found for it. 
Mean time the directors of the company commissioned the 
writer of this paper to investigate the possibility of treat- 
ing the ore locally, and the process now described is the 
outcome of his work. The Olary deposit differs from other 
radium ore occurrences in that it consists of a large well 
defined lode of low grade ore of very uniform composition. 
It is characteristic of the rich radium ores that the ore 
bodies are small and irregular. The essential feature of 
the process now worked at Woolwich is that it is designed 
to handle a large tonnage cheaply and simply. The plant 
is capable of treating 500 tonsa year. The process depends 
on the discovery that it is possible to extract the radium 
without having to decompose the whole of the ore, thus 
efiecting great economies in chemicals and labour. The 
concentrates contain 1 part of radium in 214 million parts 
of ore, and extraction is effected by means of successive 
concentrations. The radium from 10 tons of concentrates 
is collected first in one ton of material, then in about 
25 ibs. of richer product, and finally worked up to a market- 
able product in the laboratory. 

Remarks were made by Professors POLLOCK and FaWwsItT 
and Mr. HAMLET. 


2. “Vanilla and a short and simple method for the deter- 
mination of Vanillin,’”’ by W. M. DOHERTY. 

The author described this important and interesting 

plant, which is now used throughout the civilised world, 


¢ 


XXil. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


having been introduced into Europe as a perfume by Cortes, 
the celebrated Spaniard. It was known in Queen Elizabeth’s 
time in England as a medicine, and to it was ascribed cer- 
tain curious physiological properties. Its chief interest to 
the chemist is the fact that its active ingredient, to which 
it owes its characteristic odour, namely, vanillin, was one 
of the first important substances to be synthesised. This. 
vanillin, which was originally sold at £160 per pound, can 
now be purchased for less than £1, and this great reduction 
is due to systematic chemical research. The chief point 
of the paper dealt with the determination of the vanillin, 
which should be present in a certain proportion in genuine 
essences, and a simple accurate and expeditious method 
was shown which can replace the more elaborate one now 
in use. 


Remarks were made by Messrs. HAMLET and MAIDEN. 


3. ‘A flame test for chloral hydrate,’’ by W. M. DoHERTY. 
Remarks were made by Mr. HAMLET and Dr. QUAIFE. 


4 **On some transverse tests of Australian and Foreign 
Timbers,”’ by JAMES NANGLE, F.R.A.S. 


Remarks were made by Mr. CLUNIES Ross, Mr. BiIsHopP, 
and Mr. HALLIGAN, 


EXHIBIT: 
Fossil leaves from Torbanelea Colliery, Queensland, by 
Mr. W. 8S. DUN. 


These specimens give evidence of the occurrence of a 
species of Phyllopteris, smaller in form than P. Feist- 
manteli, which has been recorded from the Styx River 
coalfield, and Stewarts Creek, near Rockhampton in 
Queensland, and Kuntha Hill, mouth of Leigh’s Creek, 
South Australia. These horizons have been regarded of 
Ipswich (Lower Mesozoic) age—Trias-Jura of Queensland 
Geologists. The specimens are of Marine Cretaceous beds 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XxXill. 


associated and overlaid by freshwater series apparently of 
Ipswich age, but hitherto not yielding determinable fossils. 
This points to the probable contemporaneity of the fresh- 
water (Ipswich) series and the Rolling Downs (Lower 
Oretaceous) marine sediments. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, NOVEMBER 5th, 1913. 


The three hundred and sixty-second (362nd) General 
Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales 
was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North, 
at 8 p.m. 

Mr. H. G. SmitTuH, President, in the Chair. 

Thirty-three members and five visitors were present. 


The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and 
confirmed. | 


The certificates of candidates for admission as ordinary 
members were read: two for the second, and one for the 
first time. 


Dr. R. GREIG-SMITH and Professor C. E. FawsiITT were 
appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. R. H. CAMBAGE deputed to 
preside at the Ballot Box. 


The following gentlemen were duly elected as ordinary 
members of the Society:— | 
L. Ff. HARPER, F.G.S., Department of Mines, Sydney. 
W. J. SCAMMELL, Manufacturing Chemist, 18 Middle 
Head Road, Mosman. 


A letter was‘read from Mrs. HINDER, thanking the 
Society for its letter of condolence on the death of her 
husband. 

The President made the following announcement :— 

That donations consisting of 5 volumes, 215 parts, 21 
reports, 3 calendars and 1 map were laid upon the table. 


ba fe 


XXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 


1. ‘‘On the Australian Melaleucas and their Essential Oils,”’ 
Part V, by R. T. BAKER, F.L.S. and H. G. SMITH, F.C.S. 


The species investigated in this number of the series are 
Melaleuca leucadendron, Linn, and its alleged synonyms. 
This was the first species described in the genus, and was 
recorded by Linnzeus under the impression that it was from 
it that the East Indian oil of “‘ Cajuput’’ was derived from 
its leaves. This was afterwards shown to be an error, and 
that it was M. minor which yielded the oil. There are 
several Melaleucas with broad leaves somewhat similar to 
the M. leucadendron growing around the east and north 
coasts of Australia, and although most of these have at 
various times been given specific names which have, how- 
ever been synomyised under Linnzeus’ species, a comparison 
of these with the original has shown them to be distinct 
both botanically and chemically. This paper deals with 
the systematic history of each species, their geographical 
distribution, timbers, and chemistry of the oils. The 
essential oil obtained from two of the species differs con- | 
siderably from that known as ‘“‘cajuput,’’ which oil has been 
supposed in the past to have been derived from a similar 
tree. The main portion of oil of “‘cajuput’”’ consists of 
cineol, a constituent common to very many of the oils of 
the Melaleucas; the alcohol terpineol has also been isolated 
from “‘ cajuput.’’ The oil from Melaleuca Maideni differs 
considerably from “‘cajuput”’ in that it contains much less 
cineol, and in the high boiling constituents not being the 
same. The oil of Melaleuca Smithii consists almost entirely 
of high boiling constituents of which the greater portion is 
a sesquiterpene alcohol, which, from its physical and other 
properties, seems to belong to the open chain series. This 
alcohol, which has been named melaleucol, thus differs from 
the sesquiterpene alcohols usually found in essential oils, 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXV. 


and this appears to be the first time that such an alcohol 
has been found occurring in the leaves of any plant. The 
oil of this species does not appear to contain at any time 
more than 5 per cent. of cineol, usually less than 2 per cent., 
and differs almost entirely from “‘cajuput oil.’’ The oil of 
this species may eventually be found to be of value in the 
perfumery industry. 


Remarks were made by Mr. CLUNIES Ross and Dr. J. B. 
CLELAND. 
2. ‘‘Some Physico-Chemical measurements on Milk,’’ by 


H. B. TAYLOR, B.Sc., Science Research Scholar, Uni- 
versity of Sydney, (Communicated by Prof. FawsiITt.) 


This paper was read by Mr. TAYLOR, by permission of the 
President, and remarks were made by Prof. FawsitTT and 
Dr. CHAPMAN. 


EXHIBITS: 
1. Portraits of Assistant-Surveyor LARMER, by Mr. J. H. 
MAIDEN. 


JAMES LARMER was the son of JAMES and FRANCES 
LARMER, and was born at Sunning Hill near Ascot, Berks, 
England, and was baptised at the church of St. Michael 
and all Angels in his native village on December 16th, 1808. 
He was probably born, therefore, about the beginning of 
December in that year. He was 21 years of age when he 
was appointed by the Imperial Government to come to New 
South Wales as an Assistant Surveyor under Major 
MITCHELL, Surveyor General of New South Wales, and at 
the time of his death he was the last of the so-called 
Imperial Surveyors. He accompanied Major MITCHELL on 
his expedition to western New South Wales, and is freely 
mentioned by him in Volume I of MITcHELL’s ‘‘ Three 
Expeditions.’’ He was much esteemed in his profession, 
and the Lands Department sometime ago transferred to the 
Mitchell Library his manuscript vocabulary of native names 


XXVI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


of places, but it does not appear that he published indepen- 
dently. His last appointment under the Lands Department. 
was at Braidwood as District Surveyor, and when he retired 
from that office he continued to reside there, where he died: 
on the 5th June, 1886. This note is published, and frame 
containing three portraits taken at different periods of 
his life, is hung on the Society’s walls in furtherance of 
a suggestion made by the writer of this note in the Journal 
of this Society, Vol. XLVI, p. 17. 


2. Model showing the Orbit of the present Comet 
(Westphal), in relation to the Sun and Harth, by Pro- 
fessor W. EH. COOKE, M.A. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, DECEMBER 83rd, 1913. 


The three hundred and sixty-third (363rd) General 
Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales. 
was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North,. 
at 8 p.m. 


Mr. H. G. Smita, President, in the Chair. 
Twenty-three members and two visitors were present. 


The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and 
confirmed. 


The certificates of candidates for admission as ordinary 
members were read: one for the second, and two for the 
first time. 


Mr. L. HARGRAVE and Dr. G. HARKER were appointed 
Scrutineers, and Mr. R. H. CAMBAGE deputed to preside at. 
the Ballot Box. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXVil.. 


The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary 
member of the Society:— 


A. H. Martin, Teacher, Architecture Department, 
Sydney Technical College. 


It was announced that 3 volumes, 108 parts, 6 reports, 
1 map and 1 catalogue were laid upon the table. 


THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 


1. ‘‘Ona new species of Hucalyptus from Northern Queens- 
land,’”’ by J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S. and R. H. CAMBAGE, L.S., 
BLS. 


2. “‘Notes on Hucalyptus, with description of new species,’” 
No. II, by J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S. 


Remarks were made by the President and Mr. R. H. 
CAMBAGE. 


3. “The occurrence of Trimethylamine and its origin in the 
Australian Salt-bush, Rhagodia hastata R. Br.,’’ by 
R. W. CHALLINOR, F.I.C., F.C.S. 


This plant belongs to the family Chenopodiacez and is 
the common species grown in the gardens around Sydney. 
The investigation was carried out in order to locate, if 
possible, the constituents which give rise to the volatile 
substance having a strong herring-brine odour. Trimethyl- 
amine was obtained on distilling the fresh branchlets with 
caustic alkali, the amount obtained in this way being 
equivalent to 0°012 per cent. Analysis of the plant was 
undertaken by a method similar to that of Schulze, and a 
basic substance isolated, the hydrochloride of which decom- 
poses at about 220° C. with evolution of trimethylamine. 
This salt resembles choline hydrcloride very closely in its 
chemical reactions, but differs from it in being non-deli- 
quescent and considerably less soluble in absolute alcohol. 
The double platinum salt contains 30°68 per cent. of platinum 


XXVill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


whereas the platinum salt of choline contains 31°65 per cent. 
The platinochloride, crystallised from water over sulphuric 
acid, consists of anhydrous orange coloured plates and 
prisms and melts at 217—218° ©. (uncorr.) with decom- 
position; according to Henry, “The Plant Alkaloids,”’ choline 
platinochloride melts at 215 — 240° C. with decomposition. 
This basic substance, the hydrochloride of which crystallises 
in monoclinic crystals, is thus apparently the parent sub- 
stance from which the trimethylamine is obtained. 


Remarks were made by Mr. MAIDEN, Prof. ROBINSON and 
the President. 


. EXHIBITS: 
1. Acid Silica Gels, by W. J. CLUNIES ROSS, B.Sc. 


Specimens were exhibited to show the power of a small 
quantity of a solution of silicate of soda to gelatinize a 
large quantity of variousacids. Gels were shown produced 
by hydrochloride, sulphuric, nitric, acetic, phosphoric, 
tartaric, oxalic and formic acids. Also gels coloured by 
copper, iron, mapganese and cobalt respectively. 


2. Mr. R. T. BAKER exhibited old wooden water, pipes 
from London and Sydney. Remarks were made Mr. L. 
HARGRAVE. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX. XX1Xx, 


} 


APPENDIX, 


POPULAR SCIENCE LECTURE, “‘IRRIGATION IN INDIA AND 
IN HGYPT.”’ 


By Professor W. H. WARREN, LL.D. 


(Delivered in the Socrety’s Hall, October 16th, 1913.) 


Introductory. 

Irrigation is of very ancient origin, and it appears to 
have been practised in Mesopotamia and Egypt several 
thousand years before the Christian Hra. The earliest 
form was probably a natural inundation system brought 
about by rivers overflowing their banks and flooding the 
lands bordering on their lower reaches. This appears to 
have been the origin of the Basin System which has been 
so largely practised in Hgypt and which, in the time of 
Joseph, made it the principal producer of corn for the 
adjoining countries. 


Rivers such as the Nile in Egypt and those in Northern 
India having seasons of periodic flood, generally have their 
source in mountain ranges where the rainfall is heavy and 
the formation rocky. The stream is at first torrential in 
character, and flows rapidly down the steep slopes carrying 
with it material eroded from its bed and the sides of the 
valley in which it flows. The slope becomes less steep 
and the velocity less rapid as it approaches the foot of the 
hills where the heavier material carried in suspension is 
deposited. The river flows in a more or less deep channel 
through the flatter country in its course towards the sea, 
gradually diminishing in velocity and increasing in width 
until it reaches at length the region where it overflows its 
banks in times of flood. The material hitherto carried in 
suspension is deposited, gradually raising the level of the 
bed and banks and spreading its silt on the adjacent lands. 


XXX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX. 


The object of the basin system is to control and regulate 
these periodic inundations, and consists of forming a chain 
of basins on the land bordering on the river by constructing 
suitable embankments, regulators and canals. 


Some such system of control may have been applied to 
the Tigris and Huphrates in Mesopotamia, but the great 
prosperity and fertility of Babylonia appear to have been 
due to a more advanced system of irrigation. According 
to the Bible, and to a record said to be older, it appears 
that Hammurabi, one of the kings of Babylonia, made a 
canal and constructed branch canals distributing the water 
over the desert plains. The inscription describing these 
ancient works existed 2200 B.C., and it states that the 
water supply was unfailing, thus implying that the canals 
were what we now Call perennial. 


So that the system of perennial canals which has been 
so successfully introduced into India by British engineers 
probably owes its origin to the hydraulic engineers of 
ancient Chaldea. 

Irrigation in India. 

It appears that far back in ancient history man has 
devised many systems for carrying water to land under 
cultivation in order to increase the fertility of the soil, and 
in no country is this ancient system of irrigation better 
exemplified than in India. 


The Hindu races were probably mainly responsible for 
the introduction of irrigation in India, and the extent to 
which it was and is still practised, is governed by the 
deficiency or abundance of the rainfall and the supply of 
water carried by the rivers and water courses of the. 
country. The methods resorted to by the natives of India 
for obtaining water for irrigation purposes were by means 
of wells, storage tanks, and inundation canals derived from 
rivers. An inundation canal can only be supplied with 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX. XXX, 


water when the river is in flood ; it has no regulating 
devices for controlling the supply, so that its utility depends 
upon the fixed volume, regular periodicity and duration of 
the river floods. These canals, together with wells, were 
the only means of irrigation available in ancient times in 
the Punjab and Scinde. In the southern district of the 
Madras Presidency, where the rainfall is small and uncer- 
tain, an enormous number of artificial reservoirs or tanks 
has been constructed for the storage of water, many of 
these are of great antiquity. According to Colonel F. H. 
RUNDALL, C.S.1., R.E., about 60,000 of these tanks are pro- 
vided with masonry works. The Madras tanks depend 
mainly on local rainfall, but they are sometimes supplied 
from rivers or streams by means of channels taking off 
above weirs constructed in the beds of rivers. In aGovern- 
ment Report it is stated that there are 1129 weirs across 
rivers or streams in Madras, each connected with a series 
of tanks, or with a single one. The larger weirs of irriga- 
tion works, such as the delta systems, are not included in 
the numbers stated. 


The natives of India appear to have possessed consider- 
able skill in the construction of embankments of earth for 
forming tanks and anicuts across rivers, which, although 
developed to a greater extent in Madras, existed more or 
less in other parts of India. In the tract of land between 
the Ganges and the Jumna, now commanded by the Ganges 
Canal, there existed, in 1860, 70,000 masonry wells, and 
280,000 temporary earthen ones, irrigating 1,470,000 acres 
by lift. Some of these are still in existence. Again, in 
many of the larger rivers are to be found the remains of 
ancient anicuts or weirs of somewhat crude construction, 
but generally well located in regard to the purpose intended. 
Some of these have been restored and are still in use, but 
the annual cost of repairs is excessive. Hence it is clear 


XXXI1. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX. 


that irrigation in India is of ancient origin, and it was 
necessary for the British engineers in the first place to 
study the works they found in that country, and the con- 
ditions which influenced their efficiency, before they could 
apply successfully their greater skill and scientific know- 
ledge to the design and construction of those greater 
irrigation works now so widely distributed throughout the 
Indian Empire. 


Mechanical Appliances for Raising Water. 


The ancient methods used by the natives of India and 
Egypt for raising water from wells and low-lying depressions 
consist of the following :— 

1. The Persian Wheel. 2. The Mote. 3. The Picottah in 
India (called the Shadouf in Egypt). 4. The Basket. 5. 
The Doon. 


All along the banks of the Nile one sees the numerous 
shadoufs at work lifting water from the river into channels 
leading to the areas under cultivation. The Persian Wheel 
is called a sakia in Egypt, and is generally actuated by 
bullocks. These ancient and somewhat crude devices have 
been used for raising water in India and Hgypt for thousands 
of years, and they are apparently just the same to-day. 


In Egypt there is a considerable number of pumping 
plants used for lifting water and for drainage of the low- 
lying land on portions of the delta. 


The method of obtaining water from rivers for irrigation 
consists of inundation and perennial canals. In regard to 
inundation canals the site for the entrance taking off from 
the river should be carefully selected, the object being to 
reduce the deposit of silt in the canals and convey as much 
of it as possible to the lands to be irrigated, as the deposits — 
from the flood waters of silt-bearing rivers are most valu- 
able fertilizing agents. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX. XXXIlll. 


In the almost rainless districts of the Punjab and the 
Scinde in India, considerable areas of land are irrigated 
by numerous inundation canals derived from the Indus and 
its tributaries. 


Perennial canals supply the areas irrigated, not merely 
in flood time, but whenever necessary, enabling the district 
to be more fully cultivated and with greater certainty than 
would be possible by the intermittent system of inundation 
canals. 


There are two types of perennial canals:— 

(a) Those which draw their supplies from the upper 
portions of rivers and convey the water to the lower 
parts of their valleys, frequently over long distances. 


(b) Those which start from a deltaic river at the head of 
the delta and irrigate the low-lying lands lying 
between, and for some distance on the other side of 
the diverging branches of the river. 


Examples of the first kind in India are:—The Upper 
Ganges Canal system taking off the river at Hardwar; the 
Lower Ganges Canal systems taking off at Narora lower 
down the river; the Agra Canal taken from the right bank 
of the Jumna at Okla about eight miles below Delhi. These 
are in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. 


In the Punjab there are some fine examples of perennial. 
canals, including the following:—The Bari Doab Canal 
taking off the upper portion of the Ravi at Madhopur; the 
Chenab Canal irrigating the Rechna Doab between the 
Ravi and the Chenab, taking off at Khanke a few miles 
below Wazirabad ; the Sidhnai Canal taking off the lower 
portion of the Ravi near its junction with the Chenab, 
which is partially perennial. 


Examples of the second kind, which start from the head 
of deltaic rivers, occur in the Province of Madras as Dow- . 


S—Deec 3, 1913. 


XXXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX. 


laishwaram, near Rajahmundry, at the head of the Goda- 
very Delta; the Kistna system of canals taking off at the 
head of the delta at Bezwada; the Cauvery system of 
canals taking off the rivers Coleroon and Cauvery near 
Trichinopoli; the canals taking off just above the Delta 
Barrage in Egypt, which irrigate the delta. 


The foregoing systems of perennial canals are fine ex- 
amples of their kind, and they will be mainly considered in 
regard to their efficiency in supplying water to irrigate the 
land under cultivation. They are all artificial channels 
supplied from rivers giving an ample supply of water, and 
are separated into branches, each of which is provided with 
major or minor channels supplying directly the water 
courses connected with the irrigated areas. Great care is 
necessary in designing these canals in order that they may 
fulfil their purpose efficiently and economically, and the 
proper site and nature of the head works are of the greatest 
importance. 


The head works consist of a weir across the river pro- 
vided with under sluices. The entrance to the canal is 
through head sluices for regulating the supply of water. 
The main objects of a weir across the river are to raise the 
level of the water in the dry season, when the river is low, 
and to provide a means of forcing it through the head sluices 
of the canai. The under sluices, which are constructed in 
the weir itself, are necessary to create a scour during the 
flood season to keep a definite channel open above the weir 
in the neighbourhood of the canal head, so that there may 
be no difficulty in leading the water to the head sluices 
when the river is low. 


In India weirs are divided into six classes :—1. Founded 
on rock. 2. In the boulder formation at the head of rivers 
near the hills. 3. In clay or kunkur soils. 4. On sand 
overlying clay or rock which can be reached in a reasonable 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS —APPENDIX. XXKV, 


/ 


depth. 5. On coarse sand of very great depth. 6. On fine 
sand of very great depth. 


The perennial system in Egypt has been rendered possible 
by the construction of the Asstian Dam, which has been 
thickened and heightened recently so as to provide a storage 
of about 2,420,000 cubic metres of water. All the flood 
waters of the Nile pass through the sluices of this great 
dam, and during the months extending from November to 
March the sluices are closed and the reservoir filled. Dur- 
ing the months of April, May, June and part of July the 
reservoir is drawn upon to supplement the deficient dis- 
charge of the river. HWxtensive areas of the basin system 
have been converted to the perennial system, producing 
two crops a year, with considerable advantage to the 
prosperity of Upper Egypt. Two important river regulators 
have been built between Assiian and Cairo. The Assitit 
Barrage, which is constructed just below the head works of 
the Ibrahimia Canal, and the Hsna (or Isna) Barrage 
between Luxor and Asstian. The Assiit Barrage has been 
built across the Nile to regulate the supply of the Ibrahimia 
Canal, and it is designed to hold up a head of 2°55 metres. 
The Ibrahimia Canal head is designed to withstand a head 
of 3°25 metres. 


‘The Assuan Dam. 


This great work is build across the Nile at the first 
cataract. The dam is 6,400 feet long, or about 1} miles. 
As stated in a report by the Director-General of Irrigation 
Works in HKgypt, Mr. Murpock MAcDONALD, C.M.G., 
M.Inst.C.E., there were three distinct phases in the construc- 
tion of this dam, as it now stands. (1) The building of the 
original dam; (2) the protection of the rock faces down 
stream, and (3) the thickening and heightening of the dam. 


As originally built the height was only 85 feet, and the 
area impounded 863,000 acre feet. This work is principally 


= 
Pine 3 
¥ 
* 
‘ 


KK. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX. 


remarkable as being the only solid dam which passes the 
discharge of a large river like the Nile through its body, 
for which purpose it is provided with 140 low-level sluices, 
each 23 feet deep by 65 feet wide, and 40 upper sluices 114 
feet deep by 63 feet wide. The lower sluices were designed 
to be capable of passing the largest possible flood with a 
relatively small head of water on the up-stream side of the 
dam. ‘The upper sluices were built for the purpose of dis- 
charging under low heads the normal river when the 
reservoir is full. 


The Government of Hgypt, in consequence of antiquarian 
agitation regarding the temples of Phils, agreed not to build 
the dam higher than 85 feet (106°00 R.L.) which produced 
a volume of 980,000,000 cubic metres, as this height, while 
submerging some of the outer works and colonnades of 
Phile, left the main temples high and dry. The require- 
ments of Hgypt, however, were not fully met by the 
original dam and it became absolutely necessary to provide 
additional storage-area. 


When the dam was originally under construction the 
temples on the island of Philee were, where necessary, 
carefully underpinned down to solid rock, and although the 
depth of water about these temples is increased by seven 
metres, there appears to be no reason to doubt their 
stability. A few other temples of minor importance in 
Nubia will be affected by the increased depth of water in 
the reservoir. 


Before proceeding with the thickening and heightening 
of the dam it became necessary to strengthen the aprons 
on the down-stream side in order to resist the erosion of 
the granite bed of the river immediately below the dam. 
The effect of such an enormous volume of water flowing 
through the sluices at a high velocity has rendered neces- 
sary the construction of a heavy masonry floor set in 2 to1 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX. XXXVII. 


cement mortar, and at present the work is satisfactory 
and likely toremain so. The thickening and heightening 
of the dam were begun after the talus or apron had been 
completed. Sir BENJAMIN BAKER came to the conclusion 
that the only satisfactory method of building the thickening 
in contiguity to the old dam, so as to form the whole into 
as homogeneous a structure as rubble masonry built in such 
a climate would permit, was to keep the old and the new 
parts separate until such time should elapse as might 
permit of the new work reaching the same temperature 
stage as that of the old part, when the space between 
could be filled with cement grout consisting of 1 of water 
to 1°2 of Portland cement. 


The Grand Barrage, or Delta Barrage as it is more fre- 
quently called, is situated at the head of the delta north 
of Cairo. It was originally built by a French engineer, 
M. MocEL, but it failed to hold up even a moderate head 
of water. The failure was due to careless construction 
rather than to the design. It consists of two separate 
works across the heads of the two branches of the river— 
the Damietta and the Rosetta. There are three main 
canals which take off above the barrage, which with 
numerous branches irrigate the delta. The restoration of 
this great work was undertaken by Sir J. FOWLER and Sir 
B. BAKER and consisted in lengthening the aprons of 
masonry up and down stream, covering the old floor with 
a layer of concrete 4 feet thick over which was laid a 
pavement of ashlar masonry under the arches and over a 
portion of the down-stream apron; also a row of piles was 
added to the up-stream apron. The foundations of the 
barrage were further consolidated by means of cement 
grout under pressure. By means of these additions the 
barrage was able to hold up 4 metres, bit it was decided 
to reduce this to 3 metres, and subsidiary weirs were con- 


XXXVIli. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX. 


structed on both branches of the river below the barrage 
which hold up 35 metres, or the total head held up was 64 
metres. In this way more perfect control has been obtained 
over the water at the apex of the delta during all seasons. 
The Menufia regulator, at the head of the Central Canal, 
is a fine specimen of its kind. 


The Zifta Barrage, built across the Damietta branch, is 
a typical example of a river regulator, and embodies the 
experience gained in the construction of similar works. 
elsewhere. 


The United Provinces of Agra and the Oudh, the Madras 
Presidency, and also the Punjab in India furnish some 
manificent examples of irrigation works. 


In the former the Ganges upper and lower systems of 
perennial canals are the most important. The Upper 
Ganges Canal takes off just above the sacred town of 
Hardwar, where the river emerges from the Sewalic Hills 
at the foot of the Himalayan Mountains. The Lower 
Ganges takes off at Narora where a fine weir has been 
constructed. 

On both systems of canals there are many very interest- 
ing works, suchas the Ranipur and Puthri super passages. 
for passing mountain torrents across the canal, the Solani 
Aqueduct carrying the canal across the Solani Valley, the 
Dhanauri level crossing. All these are on the Upper 
Ganges system. On the Lower Ganges Canal there is a 
remarkably fine aqueduct called the Kali Nadi, or Nadrai. 


The most modern and one of the finest of the great 
perennial systems is the Chenab Canal which irrigates the 
country known as the Rechna Doab between the Ravi and 
the Chenab rivers. A weir has been constructed across 
the Chenab at Khanke 4,000 feet long, with very fine under- 
sluices which keep the channel clear in front of the head 
works of the canal. The canal has a full discharge of 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS —APPENDIX. KOKO ee 


10,800 cusecs. or more than ten times that of the main 
canal at Berembed on the Murrumbidgee. The area irri- 
gated is 2,000,000 acres, and the population supported is 
1,000,000. The training works on the Chenab River are 
ona grand scale and represent the system of river training 
adopted inthe Punjab. The Bell-bunds on the Chenab and 
the tee-headed groins on the Ganges are worthy of careful 
study. 


In Southern India the Delta systems are the most inter- 
esting, and all these, with the exception of the Mahanadi 
in Orissa, are situated in the Madras Presidency. The 
essential distinction between the ordinary conditions of 
Northern and Southern India is that in the north there isa 
perennial supply fed from the melting snows of the Hima- 
layan Range, restricting the area under cultivation by a 
fixed and more or less limited supply of water, whereas in 
the south the main crops are grown at the time when the 
rivers are at their maximum volume, and frequently the 
south is subjected to drought. Throughout the whole 
Madras Presidency, in every valley, some arrangements 
exist for the conservation of water, which is utilized to 
the last drop. 


The principal Delta systems are the Godavery and Kistna, 
lying between Coconada and Pedda Gangan on the east 
coast; they adjoin one another and form an extensive and 
connected irrigation area about 200 miles long by 50 miles 
wide. Both the Godavery and Kistna rivers break through 
the line of the Hastern Ghats within fifty miles of the sea, 
and in the course of ages have built up the wide stretch 
of delta lands beyond them. 


The head of the Godavery Delta is at Dowlaishwaram, 
about four miles from the railway station, Rajahmundry. 
A weir designed by Sir ARTHUR OCoTTON has been con- 
structed across the river where the total width from bank 


be i” Se 
* 
: ee 
. Sy 
alate had 
‘ 


xl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS— APPENDIX. 


to bank is three and a half miles, but four islands reduce 
the length of the weir to two and a half miles. The river 
Godavery drains 115,570 square miles, and has a maximum 
discharge of over 1,000,000 cusecs. The rise of flood at 
the weir is 27 to 28 feet; the bed of the river is pure sand. 


At the head of the Delta there are four channels; of 
these the two eastern ones unite again almost immediately 
and form what is called the Gowtami-Godavari; and the 
two western channels similarly unite to form the Vasista- 
Godavari. The land between these two principal branches 
forms the central delta, and that lying to the east of the 
Gowtami-Godavari forms the Eastern Delta; also the land 
lying to the west of the Vasista-Godavari forms the Western 
Delta. 


The weir is 14 feet in height, and the three sets of head 
sluices give a total area of 6542 square feet. The develop- 
ment of the various canals and distributary channels in the 
three sections of the delta was undertaken gradually, and / 
to-day the system is one of the largest and most successful 
in India, returning over 20% on the capital invested. 


The Kistna Delta system was designed by Sir ARTHUR 
COTTON soon after the construction of the Godavari Weir. 
The Kistna Weir is about 3,000 feet long, with a total 
length of 4,000 feet, including the under sluices, and is con- 
structed at a narrow portion of the river where a spur of 
sandstone runs down to the bed of the river at each side 
of the weir. The site for the weir was selected on account 
of the excellent supply of good stone immediately available 
from the rocky hills on each side. On each flank of the 
weir scouring sluices are provided in order to keep a clear 
channel in front of the regulating sluices of the two main 
canals where they take off. The flood waters rise nearly 
20 feet above the weir crest with a velocity of eleven miles 
an hour. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS —APPENDIX. xi, 


The Kistna Canals have a total length of main line and 
branches of 325 miles, of which 284 miles are navigable. 
There are 1,614 miles of distributing channels commanding 
800,000 acres. Like that of the Godavari, this system gives 
exceedingly good financial returns. The various head 
works to the canals, and the under sluices in the river in 
the Godavari and Kistna systems are excellent examples 
of their kind. There are some fine examples of under 
sluices at Shahatope Anicut. 


The most interesting reservoir scheme of irrigation in 
India is the Periyar system in Madras. This work was 
designed to irrigate the district of Madura, in Southern 
India, where the rainfall is scanty and uncertain, and where 
famines have frequently occurred. This district was 
formerly watered by the river Vaigai, which draws its 
supply from a catchment area on the eastern side of the 
Ghats, and irrigation has been in operation from time 
immemorial. On the western side of the Ghats the rain- 
fall is copious and secure, but it passed down the Periyar 
Channel to the sea unutilized. 


On one portion of the course of the Periyar it is only a 
few miles from one of the tributaries of the Vaigai, and 
the project consisted in diverting the surplus waters of the 
Periyar through the hills which intervene between it and 
the Vaigai. A reservoir was constructed by Colonel 
PENNYCUICK, R.E., by means of a concrete dam 1,241 feet 
long and 155 feet in height, a tunnel cut in rock through 
the intervening hills 5,704 feet long, having a cross-sec- 
tional area of 90 square feet and a fall of 1 in 75, discharges 
the water into the tributary of the Vaigai. 


GEOLOGICAL SKCTION. 


ABSTRACT 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION. 


Monthly Meeting, 9th April, 1913. 
Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, in the Chair. 
Ten members and two visitors were present. 


On the motion of Mr. R. H. CAMBAGE, seconded by Mr. 
C. HEDLEY, Professor DAVID was re-elected Chairman for 
the current year. On the motion of Dr. C. ANDERSON, 
seconded by Mr. L. Corron, Mr. OC. A. SUSSMILCH was re- 
elected honorary secretary. 


After discussion the following subjects were recommended 
for discussion during the year :—(a) The strata of unknown 
age which encircle the Triassic basin of the Clarence River 
District. (b) The geological age of the Clarence River 
Series. (c) The geological age of the alkaline volcanics of 
the Northern Rivers District. (d) The Ordovician and 
Silurian formations of the Bodalla District. (e) The Cooma 
Metamorphic Series. (f) Age of the last orogenic move- 
ments which effected New South Wales other than the New 
England District. (g) The age of the Tertiary alkaline 
rocks and their relation to lines of Tertiary faulting. (h) 
Joint systems and their aid in determining relative ages of 
adjoining formations. 


Dr. C. ANDERSON moved that the Section take up the 
question of supplying the necessary data for the Inter- 
national Science Catalogue regarding geological and 
mineralogical papers published in N.S. Wales, and it was 
agreed that the following members be nominated to the 


xlvi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


Council of the Royal Society for this work:—1. Dr. O. 
ANDERSON for Mineralogy; 2. Mr. W.S. Dun for general 
geology and paleontology; 3. Mr. C. A. SussmiLcH for 
petrology. 


Mr. C. HEDLEY then delivered an address on former land 
connections between Antarctica and Australia. His con- 
clusion was that the Arctic forms of our present fauna and 
flora did not arrive into Australia until the Glacial Epoch, 
and that therefore the land connection must have existed 
until at least the period of maximum glaciation. 


Monthly Meeting, 21st May, 1913. 
Prof. T. W. EH. DAVID, in the Chair. 
Six members and three visitors were present. 


Mr. KE. C. ANDREWS exhibited a specimen of contorted 
slate from Canbelego, N.S.W. 


Mr. C. A. SUSSMILCH gave a description of some of the 
physiographical features of Hastern Victoria. He pointed 
out that the general physiographical features were similar 
to those of South-eastern N.S. Wales, that block-faulting 
had taken place on a large scale, and that many of the 
fault-blocks were tilted. 


Messrs. H. C. ANDREWS, R. H. CAMBAGE and Prof. T. W. 
EK. DAVID also spoke on the subject. 


Monthly Meeting, 11th June, 1913. 
Mr. W. S. Dun, in the Chair. 


Nine members and three visitors were present. 


Mr. EH. O. ANDREWS gave an outline of the results of his 
geological survey of the Cobar District. He described the 
physiography, general geology, and petrography of the area 
and gave a detailed description of the ore-deposits. His 
remarks were illustrated with maps and sections and a 
large collection of rocks and minerals. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlvil, 


Monthly Meeting, 9th July, 1918. 
Prof. T. W. H. DAviD, in the Chair. 
Hight members and five visitors were present. 


A discussion took place as to the geological age of the 
last orogenic (folding) movements which had effected the 
state of N.S. Wales other than the New England District. 
The discussion was opened by Mr. C. A. SUSSMILCH, who 
outlined the known evidence, particularly that occurring 
on the western and southern margins of the main coal 
basin, and gave as his opinion that a great orogenic move- 
ment took place at or near the close of the Upper Devonian 
Epoch. 


Prof. Davip referred more particularly to evidence from 
the northern margin of the Permo-Carboniferous coal basin 
and was of opinion that the Upper Devonian stata were 
not folded until the end of the Carboniferous Period. 


Messrs. W. 8S. Dun and L. F. HARPER also spoke on the 
discussion, but no definite conclusion was arrived at. 


Monthly Meeting, 13th August, 1913. 
Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, in the Chair. 


Hight members and seven visitors were present. © 


Mr. W.S. DUN exhibited some recent geological publica- 
tions relating to Egypt, Indo-China, and the United States. 


Mr. G. W. CARD exhibited the following specimens :— 
Native silver, C.S.A. Mine, Cobar; torbernite, Carcoar, 
N.S.W.; cervantite, Barellan, N.S.W.; joseite, Mount 
Shamrock Mine, Queensland; meteorite (new), Molong; 
vein of native bismuth in wolfram, Torrington; topaz, 
Rock Vale. 


Mr. L. F. HARPER exhibited a relief model of the Illa- 
warra District, showing the geological formations and gave 
@ summary of the results of his geological survey work in 


xl vill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


that district. His remarks were illustrated with a large 
number of rock specimens. 


Monthly Meeting, Sth October, 1913. 
Mr. J. HE. CaRNgE, in the Chair. 


Seven members and two visitors were present. 
Prof. DAVID was absent owing to illness in his family. 


Mr. R. H. CAMBAGE exhibited a specimen of granite from 
Bellenden Ker Mountain, Queensland, andsome photographs 
of the Upper Cretaceous strata in the same State. 

Mr. G. W. Carp exhibited a number of specimens of 
miniature faults occurring in a tuff from Pokolbin. Healso 
exhibited a new geologist’s slide-rule. 

Mr. F. WATKIN BROWN exhibited a peculiar ironstone 
concretion shaped like an eel from the Wianamatta Shales 
at Enfield near Sydney. 


Monthly Meeting, 12th November, 19138. 
Prof. T. W. H. DAVID in the Chair. 


Seven members and six visitors were present. 


The Chairman, on behalf of the members, welcomed Mr. 
W. ANDERSON of the Geological Survey of Natal and 
formerly of the Geological Survey of N.S. Wales. 


Dr. C. ANDERSON exhibited specimens of wind-worn 
pebbles (Dricanter) from Wanganui, N.Z. 


Mr. G. W. CARD exhibited native bismuth, and bismuth- 
mite from Kingsgate, N.S.W. Wolfram altering into 
tungstite from Wolfram, N.S.W.  Sill-rock with fossil 
Glossopteris from Helensburgh. N.S.W. 


The Chairman opened a discussion on “‘The effect of pre- 
valent winds in controlling land forms.” He referred 
particularly to the effect which the prevailing westerly 
winds must have had in the different geological periods in 
influencing the positions of maximum sedimentation. 


INDEX. 


A PAGE 

Abstract of Proceedings eo, wie 
Agar-Agar Seaweed from Wes- 

tern Australia, Note on ... 75 


Angophoras, On the Essential 
Oils of the . 

Antarctica ne : 8 

Australian and Foreign Tim- 
bers, On some ‘Transverse 


Tests of 165 
B 
Baker, R. T., Onthe Australian 
Melaleucas and their Essen- 
tial Oils, Part V. 193 
Botany Bay, The Physiography 
of 120 
Building and Investment Fund vii. 
Cc 
Cambage, R. H., On a new 
species of Eucalyptus from 
Northern Queensland 215 
— Presidential oo nee es 
Antarctica... ae ee Poe 8 
Climatic Divisions .. 27 
Development and ‘Distribution 
of the Genus Eucalyptus ... 18 
Factors which regulate develop- 
ment and distribution Beaks t 
General Scientific Matters ie 4 
Grouping of Eucalypts ... 30 
Modification of the Eucalypts i in 
New South Wales since the 
Kosciusko Period ... B26 
Summary 56 


Cleland, J: B., Note on “Agar- 
Agar Seaweed from Wes- 
tern Australia... 15 

— Note on the Growth of the 
Flowering Stem of Xanthor- 
rhea hastilis, R. Br. Fen. he 

—— Note on the Occurrence of 
Coccidiosis in House Spar- 
rows and in Bovines in N. 

S. Wales ... 70 

Coccidiosis in House Sparrows 
and in Bovines in N.S. 
Wales, Note on the occur- 
rence of __... be eer ae 

Council, Report of ve Pee |e 

— members of i 


Genus 


PAGE 
Challinor, R. W., The Occur- 
rence of Trimethylamine 
and its Origin in the Aus- 
tralian Salt Bush, asi 
hastata R. Br. : 
Chapman, F., Note on an | Ostra- 
cod and an Ostracodal 
Limestone from the Middle 
Devonian of N.S. Wales... 244 
Chloral hydrate, A Flame Test 
LOGS. ir hi ... 168 


236 


Development and distribution 
of the genus Eucalyptus... 18 
Doherty, W.M., A Flame Test 
for Chloral Hydrate . 163 
— Vanilla: anda short and 
simple method for the 
determination of Vanillin 157 


E 
Essential Oils ... ie OS 
of the Angophoras, 106 
— — of the Australian 


oe 


Melaleucas ... ns ... 198 
Eucalyptus from Northern 

Queensland, on a new 

species of 215 


— with description o of New 
Species, No. I, Notes on... 76 
» No. II, Noteson ... 217 


Financial Statement ... att VA; 


G 

Eucalyptus, develop- 

ment and distribution of the 18 
Geological Section »« RLY 
Growth of the Flowering Stem 

of Xanthorrhea hastilis, R. 

Br., Note on the ... Mee eet (72 
Grouping of Eucalypts 1 gO 


H 
Hall, Cuthbert, The seedlings 
of the Angophoras with 
description ofa newspecies 98 


PAGE 
Halligan, G. H., The Physio- 
graphy of Botany Bay ... 120 


I 
Tonisation caused by penetrating 
y Rays in a closed thick- 
walled vessel 2 
Irrigation in India and in n Egypt 
— Popular Science Lecture xxix 


138 


M 
Maiden, J. H., Notes on Eucalyp- 
tus, with description of new 


species, No. I TO 
— — No. Il 27 
—— On a new species of Euca- 

lyptus from Northern 

Queensland . Bid 
Medal, Clarke, awards of (xi) 
— Society’s, awards of (xxii.) 
Melaleuca leucadendron... .. 198 
Members, list of MG) 


—— newly elected ix, xii, xvi, 
Kix, XXiil) Xxvil 

Modification of the Eucalypts 

in New South Wales since 


the Kosciusko Period 26 


Nangle, James, On some Trans- 
verse Tests of Australian 


and Foreign Timbers 165 
Obituary... aoe ae 1 (<x) 
Officers ... a AS Vili 
Olary Ores, extraction of 

Radium from the ... 145 
Ostracod, and an Ostracodal 

Limestone from the middle 

Devonian of New South 

Wales, Note on . 244 


P 
Parafiins of Eucalyptus Oils, 
Note on the 95 
Pierce, 8. H., The Tonisation 
caused by penetrating 
Rays in a closed thick- 
walled vessel f 
Physico-chemical Measurements 
on Milk, Some . 174 
Physiography of Botany Bay... 120 
Powell, C. W. R., Products of 
the action of Concentrated 
Sulphuric Acid on Iron ... 


138 


59 


PAGE 

Presidential Address, R. H. 
Cambage ... 1 
Products of the action of con- 
centrated sulphuric acid 


on iron 59 
Radcliff, S., Extraction of 
Radium from the Olary 
Ores.. 145 
Radium from the Olary Ores, 
extraction of . 145 
Ss 
Seedlings of the Angophoras 
with description of a new 
98 


species ‘ 

Silicon and Selenium, Notes 01 on 
the Rectifying Property in 129 

Smith, H.G., On the Australian 
Melaleucas and their Es- 
sential Oils, Part V sui LOD 

— On the Essential Oils of 
the Angophoras 

— Note on the Parafiins of 
Eucalyptus Oils ... 


106 
95 


T 
Taylor, H. B., Some Physico- 
Chemical Measurements on 
Milk sot saan 04 
Trimethylamine and its origin 
in the Australian Salt Bush, 
The Occurrence of ... 236 


Vanilla: and a short and simple 
method for the determina- 
tion of Vanillin 

Vonwiller, O. U., Notes on the 
Rectifying Property in 
Silicon and Selenium . 129 


157 


WwW 
Warren, W.H., Popular Science 
Lecture—‘“ Irrigation in _ 
India and in Egypt” XxX1X. 


Xanthorrhea hastilis, R. Br., 
Note on the growth of the 
Flowering Stem of ; 


72 


F. W. WHITE, 344 Kent St., Sydney. 


rane fess Mae 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XLV11., 1918, Plate I. 
a 
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Journal Royal Society of N S.W., Vol. XLVIL., 1918, Plate I1. 


Angophora Seedlings—(Reverse Side). 


1. Angophora intermedia. 2. Angophora subvelutina. 3. Angophora cordifolia. 


Journal Royal Society of N.8.W.,Vol. XLVII.,1918 Plate 111. 


Angophora Seedlings—(Reverse Side). 


1. Angophora melanoxylon. 2. Angophora Bakeri. 3. Angophora lanceolata. 


Plate IV. 


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Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. XLVIT., 1913, Plate V. 


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Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XLVIL., 1913. 


) BATAVIA 
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Plate V11. 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. XLVIL,191 


Witt 


eiaetatice ee 


Journal Royal Society of N S.W.,Vol. XUVIT, 1918, Plate VILLI. 


CEeritinn 


(Haut¥r NaTurRAL S1zz.) 


Photograph by B. Daydon Jackson, from Linneus’ original specimen in 
London Linnein Society’s Herbarium. Shows the word ‘‘Cajaepoeli,” 
written by Linnzus himself, and below the measurement scale the words 
“* M. Levcadendron, Linn., vera,” (not shown on plate) written by Dr. Smith. 


Journal Royal Society of N.S W., Vol. XLVI, 1913. Plate LX. 


DEVONIAN OSTRACODA: New South Wales. 


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ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS LY she 

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION.., 
Tris Pagz, Novices, PuBLicaTions, CONTENTS, 
Orricers For 1918-1914... ... re ae 


List or Mempers, Xe. -.., 
InpEx To VoLtumEe XLVII. _... 


ee ee 


é 


a via 


088 01 308 4413